North America: A Tourism Handbook (Aspects of Tourism)

North America ASPECTS OF TOURISM Series Editors: Professor Chris Cooper, University of Queensland, Australia Dr C. Mic...

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North America

ASPECTS OF TOURISM Series Editors: Professor Chris Cooper, University of Queensland, Australia Dr C. Michael Hall, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Dr Dallen Timothy, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA Aspects of Tourism is an innovative, multifaceted series which will comprise authoritative reference handbooks on global tourism regions, research volumes, texts and monographs. It is designed to provide readers with the latest thinking on tourism world-wide and in so doing will push back the frontiers of tourism knowledge. The series will also introduce a new generation of international tourism authors, writing on leading edge topics. The volumes will be readable and user-friendly, providing accessible sources for further research. The list will be underpinned by an annual authoritative tourism research volume. Books in the series will be commissioned that probe the relationship between tourism and cognate subject areas such as strategy, development, retailing, sport and environmental studies. The publisher and series editors welcome proposals from writers with projects on these topics. Other Books in the Series Strategic Management for Tourism Communities: Bridging the Gaps Peter E. Murphy and Ann E. Murphy Oceania: A Tourism Handbook Chris Cooper and C. Michael Hall (eds) Tourism Marketing: A Collaborative Approach Alan Fyall and Brian Garrod Music and Tourism: On the Road Again Chris Gibson and John Connell Tourism Development: Issues for a Vulnerable Industry Julio Aramberri and Richard Butler (eds) Nature-based Tourism in Peripheral Areas: Development or Disaster? C. Michael Hall and Stephen Boyd (eds) Tourism, Recreation and Climate Change C. Michael Hall and James Higham (eds) Shopping Tourism, Retailing and Leisure Dallen J. Timothy Wildlife Tourism David Newsome, Ross Dowling and Susan Moore Film-Induced Tourism Sue Beeton Rural Tourism and Sustainable Business Derek Hall, Irene Kirkpatrick and Morag Mitchell (eds) The Tourism Area Life Cycle, Vol. 1: Applications and Modifications Richard W. Butler (ed.) The Tourism Area Life Cycle, Vol. 2: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues Richard W. Butler (ed.) Tourist Behaviour: Themes and Conceptual Schemes Philip L. Pearce Tourism Ethics David A. Fennell

For more details of these or any other of our publications, please contact: Channel View Publications, Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road, Clevedon, BS21 7HH, England http://www.channelviewpublications.com

ASPECTS OF TOURISM 31 Series Editors: Chris Cooper (University of Queensland, Australia), C. Michael Hall (University of Otago, New Zealand) and Dallen Timothy (Arizona State University, USA)

North America A Tourism Handbook Edited by

David A. Fennell

CHANNEL VIEW PUBLICATIONS Clevedon • Buffalo • Toronto

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data North America: A Tourism Handbook/Edited by David A. Fennell. Aspects of Tourism: 31 Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Tourism–North America. I. Fennell, David A. II. Series. G155.N58T67 2006 910'.0097–dc22 2005015061 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 1-84541-037-8/EAN 978-1-84541-037-7 (hbk) Channel View Publications An imprint of Multilingual Matters Ltd UK: Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road, Clevedon BS21 7HH. USA: 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA. Canada: 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario, Canada M3H 5T8. Copyright © 2006 David A. Fennell and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. Typeset by Archetype-IT Ltd (http://www.archetype-it.com). Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd.

Color profile: Disabled Composite Default screen

Contents Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii 1

Introduction to Tourism in North America Atsuko Hashimoto. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2

Demand for Tourism in North America Stephen Smith and Dallen J. Timothy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3

Supply and Organization of Tourism in North America Dallen J. Timothy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4

Key Issues, Events and Issues of Tourism in the Region David J. Telfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5

Sources, Organizations and Web Sites David A. Fennell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

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Chapter Title


Acknowledgments The purpose of the book was to focus specifically on the demand, supply, and key features and events that take place across the study region. Invariably this means that emphasis is placed on some aspects over others. Indeed, a handbook of this nature could be developed for all three regions independent of each other. Having said this, I would like to thank the contributors for their time, expertise, and especially their patience in getting this book to press. All were able to effectively identify many of the key features of tourism in North America, but also many of the challenges. While the countries of Canada, the United States and Mexico share a bond on the basis of political geography (e.g. the North American Free Trade Agreement), it soon became very apparent that there are many differences in terms of accessibility to the tourism literature (especially in regards to Mexico), and the institutional arrangements that provide the foundation for tourism demand and supply in these three regions. This a challenge no doubt shared by other editors and authors of similar volumes. North America continues to be a strong force in international tourism. In fact, all three countries occupy prominent positions on the World Tourism Organization’s list of top international destinations. The climatic, physiographic and cultural variability that exists across this region helps to account for the popularity of these places. This natural and socio-cultural capital has spawned a tremendous base of attractions that appeal to a growing base of mainstream and niche markets. I wish to thank my colleagues at Brock University for their assistance, either directly or indirectly, in the completion of this work. Thanks are also extended to the staff at Channel View for their patience and support throughout the many stages of this project. Finally, I would be remiss in not acknowledging my wife, Julie, and children, Sam, Jessica, and Lauren, for their support and encouragement.

vi



Contributors David A. Fennell, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. Atsuko Hashimoto, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. Stephen L.J. Smith, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. David J. Telfer, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. Dallen J. Timothy, School of Community Resources and Development, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.

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Chapter 1

Introduction to Tourism in North America ATSUKO HASHIMOTO

Introduction North America, which includes Canada, the United States of America, and Mexico, possesses a rich array of resources for tourism based on a diversity of cultural, natural and man-made assets. Linked by NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), these three countries have historically been very reliant upon each other in the development of their tourism industries. While the U.S. and Canada are similar in terms of European cultural influences they have become a land of immigrants alongside an indigenous population (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). The United States is often referred to as a cultural melting pot (i.e., more of an assimilation into a U.S. culture), while in contrast Canada is often referred to as a cultural mosaic. In the latter case, immigrants are encouraged to maintain their cultural uniqueness. Although both countries are primarily English speaking, Spanish is increasingly being used in some of the southern states in the U.S. and French is one of the official languages in Canada. Both of these two countries are highly urbanised and hyper mobile with integrated transportation infrastructure. The U.S. and Canada today can be considered to be experiencing the maturation phase of a post-industrial society and economy. Mexico, on the other hand, is uniquely different from its neighbours to the north. Although the Spanish colonisation of Mexico brought Europeanisation, the majority of all Mexicans are mestizos and Amerindians. Culturally the Amerindian contribution is dominant, and the majority of people speak Mexican Spanish and an Amerindian language (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). Since the mid-1990s Mexico has been reforming its economy and NAFTA has helped stimulate this reformation. These three countries represent approximately 7% of the global population and 14% of its stayovers. The region has two of the world’s largest bilateral tourist flows, which occur between the U.S. and Canada and the U.S. and Mexico. Approximately 80% of inbound tourists to Canada are from the U.S. and one-third of the arrivals in the U.S. are from Canada (Weaver & Opperman, 2000). Given the large landmass, there is also sizeable domestic tourism particularly in the U.S. and Canada. 1


Oceania Introduction to Tourism in North America


2

North America: A Tourism Handbook

The purpose of this chapter is to establish the background material for the remainder of the book. The chapter will begin by examining tourism in the region within the global context, it will then move on to examine the region’s geography, economy, demographics, history and political structure, and finally issues related to the natural environment. In each main section, the countries will be discussed from north to south covering Canada, the U.S. and Mexico. Given the vast nature of these jurisdictions it will not be possible to cover all of these topics in depth but rather the most significant issues will be addressed. More specific issues will be dealt with in the following chapters, including a discussion on demand, supply, key features and events and finally sources, organisations and web sites.

Tourism in North America Within the Global Context The impacts of globalisation affect not only trade but also people’s movement across national borders. In 2002, 702.6 million people travelled to other countries and spent over US$460 billion (WTO, 2003). In North America alone, 200 million border crossings occur annually between Canada and the United States and 300 million border crossings occur between Mexico and United States. The United States generates 90% of international tourists to Canada and 85% of international tourists to Mexico (Fry, 2003a). Reciprocally, Canada is the number one source of international tourism to the United States (Fry, 2003b). In 2002, 81.6 million people travelled to North America and international tourist receipts in the same year were US$114.3 billion (WTO, 2003). There is greater pressure for economic integration with the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) due to be fully implemented by 2008. However, recently there has been a decline in international investments and cross-border movement in North America primarily due to U.S. government policy and statements in regards to tighter national security measures after the 11 September incident in 2001 (Fry, 2003a, 2003b). Although recovery of international tourism in North America has been gradual, the United States remained the world number one tourist destination and the top international tourism receipt earner. While there are increased security concerns, there are also initiatives being developed to further integrate tourism between Canada and the U.S as in the case of the Niagara BiNational Region (see Box 1). This section will review the trends and future forecast of the tourism in North America. Canada As illustrated above, Canada’s largest international market is the United States, followed by the United Kingdom, Japan, France and Germany. Table 1.1 contains tourism statistics for Canada for arrivals, receipts and expenditures. Canada ranks tenth in the world in terms of tourist arrivals. However, the Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC) observes that the uncertainty in the global economy, the post-11



Introduction to Tourism in North America

Box 1 Collaboration in the Niagara BiNational Region In June 2001, Ontario Premier Harris and New York Governor Pataki signed a Memorandum of Understanding that Ontario, Canada and New York State would work collaboratively on trade and tourism initiatives. In April 2003, Premier Eves and Governor Pataki reconfirmed and renewed this cross-border trade and tourism development initiative and reaffirmed the importance of working collaboratively on current threats to security, friendship and economic relationships (‘Why the BiNational buzz?’ 2003). This led to the recognition of the Niagara BiNational Region which spans 3700 square miles (9600 square kilometres) between Lake Ontario (in Southern Ontario, Canada) and Lake Erie (Western New York United States). The Niagara BiNational Region is an international border crossing centre with four major bridges, more than 2.2 million crossing each year and US$1 billion/CDN$1.5 billion in international trade every week (Niagara BiNational Region Economic Roundtable, 2003). As part of the economic development of the Niagara BiNational Region, tourism was identified as an important industry. As part of the collaborative efforts in the region, in November 2000, a group of over 40 binational cultural and tourism partners formed the Binational Niagara Tourism Alliance (BNTA) to discuss possible collaboration and the development of a year-round cultural tourism destination (‘Our History’, 2003). The BNTA has grown to over 1000 public, private and non-profit sector partners with members from Niagara and Erie Counties in New York State and the Niagara Region, Hamilton and Haldimand and Norfolk in Southern Ontario. The organisation has representation from culture, arts, festivals and events, retail, food and wine, attractions, transportation, travel trade, accommodation, gaming, tourism direct marketing and academics (‘Our History’, 2003). The Steering Committee has developed a number of plans including regional branding, regional promotion, regional fulfilment and training of tourism facility’s staff. Specific things which have been done include: · 3 Binational Summer and Winter Event Guides/Binational Maps and Media Launches · 4 Tourism Market-Readiness Training Workshops · 2002 Binational Tourism Conference · Tourism Market-Readiness Training Manual and Presentation Materials · Niagara Winery Farm Tours and Trade Exchanged for Cultural and Winery Partners · WNED Binational Tourism Alliance TV Auctions


3



4

· Buffalo CVB ‘Be a Tourist in your own town’ promotions in Hamilton and Niagara Communities · First Binational Newsletter and The Niagaras Guide Website Launch · Binational Doors Open Niagara Heritage/Architectural Celebration Weekend October 19 & 20, 2002. (‘We’ve done’, 2003). In developing a binational tourism area the organisation has met many challenges. To address these issues, the BI-national Tourism Steering Committee has developed a list of assets and barriers to drawing more tourists to the region. The Committee recognises that border crossing issues such as traffic, staff, volume and regulations based on security are of major concern to developing the area as a tourism destination. They report that both actual and perceived impediments to crossing the border need to receive priority treatment. One of the funding priorities for the organisation is a joint Cultural Heritage Initiative call ‘Binational Niagara Doors Open’ which opens historic buildings to tourists (BI-national Tourism Steering Committee, n.d.). Another area where collaboration is taking place between the two countries in the border region is in protected areas. There is a ‘Memorandum of Understanding between the National Park Services of the Department of the Interior of the United States of America and Parks Canada of the Department of Canadian Heritage of the Government of Canada, on co-operation in management, research, protection, conservation, and presentation of National Parks and National Historic Sites’ (Sandwith et al. and Sheppard, n.d.), which was signed in May 1998. This memorandum of understanding recognises natural and cultural heritage resources in border regions. One of the cultural heritage resources running through the Niagara region on both sides of the border is the Underground Railway, which is the path that Black slaves in the United States took to escape to Canada. September 2001 trauma and developments in the Middle East continue to have a ‘detrimental effect’ on international travel to Canada (CTC, 2002a, November). In particular, the 11 September attacks in the U.S. in 2001 had a negative impact on Canadian international tourism, with the number of international visitors to Canada in the second quarter of 2002 decreasing by 3.4% over the previous year. Meanwhile fewer Canadians are travelling overseas, and thus foreign spending for this time period decreased by 2.9% from the first quarter of 2002, dropping to $3.2 billion (CTC, 2002b, November). The mode of transportation of international overnight tourists from the U.S. has shifted to road transportation with a corresponding increase in Canada as a tourist destination for U.S. tourists based on its geographical proximity, unique experiences (CTC, 2002a, 2002b November), and favourable




5

Table 1.1 Tourism Statistics Canada 2002

International Tourist Arrivals (million)

2003

% change 2003/2002

Americas Market Share (%) 2003

–12.6

15.5

2.5

10

2005 17534 7

World Rank in the Market world 2001 Share (%) 2003

International Tourism Receipts (US$billion)

10.7

10.6

–1.0

9.2

–

–

International Tourism Expenditure (US$billion)

11.7

13.3

13.5

–

2.5

9

Source: World Tourism Organization, 2004

exchange rate. The other more recent difficulty facing Canadian tourism is the development of SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome). This disease has led to a decrease in travel to destinations such as Toronto exacerbating the difficulties already facing the industry. The U.S. war in Iraq has also resulted in reduced travel by Americans to Canada. While the number of Canadian tourists travelling to the U.S. (–4.6%) or overseas (–1.3%) was down in the second quarter of 2002 (CTC, 2002a, November), domestic spending increased 1.9% (all data are adjusted for seasonality and inflation) to CDN$7.7 billion (CTC, 2002b, November). The CTC reasons this increase in domestic tourism spending in the second quarter to be a result of several factors, including strong employment growth, larger personal disposable income and stronger corporate profits (CTC, 2002b, November). The travel and tourism industry in Canada forecasted healthy growth between 2001 and 2011, in spite of the negative impacts of the 11 September incident in 2001. The following forecasts for tourism growth in Canada have been developed by World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC). · Travel & Tourism is expected to generate CDN$202.4 billion (US$139.5 billion) of economic activity (Total Demand) in the year 2001, growing to CDN$362.9 billion (US$286.6 billion) by 2011. Travel & Tourism demand is expected to grow by 3.6% per annum, in real terms, between 2001 and 2011. · The Travel & Tourism industry is expected to contribute 4.8% to GDP in 2001 (CDN$52.3 billion or US$36.0 billion), rising to CDN$85.1 billion or US$67.2 billion (4.8% of total) by 2011. The Travel & Tourism economy contribution should rise from 13.1% (CDN$142.3 billion or US$98.1 billion) to 13.9% (CDN$247.3 or US$195.3 billion) in this same period. · In 2001, Travel & Tourism economy employment was estimated at 2,137,010




6

jobs or 14.1% of total employment, which is 1 in every 7.1 jobs. By 2011, this should grow to 2,613,560 jobs, 15.2% of total employment or 1 in every 6.6 jobs. · The 869,886 Travel & Tourism industry jobs account for 5.8% of total employment in 2001 and are forecast to rise to 1,023,150 jobs or 5.9% of the total by 2011. · Travel & Tourism is expected to generate 13.7% of total exports (CDN$69.6 billion or US$48.0 billion) in 2001, growing to CDN$142.8 billion or US$112.8 billion (13.5% of total) in 2011 (WTTC, 2001). As mentioned above, there is, however, quite a bit of uncertainty in the global environment and, given the nature of the tourism industry, these predictions may not hold true over the long term. United States Tourism in the U.S. has been greatly affected by events surrounding the terrorist attacks of September 2001, as well as the retaliatory actions taken by the U.S. in Afghanistan and Iraq. The fall-out from these events is illustrated in Table 1.2, where not only has the number of visitors going to the U.S. declined, but also the number of Americans travelling abroad. Despite the events of 2001, the U.S. was able to maintain its position as one of the world’s top earners in terms of international tourism receipts at more than US$64 billion. Despite the setbacks in the tourism industry, the World Travel & Tourism Council had forecasted steady growth in U.S. travel and tourism between 2001 and 2011 (WTTC, 2001), as follows: · Travel and tourism is expected to generate US$1405.0 billion of economic activity (Total Demand) in year 2001, growing to US$2,458.3 billion by 2011. Travel & Tourism Demand is expected to grow by 3.5% per annum, in real terms, between 2001 and 2011. · The travel and tourism industry is expected to contribute 4.6% to GDP in 2001 (US$481.3 billion), rising to US$781.5 billion (4.4% of total) by 2011. The Travel & Tourism economy contribution should shrink from 11.6% (US$1208.5 billion) to 11.4% (US$2045.6 billion) in this same time period. · In 2001, travel and tourism employment is estimated at 16,857,300 jobs or 12.4% of total employment, which is 1 in every 8.1 jobs. By 2011, this should grow to 18,605,900 jobs, 12.3% of total employment or 1 in every 8.1 jobs. · The 6,412,980 travel and tourism industry jobs account for 4.7% of total employment in 2001 and are forecast to rise to 6,820,320 jobs or 4.5% of the total number of jobs by 2011. · Travel and tourism is expected to generate 16.5% of total exports (US$196.3 billion) in 2001, growing to US$394.0 billion (16.3% of total) in 2011. · Capital investment is estimated at US$230.4 billion or 10.4% of total invest-




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Table 1.2 Tourism Statistics United States 2002

2003

43525

41212

–5.3

36.5

6.0

3


66.7

64.5

–3.3

56.4

12.3

1


58.0

56.6

–2.5

–

10.8

2


% change Americas World Rank in 2003/2002 Market Market the world Share (%) Share (%) 2001 2003 2003


ment in year 2001. By 2011, this should reach US$459.2 billion or 10.7% of total (WTTC, 2001). To what extent the tourism industry in the U.S. will rebound after this current period of instability is difficult to predict and the long-term forecasts to 2011 by the WTTC above will most likely have to be revisited. The airline industry, for example, has been hard hit by reductions in travel in the U.S. and Canada and the industry is going through a period of restructuring (see Chapter 4). It is, however, important to note that regional differences within states such as California continued to do well in tourism despite the 11 September 2001 attacks. Mexico Although Mexico is a popular international destination, its share of international arrival has declined from approximately 4.5% at the beginning of the 1980s to an average of 3.5% during the mid-1990s (Brenner & Aguilar, 2002). As shown in Table 1.3, international tourism expenditure by Mexican tourists is considerably smaller among the three North American countries. It ranks 8th in the world in terms of international arrivals (WTO, 2004). In Mexico, tourism has been established as an attractive means of development. Taken from this perspective, tourism is viewed as an invaluable means by which to earn foreign currency that could be used to reduce the country’s reliance on international credits and pay off its external debt. International tourism was also perceived as a tool for regional development (Telfer, 2002). This is evident as set out in the ‘tourist sector modernization policy’ as part of Mexico’s 1989–1994 National Development Plan. The goals set in this document included increased employment, attracting foreign currencies, balancing uneven regional development, and promoting direct foreign investment (Brenner & Aguilar, 2002). The most tangible manifestations of this policy are the massive, enclave-type, tourism-related devel-




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Table 1.3 Tourism Statistics Mexico 2002


2003

19667 18665

% change 2003/2002

Americas World Rank in Market Market the world Share (%) Share (%) 2001 2003 2003

–5.1

16.5

2.7

8


8.8

9.5

6.8

8.3

–

–


–

–

–

–

–

–


opments that have been built in peripheral areas and new urban centres in order to attract both national and foreign investment. As a consequence of this strategy, international consortia own or control many hotel chains and other tourist services in Mexico (Brenner & Aguilar, 2002). Although Mexico has lost world market share during the 1990s, tourism demand and supply increased faster in Mexico than in most other developing countries in absolute terms. Only China received more international arrivals (25.1 million in 1998) than Mexico (19.8 million) (Brenner & Aguilar, 2002). This growth is based in large part on the fact that the state promotion of tourism started off earlier and has been more intense in Mexico than in other destinations, and state promotion of tourism as part of a larger regional development policy has been remarkably consistent in concept and strategy, despite changes in general economic priorities (Brenner & Aguilar, 2002). Further reflection on Brenner’s analysis can be seen in the World Travel & Tourism Council’s Tourism Satellite Accounting Research (2001), which forecasted strong growth in travel and tourism in Mexico between 2001 and 2011. · Travel and tourism is expected to generate MXN709.6 billion (US$71.0 billion) of economic activity (Total Demand) in year 2001, growing to MXN2,993.2 billion (US$178.4 billion) by 2011. Travel and tourism demand is expected to grow by 4.4% per annum, in real terms, between 2001 and 2011. · The travel and tourism industry is expected to contribute 3.0% to GDP in 2001 (MXN193.9 billion or US$19.4 billion), rising to MXN596.4 billion or US$35.5 billion (2.2% of total) by 2011. The travel and tourism economy contribution should rise from 8.9% (MXN583.9 billion or US$58.4 billion) to 9.3% (MXN2465.5 or US$147.0 billion) in this same period. · In 2001, travel and tourism employment is estimated at 2,730,500 jobs or 8.3% of total employment, which is 1 in every 12.0 jobs. By 2011, this should grow to




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3,951,740 jobs, 9.2% of total employment or 1 in every 10.9 jobs. The 880,027 travel and tourism industry jobs account for 2.7% of total employment in 2001 and are forecast to rise to 908.024 jobs or 2.1% of the total by 2011. · Travel and tourism is expected to generate 13.4% of total exports (MXN195.1 billion or US$19.5 billion) in 2001, growing to MXN740.0 billion or US$44.1 billion (13.5% of total) in 2011. · Capital investment is estimated at MXN161.2 billion, US$16.1 billion or 11.5% of total investment in year 2001. By 2011, this should reach MXN1110.1 billion, US$66.2 billion or 11.9% of total (WTTC, 2001). As with Canada and the United States, Mexico has also been affected by trends in international instability. For example, the two top airlines in Mexico, Aeroméxico and Mexicana had to announce layoffs of several thousand workers due to a decline in passengers with the result that several resorts had to be closed for a period after the 11 September 2001 attacks (Lonely Planet, 2001). Mexico is highly reliant on the U.S. for international tourists so the Mexican tourism market will continue to be impacted by consumer confidence levels in the U.S.

The Geography of North America Canada Although Canada has a reputation as a cold-climate destination, in fact it has a variety of vegetative and climatic zones which allow for tourism opportunities over four seasons and across a number of unique geographical realms (see Map 1 for an illustration of the major physiographic provinces of Canada, the U.S. and Mexico, as well as Map 2 for an outline of the major political jurisdictions of these countries). Canada is the second largest country in the world by land area, covering an area of 9,970,610 square kilometres. Approximately half of land area is covered with forest, with only 8% of land area being suitable for crop production. Canada shares a 5527-mile border with United States. Regionally, Canada is composed of 10 provinces and three territories (Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut), which are located above the 60 degree north latitude, and represent Arctic (Nunavut) and Subarctic (Yukon and NWT) biomes. The Arctic is treeless but the Subarctic consists of tundra vegetation and northern forest zone (McCann, 1987), and continuous and discontinuous permafrost acts as the major constraint to development in these regions. Less than 1% of Canada’s population lives in the North and the vast majority of this population are native (Dene, Inuit and Metis). Only the Yukon Territory is accessible by highway from Alaska (U.S.A.) or from the province of British Columbia. The main form of transportation access to and within the NWT and Nunanvut is therefore airplane. These territories offer the wilderness as a major tourist attraction along with aboriginal and cultural tourism in many centres. The area stretching from Southern Ontario to southern Québec is Canada’s



10


Map 1 Major physiographic regions of Canada, United States and Mexico heartland, and also known as Maple Route due to forest cover of maple trees, which attract tourists in the autumn with spectacular colours. Canada has some of the world’s largest lakes and about 80% of the country can be classified as wilderness (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). Cities such as Toronto and Ottawa in the province of Ontario and Montréal and Québec City in the province of Québec are easily accessible by road and by air. These metropolitan areas are not only financially and

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Map 2 Canada, United States and Mexico politically important but also historically important. Niagara Falls, near Toronto, is located at similar latitudes to southern France and agricultural production in the area includes grapes, producing excellent wines and a variety of wine routes for tourism. Toronto is an English speaking multi-ethnic metropolitan area with a rich cosmopolitan flair. Ottawa is the federal capital of Canada and offers museums and galleries in addition to historic attractions. Montréal is predominantly French

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speaking, and the world’s second largest French-speaking metropolis. Québec City is smaller in scale and retains the ambience of 18th century France, complete with the towering Chateau Frontenac, one of the grand hotels of Canada. Southern Québec is also known for easily accessible ski resorts. The Maritime Provinces of Canada are characterised by the Canadian Shield, which dominates much of the overall Canadian landscape. It includes Canada’s birthplace, Charlottetown, in the province of Prince Edward Island, historic Nova Scotia, and wondrous coastlines within the provinces of New Brunswick and Newfoundland and Labrador. These provinces are rural in nature; however, due to the limited land resources and their peripheral location, they face the challenges of stagnating economic growth. Traditionally the Maritime Provinces have relied on the fisheries as one of their main sources of the economy. However, tourism is rapidly becoming more important as many of the prime fisheries have experienced decline due to over harvesting. The Prairie Provinces include Manitoba and Saskatchewan, including parts of Alberta, and are characterised as the bread basket of the country. The continental temperature regime generates warm temperatures in the summer and extremely cold temperatures in the winter. This region is culturally diverse with large communities of Ukrainians, Germans and Scandinavians. Winnipeg is the main business and cultural centre for the region. The isolated community of Churchill on Hudson Bay has become a destination for those interested in viewing polar bears and other marine-based wildlife (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). Western Canada is covered with a long chain of highland massifs from British Columbia to southern Alaska. Highly urbanised Vancouver is only a few minutes away from the ski slopes of world renowned Whistler-Blackcomb, which is accessible along the sea-to-sky highway. Further inland, among the Rocky Mountains, are Banff National Park (Canada’s first national park established in 1885) and Jasper National Park, both of which are visited by millions of domestic and international tourists per year. The challenges to these unique physiographic regions include escalated development to accommodate demand for housing and recreation, as well as the sale of land to international investors. Victoria, the capital of British Columbia (situated on Vancouver Island), is another important tourist destination with a strong empirial flavour and as a vantage point for some of the best coastal scenery and marine tourism found in Canada. More detailed information on attractions and national parks of Canada can be found in Chapter 3 by Timothy. United States The United States of America covers an area of 9,529,062 square kilometres, and is the fourth largest country in the world after Russia, Canada and China. The country includes 49 states on the North American continent, including Alaska, and the islands of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. The U.S. territory also extends into Puerto Rico




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and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the Caribbean and Guam and American Samoa in the Pacific (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). The physical environment of the U.S. ranges from the Arctic (Alaska) to the subtropical (Hawaii). The types of physiography in the U.S. are varied and include desert, mountains in the west, hills and low mountains in east, vast central flat prairie in the central regions, rugged mountains and broad river valleys in Alaska, and rugged, volcanic topography in Hawaii. The tourism product is as diverse as the landscape with subtropical beaches, winter ski resorts, large urban cities and large national parks. (See Chapter 3 for details.) The eastern section of the U.S. is dominated by the Appalachian Mountain system. The north-eastern states are among the most populated and most visited. The four major cities in the area include Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Washington. Up-state New York has the Finger Lakes district which is a wine route as well as Lake Placid, the venue for the 1980 winter Olympics. There are also many coastal resorts such as Atlantic City. To the east and to the south of the Appalachians are broad coastal plains and interior plains. The central U.S. is dominated by vast interior lowlands that rise gradually to the Great Plains of the mid-west. This central region is drained by the Mississippi River system (Davidoff et al., 1995) which ultimately winds its way to the Gulf of Mexico. New Orleans, in the deep south, is a major tourist attraction focusing on jazz music and the annual Mardi Gras carnival (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). The state of Florida is one of the main tourist attractions in the entire U.S. and is a major destination for Canadians in the winter (Canadian tourists referred to as ‘snow birds’) and is also home to a growing number of theme parks near Orlando and Miami which is a major cruise ship docking area. The centre and north-east is dominated by the Great Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario), which is the largest fresh water system in the world. Although these lakes play host to a huge concentration of industrial activity, they also act as supply for an array of water-based outdoor recreation including fishing, scuba, and boating. The U.S. west contains most of the nation’s national parks and Indian Reservations. And in states such as Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico and Wyoming tourism represents the most important employer (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). The west can be divided into a number of regions, such as the High Plains, the Rocky Mountains, the South-West, Texas, California and the Far West and finally Alaska (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). The Rocky Mountains form a barrier 2000 km long and 500 km wide reaching 4000 metres in elevation. In the south-west, places such as Monument Valley, Las Vegas, Yosemite National Park, Lake Tahoe, as well as the Grand Canyon in Arizona represent major tourist attractions. California is known for warm sunny climate although northern California has a cooler climate. Tourism in California is centred on the cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco. Malibu and Venice Beach have become internationally known and the state is home to Holly-



14


wood. Some of the geographic hazards include the San Andreas Fault, air pollution in Los Angeles and increasing demands for a scarce water supply (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). The two states not connected to the mainland are Alaska and Hawaii. Alaska has become a major cruise line destination, particularly through the Inside Passage which is a sheltered route reaching Glacier Bay in the summer months serving ships out of Vancouver and Seattle. It is also a world-renowned adventure tourism destination with fishing and hunting lodges which cater to a vast clientele. Finally, Hawaii is built on volcanic formations and tourism there is centred on the islands of Hawaii, Oahu, Kauai and Maui. Oahu is home to Honolulu, Waikiki and Diamond Head. It is also home to Pearl Harbor and the Polynesian Cultural Centre which are major tourist attractions. Hawaii is well known as a mass tourism destination and one which contains stunning beauty on some of the more remote regions. Mexico Mexico, with a landmass of 1,958,201 square kilometres, is the smallest of the three countries in North America. It has 31 states and one federal district. The Rocky Mountains continue down into Mexico and are known as the Sierra Madre. This range rises towards the south culminating in a series of volcanic peaks that surround a high level plateau where Mexico City is located at approximately 2300 m (Burton, 1995). There are extensive lowlands that border along the Gulf of Mexico which widen into the Yucatan peninsula. Most of Mexico is within the tropics; however, there can be differences in climate over short distances due to changes in altitude. These differences are noted by three zones. The first is the tierra caliente or tropical zone, which comprises areas up to 1000 metres in elevation. The second zone is the tierra templada or subtropical zone between 1000 and 2000 metres which include warm-climate crops such as coffee and avocados. The third zone, the tierra fria or cold zone, includes those regions above 2000 metres (includes Mexico City) (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). More than one-fifth of the total land area of Mexico is forested. The uprooting of rain forests for conversion to grassland to rear cattle still continues in the Gulf Coast region, yet conservation methods are being practised in some of the pine forests in the northern Sierra Madre Occidental. Mexico is highly dependent upon the U.S. market for its tourists. The border zone with the U.S. is heavily used by day trippers who cross into Mexico at 12 main entry points. Mexican border towns such as Tijuana are highly commercialised with souvenirs, gambling, and prostitution (Burton, 1995). Along the 3000 km U.S. Mexico border there are more than a million arrested every year trying to cross into the U.S. from Mexico (BBC, 2003a). The second pattern of tourist use tends to be focused on the interior and tropical coasts, and includes a vast developing network of hotel resorts, including the oft-quoted Cancun region. Perhaps one of the most unique attributes of the tourism attraction base in the south of the country lies in the




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rich history of Amerindian cultures, which created a number of archaeological sites including temples, pyramids and palaces (Burton, 1995). These centres were built by civilisations including the Mayans, Toltecs and the Aztecs which existed before Spanish colonisation. The Mundo Maya project (world of the Maya) is one such development which traces the Mayan culture through five countries of Central America, including Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, and represents an intriguing opportunity for ecotourism and cultural tourism opportunities. Here can be found the impressive sites including Palenque, Uxmal and Chichen Itza (Burton, 1995). North of Mexico City is the Teotihuacan pyramid (located on a high plateau where the climate is dry and sunny), which is one of the most visited Aztec/pre-Aztec sites in the country. As the world’s largest city, Mexico City is plagued by extremely high levels of air pollution, which are a result of the intensive industry and the physiographic make-up of the city – which traps air within the boundaries of the city.

The Economy of North America The economy of North America has become increasingly integrated since the implementation of NAFTA in 1994. In fact, since the launch of the Euro, there have been calls for the establishment of a North American monetary union (NAMU) (Helliwell, 2001). One geographic element that is of concern to all three countries is the border. Box 2 illustrates the importance of the border for the economies of the nations. The sections that follow will highlight the major economic issues for each country while commenting on the nature of the interconnectedness of the three countries. Box 2 Canada, U.S and Mexican Borders The Canadian–U.S. border is often referred to as the longest undefended border in the world. Individuals make more than 200 million border crossing each year and two-way trade between the two countries is CDN$1.7 billion per day and 70% of it, $1.2 billion, goes by land (Janigan, 2001). Part of the high level of trade comes from the ‘just in time economy’ where supplies are purchased when needed rather than stocking up inventories. Mexico is the United States’ second largest trading partner with two-way trade valued at approximately US$700 million per day. In 2001 there were over 300 million two-way border crossings. There are more than 1700 maquiladora plants (export oriented factory) on the Mexican side of the U.S border employing more than 730,000 and these maquiladora plants represent the second largest source of export earnings for Mexico (MPI Staff, 2002). Border control has become an increasingly important issue. There are 9150 border patrol agents working along the 2000 mile U.S.– Mexican border and 334 agents working along the 4000-mile Canada–U.S



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border (MPI Staff, 2002). In the year 2000 there were 1.6 million apprehensions of illegal immigrants at the southwest border of the U.S. (MPI Staff, 2002). In addition to illegal immigrants entering the U.S., half of all the cocaine entering the U.S. comes through Mexico. Illegal drug gangs have developed networks with Columbia producers (BBC, 2003b). In 1996 the U.S. government designed legislation to counter the flow of illegal immigrants from Mexico to California and Texas. However, this legislation would inadvertently include the U.S.–Canada border as well. The legislation would have required Canadians to document their entry and exit from the United States. In 1998, Manitoba and North Dakota jointly opposed this proposed legislation on the bases of long line-ups at the border, and an unimaginable loss of tourism and trade between the province and state (CBC Online, 1998). A great deal changed, however, at border crossings after the 11 September 2001 attacks in the U.S. In September of 2001, less than 48 hours after the extremist attack in the U.S., a much tougher Canadian border control was put in place. At the Ontario-New York border checkpoints there was a backlog of 500 trucks and an 18-hour waiting time per truck. At the British Columbia–Washington border, the waiting time was four hours (Janigan, 2001). Since then, these wait times have been reduced drastically: however there have been periods when the U.S has gone into a heightened state of alert thereby slowing border traffic. In 2002 President Bush asked Congress to approve an additional 570 border agents to be divided equally between the two borders. It was suggested in 2001 by the U.S. Ambassador in Canada that both nations adopt common immigration policies and a common perimeter (Janigan, 2001). U.S. Attorney General Ashcroft advocated the collaboration between the U.S. and Canada to change border laws that allows the ‘right kind of access’ into North America; meanwhile Canadian Solicitor General MacAulay expressed the concern over damage as a consequence of restrictions to trade and a ‘victory for the terrorists’ (CBC Online, 2001). A new law to increase border security with Canada was addressed at the G-8 summit in June of 2002 and is based on a 30-point ‘smart border’ management plan that is to be gradually phased in so that the blocking of the free flow of goods and people between the two countries would be minimal. Canada Canada is often overshadowed by its powerful U.S. neighbour in many social and economic ways (Helliwell, 2001), but continues to be a leader in many sectors of the economy. For example, Canada continues to be one of the major mineral producing countries in the world, with extensive extraction of iron, ore, coal, petroleum, gold, copper and silver lead (WTTC, 2002a). Telecommunications, information exchange,




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electronics and service occupations are also flourishing (Cutler, 1992). Canada’s labour income comes from two main sectors: the goods producing sector and the services producing sector. Approximately 25% of total labour income (CDN$136,606 million) comes from the goods producing sector, and roughly 63.3% (CDN$339,458 million) was derived from services producing sectors in 2000. Within the goods producing sector, manufacturing and construction are two major industries. Although primary industries (agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting) are very important for Canadian industry, they only employ 4% of the labour force in 2005 (Statistics Canada, 2005a) and provide 2% of total labour income in 2004 (Statistics Canada, 2005b). Canada was hit significantly deeper and longer by the recession of the early 1990s than the U.S. (Helliwell, 2001). Overall, real growth in the Canadian economy averaged 3% between 1993 and 2000 but declined in 2001 with a moderate recovery in 2002 (CIA, 2003a). GDP at market price in 2001 was CDN$1,092,246 million, with an annual percentage change of 8.6% from the previous year (1999/2000 annual change was 4.4%). Gross Domestic Investment accounted for 18% of GDP and government consumption accounted for 21% of GDP (WTTC, 2002a). The unemployment rate in November 2002 was down 0.1% from the previous year to 7.5%. The incidence of poverty is lower in Canada than in U.S., and the bottom quartile of Canadian families were better off than their U.S. counterparts in 1997 (Helliwell, 2001). In 2003 the Canadian economy recovered at a faster rate than the economy in the U.S. Canada’s export performance is largely determined by the developments in the U.S. economy. Canada’s major trading partner is the U.S., where 85.1% of exports of goods are sent. Just over 73% (73.7%) of imported goods are from the U.S. The second largest trading partner is the European Union (EU); however, only 5.2% of the exports and 9.2 % of imports were traded with the EU in 2000. According to the WTTC (2002a), tourism is the fastest growing service industry in Canada, creating employment for about 5% of Canada’s total labour force (WTTC, 2002a). Over 610,300 jobs were generated by tourism in 2000 (total 491,000 tourism jobs and 119,300 non-tourism jobs that were benefited from tourism) which is a 7.8 % increase from 1998 (Statistics Canada, 2005). Initial forecasts predict an increase in travel and tourism demand by 2.8% per annum between 1999 and 2010 to reach US$95.14 million in 2010, and employment in the same period is expected to reach 2.64 million in 2010 (WTTC, 2002a). These predictions, however, must be viewed in the light of current international instability. The WTTC (2003a) predicts that in 2003 Canada’s travel and tourism will generate US$128.1 billion of economic activity (total demand) representing 3.8% of GDP. It will generate 708,848 jobs representing 4.5% of total employment. United States The United States is regarded as the world’s greatest economic power by virtue of its size and magnitude. Contributing factors include a rich natural re-



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source base and enormous agricultural output, which dominate major proportions of the world total (WTTC, 2002b). Although the country has one of the world’s highest standards of living, approximately 13% of the population are below the poverty line (CIA, 2003b). The U.S. produces one-fifth of the world’s output of coal, copper and crude petroleum, making the U.S. the world’s second largest petroleum-producing nation. The agricultural sector produces roughly one-half of the world’s corn and more than one-tenth of wheat (WTTC, 2002b). Industry within the U.S. is both diversified and technologically advanced. Leading industries include petroleum, steel, motor vehicles, aerospace, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics, food processing, consumer goods, lumber and mining (CIA, 2003b). Labour force by occupation in 2002 included managerial and professional (31%), technical, sales and administrative support (29%), manufacturing, mining, transportation and crafts (24%), and farming forestry and fishing (2%) (CIA, 2003b). In 1998 the United States GDP was an estimated at US$8.21 billion with an annual average growth rate between 1990 and 1998 of 2.9%. GDP per capita in the U.S. was $36,300 in 2001 (CIA, 2003b). The value added derived from services in 1998 accounted for 71% of GDP and, between 1990 and 1998, was growing at an average annual rate of 1.9% (WTTC, 2002b). More recently, however, the U.S. economy has been slumping with more than 2 million job losses since January of 2001. Forecasters are optimistic that if the war in the Middle East were to end there would be a modest 3–4% rate of economic growth (Kadlec, 2003). Kadlec cautions, however, that there are still difficulties ahead for the U.S. economy. The country is still working off the excesses of the Internet boom. Stocks remain highly valued relative to weak corporate earnings and analysts are cutting second quarter earnings at twice the rate of 2002. In addition, the rising costs of war, reconstruction and homeland security are cutting investment. The budget deficit is growing which is threatening to increase interest rates. Early predictions suggested that travel and tourism demand would increase by 2.1% per annum between 1999 and 2010 to reach US$1.13 billion in 2010. The U.S. domestic tourism market is also particularly well developed (WTTC, 2002b). Travel and tourism employment is expected to increase by 1.3% per annum over the same period to reach 20.21 million in 2010 (WTTC, 2002b). The WTTC (2003b) predicts that in 2003 the U.S.’s travel and tourism will generate US$1,387.8 billion of economic activity (total demand) representing 4.3% of GDP. It will generate 6,480,480 jobs representing 12% of total employment. The extent to which these predictions will depend upon the recovery of the tourism industry from the impacts of the terrorist attacks in the U.S. in September of 2001, the war on terrorism and the current slump in the American economy, is subject to debate.

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Table 1.4 Population characteristics Characteristic Population

Canada

Mexico

U.S.

31,902,268

103,400,165

280,562,489

Age Structure 0–14 15–64 65+

18.7 68.4 12.9

32.8 62.7 4.5

21.0 66.4 12.6

Birth rate (per 1000 population)

11.9

22.36

14.1

Infant mortality rate (per 1000 births)

4.95

24.52

Life expectancy at birth (years)

79.69

72.03

77.4

6.69

Literacy rate (& of 15 years of age and can read and write)

97.0

89.6

97.0

Source: CIA, 2003 a,b,c

Mexico While Mexico is one of the most industrialised countries in Latin America, as a developing nation, it faces many different challenges than its northern neighbours. The country has vast deposits of mineral resources, a limited amount of agricultural land and a rapidly growing population (WTTC, 2002c). After a devaluation of the peso in 1994, which caused a serious recession, the country has been recovering through modest growth. From 1996 to 2000, Mexico’s GDP enjoyed an average growth rate of 5.4% per year (Lustig, 2001). In 2001 real GDP fell 0.3% primarily due to the slowdown in the U.S. economy (CIA, 2003c). Trade liberalization was perhaps the most important and far-reaching of Mexico’s economic reforms (Lustig, 2001). State intervention has become somewhat limited by new legal and institutional frameworks. Under this new model, there has been a tendency for the market to replace regulation, private ownership to replace public ownership, and competition, including that from foreign goods and investors, to replace protection (Lustig, 2001). The NAFTA agreement has been very beneficial to Mexico in terms of trade and investment flows. Mexican exports to the US economy rose from $43 billion in 1993 to $109 billion in 1999 (Lustig, 2001). Trade with Canada has also increased although modest by comparison with the U.S. Including imports and exports, trade between Mexico and Canada increased 129% from 1993 to 1999, reaching $9.3 billion. Canada is the second most important market for Mexican products, while Mexico is the third most important market for Canada (Lustig, 2001). Petroleum and tourism have come to dominate the economy and industrialisation is increasing in many parts of the country (WTTC, 2002c). Industry accounts for one-quarter of GDP and provides employment for one-tenth of the total workforce (WTTC, 2002c). Approximately 25% of workers are employed in agricul-



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ture (WTTC, 2002c). Lustig (2001) suggests that a process of social differentiation is emerging in agriculture with some successful producers becoming entrepreneurs, while others lag behind or have sold their properties. There continues to be a number of concerns in the economy, which include low real wages, underemployment, inequitable income distribution and limited opportunities for advancement for the Amerindian population in the poorer southern states (CIA, 2003c). Lustig (2001) suggests that there are approximately 20 million Mexicans who live on less than $2 a day (measured at purchasing power parity exchange rate of 1985 US dollars). Poverty in the southeast of the country is more than five times higher than in the northeast and close to 40 times higher than in the Federal District (part of Mexico City that is equivalent to Washington, DC) (Lustig, 2001). With Mexico’s cultural diversity, reasonable prices and accessibility the country has become a strong attraction for American tourists, who remain Mexico’s primary market. After petroleum, tourism is Mexico’s second largest economic asset and the government has invested heavily into Mexico’s mass tourism sector (WTTC, 2002c), especially as a means by which to stimulate regional development. FONATUR (Fondo Nacional de Fomento al Turismo) was established in 1969 to help coordinate tourism development in Mexico. This organisation selected five sites to be developed as tourism growth poles in Mexico, including Cancun, Huatulco, Ixtapa, Los Cabos and Loreto (Weaver & Opperman, 2000). Of these, Cancun emerged as the first to be developed as a tourism growth pole and has been tremendously successful with upwards of 3 million international tourists per year.

North American Demographics and Society The three countries have very different population characteristics as highlighted in Table 1.4. The U.S. has the largest population with over 280.5 million while Mexico is second with 103.4 million and Canada at 31.9 million. Of the three countries Mexico has the youngest population. As the population ages in both Canada and the U.S. there will be increasing costs with respect to health care. In Mexico, because of the higher birth rate and younger population, the infant mortality rate is higher at 24.52/1000 births as compared to Canada, which has the lowest rate at 4.95/1000 births. Life expectancy is the highest in Canada at 79.69 years of age with the U.S rate at 77.4 and Mexico at 72.03. The following sections will briefly highlight other aspects of society in Canada, the U.S. and Mexico. Canada Canada is a relatively affluent, high-tech industrial society, which closely resembles the U.S. in terms of its market-oriented economic system, patterns of production and high standards of living (CIA, 2003a). It is part of the Commonwealth of Nations and therefore has strong links to the United Kingdom. Canada has a population of 31 902 268 (as of July 2002) and 77% of the population live in




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urban areas (CIA, 2003a; WTTC 2002a). Predictions put the population at 33 million by 2010 and the population over 60 will increase by 37% to a total of 7 million (WTTC, 2002c). Eighty-five per cent of the population lives within 300 km of the U.S. border, and because of this, and its overall size, it is one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. Approximately one-quarter of the population is French-speaking a result of French occupation in the pre-constitutional days. Many of these migrants left France prior to the French Revolution (Helliwell, 2001). The presence of two official languages (French and English) has made issues of national unity a chronic topical issue, with the province of Québec (with a large Francophone population) threatening to separate from Canada on several occasions. The ethnic group breakdown in Canada includes descendants from the British Isles (28%), French (23%), other European (15%), Amerindian (2%), other mostly Asian, African and Arab (6%), and mixed (26%) (CIA, 2003a). One of the defining national characteristics is the health care system in Canada (Helliwell, 2001), although it is currently struggling through a period of underfunding. Canada traditionally rates very high on the United Nations Human Development Index (Helliwell, 2001). Less than 4% of Canadian workers work in primary sectors of agriculture, fisheries and forestry (De Long, 2001). In comparison to the U.S. there is more internal migration between provinces than there is between states in the U.S. (Helliwell, 2001). There has also been a greater movement of Canadians to the U.S. for employment in some sectors (e.g. professors and physicians) where the rates of pay are higher and the taxes lower (Helliwell, 2001). Those with university degrees under the NAFTA agreement have found it easier to obtain temporary working visas for the U.S. Other differences compared to the U.S. involve stricter gun control and its overall political structure, which will be examined later in this chapter. United States The U.S. has a population of 280.5 million people with 77% of this number residing in urban areas (WTTC, 2002c). Overall population density is still relatively low as there are many areas still unpopulated. The population is forecasted to increase by about 10% by 2010. The percentage of the population over 60 years of age is expected to increase by 27% to a total of 55 million in the same time frame. Less than 3% of American workers work in primary sectors of agriculture, fisheries and forestry (De Long, 2001). As stated above, the U.S. has the largest economy in the world. It is a market-oriented economy where private individuals and firms are relatively free to make decisions. Federal and state governments purchase needed products in the private sector (CIA, 2003b). Americans, like their Canadian counterparts, rely heavily on their natural resource base per capita, especially when compared to the rest of the world. This is in part due to a low cost of energy supplies and this has not generated sustainable forms of development. Urban sprawl and a



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high use of motor vehicles is a dominant theme in both the U.S. and Canada (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). With the focus on technology, a two-tier labour market has developed where those in the lower tier have lower levels of education and professional/technical skills compared to those in the upper tier. Those in the lower tier, in comparison, have failed to get comparable pay raises, health care insurance and other benefits. Since 1975, most of the gains in household income have gone to the top 20% of households (CIA, 2003b). It has been suggested that some of the major issues facing the U.S. include inadequate investment in economic infrastructure, rising medical and pension costs for the aging population, trade deficits and stagnation of family incomes in lower economic groups (CIA, 2003b). Since the terrorists attacks in the U.S. in September 2001, Americans have become increasing concerned about security and levels of international travel have decreased. It is uncertain when consumer confidence will return. Mexico Mexico, with a population of over 103 million (CIA, 2003c), is becoming increasingly urbanised. Its population is growing at approximately 2% per year, which is twice as fast as the U.S. or Canada (WTTC, 2002c). Not unlike many other developing nations, Mexico has a dualistic socio-economic structure with some, in particular regions, who have attained great wealth, while others remain impoverished (Cutler, 1992). Northern Mexico is relatively wealthy and more industrial and has a higher concentration of young employed adults. Cutler (1992) argues that the people in the central states such as Guanajuato are more conservative and stress their European heritage. The southern states such as Oaxaca and Tabasco tend to be poorer than the states in the north. Residents are often of Mayan decent and are more likely to have marginal agricultural jobs (Cutler, 1992). One in five workers in Mexico has a position in the primary sector, which is much higher than in the U.S. or Canada. In addition, only 20% of working-age Mexicans have at least a high school education compared to over 80% in both Canada and the U.S. (De Long, 2001). The regional disparities have caused massive emigration, with most of it being illegal to the U.S where there are more opportunities (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). The Zapatista movement in states such as Chiapas illustrates some of the discontent the Mexican government has had to deal with (Lonely Planet, 2003a). The Mexican government has taken steps to reduce corruption and the illicit drug trade controlled by syndicates. Mexico is on the supply route for illicit drugs into the U.S. from South America.

North American History and Political Structure Both the history and the development of political institutions in the North American countries are rich and complex and in the interests of space only a few of their more prominent characteristics will be emphasised.




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Canada Before the arrival of the European settlers, Canada’s first nations people had developed a wide range of languages, customs, religious beliefs, trading patterns, arts and crafts, laws and governments (Lonely Planet, 2003b). Although Canada became self-governing in 1867 it still continues to maintain strong links to the United Kingdom and the monarchy as a Commonwealth nation. As Mancke (1999) suggests, Canadian political culture is not a fragment of American political culture, but a distinct and separate branch off the British trunk. Being settled by the English and the French has led to the adoption of two official languages and it can be argued that the conflicts between the two groups continue to this day. Québec City is Canada’s oldest town founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain on the St Lawrence River, east of Montréal, and the historic district of Québec is a major tourist attraction (Holley, 2000). At the time of the American Revolution, many United Empire Loyalists fled to the north to remain in the British Empire (Helliwell, 2001). In the last 50 years, Canada has had one of the highest rates of immigration relative to population of all OECD countries. In the past 25 years the sources of immigration have become more diverse with increasing numbers of Asians and the larger cities becoming the destination (Helliwell, 2001). The Canadian government has adopted a policy of multiculturalism and Helliwell (2001) argues that it has not led to a weaker sense of national identification. The country established itself after the first and second World Wars and has gone on to take a major peacekeeping role through the United Nations. Canadian government is run as a confederation with a parliamentary democracy. The Constitution was signed in 1982, based on the British North American Act of 1867. The British monarchy is the head of state represented in Canada by the Governor General who is appointed by the monarch based on the advice of the Prime Minister. Following elections for the legislature, the leader of the party with the majority becomes the Prime Minister. Members of the legislature or House of Commons are elected (301 seats) by popular vote for a period of five years. The Liberal Party under the leadership of Jean Chrétien and later by Paul Martin has been in power since 1993. The Governor General, on the advice of the Prime Minister, appoints members of the Senate (105 seats) and they hold their seat until they reach the age of 75. The legal system is based on British common law except in Québec, where civil law operates based on the system in France (CIA, 2003a). United States When the American British colonies broke with England in 1776 they set the stage for the development of the United States of America which was recognised in the Treaty of Paris of 1783. In the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 states were added to the original 13 as the country expanded across the continent and beyond. The country



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went through a Civil War from 1861 to 1865 and established itself as an international political, social, and economic power through its efforts in the first and second World Wars. Perhaps most noteworthy are the periods of social change in the U.S. which have had international implications. For example, the Civil Right Movement of the 1960s had not only national implications for the U.S. but also has had a great deal of influence on the social policies of countries such as Canada. Other noteworthy events have included the U.S. participation in Korea, Vietnam, the Cold War (when the U.S. emerged as the world’s sole super power (CIA, 2003b)), and the more recent reaction to the terrorist attacks of 11 September, 2001. The resulting War on Terrorism with wars in Afghanistan and Iraq has prompted a shift in U.S foreign policy, to taking pre-emptive steps to protect American security. In terms of government structure the country is a federal republic with a democratic tradition. The constitution came into effect on 4 March 1789. The President is chief of state and head of the government. The President and Vice President are elected on the same ticket by a college of representatives who are elected directly from each state. The President and Vice President serve a four-year term. The current President, George W. Bush, started his term in January 2001. The legislative branch of the Government consists of the Senate (100 seats – one-third renewed every two years) and the House of Representatives. Two Senators are elected by popular vote from each state for six years. The House of Representatives has 435 seats and members are elected by popular vote for a two-year term. The legal system is based on the English common law system (CIA, 2003b). In 2004, George W. Bush was re-elected as the president for a second term. Mexico Mexico has a well-documented Amerindian history which includes a number of different civilisations such as the Mayans, Toltecs and Aztecs, all of which existed long before the colonisation of the region by the Spanish. Many of the monumental archaeological sites from these civilisations are now major tourist attractions such as Teotihuacan pyramid near Mexico City and Chichen Itza in the Yucatan peninsula (Burton, 1995). The beginning of the period of colonisation started with the arrival of Hernán Cortés in 1519. The harsh treatment by the conquerors and the introduction of new diseases resulted in the indigenous population rapidly declining from approximately 25 million to 1 million by 1605 (Lonely Planet, 2003a). From the 16th to the 19th century a form of apartheid developed and Mexico came under Spanish rule for three centuries before gaining independence early in the 19th century. In 1845 the Mexican-U.S. war took place and resulted in Texas, California, Utah, Colorado and most of New Mexico and Arizona being ceded to the U.S. The Mexican Revolution took place from 1910 to 1920 where there were attempts by many to reform governments. The 10-year civil war took between 1.5 and 2 million lives. During the 1970s a Mexican oil boom was undercut by the recession of the




25

1980s (Lonely Planet, 2003a). A major earthquake took place in 1985 killing approximately 10,000 people and creating a great deal of damage in Mexico City. The devaluation of the peso in 1994 caused economic chaos. However, the country has been recovering, especially with the introduction of the NAFTA agreement. The NAFTA agreement has led to an increased marginalisation of the indigenous Mexicans, which led to the Zapatista uprising in the southernmost state of Chiapas. July of 2000 was the first time since the Mexican Revolution in 1910 that the party in government, the Institutional Party (PRI) was defeated. The latest President, Vicent Fox, is from the National Action Party (PAN) and was sworn in on 1 December 2000 (CIA, 2003). The President is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (WTTC, 2002c). The National Congress is made up of the Senate and the Federal Chamber of Deputies. There are 128 seats in the Senate and, of these, 96 are elected by popular vote for six years and 32 are distributed based on each party’s popular vote. There are 500 seats in the Federal Chamber of Deputies and members are elected for a three-year term: 300 members are elected by popular vote and 200 seats are distributed based on each party’s popular vote (CIA, 2003c). The legal system is based on a mixture of U.S. constitutional theory and civil law.

The North American Environment Canada There are several environmental issues facing Canada. There is significant air pollution in some areas and the resulting acid rain has severely affected lakes and damaged forests. Air pollution in the Toronto and the Golden Horseshoe, which ranges from Oshawa around Lake Ontario to Niagara Falls, can be quite a problem especially in the summer months resulting in smog warnings, causing difficulties for people with breathing problems. Metal smelting, coal-burning utilities and vehicle emissions also have an impact on agricultural and forest productivity (CIA, 2003a). Agricultural, industrial, mining and forest activities have an impact on freshwater and marine water systems from significant levels of runoff, creating contamination in many regions. The Canadian government cooperates with the U.S. government through the International Joint Commission which monitors the effects of industrial and agricultural activities on the Great Lakes. On the eastern coast in the Maritime Provinces, over-harvesting of fisheries has resulted in a series of moritoria on fishing for selected species. Canada has signed on to a number of agreements to help protect the environment. The most recent agreement signed was the Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol in December of 2001. As part of this agreement, Canada is committed to reducing its average emissions over the years 2008–2012 to 6% less than 1990 levels (Kyoto, 2002). Some of the other environmental agreements that Canada is party to or have signed include: Air Pollution, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Marine Dumping,



26


Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber and Agenda 21 (CIA, 2003a; WTTC, 2002a). Canada also has extensive park systems at the municipal, provincial and national levels. These systems are considered as leading examples from the perspective of natural areas protection and visitor management. United States There are a number of environmental hazards which the U.S. continues to face. In the Pacific basin there is the danger from tsunamis, volcanoes and earthquakes. The San Andreas Fault is an earthquake zone which falls along the major population and tourist routes of California. The midwest and southeast are in tornado zones. There also have been mud slides in California and still in the west, major forest fires have caused difficulties in some states. Similar to Canada, air pollution has caused acid rain on both sides of the border. The U.S. is the largest emitter of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels, which is a prime contributor to acid rain (CIA, 2003b). The vulnerability of the electricity grid between Canada and the United States became evident during the blackout of 2003 (see Box 3). There are also problems related to water pollution resulting from pesticides and fertiliser use by agriculturalists and home owners. One of the main difficulties facing the western part of the country is the lack of fresh water resources. Careful management needs to be implemented to monitor these scarce resources. Plans have been proposed which would see water imported from Canada but as yet these have not developed. Also in the west there has been an increase in desertification of some regions (CIA, 2003b). The Atlantic coast and the Gulf of Mexico are hurricane areas, which dramatically affect the tourism industry particularly during the months of September, October and November. The U.S. has signed on to a number of agreements to help protect the environment. Some of these include Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Arctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban and Biodiversity. Unlike Canada, there is resistance to sign on to the Kyoto Protocol on climate change (CIA, 2003b; WTTC, 2002b). The U.S. has also designated a system of national parks, beginning with Yellowstone in 1872 (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). Mexico Mexico also faces a number of natural hazards. Similar to the U.S. on the Pacific coast there is the danger of tsunamis. Volcanoes and earthquakes are a danger in the south and centre of the country. Hurricanes also can develop on the Pacific, Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean coasts. There are a number of serious environmental challenges facing the country. The continual rural to urban migration has increased




27

Box 1 The Blackout, 14 August 2003 The power blackout on 14 August 2003 left 50 million people in Ontario, Canada and the U.S. northeast without power and it took almost a week to completely recover. The cascading power failure started with Ohio electricity provider FirstEnergy, and caused power outage in Ontario, Canada, and New York, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, part of Connecticut and Vermont in the United States (CBC News Online, 2003a). Without power, train, subway and transit systems were disrupted; elevators in the high-rise buildings were also suspended in midair (CBC News Online, 2003a). In Ontario and New York, airports were affected by the power outage. Many flights were grounded and check-in desks stopped processing passengers. Those passengers who tried to go home could not find means of transportations (CBC News Online, 2003b). Car rental companies however enjoyed a busy week. Many tourist attractions were also affected. For example, the Stratford Festival in Ontario could not continue performances due to lack of lights and air-conditioning. These cancellations led to considerable refunds and related expenses (CBC News Online, 2003c). Statistics Canada announced that the Canadian economy took a downturn as a result of the August blackout in Ontario. In August, GDP fell 0.7% from July, which was worse than the drop immediately after the 11 September incident in 2001 (CBC News Online, 2003d). An initial report on the cause of the blackout released 19 November illustrates the cascade effect across the border that eventually shut down more than 263 power plants. The widespread effect illustrates the vulnerability of the power grid and how dependent North America is on electricity. pressures on urban infrastructure. In addition there are limited hazardous waste disposal facilities. Water quality is a challenge for the entire country. In the north of the country natural fresh water resources are scarce and many are polluted. Fresh water sources are also of poor quality in the centre and extreme southeast. In urban areas, raw sewage and industrial effluents are polluting rivers, while there continues to be strong opposition to the selling of U.S. hazardous waste to Mexico. There is also deforestation, widespread erosion, desertification and deteriorating agricultural lands. Serious water and air pollution are a problem for Mexico City and the urban centres along the U.S.–Mexico border. Finally there has been land subsidence in the Valley of Mexico due to ground water depletion. The government has recently elevated issues such as the lack of clean water and deforestation to the level of other issues like national security (CIA, 2003c). Mexico has signed on to or is party to a number of international agreements. Some of these agreements include: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification,



28


Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands and Ship Pollution (CIA, 2003c). Conclusions The North American region as outlined in this chapter is a complex region with a diversity of political, economic, social, and ecological conditions, making it an excellent region for tourism. Indeed, all three countries are in the top ten in the world for international arrivals. However, given recent world events outlined in more detail later in this book, the tourism industry faces a number of challenges. Predictions for increased growth in the industry have initially been met with a decline in travel because of many catastrophic events. The airline industry in all three countries, for example, is one sector that is facing a number of challenges. It is uncertain as to when consumer confidence will return and it will be interesting to see how the industry responds. The main purpose of this chapter has been to establish the background for the remainder of this book by providing details on topics such as geography, economy, demographics and society, history and political structure and environmental challenges. While there are many similarities within all three nations based on physiography and economics, there are just as many differences that are socially, economically, and environmentally based. Understanding and responding to issues and problems is therefore not only in the best interests of individuals, but also of the region as a whole, as it continues to be guided by the policies of NAFTA. Despite the many current issues which continue to have social and ecological implications, tourism will continue to be used in a variety of different ways to generate growth in all three countries. The remaining chapters in this book will explore efforts underway by the industry to expand and promote tourism. References BBC (2003a) Country Profile Mexico. Retrieved 30 January 2003 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/ 2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1205074.stm BBC (2003b) Mexico anti-drug force to be scrapped. (17 January 2003). Retrieved 18 November 2003 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2670291.stm BI-national Tourism Steering Committee (n.d.) Bi-national Tourism Steering Committee Summary Report for Premier Harris and Governor Pataki Regarding BI-national Tourism Development & Promotion. Niagara, Ontario/Niagara, New York: Author. Boniface, B. and Cooper, C. (2001) Worldwide Destinations: The Geography of Travel and Tourism. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Brenner, L. and Aguilar, A.G. (2002) Luxury tourism and regional economic development in Mexico. The Professional Geographer 54 (4), 500–20. Burton, R. (1995). Travel Geography (2nd edn). Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman Limited.




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Canadian Tourism Commission (2002a, November) U.S. travellers drive tourism numbers up in August. Tourism: Canada’s Tourism Monthly, 16. Canadian Tourism Commission (2002b, November) Travel at home fuels growth. Tourism: Canada’s Tourism Monthly, 16. CBC News Online (1998) Manitoba and North Dakota oppose new border law (21 April 1998). Retrieved on 19 November 2003 from http://www.cbc.ca/storyview/CBC/1998/ 04/21/border980421e CBC News Online (2001) Ashcroft says Canada, U.S. must improve border laws (3 October, 2001). Retrieved on 19 November 2003 from http://www.cbc.ca/storyview/CBC/2001/ 10/02/macaul_ashcr011002 CBC News Online (2002) Date set for new border control plan: Manley (2 February 2002). Retrieved on 18 November 2003 from http://www.cbc.ca/storyview/CBC/2002/02/02/ manley_020202 CBC News Online (2003a) Indepth: Power Outage – The blackout explained (November 19 2003). Retrieved on 19 November 2003 from http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/ poweroutage/explained.html CBC News Online (2003b) Ontario declares state of emergency (14 August 2003). Retrieved on 19 November 2003 from http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2003/08/14/powercan030814 CBC News Online (2003c) Stratford offers two of three stages (15 August 2003). Retrieved on 19 November 2003 from http://www.cbc.ca/artsCanada/stories/stratfordblackout150803 CBC News Online (2003d) August blackout leads to big drop in GDP (31 October 2003). Retrieved on 19 November 2003 from http://www.cbc.ca/storyview/CBC/2003/10/31/ AugGDP_031031 CIA (2003a) The World Factbook – Canada. Retrieved 10 April 2003 from http:// www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ca.html CIA (2003b) The World Factbook – United States. Retrieved 10 April 2003 from http:// www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/us.html CIA (2003c) The World Factbook – Mexico. Retrieved 10 April 2003 from http:// www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mx.html Cutler, B. (1992, Mar) North American demographics. American Demographics, 14 (3), 38. Davidoff, P., Davidoff, D. and Eyre , J. (1995). Tourism Geography (2nd edn). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. De Long, J.B. (2001 Winter) A symposium on the North American economy. Journal of Economic Perspectives 15 (1), 81–3. Fry, E.H. (2003a) North American economic integration: Policy options. Retrieved 18 November 2003 from http://www.csis.org/americas/pubs/pp_NAmericanEcon.pdf Fry, E.H. (2003b) The future of North American integration: National and sub-national perspectives. Retrieved 18 November 2003 from http://www.forumpp.ca/gs/Prof_Earl_ Fry_pres.pdf Helliwell, J.F. (2001, Winter) Canada: Life beyond the looking glass. Journal of Economic Perspectives 15 (1), 107–24. Holley Jr, E. (2000) Canada’s French connection. Hispanic 13 (10), 80. Janigan, M. (2001, September 24) An open border? The post-terror crackdown intensifies calls for a U.S.-Canada perimeter. Macleans 114 (39), 42–3. Kadlec, D. (2003) Why the bear will lose its bite. Time April 21, 2003. Retrieved 21 April 2003 from http://www.timecanada.com/story.adp?storyid=5. Kyoto: The basics. (2002, 11 November). Maclean’s 115 (45), 21. Lonely Planet (2003a) Mexico. Retrieved 1 March 2003 from http://www.lonelyplanet.com/ destinations/north_america/mexico/index.htm



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Lonely Planet (2003b) Canada. Retrieved 19 April 2003 from http://www.lonelyplanet. com/destinations/north_america/canada/history.htm Lonely Planet (2001) Economic crisis in tourism sector. Retrieved 30 January 2003 from http:/ /www.lonelyplanet.com/scoop/archive.cfm?DPID=468®ion=ame Lustig, N. (2001, Winter) Life is not easy: Mexico’s quest for stability and growth. Journal of Economic Perspectives 15 (1), 85–106. Mancke, E. (1999) Early modern imperial governance and the origins of Canadian political culture. Canadian Journal of Political Science 32 (1), 3–20. McCann, L.D (ed.) (1987) Heartland and Hinterland: A Geography of Canada. Scarborough: Prentice Hall. MPI Staff (2002) The U.S Mexican border. Retrieved on 21 November 2003 from http:// www.migrationinformation.org/feature/display.cfm?ID = 32 Niagara BiNational Economic Region Roundtable (2003, January) Final Report. Niagara, Ontario/Niagara, New York: Author. Our History (2003, April) The Niagaras: The Newsletter of the Binational Niagara Tourism Alliance 1, 2. Sandwith, T., Shine, C., Hamilton, L. and Sheppard, D. (n.d.) Transboundary Protected Areas for Peace and Cooperation. IUCN. Statistics Canada (2005) The Daily, Monday, October 3, 2005, Canadian Tourism Satellite Account 2000. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/051003/ d051003b.htm. Statistics Canada, 2005a, Latest release from the Labour Force Survey, Friday, October 7, 2005. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.ca/english/Subjects/Labour/LFS/ lfs-en.htm. Statistics Canada, 2005b, Gross domestic product at basic prices, primary industries: 2005-10-03. Retrieved from http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/prim03.htm. Telfer, D.J. (2002) Tourism and regional development issues. In R. Sharpley and D.J. Telfer (eds) Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues (pp. 112–48). Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Weaver, D. and Opperman, M. (2000) Tourism Management. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons. We’ve done some terrific things to date (2003, April) The Niagaras: The Newsletter of the Binational Niagara Tourism Alliance, 1, 4. Why the Binational Buzz? (2003, April) The Niagaras: The Newsletter of the Binational Niagara Tourism Alliance 1, 1. World Tourism Organization (2003) Tourism Highlights: Edition 2003. Retrieved 18 November 2003 from http:// www.world-tourism.org/market_research/facts/highlights/ Highlights.pdf. World Tourism Organization (2004) Tourism Highlights: Edition 2004. Retrieved from http:/ /www.world-tourism.org/facts/menu.html. World Travel & Tourism Council (2001) Year 2001: Tourism satellite accounting research. Retrieved from http://www.wttc.org/ecres/pdfs/a156.pdf World Travel & Tourism Council (2002a) Canada. Retrieved 1 January 2002 from www.wttc.org/monitor/country.asp?id = 19 World Travel & Tourism Council (2002b) United States. Retrieved 1 January 2002 from www.wttc.org/monitor/country.asp?id = 120 World Travel & Tourism Council (2002c) Mexico. Retrieved 1 January 2002 from www.wttc.org/monitor/country.asp?id




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World Travel & Tourism Council (2003a) Canada, travel and tourism a world of opportunity: 2003 travel and tourism economic research. Retrieved 1 April 2003 from http:// www.wttc.org/measure/PDF/Canada.pdf World Travel & Tourism Council (2003b) United States, travel and tourism a world of opportunity: 2003 travel and tourism economic research. Retrieved 1 April 2003 from http:// www.wttc.org/measure/PDF/United%20States.pdf



Chapter 2

Demand for Tourism in North America STEPHEN SMITH and DALLEN J. TIMOTHY North America is home to vast cultural and natural resources that appeal to tourists from within the region and across the world. As a result, North America is one of the most visited areas of the world, with all three countries – Canada, Mexico and the United States – consistently being counted in the World Tourism Organization’s list of top 10 international destinations. This chapter provides a breakdown of demand for Mexico, the United States of America, and Canada. Particular emphasis is placed on data sources and measurement, outbound international travel, inbound international travel, domestic tourism, and tourism employment. The region will also be examined from the perspective of key definitions of demand, which provide needed comparisons and contrasts on trip, visit, and receipts/payments, which provide the foundation for understanding demand characteristics within these jurisdictions.

Data Sources and Measurement The United States, Mexico and Canada generally follow the World Tourism Organization’s (1994) guidelines on tourism definitions: Trip: For international travel, a trip occurs when a person crosses the national border, either inbound or outbound. The trip begins when the person leaves his/her country of residence and ends when he/she returns. Visit: A visit is to the place of overnight stay, or for a same-day trip, the destination. Thus, for overnight trips, a person may make several visits on a single trip. If a person crosses the border several times during a trip, each crossing counts as a visit. Receipts/Payments: Payments made (or received) for tourism trips are tabulated using World Bank guidelines for the travel account balance of payments. The scope of these data, unfortunately, does not correspond precisely with the WTO’s definition of tourism. Most tourism-related expenditures (e.g. accommodation, food, attraction fees, and recreation) are included. However, the 32


Oceania Demand for Tourism in North America


Demand for Tourism in North America

33

travel account also captures expenditures (payments) for medical care abroad and educational travel (which may or may not be tourism). On the other hand, travel expenditure (receipt) data do not include international transportation, such as airfares. Canada has a long and consistent history of collecting tourism-related statistics, compared to Mexico and the United States, with a continual refinement of definitions and survey instruments. The data-collection system is primarily the responsibility of Statistics Canada, which is also charged with keeping data on most aspects of society and economics. While it has the lead role in the collection of tourism statistics, Statistics Canada’s efforts are financially and administratively supported by the Canadian Tourism Commission and individual provincial tourism ministries. In the United States, data on international tourism arrivals are compiled by the US Bureau of Customs in the Department of the Treasury. Expenditure and revenue data are compiled by the Tourism Industries (International Travel Administration) in the US Department of Commerce. Tracking travel demand between the US and Canada, and the US and Mexico is shared by agencies in these countries. Arrivals by all modes from Canada and Mexico are included in volume estimates; only arrivals by air from other countries are tabulated in actual arrival numbers. Traditionally, data on domestic tourism were not routinely collected, although today surveys of domestic travel (e.g. American Travel Survey) are conducted annually by the Bureau of Transportation Statistics in cooperation with the Tourism Industry Association of America. In most cases, however, the individual states collect their own demand data, based primarily on airport arrivals and accommodations records. Data collection in Mexico is a complex phenomenon. Several agencies are charged with keeping statistics, depending on the type of data. For example, international tourism arrivals data are compiled annually by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI) and are supplemented by data collected by Secretaría de Turismo (SECTUR). Expenditure and revenue data are compiled by the central bank, Banco de México. Data on domestic travel are not routinely collected, although periodic studies are conducted by SECTUR in collaboration with Encuesta Nacional de Turismo Doméstico en Hogares to ascertain some degree of knowledge about domestic tourism.

Tourism Demand: Canada Outbound international travel Because of the shared border between Canada and the United States and the proximity of large populations to the border, the majority of trips from Canada to the US are same-day excursions. However, because these trips tend to involve low levels of spending and are seen as often being routine and thus not significantly




34

Table 2.1 Outbound travel volumes (000 visits) Year

Total

US same-day

US Overnight

All other nations

1980

36,328

23,505

11,238

1,585

1986

40,459

27,326

10,793

2,285

1987

47,341

32,441

12,253

2,648

1988

54,109

37,609

13,700

2,801

1989

62,907

44,585

15,326

2,996

1990

73,585

53,170

17,263

3,153

1991

82,174

60,237

19,113

2,824

1992

79,830

58,129

18,598

3,103

1993

70,009

49,448

17,293

3,268

1994

57,687

39,343

14,970

3,374

1995

55,697

37,492

14,662

3,543

1996

56,371

37,398

15,301

3,672

1997

54,925

35,815

15,127

3,984

1998

46,985

29,337

13,430

4,218

1999

46,448

28,092

14,105

4,252

2000

47,182

28,000

14,667

4,516

2001

43,201

24,855

13,514

4,832

2002

39,239

21,591

12,968

4,680

Source: Statistics Canada, 1999–2003

influenced by marketing initiatives, the focus of published international statistics, as well as tourism marketing efforts, is on overnight visits. As already noted, the most common international trip taken by Canadians is same-day excursions south of the border (Table 2.1), reflecting the proximity of US destinations to the great majority of Canadians. The volume of outbound trips by Canadians generally increased from 1980 to 1991. Since then, initially in response to the North American recession in the early 1990s and then in response to the declining Canadian dollar against the US dollar, same-day and overnight trips to the US have declined. The impact of the exchange rate has been greatest on same-day trips, primarily because most of these were motivated by shopping (Di Matteo & Di Matteo, 1996; Timothy & Butler, 1995). It should be emphasized, though, that exchange rates are not the only determinant of international visitor flows, although in the Canadian context, research has demonstrated that they are among the most influential (Di Matteo, 1999; Di Matteo and Di Matteo, 1993; Timothy, 1999). The performance of the economy of the origin market (Wilton,




35

Table 2.2 Top ten offshore destinations, 1999 Destination

Visits

Expenditures (000 $)

Mean length of stay (nights)

UK

815,600

1,009,343

13.1

Mexico

607,600

556,894

10.8

France

407,600

506,211

11.2

Cuba

349,600

264,590

8.9

Germany

227,700

183,271

9.0

Italy

192,300

282,611

12.4

The Netherlands

153,300

106,631

8.6

Dominican Republic

152,500

121,568

9.2

Hong Kong

115,400

138,313

16.6

Switzerland

108,400

91,035

7.9

Source: Statistics Canada, 1999

1998), for instance, is also important in shaping the level of demand for tourism services from that market. Overseas trips by Canadians have shown a general upward trend from 1980 to 2000. However, the impacts of the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001 and subsequently rising concerns about terrorism can be clearly seen in declining international departures in 2001 and 2002. Table 2.2 summarizes the most popular offshore destinations for Canadian residents. The UK is the leading overseas destination in terms of total visits, expenditures, and with the exception of Hong Kong, length-of-stay. This reflects, in part, a strong visiting friends and relatives (VFR) component to Canadian travel to the UK. VFR is also a large part of the reason for the longer length of stay in Hong Kong, owing to Vancouver and Toronto’s large Cantonese populations. Inbound international travel Generally, the Canadian dollar has weakened since 1990 against all currencies except the Australian dollar. This makes visiting Canada less expensive, everything else being equal. Table 2.3 presents recent trends in overnight travel to Canada from major markets. The US market, especially leisure visitors, dominates inbound travel to Canada. American visits are approximately four times the number from the rest of the world combined, owing to the 8000 km shared border with over 250 border crossing points. However, most US visits are short-term and generate relatively small revenues. Europe is the second most important source region, reflecting good air access to Canada and affluent markets. Asia-Pacific comes in third, followed by Latin




36

Table 2.3 Inbound overnight travel to Canada, 2000–2002 2000

2001

2002

Overnight visitors (000s)

19,554

19,579

19,964

Spending in Canada ($ million)

12,997

13,438

13,653

15,188

15,569

16,168

7,321

7,989

8,411

13,028

13,649

14,212

5,714

6,443

6,833


2,160

1,920

1,956


1,607

1,546

1,578


2,463

2,267

2,044


3,031

2,842

2,665

International travel to Canada (total)

Total US Overnight visitors (000s) Spending in Canada ($ million) US Leisure Overnight visitors (000s) Spending in Canada ($ million) US Business, Convention, Incentive

Europe

Latin America Overnight visitors (000s)

396

377

392


532

483

538


1,421

1,285

1,287


1,992

2,007

1,883

Asia-Pacific


America. Although Latin America is geographically closer to Canada than is Asia, Latin American economies generally continue to be weak, thus limiting the demand for long-haul international travel. Table 2.4 presents arrival and expenditure data for Canada’s top ten national markets outside the United States. Four countries dominate demand: the UK, Japan, France and Germany. The Asia-Pacific region, especially Australia, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, represents a significant and growing market. Within the Americas, Mexico represents the second most important source after the United States. However, it is a distant second, generating only 0.05% of the total number of trips from the USA, and relative spending is 2.3% of that of US residents. In other words, although Mexico is a small market in terms of total visitors, Mexi-




37

Table 2.4 Top 10 international markets, 2001 Trips (000s)

Nights (000s)

Expenditures (millions $CAD)

15,570

62,539

7,989

United Kingdom

826

10,092

1,026

Japan

410

5,314

633

France

357

5,254

436

Germany

330

5,281

454

United States

Australia

158

2,464

244

Mexico

148

1,693

187

South Korea

139

4,063

264

Hong Kong

125

2,075

175

Taiwan

118

1,774

183


cans tend to be higher spenders. The same is true for visitors from Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan. Between 1990 and 2002, there was generally a growth in receipts from international visitors. While international visitors represent only about 25% of all trips generated in Canada, they generated over 35% of total revenues in 2002. The decline from 2001 to 2002 (Table 2.20), the first in over a decade, is attributable to a combination of a weak American economy and the impacts of the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001. Canada has long had a negative balance of payments in tourism terms, which has been a major concern of the Canadian government, resulting in extensive efforts to promote inbound visits and domestic travel. Table 2.5 summarizes travel balance of payments for the period 1986 to 2002. The impact of Expo ’86 in Vancouver on balance of payments can be seen by comparing the 1986 numbers to those of 1987. The large number of US visitors to Vancouver that year, combined with the ability of Expo ’86 to motivate Canadians to travel domestically virtually eliminated the traditional travel deficit that year. The travel deficit continued to rise to a peak in 1992 and remained high until the creation of the Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC). The creation of the CTC, combined with a substantial increase in marketing dollars and a new mandate to promote domestic travel (in effect, promoting a strategy ‘import substitution’ in which domestic tourism expenditures are substituted for trips to other countries) contributed to a reversal in the long-term trend towards larger travel deficits.




38

Table 2.5 Receipts and payments (millions $CAD) Year

Spending in Canada by Spending in foreign foreign residents countries by Canadians

Balance of payments

1986

5,867

6,410

–542

1987

5,787

7,506

–1,719

1988

6,292

8,445

–2,153

1989

6,680

9,827

–3,147

1990

7,398

12,757

–5,359

1991

7,691

13,753

–6,062

1992

7,898

14,255

–6,357

1993

8,480

14,359

–5,879

1994

9,558

13,678

–4,120

1995

10,819

14,093

–3,274

1996

11,749

15,353

–3,604

1997

12,221

15,873

–3,652

1998

14,019

16,029

–2,010

1999

15,141

17,049

–1,907

2000

16,098

18,313

–2,214

2001

16,682

17,998

–1,316

2002

16,678

18,777

–2,100


Domestic travel In Canada, a trip is defined as being at least 80 km one-way from home for any reason other than commuting to work or school, travel of crew members, change of residence, travel in an ambulance, travel not originating in Canada, or travel lasting longer than one year. While 80 km is the Canadian standard, the Province of Ontario still uses an idiosyncratic definition of 40 km for day-trips and any overnight trip, regardless of distance (Smith, 1999). Domestic tourists spent almost $CAD 34 billion, or about 63% of total visitor spending in 2002 (Table 2.6). However, domestic visitors generated 79% of total trips. Thus, domestic tourists generate the majority of visitor volumes and values, although they tend to spend less than most international visitors. Transportation expenditures account for nearly half of total receipts. Accommodation revenues are much smaller, proportionally, than for international visitors because of domestic tourists’ propensity to stay with family and friends, or in their own second homes. In fact, accommodation expenses rank fourth, after food, beverage, and retail expenditures.


1999

2000

2001

2002

1,056

2,171

947

3,545

1,149

2,292

1,034

3,599

1,155

2,432

1,113

3,588

1,259

2,505

1,271

4,031

3,660

1,317

2,446

1,179

4,077

3,526

1,400

2,458

1,378

4,398

3,432

1,487

2,550

1,586

4,803

3,668

1,549

2,522

1,737

5,204

3,474

1,618

2,398

1,884

5,554

3,294

3,147

3,200

3,277

3,313

3,406

3,709

3,711

3,806

3,992

3,989

4,119

Food & beverage

95.5 482.9

Total tourism

Non-tourism

Total expenditures

456.9

91.6

365.3

21.7

38.3

113.3

118.3

73.7

1991

465.3

96.6

368.7

25.6

39.7

112.4

121.7

69.3

1992



26.9 387.4

Travel agencies

37.7

116.0

Accommodation

Entertainment

75.6 131.2

Transportation

1990

Commodity

476.6

99.6

377.0

29.1

41.7

113.9

122.5

69.8

1993

487.1

98.9

388.2

31.0

44.2

115.3

124.9

72.7

1994

494.7

99.5

395.3

32.4

46.3

116.9

123.1

76.5

1995

507.4

103.4

404.1

31.2

51.7

115.8

125.8

79.5

1996

522.9

105.5

417.4

31.8

58.6

120.1

125.9

80.9

1997

537.8

106.7

431.1

31.9

61.6

125.3

128.3

84.0

1998

Table 2.7 Employment generated by tourism, by sub-sector, 1990–2002 (000s jobs)

551.6

106.7

444.9

34.3

66.0

132.9

124.3

87.3

1999

462.9

36.4

70.2

137.6

135.2

83.4

2001

564.4

576.9

11.38 114.0

450.6

35.1

67.5

134.1

126.5

87.3

2000

579.6

115.5

464.2

36.4

72.4

140.2

136.4

78.7

2002

23,351 22,913 23,516 23,907 25,012 25,928 26,695 28,980 29,156 30,287 33,749 33,383 33,990


Total expenditures

2,840

2,847

973

2,028

794

3,482

3,266

20,504 20,074 20,369 20,707 21,735 22,615 23,289 25,271 25,446 26,481 29,756 29,394 29,871

939

1,913

789

3,405

3,325

Non-tourism

883

1,924

681

3,324

3,239

1998

Total tourism

955

1,804

Travel agencies

Convention

589

3,097

1997

3,480

Entertainment

3,075

1996

Food & beverage

3,071

1995

3,089

1994

10,588 10,180 10,248 10,333 10,778 11,215 11,736 12,545 12,900 13,415 15,662 14,907 15,122

1993

Accommodation

1992

Transportation

1991

1990

Commodity

Table 2.6 Tourism domestic demand by Commodity, 1990–2002 (millions $CAD)


Demand for Tourism in North America 39


40


Employment Tourism demand is a major source of job creation in Canada, typically generating employment faster than other business sectors (Mahon & Gislason, 1998; Statistics Canada, 2003; Wilton, 1998). Tourism jobs are found in a range of sub-sectors (Table 2.7), representing a wide array of employment opportunities. Food and beverage services are the primary source of jobs, followed by the accommodations sector. The ‘non-tourism’ (e.g. retail) sector is third, through expenditures by visitors at enterprises such as clothing stores, retail groceries, and souvenir shops. Overall, tourism supported nearly 580,000 jobs in Canada in 2002. Three points should be emphasized about this estimate. First, it reflects jobs, regardless of whether they are full-time, part-time, permanent, or seasonal. Second, the estimate reflects only those jobs directly attributable to tourism. For example, the total number of jobs supported by the food and beverage sector is about 600,000; roughly 20% of these can be attributed to tourism because only 20% of food and beverage revenues come from visitors (Statistics Canada, 2003). Third, the numbers are based on statistical estimates rather than on census of employees. Tourism Demand: United States Nearly every year, the United States is ranked third in the world for international arrivals and first in income earned from tourism. While tourism is an important part of the US economy, the country is not as dependent on the industry as are Canada and Mexico in their national economies. Outbound international tourism Data on the volume of outbound travel by US residents are not as available or as often collected as inbound numbers, reflecting a relatively lower interest in this statistic by government officials and tourism marketers than for tourism exports. In common with Mexico, as a result of this disinterest, estimates must be derived from calculations reported by the major destinations. Tables 2.8 and 2.9 present data on outbound international travel. In both overnight and same-day trips, Mexico draws more Americans than does Canada. Outside of North America the most popular destination countries for US residents are Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Japan. Inbound international travel As already noted, the United States is one of the leading tourism destinations and origin markets in the world. The most popular destination states among foreign visitors are as follows in descending order (Travel Industry Association of America, 2004b):




41

Table 2.8 Top outbound destination regions for Americans (000s visits) Year

North America*

Western Europe

Asia

Caribbean

South America

1990

52,939

14,439

6,902

4,367

2,239

1995

54,456

16,706

10,180

4,665

4,069

2000

58,881

24,091

12,468

5,198

5,036

Year

Pacific Islands**

Central America

Middle East

Eastern Europe

Africa

1990

1,238

1,020

893

503

425

1995

1,179

1,271

1,464

1,158

605

2000

1,778

1,708

2,072

1,228

778

Source: Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2004 * Canada and Mexico; **includes Australia and New Zealand

Table 2.9 Outbound same-day excursions abroad by Americans (000s visits) Year

To Mexico

To Canada

Total

1990

64,038

22,325

86,363

1995

63,508

24,325

87,833

2000

81,565

28,769

110,334

Source: Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2004

· · · · · · · · · ·

California Florida New York Texas Illinois Nevada Pennsylvania New Jersey Georgia Hawaii

Table 2.10 summarizes inbound travel volumes globally, as well as from selected regions. The primary origin markets for the US are from the rest of the Americas, with between half and two-thirds typically coming from Canada and Mexico. Europe is the next major origin, followed by East Asia – Pacific. More specifically, Table 2.11 presents the top 20 origin countries of travelers to the United States in 2002.




42

Table 2.10 Inbound travel volumes (000s visits) Year

Total

From the Americas

From Europe

From East Asia – Pacific

1989

36,564

25,232

6,437

4,490

1990

39,539

27,590

6,858

4,873

1991

42,985

29,648

7,568

5,077

1992

47,556

32,725

8,464

5,614

1993

45,793

30,786

8,864

5,642

1994

44,753

29,968

8,745

6,286

1995

43,318

26,681

9,063

7,046

1996

46,489

27,948

10,028

7,929

1997

47,754

28,141

10,735

8,201

1998

46,396

27,513

11,041

7,082

1999

48,491

28,747

11,634

7,302

2000

50,891

30,010

12,052

7,921

Source: TIA, 2004b

Table 2.11 Origin countries of tourists to the United States, 2002 Country

Arrivals (000s)

Country

Arrivals (000s)

Canada

12,968

Venezuela

396

Mexico

9,807

Netherlands

384

United Kingdom

3,817

Colombia

321

Japan

3,627

Taiwan

288

Germany

1,190

Spain

270

France

734

Israel

263

South Korea

639

Bahamas

294

Australia

407

Ireland

260

Italy

406

India

257

Brazil

405

Switzerland

254

Source: TIA, 2004b

Table 2.12 summarizes receipts and payments. The United States tends to be a net gainer from international tourism, generating more revenue from exports (inbound visitors) than losing to imports (outbound spending). This pattern was mixed in the 1980s, but more recently the US has shown a consistent positive tourism balance of payments.




43

Table 2.12 Receipts and payments (millions US$) Year

Spending in US by foreign residents

Spending in foreign countries by US

Balance of payments

1983

15,408

13,977

1,431

1984

17,753

16,008

1,745

1985

17,937

17,043

894

1986

20,454

18,072

2,382

1987

20,505

20,306

199

1988

29,202

29,215

–13

1989

34,432

34,977

–545

1990

40,579

38,671

1,908

1991

48,384

35,322

13,062

1992

54,284

39,007

15,277

1993

57,621

40,564

17,057

1994

58,417

43,782

14,635

1995

63,395

44,916

18,479

1996

69,751

48,048

21,703

1997

73,268

51,220

22,048

Source: TIA, 2004b

Just as Mexico receives millions of day visits each year by Americans, Mexicans often travel to US border regions, primarily for shopping and visiting friends and relatives. While not all of the incoming traffic across the border is Mexican in origin (i.e. it also includes returning Americans), Table 2.13 demonstrates the number of incoming passengers crossing from Mexico in personal vehicles.

Table 2.13 Vehicle passengers entering the United States from Mexico (in millions) State

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Arizona

21.56

21.48

23.183

23.974

25.222

26.857

23.727

26.896

California

36.265

31.21

72.114

72.114

75.216

74.569

67.411

68.180

0.502

0.710

0.595

0.578

1.306

1.583

1.355

1.687

New Mexico Texas

110.825 118.132 123.850 129.346 139.779 136.786 116.614 102.258

Total Border Crossings

169.152 171.523 214.355 226.013 241.522 239.795 209.106 199.021

Source: Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2004




44

Domestic tourism According to the Travel Industry Association of America, the US travel industry earned nearly half a trillion dollars in domestic spending alone each year between 1999 and 2003 (Table 2.14). In 2003, 68% of Americans took at least one business or leisure trip in the United States of more than 50 miles, and between 1993 and 2003 domestic travel grew by 9.8%. The United States defines a domestic trip as traveling away from one’s home further than 50 miles. Table 2.14 Domestic travel expenditures in the United States Year

Expenditures (billions US$)

1999

467.2

2000

498.4

2001

479.0

2002

473.6

2003

490.0

Source: TIA, 2004a

Even though Americans comprise one of the largest international traveling cohorts in the world, the majority (some 93% in the early 1990s) of trips are domestic (Treited & Fockler, 1991). In 2003, over 1.1 billion domestic trips were estimated to have taken place (Table 2.15). Table 2.15 Number of domestic person-trips in the United States Year

Person-trips (millions)

1994

1,038.7

1995

1,065.6

1996

1,067.4

1997

1,101.8

1998

1,108.0

1999

1,089.5

2000

1,100.8

2001

1,123.1

2002

1,127.0

2003

1,140.0

Source: TIA, 2004a

Most travel in the US comprises short trips, over half being two nights or less (Table 2.16), and the most popular destination states for domestic tourists are Cali-




45

fornia, Florida, Texas, Pennsylvania, New York, North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, Ohio, and Illinois (Travel Industry Association of America, 2004a). Most overnight domestic trips were spent in commercial establishments (e.g. hotels, motels, bed-n-breakfasts) (55%), private residences (e.g. with friends and relatives) (39%), campgrounds (5%), time shares or condos (4%), and other (7%). Table 2.16 Length of domestic trips, 2003 Duration of trip

Percent of domestic person trips

No nights – same day return

24%

1–2 nights

34%

3–6 nights

29%

7 or more nights

13%

Source: TIA, 2004a

Leisure is the primary purpose of domestic travel in the United States (82%), followed by business (12%) and a combination of the two (6%). The most popular individual activities among leisure domestic tourists are demonstrated in Table 2.17.

Tourism Demand: Mexico Outbound international tourism Data on the volume of outbound travel by Mexicans are more difficult to obtain than inbound, reflecting a relatively lower interest in this statistic by government officials and tourism marketers than for tourist arrivals. Outbound travel volumes of Mexican residents must be estimated from inbound data collected by various destination countries. Table 2.18 presents recent data on Mexican outbound travel to the United States, Canada and other countries. Just as it does in regards to arrivals, the USA dominates as the most favored destination among Mexicans. The most popular reasons for traveling to the United States are to visit friends and relatives and to shop. Inbound international travel Tourism is a crucial industry in Mexico; in 2003 the country ranked eighth in the world in terms of tourist arrivals. It is, however, heavily dependent on one source market – the United States – with over 90% of arrivals coming from this single origin country (Table 2.19). Mexico is also an important destination for Canadian holiday-makers, particularly in winter, when many travel to well-known coastal resorts, such as Cancun, Puerto Vallarta, and Acapulco. Other important source



46


Table 2.17 The most popular activities among domestic tourists in the USA Activity Shopping

Most popular by percent of person-trips 30%

Attending a social/family event

27%

Outdoor pursuits

11%

City/Urban sightseeing

10%

Rural sightseeing

10%

Beach activities

10%

Historic sites and museums

8%

Gambling

7%

Amusement park/theme park

7%

National or state park

7%

Attending a seminar or course

6%

Nightlife/dancing

6%

Sporting event

6%

Zoo/Aquarium/Science center

5%

Water sports/boating

5%

Performing arts

4%

Cultural event or festival

3%

Golf

2%

Art museums or galleries

2%

Winter sports

2%

Source: TIA, 2004a

countries include Argentina, Brazil, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Spain, Italy, Germany, France and the United Kingdom. The figures in Table 2.19 demonstrate only those which fit the WTO definition of a tourist–visitors who stay at least one night in Mexico. In addition to these tourists, millions of day-trippers also visit Mexico, primarily from the United States, but also from other bordering countries (i.e. Belize and Guatemala). International excursionists, or those who enter and leave Mexico the same day, are recorded in Table 2.20. By WTO definitions, these also include cruise ship passengers. While day visitors are not tourists according to the strictest definition, they support an important part of the tourism industry, and Mexico’s border towns are the busiest of all its communities in terms of international arrivals (Clancy, 2001). Tourism is an important part of the Mexican economy. Table 2.21 compares re-




47

Table 2.18 Outbound travel volumes (000s visits) Year

To USA

To Canada

To other countries

Total

1989

7,240

63

347

7,650

1990

7,217

64

344

7,625

1991

7,718

65

342

8,152

1992

10,872

65

550

11,487

1993

9,676

74

435

10,185

1994

11,321

81

627

12,029

1995

8,016

63

372

8,451

1996

8,530

80

391

9,001

1997

8,433

96

381

8,910

1998

9,276

112

249

9,637

1999

9,915

127

310

10,352

2000

10,322

143

616

11,081

2001

n/d*

n/d

n/d

12,075

2002

n/d

n/d

n/d

11,947

2003

n/d

n/d

n/d

11,044

Source: SECTUR, 2004 * Only aggregate data are available for 2001–3

ceipts from foreign visitors in Mexico (including excursionists) and expenditures by Mexicans traveling abroad. Mexico generally sees a net gain from international tourism, generating more revenue from exports (inbound visitors) than losing to imports (outbound spending). The notable growth in the positive balance of payments beginning in the early 1980s and mid-90s reflects the beginning of the depreciation of the Mexican peso, which saw a reduction in Mexican cross-border and overseas travel (Patrick & Renforth, 1996; Prock, 1983). Fiscal reform in Mexico in 1999, however, has resulted in a relative stabilization of the peso against the US dollar. Employment As Table 2.22 notes, nearly two million people are employed directly in tourism in Mexico, comprising between 5% and 6% of total jobs in the country. These numbers, however, do not take into account the millions more who are involved in the informal sector, as is commonly the place in the developing world, providing handicrafts, transportation, and guiding services. In 2002, 2% of the people working formally in tourism were employed in the pro-




48

Table 2.19 Inbound travel volumes (000s visits) Year

From USA

From Canada

From all other countries

Total

1989

14,163

271

530

14,964

1990

16,381

294

501

17,176

1991

15,413

260

608

16,281

1992

16,112

276

885

17,273

1993

15,285

268

981

16,534

1994

15,893

255

1,034

17,182

1995

19,221

197

823

20,241

1996

20,314

269

822

21,405

1997

18,194

369

788

19,351

1998

17,735

519

1,138

19,392

1999

17,463

502

1,078

19,043

2000

19,285

477

879

20,641

2001

n/d*

n/d

n/d

19,811

2002

n/d

n/d

n/d

19,667

Source: SECTUR 2004 *Only aggregate data are available for 2001–2

Table 2.20 International day visitors (excursionists) to Mexico and their expenditures Year

International excursionists (000s)

Excursionists’ expenditures (millions US$)

1990

64,928

1,593

1991

64,072

1,620

1992

66,914

1,614

1993

66,576

1,603

1994

65,762

1,509

1995

65,205

1,490

1996

68,999

1,646

1997

73,564

1,845

1998

75,822

1,860

1999

80,826

1,717

2000

85,032

1,859

2001

80,908

1,862

2002

80,485

2,133

Source: SECTUR, 2004




49

Table 2.21 Receipts and Payments (millions US$) Year

Spending in Mexico by Spending in foreign foreign residents countries by Mexicans

Balance of payments

1983

2,729

1,583

1,146

1984

3,282

2,166

1,116

1985

2,900

2,062

838

1986

2,984

2,177

807

1987

3,497

2,364

1,133

1988

3,994

3,202

792

1989

4,766

4,247

519

1990

5,526

5,379

147

1991

5,959

5,874

85

1992

6,085

6,107

–22

1993

6,167

5,562

605

1994

6,363

5,338

1,025

1995

6,180

3,171

3,009

1996

6,756

3,387

3,369

1997

7,376

3,892

3,484

1998

7,493

4,209

3,284

1999

7,223

4,541

2,682

2000

8,295

5,499

2,796

2001

8,401

5,702

2,699

2002

8,858

6,060

2,798


duction of tangible goods, such as artworks; some 17% were employed in the accommodation sector; while 37% were engaged in the transportation sector; and 39% were employed in food and beverage services (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática, 2004). Domestic tourism While it is unclear exactly how domestic tourism in Mexico is measured, according to SECTUR it comprises some 84% of the country’s total tourism consumption, and in 2001, over 92% of Mexican households took a domestic trip, including both same-day and overnight trips. The primary reasons Mexicans travel within their own country are in descending order:




50

Table 2.22 Employment in tourism Year

Number of people employed in tourism (000s)

Percentage of total national employment

1993

1,612

5.87

1994

1,684

5.98

1995

1,712

6.26

1996

1,690

5.98

1997

1,698

5.79

1998

1,751

5.72

1999

1,729

5.51

2000

1,753

5.48

2001

1,740

5.47

2002

1,712

5.43


· · · ·

holidays/vacations visiting friends and relatives business other

The most important types of destinations visited by domestic tourists, and the way the data are broken down by Mexican authorities, are cities, towns and villages, beaches, and border areas. Some 45% of Mexico’s domestic tourists stay with friends and relatives when they travel, 44% stay in hotels, 2% camp, while 1.9% stay in timeshares. In terms of overnight domestic trips, the average length of stay is 6.7 nights (SECTUR, 2003).

Conclusion Tourism is a significant component in the three economies covered in this chapter, especially Canada and Mexico, and all three nations are major destinations in terms of visits and revenues. They are also major generators of outbound travel, of which day-trips are generally more numerous than overnight stays. Domestic tourism dominates trip volumes and total spending, but outbound and inbound international travel represent substantial visitor and monetary flows as well in all three countries. While this chapter has highlighted many aspects of tourism demand, including outbound and inbound travel, visitor spending, employment, and domestic tourism, it has also made clear that there is a serious inconsistency in data types and




51

data-collection methods between the countries of North America. No two of the three neighbours gather tourism-related statistics in the same manner, nor do any of them have a central public or private body that oversees demand data collection entirely, although Statistics Canada would be the most solid example of this. This inconsistency results in uneven data, with countries focusing more on the statistics that fit their purposes best, which complicates comparative studies, such as this one. Tourism is a vulnerable industry in North America, subject not only to economic cycles but to the effects of weather, natural disasters, social and political unrest, wars, disease, and other exogenous forces. The beginning years of the 21st century highlighted just how susceptible tourism demand is to external shocks. Against a backdrop of continuing concerns over terrorism and a soft global economy, the war in Iraq (and Canada’s refusal to join the coalition led by the US, its most important tourism market), combined with the outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), and to a lesser degree, concerns over West Nile Virus and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease) led to a significant downturn in international tourism to, from, and within North America. All of these events from 2001 to 2003 significantly affected global demand for each country’s tourism product. Nonetheless, Canada, Mexico and the United States have all embarked on the road to recovery, and it is likely that tourist demand for North American experiences will continue to grow. References Burean of Transportation Statistics (2004) National Transport Statistics. Accessed www.bts.gov Clancy, M.J. (2001) Exporting Paradise: Tourism and Development in Mexico. London: Pergamon. Di Matteo, L. (1999) Cross-border trips by Canadians and Americans and the differential impact of the border. Visions in Leisure and Business 17 (4), 72–92. Di Matteo, L. and Di Matteo, R. (1993) The determinants of expenditures by Canadian visitors to the United States. Journal of Travel Research 31 (4), 34–42. Di Matteo, L. and Di Matteo, R. 1996. An analysis of Canadian cross-border travel. Annals of Tourism Research, 23: 103–22. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (2004) Participación del personal ocupado turistico en el total de la ocupación. Accessed < www.inegi.gob.mx/est/ contenidos/espanol/tematicos > Mahon, M. and Gislason, G. (1998) Tourism-Related Employment: An Update. Ottawa: Canadian Tourism Human Resource Commission. Patrick, J.M. and Renforth, W. (1996) The effects of the peso devaluation on cross-border retailing. Journal of Borderlands Studies 11 (1), 25–41. Prock, J. (1983) The peso devaluations and their effect on Texas border economies. Inter-American Economic Affairs 37 (3), 83–92. SECTUR (2004) Profiles and levels of satisfaction of international tourists. Accessed < www.sectur.gob.mex >



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SECTUR (2003) Turismo Interno: Los Viajes de los Residentes en México dentro del País. Mexico City: Secretaría de Turismo. Smith, S.L.J. (1999) How far is far enough? Tourism Analysis 4, 139–43. Statistics Canada (2003) National Tourism Indicators, Historical Estimates: 1986–2000. Ottawa: Industry Canada. Statistics Canada (1999–2003) International Travel Survey. Ottawa: Industry Canada. Timothy, D.J. (1999) Cross-border shopping: Tourism in the Canada-United States borderlands. Visions in Leisure and Business 17 (4), 4–18. Timothy, D.J. and Butler, R.W. (1995) Cross-border shopping: A North American perspective. Annals of Tourism Research 22, 16–34. Treited, R. and Fockler, S. (1991) The US domestic travel market. Travel and Tourism Analyst 6, 63–76. Travel Industry Association of America (2004a) Domestic Travel Market Report, 2004. Washington, DC: TIA. Travel Industry Association of America (2004b) Travel Statistics and Trends. Accessed < www.tia.org > Wilton, D.W. (1998) Recent Developments in Tourism as Revealed by the National Tourism Indicators. CTC Research Report 1998–1. Ottawa: Canadian Tourism Commission. World Tourism Organizations (1994) Recommendations on Tourism Definitions. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.



Chapter 3

Supply and Organization of Tourism in North America DALLEN J. TIMOTHY

Introduction Since the Second World War, tourism in North America has grown at a tremendous rate (Cook, 2001; Nolan & Nolan, 1988). The continent ranks among the top tourism receiving and generating regions of the world in the company of Western Europe and Southeast Asia. Canada, Mexico and the United States all typically fall within the World Tourism Organization’s list of top 20 destination countries, and on its own the United States has been the world’s primary tourism earner consistently for many years. North America’s position as a leading global destination can be attributed to at least three important internal factors. First, owing to its geographical size, North America spans dozens of climatic, topographic, and botanical zones. This expanse bestows remarkable variations in climate and weather, natural landscapes, landforms, cultures and human settlements, and flora and fauna. These endowments have created the foundations for the growth of tourism in Canada, Mexico and the United States. The following is a quote about the United States, but applies just as well to all of North America: No other [continent] in the world so bewilderingly combines huge, glittering cities with lush grasslands, tropical islands, desert resorts, mountain skiing villages, prehistoric canyons – and Disneyland. In few other places can one hear the language change abruptly from English to Spanish, Italian to Chinese, and Greek to German all within the space of a few city blocks. (Ahmed & Krohn, 1990: 25) Second, beginning in the 1950s and following the Second World War, innovations in air travel began to result in the creation of more airlines, larger and more efficient airplanes, and more widespread routing, reaching even medium-sized cities. At the same time, national highway systems grew with the initiative of na53


Supply and Organization of Tourism in North America


54


tional governments and opened up new destinations and presented more opportunities to average North American families to travel longer distances. Finally, other support services, primarily lodging establishments, developed relatively quickly after the mid-20th century in response to tourists’ needs for accommodations as they travel to experience the attractions of North America. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the tourism industry in Canada, Mexico and the United States. The varied attractions in North America that draw overseas visitors and cause the region’s own people to travel are examined first. Next the chapter turns to the accommodation sector and its components, including recent and current trends. Air, automobile, rail and bus travel and their features are also described, followed by an examination of the administration of the industry in the three countries, as well as pan-North American treaties that affect the growth and administration of tourism at the supranational level.

Attractions and Resources Canada Canada is rich in both cultural and natural resources that appeal to tourists. The far north includes the nation’s three territories (Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut) and is known for its arctic climate and landscape, where wildlife and wilderness abound. The northern region is sparsely populated, which contributes to its popularity as a destination for ecotourists, adventure travelers, and wilderness enthusiasts. The most common images of northern Canada include polar bears, Inuit culture, and snow and ice – images that contribute to the region’s popularity. The Canadian Arctic is a vast area, expensive to travel through, and isolated, although it is has seen some growth in recent years. The Atlantic Provinces (Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick) are rich in cultural and natural heritage. Rugged coastlines, lighthouses, small fishing villages, Viking ruins, whale migrations, and the literary landscapes of Prince Edward Island are among the most popular attractions in the region. Quebec and Ontario are known particularly for their large cities, Toronto and Montreal being the largest. Quebec is especially attractive for people who wish to experience French-Canadian culture. Quebec City, the capital of Quebec, is a unique town with an air of Europeanness, and its Old Town is preserved as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ottawa, the nation’s capital, is an attractive riverfront community most popular among domestic travelers. There are some notable ski resorts in the hills and mountains of southern Quebec and Ontario, and Niagara Falls is one of the most popular tourist destinations in North America. The Prairie Provinces (Manitoba and Saskatchewan) are the ‘breadbasket’ of Canada and produce most of the country’s agricultural products. This region has a rich heritage of immigrant European cultures and an array of agricultural products




55

that have led to the development of many ethnic and food-related festivals. Several important historical sites are also conserved by Parks Canada and local authorities as attractions depicting frontier life and the westward expansion. Western Canada includes Alberta and British Columbia. These provinces possess some of the most spectacular mountain scenery in the world. Eastern Alberta is part of the prairies, but in its west and in neighboring British Columbia are located several national parks of international acclaim. Skiing is a popular tourist activity in British Columbia, where world-class resorts have developed over the past three decades. Several paleontological sites are located in Alberta, and the rain forests and native cultures of British Columbia contribute significantly to the tourism resource base there. United States The westernmost states are Alaska and Hawaii. According to Flammger (1993: 148), ‘Fire and ice are two things that might come to mind when talking about Hawaii and Alaska in the same unit. The funny thing is that sometimes you can ski in Hawaii, and sometimes you can get a tan on the beaches in Alaska!’ The appeal of Alaska lies primarily in its wilderness setting. The state boasts beautiful nature (glaciers, scenic mountains, arctic tundra, and abundant wildlife) and interesting native cultures in the far north, on the Aleutian Islands, and along the state’s southern panhandle. Dog sled trekking, skiing, ice fishing, and snowmobile racing characterize winter tourism in Alaska. Winter tourism is also popular in Hawaii, albeit with a significantly different focus; the beaches and tropical climate of the islands have long appealed to outsiders. Hawaii is a volcano watcher’s paradise owing to its continuous volcanic activity, and the verdant volcanic mountains boast multitudinous waterfalls, cliffs and lush vegetation. In natural terms, the western United States is endowed with high, snowcapped mountains, coastal rain forests, green pastures, expansive beaches, and barren deserts. Such a diversity of ecosystems has resulted in the growth of multiple tourist attractions and activities. For example, the highest concentration of national parks and monuments is located in the western states, together with most of the country’s finest ski resorts. Such an environmental diversity supports a variety of human settlements ranging from sprawling cities to sleepy small towns. The cultural attractions of the American west are dominated by Native American communities, cowboy heritage, cattle ranches, mining and ghost towns, Spanish-American culture, golf resorts, amusement parks, and urban ethnic islands (e.g., San Francisco’s Chinatown). The southwestern states, in common with Florida in the east, are considered particularly desirable warm winter destinations, especially among the retired and elderly. The central United States is best known for mighty rivers and Great Lakes. The recreational value of these water resources is unmistakable. Water skiing, fishing



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and boating are among the most favored activities. Previously an efficient mode of long-distance travel, riverboats on the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers have recently become popular attractions for their role in the gaming sector. Some of the nation’s largest cities are located in this region (e.g. Chicago and Detroit) and are important gateways for international air travel and urban destinations in their own right. The upper mid-west states have a long history of heavy industry, which has provided a significant industrial heritage base, particularly in relation to automobile manufacturing. Finally, the Cajun culture of the southern central region is unique in North America and is noted for its culinary heritage and international Mardi Gras festival. The bustling eastern United States is home to several of the country’s largest cities, particularly New York City, Boston, Washington DC, Baltimore, Atlanta, and Miami, which are important international gateways and significant domestic and international tourist destinations. Most of the country’s European/colonial past and African American heritage is located in the east. Several of the earliest European settlements, or their replicas, have become important tourist attractions, the most notable being Old Sturbridge Village, Plimouth Plantation, and Mystic Seaport in the north and Colonial Williamsburg in the south. In the northeast, maritime heritage dominates with shipyards and fishing villages dotting the coastal landscape. There is also a significant skiing industry in the mountains of New Hampshire and Vermont, and New England villages with their churches and bright autumn colors appeal to visitors from September to November each year. The Mid-Atlantic States also have an interesting colonial heritage. However, owing to their role as major centers of commerce and industry, they have become the destinations of choice for business travel and conventions/conference tourism. Slave heritage in the southeastern states has received considerable attention in recent years, particularly among African Americans, as museums, plantations, slave cabins, and homes of famous African Americans have been conserved and promoted as attractions (Bartlet, 2001; Goodrich, 1985). The beaches of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida are a primary draw in the region as well. They attract large crowds of northerners during the winter months and many others during the summer. Thanks to its beaches, islands, semi-tropical climate, and Disneyworld, Florida is one of the most popular destinations in the United States. Mexico In common with the other two countries of North America, Mexico is home to a variety of colorful cultures and natural landscapes. Northern Mexico is best known for its desert scenery, cattle ranches, canyons, Spanish churches, deep-sea fishing, and border towns. Baja California, the part of Mexico that juts southward into the Pacific below the US state of California, is becoming a popular beach resort destination, particularly in the areas of Ensenada in the north and Los Cabos in the south. The cities along the US border are the busiest destinations in all of Mexico when




57

international day trips are taken into account. The border towns traditionally have been popular destinations for American day travelers in search of cheap alcohol, inexpensive souvenirs, prostitution and other illicit activities. More recently Mexican border towns have begun thriving on selling pharmaceuticals and dental care to older Americans (Timothy, 2001). The central Mexican states are home to majestic volcanoes and numerous archaeological sites that testify of ancient Aztec and Toltec civilizations. These are a part of the 11,000 catalogued MesoAmerican archaeological sites in Mexico (Cothran & Cothran, 1998). The region is also home to Mexico City, the capital and top tourist destination in terms of visitor numbers. This status is largely owing to the city’s role as the country’s primary gateway from overseas. On the western coast are located the oldest resort communities, Acapulco and Puerto Vallarta, and still among the most popular in the Americas. The interior mountains boast of numerous scenic landscapes, lakes and rivers, as well as interesting handicraft villages. Southern Mexico is rich in ecological diversity and cultural heritage. Villages and native lifestyles are among the most important attractions in this region. The rain forest in southern Mexico is rich in flora and fauna, which has brought about a recent growth in ecotourism and other nature-based experiences. The ruins of Maya civilizations are scattered throughout the south, providing some of the most interesting examples of ancient civilization in the Americas and are a part of the Ruta Maya tourist route that runs through Central America (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). Living heritage is also a part of the attraction base, as nearly all villages have colorful festivals, celebrations, marketplaces, and vibrant lifestyles. The flat coastal regions of the Yucatan with their sandy beaches draw millions of visitors each year, and the country’s most popular resort destination, Cancun, alone accounts for one-third of Mexico’s total income from tourism (Cothran & Cothran, 1998). Located throughout the entire country, the architectural legacy of Spanish colonial rule, including churches, mission buildings, townscapes and haciendas mark the Mexican struggle for independence and have been well preserved as tourist attractions (Boniface & Cooper, 2001).

General Attraction Trends in North America Several cross-national trends have been noted in recent years, which should also be highlighted here. One of the activities at the forefront of tourism recently is gambling. Gaming has existed in several forms in specific locations (e.g., Las Vegas, Atlantic City, and Mexican border towns) for many years. Today, however, new gambling forms and venues have come to the fore and received considerable attention by tourism researchers (Eadington, 1996; Lew & Van Otten, 1998; MeyerArendt & Hartmann, 1998). Riverboat casinos began to develop in the early 1990s in the state of Iowa. Other states on the banks of navigable rivers, such as the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, have passed gaming legislation that permits riverboat gam-



58


bling (Eadington, 1996; Hsu, 2000). Another, even larger, trend is Indian reservation gambling. With the passing of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act in the United States in 1988, various forms of gaming became permissible on Native American lands under the regulation of the federal government. Since that time, hundreds of casinos have been built on federal reservations throughout the country, and in fact two of the world’s three largest casinos (Foxwoods and Mohegan Sun) are located on small Indian reservations in Connecticut (Carmichael & Peppard, 1998). Canada is undergoing a similar change as many of its First Nations reservations have begun to develop casino gaming legally in provinces where casinos are otherwise prohibited (Smith & Hinch, 1996), and many Mexican resorts have adopted gambling as an additional amenity. Sport comprises another important segment of tourism in Canada, Mexico and the United States. Baseball, football (American and Canadian), hockey, and basketball form the mainstay of popular spectator sports in the United States and Canada (Standeven & de Knop, 1999). These sports raise considerable interest among spectators and participants. In Mexico, soccer/football is more popular than in Canada and the US as a spectator and participatory sport. More specific to Mexico are bullfighting, jai alai, and charreadas. Despite the traditional monopoly of baseball, football, and basketball on the US and Canadian sports scene, motor sports are becoming the most popular games in the United States in terms of attendance, and demand is growing exponentially as new tracks are built and crowd capacity is increased. NASCAR, for example, has developed a significant following during the 1990s and early 2000s to become one of the most sought-after spectator sports in the United States (Lengfelder & Timothy, 2000; Morais & Groves, 1997). Heritage is another important tourism resource. Living cultures of indigenous peoples were mentioned earlier in all three countries, as well as the ruins associated with their forebears. Living cultures such as the Maya and Oaxaca Indians in Mexico, Amish and Navajos in the United States, and the Inuit and Mennonites in Canada are an important component of the tourist appeal of each country. In the US and Canada, an additional element is ethnic enclaves in urban areas. Examples of these include Chinatowns in San Francisco, Vancouver, Toronto and New York City, and Little Italies in Toronto and Boston (Conforti, 1996; Timothy, 2002). Historic theme parks, or outdoor folk museums, are popular attractions. Canada and the United States have several of these devoted to indigenous peoples, although the majority focus on European colonial times in the east and frontier settlements in today’s Great Plains/Prairies and west. Many other types of museums have become in vogue recently as well, particularly small-scale community museums, which nearly every town and village in North America is attempting to develop (Timothy & Boyd, 2003). Shopping is a significant tourist activity throughout the world, and this is especially so in North America. Outlet shopping, where brand-name manufacturers sell




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Table 3.1 Parks Canada properties Federal Heritage Buildings Heritage Places & Exhibits National Parks

235 3 35

National Marine Parks

2

National Park Reserves

4

National Historic Sites

105

Total

384

Source: Parks Canada, (2002)

their own merchandise at reduced cost in outlet malls draw foreign (especially Japanese) and domestic tourists and recreationists (Foderaro, 1998; Patton, 1986). Cross-border shopping is an important activity in the borderlands of all three countries. The example of Mexican pharmaceuticals mentioned previously is a case in point, but by the same token, millions of day trips are taken to the United States by Mexicans to shop for products that are either unavailable or too expensive at home (Asgary et al., 1997). The same phenomenon occurs further north where Canadians shop in the United States and US residents shop in Canada, depending on exchange rates, quality of service, variety of products, and levels of taxation (Timothy, 1999; Timothy & Butler, 1995). Mega-malls are another recent shopping trend since the mid-1980s, when the largest mall in the world was built in Edmonton, Alberta. Following suit in the 1990s, but not as large, is the Mall of America in Minnesota. Both of these mega-multi-malls, as Finn and Erdem (1995) term them, are tourist destinations in their own right as people travel from all over the world specifically to shop and find entertainment. In addition to shopping, the malls offer a wide variety of lodging, catering services, entertainment, recreational activities, and other services. No longer do shopping malls in North America serve simply a utilitarian shopping function. In the cases of West Edmonton Mall and the Mall of America they have become a complete vacation experience. Ecotourism and other outdoor pursuits are an outgrowth of an increase in ecological awareness and a conservation ethic that developed in North America during the 1980s and 90s (Lengfelder & Timothy, 2000). This form of tourism is rapidly growing in many parts of Mexico, particularly in the rain forests of the south, although the northern deserts are a popular venue as well. Even the Canadian Arctic and woodlands of the north are now popular locations for ecotourism (Boyd & Butler, 1999; Fennell 1999). North America is home to some of the most extensive park systems in the world (Figure 3.1). Parks Canada operates 35 national parks, nearly 350 cultural sites and buildings, and several other types of natural areas (see Table 3.1). Canada’s




60 37

1 2

5

4

36 34

3

38 39

33 35

6

Canada

7 32 8

1. Kejimkujik 31 2. Fundy 21 3. Kouchibouguac 4. Prince Edward Island 5. Cape Breton Highlands 16 6. Terra Nova 20 30 28 19 7. Gros Morne 24-27 8 8. Mingan Archipelago 7 23 17 29 9. Forillon 9 4 18 22 5 10. La Mauricie 3 9 15 10 2 10 11. St. Lawrence Islands 11 12 12. Georgian Bay Islands 11 13 12 1 44 13. Bruce Peninsula 13 14 35 51 34 45 14. Point Pelee 36 15 14 33 15. Pukaskwa 37 16. Wapusk 16 17 32 46 17. Riding Mountain 27 29 31 18. Grasslands 25 26 18 30 28 47 19. Prince Albert 19 20 24 23 20. Elk Island 42 21 21. Wood Buffalo 38 43 22 1 22. Waterton Lakes 41 23. Banff 39 3 40 24. Kootenay 2 25. Yoho 4 26. Glacier 49 50 5 6 27. Mount Revelstoke 48 28. Jasper 31 32 29. Pacific Rim 33 30. Gwaii Haanas 7 8 9 43 34 Honolulu 44 31. Nahanni 35 36 42 32. Kluane 10 11 52 0 500km 33. Vuntut 39 40 34. Ivvavik 0 200km 12-30 37 41 38 35. Tuktut Nogait 53 36. Aulavik 37. Quttinirpaaq United States 38. Sirmilik 1. Kobuk Valley 15. Lassen Volcano 43. Great Smoky Mnts 29. Arches 39. Auyuittuq 2. Gates of the Arctic 16. Yosemite 44. Voyageurs 30. Mesa Verde 3. Denali 17. Great Basin 45. Isle Royale 31. Black Canyon 4. Lake Clark 18. Sequioa and Kings Canyon 32. Rocky Mountain 46. Cuyahoga Valley 5. Katmai 19. Channel Islands 47. Shenandoah 33. Grand Teton 6. Kenai Fjords 20. Death Valley 48. Dry Tortugas 34. Yellowstone 7. Wrangall-St. Elias 21. Joshua Tree 35. Theodore Roosevelt 49. Everglades 8. Glacier Bay 22. Saguaro 50. Biscayne 36. Wind Cave 9. Olympic 23. Petrified Forest 51. Acadia 37. Badlands 10. North Cascades 24. Grand Canyon 52. Haleakala 38. Carlsbad Caverns 11. Mount Rainier 25. Zion 53. Hawaii Volcanoes 39. Guadalupe Mnts 12. Glacier 26. Bryce Canyon 54. Virgin Islands 40. Big Bend 13. Crater Lake 27. Capitol Reef (not on map) 41. Hot Springs 14. Redwood 28. Canyonlands 55. American Samoa 42. Mammoth Cave (not on map)

Mexico* 1. Constitucion de 1857 2. Cascada de Basaseachic 3. Cumbres de Majalca 4. Balneario de los Novillas 5. El Sabinal 6. Cumbres de Monterrey 6 7. Isla Isabel 8. Volcan Nevado de Colima 9. Lago de Camecuaro 10. Pico de Tancitaro 11. Insurgente Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon 12. Cerro de Garnica 13. Rayon 14. El Cimatorio 15. Tula 16. Bosencheve 17. Nevado de Toluca 18. Desierto del Carmen 19. Lagunas de Zempoala 20. Cumbres del Ajusco 21. Insurgente Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 22. Los Remedios 23. El Tepeyac 24. Cerro de la Estrella 25. Molino de Flores Netzahualcoyoti 26. Zoquiapan y Anexas 27. Iztaccihuatl-Popocatepetl 28. Sacromonte 29. El Tepozteco 30. La Malinche 31. El Gogorron 32. El Potosi 33. Los Marmoles 34. El Chico 35. Pico de Orizaba 36. Canon del Rio Blanco 37. El Veladero 38. Lagunas de Chacahua 39. Benito Juarez 40. Canon del Sumidero 41. Lagunas de Montebello 42. Palenque 43. Dzibilchaltun 44. Tulum

DJT

Figure 3.1 National parks and preserves in North America Figure 1. National Parks and Preserves in North America

Source: National Geographic Society, 1995; Parks Canada, 2002; US National Park Service, 2001 National Geographic Society, 1995;varies Parksby Canada, 2002; National Parkmatch Service, *Source: The number of national parks in Mexico source. ThisUS figure does not the2001 numbers in Table 3.2 * The number of national parks in Mexico varies by source. This figure does not match the numbers in Table 2.

network of parks is spread throughout the entire country from the northern Arctic to the southern border with the United States and from the islands of the west to the islands of the east (Boyd & Butler, 2000). Parks Canada historic sites in the east focus




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Table 3.2 National Parks and Protected Areas of Mexico Biosphere Reserves

17

Special Biosphere Reserves

18

National Parks

60*

Natural Monuments

3

National Marine Parks

2

Natural Resource Protected Area

5

Other protected areas

18

Total

123

Source: Salcido, 1995, cited in Nelson, 2000: 313 * This number varies by source owing to the fragmented nature of the national parks system in Mexico

Table 3.3 US National Park Service Properties, 2000 National Battlefields National Battlefield Parks

10

National Parkways

3

National Preserves

4 8

National Historic Sites

70

National Recreation Areas

National Historical Parks

37

National Reserves

1

National Rivers

4

National Lakeshores

4

National Memorials

28

National Military Parks

9

National Seashores National Wild & Scenic Rivers

National Monuments

68

Other Parks

National Parks

55

Total

17

10 5 11 344

Source: US National Park Service, 2001

primarily on maritime history and the colonial heritage, while the main attractions in the west center around the cultures and lifestyles of Native Canadians, frontier settlement, and high-country natural areas. Mexico has a complicated national protected area system, which has developed to promote the conservation of natural places. There are approximately 123 national parks and protected areas in Mexico under the supervision of three or four national-level conservation agencies (Table 3.2) (National Geographic Society, 1995; Salcido, 1995). While the primary focus of the official national parks programs is natural heritage, several parks harbor important archaeological sites. The first national park in the world, Yellowstone, was established in 1872 in the United States, followed closely by Banff National Park (Canada). Since that time, the United States National Park Service has established 55 national parks and nearly 300 additional conservation areas, including historical parks, battlefields, monuments, seashores, rivers, and recreation areas (Table 3.3).




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Table 3.4 Important convention cities in North America Anaheim, CA

Indianapolis, IN

Phoenix/Scottsdale, AZ

Atlanta, GA

Las Vegas, NV

San Antonio, TX

Atlantic City, NJ

Mexico City, Mex DF

San Diego, CA

Cancun, QR

Montreal, PQ

San Francisco, CA

Chicago, IL

Nashville, TN

Seattle, WA

Dallas, TX

New Orleans, LA

St. Louis, MO

Denver, CO

New York City, NY

Toronto, ON

Detroit, MI

Orlando, FL

Vancouver, BC

Houston, TX

Philadelphia, PA

Washington, DC

Source: Based on Flammger (1993) and the author’s more recent estimation

Most of the country’s national parks are located in the western states (see Figure 3.1), although other Park Service properties are more evenly distributed in the east and west. Finally, several other forms of tourism have taken off during the past two decades in Canada, Mexico and the United States. Business travel is expanding and conferences and exhibitions are among the most popular forms (Swarbrooke & Horner, 2001). Several cities have become well known as exciting and attractive destinations for this form of travel (see Table 3.4). Likewise, the growth of amusement parks has also been notable (see Table 3.5). The Disney Corporation has expanded its holdings from Disneyland, California, and Walt Disney World, Florida, to include additional parks (e.g., California Adventure) to complement those that have been around for some time. Six Flags parks have been established throughout the United States, and dozens more individually owned amusement parks have been built in all three countries during the past 30 years. Accommodations As is the case in most parts of the world, the supply of tourist accommodations closely resembles the patterns of transportation (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). With the development of transportation modes, particularly railway lines in the early 1800s and the private automobile in the early 1900s, lodging facilities began to grow in diverse places that were more accessible to the masses. All forms of accommodation have experienced notable growth in recent years as tourism has also grown. This is particularly the case in the 1980s in the United States as tax incentives were offered for developing hotels and resorts. This resulted in an oversupply of rooms, as demand did not meet supply. Since then, however, this imbalance has equalized overall, as tax laws have been changed and building has slowed to a more reasonable pace (Goeldner et al., 2000). In addition to hotels, there




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Table 3.5 Major amusement parks in North America Adventureland Park

Iowa

Astroworld

Texas

Boblo Island

Michigan

Busch Gardens

Florida/Virginia

Canada’s Wonderland

Ontario

Cedar Point

Ohio

Cypress Gardens

Florida

Darien Lake Theme Park

New York

Disneyland

California

Dollywood

Tennessee

Great America

California

Hersheypark

Pennsylvania

Knott’s Berry Farm

California

Lagoon

Utah

Mall of America

Minnesota

Opryland USA

Tennessee

Sea World

Several states

Six Flags

Several states

Universal Studies

Florida/California

Walt Disney World

Florida

West Edmonton Mall

Alberta

Wet n’ Wild

Florida

Source: After Flammger, 1993: 334

is a significant diversity of accommodation types in North America, ranging from wilderness campgrounds on one end of the luxury spectrum to major five-star, all-inclusive resorts on the other. Campgrounds and RV (recreational vehicle) parks are commonplace throughout North America. Wilderness, or primitive, campgrounds with no amenities are popular among hikers and canoeists, especially in national parks, national forests, and other protected landscapes. In more urbanized areas and places dominated by a specific tourist attraction more full-service campgrounds, which are an inexpensive alternative to hotels and motels, are available with showers, toilets, limited food services, swimming pools, laundries and game rooms. In North America, during the past 30 years, there has been a surge of interest in camping and traveling. The combination of the two



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has led to greater numbers of people utilizing camping as their primary form of accommodation while traveling and people for whom the entire vacation experience is camping. Such an interest has also led to a rapid increase in RV sales during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Motorhomes and pop-up tent trailers are gaining popularity owing to their ability to maintain a feel of camping, while at the same time offering many of the comforts of home. Bed and breakfast (B&B) establishments became popular during the 1980s in the United States and Canada, although they tend to have a more elegant image and are often costlier than their British counterparts (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). Some establishments, particularly in urban areas, can be as expensive as four- and five-star hotels. Bed and breakfasts are less common in Mexico, although they are becoming more common in many domestic and international destinations. Often they are the primary form of accommodation in smaller communities that have tourist appeal but which do not have the capacity to develop larger-scale hotels and resorts. Country inns and bed and breakfasts are nearly always located in places of high aesthetic value, such as along the Niagara River, in coastal regions, in New England villages and among the Rocky Mountains. Bed and breakfasts are one of the fastest growing elements of the lodging sector in North America. At present there are over 20,000 privately owned B&Bs and inns offering luxury or budget accommodations. Many of North America’s B&Bs belong to the Professional Association of Innkeepers International. These establishments are especially popular among people celebrating special occasions such as anniversaries, honeymoons, and birthdays, as this segment makes up nearly 70% of all guests. B&Bs have recently begun to cater to non-traditional market segments, primarily business travelers, by advertising to more corporations and adding special business-friendly services such as meeting facilities, fax machines, and Internet access (Goelder et al., 2000). Canada, Mexico and the United States together possess much of the world’s supply of hotel rooms. In fact, the United States alone has over one-quarter of the world’s supply of lodging (Goeldner et al., 2000). As of the late 1990s, there were approximately 50,000 hotels and motels in North America with over 4 million rooms. In Canada, there are more than 300,000 hotel rooms, not including those in motels and small lodging facilities. In the late 1990s there were some 9184 hotel establishments in Mexico with a total of 382,000 rooms–an increase from the 1990 figure of 8239 businesses and 345,000 rooms (Loverseed, 1999). By the end of the 1990s, there were 35,633 lodging properties with 20 or more rooms in the United States, totaling some 3.7 million rooms (Ross, 1999). In addition to these numbers, it is interesting to note that 17 of the 25 largest hotel chains in the world are headquartered in North America (Goeldner et al., 2000). While hotels in Canada and the United States are owned and operated primarily by Canada- and US-based companies, the Mexican hotel sector is strongly




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linked to foreign investment. Prior to 1970, however, this was not the case, as most lodging establishments were owned and operated independently as small family-run operations with few links to the outside. In 1989, the country’s laws changed to allow 100% ownership of Mexican business ventures. Many foreign companies took advantage of this new law, and today nearly all of Mexico’s luxury hotels are owned at least in part by foreign companies (Clancy, 2001a; 2001b; Labat & Harbaugh, 1990). To assist hotels and motels in promoting themselves domestically and abroad, the American Hotel and Motel Association was developed as the largest collaborative effort among the lodging industry in North America for marketing purposes. However, it also acts as a lobbying group to work for the rights and benefits of the sector with government officials and legislative bodies. A special kind of lodging establishment, resort or mega resort has also become popular in all three countries during the past 30 years. All-inclusive resorts are prevalent, where food, recreational activities and entertainment are included in the price. Other resorts offer food and various activities, such as sailing, golf and horseback riding, for additional fees. A popular trend is specialty resorts, which focus on one or two specific activities such as skiing, golf and beaches. Ski resorts abound in the mountains of the western US and Canada and in the hills and mountains of eastern Canada and the US. While golf courses are commonly associated with other kinds of resorts in Canada and Mexico, golf-specific resorts are primarily associated with the southwestern and southeastern United States. Celebrated coastal and beach resorts are found in all three countries, but particularly in British Columbia, California, Florida, South Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey, and Georgia in the US and Canada, and Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Guaymas, Mazatlan, Los Cabos, Cancun and Cozumel in Mexico. Another type of resort is timeshares, the fastest growing segment in the North American resort and hospitality industry. Goeldner (1992) and Goeldner et al. (2000) predicted that it will continue to be one of the largest growth sectors in the tourism industry of the future. Annual growth of timeshare ownership and structural development has averaged 14 to 17% annually (Woods, 2001). In the United States timeshare development began in Florida in the 1960s, waned during the 1970s and early 80s, but picked up substantially in the late 1980s and 90s. Presently there are more than 1600 timeshare resorts with 89,000 units in the United States, and hundreds more establishments in Mexico and Canada with thousands of additional rooms. The original timeshare concept involved ownership of a specific period of time, usually a week or two, at a specific resort location. An initial purchase price was required, followed by annual maintenance fees. The concept has changed somewhat over the years to include trading locations and time periods, as well as being able to buy points to upgrade to higher-quality properties. For many people, timesharing in North America is a cost-effective alternative to traditional hotels and resorts.



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Most units include kitchenettes, which allow tenants to prepare their own meals, separate living rooms, and additional extended stay type amenities that distinguish them from traditional hotel rooms (Butler, 1985; Woods, 2001). The distribution of timeshare resorts in the United States is overwhelmingly concentrated in the southeastern states (40% of the total), particularly so in Florida, which is home to one-quarter of the country’s timeshares (Woods, 2001). Other popular regions include California, Hawaii, Colorado, Texas, and Arizona. In Canada, timeshares are located primarily in the Rocky Mountain provinces, in coastal regions, and in heavily forested areas with lakes and other wilderness amenities. Most of Mexico’s timeshares are located in the well-established west coast destinations (e.g., Acapulco, Los Cabos, Mazatlan, and Puerto Vallarta), in the resort communities of the east coast (e.g., Cancun, Cozumel, Veracruz), and in inland resorts (e.g., Lake Chapala and Guadalajara). The American Resort Development Association (ARDA) is the main regulatory body of timeshares in North America. It has approximately 1000 members and provides typical trade-association services, such as marketing, research, and carrying out lobby efforts in government centers (Woods, 2001). A concept related to timeshares is second homes primarily used for recreational purposes, which people own as secondary, or seasonal, residences. While the concept is not quite as widespread as in certain places in Europe (e.g., summer cottages in Finland, Sweden and Norway), it has become a notable phenomenon in recent years (Girard & Gartner, 1993; Jaakson, 1986). According to the US Census Bureau (2002), 3.5 million seasonal homes were owned in the United States in 2001, up significantly from 2.8 million in 1991. Many people now see owning second homes as recreational properties as a safe investment, which may give high returns in the long term and enjoyable travel experiences in the short term. It is also a form of property ownership that allows one to get back to nature and to demonstrate elitist status (Jaakson, 1986). Second homes are popular in eastern Canada and British Columbia and are usually located in areas of high natural amenity, such as forests, lakes, and riverfronts, and are often climate/weather-dependent. A trend, which is more northward than southward, is US residents purchasing recreational homes in Canada. This is a result of Canada’s natural endowments and favorable exchange rates for US residents. Canadians are not as inclined to purchase second homes in the United States because it might mean paying up to as much as 50% more than in Canada, depending on exchange rates. There is also a significant number of US residents who own second homes in Mexico, especially in popular coastal resort towns, as well as around Lake Chapala in central Mexico. In northern coastal communities, such as Ensenada and Puerto Peñasco, which are located relatively close to the US border, residents of California and Arizona own many of the condominiums and houses that dot the beach. Mexican ownership of second homes is limited of course to the wealthy, who also have a tendency to buy recreational




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properties in many of the locations where foreigners reside, such as beaches, mountainsides, and lakefronts.

Transportation Tourism in North America grew primarily in response to innovations in transportation, including stagecoach, railroad, automobile, freeway systems, and finally air travel (Hudman, 1994; Rothman, 1998). Perhaps the most influential innovation, however, has been the automobile, which is the dominant mode of transportation in most of North America. In fact, as Boniface and Cooper (2001: 295) claim, ‘The United States has the highest level of car ownership in the world, with the number of motor vehicles in some states exceeding the resident population!’ As more people began to acquire personal automobiles in the early 1900s, demand for longer-haul travel led to advances in road improvements. Manifestations of this include numerous scenic parkways, such as the Skyline Drive in the mountains of Virginia, which were developed in the 1930s to encourage sightseeing activities by car. Beginning in the late 1950s, many of the older highways were replaced by the Interstate Highway system in the United States and the Trans-Canada Highway, which were financed primarily by the federal governments of each country (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). Despite recent growth in air travel, the car is still the most widely used mode of transportation in North America. Somewhat later than the US and Canada, Mexico underwent significant infrastructure improvement as 6000km of modern highways were built between the late 1980s and the mid-1990s (see Figure 3.2) (Cothran & Cothran, 1998). Largely as a result of the increase in automobile ownership and the improvement of long-distance highway travel, recreational vehicles (RVs) have become a favored means of transportation and accommodation for Canadians and US residents. RVs are considerably less popular in Mexico since only a small percentage of the population can afford personal cars, and even fewer can afford recreational vehicles. According to the Recreation Vehicle Industry Association, there are currently 9.3 million RVs registered in the United States. Estimates suggest that 10% of all US households have recreational vehicles (Goeldner et al., 2000). Following car travel, flying is the most popular form of long-distance transportation in most of North America. Air transportation comprises about 10% of all pleasure travel in the region, and most large and medium-sized cities in all three countries have airports within easy reach by automobile (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). In the United States alone, nearly 25,000 flights carry some 1.6 million people every day, and more than half a million people are employed in the airline business (Goeldner et al., 2000: 138). The popularity of air travel can be attributed at least in part to its efficiency, relatively inexpensive cost and well-structured routing system, which result from firm competition between national and regional airlines and government deregulation primarily in the US and Mexico.




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Honolulu 0

0

200km

500km DJT

Figure 3. Major Highway Systems of North America Figure 3.2 Major highway systems of North America

All three countries have dozens of international airports and hundreds more regional commercial airports. The main international airports in North America are illustrated in Figure 3.3. The air transportation system functions somewhat like a hub and spoke model, where airline centers, or hubs, are located in large cities at major crossroads. Other large cities are serviced by larger carriers, but the medium and smaller-sized towns are serviced by regional, or commuter, airlines (Tables 3.6 & 3.7). This arrangement allows the airlines to service large numbers of people over wide areas with the ‘hub acting as a switching point for passengers travelling on feeder routes along the spokes which cannot support a trunk route’ (Page, 1999:




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Edmonton Calgary Vancouver Seattle Montreal Ottawa Toronto

Minneapolis

San Francisco

Chicago

Salt Lake City Denver

Memphis

Phoenix

Dallas

Houston

Puerto Vallarta Honolulu

Atlanta

Tampa

Monterrey

Miami

Guadalajara

Mexico City Acapulco

0

Philadelphia

New Orleans

Hermosillo

La Paz Mazatlan

New York

Pittsburgh Washington, DC Kansas City

Las Vegas Los Angeles San Diego Tijuana

Detroit

Halifax Boston

Merida Veracruz Villahermosa

Cancun

0

500km

200km

DJT

Figure 3.3 The primary international airports/gateways of North America Figure 2. The Primary International Airports/Gateways of North America

198–9). According to the Regional Airline Association (2002), there are approximately 90 regional airlines in the United States, which the Association claims is the fastest growing segment of commercial aviation. In 2001, some 83 million people traveled by regional carriers in the US, and 662 commercial airports were serviced by regional airlines. Rail travel is not as popular in North America as it is in Europe and some parts of Asia. With the growth of air travel, railways were viewed as inefficient and unnecessarily slow. Thus, following the Second World War, as air traffic expanded and more people owned private automobiles, rail travel began to decline. This was par-



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Table 3.6 Airlines of Canada and Mexico Canada

Mexico

Major Carriers Air Canada

Aeroméxico

Canada 3000

Mexicana Airlines

Air Transet

Aero California

WestJet Selected Regional Carriers Air Nova

AeroLitoral

Air Ontario

Aerocaribe

Bearskin Airlines

Aviasca

Air North

Taesa

Air Inuit

Transportes Aeromar

First Air Timberline Air Pacific Coastal Airlines Air Labrador Source: Regional Airline Association, 2002

Table 3.7 Airlines of the United States Major Carriers

Selected Regional Carriers

America West Airlines

Air Wisconsin

American Airlines

Allegheny Airlines

Alaskan Airlines

Aloha Airlines

Continental Airlines

American Eagle

Delta Air Lines

Continental Express

Frontier Airlines

Express Airlines

Hawaiian Airlines

Horizon Air

Northwest Airlines

Mesa Airlines

Trans World Airlines

Mesaba Airlines

United Air Lines

Piedmont Airlines

USAir

SkyWest Airlins

Southwest Airlines

US Airways Express

Source: Regional Airline Association, 2002




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Honolulu 0

0

200km

500km DJT

FigureFigure 3.4 Major railway lines in North 4. Major Railway Lines America in North America ticularly so in the United States, so that by 1970, the national government stepped in to assist in the foundation of Amtrak, a quasi-public corporation, to keep rail travel afloat. Since that time, Amtrak has operated at a fiscal loss and is therefore necessarily heavily subsidized by government funds. At the time of writing, with its reputation of unreliability and inadequate schedules, the company, which runs on 38,000 km of track and services 500 domestic destinations (see Figure 3.4), was facing an economic crisis, and public debate ensued over whether or not the company should be disbanded (Salant, 2002). Canada’s Via Rail is faring only slightly better than its US counterpart. In 1972, the passenger services of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the state-owned Cana-



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dian National Railways were merged under the title VIA Rail, an independent Crown corporation subsidized by the federal government. Since the 1980s, routes and itineraries have been drastically reduced with the exception of the Toronto– Montreal corridor and the trans-continental service (see Figure 3.4), which is often considered a complete holiday experience in its own right (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). Mexico has some 31,048 km of railway lines (see Figure 3.4), although with recent efforts of the federal government to privatize the railways, many passenger services have been eliminated. Despite this, to promote foreign rail travel in recent years, Mexico’s tourism officials have offered a ‘Mexipass’, which is similar to the Eurail pass in that it offers nearly unlimited travel on the Mexican national railway lines (Cothran & Cothran, 1998). In spite of North America’s railway woes, there has been a revival of small-scale and short route railways, whose primary purpose is to provide unique experiences for tourists. In Canada, several train tours are available in the Rocky Mountains and the far north (e.g., the Polar Bear Express) during the summer months and a small number function year-round in Ontario and Quebec. Perhaps Mexico’s most notable example is the Copper Canyon Railway in the state of Chihuahua. Many short routes have also been resurrected or newly initiated in the United States, two of the most notables being the Cape Cod Scenic Railroad and the Grand Canyon Railway. The major bus companies, Greyhound and Continental Trailways, provide a network of inter-city service. Nonetheless, motorcoaches provide less than 3% of domestic travel in the US and Canada (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). According to the American Bus Association, there are between 26,000 and 28,000 commercial buses in use for regular route service, charters, tours, and special operations in North America. Approximately 100 private motorcoach companies in the United States offer regular regional route services, although Greyhound is the only nationwide carrier for regular route service. There are more than 5000 places serviced by inter-city buses in the US and Canada (Goeldner et al., 2000: 146). Mexico also has a vast system of inter-city and inner city bus routes. Large buses provide much more inter-city travel than in the US and Canada, and small minibuses are employed in local transportation. Greyhound, the largest bus company in North America, operates in all three countries and has partnerships with some of Mexico’s largest motorcoach operators. In the past, travelers were required to switch to Mexican buses at the border, but now international policy allows US and Mexican buses to cross the border (Cothran & Cothran, 1998). Water transportation ranges from ferryboats to cruise ships, and both are used in many parts of the continent. Ship- and ferry-based transportation is commonplace in archipelago regions. Some of the busiest routes include Vancouver Island to mainland Canada and the United States; Puget Sound islands; Catalina Island and




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the Channel Islands to California; southern Alaska; the Gulf of California crossings in Mexico; the Great Lakes; the Chesapeake Bay and Delaware River; New York City islands; Cape Cod to Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard; Cancun to Cozumel; the St. Lawrence River; and the various routes of the Canadian Atlantic Provinces. Cruises have become prevalent vacation experiences since the late 1970s, assisted in part by the positive depiction of cruises in movies and on television. Cruises are seen more as a resort experience than they are a mode of point-to-point transportation, and their popularity has grown by approximately 8% annually since the 1980s (Goeldner et al., 2000). Several cruise companies operate in various North American locations, including the northern west coast (British Columbia and Alaska), the southwest coast (southern California and the Pacific resorts of Mexico), the northeast region (the Atlantic Provinces of Canada), the southeastern United States (Florida to the Caribbean), and among the Hawaiian islands. The busiest US ports are Miami, Fort Lauderdale, Tampa, Port Canaveral, New Orleans, New York City, Boston, Los Angeles, San Diego and Seattle. Canada’s top ports are Vancouver, Victoria, St. Johns, Halifax, Quebec City and Montreal. The main ports of Mexico are Ensenada, Guaymas, Los Cabos, Mazatlan, Puerto Vallarta, Manzanillo, Lazaro Cardenas in the west and Tampico, Tuxpan, Veracruz, Cozumel, Cancun and Progreso in the east.

Organization and Administration of Tourism The administration and organization of tourism in North America have undergone considerable changes during the past few decades as government departments have been dissolved and replaced by more efficient entities whose goals differ slightly or significantly from their predecessors and as more private sector involvement has been included. Presently Canada, Mexico and the United States all differ in their structures, levels and intensities of tourism administration. The United States has a notable laissez faire approach to tourism administration, which is heavily decentralized and rests largely in the hands of the private sector and sub-national entities. Canada’s tourism administration is slightly more centralized, and Mexico is the most centralized with considerable national-level bureaucracy in place to administer the industry. Canada Until the 1990s, tourism development and research in Canada were undertaken by a federal government agency, Tourism Canada, which was preceded by the Canadian Government Office of Tourism. However, by recommendation of the Tourism Industry Association of Canada (TIAC), Tourism Canada was eliminated and replaced by the Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC) in 1995. The CTC was created to reflect a stronger industry role in decision-making, planning, marketing, and human resource issues. Although the CTC operates under authority of the




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federal agency, Industry Canada, over half of its operating budget derives from private sources, and its board of directors is comprised largely of tourism industry representatives together with a minority of government delegates (Smith, 1999; Smith & Meis, 1997). Although many of the goals of the CTC are similar to those of its predecessor, Tourism Canada, it differs significantly in its role as a cooperative network between the national government and the tourism industry. The jobs of the CTC are marketing Canada at home and abroad, product development (i.e., destination, attraction, and service development), tourism research, and assuring that the industry develops in an orderly fashion and remains a vital part of the Canadian economy. The Commission is composed of seven sub-committees that oversee various aspects of the industry. These are as follows: · · · · · · ·

the US Marketing Committee the Canada Marketing Committee the Europe Marketing Committee the Asia/Pacific Marketing Committee the Industry and Product Development Committee the Meetings and Incentive Travel Committee the Research Committee

This industry-led public authority is generally viewed as a success story in public and private sector cooperation, as it involves tourism businesses and associations, provincial and territorial governments, and the federal government of Canada in financial, planning, and promotional efforts. The CTC coordinates the efforts and programs of industry sub-sectors, such as hotels, tour operators, airlines, attractions, and government agencies. This unique partnership has experienced considerable success since its inception in 1995, for it facilitates the development of collaborative programs that take into consideration public, private, and non-profit needs in tourism (Goeldner et al., 2000). In addition to the CTC, the Tourism Industry Association of Canada, a non-profit organization, is heavily involved in the promotion of Canadian tourism from the industry perspective. It is comprised of public, private and non-profit businesses and agencies who work for the common good of the industry. United States In 1961, the federal government formed the United States Travel Service (USTS) as a way of promoting tourism. However, 20 years later, with the passing of the National Tourism Policy Act of 1981, the USTS was replaced by the United States Travel and Tourism Administration (USTTA), whose more comprehensive job included developing and implementing tourism policies, marketing overseas, and building awareness of, and friendship toward, the United States abroad (Edgell,




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1992; 1999). However, while still in relative infancy, the USTTA was abolished in 1996 by the United States National Tourism Organization Act, placing the burden of funding and policy decision making on the shoulders of the state governments and private sector industries. The abolition of the USTTA was based on the federal government’s perception that the agency was doing little to reverse the decline in the US share of international arrivals, so its continuation would not be cost effective. It also believed that the promotion of tourism could best be handled by the private sector with minimal cost to taxpayers. In response to this, the Tourism Industry Association of America (TIA) worked with legislators to form a national tourism organization that would be funded in part by the government and partly by private sector interests. The TIA’s efforts paid off when as part of the 1996 Act, a new public agency was created–the USNTO. The act also stipulated the following purposes of the new agency: · to increase the US share of the global tourism industry · to work in cooperation with federal, state, and local governments to develop and implement tourism policy · to advise the federal government on matters related to a national tourism strategy · to operate promotional programs outside the US in partnership with the domestic industry · to establish a data bank · to conduct market research that will help promote the tourism industry. (Jeffries, 2001: 183–4). This last go-ahead with yet another public tourism organization was a probationary move in the eyes of the government, for the Act also imposed a condition that if within two years a long-term funding plan had not been developed and implemented, the USNTO would be annulled. Unfortunately this stipulation was not met, and the USNTO has since been disbanded (Jeffries, 2001). Although the United States is without an official national-level public tourism organization, there are several other agencies whose responsibilities include various elements of the industry. For example, within the Department of Commerce there is a small Tourism Industries Unit, which aims to foster an environment that promotes employment in tourism and assists in strengthening economic development opportunities through tourism (Goeldner et al., 2000). Likewise, there is a Tourism Policy Council housed within the Commerce Department, which includes members from most of the relevant federal agencies (e.g., US Customs Service, Secretary of State, Secretary of Labor, Secretary of Transportation, the Immigration and Naturalization service, etc). Together the Council addresses issues and actions that deal with tourism and other government sectors (Jeffries, 2001). There are also many



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other agencies that have some role in the realm of tourism: the National Park Service, National Forest Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Federal Highway Administration, and so on. The perilous administrative history and lack of genuine support by the national government has led to a great deal of criticism by some observers. ‘The United States is an example of how not to develop tourism’ (Goeldner et al., 2000: 109) and ‘US Tourism policy is clearly on the back burner for our nation’s policy makers’ (Brewton & Withiam, 1998: 50) are examples of this sentiment. Although not a public agency, founded in 1941, the Travel Industry Association of America is a major non-profit lobbyist association for tourism affairs in Washington. Its work helps bring about various laws and regulations, and it petitioned successfully for the formation of the USNTO in 1999. Its membership exceeds 1000 organizations, and its primary role is to promote travel to and within the United States, to lobby the federal government, to provide training, and to conduct tourism research. TIA’s membership represents all components of the tourism industry, including private sector groups like airlines, cruise companies, travel agencies, hotel corporations, rental car agencies, bus and railroad companies, attractions, shopping centers, and restaurants, as well as public members such as municipal convention and visitors’ bureaus, state government tourism agencies, and regional tourism associations (Brewton & Withiam, 1998; Goeldner et al., 2000). Mexico The Secretaría de Turismo (SECTUR) plays a central role in policy making, while the FONATUR funding agency is charged with the physical development of tourism. FONATUR is particularly known for its role in planning and developing coastal resorts throughout the country (Boniface & Cooper, 2001). In 1947, the National Tourism Commission (CONATUR) was established and charged with the promotion and study of tourism. Two years later, the first federal tourism law was enacted to facilitate additional promotional and regulatory activities (Clancy, 2001a). As part of Mexico’s efforts to develop tourism, the National Trust Fund for Tourist Infrastructure (INFRATUR) was introduced in 1969. The purpose of this agency, which was administered by the central bank, was to provide the financial backing for development projects, to acquire land, and to develop infrastructure. In 1974, INFRATUR was united with FOGATUR, a government trust fund set aside for hotel development, and the new body was named FONATUR (Fondo Nacional de Fomento al Turismo). Also in 1974, the department of tourism, which had existed in various forms for several years, was given cabinet level status as a secretaria or ministry entitled Secretaria de Turismo (SECTUR) (Clancy, 2001b: 133). As mentioned earlier, Mexico has a more centralized public tourism administration than Canada and the United States. SECTUR and FONATUR work together as national-level government agencies




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to develop tourism and formulate tourism policies. SECTUR is significantly more bureaucratic than FONATUR and is charged with training guides, compiling statistics, and marketing. FONATUR, on the other hand, has broader authority, including land expropriation and resettlement of local people in high growth tourism areas, tourism planning, infrastructure development, and marketing and promotion to private investors. It also functions as a loan provider for the private sector to develop tourismrelated projects (Clancy, 2001a; 2001b; Cothran & Cothran, 1998; Labat & Harbaugh, 1990). Pan-North American Policy/Administration While Canada, Mexico and the United States have their individual approaches to, and organization of, tourism, recent years have seen considerable growth in the global phenomenon of supranational alliances for trade and economic development. North America is no exception in this regard, and various bilateral and trilateral agreements have been made in recent years that either directly address tourism, or that concern many issues that have a bearing on tourism (Timothy, 2001). One of the most momentous bilateral agreements between Mexico and the United States for tourism was signed by both states in 1983, and it was expanded upon and re-signed in 1989 (Edgell, 1999). In this treaty both countries recognized the importance of tourism and agreed to facilitate travel between the two countries, promote cultural exchange activities, cooperate in the area of tourism training and education, and consider joint marketing activities to promote each other to third-party countries (Labat & Harbaugh, 1990; Taylor, 1994). A similar tourism agreement was signed between Mexico and Canada in 1984 and then again in 1990. The second Canada-Mexico agreement was for a period of five years and was considered renewable by later agreement. This convention committed both parties to facilitate travel exchanges between the two countries, to promote cultural tourism representation in each country, to cooperate in training and education, to exchange tourism information and statistics, and to support one another in developing uniform standards and practices (Taylor, 1994: 316). The primary arrangement between Canada and the United States was their mutual Free Trade Agreement (FTA), which was signed in 1988 and implemented in 1989. While the majority of this treaty dealt with other items of trade, tourism was featured prominently in a specific tourism annex and was also covered under headings such as financial investments, trade in services, and flow of people. The tourism section of the FTA establishes that: · the promotion of tourism in the territory of the other country would be permitted, including promotions by national, state/provincial and local governments




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· departure and arrival fees of tourists would be determined by each nation and limited to the value of the service provided · yearly consultation would occur to attempt to eliminate barriers to trade in tourism services · no restrictions would be levied on the travel services purchased in the other country · ways would be identified to increase tourism between the two parties (Edgell, 1999; Taylor, 1994). The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which went into effect on 1 January 1994, does not specifically address tourism. However, the treaty is expected to have long-term effects on the industry through its coverage of temporary entry, trade in services, transportation, financial investments, human resource issues, and telecommunications development (Rodríguez & Portales, 1994; Smith & Pizam, 1998; Taylor, 1994; Timothy, 2001).

Summary North America is well endowed with a wide variety of cultures, natural landscapes, rural areas and cities. This combination had resulted in the region’s becoming one of the most important tourist destination regions in the world. Many traditional attractions, such as national parks and historic sites, still form the basis of North American tourism, although several more recent attractions and activities have developed since the 1970s and become an important component of the tourism supply. These include various forms of gambling, ecotourism, sports, living culture, amusement parks, and shopping centers. Transportation forms have developed rapidly during the past 50 years, enabling North Americans to travel domestically and foreign visitors to get around with relative ease. Perhaps the most significant transportation developments have been the nationwide highway systems in all three countries, efficient air travel and the growth of regional airlines, and the cruise sector, which replaced ship-based travel to become a complete holiday experience. In terms of accommodation, in addition to traditional hotels and motels, several trends were identified, including timeshares, bed and breakfasts, RVs, second homes, and resorts. The notions of self-catering vacations on one end of the spectrum and all-inclusiveness on the other end have played a significant part in the growth of these forms of accommodation. Given the rapid growth of tourism in North America since the Second World War, its current growth, the existence of a wide array of attractions and infrastructure, and the expansion of new, human-created attractions, tourism will likely continue to grow as more overseas visitors and domestic travelers discover what the continent has to offer.




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To conclude this chapter, it is important to reflect back on the comments made in the opening paragraph. As Hall (2002) suggests, current issues often go through the news cycle very quickly disappearing from the headlines while other remain in the background having a longer impact. The difficulty in writing a chapter on current events covering such a large region in the context of the news cycle is to remain current and it is difficult to predict what news items will cycle out of the headlines quickly and which items will remain pressing issues for the tourism industry. By the autumn of 2005, issues of security, the war on terrorism and the war in Iraq continue. There was a terrorist attacks in Madrid in 2004 and in 2005 there was an attack in London and again in Bali and New York City was put on alert for a possible subway attack. Hurricanes in Gulf States of the United States in September of 2005 devastated many communities including New Orleans sparking a jump in the cost of oil and the tourism industry as a whole is facing increasing fuel prices. In terms of health issues, while SARS seems to have been contained, concerns are rising over the bird flu. In a dynamic and changing world, the tourism industry needs to be ready to quickly adapt to changing conditions. References Ahmed, Z.U. and Krohn, F.B. (1990) Reversing the United States’ declining competitiveness in the marketing of international tourism: A perspective on future policy. Journal of Travel Research 29 (2), 23–9. Asgary, N., de Los Santos, G., Vincent, V. and Davila, V. (1997) The determinants of expenditures by Mexican visitors to the border cities of Texas. Tourism Economics 3 (4), 319–28. Bartlett, T. (2001) Virginia develops African-American tourism sites. Travel Weekly 4 June, 16. Boniface, B.G. and Cooper, C. (2001) Worldwide Destinations: The Geography of Travel and Tourism. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Boyd, S.W. and Butler, R.W. (1999) Definitely not monkeys or parrots, probably deer and possibly moose: Opportunities and realities of ecotourism in Northern Ontario. Current Issues in Tourism 2 (2/3), 123–37. Boyd, S.W. and Butler, R.W. (2000) Tourism and national parks: The origin of the concept. In R.W. Butler and S.W. Boyd (eds) Tourism and National Parks: Issues and Implications (pp. 13– 27). Chichester: Wiley. Brewton, C. and Withiam, G. (1998) United States tourism policy: Alive but not well. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 39 (1), 50–59. Butler, R.W. (1985) Timesharing: The implications of an alternative to the conventional cottage. Loisir et Société/Society and Leisure 8 (2), 769–79. Carmichael, B.A. and Peppard, D.M. (1998) The impacts of Foxwoods Resort Casino on its dual host community: Southeastern Connecticut and the Mashantucket Pequot Tribe. In A.A. Lew and G.A. Van Otten (eds) Tourism and Gaming on American Indian Lands (pp. 128– 44). New York: Cognizant. Clancy, M.J. (2001a) Exporting Paradise: Tourism and Development in Mexico. London: Pergamon. Clancy, M.J. (2001b) Mexican tourism: Export growth and structural change since 1970. Latin American Research Review 36 (1), 128–50. Conforti, J.M. (1996) Ghettos as tourism attractions. Annals of Tourism Research 23, 830–42. Cook, S. (2001) North America. In A. Lockwood and S. Medlik (eds) Tourism and Hospitality in the 21st Century (pp. 172–80). Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.



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Cothran, D.A. and Cothran, C.C. (1998) Promise or political risk for Mexican tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 25, 477–97. Eadington, W.R. (1996) The legalization of casinos: Policy objectives, regulatory alternatives, and cost/benefit considerations. Journal of Travel Research 34 (3), 3–8. Edgell, D.L. (1992) United States travel and tourism administration. Annals of Tourism Research 19, 595–7. Edgell, J. (1999) Tourism Policy: The Next Millennium. Champaign, IL: Sagamore. Fennell, D.A. (1999) Ecotourism: An Introduction. London: Routledge. Finn, A. and Erdem, T. (1995) The economic impact of a mega-multi-mall: Estimation issues in the case of West Edmonton Mall. Tourism Management 16, 367–73. Flammger, D.M. (1993) Destination: North America. Albany: Delmar. Foderaro, L.W. (1998) A universal quest for bargains: Japanese flock to outlet center in the Hudson Valley. New York Times, 18 June. Girard, T.C. and Gartner, W.C. (1993) Second home second view: Host community perceptions. Annals of Tourism Research 20, 685–700. Goeldner, C.R. (1992) Trends in North American tourism. American Behavioral Scientist 36, 144– 54. Goelder, C.R., Ritchie, J.R.B. and McIntosh, R.W. (2000) Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies. New York: Wiley. Goodrich, J.N. (1985) Black American tourists: Some research findings. Journal of Travel Research 24 (2), 27–8. Hall, C.M. (2002) Travel safety, terrorism and the media: The significance of the issue-attention cycle. Current Issues in Tourism 5 (5), 458–66. Hsu, C.H.C. (2000) Residents’ support for legalized gaming and perceived impacts of riverboat casinos: Changes in five years. Journal of Travel Research 38 (4), 390–5. Hudman, L.E. (1994) Tourism and the American West. Journal of the West 33 (3), 67–76. Jaakson, R. (1986) Second-home domestic tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 13, 367–91. Jeffries, D. (2001) Governments and Tourism. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Labat, T.S. and Harbaugh, L. (1990) Forging an invigorated U.S.-Mexican partnership in tourism trade, investment. Business America 111 (17), 28–9. Lengfelder, J.R. and Timothy, D.J. (2000) Leisure time in the 1990s and beyond: Cherished friend or incessant foe? Visions in Leisure and Business 19 (1), 13–26. Lew, A.A. and Van Otten, G.A. (eds) (1998) Tourism and Gaming on American Indian Lands. New York: Cognizant. Loverseed, H. (1999) Mexico. TTI Country Reports 3, 46–73. Loverseed, H. (2000) Canada. TTI Country Reports 2, 46–66. Malkin, E. (2000) Uphill battle: Mexico has strong environmental laws. But the program to enforce those laws is only ten years old – and it shows. Amicus Journal 22 (2), 21–23. Meyer-Arendt, K. and Hartmann, R. (1998) Casino Gambling in America: Origins, Trends, and Impacts. New York: Cognizant. Morais, D. and Groves, D.L. (1997) A typology for the understanding of structure and function of a sports industry: A case study of NASCAR. Visions in Leisure and Business 16 (2), 16– 49. National Geographic Society (1995) National Parks of North America. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. Nelson, J.G. (2000) Tourism and National Parks in North America: An Overview. In R.W. Butler and S.W. Boyd (eds) Tourism and National Parks: Issues and Implications (pp. 303–21). Chichester: Wiley.




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Nolan, M.L. and Nolan, S. (1988) The evolution of tourism in twentieth-century Mexico. Journal of the West 27 (4), 14–25. Page, S.J. (1999) Transport and Tourism. Harlow: Longman. Parks Canada (2002 – accessed). National Parks of Canada, National Park Reserves of Canada and National Marine Conservation Areas of Canada. http://parkscanada.pch.gc.ca Patton, S.G. (1986) Factory outlets and travel industry development: The case of Reading, Pennsylvania. Journal of Travel Research 25 (1), 10–13. Regional Airline Association (2002 – copyright) U.S. Regional Airline Fact Sheet. www.raa. org/whoweare/factsheet.pdf Rodríguez, M. and Portales, J. (1994) Tourism and NAFTA: Towards a regional tourism policy. Tourism Management 15, 319–22. Ross, K. (1999) USA. TTI Country Reports 3, 87–113. Rothman, H.K. (1998) Devil’s Bargains: Tourism in the Twentieth-Century American West. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. Salant, J.D. (2002) Mineta won’t shut Amtrak down. Arizona Republic 23 June, A5. Salcido, G.P.R. (1995) Natural protected areas in Mexico. The George Wright Forum 12 (4), 30–38. Smith, G.J. and Hinch, T.D. (1996) Canadian casinos as tourist attractions: Chasing the pot of gold. Journal of Travel Research 34(3), 37–45. Smith, G.J. and Pizam, A. (1998) NAFTA and tourism development policy in North America. In E. Laws, B. Faulkner and G. Moscardo (eds) Embracing and Managing Change in Tourism: International Case Studies (pp. 17–28). London: Routledge. Smith, S.L.J. (1999) Toward a national tourism research agenda for Canada. Tourism Management 20, 297–304. Smith, S.L.J. and Meis, S. (1997) The Canadian Tourism Commission. Annals of Tourism Research 24, 481–3. Standeven, J. and de Knop, P. (1999) Sport Tourism. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Swarbrooke, J. and Horner, S. (2001) Business Travel and Tourism. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Taylor, G.D. (1994) The implications of free trade agreements for tourism in Canada. Tourism Management 15, 315–8. Timothy, D.J. (2002) Tourism and the growth of urban ethnic islands. In C.M. Hall and A.M. Williams (eds) Tourism and Migration: New Relationships Between Production and Consumption (pp. 135–51). Dordrecht: Kluwer. Timothy, D.J. (2001) Tourism and Political Boundaries. London: Routledge. Timothy, D.J. (1999) Cross-border shopping: Tourism in the Canada-United States borderlands. Visions in Leisure and Business 17 (4), 4–18. Timothy, D.J. and Butler, R.W. (1995) Cross-border shopping: A North American Perspective. Annals of Tourism Research 22, 16–34. Timothy, D.J. and Boyd, S.W. (2003) Heritage Tourism. Harlow: Prentice Hall. US National Park Service (2001 – copyright) National Parks Guide. < www.nps.gov/ parks.html > US Census Bureau (2002 – copyright) Housing Vacancies and Homeownership Annual Statistics. < www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/hvs/annual > Woods, R.H. (2001) Important issues for a growing timeshare industry. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 42 (1), 71–81.



Chapter 4

Key Features, Events and Issues of Tourism in the Region DAVID J. TELFER

Introduction The primary purpose of this chapter is to explore a selected number of key events, features and issues related to tourism in North America. In taking such an approach for an entire continent, it clearly indicates that choices need to be made and therefore, unfortunately, some issues will not receive the attention they deserve. Within the past few years and months, the tourism industry has had to face a growing number of challenges, which have had a cumulative effect on the tourism industry. Given the pace of recent events, this chapter has undergone several rewrites. While certain events have clearly dominated the news such as the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States and the war on terrorism, current issues often go through the news cycle very quickly (Hall, 2002) disappearing from the headlines. Some of what is written below may soon cycle out of the news and be replaced by more pressing issues for the tourism industry. Despite these difficulties, this chapter will attempt to highlight a range of issues that are currently having an impact on tourism in North America. In terms of structure, the chapter will begin specifically with an analysis of the impacts of the terrorist attacks in the United States in 2001. This section will focus on related issues, which have developed out of these events including the impacts on the airline industry, increased border security, the ‘War on Terrorism’ and the current war with Iraq. Increased border security is having an effect on the level of trade between the three countries including cross-border shopping. The second section of the chapter will examine selected issues having an impact on the operations of firms. The recent outbreak of SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), spread partly through international air travel has led to a decrease in travel to destinations such as Toronto exacerbating the difficulties already facing the industry. In terms of operations, there is also increasing pressure for firms to behave in more responsible manner towards local businesses, communities and the 82


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environment. In Canada, for example, the national government has just passed the Kyoto Accord, which will have implications for how the tourism industry operates, while in the United States there is resistance to move forward on the accord. Some tourism firms have embraced the concept of sustainability adopting environmentally friendly practices or products such as ecotourism, while others have exploited the trend opting for eco-marketing. Technological advances and e-tourism also continue to raise both opportunities and challenges for the tourism industry. Finally, the third section of the chapter will focus on selected product development, which can be argued is industry led or consumer led. The cruise industry, for example, has not only become significant in Mexico but also in Alaska. The increased size of cruise ships and the number of trips also has implications for sustainable operating procedures. The Canadian Tourism Commission has developed an innovative program called Product Clubs to assist small operators ranging from ecotourism operators to cultural tourism operators such as wine and culinary tourism operators to golf clubs in partnering to develop their products. The chapter will conclude with thoughts on the changing nature of tourism in North America.

Terrorism and Tourism The primary issue that has dominated the tourism industry not only in North America but also around the world is the impacts of the terrorist attacks in the United States on 11 September 2001. The tragic events on this day have had serious impacts on the travel industry throughout North America. On 11 September 2001, four planes were hijacked. Two planes were flown into the two World Trade Center Towers in New York City resulting in their collapse. One plane was flown into the Pentagon outside Washington and the final plane crashed into a field in Pennsylvania after it is believed passengers fought with the hijackers diverting it from its intended target (Deacon, 2001). These events, the subsequent anthrax scare in the United States and the ‘war on terrorism’, have all had an impact on tourism. In the period after the attacks, the impacts were most pronounced in terms of trip cancellations and layoffs of tourism employees. The airlines were especially hard hit along with major hotels. Another area hard hit due to the interdependencies within the tourism industry was small and medium sized businesses (CTC, 2002a). Soon after the terrorist attacks, the Canadian Tourism Commission (2001) prepared a situation analysis and possible different scenarios, some of which have occurred while the outcomes of the other predictions are still to be determined. They developed a list of six separate but related shocks that might be anticipated to have an impact on the United States. The first was that there would be an immediate shock to consumer confidence in regards to the safety of travel and in particular air travel. As will be outlined below, the airline industry continues to struggle not only as a result of 11 September but also due to a weakened economy and the war on terrorism. Secondly



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there would be a reduction in trade (domestic and international) as a result of increased security at points of departure and international borders as well as reduction in transportation capacity. Security continues to be tight at border crossings especially as the United States cycles in and out of various stages of heightened alert. Third, there will be increased uncertainty in regards to the safety of air travel pending the expected U.S. military response to the terrorist attacks. The response has come in the form of the ‘war on terrorism’ initially centred on Afghanistan and more recently with the war in Iraq. The final three predictions relate primarily to the economy, which has particularly been struggling in the United States. Specifically the fourth prediction was that there would be reduced economic activity in the last quarter of 2001 with a decline in business activity. The fifth prediction was that there would be reductions in consumer and business confidence with the release of poor performance indicators in the U.S. economy. The last prediction dealt with longer-term reductions in economic activity due to the loss of tourism businesses, which fail along with longer-term reductions for demand of tourism experiences (CTC, 2001). As mentioned, the airlines have been one of the hardest hit sectors. Industry wide losses in the United States in the fourth quarter of 2002 totalled approximately US$2.5 billion (Weber, 2003). Continental Airlines reported a loss of US$109 million in the fourth quarter while Delta reported a loss of US$363 million during the same time frame. For the year 2002, Delta, which is the third largest airline in the United States, lost close to US$1.3 billion. Delta has cut 16,000 jobs since the terrorist attacks. A further indication of the troubles in the industry is that both United Airlines and US Airways are currently restructuring under the protection of bankruptcy courts (Weber, 2003). Pilots at United Airlines agreed to an interim 29% pay cut (Pigg, 2003b). There has been a decline in spending by business travellers and increased security costs since the terrorist attacks. However, it must be noted that it is not just the terrorist attacks that have had an impact on the industry but the slump in the U.S. economy as a whole has also had a role to play in the troubles in the industry (Weber, 2003). Air traffic in Canada was down 8% in the three months ending 30 November 2002 from the same period in the previous year (Pigg 2003a). The flight control system in Canada, Nav Canada, earns its revenues based on the number of planes and passengers using Canadian airspace and it is expected it will have a shortfall of CDN $80 million (Pigg 2003a). Air Canada continues to struggle. In January of 2003 Swift (2003a) predicted that Air Canada may have to make further cuts for the following four reasons: the economy has not recovered as expected; competition has grown within Canada; the U.S. airlines are taking increased steps to be more competitive; and the threat of war with Iraq had grown. In April of 2003, Air Canada filed for bankruptcy protection from creditors with the company promising to remake itself into a leaner, more competitive and profitable airline (Swift, 2003b). However, despite filing for bankruptcy, the carrier is still in




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operation. The airline took over Canadian Airlines to become the main national carrier. As part of the agreement to take over Canadian Airlines, Air Canada had started to pull out of some non-profitable routes. Eastern Canada has been particularly hard hit with the cutting of routes and there are no longer Air Canada flights between Labrador and Newfoundland. Other areas hit by the airline cuts include three small communities in British Columbia and one in Alberta (Toughill, 2003). In January 2003, the airline had already issued layoff notices to 300 cargo, and ramp workers (Pigg, 2003b). Air Canada has launched low fare carriers including Zip and Jazz which are currently in a price war with Calgary based WestJet (Pigg 2003c). The impact of 11 September 2001 was also strongly felt in Mexico. Immediately after the attack there were mass layoffs. Club Med, for example, announced that they were closing three of their villages in Mexico including Huatulco, Playa Blanca and Sonora Bay, which were to remain closed through the typically busy winter season of 2001–2002. Mexico’s top two airlines, Aeroméxico and Mexicana, were also forced to announce the laying off of several thousand workers in response to the decline in passenger numbers (Lonely Planet, 2001a). Governments have been forced to develop new marketing strategies to help get people travelling again. New York City responded with an active promotional campaign that implied that visiting New York could be regarded as an act of patriotism. Visitors in 2002 were expected to slightly exceed numbers from 2001 (Fainstein, 2002). According to Fainstein it is the visitors to the World Trade Center site which represent the main force reviving consumption in the downtown area of New York City. Visitor flow to the Ground Zero viewing platform about equals the visitor flow that used to go to the observatory at the top of the Trade Center (Fainstein, 2002). The Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC) launched a CDN $20 million Travel Canada campaign, which involved a television and newspaper blitz that was designed to get Canadians to vacation at home (Demont et al., 2001). It is suggested in the 2002–2006 Corporate Plan Summary for the CTC that while there was uncertainty in the tourism industry for 2002 it appears to be on the way to recovery. The recovery has been aided in Canada by an additional funding of CDN$15 million provided to the CTC to respond directly to the situation. Investment has been directed to marketing to the domestic market and also to the northern tier states where the Americans have a higher propensity to travel to Canada by automobile (CTC, 2002b). This recovery could, however, be in jeopardy given that war with Iraq has occurred and SARS has developed in tourism centres such as Toronto and Vancouver. One of the other significant issues related to the attacks has been increased security costs. The value of cross-border trade between Canada and the United States is CDN$1.9 billion a day (Gatehouse, 2002). With the introduction of the NAFTA agreement in January 1994, trade increased between all three countries (Lustig, 2001). Mexican exports to the U.S. economy rose from $43 billion in 1993



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to $109 billion in 1999. Mexican trade between Canada and Mexico, while smaller, has also increased. Counting imports and exports, trade between Mexico and Canada increased 129% from 1993 to 1999 reaching $9.3 billion (Lustig, 2001). The challenge has been to tighten security at the border without seriously damaging the level of trade. Canada has set out $646 million for increased border security and surveillance and has given U.S. customs and law enforcement an enhanced role on the Canadian side of the border. Both the U.S. and Canada have established a 30-point border management plan (Gatehouse, 2002). The tightened security has had implications for cross-border shopping. For example, extra security measures were put in place as fears were heightened in preparations for the New Year’s celebrations at the end of 2002. At some Canadian airports new X-ray equipment was used to scan all checked baggage, causing long line-ups, and the United States was put on a heightened terrorism alert (Beltrame, 2003). In early February of 2003 the United States again went to a higher level of alert and tightened border security in response to possible threats of terrorism. Border security has again been heightened with the war in Iraq. In Canada, there has been a CDN$12 per flight security tax added and a Senate Committee report soon to be released calls for sweeping changes for improving air security including better checks on airport personnel and better screening for mail before it is loaded on planes (Harper, 2003). Increased security is also an issue for the 3000 km U.S. Mexico border where more than one million are arrested every year trying to cross into the U.S. from Mexico (BBC, 2003). Prior to the start of the war with Iraq, there had been a rebound in traffic across the Niagara River between Canada and the U.S. indicating that cross-border trade, tourism and shopping were starting to recover (Williams, 2001). However, since the start of the war, the number of Americans visiting Niagara Falls Canada is down (Fraser, 2003). There may be further fallout in terms of trade between Canada and the United States as Canada chose not to participate in the war in Iraq. Higher costs of security have also resulted for cities competing to host major international events (Fainstein, 2002). The most recent Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City Utah, U.S.A. were held with heightened security measures in place. In Canada, the application forms for obtaining passports were extended asking for more information to ensure a person’s identity (Torin, 2003). The Canadian Tourism Research Institute prepared a research report for the Canadian Tourism Commission on the potential impact to domestic and selected international markets in the event of a war with Iraq (CTR, 2003). The report looks at the potential impacts of a ‘contained war’ and ‘disruptive war’ focusing on a range of elements including the rising price of oil, weak equity markets, military spending and slipping confidences. In Florida, it is reported that in the event of war, advertising would most likely be redeployed to focus on domestic travel. Walt Disney World, for example, where attendance is down 6%, has already been aggressively




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marketing to families who live hours away to make up for the decline in international travel (Buckley, 2003). Walt Disney World is cutting back on the hours of some of its part-time employees and there has also has been a hiring freeze put in place (Associated Press 2003). In the first week of the war with Iraq, 10,000 U.S. airline jobs were cut (Macklem 2003). The events of 11 September 2001 and the resulting war on terrorism have had a cumulative effect on the tourism industry. Hall (2002) applied the issue attention cycle of Downs (1972) to the impacts of the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001. Hall (2002) argues that the role of the media is significant not only in terms of the images that surround travel and destinations, which have an impact on travel decision making, but the media also has a significant impact on policy measures taken by governments in the areas of tourist safety and security. It can be argued that the 24-hour television news networks with live coverage of the war in Iraq are having an impact on travel decision making.

Issues Affecting Operations of Tourism Firms While the events of 11 September 2001 have had varying impacts on the tourism industry, especially in the area of increased security, there are other emerging events and trends which are forcing firms to alter their business practices. One of the more dramatic events has been the spread of SARS. The global outbreak has been traced to the Metropole Hotel in Hong Kong in February 2003 where at least six people were infected by a traveler from Guangdong Province in China. These individuals traveled to Toronto, Vancouver, Singapore, and Hanoi triggering outbreaks of the disease. The disease subsequently spread to 2354 people worldwide in 18 countries killing 85 people in total (Hawaleshka, 2003). Hardest hit by the disease were the airlines, like Air Canada, which experienced huge passenger reductions along with the associated reductions in visitations to countries directly affected by the disease (Canadian Press, 2003). The American Association for Cancer Research canceled a conference in Toronto for 12,000 researchers and the Registered Nurses Association of Ontario also called off a meeting for 700 in Toronto (Hawaleshka, 2003). This was a rapidly developing event and the World Health Organisation was quick to ask countries to start screening international air passengers for symptoms of the disease. In other less dramatic areas, there has been increased public and political pressure for companies to behave more ethically in relation to a range of issues that are connected to sustainable development. Swarbrooke (1999) identifies these issues as the impact on the environment, relations with local communities, investment policies and relations with investors, corruption, compliance or otherwise with government legislation, relations with suppliers and marketing intermediaries, promotion techniques such as honest advertising, pricing policies, product safety and human resources such as equal opportunities and pay (Swarbrooke, 1999).



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Tarlow (2002) suggests that beyond the response to terrorism the travel industry will need to deal with new technologies, the aging of society and time pressures creating a increased demand for convenience. Debates continue to circulate not only in academia but also in the industry over what is sustainable development and how it can be achieved in tourism. Highlighted by the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development and the 1992 AGENDA 21 sustainability has come to mean meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generations (Telfer, 2002a). The scope of sustainability has expanded beyond the environment to include politics, the economy, and linkages to local communities (Telfer, 2002b) and thereby addressing some of the issues facing tourism firms outlined by Swarbrooke (1999) above. The difficulty with the concept and therefore for the industry, is how to measure sustainability and how to implement it. Various organisations and governments have developed guidelines or indicators for how sustainability should be incorporated into tourism. Weaver and Opperman (2000) developed a potential list of sustainable tourism indicators under the categories of environmental, economic, social, cultural and management as a way to move towards more sustainable tourism. The difficulties, which they acknowledge, is that there are uncertainties and complexities associated with these types of indicators and that many are difficult to measure. The problem for the tourism industry in North America is that despite the pressure to behave in a more sustainable manner, how sustainable tourism will be implemented continues to be a real challenge. Can the industry regulate itself or are strict guidelines or laws required to enforce more sustainable behavior? Mexico, for example, has strong environmental laws modeled on those initiated in developed countries. The problem, however, is the implementation and enforcement of these laws as they come up against social and economic realities (Malkin, 2000). Malkin (2000) suggests that what is happening in terms of enforcement in environmental regulations is a reflection of the lack of enforcement in a number of key areas in the country, which has led to drug trafficking, street crime and corruption. Efforts have been made under the government of Vicente Fox in Mexico to try to fight against corruption in the country (BBC, 2003). Mexico faces a number of challenges which are not necessarily faced by the U.S.A. or Canada. A 1997 law set for 2000 as the date for cities to start treating their water resulted in very few cities complying, including Mexico City. National parks are important tourism destinations in all three countries, but many are under stress. In a survey of 44 U.S. national park superintendents on environmental issues in parks related to tourism a number of concerns were raised (Wang & Miko, 1997). It is estimated that there will be half a billion-park tourists per year to the U.S. National Park System. Concerns in the study were raised over waste disposal, feeding of the wildlife, trampling, and automobile exhaust. In Canada’s oldest and most popular national park, Banff,




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there are extreme pressures from tourists and developers. Predictions put visitor numbers at 19 million by 2020. A federal task force on Banff had 500 recommendations including preventing no new parkland for commercial development, capping the permanent population of the town at 10,000 and closing a small airfield and military cadet camp which blocks a wildlife corridor (The battle for Banff, 1996). Challenges will also be encountered as Vancouver-Whistler gets set to host the 2010 Olympic games (see Box 4.1). Time is running out for creating national parks in southern Canada as development continues to expand (McNamee, 1994). South of Mexico City in the Ajusco Mountains, Parque San Nicholás Totolapan was created in 1998 and it represents one of the first working examples of Mexican tourism connecting with local economic and environment development (Mader, 2000). The park receives approximately 2000 visitors per week, with half of them arriving by bicycle. Many tourists are guided by residents from nearby settlements, or they stay in local camping areas. Environmentalists are hoping the park will encourage conservation at the grassroots level (Mader, 2000). The challenge for parks in North America will continue to be protecting the

Box 4.1 Vancouver-Whistler to host 2010 Olympics The Vancouver-Whistler bid will bring the 2010 Winter Olympics to Canada. The effort to bring the games to Canada took five years and cost CDN$34 million (CBC News, 2003). The Olympics will be held from 12 February to the 18th and will be followed by the Paralympic Games, which are for athletes with disabilities, from 5 March to 14 March. In a run-up to the final bid selection a plebiscite was held and 64% of Vancouver voters voted in favour of the Olympics. It is estimated that the Olympics will bring 5000 athletes and officials, 10,000 media members, 14,000 volunteers and 2.3 million attendees (2010 Winter Games, 2003). The cost of hosting the games is divided between the capital infrastructure budget and the Games operating budget. The capital infrastructure budget of CDN$620 million split equally between provincial and federal governments is for new venue construction and the renovation of existing facilities. The operating budget is set at CDN$1.3 billion and is to be funded by ticket sales, corporate sponsorships, television revenues, licences and other private contributions (2010 Winter Games, 2003). The Vancouver-Whistler bid committee built the concept of sustainability into their bid. The bid proposes ‘green buildings and community planning standards; sustainable transportation initiatives; energy efficiency and use of renewable energy; water conservation, air quality and greenhouse gas management; waste minimization; and protection and enhancement of natural landscapes.’ (2010 Winter Games, 2003)



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natural environment while at the same time maintaining access in difficult financial times. Another challenge in terms of enforcing environmental regulations is the conflicts between various levels of government. In the Mexican state of Quintana Roo, Malkin (2000) argues, the state government is in a frenzy to develop the coastline south of Cancun and is allowing developers to build hotels as fast as they can. Also in the case of Mexico, Brenner and Aguilar (2002) argue that while there has been promotion of luxury resorts in coastal areas, this has led to highly concentrated and fast growing enclaves dominated by foreign investment. This strategy has failed to stimulate productive links between these tourist centres and their hinterlands and this has led to large-scale urbanisation with lack of basic services for local residents. The biggest change in Mexico’s development model was the shift from an inward-looking approach to policies that endorsed economic gains from interactions with other countries. These have especially focused on U.S. trade liberalization and have been the most important and far-reaching of Mexico’s economic reforms (Lustig, 2001). In Mexico, most of the international visitors travel to the coastal resorts of Cancun, Acapulco, Ixtapa or the latest resort, the Bays of Huatulco (Ross, 2003, see also Brenner and Aguilar, 2002). The Mexican government is faced with rising crime rates, particularly in Mexico City, and also with the Zapatista movement in states such as Chiapas (Lonely Planet, 2003). Sex tourism has also raised concerns over social cohesion in Mexico. It has been estimated that there are at least 15,000 children working in the sex industry in Mexico (BBC, 2003). There have been attempts to strengthen Mexico’s integration with its neighbors to the south with respect to tourism. Meetings have been held between the presidents of seven Central American countries and Mexico to further develop tourism in the Central American region and to forge trade links from Mexico to Panama. The proposals included building new roads throughout Central America (Lonely Planet, 2001b). While the U.S. trade liberalization has opened doors for some countries, there is continued debate as to trade with Cuba (see Box 4.2). Another element in the debate of sustainability is the Kyoto Protocol. This international protocol was developed in Kyoto, Japan in 1997 and it addresses the threats to the environment as a result of the large-scale production of greenhouse gases. The production of these gases has led to global warming. Mexico City is one of the worst tourism destinations in North America in terms of air quality. Within North America, only Canada and Mexico have ratified the protocol. While developing countries are exempted from some aspects of the protocol, Canada’s commitment is to reduce its average emissions over the years 2008–2012 to 6% less than 1990 levels. The United States has refused to sign the protocol. Canada ratified the protocol in December of 2002 so the impact on the tourism industry is still unknown; however the airline industry will most certainly be affected (Kyoto




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Box 4.2 U.S.–Cuba relations and tourism There are differing opinions as to the future direction of U.S. and Cuban relations and the outcome will have an impact on tourism. In October of 2003, U.S. President George W. Bush announced new measures designed to bring to an end communist rule in Cuba. The measures include strictly enforcing an existing U.S. law, which forbids Americans from traveling to Cuba. Other measures include cracking down on illegal money transfers, imposing controls on shipments to Cuba, launching a more aggressive campaign to let Cubans know of safer routes to reach the United States, increasing the number of Cuban immigrants in the U.S. and increased efforts to break through the ‘information embargo’ through U.S. radio, televisions and internet broadcasts (BBC News, 2003a). In addition, a commission has been established for the ‘Assistance to a Free Cuba’ to plan for the day when communism would collapse (BBC News, 2003a). A very different opinion came to light in November of 2003 when the Senate Foreign Relations Committee voted 13–5 in favour of ending travel restrictions put in place in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy. In a similar move, the full Senate voted to bar the use of government money to enforce the travel ban. The proposed bill would withhold funds enforcing the travel ban, which would effectively end the restrictions. Those senators in favour of lifting the ban argue that Americans are allowed to travel to countries such as North Korea and so it makes little sense to ban American travel to Cuba. The bill is expected to go to a final vote in 2004 and the White House has threatened to veto the bill. It is estimated that approximately 160,000 Americans went to Cuba legally in 2002 with half of these being Cuban Americans who are permitted to make one visit per year. Thousands of Americans also made the trip to Cuba illegally by travelling through a third country. Canada happens to be one country which Americans use to fly from to go to Cuba. Currently U.S. diplomats, politicians, journalists and academics are allowed to visit Cuba without restrictions. The Cuban government would like to see American tourists in Cuba as a means to earn hard currency to use for food imports. Cuba has suggested that it would expect approximately one million American visitors in the first year if the travel ban were to be lifted. (BBC News, 2003b) 2002). There is the possibility that if firms have to spend more to abide by these new guidelines, these extra costs may be passed on to consumers. The pace of technological development continues to be a challenge worldwide. E-tourism (electronic tourism) continues to grow and dominate how the industry operates. The technological revolution, including Computer Reservation Systems (CRSs), Global Distribution Channels (GDSs) and Destination Management



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Systems (DMSs) have all emerged to facilitate the distribution of tourism products. The development of the Internet has strengthened the role of electronic intermediaries and poses a threat to traditional distributors. Electronic intermediaries facilitate distribution but also affect the marketing mix by increasingly determine price by assessing real-time demand and supply, formulate tourism products by combining specialized products according to customers’ needs, and they facilitate promotion by the targeting of specific markets and developing communication (Buhalis, 2001). Electronic distribution channels have also transformed business models by introducing new distribution strategies including creating or co-branding Internet portals, auctions, name your price and other innovative distribution strategies (Buhalis, 2001). One of the more recognizable travel websites is Travelocity.com owned by Sabre Holdings Corporation with their head office located in Texas. There are approximately 38 million members who have access to 700 airlines, 55,000 hotels, 50 car rental companies and 6500 cruise and vacation packages. The website also boasts more than 1000 customer service agents who offer 24 hour assistance. In 2002 the website generated more than $300 million in revenue and in addition the company generates revenue from advertisers who use their website (Sabre, 2003). The development of these types of travel services raises the question on the future of the traditional travel agency. North America is behind Europe where discussions have moved beyond e-tourism to m-tourism and m-commerce, which focuses on mobile technologies and marketing tourism products through mobile technologies. Another general trend in the industry is for increased horizontal and/or vertical integration (Buhalis, 2001). Franchising, consortia and code-sharing airlines are some of the typical examples of horizontal integration in the industry. Horizontal integration occurs at the same level of any tourism distribution level allowing homogeneous enterprises to distribute their product more efficiently and more effectively. A merger currently in the works in the cruise line industry is the planned take over of P&O Princess by Carnival Corporation. The combined group will have their head office in Miami and operate 65 ships (Johnson, 2003). In the accommodation sector there is also a trend of increasing concentration of hotel assets in the hands of a few portfolio investors illustrating the importance of branding. In Canada, 76% of hotel rooms located in hotels with 100 rooms were attached to a brand. The larger brands operating in Canada include Best Western, Choice, CP Fairmont, Four Seasons, Hilton, Holiday Inn, Howard Johnson, Hyatt, Marriot, Melia, Radisson, Ramada, Sheraton and Westin (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2001). Vertical integration occurs when enterprises of one level of the tourism distribution channel merge with members of another level for economies of scale, better cost control, co-ordinated brand management, increased channel control and more bargaining power (Buhalis, 2001). Examples of vertical integration include mergers between tour operators and




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outgoing travel agencies, and airlines and accommodation establishments. Increased foreign involvement in Mexico’s resort areas such as Cancun have also developed especially after the advent of the Salinas administration in 1989 (Weaver & Opperman, 2000) The changes in industry organization and new evolving distribution channels have presented a number of challenges for the industry in terms of quality and service management. Service expectations are in part built through marketing and this not only applies to individual tourism companies or attractions but it also applies at the destination level (Laws, 2002). At the destination level, there is increasing interest in collaborative relationships between organizations operating in a defined marketplace (Laws, 2002). For example, over 50 wineries in the Niagara Region in Ontario Canada have worked collaboratively to successfully develop the region as a wine tourism destination. Formal and informal agreements between wineries, tour operators and the food industry highlight the significance of horizontal and vertical linkages (Telfer, 2001). There is an attempt to move Niagara to a branded destination that has links beyond just Niagara Falls. At an individual firm level, increasing attention is being paid to managing service quality. Southwest Airlines, for example, has built operational and administrative excellence based on management commitment, customer focus and employee involvement and as a result were awarded a Canada Award for Excellence. The operating philosophy at Southwest Airlines is to ‘make an everyday reality their credo that customers come second to employees and still get great service’ (Laszlo, cited in Laws, 2002: 38). Airlines in particular and more recently the accommodation sector have developed loyalty programs to enhance customer satisfaction. Air Canada, for example, has linked their frequent flyer programme to VISA.

Product Development The final section of this chapter will address selected trends in product development in North America. As noted in the introduction, some of these developments are customer driven while others are industry driven. With the rise in interest in sustainability, ecotourism is a product which continues to receive a great deal of attention. North America has a diverse range of ecoregions and an emerging and diverse range of potential ecotourism activities (Fennell, 2001, Weaver & Schlüter, 2001). As in most areas of tourism, market research is becoming increasingly important. In examining North American ecotourists Wight (1996a,b) found that experienced ecotourists were generally older than general consumers and had a tendency towards more education. Hiking is their most preferred activity and the opportunity to enjoy scenery and/or nature was the number one reason for the next ecotourism vacation for almost half of the consumers and ecotourists studied. The preferred future ecotoursim destination for North American consumers studied by




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Box 4.3 Mexico fighting to save Monarch butterflies Monarch butterflies migrate from the U.S. and Canada to the Mexican state of Michoacan every autumn to escape the cold. During the summer months, they feed on milkweed, migrating to a less harsh climate for the winter; however it must be cool enough so that their metabolism is kept low. They survive the entire winter on reserves built up during the summer. Habitats suitable for Monarchs are rare as they are restricted to mountainous oyamel fir forests where they form large colonies around the tree trunks (BBC News, 2003c). It is estimated that over 200,000 tourist visit the area during the butterfly-watching season (BBC News, 2003d). Threats against the Monarch’s winter home include climate change, agriculture and logging. It is estimated that between 1971 and 1999, 44% of their winter habitat was degraded, meaning the area was cleared or thinned making it no longer suitable for the Monarchs (BBC News, 2003c). Experts have been warning that if the problem of illegal tree cutting in the state is not stopped it could contribute to the end of the annual migration, having a major impact on the tourism industry (BBC News, 2003d). The Mexican police and environmental inspectors have taken steps to crack down on illegal logging, which will save millions of migrating Monarch butterflies. They have closed down 17 sawmills to protect the forests where the butterflies stay during the winter. More than 300 truckloads of wood from illegally felled trees have been confiscated and 28 people have been arrested. The initiative taken by the authorities is backedby Grupo de los Cien, a group of Mexican intellectuals dedicated to environmental protection. While steps are being made, prosecutors are finding it difficult to combat the demand for illegally harvested wood in both the furniture and construction industries (BBC News, 2003d).

Wight (1996 a, b) was Canada (one-third), U.S.A. (one-third), and all other destinations (one-third). Despite the increasing attention given to ecotourism conflicts continue to surround the term. With respect to rural development, Butler (2001) points out that there is great potential for ecotourism in the Sierra Madre of Central Mexico, home to the wintering grounds of the monarch butterfly (see Box 4.3). While this is so, Butler (2001) highlights the work of Barkin who indicates that there have been rapid increases in visitation and development, which has been incompatible with indigenous rural resident aspirations and traditional activities. This is a case which illustrates that while ecotourism is extremely attractive, it does not necessarily have the desired economic or other benefits for local residents (Butler, 2001). There is increasing debate as to how the term ecotourism is being used and whether it is used only as a marketing tool and whether tourists participate in so-called




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ecotourism activities for the ‘feel good factor’ (Butler, 2001). In terms of the rural environment, Butler asks whether ecotourism is little more that a new label on fairly traditional leisure activities that have been repackaged (Butler 2001). In the U.S.A. there are no national laws dictating protocol for regional ecotourism program areas as this is left to the state level; however, even between states there are differences on how the term is used (Fennell, 2001). A number of not-for-profit organizations have developed which are centered in the U.S.A. including the International Ecotourism Society, The Adventure Travel Society and Conservation International (Fennell, 2001). The Canadian Tourism Commission has developed an outdoor tourism development product strategy which places ecotourism and adventure tourism as priorities under the umbrella of outdoor tourism. Fennell (2001) suggests that in Canada ecotourism often comes packaged more as adventure tourism because of the historical linkage to more consumptive forms of outdoor recreation and tourism. Concerns continue to be expressed over the nature of ecotourism and it is argued that it is becoming increasingly necessary to develop accreditation programs for ecotourism (Issaverdis, 2001). In Mexico, the Chamber de Deputies approved a bill calling for ecotourism regulation. The changes called for the federal tourism law to include guidelines for regulation and promotion of sustainable tourism (Mader, 2000). From a forecasting perspective, Tarlow (2002), however, predicts that ecotourism will become less popular due in part due to environmental pressures and an aging population. The cruise industry continues to experience growth. From 1990 to 2000, the number of North Americans taking a cruise went from 3.6 million to 6.8 million and as a result cruise lines began building more ships (Elliot & Silver, 2002). Along with smaller niche cruise packages, mega-ships such as the Grand Princess, which cost US$450 million and can accommodate 3000 passengers and a crew of 1100 were built (Johnson, 2002). However, in some cases, the cruise industry is struggling to win back tourists lost to the economic slump and the impact of the 11 September terrorist attacks by cutting rates (Elliot & Silver, 2002). There are five main distinct cruise regions in North America, which include Alaska, the Northeast, the Mississippi River, Mexico’s Pacific coast, and the Caribbean. Cruises to Alaska mostly depart from Vancouver or Seattle and go as far as Skagway or to Anchorage. According to Mancini (2000) those interested in Alaska are often more ecology minded or those who appreciate scenery or a pure outdoors environment. The Alaska route is one that is expecting an increase in passengers. Cruise lines moved a record number of ships to Alaska for the summer season of 2002 after the terrorist attacks of 11 September, expecting less demand for Mediterranean itineraries (McDowell, 2002). Along Mexico’s Pacific coast cruise lines often leave out of Los Angeles or San Diego to the Mexican Riviera frequenting the ports of Ensenda, Cabo San Lucas, Mazatlan, Puerto Vallarta and Acapulco. Acapulco is often the starting point for cruises to the Panama Canal making stops in Columbia and Venezuela. Ports in Florida, such as Miami or Port



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Everglades at Ft. Lauderdale, have also become important points of departure for cruising to places such as the Bahamas, or to the Caribbean. Cancun, on Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, and nearby Cozumel Island are also important cruise ports of call (Mancini, 2000). Cruising in the Northeast of North America is experiencing a renaissance with ships sailing between New York and Montreal. Results of a study on satisfaction among North American cruise passengers found overall passengers expectations were met or exceeded (Teye & Leclerc, 1998). The development of cruise lines has presented a number of key issues in the tourism industry. An important point raised in this study with respect to employment is that most cruise ships serving the North American market are registered in Panama, Liberia, the Bahamas, Bermuda, or Cyprus. These countries operate with few (or no) labor laws, allowing cruise lines to employ crew individually mostly from developing countries. The results of these hiring practices is a labour intensive industry, high crew-to-passenger ratios, low wages, limited benefits, questionable living conditions, and long working hours without the ability to form unions (Teye & Leclerc, 1998). There are also tax benefits to registering a ship outside North America. As mentioned in the previous section, consolidation continues to occur within the industry. There are efforts underway to make cruise lines more environmentally friendly. In June of 1998, for example, Holland American Line was fined US$2 million for the illegal discharge of oily bilge water in Alaska’s Inside Passage in 1994 (Johnson, 2002). The International Council of Cruise Lines (ICCL), an industry trade association representing the main passenger cruise lines in North America, adopted a set of waste management practices in 2001 (Johnson, 2002). Despite these types of efforts, carrying capacity is a related concern with respect to cruise lines. In Alaska, for example, authorities have determined a finite number of cruise ships for the region (Johnson, 2002). As mentioned above, trade across the borders between all three countries is vital. Cross-border shopping at the Canadian and Mexican border is viewed as important to regional development and efforts are underway to try to build the shopping product available. In the Rio Grande Valley in Texas, La Plaza is the largest shopping mall at 1.2 million sq. ft. in McAllen, a growing border town. The mall boasts sales of more than US$400 per square foot, which is US$100 above the national average. The mall not only attracts U.S. citizens but has become a major destination for Mexicans (Hazel, 2002). At the San Diego-Tijuana border there are plans for a quarter-million sq. ft. mixed use development project with a 630,000 sq. ft. outlet centre, cultural centre, duty free shopping, office building, 300 room hotel and a conference centre. This development is also to include a pedestrian bridge connecting the two countries (Cohen, 2002). Along the northern border of the United States, Niagara Falls Canada has been expanding its casino developments in order to attract more American visitors across the border. Finally, an innovative program in terms of product development, which is a re-




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flection of the increasing trend towards partnerships and strategic alliances within the tourism industry as a whole, has been launched by the Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC). The CTC provides funding to Product Clubs, which are partnerships of small and medium sized businesses with a common vision for the development of a specific product or niche market (Telfer, 2002b). Launched in 1996 with six Product Clubs, there are now 43 Product Clubs. The program operates on a matching funding basis and the average value of the three year contracts has ranged from CDN$50,000.00 to CDN$300,000.00 (Telfer, 2002b). For existing Product Clubs, the CTC groups the Clubs under five themes used in their brochure advertising the Product Clubs. The five themes include ‘Treading Softly on the Land’ (ecotourism and adventure), ‘Discovering our Arts and Culture’ (heritage and culture), ‘Stepping out and Getting Away’ (urban and resort), ‘Cruising the Country’ (unique tour packages), and ‘Making the Most of Winter’ (winter experiences) (CTC, 2000). Activities of the Product Clubs include developing partnerships, creating new packages, consumer research, developing marketing strategies, conducting seminars, and developing newsletters or other business to business websites with the focus of developing a sustainable structure (Telfer, 2002b).

Conclusion Attempting to identify the key issues in North American tourism in a single chapter clearly dictates that choices have to be made and some key issues may not receive the attention they deserve. Each country has a diverse set of tourism attributes based on natural and man-made environments and different cultural heritage backgrounds. Although they are joined by the NAFTA agreement, different political systems and levels of development illustrate the complexity of the continent. Difficulties arise in comparing the experiences of three very different countries across a set of variables. Despite these difficulties, a number of major issues have been identified, which represent challenges and opportunities for tourism. The main issue has been how to deal with the impacts of events of 11 September 2001 and the resulting war on terrorism. The war in Afghanistan and Iraq and the recent outbreak of SARS, have had a cumulative effect on the industry in a relatively short period of time. While there are signs of recovery in some areas, others still face difficulty. The economy in the United States was in difficulty before the attacks and has continued to struggle. Consumer confidence in the United States is low and some consumers will not travel by air again. There is continued pressure for increased security at the borders; however this has the potential to reduce cross-border tourism. Various companies and agencies, such as the Canadian Tourism Commission, have already thought out different scenarios for the industry with the war with Iraq. There are a number of forces that will have an impact on the travel industry in the future. Tarlow (2002) suggests that beyond the response to terrorism the travel industry will need to respond to new technologies, the aging of society and time



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pressures creating a increased demand for convenience. On the operational side, there are a number of changes that the industry is having to respond to. As Swarbrooke (1999) indicates there is increased pressure on firms to act in a more responsible manner not only towards the environment but also to the communities in which they operate. Some of companies in the tourism industry have adopted a number of strategies to reduce their impacts on the environment. Some would argue these steps have only been put in place as marketing ploys while others argue that some significant steps have been taken to reduce negative impacts. According to some statistics, the market for ecotourism appears to be growing. However, again as with sustainable development, there is no agreement as to what is true ecotourism and one must be cautious of these figures. The arrival of e-tourism has changed the way that firms operate. The electronic age continues to enhance computer reservation systems. E-ticketing is on the rise in Canada and the United States which is having an impact on traditional brick and mortar travel agencies. Advances in technology are also being introduced to help increase safety and security at airports. The tourism industry continues to offer new products. Competition is increasing between destinations, and governments have taken a greater role in helping to promote some regions. In Canada, for example, the CTC has developed Product Clubs, which have helped small and medium sized firms partner to develop a stronger product. Other new products, such as wine and culinary tourism, are starting to get more recognition. In places like the Napa Valley and the Niagara Peninsula, there is continued product development. As has been clearly illustrated with the terrorist attacks in the United States and the resulting War on Terrorism, the tourism industry is a vulnerable industry. It is also an industry which can rebound in time by offering new products and attempting to restore consumer confidence. The industry is in need of some form of international stability to help in the recovery of the industry. When stability and recovery will occur is difficult to predict. References Associated Press (2003) Disney World cuts part-time staff hours. London Free Press. February, 22. BBC (2003) Country Profile Mexico. Retrieved 30 January 2003 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/ 2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1205074.stm BBC News (2003a) US to tighten Cuba sanctions. Retrieved 13 November 2003 from http:// news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3181048.stm BBC News (2003b) US senators vote to lift Cuba ban. Retrieved 13 November 2003 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3250171.stm BBC News (2003c) Butterflies face climate threat. Retrieved 19 November 2003 from http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3257917.stm BBC News (2003d) Mexico in bid to save butterflies. Retrieved 19 November 2003 from http:/ /news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3283761.stm




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Chapter 5

Sources, Organizations and Web Sites DAVID A. FENNELL This chapter presents information on all three countries located within the North American context. Particular attention is paid to providing information on sources, organizations and web sites of these regions, and the regional jurisdictions within each, to enable the reader to readily contact specific agencies if required. The intent is not to provide a comprehensive guide to all publications and information within the jurisdictions, but rather to highlight a few offices, web sites and publications which will allow the reader to research more clearly these areas beyond what has been provided in this book. Canada Canadian Tourism Commission, 235 Queen St., 8th Floor East, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0H6 Telephone: (613) 954-3943, Fax: (613) 954-3945, Web Site: http://www. travelcanada.ca/travelcanada/index.cfm Tourism Industry Association of Canada, 130 Albert St., Suite 1016, Ottawa, Ontario, K1P 5G4, Telephone: (613) 238-3883, Fax: (613) 238-3878, Web Site: http://www.tiac-aitc.ca Sample of publications Analysis of the Seasonal Variation in the National Tourism Indicators (1999) Annual Survey of Travel Agencies, Tour Operators 1997 (1999) Canada’s Tourist Attractions: A Statistical Snapshot 1995–96 (1998) Catalogue of Exemplary Practices in Adventure Travel and Ecotourism (1999) Disabled Persons and the Tourism Industry: A Bibliography (1997) National Tourism Indicators – Quarterly Estimates: Fourth Quarter 2000 (2001) Seasonality and the Tourism Industry: A Bibliography (1997) 102


Sources, Organizations and Web Sites



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Further research can be found at www.ttracanada.ca/en/news-research/documents/CANADATOURIMBIBLIOGRAPHYOF MONOGRAPHS.doc Provinces

Alberta: Travel Alberta, 500, 999 - 8th St. SW, Calgary, Alberta, T2R 1J5, Telephone: +1 403 297-2700, Telephone: 1-800-661-8888 toll-free in USA and Canada, Fax: +1 403 297 5068, Email: [email protected], Web site: http://www.travelalberta.com/

British Columbia: Tourism British Columbia, Parliament Buildings, Victoria BC V8V 1X4, Telephone: 1-800-HELLO BC toll-free in North America, Telephone: +1 250 387-1642, Telephone: 435-5622 (HELLO BC) in Vancouver, Web site: http://www.hellobc.com

Manitoba: Culture, Heritage and Tourism, 700-155 Carlton St., Winnipeg, Manitoba, 3C 3H8, Telephone: (204) 945-3777, toll-free: 1(866) manitoba, Fax: (204) 945-2302, Web Site: www.travelmanitoba.com

New Brunswick: Tourism Inquiries, Box 12345, Campbellton, NB, E3N 3T6, Telephone: 1 800 561-0123 toll-free in North America, Web Site: www.TourismNewBrunswick.ca




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Newfoundland and Labrador: Department of Tourism, Culture and Recreation, P.O. Box 8700, St. John’s, Newfoundland A1B 4J6 Telephone: 1-800-563-6353 toll-free in Canada and the USA, Telephone: +1 709-729-2830. Fax: +1-709-729-0057, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.gov.nf.ca/tourism

Northwest Territories: Northwest Territories Arctic Tourism, P.O. Box 610, 5016 - 52nd Street, Yellowknife NT X1A 2N5, Telephone: 1 800-661-0788 toll-free in Canada and USA, Telephone: +1 (867) 872-7200 international enquiries, Telephone: +1 (867) 873-5007 business phone, Fax: +1 (867) 873-4059, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.nwttravel.nt.ca/

Nova Scotia: Department of Tourism, Box 130, Halifax NS, B3J 2M7, Telephone: +1-902-424-5000, Telephone: 800-565-0000 toll-free in Canada and USA, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://explore.gov.ns.ca/

Nunavut: Nunavut Tourism, P.O. Box 1450, Iqaluit NT X0A 0H0, Telephone: +1 867-979-6551, Telephone: 1-800-491-7910 toll-free in North America, Fax: +1 867 979-1261, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.nunatour.nt.ca/




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Ontario: Ontario Travel (Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Recreation), Telephone: 1(800) ONTARIO, Web site: www.ontariotravel.net

Prince Edward Island: Tourism PEI, P.O. Box 940, Charlottetown PE C1A 7M5, Telephone: +1-902-368-4444, Telephone: 1-888-PEI-PLAY (1-888-734-7529) toll-free Canada/USA, Fax: +1-902-629-2428. Web site: http://www.peiplay.com

Quebec: Tourisme Québec, C.P. 979, Montréal QC H3C 2W3, Telephone: (514) 873-2015, Telephone: 1-877-BONJOUR toll-free / sans frais USA & Canada, Fax: (514) 864-3838, Email: [email protected]

Saskatchewan: Tourism Saskatchewan, 1922 Park Street, Regina SK S4P 3V7, Telephone: +1-306-787-2300. Telephone: 1-877-2ESCAPE (1-877-237-2273) toll-free in USA & Canada, Fax: +1-306-787-5744, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.sasktourism.com

Yukon Territory: Tourism Yukon, P.O. Box 2703, Whitehorse YT Y1A 2C6, Telephone: +1 867 667-5340, Fax: +1 867 667-3546, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.touryukon.com/




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United States of America The US does not have one federal tourism department. Contact must be made with each state, individually. There are, however, a number of societies and industry associations, including: American Society of Travel Agents Inc: 101 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314, Telephone: (703) 739-2782, Fax: (703) 684-8319, Web Site: www.astanet.com Sample of Programs: Group pricing Creating a profitable work environment Maximizing agent publicity for profit Upgrading your interoffice technology Tourism Industries Unit, International Trade Administration, US Department of Commerce, Rm. 2073, Washington, DC 20230, Telephone: (202) 482-0140, Fax: (202) 482-2887, Web Site: www.tinet.doc.gov Travel Industry Association of America: 1100 New York Ave NW, Suite 450, Washington, DC, 20005, Telephone: (202) 408-8422, Fax: (202) 255-1225, Web Site: www.tia.org Sample of Publications: The In-Flight Survey (Survey of International Air Travelers) Pleasure Travel Market Studies (PTMS) Summary of International Travel to the United States (I-94) U.S. International Air Travel Statistics Report (I-92) US National Tourism Organization: 1100 New York Ave NW, Suite 450, Washington, DC, 20005, Telephone: (202) 408-8686, Fax: (202) 255-1225,




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States

Alabama: Bureau of Tourism & Travel, P.O. Box 4927, Montgomery, AL 36103-4927, Telephone: +1 334 242-4169, Telephone: 1-800-ALABAMA toll-free in USA, Telephone: +1 334 242-4717 TDD Fax: +1 334 242-4554, Email: [email protected]

Alaska: Alaska Division of Tourism, P.O. Box 110801, Juneau AK 99811-0801, Telephone: 1-800-862-5275 toll-free in USA, Telephone: +1 (907) 465-2012, Fax: +1 (907) 465-3767 Email: [email protected], Web site: http://www.dced.state.ak.us/ tourism/

Arizona: Office of Tourism, 2702 North 3rd Street, Suite 4015, Phoenix AZ 85009, Telephone: 888-520-3433 toll-free in USA and Canada, Web site: http://www.arizonaguide.com/

Arkansas: Arkansas Department of Parks and Tourism, One Capitol Mall, Little Rock, AR 72201 Telephone: +1 501 682-7777, Telephone: 1-800-NATURAL toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 501 682-1364, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.arkansas.com/

California: California Division of Tourism, Division of Tourism, P.O. Box 1499, Sacramento, CA 95812 Telephone: 800-GO-CALIF toll-free USA and Canada, Web site: http://gocalif.ca.gov/




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Colorado: Colorado Tourism Office, 1625 Broadway, Ste. 1700, Denver, CO 80202, Telephone: +1 303-832-6171, Telephone: 1-800-265-6723 to order Colorado Vaction Guide toll-free in USA Web site: http://www.colorado.com

Connecticut: Connecticut Office of Tourism, Department of Economic and Community Development, 505 Hudson Street, Hartford, CT 06106, Telephone: +1 (860) 270-8080, Telephone: 1-800-CT-BOUND toll-free in USA, Web site: http://www.tourism.state.ct.us/

Washington, DC: DC Committee to Promote Washington, 1212 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20005, Telephone: +1-202-724-5644, Telephone: 1-800-422-8644 toll-free in USA Web site: http://www.washington.org/

Delaware: Delaware Tourism Office, 99 Kings Highway, Dover, DE 19901, Telephone: 800-441-8846 toll-free in USA and Canada, Telephone: +1-302-739-4271, Fax: +1 302 739-5749 Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.visitdelaware.net/

Florida: Visit Florida, 661 E. Jefferson Street, Tallahassee, FL 32301, Telephone: +1 850-488-5607. Telephone: 1-888-7-FLA-USA toll-free in USA, Web site: http://www.flausa.com




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Georgia: Department of Industry, Trade and Tourism, P.O. Box 1776, Atlanta, GA 30301, Telephone: +1 (404) 656-3590, Telephone: 800-VISIT-GA (800-847-4842) toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 (404) 657-5689, Web site: http://www.georgia.org/

Hawaii: Hawaii Visitors and Convention Bureau, 2270 Kalakaua Ave., Suite 801, Honolulu, HI 96815 Telephone: +1 808 923-1811, Telephone: 800 353-5846 toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 808 922-8991. Web site: http://www.visit.hawaii.org/

Idaho: Idaho Recreation and Tourism, P.O. Box 83720, Boise, ID 83720-0093, Web site: http://www.visitid.org

Illinois: Illinois Bureau of Tourism, 100 West Randolph Street, Suite 3-400, Chicago IL 60602, Telephone: 800-2- CONNECT toll-free in USA and Canada, Telephone: +1 312 814-4732. Fax: +1 312 814-6175, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.enjoyillinois.com

Indiana: Department of Commerce, Tourism Development Division, 1 North Capitol, Suite 700, Indianapolis, IN 46204-2288, Telephone: 1-888-ENJOY-IN toll-free in USA, Telephone: +1 317 232-8860, Fax: +1 317 233-6887, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.enjoyindiana.com/




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Iowa: Department of Economic Development, Division of Tourism, 200 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, IA 50309, Telephone: +1-515-242-4705, Web site: http://www.state.ia.us/tourism/index.html

Kansas: Kansas Department of Commerce and Housing, Travel and Tourism Division, 700 S. W. Harrison Street, Ste. 1300, Topeka KS 66603-3712, Telephone: +1 785 296-2009, Telephone: 800-2KANSAS toll free in USA, Fax: +1 785 296-6988 , Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.kansas-travel.com

Kentucky: Kentucky Department of Travel Development, PO Box 2011, Frankfort, KY 40602, Telephone: 800-225-TRIP toll-free in USA, TDD-equipped, Fax: +1 502 564-5695, Email: [email protected]

Louisiana: Louisiana Office of Tourism, P.O. Box 94291, Baton Rouge LA 70804-9291, Telephone: +1 (225) 342-8100 reception, Telephone: 800-334-8626 toll-free in USA - Consumer inquiries, Fax: +1-225-342-8390, Web site: http://www.louisianatravel.com/

Maine: Maine Tourism Association, P.O. Box 2300, 325-B Water Street, Hallowell, Maine 04347-2300, Telephone: +1-207-623-0363, Telephone: 800533-9595 toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 207 623-0388, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.mainetourism.com/




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Maryland: Maryland Office of Tourism Development, 217 East Redwood Street, Baltimore MD 21202, Telephone: +1 410 767-3400, Telephone: 800-MD-IS-FUN toll-free in USA only Web site: http://www.mdisfun.org/

Massachusetts: Office of Travel and Tourism, 10 Park Plaza, Suite 4510, Boston, MA 02116 U.S.A., Telephone: +1 (617) 973-8500, Telephone: 800-227-MASS (800-227-6277) toll-free in USA and Canada Fax: +1 (617) 973-8525, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.mass-vacation.com/

Michigan: Travel Michigan, P.O. Box 30226, Lansing MI 48909, Telephone: 1-888-78-GREAT (1-888-784-7328) toll-free USA & Canada, Telephone: 1-800-722-8191 TDD, Telephone: +1-517-373-0670 Business office, Fax: +1 517 373-0059, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.michigan.org/

Minnesota: Minnesota Office of Tourism, 100 Metro Square, 121 Seventh Place East, St. Paul, MN 55101 Telephone: 800-657-3700 toll-free in USA and Canada, Telephone: +1 651296-5029, Fax: +1 651 296-7095, Email: [email protected] Web site: http:// www.exploreminnesota.com/

Mississippi: Mississippi Division of Tourism, Post Office Box 849, Jackson, MS 39205, Telephone: 1-800-WARMEST (927-6378) brochure request line toll-free in USA, Telephone: +1 (601) 359-3297. Fax: +1 (601) 359-5757, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.visitmississippi.org/




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Missouri: Department of Natural Resources, Division of State Parks, P. O. Box 176, Jefferson City, MO 65102. Telephone: +1 573 751-2479, Telephone: 1-800-334-6946 toll-free in USA, Telephone: 1-800-379-2419 TDD toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 573 751-8656, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.mostateparks.com

Montana: Travel Montana, 1424 Ninth Avenue, P.O. Box 200533, Helena, MT 59620-0533, Telephone: 1-800-VISITMT (1-800-847-4868) toll-free in USA, Telephone: 1-800-548-3390 ext 2 toll-free in USA, Telephone: +1 406-444-2654, Fax: +1 406-444-1800, Web site: http://visitmt.com/

Nebraska: Nebraska Division of Travel & Tourism, P.O. Box 98907, Lincoln, NE 68509-8907, Telephone: +1 800-228-4307 toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 402-471-3026, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.visitnebraska.org

Nevada: Nevada Commission on Tourism, 401 North Carson, Carson City, NV 89701, Telephone: +1 775-687-4322, Telephone: 800-NEVADA-8 toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 775-687-6779 Web site: http://www.travelnevada.com/

New Hampshire: New Hampshire Division of Travel and Tourism Development, PO Box 1856, Concord NH 03302-1856, Telephone: +1 603 271-2665, Telephone: 800-FUN-IN-NH (386.4664) toll-free in USA/Canada, Fax: +1 603 271-6870, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.visitnh.gov




New Jersey: New Jersey Commerce & Economic Growth Commission, P.O. Box 820, 20 W. State Street, Trenton, NJ 08625, Telephone: +1 (609) 777-0885, Telephone: (800) VISIT NJ toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 (609) 633-7418, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.state.nj.us/travel/

New Mexico: The New Mexico Department of Tourism, 491 Old Santa Fe Trail, P.O. Box 20002, Santa Fe, NM 87501, Telephone: 1-800-SEE-NEWMEX (800-733-6396) toll-free in USA Web site: http://www.newmexico.org/

New York: New York State Division of Tourism, P.O. Box 2603, Albany, NY 12220-0603, Telephone: +1-518-474-4116, Telephone: 1-800-CALL-NYS toll-free in USA and Canada, Fax: +1 518 486-6416, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.iloveny.com/

North Carolina: North Carolina Division of Tourism, Film and Sports Development, PO Box 29571, Raleigh, N.C. 27826-0571, Telephone: +1 919 733-8372, Telephone: 800-VISIT-NC toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 919-733-8582, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.visitnc.com/

North Dakota: North Dakota Tourism Department, Liberty Memorial Building, 604 East Boulevard, Bismarck, ND 58505, Telephone: 800-HELLO ND (800-435-5663) toll-free in USA,


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Telephone: +1 701 328-2525, Fax: +1 701 328-4878, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.ndtourism.com/

Ohio: Cincinnati Convention & Visitors Bureau, 300 West 6th St, Cincinnati, OH 45202, Telephone: +1-513-621-2142, Telephone: 800-344-3445

Oklahoma: Oklahoma Tourism and Recreation Department, 15 North Robinson, Room 801, P.O. Box 52002. Oklahoma City OK 73152-2002, Telephone: +1 405 521-2409, Telephone: 800-652-OKLA toll-free in USA and Canada, Fax: +1 405 521-3992, Email: [email protected]

Oregon: Oregon Tourism Commission, Oregon Economic and Community Development Department, 775 Summer Street NE, Salem, OR 97301-1282, Telephone: +1 503-986-0000, Telephone: 800-547-7842 toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 503-986-0001, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.traveloregon.com/

Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Office of Travel, Tourism, and Film, Room 404, Forum Building, Harrisburg. PA. 17120, Telephone: +1-717-232-8880, Telephone: 1-800-VISIT-PA toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 1 717 787-0687, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.state.pa.us/visit/




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Rhode Island: Rhode Island Economic Development Corporation, Tourism Division, 1 West Exchange Street, Providence RI 02903, Telephone: +1-401-222-2601, Telephone: 800-556-2484 toll-free in USA. Fax: +1-401-273-8270, Web site: http://www.visitrhodeisland.com/

South Carolina: South Carolina Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism, 1205 Pendleton St., Columbia, SC 29201-0071, Telephone: +1-803-734-1700, Telephone: 1-800-346-3634 toll-free in USA and Canada, Fax: +1 803 734-0133, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.travelsc.com

South Dakota: South Dakota Department of Tourism, 711 East Wells Avenue, Pierre SD 57501-3369, Telephone: +1 605 773-3301, Telephone: 1-800-S-DAKOTA (1-800-732-5682) toll-free in USA. Fax: +1 605 773-3256, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.travelsd.com/

Tennessee: Tennessee Department of Tourist Development, Rachael Jackson Bldg., 5th floor, 320 - 6th Avenue North, Nashville, TN 37243, Telephone: +1 615 741-2159, Telephone: 800-GO2TENN toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 (615) 741-7225, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.tourism.state.tn.us/

Texas: Department of Commerce, Tourism Division, P.O. Box 12728,




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Austin, TX 78711, Telephone: +1-512-462-9191, Telephone: 800 8888-TEX, Web site: http://www.traveltex.com/

Utah: The Utah Travel Council, Council Hall/Capitol Hill, Salt Lake City, Utah 84114-1396, Telephone: +1 (801) 538-1900, Telephone: 1-800-200-1160 toll-free in USA, Fax: +1 (801) 538-1399, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.utah.com/

Vermont: Vermont Department of Tourism & Marketing, 6 Baldwin Street, Montpelier, VT 05633-1301 Telephone: 1-800-VERMONT (1-800-837-6668) toll-free in USA, Telephone: +1 802-828-0587 travel information, Telephone: +1 802 828-3237 administration, Fax: 1-802-828-3233. Email: [email protected], Web site: http://www.travel-vermont.com

Virginia: Virginia Tourism Corporation, 901 East Byrd Street, Richmond, VA 23219, Telephone: +1-804-786-4484, Telephone: 800-VISIT-VA (248-4833) toll-free in USA Web site: http://www.virginia.org/

Washington: Washington State Tourism Division, Web site: http://www.tourism.wa.gov/

West Virginia: West Virginia Division of Tourism, 2101 Washington St., E., P.O. Box 50312,




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Charleston, WV 25305-0312, Telephone: +1 304 558-2200, Telephone: 1-800-CALL-WVA toll-free in USA. Web site: http://www.state.wv.us/tourism/default.htm

Wisconsin: Wisconsin Department of Tourism, P.O. Box 7976, Madison, WI 53707-7976, Telephone: 1-800-372-2737 toll-free in USA (daytime only), Telephone: 1-800-432-8747 toll-free in USA (24 hour service), Telephone: +1 (608) 266-7621, Fax: +1 (608) 266-3403. Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.travelwisconsin. com/

Wyoming: Wyoming Business Council, Tourism and Travel Division, Interstate 25 at College Drive, Cheyenne, WY 82002, Telephone: +1 307 777-7777, Telephone: (800) 225-5996 toll-free in USA. Fax: +1-307-777-2877, Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.wyomingtourism.org/

Mexico Secretariat of State of Tourism, Preseidente Masarik 172, 11587 Mexico, DF, Telephone: (5) 250-8555, Fax: (5) 255-3112, Web Site: www.mexico-travel.com Fondo Nacional de Fomento al Turismo (FONATUR), Insurgentes Sur 800, 17?, Col. Del Valle, 03100 Mexico, DF, Telephone: (5) 687-2697. PRONATURA.Founded in 1981, PRONATURA is a non-profit, Mexican civil organization, whose mission is to protect and conserve Mexico’ biodiversity. www.pronatura.org.mx/english/index_en.html




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State Offices

Aguascalientes: Av. Universidad No. 1001 Edif. Torre Plaza Bosques 8 Piso CP 20127 Aguascalientes, AGS.Tel: (449) 912-3511 * Fax: (449) 912-1990 www.aguascalientes.gob.mx/turismo

Baja California: Blvd. Diaz Ordaz s/n Edif. Plaza Patria Nivel 3 CP 22400 Tijuana, B.C. Tel: (664) 634-6330 * Fax: (664) 634-7157 Email: [email protected]

Baja California Sur: Carr. al Norte Km. 5.5 Fracc. Fidepaz CP 23090 La Paz, B.C.S. Tel: (612) 124-0100 * Fax: (612) 124-0722 E-mail: [email protected]

Campeche: Av. Ruiz Cortines s/n Plaza Moch-Couoh, Centro CP 24000 Campeche, Camp. Tel: (981) 811-9200 * Fax: (981) 816-6068

Chiapas: Blvd. Belisario Dominguez No. 950, Planta Baja CP 29060 Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chis. Tel: (961) 613-9396 * Fax: (961) 612-5509

Chihuahua: Calle Libertad No. 1300 Edif. Agustin Melgar, 1er Piso CP 31000 Chihuahua, Chih. Tel: (61) 429-3421 * Fax: (61) 416-0032 E-mail: [email protected]




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Coahuila: Blvd. Luis Echeverría No. 1560 Edif. Torre Saltillo Piso 11 CP 25286 Saltillo, Coah. Tel: (884) 415-1714 * Fax: (884) 415-2174 E-mail: [email protected]

Colima: Portal Hidalgo No. 96 Centro CP 28000 Colima, Col. Tel: (312) 312-2857 * Fax: (312) 312-8360 E-mail: [email protected]

Durango: Hidalgo No. 408 Sur CP 34000 Durango, Dgo. Tel: (618) 811-3160 * Fax: (618) 811-9677

Guanajuato: Plaza de la Paz No. 14 CP 36000 Guanajuato Gto Tel: (473) 732-1574; Fax: (473) 732-4251

Guerrero: Av. Costera Miguel Alemán No. 4455 Centro Cultural y de Convenciones de Acapulco Fracc. Club Deportivo CP 39850 Acapulco, Gro. Tel: (744) 484-2423 * Fax: (744) 481-1160

Hidalgo: Carr. Mexico-Pachuca Km. 93.5 Col. Venta Prieta CP 42080 Pachuca, Hgo. Tel: (771) 717-8117 * Fax: (771) 717-8116




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Jalisco: Morelos No. 102, Plaza Tapatia CP 44100 Guadalajara, Jal. Tel: (33) 613-1196 * Fax: (33) 614-4365 www.jalisco.gob.mx/srias/setur/index.html

Mexico (State): Edif. Centro de Servicios Admvos. Puerta No. 110 CP 50150 Toluca, Edo. de México Tel: (722) 212-5998 * Fax: (722) 212-1633 E-mail: [email protected] www.df.gob.mx

Michoacan: El Nigromante No.79, Palacio Clavijero, Centro CP 58000 Morelia, Mich. Tel: (443) 312-5244 * Fax: (443) 312-9816

Morelos: Av. Morelos Sur No. 187, Las PalmasCP 62050 Cuernavaca, Mor. Tel: (777) 314-3872 * Fax: (777) 314-3654

Nayarit: Calz. del Ejército y Av. México s/n Ex-Convento de la Cruz de Zacate CP 63168 Tepic, Nay. Tel: (311) 214-8071 * Fax: (311) 214-1017 www.turnay.gob.mx

Nuevo Leon: Zaragoza No. 1300 Sur Edif. Kalos Nivel A-1 Desp. 137 CP 64000 Monterrey, N.L. Tel: (81) 344-4343 * Fax: (81) 344-1169 www.monterrey-mexico.com




Oaxaca: Independencia No. 607 esq. García Vigil CP 68000 Oaxaca, Oax. Tel: (951) 516-0717 * Fax: (951) 516-1500 E-mail: [email protected] www.oaxaca.gob.mx/sedetur/index.html

Puebla: 5 Oriente No. 3 Centro Histórico CP 72000 Puebla, Pue. Tel: (222) 246-2044 * Fax: (222) 246-2044 E-mail: [email protected]

Queretaro: Av. Luis Pasteur No. 4, Nte. Centro Histórico CP 76000 Ouerétaro, Qro. Tel: (442) 212-1412 * Fax: (442) 212-1094 E-mail: turismo.queretaro.com.mx

Quintana Roo: Carr. a Calderitas No. 622 Entre Ciricote e Ignacio Comonfort CP 77010 Chetumal, Q. Roo Tel: (983) 835-0860 * Fax: (983) 835-0880 E-mail: [email protected]

San Luis Potosi: Alvaro Obregón No. 520 CP 78000 San Luis Potosí, S.L.P. Tel: (444) 812-9939 * Fax: (444) 812-6769

Sinaloa: Av. Camarón Sabalo esq. Tiburon Edificio Banrural 4 Piso CP 82100 Mazatlán, Sin. Tel: (667) 916-5160 * Fax: (667)916-5166


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Sonora: Centro de Gobierno, Edif. Estatal Norte 3er Nivel Comonfort y Paseo Río CP 83280 Hermosillo, Son. Tel: (662) 217-0076 * Fax: (662) 217-0076

Tabasco: Av. Los Ríos s/n esq. Calle 13 Tabasco 2000 CP 86035 Villahermosa, Tab. Tel: (993) 316-5134 * Fax: (993) 316-2890

Tamaulipas: 16 Rosales No. 272 CP 87000 Cd. Victoria, Tamps. Tel: (834) 312-1057 * Fax: (834) 312-7002

Tlaxcala: Av. Juárez esq. Lardizábal CP 90000 Tlaxcala, Tlax. Tel: (246) 462-0027 * Fax: (246) 462-5307 www.tlaxcala.gob.mx

Veracruz: Blvd. Cristóbal Colón No. 5 CP 91190 Xalapa, Ver. Tel: (228) 812-8500 * Fax: (228) 812-5939 E-mail: [email protected] www.veracruz.gob.mx

Yucatan: Calle 59 No. 514 entre 62 y 64, Centro CP 97000 Mérida, Yuc. Tel: (999) 924-9389 * Fax: (999) 928-6547

Zacatecas: Av. Hidalgo No. 403 Segundo Piso CP 98000 Zacatecas, Zac.




Tel: (492) 924-0552 * Fax: (492) 922-9329 E-mail: [email protected] www.turismozacatecas.gob.mx Other Offices: Acapulco Convention and Visitors Bureau Oficina de Convenciones y Visitantes de Acapulco Ave. Costera Miguel Aleman No.3111 Fracc. Costa Azul, Suites 204-205 Acapulco, GRO 39850 Mexico Telephone: +52 (7) 484-8555 Fax: +52 (7) 484-8134 Web site: www.acapulco-cvb.org/


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North America: A Tourism Handbook (Aspects of Tourism)

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Progressing Tourism Research (Aspects of Tourism, 9)

Philosophical Issues in Tourism (Aspects of Tourism)

Progressing Tourism Research (Aspects of Tourism, 9)

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Zoos and Tourism: Conservation, Education, Entertainment? (Aspects of Tourism)

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Sport Tourism: Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues (Aspects of Tourism, 14)

Music and Tourism: On the Road Again (Aspects of Tourism)

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An International Handbook of Tourism Education (Advances in Tourism Research)

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North America: A Tourism Handbook (Aspects of Tourism)

Oceania: A Tourism Handbook (Aspects of Tourism)

Tourism Ethics (Aspects of Tourism)

Wildlife Tourism (Aspects of Tourism)

Progressing Tourism Research (Aspects of Tourism, 9)

Philosophical Issues in Tourism (Aspects of Tourism)

Progressing Tourism Research (Aspects of Tourism, 9)

Polar Tourism: An Environmental Perspective (Aspects of Tourism)

Classic Reviews in Tourism (Aspects of Tourism, 8)

Tourism Employment: Analysis and Planning (Aspects of Tourism, 6)

Zoos and Tourism: Conservation, Education, Entertainment? (Aspects of Tourism)

Shopping Tourism, Retailing, and Leisure (Aspects of Tourism)

Tourism, Recreation, and Climate Change (Aspects of Tourism)

Sport Tourism: Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues (Aspects of Tourism, 14)

Music and Tourism: On the Road Again (Aspects of Tourism)

Recreational Tourism: Demands and Impacts (Aspects of Tourism , 11)

Nordic Tourism: Issues and Cases (Aspects of Tourism)

Mallorca and Tourism: History, Economy and Environment (Aspects of Tourism)

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Lake Tourism: An Integrated Approach to Lacustrine Tourism Systems (Aspects of Tourism)

An International Handbook of Tourism Education (Advances in Tourism Research)

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Sports Tourism in Latin America

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