ADVANCES IN AGRONOMY VOLUME I1
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AGRONOMY Prepared under the Auspices...
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ADVANCES IN AGRONOMY VOLUME I1
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ADVANCES IN
AGRONOMY Prepared under the Auspices of the
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF AGRONOMY
V O L U M E I1 Edited by A. G. NORMAN Camp Detrick, Frederick, Maryland
ADVISORY BOARD R. BRADFIELD H. H. LAUDE C. E. MARSHALL N. P. NEAL
K. S. QUISENBERRY L. A. RICHARDS V. G. SPRAGUE E. WINTERS
1950
ACADEMIC PRESS INC., PUBLISHERS NEW YORK
Copyright 1950, by ACADEMIC PRESS INC. 125 EAST 2 3 ~ 0STREET NEW YORK
10,
N . Y.
All Rights Reserved N o part of this book may be reproduced in any form, b y photostat, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publishers.
PRINTED I N THE UNITED STATE8 OF AMERICA
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I1 J. E. ADAMS,Head, Department of Agronomy, Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College System, College Station, Texas.
GILBERT H. AHLGREN, Professor of Fawn Crops, Rutgers University, New Brunawick, New Jersey. W. H. ALLAWAY, Research Professor of Soils, Iowa Agricultural Expertment Station, Ames, Iowa.
HENRYD. BARKER, Principal Pathologist, U . S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland. CHARLES A. BENNETT, Principal Agricultural Engineer, U . S. Department of Agriculture, Cotton Ginning Laboratory, Stoneville, Mississippi. E. C. CHILDS,Assistant Director of Research in Soil Physics;School of Agriculture, University of Cambridge, England. F. M. EATON,Principal Physiologist, U . 8. Department of Agriculture, College Station, Texas.
L. E. ENSMINGIER, Associate Soil Chemist, Alabama Agricultural Experiweent Station, Auburn, Alabama.
R. F. FUELLEMAN, Professor of Agronomy, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
J. C. GAINES,Professor of Entomology, Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College System, College Station, Texas. N. COLLIS-GEORGE, Demonstrator, School of Agviculture, University of Cambridge, England.
M. K. HORNE,JR.,Dean, School of Commerce and Business Administration, University of Mississippi, University , Mississippi. WESLEYKELLER,Geneticist, U . 8. Depart merit of Agriculture, Logan, Utah. W. K. KENNEDY, Professor of Agronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca, New Yorlc.
J. E. KNOTT,Professor of Truck Crops, University of California, Davis, California. HELMUT KOHNKE, Soil Scientist, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station, Lafayette, Indiana. V
vi
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I1
0. A. LORENZ, Assistant Professor of Truck Crops, University of California, Davis, California. WILLIAM E. MEEK,Senior Agricultural Engineer, U . S. Department of Agriculture, Stoneville, Mississippi. R. B. MUSGRAVE, Associate Professor of Agronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. R. W. PEARSON, Senior Soil Scientist, IJ. S. Department of Agriculture, Auburn, Alabama. MAURICE L. PETERSON, Assistant Agronom'st, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Davis, California. JOHNT. PRESLEY, Head, Department of Plant Pathology and Physiologp, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, State College, Mississippi. T . R. RICHMOND, Professor of Agronomy, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station and Senior Agronomist, U . S. Department of Agriculture, College Station, Texas.
F. F. RIECKEN, Research Professor of Soils, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. GUYD. SMITH,Senior Soil Correlator, U . S. Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa. HARRIS P. SMITH,Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas.
Preface In the preface to Volume I it was pointed out that the pressure of progress in the many sub-fields that collectively constitute agronomy tends to produce specialists who find it difficult to keep abreast of newer developments somewhat removed from their immediate interests, yet of professional importance to them. It was further explained that the editors were not inclined to quibble about the precise definition of the word (‘agronomy.” I n selecting topics for treatment they would be guided more by the consideration of what might be useful to agronomists than what constitutes agronomy. The authors are urged t o present, as far as possible, unified, complete and authoritative accounts of the recent developments in their particular fields. Topics will reappear from time to time as new material and new viewpoints develop. This is the mid-century year. It would be presumptious on the part of a publication so recently established as Advances in Agronomy to prepare a mid-century number delineating and weighing the achievements and accomplishments of the first half of this century. The editor had no dif3culty in resisting the urge to follow the lead set in this matter by long-established and more popular publications. However, this thought did set in train some speculations as to what topics might have been selected for a similar volume had one been prepared fifty years ago. Largely, this amounted to a realization of the topics which would not have been included because their development has taken place almost entirely since 1900. Crop improvement through genetics, soil physics, and soil genesis are examples. A cursory glance a t the contents of this volume will show that about half of them would not have appeared in any form in a 1900 edition. Thus fast has agronomy grown. Speculation in another direction is possible. One might consider the extent of the agronomic achievements of the past half century in terms of the changes in U. S. agriculture and agricultural practice. These are dramatic enough. Here is a nation which in fifty years has doubled in population but has no more farms now than then. Twenty-five per cent more acres are harvested, meat production has been doubled, fertilizer consumption has increased eight-fold, but there are fewer sheep, and far fewer horses and men on farms now than at the turn of the century. Perhaps in the last lies a clue to much that has been accomplished by the mechanization of many operations through the availability of power equipment. What can be anticipated in the remainder of this troubled century? vii
viii
PREFACE
Have the easy things been done? Will the tempo of progress be slowed? Are the land use systems that have developed stable or exploitive? Will the crop surpluses of domestic production be absorbed in meeting the deficits elsewhere, or are they merely a temporary feature soon to be dissipated by population increase? Should production be curtailed in the interests of conservation? Will there be changes in food habits on the part of the consumer that will call for great shifts in types of farming? Will the era of surpluses even give way to a period when the demands for food will be such that exploitive land use is forced upon us? The resolution of many vital questions such as these will not primarily lie in the hands of those practicing the profession of agronomy, yet they will be required to use all their skills and ingenuity and resourcefulness in providing the solution to the innumerable practical problems that taken together will determine the answers to such major questions. Subsequent volumes of the Advances will record and summarize their methods, recount their achievements and measure their accomplishments. A. G. NORMAN Frederick, Md. October, 1960.
CONTENTS Contributors to Volume I1 . . Preface . . . . . . . . . . .
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v vii
Uotton
COORDINAT~D BY J E . ADAMS. Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College System. College Station. Texas I . Introduction. BY J . E. ADAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1. Competitive Position of Cotton Among Fibers. BY M . K . HORNE.JR. 111. Physiology of the Cotton Plant. BY F. M . EATON . . . . . . . IV . Diseases of Cotton. BY JOHNT. PRESLEY . . . . . . . . . . . V . Insect Pests. BY J . C . GAINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI . Improvements in Production Practices. BY WILLIAM E . MEEK and HARRIS P . SMITH. . . . . . . . VII . Improvements in Ginning Practices. BY CHARLESA . BENNETT. . VIII . Fiber Properties and Their Significance. BY HENRY D. BARKER. . I X . Breeding and Improvement. BY T. R . RICHMOND. . . . . . . . References
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2 5 11 26 32 40 50 56 63 74
Soil Nitrogen
BY L . E . ENSMINGER AND R . W . PEARSON. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. and U . S . Department of Agriculture. Auburn. Alabama
...
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. Factors Affecting Nitrogen Content of Soils . . . . . . . . . I11..Nature of Organic Nitrogen in the Soil . . . . . . . . . . . IV . Nitrogen Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V . Effect of Cropping Practices on Nitrogen Level . . . . . . . VI . Nitrogen Economy of Eroded Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . VII . Commercial Nitrogen us. Barnyard Manure and Green Manures . VIII. Nitrogen Trends in Various Parts of the U S. . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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83 87 89
94 98
100 104 109
Vegetable Production
BY J. E. KNWTT A N D 0. A . LORENZ. University of California. Davis. California I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . I1. Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . I11. Trace Elements . . . . . . . . . . . IV . Development of New Vegetable Varieties V. Utilization of Heterosis . . . . . . .
ix
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114 116 120 121 128
CONTENTS
X
Page VI . Growth Control Techniques . VII . Labor Saving Devices . . . VIII . Possible Future Developments References
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135
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Prairie Soils of the Upper Mississippi Valley
BY GUYD . SMITH. W . H . ALLAWAY A N D F. F. RIECKEN.U . S. Department of Agriculture. Ames. Iowa. and the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station. Ames. Iowa
I . Iptroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1. Characteristics of a Modal Prairie Soil . . . . . . . . . . . I11. Variability of Prairie Soils as Functions of Soil-Forming Factors . . IV. Classification of Prairie Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V . Distribution af the Prairie Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI . Crop Yields from Prairie Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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157 159 166 192
196
. 197 203
Ladino Ulover BY OxteERT H . AHKJREN A N D R . F . FUELLEMAN. Rutgers University. New Brunswick. New Jersey. and University of Illinois. Urbana. Illinois
I . History and Distribution . . I1. Characteristics and Adaptation I11. Establishment and Management IV . Utilieation V. Summary References
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208 209 213 2% 230 230
The Uontrol of Soil Water
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BY E . C CHILDSA N D N . COLLIS.GEOWE.School of Agriculture. University of Cambridge. England
I . The Scope of the Review . . . . . . . I1. Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . I11 The Basic Approach . . . . . . . . . . IV. Drainage and Irrigation . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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234
2% 268 269
Preservation and Storage of Forage Urops BY R . B . MUSORAVE A N D W . K . KENNEDY. Department of Agronomy. Cornell Univeroity. Ithaca. New York
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I Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1. Measurements of Changes in Quality During Preservation and Storage 111. Sifage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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274 276 279
xi
CONTENTS
Page
IV . Field-Cured Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V . Barn Hay Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI . Artificial Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII . Experiments Comparing Silage, Barn-Cured and Field-Cured Hay VIII . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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284 299 304 306 309 311
The Reclamation of Coal Mine Spoils
BY HELMUT KOHNKE. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station. Lafayette. Indiana
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 I1. The Condition of Spoil Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 I11. Methods of Testing Spoil Bank Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 330 IV . Land Use Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 V . Methods of Revegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 VI . Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 VII . Economic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 VIII . Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 IX. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 X . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 XI . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Irrigated Pastures
BY WESLEYKELLERAND MAURICEL . PETERSON. U . 9. Department of Agriculture. Logan. Utah. and California Agricultural Experiment Station. Davis. California
I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1. Pasture Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . I11. Choosing Productive Mixtures . . . . . . 1V. Establishing Pastures . . . . . . . . . . V. Management of Pastures . . . . . . . . VI . Economy of Pastures . . . . . . . . . . VII . Pastures in Relation to Other Sources of Feed References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Author Index Subject Index
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351 352 356 360 365 375 380 382 385 402
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Cotton
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Coordinated by J . E ADAMS Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College System. College Station. Texas CONTENTS
I. Introduction b y J. E. ADAMS
Page
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I1. Competitive Position of Cotton Among Fibers by M . K . HORNE. J R . . 1. Cotton Loses Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. End-Uses of Cotton and Other Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . 3 A Static V 8. a Dynamic Position for Cotton . . . . . . . . . 4. Need for Expanded Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I11. Physiology of the Cotton Plant by F. M . EATON . . . . . . . . . 1. Floral Initiation and Plant Development . . . . . . . . . . 2. Mineral Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Carbohydrates, Nitrogen and Fruitfulness . . . . . . . . . . 5. Effect of Drought on Plant Composition and Fruiting . . . . . . 6. Drought and Other Factors Affecting Boll Development and Lint Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Oxygen Requirements for Root Growth . . . . . . . . . . . IV . Diseases of Cotton by J . T . PRESLEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. SeedTreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Phymatotrichum Root Rot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Fusarium Wilt 4. Verticillium Wilt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Bacterial Blight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.Root-Knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 5 6 8 9
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V . Insect Pests by J . C . GAINES . . . . . . . . . 1. Thrips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Cotton Aphid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. CottonFleahopper . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . Boll Weevil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . Bollworm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Pink Bollworm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Hemipterous Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 . Cotton Leafworm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. Spider Mites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. General Recommendations for Chemical Control
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VI . Improvements in Production Practices . . . . . . . . 1 . In Humid Areas b y W . E . MEEK . . . . . . . . 2. I n Low-Rainfall and Subhumid Areus by H . P . SMITH I
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14 20 22 24 24 25 26 26 26 28 29 30 31 32 32 32 33 33 34 36 37 38 38 39 40
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J. E. ADAMS
VII. Improvements in Ginning Practices by C. A. BENNETT 1. Regulation of Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Extraction and Interrelated Processes . . . . . . 4.Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page 50 . 50 52
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII. Fiber Properties and Their Significance by H. D. BARKER . . . . . 1. Fiber Structure and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 3. 4. 5.
Fiber Length . . . . . . . . . . Fiber Strength . . . . . . . . . . Fiber Fineness . . . . . . . . . . Significance of Fiber Properties . .
IX. Breeding and Improvement by
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1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. The Breeding Problem . . . . . . . . . . 3. Breeding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Hybrid Vigor in F, and Advanced Generations 5. Special Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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63 55
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I. INTRODUCTION J. E. ADAMS Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College System, College Station, Texas
Cotton is the most important cash crop grown in the United States, and is the only major crop which produces the 3 products, fiber, food and feed. When all phases of the industry are considered, some 20 to 25 million people are wholly or partially dependent on cotton as a source of income. Of these, approximately 1,500,000 are engaged in production and 3,000,000 in ginning, marketing and processing. The fact that the entire fruit of the cotton plant is used makes it an unusual crop. In addition to lint, the embryos or “meats” of the seed furnish both a protein concentrate and a high-grade oil. The “hulls” or seed coats are used as feed, as well as the concentrate. The fuzz left on the seed after normal ginning is removed mechanically and these short fibers known as “linters” are used in upholstering, low-grade mattresses, and as a source of cellulose for synthetics. The present status of cotton is both artificial and in a state of flux. Although cotton lint is the most versatile fiber known when all end-uses are considered, economic conditions since the early thirties, with intermittent acreage control and price subsidies, have resulted in increased competition of old and new synthetic fibers. Unrestricted production during and following the war, with impending acreage controls, is reflected in Table I, released as of December 8, 1949, by the Bureau of
CCYITON
3
Agricultural Economics, Austin, Texas. Every cotton-producing state shows an increase in acreage in 1949 over 1948. I n spite of lower production per acre in some areas, there was a net increase of 1,157,000 500-lb. gross-weight bales in 1949, as compared with 1948. More striking ia the increase of 4,728,000 bales in 1949 over the average of 11,306,000 bales in the 1938-1947 period. The increase in production in the irrigated areas, particularly California and also S e w Mexico and Arizona, is phenomenal. Although the sections on production treat mechanization of the cotton crop in many of its details, it is to be emphasized that mechanization for all areas really dates to the World War I1 period, during which there was an intensification in research and more ready acceptance by the farmer due to the dearth of labor. Development of flame cultivation, rotary hoes, efficient fenders for cultivation equipment, along with the culmination of years of research on harvesting machinery, resulting in usable harvesters, has made full mechanization of the crop a reality in some sections. Remaining difficulties for other areas and particular seasons are yielding to intensified research. Estimates furnished by the National Cotton Council indicate that approximately 2900 spindle-type pickers were used in 1949. Mississippi led with 990. California used approximately 850, Arkansas, 350, and Louisiana, 200. The acreage harvested would be difficult to estimate, but probable harvest per machine varied from 100 to 250 acres. A total of better than 7000 strippers were used, with the Texas High-Plains area accounting for a t least 6000. Oklahoma was the only other large user, the estimated nuniber being 950. The capacity per machine ranges from 125 to 400 acres, depending on local conditions. Considering that practically all of the cotton harvesters have become available since the war, the increase in use of machinery is outstanding. The general feeling that costs of production for cotton must eventually be radically lowered, leads to the conclusion that production per acre must be increased. Better fertility practices, control of insects and diseases, better varieties of cotton for mechanical harvesting, along with more complete and assured defoliation are of prime importance. All of the cottons of the world, whether cultivated or wild, belong to the genus, Gossypium. They may be divided into 3 main groups: (1) Old World or Asiatic cultivated (n = 13), (2) New World or American cultivated (n = 26), and (3) wild, (n = 13, with one anomalous exception). Though the reported number of species of Gossypium varies widely, depcnding on the classification systcm employed and the inclination of the taxonomist, a rcccnt work by Hutchinson et al. (1947) (see References in I?() recognizes twenty. Thcsc writers place the cultivated
J. E. ADAMS
4
cottons under four species: G . arboreum L., G . hirsutum L., and G . barbademe L. The first two are designated as Asiatic and the last two as American cottons, and all bear spinnable seed hairs, called lint, which distinguishes them from the wild cottons which do not have spinnable lint. American cultivated cottons ( n = 26), according to the theory advanced by Skovsted (1937) (see References in IX) and confirmed independently by Beasley (1940) and Harland (1940) (see References TABLE I Cotton Production in United States Acreage Harvested
Lint Yield per Harvested Acre
AverAverage 1948 1949 age 1938- (re- :Dec.l 19381947, rised) lo00 lo00 acres acrea
-
Aver- 1948 1949 1948 1949 age Crop Crop (re- (Dec. 1938- (re- :Dee. 1 1947, rised) est.), lo00 lo00 lo00 bales bales bales
451 348 355 309 235 164
436 447 447 372 279 249
377 300 270 211 189 196
684 1,691 2,397 1,916 968
830 368 770 1,630 1,810 262 2,660 2,770 318 2820 2,450 334 950 1,060 261
417 353 441 428 382
375 229 268 325 294
1,491 7,842 115 200 352 18
1,025 1,300 163 8,610 10,726 170 209 310 497 281 373 423 957 602 804 19 413 18
229 175 284 176 394 542 641 558 651 676 435383
Missouri Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida
555 375 26 30 725 743 1,118 1,120 1,608 1889 29 46
Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Arkansas Louisiana Oklahoma Texas New Mexico Arizona California Other Statesb
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-
-
State
Production (Ginnings)' 500 lb. gross wt. bales
583 32 815 1,270 1,550 44
356 22 549 716 779 14
506 24 678 871 751 15
523 669 901 1,197 1,588 2,363 1,329 1,982 756 528
374 521 2,722 3,153 119 236 328 174 447 988 16 -- -- 16 285.8 312.6 254.0 11,306 L4,877 26,898 UNITED STATES 21396 22,821 -
Amer. Egypt'
63.5
4.c
6.3
279
434
1
327
29.5
3.6
460 20 460 560 610 18
650
865
1,490 1,W 650 620 5,900 265 500 1,300 16
__
16,034 4.3 _-
Allowances made for interstate movement of seed cotton for ginning. Illinois, Kansas, and Kentucky for all years and Nevada for 1948 and 1949. Included in State and United States totals. Grown principally in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. a
6
COTTON
in IX) , are tetraploids which have arisen by amphidiploidy from hybrids of Asiatic (n = 13) and American Wild (n = 13) parentage. This paper will present important aspects of the production of cotton each of which, because of space limitations, can be treated only briefly.
11. COMPETITIVE POSITION OF COTTON AMONGFIBERS M.
I(. HORNE,
JR.
University of Mississip& U n i h s i t y , Missi8sippi
1. Cotton Loses Markets Except for the abnormal experience of the war and early postwar years, it can be said that over the past 4 decades the per capita consumption of cotton in this country has shown no tendency to rise. Over this long period, it has gravitated around a central figure of 25 or 26 lbs. a year, displaying no trend either up or down. I n net effect, the entire new market created by rising standards of living has been captured by rayon, paper, and to a smaller extent, other materials. I n this fact we have an indication of what competition has done to the cotton market down to the present time, and why the students of the demand for cotton are engrossed in its competitive position. There are a t least 35 materials which give cotton substantial competition. The more interesting ones include rayon in its various forms, paper, glass fiber, nylon and the other fibers of synthesized polymers, the synthetic protein fibers, plastic film, and jute, ramie and the other bast fibers. I n seeking the competitive meaning of these numerous materials, it seems helpful, and in some degree defensible, to think primarily in terms of rayon. This fiber is not only cotton’s biggest, but by a wide margin its most serious, most threatening competitor. I n Project IV of the cotton fact-finding program, “A study of the agricultural and economic problems of the Cotton Belt,” presented in 1947 before the Cotton Subcommittee of the committee on Agriculture, U. s. House of Representatives, it was found that some form of rayon was cotton’s closest competitor in 65 out of a group of 106 end-uses analyzed. I n 25 years, rayon has advanced from a trivial position among all fibers to second place in the volume consumed in the United States. I n 1948, 1,124,000,000 Ibs. of rayon were produced in this country. Factory capacity has now reached an estimated 1,235,000,000 lbs., or the equivalent in usable fiber of about 2,900,000 bales of cotton. This amounts to 48 per cent of the average annual consumption of cotton in this country during the
6
M. K. HORNE, JR.
decade of the 1930’s, and to 35 per cent of the cotton consumption in the best year of that decade, which was 1937. Two-thirds of this rayon capacity has been built since the end of that decade. With the return to a buyer’s market for textiles in the United States, cotton is inevitably feeling a terrific impact from a competitor which has grown so rapidly and become so large. I n foreign lands, the tendency is for rayon to assume an even stbnger competitive position than in the United States.
9. E d - U s e s of Cotton and Other Fibers Every end-use market for cotton has a separate pattern of requirements in price and in the scores of distinct qualities which characterize a fiber product. Likewise, there is a separate price and quality pattern for every competing material. Most materials are quite different from cotton in price and quality, and they must compete in a more limited number of end-uses where their special characteristics give them an advantage. As competitors of cotton they are specialty materials, concentrating upon and limited to Some segment of cotton’s end-use markets. Paper, for example, is cotton’s second most aggressive competitor today. It has a big advantage in price and a few small advantages in quality. Within a limited range of uses, these factors can sometimes overcome the important advantages of cotton in other properties. Paper is a formidable competitor in the great bag market, and in large sectors of the towel, cordage, napkin, and handkerchief markets. Its quality is being steadily improved through research. But paper’s differences in texture, strength, and absorbency quite obviously restrict it to a fraction of the cotton market. For a second example, the leading synthetics other than rayon are considered. They are all far above the price range of cotton. One may be tempted to reason that since rayon came down to the price of cotton, these other materials can eventually do likewise. Any such reasoning would seem to be premature, a t least for the better fibers. I n the strong, resilient synthesized polymers, including nylon, the textile scientists point out that basic differences in the chemical approach seem to invalidate the idea of ever bringing costs down to the level of rayon. At the same time, these various synthetics are quite superior to cotton in some qualities, and quite inferior to it in others. There are certain uses for cotton in which their patterns of quality can overcome the price handicap, but again these uses are limited. Rayon is distinguished by the fact that to an ever-increasing degree it competes for markets, not because of its differences from cotton, but because of its similarities to cotton. Its price and quality pattern has relentlessly shaped itself toward the price and quality pattern of cotton.
COTTON
7
Very generally, it can be said that today rayon is in the same price range with cotton. In reference to quality, there still are sharp differences between the two fibers, but rayon has made marvelous progress in overcoming its quality handicaps through research. That progress can be seen in the development of staple fiber, in delustering, in crimping, in higher wet and dry strength, in softer yarns, and in better finishes for dimensional stability. Several of rayon’s biggest quality handicaps remain, but we cannot overlook the fact that the extensive research program of the rayon industry is going vigorously forward. As a competitor of cotton, rayon looks less and less like a specialty fiber and more and more like a fiber which eventually may contend for virtually all of cotton’s markets. The two chief weapons with which rayon might be expected to improve its present competitive position are: (1) the lowering of price; and (2) the improvement of quality. Which of these two possibilities is the more threatening to cotton? From the excellent research in recent years, it now seems fairly clear that the rayon industry is likely to rely primarily on improved quality to buttress its competitive position. The era of continual price reductions in rayon, year by year, seems to have ended in 1938. The average production cost of viscose staple a t a recent time was 29 cents a pound. This of course was before any allowance for income tax. The selling price of viscose staple was 35 cents in March, 1950. Obviously it is unlikely that any drastic price reduction will be achieved by reducing profits unless market conditions take a serious turn for the worse. On the side of cost reductions, it must be recognized that real technical progress is still being made, but the nature of the cost is such that the further reductions are likely to be much more gradual than in the past. Therefore, it seems that any declines in the selling price of viscose staple are likely to be modest in amount unless a serious business recession occurs. For types of rayon other than viscose staple, the possibilities of cost reductions, through technical advances, may be somewhat greater, but nowhere can any reductions of major proportions be foreseen. On the other hand, the rayon industry is spending large sums of money on research, a major part of it apparently aimed a t the improvement of quality. It is perhaps a reasonable guess that the present rayon research and technical-service programs of the 5 leading companies are costing ten million dollars a year. We can never predict what research laboratories may bring forth, but we must be impressed with the success of the rayon research program down to the present time. A continued, and perhaps an accelerated, improvement in the quality of the various rayons appears to be the greatest threat to the market for cotton. A continuing
8
M. IC. HORNE, JR.
trend toward general equality in the price and quality patterns of the two fibers is therefore to be expected. 3. A Static vs. a Dynamic Position for Cotton I n the face of this trend, how shall we appraise the competitive position of cotton? Although the situation is essentially dynamic, let us examine it first under assumed conditions which would make it static. The assumptions include the following: (1) no change from the situation of 1946 in the relative qualities of cotton and rayon products; (2) no change in the relative merchandising efficiency of the two fibers; (3) no war-created shortages or deferred demands; (4) a level of economic activity represented by 7 million unemployed; and (5) the price levels prevailing in January, 1946. The two most interesting price assumptions for cotton are, first, the price actually prevailing in January 1946, or about 25 cents, and second, a price about half as high, or 12 cents. With these assumptions a group of textile economists made a systematic effort to estimate the amount of cotton that would be consumed in 127 end-uses, representing about 83 per cent of the domestic market. For the other 17 per cent, made up of countless small uses, it was assumed that changes would follow the pattern of the 83 per cent. The sources of information already available were supplemented by field trips, in which numbers of the best informed business executives were questioned with regard to each end-use. The estimates which came out of this work were as follows: first, that at 25 cents per lb. cotton would find a domestic market for about 7,700,000 bales; second, that a t 12 cents per lb. cotton would find a domestic market for about 9,600,000 bales. Since prices in general, and rayon prices in particular, are now about 40 per cent higher than in January, 1946, the assumed cotton price may logically be increased to this extent. With this revision, and under the other assumptions stated, the study indicated that, a t today’s general price level, the domestic market for cotton would tend to be 7,700,000 bales a t 35 cents, compared with 9,600,000 bales a t 17 cents. Two lessons from these figures are outstanding: First, by cutting the higher price in half, the quantity consumed would be increased by less than two million bales. The demand, considered in this sense, is inelastic, even when allowance is made (as it was in Project IV) for enough time lapse to permit a given price to exert a real influence on an end-use market. For certain end-uses (notably tire cord, bags, insulation, and plastic laminates) the demand is elastic, but in the great bulk of the domestic market the differences in consump-
COTTON
9
tion a t the two price levels would be quite small, so small as to make the overall domestic demand rather inelastic. The inelasticity results chiefly from two facts: (a) the price of raw cotton is a small factor in the average retail price of cotton products, and (b) under the assumption of no change in quality, the substitutability of other materials is quite limited. Second, a t either price, cotton still seems to have the competitive strength to hold a very substantial domestic market. Even a t the higher price, the quantity consumed would be no smaller than in 1939. The explanations are: (1) the increase in population; (2) some assumed improvement in business conditions; and (3) a decisive margin of quality advantages for cotton in many important uses. Despite rayon’s gains, cotton still holds firmly to many markets by the strength of some very real quality advantages, most of which can be summarized under the headings of launderability, durability, and versatility. Cotton is endowed with a remarkable combination of qualities, all present in the same fiber a t the same time: they include wet and dry strength, abrasion resistance, good absorbency and dyeing properties, vapor permeability, chemical stability, softness, pliancy, and ease of preshrinking. In view of this finding and of what we have already said about rayon, it seems that two facts should be made equally emphatic on the vital point of quality: (1) (a static concept) a t a very recent time, cotton’s quality advantages were strong enough to protect most of its domestic markets from rayon. Since that time there has been no drastic change in the quality picture. If cotton could hold its present position in quality, the great part of its domestic market would appear to be reasonably safe from competition, even a t a high price; (2) (a dynamic concept) there is little reason to hope that under the present circumstances cotton is holding its position in quality. Over the past 25 years, rayon has made enormous gains on cotton in quality, and the research and development program which produced those gains is now being pushed forward on a record scale. Cotton does not have a research and development program of equal size and scope. Some excellent advances are being made in cotton research, but the program is simply too small to give it a reasonable chance of equalling rayon’s achievements. It is essentially a mere token of what is needed.
4. Need for Expanded Research On the dynamic side of the quality problem, however, one further point needs emphasis: cotton’s lag in quality improvement results from the lack of an adequate research program and not from the lack of opportunities in the fiber. The Project I V report outlined 41 broad fields of quality in which cotton’s markets might be strengthened through
10
M. K. HORNE, JR.
research. Cotton is a promising subject for quality improvement at every stage from plant breeding through production, ginning, spinning and weaving, finishing and fabricating. Cotton has the opportunity to become a dynamic fiber like rayon, matching rayon’s progress with progress of its own, and thereby postponing indefinitely the day when rayon will overtake it in quality. The opportunities exist, but in spite of recent expansion, an adequate program does not. Let us now attempt to summarize the significance of two competitive factors, price and quality, and their interrelationship with one another, in the domestic market for cotton. There seem to be 3 points which deserve attention: (1) as long as cotton holds its present quality advantages, the demand on the domestic market will be rather inelastic in response to price change. There will be a very substantial market for cotton at what has usually been regarded as a high price; (2) if rayon continues to improve in quality more rapidly than cotton, in the course of time the amount of cotton that can be sold a t any price will decline; (3) if rayon continues to improve in quality more rapidly than cotton, in the course of time the significance of price as a competitive factor will increase. As rayon becomes more substitutable for cotton, the demand for cotton will become more elastic in its response to price change. If rayon ultimately becomes as launderable and as durable as cotton, and cotton makes no offsetting gains in quality, it will then be out of the question for cotton to sell on the domestic market a t a figure which would not give it a marked price advantage over rayon. Thus, from the standpoint of the cotton economy, the largely neglected opportunity to build an adequate research and development program for quality improvement presents a vital problem. The cost of such a program would be large, but it could be measured in millions of dollars annually. If, through the lack of such a program, it becomes necessary to make sharp reductions in the price of cotton, that loss will have to be measured in hundreds of millions of dollars annually. In this statement many factors which bear upon the competitive position of cotton have been omitted. I n actual practice, the important place of merchandising in the domestic market cannot be overlooked, nor can the special nature of the export market. I n the limited space available, however, attention has been concentrated upon the great economic significance of quality improvement.
COTTON
11
111. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COTTON PLANT FRANK M . EATON US.Department of Agriculture, College Station, Texas
1. Floral Initiation and Plant Development
a. Branching Habits of the Cotton Plant. Some of the most important physiological responses of the cotton plant find their expression and basis in the type of branches which are produced. According t o conditions of growth, the branches arising from the main stalk may be exclusively vegetative branches or exclusively fruiting branches. I n the axil of each leaf on the main stalk, and also on vegetative branches, there are two buds. One of these buds, if it develops, will produce a vegetative branch and the other EI fruiting branch; both buds may develop. Morphologically, the vegetative branches, or limbs, are like the main stalk. Only fruiting branches develop flowers and bolls. A flower bud, even though it may absciss while still a millimeter or two in diameter, develops in the axil of each leaf of the fruiting branches. Although there are various complexities, American Upland cottons, unless planted too closely, typically develop from their main axes one or several vegetative branches between the first and eighth nodes. Thereafter, starting between the seventh to tenth nodes, only fruiting branches are developed from the main-stalk nodes. I n addition to developing from the main stalk and from vegetative branches, vegetative branches may also develop from fruiting branches. There are important early papers by 0. F. Cook on the morphology of the cotton plant. Gaines (1947) has found that, in the absence of insect control, a loss of 50 per cent of the floral buds during the first 30-day period of fruiting is without effect on final yields. This is in conformity with earlier agronomic and physiological observations showing that the loss of some of the early floral buds aided in the maintenance of plant development and that new buds were developed to replace those that were lost. Under some conditions, the removal of early buds and flowers has resulted in increased yields. Data are occasionally presented to show that the flowers a t fruiting-branch nodes near the main stalk are more apt to develop into bolls than are those farther out. But if these first buds and bolls are lost they are replaced by those that might otherwise have shed, environmental conditions permitting. The types of branches produced by the cotton plant are influenced by temperature and by length-of-day (Fig. 1). Also the number of vegetative branches may be influenced by closeness of spacing, defruiting,
12
FRANK M. EATON
darkening the tips of plants (Eaton and Rigler, 1948) and by treatments with growth substances which cause buds to shed. Whether or not there is some one chemical of hormone-like entity, which is responsible for the determination of which type of branch shall develop under a given circumstance, remains one of the most intriguing aspects of cotton physiology. Some of the reactions of the cotton plant provide a basis for regarding the fruiting branch as being homologous to the inflorescenses of other plants.
Fig. 1. On the left are cotton plants with fruiting branches only, and on the right, plants with a preponderance of vegetative branches. The latter plants had some short fruiting branches with floral buds but so far none had produced bolls. These plants all received 13-hour days and represent the difference between hot nights (left) and cool nights (right) a t San Diego, California, where the days are cool. Certain photoperiodic cottons would give this same response to short days, left, but produce only vegetative branches under long days. (Eaton, 1924).
b. Photoperiodism. No work on the photoperiodism of the cotton more extensive than that of Konstantinov (1934) has appeared in the literature. By that work it was shown that the length of day may alter the fruiting activities of some, but not all, of the perennial arborescent cottons, particularly those from equatorial regions, and to a slight extent, also, varieties of Egyptian and of medium and late Uplands. H e concluded that the early (determinant) American Upland cottons, as well as some of the wild forms from Mexico and elsewhere, were without length-of-day reactions. The author states that when length-of-day reactions were found, the basic change consisted in a lowering of the
COTTON
13
position of the first fruiting branches. All cottons exhibiting photoperiodism are those requiring short days, i e . , cottons are unknown that require long days for flowering. c. Temperature. The striking influence that temperature may exert on the kind of branches produced, and, therefore, on the fruiting of cotton plants, is illustrated in Fig. 1. Dastur (1948) makes mention of observing lower temperatures to be conducive to the development of vegetative branches. At Shafter, California, where mean nightly temperatures for the summer months averaged about 60"F., Acala p-18-c was observed in 1947 (unpublished data) to develop 10 times as many vegetative branches per 20 feet of row as did the same variety similarly spaced a t Sacaton, Arizona, where the average minimum nightly temperatures are about ten degrees higher. Laying a soil heating cable under a dust mulch along the two sides of a row of cotton plants a t Shafter increased the nightly temperature by a few degrees 4 inches above ground and in turn lessened the development of vegetative branches.
d. 2,4-D and Hormone Responses. Attention was first directed by Staten (1946) to the high sensitivity of the cotton plant to wind-carried traces of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and its derivatives. The outstanding symptom of an excess of this material was shown by Staten and by Dunlap (1948) to be the growth repression of the mesophyll of leaves and involucral bracts which gave these organs a ligulate appearance in which the veins were especially prominent. Brown et al. (1948) illustrate, also, the pronounced swelling of the stems of cotton plants a t ground level. Each of the foregoing investigators has shown that dusts and fine mists of 2,4-D can be carried many miles in sufficient concentration greatly to reduce cotton yields. Dunlap pointed out that if the injury was not too severe the cotton plant could put out new branches of normal appearance and develop late bolls. H e also showed that the seed of plants injured by 2,4-D might upon germination have swollen hypocotyls and typical aberrations of the true leaves. Ergle and Dunlap (1949) found that more than 0.002 mg. of 2,4-D per plant reduced the yield and increased the height and number of vegetative branches of cotton plants. Changes were found in the concentrations of several organic constituents of the leaves that were associated, possibly, with the altered proportions of vein and mesophyll tissue. The highest concentration used (0.04 mg.) appeared to reduce somewhat the tensile strength of fiber. Singh and Greulach (1949) concluded from a carefully planned green-
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FRANK M. EATON
house experiment that sprays of a-naphthaleneacetic acid and a-naphthaleneacetamide, although altering several plant characters, caused no effects of agronomic significance. I n California, in either of two years, during periods when 60 to 70 per cent of the bolls were shedding, Eaton (1950) could find no evidence of any effect on boll retention by dusting cotton plants with 1000 p.p,m. napthaleneacetic acid, with 100 p.p.m. sodium 4-~hlorophenoxyacetate,or with the two in combination. Of weekly sprays with 10 and 20 p.p.m. 4-~hlorophenoxyacetate,6-naphthoxyacetate, and a-naphthaleneacetate, only the 20 p.p.m. concentration of 4-chlorophenoxyacetate altered growth or fruiting. This latter material reduced significantly the number of bolls per plant and bolls per 100 g. of fresh stems and leaves, and increased significantly the height, and the number of main stalk nodes and vegetative branches. The increased height and number of vegetative branches were regarded as probably the result of reduced fruiting caused by extra bud shedding. As a part of this work, attempts were made both in winter and summer to alter the types of branches produced by day-length sensitive and day-length neutral cottons by treatment with various of the presently available synthetic growth substances. These efforts were not successful, but the investigations are regarded as deserving of continued effort as new materials become available, particularly any that influence floral initiaton or repression. 2. Mineral Nutrition
Knowledge of the mineral nutrition of plants has gained important impetus during the past ten years from rapidly developing evidence and views on the exchange of cations between the plant and soil. A recent review by Wadleigh (1949) deals extensively with the relations represented. The order of ease of release of cations from soil colloids by exchange reaction is headed by sodium which is released most easily followed by potassium, magnesium, calcium and hydrogen. As measured on clay membranes, the activity of sodium adsorbed on montmorillonitic clay is 20 to 25 times that of calcium. The activity of adsorbed sodium relative to calcium is always greater than the ratio of adsorbed sodium to adsorbed calcium, but the calcium on kaolinitic clay may be 10 or 20 times as readily available to plants as that on montmorillonitic clay. Calcium may be unavailable to plants if it constitutes only 50 per cent or less of the bases retained by the clay, i.e., high levels of adsorbed potassium or sodium may prevent calcium uptake. Hydrogen ions released from plant roots provide the critical exchange ion for the release of calcium, potassium, etc., from clay. Carbon dioxide arising from root metabolism is the antecedent agent in the transfer of hydrogen from root
COTTON
15
to clay. Of like recognized importance, but less well understood, are the processes and intensities of adsorption of nutrient cations on root surfaces and their relative rates of transference inwardly. Investigations by Jacobson and Overstreet (1947) . indicate that energy arising from respiration is directly involved in the intake of anions whereas the CO, product of respiratory activity functions in the hydrogen transfer that is instrumental in cation accumulation by exchange. Lundegardh’s review (1947) deale extensively with this phase of mineral nutrition. I n the instance of cotton, Eaton and Joham (1944) found that defruiting to increase sugar concentrations resulted in significant increases in both bromine and potassium in the fibrous roots; there was also an increase of both elements in the leaves, but the potassium increase was slight and not significant.
a. Constant Sum of Cations. Recent papers by van Itallie (1948) and Wallace et al. (1948b), who worked with oats and alfalfa, respectively, have added support to a conclusion reached earlier that the sum of the cation equivalents per unit of dry weight a t a given stage of plant development tends to be uniform even though the species is grown on substrates of widely varied composition. Within what limits this conclusion can be extended to cotton is not yet clear. Cooper et al. (1948) thought that it might not be applicable to cotton where there is a wide variability in hydrogen-ion concentration. As grown on 7 plots a t Florence, South Carolina, the sum of equivalents of K, Na, Ca, and Mg varied from 112 to 218. The two highest values were on limed plots (pH 6.7 and 6.5). On plots with pH values of 5.1 and 5.2 respectively the values were 159 and 112. b. Sodium and Potassium. The interest that has been attached in the South to the roll of sodium as a plant nutrient for cotton has applied also in an important manner to other plants in other regions. Although no one has assumed, or concluded, that sodium is an essential element, there is now a wealth of evidence that it can make up in part, in varying degrees in different plants, for a deficiency in potassium supply. Furthermore, in some plants, such as the beet (Sayre and Vittum, 1947), sodium applications have resulted in yield increases over and above those that could be obtained by potassium alone. Plants which tend to accumulate more sodium than potassium, such as beets, cabbages, carrots, and spinach (Wallace et al., 1948a) tend also to be tolerant t o sodium and perhaps are more often benefited by sodium. Collander (1941) has reported sodium to be higher in the roots than in the shoots of a number of plants whereas K was higher in the shoots.
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FRANK M. EATON
Cotton contains much less N a than K above ground, and, as found in the expressed leaf sap (Eaton, 1942), there was only a fifth or less as much Na as K (Table 11). Cooper et al. (1947) have considered the TABLE I1 Influence of Sodium Equivalent to 100 lbs. per Acre of NaBO on 10-Year Average Cotton Yields and 3-Year Average Ca, K and wa Accumulations in Plants Equally Supplied with Nitrate on Norfolk Sandy Loam ' Lbs. of KaO and N source
Seed Cotton Yield, lbs. per acre Actual
1
I 1
Cation concentration in plants meq. per 1OOg. dry weight
Nagain
Calcium
Potassium
Sodium
+ 215
70.00 60.00
19.63 17.43
1.42 11.27
+ 201
74.67 64.50
22.47 21.97
1.12 11.01
No potash Cal-Nitro Sodium nitrate
306 521
15 lbs. potash Cal-Nitro Sodium nitrate
742 943
45 Ibs. potash Cal-Nitro Sodium nitrate
1093 1280
+ 187
76.33 60.83
31.00 32.57
1a9 10.75
60 lbs. potash Cal-Nitro Sodium nitrate
1201 1383
+ 182
74.85 67.67
35.57 36.73
1.69 9.65
a
-
Cooper and Garman (1942).
agreements and discrepancies between the order of accumulation of mineral nutrients in higher plants and the order of the same ions when arranged on the basis of their electrode potentials measured in equivalent volts. Spiegelman and Reiner (1942) have called attention to the selective accumulation of potassium from K and Na mixtures by sand columns and by myosin, and have suggested that considerations based on chemical mechanisms offered more promise than those based on physical relations. The possible fit of preferred ions in the lattice structure of the solid phase has been pointed to as one explanation. Potassium is customarily credited with promoting not only the utilization of nitrogen in protein formation but with a catalytic activity in the assimilation of carbon dioxide and the synthesis of carbohydrates and oils. It is evident that sodium cannot perform all functions of potassium in cotton, or in cotton does not accumulate in the right places in sufficient concentrations. This is indicated by Volk's (1946) observation that Na alleviated but did not eliminate cotton rust. Leaf rust is the
COTTON
17
important symptom of potassium deficiency in cotton. Biddulph’s (1949) radioautographs show K concentrations in cotton leaves to be much more dense in and near the veins than outward in the more distant mesophyll. Similar radioautographs of sodium distribution would be of interest. I n the Georgia Coastal Plain, Turner (1944) found that potash deficiency great enough to cause marked leaf symptoms, heavy leaf loss, and a 25 per cent reduction in the yield of American Upland cottons decreased the weight of seed per boll by only 10 per cent. Gains from sodium applications have been common in field experiments with cotton (Andrews and Coleman, 1939; Mathews, 1941; and Holt and Volk, 1945). As yet there is insufficient evidence for concluding that the same yield increase might not have been gained from additional potassium. When ample potassium was supplied, the last mentioned investigators obtained no benefit from N a additions in greenhouse tests, using both sand and potted soil cultures. I n the field, however, they obtained gains of 98 to 213 lbs. of seed cotton per acre in plots supplied with sodium in addition to 24 to 48 lbs. K20. Mathews (1941) found both sodium and potassium responses on Clarksville soils in Georgia, but neither element gave a response on Decatur soil. The availability of K (but not of Na) having been determined in both soils, it was concluded that the lack of benefit from sodium on the latter soil was due t o the abundance of K. On the Clarksville soil, N a was estimated as being worth 40 per cent as much as K as a fertilizer. Data by Cooper and Garman (1942) are notable in showing nearly uniform gains of approximately 200 lbs. of seed cotton per acre from applications of 100 lbs. Na2O per acre, when KzO applications were increased from none to 60 Ibs. per acre. At all K20 levels the added sodium caused nearly uniform increases in accumulation of N a from about 1.5 to 11 meq. per 100 g. of plant tissue. Adding but 60 lbs. of K 2 0 was sufficient to increase K accumulation from 19 to 35 meq. per 100 g. At the high levels of supply, there was 3 times as much K as N a in the above-ground portions of the plants. Skinner et al. (1944) observed that extra K fertilization increased the percentages of K and reduced the percentages of Mg and Ca, and also of N and P in cotton plants. Like Cooper (1945), they concluded that the requirements of the cotton plant for Mg is less than for K or Ca and will be satisfied if dolomite is used in the manufacture of nonacid forming fertilizers. c. Phosphorus. I n each of 5 years Brown and Pope (1939) reported that heavy applications of phosphorus caused average increases of 30 per cent to 40 per cent in the proportion of flowers produced during the
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FBANK M. EATON
first two weeks of the flowering period. With heavy PzOs applications, there was also a large increase in the percentage of the seed cotton gathered a t the first picking. Potassium on the other hand appeared to decrease the determinateness of the plant and to increase ultimate yields. Radio-phosphorus injected into a leaf vein by Biddulph and Markle (1944) moved via the phloem to other parts of the plant. The downward rate of 21 cm. per hour was thought too high to be accounted for by diffusion. The upward movement was slower than the downward movement. From 30 days before to 25 days after anthesis, Biddulph and Brown (1945) found that the accumulation of both tagged and untagged phosphorus in floral buds and bolls was a t rates nearly proportional to the gain in dry weight. Mason and Phillis (1944) supplied cotton plants with phosphorus in amounts from that causing acute starvation to an excess, and found that both the soluble and insoluble fractions in the main-stalk leaves increased throughout the full range; the former increase was linear whereas the latter tended to flatten. I n citrus, tomatoes, soybeans, pineapples and peanuts, various investigators have found high levels of nitrate to depress the uptake of phosphate. Similarly, reduced growth on soils low in nitrate has resulted from heavy phosphate fertilization. This also applies to cotton (unpublished work by H. E. Joham) The use of radio-phosphorus has permitted some significant conclusions on the availability to cotton of various types of phosphate fertiliaer. Measurements by Hall et al. (1949), showing the proportion of accumulating phosphorus derived from the soil and from the tagged fertilizer, have been made with a number of crops under various conditions. On Norfolk sandy loam, cotton derived most phosphorus from calcium metaphosphate and least from dicalcium phosphate, but the source of phosphate was without effect on yield. I n Alabama, Ensminger and Cope (1947) concluded that, on old fertilizer plots, the responses to various phosphates were dependent upon the calcium and sulfur deficiences that had resulted from previous fertilizer practices.
.
d. Sulfur. By classical interpretation, sulfur is essential to the synthesis of proteins and when sulfur is deficient various plants become as chlorotic as they do when nitrogen is deficient. With insufficient sulfur, there is often an accumulation of NOs, as well as of other soluble forms of N ; starch and hemicelluloses also tend to accumulate. Little work on the biochemical reactions of the cotton plant to insufficient sulfur has been published, but the plant requirements are known to be fairly high. I n the leaf sap from cotton (Eaton, 1942), much more sulfur and much less phosphorus were found than in that from the other plants examined.
COTTON
19
During the last war, the substitution of rock phosphates for superphosphate resulted in poor cotton yields in some localities. Willis (1936) has reported finding that sulfur-free fertilizers produced crops equal t o those supplied with sulfur only on soils which had had heavy previous applications. Younge (1941) noted that sulfur deficiency reduced the number and delayed the development of cotton bolls on a Coastal Plain soil. Tests of cotton responses to sulfur a t scattered locations in Florida by Harris et al. (1945) show that there may be a widespread area that would benefit from its inclusion in fertilizers. Were it not for the large amount of sulfur in superphosphate and in the gases released to the atmosphere by some industries, more information on the sulfur metabolism of cotton might now be available. e. Boron. This element, which is now thought to be involved in oxidative enzyme systems, is essential to the formation of meristematic tissues, and when deficient the fruiting branches of cotton are short and the flower buds fail to develop. Boron has continued to be regarded as an important constituent of cotton fertilizers under some conditions. Coleman (1945) reports beneficial results from applying boron a t the rate of 20 lbs. per acre to Grenada silt loam in Mississippi. Boll size and number of bolls were increased, but no effects were found on percentage of oil in the seed. I n representative Georgia soils with 0.05 to 0.55 p.p.m. of water-soluble boron, Olson (1942) failed to obtain increased yields by adding boron.
f. Copper. Like iron, copper functions as a coenzyme in oxidation and reducing systems. It has been shown by Manns et al. (1937) to produce substantial increases in yields of cotton when added to fertilizers in North and South Carolina and Virginia. Gaines et a2. (1947) has found copper applications to cotton in Texas to produce greater yield increases when applied to the leaves as a dust with insecticides than when applied in the soil. The extensive literature on copper as a nutrient has been reviewed by Somner (1945), but no indication is afforded as to how extensively benefits might accrue from its more general use in cotton production. g . Chemical Composition. There have been a good many investigations of the accumulation of minerals in the cotton plant by the various State Experiment Stations in the South. One of the most recent is that reported by Olson and Bledsoe (1942). Their data include 3 soils and 4 stages of growth. Relative to the seedling stage, the plants a t maturity were about half as rich in PzOs (0.44% on dry weight), CsO (2.08%)
20
FRANK M. EATON
and MgO (0.99%),and four-tenths as high in percentage of N (1.60%) and KzO (1.39%). As calculated from data from plants on Cecil sandy loam, the proportions of N, P, K, C a and Mg in the mature cotton plants, including squares and bolls, correspond closely with the proportions of the mineral nutrients supplied by Hoagland’s solution, which was developed on the basis of analyses of barley plants. The efficiency of the cotton plant in fruiting activities is relatively high. The squares and bolls of mature cotton plants were found to constitute 65.8 per cent of the total dry weight of the plant and to contain 57.3 per cent of nitrogen, 78.7 per cent of the calcium, and 53.1 per cent of the magnesium. According to data by Phillis and Mason (1942) the percentage composition of K, Ca, Mg, P, C1 and N in cotton leaves rises during the day and falls a t night through losses. Collections of dew on attached leaves made about midnight contained an abundance of potassium and only traces of calcium. The authors regard the results as being in harmony with the view that the mineral elements enter the leaf in the wood, and, with the exception of calcium, are translocated from it in the phloem. 3. Nitrogen I n the Sudan, Crowther (1934) found 60 per cent or more of the total nitrogen of the cotton plant to be in the squares and bolls from the time the first bolls had started to open until the plants were mature. Notwithstanding continued leaf development, the movement of nitrogen from leaves to buds and bolls was a t a greater rate than the movement into the leaves. This progressive exhaustion of leaf nitrogen continued from the peak of flowering onward. I n American Upland cotton, Olson and Bledsoe (1942) found nearly the same proportion of the total nitrogen to be in the buds and bolls a t plant maturity as did Crowther. By Wadleigh’s (1944) extensive inquiry into the forms of nitrogen and nitrogen metabolism of the cotton plant, it was shown that protein constituted from two-thirds to three-quarters of the total nitrogen in all the plant fractions examined. At the stages of plant development selected for sampling both total nitrogen and protein nitrogen were much higher in leaves and immature seed than in other parts. This proportion of protein is in accord with earlier results by Rigler et al. (1937) who studied the dialyzable constituents of entire plants. I n Wadleigh’s experiment nitrate nitrogen varied from 3.1 per cent of the total nitrogen in the leaves (low nitrogen plants) to 37.5 per cent in the fibrous roots (high nitrogen plants). Mason and Phillis (1945) obtained a high linear correlation between soluble and protein nitrogen in leaves until a relatively high level of supply was reached, beyond which there was no further increase in protein. Potassium and phosphorus starvation both
21
COTTON
caused reductions in the proportion of protein. The total nitrogen of cotton fibers has been found to be correlated directly with the soluble nitrogen of cotton leaves and inversely with the protein nitrogen (Eaton, 1947). Fine fibers are higher in nitrogen than are thick-walled fibers, reflecting, probably, a higher ratio of protoplasmic residue to wall weight in the former than the latter. From a series of greenhouse comparisons of ammonium and nitrate salts in water cultures, Holley and Dulin (1943) concluded that there were no wide or. very consistent differences in the yield benefits, or in effects on growth, between the two forms of nitrogen. They pointed out that ammonium fertilization initiated more flowers, but more of these flowers were shed. Although these conclusions are valid, the data through the 7 experiments reported in their Tables V, V I I and XI1 show trends in favor of the ammonium salts in fresh weight of plants and in bolls per plant, and also in relative fruitfulness (computed by the writer) that seemed worthy of testing by analyses of variance. As summarized in Table 111, ammonium salts' produced a nonsignificant increase in combined weight of leaves and stems, but highly significant increases in bolls per plant and in relative fruitfulness; the latter amounted to 12 per cent. All of these effects are in the direction to be expected on the TABLE I11 Relative Fruitfulness of Cotton Plants in Several Experiments Involving Nitrogen Nitrogen source meq. per 1. Holley and Dulin (1943) (7 experiments) Wadleigh (1944)
Eaton and Rigler (1945) Low light High light
NH, Nos NONONO-
0.6 1.8 5.4 NOr16.1 NO- 0.5 NO- 4.0 NO-16.0 NO44.0 NO- 1.0 NO- 4.0 NOsl6.O
NOd4.0
Fresh stems and leaves, g.
Bolls per plant, number
1997 1868 145b 28gb 652" 662" 128 319 328 239 107 328 367 252
77.6** 70.3 53" 10.1" 18.6" 23.1' 5.7 11.4 11.2 9.6 7.2 22.9 22.9 18.4
Bolls per 100 g. of fresh stems and leaves. Green weight at time of second sampling. Number of bolls contributing to seed cotton. +,** Significant at 0.05 and 0.01 level, respectively.
Relative fruitfulness 4.4* 3.9 3.6 3.5 2.8 3.5 4.5 3.8 3.4 4.1 6.8 6.4 6.4 7.6 -
22
FRANK M. EATON
basis of the extra energy required for the reduction of nitrate ions. The literature on nitrate and ammonium nutrition, as well as many other features of nitrogen nutrition of green plants, has been extensively reviewed by Nightingale (1948).
4. Carbohydrates, Nitrogen and Fruitfulness As fruit setting progresses, the cotton plant may become a victim of its own morphological development. As fruiting progresses, nitrogen is translocated to the bolls a t a greater rate than it is taken up from the soil. As the reserves within the plant are exhausted there is a yellowing and a progressive reduction in the size of leaves and length of internodes; with heavy fruiting all terminal growth may stop. The diversion of sugars to the bolls reduces the flow into the fibrous roots thereby reducing nitrogen uptake as a consequence of the lessening of the essential metabolic activity. The onset of nitrogen exhaustion is delayed as the external supply becomes more abundant, and also when the variety is indeterminant in its growth habit. Wadleigh (1944) believed that high respiratory activity and reduced carbohydrate supply was involved in the low productivity of plants grown in a greenhouse with high temperatures and low light intensity. The level of starch and dextrin decreased with increased nitrate supply. Crowther (1944), in accord with some of his earlier colleagues, concluded that the number of flowers produced by the cotton plant depends on nitrogen supply, but that their continued growth (i.e., boll retention) depends on carbohydrate supply. Experiments by Eaton and Rigler (1945) were conducted with the objective of learning whether in cotton there are particular relations between nitrogen and carbohydrate levels that are conducive or nonconducive to fruitfulness. Plants were grown in sand cultures supplied with 1, 4, 16, and 64 meq. nitrate per liter: (1) in a greenhouse in the winter where daily maximum light intensities were arranged to average about 1000 foot-candles, and (2) freely exposed outdoors in the summer where the light averaged about 10,000 foot-candles at midday. Between the low and high light intensities there was an increase in sugar and starch a t all nitrate levels. I n the plants supplied with 16 meq. NO3 per 1. this increase was 4-fold in the leaves and 2-fold in the root bark, The weight of leaves and stems in the high and the low light experiments (Table 111) were alike, but the plants under high light produced twice as many bolls as did those under low light. Factors associated with very low light thus caused decreased fruitfulness, i.e., influenced the partition of growth materials between vegetative and fruiting activities in favor of the vegetative. Compared with light, the effects of level of nitrogen supply on the partition of carbohydrate utilization between
COTTON
23
the two growth activities were found to be minor, ie., in this experiment, as in Wadleigh’s (Table 111),additional nitrogen, when not in excess, caused proportional increases in growth and fruiting. At both very low and very high nitrate levels relative fruitfulness was increased slightly. This may be partially accounted for by a tendency toward smaller bolls at these levels, but primarily by a repressed development of vegetative branches. The plants supplied with 16 meq. NO3 per 1. accumulated more nitrogen and contained more starch than those supplied with 4 meq. NO,, but they set no more bolls. In the foregoing experiment there was much floral bud shedding under low light and much boll shedding under high light. An important but as yet unanswered question arises from this experiment: If carbohydrate deficiency is a general cause of boll shedding why were the supplies found in the high light plants not more nearly utilized before these plants started to shed? Any satisfactory explanation of the cause of boll shedding on nutritional grounds will evidently need to go beyond the often repeated carbohydrate and nitrogen theory. This is not to imply that an adequate and continuous supply of carbohydrate is not essential for the maintenance of boll growth and for boll retention, but rather that within the nutritional interpretation there are significant points of plant composition including enzymes and hormones, that have not yet been brought t o attention by laboratory analyses. One of the most direct supports for the nutritional interpretation of shedding is the fact that defruiting of heavily laden cotton plants increases carbohydrate levels, causes renewed vegetative growth, and renewed boll setting. Rather extreme or prolonged reductions in light intensity have been found by Dunlap (1945) to result in shedding, but he also noted that short periods of heavy shading and longer periods of light shading did not produce this result. It seems a little improbable that any but the most unusually long or intense periods of cloudy weather are much of a factor in shedding. This conclusion is in accord with early data by E. C. Ewing in Mississippi and by Mason and Maskell in Trinidad. It is even possible that short periods of overcast skies may favor carbohydrate utilization and thereby boll retention. It is now generally recognized that, as late as midsummer, an occasional burst of shedding may be compensated for by the setting of new flowers. But in cotton, as in other plants, periods of dark weather cannot be considered apart from the rankness of the growth of the planting. Five per cent, or less, of the light intensity a t the top of the plants may be found near the ground under a heavy growth of cotton.
24
FRANK M. EATON
6. Effect of Drought on Plant Composition and Fruiting Drought, as studied by Eaton and Ergle (1948), was found to cause an increase in hexose sugars in cotton leaves and large reductions in starch. I n the stems and roots, on the other hand, there were always moderate to large increases in hexoses, sucrose, and starch. The data show that the utilization of photosynthetic products in growth is curtailed more by drought than is photosynthesis. Although the results have as yet not been published, measurements by the same investigators have shown that reduced water supply, even though decreasing vegetative growth by half and reducing boll periods and boll sizes, was without appreciable effect on relative fruitfulness. I n an investigation of the organic acids of the cotton plant, Ergle and Eaton (1949) found relatively high concentrations in the leaves and lesser amounts elsewhere. The concentrations of these acids changed little in leaves during prolonged respiration and they were not extensively translocated. Drought caused an extensive reversible shift from citric to malic acid. Little, if any, correlation was observed between the organic acids and other determined organic constituents. Defruiting had little effect on these acids. 6. Drought and Other Factors AffectingBoll Development and
Lint Properties The effects of nitrogen and mineral deficiencies that are so marked on the plant are not necessarily reflected in effects on fiber properties. Instead, the influences on the latter are inclined to be minor or irregular. Once the ovules have been fertilized and their growth has been initiated, the boll occupies a favored nutritional position. Increases in nitrogen supply under certain conditions (Wadleigh, 1944 and Nelson, 1949) have resulted in increases in length of fiber. This response, however, does not seem always to occur (Sturkie, 1947), and length reduction has been accredited to the use of nitrogen alone (Brown, 1946). Nelson (1949) reported that phosphate applications increase boll size, but have little effect on the lint. Under conditions where potash greatly increased yield, it also increased fiber length, weight per inch, and x-ray angles, and there was an accompanying decrease in fiber strength; yarn strength was reduced 5 to 15 per cent by 90 lbs. per acre of KzO. Fertilizer studies in Texas by Hooton et al. (1949) showed that a high level of phosphorus increased fiber length in comparison with a high nitrogen fertilizer, but not when compared with no fertilizer. Drought, as reported by Barker (1946) and Sturkie (1947), has been observed repeatedly to decrease the length of cotton fibers and usually,
COTTON
25
but not always, to increase their strength. Berkley et al. (1948) show that the increase in tensile strength associated with drought is accompanied by a narrowing of the angle between the long axes of the cellulose crystallites and that of the fiber, i.e., reduced x-ray angles. According to investigations by Eaton et al. (1946) immaturity and drought have similar effects on the composition of cotton seed. Both drought and disease injury reduced substantially the percentage of oil in seed and weight per seed, but left unchanged the percentage of protein. Earlier investigators have shown that oil is synthesized in seeds during the late stages of development whereas the input of nitrogen is continuous from anthesis. I n a number of cottons, Berkley (1945) has found the fiber strength per unit weight to increase only gradually after it is 35 days old and that this increase is about what might be expected on the basis of changes in the x-ray angles. Anderson and Kerr (1943) have shown the enlargement of young bolls to be uninhibited by severe wilting of the plant, but full size bolls shrank during plant wilting and regained their size during the night. They concluded that a lack of equilibrium between osmotic pressures and diffusion pressure deficits in cottonseed was more apparent than real. Kerr and Anderson (1944) concluded that imbibition is largely responsible for water absorption by developing seed. 7. Oxygen Requirements for Root Growth
Leonard (1945), having observed marked correlations between oxygen supply, texture and moisture content of Mississippi soils and the distribution of cotton roots, undertook more extensive controlled laboratory experiments (Leonard and Pinckard, 1946). Young cotton plants were grown with their roots extending into glass tubes of nutrient solutions through which various gas mixtures were bubbled. The minimum oxygen in the gas mixture required for elongation was between 0.5 and 1 per cent. The optimum range was found to lie between 7.5 and 21 per cent. The greatest root growth in any experiment was observed t o be with 21 per cent oxygen and 10 per cent carbon dioxide. The elongation of the tap root was similar whether nitrate or ammonium nitrogen was supplied. The absence of carbon dioxide did not affect root growth and 60 per cent of this gas prevented growth.
26
J O H N T. PRESLEY
IV. DISEASES OF COTTON JOHN T.PRESLEY Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, State College, Mississippi
Cotton disease investigations have been in progress in the cottongrowing areas of the United States since before the turn of the century. Pammel (1888) reported that the root-rot disease of cotton was caused by a fungus and was not a result of unfavorable soil conditions or of chemicals or other materials in the soil, Atkinson (1892) reported that cotton wilt was caused by a vascular-invading Fusarium. Orton (1900) was the first t o breed for wilt resistance in Upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) and produced two wilt-resistant varieties, DILLON and DIXIE. Since these early disease investigations in cotton, numerous workers have studied the various diseases attacking the cotton plant and have made notable contributions to an understanding of the disease problems and to methods of control. 1. Seed Treatment
Workers in most of the cotton-growing states have cooperated during the past several years in developing a uniform seed-treatment program. As a result of this work, we are now able to recommend with confidence the seed treatment that a farmer should use, regardless of his location in the Cotton Belt. Those most commonly used are ethyl mercury p-toluene sulfonanilide, 7.7 per cent active ingredient (Ceresan M), a t 1% oz. per bushel for fuzzy seed and 3 oz. per 100 lbs. of delinted seed, and zinc trichlorophenate, 50 per cent active ingredient (Dow 9-B) , a t 1% oz. per bushel of fuzzy seed and 3 oz. per 100 lbs. of delinted seed. I n addition to controlling pre-emergence and post-emergence dampingoff, these materials will disinfect the surface of the seed and eliminate seed-borne diseases such as bacterial blight and anthracnose. 2. Phymatotrichum Root Rot
The first systematic work on the cause and control of cotton root rot was done by Pammel (1888, 1889). Various causes for the disease were suggested, such as certain chemical or physical conditions of the soil, an excess of humic acid, an excess of lime, an excess of sulfuric acid, insufficient drainage, or an impervious stratum of clay or limestone underlying the plants that arrested the growth of the taproots. Pammel (1889) isolated the causal organism from diseased cotton plants and definitely established the fact that root rot is caused by a fungus. A series of experiments was then set up t o determine whether
COTTON
27
the disease organism was seed borne, and to find methods of control. I t was concluded that the disease organism is not seed borne. Recommendations made for the control of the disease were: good cultural practices and rotation with nonsusceptible crops such as corn, sorghum, millet, wheat, and oats; trench barriers, particularly in orchards and vineyards; various chemicals; and heavy applications of barnyard manure. Many methods of control have been tried by every worker since Pammel but none of them has been satisfactory for the entire region where the disease is a problem. A variety of intensive chemical treatments ranging from common table salt to kerosense oil have been used with varying success. Only a few of the more promising ones will be mentioned here. King (1923) found that a solution of formalin in dilutions of 1% to 2 per cent was effective in eradicating the disease from small areas. The soil should be saturated to a depth of more than a meter. Streets (1938) recommended applications of ammonium sulfate or ammonium phosphate, at a rate of one lb. of ammonium salt to 10 square feet of surface, for treating and protecting ornamental shrubbery and shade trees. Neal et al. (1932) used ammonium hydroxide with good results. The soil around affected plants was saturated with a 6 per cent solution by flooding or by pressure methods. Clean fallow, followed by deep tillage and rotation with nonsusceptible crops, is effective in reducing the disease, particularly in Texas. McNamara and Hooton (1930) state that, in a plot where more than 90 per cent of the plants were infected from 1919 to 1921 inclusive, no diseased plants were found after a 2-year continuous fallow. Numerous types of barriers have been developed to check the spread of the disease. The more common types are: open trenches 12 to 20 inches in width and 18 t o 30 inches in depth dug just in advance of the front lines of infection; trenches filled with mixtures of sand and heavy motor oils or sand and'chemicals; strips of sheet metal or roofing paper placed vertically in the soil; and as used by Taubenhaus and Ezekiel (1935), barriers consisting of 2 or 4 rows of sorghum ( a nonsusceptible plant) planted in advance of the line of infection. The most effective is the trench barrier containing mixtures of soil and heavy oils, salt, ammonia, and sulfur. Fertilizers high in nitrogen were shown by Jordan et al. (1939) t o reduce the incidence of root rot under some soil conditions. The results of various cultural practices employed in Texas are summarized by Jordan et al. (1948). No promising results in the direction of disease resistance have been
28
JOHN T. PRESLEY
reported from breeding experiments on cotton, but some of the selections of grape and citrus in Texas appear to be resistant. Control of root rot has been obtained by the use of stable and corral manures where heavy applications of these and other organic materials have been made in deep furrows during the fall and winter, and cotton has been planted over them. King (1937) states that, in 1935, on plots treated with manure 1.6 per cent of the plants died, while on the untreated plots 56.2 per cent of the plants died. For one acre, 20-40 tons of green alfalfa or 8-15 tons of barnyard manure were used. More recently, Lyle et al. (1948) reported a practical control for Phymatotrichum root rot in Texas by use of a sweet clover and cotton rotation. By the use of organic materials, soil conditions are created which favor the rapid development of certain soil organisms which in turn hinder the development of the root-rot fungus. Since these organisms are present in almost every type of soil, the author believes that this method of control will apply to all the areas affected by the disease. The only problem will be to find the most efficacious method of applying the organic materials for each locality or soil type. 3. Fusarium Wilt A cotton wilt caused by a form of Fusarium was reported by Atkinson (1892) ; the disease was described as Fusarium vasinfectum n. sp. It was observed to be of general occurrence on the lighter soil types of the Southeastern cotton-growing states. At the present time, the disease is known to occur in all parts of the world where cotton is grown. Orton (1900) is credited with breeding the first wilt-resistant Upland cotton. For a period of 8 years, healthy plants were selected from wiltinfested fields where most of the plants had been killed. The selections were tested under wilt conditions in the field and from these the two resistant varieties, DILLON and DIXIE, were developed. Lewis and McLendon (1917), working in Georgia, developed several resistant varieties. Apparently most of the original resistant varieties were of the latematuring type since many of them have been discontinued. Also, as a result of boll weevil damage to the late varieties, as Sherbakoff (1949) points out, breeding work in the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, became directed to the production of earlier and more productive wilt-resistant varieties by crossing resistant DILLON and DIXIE with the earliest and most productive susceptible varieties such as TRIUMPH, COOK, COLUMBIA, COKER, WEBBER, and FOSTER. Shortly after the beginning of the wilt-resistance work in the United States, Fahmy (1929) started the breeding of a resistant Sake1 cotton (Gossypium barbadense) in Egypt. About this same time Uppal et al.
COTTON
29
(1941) began similar work in India. All of these workers, through the results which they obtained and through the influence which their work had upon subsequent investigations, have contributed materially to the ultimate success in obtaining a satisfactory wilt-resistant cotton. An outstanding example of this relatively recent work is the develop~ the Coker Pedigreed Seed ment of COKER 100 WILT and C O K E R - ~ - I N -by Company. These cottons have been widely accepted and planted on wilt-infested soil and as a result the losses from Fusarium wilt have been reduced to a minimum. The most recent contribution in this field has been the EMPIRE cottons developed by Smith and Ballard (1947) a t the Georgia Experiment Station. In respect to resistance, earliness, and productivity EMPIRE stands near the top of all the commercial Upland cottons.
4. Verticillium Wilt Verticillium wilt of cotton caused by Verticillium albo-atrum R . & B. was first reported by Carpenter (1914). No further mention of this disease was made in the United States until it was reported by Sherbakoff (1929) as causing considerable damage to cotton in Tennessee. Miles and Persons (1932) reported the disease as occurring on cotton in the Mississippi Delta, and Herbert and Hubbard (1932) reported the disease in cotton a t the U.S. Field Station, Shafter, California. Shortly thereafter, Brown (1937) reported the disease as occurring in all of the cotton-growing areas of Arizona. At the present time, Verticillium wilt is known to occur in cotton across the entire Cotton Belt from South Carolina to California. In the early stages of Verticillium wilt investigations, the disease appeared t o be more of a novelty than a potential destructive disease. Beginning about 1937 to the present time, however, the disease has increased in severity and in the total area affected t o the point where it is recognized as one of the major diseases of cotton. Certain areas of the irrigated Southwest suffer losses that range up to 50 per cent, with overall losses ranging up to 20 or 25 per cent. Efforts were made by Rudolph and Harrison (1939) to control this disease by the application of chemicals or soil amendments, but a t the present time none of these practices appears to be very promising. Breeding for disease resistance offers the most practical method of control. Rudolph and Harrison (1939), Presley (1946), and Barducci (1942) have contributed t o this phase of the problem. Salter (1946) reported the release of a resistant strain of ACALA 1517 which was developed by Leding a t the U.S. Cotton Field Station, in New Mexico. Strains of COKER 4 - 1 ~ - 1and EMPIRE appear to have considerable tolerance to the disease in Mississippi, whereas the
30
JOHN T. P.RESLEY
cottons developed in the irrigated Southwest are very susceptible. The breeding and selection work is being continued in California, Arizona and New Mexico, as well as in Mississippi, where a variety, HARTSVILLE, has been found to be highly resistant to wilt under conditions which obtain in the Mississippi Vallcy. The late maturity and low yield of HARTSVILLE renders it undesirable commercially, but it offers excellent possibilities in a back-cross program for transferring resistance to the desirable commercial types. A selection and hybridization program has been under way far the past 4 years in Mississippi and notable progress has been made. At the present time progenies are ready for yield trials in Mississippi and for further resistance tests in other cotton-growing areas. 6. Bacterial Blight
Bacterial blight caused by Santhomonas malvacearum (E. F. Sm.) Dowson is one of the most common diseases of the cotton plant. It attacks practically all varieties of Upland cotton and it is especially severe on varieties of Sea Island and Egyptian cotton (G. barbadense). The disease was first described by Atkinson (1891). Atkinson (1892) published a rather complete description of the disease and called it angular leaf spot. Smith (1901) reported that the disease was caused by a bacterium. Xanthomonas is capable of affecting all above-ground parts of the cotton plant and, according to the organ affected, the disease is known as angular leaf spot, black arm, or bacterial boll rot. Although the disease is present in all cotton-producing countries, crop losses vary with varieties grown, seasonal conditions, and with the region in which the cotton is produced. I n the irrigated valleys of the Southwest, the disease is especially severe and crop losses ranging up to 25 per cent are not uncommon in certain areas. Since the bacterium was found to be carried on the lint and on the surface of the seed, Rolfs (1915) recommended the use of sulfuric acid as a means of removing the lint and disinfecting the seed surface. Brown and Streets, University of Arizona, perfected and patented a sulfuric acid process for delinting cotton seed in 1934. Although the bacteria which are carried on the lint and seed surface are removed by the sulfuric acid treatment, carefully controlled experiments by many workers have demonstrated that there is a certain amount of infection carried inside the seed coat which is not controlled by the sulfuric acid or other seed treatments. Results of the Uniform Seed Treatment Studies which have been conducted for many years in most of the cotton-growing states demonstrate that the recommended seed protectants are also effective in controlling the surface-borne seed infections of bacterial blight. Seed treatment reduces primary infections, but cannot be expected to entirely
COTTON
31
control the disease inasmuch as a small percentage of infection is carried within the seed. The centers of infection resulting from the internal infection may pass unnoticed in the field, but if favorable conditions arise considerable spread may be expected. Much work has been done on survival, dissemination, and spread of the causal organisms (Faulwetter, 1917; Hansford et al., 1933; Hare and King, 1940; Massey, 1930; Rolfs, 1935). Stoughton (1933) has described the effects of environmental conditions upon the disease. It is obvious that the most practical approach to complete control of bacterial blight is through the development of disease resistant varieties. Fortunately, a resistant variety of Upland cotton has been found. Simpson and Weindling (1946), working with many varieties of cotton, found one selection of STONEVILLE t o be resistant. This resistant selection was designated STONEVILLE 20. Since the release of STONEVILLE 20 many workers have used it in transferring resistance to many other varieties of Upland cotton. Blank, a t College Station, Texas, has transferred resistance to the commercially desirable varieties of cotton which are grown in Texas. Other workers in Tennessee, Mississippi, New Mexico, Arizona and California are using STONEVILLE 20 in their breeding programs in order that resistance to bacterial blight may be transferred to the new varieties which are being developed. 6. Root-Knot
Root-knot caused by Heterodera marioni (Cornu) Goodey was early recognized by Gilbert (1914) as a serious disease of cotton in itself, and also as a contributing factor to the losses in wilt-infested soils, due to the fact that Fusarium wilt of cotton is much more severe where the disease is associated with root-knot. Godfrey (1923, 1943) recommends clean fallow, rotation with nonsusceptible crops, and summer plowing for controlling root-knot. Watson and Goff (1937) and Watson (1945) in Florida, reported control by use of mulches. Cuba (1932) suggests the use of a carbon disulfide emulsion in controlling the disease and recently almost innumerable reports have been made of the success of other chemicals in controlling the disease. Jacks (1945) used formaldehyde, carbon disulfide, chloropicrin, and a mixture of 1-3 dichloropropane and 1-2 dichloropropane (Shell D - D ) , and found that chloropicrin and Shell D-D gave the most promising results. Smith (1948) found that ethylene dibromide (Dow W-40) gave considerable increases in yield when used on wilt-sick soil infested with nematodes. Presley (1949) also obtained consistently high yields from plots treated with ethylene dibromide on wilt-infested soil also infested with root-knot nematodes. Through the use of a simplified method of application and row treat-
32
J . C. GAINES
ment rather than blanket application, the chemical control of nematodes is economically feasible. Studies conducted a t the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station have shown considerable carry-over effect of the soil fumigant from one year to the next. Cotton grown in 1949 on plots fumigated in 1948 produced more than double the nonfumigated plots. At the present price of cotton, soil fumigation should be a profitable practice wherever nematodes are a serious problem.
Y . Summarg Although many of the fundamental principles of disease control were pointed out and investigated by earlier workers, it has been during the past 10 to 15 years that outstanding progress has been made in developing control measures for the most important diseases of this crop. At the present time practical control measures are available for the seedlingdisease complex commonly referred to as damping-off, for Phymatotrichum.root rot, for Fusarium wilt, for bacterial blight, and considerable progress has been made in controlling Verticillium wilt. Controls have also been developed for the root-knot nematode. V. INSECT PESTS J. C. GAINES Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College &stem, College Station, Terns Statistics released by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics and the National Cotton Council indicate that insects cause an estimated average annual loss of $208,727,000 to cotton planters of the South. The boll weevil has been the most damaging insect for many years. Bollworms, leafworms, fleahoppers, aphids, thrips, stinkbugs and other insects are also responsible for much injury. I n recent years, research entomologists have made considerable progress toward the development of chemical controls by employing better laboratory techniques plus the latest designs for field experiments. Newly developed insecticides are tested first in the laboratory, under controlled conditions, and later are placed in field tests. The field tests are designed for statistical analysis of the infestation data as well as yields, in order to evaluate the materials. 1. Thrips
As soon as cotton emerges in the spring, injurious insects begin their attack. Several species of thripe, Frankhiella tritici (Fitch) , FrankZiniella fwca (Hinds) and Thrips tabaci, Lind. cause similar injury to
COTTON
33
cotton. Wardle and Simpson (1927) stated that thrips cause premature and excessive defoliation. They found no evidence, however, that the salivary secretion of the insect was toxic. Eddy and Livingston (1931) showed that thrips retarded the growth of cotton seedlings and that unfolded leaves were perforated and had marginal erosions. Gaines (1934) observed that thrips transferred in large numbers from weed fields to cotton early in the spring, and that later populations increased on cotton at a rapid rate. Watts (1934, 1936) reported the biology of several species of thrips known to attack cotton in South Carolina. Thrips injure the tender leaves, destroy buds and retard fruit production. The injury becomes so severe a t times as to result in loss of stands. Chapman et al. (1947), Fletcher et al. (1947) and Gaines et al. (1948) have conducted thrips control tests. The results show that thrips may be controlled with several organic insecticides; however, increases in yield were not significant. Losses in stands can be prevented by use of insecticides. 2. Cotton Aphid
Aphids, Aphis gossypii, Glov., also attack seedling cotton and are especially injurious during cool damp weather. This pest retards growth and fruit production and often results in loss of stand. Aphids may be controlled with benzene hexachloride, but insecticidal control applied to seedling cotton rarely proves economical except in cases where losses in stands are prevented. Infestations of aphids resulting from the use of calcium arsenate later in the season cause excessive shedding of leaves, difficulty in ginning and deterioration in the grade of the lint. R. C. Gaines et al. (1947) reported that control of aphid infestations by the addition of nicotine to the calcium arsenate used for weevil control proved economical. 3. Cotton Fleahopper The fleahopper, Psallus seriatus (Reut.) also attacks cotton early in the season. Howard (1898) reported this insect as a pest of cotton. Hunter (1924) gave a brief account of severe injury to cotton in South Texas caused by the then-called “cotton flea.” Reinhard (1926a, 1926b, 1927) described the various stages of the insect and suggested the use of sulfur to control the pest. The injury to the cotton plant is characterized by an excessive blasting and shedding of small squares, a reduction in the number of fruiting branches, and either a tall whiplike growth of the main stem or an increased number of vegetative branches. Several workers (Gaines, 1933, 1942; Hunter and Hinds, 1904; Reinhard, 1926b) have shown that the fleahopper migrates from horsemint to
34
J. C. GAINES
cotton early in the spring and migrates from cotton t o croton early in July. Ewing (1929) and Painter (1930) investigated the possibility of the fleahopper being a vector of a plant disease. They concluded that the material injected into the plant by the insect did not spread far from the point of injury and that both the disturbance and shedding of squares was due to the multiplicity of bites. The fleahopper occurs throughout the Cotton Belt, causing the greatest damage in the western part of the area. Ewing (1931) noted that a mixture of Paris green and calcium arsenate killed a higher percentage of adult fleahoppers than did sulfur; however, sulfur proved the more effective in killing nymphs. Later, Ewing and McGarr (1936, 1937) showed that Paris green-sulfur (10:90) was more effective against this pest than sulfur alone. Most of the newer organic insecticides have proven highly effective against all stages of this pest. Low concentrations of either toxaphene or DDT applied as sprays or dusts are effective and have proven practical for the control of the fleahopper.
4. Boll Weevil The boll weevil, Anthonornus grandis, Boh., crossed the Rio Grande near Brownsville, Texas, on or before 1892, and by 1894 it had spread through several surrounding counties in Southern Texas, The weevil gradually spread to the northwest and eastward and by 1922 had covered practically the entire Cotton Belt. Several workers (Fenton and Dunnam, 1928; Gaines, 1942; Hunter and Hinds, 1904; Hunter and Pierce, 1912) have shown that there are two principal periods of dispersal and spread during the season. The first period occurs when the hibernating weevils leave their winter quarters and go in search of food. The second period is dependent on several factors: (1) large weevil population; (2) abundance of fruit; (3) high percentage of infested fruit; and (4) high temperatures. The hibernating weevils migrate t o cotton early in the season, feeding on the leaves and small squares. When the squares become half-grown or larger, the female deposits an egg in a cavity which has been formed by eating into the square or boll. The cavity is then sealed by secreting a muccilaginous substance from accessary glands of her female organs. The feeding punctures are never sealed, thus differentiating between those containing eggs. Either kind of puncture soon causes the squares to flare and fall. Heavy weevil infestations result in serious boll injury as well as square injury caused by the grubs feeding on the contents of the fruit. Newel1 and Smith (1909) recommended powdered arsenate of lead for the effective control of weevils. Later, Coad (1918) and Coad and Cassidy (1920) reported that calcium arsenate afforded good control
COTTON
35
of the weevil without causing injury to the cotton. Research work has been conducted on the boll weevil in practically all Southern States and numerous reports of this work have been issued by various Experiment Stations and the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. Calcium arsenate, since discovery of its applicability, has been the recommended control for this pest throughout the South. Since the use of this insecticide often results in aphid infestations and is not effective against the sucking type of insects which are injurious to cotton, an effort has been made to find a desirable substitute by both manufacturers and entomologists. The development of organic insecticides during World War I1 offered several possibilities. A number of workers (Becnel et al., 1947; Dunnam and Calhoun, 1948; Ewing and Parencia, 1947, 1948; Gaines and Dean, 1947, 1948; Gaines and Young, 1948; Ivy and Ewing, 1946; Ivy et al., 1947; Parencia et al., 1946; Rainwater and Bondy, 1947; Watts, 1948) have shown that toxaphene or a mixture of benzene hexachloride and D D T were effective against the boll weevil, as well as most of the other cotton insect pests. Calcium arsenate or calcium arsenate mixed with an aphicide such as nicotine is still recommended for weevil control in all the cotton states. However, 20 per cent toxaphene-40 per cent sulfur or 3 per cent gamma benzene hexachloride-5 per cent DDT-40 per cent sulfur are preferred to calcium arsenate, particularly in those states where the bollworm causes injury. Spraying cotton with arsenicals for weevil control has not proven profitable. Results of tests conducted in several states in 1949 indicate that some of the organic insecticides applied as spray emulsions a t a low pressure and volume per acre were effective against the weevil. This method of application is being rapidly explored by cooperative efforts of agricultural engineers and entomologists. Several years ago, when the pink bollworm spread t o the southern counties of Texas, strict regulations were imposed on the planters regarding planting dates and early fall destruction of stalks. The fall stalk destruction date was set sufficiently early t o starve the boll weevil before it hibernated. During the years following adequate fall destruction of stalks, the boll weevil was greatly reduced and the need for chemical control was practically eliminated. Gaines and Johnston (1949) reported the results of a fall stalk destruction program which was conducted in Williamson County, Texas, during 1947. I n this county, the stalks were destroyed early by all planters and the weevil infestations were greatly reduced the following year. Apparently a well executed fall destruction program will greatly reduce the losses resulting from the weevil. The so-called “Florida Method” involved the removal and destruction
36
J. C. GAINES
of all infested squares early in June after the hibernating weevils had emerged, followed by dusting the plants with calcium arsenate to destroy the adults. Several factors made this method impractical. The presquare poisoning method was developed and used to some extent in the eastern portion of the Cotton Belt and proved more effective in communities where all the planters cooperated in the program. However, neither method has been generally accepted by cotton planters. Since several of the organic insecticides have proven effective both in the form of sprays and dusts for controlling such insects as thrips, aphids, fleahoppers and boll weevils which usually attack cotton early in the season, the control of these insects appears both practical and promising. Spray equipment is being developed which will allow the insecticide t o be applied when the cotton is cultivated. By combining insecticidal applications with the usual cultivation practices the expense of early-season control should be greatly reduced. I n certain communities where planters have cooperated in an early-control program, the results have been favorable. During dry years this program should prove profitable. I n wet years and in areas where the bollworm causes injury later in the season, however, several applications of insecticides will be necessary to protect the cotton and the early season control may be an added expense. I n either case, early season control is a good investment to insure early fruiting of cotton. The Texas Extension Service suggested the early-season control program during 1949. I n some areas, it was well received and proved profitable. I n other areas, where bollworm infestations occurred, additional applications were necessary to protect the crop during July and August. Cotton receiving the late applications produced as much as the cotton receiving both early and late applications. Additional research is being conducted to evaluate the various programs in different areas. 5. Bollworm
The bollworm, Heliothis armigera (Hbn.), occurs over the entire Cotton Belt as a pest of many crops. This insect overwinters in the pupal stage and the moth emerges early in the spring. The first brood feeds on legumes and corn, while the second brood attacks corn causing considerable injury to the ears. I n the Southwest, corn matures early in July and the moths emerging from the mature corn fields migrate to cotton fields and severely damage the more succulent cotton. Sporadic occurrences of this pest have been reported throughout the entire Cotton Belt. Riley (1885) studied the bollworm and recommended London purple and Paris green for its control. Later Quaintance and Brues (1905) recommended arsenicals, the use of trap crops, and cultural prac-
COTTON
37
tices to control the pest. Moreland and Bibby (1931), Gaines (1941, 1944) and Moreland et al. (1941) presented results of insecticidal tests which indicated that calcium arsenate applied a t the proper time gave economical control of the pest. Parencia et aZ. (1946), Ewing and Parencia (1947), Gaines and Dean (1947) and Gaines et al. (1948) reported the results of field tests in which D D T , 3 per cent gamma benzene hexachloride-5 per cent DDT-sulfur and 20 per cent toxaphene-sulfur were compared with calcium arsenate. The organic insecticidal mixtures proved more effective in controlling the bollworm than calcium arsenate. Unpublished results of tests conducted in 1949 indicate that toxaphene and toxaphene-DDT, when applied as spray emulsions, are effective in the control of the bollworm. 6. Pink Bollworm
The pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saund.) is a worldwide pest of cotton and causes severe injury t o the fruit. The greatest damage caused by this pest is the destruction of bolls or rendering them unfit for picking. Cotton produced under heavily infested conditions is inferior in grade because of staining, shorter staple and less tensile strength. The pink bollworm was first described from specimens collected in India and is believed to have spread by means of seed shipments t o Egypt around 1906. According to Hunter (1918, 1926b) the pink bollworm was introduced into Mexico in 1911 through shipments of seed from Egypt. The infestations in this country were introduced from Mexico likewise through seed shipments, and also by moths drifting across the border from heavily infested areas. The biology of the pink bollworm was carefully studied in Mexico by Loftin et al. (1921) and Ohlendorf (1926). Hunter (1926b) reported on steps taken to prevent this pest from establishing itself in the United States. The pink bollworm has been a potential danger to the cotton industry in this country for the last 28 years. Latest reports issued by the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine indicate that the pink bollworm has been found to occur in 127 counties in Western Texas, 8 in Oklahoma, 15 in New Mexico and 7 in Arizona. It has been effectively controlled by the use of cultural practices including regulated dates for planting and destruction of stalks as specified by the State Departments of Agriculture. During the past few years, considerable research has been carried on in Mexico by workers in the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine to effect a chemical control for the pink bollworm. The results
38
J . C. GAINES
of these tests indicate that DDT is effective in reducing the worm population. 7. Hemipterous Insects
A number of hemipteroue insects attack cotton, particularly in the western areas of the Cotton Belt, According to Cassidy and Barber (1939) the most important species of stink bugs causing injury t o cotton are Euchistus impectiventris Stal, Chlorochroa say; Stal and Thyanta custator (F.). Three species of plant bugs, Lygus hesperus Knight, L. pratensis oblineatus (Say) and L. elisus Van D. are also injurious to cotton. The most conspicuous injury resulting from hemipterous insects is the blasting of young squares and bolls and the puncturing of bolls followed by severe lint staining due to invading pathogenic organisms. Increases in yields have been obtained with applications of Paris green-sulfur or calcium arsenate-sulfur. Later work conducted by Stevenson and Kauffman (1948) proves that the organic insecticides are more effective than the arsenical-sulfur mixtures. Either DDT, a mixture of DDT-benzene hexachloride or toxaphene is recommended for control of plant bug and stink bug. 8. Cotton Leafworm
The leafworm, Alabama argillacea (Hbn.) is one of the oldest known insect pests of cotton. Since this insect cannot overwinter in any part of the United States, infestations originate from flights of moths from Central or South America. Almost every year this pest has been reported from some section of the Cotton Belt. It was once thought that periods of maximum infestations occurred in 21-year cycles, but this is not now generally accepted. The conditions affecting thaincrease of this pest in its native habitats, and the conditions existing in this country a t the time the moths appear, govern the injury produced. This pest is primarily a leaf feeder. After the leaves have been destroyed, however, it may also devour the fruit. Due t o its feeding habit, the leafworm is easily controlled with almost any kind of arsenical. It has been found that, with the exception of DDT, the organic insecticides used to control other cotton insects are also highly effective against this pest. Leafworms have not developed t o injurious numbers in the last few years, due perhaps to the thorough dusting programs which have been generally followed in the coastal area of Texas. However, unfavorable conditions for leafworm development in South and Central America may also have been a contributing factor.
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COTTON
9. Spider Mites
Sporadic infestations of spider mites have been reported throughout the Cotton Belt. This pest attacks the underside of leaves and causes a TABLE IV Insecticides Recommended by the Various States for Cotton Insect Control during 1949 Insects
Insecticides
Rate of application, lbs. per acre
Thrips
10 per cent toxaphene 3-5-40 a
12 to 15 7 to 10
Aphids
3-5-40
Fleahopper
5 per cent DDT 10 per cent toxaphene 20 per cent toxaphene 3-5-40
Boll Weevil
Calcium arsenate alternated with calcium arsenate-2 per cent nicotine or 3-5-40 Calcium arsenate 3-5-40 20 per cent toxaphene
Bollworm
20 per cent toxaphene 3-5-40 10 per cent D D T
Calcium arsenate Leafworm
Calcium arsenate Lead arsenate 20 per cent toxaphene 3-5-40
7 to 10 10 10 10 10
7 to 7 to 10 to 10 to
10 10 15 15
10 to 10 t o 10 to 10 to
15 15 15 15
7 to 10 7 t o 10 10
10
Plant Bugs
5 per cent DDT 3-5-40 10 per cent toxaphene
10 to 15 10 t o 15 10 t o 15
Stink Bugs
2-5-40 3 per cent G. BHC 10 per cent D D T 3-5-40 20 per cent toxaphene
15 to 20 15 to 20 10 to 15 10 to 15 10 t o 15
Red Spider
Sulfur
20 to 25
'3 per cent gamma benzene hexachloride-5 per cent D D T - 4 0 per cent sulfur. 2 per cent gamma benzene hexachloride-5 per cent DDT-40 per cent sulfur.
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WILLIAM E. MEEK
discoloration and subsequent defoliation of the plants. Sulfur has been recommended for a number of years as a control for this pest, but the results obtained by planters have not always been favorable. I n a recent article, McGregor (1948) determined the species of spider occurring on cotton in Texas as Septanychus sp. The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus bimaculatus Har., is known to be widely distributed in the southeastern section of the Cotton Belt. When organic insecticidal mixtures were first used without sulfur, a decided increase of spider mites was noticed, particularly in the Southwest. It was found that the addition of sulfur to the insecticidal mixtures averted increases. Results of tests conducted by Iglinsky and Gaines (1949) indicate that sulfur effectively controls the Septanychus sp. spider mite. 10. General Recommendations f o r Chemical Control
The insecticides or insecticidal mixtures generally recommended by the various states for cotton insect control during 1949 are given in Table IV. The recommendations issued by the Extension Services of Arkansas, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina and Tennessee do not include sulfur in the organic mixtures. The entomologists in Alabama, Arizona, California, Georgia, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas suggest that the organic mixtures should contain a t least 40 per cent sulfur to prevent red-spider increases. VI. IMPROVEMENTS IN PRODUCTION PRACTICES 1. I n Humid Areas WILLIAM E. MEEK U.S. Department of Agriculture, Stoneville, Mississippi
The rapid advancement of mechanized practices in the humid areas of the Cotton Belt, due to the shortage of farm labor and to the improvement in equipment, has brought about many changes and improvements in farming techniques. These can best be described in the order in which the operations are carried on. Space will not permit any lengthy comparisons between the most modern practices and those of past years. a. Field Layout and Water Control. A water control program, whether terracing for erosion control or a drainage system to remove surplus water, or possibly a combination of the two, is an absolute necessity where modern tractors with pneumatic rubber tires are used. I n order to obtain the best in control measures, it is necessary to give
COTTON
41
careful attention t o field planning. Fields should be so arranged as t o give the longest rows possible with a minimum of short rows. It may be well, therefore, to take certain parts of a field from row crops in order t o increase the efficiencyof the operation. This field planning may possibly require the moving of tenant houses and other buildings from the field, as well as relocation of roads and ditches. Low spots, or pockets, lend themselves readily t o “spot-plowing operations” and in areas where heavy equipment is available land levelers are being used.
b. Disposal of Crop Residues. The modern power-driven stalk shredders have greatly simplified the problem of crop residue disposal, allowing the stalks to be cut to very small pieces, thereby increasing coverage during the plowing operation and hastening the incorporation of vegetation into the soil. Many of these same machines are used on cover crops to shred thoroughly the green growth so that it can be completely and easily incorporated into the soil. I n some instances the use of the stalk shredder on cover crops will allow the planting date to be advanced a week to 10 days. c. Preparation of Seedbed. The manner of seedbed preparation varies widely with the area; heavy disk harrows, mold board plows, disk plows, wheatland plows, and middle breakers, are all standard implements. Regardless of the machine used, a good seedbed is essential. Improvements in farm equipment enable the farmer not only to increase efficiency, through the coverage of more acres per day, but improve the seedbed produced in the plowing operation. Any plant, whether grown in the garden as a shrub or in a 1000 acre field, retains its characteristics and requires the same seedbed regardless of the acreage. Farmers realize the importance of good seedbed preparation and increasingly are making use of the modern equipment a t their command.
d. Fertilization. The use of fertilizer has been on the increase for a number of years and remarkable strides have been made in both machines and methods of application. I n those areas where complete fertilizer is used at planting time, equipment is now available in units for one, two, or four rows which apply fertilizer according t o the placement recommendations, simultaneously with the planting operation. This not only saves labor, but assures a more positive placement in relation t o the seed with better moisture conditions, thereby giving greater efficiency and more complete utilization of the fertilizer by the plant. Throughout the humid areas, nitrogen is the principal fertilizer used for sidedressing the crop, and in some areas is the only fertilizer used. It is then applied
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WILLIAM E. MEEK
both prior to planting and as a sidedressing. One of the newer nitrogenous fertilizers is anhydrous ammonia, which in some areas is used in extremely large quantities for direct application t o the soil. Other areas of the Cotton Belt, particularly in the Southeast, are using a complete fertilizer a t planting followed by anhydrous ammonia as a sidedressing with excellent results. This particular form of fertilizer has advantages for sidedressing, inasmuch as deeper placement is possible than when granular fertilizers are used. The use of anhydrous ammonia is one of the most important developments in cotton fertilization in recent years. e. Planting. Increased efficiency in mechanical, acid, and gas delinting of cotton seed has allowed the farmers to attain greater precision in planting than ever before. Many farmers are now planting their cotton to a stand, either by hill dropping or in some instances light drilling, thereby eliminating the costly operation of thinning as well as attaining a saving in seed planted per acre. Cross plowing or check-row planting, while seemingly attaining popularity several years back, has become less popular due to decreased efficiency of the mechanical picker. It still retains its place, however, in areas badly infested with grass and weeds, as a means of cheap control of these pests in the cotton crop. Recent tests from several Experiment Stations indicate that the extreme precision necessary in planting a crop such as corn is not necessary in the growth of cotton. The various methods of planting do affect, however, the fruiting habits of the plant and increase or decrease, as the case may be, the efficiency of the weed-control measures, which in turn affect yield and operation of mechanical harvesters.
f. Cultivation. Cultivation rightfully is divided into 3 periods, early, midseason, and late. It should be borne in mind that cultivation is primarily for weed control and that the breaking of the land has been accomplished during seedbed preparation. Rotary hoe attachments, cited by Gull and Adams (1945) are mounted between the cultivator gangs and independent of them, and have greatly speeded up and increased the efficiency of early cultivation. Many farmers are setting their machines on the floor of their shop by the line-diagram method, and with the use of rotary hoes are attaining speeds up to 5% miles per hour during the early cultivation period, when timeliness is so important. It should be pointed out that these speeds have been possible through the cooperation of the Farm Equipment Industry in developing and making available ground-working equipment suitable for high-speed operations. During the second stage in the cultivation of the cotton crop, flame
COTTON
43
cultivation is brought into the picture and is carried on simultaneously with the regular shovel cultivation. Pioneer work with flame by Neely and Brain (1944) was extended by Gull and Adams (1945). Through the development of more efficient burners for the flame cultivator in later years by Meek and other workers of the Mississippi Delta Branch Station, it is now possible to begin the operation of these machines when the cotton plant is much smaller than has heretofore been possible. These new burners, using a standard spray nozzle for an orifice, allow the size of the orifice t o be changed a t will, thereby permitting small orifices to be used on young cotton, and the size of the opening increased as the cotton plant increases in size. The burners also furnish a longer exposure of the plant to the flame, which permits higher operating speeds than has ever been obtainable before. Probably one of the greatest advantages of these new burners is that they are set a t an angle of 45" to the surface of the ground and when once set do not require further adjustment. Clods and ridges do not particularly affect the action of the flame and, as a consequence, the flame cultivator has been made more adaptable t o the Cotton Belt as a whole. The price of fuel, which is either butane or propane, will be the determining factor in the use of these machines. With flame cultivation controlling the grass and weeds in the row and the regular shovels of the standard cultivator giving control in the middles, a greater degree of efficiency is now attained for humid regions than ever before. Mid-season control is, for the modern farmer equipped with modern equipment, a comparatively simple matter. Where mechanical harvesters are used, the late control of grass and weeds in cotton is vitally important. The grass in particular must not only be killed, but destroyed above ground. Farmers have found this extremely difficult to do due to the size of the cotton plant. Great damage has been done in the past by machines moving through the dense vegetation. Wheel fenders for the tractor, developed a t the Mississippi Delta Branch Experiment Station, now allow cultivation by shovels and flame much later in the season than ever possible before. I n many areas, it is necessary in the late stages of control to remove the standard shovel cultivators and continue with the flame alone, particularly when rains occur during the late growing season. These fenders, while invaluable in the grass- and weed-control program, also allow the farmers to make insecticidal applications, and then later t o use his own tractor in applying a defoliant, eit,her dust or liquid. g . Application of Insecticides. Insect control is of vital importance, not only from the standpoint of yield, but also because it affects the mechanical harvesting program. One of the newest developments is the
44
WILLIAM E. MEEK
attachment of spray rigs on supports of the regular shovel cultivator, whereby organic insecticides are applied during the early stages of growth, as a control for thrips and other insects. This early spraying apparently causes the cotton to fruit earlier, which gives more uniform distribution of the bolls on the plant and allows the mechanical harvesters to be started sooner in the fall and so do more work. Control of boll weevil and other insects is carried on, where sprays are used, with the same unit used in early applications. These machines are developed to the stage that the gallonage per acre applied approximates that of airplane application, and preliminary results indicate that the control to be obtained by the two methods is comparable. By the use of the fenders on the tractor wheels, this insecticide treatment may be applied either as sprays or as dusts well toward the harvest season, or to a point after which further control is not considered profitable, Insect control, during the middle and latter part of the season, can greatly affect the efficiency of the mechanical harvester. Where control is not obtained, the plant has a tendency to grow tall and rank due to the dropping of the fruit, and as a consequence, more vegetation must be handled by the harvesting equipment and its efficiency is thereby reduced.
h. Defoliation. Defoliation in the humid areas is carried on principally with calcium cyanamid dust applied either by airplanes or ground machines. This practice greatly increases the efficiency of the mechanical harvester and allows cotton of a higher grade to be produced. Where hand picking is practiced, defoliation permits the pickers to enter the field earlier when heavy dews are prevalent, and also increases their efficiency. The use of sprays in the humid areas appears to be limited. I n many instances, farmers defoliate their crop in order to remove the leaves and allow sunlight to penetrate into the plant, thereby reducing rot of the lower bolls. I n other instances farmers may defoliate rather early in order to reduce the damage from boll weevil or leaf worm, that is, they discontinue their insect control program in favor of defoliation.
i. Harvesting. Cotton strippers are seldom used in the humid areas due to the extreme difficulty of passing the large amount of vegetation through the machines, and also to the inability of the gins to remove the large amount of trash resulting from stripping the longer-staple varieties common to the areas. The spindle-type pickers are the machines used and are attaining great popularity under humid conditions. Their operation a t the present time is, however, restricted, as no machines are made for entirely satisfactory performance in the Southeast in contoured
COTTON
45
fields, or where rocks are oft,en encountered. On the more level lands, however, the mechanical pickers are operating most satisfactorily and large numbers of them are being used. Two spindle-type pickers were in production commercially in 1949. There is every indication that a t least two more will be placed on the market in 1950, with possibly a third being available. Farmers are realizing that every phase in the production of the cotton crop is of vital importance and that no one operation can be slighted without affecting those which follow. From field layout and water control on through crop-residue disposal, seedbed preparation, fertilizing and planting; and thence through cultivation for weed and grass control, every single operation, including the insect control and defoliation program, affects harvesting, and may have a decided effect both on yield and quality of cotton produced. Better machines and better methods are increasing the efficiency of the cotton farmer, permitting him to produce a higher quality product with fewer man hours. 2. In Low-Rainfall and Subhumid Areas HARRIS P. SMITH Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas
Low-rainfall cotton is that which is grown where the average annual rainfall is less than 25 inches and where the rainfall distribution is such that irrigation will materially increase yields. That grown west of a line drawn from Corpus Christi, Texas, to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, will be, approximately, in the low-rainfall area. This area includes the western halves of the states of Texas and Oklahoma and all of New Mexico, Arizona and California. Bonnen and Thibodeaux (1937) show that the approximate western limits of dry-land farming is a line drawn from Raymondville, Texas, to Lovington, New Mexico. Although a large part of the cotton produced in the subhumid area is grown as dry-land cotton, approximately 3 million acres of cotton are irrigated. The acre yields of dry-land grown cotton range from failures, in exceedingly dry years, to a bale of 500 lbs. per acre in years of ample rainfall. Acre yields of irrigated cotton range from one-half to 3 bales in some cases. Government estimates indicate that approximately 3% million bales of cotton were produced in 1949 from the irrigated acreage. Cultural practices for low-rainfall cotton, both dry-land and irrigated, differ from the practices of the humid areas; therefore, they are discussed separately.
46
HARRIS P. SMITH
a. Field Layout. Fields that are to be irrigated must be carefully surveyed, slopes determined, irrigation ditches located and lateral ditches planned so that water can be properly applied, as discussed by Thomas (1948). The land must be leveled with land-leveling machines and “Fresnos” so that water will flow down the furrows in a uniform manner. Gorders are sometimes thrown up and the entire field flooded to facilitate planting and insure subsoil moisture. b. Disposa2 of Crop Residues. I n the High Plains area of Northwest Texas and Western Oklahoma, crop residues such as cotton stalks and sorghum stubble are left until January or February as a protection against wind erosion. Just prior to listing the land, 4- and &row shopmade rolling stalk cutters are used to cut the stalks. The dry stalks and stubble do not decompose readily in the dry climate, and subsequently cause frequent stoppages of cultural machines, particularly of mechanical cotton strippers. I n the Lower Rio Grande Valley area, governmental regulatory measures require that all cotton stalks be cut and plowed under by the first of September. Power-operated stalk cutters and shredders are being used in this and other areas to chop and shred cotton, sorghum and corn residues, and also green cover crops. A tandem disk harrow hitched behind a’rolling stalk cutter is a popular method of cutting and disposing of crop residues throughout the low-rainfall area. A knife arrangement, similar to that on a peanut digger, to cut the stalk under the surface of the ground immediately above the root crown, makes land preparation easier, and permits the use of modern mechanized tools, such as the rotary hoe. c. Preparation of Seedbed. Under dry-land farming conditions, land is usually listed with tractor-mounted middlebreakers to form beds. Under irrigation, howcver, Thomas (1948) states that land must be carefully leveled, broken flat with one-way plows, floated, ditches made and often borders thrown up for an application of water before the final seedbed is prepared. Some farmers list forming a bed for each row, while others throw up a wide bed to accommodate two rows. The wide double beds are called “cantaloupe beds.” The beds are harrowed down and sometimes “boarded” off a few days before planting. I n the High Plains where cotton is planted in the furrow, the beds are “knifed” with long knives just before planting to destroy weeds. Where cotton is planted on low beds in Central Texas, rolling stalk cutters are frequently used to chop the beds to break up clods and destroy weeds. In some areas where a sandy topsoil is underlain by a clay subsoil, chiseling and subsoiling is practiced to aid the infiltration of water,
COTTON
47
d. Fertilizer Responses. Fertilizer is not generally used in the lowrainfall area because of the low crop response. Magee et al. (1944) state that, in the High Plains of Texas, the natural soil fertility has not been depleted to the extent that commercial fertilizers can be profitably used. Hinkle and Staten (1941) found that the heavy soils of New Mexico are inherently fertile and may be expected to produce satisfactory cotton yields without fertilizers. Light soils, however, may give profitable responses when fertilizer is applied, especially manure. Staten and Hinkle (1942) found that, where cotton followed two or more years of alfalfa, considerably higher yields of cotton were obtained. Unpublished results from Texas indicate that profitable increases in yields are obtained in Central Texas when nitrogenous fertilizers are used. e. Planting. Planting practices in the subhumid areas differ for dryland and irrigation farming. Jones (1948) discussed practices in the High Plains where the seed is planted in the furrow with a lister type 2- or 4-row planter. A small amount of seed is drilled and little or no thinning is done. Where rains wash excess soil over the seed, rotary-hoe attachments mounted on sled cultivators are used to loosen the soil to aid the emergence of seedlings. I n Central and South Texas, planting is done on low beds with 2- or 4-row tractor-mounted planters, as discussed by Alsmeyer (1949). Presswheels are left off the planters and special rollers are used a few hours after planting to compact the soil over the seed. Planting on either flat-broken or bedded land is a general practice under irrigated conditions. Where cotton is planted on flat land, many farmers use a double-disk furrowing attachment in combination with a runner or knife opener. Throughout the low-rainfall area most cotton is drilled, but there is a trend toward the use of hill-drop attachments. Rotary and electrically actuated valves are satisfactory for hill-dropping cottonseed, There is also a definite trend toward the use of delinted seed. One concern in Central Texas annually furnishes farmers 70,000 bushels of certified mechanically-delinted and treated seed.
f. Thinning. Cotton farmers of the High Plains area of Texas and Oklahoma have long followed the practice of planting to a stand, that is, only enough seed is planted to give a stand of plants. Where cotton is hill-dropped with an average of 4 to 5 seeds per hill, spaced 14 to 18 inches, no thinning is necessary. Where cotton is drilled to a thick stand, the most common method of thinning is chopping with a hoe. The average rate of pay for hand chopping in 1949 was $4.00 per day per laborer. Many farmers use mechanical choppers and some practice cross-plowing to reduce “chopping” costs.
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HARRIS P. SMITH
g . CuZtivation. Fairbank (1948) has pointed out that weed and grass control is one of the major problems in cotton mechanization. Cotton has been produced entirely by mechanical means under humid conditions, as reported by Gull and Adams (1945). Limitations under dry-land and irrigation culture, as given by Smith (1949a) emphasize the problem of control of weeds and grasses in the crop row. Cultivation is not only necessary to destroy weeds, but also to conserve moisture and t o put the soil in better condition for plant growth. The rotary-hoe cultivator attachment is an excellent tool for breaking soil crusts and for the destruction of young weeds in the first two months of crop growth. When the sweeps on each side of the rotary hoes are set flat and run shallow, cultivation can be done 40 per cent faster than where the customary fenders and sweeps, and sweep setting, are used. The rotaryhoe attachment can be used either in the listed furrow or upon beds. Current work shows that an integral-mounted &row tractor lister cultivator with rotary hoe attachment may reduce hoeing hours from 60 to 100 per cent in the High Plains area. The regular 2- and 4-row tractormounted cultivators are used except where cotton is planted in the furrow. The number of cultivations required for weed control varies from an average of 3 to 6 per season. Extremes may range from 1 to 10 per season. The first cultivation of cotton may often be before seedlings emerge and the last cultivation may be delayed until bolls begin t o open. Flame cultivation has not been used extensively in the low-rainfall areas because of the different farming practices, and climatic conditions and because the low moisture level in the surface soils retards germination of seeds of annual weeds.
h. AppZication of Insecticides. Tractor-mounted dusters, and also airplanes, are used for applying insecticides to cotton. There appears to be a trend toward the use of spray equipment in some sections. Where the pink bollworm is found, stalk cutters, disk harrows, and plows are important tools in cutting and burying of the crop residue. The distribution and relative importance of cotton insects is discussed in V.
i . DefoZiation. Jones and Jones (1945) stated that defoliation of cotton plants a t haryest time in the subhumid areas is more difficult t o obtain than in the humid areas. Usually the weather is dry and hot, the soil is deficient in moisture for plant growth and the plants are semidormant, and in stress from lack of moisture. Under most conditions, plants and foliage must be approaching maturity t o obtain rapid defoliation. Smith (1949b) points out that an active plant and atmospheric
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moisture in the form of dew are two essential factors to complete defoliation of cotton. Where cotton is defoliated, hand pickers can easily see and pick bolls that would ordinarily be hidden by the foliage, The trash in mechanically-picked cotton is dry and can be more easily removed, without chlorophyll stain, by the cleaning equipment of the gin, and thus a higher quality cotton obtained than where the plants have not been defoliated. j . Harvesting. Smith et al. (1946a) discuss 4 methods of harvesting cotton in general use in the subhumid areas. These methods are termed hand-picking, hand-snapping, machine-stripping, and machine-picking. The practice of snapping cotton began in the High Plains of Texas about 1912 and since that time has spread to all sections of Texas, and t o other states. Mechanical stripping also started in the High Plains area. Home-made sled strippers were used from 1914 to 1930, but were practically abandoned during the period 1931 to 1940. Two-row tractormounted strippers were introduced in 1943. Cotton growers in Texas and California are adopting the spindle-type picker, but some farmers who grow the fine-textured, long staple cottons in New Mexico and Arizona contend that this quality type of fiber is injured when machine picked. The mechanical stripper requires a storm-proof type cotton while the picker requires an open boll with fluffed locks, and a staple length sufficient to allow the lint to wrap around the picking spindle. Smith et al. (1939, 1946b) showed that varietal characteristics generally affect field losses of mechanical harvesters more than the mechanical factors. Williamson and Rogers (1948a, 1948b) point out that cultural practices materially affect field losses of both the stripper and picker. The quality of yarn manufactured from machine-stripped and picked cottons of Texas production was not affected by the method of harvest when compared with hand-harvested cottons, except for a slight lowering of the appearance grade for the longer and fine-fibered cottons, as discussed by Smith et al. (1946b) and Grimes (1947).
k . Irrigation. McDowell (1937) and also Barr (1949) have pointed out that the proper use of water is perhaps the most fundamental problem in cotton production in regions where the crop is grown under irrigation. Irrigation practices are influenced by the nature of the soil, amount and distribution of rainfall, temperature, and evaporation. These factors or conditions vary widely in different areas and the practice for one area will not apply, as a whole, to another area. The 3 principal sources of water for irrigation are those impounded in reservoirs, pumped from rivers, and pumped from wells. Under Arizona conditions, Harris
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CHARLES A. BENNETT
(1947) found that the average amount of irrigation water required to produce a crop of cotton ranges from 20 to 30 acre-inches. The amount and distribution of the annual rainfall will influence the irrigati0.n requirements. Where cotton is grown under irrigation, there are 3 critical periods of cotton growth: (1) planting to heavy fruiting; (2) fruiting; and (3) the maturity period. Experiments in Arizona by Harris and Hawkins (1942) and Harris (1947) show that, in general, the more rapid the growth of the cotton plant prior to heavy fruiting, the higher the final yields. The application of water to cotton late in the season will delay maturity. Cotton plants require and use more water during July, August, and September than a t other times. The cost of producing cotton under irrigation is higher than under rain-grown conditions and yields must be higher to obtain profitable returns.
VII. IMPROVEMENTS IN GINNINGPRACTICES CHARLES A. BENNETT
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Stoneville, Mississippi The ginning processes are of vital importance to all who are engaged in the cotton industry, because the few-minute period that is required to gin a bale determines the grade and staple sample for selling the bale, and this sample may reward or punish those who have contributed to its production. The United States leads in improvements in ginning, and competitors quickly copy them, either by purchase of better machinery, or by efforts to provide home-made substitutes; This is evidenced by some 17 patents, with others pending, pertaining to ginning machinery and processes. “Ginning” includes several important stages of processing, each having a special function and bearing upon the end result, namely, the quality of the finished bale. Without being too technical, it may be said that there are about seven of these stages, usually operated in the following order: (1) conditioning; (2) cleaning and extracting; (3) distributing and feeding to the gin stands; (4) separation of the fiber from the seed, either by saws or rollers within the gin stands; ( 5 ) lint cleaning; (6) disposition of freshly ginned seed and foreign matter; and (7) packaging the lint into bales. 1. Regulation of Moisture Regulation of optimum moisture content has not yet been satisfactorily achieved. There are various regional conditions that call for
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different treatment of the seed cotton and the fiber. The restoration of moisture in the arid regions is a much slower and more difficult operation than is the mere drying necessary in humid areas. Approximately 30 lbs. of seed cotton must reach each saw-gin stand per minute, and conditioning must therefore be done in bulk streams, or in the final distribution to the gin stands. Modern gins attempt to do both, insofar as drying is concerned, but neither methods nor controls have yet been devised for optimum regulation of the moisture content of the seed cotton Seed cotton inlet
Fig. 2. Diagrams of the several processes of cotton ginning, except pressing and packaging. In normal order of sequence, beginning a t upper left hand corner, they are (1) drying; (2) cleaning; (3) extracting, which is usually followed by more cleaning; (4) distribution; (5) feeding; (6) ginning or the separation of the fiber from the seed; and (7) lint cleaning during which the freshly ginned fiber is centrifuged and scrubbed.
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CHARLES A. BENNETT
(principally the fiber) in the high-speed transit of the material through the several processes ahead of the actual ginning or fiber separation from the seed. Figure 2 depicts in diagram form the several preliminary processes of drying, cleaning, and extracting; it also shows the cleaning of the ginned fiber or lint immediately after it leaves the gin stand. No lint cleaning devices are as yet available for roller-types of cotton gins. It will be noted from Fig. 2 that the drying involves a pneumatic method; that the cleaning involves a threshing method which employs both beaters and screens (or grids of some sort) ; and that the extracting depends upon a carding method which is accomplished by toothed cylinders and strippers. Drying fluffs up the cotton and liberates the ordinary small particles of foreign matter, and a t the same time it appears, in rain-grown regions, to enhance the subsequent action of the cleaners and extractors. If means can be developed for adding moisture quickly to the seed cotton as it passes through gins in the arid regions, much will be accomplished. Drying is now a multistage process in itself a t the more completelyequipped gins, because several driers may be used in succession. They may be all of one type, or mixed, and intermingled with them may be auxiliary jets of hot air to the cleaners in lesser air volumes than are employed in the regular dryers. Seed cotton may be conveyed through the dryers by pneumatic or mechanical means. The Government design (Fig. 2), developed by the U. S. Department Agriculture Ginning Laboratory, is pneumatic, and consequently somewhat automatic in action because the cotton moves in proportion to its fluffiness and dryness, rather than by positive rate of travel from a belt or auger. 6. Cleaning
The “cleaners” have a unique function in the modern cotton gin, whether they achieve the maximum removal of finer trash or not. First, they open and fluff up the cotton as it comes from the dryer, often comprising the receiving chamber for this material in a very simple and effective way. Fig. 2 shows this in a modern “blow-in” delivery of dried cotton to the cleaner. Second, this fluffing is a mechanical agency that loosens larger pieces and fragments of burs, hulls, leaves, and other unwieldly foreign matter, so that the portion passing to the extractors may be the more readily removed. That part of the foreign matter that can be screened out, is, of course, usually discharged in the cleaners, but not always a t the first one. After the main extracting stage, the finishing cleaners perform a “cleanup” job. All-in-all, cleaners generally take out about 30 per cent of the foreign matter that comes into the gin with the
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seed cotton, although sometimes 20 or more cylinders are required to accomplish this. 3. Extraction and Interrelated Processes
The extractors exist for the purpose of extracting sticks, stems, burs, hulls and larger pieces of foreign matter. Like the dryers and cleaners, they too involve a series of individual extractions, interspersed here and there between cleaners and driers, or between cleaners and gin stands. Foreign matter removal by extractors is also approximately 30 per cent, taken as a whole for all extraction processes that may be employed in the modern gins, beginning with overhead machinery and ending right within the huller fronts of the gin stands themselves. Huller fronts are primitive extractors, from which the large modern counterpart has arisen. The U. S. Department of Agriculture is now conducting research on better removal of green, unopened bolls, and of heavy plant sticks and stems that are very troublesome when machine-stripped cotton is being ginned. Figure 3 depicts a cross-section of a modern cotton gin with a chain of processes frequently used. Any similarity between the diagram and
Fig. 3. Diagram of a section through a modern cotton gin equipped to handle machine-picked and roughly hand-harvested cottons. This diagram is for informative purposes only and does not conform in cross section to the majority of cotton gins that have suction telescopes at the front of the stands. The equipment, however, is comparable.
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CHARLES A. BENNETT
special brands or makes of machinery is strictly coincidental and does not comprise Governmental endorsement. It will be noted (Fig. 3) that some of the various processes are repeated, except those within the gin stands and lint cleaners, and that the seed cotton now does rather extensive traveling on its way from storage bin or vehicle to the bale press (not shown in the figure). Figure 4 depicts a somewhat different arrangement of dryers, cleaners and other units than used in Fig. 3, both being representatives of improved types of cotton gins now in use in humid and arid regions of the Cotton Belt.
-
*Lint
flue
Pig. 4. Elevation diagram of a modern cotton gin with drying, cleaning and extracting equipment on left side of the ginning aisle; and with a conventionally equipped, standard gin for hand-picked cotton on the right hand. The “Annex,” or equipment to the left, is usually employed on machine-picked and other roughly harvested cottons.
From previous statements, it will be noted that the combined action of cleaners and extractors, under optimum conditions, takes out about 60 per cent of the foreign matter from the seed cotton. The lint cleaners remove up to about 13 per cent more. There is still room for improved efficiency and simplification in both cleaning and extracting. There is fairly definite information on moisture removal, but little data on restoration because of the many variables involved. Usually the first drying process can remove approximately 3 per cent of the moisture in the seed cotton, most of it coming from the fiber rather than
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from the seed. I n succeeding stages of drying, which may be concurrent with cleaning as is indicated in Fig. 4, somewhat less moisture may be removed than in the first stage, but the final result may bring the fiber to 5 per cent moisture content, or less. Static electricity is then likely to appear, with an attendant sequence of troubles. Likewise, too much heat and too many cylinders of cleaning may cause the fibers to become brittle, “neppy,” “nappy” and roped, Rapid indicators and controls are now needed t o improve t l e present crude regulation of moisture content to percentages best suited for each succeeding process. Drying aids the cleaning process, and accordingly the moisture content of damp cottons should be reduced to 10 per cent. Cleaning assists the extracting; extracting enhances the feeding and the ginning; and lint cleaning “pronounces the benediction” on processing, if other steps in processing have been good. With these modern processes, machinepicked cotton may be brought very close in grade to hand-picked cottons, but the gin cannot turn out a bale of machine-picked cotton as quickly as it can gin clean hand-picked cotton; neither can it do it as cheaply, nor with as small amount of machinery and labor. Preservation of pure seed is possible at the most modern gins, if correct methods of handling and clean-up are employed. Sterilization of seed and incineration of trash can also now be accomplished without causing community nuisances.
4.
Summary
The modern cotton gin frequently represents an investment of many thousands of dollars. True progress and improvements are coming through better trade association practices and methods, through more scientific appraisal of the engineering and economic aspects of the business, and through the cooperation of scientists and collaborators in all the elements of the cotton industry, from producer to cotton mill and spinner. The 7 processes, listed a t the beginning of this section, are all working in the modern cotton gin to enhance and preserve the coordinated efforts of the agronomist, geneticist, agricultural engineer, and cotton technologist to produce cottons more acceptable to the trade and cottons of maximum performance. The team-work of those engaged in research on the ginning process is paying large dividends, as mechanized production increases. Improved ginning practices and methods make for better cotton and greater profit and will continue to contribute to the competitive position of cotton as a fiber, food or feed.
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HENRY D. BARKER
VIII. FIBERPROPERTIES AND THEIRSIGNIFICANCE HENRY D. BARKER
U.S . Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland Significant recent advances have been made in this country in developing instruments and applying techniques for measuring the fiber properties of cotton. Some of these advances are so new that their significance is not generally understood. Many workers have made important contributions to these advances. The objects of this brief summary are to outline some of the recent advances and to emphasize their significance to cotton breeders who are striving to develop better cottons, and to others who are interested in more effectively utilizing the various combinations of fiber properties that exist in this remarkable natural fiber. It has been known for a long time that the spinning performance of cotton depends upon certain fiber properties such as length, strength, structure, and fineness. Within the past few years a great deal more has been learned about each of these properties, and how their interrelationships affect yarn and fiber quality. As modern technology widens the range of raw materials and as improved methods of processing these raw materials into textiles are developed, it is inevitable that the trend will be more and more toward the selection of cotton on the basis of fiber quality. As evidence of this trend, attention is called to the increasing number of fiber laboratories with modern equipment for measuring fiber properties which are being installed by merchants and spinners. 1. Fiber Structure and Development Basic to a better understanding of fiber properties, their interrelationships, and their significance is the recent work on the origin and nature of cotton fibers and the factors that affect fiber properties. Each fiber, as reviewed by Anderson and Kerr (1938), is an outgrowth of a single epidermal cell of the cotton seed. This cell first elongates as a thin-walled tubular structure to its maximum length and the fiber wall is then thickened by deposition of cellulose, within, until it matures. The elongation phase of fiber growth begins on the day the flower opens and pollination takes place. Elongation continues for a period of 13 to 20 days depending on variety and growth conditions. It is slow at first, more rapid for a few days, then slows down near the end of the growth period. The short-fibered varieties generally elongate over a shorter period of time than the long-fibered varieties. Length of the
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fiber is influenced also by environmental factors, especially water stress within the plant. A slowing down in the rate of elongation results in the production of short fibers. The thin membrane which encloses the protoplasm is known as the primary wall. It is the outer layer of the mature fiber, and is made up of waxes, pectins, and cellulose. The thickening phase of fiber-wall growth begins after elongation has ceased. Deposition of the secondary wall in most varieties takes place within a period of 25 to 40 days. It may continue over a longer period for long-staple varieties, as is true for elongation. Cellulose in the secondary wall of the fiber is laid down in a spiral formation. The spirals in the first layer of the secondary thickenings are conspicuous because they lie in a direction opposite to those in succeeding layers (Kerr, 1946). Some details of minute fibrillar structure of this wall are visible through the ordinary microscope (Fig. 5 ) . Examination of a prepared cross section of the matured fiber shows alternating light and dark rings in the inner thickening. According to Anderson and Kerr (1938), each pair of adjacent light and dark rings represents the cellulose deposited during one day’s growth. Although variety largely determines characteristics of a secondary-wall structure, environment may modify them considerably. Water stress, for example, which slows down the elongation of the primary wall during the first 13 to 20 days, if continued through the phase of secondary thickening, results in thinner, more dense layers in the secondary wall. Many workers (Barre et aZ., 1947; Berkley et al., 1948; Hermans and Weidinger, 1949; Hessler et aZ., 1948; Nelson and Conrad, 1948) have contributed to providing the answer as to why the cotton fiber has a tensile strength greatly exceeding that of man-made fibers. It has been shown that this is determined by the character of the minute structure of the secondary wall. This structure is determined by the chemical constitution of the fiber and the location of the various components in the different parts of the wall. Cellulose makes up 88 to 96 per cent of the mature cotton lint and forms the skeletal framework of the fibers of average thickness. The cellulose is composed of many glucose anhydride units arranged in the molecule in a threadlike chain. There are a t least 3,000 t o 4,000 glucose units in a molecule of cellulose. These straight chains are deposited in the wall parallel to the protoplasmic surface and more or less parallel t o each other. The ends of the chains overlap. I n many regions of the wall, 50 t o 100 chains may be truly parallel to each other. I n this case the molecules are held in a fixed position and are kept together by so-called valence bonds. Such groups of parallel chains behave as minute crystals and are called crystallites. Not all chains are truly parallel. When the
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HENRY D. BARKER
distance between the cellulose molecules exceeds the effective distance, the molecular structure is said to be “amorphous.” Even a single chain may pass from a region of crystallinity t o a region that is amorphous in nature. I n a dried cotton fiber, a t least 70 per cent of the total cellulose is in the form of the minute crystallites. Groups of crystallites in turn form the fibrils. The long axis of the molecules, the crystallites, and the fibrils coincide. Sisson (1937), Berkley et al. (1948), and others have shown that the properties of the cotton fiber may be profoundly influenced by: (1) the general direction of the chains and crystallites with respect to the fiber axis; (2) the average length of the chains; and (3) the relative percentage of crystalline and amorphous cellulose. While it is not possible to see the molecular chains, the direction of the molecules may be determined accurately by means of x-ray diffraction patterns. Though the chains themselves cannot be seen, a large number of parallel crystallites form the so-called fibrils that are visible under the microscope. The direction of these fibrils t o the fiber axis affects the strength of the fiber. The more nearly they parallel the long axis of the fiber, the stronger is the cotton. The organized crystalline cellulose makes up the more dense parts and its arrangement is associated with the tensile strength of the fiber. The amorphous, or unorganized, parts are less dense and probably account for the flexibility or the efficiency with which the fibers bend and form themselves into position. The average length of the chains, as they are deposited within the cotton hair, is apparently about 3,000 glucose units. Variations in the average length of cellulose chains resulting from growth conditions have not been shown to affect the fiber propFrties significantly. When mature cotton is exposed in the field and damaged by the weather, the average length of the chains is usually reduced. The action of ultraviolet light reduces chain length and may affect fiber strength. Microorganisms that frequently develop during field exposure leave many of the chains unaffected, as judged by fluidity tests, but apparently produce localized destruction of a high percentage of the chains with consequent reduction in fiber strength. 2. Fiber Length
The oldest and most widely known property for evaluating cotton fiber is fiber, or “staple,” length. Until recently, spinners who wanted yarns of a given strength specified the length of staple that should be used to produce the desired strength. One of the early methods of measuring fiber length was to sort out the various length groups from a sample and measure them with a rule.
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A mechanical device that gives a more nearly accurate measurement is the Suter-Webb duplex sorter, developed by Webb (1932). The fibers are removed from the sorter in order of length and placed in groups differing one-eighth inch in length. Each group of the same length is weighed. On the basis of these data, it is possible t o compute the length of the longest 25 per cent of the fibers by weight and also t o calculate the average length of the entire sample. Though accurate, the SuterWebb duplex sorter is slow and tedious and therefore expensive t o operate. A device that measures fiber length more rapidly has now come into general use. This instrument, known as the Fibrograph, was developed by Hertel and Zervigon (1936). It is a photoelectric device for scanning a fiber sample and tracing a length-frequency distribution curve from which fiber lengths are readily obtained. I n operation, a small quantity of ginned lint is placed upon one of a pair of combs. Several transfers from comb to comb parallel the fibers. The combed sample then consists of parallel fibers evenly distributed over the length of the two combs, with the fibers caught a t random points by the teeth, and extending from the combs. The two combs bearing the fibers are placed in the Fibrograph, and the length distribution curve is traced directly upon a card by manipulation of the instrument. Tangents drawn to the resulting curve give two fiber-length measures: (1) the average length of the longer half of the fiber population, upper half mean, which compares roughly with staple length as judged by commercial classers; and (2) the mean length of all fibers in the sample. 3. Fiber Strength
Though methods for determining fiber strength with considerable precision have been known for several years, most of them have been, until recently, extremely time-consuming. The most laborious of the traditional methods, the breaking of individual fibers, is now used only for specialized research. The Chandler bundle method, using the pendulum-type Scott tester, was the most widely used procedure for testing fiber strength for many years. I n operation, as described by Richardson et al. (1937), a bundle of parallel fibers about a millimeter in diameter is wrapped with thread of known size and length so the cross-sectional area can be calculated from measurement of the circumference. The wrapped bundle is placed in the test jaws of the breaker, in which the weight required for breaking is determined. The tensile strength of the sample is calculated as pounds per square inch of cross-sectional area. A rapid breaking-strength method using the Pressley (1942) strength
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HENRY D. BARKER
tester, an instrument that can be operated much more easily and rapidly, has largely replaced the Chandler bundle method. The Pressley breaker is essentially a lever system activated by a weight rolling down a graduated inclined plane. A parallel tuft of fibers is placed in two jaws lying against each other, and the protruding ends of the fibers are cut off. One of the jaws is held fast and the other is pulled away by the rolling weight on the lever. The weight automatically locks in position when the bundle breaks. A scale indicates the load required to break the sample. The broken tuft is weighed and the strength of the sample is computed in lbs. per milligram of cotton of a given length. The method is reasonably accurate, even though t,here is inadequate control over the speed a t which the breaking load is applied, and the portion of tuft between the two jaws where the break occurs is short.
4. Fiber Fineness The term “fiber fineness” is well established in cotton literature. Unfortunately it is a loose term even though useful in describing the number of fibers that can be packed into a yarn of a given count. More precisely it depends on two properties: (1) fiber perimeter, which is largely an inherited characteristic; and (2) fiber wall thickness, which is dependent on both genetic and environmental influences. Cotton technologists in this country have, for many years, expressed fiber fineness in terms of weight per inch as described by Richardson et al. (1937). A sorter is used to make a length array. Usually 200 fibers are counted from each length group and weighed. The weights are then used to prorate the various length groups and, finally, a weighted mean for the entire sample is computed and expressed as “micrograms per inch of fiber.” This method, though difficult and time-consuming, gives an accurate measure that represents the composite effects of perimeter and cell-wall development. A much more rapid method for determining a different composite effect of perimeter and cell-wall thickness was developed by Sullivan and Hertel (1940) ; the instrument is called the Arealometer. It provides a measurement of the surface area of a given mass or volume of fiber. Because it is so much more rapid than the weight per inch method, it or some other air-flow method, such as that developed by Pfeiffenberger (1946) or Elting and Barnes (1948), is now widely used in research and induatrial laboratories. The Arealometer uses an aerodynamic principle governing the flow of gas through a porous medium. The measures that were used up to the fall of 1949 were as follows: in operation, a line sample of 100 mg. is rolled into a plug and compressed in a tube of standard bore until
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resistance to air flow is equal to a standard resistance. The amount of compression indicated by the length of the plug is read directly from the instrument. By means of a calibration chart, plug lengths can be converted to the specific surface in square centimeters per milligram. Although the Arealometer is rapid and provides a very useful composite measure of fineness, it, like weight per inch, does not provide information on cell perimeter and cell-wall thickness. Fiber perimeter varies with different varieties and species of cultivated cottons. At present, no rapid precise method has been worked out for measuring fiber perimeter. Pearson (1950) developed a microscopic technique for obtaining the comparative perimeters of different varieties. I n this technique, the fibers are measured in the primary-wall stage and thus the errors and complications associated with attempts to measure mature fibers are avoided. Tufts of young fibers are stained, fanned out on a glass slide and allowed to dry. As there apparently is no readily detectable shrinkage during the drying process, the widths of the collapsed dried fibers as viewed longitudinally are equal t o half the fiber perimeter a t the position measured. Kerr (unpublished paper presented a t the April, 1949, meeting of the Fiber Society) has devised an indirect method of calculating perimeter from surface area and weight-per-inch data. The weight-per-inch data are recalculated in terms of weight (in micrograms) per centimeter and the reciprocal of this quantity is divided into the Arealometer reading (surface/mg.). I n using this method, data from the “Annual Varietal and Environmental Study of Fiber and Spinning Properties” for the crop years 1943, 1944, 1945, and 1946, are compared. Strangely enough, the characteristic perimeter of different varieties was found t o be little affected by varying environmental influences. A newly designed Arealometer has been released to a number of laboratories. Prior to September 20, 1949, results obtained with the Arealometer have been reported in terms of cm?/mg. Because of the difference in density among textile fibers, it has been deemed desirable to change the unit in the new instruments so that the same reading will be reported on all fibers having the same geometrical size. The new unit selected is “square millimeters per cubic millimeter.” Since the average density of cellulose is 1.52, and the new calibration data give results that are three per cent higher, a cotton heretofore reported with a specific surface of 2.00 cm.2/mg. will now read 314 mm.2/mm.3 in the new units (2.00 X 1.03 X 152 - 2.00 X 157 = 314). Results prior to September 20, 1949, must therefore be multiplied by 157 t o give results in terms of the new unit which was adopted September 20, 1949. The factor 157 is based on the average of 12 readings for each of 18 cottons
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covering a wide range of specific areas, and may be used as an average conversion factor. Several fiber characters other than those mentioned above are known to exist and may be important in spinning performance but, in general, are not well understood. Luster, drag, convolutions, reversals, and bends nre some of the properties that have not been extensively measured and evaluated. For genetic variability in spinning performance, good predictions may now be made from data on fiber length, fiber strength, and surface-area measurements. Measurements of environmentally-induced variations in fiber properties, however, result in less accurate predictions. This is interpreted as evidence that important properties other than length, strength, and fineness may be associated genetically with one of these three properties, but varies independently when modified by environment. 5 . Significance of Fiber Properties
The significance of fiber properties in relation to end-use value has been exceedingly difficult to determine. This is due to many causes. One of these is the complexity of fiber-property interrelationships. Another is that, in processing cottons of varying properties, many processing adjustments are required to obtain optimum results. It is difficult, therefore, to ascertain whether an adjustment that was made on the basis of experience in dealing with a given property, such as length, is actually optimum for some other property such as perimeter or cell-wall development. I n studying the interrelationships of fiber properties and their significance in long draft spinning, Barker and Pope (1948) presented correlation data on 447 samples. Multiple-correlation studies established that about 80 per cent of the varietal differences in skein strength may be accounted for by four measured fiber properties obtained from the Fibrograph , Pressley breaker, and Arealometer. For environmental effects, however, only about 55 per cent of the skein strength was accounted for by these 4 properties. From the standpoint of the practical breeder whose main interest is in genetic differences, R2 is nearly as high for two properties, upper-half mean length and Pressley index, as it is when all 4 or 5 fiber measurements are evaluated. That Arealometer measurements can usually be dispensed with, in estimating varietal differences in skein strength, is apparently due to the fact that genetic differences in fiber length are rather closely associated with differences in surface area. For environmentally induced differences in fiber and spinning properties, however, a very different condition exists. In the first place, mean length supersedes upper-half mean length as the important length meas-
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urement, and surface-area measurements become of greater importance. The latter cannot be omitted without causing appreciable reduction in R2 values. For yarn appearance grades, multiple-correlation coefficients showed that upper-half mean length and surface area differences significantly affect yarn appearance grade.
Fig. 5. Spiral structure of outer layer of secondary thickening. Where the fibrils change direction is referred t o as the spiral reversal (photomicrograph). x 850.
IX. BREEDING AND IMPROVEMENT T. R. RICHMOND Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas
1. General
The cotton plant bears complete flowers. Cultivated varieties generally are placed in the “usually” self-fertilized category with respect t o crossing habit under natural conditions, but the per cent of crossing may vary from less than 5 to approximately 50 (Kime and Tilley, 1947; Simpson, 1948a). The amount a t any one location is proportional t o the number of wild and domesticated bees which visit the field. Since the cottons of commerce are propagated by seeds, there is more or less of a tendency toward inbreeding, depending on the breeding methods employed, the isolation of increase plots, the precautions taken against mechanical mixtures, and many other factors. Yavilov (1927) has sl1om7n that stable populations of crop plants exist (or existed) in certain limited areas called “centers of origin,” that variability in such centers is high, and that variability diminishes toward the periphery of the distribution. There are a t present two centers of origin for American cultivated species, one for American Upland, G. hirsutum, in Southern Mexico and Central America and one for Sea Island and
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related types, G. barbadewe, in the Andean region of Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. The American species have proved to be remarkably plastic genetically and it has been possible through selection to develop agricultural varieties of a significant range of types, many of which have been widely adapted geographically. The advances in breeding and improvement in cotton, as presented in this section, will be confined almost entirely to the American cultivated cottons and wherever possible, to American Upland, G . hirsutum, which is the predominant cultivated variety in the United States. 2. The Breeding Problem
The observation that cotton varieties or strains often lose in vigor and productivity under a regimen of selfing or close inbreeding, such as that resulting from the progeny-row breeding systems, in vogue soon after the rediscovery of Mendel’s papers, has led many farmers and breeders to consider “running out” of strains to be characteristic of cotton. Excluding genetic abnormalities such as balanced lethals, homogeneity is a natural consequence of prolonged inbreeding. The observed fact of reduction in productivity following inbreeding in a given strain is attributable to a number of factors chief among them being: (1) the degree of heterogeneity of the original parent stock; (2) the mathemat,ical probability against accumulating all (or even most) of the favorable genes for yield in one homoeygous line; (3) mechanical mixtures and cross pollination with other varieties; and (4) selection for one (or a small number) of characters without regard to other characters which have an important function in the genetic complex. The last factor is of utmost importance and often determines the success or failure of a breeding program. On theoretical grounds there is no reason to suspect that pure lines of cotton are different in behavior from pure lines of any other crop. The practical considePation of a pure line involves both uniformity and superior performance. Both cannot be sought rapidly and a t the same time. Selection for high yield “on a broad genetic base,’’ which is necessary if decreases in production are to be avoided, involves the simultaneous handling of a number of characters over a relatively long period; such a procedure does not lead rapidly t o homogeneity. Failure to observe the “broad base” concept and the desire for rapid development of uniformity in one character a t the expense of all others has taught many cotton breeders the severe lesson that the probability of obtaining a “uniformly bad” strain is much higher than that of obtaining a “uniformly good” one.
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It has been shown that the germ plasm, which constitutes the genetic reservoir, from which present agricultural varieties have arisen, has yielded a number of productive types which are well adapted t o their respective geographic areas of growth. Particularly has this been true of American Upland stocks. Reselection within varieties, and even within the progeny of varietal hybrids, over a period of many years, inevitably has resulted in severe inbreeding and the elimination of many beneficial as well as deleterious genes which were present in the native stocks. Since American Upland varieties in the United States are all interrelated and probably descended from not more than a dozen original introductions, it is doubtful that future requirements of special fiber properties, disease, insect and drought resistance, mechanical harvesting, and other specialized uses and properties can be met by the usual selection methods entirely within present cultivated varieties (Richmond, 1947). Two approaches or combinations of two approaches to further progress and improvement come to mind immediately: (1) development of more precision in the breeding program through refinements in method and design to provide more discriminatory statistical tests, and the establishment of indices which will measure the genetically potential performance rather than the actual end-result behavior; and (2) introduction of new germ plasm into the breeding material. I n the first, the goal is to determine the amount of genetic variability in the material and to distinguish this variability from the variability due to environment. I n the second approach, genetic variability is increased purposely by the addition of new genes. Genetic variability outside the range of that now present in current agricultural varieties is available from 3 principal sources: (1) obsolete agricultural varieties; (2) primitive stocks in or near the center of origin; and (3) the wild species of the world. I n the United States, under a regional project in cotton genetics made possible by the Research and Marketing Act of 1946, the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station has the major responsibility for collecting and maintaining stocks from the first source, and the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station is responsible for the stocks from the last two sources. The importance of genetic variability in the primary breeding material cannot be over-emphasized, for it is axiomatic that the breeder cannot bring out in his selections anything more than is present in the raw stock. Modern breeding methods are designed to preserve and control genetic variability, to guard against serious loss of favorable genes through the restricted selection of only a few superior plants or progenies in any one season. It follows that such methods must keep genetic variability high in relation to environmental variability, particularly in the early stages of the breeding program.
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3. Breeding Systems Less than 20 years ago Cook (1932) advocated renewed emphasis on (‘type” as the prime consideration in cotton breeding and in the maintenance of seed stocks. Under that “type selection” system, groups of progenies, instead of single progenies, were propagated and maintenance of the stock was carried out by reselection within the groups. Selection and testing of progenies under different conditions “as a means of preserving the adaptive characters of varieties which otherwise may be lost even without being recognized” was recommended. The value of stable mixtures of strains or varieties in providing “greater flexibility of response” was recognized by Hutchinson (1939). In his genetic interpretation of plant breeding problems, Hutchinson (1940) observed the association of rapid degeneration with the more closely bred varieties and recommended that “the effort a t present devoted to achieving purity may profitably be used to increase the efficiency of selection.” Hutchinson and Panse (1937) introduced randomization and replication into the progeny-row system of breeding. The system, which has been designated as the “replicated progeny-row method,” provides all the information on means of progenies, and means of plants within progenies, obtainable by earlier progeny-row methods and, a t the same time, makes possible additional valuable information. I n the design employed by Hutchinson and Manning (1943), the progeny of each selected plant was tested in 10 randomized blocks, each plot of which contained 5 plants. Where strains from a number of families were to be tested in one lay-out, ‘‘compact family blocks” were arranged within the main experiment to provide more precision in the interfamily comparisons. Not only does the design reduce the environmental contribution to the variance, but it makes possible the partitioning of the total variance into its genetic and environmental components, thus, minimizing “environmental fluctuations while maintaining genetic contrasts.” The writers point out that selection on progeny means is as many times more efficient than mass selection in the same material as there are plants per progeny. To avoid some of the dangers inherent in progeny-row breeding when rigid selection is practiced on relatively few characters, Harland (1943, 1949) inaugurated a breeding system which he terms “mass-pedigree selection.” In practice, the system involves: (1) the growing of progeny of a large number of selected plants; (2) determining the mean of each progeny for the characters under consideration ; (3) arraying the progeny means for each character and selecting progenies whose means fall on a certain segment of the distribution curve (the segments to be chosen
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by the breeder on the basis of the relative importance of one character as compared t o the others, and to the original variability of the material, etc.) ; and finally, (4) massing of all the selected lines t o form a bulk planting from which another selection cycle may be started. Accordir,g to Harland (1949) “continuous selection by this method for any measurable character tends to produce a system of gene frequencies resulting in the manifestation of the character a t a higher level through the elimination of alleles, the combinatory effects of which are ordinarily antagonistic to the standards laid down for the character.” The “mass-pedigree selection” system makes full use of thc principle of progeny testing, and a t the same time is designed to preservc genetic variability through the use of a large number of lines and a broad adaptation base by propagating massed lines under varying seasonal and other environmental conditions. Furthermore, the method would preserve certain genes for vigor as heterozygous loci, a condition which, in Harland’s view, would give the stock an advantage over strains in which the same genes were homozygous. Used with considerable success in rehabilitating Tanguis cotton, the method is recommended by Harland for wider application and use instead of pure line selection systems. The system is similar in principle to the older “type selection” methods, but recognizes, defines, and measures the component characters of the type, and provides a much more critical progeny test. Actually, the method is not a t odds with the progeny-row method as employed by many contemporary plant breeders, in which a number of tested lines of generally similar characteristics are massed a t certain stages in the testing procedure, and the seed stock distributed as an agricultural variety. The “mass-pedigree selection” method obviates detailed records of families and lines, while the “replicated progeny-row” method would seem t o give a more precise test of the all-important primary selection. The American Upland cotton-breeding program of the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station largely employs varietal hybrids. Because of the wide range of soil and climatic conditions in Texas, the breeding program must emphasize particularly the conservation and maintenance of genetic variability in progeny tests extending over a number of years. Probably in no other cotton-growing region is the maintenance of a “broad adaptation base” so important. The system involves: (1) selection of single plants in F P ; (2) “duplicate progeny-row” evaluation in Fa; (3) replicated tests of within-family bulks from F3 t o Fs.e; and finally, (4) reselection within families followed by massing of seed from similar lines of superior performance. Breeders have taken renewed interest in the native American Upland cottons of Southern Mexico and Central America as a source of new germ
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plasm. Inasmuch as present cultivated varieties were derived from these native stocks, important new economic characters-if found in native cottons, should be relatively easily transferred to cultivated stocks. I n 1946, T. R. Richmond and C. W. Manning made a preliminary exploration trip to the area. The next year S. G. Stephens, who was then employed by the Empire Cotton Growing Corporation, explored the area; and in 1948, J. 0. Ware and C. W. Manning made a rather extensive survey of a wide area including parts of San Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico. As a result of these recent expeditions, more than 640 stocks have been collected. The backcross method of breeding is clearly indicated, when the objective is to transfer a character which is conditioned by one simple gene, or a small number of such genes, from one variety or type to another without deleteriously affecting the desirable characters of the latter. Only a small number of plants per progeny is required in each backcross cycle when such characters are available. Unfortunately, in cotton, only a very few such simply inherited and easily distinguished characters have been recognized. The genes controlling resistances to certain cotton diseases are the best examples, but more will doubtless be discovered as the work of “sifting” recent foreign introductions proceeds. The backcross method has been employed in varietal hybrids in attempts to transfer characters which are inherited according to a quantitative scheme. This approach should not be entirely discouraged, but in its application the low probability of success should be pointed out. Knight (1945) goes so far as to state that the backcross “system is valueless in intraspecific (varietal) crosses because such hybrids, by the first backcross, are normally very similar vegetatively to the backcross parent(thus)-the hybrid may look like the backcross parent but it still contains a large proportion of the donor genotype and is unlikely to breed true for the various qualitative and quantitative characters desired.” Certain modifications or adaptations of the backcross and the straight hybrid systems, or combinations of systems, may prove useful in American Upland cotton breeding. Richey’s (1927) “convergent improvement” method is a case in point. Another method suggested by Sprague (1946) and recommended for use in certain cotton experiments by Richmond (1949) is called “cumulative selection.” I n this method, lines bearing the character under study, from as many diverse sources as possible or practical, are selected in F2. After isolating relatively good complexes, but without carrying on selection in each line to its ultimate conclusion (complete uniformity), the selected lines are immediately crossed in all possible combinations and carried to a new F2 in bulk.
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Selection for the character is then practiced again, and the cycle repeated until the level of acceptability is reached. The greatest range in variability in cotton exists among the wild and cultivated taxonomic species; these are fairly well distributed over the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. The two cultivated American species, G. hirsutum and G . barbadense cross readily and give fertile progeny, as do the two cultivated Asiatic species, G. arboreum and G . herbaceum. Though, literally, thousands of attempts have been made, there has not as yet been selected from the progeny of a species cross, a strain in which two quantitatively inherited characters have been combined in the full expression of their original parental form. It is extremely difficult, in fact, to find good examples of satisfactory intermediate expressions of quantitative characters. The work of Harland (1936) has shown that stable complexes of interrelated genes are built up within each species. When such species are crossed, the “genetic balance” is disrupted in the Fz generation giving a maze of abnormal and unbalanced types. Stephens (1950) presents evidence to show “that multiple gene substitution, such as that suggested by Harland, is not sufficient t o explain the cytological, genetic and breeding phenomena encountered in critical studies of fertile interspecific hybrids and their progenies in Gossypium.” It is stated that “recent evidence from studies of amphidiploids which casts doubt on the validity of ‘normal’ chromosome pairing and hybrid fertility as indices of structural homology.” The structural (cryptic) differences to which Stephens refers are considered to involve much smaller ‘pieces’ of chromosome than those involved in the gross structural changes which may be recognized cytologically, and which may cause partial or total sterility in the hybrid progeny. The process of cotton improvement by breeding from species hybrids will unquestionably be of long duration. Future requirements of the cotton industry are likely to be such that they can be met more readily by the introduction of characters outside the range of present cultivated varieties. Not only does it seem important to continue research in those inter-specific hybrids which cross readily, but methods of utilizing the wealth of new germ plasm in the wild species of the world should receive special attention. Crosses between many of the cotton species with 13 pairs of chromosomes and all of the crosses of 13 by 26 paired species, if successful a t all, gave sterile hybrids, until recently. Little more than 10 years ago Beasley (1942) induced fertility in a cross of Arizona Wild (G. thurberi Tad. by G . arboreum) by doubling the chromosomes of the sterile hybrid by treatment with colchicine. The resulting amphidiploid (n =
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26) was partially fertile with American Upland ( G . hirsutum, n=26) and a high degree of fertility was reached after the first backcross t o Upland. A vast new field of cotton improvement was thus opened ul), but it is, as yet, only barely explored. When this backcross was made, it was found that fiber strength increased materially over anything previously known in the cultivated Upland cottons. This, of course, was quite unforeseen, as the Asiatic parent was by no means outstanding in respect to fiber strength and the American Wild parent had no spinnable fibers a t all. Subsequent studies have shown that the fibers of the new hybrid have narrow cross-sectional areas (narrow perimeters) , a eharacter introduced from the apparently worthless wild cotton from Arizona. Hence, in species crosses, the apparent valuable characters available for transfer are probably only a fraction of the important qualities yet to be discovered. Breeding experiments with the so-called triple hybrid (Asiatic x American Wild (doubled) x American Upland) have been in progress a t the Texas and North Carolina Stations from the time of Beasley’s first induced amphidiploid. Eventual success in these and other studies involving species hybrids appears to rest on the not altogether vain expectation that a favorable crossover in a given differential segment will occasionally occur. Knight’s (1946a) transference of blackarm (bacterial blight) resistance from one species of cotton to another is sufficient t o demonstrate the tremendous benefits t o be enjoyed when success is finally achieved.
4. Hybrid Vigor in F , and Advanced Generations The substantial increases in yield and improvement in other economic characters obtained in first generation and double crosses in corn, and the almost universal acceptance of hybrid seed as the propagating material for commercial corn production, has led some cotton investigators to re-examine the possibilities of similar methods in cotton. I n recent years several experiments, designed primarily to study hybrid vigor, have been undertaken. Three inbred lines from varieties of American Upland cotton and the 6 possible F1and Fz hybrids from the lines were studied by Kime and Tilley (1947) for a period of 3 years. The F1seed was produced by hand pollination and the Fa by selfing. Significantly higher yields were reported, for a 3-year period, for each of the hybrids as compared to its highest yielding parent. The important economic consideration was, however, the finding that by no means did all of the hybrids excel significantly in the single years. Clearly, the significant increases obtained for the 3-year means resulted, in all but one case, from the additive effects of small single-year differences which were nearly always
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in favor of the hybrid, Significant increases in the yieId of the advanced generation (F2)over the most productive parent were recorded for only two crosses, and these occurred in only one year. Simpson (1948a) reported on the heterosis exhibited in the progeny of varieties and strains propagated by open poIlinated seed from a production area in which natural cross pollination approximated 50 per cent. The progenies of 7 varieties were tested, seed of which were produced under two conditions, i.e., (1) open pollination (crossed) in a 25 entry variety test, and (2) in isolated blocks (inbred), It was reported that the yields of the 7 progenies from the crossed seed exceeded those of “inbred” seed by 5.7 to 44.2 per cent, or an average of 15.4 per cent. The practical significance of the data lies not so much in the average increase of 15.4 per cent attributed to hybrid vigor, but in a comparison of the “crossed” stocks with the highest yieldini agronomic variety. When such comparisons are made, it is seen that significant yield differences in favor of the “crossed” stocks occur in only an occasional instance. Simpson (1948b) also conducted an experiment to measure the amount of heterosis resulting from natural crossing in test plots a t several locations in the Cotton Belt. The great handicap to the practical utilization of hybrid vigor in cotton is the difficulty of producing the hybrid seeds. Two methods have been proposed by Simpson (1948a), both of which require natural crossing by bees. For certain conditions in India, Balasubrahmanyan and Narayanan (1947) have proposed vegetative cuttings as a method of propagating F1 cotton hybrids on a commercial scale. Probably the most hopeful method now on the horizon is the use of male steriles as “mother” plants. Male-sterile stocks, when interplanted with normal lines in areas of high natural cross-pollination, would yield hybrid material of known composition. The difficulty so far has been the discovery of a suitable male-sterile type. Recently several apparently male-sterile lines have been studied and found to be only partially, or periodically, so. 5. Special Phases
a. Fiber Properties. The development of suitable instruments and methods for testing and predicting fiber and spinning properties, as discussed under VIII, has given great impetus to breeding for improved or special fiber properties. The data from regional variety studies have pointed to one salient fact; that is, the variety (genetic constitution) is the single most important consideration in the determination of quality of cotton fibers. That considerable genetic variability for fiber properties must have been present in certain of the relatively modern varieties of American Upland
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cotton is evident by the fact that breeders have made significant improvements in fiber strength and related characters by selection within varieties and varietal hybrids. The value of the wild and primitive cottons of the world as a source of fiber properties which are outside the range of American Upland types already has been emphasized. Strains with fibers 20 t o 30 per cent stronger than the better Upland types have been extracted from species hybrids a t the Texas Station, and continuing yield trials show that perceptible, though slow, progress is being made in the transference of great fiber strength to acceptable Upland stocks. A wealth of untried fiber characters remains in the base material.
b. Resistance to Disease, Insects, and Unfavorable Environments. The important problems in breeding for resistance to cotton diseases have been referred to under IV, and will not be further discussed here. Though insects annually take a toll of millions of dollars from the American cotton crop, scientists in this country have given scant attention to the extremely important problem of breeding for insect resistance. Evidence obtained to date from a number of sources supplies a basis for optimism as to the distinct possibilities for cotton improvement which lie in this long neglected field. According to Knight (1946b), who referred to previous reports, “G. thurberi appears, a t Shambat, to be immune to pink bollworm (Pectinopkora gossypiella), and G . armourianum itself shows very marked pink bollworm-resistance.” British cotton investigators have worked extensively on Jassids (Emposca ficialis) and have found resistance to be associated with plant pilosity, the more resistant types showing the greatest degree of “hairiness” on the under side of the leaf (Parnell et aE., 1949). Dunnam (1936) and Dunnam and Clark (1939) found that, under dry conditions, hairy varieties retained significantly more calcium arsenate dust than glabrous varieties; on undusted cotton, the aphid population increased in direct proportion to the number of hairs on the lower leaf surfaces. Probably no more remunerative use can be made of the extensive collections of wild and primitive cottons now available t o breeders than t o subject them and certain of their hybrids to critical study for resistance to major cotton insect pests. The same material should prove useful as a source of new or unfamiliar genes for drought resistance, cold tolerance, high oil and low gossypol content of the seeds, and many other economic characters. c. Adaptation to Mechanical Harvesting. Harvesting is an expensive cotton production operation. Currently, about 90 per cent is performed by hand. The recent development of machines which will perform this
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operation represents a great technological advance in the mechanization of cotton production. As discussed under VI, mechanical cotton harvesters are of two general types: (1) picker; and (2) stripper. The choice of variety is a very important consideration in planning a mechanized-production program. Fortunately, several of the modern, rapid fruiting, early maturing, American Upland varieties are fairly well adapted to spindle-type picking, particularly when grown under planned systems of spacing and culture. Future work is being directed along two lines: (1) the achievement of more mechanical efficiency in picking, i.e., obtaining a higher per cent of the cotton harvested as compared to the total available open cotton; and (2) obtaining raw cotton which is equal or superior in grade and other lint qualities t o that of hand-picked cotton, i.e., freedom from leaf, stem, and bract trash and other foreign matter, and with a minimum of discoloration and staining due to exposure to weather. The present “type ideal” for spindle picking seems to be a plant (1) that will grow in a more or less upright position but a t the same time be early in fruiting habit and fairly determinate in growth habit, (2) that will set its fruit in an evenly spaced manner all over the plant but beginning well off the ground, (3) that will have bolls which will allow the cotton to fluff and a t the same time cause it to stick in the burr strongly enough for good storm resistance, (4) that will mature its fruit early and in a very short space of time, and ( 5 ) that will shed its leaves readily when the major portion of the bolls have matured. Even a casual consideration of such an “ideal” plant will reveal several physiological and morphological antagonisms. The idea of obtaining early fruiting and a t the same time a set of bolls well off the ground, may be mentioned as one. The “ideal” plant type for stripper-machine harvesting is a dwarf or semi-dwarf, with short to medium fruiting branches, which will fruit rapidly and mature its fruit early and well off the ground. The last allows the lifters of the machine t o slip under the lowest branches and engage the cotton without picking up dirt and extraneous plant materials. The seed cotton should be closely held in the boll a t maturity as all or most of the bolls on the plant must be mature before the stripper enters the field; but the locks need not fluff. Reference has been made elsewhere in this paper to a mutant boll character in which the seed cotton is closely held in bolls which open only partially. According t o Lynn (1949), this stormproof-boll type suggests a complex of modifiers that operate in connection with the main gene to cause varying expressions of the characters. Uniform lines have been extracted which range from the extreme mutant expression to types indistinguishable from the F1. ,
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The stormproof-boll character has been established in high yielding strains adapted to stripper-type harvesting by workers a t the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station’s substations at Lubbock and Chillicothe. Regardless of the type of mechanical harvester employed, any new character, or refinement of existing characters, which would result in less foreign matter in the harvested cotton and ginned lint would be a valuable contribution to the problem of mechanical harvesting. Varieties with many large, spiny plant and leaf hairs give lower grades of ginned lint from machine-picked cotton than those with fewer and shorter hairs. A variety, designated as DELTA SMOOTH LEAF, which is almost free of leaf and stem hairs has been developed by workers a t the Mississippi Delta Branch Station. The variety gives significantly higher grades of machine-picked cotton and work is under way a t several locations to improve its yield and other agronomic properties, or t o transfer the character to other varieties. The prominently-toothed bracts (bracteoles) , characteristic of Upland cotton, are known to contribute materially to lint trash. Attempts are being made through breeding t o reduce the size of the bracts or to eliminate them entirely. Two sources of breeding material are worthy of mention: (1) the small, almost toothless bracts of some members of the marie galante group of Upland cottons; and (2) a deciduous-bract type, first studied a t the Mississippi Delta Branch Station, in which the bracteoles fall from the boll a t maturity.
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111. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COTTON PLANT Anderson, D. B., and Kerr, T. 1943. Plant Physiol. 18, 261-269. Andrews, W. B., and Coleman, R. 1939. Proc. Assoc. Southern Agr. Workers 40, 61.
Barker, H. D. 1946. US. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 931. Berkley, E. E. 1945. Textile Research J. 15, 460-467. Berkley, E. E., Woodward, 0. C., Barker, H. D., Kerr, T., and King, C. J. 1948. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 949. Biddulph, 0. 1949. Paper presented Mineral Nutrition Symposium, Madison, Wis. Biddulph, O., and Brown, H. D. 1945. Am. J . Botany 32, 182-188. Biddulph, O., and Markle, J. 1944. Am. J . Botany 31, 65-70. Brown, A. B. 1946. Louisiana Agr. Expt. Sla. Bull. 406. Brown, G . A., Holdeman, Q. L., and Hagood, E. S. 1948. Louisiana Agr. Expt. Bull. 426. Brown, H. B., and Pope, H. W. 1939. Louisiana Agr. Expt. 91a. Bull. 306, 15. Coleman, R. 1945. Better Crops with Plant Food 29, No. 4, 18-20, 48-50.
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Collander, R . 1941. Plant Physiol. 16, 691-720. Cooper, H. P. 1945. Soil Sci. 60, 107-114. Cooper, H. P., and Garman, W. H. 1942. Soil Sci. Am. Proc. 7, 331-338. Cooper, H. P., Mitchell, J. H., and Page, N. R. 1947. Soil Sci. Am. Proc. 12, 364369.
Cooper, H. P., Paden, W. R., Garman, W. H., and Page, N. R. 1948. Soil Sci. 65, 76-96.
Crowther, F. 1934. Ann. Botany 48, 875-918. Crowther, F. 1944. Ann. Bolany “S.1 8, 213-257. Dastur, R. H. 1948. Scientific Mono. No. 2, Indian Central Cotton Comm. (Revised 2nd ed.) (Bombay). Dunlap, A. A. 1945. Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 677. Dunlap, A. A. 1948. Phytopathology 38, 638-644. Eaton, F. M. 1924. Botan. Gaz. 57, 311-321. Eaton, F. M. 1942. J. Agr. Research 64,357-399. Eaton, F. M. 1947. Textile Research 17, 568-575. Eaton, F. M. 1950. Botan. Gaz. 111, (31, 314-319. Eaton, F. M., and Ergle, D. R. 1948. Plant Physiol. 23, 169-187. Eaton, F. M., and Joham, H. E. 1944. Plant Physiol. 44, 507-518. Eaton, F. M., Lyle, E. W., Rouse, J. T., Pfeiffenberger, G. W., and Tharp, W. H. 1946. J . Am. SOC.Agron. 38, 1018-1033. Eaton, F. M., and Rigler, N. E. 1945. Plant Physiol. 20, 380-411. Ensminger, L. E., and Cope, J. T., Jr. 1947. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 39, 1-11. Ergle, D. R., and Dunlap, A. A. 1949. Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 713. Ergle, D. R., and Eaton, F. M. 1949. Plant Physiol. 24, 373-388. Gaines, J. C. 1947. J. Econ. Entomol. 40, 434. Gaines, J. C., Owen, W. L., Jr., and Wipprecht, R. 1947. J. Econ. Entomol. 40, 113.
Hall, N. S., Nelson, W. H., Krantz, B. A,, Welch, C. D., and Dean, L. A. 1949. Soil Sd. 68, 151-157. Harris, H. C., Bledsoe, R. W., and Calhoun, P. W. 1945. J. Am. SOC.Agron. 37, 323-329.
Holley, K. T., and Dulin, T. G. 1943. Georgia Expt. Sta. Bull. 229. Holt, M. E., and Volk, N. J. 1945. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 37, 821-827. Hooton, D. R., Jordan, H. V., Porter, D. D., Jenkins, P. M., and Adams, J. E. 1949. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 979. van Itallie, TH.B. 1948. Soil Sci. 65, 393-415. Jacobson, L., and Overstreet, R. 1947. Am. J. Botany 34, 415-420. Kerr, T., and Anderson, D. B. 1944. Plant Physiol. 19, 338-349. Konstantinov, N. N. 1934. Maskva Eng. Summary, pp. 72-74. Leonard, 0. A. 1945. J. Am. SOC.Agron. 37, 55-71. Leonard, 0. A., and Pinckard, J. A. 1946. Plant Physiol. 21, 18-36. Lundegardh, H. 1947. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 16, 503-528. Manns, T. F., Churchman, W. L., and Manns, M . M. 1937. Delaware Agr. Expt. Bull. 207, 45-46. Mason, T. G., and Phillis, E. 1944. Ann. Botany LN.S.1 7, 399-408. Mason, T. G., and Phillis, E. 1945. Ann. Botany rN.S.1 9, 335-343. Mathews, E. D. 1941. Georgia Ezpt. Sta. Circ. 127. Nelson, W. L. 1949. J. Am. SOC.Agron. 41, 289-293. Nightingale, G. T. 1948. Botan. Rev. 14, 185-221.
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Olson, L. C. 1942. Proc. Assoc. Southern Agr. Workers 43, 78. Olson, L. C., and Bledsoe, R. P. 1942. Georgia Expt. Sta. Bull. 222, 16. Phillis, E., and Mason, T. G. 1942. Ann. Botany [N.S.] 6, 437-442. Rigler, N. E., Erglr, D. R., and Adams, J. E. 1937. Soil Sci. SOC.Proc. 2, 367-374. Sayre, C. B., and Vittum, M. T. 1947. J . Am. SOC.Agron. 39, 153-161. Singh, S., and Greulach, V. A. 1919. Am. J . Botany 36, 646-651. Skinner, J. J., Futral, J. O., and McKaig, N. 1944. Georgia Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 235.
Somner, A. L. 1945. Soil Sci. 60, 71-79. Spiegelman, S., and Reiner, J. M. 1942. Urowth 6, 367390. Staten, G. 1946. J. Am. SOC.Agron. 38, 336-544. Sturkie, D. G. 1947. Alabama Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 263. Turner, J. H. 1944. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 36, 828-698. Volk, N. J. 1946. J. Am. Sot. Aaron. 38, 6-12. Wadleigh, C. H. 1944. Arkansa Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 446,138. Wadleigh, C. H. 1949. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 18, 658-678. Wallace, A., Toth, S. J., and Bear, F. E. 1948a. Soil Sci. 65, 249-258. Wallace, A., Toth, S. J., and Bear, F. E. 1918b. Soil Sci. 65, 477-486. Willis, L. G. 1936. Soil Sci. 9oc. Am. Proc. 1, 291-297. Younge, 0. R. 1941. Soil Sci. SOC.Am. Proc. 6, 215-218.
IV. DISEASES OF COTTON Atkinson, G. F. 1891. Alabama Agr. Expt. Bull. 27, 1-16. Atkinson, G. F. 1892. Alabama Agr. Expt. Bull. 41. Barducci, T. D. 1942. Estac. expt. agr. LaMolina (Lima, Peru) Bol. 23, Brown, J. G. 1937. Plant Disease Reptr. 21, 368. Carpenter, C. W. 1914. Phytopathology 4, 393. Cuba, E. P. 1932. Massachusetts Agr. Expt. Sla. Bull. 292. Fahmy, T. 1929. Ministry Agr. Egypt, Leaflet No. 11, 1-16. Faulwetter, R. C. 1917. J . Agr. Research 10, 639-648. Gilbert, W. W. 1914. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers Bull. 625. Godfrey, G. H. 1923. U S . Dept. Agr. Farmers Bull. 1345. Godfrey, G. H. 1943. Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. Progress Rept. 837. Hansford, C. G., Hosking, H. R., Stoughton, R. H., and Yates, F. 1933. Ann. Applied Biol. 20, 404-420. Hare, J. F., and King, C. J. 1940. Phylopathology 30, 679-684. Herbert, F. W., and Hubbard, J. W. 1932. U.S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 211, 7. Jacks, H. 1945. New Zealand J . Sci. Technol. 27(2), 93-97. Jordan, H. V., Nelson, A. H., and Adams, J. E. 1939. Soil Sci. Soc.,Am. Proc. 4, 325-328.
Jordan, H. V., Adams, J. E., Hooton, D. R., Porter, D. D., Blank, L. M., Lyle, E. W., and Rogers, C. H. 1948. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 948. King, C. J. 1923. J . Agr. Research 23, 525-527. King, C. J. 1937. U.S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 425. Lewis, A. C., and McLendon, C. A. 1917. Georgia Entomology Board Bull. 46, 1-34.
Lyle, E. W., Dunlap, A. A., Hill, H. O., and Hargrove, B. D. 1948. Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 699. McNamara, H . C., and Hooton, D. R. 1930. U S . Dept. Agr. Circ. 85. Massey, R. E. 1930. Empire Cotton Growing Rev. 7, 185-196.
COTTON
77
Miles, L. E., and Persons, T. D. 1932. Phytopathology 22, 767-773. Neal, D. C., Wester, R. E., and Gunn, K. C. 1932. Science 75, 139-140. Orton, W. A. 1900. U.S. Dept. Agr., Division Vegetable Physiology Path. Bull. 27, 1-16.
Pammel, L. H. 1888. Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 4. Pammel, L. H. 1889. Texas Agr. Expt. Sla. Bull. 7. Presley, J . T. 1946. Mississippi Farm Res. 9(11), 1-2. Presley, J. T. 1949. Mississippi Farm Res. 12(4), 1. Rolfs, F. M. 1915. Cornell Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta. Mem. 8:998. 413. Rolfs, F. M. 1935. Phytoputhology 25, 971. (Abstract). Rudolph, B. A., and Harrison, G. J. 1939. Phytopathology 29, 753. Salter, R. M. 1946. Rept. Chiej. Bur. Plant Industry Soils Agr. Eng., U.S.Dept. Agr. 35. Sherbakoff, C. D. 1929. Tennessee Agr. Expt. S ~ QCirc. . 24, 2. Sherbakoff, C. D. 1949. Botan. Rev. 15(6), 377-422. Simpson, D. M., and Weindling, R. 1946. J. Am. SOC.Agron. 38, 630-836. Smith, A. L. 1948. Phytoputhology 38, 943-947. Smith, A. L., and Ballard, W. W. 1947. Phytopathology 37, 436-437. Smith, E. F. 1901. US. Dept. Agr., Division Vegetable Physiology Path. Bull. 28, 153.
Stoughton, R. H. 1933. Ann. Applied Biol. 20, 590-611. Streets, R. B. 1938. Univ. Ariz. Ext. Circ. 103. Taubenhaus, J . J., and Ezekiel, W. N. 1935. Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. 48th Ann. Rept., p. 86. Uppal, B. N., Kulkarni, Y. S., and Ranadive, J. D. 1941. Rev. Applied Mycol. 20, 256. Watson, J . R. 1945. Proc. Florida Acad. Sci. 7 (Nos. 2-3). Watson, J. R., and Goff, C. C. 1937. Florida Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 311.
V. INSECT PESTS Becnel, I. J., Mayeux, H. S., and Roussel, J. S. 1947. J . Econ. Entomol. 40, 508513.
Cassidy, T. P., and Barber, T. S. 1939. J. Econ. Entomol. 32, 99-104. Chapman, A. J., Richmond, C. A., and Fife, L. C. 1947. J. Econ. Entomol. 40, 575476.
Coad, B. R. 1918. US. Dept. Agr. Bull. 731. Coad, B. R., and Cassidy, T. P. 1920. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 875. Dunnam, E. W., and Calhoun, S. L. 1948. .I. Econ. Entomol. 41, 22-25. Eddy, C. O., and Livingston, E. M. 1931. South Carolina Agr. Expt. Wa. Bull. 271.
Ewing, K. P. 1929. J . Econ. Entomol. 22, 761-765. Ewing, K. P. 1931. J. Econ. Entomol. 24, 821-827. Ewing, K. P., and McGarr, R. L. 1936. J. Econ. Entomol. 29, 80-88. Ewing, K. P., and McGarr, R. L. 1937. J. Econ. Entomol. 30, 125-130. Ewing, K. P., and Parencia, C. R., Jr. 1947. J . Econ. Entomol. 40, 374-381. Ewing, K. P., and Parencia, C. R., Jr. 1948. J . Econ. Entomol. 41, 558463. Fenton, F. A., and Dunnam, E. W. 1928. J. Agr. Research 36, 135-149. Fletcher, R. K., Gaines, J. C., and Owen, W. L. 1947. J . Econ. Entomol. 40, 594-
-
596.
Gaines, J. C. 1933. J. Econ. Entomol. 26, 963-971.
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Gaines, J. C. 1934. J. Econ.. Entomol. 27, 740-743. Gaines, J. C. 1941. J . Econ. Entomol. 34, 505-507. Gaines, J. C. 1942. Iowa State Coll. J . Sci. 17, 63-65. Gaines, J. C. 1944. J. Econ. Entomol. 37, 723-725. Gaines, J. C., and Dean, H. A. 1947. J . Econ. Entomol. 40, 365-370. Gaines, J. C., and Dean, H. A. 1948. J . Econ. Entomol. 41, 548-554. Gaines, J. C., Dean, H. A., and Wipprecht, R. 1948. J . Econ. Entomol. 41, 510-512. Gaines, J. C., and Johnston, H. G. 1949. Acco Press, June Issue, pp. 15-18. Gaines, R. C., and Young, M. T. 1948. J . Econ. Entomol. 41, 19-22. Gaines, R. C., Young, M. T., and Smith, G. L. 1947. J . Econ. Entomol. 40, 600603.
Howard, L. 0. 1898. U S . Dept. Agr. Div. Entomol. Bull. 18, 101. Hunter, W. D. 1918. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 723. Hunter, W. D. 1924. J . Econ. Entomol. 17, 604. Hunter, W. D. 1926a. U S . Dept. Agr. Dept. Circ. 361. Hunter, W. D. 1926b. U S . Dept. Agr. Bull. 1397. Hunter, W. D., and Hinds, W. E. 1904. UB. Dept. Agr. Div. Entomol. Bull. 45. Hunter, W . D., and Pierce, W. D. 1912. U.9. Dept. Agr. Bur. Entomol. Bull. 116. Iglinsky, W., Jr., and Gaines, J. C. 1949. J . Econ. Entomol. 42, 702-705. Ivy, E. E., and Ewing, K. P. 1946. J. Econ. Entomol. 39, 38-41. Ivy, E. E., Parencia, C. R., Jr., and Ewing, K. P. 1947. J . Econ. Entomol. 40, 513-517.
Loftin, U. C., McKinney, K. B., and Hanson, W. K. 1921. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 918.
McGregor, E. A. 1948. J . Econ. Entomol. 41, 684-687. Moreland, R. W., and Bibby, F. F. 1931. J. Econ. Entomol. 24, 1173-1181. Moreland, R. W., Ivy, E. E., and Ewing, K. P. 1941. J. Econ. Entomol. 34, 508511.
Newell, W., and Smith, C. D. 1909. Louisiana State Crop Pest Comm. Circ. 33. Ohlendorf, W. 1926. US. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1374. Painter, R. H. 1930. J . Agr. Research 40, 485-516. Parencia, C. R., Jr., Ivy, E. E., and Ewing, K. P. 1946. J. Econ. Entomol. 39, 329335.
Quaintance, A. L., and Brues, C. T. 1905. U S . Dept. Agr. Bur. Entomol. Bull. 50. Rainwater, C. F., and Bondy, F. F. 1947. J . Econ. Entomol. 40, 371-373. Reinhard, H. J. 1926a. Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 339. Reinhard, H . J. 1926b. Teras Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 40. Reinhard, H. J. 1927. Texas Agr. Expt. &a. Bull. 356. Riley, C. V. 1885. U S . Entomol. Comm. Rept. 4, 355-384. Stevenson, W. A., and Kauffman, W. 1948. J. Econ. Entomol. 41, 583585. Wardle, R. A., and Simpson, R. 1927. Ann. Applied Biol. 14, 513-528. Watts, J. G. 1934. J . Econ. Entomol. 27, 1158-1159. Watts, J. G. 1936. South Carolina Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 306. Watts, J. G. 1948. J. Econ. Entomol. 41, 543647.
VI.
IMPROVEMENTS IN PRODUCTION PRACTICES
Alsmeyer, H. L. 1949. Proc. 3rd Ann. Beltwide Cotton Mechanization Con). (National Cotton Council). Barr, G. W . 1949. Arizona Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 220. Bonnen, C. A., and Thibodeaux, B. H. 1937. Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull, 544,
COTTON
79
Fairbank, J. P. 1948. Proc. 2nd Ann. Beltwide Cotton Mechanization Conj. (National Cotton Council). Grimes, M. A. 1947. Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 697. Gull, P. W., and Adams, J. E. 1945. Mississippi Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 423. Harris, I 2NaI + 3Nz (gas).
Therefore the formation of gas bubbles indicates the presence of sulfide. Indicators of the hydrogen ion concentration within the range from p H 3 to p H 7 are next in importance. They can be used as solutions or in impregnated paper. Any of the customary organic dye indicators can be used. Other soil tests are also applicable to spoil material, for instanre those for total nitrogen, available phosphate and potash and lime requirement. A more reliable picture of the plant nutrient condition can be received by plant tissue tests (Thornton et al., 1939). The physical conditions within spoils also have a great influence on their land use capability. The two most important ones for this purpose are the texture and the rate of decomposition of the rocks. The content of the medium-sized and smaller rocks can be determined by screening through a half inch hardware cloth screen. The texture of the finer material can be determined by the use of screens and the pipette or hydrometer method of mechnnical analysis. The rate of decomposition of rocks can be estimated during the first inspection of the spoil bank by observing the appearance of the medium
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HELMUT KOHNKE
sized ancl larger rocks. T\7here doubt exists it is best to photograph a number of rocks and to mark tlie locations and to return one or several years later ant1 to compare tlie condition of the rocks.
IV. LANDUSE CAPABILITIES To tlie casual obscrver of :I frcsli spoil with its ragged mounds, its stony surface and its forbidding colors any land use seems out of tlie question. But R closcr scrutiny of its topography, its soil and its biotic cliaracteristics inakcs it clear tliat sucli land can well be made to serve mankind. I n tlie precedin? pages an effort lias bcen made to give a picture of these conditions in ordcr to provide the background for the decision as to wliicli land use may be appropriate in each individual case. The forms of potential land use of coal mine spoils include any use possible undcr tlic given climatic and economic conditions, i.e., various forms of agriculture and liorticulturc, pasture, forest, fish production, and recreation. Tlic most adapted land w e for a given spoil will depend on the present slope conditions and our willingness to alter them, on the stoniness, textrirc and icaction of tlic spoil, on tlie distribution and nature of tlic surface water, ancl the total area involved. I n order to classify spoils according to their land use capabilities, we have first to dccide wlietlicr to smooth down the topography to a certain desired maximum slope or to utilize the banks as they are left after the mining operation. 1. Land Use Capability; Classification of Ungraded Spoils
If it is assumed that no mechanical smoothing out of the ridges will be done most forms of agriculture and horticulture are excluded and forestry and range type pasturing remain. Obviously, fish raising and recreation are always possible if there is sufficient good water available and after vegetation has covered the spoils. It is rather simple to decide whether a certain spoil area would be better adapted to forestry or pasture. Since pasture is normally the higher form of use, a spoil capable of supporting forage plants over its entire surface and readily accessible to livestock should be used for pasture. It must be remembered that the steepness of ungraded spoils precludes liming, fertilizing, and mowing. This means in practice that the majority of the spoil should contain enough calcareous material to support legumes. Legumes are necessary for a pasture on an unleveled spoil because they are the only major source of nitrogen. On the other hand, an excess of large, slowly disintegrating rocks makes a spoil unsuited for pasture. This means that spoils generously inter-
THE RECLAMATION OF COAL MINE SPOILS
333
mixed with glacial, alluvial or loessial material or with soft limestones are the only ones valuable for pasture. Even then the type of livestock is restricted t o beef cattle and sheep. The steep topography and the roughness of the forage preclude the profitable use of dairy cattle. Other features in addition to topography and soil material determine the value of a given spoil for pasture. Large size of the potential pasture area, the possibility of its integration with an existing farming enterprise and the presence of well distributed ponds enhance its usefulness. All other spoils, having an average reaction below p H 6.5,or having an excess of rocks, are potential forest land. Wherever sufficient free acid exists to depress the reaction below pH 3.5 no revegetation should be attempted until sufficient oxidation of the pyritic materials and leaching of the acid has occurred. Fortunately only a very minor percentage belongs to this latter group. 2. Land Use Capability; Classification of Graded Spoils
This classification presupposes the grading of excessively steep slopes where considered necessary, but no resurfacing of the mined area with the
Fig. 7. Maximum slopes for various land uses on spoil banks.
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HELMUT KOHNKE
original top soil. Where this latter elaborate improvement is undertaken, as for instance in England (Brown, 1949), the land is fit for practically any use after an initial 5- to 10-year period in a well-fertilized grass and legume mixture to reestablish soil structure. Grading of spoils to smoother slopes or to nearly level topography permits the use of any implement required for the improvement of the soil, and for planting, treating, and harvesting any ckop (Fig. 7).
a. Rotation Crops and Orchards. Spoils containing few stones and no free acid can be developed into rotation and orchard land by grading them to slopes of less than 10 per cent. They will require intensive improvement during the first years to raise the pH if necessary, to supply the necessary plant nutrients and to develop a satisfactory structure. Only a small fraction of the spoil observed can be included in this group. The majority has too high a rock content. Of course, if time is allowed for rock disintegration to occur after leveling, much more land could be included in this group. b. Improved Pastures. The soil material requirements for potential pasture land are much lower if the spoils are graded than if they are left in steep ridges. The grading for pasture land need only reduce the slopes to an extent that fertilization, cultivation and mowing are possible by use of power driven implements. This means grading to a maximum slope of 25 per cent. With this prerequisite the range of potential pasture land on spoils becomes quite large. It includes all sites not excessively rocky or sandy. If a quick return from the pasture is desired this excludes areas of excessive free acid, since these will not permit plant growth for some time. It is very important to recognize that the lower pH range of potential pasture land is around 6.5 if the spoils are not smoothed out, but that it can go as low as pH 4.0 if leveling is practiced. This is because of the possibility of liming and fertilizing. Moreover, there is no restriction on the type of livestock used on graded spoil pastures.
c. Forests. The growth of trees on ungraded spoils indicates that no leveling work is required to prepare forest sites. Experiments by the U.S.Forest Service (Chapman, 1949) showed even a decrease in height growth of young hardwood plantations on graded spoils when compared to ungraded spoils. Whether this site impairment is temporary or permanent and whether eventually the eituation may be reversed is an open question that will receive attention under VI. All spoils that cannot be used for crops, orchards, or pastures by
THE RECLAMATION OF COAL MINE SPOILS
335
grading and that have a reaction above p H 3.5 are best used for forest. The only grading required then is for the establishment of access roads and fire lanes.
d. Other Uses. Spoils containing large areas affected by free acid cannot be reasonably used for any plant growth because the amount of lime required to neutralize the acid is excessive. Even then more acid is formed by the further oxidation of sulfides. The only practical method is to wait until most of the sulfides have been oxidized and the resulting acid leached out. The suggestion has been made to grind highly pyritic material and to use it to neutralize alkaline mucks and greenhouse soils. So far this has not been tried. The use of the ponds for fishing and other forms of recreation is rather obvious and requires no elaboration. The same is true for hunting and picnicking on the spoil areas. Where these uses are to be enjoyed by more than a few people, grading of some areas near the water and for roads, paths, and building and camping sites becomes necessary.
V. METHODSOF REVEGETATION 1. Forest Trees
Trees should be planted on spoil banks only after they have settled and eroded sufficiently so that no excessive changes in topography are to be anticipated. As trees are to be planted on the more acid spoils, it is wise t o permit sufficient time to pass until volunteer vegetation shows up in many places. Hand labor is required for planting trees on ungraded spoils. A mattock or planting bar is used to open the holes. Fertilization is not practicable although it has been found that additions of nitrogen have greatly stimulated the growth of pines on spoils. Trees are usually planted 6, 7, or 8 feet apart in both directions. Special sttention is needed to see that the crews do not bend the roots and neglect to tamp the ground around the roots. Since planting by hand is very time-consuming, attempts a t direct seeding of trees on spoils have been made, but so far with no success. The species of trees to be used on spoils depend on their adaptation to the local climate and to the soil conditions. Although pine trees have a definite place in the reforestation of spoil banks because of their low nutrient requirements and their acid tolerance, a number of successful plantings of hardwoods show that these should be used more extensively. Black locust, Robinia pseudoacacia, L., sycamore, Platanus occidentalis, I,., cottonwood, Populus deltoides, Marsh, tulip 'poplar, Liriodendron
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HELMUT KOHNKE
tulipifera, L., black walnut, Juglans nigra, L., and red oak, Quercus borealis, var. maxima, Ashes are some of the species that show promise in Indiana and neighboring states. Both in the case of pines and hardwoods, seedling trees are cheaper, easier to plant and have a better survival percentage than transplants. For further detail on reforestation of spoils reference should be made to Technical Paper No, 109 of the Central States Forest Experiment Station (Limstrom, 1948). 2. Pastures
a. Unleveled Spoils. Seeding of forage crops on unleveled spoils is done either by hand with a whirlwind seeder or from an airplane; which of these methods is more economical depends largely on the size of the areas to be seeded. Due to the nitrogen deficiency of the soil material, legumes should be seeded previously to or simultaneously with grasses. Late winter is generally the best time for legume seeding, and since the establishment of legumes is the prime requirement for developing a pasture on unleveled spoils, the first seeding should be done a t that time. Stiver (1949) found that seeding in the middle of February gave the best stands of legumes on Indiana spoils as compared to later seedings. The surface crust of unleveled spoils without cover is dried out by March winds and sunshine, and development of the young plants is impaired. H e also noticed that seeding legumes on spoils less than a year old gave better stands than seeding on older spoils. The loose soil surface of fresh spoils is the reason. Where no perfect catch has been obtained with the first seeding it usually will be achieved in the third year when the few plants that did grow have spread prolific amounts of seed and this seed has germinated. Since seeding unleveled spoils is rather expensive it is probably better to include grass seed with the legume seed and to sow the mixture in late winter, than to make two separate seedings. The species to be used should combine vigor in establishment with sufficient palatability to be of value as pasture plants. The following legumes and grasses have shown promise on unleveled calcareous spoils in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio: White sweet clover, Melilotus alba, Desv. Yellow sweet clover, Melilotus officinalis, (L) Lam. Alfalfa, Medicago sativa, L. Ladino clover, Trifolium repens, L. Korean lespedeza, Lespedeza stipulacin, Maxim. Birdsfoot trefoil, Lotus corniculatus, L.
THE RECLAMATION OF COAL MINE SPOILS
337
Kentucky blue grass, Poa pratensis, L. Brome grass, Bromus inermis, Leyss. Orchard grass, Dactylus glomerata, L. Tall fescue, Festuca elatior, arundinacea Schreb. Other species may be useful, especially in other regions. Where noncalcareous spoil is to be used for pasture, more acid tolerant species should be included but seldom much success can be expected. Since no ground preparation is possible and a great variety of soil materials exists, it is best to use a mixture of several, if not all, of the species listed. The rate of seeding depends largely on the time when the land is to be ready for pasture. If pasturing is t o begin 3 years after seeding, rates similar to those used in ordinary field plantings are adequate. If the spoils are to be ready in the year after seeding, about double these rates are required.
b. Gradad Spoils. The establishment of pasture on graded spoils presents problems other than those encountered where ungraded spoils are used. The use of power driven equipment offers the possibility of cooperating with nature to develop a productive soil. The first task is to control erosion and to develop a good structure. A vigorous growth of a grass and legume mixture is the best means to achieve both of these ends. While only spoils with small amounts of stones are recommended for grading for pasture establishment, there will still be difficulty in the first years to cultivate such an area until some of the rocks have disintegrated. It may be difficult, therefore, t o produce a conventional seed bed. Under such conditions a good catch can be obtained by covering the land with a thin layer of mulch. Manure, straw, chopped corn stover or other similar material can be used. This cover also reduces the erosion hazard. Liming should be adequate to bring the surface soil to a pH of about 6.5. The fertilizer applied should be particularly high in phosphorus, but should also include nitrogen and potassium. About 12 to 25 lbs. of nitrogen ( N ) , 25 to 75 lbs. of phosphate (P205) and 25 to 50 lbs. of potash (KZO) per acre are recommended for initial application a t the time of seeding. As graded spoils are accessible to all agricultural implements improvement treatments can be similar to those on ordinary pasture land. The same species as those mentioned for ungraded spoil pastures should be used. Other more acid tolerant plants can be included on acid spoil material, even if it be limed. Whether the seeding
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is done with a companion crop of small grain or alone is of little importance. Grazing should not begin until the second and preferably the third year to permit the formation of a continuous sod. Fertilization a t lower rates should be repeated every second or third year and weeds should be clipped whenever necessary. I n addition to establishing a dense vegetative cover soon after grading, diversion ditches may be needed to control erosion. During the grading operations the location of future fences should be smoothed out so that the fences will not follow dips and hills. I n all cases some of the ponds resulting from the mining operations should be retained. 3. Rotation Crops and Orchards
One of the main considerations in using smoothed out spoils for rotation crops is to create good soil tilth. A thick growth of grasses and legumes for 5 to 10 years is the surest way to achieve this. After that period any rotation suited for the given soil conditions, slope and climate can be started. No experience of planting rotation crops on smoothed spoils after such an improvement of several years exists. I n Germany (Meyer, 1940) and in England (Sisam and Whyte, 1944; Robinson, 1945; Brown, 1949) the original soil is replaced on the graded spoils and therefore the establishment of rotation crops is much simpler. Orchards can be established as soon as the erosion danger on the freshly graded spoil has been controlled, provided the reaction of the spoil is not too acid as it is practically impossible to lime the total potential root zone of the fruit trees. VI. GRADING No other item in the reclamation of coal mine strippings has been as bitterly discussed as the grading or “leveling” of the banks. It is obvious that opinions clash on a subject where emotion, ethics and economics are involved and where very few facts have been established by research. 1. Reasons for Grading Spoils
Grading spoil banks permits the use of power machinery and therefore widens greatly the land use capabilities. Ungraded strippings belong to land use capability classes VII (Forestry) and VIII (Wildlife), according to the Soil Conservation Service classification. These are the two lowest groups. In many cases grading can bring the spoils into groups VI or V (Permanent Pasture) or even I11 or I1 (Cultivated Crops).
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Grading can thus make it possible to grow more food and feed. Grading greatly speeds up the establishment of forage plants (Groves, 1949). Grading permits the soil formed from the raw spoil materials to stay in place and eventually to develop a deep and productive soil profile. On ungraded spoil, with slopes of over 50 per cent, a deep profile cannot form because erosion, even under dense cover, removes much of the freshly formed soil. An example of this situation is shown in the differences in p H and total nitrogen in the soils on the slope (60 per cent) and the alluvium of a 20 year old pine plantation on spoils in West Central Indiana (Fig. 4.) Another reason for grading spoils frequently mentioned is the improvement of the scenery. Many people object to the ridge and valley topography and prefer a smoother landscape. As soon as dense forest covers the spoils, their surface configuration is largely hidden. Near towns and cities grading is esthetically desirable, and may also furnish valuable building sites. 2. How t o Grade Spoils
I n planning to grade spoils prime consideration should be given to the eventual land use and the drainage system desired. As previously stated, only land that is potential pasture, crop or orchard land need be graded. Pasture land should have no slope steeper than 25 per cent in order to permit safe operation of agricultural equipment, while for crop land and orchard land the maximum slopes should be 10 per cent in order to avoid serious erosion hazards. The slope pattern should be designed in such a way that water does not flow far before reaching a fairly level drainage channel. This can be accomplished frequently by merely sloping down the ridges without completely eliminating them. I n some cases diversion ditches may be necessary. Where the spoil material is of particularly porous nature, one can dispense with such precautions. A complete leveling of the land is of little value. It is costly, it compacts the soil and it creates erosion hazards. Also, under most conditions, grading to the original contour is not necessary. I n very hilly territory it is much better to smooth out the spoils more nearly level, allowing for runoff on protected waterways than to attempt to regain the original topography (Tyner et al., 1948). It is preferable to leave the “highwall” as a steep and valueless escarpment in order to gain some level land that may be put to a higher form of use than could be practiced before stripping. Generally it is not desirable to fill in the larger and deeper ponds and lakes that contain good water. They are a byproduct of strip mining
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which can be regarded as an asset in areas deficient in natural open water. On the other hand ponds containing water that is useless because it is too acid or too shallow or because it dries out during the summer, should be filled in, if possible. The same is true of final cuts that remain dry. It seldom will be practical to fill in final cuts completely since the overburden has all been deposited on one side, but by grading down the last one or two ridges of spoil it is generally possible to include the final cuts into the land use pattern. One form of grading frequently employed is called “striking off the ridges.” A bulldozer or similar machine pushes the material of the ridges aside so that a smooth surface of from 8 to 16 feet in width results. This makes the area more accessible, gives the raw spoils a less ragged skyline and simplifies tree planting to a certain extent. Striking off the ridges does not permit operation of agricultural equipment since only a small portion of the area is accessible. As the available evidence points to the fact that leveling does not help the growth of forest trees the only grading that should be undertaken on potential forest land is to prepare access and fire lanes. Since individual spoils are usually of restricted area not much consideration need be given fire lanes. It is advantageous to locate access roads along the ridges. They should be crowned so that water will not flow in the lanes and cause severe gullying. Some lanes connecting the ridge lanes with the main road should be provided. Where it is necessary to cut across the ridges it is well to do this a t relatively high points so that water and erosional debris will not damage the lanes. I n many cases the original coal haulage road may serve as part of the system. Frequently damage to soil structure has been observed as a result of grading spoils. Probably the reason for this is that the lower strata of spoils are almost continuously wet, because of the loose nature of the spoils. Working heavy soils wet tends to puddle them. During the mining process the overburden increases from a third to a half over its original volume. Many large pores are created in the resulting overburden that stop the downward flow of all but the tension-free water. I n natural soils no such impediment exists. It is the obvious conclusion that grading spoils, where desirable, should be done as soon as possible after mining so that there will be no accumulation of percolating rain water in them. The best method would be to do it as an integral part of the deposition of the overburden in the banks. The rotating shovel excavators used today in a few of the strip mines come closest to accomplishing this feat. The ordinary power, shovels and draglines cannot do it without special operations,
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3. Objections t o Grading of Spoils The main objections against grading spoils are the expense and the possibility of impairing soil structure. Trees have been found t o grow slower on leveled spoils than on ungraded ones (Chapman, 1949;Sawyer, 1949). It is difficult t o say how the same trees would have grown on the same material, had the grading taken place immediately after mining when the spoils had not had time t o collect much water. Another objection against grading is the increased erosion hazard. If the smoothing out is done in such a way that water has a chance to accumulate over larger sloping areas, grading can result in considerable gullying, which makes successful revegetation difficult. The necessary precautions have already been described.
VII. ECONOMIC ASPECTS While ethics and esthetics play important roles in planning the reclamation of coal mine strippings, an economically sound approach must be the first consideration. Even under the most favorable conditions spoil banks are “unimproved” land, and no quick returns from any use can be expected. The choice exists between complete abandonment, inexpensive improvement and intensive improvement. Where no improvement is made, it will be many years before desirable trees become established and grow to merchantable size. Where calcareous spoils are seeded to grass and legume mixtures grazing will bring returns within very few years. While the returns per acre will be considerably less than from improved pastures, thc investment for seeding and fencing will soon be amortized. Planting trees on spoils has been costing around $25 per acre during the last few years. This investment is much greater than the cost of seeding grass and legumes but still is a rather modest figure. Occasionally costs of establishing a forest cover have been a good deal higher where trees had to be planted for a second or third time on account of poor survival of the first plantings. Such extra expense can be avoided, if the banks are checked for p H and planting is delayed until a scant cover of pioneer plants is established. Obviously returns from the trees begin only 10 or 12 years later when fence posts can be cut from black locusts. The main income, however, will not materialize until pulpwood or saw lumber can be harvested, usually after 30 t o 40 years. As practically all tree plantings on coal mine strippings in the United States are less than 30 years old, little can be said about the value of the produce and the expense of harvesting the trees. But the vigorous growth of the
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adapted tree species on spoils and the constantly increasing demand for lumber and pulpwood make it very probable that this form of land use will bring a certain, if modest revenue commensurate with the expense of planting. Any form of spoil bank reclamation that includes grading is of necessity quite expensive except where the grading is restricted t o For Complelr LevelinoD 3.75% of Tolol Overburden
For 25% Slope, 2.5% of To101
Natural ------
a
Surface
-
D
5 0 fret
Fig. 8. Amount of earth movement needed for grading spoils.
striking off the ridges. I n addition to the cost of grading are the expenses for liming, fertilizing, seeding and fencing which may be considerable, especially on the more acid spoils. The aggregate of these costs may actually be higher than the purchase price of improved, high quality farm land. Where only spoil material is graded which is adapted for the intended land use there can be little doubt that an income is assured that will be greatly in excess of that produced by forest plantations and one that will start much earlier. Nevertheless in many cases the expense of grading will make this form of reclamation an unprofitable under-
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taking for the individual, if viewed as an independent business operation. Grading may be regarded as part of the original earth-moving operation that is necessary to uncover the coal. Assuming an overburden thickness of 50 feet, a volume increase of 50 per cent (personal communication L. L. Newman, U.S. Bureau of Mines), spoil ridges 50 feet apart and average slopes of ninety per cent, the complete leveling of the spoils would require a second moving of less than 4 per cent of the total overburden material (Fig. 8). Moreover, this movement is of loose material in generally downhill direction while the original material was solid earth and rock and had to be lifted to considerable heights. One very important item of the reconversion of spoils into improved pasture land or crop land is that the adjacent land is benefited. Since coal mine boundaries have irregular patterns, fields may be cut t o small sizes and sometimes made essentially inaccessible from the farm buildings. If the spoils are left ungraded and planted to trees they have to be fenced out from pastured land. As a result much of the land neighboring ungraded spoils is left idle. Grading increases the eventual field size, permits fencing a t more practical locations, and can help to bring the entire original farm back into agricultural production. Communities with strip coal lands suffer an eventual decrease in tax income since usually the tax valuation of stripped coal lands is lower than it was originally (Walter, 1949). Proper reclamation can minimize or even eliminate this loss in tax revenue. The increased production from agriculturally reclaimed coal land will also contribute to the economic life of the area. I n the discussion of the economics of spoil bank reclamation a clear distinction has to be made between t,he viewpoints of the individual and of the country as a whole. Returns too small or too remote to pay for the investment offer no incentive for the individual to reclaim spoils. The nation, however, has t o consider the potential productive power of an area that may contribute materially to the furnishing of life’s necessities t o the increased population of the future. Whether the individual shall bear the full cost of restoring the productivity of the land is a matter of state or national policy. I n view of the 1ower.cost of producing coal by the strip method compared to underground mining it seems possible that the reclamation cost be included in the price of coal. Only the technical aspects of the reclamation of coal mine spoils are discussed here. Walter (1949) has given a masterly presentation of the economic problems facing agriculture as a result of strip mining of coal.
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VIII. LEGISLATION Soil destruction brought about by strip mining in the United States is very minor compared with that due to erosion. Yet, while no laws force a farmer to conserve his soil, legislation regulating reclamation of coal mine spoils exists in 4 states: West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Indiana and Ohio. I n all cases revegetation of the stripped land is required, in West Virginia and Ohio a certain amount of grading is also compulsory. In all 4 states the legislation recognizes that different methods of reclamation are appropriate for different types of spoil materials. The West Virginia law also distinguishes between former arable and former forest land. No grading is required in the latter case. Illinois also had ti reclamation law. It was declared unconstitutional, however, on the ground that it was discriminatory legislation since it regulated the reclamation of coal mine spoils while it ignored spoils of other mining operations, such as gravel pits. It is difficult to say what the most reasonable form of legislation would be, One thing is certain, however, that it involves first of all the establishment of a policy concerning the obligation of an individual toward a piece of land to which he has full title. Since the United States has passed the pioneer era of unlimited land resources it seems appropriate that restrictions be imposed on the destruction of the productive capacity of land. If this philosophy were accepted, regulations concerning the protection and reclamation of land would have to extend to all land, and not only to mined areas. Whatever the moral and constitutional background of coal spoil bank legislation, it has to be based on well understood physical and economic facts and to differentiate between the various conditions of spoils.
IX. DISCUSSION I . Establishing a Reclamation Policy It is impossible to view the coal mine strip bank problem as a separate entity and to arrive at an equitable solution. Reclamation of the spoils is just a fragment of the general problem of conservation. As a nation we have become conscious of the value of our natural resources. Soil losses by water, wind and alkali have received widespread attention. The researches and practical experiences of the past 2 decades have shown the tremendous possibilities of regaining and increasing the productive capacity of abused soils by proper management. Great strides have been made in halting the further inroads of excessive erosion but the road ahead is long before the goal can be reached. The destruc-
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tion of the soil by strip mining is merely a faster and more spectacular way of decreasing the food and feed producing area than erosion, excess water, alkali or inadequate fertilization. We have established the principle in this country that all land should be brought to its highest economic use so that the United States as a nation can continue t o enjoy a satisfactory standard of living. Today there are about 3 acres of arable land per inhabitant in the United States. Diminishing the cropproducing area in the face of a rapid increase of population would eventually lead to disastrous results. Smoothing out spoil banks to a more stable topography will permit the soil that is formed to accumulate and eventually to become fertile agricultural soil. It seems advisable, therefore, to grade down those spoils that give promise of producing pasture or field crops. While the material in the spoils varies greatly, most of it is of a nature that will decompose rapidly and form soil. Besides, the majority of the coal strip mines are in an area with excellent climate for plant growth. Half of them lie in the Corn Belt and most of the others nearby. The land involved in strip-mining operations represents only a small fraction of the country and other lands deserve our watchful interest in the same way. It has been interesting to see many old gravel pits graded by bulldozers and put back into agricultural production. Such voluntary reclamation work is the one best befitting a democratic nation. Whatever the details of the eventual policy will be, everybody seems to agree today that a temporary gain should not be paid for by the permanent impairment of land resources. It is pertinent to inquire whether there is a moral obligation on the part of the land owner to leave his land in as good or better condition as when he took it over. No such viewpoint prevailed in nineteenth century America. But viewpoints change and today such an obligation is slowly developing. So far other miners have not been required to smooth out their spoils and to improve and revegetate them. The reason for this inconsistency may be found in the smaller size of many of these undertakings, e.g., gravel and clay pits, and the distance from centers of population of others, e.g., gold, iron, and copper mines. Reclamation work on the spoil banks of phosphate mines in Florida is under way. In other more densely populated countries reclamation is obligatory. In Europe, saving the original surface soil and spreading it over the leveled spoils is either required or suggested. The attitude of German farmers toward this problem is demonstrated by this quotation from Gray et al. (1938): “A German land owner, asked how he could justify an outlay of about $100 an acre for reforesting stripped coal land, replied that he considered it his duty to leave the property to his successors in a t least
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as good condition, as when he took it over. Whether or not the expenditure would earn compound interest or show a profit did not enter into his calculations. This epitomizes the prevailing attitude of enlightened forest owners in much of central and northern Europe.” Another example is the reclamation of land from the North Sea which cost Holland $1250 per acre (Bear, 1949). 2. Future Research Needs
Much work has been done to find the best ways of reclaiming coal mine spoil banks. The coal operators themselves have supported such research with funds and facilities. The results of these studies together with established facts of soil science, forestry, agronomy and ecology give sufficient tools to reclaim the banks. Many improvements are still needed. Future research may include some of the following items: improved methods of removing the overburden and placing it in proper sequence and in smoother surface on the spoils, developing better tests and criteria to determine the potential land use capability of the spoil material, finding the plant species best adapted for profitable growth on the spoils, and study of the economic relations involved. 3. Contributions of Spoil Bank Research t o Science
Since conditions on coal mine spoil banks are entirely different from those on undisturbed land many interesting and valuable facts of soil science, ecology, forestry and other fields present themselves for study. One of the outstanding ones is the rate of soil formation. The moment when the overburden is deposited in the spoil bank is zero time of soil formation. Every year changes can be observed. Actual rates of soil formation as well as criteria of soil formation can be discovered in such research. The steep slopes of soil material practically devoid of organic matter give an opportunity of studying fundamentals of erosion. The high calcium concentration of many spoils in spite of low p H values offers a unique possibility of separating the effects of these two factors on plant growth. Temperature effects on soil formation, erosion and plant growth can be studied by comparing north and south facing slopes of the same spoil bank. The differences between the effects of calcium ions and hydrogen ions on flocculation of clay and aggregation of soil can be investigated in the absence of organic matter. The many ponds give an opportunity to determine the pH ranges of adaptability of various plants, fish and plankton. Similarly interesting observations are possible on the growth of various plant species in an unusunl environment. It has been said in connection with the ecology of the spoil banks that “you have
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to throw away the book,” but more properly it seems that a new chapter has to be added. Spoil banks offer a fertile and fascinating field of research to the biologist.
X. SUMMARY While the total area stripped for coal in the United States is only nbout a quarter million acres, the problem of reclamation of the spoil banks is important for various reasons. Each acre mined affects the land use of a t least one more acre of the neighboring land. The public resentment against the despoilation of the land in the most fertile climatic belt of the country calls for a clear understanding of the situation. I n the face of nationwide efforts to control the destruction of soil by erosion, the destruction of soil by mining calls for the establishment of a policy concerning the conservation of natural resources for future use. The strip mining of coal leaves the overburden in steep ridges with only little of the original top soil near the surface. The material is extremely heterogeneous; from finest clay to large rocks, and from pH 2 to pH 8. Nitrogen and organic matter are present in only very small amounts but otherwise the potential fertility is generally similar to that of natural soils. The nonrocky part of the spoil is generally of desirable texture. Soil tests to determine the potential land use capabilities of spoils have to be rapid because of the variability of the material. Hydrochloric acid shows the presence of carbonates, potassium thiocyanate the presence of free acid and sodium azide the presence of sulfides. Ordinary p H indicators and the interpretation of the occurrence of natural pioneer vegetation as well as observation of the texture and rockiness are additional aids in planning land use. On all spoils, except those of reactions below p H 3.5, natural vegetation is established in a few years. The calcareous areas are soon covered with legumes which are followed by grasses. Practically all native and many introduced plant species thrive on the spoil banks. Plantings bring such areas more quickly into production and help to camouflage the ragged topography. For more than 30 years trees have been planted on spoil banks and many attempts a t revegetation have been successful. The wildlife population has increased as a result of creating rather inaccessible shelter and many ponds. These latter give an opportunity to raise fish in regions deficient in natural lakes. The land use capability of the spoils is dependent on the reaction, the rockiness and the texture of the soil material as well as on our willingness to grade down the ridges to suit a certain use. Ungraded spoils are
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principally forest land and the calcareous and least rocky ones are potential pasture land. Where grading is done pasture can be the dominant use even though the reaction and fertility may not be very favorable, and the areas with the best texture are suitable for cultivated crops and orchards. Trees are planted as one- or two-year old seedlings about 7 by 7 feet apart, Legumes and grasses for pastures are seeded either by hand or from an airplane. Once spoils are graded the possibility of using any kind of agricultural implement permits a variety of methods of establishing vegetation. Grading spoils calls for extra precautions to avoid erosion because of the lack of water-stable aggregates in the spoil material and the resultant low infiltration capacity. Grading of spoils raises the potential land use capability. The majority of graded spoils can be used for pasture and some of them after a period of improvement for rotation crops. The greatest advantage of grading is that the weathered soil can remain in place and eventually develop considerable depth. Complete leveling is unnecessary and frequently undesirable. The main objection to grading is its high cost. The grading may cost more than the purchase price of similarly productive natural land. Legislation regulating the reclamation of coal mine spoil banks exists in West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Indiana and Ohio. One of the most essential features of such legislation is that it does not treat all spoils alike but considers each case according to the physical and economic situation. It seems that the development of an overall conservation policy has to precede this type of legislation. Further research on grading and revegetation of spoils is needed. XI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author takes pleasure in expressing his indebtedness to E. N. Stiver, formerly graduate fellow, Purdue University, and now Assistant Agronomist, Blackland Experiment Station, Texas, for the major contribution to the spoil bank reclamation research which has provided much of the background for this article. I n the same way L. E. Sawyer, Director of the Division of Forestry and Reclamation of the Indiana Coal Producers Association has given valuable aid by sharing much of his rich experience in this field. The author is also grateful for assistance from his colleagues in practically every state concerned.
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REFERENCES Adams, W. W. 1942. U S . Dept. Int. Bull. 462, 4-5. Adams, W. W., and Geyer, L. E. 1942. U S . Dept. Agr. Bull. 462, 4-5. Bear, F. E. 1949. Agron. J . 41, 497-507. Brown, G. F. 1949. Soil Conserv. 15, 107-109. Chapman, A. G. 1944. Central States Forest Expt. Sta. Tech. Paper 104, 1-25. Chapman, A. G. 1947. Central States Forest Expt. Sta. Tech. Paper 108, 1-13. Chapman, A. G. 1948. The Land 7, 41-45. Chapman, A, G. 1949. Coal Mine Modernization Yr. B k . 309-315. Croxton, W. C. 1928. Ecology 9, 155-175. Den Uyl, D. 1947. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 56, 173. Grandt, A. F. 1949. Proc. Natl. Coal Assn. Convention, to be published. Gray, L. C., Bennett, J. B., Kraemer, E. and Sparhawk, W. N. 1938. Sbils and Men. US. Dept. Agr. Yearbook of Agriculture, p. 133. Groves, D. E. 1949. Ohio Farmer, Oct. 15, 14-15. Holmes, L. A. 1944. Sci. Monthly 59, 414-420. Limstrom, G. A. 1948. Central States Forest Expt. Sta. Tech. Paper 109, 1-79. McDougall, W. B. 1925. Ecology 6, 372-380. Maloney, M . M . 1941. Proc. Oklahoma Acad. Sci. 22, 123-129. Meyer, L. 1940. Bodenkunde Pflanzenerniihr. 21-22, 707-722. Riley, C. V. 1947. M. S. Thesis, Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio. Robinson, D. H. 1945. Agriculture ( J . (Engl.) Minktry Agric.) 52, 178-180. Sawyer, L. E. 1946. J . Forestry 44, 19-21. Sawyer, L. E. 1949. J . Soil Water Conserv. 4, 161-165, 170. Schavilje, J. P. 1941. J. Forestry 39, 714-719. Sinks, A. H. 1946. Harper’s Mag. pp. 432-438. Sisam, J. W. B., and Whyte, R. 0. 1944. Nature 154, 506-508. Stiver, E. N. 1949. Ph.D. Dissertation, Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. Thornton, S. F., Comer, S. D., and Frazer, R. R. 1939. Purdue Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 204. Toenges, A. L. 1939. US. Dept. Interior, Bur. of Mines, R. I., 3440. Tyner, E. H., and Smith, R. M. 1946. Boil Sci. SOC.Am. Proc. 10, 429-436. Tyner, E. H., Smith, R. M., and Galpin, S. L. 1948. J . Am. SOC.Agron. 40, 313323.
Walter, G. H. 1949. Agr. Econ. Research 1, 24-29. Winchell, J. H. 1948. Outdoor Indiana 15, 12-13.
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Irrigated Pastures WESLEY KELLER
AND
MAURICE L . PETERSON
IJ . S. Drpnrtmcnt o f Agl’icuhkrr. Logan. Utah. and California Agricultiirnl Exprrimrnl Slnlion. Dnvi.?. Cnlifornin CONTENTS
I . Introduction . I1. Pasture Soils .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I11. Choosing Productive Mixtures . . . . . . IV . Establishing Pastures . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . Preparation of Land for Irrigation . .
2. Seedbed Preparation and Seeding . . . 3. Management. of the New Stand . . . V . Management of Pastures . . . . . . . . 1 . Grazing Management . . . . . . . . 2. Prevention of Bloat . . . . . . . . 3. Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . Molybdenum Toxicity . . . . . . . 6. Weed Control . . . . . . . . . . . VI . Economy of Pastures . . . . . . . . . 1. Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Economic Studies . . . . . . . . . 3. Effect of Pastures on Crops that Follow VIL . Pastures in Relation to Other Sources of Ferd 1 . Relation to Other Forage Resources . . 2. Supplemental Feeding . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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I . INTRODUCTION Irrigated pastures have provided feed for the livestock of the western United States since its settlement . The acreage has expanded to an estimated 2.7 million in the 17 western states. according to the 1940 Census of Irrigation . Twelve per cent of the irrigated land of the west was in pastures. 37 per cent in Nevada and nearly 25 per cent in Oregon . The California acreage was estimated at about 560.000 in 1949. most of which developed since 1930 and nearly half since 1946. Five acres planted in the Werribee District of victoria. Australia in 1914. was the beginning of a development which reached approximately one-third million acres by 1947 according t o Morgan (1949) . 353
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Factors which have contributed to a large irrigated pasture acreage are the development of new irrigated land, selection and use of species which are highly productive on a wide variety of soils, and the need for additional forages to supplement other source8, particularly rangeland. The low labor requirement for this kind of irrigation farming has appealed to many operators during recent years of scarce and costly labor. Many of the Agricultural Experiment Stations of the West included studies on irrigated pastures in their earliest projects. Recent research has been directed both towards improvement of existing pastures and development of new pastures on various types of soils including some of the best. The writers have placed greatest emphasis in this review on recent experimental data but the lack of information on numerous points has necessitated the use of some less well authenticated evidence.
11. PASTURE SOILS The soils upon which irrigated pastures are grown vary widely in physical and chemical characteristics. I n recent years some of the most fertile and productive soils in the West have been seeded to irrigated pastures. A large part of the acreage, however, is on soils not well suited for tillage because of poor drainage, excessive salts, shallowness, or the presence of stones, steep slopes and other conditions unfavorable to cultivation. The many species of grasses and legumes used in pastures show wide differences in soil adaptation and tolerance to adverse situations. Characteristics of the soil which influence production and selection of species are fertility, texture, depth, drainage, and salinity and alkalinity. For a more thorough treatment of the management of irrigated soils, the reader is referred to Thorne and Peterson’s (1949)book on this subject, and to the manual by Richards (1947)on the diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkaline soils. The present discussion is confined to the adaptation of species to particular soil conditions. Much of the irrigated pasture acreage is on soils which are typical of arid conditions. Thorne (1948)characterizes these soils as being low in organic matter and containing adequate or excessive quantities of calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, carbonates and sulfates. He further indicates that these soils, when placed under irrigation, often contain insdcient phosphorus and nitrogen for maximum production. With irrigation and growing of crops, organic matter is increased, microbial activity stimulated, and many mineral constituents are brought into solution. The irrigated land of the western United States is on valley bottoms
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and terraces which developed from material transported and deposited by water. Most of the streams emerged from mountain canyons t o deposit sediment at floodtime in alluvial fans. Pastures are mostly on heavy textured soils laid down under slow moving water or lacustrine deposition. The latter soils are particularly heavy and may be quite high in organic matter. Some of the older depositions have developed profiles with heavy textured or cemented hardpan subsoils. Varying degrees of salt accumulations are found. Soil texture and depth are important factors in species adaptation. Deep rooted plants such as alfalfa (Msdicago sativa) are used on the deep, coarse to medium textured soils. Hamilton et al. (1945) point out that good pastures are not readily established and maintained on very sandy soils. The low water holding capacity of these soils and injury to ladino clover (Trifoliumrepens Zatum) stolons by trampling limit the use of this species. On fine textured soils, the shallow rooted species such as ladino clover are quite satisfactory. Ladino clover and narrowleaf birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus tenuifolius)are two of the few species which produce satisfactorily on the extremely heavy adobe soils in central California. These same species are grown successfully on soils underlain with a claypan layer a few inches below the soil surface. This impervious subsoil increases the efficiency of water use by preventing downward percolation below the root zone. Excessively wet soils in irrigated regions are caused by (1) direct application of water, (2) seepage from canals and ditches, and (3) subsurface flows from areas receiving excessive precipitation or irrigation, (Thorne and Peterson, 1949). Wet conditions arising from direct water application are generally localized and result from over-irrigating, improper leveling, failure to provide drainage, or to unsatisfactory balance between the head of water and the size of the check or basin. These conditions are normally avoidable and are discussed under later headings. More extensive wet areas are found where drainage is difficult or not practical such as in large valley bottoms and along natural waterways which are subject to flooding or seepage. Because of wet conditions, and often the presence of salts, these areas are difficult to manage and productivity is low because the most productive species are not well adapted. These valley bottoms or mountain meadows are used extensively for spring and fall grazing and the production of wild hay for wintering range cattle. Pittman and Bennett (1948) were able to double yields in the second and third year after alsike clover (Trifoliurn hybridurn) and red clover (Trifolium pratense) were broadcast on undisturbed sod. An additional significant increase was obtained by plowing and seeding timothy (Phleurn pratense) and redtop (Agrostis alba) or bromegrass (Bromus
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WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
inermis) and meadow fescue (Festuca elatior) with the clovers. The above treatment when combined with fertilization, frequent light irrigations and control of water to prevent prolonged flooding, resulted in nearly 4 times the yield of native sod. Reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) in combination with strawberry clover (Trifolium fragiferum) produced excellent pasture on land too wet for alfalfa in unpublished studies conducted a t the Utah Station. I n preliminary trials a t the California Station, Reed canarygrass, perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) , tall fescue (Festuca elatior urundimcea) , narrowleaf trefoil, and strawberry clover ranked in the order named in total production when grown under continuous flooding over a period of several months. Research is being initiated by federal agencies in cooperation with several of the western states on the improvement of natural meadows. This is an important source of livestock feed and the problem of improvement warrants greater attention than it has received in the past. According to Magistad and Christiansen (1944), “A large part of the 20,000,000 acres under irrigation in the 19 Western States contains enough soluble salt to depress crop yields. A much smaller area contains so much alkali that crop production is greatly curtailed and unprofitable. Thousands of acres have been abandoned because of salinity.” I n arid regions, salts accumulate chiefly because of irrigation and poor drainage (Richards, 1947). Since poorly drained soils are not easily tilled, they are used extensively for the production of forage. Thus, in irrigated regions the problem of saline and alkali soils is one of great importance in connection with forage production. Richards (1947) has classified salted soils into saline, saline-alkali, and nonsaline-alkali soils. The saline soils are defined as soil ‘(for which the conductivity of the saturation extract is greater than 4 millimhos per cm. (at 25°C.) and the exchangeable-sodium-percentage is less than 15. The pH of the saturated soil paste is usually less than 8.5.” These soils are characterized by white crusts on the surface or by streaks of salt in the soil. They are reclaimed by leaching and drainage, after which they become normal soils. The saline-alkali soils are defined as ‘(soils for which the conductivity of the saturation extract is greater than 4 millimhos per cm. (at 25°C.) and the exchangeable-sodium-percentage is greater than 15. The p H of the saturated soil paste may exceed 8.5.” The nonsaline-alkali soils are those (‘for which the exchangeable-sodiumpercentage is greater than 15 and the conductivity of the saturation extract is less than 4 millimhos per cm. (at 25°C.). The p H values for these soils generally range between 8.5 and 10.” The latter two types
IRRIGATED PASTURES
355
of soil are more difficult to reclaim because of the low rate of water penetration. Hamilton et al. (1945) point out that the roots of salt-tolerant forage plants increase the permeability of salty soils and speed up the rate a t which salt may be leached from them. According to Richards (1947) alkaline soils require measures to improve the soil structure after suitable base exchange and leaching has removed harmful amounts of sodium. For this purpose they consider grass roots especially effective. Bartels and Morgan (1944) consider the degree of reclamation of salty soil t o be proportional to the amount of water applied. They found that when sufficient leaching had occurred to permit growth of barley TABLE I Salt Tolerance of Forage Crops According to Richards (1947). Tolerance Decreases from Top to Bottom in Each Division. Scientific Names have been Added
GOOD SALT TOLERANCE Alkali sacaton (Sporobolus airoides) Salt grass (Distichlis spp.) Nuttal alkali grass (Puccinellia nuttallknu) Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) Rhodes grass (Chloris gayanu) Rescue grass (Bromus catharticus) Canada wild rye (Elymus canadensis) Beardless wild rye (Elymus triticoides) Western wheatgrass (Agromron smithii)
MODERATE SALT TOLERANCE (Continued) Tall fescue (Festuca elatior arundinacea) Rye (hay) (Secale cereale) Wheat (hay) (Triticum aestiwum) Oats (hay) (Avena sativa) Orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) Blue grama (Boutelom gracilis) Meadow fescue (Festuca elatior) Reed canary (Phalaris arundimcea) Big trefoil (Lotus uliginosus) Smooth brome (Bromus inermis)
Tall (meadow) oat (Anhenatherum elatius) White sweet clover (Melilotus alba) Cicer milk vetch (Astragalus cicer) Yellow sweet clover (Melilotus Oficinalis) Sour clover (Melilotus indica) Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) Sickle milk vetch (Astragalus jalcatus) Mountain brome (Bromus carinatus) Barley (hay) (Hordeum vulgare) POOR SALT TOLERANCE MODERATE SALT TOLERANCE
Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus cornkulatus) Strawberry clover (Trijolium jragijerum) Dallis grass (Paspalum dilatatum) Sudan grass (Sorghum vulgare sudanense) Hubam clover (Melilotus alba annual Alfalfa (California Common) (Medicago satiwa)
White (dutch) clover (Trijolium repens) Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) Alsike clover (Trijolium hybridum) Red clover (Trijolium prateme) Ladino clover (Trijolium repens latum) Burnet (Sanguisorba minor)
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WESLEY RELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
grass (Hordeum maritimum), the land would support wimmera ryegrass (Lolium rigidurn). Morgan (1947) considers land leveling essential to reclamation of salty land. Leveling makes possible the uniform application of water, to leach salts downward. H e reports that a field which had a salt concentration in 1939 of 0.84 to 1.01 per cent in the 6- to 60inch zone was leveled, sown to pasture, and irrigated 12 to 19 times a year. By 1946 the salt was reduced to 0.10 to 0.25 per cent. Light irrigations were given the pasture, the annual average totaling approximately 2.5 acre feet. During the course of the study the productivity of the pasture steadily increased. Many native species possess marked tolerance of salty soils, but they are almost without exception of relatively low forage value. Experience gained through the years has been sufficient t o permit a rough classification of plants as to their salt tolerance. I n recent years the work of the U.S. Regional Salinity Laboratory a t Riverside, California has greatly expanded and refined our conception of the adaptation of plants to salty soils. The salt tolerance of a number of forage species, as reported by Richards (1947) is reproduced in Table I. The scientific names have been added to aid in identification. The growth made by wheat, oats or barley on salty land 8erves as a useful guide in choosing the best species for seeding the area to pasture. The principal effect of salt on crop production is a reduction in growth of plants. Since the salts in the soil solution retard the movement of water into the plants, it should be kept as diluted as possible by frequent irrigation. The applications should be light if there is danger of raising the water table, but heavier applications may be made if adequate drainage has been provided. Magistad (1945) and Hayward and Wadleigh (1949) have presented reviews of plant growth relations on saline and alkali soils, and Hayward and Magistad (1946) state the problem and describe the work of the Laboratory at Riverside.
111. CHOOSING PRODUCTIVE MIXTURES Relatively few species are extensively used in irrigated pastures. These are listed together with some of their characteristics in Table 11. Smooth bromegrass, reed canarygrass, and tall oatgrass (Arrhenathermm elatius) are used most widely in the cooler regions as contrasted to dallis grass (Paspahm dilatatum) and rhodesgrass (Chloris guyurn) which are confined to the hot southern regions and areas of mild winter temperatures. Similarly, bur clover (Medicago hispidu), a winter annual is used only in areas with mild winters. Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) and perennial ryegrass are most widely used in the Pacific Coast states.
TABLE I1 The Major Irrigated Pasture Species, Some of their Characteristics, and the Conditions under which they are Likely to be of Greatest Value
Species
Gr0at.h habit
Palatability
Probable best use a
Length of life
Land
Water
Tall Oat (Arrhenutherum elatius) Smooth Brome (Bromus inermis) Rhodesgrass (Chloris gayana) Orchard (Dactylis glomerata) Tall Fescue (Festuca elatior arundinucea)
Bunch Rhizomatous Stoloniferous Bunch Bunch
High High Moderate Moderate Low
Short perennial Perennial Perennial Perennial Perennial
Arable Arable Salty Arable Salty
Moderate Limited Moderate Abundant Moderate
Italian Ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum)
Bunch Bunch Bunch Rhizomatous
High High Moderate Moderate
Annual Short perennial Perennial Perennial
Arable Arable Arable Wet
Moderate Moderate Abundant Excess
Creeping
High
Perennial
Salty
Moderate
Nonspreading
High
Perennial
Arable
Moderate
Nonspreading Nonspreading Nonspreading
High Moderate Low
Annual Perennial Biennial
Arable Arable Wet or salty
Moderate Limited Limited
Stoloniferous Nonspreading Stoloniferous
High Moderate High
Perennial Short perennial Perennial
Wet and salty Wet arable Arable
Excess Abundant Abundant
Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne) Dallis Grass (Puspulum dilatatum) Reed Canary (Phalaris arundimcea) Narrowleaf Birdsfoot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus tenuifolius) Broadleaf Birdsfoot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus arvensis) Bur Clover (Medicago hk.rpida) Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) Sweet Clover (Melilotus spp.) Strawberry Clover (Trijolium fragijerum) Red Clover (Trijolium pratense) Ladino Clover (Trijolium repens latum)
5
5n u
2
3 u1
w 'Some species are of much wider usefulness than here implied, but are relatively superior under conditions indicated.
*
Q1
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WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
Narrowleaf trefoil is used extensively in Oregon and California. Broadleaf trefoil (Lotus corniculatus arvensis) is coming into some use a t higher elevations where winter temperatures exclude the narrowleaf trefoil. Strawberry clover has as yet achieved little importance except on wet lands in widely scattered areas. The remaining species listed in the table, show a wide range of adaptation throughout the western states. Many writers have pointed out that if several species are used in a mixture, the grazing animal has a more varied diet, stands may be improved, and higher and more uniform yields are obtained. Reasons given for using a number of species in a mixture are differences in seasonal growth habits, depth of rooting, and soil nutrient requirements. Studies a t the Utah Experiment Station have a t least partially supported these statements but data are also available showing that simple combinations may be highly productive. Pasture mixture studies are difficult t o conduct because of the large number of possible combinations which can be compared. Only 3 grasses and 3 legumes give rise to 49 different mixtures containing one or more grasses with one or more legumes. Eight grasses and 8 legumes provide 64 mixtures of a single grass with a single legume, 784 mixtures of 2 grasses with 2 legumes, 3,136 mixtures of 3 grasses with 3 legumes and 4,900 mixtures of 4 grasses with 4 legumes. There are a possible 65,025 different mixtures, using 1 to 8 grasses with 1 to 8 legumes, not including differences in seeding rates. Most pasture mixture studies have included selected species put in combinations considered of most value by t'he experimenter. Some early studies brought forth excellent recommendations although they were not always carried over into agricultural practice. Sanborn (1894) rated tall oatgrass, timothy and alfalfa in the order named, and pointed out that Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) was relatively unproductive as a pasture grass. French (1902) recommended 4 mixtures for pasture, none of which contained Kentucky bluegrass although he stated that it, and some other species, might be added. He pointed out that a simple mixture of 10 pounds orchurdgrass (Dactylis g h t e r a t a ) and 6 lbs. red clover per acre was good for hay or pasture. He recognized the difference between meadow fescue and tall meadow fescue, characterizing the latter as a coarser, less desirable species. Welch (1914) recommended a mixture of Kentucky bluegrass 8, orchardgrass 5, smooth bromegrass 5, meadow fescue 4, timothy 4, and white clover (Trifolium repens) 2 lbs. per acre. It was a modification of a mixture he had grown for 4 years with excellent results. Later, Welch (1917) pointed out that orchardgrass and bromegrass were the more important components, while Kentucky bluegrass, meadow fescue and timothy
IRRIGATED PASTURES
359
were of lesser importance. Hanscn (1924) reported on a study of 3 mixtures, all quite similar except that one lacked legumes. On the basis of both hay yields and grazing tests on these 3 mixtures he proposed a fourth, which became widely known as the Huntley mixture. It is much like Welch’s (1914) mixture, differing only in seeding rate, the omission of timothy and the inclusion of alsike clover. I n a slightly modified form the Huntley mixture became widely used in Utah and some adjacent areas under the name of Standard mixture No. 1. Current recommendations of most expcriment stations in western United States omit Kentucky bluegrass from pasture mixtures. Common white clover has been largely replaced by ladino clover. Several experiment stations include tall fescue in nearly all mixtures (Jones and Brown, 1949; Klages et al., 1948; Rampton, 1945). Tall oatgrass is recommended as a component of mixtures by Law et al. (1945) and Keller et al. (1947b). Pasture mixtures for well-drained irrigated land have received increased attention in Utah since 1943. Reports by Keller et al. (1945, 1947a, 194713) and by Bateman et al. (1949) have shown that the modified Huntley mixture is a relatively low producer when utilized by dairy cattle under rotation grazing. These studies have shown that high producing mixtures were those dominated by smooth bromegrass, orchardgrass, tall oatgrass, tall fescue or reed canarygrass, or combinations of these, with 50 to 60 per cent alfalfa, red clover or ladino clover. I n contrast, mixtures dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, meadow fescue, meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) ,or perennial ryegrass, with strawberry clover, alsike clover or any of several sources of ordinary white clover, would be much less productive. Because of the low palatability of tall fescue in these studies, and the difficulty of obtaining good stands of reed canarygrass, these species are not recommended in Utah for well-drained irrigated land. The mixture currently recommended (Department of Agronomy, 1949) is based on 6 years’ study of 36 mixtures and 3 years’ study of 32 mixtures. It includes bromegrass 4, tall oatgrass 4, orchardgrass 3, wilt resistant alfalfa 3, red clover 3, and ladino clover 2 lbs per acre. I n this mixture tall oatgrass and red clover reach high production quickest, following seeding. Bromegrass, orchardgrass, wilt resistant alfalfa and ladino clover are the more permanent components of the mixture. They have remained productive through 6 grazing seasons. Many problems surrounding pasture mixtures need further investigation. Tall fescue is widely used in California, Oregon and other states. However, Cunningham (1948) reports tall fescue is poisonous t o cattle
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WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE) L. PETERSON
in New Zealand. There have been no reports of poisoning from areas where tall fescue has been extensively used in the United States. Almost no research has been carried out on seeding rates. A wealth of experience indicates that under favorable conditions for both germination and establishment, 50 to 60 per cent legumes will result if the legumes comprise one-fourth to one-third of the total weight ,of the seed. Size and viability of seed and vigor of seedlings may considerably modify these proportions. Excellent stands of ladino clover have been obtained with one-half lb. of seed, although 1 or 2 lbs. are more commonly recommended per acre. Mixture totals vary with the species used, but usually range between 10 and 20 lbs. per acre.
IV. ESTABLISHING PASTURES 1. Preparation of Land for Irrigation The method used for irrigating pastures is determined by topography, soil and subsoil texture and the amount of water available (Hamilton et al., 1945; Jones and Brown, 1949) and in different regions is strongly influenced by local custom (Stewart, 1945). Although numerous types of irrigation systems are used, all may be grouped into either sprinkling or flooding methods. Land leveling is required for most flooding systems. The strip check or border method of flood irrigation is widely used on relatively flat areas (Hamilton et al., 1945; Bartels and Morgan, 1944; Rayner, 1941; Jones and Brown, 1949). Land is graded to provide 0.2 to 0.5 foot fall per 100 feet, although steeper slopes are used in some areas on soils which resist erosion. On land which has considerable side fall, the width of the checks should be adjusted to keep elevation differences between adjoining checks to 0.2 foot. Levees which guide the water moving across the field are about 2 feet wide a t the base and have a settled height of about 6 inches. They are spaced a t regular intervals but these may vary in width from field to field. Factors which influence width of levee spacing are soil texture, slope, length of strips and rate of water delivery to each. The relationship which exists between availability of water and the size of strip checks for clay loam and clay soils is shown in Table 111. For porous loam or sandy-loam soils, the delivery rates should be increased from 2 to 5 times those indicated in the table or the size of checks correspondingly decreased. Levees are often discontinued a few feet from the lower end of the field and the excess water is carried away by a drainage ditch. This avoids ponding of water and retards the encroachment of water tolerant species. Advantages of the strip check method of irrigation are low-labor requirements for irrigation and reasonably good control
361
IRRIGATED PASTURES
of water application. The cost of land preparation for irrigation may be large because of the leveling which is required. The contour check method is used on heavy soils where the land is nearly flat or gently sloping. Levees are constructed on the contour to form irregular shaped basins of varying sizes. The vertical interval between levees is usually 0.2 foot, or less on very level land. Jones and Brown (1949) recommend that contour levees have a base width of 30 to 36 inches and a settled height of a t least 12 inches. Fields are irrigated from basis to basin starting a t the upper side of the field. Drainage following irrigation is improved by construction of a broad shallow ditch from the upper to the lower levee near the center of the basin. The ditch also serves to carry water for irrigating each next lower basin in the pasture. TABLE I11 Sizt. of Strip Checks for Clay Loam and Clay Soils at Various Rates of Water I l ~ l i v ~ rtoy each Strip
Flow delivered to each strip cu. ft. sec. 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.6 0.7 0.8
Length of check for varioris widths of strip 10 ft. wide 440
20 ft.. wide
660
440
-
880 880 1320 1320
660 660 880 880
440
0.9 1
.o
a
15 ft. wide
1320 1320
25 ft. wide
440
660 660 880 880 1320
-
660 660 880
Jones and Brown (1949).
Little land moving is required for contour check irrigation other than to fill small depressions and remove high points with a land plane. Therefore, the initial preparation costs are much less than for the strip check method. Labor requirements are low although large heads of water are required and it is difficult to control the amount applied. Some modifications of this method are being tried in a n effort to avoid difficulties resulting from slow or improper drainage. Wild flooding is used for irrigating pastures in the Sierra Nevada foothills and throughout much of the Intermountain Region. Irrigation ditches are built on grades of 1% to 2 inches per 100 feet and spaced a t intervals of 50 to 300 feet depending upon the steepness of the slope. Water is distributed from the ditches a t frequent intervals by raising the
362
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
level with a dam a t the downstream edge of the section to be irrigated. Little or no land preparation is required other than the construction of irrigation ditches. The initial cost is therefore very low, but constant attention and considerable skill is required by the irrigator if he is t o make efficient use of his water. Thus the cost of labor for irrigation is large compared t o other methods. Little or no land preparation is required for sprinkler irrigation. A sprinkler system may have an advantage on shallow soils, and especially those underlaid with hardpan because the removal of surface soil may be very detrimental. Veihmeyer (1948) states that other advantages of sprinkling include effective use of a small flow of irrigation water, uniform distribution, and ease of adjusting water needs of different soils in the same field. He lists disadvantages of sprinklers as their high cost, more water lost by evaporation, and slow penetration of water on some soils which results in runoff before an adequate amount is applied. Various types of sprinklers are discussed in the abovementioned publication. 2. Seedbed Preparation and Seeding
Methods used in the preparation of a seedbed for irrigated pastures are similar to those used for all small seeded species. Hamilton et al. (1945) list the requirements of a good seedbed as fine textured, firm, moist, fertile, and free of weeds. Tillage operations to accomplish the desired results usually involve plowing or disking, harrowing, and packing except when seeding in pca or grain stubble. A springtooth harrow is sometimes used in place of the plow or disk on land relatively free of weeds. Jones and Brown (1949) in California recommend an irrigation before seeding to settle the fills, firm the soil, and provide subsoil moisture. The field is then planed if irregular settling has occurred, and harrowed just before seeding. Kitrogen fertilizers, if used, are applied just before or a t seeding time. Manure and phosphate fertilizers are normally worked into the soil during the seedbed preparation. Irrigation before seeding is seldom necessary in the Intermountain Region. Pastures can be seeded a t any time that favorable moisture conditions and temperature can be maintained. I n areas having cold winters, 6 to 10 weeks of growing weather are required for the young plants to become winter hardy. Hamilton et al. (1945) point out that cool-season grass seedlings attain winter hardiness a t an earlier age than the associated legumes. I n the Intermountain Region of the Western United States it has been customary to seed pastures in the spring, on fall plowed land. However, an increasing number of farmers are seeding in
IRRIGATED PASTURES
363
August in grain stubble or on land from which canning peas have been harvested. Post and Tretsven (1939) and Hamilton et aZ. (1945) recommend fall seeding if the land is not weedy, the -grain has not shattered, and adequate irrigation water can be applied. Bingham and Monson (1946) consider grasshopper injury is avoided by late summer seeding in grain stubble. I n areas having mild winters, Jones and Brown (1949) recommend fall and early winter seeding. Matlock (1943) recommends seeding in August and September for various sites in Arizona. Robertson et al. (1948) recommend spring seeding but state that a t high elevations where snow cover is dependable in winter, good success has resulted from late fall planting, germination occurring in early spring. This practice takes full advantage of spring precipitation, and saves some irrigation water and the labor of applying it. In California, the seeding time is adjusted to take advantage of the natural winter rainfall. It is seldom possible to establish a stand in dry weather by flood irrigation. However, a few farmers have established successful stands of ladino clover in the Sacramento Valley by airplane seeding in standing water. Ladino clover germinates rapidly in water and the seedlings are established b y the time the field dries. Drilling the seed is preferred if the seedbed is firm, but broadcasting is satisfactory on loose soil. Double seeding in different directions insures good broadcast distribution. Robertson et al. (1948) also recommend double seeding in drilling. Companion crops, if used, are seeded first. When planting a pasture in grain stubble the seed should be drilled, otherwise it is not easily covered. Airplane seeding of pastures is becorning increasingly important in California on fields which are large enough to justify this method. From 300 t o 500 acres can be seeded in a day a t a cost of $1.00 to $2.00 per acre for double seeding. This method costs slightly more than ground broadcasting, but has the advantages of speed and the ability to seed when the field is too wet for ground equipment. Winter seedings in California are normally broadcast without covering. Depth of seeding can be rather accurately controlled on a firm seedbed, but may be improved by the use of depth regulators on the drill. Shallow seeding of not more t,han one-half inch is normally recommended. Deeper seeding may be advisable on sandy soils or under conditions where adequate surface moisture is uncertain, The legume fraction of the mixture is usually seeded through the alfalfa hopper and the grass fraction through the grain side of a drill. Southworth (1949) has recently reported the use of rice hulls to improve tlie mechanical seeding qualities of chaffy grass seeds. A drill set to seed 160 lbs. barley per acre
364
WESLEY EELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
will seed an acre of pasture grasses and legumes mixed with 2 bushels (16 lbs.) rice hulls. Many grasses which are otherwise impossible t o put through a drill, can be processed in a hammermill to remove awns and appendages. Instructions on seed processing and some effects of processing on germination of tall oatgrass are reported by Schwendiman et al. (1940) and Schwendiman and Mullen (1944). The cultipacker-type seeder developed a t the Wisconsin College of Agriculture and reported by Ahlgren and Graber (1940) and Ahlgren (1945) is ideal for seeding pastures. It covers the seed lightly, and firms the seedbed. Irrigated pasture seedings are made either with or without companion crops. Companion crops are almost never used in California. Hamilton et al. (1945), Klages et al. (1948), and Davies and Christian (1945) consider a companion crop desirable to prevent wind damage. Bracken and Evans (1943) regard a companion crop as useful in helping to establish pastures on land that crusts easily. Companion crops have been used successfully in the establishment of experimental pastures in Utah by Keller et al. (1945,1947b). Bateman (unpublished) a t the Utah Station has successfully established both pastures and alfalfa while producing high yields of barley. H e considers a companion crop worthwhile if in the Intermountain region proper management practices can be followed during its growth. Barley is an ideal companion crop when seeded a t not over 50 to 60 lbs. per acre. Further information on companion crops is found under IV-3. 3. Management of the New Stand
New stands should be managed to promote rapid development of the seedlings. Prolonged close grazing or grazing when wet are conditions to be avoided. The stand should have a good top growth before winter temperatures cause growth to cease. Frequent light irrigations may be required until the roots become well developed. Davies and Christian (1945) in Australia, and Levy (1945) in New Zealand report satisfactory establishment of pastures under periodic heavy grazing during the seeding year, whether with or without a companion crop. Stands are grazed when the plants are 6 to 9 inches in height, usually a t 8 to 12 weeks after planting. This grazing is repeated whenever the plants have made a 6 to 9 inch regrowth. Bartels (1947) points out that heavy grazing of young pastures is sometimes necessary t o prevent perennial ryegrass from smothering out slower growing white clover. Careful irrigation is required when a companion crop is seeded with the pasture. In a study conducted a t the Utah Station it was found more profitable to harvest the companion crop for grain than to graze it. I n
IRRIGATED PASTURES
365
an unpublished report, Bateman showed an advantage of 1,424lbs. total digestible nutrients (T.D.N.) per acre plus 3,644 lbs. of straw for this method compared to grazing. During the seeding year (1946) the companion crop harvested for grain yielded 2,952lbs. T.D.N. plus 3,644lbs. straw per acre, while the grazed companion crop yielded 1,078lbs. T.D.N. per acre, or a difference of 1,874 lbs. T.D.N. plus the straw. I n the following year (1947)plots periodically grazed in 1946 yielded 450 Ibs. more T.D.N. per acre than those taken through to grain. In 1948 and later, yields from the 2 treatments have not differed. Excellent stands were obtained under both treatments, The study was part of a pasture experiment containing 32 different mixtures (Keller et al., 1947b). Bateman et al. (1949) point out that in 1947 this pasture yielded 5,342 lbs. T.D.N. per acre, or the equivalent of 5.31 tons alfalfa hay.
V. MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES 1. Grazing Management
The objectives of grazing management are (1) to maintain the desired balance between species, (2)to obtain continuous high production, and (3) to obtain utilization of the forage when it is most nutritious. Some forage species will tolerate close or continuous grazing while others will not. Most of the pasture mixtures now being recommended because of their high production of nutritious forage consist of species that require periods for regrowth, provided by rotation grazing, and will not survive if continuously closely grazed. With rotation grazing, two and preferably three or more pastures are grazed in rotation. After grazing, each pasture is irrigated and allowed to recover. The animals return to the first pasture from 3 to 6 or 8 times in one season. The system is highly flexible, and can be adjusted to fit into the other operations and requirements of each farm. Important considerations in developing a rotation grazing system are the number of subdivisions in the pasture, the number of days grazing in each, and the interval between grazings. Maximum yield of milk or beef will result only when the proper regrowth interval is used. If the interval is too short (the herbage too young) vigor of the plants will decline, and the grazing animals will expend an unduly large amount of energy in grazing. If the interval is too long the herbage will have lost palatability, and probably nitrogen also, and the grazing animals will not clean it up eagerly. Likewise, if the grazing period is too long in each subdivision the least desirable components of the pasture will be left until last. California dairymen have observed fluctuation in milk flow when the grazing period was as short as 5 days.
366
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
Rotation grazing was advocated many years ago by Harris (1913) and Welch (1914, 1917) and is widely used for irrigated pastures (Hamilton e t al., 1945; Starke, 1947; Bartels, 1944a; Semple and Hein, 1944), even though there are no experimental data under irrigation to indicate its value. The work of Hodgson et al. (1934) reporting a gain of 8.82 per cent from rotation over continuous grazing, has been referred to by Hamilton e t al. (1945) and by Bracken and Evans (1943). According to Semple e t al. (1934) rotation grazing increased production 10 per cent a t Beltsville, Md., while studies in Missouri, Virginia, and South Dakota have given like results. Apparently these studies were conducted on pastures containing species that are tolerant of close grazing. Levy (1949) reports that close continuous grazing reduces production of New Zealand pastures by 50 per cent, and permits entry of weeds and undesirable grasses. When a pasture is rather heavily stocked for a short period, the forage can be consumed when it is most nutritious, and fuller utilization and less selective grazing results. 't Hart (1949) reports that in Holland dairy cows grazing continuously achieved a utilization of 50 to 75 per cent of the forage. If the grazing period was reduced to 5 to 10 days, utilization was increased to 60 to 80 per cent but by reducing the grazing period to 1 to 2 days utilization was increased an additional 10 to 20 per cent. These data suggest a trend toward heavier stocking rates, for shorter periods under rotation grazing. The advantage of many subdivisions in a pasture, with short grazing periods is strikingly illustrated by data from the Blaettler Dairy in Santa Clara County, California, reported by Assistant Farm Advisor M. S. Beckley. I n 1948 a 52-acre pasture was used in 3 subdivisions and grazed by 92 cows. Grazing 10 days in each subdivision they obtained forage with a feed replacement value of 2.5 tons alfalfa hay per acre. I n 1949 the 52 acres was divided into 30 subdivisions that were grazed one day each by 110 cows. I n 1948, milk production was uniformly maintained only 4 days out of the 10-day grazing period in each subdivision, with an average loss of 3 cans of milk per day for the last 6 days of each grazing period. I n 1949 continuous high production was maintained. Feed replacement in 1949 was 5.5 tons alfalfa hay per acre. Investigations a t Werribee (Australia, 1947) have shown that sheep made similar gains when on rotations of 10 to 30 days. The more frequent grazings of a field did not alter the grass-legume ratio, but a t 10-day intervals orchardgrass thinned out. Bartels (1944a) found that a 3-weeks' rest period between grazings enabled all seeded species to remain in the mixture; this is in agreement with observations in Utah. I n South Africa, Starke (1947) lists the following 5 reasons for ro-
IRRIGATED PASTURES
367
tation grazing of sheep: (1) less selective grazing, (2) less fouling of the forage, (3) more regular irrigation, (4) less internal parasite infection, and (5) better quality and more palatable forage. H e used pastures of approximately 4.25 acres for 150 to 200 sheep. According to Hamilton et al. (1945) and Klages et al. (1948), a pasture is considered ready to graze when about 6 inches of growth has occurred if tall species are used, and when 3 to 4 inches high if low-growing species predominate. Schoth (1944) considers ladino clover ready to graze a t 3 to 4 inches, but recommendations of California investigators include not grazing ladino clover closer than 3 to 4 inches in order t o permit rapid recovery. It is generally considered good grazing management to allow the pasture to go into the winter with at, least 3 to 4 inches growth. Schoth (1944) stresses the importance of avoiding close fall grazing of ladino clover, and points out that the fleshy stolons are damaged if ladino is pastured when the ground is frozen or wet. Selective grazing cannot be avoided entirely, but it will be reduced to a minimum under rotation grazing if the various species in the mixture are of approximately equal palatability. Mowing the pasture occasionally, with the cutter bar raised to about 3 inches, does much to keep the pasture fresh and the forage palatable. Bartels (1944a) found clipping especially worthwhile if the pasture contained orchardgrass or Paspalum. Continuous close grazing is still comirion in the Intermountain Region of the United States. Under intensive use, it leads in a, few years to pastures consisting of Kentucky bluegrass and white clover. I n experimental plots Keller et al. (1947a) and Bateman et al. (1949) found this combination a consistently low producer. The clover will be reduced or even eliminated, with further reduction in yield, if use is heavy, fertility low, and irrigation applications erratic. 2. Prevention of Bloat
The prevention of bloat has been a major problem in the management of irrigated pastures in some areas. Although surveys show the actual percentage loss from bloat to be small, individual stockmen have had catastrophic losses (Cole et al., 1945). Practical experience has shown that there is little likelihood of bloat on pastures containing 40 to 50 per cent or more grass. It is difficult, however, to maintain a proper proportion of grasses and legumes a t all seasons. The percentage of legumes in pasture can be reduced by applying nitrogen fertilizer or barnyard manure and withholding phosphate fertilizer (Klages et al., 1948).
368
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
Another practical solution suggested by Cole et al. (1945) is to pasture legumes only after they reach the early bloom stage although these workers admit that no well-controlled experiments have been conducted relating to this factor. Bartels (1944a) supports this idea in suggesting 3 weeks for recovery in rotation grazing which gives the forage enough maturity to reduce bloat. This procedure may be expected to be more effective in pasturing a legume like alfalfa than with ladino clover which has an indeterminant habit of growth and low fiber content. Schoth (1944) recommends continuous grazing except for animals that bloat easily, which should be removed. Cole et al. (1945), however, discount the value of continuous day and night pasture and grain feeding as a means of preventing bloat. The feeding of minerals and the pasturing of legumes only when free of dew or rain also appear to lack supporting evidence. The feeding of dry hay or straw before pasturing legumes is advocated by Robertson et al. (1948). This method was tested experimentally by Cole et al. (1943) who found that overnight feeding of alfalfa hay did not always prevent bloat although coarse-stemmed hay was more effective than fine stemmed hay. Cole and Kleiber (1945) found overnight feeding of 17 lbs. of Sudan hay (Sorghum vulgure Sudunense) completely effective, while 4 to 7 lbs. fed 2 hours preceding pasturing was ineffective in preventing bloat. Mead et al. (1944) found that 5 lbs. of barley straw wa8 not sufficient to prevent bloat. Overnight pasturing of Sudan was effective in preventing bloat on alfalfa the following day in studies by Cole et al. (1943). Advantages of Sudan pasture suggested by these authors were high palatability and a growth habit permitting rapid ingestion, It might also have been added that this procedure is less costly than hay feeding. Starke (1947) states that dry sheep and pregnant ewes are less likely than lactating ewes to bloat on alfalfa. According to Professor Glen Staten (unpublished data) alfalfa-grass mixtures are less productive in Southern New Mexico than alfalfa alone, while over a considerable area water economy prohibits use of ladino clover. Here, pasturing alfalfa is very common. Danger from bloat is somewhat reduced by grazing only relatively mature plants, but this results in considerable waste from trampling and fouling of the forage. Staten reports that some large operators are now obtaining full forage utilization, and have eliminated bloat, by harvesting each day’s requirements and feeding as green chopped material. Birdsfoot trefoil apparently does not cause bloat in either cattle or sheep. For this reason, some farmers are using this legume in preference to ladino clover or alfalfa.
IRRIGATED PASTURES
369
5. Irrigation
For rapid growth and high production the soil occupied by the roots of pasture plants should have readily available moisture a t all times. Depth of rooting determines the volume of soil available for supplying water to the plant, Although pasture plants vary in depth of rooting, the depth of soil is often the principal factor limiting root penetration. The capacity of different soils to hold water varies greatly. The amount of readily available water (field capacity to permanent wilting percentage) held by a group of California soils ranged from 0.67 t o 2.66 inches per foot depth of soil. This range, which is approximately 4-fold, emphasizes one of the reasons for the wide differences in amount and frequency of irrigation required. Kramer (1949) discusses factors affecting the absorption of water and points out that poor aeration may cause a considerable reduction in absorption of water by plants and that the accumulation of carbon dioxide may be a more important factor in reduced water absorption than lack of oxygen. Poorly aerated conditions are common on many of the heavy clay soils used for irrigated pastures. The total amount of irrigation water used during the year will depend upon the length of the growing season, natural rainfall, temperature, frequency and depth of wetting, and the species involved. Frequent light irrigation increases the percentage loss from evaporation. Too heavy irrigation on permeable soils will cause water to penetrate below the root zone and be lost. However, uniformity of penetration is difficult to attain. Water used by transpiration and evaporation of 3 pasture crops under the climatic conditions a t Davis, California are shown in Table IV. I n 1943, Sullivan and Winright obtained records of acre-inches of water used per acre on 7 farm pastures in the Imperial Valley which indicated a range from 48 to 81 acre-inches with an average of 68.2 inches. Similar studies in San Bernardino County, also in Southern California, by Shultis and Campbell in 1943 showed a range from 36 to 80 acre-inches per acre, the average being 65. Jones and Brown (1949) state that 33 to 36 acre-inches of water were used on shallow clay loam soils applied in 12 irrigations over a 6-months’ period in the Sierra foothills of Nevada County in Northern California. Robertson et al. (1948) recommend 2 to 4 acre-inches of water per irrigation a t 10- to 14-day intervals during June through September for most areas of Colorado. Total water requirements for the season were 21/2 to 3 acre feet. The frequency of irrigation required depends upon how soon after irrigation the soil moisture within the root zone will again be reduced
370
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
TABLE IV Water Used (Acre-Inches per Acre by Months) by Transpiration and Evaporation of Three Pasture Crops Grown at Davis, California ~
~~
Crop
Alfalfa Ladino clover Sudangrass
Mar. Apr. May June
July
6.5 7.5 3.2
8.0 9.0 4.0
1.5 1.8
_
3.9 4.5
_
5.3
6.0 2.0
Aug. Sept. 6.6 7.5 3.4
5.0 5.5 2.2
Oct. 2.0 2.2 12
Nov. Total 1.2
-
40.0 44.0 17.0
* Data from Irrigation Division, California Agricultural Experiment Station.
to the permanent wilting percentage. The water holding capacity of the soil, temperature, and the crop influence the rate of water extraction. Many of the pastures in the interior valleys of California which contain ladino clover are irrigated at approximately 10-day intervals. On soils which are porous, irrigation may be required as frequently as every 7 days during the heat of summer. Pastures composed primarily of deeper rooted species, such as alfalfa and birdsfoot trefoil are irrigated a t 2- to 4-week intervals depending upon the soil and temperature conditions. Bartels et al. (1932) carried out extensive studies on frequency and amounts of irrigation water required for pastures in Victoria, Australia. The soil was described as a shallow clay loam which was slow to absorb water. Production of the pasture under prevailing conditions was best when 24 inches were applied in 6 irrigations of 4 inches each. Equal total amounts applied in either 4 or 8 irrigations were inferior. The rate a t which water is applied during irrigation has much influence on penetration. Doneen (1948) has pointed out that 50 per cent or more of the total water applied may be lost through deep percolation. Loss is greatest when the head of water is insufficient to reach the end of the check in a relatively short time. Deep percolation takes place near the head ditch. He suggests a large head be used to force the water through t o the end of the check after which the head may be reduced to maintain an even flow to wet the length of the check until the desired depth of penetration has been reached. The relationship of water delivery rate to size of the check is shown in Table 111. The large delivery rates are desirable for the contour check method of irrigation because individual basins may contain up to 4% or 5 acres (Jones and Brown, 1949). These require rapid flooding to obtain uniform penetration. Sprinkling systems often can be advantageously used where only a small head of water is available. Frequent, light irrigations are also
IRRIGATED PASTURES
371
possible on porous soils ~vhicli normally would require rather large amounts of water if flood irrigated. Veihmeyer (1948) has pointed out that while sprinkling can save water loss from deep penetration, more water will be lost by evaporation. Problems of drainage should be considered along with irrigation. Poor drainage inhibits growth of desirable pasture plants and encourages water tolerant weedy species. Poorly drained pastures are so slow to dry out after irrigation that the likelihood of grazing while wet is increased. Salts may accumulate under poor drainage conditions in some of the arid regions. Careful preparation of the land for irrigation is the best method of avoiding improper drainage. Some of the adobe soils of lacustrine origin in the Sacramento Valley present a drainage problem because the soil is very heavy and extremely flat so that downward percolation is almost nonexistant. If good drainage is not possible, the choice of species for the pasture should include only those capable of growing on wet land. Bart,els et al. (1932) have pointed out the importance of the method of irrigation upon the balance of species in the pasture. Ryegrass and white clover were more favored by frequent heavy waterings than cocksfoot and subterranean clover. Ladino clover, alfalfa and other legumes may “scald” if irrigated during extremely hot weather. The difficulty usually occurs on impervious soils on still days when temperatures exceed 100°F. and water stands for several hours. This difficulty is avoided by providing good drainage and by irrigating a t night during very hot weather.
4. Fertilization I n the United States, fertilizers have been used less extensively on irrigated pastures than on most cultivated crops. In recent years, however, experimental studies have shown large increases in yield are obtained from the fertilization of pastures under many conditions. According t o Hamilton et al. (1945) the average farm in the irrigated west produces enough barnyard manure to provide 8 to 10 tons per acre every 3 years. Robertson e t al. (1948) in Colorado recommend top dressing with manure in February or March to provide 2 weeks more of early spring grazing. Boyd (1945) in Wyoming suggests using 8 to 10 loads of manure every few years, applied in fall or winter. Klages et al. (1948) consider top dressing with manure the best fertilization for pastures, supplemented with phosphorus (40 to 50 lbs. P20jper acre) in southern Idaho and with sulfur (100 lbs. gypsum per acre) in parts of northern Idaho. It is generally recognized that manure stimnlates the growth of grasses more than legumes (Bateman, 1940; Hamilton et al., 1945; Klages e t al.,
372
WESLEY XELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
1948; Schoth, 1944). To maintain a vigorous growth of legumes in pastures that are manured, phosphate fertilizer should also be applied. Schoth (1944) recommends 8 to 10 tons manure per acre, supplemented with 300 lbs. superphosphate or the equivalent. Bateman (1940) recommends that farmers in Utah apply 10 to 15 tons manure with 200 lbs. “treble” superphosphate (43 per cent P20a) to their pastures every 3 years. He reports that Pittman found that one application of 600 lbs. of treble superphosphate increased yields 63.6 per cent over a 5-year period, the gain the first season amounting to 211 per cent. H e found that phosphorous fertilizer increased the nitrogen content of the herbage, by increasing the per cent legumes in the pasture. One application of treble superphosphate a t 200 lbs. per acre resulted in a 22.7 per cent increase in the phosphorus content of the forage over a 3-year period. In another study Bateman (1943) found that one application of 6.8 tons manure with 200 lbs. treble superphosphate, applied to the pasture plots between March 27 and April 6, increased the first grazing 27 per cent, the second grazing 108 per cent, the third grazing 117 per cent, the fourth grazing 102 per cent, and a small fifth grazing 187 per cent, the year’s gain amounting to an increase of 95.7 per cent. Ewalt and Jones (1939) report a 75 per cent increase in production over a 5-year period from annual applications of 300 lbs. superphosphate (16 per cent P206).This treatment did not alter the chemical composition of ladino clover in the pasture. Pittman and Bennett (1948) in a study of irrigated meadow pastures in ranching areas of northern Utah, report a 50 per cent increase in production from either 10 tons manure or 200 lbs. ammonium sulphate per acre. One application of manure stimulated growth through 4 years. Applications of 200 lbs. treble superphosphate per acre were profitable where legumes were abundant. Liquid manure containing some solids, urine, and barn washings is especially valuable pasture fertilizer (Hamilton et al., 1945). Yearly applications equivalent to 10 tons of barnyard manure per acre may be used in light applications after each grazing. Fertilization costs may be much reduced if the manure can be applied with the irrigation water. The rapid development of irrigated pastures in Victoria, Australia is attributed by Bartels and Morgan (1944) to the universal response of these pastures to phosphate fertilizer. At Werribee, Morgan (1949) reports profitable responses from applications of superphosphate (22 per cent PzOS) a t 400 to 500 lbs. per acre per year if moisture is not limiting, and under similar conditions Rayner (1941) recommends 400 lbs. Annual applications of 200 Ibs. superphosphate increased production 77 per cent with 6 irrigations totaling 2 feet of water per year (Australia,
IRBIGATED PASTURES
373
1947). Additions of 100 lbs. ammonium sulphate, nitrate of soda, or potassium sulfate, or 3000 Ibs. lime or gypsum, failed to increase yields further, and in some instances lowered them. Rock phosphate was found to be highly inefficient. I n northern Victoria Morgan and Rayner (1941) recommended annual applications of 300 lbs. superphosphate. According to Bartels (1944a) many farmers apply as much as 500 lbs. superphosphate per acre to their pastures each year. Applying phosphorus a t one time (in the fall) was as effective as several fractional applications during the year (Australia, 1947; Morgan, 1949; Rayner, 1941). Rayner (1947) found that liberal top dressings of superphosphate not only increased yield but fostered development of the more valuable species to the exclusion of weeds and other less desirable forage. I n a few instances pastures have responded to fertilizers other than manure and phosphorus. According to Schoth (1944) in Oregon, and Andrew (1947) in Victoria, potash has been profitably applied on some soils. Both Schoth (1944) and Klages et al. (1948) report beneficial responses from sulfur on some soils of Oregon and northern Idaho. Although the response to manure and phosphorus is widespread, use of other fertilizers should be based on prior tests conducted on the land. 6 . Molybdenum Toxicity
Britton and Goss (1946) reported an ailment in cattle and sheep which had been prevalent for many years along the southwest edge of San Joaquin Valley in central California. Ingestion of green feed containing abnormally high quantities of molybdenum was found to be the cause. The symptoms in cattle are excessive scouring, loss of weight and roughening and gradual fading of the hair. Loss of hair and eventual death of the animal may result. Ferguson et al. (1943) and Lewis (1943a, 1943b) have reported a similar condition in England. Barshad (1948) has shown that, in general, abnormality in cattle occurred when a large portion of the pasture plants contained 20 or more parts per million of molybdenum but no difficulty was observed if less than 10 p.p.m. was found. Analysis of soils in the affected area of California indicated the molybdenum content was only slightly higher than normal soils although the solubility was relatively high. The alkalinity of these soils was responsible in part for the high solubility. Legumes growing on affected soils absorb greater quantities of molybdenum than grasses. Lotus corniculatm and Trifolium repem latum contained as much as 150 p.p.m. dry matter compared with 33 p.p.m. in Lolium perenne and 9 p.p.m. in Paspalum dilatatum. The total molybdenum content of soils ranged from 5 to 10 p.p.m. where these
374
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
samples were taken, but Barshad (1948) points out that cattle may be affected on soils containing as little as 1.5 p.p.m. Grazing and livestock management systems for control of molybdenum poisoning are as yet based upon limited evidence and only partially published. Barshad (1948) states that feeding of dry roughage tended to reduce scouring. Rotation of livestock between badly affected and less badly affected areas has been suggested. Emrick (1948) recommends a special pasture mixture from which legumes are eliminated for soils that may contain excessive amounts of molybdcnurn. Use of copper in the form of copper sulfate in the drinking water has been successful in overcoming molybdenum poisoning in some instances according to an unpublished report of the California Agricultural Experiment Station. Acidifying the soil with sulfur or other acidifying materials has been suggested as a method of reducing the availability of molybdenum. The use of nitrate fertilizer has reduced the uptake of molybdenum and its value on a field scale should be determined. Even though very low concentrations of molybdenum in the soil may be taken up by plants in concentrations that become toxic, the element is essential to plant growth, and particularly to thrifty development and nodulation of legumes. Anderson (1946) has shown that some soils of south Australia are so deficient in molybdenum that applications of 1 or 2 ounces per acre were associated with very large increases in forage, particularly on land not deficient in phosphorus. 6. Weed Control
Annual weeds are seldom, if ever, a serious problem in well-managed irrigated pastures, particularly if the initial establishment is good. Occasionally pastures become infested with perennial thistles or other unpalatable perennial weeds. It is not advisable to seed pastures on land known to be badly infested with weed seeds. Management practices which help to keep weeds under control are fertilization, careful irrigation, and mowing. Scattered weeds can be removed with a sharp shovel. If the infestation is general, resulting in greatly reduced productivity of the pasture, it is advisable to plow and return the land to row crops or fallow until the weeds are controlled. According to Hamilton et al. (1945) many perennial weeds that commonly occur in pastures will be eaten by cattle if mowed about 2 days before the end of a grazing period. I n the Intermountain Region irrigated pastures often become infested with dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Dandelion can be controlled in pastures by spraying with 2,4-D, without permanent damage to legumes, but whether this is a prac-
IRRIGATED PASTURES
375
tical measure is not now known. Spraying has been used with some success on curly dock ( R e m e x crispus) in California. VI. ECONOMY OF
PASTURES
1. Productivity
The carrying capacity and productivity of irrigatcd pastures have been measured and reported in various ways. Metliods for evaluating pasture research have been reviewed by Alilgren (1947) who emphasized the advantages of using grazing animals. Comparison of results from different experiments is often complicated by the variety of measuring units used. Some eflort has been made to standardize the measuring and reporting of grazing studies (Report, 1943). Production in terms of live weight gains of lambs and steers was between 400 and 500 lbs. per acre of irrigated pasture in studies conducted on farms in the Sacramento Valley in California (Burlingame, 1949). Albaugh and Sullivan (1949) in Monterey County, California compared gains per acre made by cows and calves on irrigated pasture with gains per acre on alfalfa cut and fed green in the dry lot. Gains on pasture alone were 458 lbs. per acre compared with gains on alfalfa of 581 lbs. Over 2,000 head of cattle were used in this study. Bartels (1944a) in Australia reports gains from young sheep of over 1,000 lbs. per acre per year. Burlingame (1949) in California obtained production records of dairy cattle, sheep and beef cattle on irrigated pasture through the use of “Animal unit months.’’ All classes of livestock were compared on the basis of total digestible nutrients required per day. Morrison’s feeding standards were used with minor rounding for ease of calculation. An Animal unit month (A.U.M.) was estimated to be 400 lbs. T.D.N. for a mature cow giving 200 lbs. of butter fat per year. He found that irrigated pastures in the Sacramento Valley had an average production of 10 A.U.M. per acre. Ovcr 90 per cent of the pasturage obtained was during the eight-month period of March through October. Bateman and Packer (1945) report pasture production of 253 standard cow days per acre, over a 3-year period. This is an equivalent of approximately 4 tons alfalfa hay per acre. A standard cow day was taken to equal 16 lbs. T.D.N. as proposed in the Preliminary report on pasture investigations technique (Report, 1943). I n another study Bateman et d . (1949) found that an unimproved pasture, without fertilization, produced 2,921 lbs. T.D.N. per acre, or 183 standard cow days of grazing (4-year average). This pasture was fertilized with 5 tons manure and 87 lbs. 43 per cent phosphate annually and yielded 4,111 Ibs. T.D.N.,
376
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
or 257 standard cow days of grazing annually during the following 5 years. New mixtures now being studied, with fertilization, yielded 5,204 lbs. T.D.N., or 325 standard cow days of grazing. This product.ion is equivalent to 5.1 tons alfalfa hay per acre, and with a herd averaging 366 lbs. butter fat per year amounted to 230 lbs. butter fat per acre. I n a 5-year study of some improved dairy pastures in Utah, Rich et al. (1950) report an averagc of 303 standard cow days of grazing by high producing cows during a grazing season averaging 156 days per year. The alfalfa hay equivalent averaged 4.85 tons per acre and in different seasons ranged from 4.42 to 5.43 tons. Annual production of good irrigated pastures ranged from 20 to 25 tons green weight in Australia (Andrew, 1947; Rayner, 1947). Bartels (1944a) reports experimental plots yielding 31 tons green weight per acre from 12 clippings. Unpublished data from experimental plots in California showed a range from 22.1 to 35.8 tons green weight per acre, depending upon the mixture. I n Utah, with a comparatively short grazing season, new mixtures in experimental plots have yielded 16 to 17 tons per acre green-weight, according to Batcman et al. (1949) but with identical treatment the mixture in general use in the area produced only 10 tons. The data are based on 4 clippings, each preceding a grazing period. Jones and Brown (1949) state that an irrigated pasture should yield as large a tonnage of feed per acre as alfalfa, although there may be a few exceptions. 2. Economic Studies
Initial costs for developing irrigated pastures for flood irrigation include surveying, leveling, land planing, construction of irrigation ditches, drainage ditches and levees, turnout structures, seedbed preparation and seeding. As of 1948, the total costs of preparing land for flood irrigation by the strip-check method varied from $30 to $130 per acre in California (Jones and Brown, 1949). Total annual costs of production of established irrigated pastures ranged from $17.43 to $58.35 per acre for different operating units in the Sacramento Valley in 1948 (Reed and Geiberger, 1948; Burlingame and Kolb, 1948). Cost items included labor, materials such as irrigation power and fertilizer, taxes, general expenses, depreciation and interest on the investment. Burlingame (1949) found that labor for irrigation, fencing and other purposes accounted for slightly over one-fourth of the total costs per acre. Interest on land values, facilities, and the pasture stand approximately equaled labor costs. Total costs averaged $32.62 per acre on 24 records totaling 1,188 acres in 1947, as shown in Table V. On an
IRBIGATED PASTURES
377
average, a little over 60 per cent of total cash and labor costs was for water and irrigation labor. Water costs ranged from about $2.00 per acre on land in some irrigation districts t o over $20.00 where pumping from considerable depths was required. Irrigation labor varied from TABLE V Principal Items of Cost in the Production of 24 Irrigated Past,ures Tot.aling 1,188 Acres in the Sacramento Valley, 1947 a Item Labor for irrigation, fencing, etc. Water costs, fertilizer, and other materials Taxes and general expenses Depreciation on stand, irrigation system, etc. Interest on land values, facilities, and stand
Total cost per acre Animal unit months of pasturage per acre Total cbst per animal unit month a
Cost 9k 8.67 6.90 3.42 48 8 8.75 $32.62 9.4 3.48
Burlingame (1949).
less than $3.00 to more than $17.00 per acre depending upon the method of irrigation, size of head of water, and efficiency of the irrigation system. Irrigated pastures have decided economic advantage in regions of abundant cheap water and relatively level land. Total costs per acre are of much significance only when considered in relation to productivity. Gorton (1941), Burlingame and Kolb (1948), and Hedges (1948) have shown that high producing pastures usually have lower costs per unit of feed produced than low producing pastures although total costs per acre may be higher. Three California studies are reported in Table 1'1. Burlingame and Kolb (1948) obtained costs ranging from $1.60 to $8.61 per Animal unit month (A.U.M.). Differences in productivity were primarily responsible for this range. These average costs per A.U.M. were used to calculate the equivalent value of alfalfa hay per ton on the basis of equal amounts of total digestible nutrients from the pasture and alfalfa. The alfalfa hay averaging 50 per cent total digestible nutrients could cost only $10.73 per ton to equal the average cost of $4.28 for an Animal unit month. The seasonal average price of alfalfa hay in California during this same year (1948) was $22.10 per ton. Gorton (1941) found that in Oregon, costs per acre decreased as the size of the pasture increased. The production of pastures also decreased with increasing size, however, result-
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
378
ing in the size of pastures having little or no relationship to costs per unit of production. TABLE VI Irrigated Pasture Costs per Acre and per A.U.M. in t,he Sacramento Valley, California in 1948 Equiv. value Author Reed and Geiberger (1948) Burlingame and Kolb (1948) Hedges ( 1949) Average
studied Low 3 9 17
-
3.00 1.60 2.90 2.50
High
Av.
5.55 8.61 7.02
3.58 423 5.05 4.28
7.06
8.95 10.57 12.63 10.73
37.59 25.07 30.82 31.16
Calculated on the basis of 400 lbs. total digestible nutrients per A.U.M. at average costs indicated in table.
Seventy-nine dairy records obtained in 1947-1948 were reported by Shultis and Miller (1949) in the San Joaquin Valley and classified according to high and low use of pasture for market milk dairies and manufacturing milk dairies. The market milk dairies making high use of pasture showed an advantage over those making low use of pasture, amounting to $33.99 per year in feed costs per cow and $28.31 profit per cow. Corresponding comparisons for manufacturing milk dairies was $24.62 advantage in feed costs and $42.24 greater profit per cow. For both types of dairies the pounds of butterfat sold per cow were greater under low use of pasture but added costs for hay, concentrates, silage and green feeds decreased profits. Bateman and Packer (1945) haye reported production and cost studies on the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station Dairy Experimental Farm herd. A summary of their 3-year study is reported in Table VII. On the basis of butterfat a t $.90 per lb., they obtained a return of $5.15 per dollar of production cost, and a gross return, above feed production cost, of $149.39 per acre. They conclude “that pasture, when planted on fertile soil and well managed, is an economical feed for the production of milk and butterfat and gives a high return per acre when grazed by good dairy cattle.” Albaugh and Sullivan (1949) made a direct comparison of costs of pasture feeding and feeding of green alfalfa hay to beef cattle in the dry lot. The alfalfa was mowed daily, mechanically loaded, hauled by truck to the feed lot and unloaded by hand. Costs per 100 ibs. gain
379
IRRIGATED PASTURES
TABLE VII Per Acre Returns from Pasture ; Utah Agricultural Experiment Station Dairy Experimental Farm Item
3-Year average
Standard cow days of grazing" Supplemental feeds fed: alfalfa (Ibs.) grain (Ibs.) Gain in body weight (Ibs.) Total production: milk (Ibs.) butterfat (lbs.) Butterfat produced from supplement feeds fed (Ibs.) Production from pasture: milk (lbs.) butterfat (Ibs.) Value of butterfat produced from pasture a t $.90 per Ib. Production cost per acre Gross return above feed production cost Dollars returned for each dollar cost of pasture production Pasture feed production cost of 1 Ib. butterfat
253 1127 1707 224 8704 303 98 5909 206 $185.40 36.01 149.39 5.15 .18
a Bateman and Packer (1945). " A standard cow day is defined as an animal obtaining 16 Ibs. of total digestible nutrients from pasture per day.
were less on pasture than from dry lot feeding of green alfalfa. Although the alfalfa produced more feed per acre, costs of harvesting and feeding more than offset this advantage. After considering purchasing and selling prices, pasture feeding was the more profitable. Hedges (1948) studied 17 pasture units in the Sacramento Valley ranging in size from 60 to 490 acres. I n these studies gains from beef cattle and lambs were obtained in addition to costs and carrying capacities. This method avoided the limitations of the above reported studies of carrying capacities which provided no information on costs in relation to gain in weight or milk production. Gains per acre ranged from 154 to 440 lbs. per acre with an average of 275 lbs. Animal unit months per acre averaged 6.1. Costs per 100 Ibs. gain ranged from a low of $6.47 on a 440 acre unit to a high of $14.94 on a 310 acre unit. Average costs per 100 lbs. gain was $11.20. 3. Effect of Pastures on Crops that Follow
The beneficial effects of sod crops on soil structure, and fertility have been extensively investigated by many State Experiment Stations. There apparently have been no studies conducted specifically with irrigated pastures in crop rotations. General farm practice has been t o
380
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
maintain pastures so long as they are productive. Many irrigated pastures in California are still producing satisfactorily after 20 years. However, several writers have emphasized the importance of using irrigated pastures in a rotation and have mentioned increased yields of crops which follow (Klages et al., 1948; Robertson et al., 1948; Starke, 1947; Bartels, 194413; and Hamilton et al., 1945). Klages et al. further mention that sweet clover with mountain brome leaves the soil in better condition for the crops to follow than sweet clover alone when these plants are used for temporary irrigated pastures. These writers also suggest that 4 years are usually long enough for a field to remain in pasture, although the exact length of time may be influenced by many factors.
VII. PASTURES IN RELATION TO OTHERSOURCES OF FEED 1. Relation t o Other Forage Resources Irrigated pastures are depended upon as the sole source of forage in relatively few areas. Throughout the western United States they are used most extensively for dairy cattle. Irrigated pastures are used to supplement the range in the production of both beef and sheep. Guilbert and Hart (1946) report that one and a half million beef cattle and calves derived 13 per cent of their feed from 150 thousand acres of irrigated pasture, while also harvesting the forage from 40 million acres of range land. About half as many dairy cattle utilized the forage from 224 thousand acres irrigated pasture and one million acres of range, while nearly 3 million sheep grazed 120 thousand acres of irrigated pasture and 18 million acres of range. The use of irrigated pastures for the production of beef and sheep is increasing in the western United States. Throughout much of the western range country beef cattle are wintered on wild hay produced on irrigated mountain meadows. The common practice is to remove the cattle from the meadows as early in the season as forage is available on the spring ranges. The meadows then produce a crop of wild hay which is cut in midsummer. The aftermath is grazed by the cattle after they return to the home ranch in the fall. The cattle remain on these meadows throughout the winter, being fed the wild hay produced there. Stewart and Clark (1944) found that greater total yields, and higher quality forage were produced when the meadows were grazed 20 to 35 days longer than customary in the spring, and the hay crop cut a t the bloom stage, which is earlier than most ranchers harvest. This practice benefited spring ranges by reducing grazing on them, and at the same time kept the animals a t the home
IRRIGATED PASTURES
381
ranch during calving and immediately after, allowing the rancher t o give them better care than when they are on the range. Stoddart (1944) reported that in northern Utah dairy bred heifers did not make as good gains on summer range as beef, but that they did make satisfactory development for subsequent milk production. Collins (1945) has reported the successful operations of several ranchers in improving the productivity of their irrigated mountain meadows. Jones and Mumford (1944) in Oregon, recommend sudangrass as a supplement to permanent pasture in late summer, and Abruzzi winter rye for late winter and early spring on well drained land. I n South Africa, Bonsma (1947) found winter cereals, where adapted, a cheaper source of succulent feed for dairy cows than silage. Madson and Love (1948) report that in California silage is made from a variety of crops, but that while pasturage is available it is a much more economical source of feed. In Australia, Bartels (1944b) reports the effective use of a number of annual forage crops, both as a supplement to irrigated pastures and to take livestock from nonirrigated areas through drought years. Corn, millets, and sorghum have been used for this purpose. 2. Supplemental Feeding
Jones and Brown (1949) recommend having dry roughage available to cattle and sheep a t all times while on irrigated pasture, t o reduce bloat and increase dry-matter consumption. Jones and Mumford (1944) point out that the capacity of a dairy cow to consume green forage is limited, and that high producing cows on pasture will require a supplement of grain for maximum production. If cows on pasture are liberally fed such supplements as ryegrass hay or corn silage, some protein concentrate may be needed, in addition to grain. According to Klages et al. (1948) dairy cows will produce one lb. of butterfat daily and maintain body weight on irrigated pasture alone but production is increased if alfalfa hay is also fed. Hamilton et al. (1945) recommend feeding an increasing amount of concentrate to high producing cows, as the productivity of the pasture declines. Ewalt and Morse (1942) and Bateman (1945) have prepared tables to guide dairymen in feeding grain to cows on irrigated pasture. Beef cattle will make excellent growth on irrigated pasture without any supplements. Carbohydrate concentrates are frequently used in the fattening process.
382
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
REFERENCES Ahlgren, H. L. 1945. Imp. Bur. Pastures & Forage Crops, Abewstwyth. Bull. 34, 139-160.
Ahlgren, H. L. 1947. J. A m . SOC.Agron. 39,240-259. Ahlgren, H . L., and Graber, L. F. 1940. Wisconsin Agr. Ext. Ser. Circ. 300,8 pp. Albaugh, R., and Sullivan, W . 1949. Monterey County Agr. Ext. Ser. (California), Mimeo. 4 pp. Anderson, A. J. 1946. J. Council Sci. Ind. Res. Australia 19, 1-15. Andrew, W. D. 1947. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australia 45, 1-9, 55-63. Australia. 1947. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Aiistralia 45, 473-479, 567-576. Barshad, I. 1948. Soil Sci. 66, 187-195. Barteli, L. C. 1944a. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australia 42, 391-397. Bartels, L. C. 1944b. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australia 42, 433-436. Bartels, L. C. 1947. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australia 45, 201-210. Bartels, L. C., Beruldsen, F,. T., and Morgan, A. 1932. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australia 30, 187-205. Bartels, L. C., and Morgan, A. 1944. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australia 42, 291-295. Bateman, G. Q. 1940. Farm Home Sci. (Utah) 1, No. 2, 1, 9-10. Bateman, G. Q. 1943. Farm Home Sci. (Utah) 4, No. 1, 8-9, 15. Bateman, G. Q. 1945. Utah Agr. Expt. Sta. Mimeo Ser. 315, 1-7. Bateman, G. Q., Keller, W., and Packer, J. E. 1949. Farm Home Sci. (Utah) 10,
NO.1, 6-7,
17.
Bateman, G. Q., and Packer, J. E. 1945. Farm Home 9ci. (Utah) 6, No. 2, 10-11. Bingham, G. H., and Monson, 0. W . 1946. Montana Agr. Ext. Ser. Bull. 237, 1-21. Bonsma, J. C. 1947. Union So. Africa Dept. Agr. Bull. 284. Boyd, G. W . 1945. Wyoming Agr. Ezt. Ser. Circ. 90, 1-19. Bracken, A. F., and Evans, R. J. 1943. Utah Agr. Ext. Ser. N8. Bull. 120, 1-48. Britton, J. W., and Go=, H. 1946. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 108, 176-178. Burlingame, B. B. 1949. California Agr. 3, 13-14. Burlingame, B. B., and Kolb, A. C. 1948. Calif. Agr. E z t . Ser. Fifth Ann. Zm’gated Pasture Study, Colusa County, California, Mimeo. 10 pp. Cole, H. H., Huffman, C. F., Kleiber, M., Olsen, T. M., and Schalk, A. F. 1945. J. Animal Sci. 4, 183-236. Cole, H. H., and Kleiber, M. 1945. J . Vet. Res. 6, 188-193. Cole, H. H., Mead, S. W., and Regan, W. M. 1943. J. Animal Sci. 2, 285-294. Collins, W., Jr. 1945. Soil Conservation 10, 165-167, 175. Cunningham, I. J. 1948. New Zealand J . Agr. 77, 519. Davies, J. G., and Christian, C. S. 1945. Imp. Bur. Pastures & Forage Crops, Aberystuqth. Bull. 34, 73-96. Dept. of Agronomy. 1949. Utah Agr. Ext. Ser. Bull. 173, 10-13. Doneen, L. D. 1948. Univ. California, Division of Irrigation, Mimeo. Emrick, W . E. 1918. Cal. Agr. Ext. Ser. Kern Co., Mimeo. Ewalt, H. P., and Jones, I. R. 1939. Oregon Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 366, 1-25. Ewalt, H. P., and Morse, R. W . 1942. Oregon Agr. Ext. Ser. Bull. 592, 1-4. Ferguson, W. S., Lewis, A. H., and Watson, S. J. 1943. J. Agr. Sci. 33, 44-51. French, H. T. 1902. Idaho Agr. Expt. Sta. B d l . 33, 87-107. Gorton, W . W . 1941. Oregon Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 392, 1-51. Guilbert, H. R., and Hart, G. H. 1946. California Agr. Ext. Circ. 131, 1-157.
IRRIGATED PASTURES
383
Hamilton, J. G., Brown, G. F., Tower, H. E., and Collins, W., Jr. 1945. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers Bull. 1973, 30 pp. Hansen, D. 1924. Montana Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 166, 1-26. Harris, F. S. 1913. Utah Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 15, 33-43. Hayward, H. E., and Magistad, 0. C. 1946. U S . Dept. Agr. Mkc. Pub. 607, 1-27. Hayward, H. E., and Wad1eigh;C. H. 1949. Advances in Agron. 1, 1-38. Hedges, T. R. 1948. U . California, Giannini Foundation Agr. Econ., Mimeo. 20 pp. Hodgson, R. E., Grunder, M. S., Iinott, J. C., and Ellington, E. V. 1934. Washington Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 294, 1-36. Jones, B. J., and Brown, J. B. (Rev. by Miller, M. D., and Booher, L. J.). 1949. California Agr. Ext. Ser. Circ. 125, 1-59. Jones, I. R.,and Mumford, D . C. 1944. Oregon Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 165, 1-4. Keller, W., Bateman, G. Q., and Packer, J. E. 1945. Farm Home Sci. (Utah) 6, NO.4, 7-10,15. Heller, W., Bateman, G . Q., and Packer, J. E. 1947a. Farm Home Sci. (Utah) 8, No.1, 67, 14. Keller, W., Bateman, G. Q., and Packer, J. E. 1947b. Farm Home Sci. (Utah) 8, NO.4, 5, 16-18. Kluges, K. H., Stark, R. H., Anderson, G. C., Fourt, D. L., Whitman, E. W., and Keith, T. B. 1948. Idaho Agr. Ezt. Ser. Bull. 174, 1-14. Kramer, P. J. 1949. Plant and Soil Water Relationships. McGraw-Hill, New York. Law, G. A., Singleton, H . P., and Ingham, I. M. 1945. Washington Agr. Ext. Ser. Bull. 319, 1-8. Levy, E, B. 1945. I m p . Bur. Pastures S Forage Crops, Aberystwyth. Bull. 34, 97-121. Levy, E. B. 1949. Uniled Nations Sci. Conj. Comer. Util. Resources. Land Resources Sec. 6' (b), Mimeo. Lewis, A. H. 1943a. J . Agr. Sci. 33, 52-57. Lewis, A. H. 194313. J. Agr. Sci. 33, 58-63. Madson, B. A., and Love, R. M. 1948. U S . Dept. Agr. Yearbook Agr., pp. 582-586. Magistad, 0. C. 1945. Botan. Rev. 11, 181-230. Magistad, 0.C., and Christiansen, J. E. 1944. US. Dept. Agr. Circ. 707, 1-32. Matlock, R. L. 1943. Arizona Agr. Est. Ser., Mirneo. 15 pp. Mead, S.W., Cole, H. H., and Regan, W. M. 1944. J. Dairy Sci. 27, 779-791. Morgan, A. 1917. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australia 45, 111-115. Morgan, A. 1949. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australia 47, 97-105, 199-207,241-247. Morgan, A,, and Rayner, G. B. 1941. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australia 39, 15-16, 43-47. Pittman, D.W., and Bennett, W. H. 1948. Utah Ayr. Expt. Sta. Rept. on Project 160, Mimeo. 7 pp. Post, A. H., and Tretsven, J. 0. 1939. Montana Agr. Ext. Ser. Bull. 174, 1-14. Rampton, H.H. 1945. Orcgon Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 427, 1-22. Rayner, G. B. 1941. J. Dept. Agr. Victoiia Australia 39, 314-318. Rayner, G. B. 1947. J. Dept. Agr. Victoria Australaa 45, 123-126. Reed, A. D., and Geiberger, R. C. 1948. California Agr. Ext. Ser., Mimeo. 3 pp. Report. 1943. J. Dairy Sci. 26, 353-369. Rich, L. H.,Bracken, A. F., Bennett, W. H., and Baird, G. T. 1950. Utah Agr. Ext. Ser. Bull. 188, 1-24. Richards, L. A. (Ed.) 1947. Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. U S . Regional SaZinity Laboratory, Mimeo. pp. 1-157.
384
WESLEY KELLER AND MAURICE L. PETERSON
Robertson, D. W., Weihing, R. M., and Tucker, R. H. 1948. Colorado Agr. Ext. Ser. Bull. 403-A, 1-46. Sanborn, J. W. 1894. Utah Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 33, 1-8. Schoth, H. A. 1941. Oregon Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 161, 1-12. Schwendiman, J. L., and Mullen, L. A. 1944. J. A m . SOC.Agron. 36, 783-785. Schwendiman, J. L., Sackman, R. F., and Hafenrichter, A. L. 1940. U.S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 558, 1-16. Semple, A. T., and Hein, M. A. 1944. US.Ilept. Agr. Farmers Bull. 1942, 1-22. Semple, A. T., Vinall, H. N., Enlow, C. R., and Woodward, T. E. 1934. U.S. Depl. Agr. Misc. Pub. 194, 1-89. Shultis, A., and Campbell, A. L. 1943. Calif. Agr. Ext. Ser., Sun Bernurdino Co., Mimeo. 7 pp. Shultis, A., and Miller, M. D. 1949. California Agr. 3, 6. Southworth, W. L. 1949. Soil Conservation 14, 280-282. Starke, J. S. 1947. Union S. Africa Dept. Agr. Bull. 279, (Agr. Res. Ser. 471, 1-30. Stewart, G. 1945. Imp. Bur. Pastures & Forage Crops, Aberystwyth. Bull. 34, 180-195.
Stewart, G., and Clark, I. 1944. J. Am. SOC.Agron. 36, 238-248. Stoddart, L. A. 1941. Utah Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 314, 1-24. Sullivan, W., and Winright, G. L. 1943. California Agr. Ext. Ser., Imperial County, Mimeo. 't Hart, M. L. 1949. United Nations Sn'. Conf. Comer. Util. Resources. Land Resources Sec. 6 ( b ) , Mimeo. Thorne, D. W. 1948. US.Dept. Agr. Yearbook Agr. pp. 141-143. Thorne, D. W., and Peterson, H. B. 1949. Irrigated Soils, Their Fertility and Management. Blakiston, Philadelphia. Veihmeyer, F. J. 1948. California Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ. 388, 1-18. Welch, J . S. 1914. Idaho Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 80, 1-15. Welch, J. S. 1917. Idaho Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 95, 1-17.
Author Index Names in p8rentheSes indicate coauthors of the references and are included to assist in locating references where a particular name is not on 8 given page. Example: Adams, J. E., 20 (see Rigler) means that Rigler st al. will be mentioned on page 20, the et al. accounting f o r Adnms. This article can be located under Rigler i n the list of references. Numbers in italics refer to the pages on which references are listed in bibliographies a t the end of each article.
A Aandahl, A. R., 186, 187, 202, 203 Adams, J. E., 20 (see Rigler), 24 (see Hooten), 27 (see Jordan), 42, 43, 48, 76, 76, 79
Adams, W. W., 318, 349 Adsuar, J., 127, 164 Ahlgren, G. H., 209, 212, 216, 230 Ahlgren, H. L., 210, 213, 214, 216, 219, 221, 222, 224, 225, 227, 230, 231, 364, 375, 382 Albada, M., 288, 311 Alban, E. K., 148, 162 Albaugh, R., 375, 378, 382 Alexander, L. T., 184, 209, 239, 269 Allaway, W. H., 177, 185 (see Larson), ,904
Allen, L. A., 283, 311 Allen, T. C., 140, 163 Allison, F. E., 88, 90, 93, 97 (see Pinck), 103 (see Pinck), 109, 111 Allison, L. E., 248 (see Christiansen), 262, 269, 270 Allison, R. V., 85, 109 Allyn, R. B., 262, 269 Alsmeyer, H. L., 47, 78 Amos, A., 280, 281, 311 Anderson, A., 295, 313 Anderson, A. B. C., 239, 240, 245, 269, 270 Anderson, A. J., 374, 382 Anderson, D. B., 25, 56, 57, 74, 76, 79 Anderson, G . C., 359 (see Klages), 364 (see Klagcs), 367 (see Klages), 371 (see Kluges), 373 (see Klages), 380 (see Klages), 381 (see Klages), 383 Anderson, L. C., 118, 163 Anderson, M. A., 199, 203
Anderson, M. E., 123, 124, 162 Anderson, W. S., 122, 16.2 Andrew, R. H., 122, 162 Andrew, W. D., 373, 376, 382 Andrews, W. B., 17, 74, 117, 168 Andrus, C. F., 123, 125, 162 Appleman, D., 249, 271 Archibald, J. G., 283, 285, 286, 290, 294, 311
Arminger, W. H., 93 (sce Allison, F. E J , 109
Arnell, J. C., 253, 269 Aronovici, V. S., 249 (see Donnan), 266 (see Donnan), 270 Asbury, C. E., 293 (see Pentzer), 313 Ashton, T., 128, 162 Atkinson, G. F., 26, 28, 30, 76 Atwood, S. S., 212, 213, 230 Autrey, K. M., 286, 311 Ayers, A. D., 117, 163
B Babcock, S. M., 282, 311 Badley, J. E., 208, 230 Bailey, T. L. W., Jr., 59 (see Richardson), 60 (see Richardson), 79 Bainer, R., 143, 162 Baird, G. T., 376 (see Rich), 383 Balasubrahmanyan, R., 71, 80 Baldwin, M., 193, 195, 203 Ballard, W. W., 29, 77 Barber, L., 281, 314 Barber, T. S., 38, 77 Barducci, T. D., 29, 76 Barger, E. L., 302, 314 Barker, H. D., 24, 25, (see Berkley), 57 (see Barre; Berkley), 58 (see Berkley), 62, 74, 79
386
386
AUTHOR INDEX
Barlow, G. E., Jr., 303, 311 Barnes, J. C., 60, 79 Barnes, W. C., 124, 162 Barr, G. W., 49, 78 Barr, H. T., 305, 311 Barre, H. W., 57, 79 Barrons, K. E., 121, 162 Barshad, I., 158, 166, 175, 181, 903, 373, 374, 382 Bartels, L. C., 355, 360, 364, 366, 367, 368, 370, 371, 372, 373, 375, 376, 380, 381, 382 Bartholomew, W. V., 88,110 Bateman, G. Q., 359, 364, 365, 367, 371, 372, 375, 376, 378, 379, 382, 383 Bauer, F. C., 201 (see DeTurk), 202, 203 Baver, L. D., 245, 245, 255, 269, 271, 272 Bay, C. E., 99 (see Hays), 110 Bear, F. E., 15 (see Wallace), 76, 100, 109, 346, 349 Beasley, J. O., 4, 69, 70, 80 Beatie, H. G., 96 (see Collison), 109 Beaumont, A. B., 117, 162 Beavens, E. A., 277 (see Phillips), 314 Bechdel, S. I., 282, 283 (see Stone), 286 (see Stone), 314 Beckley, M. S., 366 Becnel, I. J., 35, 77 Beeson, W, M., 291 (see Peterson), 313 Bell, F. G., 98 (see Borst), 100 (see Smith, D. D.), 109, 111 Bender, C. B., 285, 288,290 (see Taylor), m,314 Bendixen, T. W., 252, 255, 269 Benne, E. J., 120, 163 Bennett, E., 294 (see Archibald), 311 Bennett, H. H.. 85, 109 Bennett, J. B., 340 Bennett, W. H., 353,372, 376 (see Rich), 383 Bentley, C. F., 172, $04 Berkley, E. E., 25, 57, 58, 74, 79 Beruldsen, E. T., 370 (see Bartels), 371
(see Bartels), 382 van Beynum, J., 282, 284, 291, 292, 311 Bibby, F. F., 37, 78 Biddulph, O., 17, 18, 74 Bingham, F. T., 85, 86 (see Jenny), 110 Bingham, G. H., 363, 382 Bird, H. R., 291 (see Peterson), 313
Bishop, J. C., 145, 162 Bizzell, J. A., 91, 92, 110 Black, A., 279 (see Swift), 314 Blair, A. W., 102, 109 Blaney, H. F., 266 (see Donnan), 870 Blank, L. M., 27 (see Jordan), 76 Blaser, R. E., 215, 230, 303, 307, 309 Bledsoe, M. R., Jr.. 90, 109 Bledsoe, R. P., 19, 20, 76, 96 (see Holley), 110 Bledsoe, R. W., 19 (see Harris), 76 Bodman, G. B., 252, 269, 270 Bogess, T. S., Jr., 96 (see Holley), 110 Bohn, G. W., 134, 162 Bohstedt, G., 287, 289 (see Johnson, B. (3.1, 311, 312 Bondy, F. F., 35, 78 Bonnen, C. A,, 45,47 (see Magee), 78, 79 Bonsma, J. C., 381, 382 Booher, L. J., 212, 219, 220, 221, 222, 226, 931, 359 (see Jones, B. J.), 360 (see Jones, B. J.), 361 (see Jones, B. J.), 362 (see Jones, B. J.), 363 (see Jones, B. J J , 369 (see Jones, B. J.), 370 (see Jones, B. J.), 376 (see Jones, B. J.), 381 (see Jones, B. J.), 383 Borst, H. L., 98, 109 Bosshardt, D. K., 285, 288, 311 Botelho da Costa, J. V., 239, 262, 269, 272 Bourbeau, G. A., 185 (see Jackson), 203 Bowlsby, C. C., 97, 110 Boyd, G. W., 371, 382 Boyoucos, G. J., 245, 269 Bracken, A. F., 92, 95, 96, 109, 364, 366, 376 (see Rich), 382, 383 Bradfield, R., 241, 252, 269 Bradshaw, M. A., 299, 312 Brain, S. G., 43. 79 Brandt, P. M., 212, 281 Bratzler, J. W., 279 (see Swift), 314 Bray, R. H., 183, 184, 185, 203 Breazedale, E., 261, 869 Briggs, L. J., 260, 269 Brigl, P., 293, 311 Brinkman, H. C., 256, 269 Britton, J. W., 373, 382 Broadbent, F. E., 89, 101, 109 Brooks, 0. L., 216, 218, 220, 221, 230 Brouwer, E., 285, 291, 311
AUTHOR INDEX
Brown, A. B., 24, 74 Brown, A. L., 94, 109 Brown, B. A., 211, 213, 214, 215, 217, 224, 225, 230, 831 Brown, G . A., 13,74 Brown, G. F., 330,334, 338, 349, 353 (see Hamilton), 355 (see Hamilton), 360 (see Hamilton), 362 (see Hamilton), 363 (see Hamilton), 364 (see Hamilton), 366 (see Hamilton), 367 (see Hamilton), 371 (see Hamilton), 372 (see Hamilton), 374 (see Hamilton), 380 (see Hamilton), 381 (see Hamilton), 883 Brown, H. B., 17, 74 Brown, H. D., 18, 74 Brown, J. B., 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 369, 370, 376, 381, 383 Brown, J. G.,29,30, 76 Brown, P. E., 90, 109, 175, 201, 204, 206 Brown, W. L., 96 (see Holley), 110 Browning, D. R., 248 (see Smith, R.M.), 249, 253, 255 (see Smith, R. M J , 272 Browning, G. M., 241, 261, 268 (see Wilson), 269, 270, 872 Brues, C. T., 36, 78 Bruhn, H. D., 302, 311 Bruins, J. F., 211, 231 Bryant, J. C., 245, 278 Buchanan, R. E., 291, 311 Buckingham, E.,243, 169 Buckman, H.O., 91, 93, 105, 109, 110 Buice, G . D., 216, 218, 220, 221, 230 Bulhrd, E.T., 147, 163 Burcalow, F. V., 210, 213, 214, 216, 219, 221, 222, 224, 225, 227, 230, 231 Burck, C. R., 244 (see Colman), 870 Burgess, P. s., 90, 109 Burgesser, P. W., 144, 145, 162 Burgis, D.S., 136, 162 Burlingame, B.B., 375, 376, 377, 378,382 Burr, H. R., 150, 162 Bushnell, L. D., 282, 312 Bushnell, T.M., 196, 200s Byron, M.H., 49 (see Smith, H. P.), 79 U
Calhoun, P. W., 19 (see Harris), 76 Calhoun, S. L., 35, 77
387
Call, L. E., 90, 109 Camburn, 0. M., 279, 290, 296, 297, 299, 305, 307, 308, 309, 311, 313 Campbell, A. L., 384 Campbell, R. B., 239, 871 Carew, H. J., 145, 16.2 Carew, J., 137, 146, 147, 162 Carleton, E. A., 98, 111 Carman, P. C., 253, 254, 269 Carolus, R. L., 141, 162 Carpenter, C. W., 29, 76 Carter, M.,136, 166 Cary, C. A., 297 (see Kane), 313 Cassidy, T. P., 34, 38, 77 Chamberlin, V. D., 226, 231 Chandler, R.F., Jr., 171, 203, 245, 270 Chang, S. C., 117, 163 Chapman, A. G., 329, 334, 341, 349 Chapman, A. J., 33, 77 Chapman, H.D., 116, 117, 162 Cheftel, H., 289 (see Voinovitch), 316 Chenoweth, 0. V., 116, 163 Childs, E.C., 236,241, 244,245, 251, 253, 255, 257, 258, 265, 266, 267, 269 Christensen, H. R., 242, 248, 252, 270 Christian, C. S., 364, 382 Christiansen, J. E., 248, 249, 267, ,970, 354, 383 Churchman, W. L., 76 Clark, I., 380, 384 Clark, J. C . , 72, 80 Clarke, A. E., 132, 163 Clarke, M. F., 301 (see Kalbfleish), 302 (see Kalbfleish), 303 (see Kalbfleish), 313 Cline, M.C., 171, 203 Clore, W.J., 140, 162 Coad, B. R., 34, 77 Coke, J. E., 208, 209, 212, 931 Cole, H. H., 367, 368, 382, 383 Coleman, R., 17, 19, 74 Collander, R.,15, 76 Collins, W.,Jr., 353 (see Hamilton), 360 (see Hamilton), 362 (see Hamilton), 363 (see Hamilton), 364 (see Hamilton), 366 (see Hamilton), 367 (see Hamilton), 371 (see Hamilton), 372 (see Hamilton), 374 (see Hamilton), 380 (see Hamilton), 381, 382, 383
388
AUTHOR INDEX
Collis-George, N., 251, 253, 255, 257, 269. (See abo George, N. C.) Collison, R. C., 96, 109 Colman, E.A., 244,245,252,261,269,270 Comer, S. D., 331 (see Thornton), 349 Conrad, C. M.,57, 59 (see Richardson), 60 (see Richardson), 79 Conybeare, A. B., 91, 92, 93, 104, 110 Cook, 0.F., 11, 66,80 Cooper, H. P., 15, 16, 17, 76 Cooper, T. P., 286, 311 Cope, J. T., Jr., 18, 76 Corbet, A. S., 86, 109 Corkill, L.,212, 231 Cottrell-Dormer, W.,131, 162 Cox, H. R., 222, 831 Crafts, A. S., 146, 147, 162 Crampt,on, E. W., 278, 279, 311 Crasemann, E.,285, 287, 290, 311 Crim, R. F., 147, 163 Crooks, G. C., 279 (see Camburn), 290 (see Camburn), 296 (see Camburn), 297 (see Camburn), 299 (see Camburn), 305 (see Camburn), 307 (see Camburn), 308 (see Camburn), 309 (see Camburn), 311 Croston, F. E., 133, 16s Crowther, E. M.,95, 110 Crowther, F.,20, 22, 76 Croxton, W. C., 328, 330, 349 Cruess, W.V.,289, 313 Cuba, E. F.,31, 76 Cullison, A. E.,293, 311 Cummings, R. W., 106, 110, 245, 270 Cunningham, I. J., 359, 382 Currence, T.M.,130, 131, 162, 163 Curtis, L. C., 133, 162 Curtis, 0.F., 295, 304, 311 Cuthbertson, D. C., 122, 162
D Dahlstrand, N. P., 196, SO4 Damon, S.C., 120, 163 Dana, B. F.,124, 162 Danielson, L. L.,147, 16.2 Darcy, H., 246, 247, ,970 Dastur, R. H., 13, 76 Davidson, A. L. C., 239, 270 Davies, E. B.. 120. 162
Davies, J. G., 364, 382 Davis, G. N., 122, 127, 132, 162, 163, 164 Davis, R. B., Jr., 301, 303, 311 Davis, R. E., 296 (see Hodgson), 312 Davis, W. E., 245, 270 Dawson, J. E.,277,293,299, 301, 304, 311, 313
Day, P. R., 239, ,970 Dean, H. A., 33 (see Gaines, J. C.), 35, 37, 78 Dean, L. A., 18 (see Hall), 76, 85, 110 Dearborn, C. H., 147, 162 van Deemter, J. J., 265, 266, 670 Denman, T. E., 122, 162 Dennett, R. K., 127, 163 Den Uyl, D., 330, 8.49 DeTurk, E. E., 201, 203 Dexter, S. T., 227, 228,332, 294, 303, 312 Dhar, N. R., 90, 110 Dickerson, W.H., Jr., 300 (see Schaller), 314
Dickey, J. B. R., 222, 231 Dijkstra, N. D., 286, 290, 291 (see Brouwer), 311, 312 Doak, B. W., 212, 231 Dobie, J. B., 298, 312 Dobson, S. H., 209 (see Lovvorn), 213, 214, 217, 218, 220, 221, 225, 231 Dodd, D. R., 213, 214, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 227, 229, 232 Dodge, D. A.,94, 110, 202, 203 Domingo, C. E., 268, 270 Donaldson, R. W., 212, 231 Donat, J., 241, 270 Doneen, L. D., 117, 142, 162, 370, 382 Donnan, W.W., 249, 266, 267, 270 Doty, D. M.,128, 162 Doyle, C. B., 57 (see Barre), 79 Drewes, H., 122, 162 Dudley, R. F., 295, 312 Duff, G. H., 276, 277, 312 Duffee, F. W., 300, 312 Duggar, F.,92, 110 Duley, F. L., 268, 870 Dulin, T.G., 21, 76 Dunham, R. S., 147, 163 Dunlap, A. A., 13, 23, 28 (see Lyle), 76, 76
389
AUTHOR INDEX
Dunnam, E. W., 34, 35, 72, 77, 80 Durocher, J., 289 (see Voinovitch), 316
E Eaton, F. M., 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 21, 22, 24, 25, 76 Eby, C., 214, 216, 217, 220, 221, 224, 225, 226, 229, 231, 232 Eddy, C. O., 33, 77 Edcn, A,, 275, 313 Edlefson, N. E., 239, 240, 242, 245, 261 (see Veihmeyer), 269, 270, 272 Edlcr, G. C., 229, 231 Edwards, F. E., 117, 162 Ellenherger, H. B., 279 (see Camburn), 290 (see Camburn), 296 (see Camhim), 297 (see Camburn), 299 (see Camburn), 305 (see Camburn), 307 (see Camburn; Newlander), 308 (see Camburn; Newlander), 309 (see Camburn; Newlander), 811, 313 Ellington, E. V., 366 (see Hodgson), 383 Elliott, R. F., 278, 279 (see Forbes), 303, 312
Ellis, G. E., 279, 312 Ellis, N. K., 147, 149, 163, 166 Ellis, N. R., 280 (see Shepherd), 283 (see Shepherd), 814 Ellison, W. D., 268, 270 Elting, J. P., 60, 79 Elvehjem, C. A., 291 (see Johnson, B.
C.),312 Emery, F. E., 208, 231 Emrick, W. E., 374, 382 Enlow, C. R., 366 (see Semple), 384 Ensminger, L. E., 18, 76, 87, 88, 110 Epps, J. M., 123, 163 Ergle, D. R., 13, 20, (see Rigler), 24, 75, 76
Esten, W. M., 282, 312 Eto, W., 122, 163 Evans, R. E., 276, 316 Evans, R. J., 364, 366, 382 Ewalt, H. P., 226, 231, 372, 381, 382 Ewing, E. C., 23 Ewing, K. P., 34, 35, 37, 77, 78 Ezekiel, W. N., 27, 77
F Fahmy, T., 28, 76 Fair, G. M., 254, 270 Fairbank, J. P., 48, 79 Faulwetter, R. C., 31, 76 Feeder, K . E., 285 (see Kirsch), 313 Feng, C. L., 241, 258, 270, 271 Fenton, F. A., 34, 77 Fergus, E. N., 214, 227, 231 Ferguson, W. S., 275, 278, 279, 296 (see Watson), 305, 312, 316, 373, 382 Fife, L. C., 33 (see Chapman), 77 Fingerling, 287 Fink, D. S., 211, 213, 215, 217, 221, 223, 225, 227, 231 Finn-Kelcey, P. A., 299, 301, 312 Fireman, M., 242, 248 (we Christiansen), 249, 270, 271 Fisher, E. A., 140, 163 Fitch, J. B., 285, 314 Fleischmann, F., 277, 312 Fletcher, J. E., 245, 270 Fletcher, R. K., 33, 77 Flint, R. F., 169, 203 Flock, M. V., 226, 231 Flodkvist, 268 Fokin, V. M., 288 (see Mikhin), 313 Forbes, E. B., 279, 312 Ford, W. H., 229, 231 Forward, D. F., 277, 312 Foster, R. E., 126 (see Walker), 166 Fourt, D. L., 359 (see Klages), 364 (see Klages), 367 (see Klages), 371 (see Klages), 373 (see Klages), 380 (see Klages), 381 (see Klages), 383 Fowler, R. H., 84, 110 Fox, W. W., 249 (see Donnan), 270 Fraps, G. S., 90, 110 Frazer, R. R., 331 (see Thornton), 349 Frazier, W. A., 125, 127, 163 Freckman, 268 Fred, E. B., 282 (see Peterson), 283 (see Peterson), 284 (see Peterson), 288 (see Peterson), 290 (see Peterson), 314
Free, G. F., 268, 271 French, H. T., 358, 382 Frudden, C. E., 300, 301, 302, 312 Fry, W. H., 184, 203
390
AUTHOR INDEX
Fuelleman, R. F., 211, 219, 220, 221, 225, 931
Fullmer, F. S., 116, 164 Fulmer, E. I., 291, 311 Futral, J. O.,17 (see Skinner), 76
a Gaddy, V. L., 93 (see Allison, F. E.), 97 (see Pinck), 103 (see Pinck), 109, 111 Gaines, J. C., 11, 19, 33, 34, 35, 37, 40, 76, 77, 78 Gaines, R. C., 33, 35, 78 Gainey, P. L., 90, 93, 110, 111 Galloway, L. D.,277, 318 Galpin, S. L., 330, 339 (see Tvner), 349 Garber, R. J., 213, 215, 231 Gardner, M. W., 126, 166 Garman, W .H., 15 (see Cooper), 16, 17, 76 Garwood, F., 244 (see Schaffer), 872 Gauch, H. G., 262 (see Wadleigh), 878 Geiberger, R. C., 376, 378, 383 George, L. V., 125, 163 George, N. C., 249, 251, 253, 255, 257, 869, 870. (See nlso Collis-George, N.) Gerlach, M., 287, 296, 318 Gessel, S. P., 85, 86 (see Jenny), 110 Geyer, L. E., 318, 34g Gieseking, J. E., 87, 110 Giglioli, I., 287, 318 Gilbert, W. W., 31, 76 Godden, W. J., 290, 318 Godfrey, G. H., 31, 76 Goff, C.C., 31, 77 Gdding, N. S., 280, 313 Goode, W. E., 249, ,970 Goring, C. A. I., 88, 110 Gorini, C.,291, 292, 318 Gorton, W. W., 377, 388 Goss, H., 373, 388 GO=,M. J., 277 (see Phillips), 314 Gottlieb, S., 87, 110 Gouy, M. G.,242,270 Gowda, R. N., 90,110 Graber, L. F., 364, 389 Graham, E. R., 176, 803 Graham, J. B., 177, 904 Grandt, A. F., 330, 34.9
Grau, F. V., 216, 218, 227, %f Graves, R.R., 305 (see Hodgson), $19 Gray, L. C., 3.@ Greaves, J. E., 95, 96,109 Green, T. C., 95, 111 Greene, H., 260, HO Gregg, L. E., 266, ,971 Greulach, V. A., 13, 76 Grimball, E. L., Jr., 132, 166 Grimes, M. A., 49, 79 Grinnells, C. D., 302 (see Weaver), 316 Groves, D. E., 339, 3.@ Grunder, M. S., 366 (see Hodgson), 383 Guilbert, H. R., 278, 297, 312, 380, 389 Gull, P. W., 42, 43, 48, 79 Gunn, K. C., 27 (see Neal), 77 Gunness, C. I., 290, 311 Gunther, E., 287 (see Gerlach), 311 Gustafson, A. F., 92, 110 Gustafsson, Y., 265, 270
H Haas, H. J., 83 (see Myers), 84 (see Myers), 94 (see Myers), 95 (see Myers), 108 (see Myers), 111 Haber, E.S., 122, 164 Haddock, J. L., 166, 184, 804, 212, 217, 220, 221, 225, 229, 831
Haddon, C. B., 102, 110 Hafenrichter, A. L., 364 (see Schwendiman), 384 Hagood, E. S., 13 (see Brown, G. A,), 74 Haines, W .B., 242, ,970 Haise, H. A., 246, 270 Hale, G. A., 101, 103, 110 Hall, N. S., 18, 76 Hallsted, A. L., 83 (see Myers), 84 (see Myers), 94 (see Myers), 95 (see Myers), 108 (see Myers), 111 Hamilton, J. G., 353, 355, 360, 362, 363, 364, 366, 367, 371, 372, 374, 380, 381,
13 Hamilton, J. M., 118, 163 Hammons, J. G., 117, 168 Hamner, K. C., 293 (see Pentzer), 313 Hanawalt, W. B., 244 (see Colman), ,970 Hanley, F., 290, 316 Hanna, G. C., 135, 164 Hansen, D., 359, 383 Hansford, C. G., 31, 76
AUTHOR INDEX
Hanson, W. K., 37 (see Loftin), 78 Harding, S. W., 266, ,270 Hardy, F., 86, 110 Hare, J. F., 31, 76 Hargrove, B. D.,28 (see Lyle), 76 Harlan, J. D., 96 (see Collison), 109 Harland, S. C., 4, 66, 67, 69, 80 Harmer, P. M., 120, 163 Harper, J. H., 91, 94, 108, 110 Harris, F. S., 260, 270, 366, 383 Harris, H. C.,19, 76 Harris, K., 49, 50, 79 Harrison, G.J., 29, 77 Harrison, J., 283, 311 Hart, E. B., 283, 297, 312, 313 Hart, G. H., 380, 382 Hartwell, B. L., 120, 163 Hartwig, H. B., 295, 318 Harvey, W. A., 146, 147 Haseman, J. F., 183, 203 Haskell, G., 128, 163 Hastings, E. G.,282 (see Peterson), 283 (see Peterson), 284 (see Peterson), 288 (see Peterson), 290 (see Peterson), 314 Hatch, L. P., 254, U 0 Havis, J. R., 147, 148, 162, 168, 166 Hawkins, R. S., 50, 79 Haynes, J. L., 260,H0 Hays, 0. E., 99, 110 Hayward, H. E., 356, 383 Hazelwood, B. P., 107, 111 Heam, W .E., 204 Hedges, T.R., 377, 378, 379, 383 Hedlin, W. A., 149, 163 Heggeness, H. G.,147,163 Hegnauer, L., 210, 212, 231 Hegsted, D.M., 289 (see Johnson, B. C.), 318 Hein, M. A., 290 (see Shepherd), 291 (see Shepherd), 296 (see Shepherd), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd), 308 (see Shepherd), 309 (see Shepherd), 314, 366, 384 Heineman, P. G., 283, 312 Heinton, T. E., 290 (see Shepherd), 296 (see Hodgson; Shepherd), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd),
391
308 (see Shepherd), 309 (see Shep-
herd), 312, 314 Heinzl, O.,285, 287, 290, 311 Hemphill, D.D., 139, 163 Hendricks, S. B., 87, 110, 166, 184, 203, 204 Hendrickson, A. H., 260, 261 (see Veihmeyer), ,2778 Hendrix, A. T., 301, 312 Hendrix, J. W., 125, 163 Hendrix, T. M., 245, R O Hennebury, G. O., 253, 269 Henson, E. R., 295, 296, 299, 318 Henson, L., 214, 227, 231 Herbert, F. W., 29, 76 Hermans, P. H., 57, 79 Hernandez, T.P., 147, 166 Hertel, K. L., 59, 60, 79, 80 Hessler, L. E., 57, 79 Hewitt, C. W., 86, 110 Hibbard, A. D., 123, 163 Hide, J. C.,200, 203 Higgins, F. L., 295, 318 Hildebrandt, H., 283, 313 Hill, H. O.,28 (see Lyle), 76 Hilton, J. H., 290 (see Monroe), 313 Hinds, W. E., 33, 34, 78 Hinkle, D. A,, 47, 79 Hixson, C. R., 283, 312 Hodgson, R. E., 280 (see Shepherd), 283 (see Shepherd), 290 (see Monroe; Shepherd), 291, 296, 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 303, 306, 307, 308, 309, 312, 313, 314, 366, 383 Hoffman, A. H., 289, 318 Hoffman, E. J., 298, 299, 312 Hoffman, O., 293 (see Windheuser), 316 Holben, F. J., 95 (see White), 111 Holdeman, Q. L., 13 (see Brown, G. A.), 74 Holley, K. T., 21, 76,96, 110 Hollowell, E. A., 209, 212, 213, 217, 220, 222, ,931 Holmes, A. D., 139, 163 Holmes, F. O.,126, 163 Holmes, L. A., 330, 349 Holt, M. E., 76, 120, 163 Holtz, H. F., 84, 111 Hooghoudt, S. B., 266,267, 270 Hooten, D. R., 24, 27, 76,76
392
AUTHOR INDEX
Horton, E. A., 296 (see Watson), 316 Horton, R. E.,250, R1 Hosking, H. R., 31 (see Hansford), 76 Hosking, J. S.,117, 163 Hosterman, W. H., 290 (see Shepherd), 291 (see Shepherd), 296 (see Hodgson; Shepherd), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd), 308 (see Hodgson; Shepherd), 309 (see Shepherd), 312, 314 Howard, L. O., 33, 78 Howell, M.J., 138, 166 Howlett, F. S.,139, 163 Hubbard, J. W., 29, 76 Huelson, W. W., 163, 158 Huffman, C. F., 294 (see Dexter), 303 (see Dexter), 312, 367 (see Cole). 368 (see Cole), 382 Hull, H. H., 99 (see Hays), 110 Hunter, A. S.,244, 271 Hunter, C. A.,283, 312 Hunter, 0.W., 282, 283, 312 Hunter, W. D.,33, 34, 37, 78 Hutcheson, J. D., 214, 231 Hutchins, A. E.,133, 163 Hutchinson, J. B.,3, 66, 80 Hutton, C. E., 177, 179, 182, 184, 185, 203 Hutton, E. M., 125, 163 I
Iglinsky, W., Jr., 40, 78 Ingham, I. M., 221, 222, 231, 359 (see Law), 383 Ingham, R. W., 288, 312 Isbell, C. L., 141, 163 Israelson, 0.W., 260, R1 van Itallie, Th. B., 15, 76 Ivanhoff, S. S., 127, 163 Ivy, E.E.,35, 37 (see Moreland; Parencia), 78 Iyer, K. R. N., 87, 111 d
Jacks, H., 31, 76 Jackson, H.C.,278 (see Guilbert), 318 Jackson, I. R. C., 278, 279, 311
Jackson, M. L., 117, 163, 185, 203 Jacobson, L.,15, 76 Jacobson, W. C., 279 (see Kane), 309 (see Kane), 313 James, L. H., 277 (see Phillips), 314 James, W. H., 279 (see Forbes; Swift), 312, 314 Jamieson, V. C., 241, 252, 268, 269, 271 Janert, 268 Jeffries, C. D.,181,203 Jenkins, P.M., 24 (see Hooten), 76 Jennings, 301 Jenny, H., 83,85,86,95,99,110,117, 163, 171, 172, 173, 182, 192, 204, 268, 271 Joham, H. E., 15, 18, 76 Johnson, B. C., 289, 291, 312 Johnston, H. G., 35, 78 Johnstone, W. F.,212,231 Jolivette, J. P.,126, 166 Jones, B. J., 208, 231, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 369, 370, 376, 381, 383 Jones, C. H., 279 (see Camburn), 290 (see Camburn), 296 (see Camburn), 297 (see Camburn), 299 (see Camburn), 305 (see Camburn), 307 (see Camburn; Newlander), 308 (see Camburn; Newlander), 309 (see Camburn; Newlander), 311, 313 Jones, D. L., 47, 48, 49 (see Smith, H. P J , 79 Jones, H. A., 122, 132, 162, 163 Jonee, H. E., 94, 110, 202, 203 Jones, I. R., 212, 226, 291, 372, 381, 382, 383 Jones, R. J., 96, 110 Jones, T. N., 295, 312 Jones, W. L., 48, 79 Jordan, H.V., 24 (see Hooten), 27,7476
K Kahane, E., 289 (see Voinovitch), 316 Kalbfleish, W., 301, 302, 303, 313 Kane, E.A,, 279, 297, 309, 313 Kardos, L. T.,97, 110 Kauffman, W.,38, 78 Kay, G. F., 177, 204 Keeney, L. G., 298, 313 Keirns, V. E., 148, 162
393
AUTHOR INDEX
Keith, T. B., 359 (see Klages), 364 Klages), 367 (see Klages), 371 Klages), 373 (see Klages), 380 Klages), 381 (see Klages), 383 Keller, W., 359, 364, 365, 367, 375 Bateman), 376 (see Bateman),
(see (see (see (see 382,
383
Kelley, 0. J., 244, 245, 270, 271 Kelley, W. P., 86, 110 Kellner, O., 278, 313 Kellogg, C. E., 193 (see Baldwin), 195, 203
Kemp, W. B., 214, 231 Kennard, D. C., 226, 231 Kenney, R., 214, 227, 231, 296, 313 Kenworthy, A. L., 244, ,971 Kerr, T., 25, 56, 57, 58 (see Berkley), 61, 74, 76, 79 Kidder, E. A,, 268, ,971 Kiesselbach, T. A., 295, 313 Kikuta, K., 125, 163 Killough, D. T., 49 (see Smith, H. P.), 79
Kime, P. H., 63, 70, 80 Kincer, 162, 174, 204 King, A. S., 116, 163 King, C. J., 25 (see Berkley), 27, 28, 31, 57 (see Berkley), 58 (see Berkley), 74, 76, 79
King, H. E., 72 (see Parnell), 80 King, W. A., 288, 290 (see Monroe), 313 Kirkham, D., 253, 258, 266, 267, ,971 Kirsch, W., 283, 285, 313 Klages, K. H., 359, 364, 367, 371, 373, 380, 381, 383 Kleiber, M., 367 (see Cole), 368, 382 Knight, R. L., 68, 70, 72, 80 Knisely, A. L., 289, 313 Knodt, C. B., 286 (see Autrey), 311 Knott, J. C., 305 (see Hodgson), 312, 366 (see Hodgson), 383 Kolb, A. C., 376, 377, 378, 38.2 Konstantinov, N. N., 12, 76 Kozeny, J., 254, 271 Kraebel, C. J., 261, 271 Kraemer, E., 349 Kramer, P. J., 369, 383 Krantz, B. A., 18 (see Hall), 76, 102, 103, 107, 110 Kraus, W. E., 290 (see Monroe), 313
Kreitlow, K. W., 213, 215 (see Garber), 230, 231
Krusekopf, H. H., 97, 98, 111 Kuhn, A. o., 214,831 Kulkarni, Y. S., 28 (see Uppal), 77 Kuntz, J. E., 125, 126 (see Walker), 166 Kuska, J. B., 83 (see Myers), 84 (see Myers), 94 (see Myers), 95 (see Myers), 108 (see Myers), 111 Kuzmeski, J. W., 139 (see Holmes, A. D.), 163, 294 (see Archibald), 311 Kvnsnikov, E. I., 289, 313
L Lachman, W. H., 139 (see Holmes, A D.), 119, 163 Lamb, A. R., 283, 313 Langmuir, I., 242, 271 Larsinos, G. J., 117, 162 Larson, L. H., 92, 109 Larson, R. E., 130, 131, 163 Larson, R. H., 126 (see Walker), 156 Larson, W. E., 185, 204 Latshaw, W. L., 96, 111 Law, A. G., 221, 222, H l Law, G. A., 359, 383 Lawes, 81 Lea, F. M., 254, 271 Leach, L. D., 145, 163 Learner, R. W., 241, ,971 LeClerc, J. A., 282, 288, 319 Lee, S. H., 141, 162 Leonard, C. D., 192, 204 Leonard, 0. A., 25, 76 Lepard, 0. L., 288, 313 Levy, E. B., 364, 366, 383 Lewis, A. C., 28, 76 Lewis, A. H., 373, 382, 383 Lewis, M. R., 268, ,971 Lewis, M. T., 121, 163 Lewis, W., 275, 313 Liebig, 81 Limstrom, G. A., 323, 330, 336, 349 Linn, M. B., 144, 163 Lipman, J. G., 91, 92, 93, 104, 116 Livingston, E. M., 33, 77 Loftin, U. C., 37, 78 Loomis, W. E., 168, 204 Loosli, 303
394
AUTHOR INDEX
Lorenz, 0. A., 117, 118, 163 Lorenren, C., 151, 164 Love, R. M., 381, 383 Lovvorn, R. L., 209, 213, 214, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 225, 231, 302 (see Weaver), 316 Lukaczewicz, J., 285 (see Kirsch), 919 Lundegardh, H., 15, 76 Luthin, J. N., 267, 271 Lutz, J. F., 241, f771 Lyford, W., 804 Lyle, E. W., 25 (see Eaton), 27 (see Jordan), 28, 76, 76 Lynn, H. D., 72, 80 Lyon, T. L., 91, 92, 93, 105, 110
M MacArthur, J. W., 124, 166 McAuliffe, C., 215, 830 McAulBe, H. D., 283 (see Stone), 286 (see Stone), 314 McCall, A. G., 98 (see Borst), 100 (see Smith, D. D J , 109, 111 McCalla, T. M., 268, f771 McCalmont, J. R., 280 (see Shepherd), 283 (see Shepherd), 314 McCarthy, G., 208, 231 McClelland, B., 266, f771 McCollam, M. E., 116, 164 McComb, A. L., 168, 804 McCool, M. M., 117, 164 MacDonald, 276 McDougall, W. B., 328, 349 McDowell, C. H., 49, 79 McGarr, R. L., 34, 77 McGeorge, W. T., 108, 110, 261, 869 MacGillivray, J. H., 142, 146, 162, 164 McGregor, E. A., 40, 78 McIntosh, 330 McKaig, N., 17 (see Skinner), 76 McKinney, K. B., 37 (see Loftin), 78 McLane, J. V., 260, 269 McLendon, C. A., 28, 76 McMiller, P. R., 196, 204 McNamara, H. C., 27, 76 McRuer, W. G., 84, 111 Madhok, M. R., 90, 111 Madson, B. A., 208, 209, 212, 229, $31, 381, 383
Magee, A. C., 47, 79 Magistad, 0. C., 262, 271, 354, 356, 383 Magruder, J. W., 214, $81 Magruder, R., 122, 164 Maloney, M. M., 328, 349 Malzahn, R. C., 283 (see Stone), 286 (see Stone), 814 Mann, L. K., 138, 146, 164 Manning, C. W., 68 Manning, H. L., 66, 80 Manns, M. M., 19 (see Manns, T. F.),76 Manns, T. F., 19, 76 Marbut, C. F., 158, 164, 165, 166, 171, 182, 185, 192, 194, SO4
Marchant, W. L., 130 Marcum, W. B., 245 (see Edlefson), 870 Markle, J., 18, 74 Marsh, P. B., 57 (see Barre), 79 Marshall, C. E., 183, 185, 208, 206 Marth, P. C., 140, 166 Martin, J. A., 131, 164 Martin, J. P., 97, 110 Martos, V. F., 284, 286, 313 Maskell, 23 Mason, C. J., 282, 312 Mwon, T. G., 18, 20, 23, 76, 76 Massey, R. E., 31, 76 Mather, 330 Mathews, E. D., 17, 76 Matlock, R. L., 363, 983 Matrone, G.,'279 (see Ellis, G. E.), 312 Mayeux, H. S., 35 (see Becnel), 77 Maynard, L. A., 279, 288 (see Lepard), 311, 312, 913
Mead, R. M., 229, 832 Mead, S. W., 278 (see Guilbert), 318, 368, 382, 383
Medeck, C. H., 208, 231 Meek, W. E., 43 Mehring, A. L., 82, 104, 105, 110 Melin, C. G., 285 (see Shepherd), 290 (see Shepherd), 291 (see Shepherd), 296 (see Shepherd), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd), 308 (see Shepherd), 309 (see Shepherd), 314
Mendel, G., 64 Merola, G. V., 67 (see Hessler), 79 Merz, A. R., 116, 164
395
AUTHOR INDEX
Metzger, W. H., 200, 203 Meyer, L., 338, 349 Mick, A. H., 245, 269 Midgley, A. R.,215, 231 Mikhin, A. M., 288, 313 Miles, L. E., 29, 77 Miller, D.D.,280, 313 Miller, E. V.,135, 164 Miller, M. D., 212, 219, 220, 221, 222, 226, 231, 359 (see Jones, B. J.), 360 (see Jones, B. J.), 361 (see Jones, B. J.), 362 (see Jones, B. J.), 363 (see Jones, B. JJ, 369 (see Jones, B. J.), 370 (see Jones, B. J.), 376 (see Jones, B. J.), 378, 381 (we Jones, B. J J , 383, 384 Miller, M. F., 97, 98, 111 Miller, R. C.,298, 313 Mills, R. C.,297, 313 Milville, J., 212, 231 Miner, B. B., 217, 232 Minges, P. A.,138, 164 Mitchell, J. H., 16 (see Cooper), 76 Mitchell, J. W.,137, 164 Mitchell, K. J., 121, 164 Mitchell, N., 300 (see Schaller), $14 Mohr, E. C.J., 85, 111 Monroe, C. F., 290, 313 Monson, 0.W., 363, 382 Mooers, C. A,, 107, 111 Moore, L. A., 279 (see Kane), 290 (see Shepherd), 291 (see Shepherd), 296 (see Shepherd), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd), 308 (see Shepherd), 309 (see Moore; Shepherd), 313, 814 Moore, R. E., 250, 252, 261, 271 Moore, W. D., 135 (see Miller), 136, 164, 166 Moran, J., 122 Moreland, R. W., 37, 78 Morgan; A., 351, 355, 356, 360, 370 (see Bartels), 371 (see Bartels), 372, 373, 382, 383
Morrish, R. H., 295, 314 Morrison, F. B., 280, 281, 290, 313 Morse, R. W.,381, 389 Moser, F., 96, 111 Moskovitz, I., 306, 313
Muckenhirn, R. J., 196, 201 (see Stauffer), 204, 239 (see Alexander), 269 Mullen, L. A., 364, 384 Mullison, E., 138, 164 Mullison, W .R., 138, 164 Mumtord, D. C.,381, 383 Munger, H. M., 129, 134, 164 Munsell, R. I., 211, 213, 214, 215, 217, 224, 225, 231 Murdock, F. R., 283 (see Stone), 286 (see Stone), 314 Murer, H. K., 305 (see Hodgson), 312 Murneek, A. E., 138, 140, 164, 166 Musgrave, G. W., 268, 271 Musgrave, R. B., 277, 299, 301, 303, 311, 313 Musket, M., 247,271 Myers, H. E., 83, 84, 88, 94, 95, 108, 111 Myers, W. M., 213 (see Garber), 215 (see Garber), 231
N Narayanan, N. G., 71, 80 Neal, D. C., 27, 77 Neely, J. W., 43, 79 Neidig, R. E., 283, 288, 313 Nelson, A. H., 27 (see Jordan), 76 Nelson, M. L.,57, 79 Nelson, R. A., 184, 203 Nelson, W .H.,18 (see Hall), 76 Nelson, W. L., 24, 76 Nelson, W .R., 255, 271 Newcomb, G. T., 116, 163 Newell, R. E., 229, 232 Newell, W., 34, 78 Newhall, A. G.,144, 163, 164 Newlander, J. A., 307, 308, 309, 311, 313 Newton, J. D., 94 (see Brown, A. LJ, 109, 172, 204 Nightingale, G. T., 22, 76 Nisman, B., 283, 314 Nixon, P. P., 148, 164 Noll, C. J., 132, 134, 164 Norman, A. G.,87, 89, 101, 109, 111 Norris, D. O.,126, 164 Norton, E. A., 182, 204 Nurse, R. W., 254, 271
AUTHOR [NDEX
396 0
Pennington, R. P., 185 (see Jackson),
Odell, R. T., 175, 197, 198, 201 (see Stauffer), 204 Odland, M. L., 132, 134, 164 Ohlendorf, W., 37, 78 Ohlmer, E., 293 (see Windheuser), 316 Olsen, T. M., 367 (see Cole), 358 (see Cole), 388 Olson, L. C., 19, 20, 76 O’Neal, A. M., 204 Orton, W. A., 26, 28, 77 Overbeek, J. Th. G., 242, 272 Overholser, E. L., 289, 313 Overstreet, R., 15, 76 Owen, W. L., 33 (see Fletcher), 77 Owen, W. L., Jr., 19 (see Gained, 76 Owens, J. S., 214, 217, 220, 221, 225, 232
Pentrer, W. T., 293, 313 Peterson, C. E., 122, 164 Peterson, H. B., 352, 353, 384 Peterson, J. B., 166, 171, 184, 204, 241,
P Packer, J. E., 359 (see Bateman; Keller), 364 (see Keller), 365 (see Bateman; Keller), 367 (see Bateman; Keller), 375, 376 (see Bateman), 378, 379, 38Z, 383 Paddock, E. F., 139, 164 Paden, W. R., 15 (see Cooper), 76 Padilla-Saravia, B., 85, 110 Page, N. R., 15 (see Cooper), 16 (see Cooper), 76 Pagk, E., 288 (see Lepard), 3f3 Painter, R. H., 34, 78 Palmer, V. J., 268, 271 Palmiter, D. H., 118, 153 Pammel, L. H., 26, 27, 77 Panse, V. G., 66, 80 Parberry, N. H., 89, 111 Parencia, C. R., Jr., 35, 37, 77, 78 Park, J. B., 129, 164 Parker, E. R., 268, ,971 Parker, F. W., 81, 111 Parks, R. Q., 104, 105, 110 Parnell, H. E., 72, 80 Parris, G . K., 123, 164 Paur, S.,131, 163 Peak, A. R., 125, 163 Pearson, N. L., 57 (see Barre), 61, 79 Pearson, R. W., 164, 204 Peevy, W. J., 89, 111, 201, 204
203
2Y2
Peterson, W. H., 282, 283, 284, 288, 289 (see Johnson, B. C.), 290, 291, 312, 313, 314
Pfeiffenberger, G. W., 25 (see Eaton), 60, 76, 79
Phillips, C. E., 212, 232 Phillips, M., 277, 314 Phillis, E., 18, 20, 76, 76 Pickett, J. E., 208, 232 Pierce, W. D., 34, 78 Pierre, W. H., 82, 107, 111, 164, 204 Pillsbury, A. F., 249, 871 Pinck, I,. A., 88 (see Allison, F. E.),93 (see Allison, F. E,), 97, 103, 109, 111 Pinckard, J. A,, 25, 76 Pittman, D. W., 353, 372, 383 Pohlman, G. G., 248 (see Smith, R. M J , 255 (see Smith, R. M.), 272 Pope, H. W., 17, 74 Pope, 0. A., 62, Y9 Porter, D. D., 24 (see Hooten), 27 bee Jordan), Y6, 76 Post, A. H., 363, 383 Pound, G. S., 125, 166 Powers, W. L., 129, 164, 261, 268, 371 Presley, J. T., 29, 31, 77 Pressley, E. H., 59, 79 Price, W. C., 213, 231 Prince, A. L., 102, 109 Prince, F. S., 214, 238 Procopio, M., 289, 314 Pryor, D. E., 127, 164
8 Quaintance, A. I,., 36, 78
R Raev, 2. A., 289, 313 Rahn, E. M., 119, 164 Rainwater, C. F., 35, 78 R.aleigh, G. J., 120, 164
397
AUTHOR INDEX
Rampton, H. H., 359, 383 Ranadive, J. D., 28 (see Uppal), 77 Randall, T. E., 135, 164 Randhawa, G. S., 140, 164 Rasmussen, R. A., 288 (see Lepard), 313 Rather, H. C., 295, 314 Rayner, G. B., 360, 372, 373, 376, 383 Ree, W. O., 268, R1 Reed, A. D., 376, 378, 383 Reed, G. M., 281, 314 Reed, 0. E., 285, 314 Reeve, P. A., 144, 145, 146, 166 Regan, W. M., 368 (see Cole; Mead), 382, 383 Reimann, E. G., 262, 271 Reiner, J. M., 16, 76 Reinhard, H. J., 33, 78 Reitemeier, R . F., 240, 262, 271 Rhoades, H. F., 185 (see Larson), 204 Rich, L. H., 376, 383 Richards, L. A., 239, 240, 242, 244, 250, 252, 253, 261, 262, 2'71, 272, 352, 354, 355, 356, 383 Richards, S. J., 242, $71 Richardson, H. B., 59, 60, 79 Richer, A. C., 95 (see White), 111 Richey, F. D., 68, 80 Richmond, C. A., 33 (see Chapman), 77 Richmond, T. R., 65, 68, 80 Rick, C. M., 130, 131, 135, 164 Riecken, F. F., 161, 177, 178, 194, 195, 196, 204, 268 (see Wilson), 279 Rigden, P. J., 254, 271 Rigler, N. E., 12, 20, 21, 22, 76, 76 Riker, A. J., 140, 163 Riley, C. V., 36, 78, 328, 330, 349 Riner, M. E., 133, 166 Riollano, A., 127, 164 Ripley, P. O., 301 (see Kalbfleish), 302 (see Kalbfleish), 303 (see Kalbfleish), 313 Roach, J. R., 128 (see Doty), 162 Roberta, R. C., 204 Robertson, D. W., 363, 368, 369, 371, 378, 380, 384 Robinson, D. H., 338, 349 Robinson, R. R., 213 (see Garber), 215 (see Garber), 231 Rodenkirchen, J., 285, 291, 314 Rodriquez, A., 127, 164
Roethe, H. E., 298, 299, 314 Roever, W. E., 131, 164 Rogers, C. F., 290, 314 Rogers, C. H., 27 (see Jordan), 76 Rogers, H. T., 97, 111 Rogers, R. H., 49, 79 Rogers, W. S., 242, 244, 261, 271 Rolfs, F. M., 30, 31, 77 Rosenberg, A. J., 283, 314 Rosenstein, L., 116, 164 Roseveare, G. M., 286, 314 ROS, c. s., 1136, 204 Rost, C. O., 98, 111, 199, 204 Rouse, J. T., 25 (see Eaton), 49 (see Smith, H. P.), 76, 79 Roussel, J. S., 35 (see Becnel), 77 Rowles, C. A., 199, 204 Rudolph, B. A., 29, 77 Rumler, R. H., 212, 232 Russell, E. J., 111, 281, 282, 283, 284, $14 Russell, H. L., 282, 311 Russell, J. C., 84, 96, 111 Russell, J. L., 264, 267, 268, 271 Russell, M. B., 166, 184, 804, 239, 241, 244, 245, 272 Russell, W. C., 290 (see Taylor), 314 Ruston, D. F., 72 (see Parnell), 80 deRuyter de Wildt, J. C., 291 (see Brouwer), 311 S
Sackman, R. F., 364 (see Sohwendiman), 384
Salter, R. M., 29, 77, 95, 109, 111 Saltonstall, L., 279, 314 Samarani, F., 288, 314 Sanborn, J. W., 358, 384 Savage, E. S., 288 (see Lepard), 313 Sawyer, F. G., 116, 117, 164 Sawyer, L. E., 330, 341, 348, 349 Sayre, C. B., 15, 76, 119, 120, 164, 166 Schaffer, R. V., 244, 272 Schalk, A. F., 367 (see Cole), 368 (see Cole), 382 Schaller, J. A., 300, 314 Schavilje, J. P., 330, 349 Schieblich, M., 284, 314 Schmidt, K., 288, 289, 314
398
AUTHOR INDEX
Schoenleber, L. G., 290 (see Shepherd), 291 (see Shepherd), 26l! (see Shepherd), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd), 308 (see Hodgson; Shepherd), 309 (see Shepherd), 312, 314
Schofield, R. K., 239, 240. 242, 243, 257. 270, 272
Sinks, A. H., 318, 330, 949 Sisakyan, N. M., 289, 914 Sisam, J. W. B., 338, 3 4 Sisson, W. A., 58, 80 Skinner, J. J., 17, 76 Skirm, G. W., 125, 166 Skovsted, A., 4, 80 Slater, C. S., 98, 111, 245, 252, 255, 268, 260, 270, 972
Scholl, W., 105, 111 Scholtes, W. H., 171, 204 Schomer, H. A., 135 (see Miller), 164 Schoth, H. A., 209, 211, 219, 220, 221, 222,
Smith, A. L., 29, 31, 77 Smith, C. D., 34, 78 Smith, C. T., 139 (see Holmes, A. D.),
225, 232, 367, 368, 372, 373, 384 Schupp, A. A., 144, 145, 146, 166 Schwendiman, J. L., 384, 384 Scott, D. H., 133, 166 Seidel, C., 287 (see Gerlach), 31% Semple, A. T., 366, 384 Serviss, G. H., 222, 2% Sewell, M. C., 90, 111 Shafer, J. T., 120, 164 Shaw, B., 245, 272 Shaw, R. S., 216, 232 Shaw, T. M., 239 (Nee Alexander), 269 Shedd, C. K., 302, 314 Sheldon, W. H., 227, 228, 232, 294 (see Dexter), 303 (see Dexter), 318 Shepherd, J. B., 280, 283, 285, 286, 290, 291, 296, 298, 299, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 912, 814, 916 Sherbakoff, C. D., 28, 29, 77, 123, 163 Sherman, J. M., 282, 81.4 Sherman, M. S., 88 (see Allison, F. EJ, 100 Shifriss, O., 129, 133, 134, 166 Shirlow, N. S., 121, 124, 166 Shrader, W. D., 167, 196, $04 Shultis, A., 378, 384 Shutt, F. T., 94, 96, 111 Sievers, F. J., 84, 111 Silow, R. A., 3 (see Hutchinson), 80 Silver, E. A., 298 (see Miller, R. CJ, 313 Simonson, R. W.,163, 188 Simpson, D. M., 31, 63, 71, 77, 80 Simpson, R., 33, 78 Sinclair, J. D., 261, 271 Singh, S., 13, 76 Singleton, H. P., 359 (see Law), 389 Singleton, W. R., 128, 169, 166
Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith,
163
D., 211, 220, 232 D. C., 227, 231 D. D., 100, 111 E. F., 30, 77 F. B., 201, 204 G. D., 160, 166, 172, 177, 178, 182, 183, 188, 194, 195, 196, 804 Smith, G. E., 101, 111, 148, 164 Smith, G. L., 33 (see Gaines, R. (3.1, 78 Smith, G. M., 128 (see Doty), 162 Smith, H. P., 48, 49, 79 Smith, H. V . , 97, 109, 111 Smith, H. W., 91, 111 Smith, L. H., 201 (see DeTurk), 203, 217, H2
Smith, O., 141, 166 Smith, P. G., 124, 126, 127, 136, 166 Smith, R. M., 248, 249, 253, 265, 272, 321, 326, 330, 339 (see Tyner), 349 Smith, R. S., 199, 201, 206 Smith, V. F., 279 (see Forbes), 312 Smith, W. O., 242, 270 Snyder, H., 94, 96, 111, 226, 232 Snyder, H. J., 212, ,932 Somner, A. L., 19, 76 Sotola, J., 276, 278, 914 Southworth, W. L., 363, 384 Sparhawk, W. N., 349 Spiegelman, S., 16, 76 Sprague, G. F., 68, 80 Sprague, H. B., 209, 230 Sprague, M. A., 216, 217, 220, 221, 224, 225, 226, 229, 232
Sprague, V. G., 213 (see Garber), 215 (see Garber), 831 Springer, M. E., 176, SO4 Springer, V., 88, 111
AUTHOR INDEX
Spry, R., 164, 204 Stacy, S. V., 96 (see Holley), 110 Stallworth, H., 138, 166 Stark, R. H., 359 (see Klages), 364 (see Klages), 367 (see Klages), 371 (see Klages), 373 (see Klages), 380 (see Hlages), 381 (see Klages), 383 Starke, J. S., 366, 368, 380, 384 Staten, G., 13, 47, 76, 79, 368 Stauffer, R. E.,268 (see Kidder), ,971 Stauffer, R. S., 175, 180, 193, 201, 204, 262 (see Reimann), 871 Steinberg, R. A., 121, 166 Stelly, M., 164, 204 Stephens, S. G., 3 (see Hutchinson), 68,
399
Taylor, C. A., 142, 166 Taylor, F. J., 146, 166 Taylor, M. W., 290, 314 Templin, E. H., 204 Tenney, F. G., 89, 111 Terry, C. W., 295, 300, 314 Teraaghi, C.,254, ,972 Tesche, W. C., 208, 232 Thacker, E. J., 279 (see Swift), 314 Tharp, W. H., 25 (see Eaton), 76 't Hart, M. L., 366, 384 Thatcher, L. E., 213, 214, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227, 229, 231, 232
Thibodeaux, B. H., 45, 47 (see Magee), 78, 79
69, 80
Sterges, A. J., 90, 110 Sterling, L. D.,90, 109 Stevenson, W. A., 38, 78 Stewart, G., 360, 380, ,984 Stiver, E.N., 321, 323, 324, 328, 329, 330, 336, 348, 3.49 Stoddart, L. A., 381, 384 Stone, R. W., 283, 286, 314 Storgaard, L. H., 208, 932 Stoughton, R. H., 31, 76, 77 Strait, J., 302, 314 Streets, R. B., 27, 30, 77 Strong, D.G., 262 (see Wadleigh), 272 Sturkie, D. G., 24, 76 Sullivan, J. T., 128 (see Doty), 162, 213 (see Garber), 215 (see Garber), 931 Sullivan, R. R., 60,80 Sullivan, W., 375, 378, 389, 384 Swaby, R. J., 89, 111 Smnson, C. L. W., 241, 872 Swanson, C. O., 96, 111 Sweet, R. D., 147, 148, 162, 166 Sweetman, W. J., 290 (see Shepherd), 291 (see Shepherd), 296 (see Shepherd), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd), 308 (see Shepherd), 309 (see Shepherd), 314 Swift, R. W., 279, 312, 314
T Talbot, R. F., 217, 232 Taubenhaus, J. J., 27, 77
Thomas, H. R., 136, 166 Thomas, W. I., 46, 79 Thompson, H. C., 137, 140, 164 Thompson, R. C.,122, 166 Thorne, C. E., 100, 111 Thorne, D. W., 352, 353, 384 Thorne, M.D., 245, 272 Thornton, S. F., 331, 3.49 Thorp, J., 160, 171, 193 (see Baldwin), 195, 196, 203, 204 Tidmore, J. W.,96, 111 Tilley, R. H., 63, 70, 80 Toenges, A. L., 330, 349 Toth, S. J., 15 (see Wallace), 76 Tower, H. E., 353 (see Hamilton), 355 (see Hamilton), 360 (see Hamilton), 362 (see Hamilton), 363 (see Hamilton), 364 (see Hamilton), 366 (see Hamilton), 367 (see Hamilton), 371 (see Hamilton), 372 (see Hamilton), 374 (see Hamilton), 380 (see Hamilton), 381 (see Hamilton), 383 Tretsven, J. O., 363, 383 Tucker, R. H., 363 (see Robertson), 368 (see Robertson), 369 (see Robertson), 371 (see Robertson), 380 (see Robertson), 384 Tupiliova, A. A., 288 (see Mikhin), 313 Turk, 303, 307, 309 Turner, J. H., 17, 76 Turpin, H. W., 260, 270 Twist, G. F., 150, 166 Tyler, S. A., 185 (see Jackson), 203 Tyner, E. H., 321, 326, 330, 339, 3.49
400
AUTHOR INDEX
Tysdal, H. M., 290 (see Shepherd), 291 (see Shepherd), 296 (see Shepherd), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd), 308 (see Hodgson ; Shcpherd), 309 (see Shrphrrd), 512, 314 Tyrilin, A. T., 88, 111
U TJhland, R. E., 97, 98, 111 TJlrich, R., 199, 204 Uppal, B. N., 28, 77
V Van Alstine, E., 212, 217, 232 Vnndccaveve, S. C., 91, 111 Vandermark, J. S., 141, 162 Vander Meulen, E., 232 Van Doren, C. A,, 262 (see Reimann), 268 (see Kidder), 271 Vrtsil’eva, N. A., 289, 314 Vaughan, E. K., 135 (see Miller), 164 Vavilov, N. I., 63, 80 Veihmeyer, F. J., 260, 261, 278, 362, 371, 884
Verwey, E. J. W., 242, 272 Vinall, H. N., 366 (see Semple), 3S4 Virtanen, A. I., 284, 287, 288, 314, 316 Vittum, M. T., 15, 76, 120, 166 Vogelsang, P., 144, 145, 146, 166 Voinovitch, I., 289, 316 Volk, N. J., 16, 76, 76, 96, 111, 120, 163
W Wade, B. L., 124, 166 Wadleigh, C. H., 14, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 76, 261, 272, 356, 383 Wagner, R. E., 290 (see Shepherd), 291 (see Shepherd), 296 (see Shepherd), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd), 308 (see Hodgson ; Shepherd), 309 (see Shepherd), 312, 314 Waksman, S. A., 87, 89, 90, 111, 285, 316 Walker, J. C . , 125, 126, 166 Walker, R. H., 175, 206 Wallace, A., 15, 76
Wallace, H. M., 105, 111 Wallace, J., 244 (see Schaffer), 272 Wallihan, E. F., 245, 272 Wallis, G. C., 297, 316 Walter, G. H., 343, 349 Ward, A. S., 172, 204 Wwd, J. W.. 150 Wardip, R. A., 33, 78 Wwr, J. O., 57 (see Barre), 68, 7.9 Wuring, E. J., 121, 166 Warington, K., 121, 166 Warren, G . F., 147, 149, 165 Wascher, H., 175, 206 Watkins, W. I., 196 (see Thorp), 204 Watson, J. R., 31, 77 Watson, S. J., 275, 278, 280, 281, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 305, 316, 373 (see Ferguson) , 382 Watts, J. W., 33, 35, 78 Watts, V., 127, 166 Weaver, J. W., Jr., 299, 301, 302, 304, 316 Weaver, L. R., 261, 262, 271 Webb, H. J., 288, 316 Webb, R. W., 59, SO Wedernikov, V. V., 265, 272 Weidinger, A., 57, 79 Weihing, R. M., 363 (see Robertson), 368 (see Robertson), 369 (see Robertson), 371 (see Robertson), 380 (see Robertson), 384 Weindling, R., 31, 77 Weir, W. W., 266, 272 Welch, C. D., 18 (see Hall), 76 Welch, J. E., 132, 166 Welch, J. S., 358, 359, 366, 384 Went, F. W., 136, 137, 138, 266 Wester, R. E., 27 (see Neal), 77, 122, 140, 164, 166 Wheeting, L. C., 84, 110, 111 Whisler, P. A., 302, 316 Whitaker, T. W., 121, 127, 134, 162, 154 White, J. W., 95, 111 Whiteside, E. P., 185, 199, 201, 206 Whiting, A. L., 90, 111 Whitman, E. W., 359 (see Klages), 364 (see Klages), 367 (see Klages), 371 (see Klages), 373 (see Klages), 380 (see Klages), 381 (see. Klages), 383 Whitney, D. J., 212, 232
401
AUTHOR INDEX
Whitt, D. M., 100 (see Smith, D. D.), 111
Whyte, R. O., 338, 349 Wiegner, G., 278, 296, 316 Willaman, J. J., 283, 312 Willard, C. J., 213, 214, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 227, 229, 232, 298 (see Miller, R. C.),313 Williams, B. H., 196 (see Thorp), 204 Williams, P. S., 286 (see Autrey), 311 Williams, R. D'., 212, 232 Williamson, M. N., 49, 79 Willis, A. L., 185 (see Jackson), 203 Willis, L. G., 19, 76 Wilson, B. D., 93, 110 Wilson, H. A., 268, 272 Wilson, J. K., 284, 285, 286, 288, 316 Wilson, R. D., 121, 166 Winchell, J. H., 330, 349 Windhcnser, C., 293, S l i , 316 Winright, G. L., 384 Winters, E., 175, 206 Wipprecht, R., 19 (see Gaines), 33 (see Gaines, J. C.), 37 (see Gaines, J. CJ, 76, 78
Wiseman, H. G., 290 (see Shepherd), 291 (see Shepherd), 296 (see Shepherd), 297 (see Kane), 303 (see Shepherd), 304 (see Shepherd), 306 (see Shepherd), 307 (see Shepherd), 308 (see Shepherd), 309 (see Shepherd), 313, 314 Wittwer, S. H., 138, 140, 166 Wood, A. D., 229, 232
Wood, J. K., 266, 2-70 Woodman, H. E., 276, 280, 281, 284, 290, 311, 316
Woodward, 0. C., 25 (see Berkley), 57 (see Berkley), 58 (see Berkley), 74, 79
Woodward, T. E., 276, 285 (see Shepherd), 286, 298, 299, 314, 316, 366 (see Semple), 384 Work, R. A., 262, 269 Wright, N. C., 277, 297, 305, 316 Wyatt, F. A., 94 (see Brown, A. LJ, 109 Wylie, C . E., 301, 304, 316
Y Yarnell, S. H., 125, 166 Yates, F., 31 (see Hansford), 76 Yeager, A. F., 150, 166 Yemm, E. W., 277, 316 Young, 318 Young, M. T., 33 (see Gaines, R. C.), 35, 78
Young, P. A. 124, 166 Younge, 0. R., 19, 76
z Zaumeyer, W. J., 123, 166 Zervigon, M. G., 59, 79 Zingg, A. W., 100 (see Smith, D. D.), 111 Zink, F. J., 295, 316 Zink, F. W., 147, 149, 166 Zunker, F., 254, 272
Subject Index A Agrostk alba, 218, 353 Alfalfa, 106, 336, 353, 359, 364, 368, 370, 371
digestibility, 276 Allium cepa, 122, 132 Alluvial soils, 184 Alopecurua pratenak, 359 Alsike clover, 353, 359 Alta fescue, 218, 219 Ammonia, anhydrous, 42, 116-117 Andropogan furcatua, 162, 168, 171 Anthonornus grandis, 34-36 Aphis gossypii, 33 Asparagus, 135, 148 Asparagus oficinalis, 135 Austrian winter peas, 101 Azotobacter, 93 Azotogen, 93
Brunigra soils, 203 Bur clover, 356 Butyric acid, 280, 281, 282, 283, 285, 286, 291
U
B Barn driers, 300-301 Barnyard manure, 100-101 production in’ US., 105 Beans, green, 119, 123, 140 snap, 119, 124, 140, 148, 150 Beets, 119, 120, 141, 148, 149, 150 Bentonite, 88 Benzene hexachloride, 35, 37, 38, 39 Bermuda grass, 219 Beta cicla, 93 Betula nigra, 323 Birdsfoot trefoil, 219, 336, 353, 368, 370 Bloat, 367-368 Brassica oleracea, 126, 134-135 Braesica oleracea acephala, 93 Brassica pekinensis, 122 Broadleaf trefoil, 358 Broccoli, 120 Bromegrass, 219, 225, 337, 353, 356, 358, 359
composition, 276 Bromua inermis, 217, 276, 337, 353
Cabbage, 119, 126, 134-135 Cabbage yellows, 126 Cantaloupe, 122, 127, 134 Capsicum frutescens, 127, 131-132 Carotene, 279, 297, 309 Carrot, 132, 141, 143, 144, 146, 148, 150 Cauliflower, 120, 121, 137, 141 Celery, 116, 119, 120, 142 Cercospora zebrina, 213 Chernoeems, 82, 172, 193, 194, 197 Chinese cabbage, 122 Chloris gayana, 356 p-chlorophenoxyacetic acid, 138, 139, 140 a-o-chlorophenoxypropionic acid, 141 Citrullus vulgark, 123 Claypan formation, 183-184 Coal mine spoils, 317-349 acidity, 323-324 erosion, 321-322 establishment of pastures, 334, 336-338 graded, 333-335 grading, 334, 338-341 land-use capability, 332-335 legislation, 344 physical condition, 322-323 plant nutrient status, 324 presence of sulfides, 331 profile development, 325-326 reclamation costs, 341343 reforestation, 329330, 335-336 research needs, 346 sulfuric acid production, 323-326 topography, 319-322 ungraded, 332-333 volunteer vegetation, 328329 Coal, strip mining, 318 Cotton, 2-74, 101, 106 aDhis iniurv. . 33 “
402
I
403
SUBJECT INDEX
bacterial blight, 30-31 boll weevil, 32, 34-36 bollworm, 36-37 boron requirements, 19 breeding systems, 66-70 competitive position among fibers,
Cucumis melo, 122, 127, 134 Cucumk sativus, 122, 134 Cucurbita maxima, 133 Cucurbita pepo, 133
D
5-10
defoliation, 44, 48-49 diseases, 26-32 drought effects, 24-25 end-uses, 6-7 fertilization, 41-42, 47 fiber development, 56-58 fiber fineness, 60-62 fiber length, 58-59 fiber properties, 56-63 fiber strength, 25, 59-60 flame cultivation, 42-43 fleahopper injury, 33-34 floral initiation, 11 Fusarium wilt, 28 ginning practices, 50-56 hormone responses, 13-14 hybrid vigor, 70-71 improvement, 63-74 injury by 2,4-D, 13 insecticide recommendations, 39, 43-44 insect pests, 32-40 irrigation, 49-50 leafworm, 38 linters, 2 mechanical pickers, 3, 44-45, 49, 73 mineral nutrition, 14-23 nitrogen metabolism, 20-23 phosphorus requirements, 17-18 photoperiodism, 12 physiology, 11-25 pink bollworm, 37-38 production in U.S.,3, 4 production practices, 40-50 research program, 9-10 root knot, 31-32 root rot, 26-28 seed treatment, 26 sodium requirements, 15-17 thrip injury, 32-33 Verticillium wilt, 29-30 Cover crops, 102-101 Crimson clover, 96 Cucumber, 122. 124, 134
D.D.T., 35, 37, 38, 39 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 13, 138,. 147-148
Dactylis glomerata, 217, 337, 358 Dallis grass, 218-219, 356 Daucus carota, 132 DrainaFe, 258-259, 262-267
E Egg plant, 119, 132-133 Erosion, 97, 98-100
F Fayette silt loam, 170 Feldspars, 185, 191 Fertilizers, irrigated pastures, 371-373 Ladino clover, 214-217 vegetable crops, 116-120 Fertilizer placement, 118 Festuca elatior, 218, 337, 354 Festuca rubra, 219 Forage crops, artificial drying, 304-306 httndling losses, 306-309 preservation and storage, 273-315 salt tolerance, 355, 356 Forages, lignin content, 279 Fusarium vasinjectum, 28-29
a Glycinc soja, 96 Gossypium arboreum, 3, 69 Gossypium barbadense, 3, 26, 28, 30, 64, 69
Gossypium hirsutum, 3, 63, 69, 70 Gossypium herbaceum, 69 Gossypium thurberi, 69, 72 Grass juice factor, 291 Green manure, 101-104 Grey-brown Podzolic soils, 188, 189, 171, 172, 190, 194, 197
404
SUBJECT INDEX
Grey-wooded soils, 172 Ground water, 258, 267 H Hairy vetch, 93 Hay, barn drying, 299304 field-cured, 294-299 field losses, 296 heating, 297-299 leaching losses, 277-278 losses in barn curing, 303-304 respiration losses, 276-277, 296 storage losses, 297-299 swath-curing, 295 time to cut, 295 windrowing, 295 Heliothis armigera, 36-37 Herbicides, 116-149 oils, 148 selective, 146 Helgroda marioni, 31-32 Heterosis, 128 Hydrous mica, 88 I Illite, 166, 175, 185 Infiltration, 262 Infiltration rate, 268 Interceptor drains, 263, Irrigated pastures, 351381 carrying capacity, 375-376 establishment, 360364 fertilizer applications, 371-373 grazing management, 365375 land preparation, 360-362 molybdenum toxicity, 373-374 production costs, 376-379 productive mixtures, 356360 rotation grazing, 365-366 saline soils, 352, 354 seed bed preparation, 362-364 seeding operations, 363-364 soil requirements, 352-356 stand management, 364-365 suitability of saline soils, 354 U.S. acreage, 351 water management, 369-371 weed control, 374-375
nitrogen, 108-109 Irrigation, 234, 258-262 Isopropyl phenylcarbamate, 149 Italian ryegrass, 356 J
Juglans nigra, 336
E Kale, 93 Kaolinite, 14, 88, 166, 184 Kentucky bluegrass, 219, 337, 358, 359 Korean lespedeza, 336
L Lactic acid, 281, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 291
Lactuca sativa, 121 Ladino clover, 208-230, 310, 336, 353, 359, 360, 367, 368, 371, 372
acreage in US.,209, 211 adaptation, 210-212 carrying capacity, 225 cold resistance, 210-212 companion crops, 221-222 diseases, 213 establishment, 213 fall grazing, 225 fertilizer applications, 214-217 grass mixtures, 217-219 heat injury, 212 inoculation, 220-221 insect pests, 213 management, 223-225 origins, 208 pasture yields, 225 rotational grazing, 224-225 seeding methods, 222 seeding practices, 220-222 seed production, 227-229 silage, 227 soil requirements, 212 topdressing, 216-217 Lespedeza, 96, 106 Lespedeza stipulacin, 336 Lettuce, 120, 121, 122, 143, 144, 145, 148
SUBJECT INDEX
405
Lignin, 279 in soil, 87 -protein complexes, 87 Lima bean, 115, 122, 139, 140, 150 Liriodendron tulipifera, 335 Lithosols, 186, 189, 190, 194 Loess, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 199 L o h m multijlorum, 219, 356 Lolium perenne, 218, 354, 373 Lotus corniculatus, 219, 336, 353, 358, 373 Lycopersicon esculentum, 122
Oatgrass, 355, 359, 364 Onion, 115, 122, 132, 143, 144, 145, 148, 149 Orchardgrass, 217, 219, 225, 358, 359, 366, 371 Organic phosphorus, 88
M
P
Meadow fescue, 218, 354,358, 359 Meadow foxtail, 219, 359 Medicago hispida, 356 Medicago saliva, 217, 276, 336, 353 Melilotus alba, 336 Melilotus officinalis, 336 Melilotus sp, 328 Methocel, 144 Moisture characteristic, 236, 239, 240-246 Moisture equivalent, 260, 261 Molybdenum, deficiency, 121 irrigated pastures, 373-374 Montmorillonite, 14, 88, 144, 166, 185 Morrow plots, 200, 201 Muskmelon, 119, 134
Paspalurn dilatum, 218, 356, 373 Pastures, irrigated, 351-381 Peas, 115, 119, 123, 148, 149 Pectinopliorn gossypiella, 37-38 Pedalfers, 158, 192 Pedocals, 192 Pepper, 119, 127, 131-132 Perennial ryegrass, 354, 356, 364, 371 Permeability, field measurements, 267268 soil, 246-256 Pha1ail;s arundinacea, 218, 354 Phaseolus lunatus, 122 Phaseolus vulgaris, 123 Phleum pratense, 217, 278, 353 Phymatotrichum root-rot, 26-28 Pisum sativum, 123 Pisum sativum arvense, 101-102 Planosols, 185, 189, 192, 194, 197 Platanus occidentalis, 328, 335 Poa pralensis, 97, 201, 219, 337, 358 Populus deltoides, 328, 335 Pore size distribution, 241 Potassium cyanate, 149 Prairie soils, 82, 157-203 age, 182-186 biotic factors, 167-173 calcium content, 164 changes under cultivation, 198-202 characteristics, 159 classification, 192-196 climatic range, 173-175 crop yields, 197-203 distribution, 161, 196-197 erosional effects, 202-203 families, 195-196
N u-naphthaleneacetic acid, 140 i3-naphthoxyacetic acid, 138, 139, 140, 141 Narrowleaf trefoil, 358 Nitrate accumulation, 91 Nitrification, 89-91 photochemical, 90 Nitrobacter, 86 Nitrogation, 116 Nitrogen, cycle, 89 in rain water, 93 soil, see Soil nitrogen Nitrogen fertilizers, consumption in North Central states, 107 consumption in U.S.,105 Nitrogen fixation, 86 non-symbiotic, 92, 93-94 symbiotic, 91-93
Nitrojection, 117 Nitrosomonas, 86 0
406
8UBJECT INDEX
geological origin, 177-178 mineralogical composition, 176-177 movement of clay, 191 organic matter distribution, 171 parent materials, 176-176 phosphorus content, 164 properties of horizons, 165 rotations, 197 series, 194-195 soil forming factors, 166-190 thickness of solum, 180-182 topography, 186-190 Preasure plates, 239 Psallus seriatus, 33-34 Pyrites, 323, 328, 327
Q Quartz, 185 Quercus borealis, 336
R Radiophosphorus, 17, 18 Rayon production in US.,5 Reclamation, coal mine spoils, 335344 Red clover, 353 Reddish Prairie soils, 192, 194, 197 Redtop, 218, 219, 353 Reed canarygrass, 218, 354, 356, 359 Rhodesgrass, 356 Rhimbium, 92 Robink pseudoacacia, 335 Rock phosphate, 19 Roughage, 275, 280, 293, 307, 308, 309 Rye, 93 Ryegrass, 218, 219
S Saline soils, 352, 354 Salix nigra, 323, 328 Sclerotink trifoliorum, 213 Secale cercale, 93 Seed, coated, 144 pelleted, 143-148 Silage, 279-294 acids present, 283 addition of acids, 287-288
A.I.V. process, 287 characteristics, 280 cold fermentation process, 286-287 controlled fermentation, 284-290 fermentation losses, 290-291 fermentation process, 284-290 inoculation, 291-292 Ladino clover, 227 making, 280 moldy, 281-282 sterilization, 288-289 warm fermentation process, 286-287 Soils, nitrifying capacity, 86 nitrogen content, 82 Soil moisture, constants, 243 freezing point method, 239 vapor pressure method, 239 Soil nitrogen, 81-109 adsorption by clays, 87-88 barnyard manure, 100-101 chemistry of, 87-89 climatic factors, 83-87 cropping practices, 94-98 crop removal losses, 94, 96 erosional losses, 97, 98-100 green manuring, 101-104 in irrigated areas, 108-109 in midwest soils, 107-108 in southeast soils, 106-107 in temperate soils, 83-84 in the Great Plains, 108 in tropical soils, 85-86 leaching losses, 97 trends in US., 104-109 Soil permeability, 246-258 saturated soil, 247-249 unsaturated soil, 249-253 Soil water, 234-268 diffusion, 256-258 Solanum melongena, 132-133 Sorghum vulgare, 93, 295, 368 Soybeans, 96, 101, 102 8pinacea oleracea, 124 Spinach, 124, 147, 148, 149 sprays, pre-emergence, 142, 146, 147 Squash, 133-134 Strawberry clover, 354 Sudangrass, 93, 101, 296, 368 Superphosphate, 19, 145
407
SUBJECT INDEX
Sweet corn, 115, 119, 120, 122, 128, 147, 148, 150 Swiss chard, 93
T Tall fescue, 337, 354, 359 Tama silt loam, 159, 162, 163, 164, 202 Tedding, 295 Tensiometer, 261 Thermistors, 239 Timothy, 353, 358 Tomato. 115, 119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 127, 129-131, 135, 136, 137-139, 142, 143, 145 disease resistance, 124-126 Toxaphene, 35, 37, 38, 39 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 141 a-2,4,5-trichlorophenoxypropionic acid, 139 Trijolium hybridum, 210, 353 Trijolium incarnatum, 96 Trijolium pralense, 210, 278, 353 Trifolium repens, 208-230,310, 336, 358, 373 Tropical soils, 85-86 Typha latifolia, 329
U Urea, 117, 118
future developments, 151-152 growth control techniques, 135-141 harvesting machinery, 149-151 molybdenum requirements, 120 new varieties, 121-127 nitrogen sprays, 118 plow-sole fert,iliration, 119 sodium requirements, 120 starter solutions, 119-120 thinning, 143 trace elements, 120-121 utilization of heterosis, 128-135 Verticillium albo-atrum, 29-30 Vetch, 96, 101, 102 Vicia villosa, 92 Vitamin A, 279 Vitamin C,297 Vitamin D,291, 297
W Watermelon, 123 Wecd control, 146-149 Whiptail, 120-121 White clover, 358, 364 White sweet clover, 336 Wiesenboden, 188, 189, 190, 194 Wilting point, 261,262
X Xanthomonas malvacearum. 30-31
V Vegetable production, 114-152 acreage, 114 changes by states, 114-115 direct field seeding, 142-146 fertilization, 116-120 fertilizer placement, 118 fruit, set.ting, 137-141
Y Yellow sweet clover, 336
z Zea mays, 122, 128 Zircon, 183
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