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Rapra Review Reports

Report 159

ISSN: 0889-3144

Biopolymers

R.M. Johnson, L.Y. Mwaikambo and N. Tucker

Volume 14, Number 3, 2003

Rapra Review Reports Expert overviews covering the science and technology of rubber and plastics

RAPRA REVIEW REPORTS A Rapra Review Report comprises three sections, as follows: 1. A commissioned expert review, discussing a key topic of current interest, and referring to the References and Abstracts section. Reference numbers in brackets refer to item numbers from the References and Abstracts section. Where it has been necessary for completeness to cite sources outside the scope of the Rapra Abstracts database, these are listed at the end of the review, and cited in the text as a.1, a.2, etc. 2. A comprehensive References and Abstracts section, resulting from a search of the Rapra Polymer Library database. The format of the abstracts is outlined in the sample record below. 3. An index to the References and Abstracts section, derived from the indexing terms which are added to the abstracts records on the database to aid retrieval.

Source of original article Title

Item 1 Macromolecules

33, No.6, 21st March 2000, p.2171-83 EFFECT OF THERMAL HISTORY ON THE RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANES Pil Joong Yoon; Chang Dae Han Akron,University The effect of thermal history on the rheological behaviour of ester- and ether-based commercial thermoplastic PUs (Estane 5701, 5707 and 5714 from B.F.Goodrich) was investigated. It was found that the injection moulding temp. used for specimen preparation had a marked effect on the variations of dynamic storage and loss moduli of specimens with time observed during isothermal annealing. Analysis of FTIR spectra indicated that variations in hydrogen bonding with time during isothermal annealing very much resembled variations of dynamic storage modulus with time during isothermal annealing. Isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiments indicated that the thermoplastic PUs exhibited a hysteresis effect in the heating and cooling processes. It was concluded that the microphase separation transition or order-disorder transition in thermoplastic PUs could not be determined from the isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiment. The plots of log dynamic storage modulus versus log loss modulus varied with temp. over the entire range of temps. (110-190C) investigated. 57 refs.

Location

GOODRICH B.F. USA

Authors and affiliation

Abstract

Companies or organisations mentioned

Accession no.771897

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Volume 4

Report 3

Advanced Composites, D.K. Thomas, RAE, Farnborough.

Report 37

Report 4

Liquid Crystal Polymers, M.K. Cox, ICI, Wilton.

Polymers in Aerospace Applications, W.W. Wright, University of Surrey.

Report 5

CAD/CAM in the Polymer Industry, N.W. Sandland and M.J. Sebborn, Cambridge Applied Technology.

Report 39

Polymers in Chemically Resistant Applications, D. Cattell, Cattell Consultancy Services.

Report 8

Engineering Thermoplastics, I.T. Barrie, Consultant.

Report 41

Failure of Plastics, S. Turner, Queen Mary College.

Report 11

Communications Applications of Polymers, R. Spratling, British Telecom.

Report 42

Polycarbonates, R. Pakull, U. Grigo, D. Freitag, Bayer AG.

Report 12

Process Control in the Plastics Industry, R.F. Evans, Engelmann & Buckham Ancillaries.

Report 43

Polymeric Materials from Renewable Resources, J.M. Methven, UMIST.

Report 44

Flammability and Flame Retardants in Plastics, J. Green, FMC Corp.

Volume 2 Report 13

Injection Moulding of Engineering Thermoplastics, A.F. Whelan, London School of Polymer Technology.

Report 45

Composites - Tooling and Component Processing, N.G. Brain, Tooltex.

Report 14

Polymers and Their Uses in the Sports and Leisure Industries, A.L. Cox and R.P. Brown, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 46

Quality Today in Polymer Processing, S.H. Coulson, J.A. Cousans, Exxon Chemical International Marketing.

Report 47

Report 15

Polyurethane, Materials, Processing and Applications, G. Woods, Consultant.

Chemical Analysis of Polymers, G. Lawson, Leicester Polytechnic.

Report 16

Polyetheretherketone, D.J. Kemmish, ICI, Wilton.

Report 17

Extrusion, G.M. Gale, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 49

Report 18

Agricultural and Horticultural Applications of Polymers, J.C. Garnaud, International Committee for Plastics in Agriculture.

Blends and Alloys of Engineering Thermoplastics, H.T. van de Grampel, General Electric Plastics BV.

Report 50

Report 19

Recycling and Disposal of Plastics Packaging, R.C. Fox, Plas/Tech Ltd.

Automotive Applications of Polymers II, A.N.A. Elliott, Consultant.

Report 51

Report 20

Pultrusion, L. Hollaway, University of Surrey.

Biomedical Applications of Polymers, C.G. Gebelein, Youngstown State University / Florida Atlantic University.

Report 21

Materials Handling in the Polymer Industry, H. Hardy, Chronos Richardson Ltd.

Report 52

Polymer Supported Chemical Reactions, P. Hodge, University of Manchester.

Report 22

Electronics Applications of Polymers, M.T.Goosey, Plessey Research (Caswell) Ltd.

Report 53

Weathering of Polymers, S.M. Halliwell, Building Research Establishment.

Report 23

Offshore Applications of Polymers, J.W.Brockbank, Avon Industrial Polymers Ltd.

Report 54

Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, A.R. Nutt, Arnold Nutt & Co. and J. Wade.

Report 24

Recent Developments in Materials for Food Packaging, R.A. Roberts, Pira Packaging Division.

Report 55

Computer Modelling of Polymer Processing, E. Andreassen, Å. Larsen and E.L. Hinrichsen, Senter for Industriforskning, Norway.

Volume 3

Report 56

Plastics in High Temperature Applications, J. Maxwell, Consultant.

Report 25

Report 57

Joining of Plastics, K.W. Allen, City University.

Report 58

Physical Testing of Rubber, R.P. Brown, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 59

Polyimides - Materials, Processing and Applications, A.J. Kirby, Du Pont (U.K.) Ltd. Physical Testing of Thermoplastics, S.W. Hawley, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Foams and Blowing Agents, J.M. Methven, Cellcom Technology Associates.

Volume 5

Report 26

Polymers and Structural Composites in Civil Engineering, L. Hollaway, University of Surrey.

Report 27

Injection Moulding of Rubber, M.A. Wheelans, Consultant.

Report 28

Adhesives for Structural and Engineering Applications, C. O’Reilly, Loctite (Ireland) Ltd.

Report 60

Report 29

Polymers in Marine Applications, C.F.Britton, Corrosion Monitoring Consultancy.

Volume 6

Report 30

Non-destructive Testing of Polymers, W.N. Reynolds, National NDT Centre, Harwell.

Report 61

Food Contact Polymeric Materials, J.A. Sidwell, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 31

Silicone Rubbers, B.R. Trego and H.W.Winnan, Dow Corning Ltd.

Report 62

Coextrusion, D. Djordjevic, Klöckner ER-WE-PA GmbH.

Report 63

Conductive Polymers II, R.H. Friend, University of Cambridge, Cavendish Laboratory.

Report 64

Designing with Plastics, P.R. Lewis, The Open University. Decorating and Coating of Plastics, P.J. Robinson, International Automotive Design.

Report 32

Fluoroelastomers - Properties and Applications, D. Cook and M. Lynn, 3M United Kingdom Plc and 3M Belgium SA.

Report 33

Polyamides, R.S. Williams and T. Daniels, T & N Technology Ltd. and BIP Chemicals Ltd.

Report 65

Report 34

Extrusion of Rubber, J.G.A. Lovegrove, Nova Petrochemicals Inc.

Report 66

Report 35

Polymers in Household Electrical Goods, D.Alvey, Hotpoint Ltd.

Reinforced Thermoplastics - Composition, Processing and Applications, P.G. Kelleher, New Jersey Polymer Extension Center at Stevens Institute of Technology.

Report 67

Report 36

Developments in Additives to Meet Health and Environmental Concerns, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Plastics in Thermal and Acoustic Building Insulation, V.L. Kefford, MRM Engineering Consultancy.

Report 68

Cure Assessment by Physical and Chemical Techniques, B.G. Willoughby, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 69

Toxicity of Plastics and Rubber in Fire, P.J. Fardell, Building Research Establishment, Fire Research Station.

Report 70

Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Polymers, M.E. Adams, D.J. Buckley, R.E. Colborn, W.P. England and D.N. Schissel, General Electric Corporate Research and Development Center.

Report 71

Rotational Moulding, R.J. Crawford, The Queen’s University of Belfast.

Report 72

Advances in Injection Moulding, C.A. Maier, Econology Ltd.

Report 94

Compressive Behaviour of Composites, C. Soutis, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine.

Report 95

Thermal Analysis of Polymers, M. P. Sepe, Dickten & Masch Manufacturing Co.

Report 96

Polymeric Seals and Sealing Technology, J.A. Hickman, St Clair (Polymers) Ltd.

Volume 9 Report 97

Rubber Compounding Ingredients - Need, Theory and Innovation, Part II: Processing, Bonding, Fire Retardants, C. Hepburn, University of Ulster.

Report 98

Advances in Biodegradable Polymers, G.F. Moore & S.M. Saunders, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 99

Recycling of Rubber, H.J. Manuel and W. Dierkes, Vredestein Rubber Recycling B.V.

Volume 7 Report 73

Reactive Processing of Polymers, M.W.R. Brown, P.D. Coates and A.F. Johnson, IRC in Polymer Science and Technology, University of Bradford.

Report 74

Speciality Rubbers, J.A. Brydson.

Report 75

Plastics and the Environment, I. Boustead, Boustead Consulting Ltd.

Report 100 Photoinitiated Polymerisation - Theory and Applications, J.P. Fouassier, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie, Mulhouse.

Report 76

Polymeric Precursors for Ceramic Materials, R.C.P. Cubbon.

Report 101 Solvent-Free Adhesives, T.E. Rolando, H.B. Fuller Company.

Report 77

Advances in Tyre Mechanics, R.A. Ridha, M. Theves, Goodyear Technical Center.

Report 102 Plastics in Pressure Pipes, T. Stafford, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 78

PVC - Compounds, Processing and Applications, J.Leadbitter, J.A. Day, J.L. Ryan, Hydro Polymers Ltd.

Report 103

Report 79

Rubber Compounding Ingredients - Need, Theory and Innovation, Part I: Vulcanising Systems, Antidegradants and Particulate Fillers for General Purpose Rubbers, C. Hepburn, University of Ulster.

Report 80

Anti-Corrosion Polymers: PEEK, PEKK and Other Polyaryls, G. Pritchard, Kingston University.

Report 81

Thermoplastic Elastomers - Properties and Applications, J.A. Brydson.

Report 82

Advances in Blow Moulding Process Optimization, Andres Garcia-Rejon,Industrial Materials Institute, National Research Council Canada.

Report 83

Molecular Weight Characterisation of Synthetic Polymers, S.R. Holding and E. Meehan, Rapra Technology Ltd. and Polymer Laboratories Ltd.

Report 84

Rheology and its Role in Plastics Processing, P. Prentice, The Nottingham Trent University.

Gas Assisted Moulding, T.C. Pearson, Gas Injection Ltd.

Report 104 Plastics Profile Extrusion, R.J. Kent, Tangram Technology Ltd. Report 105 Rubber Extrusion Theory and Development, B.G. Crowther. Report 106 Properties and Applications of Elastomeric Polysulfides, T.C.P. Lee, Oxford Brookes University. Report 107 High Performance Polymer Fibres, P.R. Lewis, The Open University. Report 108 Chemical Characterisation of Polyurethanes, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Volume 10 Report 109 Rubber Injection Moulding - A Practical Guide, J.A. Lindsay. Report 110 Long-Term and Accelerated Ageing Tests on Rubbers, R.P. Brown, M.J. Forrest and G. Soulagnet, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Volume 8

Report 111

Polymer Product Failure, P.R. Lewis, The Open University.

Report 85

Ring Opening Polymerisation, N. Spassky, Université Pierre et Marie Curie.

Report 112 Polystyrene - Synthesis, Production and Applications, J.R. Wünsch, BASF AG.

Report 86

High Performance Engineering Plastics, D.J. Kemmish, Victrex Ltd.

Report 113 Rubber-Modified Thermoplastics, H. Keskkula, University of Texas at Austin.

Report 87

Rubber to Metal Bonding, B.G. Crowther, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 114 Developments in Polyacetylene - Nanopolyacetylene, V.M. Kobryanskii, Russian Academy of Sciences.

Report 88

Plasticisers - Selection, Applications and Implications, A.S. Wilson.

Report 115 Metallocene-Catalysed Polymerisation, W. Kaminsky, University of Hamburg.

Report 89

Polymer Membranes - Materials, Structures and Separation Performance, T. deV. Naylor, The Smart Chemical Company.

Report 116 Compounding in Co-rotating Twin-Screw Extruders, Y. Wang, Tunghai University.

Report 90

Rubber Mixing, P.R. Wood.

Report 117 Rapid Prototyping, Tooling and Manufacturing, R.J.M. Hague and P.E. Reeves, Edward Mackenzie Consulting.

Report 91

Recent Developments in Epoxy Resins, I. Hamerton, University of Surrey.

Report 118 Liquid Crystal Polymers - Synthesis, Properties and Applications, D. Coates, CRL Ltd.

Report 92

Continuous Vulcanisation of Elastomer Profiles, A. Hill, Meteor Gummiwerke.

Report 119 Rubbers in Contact with Food, M.J. Forrest and J.A. Sidwell, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 93

Advances in Thermoforming, J.L. Throne, Sherwood Technologies Inc.

Report 120 Electronics Applications of Polymers II, M.T. Goosey, Shipley Ronal.

Volume 11 Report 121 Polyamides as Engineering Thermoplastic Materials, I.B. Page, BIP Ltd. Report 122 Flexible Packaging - Adhesives, Coatings and Processes, T.E. Rolando, H.B. Fuller Company. Report 123 Polymer Blends, L.A. Utracki, National Research Council Canada. Report 124 Sorting of Waste Plastics for Recycling, R.D. Pascoe, University of Exeter.

Report 147 Rubber Product Failure, Roger P. Brown Report 148 Plastics Waste – Feedstock Recycling, Chemical Recycling and Incineration, A. Tukker, TNO Report 149 Analysis of Plastics, Martin J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd. Report 150 Mould Sticking, Fouling and Cleaning, D.E. Packham, Materials Research Centre, University of Bath Report 151 Rigid Plastics Packaging - Materials, Processes and Applications, F. Hannay, Nampak Group Research & Development

Report 125 Structural Studies of Polymers by Solution NMR, H.N. Cheng, Hercules Incorporated.

Report 152 Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers, A.K. Bledzki, V.E. Sperber and O. Faruk, University of Kassel

Report 126 Composites for Automotive Applications, C.D. Rudd, University of Nottingham.

Report 153 Polymers in Telecommunication Devices, G.H. Cross, University of Durham

Report 127 Polymers in Medical Applications, B.J. Lambert and F.-W. Tang, Guidant Corp., and W.J. Rogers, Consultant.

Report 154 Polymers in Building and Construction, S.M. Halliwell, BRE

Report 128 Solid State NMR of Polymers, P.A. Mirau, Lucent Technologies. Report 129 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Photo-oxidation, D.C. Wright. Report 130 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Chemical Attack, D.C. Wright. Report 131 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Thermo-oxidation, D.C. Wright. Report 132 Stabilisers for Polyolefins, C. Kröhnke and F. Werner, Clariant Huningue SA.

Volume 12 Report 133 Advances in Automation for Plastics Injection Moulding, J. Mallon, Yushin Inc. Report 134 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy of Polymers, J.L. Koenig, Case Western Reserve University. Report 135 Polymers in Sport and Leisure, R.P. Brown. Report 136 Radiation Curing, R.S. Davidson, DavRad Services. Report 137 Silicone Elastomers, P. Jerschow, Wacker-Chemie GmbH. Report 138 Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, N. Chaiear, Khon Kaen University. Report 139 Rubber Analysis - Polymers, Compounds and Products, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd. Report 140 Tyre Compounding for Improved Performance, M.S. Evans, Kumho European Technical Centre. Report 141 Particulate Fillers for Polymers, Professor R.N. Rothon, Rothon Consultants and Manchester Metropolitan University. Report 142 Blowing Agents for Polyurethane Foams, S.N. Singh, Huntsman Polyurethanes. Report 143 Adhesion and Bonding to Polyolefins, D.M. Brewis and I. Mathieson, Institute of Surface Science & Technology, Loughborough University. Report 144 Rubber Curing Systems, R.N. Datta, Flexsys BV.

Volume 13 Report 145 Multi-Material Injection Moulding, V. Goodship and J.C. Love, The University of Warwick. Report 146 In-Mould Decoration of Plastics, J.C. Love and V. Goodship, The University of Warwick

Report 155 Styrenic Copolymers, Andreas Chrisochoou and Daniel Dufour, Bayer AG Report 156 Life Cycle Assessment and Environmental Impact of Polymeric Products, T.J. O’Neill, Polymeron Consultancy Network

Volume 14 Report 157 Developments in Colorants for Plastics, Ian N. Christensen Report 158 Geosynthetics, D.I. Cook

Biopolymers

R.M. Johnson, L.Y. Mwaikambo and N. Tucker (Warwick Manufacturing Group)

ISBN 1-85957-379-7

Biopolymers

Contents 1.

2.

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 3 1.1

Biopolymers .................................................................................................................................... 3

1.2

Biodisintegratables or Biodeteriorating Polymers ......................................................................... 3

1.3

Biodegradability .............................................................................................................................. 4

1.4

Environmental Impact .................................................................................................................... 4

1.5

Market Size ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Synthesis of Biopolymers ........................................................................................................................ 4 2.1

Cellulose ......................................................................................................................................... 5

2.2

Starch .............................................................................................................................................. 7

2.3

Hemicellulose ................................................................................................................................. 9

2.4

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) ....................................................................................................... 9

2.5

Tannins .......................................................................................................................................... 10

2.6

2.7

Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) .................................................................................................11 2.6.1 The Structure of CNSL ......................................................................................................11 2.6.2 Polymer Synthesis of CNSL .............................................................................................11 Rosins ............................................................................................................................................ 12

2.8

Lignin ............................................................................................................................................ 13

2.9

Polylactic Acids and Polylactides ................................................................................................. 14

2.10 Other ............................................................................................................................................. 14 3.

Commercially Available Biopolymers .................................................................................................. 15

4.

Uses of Biopolymers............................................................................................................................... 15

5.

4.1

General Uses ................................................................................................................................. 15

4.2

Uses of Specific Polymer Types ................................................................................................... 18

Manufacturing Technologies for Biopolymers.................................................................................... 19 5.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 19

5.2

Manufacturing Methods ................................................................................................................ 19

5.3

Additives ....................................................................................................................................... 19 5.3.1 Plasticisers ........................................................................................................................ 20 5.3.2 Lubricants ......................................................................................................................... 20 5.3.3 Colourants ......................................................................................................................... 20 5.3.4 Flame Retardants .............................................................................................................. 20 5.3.5 Blowing (Foaming) Agents .............................................................................................. 20 5.3.6 Crosslinkers ...................................................................................................................... 21 5.3.7 Fillers ................................................................................................................................ 21

6.

Fillers and Reinforcement for Biopolymers ........................................................................................ 21

7.

The Markets and Economics for Biopolymers ................................................................................... 22

8.

Compostability Certification ................................................................................................................ 23

1

Biopolymers

9.

The Chemistry and Biology of Polymer Degradation ........................................................................ 24

10. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................. 24 Additional References ................................................................................................................................... 25 Abbreviations and Acronyms ....................................................................................................................... 26 Abstracts from the Polymer Library Database .......................................................................................... 27 Subject Index ............................................................................................................................................... 129 Company Index............................................................................................................................................ 143

The views and opinions expressed by authors in Rapra Review Reports do not necessarily reflect those of Rapra Technology Limited or the editor. The series is published on the basis that no responsibility or liability of any nature shall attach to Rapra Technology Limited arising out of or in connection with any utilisation in any form of any material contained therein.

2

Biopolymers

1 Introduction This review is a survey of the latest stage in the emergence of a type of polymer with perceived low environmental impact. These polymers are called with varying degrees of accuracy, biopolymers, bioplastics, environmentally degradable polymers (EDP) or natural polymers. Biopolymers are polymers that are either biological (but non-fossil) in origin, or susceptible to digestion by microorganisms or chemical breakdown in the environment (e.g., hydrolysis), or ideally, both. Such materials address the criticism that plastics, whilst undoubtedly useful, are made from irreplaceable fossil raw materials, and though durable, are difficult to dispose of at the end of useful life in any acceptable way. Biopolymers cover a wide range of materials: from crustacean-produced chitosan and plant-derived xanthan gum to starch based ‘packaging peanuts’ (a.1). The definition also includes proteins such as casein and gelatin, which are produced worldwide on a large scale (>100,000 tonnes) (a.2). In some cases material may be of a biological origin and not readily biodegradable, usually thermosets (e.g., cashew nut shell liquid based resins, tannin, vegetable oil-based polyurethane), or of a synthetic origin and biodegradable such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH). Following the traditional divide of the polymer industry, the review does not cover natural rubbers and latex, or polymer blends in any depth. In summary, the review covers polymers that are biodegradable or based on non-fossil origin ‘biofeedstocks’ (223).

1.1 Biopolymers Biopolymers may be naturally occurring materials: most materials formed in nature during the life cycles of green plants, animals, bacteria and fungi are polymers or polymer matrix composites. For example, all proteins are specific copolymers with regular arrangements of different types of α-amino acids. This natural synthesis is an extremely complex process involving many different types of enzymes (a.3) and is not as yet practical as a complete production route for commodity polymers.

Biopolymers include the polysaccharides such as cellulose, starch, the carbohydrate polymers produced by bacteria and fungi (a.3) and animal protein-based biopolymers such as wool, silk, gelatin and collagen: biopolymers, especially the fibrous ones, have been used by mankind from the earliest days of civilisation. More recently, synthetic biopolymers have been developed, mainly in response to perceived uncertainty in the continuing supply of fossil raw materials from the 1970s oil crisis onwards and more recently, the requirement for an environmentally responsible end-of-life disposal route that does not involve burning or burying. Hence, the polymer industry started to look for alternative sources of raw materials and decided upon biological routes for polymer manufacture in the belief that this would insulate them from the shock of possible future raw material supply crises. It should be noted that in some cases this involved renewing acquaintance with older biological origin source materials rather than groundbreaking research – milk based casein resin has been used as an adhesive or pigment carrier for centuries. As an example of a novel material, Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) initiated a programme, later taken up by Monsanto, that resulted in the production of a thermoplastic biodegradable polymer called ‘Biopol’ (475) made by culturing microorganisms on sugar (sucrose).

1.2 Biodisintegratables or Biodeteriorating Polymers The first generation of polymers designed to have a low environmental impact are biodisintegratables or biodeteriorating polymers. An example of such a material is 6% starch blended in with polyethylene (a.4): upon exposure to composting conditions, the starch is eaten away by microorganisms and the article disintegrates, but the 94% PE remains. Yoon and coworkers (444) prepared photodegrative admixtures of PE and starch to make PEs that disintegrate after a certain amount of exposure to UV light. It should however be noted that according to 1998 figures from Frost and Sullivan, these older materials have achieved significant market penetration and comprise 74% in raw materials terms of the European biodegradable market. However, these materials do not address the fundamental problems of end-of-life disposal, and use of non-renewable raw materials. It is therefore expected that, under pressure from the various tranches of end-of-life legislation, the market share of these materials will decline.

3

Biopolymers

1.3 Biodegradability The terminology specific to biopolymers and end-oflife disposal offered by various European and American standards authorities is reviewed by Riggle (347), who chooses the definition of biodegradability favoured by the Society of the Plastics Industry’s Degradable Polymers Council that for articles to claim to be biodegradable and compostable they should satisfy ASTM tests showing ‘conversion to carbon dioxide at 60% for a single polymer and 90% for other materials in 180 days or less, and leave no more than 10% of the original weight on a 3/8 inch screen after 12 weeks (84 days).’ The morphology and chemistry of polymers and biopolymers and the effect on biodegradation are discussed at length by Albertsson and Karlsson (441) who list the following as polymer types with enhanced environmental degradation: •

Directly biodegradable polymers

•

Autooxidisable polymers which then biodegrade

•

Water-soluble polymers

•

New forms of natural polymers

•

Photodegradable polymers

It is the first four members of this list that are most significant in terms of this review.

1.4 Environmental Impact It is arguable that since the popular introduction of polymers, the technical struggle has been to ensure sufficient environmental stability and durability of plastic articles. The industry achieved a satisfactory level of environmental stability, just in time for it to be blamed for it, because the high stability polymers were difficult to dispose of. Kitch (177) notes that landfills will be closed in Korea by 2005, New Zealand by 2010, and Germany by 2030. Further, energy recovery or incineration is unpopular with the public because of the perception of the combusting polymers as being a major source of dioxin pollution, and equally unpopular with site operators because of the consequent high running costs of waste stream separation and high capital costs of new or upgraded ‘clean’ incineration plants (51). Biopolymers have the potential to avoid both end-of-life disposal problems and future problems associated with scarcity of fossil origin raw materials.

4

The low environmental impact of biopolymers can be observed at the end and beginning of the product life cycle. In the ideal case, a biopolymer should be made from biomass (non-fossil origin) materials. At the endof-life the biopolymer should be biodisintegratable and biodegradable, or in other words capable of being consumed by microorganisms, and returned to the soil to start the process all over again. Thus during the course of its life, a biopolymer article will sequester atmospheric CO2 from plant or animal raw materials, and at the end of product life, it will be composted, to provide the raw materials for the next generation of materials. The advantages of natural origin materials over conventional polymers can include the following: •

Non-fossil origin of raw materials

•

Sequestering of atmospheric CO2

•

Service life is equivalent to fossil origin polymers – the conditions required for biodegradation are very specific

•

No requirement for an extensive and costly recovery and separation infrastructure for recycling.

1.5 Market Size Biopolymers are as yet only available in relatively small quantities compared to traditional commodity polymers. Oliver (a.5) quotes figures supplied to the European Commission for the Renewable Raw Materials Work Group of the European Climate Change Programme giving the current total European market for all polymers as 33,000,000 tonnes per annum, and the current use of renewable origin polymers as 25,000 tonnes. The report suggests that by 2010 the volume of renewable origin polymers will have risen to 500,000 tonnes per annum or about 1.5% of the current market. The effect of this low production volume is that biopolymers tend to be more expensive than the nonrenewable equivalents, and biopolymers may even require greater specific energy inputs to manufacture them than the fossil equivalents (a.6).

2 Synthesis of Biopolymers There are two kinds of polymer synthesis processes namely those occurring naturally and the man-made polymers, examples of both of which will be discussed

Biopolymers

Figure 1 Classification of naturally occurring biopolymers

in this section. A natural polymer is a macromolecule in a living organism that is formed by linking together several smaller molecules as occurs in protein formation from amino acids or DNA synthesis from nucleotides. The synthesis of the natural polymers involves enzymecatalysed, chain growth polymerisation reactions of activated monomers, which are typically formed within cells by a complex metabolic process. Naturally occurring biopolymers include the carbohydrates, proteins, and oils and fats (lipids). Also included in the group of biopolymers are chemically derived carbohydrates, and bacteria and fungi derived biodegradable polyesters such as polylactic acid (PLA). The range of materials is shown in Figure 1. The animal polysaccharides include the connecting tissue hyaluronate, the chondroitin sulfates, dermatan sulfate and keratan sulfate.

A wide range of microorganisms produce polysaccharides. Fossil-origin materials will not be discussed in this section.

2.1 Cellulose Cellulose is a skeletal polysaccharide ubiquitous in the plant kingdom and one of the commonest naturally occurring crystalline polymers. It is usually in a fibrous form, and functions as the reinforcement for the amorphous lignin and hemicelluloses resulting in a composite woody structure. The primary structure of cellulose is essentially a regular unbranched linear sequence of 1→4 linked β-D-glucose, shown in Figure 2. Neighbouring chains may form hydrogen bonds leading to the formation of microfibrils.

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of cellulose (DP is the degree of polymerisation)

5

Biopolymers

Examples of cellulose products obtained in the form of fibres are cotton, kapok and akund. It also occurs in bast and leaf form such as hemp, flax, jute fibre bundles and sisal and henequen fibre bundles respectively. Wood is another source of cellulose fibres. Cellulose is sometimes degraded (depolymerised) to produce regenerated cellulose. The process entails soaking cellulose in a sodium hydroxide solution followed by a reaction with carbon disulfide to give sodium xanthate (Figure 3). Sodium cellulose xanthate is then passed into an aqueous coagulating bath containing sulfuric acid and sodium and zinc sulfates, although other salts such as bicarbonates are also being used (a.9). Carbon disulfide is lost, producing regenerated cellulose with a degree of polymerisation chain length of around 600. Products obtained from this process are in the form of viscose rayon fibres or cellophane film.

The manufacture of cellulose acetate involves the depolymerisation of the cellulose molecule followed by acetylation, which was first attempted by Schutzenberger in 1865. However, the reaction was found to be unstable and later attempts used acetic acid and acetic anhydride producing triacetate, commonly used for cigarette filters. In the early 1900s a diacetate polymer was produced in which two hydroxyl groups were acetylated per ring leaving one hydroxyl group for hydrogen bonding. By controlling the replacement of hydroxyl groups by acetyl groups, at least 74%, and not more than 92%, of the hydroxyl groups are acetylated. The availability of one hydroxyl group might be of great benefit for the development of composite materials using polar resin matrices such as epoxies and phenolics. The diacetate is made in a two-step process in which acetylation with acetic anhydride containing a sulfuric acid catalyst gives the triacetate, followed by controlled partial hydrolysis with dilute aqueous sulfuric acid yielding the diacetate (Figure 4).

The development of thermoplastics based on cellulose and its derivatives dates back to the 19th Century when work by Braconnot and Schönbein in the preparation of cellulose nitrate was followed by the introduction of camphor as a plasticiser, giving thermoplastic cellulose nitrate. This early cellulosebased polymer, which could only be produced by moulding into film, was followed by injection mouldable cellulose acetate (421).

The development of cellulose diacetate was exploited for the manufacture of doped ‘canvas’ covered aeroplanes used since the beginning of aviation. This is because cellulose diacetate dissolves in acetone and this characteristic leads to its use to strengthen canvas, whereby acetone is sprayed onto the canvas wings and by allowing the solvent to evaporate a strong composite structure is formed. Cellulose diacetate became the major thermoplastic moulding material in the early part

Cellulose is the most abundant and renewable biopolymer comprising about 40% of all organic matter (a.8).

Figure 3 Conversion of cellulose to regenerated cellulose (viscose) using caustic soda

6

Biopolymers

Figure 4 Conversion of cellulose to regenerated cellulose (triacetate and diacetate) using acetic anhydride in sulfuric acid medium

of the twentieth century and is still used for plastic combs and toothbrushes. It is also used for apparel and photocopying transparent papers (where they exhibit high thermal resistance). The benefit of cellulose is that it is inherently biodegradable, environmentally friendly and continuously renewable.

2.2 Starch Starch is a particular form of carbohydrate and is a biopolymer of anhydroglucose units linked by α→4 linkages. It is one of the most abundant, naturally occurring biodegradable polymers made up mainly of two polysaccharides namely amylose (molecular weight of up to 2,000,000) and amylopectin (100400,000,000). Amylose is a linear 1→4 linked α-Dglucan (Figure 5) that occurs in the crystalline form in starch granules and amylopectin is an α-1,6-branched α-1,4 glucan polymer (Figure 6).

The amylose and amylopectin molecules are in an ordered arrangement within the starch granule and this gives crystallinity to the granule. Starch granules exhibit hydrophilic properties and strong intermolecular association via hydrogen bonding due to the hydroxyl groups on the granule surface. This strong hydrogen bonding association and crystallisation leads to poor thermal processing, since the melting temperature is higher than the thermal decomposition temperature and degradation sets in before thermal melting. The hydrophilicity and thermal sensitivity renders the starch molecule unsuitable for thermoplastic applications. Starch can be used alone or compounded with synthetic polymers in amounts exceeding 50%.

OH

It is believed that starch is not a true thermoplastic polymer but in the presence of plasticisers such as water, glycerin and at higher temperatures (90-180 °C) and under shear it readily melts and flows (458, 462). ‘Thermoplastic’ starch has two main disadvantages when compared to most plastics currently in use. It is water-soluble and therefore exhibits poor environmental stability, has poor mechanical properties and processability (a.10). To improve some of these properties various physical and chemical modifications of the starch molecule have been considered including blending, chemical derivation and graft copolymerisation (398, a.11, a.12). Its water resistance can be improved by mixing it with certain synthetic polymers and adding crosslinking agents such as calcium and zirconium salts and lignin (365, a.13).

Linear α-1,4-glucan – amylose (200 to 2000 anhydroglucose units)

Some of the early work in this regard involved graft copolymerisation synthesis such as starch-gpolymethylacrylate and starch-g-polystyrene. The

CH2OH

CH2OH

O

O H OH

H OH

H

O

H

O H

OH

O H

Figure 5

7

Biopolymers

O H

OH H

HO

H

CH2OH O

O CH2

CH2OH

O

O H OH

H OH

H

O

CH2OH

OH

H OH

H

O H

O H

O H

OH

O H

OH

Figure 6 Branched polymer – amylopectin (α-1,4-glucan with 1,6-glucosidic linked branches containing 20-30 anhydroglucose units)

process entails generating free radicals on starch and reacting these free radicals with the respective vinyl monomers. The starch-based copolymers obtained could be injection moulded or extruded into films with properties similar to low density polyethylene (17). However, these copolymers with vinyl polymer branches also have limited biodegradability due to the presence of these non-degradable branch units. Carvalho and co-workers (191), report that the first starch-based plastic in the market was starch blended polyethylene. This was only bio-disintegrable and not completely biodegradable within a limited time frame. Data showed that only the surface starch biodegraded leaving behind recalcitrant polyethylene. In the granular state it was used as filler for polyolefins and as a component in synthetic polymer blends.

degree of substitution of 1.5-3, imparts thermoplasticity and water resistance (a.14). Unmodified starch shows no thermal transition except the onset of thermal degradation at around 260 °C. Starch acetate of degree of substitution 1.5 shows a sharp glass transition temperature at 155 °C and starch propionate of the same degree of substitution would exhibit a glass transition of 128 °C (194). Plasticisers such as glycerol triacetate and diethyl succinate are completely miscible with starch esters (Figure 7) and can be used to improve processing. The water resistance of starch esters is greatly improved compared to the unmodified starch. Starch ester resin reinforced with plant fibres has been found to possess mechanical properties comparable to general purpose polystyrene (a.15).

CH2OR

Most of the starch-based copolymers were made with the view that they could be composted. Companies such as Novamont, Novon International, and National Starch and Chemical market a range of commercial bioplastics based upon de-structured thermoplastic starch. This starch is used as a replacement for expanded polystyrene pellets in packaging materials. The modification of starch hydroxyl groups by esterification to form starch esters of the appropriate

8

O H OR

H

O

O H

OR

Figure 7 Starch triester (R represents –COOCH3 and –CO(CH2)nCH3, n=2-18)

Biopolymers

CH2OR

CH2OR

O

O H OR

H OR

H

O OR

H OR

H

H OR

H

O H

O

O

O H

CH2OR

CH2OR

H O

O

OR

H

OR

H

OR

Figure 8 Random copolymer of mono-, di- and tri-substituted starch ester

A random copolymer of mono, di and tri-substituted starch ester is shown in Figure 8. Biodegradable plastics based on starch esters (Figure 8), and blends of starch with aliphatic polyesters are commercially available (449). Appropriately formulated starch esters, with plasticisers and other additives, provide resin compositions which can be used to make injection-moulded products and for direct lamination onto substrates such as Kraft paper. Starch acetates up to a degree of substitution of around 2.5 undergo complete and rapid biodegradation. For instance, about 70% of the carbon present in the starch triacetates can be converted to carbon dioxide at 58 °C in 45 days (449).

2.3 Hemicellulose Hemicellulose is the second most abundant polysaccharide after cellulose comprising one-fourth to one-third of most plant materials (a.16), and in the past twenty years hemicelluloses have been used as feedstock for the production of sugars. Hemicelluloses are mostly heteropolysaccharides classified according to the sugar residues present, namely xylans, mannans, arabinans and galactans, and they are either linear or

O

branched polymers. The β-1→4-D-xylan is the most abundant hemicellulose (Figure 9) built from β-1→4linked D-xylopyranosyl residue, which forms the linear backbone of the polymer. The hemicelluloses are not present in the cell wall as distinct bundles as is the case for α-cellulose (pure cellulose), but instead appear as individual molecules. Hemicelluloses are more closely associated with lignin than is cellulose, and exist in an amorphous state. The amorphous state of the hemicelluloses is evidently due to the presence of many side groups, which prevent the close association between molecules required for the formation of crystalline regions. Hydrophobic polymers have been synthesised using hemicelluloses through etherification or esterification of hydroxyl groups (a.17, a.18). Fredon and co-workers (a.16) extracted hemicelluloses from maize bran via the route of synthesised ring opening followed by laurylamine linkages with cyanoborohydride, both steps were carried out in water to produce a polymer. The polymer was extruded into a film that showed hydrophobic characteristics. This monomer, hemicellulose extracted via ring opening, is readily purified under vacuum distillation. Ring opening polymerisation of dimer is accomplished under heat, again without the need for a solvent. By controlling the purity of the dimer it is possible to produce a wide range of molecular weights of polymer.

OH

2.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) OH HO OH

Figure 9 β-D-Xylopyranose (xylose)

To date, two types of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) polymers (38) have been developed, namely polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV). These are based on fermented sugars (sucrose, glucose and lactose) with different starch feedstocks as starting materials.

9

Biopolymers

PHB was discovered as a constituent of bacterial cells in 1926 by Lemoigne, and it is biodegradable, thermoplastic and elastomeric (476). Jesudason and coworkers (463), and Hocking and co-workers (a.12), prepared PHB polymers by polymerisation of racemic β-butyrolactone in the presence of AlMe3/water catalyst and separated them into isotactic, atactic and syndiotactic fractions.

adhesives for wood. Industrial polyflavonoid tannin extracts are mostly composed of flavan-3-ol repeating units, and are smaller fractions of polysaccharides and simple sugars. Polyflavonoids in such tannin extracts have phloroglucinol or resorcinol A-rings and catechol or pyrogallol B-rings as shown in Figure 10.

(OH)

The three fractions showed varying biodegradation characteristics (318, a.19). The development of PHB was meant as a substitute for polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) polymers. Polyhydroxyalkanoates are polyoxo-esters produced intracellularly by a wide variety of bacteria for the purpose of carbon and energy storage when they are placed in an environment with limited nutrients, and are thus of biological origin (a.20, a.21). Biodegradable copolymers derived from hydroxybutyrate (HB) and hydroxyvalerate (HV) have been prepared that exhibit thermoplastic characteristics suitable for medical applications (a.19, a.22, a.23). PHA sourced PHB is reported to exhibit properties similar to those of polypropylene and its properties can be modified by blending or inclusion of other monomers (472, a.23). Other studies have indicated the possibility of producing PHA from palm oil (a.24). Polyhydroxyalkanoate from Pseudomonas oleovorans has been crosslinked to form a biodegradable rubber (457).

2.5 Tannins Tannins are defined as any group of polyphenolic plant products that can be used to tan animal skins to produce leather (a.25). There are two major classes of tannin that have been recognised; hydrolysable and condensed (a.26). Hydrolysable tannins consist of a carbohydrate core, often glucose esterified with gallic acid or ellagic acid. Condensed tannins are polymers of flavan-3-ols. However, other tannins have been identified which do not fit into these two classes (a.27). Tannins can be condensed into adhesives and used as lubricants for drilling in oil wells (57), thus providing industry with a source of renewable natural products in place of chemicals that are derived from fossil fuel (a.28). It is the condensed tannins, which will be discussed in this section. Condensed tannins are crosslinked using formaldehyde forming thermosetting polyflavonoid-formaldehyde resins that have found applications as phenolic exterior

10

5' 6' HO

8 7

1 O

2

1'

A

4' 3'

2'

OH

3

6 5

B

OH

4

OH

(OH)

Figure 10 The basic structure of condensed tannins consisting of flavanol units

The types of commercial tannin extracts are the black wattle or mimosa tannin (Acacia mearnsii), which is a bark extract, quebracho tannin (Schinopsis balansae, variety chequeno), which is a wood extract, pine tannin (Pinus radiata), which is a bark extract, pecan tannin (Carya illinoensis), which is nut pith extract and gambier tannin (Acacia catechu and Uncaria gambir), which is a leaf and shoot extract (460). All these five tannin extracts are suitable for the preparation of tannin-formaldehyde polycondensates, although some differences among them exist. The five tannins can be divided into two classes: (a) mimosa and quebracho and (b) pecan nut, pine, and gambier tannins. The latter class has a much higher reactivity towards formaldehyde due to the phloroglucinol nature of the A-ring of the predominant type of the flavonoid repeat unit (460). The repeating units are linked to each other in the configurations C4-C6 or C4-C8, the former predominating in tannins mostly composed of fisetinidin (resorcinol A-ring; catechol B-ring) repeating units. The C4-C8 interflavonoid linkage

Biopolymers

especially when derived from the most diffused roasted mechanical processing of the cashew nuts. CNSL may represent both a dangerous source of pollutant, and a low-cost, widely available and renewable raw material for obtaining pure cardanol useful in fine chemical processes. Thermal treatment of cashew nuts and CNSL induces the partial decarboxylation of anacardic acid, which is completed by subsequent purifying distillation. The result is a 90% industrial grade cardanol oil, which is amber-yellow, with a smaller percentage of cardol and methylcardol.

predominates in tannins composed of catechin (phloroglucinol A-ring; catechinol B-ring) and gallocatechinin (phloroglucinol A-ring; pyrogallol Bring) repeating units. When the polymeric tannins are composed of fisetinidin-rebinetidin units the polymers are called profisetinidin-prorobinetidin; when they are composed of catechin-gallocatechin the polymers are called procyanidin-prodelphinidin. The free C6 and C8 sites on the A-ring are the sites that are reacted with formaldehyde to form adhesives. Some participation in the reaction with formaldehyde by the B-ring can occur when such a ring is pyrogallolic in nature. Although the reaction of the formaldehyde with the tannin extract occurs at reactive sites on the phenolic nuclei of the tannins, polysaccharides and simple sugars can also create conditions that influence the mechanism and route taken by the extract/formaldehyde reaction.

2.6.1 The Structure of CNSL CNSL extracted by a cold-solvent process is called natural CNSL and hot-oil and/or roasting processed CNSL is called technical CNSL (Table 1). Although natural CNSL has more anacardic acid than cardanol it is decarboxylated to produce anacardol which when hydrogenated yields cardanol (Figure 11), the chief constituent of technical CNSL.

2.6 Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) The shell of the cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.) contains an alkylphenolic oil named cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) amounting to nearly 25% of the total weight of the nut (a.29) This oil is composed of anacardic acid (3-n-pentadecylsalicylic acid), and lesser amounts of cardanol (3-n-pentadecylphenol), cardol (5-n-pentadecylresorcinol), methylcardol (2methyl-5-n-pentadecylresorcinol) and a small amount of polymeric material. The long aliphatic side-chains of CNSL are saturated, mono-olefinic (8), di-olefinic (8, 11), and tri-olefinic (8, 11, 14) with an average value of two double bonds per molecule. The world production of cashew nuts is nearly 500,000 tons per year, with Brazil being the largest producer. Other countries, which produce CNSL are India and Tanzania with the potential of producing 8,000 tonnes per annum. CNSL is a darkbrown and partially polymerised by-product,

2.6.2 Polymer Synthesis of CNSL Heating of phenol to temperatures of between 160300 °C in the presence of a catalyst is known to enhance three-dimensional crosslinking of the polymer network, resulting in a hard, infusible and insoluble thermosetting polymer. All the constituents of CNSL are typically phenol compounds. Due to the presence of the hydroxyl (-OH) group, the carboxyl (-COOH) group, and variable aliphatic unsaturation in the side chain, CNSL is able to take part in several chemical reactions. The long chains in CNSL impart flexibility due to internal plasticising, resulting in the formation of soft resins at elevated temperatures, unlike phenolformaldehyde resins, which are hard (a.29). The

Table 1 Composition of phenol components (%) in natural and technical CNSL by gas liquid chromatography (GLC) (a.30, a.31)) Natural CNSL (%)

Technical CNSL (%)

Anacardic acid

77.02

-

Cardanol

2.37

82.15

Cardol

16.77

13.71

2 - Methyl cardol

2.83

4.10

Components

11

Biopolymers

OH

OH

OH COOH –CO2

2H2

C15H27 Anacardic acid

C15H31-nm

C15H27 Anacardol

Cardanol

Figure 11 Decarboxylation and hydrogenation of natural CNSL

determination of the reaction mechanism of CNSL is complicated by the presence of its four constituents, all of which have different chemical structures including varying amounts of polymeric materials.

2.7 Rosins The natural separation and gradual conversion of some of the hydrophilic components of sap and related plant fluids from the cambium layer of a tree into increasingly hydrophobic solids is the generic process of forming diverse gums, resins, and waxes. The oleoresin intermediate in this process is typified in pine gum. Pine gum contains about 80% rosin and 20% turpentine. In 1932 the world production of rosin was around 900,000 tons with the United States of America producing about half of the world’s production. Present production figures were unavailable at the time of writing. Rosin or colophony is a clear yellow to dark amber thermoplastic resinous solid derived from naturally occurring constituents found in the ducts and cells of dead and living pine trees. It is extracted by three different procedures, each of which yield a commercial form of rosin related by name to the nature of the raw material processed, namely: (a) gum rosin, obtained by diluting the oleoresin, from the living pine tree, with turpentine, filtering, and steam distilling away the spirits of turpentine, (b) wood rosin, obtained from solvent extracts of aged pine stump wood by evaporation of solvent and the terpene fraction, and subsequent refining steps and (c) tall oil rosin obtained by de-pitching and fractional distillation of crude tall oil which is a by-product of the softwood pulp industry.

12

Rosin is a friable solid at room temperature, insoluble in water but soluble in many organic solvents including alcohols, ethers and esters, aliphatic, aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Rosin is an amorphous material and therefore does not have a true melting point but when heated gradually softens to a liquid state. Rosin is a complex mixture of mutually soluble, naturally occurring high molecular weight organic acids and related neutral materials. The acid constituents are monocarboxylic acids of alkylated hydrophenanthrene nuclei (a.32). The nonacidic minor constituents, or neutrals, of rosin are a mixture of highmolecular weight esters, alcohols, aldehydes, and hydrocarbons, which vary in nature, and the majority of them have structures related to the resin acids. They may vary in amount according to the source of the rosin and the extent to which it is refined. Pale grades of wood and gum rosin are composed of about 90% resin acids and 10% neutral materials. Commercial tall oil rosin differs in composition from gum and wood rosin in that it contains 2-5% fatty acid of C 18-C 26 chain length, and somewhat less neutral material. The overall chemical reactivity of all three types of rosin is that of a monocarboxylic acid. The predominant resin acid in pale refined unmodified rosin is abietic acid, which has the empirical formula C20H30O2. Figure 12 shows the chemical structure of abietic acid. The reactions of rosin (abietic acid) involve its carboxyl group and double bonds singularly or together resulting in polymers, and as additives or modifiers for natural and synthetic polymers. Esterification of the carboxyl groups with short chain monohydric alcohols and with various alcohols yields thermoplastic resin esters having a wide range of softening points and compatibilities. Enos (a.32), has described the commercial preparations and reactions

Biopolymers

By mass, lignin is about one third of the cell wall in wood (a.33). It results from the random free-radical polymerisation of three substituted cinnamyl alcohols: p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl (Figure 13). The proportions of these building blocks differ according to source.

CH3

CH3 H

CH3

CH3

Lignin polymerises by a free-radical process to produce a random three-dimensional network, an example is shown in Figure 14.

H COOH

Figure 12 Chemical structure of abietic acid

of rosin and modified esters. Other commercial reactions of rosin involving double bonds are those with dibasic acids and anhydrides such as fumaric acid and maleic anhydride. Using polymerised rosin and dimerised rosin as a substitute for part of the conventional fatty acids, has produced epoxy resin esters from epoxy resins. These epoxy esters are used for automotive and industrial metal primers.

2.8 Lignin Lignin is an amorphous three-dimensional aromatic polymer composed of oxyphenylpropane units (473).

Several groups in the lignin form monomers and will react further. Some will simply extend the polymer chain while others will crosslink. The monomer, which is marked A (Figure 14), has three of its functional groups linked to other monomers, so it is starting a branch or crosslink. The large lignin molecules fill three dimensions and are heavily crosslinked. Sometimes lignin is isolated as a brown powder, but more often it is a gummy mixture of lignins with a wide range of molecular weights. Lignin resists attack by most microorganisms, and anaerobic processes tend not to attack the aromatic rings. Aerobic breakdown of lignin is slow and may take several years. Lignin, along with hemicellulose, is a cementing material conferring flexibility to the cellulose fibres present in plants. Unlike carbohydrates, lignin is water repellent and has a glass transition temperature of between 140-177 °C (a.33, a.34).

CH2OH

CH2OH

CH2OH

CH

CH

CH

CH

CH

CH

OCH3 OH p-coumaryl alcohol

H3CO

OCH3

OH

OH

coniferyl alcohol

sinapyl alcohol

Figure 13 The three cinnamyl alcohols in lignin

13

Biopolymers

CH2OH C

O

HCOH HC

O

CH CH2OH

CH3O

CH C

O

HCOH O

CH2

CH3O

C

A

OH

O

O HCOH O HCOH C O H

O

CH2OH

Figure 14 Lignin polymer

2.9 Polylactic Acids and Polylactides Polylactic acids and/or polylactides are the most studied man-made biopolymers due to their use in biodegradable medical materials. Polylactide exhibits three kinds of lactide monomer (Figure 15). Repeating units with different configurations have been used to produce stereo-copolymers where the physical and mechanical properties and the rate of degradation are easily adjusted. The most efficient way of preparing polylactides is ring opening polymerisation (ROP) by coordination initiators. This method usually allows a controlled synthesis leading to a narrow molecular weight distribution. Polymerisation of the different stereoforms results in materials with different properties. The polymers derived from the pure L-lactic acid or D,Dlactide monomers are semi-crystalline, relatively hard materials with melting temperatures around 184 °C and glass transition temperatures of about 55 °C. The L,Llactide and D,D-lactide are normally termed L-lactide and D-lactide, respectively.

14

Polymerisation of the rac-(D,L)-lactide and mesolactide results in an amorphous material with glass transition similar to that of its semi-crystalline counterpart. Polylactides are highly sensitive to heat, especially temperatures higher than 190 °C. Heating these materials above this temperature results in a noticeable decrease in the average molecular weight.

2.10 Other Polyurethanes have been synthesised from polyols derived from naturally occurring vegetable oils (99, 300, 459), such as soybean (13) and castor (122). Protein based biopolymers have been developed by a number of researchers (16, 118, 382). For example, soybean protein has been blended with starch (321). For functions such as drug release under specific conditions, recombinant DNA techniques are permitting extensive control over protein synthesis using natural enzymes (207).

Biopolymers

O

O

Examples of starch materials are products such as EcoFoam (422), Avebe Paragon, and Mater-Bi. Many of these materials can be directly substituted for existing plastics and can thus be used in a number of processing routes such as film blowing and injection moulding. There exist a wide variety of bioolymers, and Table 2 shows a selection of those that are available at the time of writing of this report.

O

O O

O

O

O

(a)

(b)

Many of the routes to the synthesis of polymers such as PHA, PHB, PLA and starch from biological origin feedstocks are well described in the body of knowledge and some of these were discussed in Section 2 of this review, although many companies that are commercially exploiting these new resins are using proprietary processes.

O O O * O

O n

O (c)

(d)

Figure 15 The structure of different stereoforms of the lactide monomer and the resulting repeating unit, the chiral centre marked with *, (a) L-lactic acid, (b) D,Dlactide, (c) meso-lactide and (d) ring opening polymerised lactide monomer

Cellulose has been used for over a century in the production of polymeric materials (360). Examples of these include celluloid and cellophane, rayon, viscose and cellulose thinners for paint, in addition to the regenerated cellulose that is used in the pharmaceutical industry in tablets and acts as a binding agent and enhances compactability (168, 465).

4 Uses of Biopolymers 4.1 General Uses

Algae produce alginate (a.7), which is a polyuronide copolymer containing two building units namely β-Dmannuronic acid and α-L-guluronic acid, both of which are glycosidically linked 1→4 and block copolymers. Algal plastics have been made including foams (453). Alginate is also extracted from seaweed.

The majority of commercially available biopolymers can be processed using existing equipment, and have physical and mechanical properties similar to existing polymers. Thus, this new generation of plastics could be used in existing applications, although the higher cost of biopolymers precludes their use in some applications.

3 Commercially Available Biopolymers

There exist a number of end-use applications for biodegradable polymers, but by far and away the most popular is in the manufacture of compost bags. Figure 16 provides an overview of the European markets for biodegradable plastics.

Thermoplastic biopolymers can be split into two categories (a.2); starch-based polymers and polyesters such as PHA, PHB and PLA; cellulose acetate is also classified as a polyester (54, a.35). Cargill Dow Natureworks is an example of a polyester thermoplastic (196). Cargill Dow announced that it will have a 140,000 tonne per annum manufacturing facility dedicated to the production of this polylactic acid (PLA) based polymer on-stream in 2002 (223).

From Figure 16 it can be seen that the majority of current uses for biodegradable plastics are for items that have a short life, and are generally discarded after one use. It is within such sectors that biopolymers currently have the greatest advantage. For example, if biodegradable plastics are used in the manufacture of compost bags then the compost need not be removed from the bag prior to composting, making the composting operation more efficient. Table 3 shows

15

Biopolymers

Others

Wood & wood derivatives

Wheat gluten

Starch

Polyvinyls

Trade Names

✓

Absorbable

Absorbable Polymer Technologies, Inc.

✓

Avebe

✓

BASF

✓

✓

Biomer

✓

✓

BIOTEC GmbH

✓

Birmingham Polymers, Inc.

✓

✓

✓

✓

Boehringer Ingelheim

✓

✓

✓

✓

Borregaard LignoTech

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

Medical grade

✓

Polylactide (PLA)

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)

Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)

Polycaprolactone (PCL)

Thermoset

Thermoplastic

Bio-origin

Company

Biodegradable

Table 2

✓

✓

Paragon ✓

✓

PHB, PLLA

✓

✓

BIOPLAST

✓

Cargill Dow

✓

Clariant

✓

✓

Ecoflex

✓

✓

✓

Lactel Resomer LignoPol

✓

NatureWorks ✓

Mowiol and Mowital

Daicel

✓

✓

✓

Celgreen

DuPont

✓

✓

✓

Biomax

Earth-Shell

✓

Eastman Chemical

✓

✓

✓

✓

EcoMould.nl

✓

✓ ✓

Groen Granulaat

✓

✓

✓

✓

Hayashibara Biochemical Labs

✓

✓

✓

✓

IDROPLAST

✓

IFA

✓

✓

Kuraray

✓

✓

Mazin

✓

✓

✓

Metabolix

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Napac

✓

✓

✓

National Starch

✓

✓

✓

✓

Natural Plastics Ltd. ✓

Novamont

✓

✓

✓

Planet Polymer Technologies

✓

✓

✓

Purac

✓

PVAXX

✓

✓

✓

Poval ✓

Biopol and Cleanburn ✓

✓

Polytriticum 200, 2000

Shimadzu Corporation

✓

✓

✓

Napac

✓

Cardapol

✓

ECO-foam

✓

Gohsenol ✓

✓

Mater-Bi ✓

Aquadro, Enviroplastic-Z

✓

✓

Purasorb

✓ ✓

✓

Mazin

✓

✓

Rodenburg Biopolymers

Fasal

✓

✓

Pullulan Hydrolene

✓

✓

✓

Ricino Unido Agro Industrial Lda

Megi and Mepro Ecoplast

✓

Nippon Gohsei

Eastar Bio

✓ ✓

✓

Midwest Grain Products

✓

✓

✓

Naturethanes

✓

Solanyl

✓

Lacty

Shokubai

✓

✓

✓

Lunare SE

Showa Highpolymer

✓

✓

✓

Bionolle

Solplax

✓

✓

Solvay Caprolactones

✓

StarchTech

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

Supol

✓

✓

✓

Tecnaro

✓

✓

✓

✓

Treeplast

✓

✓

✓

✓

Unitika Ltd.

✓

Vegemat

✓

16

✓ ✓

✓

✓

Capa ReNEW Supol ARBOFORM Unitika Poval

✓

Biopolymers

Figure 16 The uses of biodegradable plastics within Europe (222)

some proposed uses of biopolymers, including the driving forces behind the use in these specific markets. From Table 3 it can be determined that markets for biopolymers are typified by a number of factors. One

of these factors is for products with a short life, such as the compost sacks mentioned previously or articles such as food packaging and mulching film. Another factor is whether the biodegradability of a product enhances its functionality, and one application where

Table 3 A selection of uses for established biopolymers (a.35) Industry Sector

Driver

Catering e.g., plates, bowls, beakers, trays, cups and cutlery.

• Reuse is not always possible or economical due to contamination from contact with food or beverages

Convenience Goods e.g., organic-waste sacks, nappies, cotton buds and disposable gloves

• Short-life cycles; one use • Recycling difficult due to contamination

Fibres/Textiles e.g., technical textiles such as fleeces

• Breathability • Tactility • Superior performance to existing textiles

Horticulture and Agriculture e.g., plant pots, sacks, seed/fertiliser tape, mulching film and yarn

• Composting advisable • Recycling very difficult due to contamination • Compostability leads to reduction in labour costs

Medical e.g., implants to aid bone repair, drug delivery, sutures and medical gloves

• Safe absorption and degradation in the body • Short lifetime, disposable

Packaging e.g., ‘packing peanuts’, clear film, food trays, blisterpacks, sacks and bags.

• Contamination in food packaging and a multitude of material types and grades hampers effective and economical recycling • Short-life cycles; typically one use

Toys/Sports e.g., bricks, blocks and golf tees

• Environmental safety/education

Other e.g., functional supports and writing implements

• Specific advantages arising from application Compostability leads to lower manual and waste management costs • Promotional benefits of green technology

17

Biopolymers

this is beneficial is plant pots. If the plant does not need to be removed from the pot prior to being placed into the ground then labour savings can be achieved (376). A further use for biopolymers is for medical use, and applications include use as bioabsorbable sutures and for use in drug delivery systems, where slow degradation allows slow metering of the drug into the patient's blood stream (105). The medical industry is an area where the higher unit value and specialised nature of the products allows biopolymers to compete effectively with other materials (a.3).

4.2 Uses of Specific Polymer Types Cellulose derived materials, as discussed in Sections 2 and 3, are available in a number of forms; cellophane (clear film), celluloid (mouldable resin), regenerated cellulose (powder) and viscose and rayon (textile fibres). As such, cellulose derivatives cover a wide range of applications, from the regenerated cellulose used in pharmaceutical applications, to the cellophane used for packaging, and on to the viscose and rayon fibres used in the manufacture of textiles. New research has shown that lignin can be combined with cellulose to produce a mouldable material with similar properties to wood (277). Lignin-based polymers have been used for mould making and in polyol production for the manufacture of polyurethane (425). Lignin-based thermosets, adhesive and elastomer systems have all been developed (313, 474). Lignin has been tested as a stabiliser against attack from microorganisms in other biodegradable polymer systems (133). Hemicellulose has been used in applications such as adhesives (452), medical gels (253), and polymer reinforcement (109). Starch-based polymers have been used in many areas including water-based adhesives and hot-melt adhesives, injection moulding materials, packaging, film, foam, tyres, painting and horticulture (78, 124, 216, 219, 454). Novamont’s Mater-Bi material has been used in a wide variety of applications such as composting bags, fast food tableware, soluble foams for industrial packaging, film wrapping, laminated paper, food containers, mulch film, nursery pots, plant labels, disposable nappies, cotton swabs; as fillers for tyres and chewable items for pets (125). Polyhydroxyalkanoates are found in medical applications such as in composites with

18

hydroxyapatite (235), they also have potential in food packaging applications (60). Metabolix claims to have found a new cost-effective means of producing these materials (37). Tannin has been employed in adhesive formulations (275, 450) and binders (192). Cashew nut shell liquid-formaldehyde resins have been developed (156). Cashew nut shell liquid has been used in coating applications (243, 471). Phosphorylated cashew nut shell liquid has been added to natural rubber to improve flame retardancy (343). Thermoplastic PU has been prepared from cardanol (389). Cashew nut shell liquid has been used in composites with natural fibres for possible construction applications (468). Rosins have been examined for application in coatings (272, 467), adhesives (339), and acrylic rosin derivatives have been tested in photo-resists (91). Colophony has the disadvantage of being a health hazard as it is a well-known sensitiser (455). Cargill Dow is producing polylactic acid in the US (128, 229), packaging and textiles are among the possible applications (25, 94, 226, 469). Polylactic acid and polylactide polymers have been examined for use in medical applications (213, 254, 434, 448, 464), and are being developed for CD player casings (64). Lacea from Mitsui Chemicals is in use in disposable telephone cards, windows for envelopes and packaging applications (423). Chitosan has potential for biomedical applications (101, 149). Many naturally occurring materials have found use as adhesives, with starch representing around 80% of this group. Casein, rosin and collagen also feature (40). Alginate extracted from seaweed has found use in microcapsules for drug delivery and in tissue scaffolds in medical applications (308). The use of biopolymers in specific applications is, as is the case with other materials, governed by price. The lower priced biopolymers, which are generally the starch derivatives and some polylactides are used in packaging applications and in the production of compost bags. The higher priced biodegradable and bioabsorbable polymers such as PHB are used in medical applications as the cost cannot be economically justified in other market sectors.

Biopolymers

5 Manufacturing Technologies for Biopolymers 5.1 Introduction In this section, we shall discuss issues regarding the processes used to manufacture articles from biopolymeric materials. Specialised techniques such as the Shimada press, used to produce lignin bound wood fibre fuel briquettes, are technically biopolymer processing techniques, but along with fundamental raw material production processes such as fibre spinning, are beyond the bounds of this review. The methods of manufacture for biopolymers are all established polymer manufacturing techniques, but the control and application of these methods must be varied to cope with certain factors associated with exploiting the advantages of biopolymers. For a biomass origin polymer to be used to full advantage, it must be biodegradable at the end of its useful life. This means that enough of its molecular structure must resemble a biological structure to enable microorganisms to digest it. The conditions under which biological structures can survive are fairly limited in terms of temperature (degradation can start with ‘cooking’ – denaturing of the tertiary structure of proteins at about 45 °C), and at the temperatures reached during polymer processing some care must be taken not to entirely destroy the primary molecular structures. However some manufacturing processes exploit what might be regarded as degradation of biopolymers, for example the manufacture of packing ‘peanuts’ from starch, where moist amylose starch is melted within an extruder and, as the pressure in the extrudate drops as it leaves the die, the water within the starch flashes into steam and expands the melt into a low density foam – this method was patented in the USA by the National Starch & Chemical Investment Corporation in 1991, and can also be observed in the popping of popcorn, and the expansion of poppadoms and prawn crackers.

5.2 Manufacturing Methods The manufacturing routes all show certain fundamental similarities, with the major differences depending on whether a thermoset or thermoplastic biopolymer is to be processed. Thermoplastic materials must be melted, and then formed into the shape of the finished article. The melt is then allowed to freeze, and the manufacture of the article is complete. This process can be repeated, but

not indefinitely, since even though the raw material is only melted (that is, no irreversible chemical reaction takes place), damage can still be done to the molecular structure of the polymer melt. Subjecting the melt to high shear conditions (for example, by pumping it or stirring it violently), can cause the molecular chains to break. The result of this is an unquantified decline in the mechanical properties of the solid polymer, as well as an unquantified change in the nature of the flow properties (rheology) of the polymer melt. This change in flow properties is likely to lead to difficulties in controlling the manufacturing process, unless steps are taken to monitor the change in material properties and to control the amount of recycled material added to the manufacturing process. It should be noted therefore that due to the temperature sensitive nature of biopolymers there will be a strict limitation on the practical amount of in process recycling. For example, Novamont quote a maximum scrap recycling rate of between 10 and 20% for Y101U grade Mater-Bi. The conditions in intermittent operation processes such as injection moulding are least damaging to polymer melts, and most problematic in continuous processes such as extrusion, particularly in processes where the extrudate is stretched, such as film blowing. The limiting factors for processing conditions for biopolymers are the same as for fossil origin materials: degradation at the upper limits of temperature and shear, and lack of homogeneity at the lower limits. However, these limits are somewhat more tightly drawn at the upper limits for biopolymers. The results of exceeding these upper limits are degradation of the polymer, resulting in moulding defects such as weld lines, discolouration or a strong odour in the final product. The route for manufacturing thermoset articles is slightly different, thermoset components should not react to form polymers until they have been formed into their final shape. As a consequence of this, unreacted thermosets still consist of short chain molecules and therefore are much less viscous than thermoplastic polymer melts. This phenomenon opens up a number of interesting production routes. It now becomes possible to inject (low viscosity) liquid thermosets through reinforcing materials to produce long-fibre composite articles (e.g., vehicle panels).

5.3 Additives When processing a fossil origin polymer melt, the operator has the advantages of having access to a wide

19

Biopolymers

range of processing aids and property improvers. These additives are usually added in small quantities, and with the exception of the biocides, are unlikely to have any effect on the gross biodegradation of the polymer. However, the selection of additives for biodegradable polymer systems should be undertaken with care to avoid compromising the biodegradability certification of the finished article, such as the DIN CERTCO standards. Oliver (a.5) quotes the size of the plant origin polymer additives market as being worth £65,000,000 worldwide, and amounting to 40,000 tonnes.

5.3.1 Plasticisers Plasticisers increase the flexibility of the polymer product and also decrease the viscosity of the polymer melt, a role also played by lubricants. In terms of biological origin materials, epoxidised soyabean oil is used as a plasticiser and heat stabiliser in PVC production. Epoxidised linseed oil and tall oil are also used as PVC plasticisers. It may be that these materials will also find application in biopolymers. Recent work by Brooks and Willoughby at Rapra Technology and Tucker and Dawson at Warwick University, describes the use of liquid CO 2 (sometimes described as supercritical CO2) injected into the melt. This requires the addition of a mixing stage to the end of the extruder or moulder barrel, but significant reductions in melt viscosity and melt temperature are reported. It should however be noted that the plasticising effect is transient. The CO2 diffuses out of the solid product over a period of hours after solidification, and the product does not show any increase in flexibility.

5.3.2 Lubricants Internal lubricants perform a similar role to that of plasticisers, external lubricants include materials that function as mould release agents. The obvious sustainable origin mould release agents are waxes such as bees’ wax, carnauba wax and rape seed oil (marketed by Leahy Limited as BioForm). These materials are effective mould release agents but care must be taken to avoid overdosing the mould surface. This will have the consequence of producing greasy bloom on the surface of the moulding. DIN CERTCO (a.36) lists the following processing auxiliaries as certified compostable up to levels of 10%: • • •

20

benzoic acid/sodium benzoate erucic acid amide glycerol monostearate

• • • • •

glycerol monooleate natural waxes paraffins, paraffin waxes (natural) polyethylene glycol (up to molecular weight 2000) stearates

Whilst the following can be included at levels of up to 49% (a.36): • • • • •

glycerol sorbite citric acid ester glycerol acetates xylite

5.3.3 Colourants Some colourants may be objected to due to inherent toxicity, but environmentally acceptable substitutes of either mineral or vegetable origin are increasingly available. DIN CERTCO (a.36), lists the following mineral colourants as certified compostable up to levels of 49%: • • • •

carbon black iron oxide graphite titanium dioxide

5.3.4 Flame Retardants The chemicals used to reduce the flammability of polymers are commonly chlorinated and brominated compounds (sometimes with antimony based synergists) used as flame quenchers, and phosphorous compounds to improve char strength. These are regarded as undesirable due to perceptions of their toxicity. Alumina trihydrate (Al2O3.5H2O) releases its water of hydration when subjected to heat, and hence limits the propagation of combustion. However it is added in large amounts to the polymer (50-60%), and may, at the upper limits of addition, compromise the biodegradability of the article.

5.3.5 Blowing (Foaming) Agents Liquid CO2 admixture can be used as a foaming agent for injection moulding and extrusion. For PU biopolymer systems, water can be used as a foaming agent exactly as in fossil formulations.

Biopolymers

5.3.6 Crosslinkers At the moment, crosslinkers are usually the same formulations as those used in fossil origin thermoset formulations. Thus articles made from bio-origin thermosets are not always 100% biological origin. However, some crosslinking agents such as the formaldehyde used in cashew nut origin phenolics are biological in origin, being made from wood alcohol.

5.3.7 Fillers Fillers are the most commonly used additives. Fine mineral powder fillers are added as nucleating agents in small (~1%) quantities to limit the size of crystalline structures. This is of limited application with biopolymers as the complexity of the molecules in most biopolymers limits the degree of crystalline structure formation. DIN CERTCO (a.36), lists the following fillers as certified compostable up to levels of 49%: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

aluminium silicates ammonium carbonate calcium carbonate calcium chloride dolomite gypsum mica kaolin chalk sodium carbonate natural silicates silicon dioxide; quartz talc wollastonite vegetable fibres wood flour/wood fibres vegetable fibres cork bark starch rye flour and other flours starch acetate (up to a substitution level of 1)

6 Fillers and Reinforcement for Biopolymers Fillers in plastics are, as the name suggests, compounded with the polymer to fill out the plastic, thus allowing less (of the more expensive) polymeric

material to be used to produce a large volume of mouldable resin. This suggests that fillers are combined with the polymer merely to take up space, but they can be used to impart improved properties to the resin, this reduces article costs by improving material properties; allowing less material to be used. Fillers that are currently available in the market place, such as calcium carbonate, silica and clay, whilst originating from the earth, are not sustainable in origin, nor biodegradable in nature. The use of natural fibre filler for plastics (15) can be traced back to 1907 when Baekeland utilised wood flour as a filler in thermosetting phenolic resin, to create a material that to this day is known as ‘Bakelite’. Research has also been undertaken to investigate as to whether natural fibres would make suitable structural reinforcement instead of simply being used to cheapen a product. A case in point are the series of tests that were performed by Aero Research Limited during the Second World War which focussed upon testing the suitability of using Gordon Aerolite (a phenolic resin) and flax fibres to manufacture Spitfire fuselages. The outcome of this series of experiments was that the composite produced could have been substituted for aluminium. The field of wood-filled thermoplastic compounds can be classed as relatively mature as there are a number of wood-filled products that are currently available on the market. Examples are Coexil, which is wood flour filled polypropylene (a.37); Trex (446) and Advance Environmental Recycling Technologies (AERT) (345), which are 50:50 (% by weight) wood flour filled polymers (a.38). The matrix polymers used for these materials are polypropylene, high-density polyethylene and low-density polyethylene respectively. Schut (301), states that industry estimates for the year 1999 pegged the production of wood-plastic compounds at almost 300 million pounds (~134,000 tonnes). Work has been published that investigates the use of other natural fibres (excluding wood) for use as a filler and/or reinforcing material in plastics. Examples of such work are; sugar cane bagasse filled thermoset polyester (320), short-fibre jute reinforced polypropylene (437), straw reinforced polypropylene (461), kenaf reinforced polypropylene (445) and flax reinforced polypropylene (332). It can be seen that there exist a variety of options open to biopolymer manufacturers and processors who wish to reduce article costs.

21

Biopolymers

In much of the work the reasons cited for the use of natural fibres as a filler/reinforcement is that they are: •

biodegradable, renewable and environmentally friendly,

•

low in cost,

•

abundant,

•

possess good specific properties.

The matrix materials used in much of this previous work was from non-renewable sources such as polypropylene. This may have been due to the nonavailability of biopolymers at the times of their research. Bledzki, Reihmane and Gassan (331), performed a literature review into the use of thermoplastics reinforced with wood fillers, this uncovered 26 pieces of work. The conclusions to this work were that the major problems associated with the use of wood fillers are high levels of moisture absorption and the fact that untreated wood fibres are inherently difficult to couple to the polymer matrix. The latter factor equates to composites that have low tensile strength. Schut (301), states that wood does not adhere well to certain polymers as it is polar. The cohesion of molecules within a material is related to the polarity of a material, and is related to dipole forces that are present in some materials. If the molecule has no polarity, then the dipole forces are not present and there will be no covalent bonding between molecules (276). If these bonds are not present between the fibre and the polymeric matrix the resulting composite will have poor strength and stiffness as the load will not be shared between the multiple components of the composite. It may be necessary to modify the plastic to develop strong covalent bonds with the polar fibres. The coupling of the fibre to the matrix can be achieved through the use of a compatibiliser such as maleic anhydride, dicumyl peroxide or chlorosulfonated polyethylene (470). The cost of semi-processed jute fibres that would be suitable for processing into injection moulded composites was estimated to be $500 per tonne in February 2000 (a.37). This equates to a figure of approximately £350 per tonne, which is significantly cheaper than the biopolymers currently available in the marketplace. Incorporating this type of material into a composite with a biopolymeric matrix would allow a reduction in article cost to be obtained.

22

7 The Markets and Economics for Biopolymers In 1999, within the UK marketplace, thermoplastic polymers accounted for over 2,950,000 tonnes of the total market for polymers of 4,002,000 tonnes (a.39). The approximate production capacity for thermoplastic biopolymers in 2001 is between 30,000 and 40,000 tonnes, but it is estimated that the total world manufacturing capacity for biopolymers in the year 2002 will increase to approximately 350,000 tonnes. Even though the production capacity for biopolymers will increase rapidly over the next few years, they will still represent a very small proportion of the market in both UK and world terms (77, 80, 115, 124). The largest issue with biopolymers in the current market is the cost. Stephen Cox, the marketing director of PLA polymer producer Chronopol, said that, ‘the largest problem with PLA polymers at the moment is the price’. The material cost in 1998 was between £6.20-9.30/kg for PLA, and he estimated that the production volumes attainable at the new Chronopol and CargillDow plants could lower costs to £2.30–3.10/kg (a.1). The cost of PLA based polymers will drop in time with the commissioning of new, larger plants where larger economies of scale can be achieved, but the cost will never approach that of conventional polymers such as polyethylene. The higher cost of PLA based polymers can be attributed to the processing route being more complex than that of starch-based polymers in addition to the large capital investment that is required to construct a PLA manufacturing facility. The CargillDow NatureWorks plant that was constructed in Blair, Nebraska is estimated to have cost in the region of $300 million, and will produce 140,000 tonnes of PLA based biopolymers per year. As a comparison with the cost of polylactides, the cost of Novamont Mater-Bi stated in the literature is between £0.79 to £2.51 per kg, depending upon grade (223). The price of injection mouldable Mater-Bi, grade Y101U, was €3.5/kg (£2.30) as of the end of November 2002. The cost of Biomer B226, a polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) thermoplastic was reported in September 2002 to be €17-20/kg (£11.15-13.12), whilst the cost of Solvay CAPA 680 polycapralactone (PCL) at the same time was stated to be €13-15/kg (£8.53-9.84). These prices are still in excess of current market prices for plastics such as film grade LDPE and injection moulding grade PP at approximately £0.58/kg for both types of plastic (45). Therefore it is likely that

Biopolymers

biopolymers will not compete directly with standard fossil-origin polymers unless biodegradability is an essential characteristic of the material, as the costs of biopolymers are currently too high. It must be noted that due to market pressures, ACX Technologies Incorporated (owned by the multinational brewer Coors) decided to close the Chronopol (polylactide) division in early 1999. This action was taken at roughly the same time and for the same reasons as Monsanto who decided to cease their interest in Biopol due to the large costs and negligible profitability of scaling up production to meet market demands.

guidelines means that the product, not the material it is manufactured from, is certified under the scheme. Thus, any variants of products (e.g., different sizes of packaging) need to be certified. Figure 17 shows the certification process required to gain agreement for use of the IBAW ‘compostable’ logo. Part of the scheme depicted in Figure 17 is the testing of the product, which must be performed at a DIN CERTCO approved test agency. It must also be noted that the use of the IBAW logo is not free. Testing of the compostability of a product is governed by a number of standards. •

DIN V 54900: Testing of the Compostability of Plastics.

•

DIN EN 13432: Packaging – requirements for packaging recoverable through composting and biodegradation – Test scheme and evaluation criteria for the final acceptance of packaging.

•

ASTM D 6400: Standard Specification for Compostable Plastics.

•

ASTM D 6002-96: Standard Guide for Assessing the Compostability of Environmentally Degradable Plastics.

8 Compostability Certification The International Biodegradable Polymers Association and Working Groups (IBAW) is attempting to increase the use and proliferation of biopolymeric materials. It also seeks to define the compostability criteria for biopolymers (www.ibaw.org). One of the first outputs from the IBAW organisation is a certification scheme for products made of compostable materials (75, 262). Products marked with the IBAW ‘compostable’ logo have been proven to be compostable in line with the regulations detailed in the IBAW certification scheme, DIN CERTCO (a.36). It must be noted that the certification of an item as compostable under the IBAW

Within this section, the ASTM standard will be discussed as it is likely to be the most frequently used

Figure 17 Certification process for products made of compostable materials (a.36)

23

Biopolymers

Figure 18 Flowchart for qualification of a biodegradable plastic to ASTM D 6002

standard for determining compostability. DIN V 54900 is, at the time of writing, still in the preliminary stage and therefore not fully validated. The ASTM D 6400 standard references the tests detailed in ASTM D 6002 as those that need to be performed in order to determine compostability. A schematic for qualification of biodegradability to ASTM D 6002 is shown in Figure 18.

9 The Chemistry and Biology of Polymer Degradation Biodegradable polymers are receiving increased attention for their use in a wide variety of applications. The most notable naturally occurring biodegradable polymers are the polysaccharides and polypeptides followed by the modified triglycerides. These polymers undergo either hydrolytic or enzymatic degradation or a combination of the two in a conducive environment in the presence of moisture and at ambient temperatures. The enzymatic method is most important for polysaccharides and natural polyesters such as polyhydroxylalkanoates, whereas many synthetic aliphatic polyesters used in medical applications degrade mainly by pure hydrolysis (18, 106, 240, 418, 456, 466). There are several factors which influence the rate of degradation, including the type of chemical bond in the polymer backbone, hydrophilicity, molecular weight, crystallinity, copolymer composition and the presence of low molecular weight compounds. Other concerns are related to the loss of mechanical integrity of the polymers during degradation, which can be undesirable, and the toxicity of biodegradation products may poison the microbes responsible for biodegradation, causing cessation of biodegradation. Many biodegradable polymers contain some kind of

24

hydrolysable bonds. Polymers containing anhydride or ortho-ester bonds are the most reactive ones with the fastest rates of degradation. Ester bonds degrade somewhat more slowly and carbonates are almost totally resistant to hydrolysis. Poly (L-lactide) is biocompatible and when implanted in the body it will, in the course of time, undergo hydrolytic scission to lactic acid, which is a natural intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism. The in vitro degradation of poly-L-lactide (PLLA) is generally rather slow compared to the degradation of poly (D,Llactic acid) (PDLLA). The higher degradability is probably due to the greater water absorption in the amorphous domains. Biological degradation is mostly associated with enzyme catalysis which entails the lowering of the activation energy, thus inducing an increase in the reaction rates in an environment otherwise unfavourable for chemical reactions. Enzymes are proteins having a polypeptide chain with a complex three-dimensional structure (a.3). Enzyme activity can be optimised by the presence of inorganic or organic materials and changes in the morphology of the enzyme and the pH. Different enzymes exhibit different performance characteristics; some enzymes change the substrate through a free radical mechanism, whilst others follow different chemical routes such as biological oxidation and hydrolysis. Additives can be used to enhance degradation (221, 444, 451).

10 Conclusions The current biopolymers available on the market do not have any advantages over conventional plastics bar biodegradability. They are more expensive and

Biopolymers

whilst the mechanical properties of some biopolymers are good (e.g., NatureWorks), the cost for such performance is currently too high. The opening of new manufacturing facilities will go some way to redressing the cost equation as some economies of scale will occur (37), although biopolymers in the near future will only form a fraction of the total thermoplastics market. In the long-term and as the market expands we should also expect to see increased competition between companies, a result of further development work being undertaken, possibly as a result of government initiatives, reducing the financial strain of developing new materials. The incorporation of fillers goes some way to equalising the cost premium that currently applies to biopolymers. As the oil reserves diminish producers of polymeric materials will turn to alternative feedstock sources making biopolymers economically viable. By the application of legislative instruments such as the EU End-of-Life Vehicle Directive and the Landfill of Waste Directive, the whole life cycle costs of polymers become more influential and biopolymers will become more competitive. Figure 16 shows the uses of biopolymers in the current market. It is worth noting that the majority of applications are for items that are used once and then disposed of such as packaging, and it is in these markets where biopolymers will find their greatest opportunities.

a.7

E.E. Percival and R.H. McDowell in Chemistry and Enzymology of Marine Algal Polysaccharides, Academic Press, London, 1967, 107.

a.8

H. Tan and Y. Cao, Carbohydrate Research, 2002, 337, 1291.

a.9

D.J. Walton and J.P. Lorimer in Polymers, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000, 111.

a.10

J.K. Park, E.J. Choi and C.H. Kim, Macromolecules, 1999, 32, 7402.

a.11

G.F. Fanta and E.B. Bagley in Encyclopedia of Polymer Science Technology, Supplement 2, Interscience, New York, 1977, 665.

a.12

J. Hocking, R.H. Marchessault, M.R. Timmins, T.M. Scherer, R.W. Lenz and R.C. Fuller, Macromolecule Rapid Communications, 1994, 15, 447.

a.13

C. Bastioli, Starch polymer composites, in Degradable Polymers, Eds., S. Gerald and D. Gilead, Chapman and Hall, Cambridge, 1995.

a.14

R. Narayan, S. Bloembergen and A. Lathia, inventors; Evercorn Inc., assignee; US Patent 5869647, 1999.

a.15

R. Narayan, Commercializing technology: from laboratory to the marketplace-A case study of starch-based biodegradable plastics technology, in Paradigm for successful utilization of renewable resources, Eds., D.J. Sessa and J.L. Willet, AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 2002.

a.16

E. Fredon, R. Granet, R. Zerrouki, P. Krausz, L. Saulnier, J.F. Thibault, J. Rosier and Petit, Carbohydrate Polymers, 2002, 49, 1-12.

a.17

M. Vincendon, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 1998, 67, 455.

a.18

S. Sun and P. Seib, Biodegradable plastics from wheat starch and polylactic acid (PLA), Biomaterial Processing Engineering, Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, 2001.

References a.1

I. Kim, G. Ondrey and T. Kamiya, Chemical Engineering, 1998, 105, 7, 43.

a.2

C. Bastioli, Global Status for Biodegradable Polymer Production, Proceedings: 7th Annual Meeting of the Bio/Environmentally Degradable Polymer Society. August 19-22, 1998, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

a.3

R. Chandra and R. Rustgi, Progress in Polymer Science, 1998, 23, 7, 1273.

a.4

C.A. Harper, Modern Plastics Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1999, 1286.

a.19

Y. Jia, T.J. Kappock, T. Frick, A.J. Sinskey and J. Stubbe, Biochemistry, 2000, 39, 3927.

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

AERT

Advance Environmental Recycling Technologies

CNSL

cashew nut shell liquid

HB

hydroxybutyrate

R.W. Hemingway and J.J. Karchesy, Chemistry and Significance of Condensed Tannins, New York, Plenum Press, 1989.

HV

hydroxyvalerate

IBAW

International Biodegradable Polymers Association and Working Groups

J.H.P. Tyman, Chemical Society Review, 1979, 8, 499.

ICI

Imperial Chemical Industries

PCL

polycaprolactone

A.R.R. Menon, C.K.S. Pillai, J.D. Sudha and A.G. Mathew, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1985, 44, 324.

PDLLA

poly(D,L-lactic acid)

PE

polyethylene

PHA

polyhydroxyalkanoates

PHB

polyhydroxybutyrate

PHV

polyhydroxyvalerate

PLA

poly(lactic acid)

PLLA

poly-L-lactide

PP

polypropylene

PU

polyurethane

PVC

polyvinyl chloride

PVOH

polyvinyl alcohol

RIM

reaction injection moulding

ROP

ring opening polymerisation

I. Mueller-Harvey in Secondary plant products, antinutritional and beneficial actions in animal feeding, Eds., J.C. Caygill and I. MullerHarvey, Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, 1999, 17.

a.32

H.I. Enos, G.C. Harris and G.W. Hedrick in Kirk-Other Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Volume 17, 2nd Edition, A. Standen, Ed., Interscience New York, 1968.

26

H. Kab, Kunststoffe Plast Europe, 2002, 92, 14

Alternative Crops Technology Interaction Network

P.H. Gedam and P.S. Sampathkumaran, Progress in Organic Coatings, 1986, 14, 115.

a.34

a.35

ACTIN

a.31

a.33

United Nations Industrial Development Organisation, Vienna, 1996, 47.

J. Bodig and B.A. Jayne, Material organisation, in Mechanics of Wood Composites, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc., New York, 1982. C. Birkinshaw in New and advanced materials, Emerging Technology Series, Volume 3,

References and Abstracts

Abstracts from the Polymer Library Database Item 1 Plastiques & Elastomeres Magazine 54, No.2, March 2002, p.16-8 French NATURAL FIBRES, THE STATE OF PLAY Riedel U DLR Reinforcements and thermosetting, thermoplastic and biopolymer matrices used in natural fibre-reinforced plastics are examined, and details are given of an epoxy resin formulation developed by Preform Biocomposites on the basis of renewable resources. The flexural properties of natural fibre-reinforced biopolymers are compared with those of glass fibre-reinforced composites. PREFORM BIOCOMPOSITES EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.878028 Item 2 Journal of Macromolecular Science C C42, No.4, 2002, p.441-79 AGRO-MATERIALS: A BIBLIOGRAPHIC REVIEW Rouilly A; Rigal L TOULOUSE,ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE DES INGENIEURES EN ARTS CHIMIQUES ET TECHNOLOGIQUES A detailed review is presented of the literature on agromaterials, covering plastic properties of biopolymers (plasticisation, starch, proteins, other biopolymers), fillers (vegetable fibres, agricultural waste or co-products, mineral fillers), and biodegradability and durability (formulation, chemical modification, thermal treatment). 222 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.877909 Item 3 Polymer International Vol. 51, No.10, Oct.2002, p.845-51 IMPROVEMENT OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF POLY(D,L-LACTIDE) BY ORIENTATION Grijpma D W; Altpeter H; Bevis M J; Feijin J Twente,University; Brunel University Generation of oriented, amorphous poly(D,L-lactide) was achieved by drawing injection moulded specimens at temperature below the glass transition temperature of the polymer and by a non-conventional injection moulding process in which the melt is cooled under oscillating shear conditions (SCORIM). Effective molecular orientation

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was obtained in both instances, permitting the preparation of degradable devices with greatly improved tensile properties and impact behaviour in comparison with nonoriented material. 22 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.877852 Item 4 Chemical Week 164, No.47, 4th Dec.2002, p.44 NOVEL BIOTECH ROUTE TO POLYTHIOESTERS Wood A Researchers from the University of Muenster and McGill University say that they have developed a biotech route to polythioesters, a novel class of biodegradable polymers. They have improved properties compared to polyoxoesters, an analogous family of biotech-derived polymers originally known as Biopol, which are used mainly in medical applications. The polythioesters have potential for use in similar high-value applications, say the scientists. The researchers engineered the Escherichia bacterium to convert mercaptoalkanoic acids into their respective polythioesters. The polymers resist degradation at higher temperatures tyres than polyoxoesters. Brief details are given. MCGILL UNIVERSITY; MUENSTER,UNIVERSITY CANADA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.877604 Item 5 Journal of Biomaterials Science: Polymer Edition 13, No.11, 2002, p.1221-40 IN VITRO STUDY OF DRUG-LOADED BIORESORBABLE FILMS AND SUPPORT STRUCTURES Zilberman M; Eberhart R C; Schwade N D Tel Aviv,University; Texas,University Bioresorbable polylactic acid films containing dexamethasone were prepared by solution processing. The in vitro studies focussed on the mechanical properties with respect to morphology and degradation and erosion processes. Novel expandable anatomic support devices developed from these films were studied. 21 refs. ISRAEL; USA

Accession no.877005 Item 6 Polymer Testing 22, No.2, 2003, p.209-15 IMPACT PERFORMANCE OF MISCANTHUS/ NOVAMONT MATER-BI BIOCOMPOSITES

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References and Abstracts

Johnson R M; Tucker N; Barnes S Warwick,University Biodegradable composite test plaques consisting of Miscanthus (rhizomatous perennial grass) fibres in a Novamont Mater-Bi matrix (made from raw materials of natural origin) were produced and tested in the laboratory. Plaques which consisted of 100% Mater-Bi were also produced and tested to provide information on the effect of addition of Miscanthus fibres on the impact performance of the biodegradable polymer. A design of experiments methodology was used to provide data on the effect of processing parameters and material formulation on the impact performance of the biocomposite. The factors that were varied during the course of the experiment were injection moulding machine screw speed and barrel temp., fibre volume and particle size. In comparison with pure Mater-Bi, the Miscanthus-filled polymer exhibited up to 30% higher impact loads. The factors that affected the performance were found to be the temp. of the barrel and the rotational speed of the screw. 28 refs. NOVAMONT EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.876871 Item 7 Journal of Applied Medical Polymers 6, No.2, Autumn 2002, p.64-7 BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICIZERS FOR POLYLACTIC ACID McCarthy S; Song X Massachusetts,University The effect of polypropylene glycol and epoxy functionalised polypropylene glycol, as biodegradable plasticisers, on the mechanical properties and thermal properties of polylactic acid before and after physical ageing was investigated by tensile testing and differential scanning calorimetry. It was found that the addition of the plasticisers improved the overall toughness of the polylactic acid and that increasing amounts of epoxy functionalised polypropylene glycol resulted in a linear decrease in Tg, crystallinity temperature and melting temperature of the polylactic acid. No evidence of a reaction between polylactic acid and the epoxy functionalised polypropylene glycol was provided. 6 refs. USA

Accession no.876682 Item 8 ANTEC 2002. Proceedings of the 60th SPE Annual Technical Conference held San Francisco, Ca., 5th-9th May 2002. Brookfield, Ct., SPE, 2002, Paper 440, Session T41Composites. Other Reinforcements in Composites I, pp.5, CD-ROM, 012

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NEW FUNCTIONAL BIOPOLYMER NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES FROM AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES Lanzillotta C; Pipino A; Lips D Fiat Research Center; Zurich,Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule (SPE) Using poly(lactic acid) or a starch derivative as the matrix and flax as the fibre reinforcement, biodegradable composites were prepared and evaluated for the production of automotive components. The materials were successfully injection moulded, but fibre input to the compounding extruder presented problems. The Young’s modulus of the PLA-based composites exhibited a linear increase with fibre content, but no improvement in tensile strength was observed. This was attributed to poor fibrematrix adhesion. Fibre additions enhanced both the tensile strength and the Young’s modulus of the starch-based composite. Car interior panels were injection moulded and fan blades compression moulded. 5 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; SWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.876530 Item 9 Future Materials Jan.-Feb.2003, p.18-9 BIO-ROUTE Novamont recently launched Mater-Foam, an expanded sheet of Mater-Bi, the company’s bioplastic obtained from renewable raw materials from agricultural sources. The new Mater-Foam corrugated, closed-cell foam material is said to have excellent shock-resistance and can protect objects of any shape and size. Amprica SpA is a new strategic partner for Cargill Dow and the companies are working together to offer thermoformed packaging to the bakery and convenience food markets made from NatureWorks PLA. The US Biodegradable Products Institute recently granted its Compostable Logo to Eastman Chemical’s Eastar Bio GP and Ultra copolyester. Eastar Bio copolyester is designed to fully biodegrade to biomass, water and carbon dioxide in a commercial composting environment in 180 days. NOVAMONT SPA; AMPRICA SPA; EASTMAN CHEMICAL CO.; CARGILL DOW EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.876365 Item 10 Plastics Technology 48, No.12, Dec.2002, p.35 DISPOSABLE PACKAGING GOES NATURAL Leaversuch R EarthShell Corp. in the USA has developed a compostable “natural” composite (a mixture of limestone, potato starch

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References and Abstracts

and recycled paper, that incorporates a biodegradable polymer as a moisture barrier-film or additive) which is likely to have a broad impact on disposable packaging markets. Full details are provided. EARTHSHELL CORP.; SWEETHEART CUP CO.; HUHTAMAKI OYJ; GREEN PACKAGING SDN BHD; GREEN EARTH PACKAGING INC.; DUPONT PACKAGING & INDUSTRIAL POLYMERS; DETROIT TOOL & ENGINEERING CO. EUROPEAN UNION; FINLAND; MALAYSIA; SCANDINAVIA; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.875876 Item 11 High Performance Plastics Dec.2002, p.11/2 BREAKTHROUGH IN BIO-DERIVED POLYESTER DuPont and Genencor International (a US biotechnology company) have undertaken joint research which has resulted in a 500-fold increase in the efficiency of the fermentation process used to produce DuPont’s cornderived polyester, “Sorona”. This article has the details. DUPONT; GENENCOR INTERNATIONAL INC.; TATE & LYLE; TORAY; TEIJIN; FAR EASTERN TEXTILE LTD.; SAEHAN INDUSTRIES ASIA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; JAPAN; SOUTH KOREA; TAIWAN; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.875852 Item 12 Macromolecular Materials and Engineering 287, No.10, 31st Oct.2002, p.693-7 BIODEGRADABLE LAMINATES BASED ON GELATIN. I. PREPARATION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Apostolov A A; Fakirov S; Evstatiev M; Hoffmann J; Friedrich K Sofia,University; Kaiserslautern,University Compression-moulded gelatin/starch (1:1 w/w) blends reinforced by linen or silk fabrics were investigated. Some of the laminates were also crosslinked. A marked increase in Young’s modulus, TS, EB and impact strength was observed for all samples regardless of the nature of the fabric or crosslinking. The deformation at break increased much more for linen-based materials in comparison with both neat gelatin and the blend matrix. The improvement of the mechanical properties in these laminates was most evident from the impact strength. 10 refs. BULGARIA; EASTERN EUROPE; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.875685 Item 13 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 86, No.12, 13th Dec.2002, p3097-107

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CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYURETHANE FOAMS FROM SOYBEAN OIL Jouh J; Bhattacharya M; Turner R B Minnesota,University; Urethane Soy Systems The use of functionalised soy based vegetable oil polyols as replacements, or partial replacements, for synthetic polyols in the manufacture of polyurethane foams, using two different isocyanates and differing amounts of water, was investigated by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) to follow the polymerisation reaction, and scanning electron microscopy and small angle X-ray scattering to examine the foam morphology. Soybean oils were characterised using spectroscopic methods and analytical methods to determine hydroxyl, acid and iodine values. It was observed with both synthetic and vegetable oil based polyols that lower water contents gave a more uniform cell structure, and higher water contents gave an increase in hard domain size. An increase in the amount of synthetic polyols in the blend gave increased reaction rates due to an increase of primary hydroxyl groups. 18 refs. USA

Accession no.875520 Item 14 Journal of Materials Science Letters 21, No.20, 15th Oct.2002, p.1587-9 STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF POLY(3-HYDROXYBUTYRATE-CO-3HYDROXYVALERATE ) (PHVP)/CLAY NANOCOMPOSITES Chen G X; Hao G J; Guo T Y; Song M D; Zhang B H Tianjin,Nankai University Polyhyroxyalkanoates, PHA, comprise a family of biopolymers that has attracted attention recently due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility and natural origin. Several applications have been proposed for these polymers in the fields of medicine, agriculture and packaging. The most studied and easily produced member of this family is poly(3-hydroxybutyrate), iPHB, an isotactic, high molecular weight polymer. Produced in the form of intracellular granules by several microorganisms, iPHB serves as a carbon and energy storage material. However, disadvantages have prevented its introduction in the market as a valid alternative to the currently widespread non-degradable oil-based thermoplastics. Some of these drawbacks are its fragility, thermal degradability at temperatures not far above the melting point, and its high price. In order to improve the properties of iPHB, several kinds of PHA copolymers have been examined incorporating structural units such as 3hydroxyvalerate (PHBV). Unfortunately, PHBV also presents the following problems: slow crystallisation rate, relatively difficult processing, low elongation at break and very high crystallinity. If the properties of iPHB (or PHBV) were improved by the addition of a small quantity of an environmentally benign material such as clay, this

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References and Abstracts

polymer would have structural material applications in many fields. Clay minerals are introduced into the field of nanocomposites in many systems due to their small particle size and layer expanding properties, especially in the application of reinforcement materials with polymers. A PHBV/clay composite is prepared using polymer intercalation from solution. 8 refs. CHINA

Accession no.875117 Item 15 Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2002, pp.144, 29 cm, Rapra Review Report 152, vol.13, No.8, 2002. NALOAN NATURAL AND WOOD FIBRE REINFORCEMENT IN POLYMERS Bledzki A K; Sperber V E; Faruk O Kassel,Universitat Edited by: Humphreys S (Rapra Technology Ltd.) Rapra.Review Report No.152 The use of natural and wood fibre reinforcements in polymers is reviewed with respect to types, properties, surface treatment of fibres, processing, properties of composites, and applications. End-use applications examined, include the automotive industry, building industry, furniture and panels and aerospace applications. Some statistics are included for the consumption of natural fibres in Europe by the automotive industry 1996-2010. 485 refs. NORTH AMERICA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.874532 Item 16 Macromolecular Bioscience 2, No.7, 18th Oct. 2002, p.319-28 (This issue is pulished within Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, Vol.203, No.14, 18th Oct. 2002) BIOPOLYMERS AND BIOMATERIALS BASED ON ELASTOMERIC PROTEINS Martino M; Perri T; Tamburro A M Basilicata,University A review is presented on the general features of elastomeric proteins (elastin, abductin and gluten) together with the current state-of-the-art in elastin-based biopolymers and flagelliform silk-based biopolymers. 101 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.873674 Item 17 Polymer Vol.43, No.22,2002, p.5935-42 PROCESSING AND PROPERTIES OF EXTRUDED STARCH/POLYMER FOAMS Willett J L; Shogren R L

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US,Agricultural Research Service Using a twin screw extruder blends of starch and various thermoplastic resins were extruded into foams. Among the resins were poly(vinyl alcohol), cellulose acetate (CA), and a number of biodegradable polyesters. Compared with the control starch, foams of corn starch with poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(hydroxyester ether) (PHEE), or poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate) (PHBV) had significantly lower densities and greater radial expansion ratios. Blends with other polyesters and CA had densities and expansion ratios between those of the control starch and the other polyesters. Although PLA domains were much smaller, most of the polymer occupied spherical to elongated domains 1-10 microns long. Surface polymer concentrations were larger than the bulk and correlated with foam expansion and resistance to fragmentation. In addition, foams were extracted using blends of PLA or PHEE with high amylose starch (70% amylose), wheat starch, and potato starch. The foam density was reduced and expansion increased significantly by addition of either resin. At constant relative humidity, compressive strength was a function of foam density only and not the type of resin or starch in the blend. The water sensitivity of the foams was reduced by addition of the resins and the time needed for complete dissolution was increased. Blends with PLA, PHEE, or PHBV produced foams with densities comparable to commercial starch-based loose-fill foams. 42 refs. USA

Accession no.873362 Item 18 High Performance Plastics Nov.2002, p.8 COMPOSTABLE COMPOSITES A researcher in Cornell University in the USA has developed environmentally friendly biodegradable composites made from soybean protein reinforced with plant-based fibres, such as ramie fibres. Very brief details of the invention are given in this short article. CORNELL UNIVERSITY USA

Accession no.873032 Item 19 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 86, No.11, 9th Dec.2002, p.2907-15 TENSILE PROPERTIES, MORPHOLOGY, AND BIODEGRADABILITY OF BLENDS OF STARCH WITH VARIOUS THERMOPLASTICS Hwan-Man Park; Sang-Rock Lee; Chowdhury S R; Tae-Kyu Kang; Hak-Kil Kim; Seung-Hoon Park; Chang-Sik Ha Pusan,National University The tensile properties and morphologies of blends of starch with LDPE, poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate)

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References and Abstracts

(APES), or an ionomer (a sodium cation-neutralised ethylene-methacrylic acid copolymer) were studied. The tensile strength and modulus increased with increasing starch content in starch/ionomer blends but for the other two blends, these parameters decreased with increased starch loading. Elongation at break values decreased for all the blend systems with increased starch loading. Better homogeneity was observed in starch/ionomer systems than in the other two systems. For up to 50 % starch content, the starch/ionomer blends appeared as a single phase. Biodegradability studies showed that the pure LDPE and ionomer were not biodegradable but that their blends with starch were biodegradable at an appreciable rate. The biodegradation rate of the starch/APES blend was very high because both of the components were biodegradable. 29 refs. KOREA

Accession no.872974 Item 20 Polymer Degradation and Stability 78, No.3, 2002, p.505-10 EFFECT OF UV IRRADIATION ON ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION OF CELLULOSE ACETATE Ishigaki T; Sugano W; Ike M; Taniguchi H; Goto T; Fujita M Japan,National Institute for Environmental Studies; Yamatake Building Systems Co.Ltd.; Osaka,University; Daicel Chemical Industries The effect of UV irradiation on the degradation of highly substituted cellulose acetate by the enzymes, cellulase, lipases and esterase, was investigated in order to elucidate the mechanism of degradation in a natural environment or landfill site. Surfaces of the cellulose acetate were analysed by atomic force microscopy and the effects of UV irradiation on the characteristics of cellulose acetate were analysed by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. The results obtained indicated that the degradation of cellulose acetate by cellulase would be promoted by UV irradiation. 17 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.872767 Item 21 Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Physics Edition 40, No.22, 15th Nov. 2002, p.2579-86 POLYPEPTIDE-BASED NANOCOMPOSITE: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF POLY(LLYSINE)/NA+-MONTMORILLONITE Krikorian V; Kurian M; Galvin M E; Nowak A P; Deming T J; Pochan D J Delaware,University; California,University at Santa Barbara Nanocomposites of cationic poly-L-lysine HBr and sodium montmorillonite were prepared by the solutionintercalation film casting method and their morphological

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properties, thermal properties and mechanical properties determined by various techniques, including X-ray diffraction, TEM, DSC, TGA and DMA. It was found that the montmorillonite layers intercalated with the polypeptide chains coexisted with exfoliated layers over a wide range of polypeptide/montmorillonite compositions and that the storage modulus of the polypeptide increased with increasing clay loadings. 35 refs. (March 2002 Meeting of the American Physical Society,Div.of Polymer Physics) USA

Accession no.872748 Item 22 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 86, No.14, 27th Dec. 2002, p.3616-24 STRUCTURE MODIFICATION AND CROSSLINKING OF METHACRYLATED POLYLACTIDE OLIGOMERS Helminen A O; Korhonen H; Seppala J V Helsinki,University of Technology Biodegradable polylactides were synthesised by the functionalisation of D,L-lactide-based telechelic oligomers having different numbers of arms with methacrylic anhydride followed by thermal crosslinking at 90C. The influence of the molecular architecture of the oligomers on the crosslink density and properties of the crosslinked polymers was investigated as were the effects of a reactive monomer (dimethacrylated butanediol) and cure temperature on the properties of polymers. The applicability of photoinitiation to the oligomeric systems was also studied and the hydrolytic degradation of the crosslinked polymers examined. 24 refs. EUROPEAN UNION; FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.872721 Item 23 Plastics Technology 48, No.10, Oct.2002, p.60/1 ADDITIVE MASTERBATCHES MAKE POLYOLEFINS DEGRADE Leaversuch R Two US masterbatch suppliers, Willow Ridge Plastics and ECM Biofilms, have found effective ways to make PE and PP products degrade like paper or wood, in five years or less, whilst remaining cost-competitive with conventional LDPE and PP. The companies incorporate proprietary additives into polyolefin carriers. This article provides full details. ECM BIOFILMS INC.; WILLOW RIDGE PLASTICS INC.; US,BIODEGRADABLE PRODUCTS INSTITUTE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; INDIA; IRELAND; NEW ZEALAND; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.872674

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References and Abstracts

Item 24 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 82, No.546, Dec.2001, p.675-82 Spanish GELATIN BASED MATERIALS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN PHOTOGRAPHY Abrusci C; Del Amo A; Martin-Gonzalez A; Catalina F Filmoteca Espanola; Madrid,Universidad Complutense; Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologia de Polimeros Consideration is given to processes used in the preparation of gelatin from collagen and to the properties and photographic applications of gelatin. 35 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.872607 Item 25 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 82, No.546, Dec.2001, p.622/4 Spanish NEW ALTERNATIVE FOR THE PACKAGING INDUSTRY An examination is made of the properties and packaging applications of NatureWorks PLA compostable polylactides produced by Cargill Dow in a plant at Blair, Nebraska. This plant, with an annual capacity of over 140,000 tonnes, began operation in November 2001. CARGILL DOW LLC; SONY; IPER; UNITIKA; DUNLOP SPORTS CO.LTD. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; JAPAN; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.872599 Item 26 Flexible No.4, Nov.-Dec.2002, p.6-14 DEGRADING FILMS Jeffries E Across the EU, governmental policies to minimise waste and increase recycling rates have intensified over the last 10 years. This pattern is set to continue, leading in the long term to a range of packaging with perceived environmental benefits appearing on the market. Since lightweighting and downgauging are already well-established trends, degradability is the main new environmental focus in research on flexible packaging. This has already become apparent with the introduction of corn-based polymers and the increase in water-soluble films and other degradable products. Edible films have been revitalised by Cargill Dow’s corn-based polymers and research undertaken at the University of Clemson. Research has been increasing in polyvinyl alcohol films and there are well established markets in the food and medical sectors. EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

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Item 27 Flexible No.4, Nov.-Dec.2002, p.3-4 SAINSBURY’S ORGANIC RANGE USES UCB FILMS BIODEGRADABLE PACKAGING Sainsbury’s has begun selling its organic food range packaged in NatureFlex biodegradable film, it is briefly reported. ASP Packaging is converting the material before supplying it to producers of Sainsbury’s pre-packaged organic fruit and vegetables. UCB Films’ NatureFlex comprises an uncoated cellulose film. Food requiring greater protection from moisture can be packaged in NatureFlex E305, made from a biodegradable base film with speciality barrier coatings made from nitrocellulose. SAINSBURY J.,PLC; UCB FILMS LTD. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.871732 Item 28 Future Materials Nov.-Dec.2002, p.5 BIORUBBER STIMULATES RESEARCH MIT reports that scientists from around the world have been contacting one of its laboratories for samples of “biorubber”, a new material with many applications including engineered lungs, heart valves and other elastic tissues. While biodegradable polymers are already used in the human body, none of these polymers has the defining property of a rubber band - the ability to stretch and then snap back to its original shape. In addition to being strong, biocompatible and inexpensive, biorubber can also be easily tailored to have a variety of different properties, such as a fast or slow degradation rate, for different applications. MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY USA

Accession no.871703 Item 29 Popular Plastics and Packaging 47, No.11, Nov.2002, p.73/7 BIODEGRADABLE AGRO-PACKAGING FROM PROTEINS Nayak P I Ravenshaw College Development of biodegradable polymers from renewable resources to replace conventional synthetic plastic products provides opportunities for reducing waste through biological recycling to the biosystem. During the last four decades, various raw materials from agricultural resources have been used to produce renewable biodegradable and edible packaging called agropackaging materials. Numerous vegetable and animal proteins such as corn zein protein, wheat gluten protein, soy protein, rice protein, peanuts and cottonseed proteins,

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References and Abstracts

milk protein, collagen and gelatin, keratin and egg albumin protein have been commonly used as raw materials for making biodegradable agro-packaging films. INDIA

Accession no.871698 Item 30 Plastics News(USA) 14, No.37, 11th Nov.2002, p.8 CORTEC MAKING PUSH INTO BIODEGRADABLE FILM Pryweller J Cortec is planning a 5m US dollars expansion of its blown film plant as it tries to become a major player in biodegradable films. The company primarily is known as a maker of vapour-phase corrosion inhibitors that can be used with stretch film and other products. The company started making film four years ago when it bought Spring Lake Packaging. That led to the discovery that its copolyester film could degrade quickly in compost. The company continued pilot testing of what it would call Eco Film, mixing it with natural ingredients such as polylactic acid, starch and other blends. A 12-layer coextrusion film line and a 40-foot line to make bubble film will be added to the facility’s one coextrusion line. The facility will make film with and without Cortec’s corrosion-resistant additive. CORTEC CORP. USA

Accession no.871584 Item 31 Polimery 47, No.7-8, 2002, p.500-8 ENVIRONMENTALLY DEGRADABLE PLASTICS: THERMAL BEHAVIOR OF POLYMER BLENDS BASED ON WASTE GELATIN Fernandes E G; Kenawy E; Miertus S; Chiellini E Pisa,University Blends based on waste gelatin and PVAl, formulated for agroindustrial applications, were characterised by TGA and DSC. The results obtained were compared with those of analogous blends based on ‘virgin’ gelatin. While the latter blends tended to phase separate, those based on waste gelatin were compatible as a result of the presence of glycerol in waste gelatin and its inherent degradation as a result of prior thermal and mechanical treatment. 32 refs. (UNIDO Workshop on Environmentally Degradable Plastics, Lodz-Pabianice, 2001) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.871135 Item 32 Polimery 47, No.7-8, 2002, p.479-84

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POLYHYDROXYALKANOATES(PHAS): SUSTAINABLE BIOPOLYESTER PRODUCTION Braunegg G; Bona R; Schellauf F; Wallner E Graz,Technische Universitat Topics discussed include PHA metabolism and PHAproducing microorganisms, carbon sources for PHA production, PHA production kinetics and its influence on process design, and downstream processing for PHA isolation. 23 refs. (UNIDO Workshop on Environmentally Degradable Plastics, Lodz-Pabianice, 2001) AUSTRIA; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.871132 Item 33 Journal of Polymers and the Environment 9, No.2, April 2001, p.63-84 A LITERATURE REVIEW OF POLY(LACTIC ACID) Garlotta D US,National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research A review is presented on the synthesis, physicochemical properties, chemistry and mechanical properties of polylactic acid from the 1950s to 1990s. Aspects covered include tensile properties, crystallisation, processing, rheological properties, UV vis and FTIR spectra and starch-polylactic acid composites. 134 refs. USA

Accession no.871061 Item 34 Journal of Materials Science. Materials in Medicine 13, No.10, Oct.2002, p.903-9 SELF-REINFORCEMENT AND HYDROLYTIC DEGRADATION OF AMORPHOUS LACTIC ACID BASED POLY(ESTER-AMIDE), AND OF ITS COMPOSITE WITH SOL-GEL DERIVED FIBERS Haltia A M; Lahteenkorva K; Tormala P; Helminen A; Tuominen J; Seppala J; Veittola S; Ahvenlammi J Tampere,University of Technology; Helsinki,University of Technology The self-reinforcement and hydrolytic degradation of an amorphous polyester-amide(PEA) based on lactic acid were studied and compared with those of poly-L-lactide(PLLA). The PEA rods studied were self-reinforced by solid-state die drawing, resulting in double shear strength. The hydrolytic degradation of PEA was studied during exposure to phosphate buffered saline at pH 7.4 and at 37C for 18 weeks. The degradation and mechanical properties of PEA were also followed in a self-reinforced(SR) composite structure consisting of PEA and sol-gel derived silica fibres (8 wt %). The hydrolytic degradation of the SR-PEA-rods with and without the sol-gel silica fibres was significantly faster than that of SR-PLLA-rods. The weight-average molec.wt.(Mw) of PEA decreased by 90% from the initial

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References and Abstracts

Mw during the first six weeks in hydrolysis, while the Mw of the PLLA decreased by 10%. 42 refs. EUROPEAN UNION; FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.870722 Item 35 Packaging Review South Africa 28, No.7, July 2002, p.16-17 BIOPHAN - POWERED BY NATURE Since 1997, Trespaphan has been working on a project to develop a film made of renewable and biodegradable materials. The main aim was to identify raw materials suitable for both polymerisation and the biaxial stretching process. After ascertaining that the polylactic acid (PLA) is stretchable on the stenter frame, Trespaphan succeeded in stretching PLA produced by Cargill-Dow-Polymer on a small-scale pilot plant. Multilayer Biophan films are suitable for a range of applications. Not only are they physiologically harmless and non-toxic to humans and animals, they can be tailored to give both sealing performance and controlled slip, the latter making for nonstick processing on packaging machines. They have received food contact approval from relevant authorities. Aspects covered include the environmental friendliness of Biophan, project development and the prospective market. TRESPAPHAN SA SOUTH AFRICA

Accession no.869684 Item 36 Packaging Review South Africa 28, No.7, July 2002, p.13 WHAT ARE EASTAR BIO COPOLYESTERS? Eastman’s Eastar Bio thermoplastic materials are a family of resins engineered to have no negative effects on the environment. Products created from these resins are tough and resilient while being impermeable to liquids but, unlike the majority of plastic materials, are fully biodegradable under the right conditions. These resins have conventional diacids and glycol as starting blocks. These materials combine to create a translucent, semi-crystalline polymer with a melting point of 108 deg.C, high elongation and a tensile strength similar to LDPE. Dart impact is high and more than adequate for typical PE with low modulus. Moisture transmission rate is high (opposite to LDPE). Oxygen permeability is approximately one third lower than that of LDPE. Eastar Bio Copolymers are compatible with other biodegradable natural polymers and can be blended with such materials (starch and cellulose). This characteristic also makes it possible to coextrude Eastar Bio Copolyester with other biodegradable resins such as those based on starch. The superior adhesion characteristics of the material means that it is frequently unnecessary to use a tie layer for coextrusion with other degradable polymers. These resins also accept pigments. Eastar Bio

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Copolyester has been tested and found to have no adverse effect on the environment either during or after degradation. Conversion is simple and PE conversion plant is well suited to processing these resins. Films from these materials are translucent with a soft and flexible feel. Heat sealing is easy on conventional heat sealing equipment. This abstract includes all the information contained in the original article. EASTMAN CHEMICAL USA

Accession no.869682 Item 37 High Performance Plastics Oct.2002, p.9 CHEAPER BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS This is a small item which reports that Metabolix Inc., a US biotechnology company, says its recent scale-up tests of a fermentation process for making biodegradable polyesters based on polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) demonstrate that the polymers can be made costcompetitively with many petrochemical resins. Brief details are presented here. METABOLIX INC.; ICI; MONSANTO; US,DEPT.OF ENERGY USA

Accession no.869561 Item 38 Plastics Technology 48, No.9, Sept.2002, p.66/79 BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS Leversuch R The USA is now catching up with Europe and Asia in exploring the exciting potential of biodegradable polyesters in flexible and rigid packaging applications. This long article takes a thorough look at the synthetic biodegradable resins available today. Section headings include: who sells what, blending beckons, thermoformed trays, and bacterially-grown polyesters. EASTMAN CHEMICAL CO.; BASF CORP.; NOVAMONT SPA; CARGILL DOW LLC; SK CHEMICALS CO.LTD.; SHOWA DENKO; DUPONT PACKAGING & INDUSTRIAL POLYMERS; MITSUBISHI GAS CHEMICAL; SONY CORP.; BAYER AG; DAINIPPON INK & CHEMICAL; UNION CARBIDE; DOW PERFORMANCE CHEMICALS; SOLVAY INTEROX INC.; MICHIGAN,STATE UNIVERSITY; BIOPLASTICS POLYMERS & COMPOSITES; CORTEC CORP.; EARTHSHELL CORP.; APACK AG; METABOLIX INC.; PROCTER & GAMBLE CO. ASIA; CANADA; EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; JAPAN; KOREA; NORTH AMERICA; USA; WESTERN EUROPE; WORLD

Accession no.869540

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References and Abstracts

Item 39 Popular Plastics and Packaging 47, No.10, Oct.2002, p.83-4 STARCH BASED BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS Tiwari M; Verma S S Sant Longowal,Institute of Engineering & Technology The environmental impact of plastic wastes has raised global concern. Most of the available plastic disposal methods cause secondary pollution effects. One option is to produce plastics with controlled lifetimes or built-in environmental degradability. Starch based biodegradable plastics come under the latter category. Starch is a renewable degradable carbohydrate biopolymer that can be purified from its various sources by environmentally sound processes. Thermoplastic starch formation is based on three basic approaches: starch is blended with synthetic polymers or with other biodegradable polymers; thermoplastic polymer chains are grafted onto starch or starch is chemically modified; or starch behaves as a solitary thermoplastic material. INDIA

Accession no.869301 Item 40 Adhesives Age 45, No.10, Oct.2002, p.12 OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF NATURAL ADHESIVES Smith R W ChemQuest Group Inc. Natural resources for adhesive raw materials are many and plentiful. The most important natural raw materials for adhesives include animal collagen, plant, casein, silicate, bitumen, terpenes, rosins and natural rubber. Starch has dominated this group for most of the last century, representing well over 80% of total consumption. Naturally occurring adhesive raw materials currently account for about 30% of total non-volatile adhesive consumption. Perhaps the most exciting new trend in natural products research has been the development of new synthetic materials using these natural resources as starting points. USA

Accession no.869247 Item 41 Polymer Preprints. Volume 41, Number 1. Proceedings of a conference held San Franscisco, Ca., March 2000.. Washington D.C., ACS,Div. of Polymer Chemistry, 2000, p.386-7, 28cm, 012 USE OF LOW-VALENT METALS IN POLYPEPTIDE SYNTHESIS Deming T J California,University at Santa Barbara (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry)

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Catalytic systems involving low-valent transition metal complexes were shown to allow the facile synthesis of block copolypeptides with good control over polymer structure. The significance of the morphology was that many complex amino acid biopolymers of defined sequence and a composition could be prepared. These artificial biomaterials had potential applications in tissue engineering, drug delivery and biomimetic composite formation. 12 refs. USA

Accession no.869189 Item 42 Polymer Preprints. Volume 41, Number 1. Proceedings of a conference held San Francisco, Ca., March 2000.. Washington D.C., ACS,Div. of Polymer Chemistry, 2000, p.244-5, 28 cm, 012 ULTRASONIC DEPOLYMERIZATION OF HYALURONATE Miyazaki T; Yomota C; Okada S Japan,National Institute of Health Sciences The ultrasonic depolymerisation of hyaluronic acid(HA), a linear anionic polysaccharide obtained from Streptococcus equi, was studied. The influence of temperature, HA concentration, coexisting cations and ionic strength on the entanglement strength of HA molecules was investigated. It was shown that, by regulation of the sonication intensity, HA with desired lower molec.wt. could be prepared from the original high molec.wt. one by ultrasonic depolymerisation. 7 refs. ACS,DIV.OF POLYMER CHEMISTRY JAPAN

Accession no.869099 Item 43 Macromolecular Chemistry & Physics 203,No.10-11,29th July 2002, p.1526-31 BIODEGRADATION OF POLY(VINYL ALCOHOL) IN SOIL ENVIRONMENT: INFLUENCE OF NATURAL ORGANIC FILLERS AND STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS Corti A; Cinelli P; D’Antone S; Kenawy E -R; Solaro R Pisa,University Biodegradation of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) films in blends with natural polymers such as gelatin and lignocellulose by-products, and with polyvinyl acetate, was studied under simulated soil burial conditions by determination of evolved carbon dioxide. The influence of residual acetyl groups in the PVA was also examined and appeared to have a positive influence on biodegradation. The effect of each blend component on the biodegradation was considered and it was determined that biodegradation of PVA and PVA blends under soil burial conditions is quite limited. The PVA appears to depress biodegradability of the other components of the blend compared to that of the pure component, although

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References and Abstracts

an increase in hydrophobic character of the blend component appears beneficial. 27 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.868920 Item 44 European Plastics News 29, No.9, Oct.2002, p.35-6 NATURAL BORN COLOURS Reade L Polylactic acid is produced commercially by Cargill Dow and is the newest in a range of biodegradable polymers. Now, thanks to work done by Euromaster, an Italian masterbatch company, it has been combined with chlorophyll, riboflavin and other naturally coloured chemicals to produce a range of “all natural” masterbatches. EcoMaster, as the natural masterbatch has been dubbed, uses PLA resin as a base and incorporates a range of natural colours. Even though the product is more expensive, Cargill Dow believes that producers of packaging for organic foods, for example, will be prepared to pay the higher price. Euromaster has so far run one customer trial, an extrusion application for a mass-produced product. CARGILL DOW; EUROMASTER EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.868159 Item 45 European Plastics News 29, No.9, Oct.2002, p.10 PRICES EDGE LOWER IN LATE SUMMER European polymer prices drifted downwards in September due to growing competition and low demand. Producers are still hopeful for price increases in October. Material availability has improved significantly as producers have rebuilt inventories during the slack summer season. LLDPE and PP prices have eased back by Euro10-20/ tonne. PS prices have also softened a little, but PVC producers managed small price increases in September. EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.868144 Item 46 Polymer 43, No.20, 2002, p.5587-93 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THERMORESPONSIVE NISOPROPYLACRYLAMIDE/METHACRYLATED PULLULAN HYDROGELS Masci G; Bontempo D; Crescenzi V Rome,Universita La Sapienza Thermoresponsive hydrogels were prepared by free radical copolymerisation of N-isopropylacrylamide

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(NIPAAM) with methacrylated pullulan (used as the crosslinker). Different hydrogels were obtained by varying the monomer to crosslinker ratio. Significant thermosensitivity was observed only when the molar amount of NIPAAM incorporated into the network was at least eight times greater than that of the methacrylate groups on the pullulan. The hydrogel with a higher amount of NIPAAM deswelled more than 80% after a T-jump from 25 to 48C. The lower critical solution temperature of the thermosensitive hydrogels decreased with increasing NIPAAM content. The mechanical properties of the hydrogels were significantly improved by increasing the relative amount of NIPAAM and by increasing the temperature. 35 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.868077 Item 47 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 86, No.1, 3rd Oct.2002, p.186-94 POLY(L-LACTIDE). IX. HYDROLYSIS IN ACID MEDIA Tsuji H; Nakahara K Toyohashi,University of Technology The hydrolysis of amorphous and crystalline poly(Llactide) (PLLA) films was studied at pH 2.0 in hydrochloric acid or DL-lactic acid solutions at 37C for up to 300 days. The results were compared with those for PLLA films hydrolysed at pH 7.4 (phosphate buffered solution) and pH 12 (sodium hydroxide solution). The hydrolysis of the PLLA films in acid media occurred homogeneously along the film cross section, mainly by a bulk erosion mechanism. The durability of the PLLA films in acid media was very similar to that in the neutral medium but higher than that in the alkaline medium. The hydrolysis rate constants for the initially amorphous PLLA films in the two acid solutions were very similar to that at pH 7.4 in the phosphate buffered solution. The similar hydrolysis rate constants and the negligible weight loss after hydrolysis for 300 days showed that the hydronium ions and lactic acid oligomers and monomers had negligible catalytic effects on the hydrolysis of PLLA films. Increasing the initial crystallinity of the film increased the hydrolysis rate in hydrochloric acid solution but not in DL-lactic acid solution. DSC results showed that the crystallisation of PLLA chains occurred during hydrolysis, irrespective of the hydrolysis acid medium and the initial crystallinity. 31 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.868048 Item 48 Chemistry of Materials 14, No.8, Aug.2002, p.3232-44 SYNTHESIS AND APPLICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE-CONTAINING POLYMERS

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References and Abstracts

Wang Q; Dordick J S; Linhardt R J Iowa,University; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Polysaccharides and glycoproteins participate in a number of biochemical reactions and cell-cell recognition processes in vivo. Synthetic carbohydrate-based polymers are being increasingly explored as biodegradable, biocompatible and biorenewable materials for use as water absorbents, chromatographic supports and medical devices. Moreover, synthetic polymers bearing sugar residues can also offer a good surface for cell attachment and, thus, might be applied to cell recognisation events in antimicrobial/viral and tissue engineering. Various synthetic approaches for the preparation of sugarcontaining polymers are presented. 119 refs. USA

Accession no.868009 Item 49 Surface Coatings International Part B 85, No.B3, Sept. 2002, p.203-8 CARBOXYMETHYLCELLULOSE ACETATE BUTYRATE IN WATER-BASED AUTOMOTIVE PAINTS Posey-Dowty J D; Seo K S; Walker K R; Wilson A K Eastman Chemical (UK) Ltd. The performance of carboxymethylcellulose acetate butyrate in metallic automotive basecoats is evaluated and compared with that of cellulose acetate butyrate in solvent systems. It is shown that by adding carboxymethylcellulose acetate butyrate together with other rheological modifiers, it is possible to control the viscous/elastic moduli of the coating without adversely affecting other properties and that carboxymethylcellulose acetate butyrate builds exponentially upon drying, resulting in enhanced flow and levelling without sagging. 2 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.867882 Item 50 Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Physics Edition 40, No.19, 1st.Oct. 2002, p.2324-32 PROCESSING, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, AND FRACTURE BEHAVIOR OF CEREAL PROTEIN/POLY(HYDROXYL ESTER ETHER) BLENDS Wang C; Carriere C J; Willett J L US,Dept.of Agriculture A biodegradable poly(hydroxy ester ether) was blended with a soybean protein isolate and hydrolysed wheat glutens, extruded and injection moulded into tensile bars. The physical properties of the resulting materials were investigated by means of DSC, fracture measurements, scanning electron microscopy of fracture surfaces and rheological and solubility measurements. The blends were found to exhibit acceptable mechanical properties,

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which in some instances were comparable to commercial thermoplastics, such as polystyrene, and moderate degrees of adhesion between the two different phases. 15 refs. USA

Accession no.867870 Item 51 Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2002, pp.122, 29 cm. Rapra Review Report 148, vol. 13, No.4, 2002 PLASTICS WASTE - FEEDSTOCK RECYCLING, CHEMICAL RECYCLING AND INCINERATION Tukker A TNO Edited by: Humphreys S (Rapra Technology Ltd.) This report discusses the options for feedstock recycling of plastics waste, including aspects of the environmental and economic pros and cons relating to feedstock recycling in comparison with incineration or mechanical recycling of municipal solid waste, based on a number of life cycle assessments. Particular reference is made to the experience of the TNO-CML Centre of Chain Analysis.485 refs. EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; UK; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.867304 Item 52 Journal of Macromolecular Science C C42, No.3, 2002, p.307-54 CHITIN AND CHITOSAN FOR VERSATILE APPLICATIONS Dutta P K; Ravikumar M N V; Dutta J Motilal Nehru Regional Engineering College; Shri G.S.,Institute of Technology & Science; Indore,Devi Ahilya University A review is presented of the literature published from 1926 to 2000 on the properties, processing and applications of chitin and chitosan, polymers which are obtained from prawn/crab shells. Various derivatives of chitin and chitosan are described and industrial and biomedical applications are considered. 280 refs. INDIA

Accession no.865862 Item 53 Journal of Materials Science Letters 21, No.15, 1st Aug.2002, p.1203-6 EFFECTS OF CRYSTALLIZATION AND LOADING-RATE ON THE MODE I FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF BIODEGRADABLE POLY(LACTIC ACID) Todo M; Shinohara N; Arakawa K Kyushu,University

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References and Abstracts

Polylactic acid (Lacty 9030) samples were moulded under four different sets of conditions and their microstructures were characterised using a polarising microscope. The mode I critical stress intensity factor was measured at a low and a high loading rate (1 mm/min and 1 m/s). The effects of moulding temperature and loading rate on the mode I critical stress intensity factor were then assessed based upon the experimental results. The fracture micromechanism was also studied by polarising and scanning microscopies. 6 refs. SHIMADZU JAPAN

Accession no.865850 Item 54 High Performance Plastics Aug.2002, p.3 BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTER HAS MEDICAL USES US-based Procter & Gamble, in conjunction with Kaneka Corp. of Japan, has developed a biodegradable thermoplastic polyester, the properties of which compare with high-grade polyolefins. Brief details are given here in this small item of the new “Nodax” resin. PROCTER & GAMBLE; KANEKA CORP. JAPAN; USA

Accession no.865795 Item 55 Plastics News(USA) 14, No.27, 2nd Sept.2002, p.1/38 U.S. FINAL FRONTIER FOR BIODEGRADABLE RESINS Pryweller J A few major resin companies are banking that US consumers will buy into the environmental logic behind biodegradable products, as parts of Europe and Asia already have. US acceptance could set the biodegradable plastic industry, now a miniscule portion of the resin market, into overdrive. DuPont has developed a line of biodegradable, modifiedPETP resins for films, called Biomax. Applications include stationery, coatings for disposable paper cups and sandwich wrap. Cargill Dow believes that its product can be made less expensively that those offered by large resin producers such as DuPont. Cargill Dow opened a world-scale production facility last November in Blair, Neb., to produce polylactide, the raw material for NatureWorks corn-based resins. Recently, the second stage of that plant opened to make polylactic acid, the liquid used to form pellets. CARGILL DOW LLC; DUPONT CO. USA

Accession no.865358 Item 56 Polymer Degradation and Stability 78, No.1, 2002, p.119-27

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS OF POLY(L-LACTIDE)-CACO3 COMPOSITES Fukuda N; Tsuji H; Ohnishi Y Aichi,Prefectural Government; Toyohashi,University of Technology The preparation of amorphous poly(L-lactide) composite films containing calcium carbonate, as inorganic filler, by solvent casting using methylene chloride, as solvent, followed by quenching from the melt, is described. The effects of volume fraction, surface treatment and particle size of the calcium carbonate on the physical properties and enzymatic hydrolysis behaviour in the presence of proteinase K of the composite films are discussed. It is shown that the addition of small amounts of calcium carbonate particles makes the composite films susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis. 36 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.865314 Item 57 Houston, TX, 1998, pp.18, 13/9/02 MUD GUIDE FOR DRILLING FLUID ADDITIVES Drilling Specialties Co. A guide is presented of products for mud drilling fluid additives from Drilling Specialties Company. One page summaries are given of Drilling Specialties Company mud products which include the following: Soltex, sodium asphalt sulphonate mud conditioners; Desco deflocculant, a proprietary tannin-based product for rheology control in water-base muds; Drill-Thin multi-purpose mud conditioners for rheology control based on modified tannin; Drispac polyanionic cellulose polymers for use in water loss control and viscosity in water-base muds; Flowzan biopolymers for rheology modification; Driscal polymeric additives for high temperature/high salinity environments; liquid hydroxyethyl cellulosic polymer suspended in ultra-clean mineral oil for use as a general viscosifier; Drill-Out proprietary dry powder used to increase low shear rate rheologies in fresh water Bentonite slurries; Driscose high purity carboxymethyl cellulose for improving and stabilising rheology; DSCo defoamer; DynaRed cellulosic fibre material for seepage loss and lost circulation; and Diaseal M lost circulation material. USA

Accession no.865068 Item 58 Polymer Preprints. Volume 42. Number 1. Spring 2001. Papers presented at the ACS Meeting held San Diego, Ca., 1st-5th April 2001. Washington, D.C., ACS, Div.of Polymer Chemistry, 2001, p.273-4, 28 cm, 012 COMBINATORIAL CHARACTERISATION OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

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References and Abstracts

Meredith J C; Tona A; Elgendy H; Karim A; Amis E US,National Inst.of Standards & Technology (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Biodegradable polymers offer promise in tissue engineering, drug delivery and degradable packaging. However, characterisation of biodegradable polymers for these applications is complex since many compositional and processing variables interact to produce desired mechanical, surface chemistry and topography, and cell interaction properties. A need exists for more efficient methods to characterise complex biodegradable polymer mixtures, composites and cell-polymer systems. Combinatorial methodologies, originally developed for pharmaceuticals, offer efficient measurement of chemical and physical properties over large regimes of variable space. The primary limitation to characterising polymers with combinatorial methods has been a shortage of techniques for preparing libraries with systematically varied composition, thickness and temperature. Recently, several new techniques have been developed for preparing polymer libraries containing continuous gradients in composition, thickness and annealing temperature. These high-throughput methods allow optimisation of microstructure, chemistry and cell interactions of tissue engineering biodegradable polymers, at an efficiency not attainable with conventional sample preparation and analytical methods. Combinatorial methods are presented for assaying cell adhesion and proliferation as a function of composition, microstructure and topography of polymeric substrates. UMR-106 cells are found to preferentially adhere and express AIP, a phenotype indicator for osteoblasts, within the LCST two-phase regime of a PDLA/PCL blend. This behaviour is tentatively assigned to cell sensitivity to topography and chemical differences between PDLA and PCL. The combinatorial library techniques presented allow rapid, efficient and accurate exploration of the effects of polymer composition, microstructure and topography on cell adhesion and proliferation. 5 refs. USA

Accession no.864830 Item 59 Journal of Polymers and the Environment 9, No.1, Jan.2001, p.1-10 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND FIBER MORPHOLOGY OF POLYLACTIC ACID OBTAINED FROM CONTINUOUS TWO-STEP MELT SPINNING Cicero J A; Dorgan J R Colorado,School of Mines Fibres of polylactic acid produced by a two-step meltspinning method were studied. A range of processing conditions was examined. Thermal, mechanical and morphological properties were determined. 24 refs. USA

Accession no.864032

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Item 60 Food Additives and Contaminants Vol.19, Suppl., 2002, p.172-7 PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS OF BIOBASED PACKAGING MATERIALS FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRY Weber C J; Haugaard V; Festersen R; Bertelsen G Copenhagen,Royal Veterinary & Agricultural University Potential food packaging materials based on renewable resources are discussed with reference to polymers directly extracted/removed from biomass, e.g. polysaccharides and proteins, to polymers produced by classical chemical synthesis using renewable bio-based monomers, e.g. polylactic acid, and to polymers prepared using microorganisms or genetically modified bacteria, e.g. polyhydroxyalkanoates. Applications in the packaging of fruit and vegetables, cheese, chilled or frozen products and non-carbonated beverages and in disposable tableware are discussed. 12 refs. (2nd International Symposium on ‘Food Packaging: Ensuring the Safety and Quality of Foods, Vienna, Austria, Nov.2000) DENMARK; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.863616 Item 61 Journal of Macromolecular Science A A39, No.7, 2002, p.643-56 LIGNIN IN PHENOLIC CLOSED CELL FOAMS: THERMAL STABILITY AND APPARENT DENSITY De Carvalho G; Frollini E Sao Paulo,University Lignin extracted from sugar cane bagasse was used as a partial substitute for phenol in phenolic closed cell foams. The thermal stability of phenolic and lignophenolic foams was studied in air and nitrogen atmospheres using DSC and thermogravimetric analysis. The thermal stability results showed that it was possible to replace part of the phenol by lignin in closed cell foams. The apparent density of phenolic foam was 120 kg/cu.m, whereas that obtained for lignophenolic foam (450 kg/cu.m) placed the latter in the structural foam class. Therefore, replacing part of the phenol with lignin in closed cell foams was very advantageous in this respect. 20 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.862899 Item 62 ENDS Report No.330, July 2002, p.36 TESCO FOLLOWS SAINSBURY’S WITH BIODEGRADABLE PACKAGING One year after Sainsbury’s introduced biodegradable packaging for its organic range of fresh produce, rival

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Tesco has followed suit and may extend its use to all fresh produce if it proves successful. The market could grow significantly if the cost of composting in-store food waste falls below that of landfill. Biodegradable packaging and refuse sacks have the advantage of being compostable along with organic household waste or food waste. Tesco’s biodegradable packaging is made from GM-free corn and polylactic acids by Sharp Interpack. Sainsbury’s product is made from potato starch and cellulose fibres and is supplied by Apack and Potatopack. TESCO STORES LTD. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.862635 Item 63 Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe 10, No.2, 2002, p.74-6 APPLICATION OF SELECTED USABILITY FORMS OF CHITOSAN FOR DRESSINGS Kucharska M; Niekraszewicz A; Struszczyk H Lodz,Institute of Chemical Fibres The preparation of wound dressing sponges from microcrystalline chitosan and determination of their physicomechanical properties are described. The elasticity, breaking strength, sorption and porosity of the sponges are discussed together with the effect of radiation sterilisation on sponge properties and the therapeutic value of these sponges for wound dressings. 7 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.862277 Item 64 Chemical Week 164, No.29, 24th July 2002, p.26 PERSONAL STEREOS: COMING SOON IN GREEN Wood A Mitsubishi Plastics and Sony Corp. are reported to have jointly developed a grade of biodegradable polylactic acid to replace ABS in the casing of Sony’s Walkman personal stereo. This will be one of the first nonpackaging applications of polylactic acid and one of the few applications of a biodegradable polymer in electronic equipment. The new grade is compounded with talc and biodegradable aliphatic polyesters. Brief details are given of further potential for polylactic acid in non-packaging applications. MITSUBISHI PLASTICS; SONY CORP. JAPAN

Accession no.861658 Item 65 ACS POLYMERIC MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. SPRING MEETING 2001.

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VOLUME 84. Proceedings of a conference in San Diego, Ca., 26th-30th August 2001. Washington, D.C., 2001, p.430, 012 POLYLACTIDE BLOCK COPOLYMERS: SYNTHESIS AND APPLICATIONS Hillmyer M A Minnesota,University Polylactide block copolymers that contain segments derived from anionic polymerisation of dienes such as butadiene and isoprene were prepared. This was also extended to the synthesis of hydrogenated polydienepolylactide and polystyrene-polylactide block copolymers. The microphase separation of polybutadienepolylactide block copolymers was investigated using small-angle X-ray scattering. It was determined that these materials self-assemble into expected ordered morphologies based on their molecular weight, interaction parameter, and polylactide volume fractions. Such hybrid macromolecules can be used as blend compatibilisers, toughening agents, nanostructure templates, pressure sensitive adhesives, and thermoplastic elastomers. 5 refs. USA

Accession no.861630 Item 66 Polymer Degradation and Stability 77, No.1, 2002, p.17-24 PROCESSING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF STARCH/POLYCAPROLACTONE PRODUCTS Matzinos P; Tserki V; Kontoyiannis A; Panayioutou C Thessaloniki,Aristotle University The properties of polycaprolactone/plasticised starch blends varying in starch content and processed by extrusion, injection moulding and film blowing methods were studied. A finer starch phase dispersion was achieved by injection moulding than in films, and this probably resulted from the development of higher shear rates at injection moulding. Starch incorporation in polycaprolactone resulted in decreased strength and elongation at yield and at break, whereas the modulus increased. At high starch content, particle coalescence was associated with a further mechanical property decrease. The melting temperature of polycaprolactone was slightly depressed by the addition of starch. 28 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GREECE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.861539 Item 67 Journal of Materials Science Letters 21, No.10, 15th May 2002, p.779-81 PREPARATION AND CHARACTERISATION OF GELATIN/MONTMORILLONITE NANOCOMPOSITE Zheng J P; Li P; Yao K D Tianjin,University

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References and Abstracts

Polymer/montmorillonite (MMT) nanocomposites have attracted great interest as their physical and chemical properties are dramatically different from conventional microcomposites. Beside nylon/clay hybrid, more and more organic-inorganic nanocomposites based on different polymer matrices, such as PS, epoxy resins, polyimide and polycarbonate, are prepared. All matrices reported are neutral synthetic polymers, while intercalated nanocomposite dealing with natural amphoteric polyelectrolyte has not until now been reported. Gelatin, a typical amphoteric polyelectrolyte, is a denatured derivative of structural protein collagen. It has been widely used in food, pharmaceutical and photographic areas. The application of gelatin in tissue engineering is attractive because it is non-toxic, biocompatible and biodegradable. However, poor mechanical properties (especially in wet state) limit its applications as structural biomaterial. Many attempts are made to improve their mechanical properties, such as vapour crosslinking, orientation and gelatin-based composites. However, non-toxic MMT with good biocompatibility has been used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Making use of intercalation preparing gelatin/MMT nanocomposite could well result in a nanocomposite with improved mechanical properties, desirable biocompatibility and provide potential promising prospects for biomedical applications. It is demonstrated that gelatin/MMT nanocomposite can be directly prepared with MMT and gelatin aqueous, and intercalated or exfoliated structures can be achieved. Mechanical and thermal properties of gelatin are improved significantly due to intercalation with MMT. 12 refs. CHINA

Accession no.860963 Item 68 Polymer Preprints. Volume 43, Number 1. Spring 2002. Papers presented at the ACS meeting held Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th April 2002. Washington D.C., ACS, Div.of Polymer Chemistry, 2002, p.336-7, 28 cm, 012 DEVELOPMENT OF RENEWABLE RESOURCE BASED BIOPLASTIC: EFFECT OF ECOFRIENDLY CITRATE PLASTICISER ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CELLULOSIC PLASTIC Mohanty A K; Drzal L T; Wibowo A; Misra M Michigan,State University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Cellulose esters are considered as potentially useful biodegradable polymers produced through esterification of cellulose. The main drawback of cellulosic plastic is that its melt processing temperature exceeds ts decomposition temperature. Thus cellulose acetates should be plasticised for thermoplastic applications. Phthalate plasticisers used in commercial cellulose ester plastics pose an environmental concern, and perhaps a health threat. Through plasticisation of cellulose acetate by eco-friendly citrate plasticiser, plasticised cellulose

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acetate is processable at the melting point of cellulose acetate (233 deg.C). The extruded sample shows least % elongation at break (EB) value, thus is stiffer and shows least impact strength whereas the only compression moulded samples exhibit highest % EB, thus are tougher and exhibit highest impact strength. Cellulose is under constant development with eco-friendly plasticisers to make it a suitable matrix polymer for reinforcement with bio-fibre in designing sustainable green composite materials. 4 refs. USA

Accession no.860856 Item 69 Polimery 47, No.5, 2002, p.316-25 CHITIN AND CHITOSAN. I. PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTION Struszczyk M M Tricomed SA An introduction to chitin and chitosan chemistry is presented. Properties of chitin and chitosan, the methods of their preparation (by means of enzymatic and chemical treatment) are described. 115 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.860850 Item 70 Popular Plastics and Packaging 47, No.7, July 2002, p.58-60 POLYMERS FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES - I Shukla S K; Maithani A; Agarwal D; Srivastava D Harcourt Butler Technological Institute The methods of preparation, characteristics and applications of cashew nutshell liquid as a source for the preparation of polymers are described, with emphasis on phosphorus- and bromine- modified cashew nutshell resins. Applications considered include coatings and biodegradable liquid crystalline polymers from cashew nutshell liquid. 13 refs. INDIA

Accession no.860673 Item 71 Polymer Preprints. Volume 43, Number 1. Spring 2002. Papers presented at the ACS meeting held Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th April 2002. Washington D.C., ACS, Div.of Polymer Chemistry, 2002, p.615-6, 28 cm, 012 NOVEL POLYESTER HYDROXY ETHER TERPOLYMERS FROM LACTIDE AND BISPHENOL-A DERIVATIVES Abayasinghe N K; Smith D W Clemson,University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry)

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References and Abstracts

Ring-opening polymerisation of lactide is a major area of research for the production of renewable resource biodegradable materials. Many approaches have been pursued to obtain polymers with desired properties including copolymerisation and the preparation of substituted polylactides. The strategy employed is to improve the characteristics of lactide-based polymers by introducing fluorocarbon and aromatic moieties to obtain polyesters with enhanced hydrolytic and thermal performance. Lactide is polymerised with 4,4'hexafluoroisopropylidenediphenol (6F-Bis-A) and diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA) catalysed by phosphonium catalysts or crown ether complexes. There seems to have been no previous report of using phosphonium-based catalysts for homo or copolymerisation of lactides. The structures of the copolymers are confirmed by FT-IR, 1H and 13C NMR experiments. The terpolymer appears to contain equal monomer units. The phosphonium catalysts and crown ether complex used are found to be the most efficient. Molecular weights of the copolymers are up to 46000 (Mn). Glass transition temperatures (58-80 deg.C by DSC) and thermal onset temperatures (400 deg.C) by TGA are significantly increased upon copolymerisation. 14 refs. USA

Accession no.860443 Item 72 GPEC 2002: Plastics Impact on the Environment. Proceedings of a conference held Detroit, MI, 13th14th Feb. 2002. Brookfield, CT, SPE, Paper 53, p.423-9, CD-ROM, 012 ENVIRONMENTAL PLASTICS. SUCCESSFUL APPROACHES TO SOLID WASTE SOLUTIONS Baumann M G.H.Associates (SPE,Environmental Div.) Examples are given of collaborative efforts amongst companies to bring solutions to solid waste management. It is argued that if a systems approach is taken for all plastic solid waste issues, there will be economically viable applications for each of the methods of solid waste management. Innovative solutions to solid waste management are reviewed which are said to demonstrate a ‘solution’ approach. These include PETP recycling, thermoset PU recycling in automotive applications, biodegradable polymers, and biodegradables in packaging. 5 refs. USA

Accession no.859631 Item 73 GPEC 2002: Plastics Impact on the Environment. Proceedings of a conference held Detroit, MI, 13th14th Feb. 2002. Brookfield, CT, SPE, Paper 48, p.399-414, CD-ROM, 012

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RATIONALE AND DESIGN FOR BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS Narayan R Michigan,State University (SPE,Environmental Div.) Traditionally, polymer materials have been designed to resist degradation, and today’s challenge is to design polymers that have the necessary functionality during use, but which destruct under the stimulus of an environmental trigger after use. Developments are described with polylactic acid, starch polymers, and reactive blends of polycaprolactone and starch, and starch foams. 17 refs. USA

Accession no.859629 Item 74 GPEC 2002: Plastics Impact on the Environment. Proceedings of a conference held Detroit, MI, 13th14th Feb. 2002. Brookfield, CT, SPE, Paper 47, p.393-98, CD-ROM, 012 SOY PROTEIN-BASED BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS Mungara P; Chang T; Zhu J; Jane J-l Iowa State University (SPE,Environmental Div.) The potential for soybean as a biodegradable plastic is discussed with reference to the US where it is an abundant renewable resource. Soybean protein has a potential for producing environmentally friendly biodegradable plastics that could sustain short-term applications such as packaging, sports items, disposable utensils, mulch films and thermal insulators. The research reported concentrates on the development of protocols for the processing of soy protein-based plastics using conventional methods such as extrusion, compression and injection moulding, and in addition, methods are described for the decreasing of moisture sensitivity and increasing stability and shelf life. Results are discussed of studies relating to the production of soy protein plastics including blends of soy protein and biodegradable synthetic plastics such as polyesters. 9 refs. USA

Accession no.859628 Item 75 GPEC 2002: Plastics Impact on the Environment. Proceedings of a conference held Detroit, MI, 13th14th Feb. 2002. Brookfield, CT, SPE, Paper 44, p.363-8, CD-ROM, 012 WHAT IS NEW WITH BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS Mojo S US,Biodegradable Products Institute (SPE,Environmental Div.) Biodegradable plastics are discussed with reference to current standards relating to the process of biodegradation.

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References and Abstracts

The development of current standards by the American Society of Testing and Materials grew out of a 8 year study conducted by the Institute for Standards Research. Also considered is the importance of certification programs, and what is happening with these efforts in the US, Europe and Japan. Three recent programs are described where biodegradable plastics play a critical role in diverting organic materials from landfills and incinerators. USA

US company KTM Industries has developed a new starchbased environmentally-friendly packaging foam known as “Green Cell”. It is a biodegradable cushioning, intended to replace HDPE foam inside corrugated boxes. Brief details are presented in this small item. KTM INDUSTRIES; NATIONAL STARCH & CHEMICAL; DOW CHEMICAL CO.; WENGER MANUFACTURING CO.; SOCIETY OF PLASTICS ENGINEERS

Accession no.859625

USA

Item 76 Macplas International May 2002, p.65/6 MAIZE TYRES Goodyear and Novamont have collaborated in developing a new type of tyre, the “GT3”, which includes maize amongst its component materials. “BioTred” technology has been used to partly replace the silica and carbon black used until now, with a filler called “Mater-Bi” - a biodegradable polymer that is produced by Novamont from maize starch which has many advantages. Details are given here. GOODYEAR; NOVAMONT EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; LUXEMBOURG; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.859050 Item 77 Macplas International May 2002, p.27-8 NICHE MARKETS FOR BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS Manufacturers of completely biodegradable polymers are continuing to develop and test-market new products where they make functional, economic, and environmental sense. This article provides examples of applications where biodegradable polymers are currently making an impact. Section headings include: medical sutures, pins, and dental implants; disappearing hospital laundry bags; textiles for industrial and institutional use; hygiene products; agricultural products; food service applications; and building market momentum. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING & MATERIALS; MCDONALD’S; CANADA,ENVIRONMENT & PLASTICS INDUSTRY COUNCIL; CANADIAN PLASTICS INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION

Accession no.858963 Item 79 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 84, No.14, 28th June 2002, p.2597-604 SYNTHESIS AND EVALUATION OF SUCROSECONTAINING POLYMERIC HYDROGELS FOR ORAL DRUG DELIVERY Shantha K L; Harding D R K Massey,University Biodegradable, biocompatible, pH-responsive copolymeric hydrogels based on sucrose acrylate, N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone and acrylic acid were synthesised by free radical polymerisation. AIBN was the free radical initiator and methylene bisacrylamide was used as the crosslinking agent for hydrogel preparation. Homopolymeric vinyl pyrrolidone hydrogels were prepared by the same technique. Equilibrium swelling studies carried out in enzyme-free simulated gastric and intestinal fluids (SGF and SIF) showed the pH-responsive nature of the hydrogels. The hydrogels swelled more in SIF than in SGF. A model drug, propranolol hydrochloride, was entrapped in the hydrogels. In-vitro release of the drug was found to be faster in enzyme-free SIF than in enzyme-free SGF. About 93 and 99% or the entrapped drug was released over 24 h in SGF and SIF respectively. 16 refs. NEW ZEALAND

Accession no.857069 Item 80 Macplas International Feb.2002, p.28/9 NATURAL POLYMERS

AUSTRIA; CANADA; EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; ITALY; JAPAN; NORTH AMERICA; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

The latest trends in natural polymer demand in the USA are presented in a new study from the Freedonia Group, which this concise article highlights briefly. The report forecasts that demand will increase 6.4 percent per year, to 2.9 billion US dollars in 2005, with best growth expected from starch and fermentation products. FREEDONIA GROUP

Accession no.859043

USA

Item 78 Plastics Technology 48, No.5, May 2002, p.15 NEW PACKAGING FOAM IS STARCH-BASED

Item 81 Advances in Textiles Technology March 2002, p.2

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Accession no.855897

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References and Abstracts

FIBRES - FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION RECOGNIZES POLYLACTIDE FIBRE AS GENERIC TERM In the USA, Cargill Dow has gained a generic classification for its plant-sugar-based polylactide fibre, from the Federal Trade Commission, in about half the usual time it takes to win such an approval. The company will start to sell the fibre next year, under the trade-name “NatureWorks”. Details of the development are provided. CARGILL DOW LLC; US,FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION EUROPE-GENERAL; JAPAN; USA

Accession no.855877 Item 82 Polymer Engineering and Science 42, No.5, May 2002, p.1032-45 MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF STARCH BASED BIOACTIVE COMPOSITE BIOMATERIALS MOLDED WITH PREFERRED ORIENTATION Sousa R A; Mano J F; Reis R L; Cunha A M; Bevis M J Minho,Universidade; Brunel University Composites of blends of starch with ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer filled with 10, 30 and 50 wt % of hydroxyapatite were produced by twin-screw extrusion compounding. These composites were moulded into tensile test bars using conventional injection moulding and shear-controlled orientation in injection moulding(SCORIM). The mechanical behaviour of the composites was determined under both quasi-static and dynamic conditions. The influence of compounding and SCORIM on the structure development of the starchbased blend matrix was studied and the basic structure/ property relationships were established for these composites. 25 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; PORTUGAL; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.854770 Item 83 Popular Plastics and Packaging 47, No.4, April 2002, p.79-81 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS - 1 Shukla S K; Prasad S; Srivastava D H.B.Technological Institute The preparation, structure and properties of oriented zein resin biodegradable packaging films are described and applications indicated. These polymers are made from zein, a natural protein extracted from corn. The applications include films and trays for packaging frozen food, modified atmosphere packaging and edible sheets for protecting hay bales stored indoors. 9 refs. INDIA

Accession no.853497

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Item 84 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.180, 2002, p.133-40 RECYCLING OF A STARCH-BASED BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER La Mantia F P; Scaffaro R; Bastioli C Palermo,University; Novamont A starch-based polymeric system from Novamont, ZIO1U, mainly composed of starch and polycaprolactone, was reprocessed several times in an extruder to investigate the recyclability of this biodegradable polymer. The thermomechanical degradation in a mixer was studied previously. The degradation was mostly due to the thermal stress but the presence of the mechanical stress strongly increased the degradation rate. During melt processing, two concurrent processes took place, the first being the degradation, i.e. the breaking and shortening of polymeric chains, mainly occurring in the polycaprolactone phase, the second being the formation of some crosslinked structure in the starch phase. The rheological and mechanical properties, measured on samples subjected to repetitive extrusion operations carried out in a singlescrew extruder, clearly indicated that, in the adopted processing conditions, no significant modifications were detected. Only after five extrusions was some decrease in these properties observed. 14 refs. (EUROMAT 2001, Polymer Processing and Structure Relationships Symposium, Rimini, Italy, June 2001) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.853297 Item 85 International Journal of Polymeric Materials 51, No.3, 2002, p.275-89 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHITOSAN AND WHEY BLENDED WITH POLY(EPSILON-CAPROLACTONE) Olabarrieta I; Jansson A; Gedde U W; Hedenqvist M S Sweden,Royal Institute of Technology The results are reported of an investigation into the properties of blends of 0 to 15 wt.% of poly-epsiloncaprolactone with chitosan and a whey protein isolate for packaging applications. These blends were produced by solution mixing and then solvent cast to produce films. Properties investigated were transparency, printability, stress-strain properties, heat seal strength, flexural stiffness, folding endurance and blend morphology, as determined by scanning electron microscopy. 21 refs. EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.852818 Item 86 Polymer Degradation and Stability 76, No.1, 2002, p.155-9 GLUCOSE EFFECT ON THE

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References and Abstracts

BIODEGRADATION OF PLASTICS BY COMPOST FROM FOOD GARBAGE Jang J-C; Shin P-K; Yoon J-S; Lee I-M; Lee H-S; Kim M-N Sangmyung,University; Korea,Institute of Science & Technology; Inha,University

Shaobing Zhou; Xianmo Deng; Minglong Yuan; Xiaohong Li Chinese Academy of Sciences Human serum albumin (HSA) was encapsulated into biodegradable polymer microspheres. A new microsphere drug delivery system consisting of calcium alginate complex microcores surrounded by a poly-DL-lactidepoly(ethylene glycol) block copolymer coat was prepared by a solvent extraction method based on the formation of multiple water/oil/water emulsion, based on solvent extraction methods. The microspheres were characterised in terms of their morphology, size distribution, loading efficiency and in-vitro protein release. The novel delivery system showed some advantages over conventional systems in improving the protein loading efficiency, achieving a more stable in-vitro release profile and preserving the structural integrity of HSA during the encapsulation and release procedure. 24 refs.

The development of the microbial population in food compost was studied as a function of time, and the influence of glucose additions on the biodegradation occurring in the compost was investigated. Powdered samples of biodegradable plastics including poly(epsiloncaprolactone), poly(L-lactide), poly(hydroxybutyrate-covalerate) and poly(vinyl alcohol) were added to the compost and their biodegradation monitored. The addition of 5 wt% glucose increased the number of microorganisms by 10-100 times. The biodegradable plastic additions also increased the number of microorganisms, but the increase was not dependent upon the biodegradability of the plastics. 18 refs.

CHINA

KOREA

Accession no.852150

Accession no.852674 Item 87 Polymer Degradation and Stability 76, No.1, 2002, p.53-9 THERMAL DEGRADATION OF POLY((R)-3HYDROXYBUTYRATE), POLY(EPSILONCAPROLACTONE) AND POLY((S)-LACTIDE) Aoyagi Y; Yamashita K; Doi Y Japan,Institute of Physical & Chemical Research; Akebono Brake R&D Center Ltd.; Tokyo,Institute of Technology The thermal degradation of poly((R)-3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), poly(epsilon-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly((S)lactide) (PLA) was studied using isothermal and kinetic thermogravimetric analysis and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy. The polymers exhibited significantly different time-dependent profiles of weight loss and number-average degree of polymerisation in the isothermal studies, attributed to the different degradation mechanisms. It is proposed that PHB degraded by random chain scission, PCL by unzipping depolymerisation from the hydroxyl ends of the polymer chains, whilst PLA exhibited complex degradation behaviour, attributed to the occurrence of simultaneous reactions. 31 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.852663 Item 88 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 84, No.4, 25th April 2002, p.778-84 INVESTIGATION ON PREPARATION AND PROTEIN RELEASE OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER MICROSPHERES AS DRUGDELIVERY SYSTEM

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Item 89 International Journal of Polymeric Materials 50, No.2, 2001, p.207-14 ENVIRONMENTALLY DEGRADABLE BLENDS OF LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (LDPE) AND PARTIALLY CARBOXYMETHYLATED STARCH (PCMS) Patel N K; Pandya P D; Sinha V K Gujarat,Science College The sodium salt of partially carboxymethylated starch with degree of substitution 0.21 and 0.58 was synthesised by etherification of starch. These starch ethers and LDPE were mixed with and without PVAc in various proportions using a Brabender mixer. FTIR confirmed the etherification reaction of starch and blending. Positive changes in the mechanical properties and of environmental degradation as a function of blending were observed. Addition of 5 wt % PVAc improved the blend quality. Samples were exposed to direct sunlight for one month and environmental degradation was measured in terms of changes in TS and percent elongation. 8 refs. INDIA

Accession no.851631 Item 90 Polymer Science Series A 43, No.12, Dec.2001, p.1256-60 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER COMPOSITES BASED ON POLYURETHANE AND MICROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE Ryabov S V; Kercha Yu Yu; Kotel’nikova N E; Gaiduk R L; Shtompel V I; Kosenko L A; Yakovenko A G; Kobrina L V Ukraine,National Academy of Sciences; Russian Academy of Sciences

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References and Abstracts

Composites of polyurethane (PU) with microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) loadings of between 5 and 40 weight percent were prepared by adding the MCC to the PU reaction mixture. The method of formation and surface structure of the composites, and effects of ageing in acid, neutral and alkaline media (as an indication of biodegradation), were examined using infrared spectroscopy and the bulk structure of the blends by Xray diffraction. Glass transition and heat capacity at glass transition were examined using differential scanning calorimetry. Maximum compatibility of PU and MCC was achieved at MCC levels up to 20 weight percent. Above this microphase separation was observed. 13 refs.

in a hot oven at 135C under nitrogen. Biodegradation was examined by burying the blend materials for 16 months in three types of soil, i.e. paddy soil, farmyard manure and red clay. The weight loss was found to be highest for specimens buried in the paddy soil and lowest for that in the red clay, while changes in the TS and Young’s modulus after degradation were most marked in the specimen buried in the red clay. The morphology of the specimens was observed by SEM. The results obtained indicated that the dispersed starch particles induced biodegradation of PE within the blend films in the red clay. 31 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.850320

RUSSIA; UKRAINE

Accession no.851085 Item 91 European Polymer Journal 38, No.2, Feb.2002, p.387-92 SYNTHESIS OF ACRYLIC ROSIN DERIVATIVES AND APPLICATION AS NEGATIVE PHOTORESIST Lee J S; Hong S I Seoul,National University Maleopimaric acid anhydride, obtained from gum rosin, was used to synthesise monofunctional acrylic rosin derivatives by esterification with various acrylates, including 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA), 3hydroxypropyl acrylate and 4-hydroxybutyl acrylate. The prepared monomers were subjected to radical copolymerisation with methyl methacrylate. A trifunctional acrylate was synthesised by esterification of rosin-derived fumaropimaric acid with HEA. Both monomers and polymers exhibited good solubility and low absorbance in the UV region. Negative photoresists of high contrast and with a minimum line with of 2.2 micrometre were prepared by-photocuring using the trifunctional acrylate and copolymers, or by photocrosslinking of the copolymers. 10 refs. KOREA

Accession no.850862 Item 92 Journal of Macromolecular Science B B41, No.1, 2002, p.85-98 BIODEGRADATION OF HIGH-STRENGTH AND HIGH-MODULUS PE-STARCH COMPOSITE FILMS BURIED IN SEVERAL KINDS OF SOILS Nakashima T; Ito H; Matsuo M Kinki,University; Japan,Heian Jogakuin College; Nara,Women’s University The biodegradation of composite films of UHMWPE and starch particles, prepared by gelation-crystallisation from dilute solutions of PE in which starch particles were dispersed, was investigated. Various PE-starch composites were studied and drawing was conducted up to 80 times

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Item 93 West Conshohocken, Pa., 1995, pp.3. NALOAN ASTM F 1635-. TEST METHOD FOR IN VITRO DEGRADATION TESTING OF POLY (L-LACTIC ACID) RESIN AND FABRICATED FORM FOR SURGICAL IMPLANTS American Society for Testing & Materials ASTM F 1635Version 1995(R2000). Photocopies and loans of this document are not available from Rapra. USA

Accession no.850013 Item 94 Plastics Technology 48, No.3, March 2002, p.50/5 RENEWABLE PLA POLYMER GETS “GREEN LIGHT” FOR PACKAGING USES Leaversuch R The only commercially available polymer made from a renewable plant feedstock is polylactide (PLA). Yet, it is explained here, film, sheet, and bottle processors do not just consider the environmental benefits of choosing PLA - equally appealing are its unique properties, which include outstanding clarity and gloss, twist and dead-fold retention, and taste and odour barrier performance. This detailed article provides full information. CARGILL DOW LLC; MITSUI CHEMICAL; SHIMADZU CHEMICAL; MITSUBISHI PLASTICS; DUNLOP JAPAN; HOECHST TRESPAPHAN GMBH; TEICH FLEXIBLES LTD.; DMT AMERICAS; PLASTIC TECHNOLOGIES INC. AUSTRIA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; ITALY; JAPAN; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.848865 Item 95 Journal of Elastomers & Plastics 34, No.1, Jan. 2002, p.49-63 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERISATION OF LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT POLYLACTIC ACID

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Proikakis C S; Tarantili P A; Andreopoulos A G Athens,National Technical University The polycondensation of (D,L)-lactic acid in the absence of catalysts was investigated using, as starting materials, 90% lactic acid alone or together with xylene, which acted as solvent for azeotropic distillation. The polymerisation products were characterised by viscosimetry, melting point determinations, FTIR spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. It was found that using xylene as azeotropic solvent did not give products with the appropriate molec.wt. for biomedical applications but performing polymerisation at temperatures, such as 220C, under the inert atmosphere of nitrogen provided amorphous polymers having molec.wts. acceptable for biomedical applications. 30 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GREECE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.848767 Item 96 Polymer Degradation and Stability 75, No.3, 2002, p.431-7 PREPARATION AND DEGRADATION OF LLACTIDE AND EPSILON-CAPROLACTONE HOMO AND COPOLYMER FILMS Yavuz H; Babac C; Tuzlakoglu K; Piskin E Hacettepe,University Homo- and copolymers of L-lactide(LLA) and epsiloncaprolactone(CL) were prepared by ring-opening polymerisation using stannous octoate as catalyst. The number- and weight-average molec.wts. and polydispersity indices were in the range 30,000 to 35,000, 52,000 to 56,000 and 1.53 to 1.86, respectively. All the polymers were shown by DSC to be semicrystalline. The LLA/CL ratio in the final copolymer was 60/40. Polymeric films were prepared by solvent casting, using chloroform as the solvent and drying in air. Degradation of these films was investigated in aqueous media with or without the presence of a microorganism (Pseudomonas putida) for 60 days. The degradation was followed by measuring the changes in molec.wts. and MWD and also changes in mechanical properties. Molec.wts. decreased with time, but there was no significant change in the MWDs. There were marked changes in the mechanical behaviour of the films, which became much less flexible, even brittle, and mechanically weaker in 60 days. The changes were more marked in the case of copolymer film. Almost no effect of microorganisms on either molec.wts. or mechanical properties were observed. 24 refs. TURKEY

Accession no.848527 Item 97 Polymer Preprints. Volume 42. Number 2. Fall 2001. Proceedings of a conference held Chicago, Il., 26th30th August 2002.

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Washington, D.C., ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry, 2001, p.71-2 ENVIRONMENT-FRIENDLY ‘GREEN’ BIODEGRADABLE COMPOSITES FROM NATURAL FIBRE AND CELLULOSIC PLASTIC Hokens D; Mohanty A K; Misra M; Drzal L T Michigan,State University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Cellulose esters are considered as potentially useful biodegradable polymers of the future. Creating biodegradable products from waste materials is one way to make products environmentally friendly. Another is to make products from sustainable resources. Cellulosic plastics, like cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate propionate and cellulose acetate butyrate are thermoplastic materials, produced through esterification of cellulose. The production of cellulose esters from recycled paper and sugar cane has also been demonstrated. Very recently, use of cellulosic plastics for various new applications has attracted the attention of the chemical industry. The major limitations of present biodegradable polymers are their high cost. By incorporating inexpensive natural fibres into biopolymeric matrices, novel value-added biocomposites can be made. Initial experimental results, including the performance of biocomposites fabricated from a natural fibre and cellulose, are presented. 7 refs. USA

Accession no.847976 Item 98 Macromolecular Materials and Engineering Vol.286, No.12, 28th Dec.2001, p.761-8 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS, 9 TECHNOLOGICALLY RELEVANT ASPECTS OF KINETICS AND MECHANISM OF RING-OPENING POLYMERIZATION OF L,L-DILACTIDE Rafler G; Lang J; Jobmann M; Bechthold I Fraunhofer-Institut fuer Ang.Polymerforschung Poly(L-lactide) is useful as a biodegradable polymeric material for use in e.g. packaging, disposables and hygienic products. Poly(L-lactide) is manufactured by a cascade process comprising the fermentation of glucose substrate, oligomerisation of L-lactic acid, cyclisation depolymerisation to L,L-dilactide and ring-opening polymerisation of the cyclic diester. It was found that the ring opening polymerisation of L,L-dilactide was influenced by various micro- and macrokinetic factors. Monomer conversion and molecular weight of the polyester are determined by chemically active process parameters, like kind and concentration of catalyst and initiator, and the reaction temperature or presence of cocatalysts. The highest polymerisation rate was seen using tin octoate, but the use of this catalyst leads to fast degradation of the polymer. 26 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

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References and Abstracts

Item 99 Polyurethanes Expo 2001. Creating Opportunity through Innovation. Proceedings of a conference held Columbus, Oh., 30th. Sept. - 3rd. Oct. 2001.. Arlington, Va., Alliance for the Polyurethanes Industry, 2001, Paper 79, p.597-604 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF POLYURETHANES BASED MODEL TRIGLYCERIDES Petrovic Z S; Zlatanic A Pittsburg,State University (American Plastics Council; Alliance for the Polyurethanes Industry) Three polyols based on model vegetable oils were obtained by ring opening reaction of the oxiranes in the epoxidised oils, for use as viable alternatives to petrochemical based polyols. Due to inconsistencies in their structures which may affect properties, an examination was undertaken to examine the effect of structure on properties using oils with three (triolein), and six (trilinolein) double bonds, as well as linseed oil, which contains more than six double bonds. Corresponding polyurethane networks were prepared from methoxylated epoxidised oils and MDI. The highest conversion rates of functional groups and lowest viscosity are reported for the triolein based polyol. Tgs of polyurethanes increased with crosslink densities, and increasing crosslinking density caused an increase in modulus and tensile strength and decrease in elongation at break. Thermal stability of all three samples was comparable. 6 refs. USA

Accession no.846334 Item 100 Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition 40,No.4,15th February 2002,p.451-8 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MONOMERS AND POLYMERS FOR ADHESIVES FROM METHYL OLEATE Bunker S P; Wool R P Delaware,University,Center for Composite Materials A monomer was synthesised from a fatty acid methyl ester capable of forming high molecular weight polymers. The monounsaturation in the starting material, methyl oleate, was first epoxidised using a peroxy acid. This intermediate material was further modified using acrylic acid. The acrylated molecule is able to participate in free radical polymerisation reactions to form high molecular weight polymers. The rate of polymerisation was low because of the long aliphatic structure of the monomer. It is hypothesised that the polymerisation reaction occurred in the interface between the particle and water, thereby slowing down the reaction. After 18 hours of reaction, a monomer conversion of approx. 91% was achieved. A maximum weight-average molecular weight of approx. 10,000,000 g/mol was achieved after 14 hours of reaction.

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At early reaction times linear polymers were formed. However, as the reaction time increased, the amount of branching that occurred on the polymer molecule increased, as indicated by gel permeation chromatography and light scattering. This has been attributed to chain transfer to polymer via hydrogen abstraction from tertiary backbone C-H bond. The resulting polymer may be of considerable interest for pressure-sensitive adhesive applications. 27 refs. USA

Accession no.846178 Item 101 Medical Device Technology 13, No.1, Jan./Feb.2002, p.8/12 ENABLING TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANTAGES OF CHITIN Williams D Liverpool,University Royal Hospital It is explained that chitin is a natural biopolymer and, along with its derivative chitosan, has been represented as a biomaterial with considerable potential in many medical applications, such as wound-healing, drugdelivery, tissue engineering, and blood-contact devices. This detailed article examines the basis for this claim, and fully describes the nature and properties of these materials. 1 ref. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.845702 Item 102 Chemical and Engineering News 80, No.8, 25th Feb.2002, p.23-4 BUTTING HEADS IN POLYASPARTIC ACID Reisch M S Both Donlar Biosyntrex, with sales last year of 2.3m US dollars, and Bayer, with sales near 26bn US dollars, have high hopes for the chemical polyaspartic acid. PAA is a dispersing agent. It dissolves limescale in drainage pipes and inhibits corrosion, it is an anti-redeposition agent in detergents and is used in fertilisers to keep the nutrients close to plant roots. The competition is polyacrylates which, when used in industrial water treatment or detergents, have to be removed from the waste water and disposed of as sludge. PAA is biodegradable. Both companies began work on PAA in the early 1990s. Bayer estimates the global size of the polyacrylates market at about 2 billion lb/year and claims that all current uses for polyacrylates could be replaced with PAA. That includes the use of polyacrylates as an absorbent in disposable nappies, where PAA would be a biodegradable replacement. BAYER CORP.; DONLAR BIOSYNTREX CORP. USA

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References and Abstracts

Item 103 Polymer Bulletin 47, No.5, Jan. 2002, p.429-35 PREPARATION AND CHARACTERISATION OF HYDROPHOBICALLY MODIFIED ALGINATE Kang H-A; Shin M S; Yang J-W Korea,Advanced Institute of Science & Technology The synthesis of biodegradable polymeric surfactants derived from alginates and their characterisation by various techniques, including X-ray diffraction, dynamic light scattering, surface tension measurements and biodegradability testing are reported. These surfactants are shown to provide colloidally stable self-aggregates and to be biodegraded when in contact with the microorganism, Aspergillus niger. 14 refs. KOREA

Accession no.845205 Item 104 Vinyltec 2001. Pushing Profitability. Conference proceedings. Iselin, N.J., 11th-12th Sept.2001, p.163-76 FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF WOOD AS A COMPONENT OF THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITES Stokke D D; Gardner D J Iowa State University; Maine,University (SPE,Vinyl Div.; SPE,Palisades Section) Wood is a good cellular biopolymer. To effectively utilise wood-based particles and fibres as fillers or reinforcements in thermoplastic composites, a fundamental understanding of the structural and chemical characteristics of wood is required. An overview of these topics is presented. Its basic characteristics of anatomy and structure combine to impart variations in permeability, bulk chemistry and surface chemistry. Characterisation of particle size and shape, as well as surface tension characteristics as indicators of wettability, become important when trying to understand how these biopolymeric materials behave when introduced into synthetic polymer systems. Some recent work on the use of contact angle analysis and inverse phase gas chromatography as means to characterise these interesting, variable and useful wood materials is described. 14 refs. USA

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stability of microspheres from hydrolytically degradable polymers. 320 refs. EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.844632 Item 106 Advances in Polymer Science Vol.157, 2002, p.41-65 CONTROLLED RING-OPENING POLYMERIZATION. POLYMERS WITH DESIGNED MACROMOLECULAR ARCHITECTURE Stridsberg K M; Ryner M; Albertsson A-C Sweden,Royal Institute of Technology A review is presented of the ring-opening polymerisation of lactones and lactides with different types of initiators and catalysts as well as their use in the synthesis of macromolecules with advanced architecture. Latest developments within the coordination-insertion mechanism are examined. Mechanisms and typical kinetic features are described. 139 refs. EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.844631 Item 107 European Chemical News 76, No.1993, 18th-24th Feb.2002, p.24 BIO-BREAKTHROUGH Baker J There are two main biotechnology routes to crop-derived polymers. Cargill Dow and DuPont are using modified bacteria to convert sugars found in plants to polymer intermediates, prior to polymerisation. An alternative approach is being developed by Metabolix, which bioengineers the crops to make the polymers. The Cargill Dow technology produces a polymer based on polylactic acid. DuPont’s effort is directed towards bio-production of 1,3-propanediol, which can be polymerised with PTA to make polyester-type products. Metabolix is looking to produce a range of polyhydroxyalkanoate polymers. CARGILL DOW LLC; DUPONT CO.; METABOLIX INC. USA

Accession no.844229 Item 105 Advances in Polymer Science Vol.157, 2002, p.67-112 DEGRADABLE POLYMER MICROSPHERES FOR CONTROLLED DRUG DELIVERY Edlund U; ALbertsson A-C Sweden,Royal Institute of Technology A review is presented of the use of degradable polymers for use in controlled drug delivery. Emphasis is given to the preparation, applications, biocompatibility, and

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Item 108 Modern Plastics International 32, No.1, Jan.2002, p.11 WILL CONSUMERS EMBRACE BIOPOLYMERS? Rosenzweig M Cargill Dow has started a full scale plant to produce up to 140,000 t/y of its NatureWorks polylactic acid polymers.

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Novamont recently more than doubled capacity for its starchbased Mater-Bi polyester copolymer to 20,000 t/y. Last year, NatureWorks debuted on a small scale packaging and candy twistwrap films in Japan and thermoformed food containers in Europe. Mater-Bi trash and shopping bags have been out for a couple of years in Europe. The key attraction of biopolymers, and the driver for their current use, is their inherent biodegradability. Packaging is a key potential market. A test funded by Germany’s Federal Ministry of Agriculture aims to assess how the 200,000 people of Kassel, Germany, value biopolymers-based packaging and if they are willing and able to sort them out for composting. WORLD

Accession no.844206 Item 109 Plastics and Rubber Weekly 8th Feb.2002, p.11 BIOSCIENCE FIRM JOINS STRAW RESEARCH Cambridge Biopolymers has signed up to a research project at the University of Wales investigating methods for production of chemical feedstocks from wheat straw. The project, which has been running for 18 months, has already developed environmentally benign technologies capable of sequentially extracting four key products from waste straw: wax, lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose. Cellulose can be converted directly to cellulose polymer film and hemicellulose could find applications as a viscosity modifier or polymer reinforcement. CAMBRIDGE BIOPOLYMERS; WALES,UNIVERSITY EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.844164 Item 110 Progress in Rubber and Plastics Technology 17, No.3, 2001, p.186-204 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS, THEIR PRESENT STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS Fomin V A; Guzeev V V Polimerov FGUP NII Analysis of research in the development of biodegradable plastics indicates that some progress has been made in this area. With the increasing consumption of polymers for containers and packaging, and other disposable everyday articles, the problem of plastics waste and its threat to the environment will continue to grow. In this connection, the anticipated tightening of legal requirements to restrict the use of non-biodegradable plastics as containers and packaging will be an even greater incentive for developing a wide range of biodegradable thermoplastics with the required properties and at a reasonable price. In Europe, the involvement of government agencies along with large chemical manufacturers to tackle the problem of biodegradable

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plastics is proving successful for solving this complex problem. In addition to an expansion of research in the area of known biodegradable plastics, there will probably be new approaches to the problem of endowing large tonnage synthetic polymers with bio- and photodegradability. Unfortunately, problems of development and practical application of biodegradable polymers are receiving insufficient attention in the Russian Federation. 200 refs. RUSSIA

Accession no.843923 Item 111 Polymer Degradation and Stability 75, No.2, 2002, p.357-65 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS 2. POLY(EPSILON-CAPROLACTONE), POLY((R)3-HYDROXYBUTYRATE), AND POLY(LLACTIDE) FILMS IN NATURAL DYNAMIC SEAWATER Tsuji H; Suzuyoshi K Toyohashi,University of Technology The biodegradation of films of aliphatic polyesters in natural dynamic seawater was investigated using polarising optical microscopy, gravimetry, gel permeation chromatography, differential scanning calorimetry and tensile testing. The degradation of poly(epsiloncaprolactone) (PCL), poly((R)-3-hydroxybutyrate)(RPHB), and poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) was accelerated by mechanical destruction in the natural seawater system. The mechanical effect had a greater effect on R-PHB and PLLA films with relatively high Tg than for the PCL films with lower Tg. R-PHB films were (bio)degraded mostly at the centres of and between spherulites. 15 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.842735 Item 112 Polymer Degradation and Stability 75, No.2, 2002, p.347-55 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS 1. POLY(EPSILON-CAPROLACTONE), POLY((R)3-HYDROXYBUTYRATE), AND POLY(LLACTIDE) FILMS IN CONTROLLED STATIC SEAWATER Tsuji H; Suzuyoshi K Toyohashi,University of Technology The biodegradation of films of aliphatic polyesters in static seawater at 25 degC was investigated using polarising optical microscopy, gravimetry, gel permeation chromatography, differential scanning calorimetry and tensile testing. The biodegradability was found to decrease in the order poly(epsilon-caprolactone) (PCL), poly((R)3-hydroxybutyrate)(R-PHB), poly(L-lactide) (PLLA).

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References and Abstracts

PCL and R-PHB films degraded unevenly where the marine microbes attached: pores and cracks formed during biodegradation. PLA did not degrade, even after 10 weeks in the controlled seawater. 32 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.842734 Item 113 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 81, No.7, 15th Aug.2001, p.1567-71 PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDEMODIFIED POLYPHENOL IMPREGNATE Sekaran G; Thamizharasi S; Ramasami T India,Central Leather Research Institute Tannin (a polyphenol compound) was recovered from tannery waste water and was impregnated in phenolformaldehyde (PF) resin. The modified polyphenol was held physically in the impregnate. The impregnated PF resin matrix was resistant to mineral acids, strong alkalis and organic solvents. The adhesive properties of PF and PF-modified polyphenol impregnate (PFT) were studied on leather. The leather which was bonded with PFT showed a 27% greater peel strength than that of PF and the lap shear strength was 40% greater than that of the sample bonded with PF. The results showed that PFT had a potential application in the paint industry as an anticorrosive paint. 8 refs. INDIA

Accession no.842692 Item 114 Polymer 43, No.3, 2002, p.757-65 ADSORPTION OF INDOMETHACIN ONTO CHEMICALLY MODIFIED CHITOSAN BEADS Fwu-Long Mi; Shin-Shing Shyu; Chin-Ta Chen; JuinYih Lai Taiwan,Chinese Naval Academy; Taiwan,National Central University; Chung Yuan University Macroporous chitosan beads used for the immobilisation of indomethacin, an anti-inflammatory drug, were prepared using a wet phase inversion technique. The casting solution was aqueous tripolyphosphate (TPP). Both the liquid-liquid and solid-liquid phase separation processes were responsible for the formation of the beads. The porous structure of the chitosan beads was varied by changing the chitosan concentration, the TPP concentration and the pH. After phase inversion, quaternary ammonium, aliphatic and aromatic acyl groups were introduced into the porous chitosan beads. Indomethacin was effectively adsorbed onto the porous chitosan beads and the efficiency of the adsorption depended on the functional groups on the beads. 41 refs. TAIWAN

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Item 115 Macplas International Sept.2001, p.60 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS - STUDY FROM BCC This short article provides brief economic information on the market for biodegradable polymers in North America. Figures are taken from a recently-published report by Business Communications Co. The article also mentions the debate within the industry about exactly which materials should be considered biodegradable, as no universal standards are in place. BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS CO. NORTH AMERICA

Accession no.842455 Item 116 Macplas International Sept.2001, p.57/9 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS - DEPART A new biodegradable polymer from Environmental Polymers is the subject of this article. “Depart” is a pelletised PVA polymer with unique properties in that it has user-controllable solubility, being totally insoluble up to 35 degrees Celcius, but in hotter and hotter water it becomes increasingly soluble, to leave a harmless solution of PVA and glycerol. This solution can then biodegrade to carbon dioxide and water. Full information is presented of the properties of “Depart”, and details are given of potential applications, such as hospital laundry bags which can be loaded full into washing machines and will dissolve during washing without harm to the fabrics. ENVIRONMENTAL POLYMERS SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.842453 Item 117 Eureka 22, No.1, Jan.2002, p.24-5 GROWING A GREEN APPROACH TO MATERIALS Shelley T It is explained that biotechnology is the key to new, lowcost methods of making advanced materials from plants. This detailed article reports on the latest environmentallyfriendly developments, and includes a look at a new fibre extraction process, the history of hemp, hemp fabrications, and wheat straw as a source of natural fibres. MASTER ROPEMAKERS; BIOFIBRES; NAPIER,UNIVERSITY; CREANDO FIBRETECH; SWEDEN,NATIONAL SCHOOL OF PAPER MAKING; SAARBRUCKEN,INSTITUT FUER NEUE MATERIALIEN; UK,GOVERNMENT; PIRA INTERNATIONAL; MG MARGA DESIGN; NASA

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AFRICA; CANADA; EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.841051 Item 118 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 83, No.3, 18th Jan.2002, p.457-83 BIOSYNTHETIC PROCESSES FOR LINEAR POLYMERS Asrar J; Hill J C Monsanto Co.; TechScope LLC Biosynthetic processes for production of linear proteins, polysaccharides, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are reviewed, and processes for conversion of linear biopolymers into useful products are described. The materials covered are milk casein, corn zein, soybean, and groundnut proteins, and the polysaccharides covered are: plant cellulose and gellans, seaweed carrageenans, algins, furcellaran, and laminarans, amyloses and pectins, fungal pullulan, chitins, chitosans, heparin hyaluronic acid, chrondroitins, dermatan sulphate, keratan, and glycan sulphate. The history, biosynthesis, morphology, composition and molecular structure, physical and mechanical properties, thermal properties, rheology, crystallisation behaviour and biodegradation of PHA in different microbial environments are reviewed. Methods and additives for improving the processability of PHA and potential uses of PHA are also reviewed. 204 refs. USA

Accession no.840745 Item 119 Biopolymers. Packaging - A New Generation. Conference Proceedings. Birmingham, UK, 29th-30th March 2001, Paper 8 ‘PROS & CONS’ OF BIO-BASED MATERIALS Yeo B Green Light Products (ACTIN) The advantages and disadvantages of biopolymers in packaging are presented, with emphasis on loosefill products and post-manufacture handling.

Details are given of Cargill Dow’s NatureWorks polylactic acid, reported to be a new generation of biopolymers. The product’s target markets and applications include packaging (rigid thermoformed food and beverage containers, high value films, extrusion coated paper and board, injection stretch blow moulded bottles and extruded and moulded foams), fibres (mono- and multifilament, bulk continuous filament, staple fibres and spun yarns) and chemical intermediates from lactide. USA

Accession no.839873 Item 121 Biopolymers. Packaging - A New Generation. Conference Proceedings. Birmingham, UK, 29th-30th March 2001, Paper 5 POLYSACCHARIDES: NEW PACKAGING MATERIALS FOR A BIO-BASED FUTURE BenBrahim A York,University (ACTIN) In this new bio-based era, plants are increasingly providing solutions in the quest for world sustainability. Obtaining useful non-food products from ‘surplus’ crops is not a new initiative, but one upon which more emphasis has recently and justifiably been placed. The world’s over-consumption of fossil-fuels has been challenged, and concerns not only the petrochemical-derived fractions which are put aside to run automotive-centred lifestyles. This effectively nonrenewable resource is also responsible for the production of another great 20th century favourite - plastic. Plastics packaging is essential. Various properties make plastic the ideal material in which to package food and other consumables. It can be tough, supple, provide a water-proof environment, low in weight and also economically viable. One of its few disadvantages is that after its useful lifetime, it is difficult to dispose of because it is essentially nondegradable. With all of the waste-stream options there are disadvantages and often global environmental issues attached. The use of polysaccharides for packaging applications is described. 17 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

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USA

Accession no.839875 Item 120 Biopolymers. Packaging - A New Generation. Conference Proceedings. Birmingham, UK, 29th-30th March 2001, Paper 6 NATUREWORKS - A NEW GENERATION OF BIOPOLYMERS Vink E Cargill Dow Polymers LLC (ACTIN)

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Item 122 Biopolymers. Packaging - A New Generation. Conference Proceedings. Birmingham, UK, 29th-30th March 2001, Paper 4 NEW IDEAS FOR POLYURETHANE-BASED POLYMERS Clark A Warwick,University (ACTIN) The high environmental burden caused by the use of nonrenewable petrochemical based feedstocks for the chemical

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References and Abstracts

and polymer industries has led to the search for vegetable oil-based alternatives. Despite this, only castor oil (a nonUK indigenous crop) has gained importance as a feedstock in the PU industry. PUs are used globally on a scale of around seven million tpa, and this is rising at a rate of about one million tpa. The main aim is thus to widen industrial demand for agricultural oilseed-derived products from UK sources, primarily by demonstrating that oils such as rapeseed and euphorbia can be used as chemical feedstocks to make PUs and replace existing petrochemicals and castor oil. However oils such as rapeseed and euphorbia do not contain the necessary chemical functionality (hydroxyl groups) required to be useful as PU feedstocks, so it is necessary to introduce such functionality by low-cost chemical manipulation. It is shown that it is possible to prepare a range of feedstocks containing both epoxide and hydroxyl groups on a 25-litre scale from both rapeseed and euphorbia oils. It is shown that by careful control of the reaction it is possible to control the level of functionality introduced into the feedstock. In this way, it is demonstrated that it is possible to prepare a range of PU products with differing properties, such as rigid packaging foams, flexible elastomers and rigid PU. In addition it is shown that the new feedstocks can be used to replace castor oil in a variety of PU formulations. The epoxidised and hydroxylated monomer feedstocks are characterised by 1H and 13C NMR, IR and MALDI-TOF-MS. Analysis indicates that epoxidation using peroxyphosphotungstate and hydrogen peroxide in water furnishes high levels of epoxides resembling epoxidised soybean oil. Accession no.839871 Item 123 Biopolymers. Packaging - A New Generation. Conference Proceedings. Birmingham, UK, 29th-30th March 2001, Paper 2 NEW COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF STARCH-BASED PLASTICS Raynaud L National Starch & Chemical co. (ACTIN) New commercial developments achieved by National Starch & Chemical in the area of starch-based biopolymers are outlined. Aspects covered include biodegradability and compostability, natural polymer science, applications and commercial products, and future natural polymer developments. USA

Accession no.839869 Item 124 Biopolymers. Packaging - A New Generation. Conference Proceedings. Birmingham, UK, 29th-30th March 2001, Paper BIOPOLYMERS: THE WORLD MARKET POTENTIAL

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Bastioli C; Marini L Novamont SpA (ACTIN) The science of sustainability, also known as industrial ecology, represents a new framework for understanding the impact of industrial systems on the environment and resource use, and to identify and implement strategies to minimise these impacts. Climate change is the most intensively discussed global sustainability issue in industrial countries over the last ten years, and measures to slow down the continuous and impressive growth of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are under consideration. In 1996, the Intergovernmental Climate Change Panel admitted an anthropogenic contribution to the global warming potential trend. Aspects covered include materials from renewable resources and industrial applications of biopolymers. The results of life cycle analysis studies performed on starch-based materials in comparison with traditional plastics in specific market segments such as film, foams and tyres demonstrate the potential of these materials, in terms of contribution to the reduction of emissions with greenhouse effect, due to the capability of starch to recycle atmospheric CO2. Such a contribution can become very effective, when starchbased products are used in applications where their unique performances and peculiar structure are suited, as in the case of biofillers for tyres. 15 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.839868 Item 125 Polymer Preprints. Volume 41. Number 2. Conference proceedings. Washington, D.C., 20th-24th Aug.2000, p.1872 ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MATER-BI STARCH-BASED MATERIALS IN SPECIFIC INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS Bastioli C; Marini L Novamont SpA (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Mater-Bi starch-based materials produced by Novamont are materials able to significantly reduce the environmental impact in terms of energy consumption and greenhouse effect in specific applications, to perform as traditional plastics when in use, and to completely biodegrade within a composting cycle through the action of living organisms when engineered to be biodegradable. Today Mater-Bi products are used in specific applications where biodegradability is required, such as composting (bags and sacks), fast food tableware (cups, cutlery, plates, straws etc.), packaging (soluble foams for industrial packaging, film wrapping, laminated paper, food containers), agriculture (mulch film, nursery pots, plant labels), hygiene (diaper back sheet, cotton swabs); and in applications driven by the improved technical performances versus traditional

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References and Abstracts

materials, as in the case of biofillers for tyres or chewable items for pets. Case studies for the assessment of the environmental impact of applications of Mater-Bi products currently available in the market are reviewed. 3 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.839761 Item 126 Polymer Preprints. Volume 41. Number 2. Conference proceedings. Washington, D.C., 20th-24th Aug.2000, p.1856 CONTROLLING THE POLYMER MICROSTRUCTURE OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYHYDROXYALKANOATES (PHAS) Kelley A S; Srienc F Minnesota,University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a class of biodegradable polyesters produced by many bacterial species. The polymer is synthesised when growth is limited by lack of a nutrient but carbon is available in excess. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), the most prevalent PHA, has high crystallinity which leads to brittle failure. Copolymers of PHB incorporating polyhydroxyvalerate (PHB) are proved to increase the toughness of the polymer. Blends of PHB with other biodegradable materials such as starch or polycaprolactone have also led to some improvements while maintaining biodegradability. Phase separated blends present yet another way to improve the physical properties of brittle PHB. It has been shown that blends of PHB and polyhydroxybutyrate-co-valerate (PHBV) will phase separate with as little as 8% HV differences between the two polymers. Synthesising polymer granules within bacteria in a ‘living’ polymerisation gives a unique opportunity to control the microstructure of the polymer. By controlling the substrate available to the bacteria, different polymer types can be synthesised within the same granule, or even within the same polymer chain. The synthesis of ‘layered’ granules in Pseudomonas oleovorans has been demonstrated with diauxic use of substrates. It has also been shown that ‘layered’ granules can be synthesised by Ralstunia eutropha, consisting of a core of PHBV and a shell of PHB. In order to benefit from controlled PHA microstructures, a system is developed in R. eutropha to produce two different polymers that will phase separate. 7 refs. USA

Accession no.839753 Item 127 Polymer Preprints. Volume 41. Number 2. Conference proceedings. Washington, D.C., 20th-24th Aug.2000, p.1855 IN VIVO AND IN VITRO METABOLIC ENGINEERING OF PHA BIOSYNTHESIS PATHWAYS

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Steinbuchel A Munster,Westfalische Wilhelms University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Poly(3-hydroxybutyric acid) (poly(3HB)) and other structurally related aliphatic polyesters from bacteria belonging to the class of polyhydroxyalkanoic acids (PHA), form biodegradable thermoplastic and elastomers currently in use or being considered for use in industry, medicine, pharmacy and agriculture. More than 100 different hydroxyalkanoic acids have already been identified as constituents of these polyesters. They are currently produced by microbial fermentations. In the future, production will also be possible using agriculture transgenic plants. Recently, in vitro biosynthesis methods for various PHAs have been established. One is the recently established in vitro biosynthesis of poly(3HB) from 3-hydroxybutyrylCoA (3HBCoA) employing purified PHA synthase from Chromatium vinosum (PhaECcv). Based on this study, a three-step in vitro poly(3HB) biosynthesis system allowing the synthesis of poly(3HB) from 3-hydroxybutyrate and the recycling of CoA was established employing purified propionyl-CoA transferase from Clostridium propionicum and a commercially available acetyl-CoA synthetase from yeast in addition. Since this reaction was driven by ATP, and because only catalytic quantities of CoA were used, poly(3HB) could be produced on a semi-preparative scale. It is also possible to synthesise in vitro poly(3hydroxydecanoic acid) with other enzymes. Purified PHA synthase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa plus a commercially available acyl-CoA synthetase is employed. 8 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.839752 Item 128 European Plastics News 29, No.1, Jan.2002, p.21 BIODEGRADABLES TAKE OFF Warmington A Europe is set to be the most promising region for biodegradable plastics in the coming years, it is claimed. Consumption in the key target market of food packaging appears to be taking off, but the use of genetically modified organisms in raw material crops remains a huge stumbling block. In 2000, European consumption of biodegradable plastics amounted to 10,000 tonnes, 40 percent of the world total. Cargill Dow has just brought onstream its 140,000 t/y polylactic acid plant in the US. Novamont has begun supplying Mater-Bi nets for fruit to Tesco in the UK and biodegradable bags to Swiss and German supermarkets. In the US, ECM Biofilms says that its masterbatch additive technology is already proven to degrade all kinds of conventional PE and PP to CO2 and water, at loadings of 1 percent or less. WORLD

Accession no.839222

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References and Abstracts

Item 129 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.175, Aug.2001, p.55-66 POLYLACTIDES: PROPERTIES AND PROSPECTS OF AN ENVIRONMENTALLY BENIGN PLASTIC FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES Dorgan J R; Lehermeier H J; Palade L I; Cicero J Colorado,School of Mines Comparison of the mechanical properties of polylactic acid (PLA) with those of other commodity plastics showed that PLA has a close resemblance to polystyrene. It is shown that blending of linear and branched chain architectures provides a convenient method for controlling the elasticity and viscosity of PLA composites without affecting the mechanical or permeation properties. The melt rheology of high L-lactide content linear PLA shows two unique features: the melt can be drawn to high Hencky strains without breaking and shows considerable strain hardening, so that PLA can be easily processed into fibre form. Because of the favourable combination of rheological, mechanical, and environmental properties, the prospects for widespread PLA commercialisation are very good. 11 refs. USA

Accession no.838505 Item 130 International Polymer Science and Technology 28, No.11, 2001, p.T/76-84 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS, THEIR PRESENT STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS Fomin V A; Guzev V V FGUP ‘NII Polimerov A review is presented of the development of biodegradable plastics, with reference to their value in packaging applications to overcome the problems of waste management. The review charts progress in the development of biodegradable polymers based on hydroxycarboxylic acids, biodegradable plastics based on natural polymers, and research into methods of imparting the property of biodegradability to existing multi-tonnage industrial polymers such as PE, PP, PVC, PETP, and polystyrene. 200 refs. (Article translated from Plasticheskie Massy, No.2, 2001, pp.42) RUSSIA

Accession no.838071 Item 131 European Plastics News 28, No.10, Nov.2001, p.6 BIODEGRADABLES HAS A NEW LEADER The European biodegradable plastics market has a new leader in Rodenburg Biopolymers, a subsidiary of the Dutch food by-product processing giant, Rodenburg. Its Solanyl products will be the first biodegradables able to

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compete with standard plastics on price. The company has just added 40,000 t/y of capacity at its plant in Oosterhout, Netherlands. The 7,000 t/y pilot plant is continuing as a test and small-scale production unit. Solanyl is based on starch from the peelings left over from converting potatoes into french fries. Meanwhile, BASF is reported to be planning a new 25-30,000 t/y plant for its Ecoflex biodegradable aliphatic-aromatic copolyester, probably at the Schwarzheide site in eastern Germany. RODENBURG BIOPOLYMERS; BASF AG EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.837920 Item 132 Plastics and Rubber Weekly 7th Dec.2001, p.1 GM FEAR HITS CARGILL DOW Hague C Cargill Dow is missing out on lucrative food packaging contracts because it cannot guarantee retailers that the feedstock for its biodegradable polylactide acid polymer is GM-free. Sainsbury’s has told Cargill Dow it would like to use the firm’s NatureWorks product, but is prohibited by a self-imposed ban on genetically modified products. Marks & Spencer has also made a pledge not to use materials sourced from GM products. CARGILL DOW LLC EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.837829 Item 133 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 91, No.11, Nov. 2001, p.40-2 LIGNIN - TAILOR-MADE Nitz H; Semke H; Muelhaupt R; Abaecherli A Freiburg,University; Albert-Ludwigs,University; Granit SA; Granit Recherche Developpement SA The synthesis of lignin having property profiles tailored to plastics compounding utilising a new process (Granite) developed by Granit SA, is described and the suitability of this lignin as a non-toxic biostabiliser to prevent attack from microorganisms and extend the service life of biodegradable polymers, such as polyamide 11, is demonstrated. Typical applications of this lignin are indicated. (Kunststoffe, 91, No.11, 2001, p.98-101) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.837222 Item 134 Polymer Preprints. Volume 41. Number 2. Conference proceedings. Washington, D.C., 20th-24th Aug.2000, p.1552-3 SYNTHESIS OF NOVEL BRANCHED

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References and Abstracts

POLYLACTIDES AND THEIR DEGRADATION Tasaka F; Miyazaki H; Ohya Y; Ouchi T Kansai,University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) The aliphatic polyester is one of the most widely utilised class of degradable polymers in the field of biomedical materials. Among them, polylactide, PLA, is a biodegradable and bioabsorbable polymer used clinically in wound closure, tissue repair and regeneration, and/or drug delivery. PLA is biodegradable, good biocompatibility, high mechanical strength, and excellent shaping and moulding properties. However, PLA suffers from difficulty in controlled degradation based on its high crystallinity and the induction of material defects based on lability of melt viscosity. Possible promising approaches to overcome these problems are the introduction of hydrophilic units to control the biodegradability and branched structure to stabilise the melt viscosity and/or to decrease the crystallinity in PLA. Many approaches, e.g. syntheses of block copolymer of PLA with polyethylene glycol and terpolymer of PLA with polyhydroxyl compounds, were attempted to control the degradation rate by varying crystallinity. The synthesis of graft copolymers composed of PLA and polysaccharides such as pullulan and amylose through the trimethylsilyl protection method has been reported. The biodegradability of polymers obtained could be controlled by introduction of hydrophilic units and/or branched structure into PLA. Therefore, PLA with both hydrophilic units and branched structure can expect to be utilised as novel degradable materials. 5 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.836597 Item 135 Macromolecules 34, No.20, 25th Sept.2001, p.6889-94 ENZYMATIC POLYMERIZATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NEW POLY(3HYDROXYALKANOATE)S BY A BACTERIAL POLYMERASE Kamachi M; Ahimin Zhang; Goodwin S; Lenz R W Massachusetts,University 3-Hydroxy-3-cyclopropylpropionate and 3-hydroxy-4chlorobutyrate were synthesised and their coenzyme A thioester derivatives were polymerised in-vitro in aqueous solution using the newly purified recombinant poly(hydroxyalkanoate) synthase derived from Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii. The propagation rates of the two monomers with the enzyme were 1.2 and 6.7 mol of monomer reacted per mole of enzyme catalyst per second of reaction time for 3-hydroxy-3cyclopropylpropionate and 3-hydroxy-4-chlorobutyrate respectively and the number-average molecular weights of the poly(3-hydroxy-3-cyclopropylpropionate) and poly(3-hydroxy-4-chlorobutyrate) produced were 371,000 and 189,000 respectively. The polymers were crystalline and their crystallinity and NMR spectra indicated that both

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contained only one chiral centre (100% isotactic), even though both monomers were racemic mixtures. 46 refs. USA

Accession no.836436 Item 136 Journal of Macromolecular Science B 40, No.3-4, 2001, p.529-38 THERMAL CHARACTERIZATIONS OF WOOD FLOUR/STARCH CELLULOSE ACETATE COMPOUNDS Liu Z Q; Cunha A M; Yi X S; Bernardo C A Minho,Universidade; China,National Key Laboratory of Advanced Composites TGA, DSC and dynamic mechanical analysis(DMA) were carried out to study the interfacial interaction between wood flour and starch/cellulose acetate(SCA) blend. It was found that the main components in the compounds, i.e. starch, cellulose and cellulose acetate, started to decompose at about 330C, a characteristic temp. for breaking glycosidelinked glucose units. Complexation of lignin in wood flour with amylose in SCA occurred during compounding, which gave rise to new crystallites that had a m.p. of around 160C. Hydrogen bonding was thought to play a key role in the crystallisation. With increasing wood flour content, both the Tg and the softening temp. increased as a result of the restricted molecular chain mobility imposed by rigid cellulose filaments. In addition, the DMA data showed that amylose could occur as linkages in the crystallites. All these observations indicated that the interfacial adhesion between SCA and wood flour was relatively strong, even in the absence of a coupling agent. 20 refs. (Europhysics Conference on Structure Development during Polymer Processing: Physical Aspects, Sept.2000, Minho, Portugal) CHINA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; PORTUGAL; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.836384 Item 137 Leatherhead, 2001, 11 papers, 31cm, 012 BIOPOLYMERS.PACKAGING - A NEW GENERATION. PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE HELD BIRMINGHAM, UK, 29TH-30TH MARCH 2001 (UK,Alternative Crops Technology Interaction Network) Eleven papers are published here following this two day conference on bio-polymer packaging. The aim of the conference was to discuss the potential of plants as providers of bio-based materials for the packaging industry. Topics covered include commericial developments of starch-based plastics, polyurethanebased polymers, polysaccharides and recycling. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.836086

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References and Abstracts

Item 138 Journal of Biomaterials Science: Polymer Edition 12, No.8, 2001, p.875-92 STRUCTURED DRUG-LOADED BIORESORBABLE FILMS FOR SUPPORT STRUCTURES Zilberman M; Schwade N D; Meidell R S; Eberhart R C Texas,University Details are given of the development of bioresorbable polylactic acid films containing dexamethasone through solution processing. The effect of processing parameters on the film morphology and the resulting mechanical properties was studied. The basic mechanical properties of stents prepared from this polylactic acid were examined. 21 refs. USA

Accession no.835556 Item 139 Composite Interfaces 8, No.5, 2001, p.313-43 SURFACE MODIFICATIONS OF NATURAL FIBRES AND PERFORMANCE OF THE RESULTING BIOCOMPOSITES: AN OVERVIEW Mohanty A K; Misra M; Drzal L T Michigan,State University A review of biocomposite highlighting recent studies and developments, in natural fibres, biopolymers and various surface modifications of natural fibres to improve fibre matrix adhesion is presented. One of the most important factors determining the final performance of the composite materials is the quality of the fibre matrix interface. A sufficient degree of adhesion between the surface of hydrophilic ligno-cellulosic natural fibres and the polymer matrix resin is usually desired to optimum performance of the biocomposite. Dewaxing, alkali treatment, isocyanate treatment, peroxide treatment, vinyl grafting, bleaching, acetylation and treatment with coupling agents are useful ways to improve fibre-matrix adhesion in natural fibre composites. Two major areas of biocomposites are discussed. One is the most predominant biocomposite currently being commercialised for semistructural use in the durable goods industries, i.e. natural fibre PP composites. The second type is the biocomposites from natural fibres and biodegradable plastics. Two major classes of biogradable plastics are available, one being derived from renewable resources and the second type being synthesised in the laboratory from petrochemical sources, which can also be used as matrix materials to make value-added biocomposites. 101 refs.

DOW COLLABORATES ON CASTOR OILBASED PLASTICS AND CHEMICALS de Guzman D As part of a plan for increasing bioproducts and bioenergy projects, the Department of Energy has awarded Dow Chemical a 5m US dollars grant to develop plastics and chemicals from renewable plant oils such as castor oil. Dow, with Castor Oil Inc. and the US Department of Agriculture’s Western Regional Research Center (WRRC) in Albany, will work together on improving properties of plant oils as a substitute for petrochemicals-based raw materials. Although castor oil has a lucrative market as an industrial oil, US production of the castor crop has been limited because of the toxicity of castor seeds. WRRC has recently been developing the first genetically engineered castor plants in the world in order to produce castor plants that are free of ricin, the toxin found on castor beans and allergens. DOW CHEMICAL CO.; CASTOR OIL INC.; US,DEPT.OF AGRICULTURE USA

Accession no.834634 Item 141 Materials World 9, No.6, June 2001, p.10-2 FILM STARS - NEW POLYMERS TAKE THE WRAP FROM GELATIN Gelatin is used as the coating or encapsulating agent for thousands of different products worldwide, including drugs, cosmetics, oils, powders, paints and even confectionery. However, it has its problems, not least of which being it is derived from rendered animal bones and tissues. A synthetic polymer film system, called XGel, has been developed by Bioprogress Technology that can not only replace gelatin in its applications, but also offers enhanced material properties and novel uses. XGel is a family of about 30 different formulations, all based on polyvinyl alcohol and methyl hydroxypropyl cellulose. These polymers are processed into films, which are then coated with patented coatings. Each side of the film can be given a different property, such as making it moistureproof on one side only. Applications include flushable feminine hygiene products and ostomy bags, bath beads, dietary supplement capsules, waste bags for portable field toilets and paintballs. BIOPROGRESS TECHNOLOGY LTD. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.834600

USA

Accession no.835049 Item 140 Chemical Marketing Reporter 260, No.16, 29th Oct.2001, p.14

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Item 142 Macromolecular Chemistry & Physics 202, No.11, 4th Aug.2001, p.2281-6 GRAFT COPOLYMERISATION OF METHYL METHACRYLATE ONTO A BACTERIAL

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References and Abstracts

POLYESTER CONTAINING UNSATURATED SIDE CHAINS Ilter S; Hazer B; Borcakli M; Atici O Tubitak Marmara Research Center; Zonguldak,Karaelmas University; Istanbul,Technical University Poly(3-hydroxyalkanoate)s (PHAs) containing unsaturated side chains were obtained by feeding Pseudomonas oleovorans with soybean fatty acids. The unsaturated PHA copolymers were found to contain 10 mol% unsaturated side chains together with saturated hexanoate, octanoate and decanoate units. Methyl methacrylate was thermally grafted onto PHA and the resulting graft copolymer was separated by fractional precipitation. The PHA content of the graft copolymers was 5-50 mol%. 27 refs. TURKEY

Accession no.833271 Item 143 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 82, No.4, 24th Oct. 2001, p.847-53 STUDIES ON THE COMPOSITES OF CELLULOSE TRIACETATE (PREPARED FROM SUGAR CANE PULP) AND GELATIN Rajini R; Venkateswarlu U; Rose C; Sastry T P India,Central Leather Research Institute Cellulose was prepared from sugar cane pulp (bagasse) and was converted into cellulose triacetate (CTA) via an acetylation reaction. CTA-gelatin composite films were prepared and their mechanical properties, water absorption, chemical structure and surface morphology were studied. 17 refs. INDIA

Accession no.833229 Item 144 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 82, No.8, 21st Nov.2001, p.2027-36 WATER-SOLUBLE ESTERS OF BIOSYNTHETIC POLY(GAMMA-GLUTAMIC ACID) Perez-Camero G; Vazquez B; Munoz-Guerra S Barcelona,Universidad Politecnica de Catalunya; Madrid,Instituto de Ciencia y Tec.de Polim. Water-soluble esters of poly(gamma-glutamic acid) were prepared by the transesterification of poly(alpha-methylgamma-glutamate) with mono-, di- and triethylene glycols, with one hydroxyl end group blocked as methyl ether. Only the monoglycol was crystalline, melting at 160 C. The glass transition temperatures increased from 10 to 60 C with increasing oxyethylene side chain length. All the polyesters were stable to temperatures up to approximately 250 C. Moisture absorption, surface wettability, and hydrolytic degradation were studied as a function of time. Sensitivity to water increased with increasing glycol chain lengths, with the behaviour at

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short contact times being dependent upon conformational factors. 19 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.832422 Item 145 Polymer Degradation and Stability 73, No.3, 2001, p.549-55 COMPOSITE FILMS BASED ON WASTE GELATIN: THERMAL-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND BIODEGRADATION TESTING Chiellini E; Cinelli P; Corti A; Kenawy E R Pisa,University; Tanta,University A study, was carried out on the thermomechanical properties and biodegradability of films prepared from waste gelatin (WG) and WG blended with polyvinyl alcohol (PVAL) and lignocellulose fillers or crosslinked by glutaraldehyde. Characterisation utilised differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, water sensitivity and respirometric tests (carbon dioxide evolution) from simulated soil burial tests. It was shown that WG films had high biodegradability that could be modified by either crosslinking or by blending with PVAL. Crosslinking also improved the water resistance of the film and increased its softening point. Suitability for use in agricultural film was suggested, as the materials have high soil degradability and therefore could be used in self-fertilising mulches. 32 refs. EGYPT; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.831840 Item 146 European Plastics News 28, No.5, May 2001, p.49-50 GREEN PROGRESS Warmington A Suppliers of biodegradable plastics continue to report progress in 2001. Novamont believes that the market will grow from 24,000 tonnes in 1999 to 120,000 in 2003, mainly in packaging, compost bags, hygiene goods, disposable food service ware and agriculture. Novamont is doubling its capacity for Mater-Bi starch-based materials to 20,000 t/y this summer. Cargill Dow will bring on 140,000 tonnes of polylactic acid capacity in the US in late 2001. National Starch claims perceived consumer preference is the main reason why renewable materials, like starch and PLA, are expected to remain dominant in the biodegradable plastics market. Polyvinyl alcohol is a material of growing interest in the biodegradable sector because of its solubility in water, which makes it ideal for applications like single-use packaging in certain applications and laundry bags. WORLD

Accession no.831400

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References and Abstracts

Item 147 Plast’ 21 No.102, May 2001, p.86-7 Spanish ORGANIC RECYCLING An examination is made of types of biodegradable polymers, their properties and applications and composting methods used in their recycling. Trends in the world market for such polymers are also reviewed. IDROPLAST; ICI; MONSANTO; CARGILL DOW POLYMERS EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE; WORLD

Accession no.831366 Item 148 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 81, No.535, Jan.2001, p.99-106 Spanish NEW METHODOLOGIES FOR THE PREPARATION OF TOTALLY OR PARTIALLY BIODEGRADABLE SYSTEMS Abraham G A; Elvira C; Migliaresi C; Motta A; San Roman J Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologia de Polimeros; Trento,University A review is presented of methods for the preparation of biodegradable polymer systems for use in biomedical applications such as tissue engineering and controlled drug release. 54 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.831308 Item 149 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 81, No.535, Jan.2001, p.81-91 Spanish CHITOSAN: A BIODEGRADABLE AND BIOCOMPATIBLE NATURAL POLYSACCHARIDE WITH APPLICATIONS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIOMEDICINE Peniche C; Arguelles W; Gallardo A; Elvira C; San Roman J La Habana,Universidad; IMRE; Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologia de Polimeros The structure, hydrolytic stability and enzymatic degradation of chitosan are examined, and methods used in its characterisation are reviewed. Uses of chitosan in biomedical applications, microcapsules, polyelectrolyte complexes and chemical reagents of various kinds are described. 161 refs. CUBA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.831306

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Item 150 Macromolecular Bioscience 1, No.6, 30th Aug.2001, p.219-22. This issue is published within Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics Vol.202, No.12, 30th Aug.2001. COMPARISON OF IN VITRO AND IN VIVO DEGRADATION OF POLY(D,L-LACTIDE) BIOABSORBABLE INTRA-MEDULLARY PLUGS Henn G G; Birkinshaw C; Buggy M; Jones E Limerick,University; Stryker Osteonics Poly(D,L-lactide) is evaluated as a material for the fabrication of intramedullary plugs for use in total hip arthoplasty. The plugs are manufactured by compression moulding and subjected to in vitro (Ringer’s solution) and in vivo (implants into dogs) degradation. In vitro tests reveal rapid degradation with the molecular weight halving after 30 days. The molecular weight of the implants in dogs is shown to have reduced to one half after 190 days, which is due to this process being diffusion-controlled. Histological specimens show resorption of the plugs over a period of 24 months. 16 refs. EIRE

Accession no.831249 Item 151 Packaging Review South Africa 27, No.8, Aug.2001, p.41 PLASTICS FOR THE GREEN BIN It is hoped that K2001 will clear up the question of whether biodegradable materials represent the way ahead or a dead end. Earlier this year, Bayer halted production and marketing of its BAK bioplastic. The company argues that low acceptance of BAK is primarily a result of the recently amended version of the Bio-Waste Ordinance, which in marketing terms gives biologically degradable products based on renewable raw materials the edge over their synthetically-sourced counterparts. Eastman Chemical reports that Wheatees, golfing tees produced from biodegradable grain-based polymer, are a big hit on international golf courses. WORLD

Accession no.829786 Item 152 Polimeros: Ciencia e Tecnologia 11, No.2, April/June 2001, p.82-8 Portuguese BIODEGRADABILITY AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYMERIC MIXTURES Rosa D S; Franco L M; Calil M R Sao Francisco,Universidade Several options have been considered to minimise the environmental impact caused by the use of conventional polymers. An important alternative is the biodegradable polymer, which can be degraded through the action of

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References and Abstracts

naturally occurring microorganisms, such as bacteria or algae. Technological applications of biogradable polymers usually require improvements in their mechanical properties. Novel polymer blends are obtained for inexpensive applications. The methodology of preparation of new polymer blends is described. The blends contain different quantities of starch, with poly(E-caprolactone) PCL, poly(beta-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and poly(betahydroxybutyrate-co-b-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV). The resistance to tensile strength of the blends with 50% in mass of starch is 35% and 60% lower than for that for pure PCL and PHBV, respectively. Upon exposure to microorganisms in activated mud, mixtures of PCL or PHBV with larger amounts of starch display higher rates of degradation. 10 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.828987 Item 153 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 81, No.9, 29th August 2001, p.2260-4 PROCESSING OF GEL-SPUN POLY(BETAHYDROXYBUTYRATE) FIBERS Gordeyev S A; Nekrasov Y P; Shilton S J Strathclyde,University; Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis Poly(beta-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) was produced by bacterial synthesis. Oriented elastic fibres of PHB with a tensile strength of up to 360 MPa and a Young’s modulus of up to 5.6 GPa were produced by the spinning and drawing of a concentrated PHB gel using a three-stage fibre processing technique. 16 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; RUSSIA; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.828776 Item 154 Polymer Bulletin 46, No.5, June 2001, p.389-94 FREE RADICAL CROSSLINKING OF UNSATURATED BACTERIAL POLYESTERS OBTAINED FROM SOYBEAN OILY ACIDS Hazer B; Demirel S I; Borcakli M; Eroglu M S; Cakmak M; Erman B Zonguldak,Karaelmas University; TUBITAK Marmara Research Center; Akron,University; Sabanci,University Soybean oily acids were converted by Pseudomonas oleovorans to poly(3-hydroxy alkanoate) (PHA) with 10 mol% of unsaturated side chains. The main saturated part of the polyester consisted of poly(3-hydroxy octanoate) with lesser proportions of hexanoate and decanoate units. Crosslinking of the PHA, to form films, was carried out via a free radical mechanism under UV irradiation or by thermal crosslinking at 60C. Crosslinked polyesters were produced in high yields (81-93 wt%). The crosslinking structure was studied and the crosslinked polyester obtained by thermal crosslinking at 60C with benzoyl peroxide had the highest

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crosslink density. The original PHA had a glass transition temperature of -60C, whereas those of the crosslinked polyesters ranged between -33 and -45C. 25 refs. TURKEY; USA

Accession no.828744 Item 155 Chemical Marketing Reporter 260, No.8, 20th-27th Aug.2001, p.FR15/8 BIOPLASTICS AREN’T THE STRETCH THEY ONCE SEEMED Boswell C Bio-based plastics from DuPont, Cargill Dow and Metabolix are addressing the problems of sustainability and pollution, while maintaining and even improving our standard of living. Three emergent polyesters represent different degrees of bio-basis. Corn-derived 1,3propanediol is to be a primary feedstock for DuPont’s Sorona, which also draws on petrochemical-derived terephthalate. Cargill Dow’s NatureWorks, a polylactide, is being produced entirely from lactic acid derived fermentatively from corn. In both cases, polymerisation is ultimately accomplished chemically. Metabolix, however, has eliminated chemical synthesis altogether by developing organisms that not only produce monomers, but also go a step further, producing actual plastics, in this case polyhydroxyalkanoates. USA

Accession no.828498 Item 156 Journal of Materials Science 36, No.15, 1st Aug. 2001, p.3693-8 CURE CHARACTERISTICS OF ALKALI CATALYSED CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUIDFORMALDEHYDE RESIN Mwaikambo L Y; Ansell M P Bath,University The DSC technique was used to study the change in Tg of oven-cured cashew nut shell liquid-formaldehyde resin with and without hexamethylene tetramine to monitor the extent of cure. FTIR was used to study the neat resin and the polymerised cashew nut shell liquid-formaldehyde resin with and without the hardener. 8 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.828116 Item 157 Polymers for Advanced Technologies 12, No.7, July 2001, p.407-14 STUDIES ON SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERIZATION AND ADHESIVE STRENGTH EVALUATION OF KFA SUBSTITUTED RESOLE ADHESIVES

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References and Abstracts

Parija S; Mohnaty A K; Misra M; nayak S K; Tripathy S S Ravenshaw College; Iowa State University; Berlin,Technical University; India,Central Institute of Plastics Engng.& Tech. A significant amount of gum rich in lignin and tannin was found in Kendu fruit (Diospyros cordifolia Roxb.). The Kendu fruit adhesive(KFA) was used as a substitute for phenol in resole formulations to achieve cost effectiveness. Substituted resole formulations with 50 and 100% KFA were prepared in alkaline medium through a stepwise addition process. Unsubstituted and KFA substituted resole adhesives were then characterised by FTIR, TGA, DSC and X-ray diffraction analyses. The adhesive strength of these formulations was evaluated by comparing the results of mechanical tests with the ASTM specifications using UTM-LR-100K LLOYD Instruments, UK. Analytical characterisations revealed the substitutions of phenol by KFA in the substituted resole formulations. The results of adhesive strength tests revealed that the 50% KFA substituted phenol-formaldehyde resin exhibited better adhesive strength that the virgin phenol-formaldehyde and 100% KFA-formaldehyde resole formulations. 24 refs. LLOYD INSTRUMENTS LTD. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; INDIA; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.827588 Item 158 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 477 BLENDS OF STARCH WITH POLY(VINYL ALCOHOL)/ETHYLENE COPOLYMERS FOR USE IN FOAM CONTAINERS Nobes G A R; Orts W J; Glenn G M; Gray G M; Harper M V US,Dept.of Agriculture,Agricultural Res.Service (SPE) Foamed blends of starch with poly(vinyl alcohol-coethylene) (PVOH) were evaluated as an alternative to foamed polystyrene for disposable packaging applications. Wheat starch, PVOH, deionised water and plasticiser were mixed and conditioned prior to extrusion using a twin-screw extruder. The prepared blends were characterised by modulated differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, and measurement of tensile strength, tensile modulus and elongation at break following ageing for time periods ranging from several days to several months. The optimum blend composition, based on miscibility, strength, and ageing characteristics was 60-65% starch, 25-30% PVOH, and 5-10% plasticiser. 7 refs. USA

Accession no.827207 Item 159 Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe 9, No.2, 2001, p.50-3 MANUFACTURING AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF LIGNIN-BASED RESINS

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Wrzesniewska-Tosik K; Tomaszewski W; Struszczyk H Poland,Institute of Chemical Fibres Lignin-aldehyde resins were prepared by polycondensation of lignin with glutaric dialdehyde and conditions for crosslinking these resins were investigated. The properties of the resins crosslinked either by thermal or thermochemical hardening were determined by DSC, TGA and measurement of the soluble fraction content. The effects of temperature and time of thermohardening on Tg and water solubility and of different conditions of thermohardening on heat stability of the resins are discussed. 7 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.827120 Item 160 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 365 RANGE OF PROCESSING METHODOLOGIES FOR DESIGNING ADEQUATE TISSUE ENGINEERING SCAFFOLDS BASED ON NATURAL ORIGIN DEGRADABLE POLYMERS Reis R L; Gomes M E; Godinho J S; Tchalamov D; Cunha A M Minho,Universidade (SPE) Blends of corn starch with ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer, cellulose acetate, and poly(epsilon caprolactone) were processed to obtain suitable porous structures for tissue engineering applications. The processes used were: extrusion and injection moulding with blowing agents; compression moulding followed by leaching of additions of water-soluble particles (sugar and salt); and organic solvent casting, followed by drying and leaching of water-soluble particulate additions. The morphology of the prepared materials was studied by scanning electron microscopy. The materials were characterised by tensile and compression testing, and by degradation studies in an isotonic saline solution. Process optimisation yielded materials with porosities and other properties suitable for the intended applications. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; PORTUGAL; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.826581 Item 161 Glasgow, Chapman & Hall, 1994, pp.xiii,154. 24cm. 939 CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS Edited by: Griffin GJL (Epron Industries Ltd.) Six lengthy and well-referenced review articles on various aspects of biodegradable polymers are presented along with a short historical introduction. The subjects of the articles are the chemistry and biochemistry of polymer degradation;

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References and Abstracts

the use of starch filled polyethylene; the production, degradation and utility of polyhydroxybutyrate and similar hydroxycarboxylic acid polyesters; the recycling of starchfilled polyethylene; the testing and evaluation of biodegradability; and the manufacture and use of thermoplastic materials based on starch as primary matrix. CANADA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.825919 Item 162 Antec 2001.Conference proceedings. Dallas, Texas, 6th-10th May, 2001, paper 21 POLYLACTIDE, A NEW THERMOPLASTIC FOR EXTRUSION COATING Hartmann M; Whiteman N Cargill Dow LLC (SPE) Industrial processes have been developed for the production of relatively low-cost polylactide (PLA). L-lactic acid, produced by the fermentation of corn starch, is subjected to condensation polymerisation to obtain low molecular weight prepolymer, which is then depolymerised to obtain lactide cyclic dimers. Following purification, high molecular weight polylactide is obtained by catalytic ring opening polymerisation. A proprietary process is used to obtain long chain branching, giving adequate chain entanglement and melt elasticity to provide suitable extrusion coating characteristics. With rheology modification, line speeds of up to 600 m/min are possible. Adhesion may be enhanced by the use of a biodegradable flexible copolyester as a tie layer. The high polarity of PLA gives excellent printability. The high grease resistance and barrier properties make PLA suitable for food packaging applications. 4 refs. USA

Accession no.825417 Item 163 Materiale Plastice 38, No.2, 2001, p.74-82 BIODEGRADABLE COMPOSITES BASED ON POLYETHYLENE AND STARCH Tudorachi N; Rusu M

Item 164 Molecular Crystals & Liquid Crystals Vol.353, 2000, p.59-73 BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS FROM CELLULOSE Yoshioka M; Shiraishi N Kyoto,University A review is given of the development of biodegradable plastics from cellulose acetates and two kinds of trials described. One of these is a plasticisation trial for cellulose acetates that is based on a reaction with dibasic acid anhydrides and monoepoxides during their melt processing under practical processing conditions. This reactive melt processing technique enabled the preparation of biodegradable cellulosic plastics with sufficient thermoplasticity and mouldability. The most significant problem was the occurrence of external plasticiser bleeding, which was prevented by effective yield of grafting. Grafted cellulose acetates were found to have higher biodegradabilities than unmodified cellulose acetates. The degree of grafting and the graft efficiency tended to increase in this trial. An extension of the technique was the development of a plasticisation method for cellulose acetate based on selective grafting caprolactone and lactide. The selectively grafted products could be prepared by ring-opening polymerisation in the melt state. By utilising appropriate reaction conditions, the grafting reaction proceeded rapidly to completion (within 10-30 minutes). Transparent amorphous moulding was achievable. The high thermoplasticity and amorphous nature of the grafted products is partly explained by the fact that the formed graft side-chains contain a large amount of randomly polymerised parts. 31 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.824159 Item 165 Popular Plastics and Packaging 46, No.7, July 2001, p.57-68 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS - LATEST DEVELOPMENTS Nere C K; Jagtop R N Mumbai,University

The synthesis and characterisation of biodegradable composites based on LDPE, unmodified and chemically modified starch, ethylene-acrylic acid copolymer and ethylene-maleic anhydride copolymer compatibilisers and cadmium stearate, as prooxidant, are reported. Samples were buried in soil having a controlled composition for 18 months and placed on a solid agar medium inoculated with bacteria and fungi. The degree of biodegradation was evaluated by means of determination of mechanical properties, weight loss and water absorption, TGA and scanning electron microscopy. 14 refs.

Some of the biodegradable polymers currently available on the market are described and the mechanism of enzyme-catalysed degradation is explained. Factors affecting degradation and disadvantages of degradable plastics are considered and methods of testing biodegradable polymers are identified. Grades of photodegradable plastics, starch/plastic composites, biodegradable polymer blends and commercially available biodegradable polymers are listed, methods of synthesising polylactic acid and other biodegradable polymers are indicated and summaries are presented of literature and patents on biodegradable polymers. 73 refs.

EASTERN EUROPE; RUMANIA

INDIA

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References and Abstracts

Item 166 Plastiques & Elastomeres Magazine 52, No.9, Dec.2000, p.12-4 French TOWARDS BIODEGRADABILITY Topuz B Developments by a number of companies in biodegradable plastics are examined, and trends in prices and production capacities are reviewed. Applications of such polymers in agricultural and packaging films, disposable tableware, fibres and golf tees are described. CEMAGREF; AUTOBAR PACKAGING; MONSANTO; NOVAMONT; CARGILL DOW POLYMERS; SOLVAY SA; EASTMAN CHEMICAL CO.; AUTOBAR FLEXIBLE FRANCE; BASF AG; BAYER AG; WOLFF WALSRODE AG; DU PONT DE NEMOURS E.I.,& CO.INC.; NOVADOUR; VIVADOUR; POLARCUP BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; GERMANY; ITALY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE; WORLD

Accession no.821970 Item 167 Plast’ 21 No.98, Dec.2000, p.26-7 Spanish BIODEGRADABLE THERMOPLASTICS Composting techniques used in the biodegradation of plastics and methods for testing biodegradability are discussed. Developments by BASF, Bayer, Du Pont and Eastman Chemical in biodegradable polymers are reviewed, with particular reference to saturated polyesters, and the properties, processing and applications of such polymers are examined. Consideration is also given to trends in the market for biodegradable polymers in the USA and Western Europe. BASF AG; BAYER AG; EASTMAN CHEMICAL CO.; DU PONT DE NEMOURS E.I.,& CO.INC.; RCI CONSULTING EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPEGENERAL

Accession no.821713 Item 168 Journal of Materials Science 36, No.9, 1st May 2001, p.2107-31 REVIEW. CURRENT INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH INTO CELLULOSIC FIBRES AND COMPOSITES Eichhorn S J; Baillie C A; Zafeiropoulos N; Mwaikambo L Y; Ansell M P; Dufresne A; Entwhistle K M; Herrera-Franco P J; Escamilla G C; Groom L; Hughes M; Hill C; Rials T G; Wild P M UMIST; Manchester,University; London,University,Imperial College; Bath,University;

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Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University; Yucatan,Centro de Investigacion Cientifica; US,Dept.of Agriculture,Forest Service; Bangor,University; Queen’s University at Kingston A summary is presented of the progress of several international research projects which are being undertaken to examine the mechanical properties of natural cellulose fibres and composite materials. Particular attention is paid to the use of novel techniques, such as Raman spectroscopy, synchrotron X-ray and half-fringe photoelastic methods, for measuring the physical and micromechanical properties of cellulose fibres. Current single fibre testing procedures are also reviewed with emphasis on their end-use in papermaking. The techniques involved in chemically modifying fibres to improve interfacial adhesion in composites are also reviewed, together with the use of novel fibre sources such as bacterial and animal cellulose. 101 refs. CANADA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; MEXICO; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.820553 Item 169 Eureka 21, No.4, April 2001, p.10 CAR PARTS GO GREEN WITH ELEPHANT GRASS Researchers from the University of Warwick in the UK have discovered a way of using elephant grass (miscanthus) as a natural structural filler in biodegradable plastics - to provide the plastics with the strength that would allow them to be used in car parts. Details are presented. WARWICK MANUFACTURING GROUP; WARWICK,UNIVERSITY; BIOMASS INDUSTRIAL CROPS LTD. EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.818325 Item 170 Polymer Engineering and Science 41, No.5, May 2001, p.727-34 ASSOCIATION BETWEEN PLASTICIZED STARCH AND POLYESTERS: PROCESSING AND PERFORMANCES OF INJECTED BIODEGRADABLE SYSTEMS Averous L; Fringant C Reims,University; Agro Industrie Recherches et Developments Different formulations of wheat thermoplastic starch(TPS) were processed with various plasticiser/starch ratios and moisture contents. The biodegradable polyesters tested were polycaprolactone(PCL), polyester-amide(PEA), polybutylene succinate adipate(PBSA) and butylene adipate-terephthalate copolymer(PBAT). TPS and

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References and Abstracts

polyesters were melt blended in different proportions by extrusion and then injected to obtain dumbbell specimens. Various properties were evaluated, such as the mechanical properties, and the hydrophilic character was examined using contact angle measurements. Uniaxial shrinkage was also evaluated. The results showed that the addition of polyester to TPS increased the dimensional post-injection stability. Blend modulus values were close to the results of the classical rule of mixture. EB, resilience values and SEM observations appeared to give some indication of the compatibility between the two polymer systems. PBAT and PEA gave better results than PCL and PBSA. Contact angle measurements showed that there was a marked increase in the hydrophobic character in the blend containing 10% polyester. The different combinations of TPS and polyesters gave a wide range of mechanical behaviour for compostable materials. 23 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.817906 Item 171 Italia Imballaggio No. 5, May 2001, p.124-5 Italian; English HEATFORMED BIOPLASTICS, OR RATHER NATURPAKS Biodegradable thermoformed rigid transparent packaging trays and containers for food have been produced by Termoplast. Called NaturPaks, the containers are made from an innovative, plant-derived polylactide which is compostable according to ISO, CEN ASTM, and DIN draft regulations. They can be disposed of together with food for compost waste collection. TERMOPLAST EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.817516 Item 172 ENDS Report No.315, April 2001, p.29-32 EASY CLAIMS, DIFFICULT CHOICES ON BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS Despite setbacks in the 1990s, several chemicals and packaging businesses are once again promoting biodegradable plastics and there are signs that this time some important end-user businesses are showing an interest. However, while biodegradability is a plus in the compost heap, it is not of benefit in methane-emitting landfill sites. Life cycle analysis of Cargill Dow’s polylactic acid shows that the product has potential to cut overall fossil resources by 20-50% when compared with some of the petrochemical-based polymers it is intended to replace. Other players in the market offer biodegradable polyesters made from petrochemicals.

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These include BASF’s Ecoflex and Eastman Chemical’s Eastar Bio. WORLD

Accession no.816630 Item 173 Journal of Polymer Engineering 20, No.4, July/Aug.2000, p.287-304 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER BLENDS BASED ON POLYETHYLENE AND NATURAL POLYMERS. DEGRADATION IN SOIL Tudorachi N; Cascaval C N; Rusu M Petru Poni,Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry; Iasi,Technical University Blend films based on LDPE and various natural polymers, namely, non-modified and chemically modified wood flour, starch, lignin and dextrin, are exposed to soil over periods of 6, 12 and 24 months. Mechanical properties, weight loss, water absorption and thermal behaviour of the samples exposed to soil are evaluated. Biodegradation of the PE/natural polymer blends is influenced by the nature of the natural polymer used, the capacity of the samples to water absorption, as well as by the duration of exposure in soil. Incorporation of the natural polymer in PE is associated with a decrease in the mechanical properties of PE, and with an increase in the susceptibility to biodegradation in the environment. 19 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; RUMANIA

Accession no.816064 Item 174 Plastics Additives & Compounding 3, No.3, March 2001, p.9 BIODEGRADABLE FOOD WRAP ROTS WITH ORGANIC WASTE Ecoflex, a fully biodegradable polymer material from BASF is claimed to be the first food wrap that also acts as a fertiliser. Films and wrappings made from Ecoflex rot along with the organic waste. The material is water and grease resistant, making it possible for Ecoflex to be used for refuse sacks, grocery bags and airtight films. In addition, it can be used as an agricultural sheet to protect young plants from frost, and when finished with, can be ploughed under and left to decompose in the soil. It is made from adipic acid, butanediol and terephthalic acid, and it is the length of the molecular chains along with their branchings and interconnections that affects the properties of the biodegradable plastic. BASF USA

Accession no.815454 Item 175 Macromolecular Bioscience 1, No.1, 8th Feb.2001, p.1-24 THIS ISSUE IS PUBLISHED WITHIN MACROMOLECULAR

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References and Abstracts

CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS, Vol.202, No.2, 8th Feb.2001 PERSPECTIVES FOR BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF BIOPOLYMERS: METABOLIC ENGINEERING OF POLYHYDROXYALKANOATE BIOSYNTHESIS PATHWAYS AS A SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLE Steinbuchel A Munster,Westfalische Wilhelms University

BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AND ORGANICS RECYCLING Kitch D US,Grains Council

An overview of biopolymers is given. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are complex polyesters consisting of hydroxyalkanoic acids synthesised by bacteria. Research developments on enzymatic processes for the synthesis of PHAs in microorganisms are reviewed. Successful in-vivo and in-vitro techniques for the synthesis and biotechnical production of PHAs with medium-chainlength 3-hydroxyalkanoic acids and short-chain-length hydroxyalkanoic acids are described. 185 refs.

JAPAN; USA

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.810771 Item 176 International Journal of Polymeric Materials 48, No.1, 2000, p.79-97 CHARACTERISATION OF A FLAME RETARDANT PLANT POLYMER AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE PROPERTIES OF RUBBER VULCANISATE Ghosh S N; Ghosh A K; Adhikari B; Maita S Indian Institute of Technology A renewable polymer, collected as a gum from a local plant (Moringa Oleifera) is characterised by various techniques. i.e. solubility, viscosity, IR, elemental analysis, etc. It is compounded with various elastomeric systems such as NR, NBR and chloroprene rubber (CR) in order to judge its compatibility in the base polymers. 200% and 300% moduli, tensile strength, elongation at break (%) and hardness of the vulcanisates are measured. Surface morphology of the tear tensile specimen is studied by scanning electron microscopy. Retention mechanical properties after leaching with boiling acetone for 48h, with water at 30 deg.C for 48h and isothermal ageing at 100 + or -2 deg.C for 72h of the samples is also measured. The results are compared with those of a non-polymeric fire retardant additive, Sb2O3, in an identical condition, as the plant polymer has shown potential fire retardant properties. Results indicate that the plant polymer-rubber blends show, in general, improved retention of tensile properties before and after ageing and leaching. 13 refs. INDIA

Accession no.810162 Item 177 BioCycle Journal of Composting & Recycling 42, No.2, Feb.2001, p.74-5

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A global overview is presented on the markets, policies, opportunities, constraints and trends, which impact on the use of bioplastics, focussing on such countries as Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Korea, China, India and Thailand. Accession no.809031 Item 178 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 79, No.14, 1st April 2001, p.2548-57 PROCESSING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF LDPE/STARCH PRODUCTS Matzinos P; Bikiaris D; Kokkou S; Panayiotou C Thessaloniki,Aristotle University LDPE/plasticised starch blends varying in starch content were processed by conventional extrusion, injection moulding and film blowing techniques. PE-g-maleic anhydride was used as a compatibiliser. X-ray diffraction was used to investigate starch destructurisation during extrusion and on subsequent processing. The effect of starch content on the blends was evaluated by mechanical property measurement and SEM. Starch, apart from being a biodegradable material, could also act as a reinforcing agent. The reinforcing effect of starch was only realised in injection-moulded materials. Processing-structureproperty relationships could explain this behaviour. The effect that the degree of molecular orientation existing in a polymeric matrix could have on the coupling performance of an adhesion promoter was also examined. 21 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GREECE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.807481 Item 179 Journal of Polymers and the Environment 8, No.1, Jan.2000, p.33-7 REACTIVE BLENDING OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS: PLA AND STARCH Chang Lim Jun Seoul,Hong Ik University; NSF Biodegradable Polymer Research Center Polylactic acid(PLA) and starch were blended with a reactive agent during the extrusion process. The effects of the reactive blending were investigated and significant improvements were confirmed by measurements of TS and EB, by IR spectroscopy and by DSC. Very brittle PLA, blended with 25 and 50% starch, with only 1% reactive agent, was shown to result in very useful, wholly biodegradable polymeric material with TS 1000 to 1400 N/sq cm and about 40 to 80% elongation. Aliphatic 1,6-

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References and Abstracts

hexane diisocyanate was a very effective agent for the reactive blending of PLA/starch. The effect of plasticiser on the PLA/starch was also investigated. 13 refs.

and the moisture content in the polymer probably did not contribute further to the degradation process. 24 refs.

KOREA; USA

EUROPEAN UNION; SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.807454

Accession no.807395

Item 180 Journal of Polymers and the Environment 8, No.1, Jan.2000, p.1-9 THERMAL AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL-GRADE POLY(LACTIC ACID)S Dorgan J R; Lehermeier H; Mang M Colorado,School of Mines; Cargill Dow Polymers

Item 182 Popular Plastics and Packaging 46, No.2, Feb.2001, p.65-8 SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS OF PLASTIC MATERIAL ON ENVIRONMENT: ECOFRIENDLY ASPECTS Srivastava A; Kumar V; Singh P Sant Longowal,Institute of Engineering & Technology; Punjab,University

The thermal and rheological properties of two commercial-grade polylactic acids(PLAs) (from CargillDow Polymers), one linear and one branched, were investigated. The crystallisation kinetics of the branched polymer were thought to be faster than those of the linear analogue. Longer relaxation times in the terminal region for the branched material compared with the linear material manifested itself as a higher zero shear rate viscosity. The branched material, however, shear-thinned more strongly, resulting in a lower value of viscosity at high shear rates. Comparison of the linear viscoelastic spectra of the branched material with the spectra for star PLAs suggested that the branched structure was characterised by a span molec.wt. of approximately 63,000 g/mol. The results conclusively demonstrated that a wide spectrum of flow properties was available through simple structural modification of PLA, thus allowing the use of these degradable thermoplastics in a variety of processing operations. 11 refs. USA

Accession no.807451 Item 181 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 79, No.12, 21st March 2001, p.2128-35 INFLUENCE OF PROCESSING PARAMETERS ON THE DEGRADATION OF POLY(L-LACTIDE) DURING EXTRUSION Taubner V; Shishoo R Swedish Institute for Fibre & Polymer Research The effect of processing conditions during melt extrusion in a double screw extruder on the degradation of poly(Llactide) was investigated, using temps. of 210 and 240C, and screw rotation speeds of 20 and 120 rpm. In order to study the effect of moisture on the thermal degradation during processing, the polymer granules were dried at 100C for 5h and then either extruded directly or conditioned at 65% relative humidity and 20C for 24h prior to extrusion. It was found that the temp. in the extruder should be kept at a low level to minimise degradation of the polymer during processing. Processing at 240C and 20 rpm resulted in severe thermal degradation

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The advantages of plastic materials have accelerated their growth in areas like packaging, transportation, domestic appliances and information technology. Currently, plastic materials have a 29% share of the flexible packaging market. Waste management of scrap polymers and current applications of recycled plastics are discussed. Plastics available from botanical resources, biodegradable plastics and starch-based polymers are examined. It is claimed that the effects of plastic materials could be reduced to an ecofriendly level by initiating an awareness programme among end users and processors concerning factors such as use, disposal, recycling and health hazards. 39 refs. INDIA

Accession no.806963 Item 183 Antec 2000.Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th May, 2000, paper 716 BIODEGRADABLE LAMINATES AND COMPOSITES CONTAINING STARCH AND POLY(HYDROXYESTER-ETHERS) Shogren R L; Lawton J W; Doane W M; Willett J L US,Dept.of Agriculture (SPE) Laminated sheets with an inner layer of thermoplastic starch/water and outer layers of poly(hydroxy ester ethers) (PHEE) were produced by extrusion, and three-layer blown films were also prepared with poly(hydroxybutyrate-covalerate) outer layers and an interlayer of starch/poly(vinyl alcohol)/glycerol/water. Foam granules of starch/PHEE were prepared using a twin screw extruder. The PHEE exhibited good adhesion to the starch sheets and foam, providing cold water resistance for short time periods. The adhesion decreased with increasing water or glycerol content in the starch, and increased with the addition of partially hydrolysed poly(vinyl alcohol). A predominantly PHEE thin surface layer formed on the granules which contained 5-20% PHEE, giving foams with a higher expansion ratio, greater water resistance and reduced friability compared with starch foams. 12 refs. USA

Accession no.805724

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References and Abstracts

Item 184 Plastics Network No.13, 2000, p.33-4 PLA POLYMERS. INJECTION MOLDING PROCESS GUIDE A guide to the injection moulding of polylactide polymers (‘Nature Works’ from Cargill Dow Polymers LLC) is presented, covering processing temp. profile, machine configuration, start-up and shutdown, and in-line drying. The FDA status of the polymers for food-contact applications is discussed and the compostability of the polymers is mentioned. DOW CHEMICAL PACIFIC LTD.; CARGILL DOW POLYMERS LLC; US,FOOD & DRUG ADMINISTRATION CHINA

Accession no.805146 Item 185 International Polymer Processing 15, No.4, Dec.2000, p.380-5 DEVELOPMENT OF A DIRECT POLYCONDENSATION PROCESS FOR POLY(LLACTIC ACID) Fukushima T; Sumihiro Y; Koyanagi K; Hashimoto N; Kimura Y; Sakai T Japan Steel Works Ltd.; Kyoto,Institute of Technology Poly(L-lactic acid)(PLLA) of very high molec.wt. was prepared using a two-step polycondensation process in which melt-phase polycondensation was conducted with the reflux of free lactide and accompanied by twin-screw extrusion and solid-phase polycondensation. p-Toluene sulphonic acid could be used as a discolouration prevention agent in the solid-phase polycondensation process and it was also effective for deactivation and stabilisation of the tin(II) catalyst. PLLA with Mw 266,000 was obtained without discolouration. PLLA of Mw 134,000 was also obtained by the non-solvent bulk polycondensation process on a laboratory scale. 4 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.805030 Item 186 Asian Plastics News Oct.2000, p.24 IS ASIA SET FOR BIODEGRADABLES? Warmington A It is explained in this detailed article that increasingly strict environmental legislation in Japan, regarding waste management, could kick-start the Asian biodegradable plastics market into rapid growth. The situation is fully explored, with discussion on Japan’s organic waste, manufacturer responsibility, as well as developments in Taiwan, Korea, India, Pakistan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, and the Philippines.

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US,GRAINS COUNCIL; SHOWA HIGHPOLYMER; MITSUI CHEMICALS; CARGILL DOW; JAPAN,BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS SOCIETY; JAPAN,ORGANICS RECYCLING ASSOCIATION ASIA; CHINA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; HONG KONG; INDIA; JAPAN; KOREA; MALAYSIA; PAKISTAN; PHILIPPINES; TAIWAN; THAILAND; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.804708 Item 187 European Medical Device Manufacturer 11, No.7, Nov./Dec.2000, p.60/5 NATURAL BIOMATERIALS BENEFIT IMPLANTS Lichtman B Industry is partnering with several groups of academic researchers, in order to explore the use of natural materials (such as starch-based polymers, and thermoplastic proteins from casein and soy) in implantable devices and in human tissue engineering. This article provides an update on recent developments. MINHO,UNIVERSIDADE; ISOTIS NV; WAGENINGEN,UNIVERSITY; LIVERPOOL,UNIVERSITY; BRUNEL UNIVERSITY; CSIC; TWENTE,UNIVERSITY; HACETTEPE,UNIVERSITY; JAPAN,NATIONAL INST.FOR ADVANCED INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH; SINGAPORE,NATIONAL UNIVERSITY EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; JAPAN; NETHERLANDS; PORTUGAL; SINGAPORE; SPAIN; TURKEY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.804402 Item 188 High Performance Plastics Jan.2001, p.1/2 USE OF NATURAL RAW MATERIALS FOR POLYMERS GAINING MOMENTUM It is reported in this article that the push for the industrial application of plant-based materials (such as sugar beet and natural fibres) has recently received a significant boost, in that the US Dept. of Energy has opened its National Bioenergy Center. The success of Dow Gargill’s “NatureWorks” polymer made from renewable resources such as corn and cassava has also increased interest in this area. US,DEPT.OF ENERGY; CARGILL DOW LLC; US,NATIONAL BIOENERGY CENTER EUROPE-GENERAL; USA

Accession no.804356 Item 189 Chemical and Engineering News 79, No.4, 22nd Jan.2001, p.61-2 NATURE’S PANTRY IS OPEN FOR BUSINESS Wilkinson S L

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References and Abstracts

A research team at Fukui University of Technology is using coffee grounds and molasses as raw materials for biodegradable PU foams and composites. The pyranose and furanose structures in the saccharides in the molasses give rigidity and toughness to the PU component of the composite. Coffee grounds improve the composite’s mechanical properties such as strength and elasticity. Kyoto University is carrying out the conversion of biomass resources such as wood waste or waste from the food industry into plastics and resins. Eastman Chemical relies on cellulose from trees and cotton plants as a substitute for petroleum feedstocks to make polymers that serve as key formulation materials for plastics, paints and other products. FUKUI,UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY; KYOTO,UNIVERSITY; EASTMAN CHEMICAL CO. JAPAN; USA

Accession no.803610 Item 190 Applied Composite Materials 7, Nos.5-6, Nov.2000, p.433-7 LIGNOCELLULOSIC FIBRE REINFORCED CASEINATE PLASTICS Fossen M; Ormel I; Van Vilsteren G E T; Jongsma T J Wageningen,Agrotechnological Research Institute Biodegradable natural fibre-reinforced caseinate plastics were obtained by mixing the plastic with either flax fibres or wood pulp fibres and the effects of the fibre and fibre volume fraction on the mechanical properties of the composites investigated. It was found that reinforcement of the plastic with up to 20 wt.% of these natural fibres gave rise to composites exhibiting a six-fold increase in tensile modulus and a five-fold increase in tensile strength, which were attributed to the adhesion between the hydroxyl groups of the fibre and the hydrophilic moieties of the plastic. 11 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.803429 Item 191 ACS Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 2000. Volume 83. Washington, D.C., 20th-24th Aug.2000, p.292 AMBIPOLAR CARRIER TRANSPORT IN SELFORGANISING TERTHIOPHENE MOLECULAR SEMICONDUCTORS Funahashi M; Hanna J I Tokyo,Institute of Technology (ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.) In relation to the electronic carrier transport in organic materials, very interesting properties have been reported in discotic liquid crystals and smectic liquid crystals, characterised by high mobility over 10-3 sq.cm/Vs independent of electric field and temperature. On the basis

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of studies on 2-phenylnaphthalene derivatives, new dialkylterthiophene derivatives exhibiting selforganisation of smectic mesophases are designed and synthesised in order to achieve electron transport. Their carrier transport properties are characterised by time-offlight technique and it is found that the new terthiophenes exhibit very fast electron mobility in highly ordered phase. The ambipolar carrier transport properties of the terthiophenes are described. 10 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.802779 Item 192 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.488-92 COIR-BASED FIBREBOARD FOR MOULDED COMPONENTS Wiedman G A; Costa C Z; Nahuz M A R Sao Paulo,University; Sao Paulo,Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnologicas Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Technical feasibility for the production of fibre boards from coconut fibre using tannin and urea-formaldehyde binders is evaluated. The basic properties of the panels are presented and an industrial application of the composite is proposed in a school chair prototype. 7 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.802324 Item 193 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.206-11 PROCESSING AND CHARACTERISATION OF PLASTICISED STARCH 1 TUNICIN WHISKERS NANOCOMPOSITE MATERIALS Angles M N; Vignon M R; Dufresne A CERMAV-CNRS Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Starch is not truly thermoplastic as most synthetic polymers. However, it can be melted by water addition and made to flow at high temperatures under pressure and shear. In order to extrude or mould starch, it should be converted into thermoplastic starch. Addition of water or other plasticisers enables starch to flow under milder conditions and reduces degradation considerably. By itself, starch is a poor choice as a replacement for any plastic. It is mostly water soluble, difficult to process and brittle when used without plasticiser addition. Its mechanical properties are very sensitive to moisture content, which is difficult to control. Previous research has shown that some properties can be significantly improved by blending with cellulose fillers. Improved

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References and Abstracts

thermomechanical properties and decrease of the water sensitivity of these systems are reported. However, the understanding of the phenomena involved in these improvements requires processing and characterisation of model systems. Such a system can be obtained using cellulose whiskers as filler. 12 refs.

properties of PLA NatureWorks polylactic acids produced by this process, and for the production of which the Company is constructing a 140,000 tonnes p.a. capacity plant at Blair, Nebraska. CARGILL DOW POLYMERS LLC; CARGILL INC.; DOW CHEMICAL CO.

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

USA

Accession no.802278 Item 194 Natural Polymers and Composites. Conference proceedings. Sao Pedro, Brazil, 14th-17th May 2000, p.201-5 STARCH BASED BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS & PRODUCTS Narayan R Michigan,State University Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E (EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP) Polymers have been designed in the past to resist degradation. The challenge is to design polymers that have the necessary functionality during use, but destruct under the stimulus of an environmental trigger after use. The trigger could be microbially, hydrolytically or oxidatively susceptible linkage built into the backbone of the polymer, or additives that catalyse breakdown of the polymer chains in specific environments. More importantly, the breakdown products should not be toxic or persist in the environment, and should be completely utilised by soil microorganisms. In order to ensure market acceptance of biodegradable products, the ultimate biodegradability of these materials in the appropriate waste management infrastructures needs to be demonstrated beyond doubt. Measurement of biodegradability, and relating it to the appropriate disposal environment is an essential criteria to be met by biodegradable plastics. Standards have been developed or under development to evaluate biodegradability under different environmental/disposal conditions. Work carried out in the field of starch based biodegradable plastic product technologies is summarised. 16 refs. USA

Accession no.802277 Item 195 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 79, No.525, March 2000, p.234-5 Spanish NEW PROCESS FOR POLYMER PRODUCTION USING A NATURAL BASE The development by Cargill Dow Polymers of the NatureWorks process for polymer production from renewable resources such as maize and other sugar or starch containing plants is reported. An examination is made of the applications, biodegradability and other

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Accession no.800839 Item 196 Advanced Materials 12, No.23, 1st Dec.2000, p.1841-6 POLYLACTIC ACID TECHNOLOGY Drumright R E; Gruber P R; Henton D E Cargill Dow LLC The use of polylactic acid as a viable alternative to petrochemical-based plastics materials for many applications is discussed. The production of polylactic acid from renewable resources such as corn and sugar beet is described, together with its biodegradability to give water, carbon dioxide and humus. The physical properties of the polymers are considered and applications in fields such as paper coating, fibres, films and packaging are discussed. 53 refs. USA

Accession no.800709 Item 197 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 78, No.13, 20th Dec.2000, p.2345-57 EFFECTS OF MOISTURE AND DEGRADATION TIME OVER THE MECHANICAL DYNAMICAL PERFORMANCE OF STARCH-BASED BIOMATERIALS Mano J F; Reis R L; Cunha A M Minho,Universidade Dynamic mechanical analysis was used to study the viscoelastic behaviour of a polymeric system comprising a blend of starch and a copolymer of poly(ethylene-vinyl alcohol). Two main relaxation processes were identified, at 30 and 90 degree C and their kinetic behaviour investigated. It was necessary to characterise the dependence of the solid rheological properties upon moisture content, in order to decide whether the materials would be useful in a range of orthopaedic applications. It is also important to study the evolution of its dynamic mechanical properties as a function of immersion time in simulated physiological solutions. At the low temperature relaxation a plasticisation effect due to moisture was clearly seen. The degradation was of the blend in bovine serum solutions showed there to be no significant decreasing of stiffness for times up to 60 days. 22 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; PORTUGAL; WESTERN EUROPE

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Item 198 Chemical Engineering 107, No.10, Sept.2000, p.31/7 ENGINEERING CHEMICALS FROM CROPS Crabb C It is explained that plant-derived monomers, solvents, and adhesives reduce dependence on petroleum-based raw materials. This article discusses the current interest in the development of bio-based technologies, by both governments seeking to protect the environment, and by industry looking for safer sustainable processes at lower investment and operation costs. DUPONT CO.; AMES NATIONAL LABORATORY; ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY; MIDWEST CONSORTIUM FOR SUSTAINABLE BIOBASED PRODUCTS & BIOENERGY; TATE & LYLE CITRIC ACID; GENENCOR INTERNATIONAL INC.; CARGILL DOW LLC; INTERFACE INC.; BASF CORP.; HIGH PLAINS CORP.; AUDUBON SUGAR INSTITUTE; VERTEC BIOSOLVENTS LLC; ARCHER DANIELS MIDLAND; US,FOOD & DRUG ADMINISTRATION; ECOVER PRODUCTS NV; ARGO INDUSTRIE RESEARCHES & DEVELOPMENTS; US,DEPT.OF AGRICULTURE; OWENS CORNING; US,DEPT.OF ENERGY; FORMICA INC. BELGIUM; EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL; WORLD

Accession no.799967 Item 199 Antec 2000.Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th May, 2000, paper 412 DEVELOPMENT OF A REACTIVE EXTRUSION PROCESS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF PLASTICIZED FILM GRADE POLYLACTIC ACID Williams R K; Koenig S R Aspen Research Corp. (SPE) The screw design of a co-rotating, intermeshing twinscrew extruder was optimised for the reactive extrusion of film grade poly(lactic acid) (PLA). The processing was considered as a series of nine unit operations, involving metering and melting of the PLA, addition of plasticiser which was pre-blended with organic peroxide initiator, mixing, devolatilisation, and pumping to underwater pelletisation equipment. The operations were optimised to maximise throughput and devolatilisation, whilst minimising gel formation and blocking. 5 refs. USA

Accession no.799927 Item 200 Polymer 41, No.9, 2000, p.3395-403

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SINGLE-STEP REACTIVE EXTRUSION OF POLYLACTIDE IN A COROTATING TWINSCREW EXTRUDER PROMOTED BY 2ETHYLHEXANOIC ACID TIN(II) SALT AND TRIPHENYLPHOSPHINE Jacobsen S; Fritz H G; Degee Ph; Dubois Ph; Jerome R Stuttgart,Institut fur Kunststofftechnologie; Liege,University The batch, bulk ring-opening polymerisation of L,Llactide using an equimolar complex of 2-ethylhexanoic acid tin(II) and triphenylphosphine as catalyst in glass ampoules showed polymerisation kinetics (propagation rate) fast enough to anticipate a continuous single-step reactive extrusion. L,L-Lactide was fed into a closely intermeshing corotating twin-screw extruder having a screw diameter of 25 mm and a L/D ratio of 48. The machine was divided into 12 sections which could be temperature controlled. Polymerisation occurred at 185C. The tip of the screw was equipped with a static mixer to homogenise the material and improve distribution of stabiliser (Ultranox 626 from GE Speciality Chem.). The polymer was extruded through a strand die, cooled by a constant flow of air and pelletised. The effects of processing conditions on molecular weight, thermal properties (Tg, crystallisation and melting) and TS were determined. The future value of polylactide as a biodegradable material from renewable sources is pointed out. 14 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.799539 Item 201 Polymer 41, No.9, 2000, p.3227-34 EFFECT OF LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT ADDITIVES ON ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION OF POLY(3-HYDROXYBUTYRATE) Yoshie N; Nakasato K; Fujiwara M; Kasuya K; Abe H; Doi Y; Inoue Y Tokyo,Institute of Technology; Japan,Institute of Physical & Chemical Research The additives dodecanol, lauric acid, tributyrin and trilaurin were mixed with bacterial poly(3hydroxybutyrate). From Tg and cold crystallisation temperature data it was concluded that these additives were miscible with poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and acted as plasticisers. The enzymatic degradation of meltcrystallised films of the poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)/additive mixtures was investigated in aqueous solution of poly(3hydroxybutyrate) depolymerase purified from Alcaligenes faecalis T1. The mixtures showed degradability different from pure poly(3-hydroxybutyrate). A fairly small amount (1 wt%) of additive acts as an accelerator for the enzymatic degradation of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate), while a larger amount (9 wt%) of additive acts as a retardant. All four additives showed similar trend. The retardation

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References and Abstracts

effect of additives observed for the mixtures containing 9 wt% additive is ascribed to the segregation of the additive on the film surface. The additives on the surface prevent an attack of the enzymes on the poly(3hydroxybutyrate) molecules. The higher molecular mobility in the amorphous phase and the thinner lamella are possible factors that accelerate the degradation of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) containing 1 wt% additives. This result shows that the enzymatic degradability of poly(3hydroxybutyrate) is controllable by adding low molecular weight additives. 32 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.799519 Item 202 Polymer 42, No.4, 2001, p.1567-79 SOYBEAN OIL-DIVINYLBENZENE THERMOSETTING POLYMERS: SYNTHESIS, STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS Li F; Hanson M V; Larock R C Iowa State University

acid to yield polyphenyllactic acid in molecular weights (Mn) as high as 3300 g/mol. These polymers are shown to be biodegradable; however, the molecular weight is too low to be useful in most applications, By using ringopening polymerisation to convert the cyclic dimer of phenyllactic acid to the polymer, it is possible to obtain molecular weights (M.) as high as 60,000 g/mol. 2 refs. USA

Accession no.798818 Item 204 Polymers for Advanced Technologies 11, Nos.8-12, Aug./Dec.2000, p.865-72 MOLECULAR DESIGN AND BIOSYNTHESIS OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS Sudesh K; Doi Y Japan Science & Technology Corp.; RIKEN,Institute

Results are reported of an investigation of the synthesisstructure-property relationships of the thermosetting polymers prepared directly from soybean oil, LoSatSoy oil and conjugated LoSatSoy oil by cationic polymerisation initiated by boron trifluoride diethyl etherate and modified initiating systems. The advantages of these polymeric materials are their low cost, availability from a renewable natural resource and their possible biodegradability. The dynamic mechanical properties and thermal stability of the polymers are discussed. 27 refs.

A review is presented of recent developments in the molecular design and biosynthesis of biodegradable polyesters, particular attention being paid to studies conducted at the RIKEN Institute. Topics covered include constituents of polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHAs), reasons why bacteria synthesise PHAs, mechanism of bacterial synthesis of PHAs, PHA synthase as the key enzyme of PHA biosynthesis, metabolic pathways that produce hydroxyacyl coenzyme A for PHA synthase, design and synthesis of a particular type of PHA, PHA synthesis by using a particular type of bacteria isolated from nature, PHA synthesis by using appropriate carbon sources, PHA synthesis by engineering suitable metabolic pathways and PHA synthesis by other methods. 110 refs. (5th International Symposium on Polymers for Advanced Technologies, Tokyo, Aug./Sept.1999)

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Accession no.798073

Item 203 Polymer Preprints. Volume 40. Number 2. August 1999. Conference proceedings. New Orleans, La., August 1999, p.928 POLYMERISATION OF PHENYLLACTIDE Simmons T L; Baker G L Michigan,State University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry)

Item 205 Materie Plastiche ed Elastomeri 65, No.3, March 2000, p.126-9 Italian BIOPOLYMERS FROM THE EXTRUDER Lyschik W M; Heinrich A Supol GmbH; Berstorff GmbH

Polylactic acid (polylactide) is a biodegradable and biocompatible polymer with uses ranging from sutures and drug delivery systems to packaging materials. Current methods for the modification of the physical properties of polylactide have focused primarily on copolymers; however only a limited number of monomers are available that copolymerise with lactide. The use of substituted lactic acids would provide access to a broader range of lactide polymers and copolymers, expanding their range of physical properties while maintaining the degradability of polylactide. Phenyllactic acid has been polymerised previously by direct condensation of the alpha-hydroxy

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Details are given of a reactive extrusion and esterification process used by Supol of Germany to produce biodegradable polymers from starch and vegetable oil resins. The Compex Multiprocess Compounder MPC 48/ 2 co-rotating twin-screw extruder (Berstorff) used in the preparation of the polymers is also described. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.797734 Item 206 Polymer Preprints. Volume 40. Number 2. August 1999. Conference proceedings.

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References and Abstracts

New Orleans, La., August 1999, p618-9. IDENTIFYING TOXIC DEGRADATION PRODUCTS IN CELLULOSE ACETATE DIALYSERS Lucas A D; Wallis R R; Hutter J C; Kalson J A US,Food & Drug Administration (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) In 1996, seven patients at Hospital A suffered conjunctivitis, hearing loss, vertigo and other severe neurological symptoms 7-24 h after haemodialysis treatment. Potential causes of this incident, such things as bacterial contamination, improper operation of the water supply or toxins in the dialysate were eliminated. 12-year-old dialysis modules were identified as a common link between these patients. Degradation of the cellulose acetate (CA) material was postulated as the cause of this incident. CA dialysis membranes were retrieved and tested for degradation products. To verify the cause of this incident a series of in vitro tests of various CA degradation products is conducted. Based on the toxicity of the material preparations to the cells, animal tests are performed on selected CA degradation extracts. Rabbits are injected IV extracts from a 13-year-old dialyser, synthesised model compounds and compared to controls. The blood chemistry and ophthalmological evaluation of the rabbits indicate that oxidative stress at some point in the storage or manufacture of CA dialysers creates degradation products that can reproduce some of the symptoms identified at Hospital A. 4 refs. USA

Accession no.797508 Item 207 Polymer Preprints. Volume 40. Number 2. August 1999. Conference proceedings. New Orleans, La., August 1999, p.211 PROTEINS AS AMPHIPATHIC BIOPOLYMERIC MATERIALS Cannon G; Goodwin S; Stroud P; Martin G; McCormick C L Southern Mississippi,University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Many naturally-occurring proteins perform their native functions by acting as stimuli-responsive, amphipathic biopolymer materials. It is therefore feasible that the goals of many polymer design projects could be met by naturallyoccurring biopolymers, providing their structure can be modified sufficiently to provide the specific chemical and physical characteristics. Recombinant DNA technology has developed to the point that it is reasonable to assume that almost any sequence modification of a known functional protein is possible and that complete design and de novo synthesis of novel protein-based materials is feasible. The use of such materials has a number of advantages such as inherent biodegradability, the extremely wide variety of molecule types and functions available, and the potential low cost of production. To study the potential of such an

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approach to polymer design and synthesis and to develop routine methods for molecular discovery and modification, the production of a biopolymer capable of associating tightly with nonpolar molecules while being dispersed in an aqueous solution is set as a goal. Stimuli-responsive triggers designed into such a model molecule should allow release of the nonpolar guest molecule upon changing some solution parameter such as pH. An initial study focused on de novo synthesis of a completely artificial polypeptide and has progressed to the detailed investigation of two naturally occurring molecules whose native functions make them excellent candidates for recombinant modification and production as stimuli controllable carriers of hydrophobic molecules in aqueous environments. Inexpensive, biodegradable molecules of this type have tremendous potential in applications such as drug delivery, protective encapsulation and environmental remediation. 6 refs. USA

Accession no.797383 Item 208 Antec 2000.Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 7th-11th May, 2000, paper 136 TOWARDS DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR INJECTION MOLDED BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS PRODUCTS Kandachar P; Koster R Delft,University (SPE) Tensile and impact specimens were prepared by injection moulding from two semicrystalline biodegradable thermoplastics: polyesteramide and polyhydroxybutyrate, to determine the influence of moulding conditions on mechanical properties. Increasing the melt inlet temperature of the polyesteramide gave a more flexible and compliant material, which was attributed to reduced flow-induced orientation and hence a lower degree of crystallinity. Yield stresses increased and yield strains decreased with increasing fill pressure, except when the plasticising back pressure was reduced. Increasing fill pressure resulted in increased flow-induced orientation, a higher degree of crystallinity and enhanced crystallisation transverse to the flow direction. Reduced plasticising back pressures required higher pressures for mould filling, resulting in higher yield strains but lower maximum stress and strain values. It is proposed that the lower values may be a consequence of polymer degradation. Increasing the cooling rate resulted in a more ductile material, attributed to a lower degree of crystallinity. 6 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.795491 Item 209 Modern Plastics International

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References and Abstracts

30, No.11, Nov.2000, p.28-9 POLYMERS GAIN CREDIBILITY IN WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS Leaversuch R D; DeFosse M At the recent Sydney Olympic Games, some 40 million disposables, including cutlery, drinking straws, cup lids and garbage liners used by those in attendance ended up as part of the entire food waste stream in city composting facilities. BioCorp, the processor and distributor of pieces used at the games, utilises a corn-based polymer, Mater-Bi supplied by Novamont. Millennium Plastics compounds water-soluble polyvinyl alcohol for moulding and extrusion, emphasising end-uses which highlight its ability to dissolve in water. One application of the company’s Solplax compounds is a water-soluble perforation ball seal widely used in oil fields. Eastman’s Eastar Bio is gaining use as film in laminated food and meat trays, non-woven applications and some extrusion coating. WORLD

Accession no.795192 Item 210 Sao Carlos, Brazil, EMBRAPA, 2000, pp.x,593. 29cms. 7/11/00 NATURAL POLYMERS AND COMPOSITES. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 3RD INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM AND THE WORKSHOP ON PROGRESS IN PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING OF CELLULOSIC FIBRES AND NATURAL POLYMERS HELD SAO PEDRO, BRAZIL, 14TH-17TH MAY 2000 EMBRAPA; UNESP; USP Edited by: Mattoso L H C; Leao A; Frollini E This collection of papers focus on the latest technologies and new concepts available worldwide in the field of natural polymers and composites. Main sessions examine natural polymers and fibres, polysaccharides, lignins and derivatives, biobased polymers, and composites. The final session looks progress in production and processing of cellulose fibres and natural polymers. Accession no.793777 Item 211 Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Physics Edition 38, No.21, 1st Nov.2000, p.2841-50 BIODEGRADABLE FIBERS OF POLY(3HYDROXYBUTYRATE) PRODUCED BY HIGHSPEED MELT SPINNING AND SPIN DRAWING Schmack G; Jehnichen D; Vogel R; Taendler B Dresden,Institute for Polymer Research EV The effects of high-speed melt spinning and spin drawing on the structure and properties of bacterially-generated poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) fibres were investigated. The fibres were characterised by studies of their degree of crystallinity by DSC and wide-angle X-ray scattering(WAXS), their orientation by WAXS and the

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textile physical properties. The WAXS studies showed that the fibres spun at high speeds and high draw ratios possessed orthorhombic and hexagonal crystals, the latter as a result of stress-induced crystallisation. The fibre structures formed during these processes were fibril-like. The maximum physical break stress, modulus and EB observed in the fibril-like spin drawn fibres were about 330 MPa, 7.7 GPa and 37%, respectively. The fibres obtained by a low draw ratio of 4.0 had spherulitic structures and poor textile physical properties. 15 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.792539 Item 212 Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Physics Edition 38, No.21, 1st Nov.2000, p.2721-38 NEW SOYBEAN OIL-STYRENEDIVINYLBENZENE THERMOSETTING COPOLYMERS. II. DYNAMIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Fengkui Li; Larock R C Iowa State University A range of polymeric materials from soft rubbers to hard, tough and brittle plastics was prepared by the cationic copolymerisation of regular soybean oil, low saturation soybean oil (LoSatSoy oil) or conjugated LoSatSoy oil with styrene and divinylbenzene, initiated by boron trifluoride diethyl etherate or related modified initiators. The relationship between the dynamic mechanical properties of the polymers obtained and the stoichiometry, types of soybean oils and crosslinking agents and different modified initiators was investigated. The polymers based on conjugated LoSatSoy oil, styrene and divinylbenzene were shown to possess the highest room temp. moduli and Tgs. 25 refs. USA

Accession no.792529 Item 213 Biomaterials 21, No.23, Dec.2000, p.2335-46 SYNTHETIC BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AS ORTHOPAEDIC DEVICES Middleton J C; Tipton A J Birmingham Polymers Inc. Polymer scientists, working closely with those in the device and medical fields, have made tremendous advances over the past 30 years in the use of synthetic materials in the body. Emphasis is placed on properties of biodegradable polymers making them ideally suited to orthopaedic applications where a permanent implant is not desired. The materials with the greatest history of use are polylactides and polyglycolides, and these are covered in specific detail. The chemistry of the polymers, including synthesis and degradation, the tailoring of

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properties by proper synthetic controls such as copolymer composition, special requirements for processing and handling, and mechanisms of biodegradation are covered. An overview of biocompatibility and approved devices of particular interest in orthopaedics is presented. 37 refs. USA

Accession no.792125 Item 214 Plastics and Rubber Weekly 27th Oct.2000, p.19 FINDING FORTUNE IN A FIELD OF DREAMS James B Cargill Dow Polymers has invested more than 300m US dollars to build a world-scale facility that uses cornderived dextrose to make polylactide polymers based on polylactide acid. Under the brand name NatureWorks PLA, the new polymer is already used to make biodegradable plastic packaging, waste bags and fibres for clothing, upholstery and carpets. DuPont has announced its intention to market its own plant-derived polymer, polytrimethylene terephthalate, under the brand name Sorona. Sorona PTT in its commercial form is not biodegradable, but it is recyclable and can be stretched up to 15% while retaining its original shape. CARGILL DOW POLYMERS LLC; DUPONT CO. USA

Accession no.791067 Item 215 Popular Plastics and Packaging 45, No.5, May 2000, p.83-4 GREENER PLASTICS? The science and technology column, in a recent issue of The Economist, describes the flurry of new research promising greener plastics - of one shade or another. It says that several biologically derived plastics, or ‘biopolymers’, that look desirable for reasons other than their biodegradability, are emerging from the world’s chemistry laboratories. A review of new developments is presented. CARGILL DOW POLYMERS INDIA; USA

Accession no.789801 Item 216 Adhasion Kleben & Dichten 44, No.5, March 2000, p.40 German BIOPOLYMERS ON A STARCH BASE Cohpol is the trade name for starch-based biopolymers from the Finnish firm of VTT Chemical Technology, namely for nine technological areas protected by patents and patent applications, including production methods for new biologically degradable and compostable starch

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derivatives and bioplast compounds through extrusion and for aqueous dispersions from starch derivatives. Cohpol products include starch derivatives and compounds for water-based adhesives and hot-melt adhesives, environmentally compatible materials for injection moulding, dispersion compounds for paper and cardboard cladding. Applications in packaging, painting, agriculture and gardening are also reviewed. VTT CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY EUROPEAN UNION; FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.789134 Item 217 Polymer Engineering and Science 40, No.9, Sept.2000, p.2086-94 PRODUCTION OF A NEW PARTIALLY BIODEGRADABLE STARCH PLASTIC BY REACTIVE EXTRUSION De Graaf R A; Janssen L P B M Groningen,University The grafting of PS onto dissolved starch in a twin-screw extruder was studied. The copolymerisation was initiated using the thermal initiators benzoyl peroxide and potassium persulphate. As end product, a mixture containing PS-grafted starch, homopolymer of PS and starch was obtained. Parameters such as screw rotation rate, fully filled length of extruder, wall temp. and throughput were varied in order to obtain information about their influence on conversion, graft percentages and molec.wt. of the materials formed. To increase the amount of graft points, maleic anhydride was added, resulting in an increased grafting of PS onto starch. Graft percentages of 60% could be achieved. The total conversion of styrene could be controlled by adjusting extruder parameters like barrel temp., fully filled length and initiator type. Conversions of 95% were found. Molec.wts. of the PS formed could be controlled by adding a chain transfer agent (dodecylmercaptan) to the styrene phase. In this way, the molec.wt. of the styrenic part could be varied from 20,000 to 140,000. The experiments with the chain transfer agent showed that the grafting of PS onto starch was a process occurring at the interface between the dissolved starch and the styrene phase. 20 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.788881 Item 218 Modern Plastics International 30, No.6, June 2000, p.9 COMPOUNDER AIMS BIOPOLYMER AT ETP In Germany, Supol GmbH is developing a biodegradable polymer for markets served by engineering thermoplastics. Supol’s materials differ from most biodegradable plastics because they contain only

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References and Abstracts

renewable raw materials to create a single-phase polymer. Brief details are given. SUPOL GMBH; FROST & SULLIVAN EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.787788 Item 219 Industria della Gomma 44, No.1, Jan./Feb.2000, p.44-6 Italian FROM THE EARTH TO THE ROAD: MATER-BI AS A REINFORCEMENT FOR TYRES The structure of starch is examined, and the properties and applications of Novamont’s Mater-Bi range of biodegradable starch-containing polymers are described. A project undertaken by Goodyear Research Center in collaboration with Novamont to investigate the use of a special grade of Mater-Bi as a filler in tyres is reported. NOVAMONT SPA; MONTEDISON SPA; CIUFFOGATTO; GOODYEAR RESEARCH CENTER EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; LUXEMBOURG; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.787199 Item 220 Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition 38, No.16, 15th Aug.2000, p.2925-33 OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF LINEAR POLYLACTIC ACID-BASED URETHANES Borda J; Bodnar I; Keki S; Sipos L; Zsuga M Debrecen University The reactions of polylactic acid(PLA) oligomers and isocyanates (MDI and TDI) were studied. The effects of the reaction conditions, i.e. the reaction time, reaction temp., molar ratios, isocyanates and catalyst, on the number-average molec.wt.(Mn) were examined. The optimum reaction conditions were determined for the synthesis of relatively high Mn, biodegradable PLA-based linear PUs. The structure of the polymer samples was investigated by dynamic light scattering, proton NMR, IR and MALDI-TOF spectroscopies. 4 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY

Accession no.785937 Item 221 International Polymer Science and Technology 27, No.6, 2000, p.T/18-T/19. (Translation of Plasticheskie Massy, No.10, 1999, p.12) SELF-DEGRADING POLYMER FILMS Degtyareva S N; Dontsova E P; Zharnenkova O A; Kirillova T N; Chebotar A M Details are given of research carried out at the Plastik Research and Production Association in Russia on selfdegrading plastic films as a means of reducing problems

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relating to the management of plastics waste. The three main mechanisms of decomposition are examined: photodegradation, biodegradation, and chemical breakdown. Photodegrading additives based on hydroxysilylferrocenes have been developed, which not only break down polyolefin films in a prescribed time, but also increase their strength and deformation properties. Also developed are LDPE films and PP containing up to 30% polyhydroxybutyrate, which break down in the soil within approximately six months. Research is currently being undertaken to develop production technology for compostable films containing around 50% biopolymer. 6 refs. RUSSIA

Accession no.785597 Item 222 European Plastics News 27, No.8, Sept.2000, p.56-7 NATURAL SELECTION Warmington A The global market for biodegradable plastics should grow from around 24,000 tonnes in 1999 to 100,000 tonnes in 2003, according to Novamont. Consumption will remain dominated by renewable materials. The development of the market will rely heavily on the development of composting as a waste management option and of harmonised standards. The first full demonstration project for biodegradable plastics in a municipal composting system will begin in Kassel, Germany, in September. The aim is to evaluate a concept for a general composting system and the effects of these products on the packaging waste stream. Under the EU Landfill Directive, the amount of biodegradable waste going to landfill must fall in incremental steps to 35% of 1995 levels in 2016. WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.785244 Item 223 Chemical Week 162, No.34, 13th Sept.2000, p.73-4 BIOPOLYMERS MOVE INTO THE MAINSTREAM Scott A Manufacturers claim polymers that are based on renewable biofeedstocks may soon be competing with commodity plastics due to sales growth of more than 2030%/year and improvements in economies of scale. The major biopolymers include synthetic polymers such as polycaprolactone and copolyesters, and those based on renewable raw materials, including starches and polylactic acid. Eastman Chemical says the market for its fully biodegradable aliphatic aromatic copolyester, Eastar Bio, is on an upward swing. BASF says it is drawing up plans for a worldscale Ecoflex plant. DuPont is producing nonbiodegradable copolymers from renewable materials. WORLD

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Item 224 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 7, No.4, Oct. 1999, p.179-84 NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL FUNCTIONALISED BIOPOLYESTERS. II. MEDIUM-CHAIN LENGTH POLYHYDROXYOCTANOATES FROM PSEUDOMONAS STRAINS Bear M M; Mallarde D; Langlois V; Randriamahefa S; Bouvet O; Guerin P CNRS; Paris,Institut Pasteur The preparation of medium chain length polyhydroxyoctanoates having different characteristics from several Pseudomonas strains is reported. The effect of the strain and substrate employed on the type of polymer produced is demonstrated and the chemical modification of copolymers based on 3-hydroxyoctanoate and hydroxyalkenoate by introducing carboxy groups in the side chain is reported. The ability to produce tailormade functional bacterial polyesters for temporary therapeutic applications is considered. 21 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.784331 Item 225 Polymer 41, No.22, Oct.2000, p.8027-33 PREPARATION AND CHARACTERISATION OF COMPOSITES BASED ON BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS FOR ‘IN VIVO’ APPLICATION Calandrelli L; Immirzi B; Malinconico M; Volpe M G; Oliva A; Ragione F D CNR; Naples,Second University Poly(L-lactic) acid (PLLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), three different copolymers based on poly(L-lactic) acid and polyglycolic acid (PLLA-co-PGA), and their composites with hydroxyapatite obtained from bovine bone (ossein), are tested to obtain information on the thermal, morphological, mechanical and biochemical properties in view of their use as biocompatible/biodegradable materials. Ossein, essentially a biological hydroxyapatite, is found to improve the modulus and increase the hydrophilicity of the polymeric substrate. In addition, the size of the ossein particles is found to be critical for the improvement of mechanical properties. Finally, preliminary results on the in vitro biocompatibility of selected blends carried out by using primary cultures of human osteoblasts show that the presence of hydroxyapatite stimulates a more positive cellular response. 14 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.784228 Item 226 Journal of Industrial Textiles 29, No.3, Jan.2000, p.191-205 POLYLACTIC ACID POLYMERS FROM CORN.

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APPLICATIONS IN THE TEXTILES INDUSTRY Lunt J; Shafer A L Cargill Dow Polymers LLC The potential applications of polylactic acids prepared from lactic acid synthesised by the fermentation of dextrose obtained from corn are considered. Methods of synthesising polylactic acid are outlined and the properties, which make these polymers suitable for the manufacture of fibres, non-woven fabrics, clothing, furnishings, bicomponent fibres and other applications, are detailed. The environmental sustainability of these polymers is also briefly discussed. USA

Accession no.783460 Item 227 Popular Plastics and Packaging 45, No.7, July 2000, p.68-76 ADVANCES IN BIOPLASTIC MATERIALS Mishra D P; Mahanwar P A Mumbai,University A review is presented of developments in biodegradable plastics. Bioplastics based on starch, lignin, microbial polyester, synthetic polyester, polyvinyl alcohol, plants, soyabean soy proteins, castor oil, cellulose, and cashew nut shell liquid are discussed, with details of their properties, processability, degradability, applications and disadvantages. Futuristic products from CNSL are also briefly noted, and include melt processable liquid crystalline polymers. 16 refs. INDIA

Accession no.782795 Item 228 Polymer Degradation and Stability 68, No.3, 2000, p.423-9 SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERISATION AND DEGRADATION OF ABA BLOCK COPOLYMER OF L-LACTIDE AND E-CAPROLACTONE Haitao Qian; Jianzhong Bei; Shenguo Wang Chinese Academy of Sciences The synthesis of ABA block copolymers from varying compositions of polycaprolactone prepolymers (prepared from e-caprolactone initiated with ethylene glycol initiator and stannous octanoate catalyst) and l-lactide is described. NMR, IR, GPC, DSC and mechanical testing were used to characterise the polymers produced, and it was shown that mechanical properties varied considerably with composition. Hydrolytic degradation rates at 37 degrees C and pH value of 7.4 were also studied, using intrinsic viscosity measurements, and shown to differ depending on polymer composition. The materials produced have biomedical applications in areas such as sutures, artificial skin etc. where their biodegradable properties are of value. 16 refs CHINA

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References and Abstracts

Item 229 Advanced Materials & Processes 158, No.1, July 2000, p.17 POLYMERS MADE FROM CORN DELIVER HIGH PERFORMANCE It is briefly reported that Cargill Dow Polymers has developed a family of polymers derived from corn, wheat, beets and rice. Designated NatureWorks, the polymers are polylactides and are based on dextrose milled from the plants. NatureWorks PLA is said to be the first meltprocessable natural-based fibre. The PLA 3010D grade is designed for injection moulding applications. Brief property data are presented. CARGILL DOW POLYMERS LLC USA

Accession no.782628 Item 230 Polymer 41, No.20, 2000, p.7369-79 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERISATION OF HYDROXY-TERMINATED (RS)-POLY(3HYDROXYBUTYRATE) AND ITS UTILISATION TO BLOCK COPOLYMERISATION WITH LLACTIDE TO OBTAIN A BIODEGRADABLE THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMER Hiki S; Miyamoto M; Kimura Y Kyoto,Institute of Technology Telechelic polyhydroxybutyrate was synthesised by the ring-opening polymerisation of (RS)-beta-butyrolactone in the presence of 1,4-butanediol using a distannoxane compound, as catalyst. The resulting bishydroxyterminated (RS)-polyhydroxybutyrate was then reacted with L-lactide to produce an A-B-A block copolymer of poly(L-lactide-poly(3-(RS)-hydroxybutyrate-poly(Llactide). This block copolymer was found to be potentially suitable as a biodegradable thermoplastic elastomer and the intermediate oligomer as a hardener for epoxy resins and polyurethanes. 18 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.781446 Item 231 Polymers for Advanced Technologies 11, No.6, June 2000, p.280-7 IN VITRO AND IN VIVO STABILITY OF POLYMERIZED MIXED LIPOSOMES COMPOSED OF 2,4-OCTADECADIENOYL GROUPS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS Akama K; Awai K; Yano Y; Tokuyama S; Nakano Y NOF Corp. A report is presented on attempts to develop a liposome with a polymerisable phospholipid, which satisfies both the rectified spleen retention and stable cryopreservation, for application as a haemoglobin-encapsulated liposome (artificial red cell). In order to reduce the polymerised

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component, 1-acyl-2-((2E,4E)-octadecadienoyl)-snglycero-3-phosphocholine(AODPC), with one polymerisable acyl chain, was used. This AODPC-base liposome, after preparation, was evaluated for its membrane stability by comparing haemoglobin leakage and the particle stability in conditions of repetitive freezethawing with those of DODPC-base liposomes. TEM was used to study a spleen section of rat to observe the degradability of the liposome particle. 19 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.781207 Item 232 Popular Plastics and Packaging 45, No.4, April 2000, p.60/71 BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS FROM AGRICULTURAL FEEDSTOCK: MATERIALS FOR THE FUTURE Nayk P L Michigan,State University A review is presented of developments in biodegradable plastics for use in packaging applications. The importance of using renewable resources and decreasing the amounts of packaging waste is discussed, and biodegradable materials currently produced are detailed. Companies producing such materials, together with their brand names and technologies are listed. Polymeric materials derived from agricultural feedstocks are claimed to provide major advantages in helping to alleviate environmental concerns affecting the packaging industry. The need for industry standards and test methods for biodegradable products is also discussed. USA

Accession no.780766 Item 233 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 77, No.1, 5th July 2000, p.232-6 PREPARATION OF PHBV/STARCH BLENDS BY REACTIVE BLENDING AND THEIR CHARACTERIZATION Avella M; Errico M E Istituto di Ricerca e Tecnologia delle Materie Plastiche Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)(PHBV)/ starch blends were prepared by non-reactive blending and reactive blending, 2 wt % of an organic peroxide being added in the latter case. Two composite compositions were prepared, having 80 and 70 wt % of the PHBV. Thermal, morphological, mechanical and biodegradation analyses were performed on the blends. The biodegradability of the blends was also investigated, using a compost simulation test. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

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References and Abstracts

Item 234 International Polymer Science and Technology 27, No.5, 2000, p.T/80-T/84 (translation of Plasticheskie Massy, No.9, 1999, p.43) BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AND THEIR USES IN MODERN MEDICINE. I: GENERAL INFORMATION ON BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS Madyuskina L L; Polishchuk A Y; Zaikov G E Russian Academy of Sciences The production of high molecular weight polymers of glycolic acid and lactic acid is described for use as biodegradable polymers functioning as microsystems for the controlled release of medicines. The main stages of degradation of polyesters in organisms is examined, and the biocompatibility of the materials is discussed. Procedures for the production of microspheres are described. 44 refs. RUSSIA

Accession no.779966 Item 235 Polymer Testing 19, No.5, Aug.2000, p.485-92 CHARACTERISATION AND APPLICATION OF POLY(BETA-HYDROXYALKANOATES) FAMILY AS COMPOSITE BIOMATERIALS Galego N; Rozsa C; Sanchez R; Fung J; Vazquez A; Tomas J S Havana,University; North Fluminense,State University; Jose Antonio Echevarria,Polytechnic University; INTEMA; Cuban Institute of Sugar Cane Derivatives The results are reported of the characterisation of polyhydroxybutyrate and copolymers of hydroxybutyrate and hydroxyvalerate using GPC, DSC, DMA, FTIR spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. Also reported are the results of compression tests carried out on composites of these polymers and copolymers with hydroxyapatite to determine their suitability as implants for orthopaedic applications. 17 refs. CUBA

Accession no.779489 Item 236 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.153, March 2000, p.287-303 POLYLACTIC ACIDS. A POTENTIAL SOLUTION TO PLASTIC WASTE DILEMMA Bogaert J-C; Coszach P Galactic Laboratories SA Details are given of the production of polylactic acids from renewable raw materials from the agricultural rather than the petrochemical industries. Data are presented for polylactic acid chemistry, markets and applications. 12 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERN EUROPE

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Item 237 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.153, March 2000, p.261-73 CONTINUOUS REACTIVE EXTRUSION POLYMERISATION OF L-LACTIDE. AN ENGINEERING VIEW Jacobsen S; Fritz H-G; Degee P; Dubois P; Jerome R Stuttgart,University; Mons,University; Liege,University Details are given of the development of a new reactive extrusion polymerisation process based on a new catalytic system for the continuous production of polylactide. The transfer from laboratory scale production to industrial processing equipment is discussed. 24 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.778936 Item 238 Packaging Review South Africa 26, No.3, March 2000, p.43 NEW POLYMER FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCE The joint venture between Cargill and Dow Chemical, Cargill Dow Polymers, has developed a new packaging polymer made from annually-renewable resources such as corn and wheat. This article takes a detailed look at the properties of the new material, known as NatureWorks PLA (polylactide). CARGILL DOW POLYMERS; CARGILL; DOW CHEMICAL; BIMO; TETRA PAK; TRESPAPHAN ASIA; EUROPE-GENERAL; JAPAN; NORTH AMERICA; USA

Accession no.778854 Item 239 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 78, No.522, Dec.1999, p.685-94 Spanish DEVELOPMENT OF POLYESTERAMIDES AS NEW BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS Franco L; Rodriguez-Galan A; Puiggali J Cataluna,Universidad Politecnica Mechanisms of biodegradation and tests used to evaluate the biodegradability of polymers are discussed, and the properties and applications of some commercially available biodegradable polymers are examined. Relationships between polymer structure and degradation are discussed on the basis of studies carried out on a range of polyamides, and developments in biodegradable polyesteramides are reviewed. 61 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE; WORLD

Accession no.776776 Item 240 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 76, No.12, 20th June 2000, p.1767-76

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References and Abstracts

SEMIEMPIRICAL MODEL FOR PREDICTING BIODEGRADATION PROFILES OF INDIVIDUAL POLYMERS IN STARCHPOLY(BETA-HYDROXYBUTYRATE-CO-BETAHYDROXYVALERATE) BIOPLASTIC Gordon S H; Imam S H; Shogren R L; Govind N S; Greene R V US,Dept.of Agriculture; Puerto Rico,University The biodegradation in tropical coastal waters of a plastics material prepared from formulations of cornstarch and the above PHBV copolymer was monitored for 1 year. The bioplastic appeared to lose weight in two overlapping phases until both biopolymers were entirely consumed. A semiempirical mathematical model was developed from which degradation profiles and lifetimes of the individual biopolymers could be predicted. The model predicted that starch and PHBV in the bioplastic had half-lives of 19 and 158 days, respectively. Computed profiles also predicted that the starch in the composite would be completely degraded in 174 days, while residual PHBV would persist in the marine environment for 1107 days. The model further suggested that, for a 30% starch:70% PHBV composite, PHBV degradation was delayed 46 days until more than 65% of the starch was consumed. This indicated that PHBV degradation was metabolically repressed by glucose derived from starch. 20 refs. USA

Accession no.776385 Item 241 Macromolecules 33, No.8, 18th April 2000, p.2989-97 GENERATION OF SYNTHETIC ELASTINMIMETIC SMALL DIAMETER FIBRES AND FIBRE NETWORKS Huang L; McMillan R A; Apkarian R P; Pourdeyhimi B; Conticello V P; Chaikof E L Emory University; North Carolina,State University Elastin-mimetic peptide polymers were synthesised and the morphological properties of fabricated small diameter fibres and nonwoven fabrics were characterised. The protein was processed into fibres by an electrospinning technique and morphology defined by SEM and TEM. The influence of process parameters on fibre morphology including solution viscosity, flow rate, electric field strength, and the distance between the spinneret tip and the collecting surface were defined. 49 refs. USA

Accession no.776142 Item 242 Italian Technology No.1, May 2000, p.232-5 STARCH-BASED FILMS BETTER THAN THE SYNTHETIC ONES In the sector of starch-based biodegradable materials, Novamont is devoted to the development of new

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applications and materials with optimised in-use performances and environmental profile. The company is now in the market with materials suitable for flexible films, foams and injection moulded items, commercialised under the Mater-Bi tradename. It is a new generation of bioplastics derived mainly from renewable resources, able to perform as traditional plastics when in use and to completely biodegrade within a composting cycle. This article discusses Mater-Agro film for mulching, MaterBag carrier bags, diaper backsheets and compostable bags for the collection of organic waste. NOVAMONT SPA EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.772681 Item 243 Surface Coatings International 83, No.4, April 2000, p.168-72 STUDIES ON CYCLOHEXANONE FORMALDEHYDE-STYRENATED CNSL COATINGS Athawale V D; Shetty N J Mumbai,University Commercial blends were prepared from ketonic (cyclohexanone formaldehyde) cashew nut shell liquidstyrenated resin in varying blend ratios to determine optimum ratios with respect to coating properties. Properties examined included drying time, hardness, adhesion, flexibility, gloss, skinning tendency, impact resistance and chemical resistance. The aim of the study was to produce a better combination of properties than those provided by the individual components. It was observed that a blend of 50:50 % w/w of ketonic (cyclohexanone formaldehyde)-styrenated cashew nut shell liquid provided the best range of coating properties, attributable to the synergistic effect of the resins. 16 refs. INDIA

Accession no.772319 Item 244 International Polymer Science and Technology 26, No.5, 1999, p.88-95 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS. 1. GRAFTING OF VINYL POLYMERS ON TO GELATIN Wybor W; Zaborski M Biodegradable hydrophilic polymers based on grafting vinyl polymers onto gelatin were investigated for their potential applications in the photographic, leather and fibre industries. 70 refs. Abs.translation from Polimery, Tworzywa Wielkoczasteczkowe, No.3, 1999, p.177 EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.771240 Item 245 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 74, No.13, 20th Dec.1999, p.3040-5

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VALORIZATION OF MAIZE BRAN TO OBTAIN BIODEGRADABLE PLASTIC FILMS Gourson C; Benhaddou R; Granet R; Krausz P; Verneuil B; Branland P; Chauvelon G; Thibault J F; Saulnier L Limoges,University; INRA Cellulose-enriched residues from maize bran can be transformed into plastic films after esterification of the cellulose by various fatty acid chlorides. Alkali pretreatment and acidic activation of the sample are necessary before the esterification reaction in order to form esters. The degradation by microorganisms of the plastic film was also studied. It was shown that the isolated strain (chromobacterium violaceum) can hydrolyse modified cellulose plastic films. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.770908 Item 246 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.148, Dec.1999, p.415-24 CONVERSION OF FOOD INDUSTRIAL WASTES INTO BIOPLASTICS WITH MUNICIPAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE Yu P H; Hong Chua; Huang P A L Hong Kong,Polytechnic University The microbial production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) from activated sludge using food industry wastes was investigated. The m.p.s of the products and the copolymer composition of the products investigated by gas chromatography and NMR spectroscopy were compared. By use of activated sludges to convert the carbon source into PHAs, not only were environmentallyfriendly bioplastics produced but also part of the problem of the disposal of municipal activated sludge was solved. The selection of food industrial waste as carbon resource could also further reduce the cost of production of PHAs. 15 refs. (7th International Conference on Polymer Characterization (POLYCHAR-7), Denton, Texas, USA, Jan.1999) HONG KONG

Accession no.770352 Item 247 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.148, Dec.1999, p.403-14 PRODUCTION OF BIOLOGICAL POLYMERS FROM ORGANIC WASTES Chua H; Yu P H F Hong Kong,Polytechnic University Activated sludge bacteria in a conventional wastewater treatment system treating a wastewater that contained organic pollutants, were induced by nitrogen deficiency to accumulate intracellular storage polymers, which could be extracted as a low-cost source of

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biodegradable plastics. Chromatographic analysis of the extracted polymers revealed a composition of polyhydroxyalkanoate and a number of related copolymers. Alcaligenes species in the activated sludge microbial consortium was identified as the main genus accumulating these polymers. When the C:N ratio was increased from 20 to 140, the specific polymer yield increased to a maximum of 0.39 g polymer/g dry cell while specific growth yield decreased to 0.26 g dry cell/g carbonaceous matter consumed. The highest overall polymer production yield of 0.11 g polymer/g carbonaceous matter consumed was achieved when the C:N ratio was maintained at a nitrogen-deficient level of 100. The specific polymer yield in the isolated Alcaligenes species cells were as high as 0.7 g polymer/ g dry cell mass. The copolymer composition and hence the physical and mechanical properties could be controlled by manipulating the influent organic compositions. 28 refs. (7th International Conference on Polymer Characterization (POLYCHAR-7), Denton, Texas, USA, Jan.1999) HONG KONG

Accession no.770351 Item 248 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.144, Oct.1999, p.427-38 EVALUATION OF THE TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF POLY(3HYDROXYBUTYRATE) AND ITS 3HYDROXYVALERATE COPOLYMERS FOR PACKAGING APPLICATIONS Miguel O; Iruin J J Pais Vasco,Universidad The transport of carbon dioxide, water and organic solvent through poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)(PHB) and its copolymers with 3-hydroxyvalerate was studied. Comparison of the results obtained with those in the literature showed that PHB and the copolymers showed transport properties similar to those of other common thermoplastics such as PVC and PETP, particularly in the case of carbon dioxide and water. PHB and the copolymers could thus be classified as good barrier materials against these penetrants. On the other hand, these biopolymers showed low barrier properties against organic compound permeation. These polyhydroxyalkanoates thus showed a good balance of physicochemical properties, which could make them suitable for several applications, including biodegradable packaging materials. 18 refs. (5th International Scientific Workshop on Biodegradable Plastics and Polymers, “Degradability, Renewability and Recycling - Key Functions for Future Materials”, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1998) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.770266

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References and Abstracts

Item 249 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.144, Oct.1999, p.391-412 CHARACTERISATION AND MORPHOLOGY OF BIODEGRADABLE CHITOSAN/SYNTHETIC POLYMER BLENDS Mucha M; Piekielna J; Wieczorek A Lodz,Technical University Chitosan was used to form miscible, biodegradable blends with hydrophilic synthetic polymers such as PVAl and PEO. The blends were characterised by DSC, IR spectroscopy and microscopy studies, particular attention being paid to possible interactions of molecular polar group in the polymer chains. The results obtained are discussed with particular reference to morphology, IR spectra, PEO m.p. and the thermodynamic interaction parameter calculations, and kinetics of PEO crystallisation (half time of crystallisation calculations, Avrami plots). Applications of the blends are considered, including selective membrane preparation and paper coating. 32 refs. (5th International Scientific Workshop on Biodegradable Plastics and Polymers, “Degradability, Renewability and Recycling - Key Functions for Future Materials”, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1998) EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.770264 Item 250 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.144, Oct.1999, p.331-7 VISCOSITY, SORPTION OF WATER AND BIODEGRADATION OF STARCH/ COPOLYAMIDE BLENDS Suvorova A I; Tujkova I S; Trufanova E I Ural,State University The compatibility of the components, shear viscosity and sorption properties in liquid and vapour water were determined for mixtures of ternary copolyamides (types 6/66/610 and 6/12/66) and amylose starch. The blends were shown to be partially compatible and they could be easily adapted to processing and biodegradation under the attack of soil microorganisms in the presence of water. 6 refs. (5th International Scientific Workshop on Biodegradable Plastics and Polymers, “Degradability, Renewability and Recycling - Key Functions for Future Materials”, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1998)

Progress in the development of biodegradable polymers in Korea is described. Particular attention is paid to developments by specific companies in inherently biodegradable plastics, starch-based biodegradable plastics, aliphatic polyesters based on diol and diacid, microbial polyesters, and polylactic acid. 23 refs. (5th International Scientific Workshop on Biodegradable Plastics and Polymers, “Degradability, Renewability and Recycling - Key Functions for Future Materials”, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1998) KOREA

Accession no.770245 Item 252 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.144, Oct.1999, p.63-72 ADVANCES IN PROPERTIES AND BIODEGRADABILITY OF CO-CONTINUOUS, IMMISCIBLE, BIODEGRADABLE, POLYMER BLENDS McCarthy S P; Ranganthan A; Wenguang Ma Massachusetts,University A series of blends of polylactic acid(PLA) and aliphatic succinate polyester (Bionolle 3000) was prepared. The mechanical properties of the blends were studied and it was shown that, using more than 20 wt % Bionolle 3000 could significantly increase the toughness of the PLA, increase the EB by more than 200% and increase the impact strength by more than 70 J/m. These properties were not significantly affected by the ageing behaviour of PLA over a period of more than 2 months. DMA results showed that Bionolle 3000 reduced the elastic modulus of the blends between -15C and 60C. Soil degradation rates of the PLA/Bionolle 3000 blends also increased with increasing Bionolle 3000 content. Enzymatic degradation rates of the blends were higher than those of the component polymers and these rates increased with increasing PLA content. Composting biodegradation rates increased with increasing Bionolle 3000 content. (5th International Scientific Workshop on Biodegradable Plastics and Polymers, “Degradability, Renewability and Recycling - Key Functions for Future Materials”, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1998) SHOWA HIGHPOLYMER CO.LTD. USA

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Accession no.770263 Item 251 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.144, Oct.1999, p.85-99 R & D STATUS OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS IN KOREA Soo Hyun Kim; Young Ha Kim Korea,Institute of Science & Technology

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Item 253 Patent Number: EP 990443 A2 20000405 MEDICINAL COMPOSITIONS Greenshields R; Rees A L DuPont de Nemours E.I.,& Co. These comprise a gel material obtainable from a hemicellulosic starting medium. The gel material is substantially free of glucans and pectins and comprises a polysaccharide network, which consists of a matrix of

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polysaccharide chain segments and crosslinking ferulate bridges bonded at substantially regular intervals along the crosslinked segments. The medicinal composition can be a topical formulation, a wound dressing (e.g. for the treatment of burns), a debriding agent, a carrier for iron or zinc, a lubricant, a thickener for parenteral compositions, an encapsulating agent, a slow release vehicle for drug delivery (either for oral, parenteral or anal delivery) or may be of use for implants and prosthesis purposes for orthopaedic purposes (such as pressure-relief gels) of ocular use or for suppository use. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.769076 Item 254 Macromolecular Rapid Communications 21, No.3, Feb. 2000, p.117-32 BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS FOR MEDICAL AND ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS Ikada Y; Tsuji H Suzuka,University of Medical Science; Toyohashi,University of Technology A review is presented of medical and ecological biodegradable polymers. The classification requirements, applications, physical properties, biodegradability and degradation mechanisms are discussed. Emphasis is given to the development of aliphatic polyesters, especially polylactides and polylactic acids. 69 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.767943 Item 255 Polymer 41, No.10, 2000, p.3875-81 PREPARATION AND CHARACTERISATION OF COMPATIBILISED POLYCAPROLACTONE/ STARCH COMPOSITES Avella M; Errico M E; Laurienzo P; Martuscelli E; Raimo M; Rimedio R Istituto di Ricerca e Tecnologia delle Materie Plastiche Blends of polycaprolactone (PCL) and high amylose starch were prepared using low molecular weight poly(caprolactone-co-pyromellitic anhydride) as a compatibiliser. The blends were characterised by thermal, mechanical and morphological investigations, and the biodegradability was assessed by a compost simulation test. The introduction of the compatibiliser enhanced the miscibility of the blends, improving the mechanical and thermal properties, without affecting the biodegradability. 13 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.767830 Item 256 Journal of Materials Science

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35, No.3, 1st Feb.2000, p.523-45 REVIEW. PROPERTIES OF BLENDS AND COMPOSITES BASED ON POLY(3HYDROXY)BUTYRATE (PHB) AND POLY(3HYDROXYBUTYRATE-HYDROXYVALERATE) (PHBV) COPOLYMERS Avella M; Martuscelli E; Raimo M Istituto di Ricerca e Tecnologia delle Materie Plastiche The properties, particularly miscibility, morphological properties and mechanical properties, of blends and composites of the biodegradable polymers, PHB and PHBV, are reviewed. Blends of these polymers with a range of polymers, including polyethers, PEO, polymethylene oxide, PPO, polyepichlorohydrin, PVAc/PVAl, polytetramethylene oxide, PMMA, poly-epsilon-caprolactone, EPM, polybutyl acrylate and polysaccharide, are covered as are natural fibrereinforced PHBV composites. 71 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.766672 Item 257 International Polymer Science and Technology 26, No.8, p.T/74-T/77. (Translation of Polimery, Tworzywa Wielkoczasteczkowe, 1999, No.4, 1999, p.241) BIODEGRADABLE CO-POLYMERS. 2. PROPERTIES OF CO-POLYMERS GRAFTED ONTO GELATIN Wybor W; Zaborski M Biodegradable copolymers obtained in reactions of grafting vinyl polymers on gelatin are characterised and possible practical applications are considered. The work is based on published literature in which investigations centre on the physical and utility properties of the copolymers such as solubility, viscosity of solutions, hygroscopicity, and heat resistance, resistance of copolymers to biodegradation, and the mechanical properties of fibres and films or membranes obtained from them. 33 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.764658 Item 258 Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition 37, No.24, 15th Dec.1999, p.4554-69 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERISATION OF BIODEGRADABLE NETWORK HYDROGELS HAVING BOTH HYDROPHOBIC AND HYDROPHILIC COMPONENTS WITH CONTROLLED SWELLING BEHAVIOUR Yeli Zhang; Chee-Youb Won; Chih-Chang Chu Cornell University A new class of biodegradable hydrogels, consisting of hydrophobic poly(D,L)lactic acid and hydrophilic dextran

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References and Abstracts

segments with a polymer network structure was synthesised by UV photopolymerisation. Unsaturated vinyl groups were first introduced onto the poly(D,L)lactic acid and dextran polymer backbones. Diacrylateterminated poly(D,L)lactic acid and dextran acrylate were then crosslinked. The chemical crosslinking forced the hydrophobic poly(D,L)lactic acid and hydrophilic dextran segments to mix in the network hydrogels. The effects of reaction time, temperature, and molar ratio of the reactants on the incorporation of acrylate onto the polymer backbone were examined. A series of hydrogels with different dextran/poly(D,L)lactic acid composition ratios was prepared, and their swelling behaviours were studied. These new bicomponent network hydrogels had a wide range of hydrophilicity to hydrophobicity that was difficult to achieve in totally hydrophilic hydrogels. A detailed summary on the use of hydrogels and biodegradable polymers in biomedical applications is included. 36 refs. USA

Accession no.764036 Item 259 ENDS Report No.300, Jan.2000, p.19-21 CARGILL DOW POLYMERS: TURNING PLASTICS FROM PLANTS INTO A SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS It is announced here in this extensive article that the US joint-venture company, Cargill Dow Polymers, plans to build the world’s first commercial facility to mass market plastics from renewable resources, i.e. to produce 140,000 tonnes/year of polylactide using the “NatureWorks” process. Section headings in the article include: an emerging industry, joint venture, attractions for packaging, partners on textiles, social sustainability, learning from customers, initial life-cycle findings, and environmental pledges. CARGILL DOW POLYMERS; DOW CHEMICAL; CARGILL INC.; ICI; DUPONT; TETRA PAK; AUTOBAR; BIMO; TRESPAPHAN; APME EU; EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.763301 Item 260 International Polymer Science and Technology 26, No.9, 1999, p.T/91-T/94. (Translation of Polimery, No.6, 1999, p.403) PLASTICS IN MEDICINE - CURRENT STATE AND PERSPECTIVES Mazurkiewicz S A review is presented of the current state and future trends of the use of plastics in medical applications. Topics covered include biodegradable polymers, the nature of

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biocompatibility, and the homeostatic activity of biopolymers in contact with blood. A brief review of some medical applications of plastics is included, and examples are given of unfavourable results of using biopolymers. The direction of future research is indicated. 10 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.763043 Item 261 Journal of Polymer Engineering 19, No.6, 1999, p.383-93 CURING PROCESS AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEIN-BASED POLYMERS Feng Liang; Youqi Wang; Sun X S Kansas State University The curing process and mechanical properties of proteinbased polymers made from soybeans were studied. Soybean protein isolate mixed with additives was used to fabricate test specimens. The flow-curing properties of the soy-protein polymer were first examined. A curing procedure was then designed based upon test results. The mechanical properties of the cured protein polymer were also investigated. The aim of the research was to design a manufacturing process that involved reinforcing a protein polymer with high strength fibres, producing fibrereinforced protein polymer composites. 12 refs. USA

Accession no.760807 Item 262 BioCycle Journal of Composting & Recycling 40, No.5, May 1999, p.55-6 CERTIFYING BIODEGRADABILITY OF COMPOSTABLE PLASTIC BAGS It is explained that the US composting Council and the Biodegradable Products International Institute are close to finalising a certification process that will award a seal of approval to bags and other plastic products that meet standards for biodegradability. The standards themselves are also detailed. US,COMPOSTING COUNCIL; BIODEGRADABLE PRODUCTS INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE; ASTM; EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDISATION CANADA; EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.760087 Item 263 Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 38, No.11, Nov.1999, p.4284-9 BIODEGRADABILITY OF REGENERATED CELLULOSE FILMS COATED WITH POLYURETHANE/NATURAL POLYMERS INTERPENETRATING POLYMER NETWORKS

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References and Abstracts

Lina Zhang; Jinping Zhou; Jin Huang; Ping Gong; Qi Zhou; Lianshuang Zheng; Yumin Du Wuhan,University IPN coatings synthesised from castor oil-based PU with chitosan, nitrocellulose or elaeostearin were coated on regenerated cellulose(RC) film for curing at 80 to 100C for 2 to 5 min, providing biodegradable, water-resistant cellulose films. The changes in physical properties, molec.wt., extent of biodegradation and carbon dioxide evolution of the RC films and three coated films in soil and in agar media inoculated with a spore suspension of fungi were studied and their biodegradability is discussed. 26 refs.

degradation rate of Ch-I, GII and Ca-I was 28,931, 27,361 and 63,015 Mw/week, respectively. GII had a faster degradation rate than Ch-I and Ca-I under all tested conditions. The degradation rate of polylactic acid plastics was enhanced by the increase in temp. and relative humidity. This trend was observed in all three materials. Ch-I was the first of the films to lose its mechanical properties, whereas Ca-I demonstrated the slowest loss in mechanical properties under all tested conditions. 14 refs. CHRONOPOL INC.; CARGILL DOW POLYMERS USA

Accession no.759798

CHINA

Accession no.760008 Item 264 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 7, No.2, April 1999, p.101-8 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON SOIL MINERALIZATION OF POLYLACTIC ACID PLASTIC IN LABORATORY RESPIROMETERS Ho K L G; Pometto A L Iowa State University A respirometric system was used to analyse the biodegradation of high molec.wt. (120,000 to 200,000 g/ mol) polylactic acid films in soil under laboratory systems. The degree of polymer mineralisation was indicated by the cumulative carbon dioxide liberated from each respirometer. The initial average mineralisation rate and total percentage mineralised of the polylactic acid films at 28, 40 and 55C was 24.3, 41.5 and 76.9 mg/day with a 27, 45 and 70% carbon loss, respectively. No decrease in soil pH was observed after 182 days of mineralisation. Increase in soil temp. thus markedly increased the biodegradation of polylactic acid films in soil under laboratory conditions. 9 refs. USA

Accession no.759800 Item 265 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 7, No.2, April 1999, p.83-92 EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY ON POLYLACTIC ACID PLASTIC DEGRADATION Ho K L G; Pometto A L; Hinz P N Iowa State University High molec.wt. (120,000 to 200,000 g/mol) polylactic acid films produced by Chronopol (CH-I) and Cargill Dow Polymers LLC (GII and Ca-I) were placed in environments set at different temps. (25, 40 and 55C) and relative humidities (10, 50 and 100%). The three polylactic acid films tested started to lose their tensile properties when the weight-average molec.wt.(Mw) was in the range 50,000 to 75,000 g/mol. The average

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Item 266 Macromolecules 32, No.22, 2nd Nov.1999, p.7402-8 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF STARCH-G-POLYCAPROLACTONE COPOLYMER Eui-Jun Choi; Chang-Hyeon Kim; Jung-Ki Park Korea,Advanced Institute of Science & Technology The biodegradable starch-g-polycaprolactone(PCL) copolymer, was synthesised by using the ring-opening graft polymerisation of an epsilon-caprolactone(CL) monomer onto starch backbone. The grafting reactions were conducted with various starch/CL/water feed ratios to give starch-g-PCL copolymers with various PCL graft structures. The detailed microstructure of the starch-gPCL was characterised using one- and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy and the effect of feed composition on the resulting microstructure of the starch-g-PCL was investigated. 14 refs. KOREA

Accession no.759193 Item 267 Macromolecules 32, No.22, 2nd Nov.1999, p.7389-95 BIOSYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POLY(3-HYDROXY-4-PENTENOIC ACID) Valentin H E; Berger P A; Gruys K J; Rodrigues M F A; Steinbuechel A; Tran M; Asrar J Monsanto Co.; Munster,Westfalische Wilhelms University Burkholderia sp. was grown on sucrose-containing mineral salt medium with phosphate limitation to induce polyhydroxyalkanoate(PHA) accumulation. Under these conditions, the cultures accumulated 3-hydroxybutyric acid(3HB)- and 3-hydroxy-4-pentenoic acid(3HPE)containing polyesters. Solvent fractionation of the purified polyester indicated the presence of two homopolymers, poly(3HB) and poly(3HPE), rather than a copolyester with random monomer distribution. The simultaneous accumulation of two homopolyesters by Burkholderia sp. was confirmed by NMR spectroscopic analysis. Purified

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References and Abstracts

poly(3HPE) was crosslinked by UV radiation and subjected to epoxidation using 3-chloroperoxybenzoic acid. Introduction of epoxides into the 3HPE homopolyester was found to increase the Tg. 23 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.759191 Item 268 Macromolecules 32, No.22, 2nd Nov.1999, p.7380-8 TIME-OF-FLIGHT SECONDARY ION MASS SPECTROMETRY STUDIES OF IN VITRO HYDROLYTIC DEGRADATION OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS Jiaxing Chen; Gardella J A New York,State University The in-vitro hydrolytic degradation at the surface of six biodegradable polymers, i.e. polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, random lactic acid-glycolic acid copolymers, polysebacic acid and two random fumaric acid-sebacic acid copolymers of different compositions, was studied using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry. The results obtained are presented and discussed. The data could be of use for rapid screening of formulations and preparation of new materials. 59 refs. USA

Accession no.759190 Item 269 Revue Generale des Caoutchoucs et Plastiques 76, No.780, Oct.1999, p.39-42 French PROCESSING AND PROPERTIES OF STARCH Lourdin D; Della Valle G; Colonna P; Poussin D INRA; CETIM Extrusion conditions used in the production of thermoplastic starch are described, and the properties of unplasticised, plasticised and antiplasticised starch are examined. Some aspects of research into the processing, properties and applications of starch based biodegradable polymers are reviewed. 10 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.758773 Item 270 New Scientist 165, No.2220, 8th Jan.2000, p.6 HEALING WEB Sample I A fine web of fibres, which is sprayed on, is claimed to let wounds heal by encouraging the formation of a strong skin structure rather than weaker scar tissue. To make the spray, Electrosols mixes ethanol and a biodegradable

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polymer, such as polylactic acid, in a small semiconducting container and then gives it an electric charge by putting an electric field across the container. Because the wound is at a far lower electrical potential than the polymer, the solution is attracted to to the skin surface and flies out through tiny nozzles, producing fine, light fibres, each of then 5 micrometres in diameter. ELECTROSOLS EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.758060 Item 271 Polymer International 48, No.11, Nov.1999, p.1073-9 EFFECTIVE MICROBIAL PRODUCTION OF POLY(4-HYDROXYBUTYRATE) HOMOPOLYMER BY RALSTONIA EUTROPHA H16 Kimura H; Ohura T; Takeishi M; Nakamura S; Doi Y Yamagata,University; Saitama,Institute of Physical & Chemical Research The microbial production of copolyesters of 3hydroxybutyrate and 4-hydroxybutyrate (4HB) with high mole fractions of 4HB by Ralstonia eutropha H16 was studied, using culture solutions containing 4hydroxybutyric acid, with various carbon substrates and a nitrogen source, such as ammonium sulphate. The addition of glucose or acetic acid to the solution yielded random copolymers with compositions of up to 82 mol% 4HB, but with low yields. When n-alkanoic acids such as propionic, butyric, valeric, and hexanoic acids were used as the co-substrates, a mixture of copolymers with two different 4HB compositions was produced, and copolymers containing 93-100 mol% 4HB were isolated, with yields as high as 34 wt%. 24 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.757985 Item 272 Farbe und Lack 106, No.1, 2000, p.93/9 TARGETED CONTROL OF PROPERTIES OF A NATURAL RESIN Krogulecki A; Mosi-Mosiewski J; Poskrobo J Blachownia,Institute of Heavy Organic Synthesis Disadvantages in the use of colophony in coatings chemistry have led to its chemical modification by alkoxylation. This has overcome its earlier problems relating to poor oxidation resistance, yellowing, tendency to crystallise and low solubility. Potential applications have opened up resulting from this work which has influenced the hydrophobic/hydrophilic balance in particular. 17 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.757713

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Item 273 ENDS Report No.299, Dec.1999, p.28 MATTEL PLANS SWITCH TO PLANT-BASED PLASTICS FOR TOYS Mattel is reported to be researching the use of plant-based plastics for the production of toys, in particular, in response to criticism of the group’s use of phthalates in PVC toys. The company is forming a consortium of materials developers and consultants to examine which plant-based plastics might be suitable for its products without any loss in safety performance. Plastics based on lactic acid, edible oils and starches have been investigated. MATTEL TOYS USA

Accession no.757679 Item 274 Polymers for Advanced Technologies 10, No.10, Oct.1999, p.625-33 BIODEGRADATION OF SOME NATURAL POLYMERS IN BLENDS WITH POLYOLEFINS Ratajska M; Boryniec S Lodz,Institute of Chemical Fibres The biodegradation of two-component blends of synthetic and natural polymers was investigated. The synthetic polymers were polyethylene, polypropylene and an ethylene terephthalate copolymer, and the natural polymers were cellulose, sodium alginate and chitosan, introduced in powder form. Films of different thicknesses and polymer ratios were prepared, and biodegradation studied in soil and water. The degradation was evaluated in terms of loss of mass, water absorption and by electron microscopy. It was concluded that the biodegradability was dependent upon the particle size of the natural polymer particles and their distribution within the film. Films containing large and poorly dispersed particles were more sensitive to degradation. Accessibility to the natural polymer particles by the microorganisms significantly affected the biodegradation rate. In soil, the cellulosecontaining films exhibited the fastest degradation rate, whilst in aqueous medium, the sodium alginate-containing films degraded the fastest. 11 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.757103 Item 275 Pigment & Resin Technology 28, No.5, 1999, p.293-6 WOOD ADHESIVES FROM PEANUT SKIN TANNIN-FORMALDEHYDE RESINS MODIFIED WITH PHENOLS Akaranta O; Wankasi D Port Harcourt,University Peanut skin tannin extract-formaldehyde condensates were modified with resorcinol and cashew nutshell liquid.

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The copolymer resins formed were used as thermosetting and cold-setting exterior-grade wood adhesives for Sapele veneer panels. Results obtained showed that, on addition of paraformaldehyde, the resins modified with resorcinol cured at ambient temps., while those modified with cashew nutshell liquid cured at higher temps. The bonded panels developed strength and durability which satisfied the requirements in International Standard Specification for phenolic resin adhesives. 14 refs. NIGERIA

Accession no.756212 Item 276 Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., 1999, pp.xxvii,920. 24cms. 12/1/00. 011 PLASTICS MATERIALS. 7TH EDN. Brydson J A The latest edition, now the seventh, of this reputable text book, provides an overview of the scientific, technological and economic aspects of currently available plastics and related materials, and also focuses on new materials many based on metallocene catalyst technology. Developments with condensation polymers, including several new polyester-type materials of interest for bottle blowing and/or degradable plastics, are also covered. This edition also attempts to explain the basis of metallocene polymerisation. The commercial importance of the materials discussed is also noted. Accession no.755818 Item 277 New Scientist 164, No.2211, 6th Nov.1999, p.20 WOODWORK MacKenzie D German scientists at the Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology have created wood that can be moulded like plastic by combining lignin with cellulose to produce a mouldable material with the same properties as wood. Lignin as a waste product from the paper industry is added to natural cellulose fibres to form granules and then injection moulded. The lignin bonds to the cellulose under the high temperature and pressure in the mould. The patented material called Arborform is being targeted at applications such as dashboards and door panels as well as for TV and computer casings, flooring and furniture. All other mouldable wood has so far been made from whole wood fibres plus a bonding agent, and therefore act mechanically like the resins from which they are made, whereas Arborform expands and contracts with changes in temperature the same way as wood does. FRAUNHOFER-INSTITUT FUER CHEMISCHE TECHNOLOGIE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.755415

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References and Abstracts

Item 278 European Plastics News 26, No.10, Nov.1999, p.21 GM PLANTS DEVELOPED TO GROW PLASTICS A paper covering the latest results in Monsanto’s ongoing work on “growing” plastics using genetically modified plants indicates that the company has successfully produced a polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) using GM oilseed rape and a special variety of cress. Meanwhile, Metabolix has announced that it has been awarded a European patent for the production of PHAs in plants. MONSANTO CO.; METABOLIX INC. USA

Accession no.752604 Item 279 Popular Plastics and Packaging 44, No.10, Oct.1999, p.65-6 BIODEGRADABLE PLASTIC FILM MADE OUT OF SOYBEANS: A BREAKTHROUGH IN PLASTIC INDUSTRY Nayak P L Biodegradable plastic films made from soybeans are discussed as a solution to packaging waste disposal problems. It is claimed that soy proteins offer functionality and property enhancement that can be even more beneficial than starch. To overcome the problems of brittleness in films made from soy protein, hydrophilic soy protein is extrusion blended with selected aliphatic polyesters at 30 to 40 % levels to produce fully biodegradable thermoplastic compositions that can be blown into films. The blends can elongate up to 500% with tensile strength around 2000 psi. INDIA

Accession no.751743 Item 280 Polymer International 48, No.9, Sept.1999, p.868-72 STUDIES OF CU(II)-IO4- INITIATED GRAFT COPOLYMERIZATION OF METHYL METHACRYLATE FROM DEFATTED PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRES Tripathy P C; Misra M; Parija S; Mishra S; Mohanty A K Ravenshaw College; Berlin,Technical University; Iowa State University The graft copolymerisation of methyl methacrylate(MMA) from defatted pineapple leaf fibre(PALF) (a multicellular and lignocellulose-like jute fibre) was carried out in the temp. range 45 to 55C, using a copper sulphate/potassium periodate initiator in aqueous medium. The effects of variations in time and temp., concentration of Cu(II), potassium periodate and MMA, and the amount of PALF and also the effects of some inorganic salts and organic solvents on the percentage of

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graft yield were investigated. A reaction mechanism was proposed on the basis of the experimental results. FTIR spectroscopy, TGA and SEM of the original defatted PALF and MMA-grafted PALF were carried out. The thermal stability of PALF was shown to be improved through grafting. 23 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; INDIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.751068 Item 281 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie No.268, July 1999, p.18-21 FLAX AND COTTON FIBER REINFORCED BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTER AMIDE COMPOSITES. 2 Jiang L; Hinrichsen G Berlin,Technical University The biodegradation of poly(ester amide)(PEA) films and PEA/natural fibre (cotton(CT), flax(FV)) reinforced composites were investigated in laboratory tests. Test conditions were: soil compost burial, 28C, 98% humidity, PEA films, composites of varying thickness (4 - 2000 micron). The biodegradation rate was strongly dependent on sample thickness. PEA films of 500 microns thickness or less were completely degraded within 6 weeks. PEA films 2000 microns thick suffered 35% weight loss. PEA/ CT and PEA/FV composites degraded faster than the pure PEA matrix. The reason for this is that the natural fibres improve the transportation and distribution of water and microorganisms in the composites as a result of capillary action, which promotes the biodegradation of the PEA matrix. 6 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.750686 Item 282 Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie No.268, July 1999, p.13-7 FLAX AND COTTON FIBRE REINFORCED BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTER AMIDE COMPOSITES. 1 Jiang L; Hinrichsen G Berlin,Technical University Biodegradable composites consisting of flax(FF) and cotton (CT) fibre mats and poly(ester amide)(PEA) films were hot pressed using the film stacking process. Using a press temperature of 150C, the tensile and flexural properties of the composites were shown to be strongly influenced by the type of reinforcing fibre. PEA/FF composites showed a tensile strength of 53 MPa and an elastic modulus of 2 GPa. Biodegradable PEA/CT and PEA/FF composites demonstrated superior mechanical properties compared to polypropylene (PP)/FF composites. The results show that completely biodegradable composites can be manufactured from

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References and Abstracts

poly(ester amide) matrix reinforced with cotton or flax fibres. 8 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.750685

either acid or ultrasound to reduce its molec.wt. and was converted to CMC. The flow behaviour of the resulting CMC solutions was nearly Newtonian, with slight shearthinning but no thixotropy, suggesting that the carboxymethylation reaction was almost random. 21 refs. JAPAN; USA

Item 283 Polymer 40, No.24, Nov.1999, p.6777-88 PROCESSING, PERFORMANCE AND BIODEGRADABILITY OF A THERMOPLASTIC ALIPHATIC POLYESTER/STARCH SYSTEM Ratto J A; Stenhouse P J; Auerbach M; Mitchell J; Farrell R US,Army Soldier Systems Command; Massachusetts,University The processability, mechanical and thermal properties, and biodegradability of composites of a biodegradable thermoplastic aliphatic polyester, polybutylene succinate adipate(PBSA), with granular corn starch were investigated. The PBSA/starch films were prepared with starch contents of 5-30 wt % and processed by blown film extrusion. An increase in starch content was shown to lead to an increase in modulus and decrease in TS, EB and toughness. The rate of biodegradation in soil, as measured by respirometry, increased significantly with increase in starch content to 20% and then reached a plateau. SEM showed that the starch granules were embedded in the continuous-phase PBSA and that starch promoted the biodegradation of PBSA. GPC indicated a molec.wt. decrease for the PBSA after soil exposure and confirmed that the biodegradation was enhanced by the presence of starch. The results demonstrated that the biodegradable PBSA/starch system had mechanical properties which were useful for blown film applications. 40 refs. USA

Accession no.750299 Item 284 Macromolecular Symposia No.140, 1999, p.145-53 RHEOLOGY OF CARBOXYMETHYLCELLULOSE MADE FROM BACTERIAL CELLULOSE Cheng H N; Takai M; Ekong E A Hercules Inc.; Hokkaido,University Carboxymethylcellulose(CMC) derived from bacterial cellulose exhibits shear-thinning and thixotropic properties, partly as a result of the high solution viscosity of the bacterial cellulose. With suitable sample treatment, the CMC solution showed gel-like rheology, indicating the presence of a three-dimensional network. This behaviour was consistent with heterogeneous substitution of the carboxymethyl functionality on the polymer chains. For comparison, bacterial cellulose was also degraded by

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Accession no.749056 Item 285 Journal of Macromolecular Science C 39, No.3, 1999, p.481-506 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES Nayak P L Michigan,State University A review of the literature on the above is presented, covering definition and categories of biodegradable polymers, natural biodegradable plastics (starch, cellulose, protein-based plastics and microbial polyesters), synthetic biodegradable plastics (polycaprolactone, polylactic acid and PVAl), modified natural biodegradable polymers (starch-synthetic polymer blended products) and biodegradable plastics applications and market potential. 97 refs. USA

Accession no.749037 Item 286 Chemical and Engineering News 77, No.35, 30th Aug.1999, p.57 ALL-MICROBIAL ROUTE YIELDS CHIRAL BUILDING BLOCKS Research has been carried out at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology which uses bacteria to make enantiomerically pure hydroxycarboxylic acids by first making the corresponding chiral copolyesters and then degrading them. The process is offered as an economical and efficient way to synthesise these molecules. A description is given of the biosynthetic process. KOREA,ADVANCED INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY KOREA

Accession no.747561 Item 287 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 73, No.14, 29th Sept.1999, p.2785-97 BIODEGRADABLE FIBERS OF POLY(LLACTIDE) PRODUCED BY HIGH-SPEED MELT SPINNING AND SPIN DRAWING Schmack G; Taendler B; Vogel R; Beyreuther R; Jacobsen S; Fritz H G Dresden,Institut fuer Polymerforschung; Stuttgart,University

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References and Abstracts

A polylactide (type LA 0200 K from IKT Stuttgart, a copolymer of L-lactide (92 wt %) and meso-lactide (8 wt %)) was spun in high-speed melt spinning and spin drawing processes. The fibres were characterised with respect to the degree of crystallinity, orientation and the textile physical properties. The polymer was produced by a reactive extrusion polymerisation process and its hydrolytic degradation during the processes of drying and spinning and its thermal and rheological properties were characterised. 11 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.747385 Item 288 Adhesive Technology 16, No.3, Sept.1999, p.10-3 SWEET INSPIRATION Bloembergen S; McLennan I J; Schmaltz C S EcoSynthetix Inc. Concerns about the environment and safety are stimulating changes in the adhesive industry. EcoSynthetix has developed a proprietary technology for the synthesis of a sugar-based building block, referred to as sugar macromer. It has been possible to chemically link dextrose within the polymer structure of acrylic copolymers to provide new recycling-friendly pressure sensitive adhesives. The physical properties observed with experimental grades of the sugar acrylic copolymer are shown. Paper recycling is discussed in some detail, together with biodegradation under composting conditions. USA

Accession no.747225 Item 289 Polymer Engineering and Science 39, No.7, July 1999, p.1311-9 POLYLACTIDE (PLA)-A NEW WAY OF PRODUCTION Jacobsen S; Degee Ph; Fritz H G; Dubois Ph; Jerome R Stuttgart,University; Liege,University Polymerisation techniques traditional used for polylactide (PLA) synthesis are reviewed, and reactive extrusion using a closely intermeshing co-rotating twin screw extruder is proposed as an alternative process, which will significantly reduce production costs. The mechanical properties of PLA, and the modification of the properties by the use of plasticisers are discussed. 21 refs. BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.747048 Item 290 Adhesives Age 42, No.7, July 1999, p.34/40

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GREEN ADHESIVES Paul C W; Sharak M L; Blumenthal M National Starch & Chemical Co. The attributes required to make an adhesive ‘environmentally friendly’ depend upon the application. Most of these attributes involve some kind of response to the presence of water, such as dispersing, releasing or biodegrading. Water dispersibility, for easy repulping, has been attained through the use of new base polymers containing hydrophilic groups. Water releasability, for easy separation of labels from bottles, has been accomplished by substituting suitable surfactants for conventional plasticising oils in pressure sensitive formulas. Biodegradability has been enhanced via a number of routes, most of which involve the use of ester-containing ingredients. High levels of renewability have been achievable for some time through the use of plant-derived raw materials. These various approaches, for creating ‘environmentally friendly’ adhesives, and their benefits, drawbacks and state of development, are discussed. 21 refs. USA

Accession no.743601 Item 291 European Chemical News 71, No.1870, 19th-25th July 1999, p.34 ROUGH RIDE Johnston S Biodegradable polymers form a tiny part of the polymers market, with less than 30,000 tonnes produced around the world each year. The success of bioplastics lies in niche markets. By 2001, total demand for biodegradable polymers in the US, western Europe and Japan is expected to increase to 70,000 tonne. Cargill recently signed up with Dow Chemicals to commercialise polymers based on polylactic acid fermented from corn starch. WORLD

Accession no.742971 Item 292 Focus on Plastics Additives No.16, 1999, p.6 MAKING PLASTICS DISAPPEAR EPI Environmental Products has developed additive packages for use in polyolefin film intended for refuse sacks, temporary landfill covers and compost sacks. Biotec supplies a range of starch-based compostable compounds and Evercorn has patented a biodegradable starch/cellulose fibre composition. EarthShell Container has developed disposable food packaging materials made from cellulose with added calcium carbonate and starch. The purpose of the starch is to degrade rapidly in the warm, wet conditions of a municipal waste composting facility. USA

Accession no.742816

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Item 293 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 77, No.511, Jan.1999, p.60-70 Spanish BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS IN MEDICINE: BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONTRIBUTION TO ADVANCED TISSUE REGENERATION PROCESSES Gallardo A; Elvira C; San Roman J; Lopez A Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologia de Polimeros; Avila,Hospital Provincial Developments in the use of biodegradable polymers in biomedical and surgical applications are reviewed. Applications discussed include tissue engineering, bone fracture fixation devices, resorbable sutures, vascular grafts, temporary barriers for the prevention of postoperative adhesion, artificial skin and systems for controlled drug release. 92 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.742558 Item 294 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 77, No.511, Jan.1999, p.49-59 Spanish BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS IN MEDICINE: STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT Elvira C; Gallardo A; San Roman J; Lopez A Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologia de Polimeros; Avila,Hospital Provincial A review is presented of natural and synthetic biodegradable polymers used in biomedical applications. Materials examined include collagen, cellulose derivatives, chitin, chitosan, proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans, polyanhydrides, polyorthoesters, polyamino acids, polycyanoacrylates, polyphosphazenes, hydroxy acid polymers and copolymers, polycaprolactone, polydioxanone, trimethylene carbonate copolymers and polyhydroxyalkanoates. 101 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.742557 Item 295 Journal of Macromolecular Science C C39, No.2, 1999, p.205-71 TOTALLY AND PARTIALLY BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER BLENDS BASED ON NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC MACROMOLECULES: PREPARATION, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND POTENTIAL AS FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS Arvanitoyannis I S Thessaloniki,Aristotle University

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Recent advances in biodegradable synthetic copolymers and composites, natural-synthetic polymer blends and starch-based edible polymer blends for food packaging are reviewed. Polymers and blends covered include copolyamides based on diacids, diamines and alpha-amino acids, copolyesteramides from epsilon-caprolactone and various nylon salts, star-shaped copolylactides, chitosanPVAl blends, gelatinised starch/gutta percha, polysaccharide/cellulose blends and polysaccharide/ protein blends. 221 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GREECE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.742100 Item 296 Materie Plastiche ed Elastomeri 64, No.3, March 1999, p.105/13 Italian ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY PLASTICS IN SEARCH OF A HOME Latorre C The advantages of biodegradable plastics and factors limiting their use are discussed. An examination is made of the properties, processing and applications of six families of biodegradable polymers, i.e. BAK polyester amides (Bayer), Biomax modified PETP (Du Pont), Ecoflex copolyester (BASF), EcoPLA polylactic acid (Cargill Dow Polymers), Hydrolene PVAL (Idroplast) and Mater-Bi starch/polycaprolactone and starch/cellulose blends (Novamont). DU PONT DE NEMOURS E.I.,& CO.INC.; BAYER AG; CARGILL DOW POLYMERS; BASF AG; IDROPLAST; NOVAMONT EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; ITALY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.740593 Item 297 Kunststoffe Synthetics No.1, 1998, p.4-5 German BIOPOL CONTINUES TO STRUGGLE WITH THIRST Schroder F The article examines polyhydroxybutyric acid (PHB)’s current status as the most successful candidate for biodegradable polymers. Biopol consists of PHB and 20% PHV (polyhydroxyvaleric acid) and is currently 10% more expensive than polyethylene. Bottles, tubes, sheets and fibres can be made from Biopol. Biopol can be processed from granules in the same way as other polymers but is not water soluble. Polarcup GmbH makes Biopol plastic cups. PHB and polyvinyl alcohol have been combined in three layer packaging. The problem causing the cost of recycling is the combination of biodegradable polymer and raw material. Monsanto acquired the Biopol technology in 1996 from Zeneca Ltd., UK. In 1996 1kg

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References and Abstracts

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

further decrease of up to 80-85% occurred after chemical degradation in sodium hydroxide solution. Biodegradation in soil did not significantly affect the crystalline phase content in PE (45%) or PP (55%), but the subsequent treatment of the blends with sodium hydroxide solution increased the crystallinity index for both PE (48%) and PP (65%). The results of the environmental ageing tests showed the importance of water for the degradation process. The observed changes after deradation affected the mechanical properties of the blends, such as an increase in the elongation at break. 17 refs.

Accession no.739934

EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

of PE cost DM1.7-1.8 whereas Biopol cost ten times more. Monsanto has spent DM100m on Biopol thus far. Future growth is expected in Europe and Japan. Polyhydroxybutyrate is produced from bacteria living on sugar. The easy availability of sugar cane in Brazil is hoped to bring the price down from 20 US dollars/kg to less than 3 US dollars/kg. POLARCUP GMBH; MONSANTO CO.; ZENECA LTD.

Accession no.737356 Item 298 ACS Polymeric Materials Science & Engineering.Volume 80.Conference proceedings. Anaheim, Ca., Spring 1999, p.286. 012 BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS Huang S Connecticut,University (ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.) Biodegradable polyesters have surgical, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and waste recycling applications. The most studied materials include poly(glycolic acid), poly(lactic acid), and polycaprolactone, being commercialised initially as biomedical materials and more recently for larger scale consumer products. Poly(alkylene alkane dicarboxylate)s, such as poly(alkylene succinate) have been developed to lesser degree. Poly(betahydroxybutyrate) and its copolymers have also been intensely studied, but suffer the drawback of high material costs. 7 refs.

Item 300 Antec ’99.Volume 1.Conference proceedings. New York City, 2nd-6th May, 1999, p.888-91.012 THERMOSETTING RESINS FROM VEGETABLE OILS Petrovic Z S; Guo A; Fuller R; Javni I Pittsburg,State University (SPE)

USA

A range of polyols and thermosetting polyurethanes was prepared from soyabean, corn, sunflower, safflower, canola, peanut, and olive and castor oils. The prepared materials were rubbers when the polyol hydroxyl number was below 160 mg potassium hydroxide/g, and rigid plastics above this value. There was a linear relationship between the glass transition value of the polymers and the hydroxyl number. The polymer prepared from castor oil was rubbery, whilst having a hydroxyl number of 164 mg potassium hydroxide/g. This was attributed to the presence of double bonds. 7 refs.

Accession no.737805

USA

Accession no.734062 Item 299 Polymer Degradation and Stability 64, No.2, May 1999, p.339-46 PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF POLYOLEFINSTARCH BLENDS AFTER AGEING Zuchowska D; Hlavata D; Steller R; Adamiak W; Meissner W Wroclaw,Technical University; Czech Republic,Academy of Sciences LDPE- or PP-starch blends containing 40-50 wt% of glycerol plasticised starch were buried on a test soil for four months (biological ageing), then treated with 10% aqueous sodium hydroxide solution for five days at room temperature (chemical ageing). An environmental ageing test was also carried out in which samples were exposed to air and sunlight for four months under dry conditions, or wet conditions when the samples were sprinkled periodically with water. The degradation of the blends was studied by means of small and wide angle X-ray scattering. During biodegradation in the soil test, about 75% of the initial starch content was removed from the blends and a

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Item 301 Plastics Technology 45, No.3, March 1999, p.46-52 FOR COMPOUNDING, SHEET AND PROFILE WOOD IS GOOD Schut J H This article highlights the process of extruding composites made of wood and plastics, a market which has recently burst into life with the appearance of many new producers and new applications. It also provides a comprehensive list of US companies and their wood/plastic composite products. TREX CO.; COMPTRUSION CORP.; DURA PRODUCTS INTERNATIONAL; ICMA; LEAR CORP.; BAUSANO GROUP; AMERICAN WOOD FIBERS; LOUISIANA-PACIFIC POLYMERS; ANDERSEN CORP.; AERT CORP.; B & F PLASTICS; CERTAINTEED CORP.; STRANDEX CORP.; NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES; EC POLYMERS; CRILA PLASTICS INC.; CRANE PLASTICS;

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CINCINNATI MILACRON; OHIO C.W.; EAGLEBROOK PRODUCTS; FIBER COMPOSITES CORP.; FORMTECH ENTERPRISES INC.; HOFF FOREST PRODUCTS; MIKRON INDUSTRIES; NORTHWOOD PLASTICS INC.; PHOENIX COLOR & COMPOUNDING INC.; POLYWOOD PRODUCTS; SHORE PACIFIC LLC; STAR GUARD INC. CANADA; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.733798 Item 302 Modern Plastics International 29, No.5, May 1999, p.38-9 LEGISLATION CREATES NEW POTENTIAL FOR BIODEGRADABLE USE IN JAPAN Moore S It is explained here that a recycling law mandating the recovery and reuse of plastics packaging materials in Japan is believed likely to accelerate the adoption of biodegradable resins there. This article discusses increasing demand, and also new developments in the field by key Japanese producers. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES CO.; SHOWA HIGHPOLYMER CO.LTD.; SHIMADZU CORP.; CARGILL DOW POLYMERS; MITSUI CHEMICALS INC.; DIACEL CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES LTD.; DAINIPPON INK & CHEMICALS INC.; MITSUBISHI GAS CHEMICAL; NIPPON SHOKUBAI; KURARAY CO. JAPAN; USA

Accession no.733543

Item 304 Journal of Biomaterials Science: Polymer Edition 10, No.5, 1999, p.531-42 MICROCAPSULES PREPARED FROM ALGINATE AND A PHOTOSENSITIVE POLY(LLYSINE) Shwu Jen Chang; Chen Hsen Lee; Yng Jiin Wang Taiwan,National Yang Ming University; Taipei,Veterans General Hospital alpha-Phenylcinnamylideneacetylated poly(l-lysine), a photosensitive polymer, was synthesised and characterised. The polymer had 10% of its lysine residues reacted with alpha-phenylcinnamylidene acetyl group and displayed an absorption maximum at 329 nm. The photosensitive poly(L-lysine) was used for the preparation of microcapsules. The capsules formed from this photosensitive poly(L-lysine) and alginate were strengthened significantly by light irradiation. The photocrosslinked capsular membrane was permeable to proteins with mass transfer rate in the descending order cytochrome C, myoglobin, serum albumin. GH3 (a rat pituitary tumour cell line) cells were encapsulated and cultured with this microencapsulation system. The cells proliferated to a density of about 400,000 cells/ml in the capsules after 6 days cultivation. 36 refs. TAIWAN

Accession no.731890 Item 305 European Plastics News 26, No.5, May 1999, p.22-3 NATURAL GROWTH Warmington A

Item 303 Biomaterials 20, No.12, June 1999, p.1109-15 IN VIVO EVALUATION OF POLY(L-LACTIC ACID) POROUS CONDUITS FOR PERIPHERAL NERVE REGENERATION Evans G R D; Brandt K; Widmer M S; Lu L; Meszlenyi R K; Gupta P K; Mikos A G; Hodges J; Williams J; Gurlek A; Nabawi A; Lohman R; Patrick C W Texas,University; Rice University

The European market for biodegradable plastics is small, about 7,000 t/y, including about 3,800 tones of compost bags, 1,500 tonnes of loose-fill packaging, 700 tonnes of paper coatings and 500 tonnes of food packaging. The market for biodegradable plastics will be affected by ongoing reviews of the Packaging Directive, in which “organic” recovery is defined as a form of recycling.

Poly(L-lactic acid)(PLLA) conduits were fabricated by an extrusion technique to have an inner diameter of 1.6 mm, an outer diameter of 3.2 mm and a length of 12 mm. They were highly porous with an interconnected pore structure. The conduits were interposed into the right sciatic nerve defect of Sprague Dawley rats using microsurgical techniques. The results obtained for PLLA were significantly better than those obtained for 75:25 poly(DL-lactic-co-glycolic acid) in a previous study and suggested that PLLA porous conduits could serve as a scaffold for peripheral nerve regeneration. 30 refs.

Item 306 Polymer Preprints. Volume 40. Number 1. March 1999. Conference proceedings. Boston, Ma., March 1999, p.584-5. 012 RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISATION OF BIODEGRADABLE ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS Choi H J; Park S H; Kim J; Shin T K Inha,University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry)

USA

Accession no.733249

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WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.730529

To reduce environmental pollution caused by synthetic plastic waste, there has been a great interest in the development of biodegradable polymers. Poly(3hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), a biosynthetic aliphatic polyester

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

produced by many types of microorganism, has been developed and investigated as it is completely biocompatible and biodegradable in the environment, by either hydrolytic or enzymatic degradation processes. However, it is highly brittle and thermally unstable at temperatures above the melting point (around 180 deg.C). It therefore has a rather narrow window of processability. In order to improve these properties, poly(3hydroxybutyrate-co-3hydroxyvalerate) (P(3HB/3HV)) random copolymers were formulated by replacing the methyl group with an ethyl group in PHB main chain. The mechanical properties of the synthesised copolymers are greatly improved over those of the homopolymer PHB. The copolymers also show a wide range of property changes depending on the HV content, resulting in the reduction of the melting temperature to between 50 and 180 deg.C. Emphasis is placed on the rheological properties of the microbial biodegradable aliphatic polyesters for both PHB and three different compositions of P(3HB/3HV) copolymer to re-examine the effect of HV component on the elastic behaviour of the copolymer. 11 refs. KOREA

Accession no.730473 Item 307 Polymer Preprints. Volume 40. Number 1. March 1999. Conference proceedings. Boston, Ma., March 1999, p.570-1. 012 ADVANCES IN THE COMMERCIALISATION OF POLYLACTIC ACID Hartmann M Cargill Dow Polymers LLC (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Polylactic acid is most commonly manufactured by the bulk melt ring-opening polymerisation of lactide catalysed by tin (II) 2-ethylhexanoate to yield a high molecular weight polymer. The final equilibrium monomer concentration depends on polymerisation temperature, catalyst concentration and crystallinity. The addition of acids or complexing agents is known to hinder the ring opening polymerisation of lactide when catalysed by tin (II) 2-ethylhexanoates. The results of the postpolymerisation addition of various acids to PLA to stop lactide reformation and improve the removal of residual monomer are reported. This allows the efficient production of a polymer for use in such commercial biodegradable packaging applications such as films, foams, moulding and coatings. 5 refs. USA

Accession no.730465 Item 308 Polymer Preprints. Volume 40. Number 1. March 1999. Conference proceedings. Boston, Ma., March 1999, p.501-2. 012 BIODEGRADABLE HYDROGELS FOR CONTROLLED CELL AND DRUG DELIVERY

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Bouhadir K H; Rowley J A; Kruger G M; Lee K Y; Mooney D J Michigan,University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Sodium alginate has found a wide use in tissue engineering applications as a cell and drug delivery vehicle. Alginate is a natural polymer extracted from seaweed, and is comprised of block polymers of beta-mannuronic acid, alpha-L-guluronic acid, and an alternating sequence of both sugars. An attractive feature of alginate is its gentle gelling behaviour in the presence of divalent cations such as calcium to form hydrogels. However, cells cannot directly adhere to alginate, and alginate is not truly biodegradable. It dissolves in an uncontrolled manner following the loss of calcium ions. Furthermore, alginate hydrogels have limited mechanical properties. Cell adhesion ligands have been successfully coupled to the alginate backbone. These ligands promote cell adhesion and proliferation. New polymers have also been developed derived from alginate that are biodegradable, have controllable mechanical properties and allow the coupling of cell adhesion peptides. These polymers show promise in both cell and drug delivery applications. 6 refs. USA

Accession no.730435 Item 309 Polymer Preprints. Volume 40. Number 1. March 1999. Conference proceedings. Boston, Ma., March 1999, p.441-2. 012 NANOSTRUCTURED BLOCK COPOLYMERS CONTAINING BIODEGRADABLE SEGMENTS Hillmyer M A; Schmidt S C; Marohn S L Minnesota,University (ACS,Div.of Polymer Chemistry) Polylactide (PLA) is a commercially available polyester that is completely biodegradable in a compost environment. Although it is a useful material for a variety of applications, there are mechanical deficiencies that prevent its use in situations that require a high degree of toughness or ductility. Methods are investigated for the preparation of PLA-containing block copolymers as nanostructure templates, crystallisation modifiers, and for rubber toughened PLA formulations. Block copolymers are a unique class of materials that self-assemble into a variety of ordered morphologies with compositional heterogeneities on nanometer length scales. They can be designed to have elastomeric characteristics and are therefore used in traditional rubber applications. In addition, A-B materials are useful as compatibilisers for blends and A-B-A triblock copolymers are used as thermoplastic elastomers. The preparation of well-defined block copolymers requires controlled polymerisation processes. Emphasis is placed on the preparation of PLA block copolymers containing segments prepared from living anionic polymerisation. Anionic polymerisation is a versatile technique for the preparation of block

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copolymers, however the number of monomers that can be polymerized by an anionic mechanism is limited. A combination of anionic polymerisation and coordinationinsertion polymerisation is used to prepare a range of polyisoprene-PLA and PS-PLA block copolymers. 10 refs. USA

Accession no.730409

panel for a hay baler comprising a foam core encased by glass reinforced soya bean composite skins has been produced. On the fibre side, much of the impetus for developing fibre reinforcements and natural fibre reinforced plastics is currently coming from the automotive sector. Bayer has combined a 50:50 mixture of flax and sisal fibres in PU in an interior trim composite. USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Item 310 International Polymer Science and Technology 25, No.8, 1998, p.T/65-8 SELF-DEGRADING FILM BASED ON A BLEND OF POLYETHYLENE AND POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATE Ol’khov A A; Vlasov S V; Iordanskii A L Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technology; Russian Academy of Sciences

Accession no.725998

A composite based on LDPE and polyhydroxybutyrate was studied. The blends can be processed by extrusion, costs are lower, the films satisfy the requirements laid down for packaging films based on traditional polymers by GOST standards, have considerable porosity, and can be used for subsequent forming, e.g. vacuum forming of articles or as shrink-wrapped packaging film. 13 refs. Translation of Plast.Massy, No.3, 1998, p.14

Lignin can be recovered from sugar cane bagasse, which is widely available in Brazil, as a residue from sugar mills. The application of lignin-phenol formaldehyde polymers in cellular materials is discussed. The foams obtained were characterised by SEM and by measurements of open cell content, apparent density, compressive strength and hardness. The lignin-phenol-formaldehyde foams exhibited thermal insulating characteristics combined with good mechanical properties, which allowed their application as structural-thermal insulating foam. 21 refs.

RUSSIA

Accession no.726467

Item 313 Polimeros: Ciencia e Tecnologia 9, No.1, Jan./March 1999, p.66-75 Portuguese LIGNIN IN PHENOLIC FOAMS de Carvalho G; Frollini E Sao Paulo,University

BRAZIL

Item 311 Macplas 23, No.201, Sept.1998, p.71-3 Italian PROCESSABILITY AND PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS La Mantia F P Palermo,University Parameters influencing the processability of biodegradable polymers, including thermal stability and rheological properties, are examined in comparison with a nonbiodegradable polymer (linear LDPE). Biodegradable materials studied include polycaprolactone (PCL), a hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate copolymer and blends of starch with EVOH and PCL. Thermal and mechanical properties of these materials are also discussed. NOVAMONT EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; SICILY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.726322 Item 312 Reinforced Plastics 43, No.3, March 1999, p.42-6 NATURAL ALTERNATIVE Marsh G John Deere has been involved in trials of up to 60 tractor components made of natural composites. A prototype side

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Accession no.725189 Item 314 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 38, No.1, 1999, p.179-87 POLYMERS FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES. XXVII. STUDIES ON SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERISATION AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF RESINS DERIVED FROM CARDANYL ACRYLATE-FURFURAL-ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Guru B N; Das T K; Lenka S Ravenshaw College Cardanol, the major constituent of cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), is extracted from CNSL by vacuum distillation at 3-4 mm pressure of mercury and 230-240 deg.C temperature. Cardanyl acrylate, a derivative of cardanol, is prepared by the Kaliyappan method. A number of resins are synthesised by condensing cardanyl acrylate with furfural and selective organic compounds in the presence of acid as catalyst. The resins are characterised by Fourier transform infrared spectra. Solvent absorptivity of the resins are studied by taking toluene and dimethyl formamide as solvents. The thermal behaviour of the resins is studied. The overall activation energy and order of degradation of the resins are evaluated using the Freeman-Anderson method. 16 refs. INDIA

Accession no.724283

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

References and Abstracts

Item 315 Surface Coatings International 82, No.3, March 1999, p.127-30 BIODEGRADABLE BINDERS AND CROSSLINKING AGENTS FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES Buisman G J H Arizona Chemical BV Synthesis and applicability of epoxy crosslinking agents and of biodegradable binders poly(3-hydroxy)alkanoates from vegetable oils, particularly from lallemantia iberica and euphorbia lagascae, are presented. Chemical and enzymatic epoxidations, powder coatings, and alternative binders, are described. 9 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.723094 Item 316 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 6, No.3, July 1998, p.159-73 ASSESSMENT OF SEVERAL TEST METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE ANAEROBIC BIODEGRADABILITY OF POLYMERS Gartiser S; Wallrabenstein M; Stiene G Hydrotox GmbH Anaerobic degradation of eight commercially available biodegradable polymers was compared in two anaerobic tests using digestion sludge, according to ISO 11734 and ASTM D5210-91. Cotton, polyhydroxybutyrate/hydroxyvalerate copolymer, starch blend, thermoplastic cellulose acetate, and cellulose acetate fibres proved to be anaerobically degradable, but only a low extent of degradation was found for polylactide, polyvinyl alcohol, and polycaprolactone. Carbon dioxide was shown to be essential for the growth of various anaerobic bacteria, notably homoacetogenic and methanogenic bacteria. 27 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.721341 Item 317 Warmer Bulletin No.65, March 1999, p.20-1 BREAKING DOWN THE FUTURE BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT Riggle D Many biodegradable products have entered the marketplace and manufacturers are further refining their formulations. Testing protocols and standards for biodegradability are helping build consumer confidence. It is in the field of sustainable waste management, especially with regard to products designed to be composted, that the relevance of these new technologies can most clearly be seen.

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EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.717201 Item 318 Polymer International 48, No.1, Jan.1999, p.23-32 RING-OPENING HOMOPOLYMERIZATION AND COPOLYMERIZATION OF LACTONES. II. ENZYMATIC DEGRADABILITY OF POLY(BETA-HYDROXYBUTYRATE)(PHB) STEREOISOMERS AND COPOLYMERS OF BETA-BUTYROLACTONE(BL) WITH EPSILONCAPROLACTONE(CL) AND DELTAVALEROLACTONE(VL) Jaimes C; Dobreva-Schue R; Giani-Beaune O; Schue F; Amass W; Amass A Montpellier II,Universite; Aston,University The enzymatic degradabilities of PHB polymer samples of different tacticities and copolymers of BL with CL and of BL with VL at various feed ratios were investigated. The polymers and copolymers were prepared in the presence of aluminoxane catalysts by ring-opening polymerisation processes. The results obtained indicated that polymers synthesised from tetraisobutyldialuminoxane catalyst exhibited very good behaviour in aerobic biodegradation. By the method and inoculum used in this study, it was possible to degrade synthetic polymers by about 85-90% after 50 days. The effect of the tacticity and crystallinity of the polymers on their degree of biodegradation and on their initial degradation rate was studied. 23 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.715533 Item 319 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.135, Dec.1998, p.193-204 BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS - PRESENT SITUATION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES Bastioli C Novamont SpA Starch-based biodegradable materials which are either already on the market or at an advanced development stage are discussed, with particular reference to crystalline starch, thermoplastic starch and thermoplastic starch composites. Polyesters are then considered, including polyhydroxyalkanoates, polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid and poly-epsilon-caprolactone. Polyamides are briefly mentioned. The market potential of these products is considered with reference to the challenges and risks. 22 refs. (IUPAC, 38th Microsymposium on Recycling of Polymers, Prague, July 1997) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.715498

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Item 320 Advanced Performance Materials 5, No.3, Dec.1998, p.183-91 SUGAR CANE BAGASSE WASTE AS REINFORCEMENT IN LOW COST COMPOSITES Monteiro S N; Rodriquez R J S; De Souza M V; D’Almeida J R M Norte Fluminense,Universidade Estadual; Rio de Janeiro,Pontificia Universidade The State University of the North of Rio de Janeiro State is currently engaged in a large development programme to exploit the potentialities of sugar cane industry in a self sustained non-polluting programme. Sugar cane is a traditional industry responsible for the main fraction of the economy of the northern region of the State of Rio de Janeiro, also known as the North Fluminense region. In this respect, a project of particular interest is the use of the sugar cane bagasse waste as reinforcement to polymeric resins for fabrication of low cost composites. A study is carried out on the possible uses of bagasse waste as reinforcement in polyester matrix composites. Preliminary results have attested this possibility. Composites with homogeneous microstructures can be fabricated and the level of their mechanical properties enable them to have practical applications similar to the ones normally associated with wooden agglomerates. Future developments are expected to increase the performance and competitiveness of these composites as compared to those of other materials in the same structural class. 24 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.714117 Item 321 Journal of Elastomers & Plastics 31, No.1, Jan.1999, p.56-71 PROCESSABILITY AND PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS MADE FROM AGRICULTURAL BIOPOLYMERS Otaigbe J U; Goel H; Babcock T; Jane J Iowa State University Results are reported of research aimed at the development of biodegradable thermoplastic compositions and processing methods for making plastics articles reproducibly from soy protein isolate and corn starch. Viable biodegradable soy protein-starch plastics that could be extruded and injection moulded into articles of various shapes and sizes were prepared. The thermal and mechanical properties of the plastics material indicated that it could be useful in many applications where the plastic must biodegrade in an environmentally-benign manner after service. Blending the biodegradable soy protein plastic with polyphosphate fillers greatly reduced its water sensitivity, allowing new uses in moist and load-bearing environments where the unfilled biodegradable plastic was not useable. 15 refs. USA

Accession no.713709

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Item 322 ACS Polymeric Materials Science and Engineering. Fall Meeting 1998. Volume 79. Conference proceedings. Boston, Mas., 23rd-27th Aug.1998, p.248-9. 012 CURING BEHAVIOUR OF POLYPEPTIDE MOISTURE-RESISTANT ADHESIVES Yu M; Deming T J California,University The prolific adhesive capabilities of many marine organisms are well known. These glues are able to form permanent bonds in a few seconds to a wide variety of substrates with complex and often irregular surface coatings. In contrast, the success of synthetic adhesives in wet environments requires carefully cleaned adherends which often must also be chemically treated and/or partially dried. Furthermore, preliminary immunological studies on marine adhesive proteins have revealed that they are poor antigens and thus excellent candidates for in vivo medical applications. An understanding of the materials and mechanisms used by mussels and barnacles to adhere to underwater surfaces would be valuable for the design and synthesis of superior moisture-resistant adhesives. The synthesis of copolymers of DOPA and Llysine, which display moisture-resistant adhesive properties when suitably oxidised, is described. 13 refs. USA

Accession no.713373 Item 323 Modern Plastics International 29, No.1, Jan.1999, p.31-2 BIODEGRADABLE RESINS GATHER MOMENTUM FOR MAINSTREAM USE Defosse M A review is presented of developments in biodegradable polymers, with details of new products from European and USA companies. Characteristics and properties are discussed, and targeted applications are indicated. EUROPE-GENERAL; USA

Accession no.711758 Item 324 Tire Technology International Sept.1998, p.7 CORN TIRE FILLER It is announced in this article that Goodyear is the first tyre manufacturer to take advantage of the reinforcing capabilities of an engineered biopolymeric filler derived from corn starch. Starch represents an ecological alternative to silica or carbon black. Full details are given. GOODYEAR EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; LUXEMBOURG; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.711337

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References and Abstracts

Item 325 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 84, No.8, Aug. 1994, p.18/22 PRODUCING THERMOPLASTIC STARCH WITH TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDERS Wiedmann W Werner & Pfleiderer GmbH The processing of starch into thermoplastic starch on conventional compounding systems based on twin-screw extruders is discussed. The greatest influences to be exerted on the properties and quality of starch granules are examined, and are found to be shear energy/ dissipation, temperature/time curve, and water content. Modification by reacting and blending, the use of venting to produce pellets, and details of process optimisation and scale-up are all considered. 10 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.709877 Item 326 Packaging Technology & Science 11, No.6, Nov./Dec.1998, p.265-74 MECHANICAL AND PERMEABILITY PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE EXTRUDED STARCH/POLYCAPROLACTONE FILMS Myllymaki O; Myllarinen P; Forssell P; Suortti T; Lahteenkorva K; Ahvenainen R; Poutanen K VTT Biotechnology & Food Research; Tampere,University of Technology Barley starch and glycerol were mixed with polycaprolactone(PCL) powder in various combinations and plasticised in a twin-screw extruder. Extrudates were processed, where possible, into films in a single-screw extruder and subjected to an orientation process with the aim of improving the water durability and mechanical strength of the starch films. The mechanical properties, permeabilities to oxygen and water vapour, sorption isotherms and solubility of the processed films were studied. The films containing 20% or more PCL achieved a TS of 20 MPa or higher. Further orientation of the film improved the TS and also the barrier properties to water vapour and oxygen. With PCL contents of 0 to 20%, the starch/PCL films were shown to be effective oxygen barriers. An increase in PCL content beyond this impaired the oxygen barrier properties, while improving the water barrier properties. 20 refs. FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.709672 Item 327 High Performance Plastics Jan.1999, p.7 BIOPLASTICS: STRONG GROWTH FORECAST, UK FILM LAUNCHED, PICNICWARE IS FIRST

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USE OF GERMAN POLYMER Bioplastics are growing rapidly in Europe, according to Frost & Sullivan. Current sales, equivalent to 16.31m US dollars in 1997, will rise to some 73.07m US dollars by 2004. In the UK, Symphony Environmental has announced commercial production of an additive-based degradable PE film that will break down in as little as 60 days or as long as 5-6 years. In Germany, Bayer has launched its biodegradable polyesteramide, BAK, aimed at applications involving compostable products. WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.709429 Item 328 Polymer International 47, No.3, Nov.1998, p.291-4 NEW FILMS PRODUCED FROM MICROFIBRILLATED NATURAL FIBRES Taniguchi T; Okamura K Niigata,University; Kyoto,Bunka College Details are given of the development of new types of microfibrillated materials from natural fibres using a super-grinding method. The method consists of mechanical treatment which is designed to give shearingstress to the longitudinal fibre axis of the fibrous samples. Film formation is also discussed. 8 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.706913 Item 329 Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 52, No.2, 1998, p.261-74 THERMAL ANALYSIS OF SOME ENVIRONMENTALLY DEGRADABLE POLYMERS Day M; Cooney J D; Shaw K; Watts J Canada,National Research Council The thermal characteristics of a series of degradable polymers for use in commercial composting facilities was investigated using TGA and DSC. Phase changes associated with some of the polymers investigated may cause problems in the interpretation of data from composting degradation studies. Several biodegradable polymers were observed to have melt transitions at temperatures similar to those found in a composting environment. 19 refs. CANADA

Accession no.705674 Item 330 Polymer International 47, No. 2, Oct. 1998, p.186-92 HYDROLYSIS OF LACTIC ACID BASED POLY(ESTER-URETHANE)S Hiltunen K; Tuominen J; Seppala J V

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Helsinki,University of Technology Hydrolysis in pH7 buffer solutions was studied at 37C and 55C. Samples were prepared using a straight two step lactic acid polymerisation process. The lactic acid was first polymerised to low molecular weight hydroxyl-terminated telechelic prepolymer by condensation polymerisation in the presence of tin (II) octoate. A typical batch size was 6000g of 88% aqueous solution of lactic acid. Different amounts of 1,4-butanediol were used to control the molecular weight of the prepolymers. The second step was to link prepolymer molecules together with 1,6hexamethylenediisocyanate to form high molecular weight poly(ester urethane). Samples for hydrolysis were prepared by compression moulding. The effect on the hydrolysis rate of different stereostructures (different amount of D units in the polymer chain) and the length of the ester units were studied. The rate of hydrolysis was examined by various techniques including weighing (water absorption and weight loss), GPC (molecular weight and polydispersity), and DSC Tg. GPC measurements showed that at 37C the weight average molecular weight of the poly(ester-urethane)s started to decrease slowly during the first week by hydrolysis, but that at 55C the weight average molecular weight decreased dramatically during the first week of hydrolysis. Significant mass loss occurred later at both temperatures. Results show that degradation rates can be controlled by stereostructure and ester block length. Rates at 55C are compatible with the composting cycle of other biodegradable materials. The finding that hydrolysis rate decreases as ester block length increases contradicts literature results for poly(ester urethane)s. FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.704628 Item 331 Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering 37, No.4, Nov.1998, p.451-68 THERMOPLASTICS REINFORCED WITH WOOD FILLERS: A LITERATURE REVIEW Bledzki A K; Reihmane S; Gassan Kassel,Universitat; Riga,Technical University Problems concerning the processing of thermoplastics reinforced with wood fillers are discussed. The high level of moisture absorption by the filler, its poor wettability, as well as the insufficient adhesion between untreated filler and the polymer matrix are reasons for the low tensile strength and high moisture sorption of composites. These shortcomings of composites can be prevented by the modification of the interface. The fibre-matrix compatibility and the composites’ properties can be improved by using some physical (e.g. steam explosion, corona, cold plasma) and chemical (crosslinking and acetylation of cellulose, grafting, use of coupling agents) methods. Modified wood-polymer interaction mechanisms are complex and specific for each definite system and processing conditions. Cellulose crosslinking and acetylation reduce hygroscopicity and swelling of

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wood and wood composites. Grafting of styrene to wood is effective for wood-PS systems. The best coupling agent for wood-thermoplastics is polymethylenepolyphenyl isocyanate. Silanes’ coupling effect can be increased with additives to the polymer matrix. Optimisation of technological parameters of wood-thermoplastics processing is necessary. 52 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; LATVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.704282 Item 332 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 85, No.3, March 1995, p.23-4 FLAX VERSUS GLASS Mieck K P; Reussmann T Thueringisches Institut fuer Textil- & KunststoffForschung eV Flax-mat-reinforced thermoplastics are compared with glass mat reinforced thermoplastics in terms of mechanical properties. Consideration is given to the influence on properties made by fibre opening processes and the mat forming process, and also the use of surface treatment to improve fibre matrix adhesion in polypropylene/flax composites is examined. 14 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.703671 Item 333 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 70, No.11, 12th Dec.1998, p.2259-68 BLENDS OF ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS. III. BIODEGRADATION OF SOLUTION-CAST BLENDS FROM POLY-L-LACTIDE(PLLA) AND POLY-EPSILON-CAPROLACTONE(PCL) Tsuji H; Mizuno A; Ikada Y Toyohashi,University of Technology; Kyoto,University The biodegradation of phase-separated aliphatic polyester blends from PLLA and PCL, having different polymer mixing ratios, was studied in soil for up to 20 months using gravimetry, GPC, tensile testing, DSC and SEM. The results obtained are discussed with particular reference to weight remaining, molec.wt. change, crystalline structure change, mechanical properties change and comparison of biodegradation in soil with hydrolysis in phosphate-buffered solution. 26 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.702789 Item 334 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 70, No.11, 12th Dec.1998, p.2251-7 ACCELERATED AND ENVIRONMENTAL WEATHERING STUDIES ON POLYETHYLENESTARCH BLEND FILMS

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References and Abstracts

Sastry P K; Satyanarayana D; Rao D V M Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Films of PE-starch blends with and without vegetable oil as a compatibiliser were prepared. The degradation of the films under thermooxidative treatment, UV light exposure, high temp., high humidity and natural ambiance (soil burial) were monitored. It was shown that vegetable oil as an additive had a dual role, improving the film quality by acting as a plasticiser and accelerating degradation of the film by acting as a pro-oxidant. 28 refs. INDIA

Accession no.702788 Item 335 Informacion Tecnologica 9, No.5, 1998, p.115-8 Spanish SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POROUS POLYLACTIC ACID MEMBRANES. A BIOABSORBABLE POLYMER Luciano R M; Zavaglia C A C; Duek E A R Campinas,Universidade Estadual A substrate for inducing cell seeding for implantation in damaged tissues was developed. Polylactic acid membranes were prepared using the casting process with methyl chloride as solvent. In order to manufacture the porous membranes, a very slow solvent evaporation process was used, giving pores between 50 and 160 microns. Characterisation of the membranes was carried out using microelectronic scanning microscopy and DSC. The results of this study showed that it was possible to obtain porous membranes with the required characteristics to be used in tissue regeneration and other medical applications. 6 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.701007 Item 336 Reactive & Functional Polymers 38, No.1, Sept.1998, p.35-49 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF BIODEGRADATION OF NATURAL POLYMERS Ratajska M; Boryniec S Lodz,Institute of Chemical Fibres The biodegradation of polymeric materials of natural origin and of their mixtures with other natural and synthetic polymers was investigated. The processes of biodegradation were carried out in an aqueous and a soil medium in the presence of air. Experiments with the biodegradation of cellulose carbamate showed that the product was more susceptible to biological decomposition than cellulose or its viscose derivatives. Experiments with the biodegradation of chitosan showed that the process was dependent on both the origin and properties of the

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samples, as well as on the degree of their deacetylation and conditions of the biodegradation process. Research into the biodegradation of mixtures of synthetic and natural polymers using the method of light transmittance led to the general conclusion that the biodegradation process was largely dependent on the type of synthetic polymer, as well as on conditions of the process. 5 refs. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.700977 Item 337 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.132, 1998, p.415-20 ENZYMATIC RING-OPENING POLYADDITION FOR CHITIN SYNTHESIS: A CATIONIC MECHANISM IN BASIC SOLUTION? Kiyosada T; Shoda S; Kobayashi S Tohoku,University; Kyoto,University The in-vitro synthesis of chitin via a non-biosynthetic path was achieved by enzymatic ring-opening polyaddition of a chitobiose oxazoline monomer. Chitinase, a hydrolysis enzyme of chitin, recognised and polymerised the monomer regio- and stereoselectivity. The structure of artificial chitin was confirmed by comparison with an authentic natural chitin sample with the use of crosspolarisation/magic angle spinning carbon-13 NMR and IR spectroscopies. X-ray diffraction as well as NMR analysis showed its crystal structure of alpha-chitin. Characteristic features of this polymerisation are described. 26 refs. (IUPAC International Symposium on Ionic Polymerization, Paris, July 1997) JAPAN

Accession no.700349 Item 338 Polymer Engineering and Science 38, No.9, Sept.1998, p.1426-35 STEADY SHEAR AND DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS Ramkumar D H S; Bhattacharya M Minnesota,University The rheological properties of three biodegradable partially crystalline aliphatic polymers, poly-epsiloncaprolactone(PCL), polylactic acid(PLA) and polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate(PHBV), were investigated. Low shear viscosity, first normal stress difference and dynamic properties (G’ and G”) were measured for each polymer using rotational instruments. High shear viscosity data were obtained using a capillary rheometer. GPC indicated that both PLA and PHBV were determined from the time-sweep data. Data indicated that material functions were proportional to the molec.wt. for PCL and PLA samples and directly related to the HV content in the PHBV samples. The relaxation spectra were calculated from the G’ and G” data using the regularisation method and the applicability of the non-linear Wagner

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equation was checked on these materials. Results are discussed in terms of variations in the molecular characteristics on rheological properties and their possible influence on processability. 13 refs. USA

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ranging from very low density polymers, full of branches on branches, to very high density products. In the area of biotechnology, DuPont has a bioprocess to make a polyester intermediate from corn-derived glucose. Another approach is to use engineered bacteria, directly producing plastics based on proteins. DUPONT CO.

Item 339 Journal of the Adhesive & Sealant Council. Spring 1998. Conference proceedings. Orlando, Fl., 22nd-25th March 1998, p.28-38. 6A1 PERFORMANCE COMPARISONS OF NONWOVEN ADHESIVES BASED ON ROSIN ESTER AND HYDROCARBON RESINS Krajca K Union Camp Corp. (Adhesive & Sealant Council)

USA

Work is carried out to determine the performance of rosin ester and partially hydrogenated hydrocarbon tackifiers in non-woven adhesive applications. While these resins are commonly used in this market segment, there is little information published on this topic. It is shown that rosin ester tackifiers have significant advantages relative to the above hydrocarbon resins when used to formulate nonwoven assembly adhesives. The major advantage of rosin esters is the superior adhesion of the non-woven laminate when using SIS block copolymers, and the rosin esterbased adhesives possess better viscosity stability. 3 refs.

Thin-walled shapes such as plates were formed by heating starch batter inside a closed mould, and the resulting starch foams were characterised by physical methods, to relate their structure to the process parameters. Normal corn and potato starches were gelatinised but some swollen granules remained. The foams had a dense outer skin and a less dense interior with large open cells. Foam density and strength increased with increasing starch concentration, molecular weight and amylose content, whilst the foam flexibility increased with decreasing density. Plates which were made from tuber starches such as potato had lower densities and higher flexibilities than those made from cereal starches such as corn. It is suggested that starch foams may be used as disposable food packaging and serving articles which could be composted after use. 33 refs.

USA

Accession no.698340 Item 340 Injection Moulding International 3, No.5, Aug/Sept.1998, p.43 NATURE FROM START TO FINISH Features and applications are briefly indicated for Bioplast starch-based compounds from Biotec GmbH. The materials are completely biodegradable and compostable, and their properties and processing parameters can be compared to those of commodity polymers, it is claimed. BIOTEC GMBH EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.696433 Item 341 Eureka 18, No.9, Sept.1998, p.32-3 BIOTECHNOLOGY IS THE KEY TO BETTER PLASTICS Shelley T New catalysts can impart engineering properties to low cost polymers, while biotechnology could lead to lower cost plastic manufacture and entirely new materials. DuPont’s Versipol catalysts can be used to produce PEs

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Accession no.695830 Item 342 Polymer 39, No.25, 1998, p.6649-55 STRUCTURE AND MORPHOLOGY OF BAKED STARCH FOAMS Shogren R L; Lawton J W; Doane W M; Tiefenbacher K F US,Dept.of Agriculture

USA

Accession no.694687 Item 343 European Polymer Journal 34, No.7, July 1998, p.923-9 MODIFICATION OF NATURAL RUBBER WITH PHOSPHATIC PLASTICIZERS: A COMPARISON OF PHOSPHORYLATED CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUID PREPOLYMER WITH 2-ETHYL HEXYL DIPHENYL PHOSPHATE Menon A R R; Pillai C K S; Nando G B India,Regional Research Laboratory; Indian Institute of Technology Natural rubber was modified with phosphorylated cashew nut shell liquid prepolymer (PCNSL) and also with 2ethyl hexyl diphenyl phosphate, and its vulcanisation characteristics, tensile properties, thermal decomposition characteristics and flame retardancy investigated. The rubber treated with PCNSL had the higher tensile properties and the higher resistance to flame and thermooxidative decomposition. This was attributed to a higher degree of condensed phase reactions, especially at higher

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References and Abstracts

heating rates and in the presence of higher concentrations of PCNSL. 25 refs. INDIA

Accession no.694376 Item 344 Antec ’98. Volume III. Conference proceedings. Atlanta, Ga., 26th-30th April 1998, p.3557-61. 012 PROCESSING-INDUCED EFFECTS ON RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF BIODEGRADABLE STARCH/ POLYCAPROLACTONE BLENDS Ko C Taichung,Plastics Industry Development Centre (SPE) Extrusion effects on rheological properties of starch/ polycaprolactone (PCL) composites are investigated. Different extrusion conditions involving varying extrusion temperature, screw speed and screw geometry are adopted to process the composites. Melt viscosity, along with extrudate swell of the extruded samples, are measured via a rheometer and an extrudate swell detector. The results indicate that either high extrusion temperature or shear is effective for reducing the melt viscosity, but enhancing the extrudate swell. However, it appears that there are no significant differences in melt viscosity as well as extrudate swell among starch/PCL samples processed by different screw speeds. The destruction of starch granules during the processing of starch/PCL composites may be the cause for the peculiar rheological behaviour. 10 refs. TAIWAN

Accession no.693733 Item 345 Plastics Recycling Update 11, No.8, Aug.1998, p.5-6 CORPORATE PROFILE Advanced Environmental Recycling Technologies manufactures engineered composite building materials made from reclaimed plastics and by-product cedar and hardwood fibres. The reclaimed PE used in the company’s composites comes as HDPE and LDPE film scraps and HDPE ground container material. The company suffered a combined net loss for the years 1995 through 1997 of 6.81m US dollars. Sales for the same three-year period totalled 20.51m US dollars, rising each year by at least 1m US dollars. ADVANCED ENVIRONMENTAL RECYCLING TECHNOLOGIES INC.

ASSESSING THE DEGRADABILITY OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS Croteau G E & A Environmental Consultants Inc. The ASTM/ISR Advisory Committee on Degradable Polymers has attempted to determine the behaviour of degradable polymeric materials in real disposal systems and how that behaviour correlates with laboratory tests. This article summarises a full-scale study in which the in situ degradability of 11 polymeric materials is assessed. 3 refs. ASTM USA

Accession no.692842 Item 347 BioCycle Journal of Composting & Recycling 39, No.3, March 1998, p.64-70 MOVING TOWARDS CONSENSUS ON DEGRADABLE PLASTICS Riggle D Research, testing and product development are coming together to give consumers some very clear and commercially available choices for compostable bags and other products. The ASTM/ISR has issued a guide which documents validated test methods that can be used to generate the evidence needed to support environmental claims. USA

Accession no.692841 Item 348 European Plastics News 25, No.8, Sept.1998, p.103-4 BACK TO THE LAND Major players such as Bayer, BASF and Cargill Dow Polymers will be showing their latest biodegradable products at the K’98 exhibition. A new range of polylactic acid biodegradable polymers is being offered by Cargill Dow Polymers. DuPont’s Biomax copolyester resin, a modified form of PETP, can be produced on commercial lines. Bayer has a largely transparent biodegradable extrusion grade, BAK 1095, and last year launched an improved version, BAK 2195, also based on polyester amide, but more suited to injection moulding applications. WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

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Item 349 Chemical Engineering 105, No.7, July 1998, p.43/7 BETTING BIG ON BIOPOLYMERS

Item 346 BioCycle Journal of Composting & Recycling 39, No.3, March 1998, p.71/5

Petroleum-based plastics still dominate, but polymers from renewable resources are making inroads. For plastics manufacture, replacing petroleum-based feedstocks with materials derived from newable resources is an attractive

USA

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prospect. Resin makers would no longer be dependent on the finite supply of fossil fuels; and the largely degradable biopolymers would be composted, freeing up landfill space. However, biomass-based polymers are just too expensive to produce commercially. Until they can compete costwise with petroleum-based polymers, biopolymers will remain a high-priced niche market. Recently, two large biopolymer makers have significantly increased their capacity for polylactic acid (PLA) resin. By the end of the year, Cargill Dow LLC, a joint venture formed last November, will start up an 8 million lb/yr PLA plant at a Cargill facility in Minneapolis. Chronopol, a subsidiary of Coors-owned ACX Technologies, has just started up a 2 million lb plant for its Heplon PLA near Golden, Colorado. The company has plans in the works for a 100 million lb/yr facility. Details are given. CARGILL DOW LLC USA

Accession no.690374 Item 350 European Polymer Journal 34, Nos.5/6, May/June 1998, p.849-54 ADHESIVE PERFORMANCE, FLAMMABILITY EVALUATION AND BIODEGRADATION STUDY OF PLANT POLYMER BLENDS Ghosh S N; Maiti S Indian Institute of Technology A renewable polymer, collected as gum from Moringa oleifera, was dry blended with various rubbers, e.g. NR, NBR and chloroprene rubber, and also with different commodity polymers, i.e. PE, PS and PVC. The plant polymer was also solution blended with NR and NBR. The adhesive performance of NR, NBR, NR/plant polymer and NBR/plant polymer blends was studied by the 180 degree peel test. The results were compared with a commercial adhesive (Dhole’s rubber solution) used as a sealant. Flame retardancy of the plant polymer blends with commodity polymers and rubbers was monitored by limiting oxygen index studies. Structure-flammability correlations of CR/plant polymer and PVC/plant polymer blends were also examined. Biodegradability of the NR/ plant polymer blend was studied by the standard soil burial test and evaluated by SEM and by optical microscopy. 11 refs.

result that they can also serve as substitutes or extend their fields of application while offering an acceptable price level. In a special compounding process, these raw materials are processed together with different additives and other completely biodegradable components to granular materials with thermoplastic properties. The first product grades suitable for thermoplastic processes are already certified to DIN 54900. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.687631 Item 352 Antec ’98. Volume II. Conference proceedings. Atlanta, Ga., 26th-30th April 1998, p.2542-5. 012 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER BLENDS OF POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA) AND POLYBUTYLENE SUCCINATE Ma W; McCarthy S P Lowell,Massachusetts University (SPE) A series of blends consisting of polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphatic succinate polyester (Bionolle 3000) are prepared. The results of the mechanical property investigation show that using more than 20 wt.% Bionolle 3000 can significantly increase the toughness of the PLA, increase the elongation at break (more than 200%) and increase the impact strength (more than 70 J/m). These properties are not significantly affected by the ageing behaviour of PLA for more than two months. DMA results show that Bio 3000 reduces the elastic modulus of the blends between -15 and 60 deg.C. Soil degradation rates of the PLA/Bio 3000 blends also increase with increasing Bio 3000 content. However, for the blends with less than 30 wt.% of Bio 3000, the degradation rates do not significantly increase. Enzymatic degradation rates of the blends are higher than for those of the two polymers, and these rates increase with increasing PLA content. Composting biodegradation rates also increase with increasing Bio 3000 content. USA

Accession no.687408

Item 351 Kunststoffe Plast Europe 88, No.6, June 1998, p.31-2 NATURE FROM START TO FINISH Schroeter E

Item 353 Antec ’98. Volume II. Conference proceedings. Atlanta, Ga., 26th-30th April 1998, p.2515-9. 012 ANALYSIS OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE FILMS MADE FROM BLENDS OF POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA) AND POLYESTERS BY BLOWN FILM EXTRUSION Laverde G V; McCarthy S P Lowell,Massachusetts University (SPE)

Starch-based compounds are 100% biodegradable and compostable. Their properties and processing parameters can be compared to those of commodity plastics with the

Polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphatic polyesters such as polybutylene succinate, adipate random copolymer (PBSUAD), are studied for the production of biodegradable

INDIA

Accession no.687802

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References and Abstracts

products using pure materials instead blends of both polymers. The objective is to produce blown film from blends of PLA and PBSU-AD and determine how the mechanical properties change when the processing conditions are modified. It is found that films produced with 50% of each component present competitive properties similar to those found in PE films. The increase in the blowup ratio improves the tensile properties and tear resistance. The processability, film toughness and flexibility are improved with the addition of PBSU-AD. Higher ratios of PLA result in process instabilities. 5 refs. USA

Accession no.687402 Item 354 Chimica e l’industria 79, No.2, March 1997, p.180 Italian SODIUM POLYASPARTATE: A NEW BIODEGRADABLE CO-BUILDER Conti F Developments in the use of sodium polyaspartate as a biodegradable calcium complexing agent in detergents are reviewed. Methods for the synthesis of the polymer and factors influencing its acceptance in this market are examined. 2 refs. ROHM & HAAS CO.; DONLAR CORP.; ELDIB ENGINEERING & RESEARCH INC.; BAYER AG EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.686291 Item 355 Journal of Microencapsulation 15, No.4, July-Aug.1998, p.515-23 PREPARATION OF POLYLACTIC ACID MICROCAPSULES CONTAINING CIPROFLOXACIN Yu W P; Wong J P; Chang T M S McGill University; Canada,Defence Research Establishment Microcapsules have been used as drug delivery systems in pharmaceutical applications for sustained or controlled release of drug, and for artificial cells and organs. A new method is described for preparation of polylactic acid microcapsules for drug delivery. The biodegradable polylactic acid microcapsules were made by phase separation: two types of polylactic acid, poly((D,L)lactic acid) and poly((L)lactic acid) were combined as the membrane material. 18 refs. CANADA

Accession no.684860 Item 356 Polymer International 44, No.1, Sept.1997, p.104-10

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BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER BLENDS OF POLY(3-HYDROXYBUTYRATE)(PHB) AND STARCH ACETATE(SA) Lianlai Zhang; Xianmo Deng; Shujie Zhao; Zhitang Huang Chengdu,Institute of Organic Chemistry; Beijing,Institute of Chemistry; Academia Sinica The thermal properties and phase morphology of blends of PHB and SA were studied by DSC, FTIR spectroscopy, SEM and polarising optical microscopy. The Tgs of PHB in the blends were not affected by the SA component, the value remaining at 9C for all the blend ratios investigated, almost the same as that of pure PHB. The m.p. of PHB showed a small shift with increase in SA content. The melting enthalpy of the blends decreased linearly with increase of SA content in the blends. The kinetic crystallisability of PHB in the blends was lower than that of pure PHB and the enthalpy of non-isothermal crystallisation of the PHB phase in the blends was much lower than that of pure PHB. It was difficult to form PHB spherulites in the blends with SA content of 60% or above, under isothermal conditions. The crystallisation of PHB from the glassy state was also hindered by the SA content. 33 refs. CHINA

Accession no.682800 Item 357 Polymer Degradation and Stability 59, Nos 1-3, 1998, p.387-93 EFFECT OF FERMENTATION PERFORMANCE ON THE ECONOMICS OF POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATE PRODUCTION BY ALCALIGENES LATUS Lee S Y; Choi J Korea,Advanced Institute of Science & Technology The effects of fermentation performance on the final production cost of polyhydroxybutyrate were examined. Two processes for the production of polyhydroxybutyrate by Alcaligenes latus from sucrose with the recovery method of surfactant-hypochlorite digestion were designed and analysed. Production costs are discussed. 23 refs. KOREA

Accession no.682638 Item 358 Polymer Degradation and Stability 59, Nos 1-3, 1998, p.317-25 MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF POLYESTERS: A REVIEW ON EXTRACELLULAR POLYHYDROXYALKANOIC ACID DEPOLYMERASES Jendrossek D Gottingen,University A brief overview is presented on the biodegradation of water-insoluble polyesters by extracellular hydrolytic

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enzymes. Data are given for polyhydroxyalkanoates degraded using polyhydoxyalkanoic acid depolymerase. 77 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.682631 Item 359 Polymer Degradation and Stability 59, Nos 1-3, 1998, p.263-72 PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF MATERBI STARCH-BASED MATERIALS Bastioli C Novamont SpA Details are given of the development of Mater-Bi materials with emphasis on their processability, physicochemical and physico-mechanical properties, composting behaviour and future market perspectives. Aspects such as in-use performances and biodegradation behaviour of Mater-Bi bags for the separate collection of organic and yard waste are considered. 37 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.682625 Item 360 Polymer Degradation and Stability 59, Nos 1-3, 1998, p.107-15 THERMOPLASTIC AND BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS OF CELLULOSE Simon J; Muller H P; Koch R; Muller V Bayer AG; Wolff Walsrode AG A brief review is given of the biodegradability of cellulose derivatives for packaging. Correlations are made between biodegradability and molecular structure with reference to processing and waste management. 6 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.682606 Item 361 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 6, No.1, Jan.1998, p.9-21 DEGRADATION OF STARCH-CALCIUM CARBONATE DISPOSABLE PACKAGING IN A SOLID WASTE COMPOSTING FACILITY Bresin V T New York,State University The compostability of starch-calcium carbonate disposable packaging was examined in a source-separated municipal solid waste compostability. Changes in compost quality due to the presence of starch-calcium carbonate containers were assessed by measuring the nutrient and metal content of three municipal solid waste:starchcalcium carbonate composts. Plant growth studies were conducted to examine the composts for possible plant

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growth inhibition due to the deterioration of the starchcalcium carbonate containers. 21 refs. USA

Accession no.682590 Item 362 Chemical and Engineering News 76, No.25, 22nd June 1998, p.13-9 CHEMICAL MAKERS TRY BIOTECH PATHS McCoy M Producers of industrial chemicals are beginning to harness fermentation and enzyme catalysis. Hoffmann-La Roche recently acknowledged the power of biotechnology in fine chemicals production when it announced plans to replace its chemical route to vitamin B-2 with a fermentation process. BASF is working with Merck to develop a fermentation route from sorbitol directly to ketogulonic acid. DuPont is attempting to fermentatively produce an intermediate, 1,3-propanediol, which is reacted with PTA to produce polytrimethylene terephthalate. WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.682482 Item 363 Chimica e l’industria 79, No.1, Jan./Feb.1997, p.77-81 Italian BIODEGRADABLE STARCH BASED MATERIALS: STATE OF THE ART AND FUTURE PROSPECTS Bastioli C Novamont SpA Results are presented of studies of the use of thermoplastic starch in the preparation of biodegradable polymers, with particular reference to the concepts of gelatinisation, destructurisation and complexation of starch in the presence of synthetic polymers. An examination is made of the properties, processability and biodegradation characteristics of some commercially available materials, particularly Novamont’s Mater-Bi biodegradable polymers based on combinations of starch with EVOH and aliphatic polyesters. 36 refs. WARNER-LAMBERT CO.; MELITTA; FLUNTERA AG EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; SWITZERLAND; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.682333 Item 364 Macplas International May 1998, p.36-7 DEGRADABLE NEWS BASF has developed a biodegradable polymer, Ecoflex, which combines economics and ecology with flexibility and toughness. The new material can be processed by conventional blown film or chill roll extrusion lines for

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References and Abstracts

LDPE. Dow Chemical and Cargill have formed a joint venture to develop and market polylactic acid polymers. A new biodegradable plastic resin, BAK 2195, for injection moulding has been developed by Bayer. A straight aliphatic polyester amide, it is manufactured without the use of solvents, chlorine or aromatic constituents. WORLD

Accession no.681934 Item 365 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 68, No. 13, 27th June 1998, p.2129-40 STARCH-POLY(VINYL ALCOHOL) FOAMED ARTICLES PREPARED BY A BAKING PROCESS Shogren R L; Lawton J W; Tiefenbacher K F; Chen L US,National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research; Haas F.,Machinery of America Composite foam plates were prepared by baking a mixture of granular potato starch and aqueous PVAl solution inside a hot mold. Foam strength, flexibility, and water resistance were markedly improved by addition of 10-30% PVAl to starch batters. The improvement in strength at low humidity was greater for partially (88%) hydrolysed PVAl while strength at higher humidities improved most with fully (98%) hydrolysed PVAl. Foam flexibility increased with higher PVAl molecular weight. SEM of the surface of the foams revealed a phase-separated morphology in which swollen starch granules were embedded in a matrix of PVAl. The starch component was gelatinised (melted) during baking while the PVAl component crystallised to a high degree during baking. Crosslinking agents such as calcium and zirconium salts were added to starch batters to give further increases in water resistance. Respirometry studies in soil showed that the starch component of starch-PVAl foams biodegraded relatively rapidly (weeks) while the PVAl component degraded more slowly (months). Baked foams prepared from starch and PVAl have mechanical properties that are adequate for use as packaging containers over a wide range of humidity. 38 refs. USA

Accession no.681772 Item 366 High Performance Plastics Jan. 1998, p.1-2 DOW PLANS A GLOBAL ROLE IN POLYMERS FROM AGRICULTURE The joint venture Cargill Dow Polymers’ production of polylactic acid polymers derived from corn or sugar beet is discussed. The range of products under the EcoPLA Renewable Biopolymers name are likened to polystyrene in appearance, to polyolefins in processability, and to PETP in tensile strength, grease/oil resistance and flavour and odour barrier properties, and are offered as an alternative to polystyrene in thermoformed disposable packaging.

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DOW CHEMICAL CO.; CARGILL DOW POLYMERS WORLD

Accession no.681274 Item 367 Journal of Injection Molding Technology 2, No.1, March 1998, p.30-6 INFLUENCE OF INJECTION MOULDING CONDITIONS ON BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS Parikh M; Gross R A; McCarthy S P Massachusetts,University Details are given of the relationship between processing history and degradation kinetics for crystalline biodegradable polymers. Rates of enzymatic hydrolysis using a bacterial polyester depolymerase enzyme were studied for polyhydroxybutyrate and hydroxybutyratehydroxyvalerate copolymers. 9 refs. USA

Accession no.681076 Item 368 Chemical Week 160, No.22, 10th June 1998, p.24-7 BREAKING INTO THE BIG TIME Wood A; Scott A Demand for biodegradable polymers is only about 15,000 m.t./year. If the main barrier to increased use, high prices, can be overcome, producers predict that it could become a major business. Demand for biodegradable polymers is expected to grow more quickly in Europe as a result of a directive that will encourage the use of biodegradable polymers for compostable packaging. Some producers have entered the market with technologies for biodegradable thermoplastics including PETP. WORLD

Accession no.680674 Item 369 European Chemical News (Chemscope) May 1998, p.36/8 OUT WITH THE OLD Johnston S The use of crop-derived feedstocks in polymers manufacture is not new, but moving away from petrochemicals can make economic and environmental sense. Biopolymers based on renewable raw materials such as carbohydrates, oils, fibres and proteins have a lot of properties in common with petrochemical polymers. However, any change from traditional feedstocks to cropderived raw materials requires a re-evaluation of the manufacturing process. WORLD

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Item 370 Plastics Engineering 54, No.4, April 1998, p.37-9 CONTROLLING THE WATER ABSORBENCY OF AGRICULTURAL BIOPOLYMERS Otaigbe J U Iowa State University

Item 372 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 68, No.5, 2nd May 1998, p.739-45 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF STARCH-BASED POLYURETHANE FOAMS Alfani R; Iannace S; Nicolais L Naples,University

The use of biodegradable polymers made from renewable agricultural products, such as soy protein isolate, has been very limited because of the tendency of these polymers to absorb moisture. The author has recently initiated a long-range research project to develop affordable, stiff, strong bioabsorbable polyphosphate filler/soy protein polymer composites, along with methods for making practical shapes from these products. 16 refs.

Starch-based polyurethane foams were prepared by reacting a mixture of starch and polycaprolactone triol with an aliphatic diisocyanate, using water as a blowing agent. Polyethylene glycol was added to some of the foams. The reaction kinetics were affected by the presence of starch. This was attributed to the high viscosity associated with the high molecular weight polysaccharide. The prepared foams had higher glass transition temperatures and reduced thermal stability compared with conventional foams. The mechanical properties could be varied by variation of the starch content, and by controlling the relative amounts of polycaprolactone and polyethylene glycol in the composition. 28 refs.

USA

Accession no.679987 Item 371 Developments in Crystalline Polymers - 2. Essex, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd., 1988, p.1-67. 9112 BIOLOGICALLY PRODUCED (R)-3HYDROXYALKANOATE POLYMERS AND COPOLYMERS Holmes P A Edited by: Bassett D C (ICI plc) Micro-organisms are capable of producing a wide range of polymers and copolymers based on 3-hydroxypropionic acid substituted with various alkyl groups in the 3-position. The most common homopolymer is poly (3hydroxybutyrate), PHB, which has a 3-methyl substituent, but monomers having C2-C5 alkyl side groups are found in natural copolyesters. The monomers are all optically active in the R absolute configuration. PHB can be produced from carbon substrates as diverse as glucose, ethanol, acetate, methane and even gaseous mixtures of carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The polymer occurs as discrete granules within the cell cytoplasmic space and can represent up to 80% of the dry cell weight. After extraction and purification, it behaves as a normal crystalline thermoplastic with a melting point around 180 deg.C and can be processed by conventional extrusion and moulding equipment. PHB and its copolymers with 3hydroxypentanoic acid are now available commercially and are being evaluated in numerous potential applications. The copolymers are all genuinely biodegradable in that their rate of chemical hydrolysis is extremely slow but microorganisms produce both specific and non-specific esterase enzymes capable of degrading the materials rapidly to nontoxic monomers. Most of the potential uses exploit this property in medical, veterinary, horticultural and general disposable products. 185 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

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EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.679539 Item 373 Polymer 39, No.13, 1998, p.2883-95 PROCESSING OF BIODEGRADABLE BLENDS OF WHEAT GLUTEN AND MODIFIED POLYCAPROLACTONE John J; Jian Tang; Bhattacharya M Minnesota,University Blends of wheat gluten (65% and 75% composition) and polycaprolactone (PCL), containing 2.5 wt% of anhydride functionalised PCL as a compatibiliser, were prepared. The small amount of anhydride modified PCL was found to improve the physical properties of the blends compared with simple mixtures of wheat gluten and PCL. These blends had a narrow processability window. The tensile properties of blends containing 65 or 75% gluten were comparable with those of PCL, but the percentage elongation was greatly reduced. Storage at high humidity or under two extreme conditions (oven and freezer), or regrinding, did not affect the physical properties of the blends. Dynamic mechanical analysis indicated that the modulus of the blends containing a compatibiliser was higher than for blends which did not. Two transition peaks were observed for the blends and these were discussed. Optical microscopy indicated a two-phase blend morphology with PCL as the continuous phase and gluten as the dispersed phase. Moulded blend samples absorbed about 40% by weight of water in 7 days and the water uptake mechanism was discussed. Average oil absorption was less than 0.5% over 20 days. The samples were biodegradable under aerobic conditions. 27 refs. USA

Accession no.679445

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References and Abstracts

Item 374 New Plastics ’98. Conference proceedings. London, 21st-22nd Jan.1998, paper 9. 6 BIOMAX HYDRO/BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTER RESIN Ferretti D Du Pont de Nemours E.I.,& Co.Inc. (European Plastics News)

Item 376 Plasticulture No.112, 1996, p.46-50 English; French HORTICULTURAL POTS MADE FROM BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS Groot L Institut fuer Technik in Gartenbau und Landwirtschaft

DuPont has created a new family of highly versatile polymers, called Biomax hydro/biodegradable polyester resin, that decomposes without harm to the soil or environment. Based on PETP technology, Biomax can be made into film, fibre and non-wovens, as well as being thermoformed and injection moulded. Potential applications range from geotextiles to agricultural materials and packaging. Biomax can be recycled, incinerated or landfilled, but is intended mainly for disposal by composting and insoil degradation. In all tests, Biomax proves harmless to the environment at every stage of the decomposition process and virtually undetectable to the unaided eye in about eight weeks. It has a high melting point for a degradable material, which opens up a wide range of processing options. Product properties are diverse and customisable.

The use of biodegradable materials, particularly paper, in plant pots and other horticultural containers is examined, and properties of plastics, paper and starch pots are compared. Results are presented of trials which showed the increased energy requirements arising from higher water consumption by paper pots, and the possibility of reducing evaporation rates by coating the pots with various biodegradable materials including latex and natural resins is discussed. 3 refs.

USA

Accession no.679263 Item 375 Macromolecules 31, No. 7, 7th April 1998, p.2107-13 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF POLY(ASPARTIC ACID)S Nakato T; Yoshitake M; Matsubara K; Tomida M Mitsubishi Chemical Corp.; Hokkaido,University Various types of poly(aspartic acid)s, which were poly(alphaL-aspartic acid), poly(alpha-D-aspartic acid), poly(beta-Laspartic acid), and poly(alpha,beta-D,L-aspartic acid)s were prepared, and their biodegradabilities and calcium ion chelating abilities were measured to clarify the relationship between the structure of poly(aspartic acid)s and these properties. The biodegradabilities were measured by the OECD 301C method (modified MITI test) using activated sludge. Distinct tendencies were found both between the number of amide protons and biodegradability and between the ratio of the dicarboxylic acid end groups to the dicarboxylic acid end group plus succinimide end group and biodegradability. The chirality of the aspartic acid unit and the type of amide linkage in poly(aspartic acid) had no apparent effect on the biodegradability of poly(aspartic acid). The result of repetitive biodegradability analyses of polyaspartic acid suggested the complete biodegradation is possible. Regarding the calcium ion chelating ability, only the type of amide linkage affected the calcium chelating ability. Poly(alpha-aspartic acid) showed a higher calcium ion chelating ability than poly(beta-aspartic acid) and poly(alpha,beta-aspartic acid). 59 refs.

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.679104 Item 377 Macromolecules 31, No.8, 21st April 1998, p.2693-6 IMPROVEMENT OF STARCH FILM PERFORMANCES USING CELLULOSE MICROFIBRILS Dufresne A; Vignon M R Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University An attempt was made to improve the thermomechanical properties and to decrease the water sensitivity of starchbased systems, while preserving the biodegradability of the material. Cellulose microfibrils were used as an inexpensive and environmentally-friendly filler. They were extracted from potato parenchyma cell wall by a chemical treatment leading to purified cellulose, followed by a mechanical treatment in order to obtain a homogeneous suspension due to the individualisation of the microfibrils. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.678379 Item 378 TAPPI 1997 Polymers, Laminations and Coatings Conference. Conference Proceedings. Book 1. Toronto, Ontario, 24th-28th Aug.1997, p.145-7. 012 POLYLACTIC ACID: VERSATILE ENGINEERABLE MATERIAL Kelly W E; Gupta A Chronopol Inc. (TAPPI) An examination is made of the synthesis, structure, properties, processing and applications of polylactic acid and lactide copolymers. 2 refs.

JAPAN

CANADA; USA

Accession no.679218

Accession no.677500

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References and Abstracts

Item 379 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 68, No.2, 11th April 1998, p.331-7 PRELIMINARY STUDY OF FORMATION OF FILMS FROM CELLULOSE-ENRICHED AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCTS Chauvelon G; Renard C M G C; Saulnier L; Buleon A; Thibault J F; Benhaddou R; Granet R; Krausz P INRA; Limoges,University Sugar-beet pulp and wheat bran were examined for their suitability for transformation into bioplastics by esterification by lauroyl chloride. The effect of cellulose content was studied on eleven samples enriched in cellulose after chemical or enzymatic removal of pectins from sugarbeet pulp and heteroxylans from wheat bran. After pretreatment by immersion in 0.5 mol/L sulphuric acid, esterification was carried out with lauroyl chloride. Neither the amount of cellulose nor the extraction treatment had a significant effect on the formation of plastic. A film could be obtained from all the wheat-bran samples, including samples with low cellulose content, but only from one sugar-beet pulp sample. The crystallinities of the cellulose in sugar-beet pulp and wheat bran were different. The nature of cellulose could be responsible for the failure of sugarbeet pulp residues to form plastic. 24 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.676007 Item 380 Macromolecular Symposia No.127, Feb.1998, p.227-40 SOLID-STATE PROCESSING OF PHBPOWDERS Lupke T; Radusch H-J; Metzner K Halle,Martin-Luther-Universitat Details are given of the application of a solid-state processing technology to polyhydroxybutyrate in order to prevent thermal degradation. The extrusion of polyhydroxybutyrate powder is described and improvements in mechanical properties are discussed with emphasis on ductility. 4 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.672902 Item 381 Macromolecular Symposia No.127, Feb.1998, p.219-25 ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC DEGRADATION OF ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS FROM PETRO VERSUS GREEN RESOURCES Karlsson S; Albertsson A-C Sweden,Royal Institute of Technology The results from abiotic and biotic hydrolysis of polycaprolactone, polylactide and polyhydroxyalkanoates

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are presented. Data are given for rate of degradation, molecular weight changes, and degradation product patterns. 18 refs. SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.672901 Item 382 Macromolecular Symposia No.127, Feb.1998, p.51-8 INDUSTRIAL PROTEINS AS A GREEN ALTERNATIVE FOR PETRO POLYMERS: POTENTIALS AND LIMITATIONS de Graaf L A; Kolster P Wageningen,Agrotechnological Institute Various biopolymers were studied for possible technical applications of polymers from renewable resources. Opportunities for industrial proteins in coatings, adhesives, surfactants and plastics are discussed. The use of protein modifications for the improvement of functional properties relevant for technical applications is mentioned. 13 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.672882 Item 383 Macromolecules 30, No.25, 15th Dec.1997, p.7721-8 DICARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND KETOACIDS FORMED IN DEGRADABLE POLYETHYLENES BY ZIP DEPOLYMERIZATION THROUGH A CYCLIC TRANSITION STATE Karlsson S; Hakkarainen M; Albertsson A-C Stockholm,Royal Institute of Technology The intermediate and final degradation products formed in six different LDPE films modified according to the Griffin process (pro-oxidants and starch) and the ScottGilead formulation (photosensitising additives) were studied. The authors proposed that the formation of ketoacids and dicarboxylic acids in the materials resulted from both secondary oxidation products and a zip depolymerisation mechanism by backbiting through a cyclic transition state. The degradation rate and molecular weight changes were compared and correlated with the identified degradation products. The results were discussed. 14 refs. SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.672053 Item 384 Journal of Macromolecular Science A 35, No.1, 1998, p.1-20 SYNTHESIS AND PHOTOINITIATED CATIONIC POLYMERIZATION OF EPOXIDIZED CASTOR OIL AND ITS DERIVATIVES

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References and Abstracts

Chakrapani S; Crivello J V Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Epoxidised castor oil(ECO) was prepared by an efficient and low cost epoxidation process for use as a biorenewable monomer. The photoinitiated cationic polymerisation of ECO using diaryliodonium salt photoinitiators was also studied. The effect of structure and concentration of photoinitiator on the polymerisation process was examined. The ability of photosensitisers to accelerate the photopolymerisation was also investigated. Studies comparing the photopolymerisation behaviour of ECO with other commercially-available epoxidised linseed and soybean oil and with other types of synthetic epoxy monomers were conducted. The high reactivity of ECO could be ascribed to the presence of both epoxy and hydroxyl groups in the molecule, which permitted the material to polymerise mainly by an activated monomer mechanism. 25 refs. USA

Accession no.671996 Item 385 Polymer 39, No.10, 1998, p.2043-8 ROLE OF WATER DURING PLASTICIZATION OF NATIVE STARCHES Hulleman S H D; Janssen F H P; Feil H ATO-DLO Flexible, starch-based plastics of native corn, potato, waxy corn and wheat starch were produced by compression moulding of mixtures of native starch and glycerol in the weight ratio 0.30 (W(glycerol)/W(dry starch)). The weight ratio of water/dry starch in the premixes was varied between 0.112 and 0.422. The mechanical properties of these compression-moulded starches, with a Tg below room temp., were strongly dependent on the water content of the premix. Varying the water content in the premixes led to large changes in strain and stress at break. This effect could be explained by a dependence of the polysaccharide mobility on the water content in the premix. The mechanical properties of the materials were also dependent on starch source and hence on the composition of the native starch and the structure of the constituent polysaccharides. From the results, it could be concluded that both amylose and amylopectin formed chain interactions or entanglements in the materials. 42 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.671990 Item 386 Revista de Plasticos Modernos 71, No.479, May 1996, p.476-92 Spanish DEGRADABLE POLYMERS

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Peinado C; Catalina F; Corrales T Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologia de Polimeros; Manchester,Metropolitan University The properties and applications of a range of photodegradable and biodegradable polymers are examined. Methods used in the preparation of degradable polymers are discussed, and the degradation mechanisms of such polymers are described. 37 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.670777 Item 387 European Plastics News 25, No.3, March 1998, p.23-6 BACK TO NATURE Marshall D Performance limitations and high costs have restricted the adoption of biodegradable plastics to very small niches. However, new materials from major players promise to overcome these problems. A new range of polylactic acid biodegradable polymers is being offered by Cargill Dow Polymers. Highly transparent, PLA polymers have good processability and are resistant to water solubility. DuPont’s Biomax copolyester resin, a modified form of PETP, was launched last year. Biomax’s relatively high melting point of around 200C accounts for its wide range of processing options. Bayer’s new grade of polyesteramide biodegradable plastic, BAK 2195, has cycle times similar to that of PE. BAYER AG; DUPONT CO.; CARGILL DOW POLYMERS WORLD

Accession no.669647 Item 388 Adhesives Age 41, No.2, Feb.1998, p.20-4 POLYMER RESINS DESIGNED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY Bloembergen S; McLennan I J; Cassar S E; Narayan R Lions Adhesives Inc. A new family of synthetic copolymers has been introduced by Lions Adhesives that contain sugar units within the copolymer structure. Sugar units are incorporated into the polymer backbone by converting dextrose from corn to a reactive macromer that has polymerisable groups that allow it to be copolymerised with conventional vinyl monomers. A variety of vinyl monomers have been copolymerised with the sugar macromer to complement adhesive performance. The development provides the adhesives industry with a new generation of waterborne copolymers for pressure sensitive and non-pressure sensitive applications. Their environmental advantages in terms of recyclability, biodegradability and use of annually renewable resources are considered. 6 refs.

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USA

Accession no.669161 Item 389 Journal of Polymer Science : Polymer Chemistry Edition 36, No.3, Feb.1998, p.391-400 SYNTHESIS OF POLYURETHANE FROM CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUID(CNSL), A RENEWABLE RESOURCE Bhunia H P; Jana R N; Lenka S; Nando G B Indian Institute of Technology; Ravenshaw College A thermoplastic PU was prepared from cardanol, a renewable resource and a waste product of the cashew industry. Cardanol was recovered from CNSL by double vacuum distillation. The monomer 4-((4-hydroxy-2pentadecenylphenyl)diazenyl)phenol was prepared from the cardanol and the PU was synthesised from this dihydroxy compound by treatment with MDI in DMF solvent at 80-90C under nitrogen atmosphere. The resulting PU had an intrinsic viscosity of 1.85 dL/g, thermal stability up to 290C and high stability in UV light. The PU behaved as a semicrystalline material and WAXS studies showed an amorphous character of the polymer, similar to that of thermoplastic PU elastomers. 37 refs. INDIA

Accession no.668339 Item 390 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 5, No.4, Oct.1997, p.237-41 REVIEW OF KONJAC GLUCOMANNAN Dave V; McCarthy S P Massachusetts,University A review is presented of the solution and gelling properties of konjac glucomannan(KGM) and its interactions with other hydrocolloids such as xanthan and carrageenan for food applications. Research activities in the field of KGM processing in environmentally-friendly aqueous environments are discussed for coatings and packaging applications. 67 refs. USA

Accession no.667755 Item 391 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 5, No.4, Oct.1997, p.199-208 BIOABSORBABLE SOY PROTEIN PLASTIC COMPOSITES: EFFECT OF POLYPHOSPHATE FILLERS ON WATER ABSORPTION AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Otaigbe J U; Adams D O Iowa State University Bioabsorbable polyphosphate filler/soy protein plastic composites with enhanced stiffness, strength and water

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resistance were developed. Bioabsorbable polyphosphate fillers, biodegradable soy protein isolate, plasticiser and adhesion promoter were homogenised and compressionmoulded and the physical, mechanical and water absorption properties were tested. The results showed improvements in stiffness, strength and water resistance with increasing polyphosphate filler content up to 20 wt %. Application of a coupling agent produced further mechanical property enhancements and a marked improvement in water resistance, interpreted by an interfacial chemical bonding model. Examination of the fracture surfaces of the materials revealed that the addition of the polyphosphate fillers changed the failure mode from brittle to pseudo-ductile. These results indicated that the materials were suitable for many load-bearing applications in both humid and dry environments where current soy protein plastics were not usable. 19 refs. USA

Accession no.667752 Item 392 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 5, No.4, Oct.1997, p.191-7 BIODEGRADABLE CORN STARCH LOOSEFILL. I. EFFECT OF THE EXTRUSION TEMPERATURE ON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LOOSE-FILL Dae-lyoung Lim; Seung-Soon Im; Jeong-seok Han; Sang-hyun Yim; Jin-sung Kim; Young-mok Lee Hanyang,University; Sam Yang Genex Research Institute; Bucheon,Technical College Extrusion with an intermeshing corotating twin-screw extruder with a limited amount of water was shown to cause structural changes in corn starch. The structural changes resulted in transformation from a semicrystalline to an amorphous state and the development of orientation of molecular chains in the amorphous region during extrusion. These structural changes, in turn, caused an increase in the Tg, TS and resilience of the extruded corn starch. The experimental results showed that the tensile properties and resilience of the expanded corn starch extruded at 240C were optimum, i.e. TS 1.7 kPa, tensile modulus 40.4 kPa and resilience 57.2%. Extrusion produced an expanded corn starch suitable for protective loose-fill. 16 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.667751 Item 393 Polimeros: Ciencia e Tecnologia 6, No.2, April/June 1996, p.49-55 Portuguese MONITORING THE PURIFICATION PROCESS FOR NATURAL GUMS: CASHEW NUT TREE GUM Costa S M O; Rodrigues J F; de Paula R C M Vale do Acarau,Universidade Estadual; Ceara,Universidade Federal

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References and Abstracts

Gums obtained from the cashew nut tree were purified by a four-stage process in order to obtain highly pure gums in sodium salt form. Following the initial isolation stage, the gums were subjected to two purification stages involving repeated dissolution in water in the presence of sodium chloride and precipitation with ethanol. The gum solution was finally passed through an ion exchange column and subjected to lyophilisation. The ash, moisture, protein and cation contents were monitored during the different stages. Uronic acid content, intrinsic viscosity and molecular weight were also determined. 12 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.666471

of the melts occurred under all conditions and the power law index increased with temperature, but did not change significantly with moisture content. The weight-average molecular weight decreased smoothly with increasing specific mechanical energy (SME) input over the two extrusion passes at different combinations of temperature, moisture content, screw speed and extruder type. The reduction in molecular weight showed a semi-logarithmic dependence on SME, with a correlation coefficient of 0.925. GPC data were consistent with multi-angle laser light scattering. The results indicated that SME is useful for predicting the molecular weight degradation of amylopectin during extrusion. 37 refs. USA

Item 394 Polymer News 22, No.10, Oct.1997, p.338-42 SPECIALTY CHEMICALS FROM NATURAL PRODUCTS: FROM DEPENDENCY TO CONTROL Corbo V J Hercules Inc. Technological changes that are confronting the chemical and engineering professions are discussed, with particular reference to changes resulting from biotechnology and their effect on a chemical specialties company like Hercules. About 60% of Hercules’ current sales comes from products derived from plant biomass, including wood rosins for use in adhesives, chewing gum, inks and food additives, cellulose products for use in applications such as paints, shampoos, plaster, paper, mortars and drilling aids for oil recovery, and pectin and carrageenan for use in food products. Limitations of such natural products are considered, including heterogeneity of basic product and rapidly changing markets. Current research into plant biotechnology and enzymes and into genetic manipulation is outlined, with reference to the possibility of manufacturing chemical specialties in engineered crops.

Accession no.660992 Item 396 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.123, Sept.1997, p.147-53 POLYLACTIDES - DEGRADABLE POLYMERS FOR FIBRES AND FILMS Meinander K; Niemi M; Hakola J S; Selin J F Neste Oy Chemicals

USA

The modification of a poly-L-lactide-based resin by treatment with peroxides and compounding with plasticisers was shown to yield resins which could be processed by conventional techniques and equipment to thin blown films, fibres and non-woven fabrics having properties comparable with those of the corresponding PP and PE samples. Film samples had TS between 30 and 50 MPa, EB around 250% and puncture resistance, measured as dart drop values, of 12 g/micrometre. Fibres could be spin to filaments or directly to non-woven fabrics by spun-bond techniques. These fabrics had mechanical properties comparable with those of PP materials. The polymer products were readily degraded in compost to carbon dioxide, water and biomass. 15 refs. (IUPAC 37th Microsymposium on (Bio)degradable Polymers: Chemical, Biological and Environmental Aspects, Prague, Czech Republic, July 1996)

Accession no.662999

FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Item 395 Polymer 38, No.24, 1997, p.5983-9 EXTRUSION OF WAXY MAIZE STARCH: MELT RHEOLOGY AND MOLECULAR WEIGHT DEGRADATION OF AMYLOPECTIN Willett J L; Millard M M; Jasberg B K US,National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research

Item 397 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.123, Sept.1997, p.133-45 NOVEL BIODEGRADABLE ESTER-BASED POLYMER BLENDS Tighe B J; Amass A J; Yasin M Aston,University

Waxy maize starch was extruded using a co-rotating twinscrew extruder. The extrudate was equilibrated to either 18 or 23 % moisture content and was then re-extruded in a single-screw extruder at either 110 or 130C to characterise the melt viscosity. Shear thinning behaviour

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Accession no.658692

The bacterially-produced biodegradable polyester polyhydroxybutyrate and its copolymers with hydroxyvalerate(P(HB-HV)), together with polymers such as cellulose acetate butyrate(CAB), polycaprolactone, polylactic acid and a series of high molec.wt., noncrystallisable ester-based plasticisers, were identified as

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References and Abstracts

possible candidates in the production of blends in which aspects of performance could be varied independently of cost. The compatibility ranges could be conveniently represented in the form of triangular graphs, with the relative weight fraction, or percentage, being represented along each of the three axes. The extent to which the modulation of the physical properties in general, and the stability in various environments in particular, was possible by the formation of three-component blends, such as those formed between P(HB-HV), CAB and polyalkylene adipate plasticisers, is discussed. 6 refs. (IUPAC 37th Microsymposium on (Bio)degradable Polymers: Chemical, Biological and Environmental Aspects, Prague, Czech Republic, July 1996) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.658691 Item 398 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.123, Sept.1997, p.113-21 THERMOPLASTIC STARCH REVISITED. STRUCTURE/PROPERTY RELATIONSHIP FOR ‘DIALED-IN’ BIODEGRADABILITY Zdrahala R J R & I Consulting International It is demonstrated that, when starch is mixed with a limited amount of water and subjected to heat and shear, the starch undergoes spontaneous destructurisation, leading to a homogeneous melt possessing thermoplastic character (‘thermoplastic starch’). The product is shown to absorb between 5 and 30% of water in the relative humidity range 0 to 90%. Water is the principal plasticiser of the material, changing its original stiffness from a glass-like to a natural gum-like substance. This plasticisation is accompanied by a significant dimensional changes. The blending of many polymers, both hydrophilic and hydrophobic, with starch to modify its moisture sensitivity is described. Results obtained by blending potato starch with PVAl, ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer and ethylenemethacrylic acid copolymer are discussed, with reference to changes in moisture sensitivity, biodegradability and other properties. 15 refs. (IUPAC 37th Microsymposium on (Bio)degradable Polymers: Chemical, Biological and Environmental Aspects, Prague, Czech Republic, July 1996) USA

Accession no.658689 Item 399 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.123, Sept.1997, p.61-6 BIOSYNTHETIC AND BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES: CURRENT STATE AND PROSPECTS Steinbuechel A; Gorenflo V Munster,Westfalische Wilhelms University

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Bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoates are a complex class of polyesters, almost a hundred different components being discovered to date. Unfortunately, most of these components only occur in the polyesters if specific precursor substrates are provided as carbon source. Recently, however, bacteria and mutants have been isolated, which synthesise polyhydroxyalkanoates exhibiting interesting compositions from simple unrelated substrates obtained from renewable resources provided by agriculture. An example is presented of how polyhydroxyalkanoates based on 4-hydroxyvaleric acid can be obtained from bulk chemicals. In addition, some aspects of current knowledge on the physiological and molecular basis of polyhydroxyalkanoate biosynthesis are discussed. 12 refs. (IUPAC 37th Microsymposium on (Bio)degradable Polymers: Chemical, Biological and Environmental Aspects, Prague, Czech Republic, July 1996) EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.658685 Item 400 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 66, No.8, 21st Nov.1997, p.1507-13 CITRATE ESTERS AS PLASTICISERS FOR POLYLACTIC ACID Labrecque L V; Kumar R A; Dave V; Gross R A; McCarthy S P Massachusetts,University Citrate esters were used as plasticisers with polylactic acid. Films were extruded and the effect of the citrate esters on reducing Tg, improving elongation at break, and hydrolytic and enzymatic degradation are discussed. 20 refs. USA

Accession no.657764 Item 401 Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 35, No.12, Dec.1996, p.4682-5 BIODEGRADABILITY OF REGENERATED CELLULOSE FILMS IN SOIL Zhang L; Liu H; Zheng L; Zhang J; Du Y; Feng H Wuhan,University; Academia Sinica Regenerated cellulose films and a water-resistant film coated with thin Tung oil are prepared by using a cellulose cuoxam solution from pulps of cotton linter, cotton stalk and wheat straw. They are buried in the soil to test biodegradability. The results show that viscosity average molecular weight Mn, tensile strength sigma b, and the weight of the degraded films decrease sharply with the progress of degradation time, and the kinetics of decay are discussed. The degradation half-lives tl/2 of the films in soil at 10-20 deg.C were calculated as 30-42 days, and after two months the films are decomposed into CO2 and water. The alpha-cellulose in soil is more readily

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References and Abstracts

biodegraded than hemicellulose, and regenerated cellulose film is more readily biodegraded than kraft paper. Nuclear magnetic resonance and scanning electron micrographs indicate that the biodegradation process of the films is performed through random breakdown of bonds of cellulose macromolecules resulting from the microorganism cleavage. 16 refs. CHINA

Accession no.656256 Item 402 Journal of Materials Science 32, No.21, 1st Nov.1997, p.5825-32 MANUFACTURE OF BIODEGRADABLE PACKAGING FOAMS FROM AGAR BY FREEZE DRYING Lee J-P; Lee K-H; Song H-K Pohang,University of Science & Technology Cellular foams are made from the aqueous solution of agar by freeze-drying. A narrow range (5-20 deg.C min 1) of freezing rate is required to avoid damage to the microstructure of the agar foams. The size of cells in the foam decrease with increasing freezing rate. Agar foams of more than 4 wt.% agar content absorb more energy than a PS foam in compression tests. Foams with a higher agar content absorb more energy. The behaviour of agar foams in compression tests can be explained by the modified beam theory for cellular foams. Agar foams are thermally stable up to 200 deg.C, and are also stable in a humid environment. 8 refs. SOUTH KOREA

Accession no.656230 Item 403 Polymer News 22, No.6, June 1997, p.205-8 CELLULOSE - NEW PROSPECTS FOR AN OLD POLYMER Philipp B Max-Planck-Institut fuer Kolloid- & Grenzflaech. A new approach to the production of cellulose packaging films by an extrusion-blowing process is described, which combines the high performance properties and biocompatibility of cellulose with the high productivity of synthetic film manufacture. The properties of the film are discussed with particular reference to change of longitudinal strength of extrusion-blown films with cellulose content in the spinning dope, change of transverse strength of extrusion-blown films with draw ratio, mechanical properties of cellulose films in comparison with those of cellophane films, and water vapour penetration of extrusion-blown films in comparison with cellophane. 7 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.653150

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Item 404 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.118, June 1997, p.733-7 ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION OF POLYMERS: NATURAL METABOLITES AS OPPOSED TO THE DEGRADATION PRODUCTS OF SYNTHETIC POLYMERS Albertsson A C; Karlsson S Stockholm,Royal Institute of Technology Biodegradation mechanisms of natural and synthetic polymers are examined and compared, and relationships between biodegradability and molecular structure are reviewed. The use of chromatographic fingerprinting and correlation of molecular weight changes and weight losses with the formation of low molecular weight compounds in determining degradation mechanisms is also discussed. It is shown that degradation products are usually formed not individually, but rather in simple or complex mixtures. These products may be transformed to natural metabolites, but low concentrations may biomagnify and reach levels which have deleterious effects on humans, animals and plants. Prediction of the environmental interaction of polymers requires knowledge of the toxicity of their degradation products and of the degree of exposure of living organisms to these products. 7 refs. SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.653037 Item 405 Polymer 38, No.20, 1997, p.5035-40 MORPHOLOGY AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF ENGINEERING SOY PLASTICS Sue H J; Wang S; Jane J L Texas A & M University; Iowa State University The morphology and mechanical behaviour of high protein content engineering soy plastics (SUPRO 760 from Protein Technologies) were studied. These plastics materials could possess significantly higher Young’s moduli than petrochemical engineering plastics, if the moisture content of the soy plastics was kept low (less than 5 wt %). The low moisture content soy plastics were found to be tougher than diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A epoxy resins. The observed high fracture toughness in the dry soy plastics was attributed to the formation of multiple line arrays of cavitated voids in the damage zone. The formation of these voids could be associated with the presence of coagulated protein bodies in the soy plastics matrix. The ductility and dimensional stability of soy plastics was found to be strongly dependent on the moisture content or the level of plasticiser used in the matrix. The biodegradable soy plastics showed potential as an alternative for the replacement of petrochemical, non-biodegradable plastics for engineering applications. 27 refs. PROTEIN TECHNOLOGIES INTERNATIONAL USA

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Item 406 China Synthetic Rubber Industry 20, No.4, 1997, p.244 BIODEGRADABLE POLYURETHANES MODIFIED BY STARCH Dajun C; Yaojun L China,Textile University Synthetic polymers containing natural polymers, such as starch, are considered to be biodegradable. For starch having more than two hydroxyl groups per molecule, it can be used as polyols for PU synthesis. PU sheets with different starch contents in their networks are prepared. Polytetramethylene oxide (Mn=2000) is mixed with starch in a given weight ratio at 60 deg.C for 30 min. The mixture obtained is reacted with toluene diisocyanate at the same temperature. The reaction mass is cast on glass plate, put at 40 deg.C in an oven for 2 hrs and then placed at room temperature for a day. The precured PU sheets are postcured at 110 deg.C for 1 hr. 2 refs. CHINA

Accession no.651613 Item 407 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 5, No.3, July 1997, p.152-8 SYNTHESIS OF POLYHYDROXYALKANOATE FROM HYDROLYSED LINSEED OIL Casini E; de Rijk T C; de Waard P; Eggink G Wageningen,Agricultural University Pseudomonas putida is grown on a mixture of long-chain fatty acids obtained by hydrolysis of linseed oil. A poly(3hydroxyalkanoate) containing 51.2% of unsaturated monomers is obtained. A considerable percentage (13.6%) is constituted by C14 and C16 monomers containing three double-bonds in the side chains. The polymer shows a high tendency to crosslink when it is kept in the presence of air. In the crosslinked polymer, no polyunsaturated monomers can be detected. 22 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.651580 Item 408 Chemistry & Industry No.14, 21st July 1997, p.555-8 BIOPOLYMER PRODUCTION ON MICROORGANISMS AND PLANTS Daniell H; Guda C Auburn,University This comprehensive article presents a detailed assessment of the latest research and developments in the production of biodegradable polymers. The article describes examples of biopolymers produced in living organisms, and includes information on their advantages and disadvantages, properties and methods of synthesis. 34 refs. USA

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Item 409 Plastics News(USA) 9, No.16, 16th June 1997, p.73 SCIENTISTS TURN CORN INTO PLASTIC PACKAGING Esposito F Corn is reported to be at the centre of a recent project that mixes the corn by-product zein with fatty acids and flax oil to create water resistant, plastic-like food containers that researchers say have a future in the biodegradable products market. In a paper published earlier this year, scientists at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign reported that they were able to turn zein into plasticised resins that can be moulded into plates, sandwich containers, sealing material and trays. Details are given. ILLINOIS,UNIVERSITY USA

Accession no.651026 Item 410 European Chemical News 68, No.1782, 29th Sept.-5th Oct.1997, p.43-4 GREEN LIGHT FOR ECO-FRIENDLY POLYMERS Macdonald B Earlier this year, Monsanto launched a credit card made from its biodegradable Biopol plastic. At the moment biodegradable plastics are niche products, used to produce biodegradable golf tees, coated paper cups and plates, etc. DuPont promotes its Biomax, a modified form of PETP, particularly for agricultural and gardening applications where biodegradability is a good selling point. One factor that has become important and could drive demand for biodegradables is the increasing scarcity and expense of landfill area. WORLD

Accession no.650398 Item 411 Polymer 38, No.16, 1997, p.4071-8 THERMOPLASTIC PROPERTIES OF FISH MYOFIBRILLAR PROTEINS: APPLICATION TO BIOPACKAGING FABRICATION Cuq B; Gontard N; Guilbert S CIRAD-SAR Thermoplastic properties of fish myofibrillar proteins were studied by DMTA. Significant changes in dynamic mechanical properties, observed when the temp. was increased, were associated with the Tg of fish myofibrillar proteins. The Tg was observed between 215 and 250C for the dry material. The addition of water or hydrophilic plasticisers (sucrose and sorbitol) induced large decreases in the Tg. The depressive effect of water content on Tg was described with non-linear relationships. The

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References and Abstracts

thermodynamic theory of Tg was adequate partially to describe the plasticising effect of water on the myofibrillar proteins. Glassy or foamed biopackagings were obtained by a thermomoulding technique where the process temp. was higher than the Tg at a given moisture content. Biopackagings can, after use, be converted to animal feeds. 47 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.647682 Item 412 Polymers for Advanced Technologies 8, No.6, June 1997, p.355-65 CHITIN AND CHITOSAN FIBERS Agboh O C; Qin Y Innovative Technologies Ltd. A brief introduction is given to the chemistry of chitin and chitosan, covering chitosan salts, N-acylation, Schiff bases and their reduced products, reaction with halogensubstituted compounds and chelation of metal ions. The production of chitin fibres is then considered, including chitin solvents, rheology of the chitin solutions and methods for production of chitin fibres. Production of chitosan fibres is discussed. Properties and applications of chitin and chitosan fibres are examined, including tensile/mechanical properties, physical/thermal properties, fibre surface and cross-sectional structure, chelating properties of chitin and chitosan fibres, and biomedical applications of chitin and chitosan fibres. 59 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.645631 Item 413 1996 Polymers, Laminations and Coatings Conference: Book 2. Conference proceedings. Boston, Ma., 8th-12th Sept.1996, p.545-51. 012 BIODEGRADABLE COMPOSITES AND LAMINATED PAPER Levit M R; Farrell R E; Gross R A; McCarthy S P Lowell,Massachusetts University (TAPPI) Composites based on polylactic acid (PLA) and cellulosic fibrous materials are prepared by extrusion and compression moulding. The composite reinforcements used are paper waste fibres, rayon nonwoven fabric and wood flour. The mechanical properties and biodegradability of the composites are studied. The mechanical properties are retained for PLA filled with up to 32 wt.% of paper waste fibre. The tensile strength is improved for PLA filled with rayon non-woven fabric as compared to pure PLA. The tensile strength of PLA filled with wood flour is retained up to 15 wt.% content of the filler. Paper coated with PLA and laminates based on PLA and paper show an improved tensile strength at normal conditions and significantly improved wet tensile

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breaking strength in comparison with net paper. The mineralisation rate of the PLA films and sheets in the soil aerobic test are found to be independent on their thickness and increase considerably with the addition of the cellulosic component. 7 refs. USA

Accession no.645448 Item 414 Biotechnological Polymers. Conference proceedings. Lancaster, Pa., 1993, p.214-22. 6S BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS FOR PACKAGING McCarthy S P Lowell,Massachusetts University (Technomic Publishing Co.Inc.) Plastics account for approximately 15-17% of the 19 billion US dollars food packaging market, and it is predicted to increase to 50% by the year 2000. Nearly 10% of the plastics used in packaging are used as coatings on other materials, including paper. Increasing legislative and economic imperatives and public perception of paper being ‘natural’ and plastics being ‘foreign’ have led to the explosive drive to recycle plastics packaging or to make it biodegradable. Concerns with environmental fate will impose the additional requirement for properly designed biodegradable materials of the complete ‘mineralisation’ or disappearance of the degradation products into CO2, H2O, CH4 or biomass without the production of harmful intermediates. The time frame required for biodegradation will be mandated by the disposal method and conditions. The increase in composting and anaerobic bioreactor technology will produce specific environmental conditions and lead to specific requirements for biodegradable plastics packaging. An attempt is made to review suitable biodegradable materials which may currently be used for packaging applications. This list is only a partial one based on commercially produced products which are currently accepted as being biodegradable and mineralised in timeframes compatible with existing waste disposal methods. 36 refs. USA

Accession no.645029 Item 415 Materiaux & Techniques 84, Nos.3/4, March/April 1996, p.31-8 French FULLY BIODEGRADABLE LUBRICATED THERMOPLASTIC STARCHES: MECHANICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF AN INJECTION MOULDING GRADE Onteniente J P; Etienne F; Bureau G; Prudhomme J C IFTS; GREPAC; ESIEC Pellets were extruded from fully biodegradable thermoplastic corn starch formulations lubricated with

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epoxidised vegetable oil or magnesium stearate (MS). After conditioning for a week at 20C under 65% relative humidity, the pellets were injection moulded to produce samples for tensile testing. These samples were conditioned in the same way as the pellets and mechanical properties and mould shrinkage were investigated. Injection moulding in automatic mode was possible only for pellets lubricated with MS. Rheological studies of this grade showed that the injection moulding parameters depended on the relative humidity of the conditioning atmosphere to which the pellets were subjected before moulding. 23 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.643024 Item 416 European Chemical News 67, No.1769, 16th-22nd June 1997, p.35 BIONOLLE SET FOR EUROPE It is very briefly reported that Showa Highpolymer plans to market its biodegradable polyester Bionolle in Europe following the award of the “OK compost” label by the Belgian certification organisation AIB Vincotte Inter. Showa Highpolymer says several Japanese municipalities and companies have adopted Bionolle for garbage bags used for collecting organic waste. SHOWA HIGHPOLYMER CO.LTD. JAPAN

Accession no.637483 Item 417 Journal of Materials Science.Materials in Medicine 8, No.5, May 1997, p.311-20 STRENGTH RETENTION OF SELFREINFORCED POLY-L-LACTIDE SCREWS. A COMPARISON OF COMPRESSION MOULDED AND MACHINE CUT SCREWS Pohjonen T; Helevirta P; Tormala P; Koskikare K; Patiala H Tampere,University of Technology; Helsinki,University,Central Hospital The effect of the manufacturing method on the strength retention of self-reinforced poly-L-lactide (SRPLLA)screws was studied in-vitro and in-vivo from 3 up to at least 15 weeks. The screws were manufactured from axially oriented SR-PLLA billets by conventional compression moulding and an in-house developed machine cutting technique. New machined SR-PLLA screws were significantly stronger than older compression moulded SR-PLLA screws in bending and torque strength tests but significantly weaker in shear strength tests. Mechanical analysis and molecular weight measurements confirmed earlier observations that SR-PLLA degraded faster in-vivo than in-vitro, suggesting that the new screws could be suitable for clinical use. 21 refs. FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

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Item 418 Modern Plastics International 27, No.5, May 1997, p.32/5 ROTATIONAL MOLDING CONTROL SYSTEMS TRACK KEY PROCESS TEMPERATURES Gabriele M C Advances in process control and database management for rotational moulders are discussed, which are currently in the process of commercialisation. The first of two companies’ products is a joint effort by Remcon Plastics, a rotational moulder and Ferry Industries, a producer of rotational moulding machines. It is a control system with complementary software, that can continuously track critical process parameters, including mould surface temperatures. Alan Yorke Engineering Ltd., has also developed a control system based on infrared sensors, which is currently being tested by processors. Details are given of both developments. REMCON PLASTICS; FERRY INDUSTRIES INC.; YORKE A.,ENGINEERING LTD. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.635037 Item 419 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 64, No.4, 25th April 1997, p.631-44 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF COMPRESSION-MOLDED THERMOPLASTIC STARCH MATERIALS FROM NORMAL AND HIGH-AMYLOSE MAIZE STARCHES Van Soest J J G; Borger D B ATO-DLO Agrotechnological Research Institute The properties of compression-moulded thermoplastic maize starches were found to be highly dependent on water content during processing. The water content was an important factor in the formation of a starch network during processing. The materials from high-amylose maize starches were tough with higher strength and with low elongations compared with the normal maize starch materials. The differences in mechanical properties were attributed to variations in amylose content, as well as the differences in amylopectin degree of branching. The highamylose starch materials formed a more ordered and entangled starch network. 38 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.634608 Item 420 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 5, No.1, Jan.1997, p.33-9 BIODEGRADABILITY OF DEGRADABLE PLASTICS EXPOSED TO ANAEROBIC DIGESTED SLUDGE AND SIMULATED LANDFILL CONDITIONS

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References and Abstracts

Pyong Kyun Shin; Myung Hee Kim; Jong Min Kim Korea,Institute of Science & Technology The biodegradabilities of various plastics materials by anaerobic digested sludge were measured and compared with biodegradabilities under simulated landfill conditions. Bacterial poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3hydroxyvalerate)(PHB/HV) was shown to degrade almost to completion within 20 days of cultivation by anaerobic digested sludge, while synthetic aliphatic polyesters, such as polylactic acid, polybutylene succinate and poly(butyl succinate-co-ethylene succinate), did not degrade at all in 100 days. Cellophane, which was used as a control material, exhibited a similar degradation behaviour to PHB/HV. Under simulated landfill conditions, PHB/HV degraded quite well within 6 months. Synthetic aliphatic polyesters also showed significant weight losses through 1 year of cultivation. The acidic environment inside simulators generated by the degradation of biodegradable food wastes which comprised 34% of municipal solid waste appeared to cause the weight loss of synthetic aliphatic polyesters. 18 refs. KOREA

Accession no.631667 Item 421 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 64, No.2, 11th April 1997, p.231-42 THERMOPLASTIC CELLULOSE ACETATE AND CELLULOSE ACETATE COMPOUNDS PREPARED BY REACTIVE PROCESSING Warth H; Muelhaupt R; Schaetzle J Albert-Ludwigs,University; Rhone-Poulenc Rhodia AG Several families of thermoplastic polysaccharides such as cellulose-2,5-acetate were produced using reactive processing technology which grafted cyclic lactones simultaneously onto polysaccharide, hydroxy-functional plasticiser and, optionally, also onto hydroxy-functional fillers. Organosolv lignin, cellulose, starch and chitin were added to effect reinforcement of the polymer matrix. Mechanical and thermal properties were shown to depend on molecular structure of the components and process parameters such as temp., feed ratios and screw speed. These blends and composites used renewable resources and were of interest for waste disposal via biodegradation. 37 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.631598 Item 422 Modern Plastics International 27, No.4, April 1997, p.28/31 WATER-SOLUBLE FOAMS OFFER COSTEFFECTIVE PROTECTION Leaversuch R D A pair of novel biodegradable, water-soluble foams is experiencing strong growth in demanding protective and

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void-filling packaging sectors. Enviromold from Storopack can be moulded-in-place into shape packaging for electronics protection. Eco-Foam from American Excelsior is a sheet and plankstock foam. Both foams are corn starch-based thermoplastics that can be rinsed down the drain or composted. STOROPACK; AMERICAN EXCELSIOR CO. USA

Accession no.630322 Item 423 Advanced Materials News No.92, Feb.1997, p.1-2 NEW KID ON THE BLOCK The potential market for composite materials in the US infrastructure is examined, and details are given of the alliance between Master Builders and Structural Preservation Systems which is intended to encourage the use of carbon fibre reinforced plastics in the mainstream of concrete and masonry repair. Carbon fibre in the form of the Mbrace system, is being proposed as an alternative to steel bonding, being easier and cheaper to install, it is reported. Further details are given of Martin Marietta Materials’ debut into the composites market, where it will target a range of sectors where high strength-to-weight materials are gaining ground. MASTER BUILDERS; STRUCTURAL PRESERVATION SYSTEMS; MARTIN MARIETTA MATERIALS USA

Accession no.629688 Item 424 Warrington, 1996, pp.7. 30cms. 16/4/96 BIODEGRADABLE CAPA THERMOPLASTICS Solvay Interox Ltd. Information is presented on Solvay’s CAPA 600 series of caprolactone thermoplastic grades. These high molecular weight thermoplastics are fully biodegradable, non-toxic, readily processed and are compatible with a wide range of polymers. Typical physical properties of CAPA 650 and CAPA 680 are tabulated, together with the results of burial tests and mineralisation studies. Extrusion and extrusion blow moulding methodology for the grades is also outlined. The thermoplastics are suitable for a variety of applications including biodegradable bottles and films, synthetic wound dressings, non-woven fabrics, and controlled release products for the pharmaceutical and agricultural industries. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.629317 Item 425 Modern Plastics International 27, No.3, March 1997, p.38-9

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LIGNIN-BASED POLYMERS FIND ROLE IN RANGE OF APPLICATIONS Mapleston P Lenox Polymers has developed a resin-based composite that is being used to produce moulds for high-performance parts. The resin is derived from lignin, a byproduct from paper mills. Advantages of the mouldmaking system include short lead times for construction, low cost and high operating temperature capability. PUR feedstocks made from lignin have potential application in automotive, furniture and construction markets. A purified form of lignin, called xylon, is used to make polyols which are then blended with conventional polyols. LENOX POLYMERS USA

Accession no.628899 Item 426 British Plastics and Rubber March 1997, p.28 INTEREST AROUSED IN MOULDING BIODEGRADABLES Several injection moulding machine manufacturers have been conducting trials with biodegradable moulding materials and are attracting widespread interest. Boy held a symposium on processing these materials and demonstrated the technique on its full range of models from 22 to 80 tonnes. Nissei has demonstrated its special NS60-90A machine which has a special feed unit to mix biodegradable food pulp filler with Lacea polylactic acid moulding material. BOY GMBH; NISSEI ASB MACHINE CO.LTD.; JON WAI MACHINERY WORKS CO.LTD. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; JAPAN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.628613 Item 427 Journal of Macromolecular Science A 34, No.1, 1997, p.153-64 SUGAR CANE BAGASSE LIGNIN IN RESOLTYPE RESIN: ALTERNATIVE APPLICATION FOR LIGNIN-PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE RESINS Piccolo R S J; Santos F; Frollini E Sao Paulo,University Resoles were prepared by the partial replacement of phenol by organosolv sugar cane bagasse lignin (10, 20, 40, 100% w/w) and the prepolymers were characterised by TGA and DSC. The cure reaction was performed in a mould in a process monitored by IR spectroscopy. The resins obtained were characterised by TGA, DSC and DMTA. TGA and DSC results revealed that endothermic and exothermic steps were probably involved in the cure reaction. From IR results, it could be inferred that lignin was really incorporated into the phenol polymer chain,

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where it acted as a chain extender. DMTA analyses showed that lignin-phenol-formaldehyde resins retained their modulus at elevated temps. The overall properties showed that the partial substitution of phenol by lignin in phenol moulded-type resins was feasible. 20 refs. BRAZIL

Accession no.626603 Item 428 International Polymer Processing 11, No.4, Dec.1996, p.320-8 BIODEGRADABLE POLYLACTIC ACID WITH HIGH MOLECULAR WEIGHT. PREPARATION BY CONTINUOUS MELT-POLYCONDENSATION PROCESS COMBINED WITH REACTIVE PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY Miyoshi R; Hashimoto N; Koyanagi K; Sumihiro Y; Sakai T Japan Steel Works With the aim of developing practical and economical technologies for effectively producing poly-L-lactic acid as a representative of lactic acid-based polymers, continuous melt-polymerisation experiments were carried out using the combination of a batch-type stirred reactor and an intermeshed twin screw extruder. Poly-L-lactic acid with a higher molec.wt. of up to Mw 150,000 was shown to be obtainable from lactic acid by a continuous melt-polycondensation process. 20 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.625121 Item 429 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 4, No.4, Oct.1996, p.243-52 POLYHYDROXYALKANOATES FROM FLUORESCENT PSEUDOMONADS IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT De Koning G; Kellerhals M; Van Meurs C; Witholt B Zurich,Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule A review is presented of important developments relating to research on and application prospects of medium chain length poly((R)-3-hydroxyalkanoates)(mcl-PHA). Topics discussed include molecular biology of mcl-PHA, versatility of fluorescent Pseudomonads, production and processing of mcl-PHA (fermentation, recovery, latex processing), properties of mcl-PHA (as thermoplastics and as crosslinked rubbers), applications (features, specialities, commodities), and economics. 86 refs. SWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.625064 Item 430 Polymer 38, No.3, Feb.1997, p.647-55 PROCESSING AND CHARACTERISATION OF THERMOPLASTIC STARCH/POLYETHYLENE

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References and Abstracts

BLENDS St-Pierre N; Favis B D; Ramsay B A; Ramsay J A; Verhoogt H Montreal,Ecole Polytechnique The processing, morphology and tensile properties of thermoplastic starch (TS, gelatinised starch plasticised with glycerol)/PE blends were studied. A method of controlling water loss during the blending and processing of PE with TS, using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder with a single-screw extruder as a side feeder, was described. TS/LDPE and TS/LLDPE showed the morphology of immiscible blends. The number-average diameter of the TS dispersed phase increased with increasing TS content in the blends. Thus, morphological control could be achieved in the blends. The blends maintained high elongational properties at high TS loadings even without an interfacial modifier. The results were discussed. 28 refs. CANADA

Accession no.623494 Item 431 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 62, No.13, 26th Dec.1996, p.2295-302 POLYLACTIC ACID DEGRADATION IN SOIL OR UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITIONS Torres A; Li S M; Roussos S; Vert M ORSTOM; CNRS The degradation of a racemic polylactic acid was investigated in liquid medium containing a mixed culture of soil bacteria. Microbial activity was monitored by measuring pH, lactic acid formation by HPLC, and esterase activity in the supernatant. Degradation was monitored by weighting, size-exclusion chromatography, and visual examination. 19 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.623144 Item 432 Biomaterials 18, No.3, 1997, p.189-95 PREPARATION OF CROSSLINKED HYALURONIC ACID(HA) FILMS OF LOW WATER CONTENT Tomihata K; Ikada Y Kyoto,University HA was chemically crosslinked with poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether, a diepoxy compound, to yield films with low water content and slow degradation when brought into contact with water. The crosslinking reaction was performed under acidic and neutral conditions, as the epoxy group was readily hydrolysed in alkaline media. In order to allow the reaction to proceed at high HA concentrations, a solution casting method was used for the crosslinking of HA. The crosslinked HA film with a

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water content of 60 wt % exhibited practically no weight loss after 10 days of immersion in phosphate-buffered saline, while this film underwent in vivo degradation by 30 wt % weight loss after 7 days of subcutaneous implantation in rats. The inflammation reaction elicited around the implanted film was not significant. 33 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.622467 Item 433 Polymer Bulletin 38, No.2, Feb.1997, p.211-8 NEW BIOMEDICAL POLYURETHANE UREAS WITH HIGH TEAR STRENGTHS de Groot J H; de Vrijer R; Wideboer B S; Spaans C S; Pennings A J Groningen,University Biodegradable polyurethane ureas (PUU) were synthesised by a two-step polymerisation. First a poly(epsiloncaprolactone) prepolymer was terminated with three different diisocyanates: lysinediisocyanate (LDI), 1,6hexanediisocyanate (HDI) and 1,4-butanediisocyanate (BDI). The prepolymers were then chain extended with 1,4-butanediamine. The degradation products of these polymers were non-toxic. The mechanical properties of the PUU were compared with those of three PUs. Compared with these PUs, the HDI and BDI based PUU showed a very high resistance to tearing. 21 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.622289 Item 434 European Chemical News 67, No.1753, 24th Feb.-2nd March 1997, p.23 NESTE LAUNCHES DEPOSA POLYMER Neste is launching a biodegradable non-woven polymer developed over a four-year joint research project with Fiberweb and the veterinary laboratory Vetoquinol. It is briefly reported that Deposa is based on polylactide polymers extruded to form the non-woven product. The product’s biodegradability allows controlled release of pharmaceutical substances and it has been successfully tested for veterinary applications. NESTE OY; FIBERWEB SODOCA FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.622096 Item 435 Recycle ’95. Conference proceedings. Davos, 15th-19th May 1995, paper 23. 8(13) BIODEGRADABLE STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES BASED ON RENEWABLE RAW MATERIALS Hanselka H; Herrmann A S Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fuer Luft-& Raumfahrt (Maack Business Services)

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This paper discusses biodegradable structural composites which are based on natural fibres - a renewable raw material. Headings include an introduction, material for reinforcement, the matrix system, the fibre-matrixcomposite, behaviour of decomposition, process techniques, and applications. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.617402 Item 436 Recycle ’95. Conference proceedings. Davos, 15th-19th May 1995, paper 11. 8(13) BIODEGRADABLE RUBBER FROM BACTERIA de Koning G Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (Maack Business Services) This paper examines polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA’s), biopolymers stored by bacteria as an energy reserve in a similar way to mammals accumulating fat, which have two advantages over synthetic polymers in that their supply is not reliant on petroleum, and they are genuinely and completely biodegradable. The paper looks at the compositions of PHA, its properties, as well as its production and processing. 8 refs. EU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SWITZERLAND; USA; WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.617390 Item 437 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 62, No. 8, 21st. Nov. 1996, p.1147-51 INJECTION MOULDING OF POLYPROPYLENE REINFORCED WITH SHORT JUTE FIBRES Karmaker A C; Youngquist US,Forest Products Laboratory Composites with PP and jute fibre were prepared by injection moulding. Maleic anhydride-grafted PP was added as coupling agent to improve the adhesion between jute fibre and PP. A high fibre attrition was noted during injection moulding, which had negative effects on the mechanical properties of the composites. The coupling agent improved the tensile and bending strengths; however, the elastic and bending moduli were not influenced by the coupling agent. The role of the average fibre length in strengthening of the composites was interpreted with the help of the critical fibre length. Fracture surfaces of the composites, and the fibre orientations, were investigated by SEM and light microscopy, respectively. 22 refs. USA

Accession no.617164 Item 438 MRS Bulletin 21, No.11, Nov.1996, p.22-6

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NEW BIOMATERIALS FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING James K; Kohn J Pseudo-poly(amino acid)s, specifically tyrosine-derived polycarbonates and polyarylates, are new biodegradable materials. As a robust alternative to the commonly used polyesters, these materials appear to offer improved bone compatibility, the ability to regenerate a series of materials allowing for variations in key mechanical and cellular response properties, and facilities to covalently link bioactive molecules as pendant chains. Leaching methods, used to fabricate poly(lactic acid) scaffolds, were successfully adapted to tyrosine-derived polycarbonates. Tissue engineering research utilising these materials has only recently commenced and is focused in the area of bone regeneration. 41 refs. USA

Accession no.616601 Item 439 Plastics World 54, No.12, Dec.1996, p.29-33 BOLD NEW HIGH-TECH BIODEGRADABLES Schut J H Several new biodegradable products are in test markets with carefully tailored degradability that have the potential for large-scale application. EarthShell food containers are now in tests at Mcdonald’s. The containers reportedly feel and perform just like foamed PS, but dissolve rapidly for composting and contain nothing but edible ingredients. An unusual biodegradable product is a dog chew toy created by Novon International. The Poly-Novon resin is 48% corn starch additive, 4% natural tallow with flavours and 48% PP. An outline of biodegradable product developments from around the world is presented. WORLD

Accession no.615987 Item 440 PVC ’96. Conference proceedings. Brighton, 23rd-25th April 1996, p.291-3. 42C382 PARTIALLY BIODECOMPOSABLE MATERIALS BASED ON PVC- SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING Obloj-Muzaj M; Swierz-Motysia B Warsaw,Industrial Chemistry Research Institute (Institute of Materials) Two-stage modification of PVC is presumed in obtaining PVC biodegradable materials: in the synthesis, by copolymerisation with biodegradable comonomers eventually by grafting of vinyl chloride on biodegradable natural polymers, and then in the processing. Lecithin, microcrystalline chitosan, cellulose acetate, beta- and gamma-butyrolactones, e-caprolactone and modified potato starch are chosen for PVC modification during the polymerisation stage. Suspension polymerisation is

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References and Abstracts

carried out with these additives in typical vinyl chloride synthesis conditions, at 60 deg.F in a laboratory autoclave. EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.611164 Item 441 Journal of Macromolecular Science A 33, No.10, 1996, p.1565-70 MACROMOLECULAR ARCHITECTURE: NATURE AS A MODEL FOR DEGRADABLE POLYMERS Albertsson A C; Karlsson S Stockholm,Kungl Tekniska Hogskolan Four main routes to the design of degradable polymers are identified, the goal being to tailor-make a material which is more susceptible to environmental degradation factors, e.g. hydrolysis, biodegradation, photooxidation. The most convenient route is to use cheap synthetic bulk polymers and to add a biodegradable or photooxidisable component. A more expensive solution is to change the chemical structure by introducing hydrolysable or oxidisable groups in the repetitive chain of a synthetic polymer. The third route to degradable polymers is to use biopolymers or derivatives of these (particular attention being paid to the bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoates). The fourth route is to tailor-make new hydrolysable structures, e.g. polyesters, polyanhydrides and polycarbonates. 11 refs. SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.609602 Item 442 Journal of Macromolecular Science A 33, No.10, 1996, p.1459-77 CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF NATURAL POLYMERS IN CHINA Xiao-Yin Hong; Han-Bao Feng Tsinghua,University; China,National Natural Science Foundation The main Chinese research work on the chemical modification of natural polymers, including silk, Chinese lacquer, gutta-percha, cellulose and chitin, is described. Aspects of the research work covered include the mechanism of graft copolymerisation of vinyl monomer onto natural polymers, overcoming the defects of natural polymers to allow further application by chemical modification, and development of new applications of natural polymers. 137 refs. CHINA

Accession no.609596 Item 443 Coatings & Composite Materials 4, No.16, 1996, p.29-32 COMPOSTABLE FIBRE COMPOSITE COMPONENTS FROM RAW MATERIALS

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Hanselka H; Herrmann A S Research carried out at DLR is reported with reference to the development of biocomposites and the use of natural fibres combined with biodegradable matrix systems like cellulose, starch, and casein which are compostable. Mechanical properties of such biocomposites are compared to glass reinforced epoxy resins, and the tensile strength of flax fabrics embedded in different biodegradable systems is illustrated. DLR EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.609437 Item 444 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 60, No.10, 6th June 1996, p.1677-85 STUDIES ON THE DEGRADABLE POLYETHYLENES: USE OF COATED PHOTODEGRADANTS WITH BIOPOLYMERS Byung Seon Yoon; Moon Ho Suh; Shi Hwa Cheong; Jae Eue Yie; Sung Hwa Yoon; Suck Hyun Lee Ajou,University Three degradable polymeric materials, i.e. starch-PE binary blends, PE containing starch and a photoactivator (ferric dithiodicarbamate), and PE containing starch and a photoactivator which was coated with gelatin, were prepared and their degrees of photodegradation and/or photodegradation after biodegradation were investigated. The addition of the gelatin-coated ferric salt in PE extended the induction period of degradation and accelerated photodegradation after the removal of coating material by biodegradation. These results suggested that the degradation rate of PE could be controlled if more powerful photoactivators and/or coating materials could be developed and their contents optimised. 16 refs. SOUTH KOREA

Accession no.590599 Item 445 Polymer News 21, No.1, Jan.1996, p.7-17 AGRO-BASED FIBRE/POLYMER COMPOSITES, BLENDS AND ALLOYS Sanadi A R; Rowell R M; Caulfield D F Wisconsin,University; Forest Products Laboratory Natural agro-based (lignocellulosic) fibres have excellent specific mechanical properties and are potentially outstanding reinforcing fillers in thermoplastic composites. The specific tensile and flexural moduli, for example, of a 50% by volume of kenaf/PP composite compares favourably with a 40 wt% of glass fibre-PP injection moulded composite. Results indicate that kenaf fibres are a viable alternative to inorganic/mineral based reinforcing fibres as long as the right processing conditions and aids are used, and for applications where

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References and Abstracts

the higher water absorption of the agro-based fibre composite is not critical. Recent research is described in detail. 46 refs. USA

Accession no.584796 Item 446 Plastics in Building Construction 20, No.4, 1996, p.3 WOOD-POLYMER LUMBER RECEIVES BOCAES LISTING It is briefly reported that Mobil Chemical’s Trex woodplastic lumber has been evaluated for Building Officials and Code Administration International code compliance and is now listed by BOCA Evaluation Services Inc. Trex, made from reclaimed plastic and waste wood, is used for decking in residential and commercial applications. Benefits include less water absorption, more resistance to fungus decay and insect attack, better paint adhesion and resistance to blistering, and more slip resistance. MOBIL CHEMICAL CO. USA

Accession no.584460 Item 447 Modern Plastics International 26, No.3, March 1996, p.84/6 MATERIAL STAYS FLEXIBLE Polyhydroxybutyrate stays flexible from sub-zero to 130C and biodegrades in two to three months in commercial composting facilities. The thermoplastic polyester, made from vegetable feedstock, was developed by polyolefins supplier PCD Polymere and is made by Biomer. Injection moulding grades can run on conventional equipment. Parts are said to look similar to ones made in PS and PP. This abstract includes all the information contained in the original article. BIOMER EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.582399 Item 448 Macromolecular Symposia Vol.103, Jan.1996, p.85-102 POLYLACTIDES - SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERISATION AND MEDICAL APPLICATION Kricheldorf H R; Kreiser-Saunders I; Jurgens C; Wolter D Hamburg,University; Hamburg,Berufsgenossenschaftliches Unfallkrankenhaus Polymerisations of lactides via cationic, anionic, and insertion mechanisms are described. The usefulness of these three mechanisms is evaluated. Polymerisation

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mechanisms initiated by aluminium alkoxides or tin(II)2-ethylhexanoate are discussed in more detail. The usefulness of carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy for the sequence analysis of copolylactones is demonstrated. Copolyesters of D,L-lactide and epsilon-caprolactone with Tgs around 35 C and high transparency were synthesised. Films of these copolylactones were characterised by various methods and their usefulness as resorbable wound dressing was evaluated. 31 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.581083 Item 449 Patent Number: WO 9504108 A1 19950209 BIODEGRADABLE MOULDABLE PRODUCTS AND FILMS COMPRISING BLENDS OF STARCH ESTERS AND POLYESTERS Bloembergen S; Narayan R Starpol Inc. The above products and films are prepared from a compatible blend containing a biodegradable, hydrophobic, starch ester and a biodegradable polyester, and optionally a biodegradable and miscible plasticiser and/or a compatible filler. USA

Accession no.568299 Item 450 Patent Number: US 5407980 A 19950418 ADHESIVE COMPOSITION COMPRISING ISOCYANATE PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE AND TANNIN, USEFUL FOR MANUFACTURING PLYWOODS FOR EXTERIOR APPLICATION Pizzi A; Von Leyser E; Westermeyer C Diteco Ltda.; Quimicos Coronel SA An adhesive composition for manufacturing plywood for exterior applications includes (a) 121 pbw phenolic resin; (b) 5-121 pbw isocyanate; (c) 1-40 pbw tannin selected from the group consisting of pine, quebracho, mimosa, and combinations thereof; (d) 1-15 pbw paraformaldehyde or formaldehyde solutions in water; (e) 5-50 pbw of water; and (f) an amount of filler comprising inorganic and/or organic materials for providing the composition with the desired viscosity. CHILE

Accession no.567876 Item 451 Journal of Macromolecular Science A A32, No.4, 1995, p.599-605 DEGRADATION PRODUCTS IN DEGRADABLE POLYMERS Karlsson S; Albertsson A C Stockholm,Royal Institute of Technology Degradation products of hydrolysable polyesters (polyhydroxybutyrate, poly(lactic acid), poly(lactic acid)

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References and Abstracts

copolymerised with poly(glycolic acid) and poly(adipic anhydride) were determined by head-space gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The concept of fingerprinting based on the abiotic and biotic degradation products formed in degradable LDPE (LDPE plus starch plus prooxidant) is described related to a biodegradation mechanism of PE. 6 refs. (Presented at Int. Workshop on Controlled Life-Cycle of Polymeric Materials, Stockholm, Sweden, 21st-23rd April 1994). SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.549573 Item 452 Patent Number: US 5358559 A 19941025 STARCH-HEMICELLULOSE ADHESIVE FOR HIGH SPEED CORRUGATING Fitt L E; Pienkowski J J; Wallace J R CPC International Inc. Starch-based corrugating adhesives of the carrier, nocarrier and carrier-no-carrier type having improved green strength and water resistance are prepared by adding hemicellulose to the adhesive composition. When the adhesive is the carrier type, the hemicellulose can be extracted from corn fibre in situ during the process of preparing the carrier phase. USA

Accession no.548468 Item 453 Patent Number: WO 9417132 A1 19940804 ALGAL PLASTICS Tarrant L B; Tokuno T; Shivkumar S International Technology Management Associates Ltd. Methods for making algal plastics are disclosed, together with foamed algal plastics and products made from them, and algal plastic resin precursors. The foamed algal plastics comprise a foamed and stabilised algal fibre matrix having substantial dimensional stability. The foamed algal plastics can be used to generate packing materials, such as moulded packings or foamed particle packings (e.g. packing peanuts). USA

Accession no.545766 Item 454 Recycle ’94. Conference proceedings. Davos, 14th-18th March 1994, paper 7. 8(13) FOAMED BIODEGRADABLES FROM STARCH AND THEIR USES IN FOOD SERVING Tiefenbacher K F Bio Pac Biologische Verpackungssysteme (Maack Business Services) This paper discusses the properties and uses of Biopac a new biodegradable foamed material based on starch. Points discussed include: packaging concepts,

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characteristics of Biopac, native starch as a raw material, ethical questions, properties and applications of foamed trays, degradation, the Fraunhofer Institute study, benefits of degradables, and constraints. AUSTRIA; EUROPE-GENERAL; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.532800 Item 455 Hazardous Substances 5, No.9, Oct.1994, p.7-8 COLOPHONY It is reported that colophony (rosin), a natural product obtained from pine trees and often used in soldering flux, is the third highest cause of reported occupational asthma, and a known skin sensitiser. Details are provided on its use, attempts at substitution, the rosin occupational exposure standard, and monitoring of the substance. UK,HEALTH & SAFETY EXECUTIVE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.528193 Item 456 Antec ’93. Conference Proceedings. New Orleans, La., 9th-13th May 1993, Vol.III, p.244351. 012 BIODEGRADABLE BACTERIAL PHBV COPOLYESTERS: PROPERTIES, PROCESSING AND PERFORMANCE IN BOTTLE APPLICATIONS O’Brien G S Zeneca Bio Products (SPE) An examination is made of crystallisation kinetics and molecular weight changes influencing the processing of biodegradable hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate copolymers, and conditions for the injection moulding and extrusion blow moulding of these materials are described. Results are presented of tests on the storage stability and impact strength of bottles made of these copolyesters, and biodegradation mechanisms under microbially active conditions are examined. ICI EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.524637 Item 457 Polymer 35, No.10, 1994, p.2090-7 BIODEGRADABLE RUBBER BY CROSSLINKING POLY(HYDROXYALKANOATE) FROM PSEUDOMONAS OLEOVORANS de Koning G J M; van Bilsen H M M; Lemstra P J; Hazenberg W; Witholt B; Preusting H; van der Galien J G; Schirmer A; Jendrossek D

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References and Abstracts

Eindhoven,University of Technology; Groningen,University; Gottingen,Georg-AugustUniversitat Poly((R)-3-hydroxyalkanoate)s are bacterial storage polyesters with potential as biodegradable and biocompatible plastics. Among them are those from Pseudomonas oleovorans, which are semicrystalline elastomers. Their applicability is seriously limited by their low melting temperature as well as by their low crystallisation rate. Both problems were overcome by crosslinking of unsaturated pendent groups, which were incorporated in the polymer by tailoring the carbon source for biosynthesis (different ratios of n-octane and 1octene). Crosslinking was established by electron beam irradiation and resulted in a true rubber with constant properties over a large temperature range from -20 to +170C. Even after crosslinking, the material was still biodegradable. It is suggested that this is the first microbially produced biodegradable rubber. Molecular weight, thermal properties, mechanical properties, degradation and morphology data are given. 40 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

the PU foams were measured using a tensile test machine and a differential scanning calorimeter. The results indicate that waste vegetable oil could be used as a polyol for PU and that thermal and mechanical properties of PU were controlled by the kinds of waste vegetable oil and/ or the acid value. 13 refs. JAPAN

Accession no.502477 Item 460 Journal of Applied Polymer Science 50, No.12, 20th Dec.1993, p.2105-13 COMPARATIVE CARBON-13 NMR STUDY OF POLYFLAVONOID TANNIN EXTRACTS FOR PHENOLIC POLYCONDENSATES Pizzi A; Stephanou A Witwatersrand,University Five tannin extracts (from different barks, woods and nuts) were studied by NMR to determine the structural features that influenced their suitability for tannin-formaldehyde resin adhesives. 9 refs. SOUTH AFRICA

Accession no.524316

Accession no.500148

Item 458 Polymers from Biobased Materials. Park Ridge, NJ, Noyes Publications, 1991, p.90-114. 41 STARCH-BASED PLASTICS Narayan R Michigan,Biotechnology Institute Edited by: Chum H L (Solar Energy Research Institute)

Item 461 ICCM/9. Volume 2: Ceramic Matrix Composites and Other Systems. Conference Proceedings. Madrid, 12th-16th July 1993, p.864-9. 627 NATURAL FIBRE COMPOSITES Avella M; dell’Erba R; Martuscelli E; Pascucci B; Raimo M; Focher B; Marzetti A Istituto di Ricerca e Tecnologia delle Materie Plastiche; Stazione Sperimentale per la Carta,Cellulosa e Fibre Tessili Edited by: Miravete A (Zaragoza,University)

A review is given of the preparation, properties and characterisation of starch-based plastics. 28 refs. USA

Accession no.504683 Item 459 Kobunshi Ronbunshu 50, No.11, 1993, p.881-6 Japanese POLYURETHANE FOAM DERIVED FROM WASTE VEGETABLE OIL Nakamura K; Nishimura Y Otsuma,Women’s University From the point of view of recycling of resources, PU foams were prepared from waste vegetable oil. Acid values of ageing oils were determined by the method according to JIS K3504. The acid value increased with increasing treating time in both cases of 100 and 190C. This was ascertained by FTIR measurement. PU foams were obtained by reacting the mixture of waste oil and polypropylene glycol with diphenylmethane diisocyanate. A silicon surfactant, tin catalyst, and water were used as foaming agents. Compression and thermal properties of

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Composites were prepared by adding steam treated straw fibres to two thermoplastic matrices, i.e. maleic anhydride modified PP and a polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). The mechanical properties of the composites were examined at low and high deformation rates, and it was shown that the composites possessed better mechanical properties than those of the neat matrices. The properties of composites based on modified PP were superior to those of unmodified PP based composites. The use of straw fibres as a reinforcement in PHB had the advantage of producing fully biodegradable composites. 5 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; ITALY; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.499275 Item 462 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 1, No.2, April 1993, p.155-66 STARCH-PLASTIC MATERIALSPREPARATION, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND

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References and Abstracts

BIODEGRADABILITY. A REVIEW OF RECENT USDA RESEARCH Swanson C L; Shogren R L; Fanta G F; Imam S H US,Dept.of Agriculture Recent starch-plastic research at the US,National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research is reviewed and related worldwide efforts are noted. Properties of starch that influence its formulation and performance in plastics are discussed. Methods are given for preparation of starchmethyl methacrylate graft copolymer, starch-ethyleneacrylic acid copolymer, and starch-ethylene-acrylic acid copolymer-PE plastics. Their physical properties are discussed as is degradability by enzymes or amylolytic organisms from soil, ponds and streams. 76 refs. USA

Accession no.493982 Item 463 Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 1, No.2, April 1993, p.89-98 ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION OF POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATE Jesudason J J; Marchessault R H; Saito T Montreal,McGill University; Kanagawa,University The synthetic analogue of a bacterially produced polyhydroxybutyrate was synthesised from racemic butyrolactone using an in situ trimethyl aluminium-water catalyst. Biodegradation was examined by monitoring mass loss over time in the presence of polyhydroxybutyrate depolymerase. 34 refs. CANADA; JAPAN

Accession no.493975 Item 464 Journal of Materials Science Letters 12, No.13, 1st July 1993, p.1048-51 HOT DRAWING OF POLYLACTIDE NETWORKS Penning J P; Grijpma D W; Pennings A J Groningen,University Polylactide fibres suitable for use in sutures, bone fixation devices and biodegradable implants were prepared from crystalline and amorphous polymer networks by drawing the as-polymerised material. The strength of the fibres exceeded that of fibres prepared by melt spinning the analogous linear polymers. Fibres having appreciable strength could be prepared from completely amorphous polylactides if they were chemically crosslinked. Due to the presence of chemical crosslinks, the polymer chains could be effectively oriented by hot drawing, unlike linear amorphous polymers where chain entanglements are the only form of network points present. 18 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.486068

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Item 465 Advances in Polymer Science No.107, 1993, p.199-265 CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES Doelker E Geneva,University Fundamental and derived properties of cellulose derivatives are presented concomitantly with applications in various life sciences (pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, packaging). Emphasis is placed on drug delivery systems. Because most applications are related to solubility of the materials, the subject is reviewed with regard to this parameter: derivatives soluble in water; derivatives soluble in organic solvents; derivatives soluble in organic media and organic solvents; derivatives soluble in water and organic solvents. The data are presented on a comparative basis to emphasise the difference between similar derivatives. 167 refs. SWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.476704 Item 466 Journal of Polymer Science : Polymer Chemistry Edition 31, No.5, April 1993, p.1275-85 ABSORBABLE BIOPOLYMERS DERIVED FROM DIMER FATTY ACIDS Domb A J; Maniar M Jerusalem,Hebrew University; Nova Pharmaceutical Corp. Several aliphatic copolyanhydrides were synthesised by melt condensation from non-linear hydrophobic dimers(FAD) of erucic acid and sebacic acid which possessed the desired physicochemical and mechanical properties for use as a drug carrier. In-vitro degradation studies showed that these polymers degraded following first-order kinetics with a rapid degradation in the first ten days, leaving a residue which was mainly the FAD comonomer. Drug release from the polymer also followed first-order kinetics which correlated with the degradation process of the polymer. Drugs such as carboplatin, methotrexate, tetracycline and gentamicin were released in-vitro for over two weeks and in some cases over six weeks. In-vivo biocompatibility tests in rats and rabbits in the brain, muscle and subcutaneously demonstrated their toxicological inertness and biodegradability. 16 refs. ISRAEL; USA

Accession no.474758 Item 467 Progress in Organic Coatings 20,No.2,4th May 1992,p.139-67 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF ROSIN CHEMISTRY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN COATINGS Chen G F

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References and Abstracts

ASHLAND CHEMICAL INC. A review is presented of the literature on wood and rosin, chemical composition of rosin, isomerisation of resin acids, other reactions of resin acids, and modifications of rosin for coating applications. 117 refs.

concentration of maleic anhydride, PMPPIC and benzoyl peroxide on the mechanical properties of wood fibre-filled PS composites were also evaluated. 23 refs. CANADA

Accession no.433455

USA

Accession no.456391 Item 468 Journal of Materials Research 27,No.6,15th March 1992,p.1690-700 PROPERTIES OF SISAL-CNSL COMPOSITES Bisanda E T N;Ansell M P BATH,UNIVERSITY Cashew nut shell liquid was condensation polymerised with formaldehyde in the presence of an alkaline catalyst to produce a thermosetting resin. Sisal fibre mats were impregnated with the resin to produce laminated composites. Bending tests were performed on corrugated composites to determine their strength for roofing applications. 12 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.448293 Item 469 Materials Edge No.27,Aug.1991,p.6 ECOCHEM BRINGS POLYLACTIDES TO MARKET Montgomery M ECOCHEM The development by Ecochem (a joint venture between Du Pont and Con-Agra) of polylactide materials produced from renewable resources such as cheese whey or corn is briefly discussed. Applications as biodegradable packaging materials are considered and properties of the products described. CON-AGRA; DU PONT CO. USA

Accession no.433883 Item 470 Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 5,No.9,1991,p.727-40 SURFACE MODIFICATION OF WOOD FIBRES USING MALEIC ANHYDRIDE AND ISOCYANATE AS COATING COMPONENTS AND THEIR PERFORMANCE IN POLYSTYRENE COMPOSITES Maldas D;Kokta B V QUEBEC,UNIVERSITE A TROIS-RIVIERES Wood fibres were pre-coated with maleic anhydride and/ or poly(methylene(polyphenyl isocyanate))(PMPPIC), using benzoyl peroxide as initiator. The effects of the

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Item 471 Paint & Ink International 4,No.1,Feb.1991,p.30/3 ANTIFOULING COATINGS BASED ON CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUID (CNSL) MODIFIED RESIN Panda R;Panda H In previous experiments, the solubility of antifouling paint for ship’s hulls was based on the reaction of gum resin and sea water. To control this solubility CNSL modified resin is added as a cheap binder. Formulations were tested on three different types of vessels: a burger; a light destroyer; and an aircraft carrier. Results of a settlement efficiency scale, similar to that used for biological studies, are presented. 3 refs. INDIA

Accession no.421243 Item 472 Biomaterials 11,No.7,Sept.1990,p.451-4 POLYMERS FOR BIODEGRADABLE MEDICAL DEVICES. V. HYDROXYBUTYRATEHYDROXYBUTYRATE COPOLYMERS: EFFECTS OF POLYMER PROCESSING ON HYDROLYTIC DEGRADATION Yasin M;Holland S J;Tighe B J ASTON,UNIVERSITY The effects of melt processing on those properties of hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate copolymers that control hydrolytic stability were studied. Initial experiments using a non-thermal preparation technique enabled the relationship between initial molecular weight and rate of hydrolytic degradation to be established. 6 refs. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.411333 Item 473 Acta Polymerica 29,No.1/2,1988,p.47-50 MODIFICATION OF LIGNIN Lindberg J J;Levon K;Kuusela T HELSINKI,UNIVERSITY Various ways of modifying isolated or degraded lignin to produce useful polymeric products are described. Attention is paid to the following reactions: thermal treatment, synthesis of conductive polyphenylene sulphide-like polymers from lignin, preparation of engineering plastics from lignin and association of lignin.

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References and Abstracts

The structure of various polymers obtainable from lignin, applications of lignin, including adhesives, and semiconductor properties of doped sulphur lignin are illustrated. 21 refs. FINLAND

Accession no.359590 Item 474 Progress in Polymer Science 12,No.4,1986,p.271-99 LIGNIN-POLYMER SYSTEMS AND SOME APPLICATIONS Feldman D;Lacasse M;Beznaczuk L M CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY The present state of knowledge regarding the chemical structure of lignin is briefly described and some current areas of application are reviewed. These applications include lignin graft copolymers, lignin-thermosetting polymer systems, lignin-polymer adhesive systems (lignin-phenol formaldehyde resin, lignin-urea formaldehyde resin and lignin-isocyanate) and ligninelastomer systems. 99 refs.

Item 476 Journal of Materials Science 19,No.9,Sept.1984,p.2781-94 CRYSTALLISATION AND MORPHOLOGY OF A BACTERIAL THERMOPLASTIC: POLY-3HYDROXYBUTYRATE Barham P J;Keller A;Otun E L;Holmes P A ICI,AGRICULTURAL DIV. Data are presented on crystallisation kinetics, morphology of melt- and solution-crystallised polymers, variation of lamellar thickness with crystallisation temp., and thermodynamic quantities, e.g. surface free energies, heats of fusion and melting, and Tgs. 26 refs. UK

Accession no.262088

CANADA

Accession no.349580 Item 475 Manufacturing Chemist 56,No.10,Oct.1985,p.63/5 BIOPOL - ONE OF NATURE’S POLYMERS Uttley N A new thermoplastic biopolymer developed by ICI, tradenamed Biopol and produced by bacterial fermentation of sugar to polyhydroxybutyrate/ polyhydroxyvalerate, is both biodegradable, biocompatible and fully processible. Potential specialty applications are numerous including disposable packaging and varied medical products. The basic mechanical properties of the polymer, which is being developed by Marlborough Biopolymers Ltd., are described, together with possible routes towards commercially viable applications. UK

Accession no.301025

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Subject Index

Subject Index A ABIOTIC, 404 ABRASION RESISTANCE, 24 77 324 ABSORPTION, 24 77 147 173 293 294 466 ACCELERATED AGEING, 334 ACETYLGLUCOSAMINE, 101 ACID HYDROLYSIS, 47 ACID RESISTANCE, 113 ACRYLIC COPOLYMER, 79 163 288 293 354 363 386 462 ACTIVATED SLUDGE, 246 247 363 ADDITION POLYMERISATION, 337 ADDITIVE, 1 2 10 14 23 24 38 57 67 80 82 128 136 146 147 148 166 168 170 178 179 182 205 212 219 221 222 225 239 269 276 291 292 296 321 327 334 339 351 363 377 378 383 385 386 391 396 397 398 404 405 411 415 421 425 432 440 444 456 461 ADHESION, 1 38 50 94 104 113 149 183 243 293 332 341 350 378 445 446 461 ADHESIVE, 37 38 40 65 78 100 107 113 149 155 157 189 198 216 229 275 288 290 291 294 296 322 339 350 369 382 388 394 408 450 452 460 473 474 ADIPATE COPOLYMER, 19 ADIPIC ACID, 38 167 174 239 ADSORPTION, 114 363 AEROBIC, 147 161 373 456 AEROSPACE APPLICATION, 15 AGAR, 163 AGAROSE, 402 AGEING, 90 158 161 176 206 252 269 299 363 373 383 459 AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION, 23 31 38 77 83 115 116 124 125 128 145 146 166 167 172 174 216 219 223 239 242 296 298 305 312 376 386 387 410 411 424 AGRICULTURAL WASTE, 195 232 ALBUMIN, 29 294 ALCALIGENES EUTROPHUS, 153 456 ALCALIGENES FAECALIS, 201

ALGAE, 376 453 ALGINATE, 88 103 304 453 ALKALI RESISTANCE, 113 ALKALINE DEGRADATION, 47 AMIDE COPOLYMER, 250 295 AMINO ACID, 24 41 239 295 393 404 AMINO ACID POLYMER, 239 294 438 AMYLASE, 404 AMYLOPECTIN, 219 269 363 385 395 404 419 AMYLOSE, 17 136 161 219 250 269 363 385 404 419 ANAEROBIC, 147 161 219 316 420 456 ANALYSIS, 20 24 31 71 85 95 99 103 136 149 154 159 193 235 268 269 311 314 329 393 404 407 415 417 430 448 451 461 ANIMAL FEED, 411 ANIMAL TESTING, 231 239 303 432 ANIONIC POLYMERISATION, 65 294 448 ANTIOXIDANT, 26 292 386 ANTISTATIC PROPERTIES, 116 296 341 ANTITHROMBOGENIC, 149 293 AQUEOUS, 67 96 280 336 390 402 AQUEOUS SOLUTION, 24 114 135 299 365 393 AROMATIC, 114 167 350 386 470 ARTIFICIAL BONE, 219 ARTIFICIAL LUNG, 28 ARTIFICIAL ORGAN, 355 ARTIFICIAL SKIN, 293 ASCORBIC ACID, 244 ASPARTIC ACID POLYMER, 102 354 375 439 ASPERGILLUS NIGER, 103 AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATION, 1 8 15 18 49 72 117 139 169 189 277 301 312 425 AUTOXIDATION, 161 386

B BACTERIA, 37 142 153 154 161 163 168 224 245 247 284 286 399 404 436 456 475 BACTERIAL CONVERSION, 107 142 153 297 341

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BAG, 23 30 38 55 62 77 108 115 116 117 124 125 128 141 146 147 151 161 166 167 172 186 205 218 219 221 222 223 242 262 292 296 305 317 327 347 359 386 408 410 416 439 BAGASSE, 43 61 143 427 BANANA FIBRE, 18 BARRIER COATING, 27 72 BARRIER PROPERTIES, 10 25 38 54 94 116 123 147 162 195 209 222 238 248 269 296 326 341 364 366 456 BENZOYL PEROXIDE, 142 154 217 470 BEVERAGE, 60 80 259 BIN LINER, 209 BINDER, 107 155 315 471 BIOABSORBABLE, 147 293 294 335 370 391 BIOACTIVITY, 82 86 148 438 BIOADHESIVE, 294 465 BIOASSAY, 361 BIOCATALYST, 341 362 BIOCOMPATIBILITY, 5 14 28 48 67 79 118 138 148 149 187 213 225 234 239 254 260 293 294 403 438 466 475 BIOCOMPOSITE, 1 6 97 139 443 BIODEGRADABILITY, 19 79 86 103 116 161 166 225 239 255 262 274 316 373 375 388 404 424 429 462 BIOELASTOMER, 28 BIOERODIBLE, 293 BIOLOGICAL AGEING, 299 BIOLOGICAL ATTACK, 86 133 167 245 274 BIOMASS, 107 172 189 239 296 361 394 BIOMATERIAL, 11 41 67 82 101 117 125 138 148 149 187 198 227 235 241 254 293 294 298 324 400 417 432 438 BIOMEDICAL APPLICATION, 52 58 67 95 101 148 149 150 160 258 293 294 298 308 412 433 464 BIOSYNTHESIS, 4 118 127 161 175 204 246 247 267 271 294 371 397 399 404 456 BIOTECHNOLOGY, 117 140 149 155 341 362 394 BITUMEN, 40 BLEND, 10 17 19 23 26 29 30 31

129

Subject Index

38 39 43 50 58 66 74 78 82 84 85 89 90 118 126 129 131 148 149 152 158 160 161 165 173 176 178 179 182 195 197 198 209 219 225 233 239 243 249 250 252 255 256 262 274 279 283 285 293 295 296 299 310 311 316 319 326 327 331 333 334 336 344 350 352 356 363 368 370 373 386 397 398 406 421 430 439 444 445 467 474 BLENDING, 19 179 233 325 373 430 BLISTER PACKAGING, 55 BLOCK COPOLYMER, 41 65 88 118 148 228 293 309 378 BLOOD, 101 149 260 294 BLOW EXTRUSION, 167 378 403 BLOW MOULDING, 23 44 94 116 161 166 195 205 214 219 238 259 296 311 363 424 BLOWING AGENT, 160 372 439 459 BLOWN FILM, 9 30 66 161 167 172 178 183 242 283 351 353 378 396 403 BOARD, 169 BODY PANEL, 312 BONDING, 54 113 293 296 312 423 438 455 BONE, 77 148 187 293 294 438 464 BOTTLE, 23 25 38 44 55 72 94 116 155 195 238 297 387 410 424 439 456 BOVINE SERUM ALBUMIN, 304 BOX, 78 BRITTLE, 179 212 279 391 BRITTLENESS, 96 99 126 269 BUBBLE FILM, 30 BUILDING APPLICATION, 15 18 80 166 301 345 425 435 446 450 468 BULK POLYMERISATION, 185 200 464 BUSINESS MACHINE, 18 64 BUTANEDIISOCYANATE, 433 BUTANEDIOL, 38 167 174 230 239 BUTYLENE ADIPATE COPOLYMER, 170 BUTYLENE SUCCINATE COPOLYMER, 19 420 BUTYROLACTONE, 230 318 440

C CALCIUM ALGINATE, 118

130

CALCIUM CARBONATE, 10 56 101 361 CALENDERING, 219 CANOLA OIL, 300 CAPACITY, 9 25 26 30 54 55 94 102 107 108 117 128 131 146 155 166 172 186 195 209 214 222 223 238 291 312 347 348 349 354 362 368 387 416 439 CAPROLACTONE, 228 295 424 CAPROLACTONE COPOLYMER, 96 255 266 293 318 363 373 378 448 CAPSULE, 141 149 304 355 CAR TYRE, 219 CARBOHYDRATE, 239 CARBOHYDRATE POLYMER, 48 CARBON DIOXIDE, 23 25 38 76 94 116 129 167 188 196 248 262 263 264 316 363 378 CARBON MONOXIDE COPOLYMER, 386 CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE, 284 CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE ACETATE BUTYRATE, 49 189 CARDANOL, 389 CARDANYL ACRYLATE, 314 CARDBOARD, 195 216 CARPET, 51 81 195 CARRAGEENAN, 390 394 CARRIER BAG, 151 161 242 CARTILAGE, 101 CASEIN, 40 187 CASEIN POLYMER, 190 CASHEW NUT RESIN, 156 227 314 393 CASHEW NUTSHELL LIQUID, 70 156 227 243 275 343 389 468 471 CASSAVA, 188 CAST FILM, 9 10 44 242 296 CASTING, 21 56 96 141 148 160 227 335 432 CASTOR OIL, 140 263 300 384 CASTOR OIL COPOLYMER, 384 CASTOR OIL POLYMER, 227 384 CATALYST, 41 71 96 98 106 113 127 135 161 182 185 200 220 221 230 237 314 318 341 362 459 CATERING APPLICATION, 166 167 219 296 CATIONIC POLYMERISATION, 202 212 294 337 384 448

CELL CULTURE, 148 163 293 304 CELLOPHANE, 172 420 CELLULAR MATERIAL, 9 10 13 17 38 39 61 63 74 78 124 125 147 148 158 160 166 183 189 195 219 223 229 242 269 296 313 342 363 365 378 387 392 402 411 422 425 439 453 CELLULOSE, 1 15 26 27 40 43 57 62 68 80 90 97 101 109 118 130 143 168 193 227 239 242 245 263 274 277 285 292 294 295 296 324 328 336 360 369 377 379 386 394 401 403 404 413 414 435 442 443 465 CELLULOSE ACETATE, 1 17 20 68 97 136 160 164 189 206 239 316 346 376 421 439 440 CELLULOSE ACETATE BUTYRATE, 49 397 CELLULOSE ACETATE COPOLYMER, 421 CELLULOSE CARBAMATE, 336 CELLULOSE COPOLYMER, 280 CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES, 294 363 CELLULOSE DIACETATE, 147 CELLULOSE ESTER, 68 189 336 379 CELLULOSE ETHER, 80 284 CELLULOSE FIBRE, 1 15 62 168 377 CELLULOSE NITRATE, 263 CELLULOSE TRIACETATE, 143 CELLULOSIC, 94 CERTIFICATION, 9 75 262 CHARACTERISATION, 31 43 46 66 79 87 91 95 99 100 103 113 135 136 142 143 144 145 157 158 163 178 210 228 230 233 235 249 255 257 266 267 287 304 313 314 335 342 343 361 372 427 430 448 CHEMICAL AGEING, 299 CHEMICAL DEGRADATION, 24 141 160 299 CHEMICAL MODIFICATION, 2 39 46 52 61 69 70 89 99 100 101 113 114 118 122 144 149 168 205 224 227 245 267 272 294 315 331 336 354 363 373 379 382 384 386 404 412 430 442 461 473 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, 15 38 94 116 147 243 296 331 CHEMICAL RESISTANCE, 38 94 113 116 147 243 296 456

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE, 14 22 24 41 46 61 69 83 99 100 105 106 118 134 142 143 149 154 155 156 175 180 189 202 213 219 220 224 236 239 253 267 269 294 299 311 315 337 350 360 363 364 370 375 378 382 386 398 399 404 419 421 436 438 441 CHITIN, 52 69 101 118 149 293 294 337 376 412 414 421 442 CHITIN COPOLYMER, 130 CHITINASE, 337 CHITOSAN, 52 63 69 85 101 114 118 121 149 249 263 274 293 294 295 328 336 412 414 440 CHLOROPHYLL, 44 CHROMATOGRAPHY, 13 43 47 100 104 111 112 142 149 206 228 235 246 247 333 338 346 367 381 383 393 395 404 407 431 CITRATE ESTER, 400 CITRIC ACID, 404 CLARITY, 29 38 94 238 366 CLAY, 14 21 CLOTHING, 54 80 81 117 120 155 214 226 291 CO-ROTATING EXTRUDER, 200 205 395 430 COATED PAPER, 147 166 195 196 249 376 378 COATING, 26 27 38 49 70 72 101 107 113 115 140 141 147 148 162 166 167 195 223 229 243 249 263 272 294 315 369 376 378 382 387 390 394 439 442 454 467 471 COCONUT FIBRE, 192 COEXTRUSION, 25 30 36 94 195 209 269 378 COFFEE BEAN, 189 COLLAGEN, 24 29 40 80 101 270 293 294 328 COLOPHONY, 272 455 COLOUR, 9 11 24 77 393 COMPATIBILITY, 31 36 170 176 250 255 269 363 397 424 438 COMPOSITE, 1 2 6 8 10 12 15 18 33 34 56 90 97 101 104 117 136 137 139 143 148 163 165 168 190 192 193 210 225 235 256 261 269 276 277 281 282 293 295 301 310 312 320 331 332 377 391 413 421 423 424 425 435 437 443 445 461 468 470 COMPOSITION, 13 19 66 142 158 160 175 183 253 255 271 274

299 300 342 343 355 373 430 450 COMPOST, 86 128 281 361 376 386 426 447 COMPOSTABLE, 9 10 25 75 130 151 155 171 174 216 242 317 323 340 347 361 368 396 410 416 439 443 COMPOSTING, 1 18 23 26 30 38 55 62 73 76 86 94 108 115 116 146 147 166 167 169 170 172 184 186 195 205 209 219 221 222 223 233 239 252 262 288 291 292 296 305 327 329 330 346 348 359 361 363 378 387 422 436 454 COMPOUNDING, 23 44 64 82 133 199 205 301 351 396 415 430 462 COMPRESSION MOULDING, 1 8 12 15 68 74 160 312 370 385 391 417 419 425 440 COMPRESSION PROPERTIES, 17 160 235 313 402 459 CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION, 95 159 185 294 378 389 404 428 466 468 CONSTRUCTION, 423 443 CONSUMPTION, 15 40 102 108 128 140 172 218 222 288 291 305 312 317 364 368 369 CONTAINER, 10 25 37 72 94 125 147 166 171 174 186 195 205 259 279 345 361 376 CONTINUOUS POLYMERISATION, 155 428 CONTROLLED-RELEASE, 5 105 138 148 149 234 253 293 294 355 378 424 434 COPOLYAMIDE, 250 295 COPOLYESTER, 9 30 36 38 116 128 130 131 146 147 151 166 167 170 204 209 222 223 233 235 248 266 294 296 305 323 346 347 348 364 368 387 397 439 448 456 CORN FIBRE, 155 CORN OIL, 300 CORN STARCH, 11 17 23 78 160 209 226 279 283 321 324 342 366 392 415 443 CORRUGATED SHEET, 9 452 COSMETICS, 140 141 465 COST, 10 11 18 23 24 28 37 38 44 62 81 94 97 102 116 117 128 130 157 167 186 195 198 202 209 238 246 247 259 278 297

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

301 310 312 317 327 341 348 349 354 362 376 384 387 410 418 422 423 425 429 454 461 475 COTTON, 1 29 117 281 282 316 328 COUPLING AGENT, 179 331 332 370 391 437 CRATE, 18 CREDIT CARD, 147 317 327 368 410 CROSSLINKING, 1 22 24 84 88 91 114 148 149 154 210 239 258 261 267 294 302 304 378 436 465 CROSSLINKING AGENT, 24 46 79 145 294 315 CRYSTALLINITY, 25 47 94 111 112 126 134 135 136 144 148 161 208 211 219 229 239 269 287 299 307 318 333 337 356 363 367 378 379 380 386 400 456 463 464 472 CULTIVATION, 369 410 CUP, 10 55 94 155 195 297 410 CURE TEMPERATURE, 22 159 263 275 CURE TIME, 1 159 263 CURING, 1 91 113 148 154 156 260 261 267 322 427 CURING AGENT, 1 24 46 79 145 148 156 212 230 294 315 432 CUSHIONING, 78 CUTLERY, 10 38 128 147 172 205 209 296 327 347 368 426

D DAMPING, 117 422 DASHBOARD, 277 DECK, 446 DECOMPOSITION, 87 343 435 455 DECOMPOSITION RATE, 9 39 55 62 87 151 222 242 291 292 327 346 347 348 387 439 DEFORMATION, 12 433 461 DEGRADATION PRODUCT, 167 196 239 363 378 383 386 404 433 451 456 DEGRADATION RATE, 26 87 147 148 166 201 205 219 239 293 294 296 311 330 363 376 378 386 404 456 DENSITY, 1 9 17 24 38 61 94 113 219 269 310 313 342 380 393 425 436 459 DENTAL APPLICATION, 77 149

131

Subject Index

DESIGN, 6 32 117 276 441 DETERGENT, 102 354 DEXTRAN, 258 393 DEXTROSE, 214 226 388 DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS, 7 21 31 47 50 59 61 66 71 79 90 95 96 111 112 113 135 136 138 142 145 153 156 157 158 159 161 179 193 211 228 235 249 254 269 329 333 335 356 367 380 400 415 427 433 459 468 DILACTIDE, 98 DIMENSIONAL STABILITY, 9 170 219 269 398 405 415 453 DIPHENYLMETHANE DIISOCYANATE, 99 220 389 459 DIRECTIVE, 51 167 171 172 323 368 DISH, 128 DISPOSABLE, 25 60 166 205 219 239 296 361 366 475 DOMESTIC REFUSE, 166 DOOR, 301 312 DRAWING, 3 92 153 211 287 464 DRILLING FLUID, 57 394 DRINKING VESSEL, 10 55 94 155 195 297 410 DRUG RELEASE, 5 41 77 79 88 101 105 114 138 148 149 187 207 234 253 254 291 293 294 308 355 465 466 DRYING, 24 49 96 116 181 184 243 287 393 402 DUCTILITY, 380 405 DURABILITY, 2 47 275 DWELL TIME, 181 311 DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS, 21 136 197 235 252 457 DYNAMIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, 193 202 212 269 300 352 411 433

E E-MODULUS, 8 12 66 92 111 112 153 239 405 438 ECO-LABELLING, 186 ECONOMIC INFORMATION, 10 11 15 26 38 40 45 77 80 81 94 102 108 110 115 117 128 137 140 146 147 155 161 167 172 177 182 186 188 198 218 219 222 223 232 236 238 259 262 285 288 291 302 305 312 317 327 345 357 364 368 369 376 394 408 423 436 439 475

132

EDIBLE, 26 29 83 295 439 ELAEOSTEARIN, 263 ELASTIC MODULUS, 8 12 46 49 66 92 111 112 153 205 239 252 310 311 405 438 461 ELASTICITY, 54 63 76 153 155 167 219 ELASTIN, 16 ELASTOMER, 16 28 40 65 76 110 117 122 127 137 176 182 201 210 212 219 220 230 256 258 276 290 300 308 324 339 343 349 350 376 389 404 408 425 429 436 442 449 457 ELECTRON MICROGRAPH, 19 66 79 88 114 143 395 430 ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 43 50 85 163 176 274 312 401 ELECTRON SCANNING MICROSCOPY, 50 85 163 176 401 443 ELONGATION, 1 36 89 129 166 229 279 282 353 373 378 400 419 430 458 ELONGATION AT BREAK, 12 19 66 99 111 112 142 143 158 167 170 176 179 205 211 239 252 269 283 296 299 311 387 396 461 EMISSION, 25 76 94 120 124 167 172 188 198 455 EMULSION, 24 57 88 148 195 229 EMULSION POLYMERISATION, 100 148 288 388 ENCAPSULATION, 88 101 113 141 207 253 304 ENERGY CONSERVATION, 76 188 376 ENERGY CONSUMPTION, 26 76 117 147 172 195 229 238 324 376 ENGINEERING APPLICATION, 11 227 341 405 473 ENGINEERING PLASTIC, 11 218 227 405 473 ENVIRONMENT, 25 35 119 120 122 123 124 125 147 152 161 166 167 215 236 290 296 329 349 354 376 386 408 414 454 ENVIRONMENTAL AGEING, 299 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION, 111 112 299 329 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, 26 39 51 62 76 147 155 169 182 188 242 262 288 346 354 435 436

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION, 51 73 167 171 186 302 323 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, 72 77 81 94 117 177 198 223 435 443 ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY, 18 38 76 78 116 226 238 259 296 324 348 387 ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION, 20 56 149 165 167 201 239 252 293 294 318 352 358 363 367 378 386 400 456 ENZYMATIC POLYMERISATION, 48 69 127 135 175 204 ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS, 142 175 315 337 341 362 ENZYME, 20 56 117 118 127 135 149 161 239 294 363 394 404 ENZYME IMMOBILISATION, 149 EPOXIDATION, 100 122 267 315 384 EPOXIDISED CASTOR OIL, 384 EPOXIDISED LINSEED OIL, 384 415 EPOXIDISED SOYBEAN OIL, 384 EPOXIDISED VEGETABLE OIL, 1 384 415 EPOXY RESIN, 1 78 117 189 230 276 315 384 EPSILON-CAPROLACTONE, 295 424 448 ETHYLENE COPOLYMER, 19 82 158 163 178 219 363 386 398 462 ETHYLENE GLYCOL COPOLYMER, 88 378 ETHYLENE-VINYL ALCOHOL COPOLYMER, 39 116 160 197 239 311 363 EUPHORBIA LAGASCAE, 315 EXTRUDER, 17 44 72 78 82 84 181 185 199 200 205 217 269 289 325 326 373 392 395 415 428 430 EXTRUSION, 1 10 15 24 38 39 44 50 66 73 74 78 82 84 97 116 147 153 158 160 161 162 166 167 170 178 179 181 183 185 195 199 205 209 214 216 217 219 237 238 269 279 283 287 289 296 301 303 310 311 321 327 344 345 348 351 353 363 364 370 373 378 380 387 392 395 400 415 421 424 434 439 462

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

EXTRUSION BLOWING, 167 378 403 424 EXTRUSION COATING, 9 55 162 209 EXTRUSION COMPOUNDING, 74 205 325 415 EXTRUSION MIXING, 82 179 205 415

F FABRIC, 11 72 77 155 166 195 211 226 241 FAT, 369 FATTY ACID, 100 142 245 315 316 404 466 FEEDSTOCK, 23 38 94 102 109 122 132 155 198 232 238 262 369 425 447 FERMENTATION, 11 25 37 80 81 98 107 130 147 155 172 214 223 226 229 278 357 362 410 429 456 475 FERTILISER, 102 117 147 167 171 174 FIBRE, 1 8 9 10 11 15 18 24 25 38 44 51 54 59 62 72 80 81 107 117 118 120 128 146 153 166 167 168 186 188 195 196 209 210 211 214 223 226 229 239 241 281 282 287 293 294 296 297 301 311 316 324 328 332 341 362 364 369 374 376 377 378 387 396 410 412 435 439 443 453 464 FIBRE MAT, 270 332 FIBRE SPINNING, 195 311 464 FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 1 2 6 8 12 15 97 104 117 131 139 168 190 192 256 269 281 282 312 320 332 377 435 443 FIBRIL, 211 377 FIBROUS FILLER, 8 168 445 461 FILLER, 1 2 8 14 21 56 67 76 82 90 124 125 136 146 147 161 168 169 178 182 187 193 205 219 225 227 235 239 292 296 301 321 324 331 363 364 370 377 386 387 391 404 421 426 449 450 458 461 FILM, 5 10 11 21 23 24 25 26 27 29 30 35 38 39 43 47 54 55 56 66 83 85 94 96 108 109 115 116 121 128 138 141 143 145 146 147 149 151 154 161 166 167 174 182 183 186 189 195 196 219 221 222 228 238 239 242 245 254 257 263 264 265 269

274 279 281 282 292 293 294 296 302 305 310 311 326 327 328 334 345 348 351 353 363 364 369 374 377 378 379 383 386 387 396 400 401 403 410 424 432 448 449 463 FISH MYOFIBRILLAR PROTEIN, 411 FLAMMABILITY, 117 176 343 350 425 FLAX, 1 8 117 332 443 FLAX FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 1 8 190 281 282 FLEXIBILITY, 38 78 205 219 243 311 447 FLEXURAL PROPERTIES, 1 15 18 25 37 38 85 94 97 99 117 195 229 238 282 311 312 365 370 373 378 391 398 422 425 437 443 461 475 FLOUR, 195 301 376 FOAM, 9 10 13 17 39 61 63 74 78 124 125 147 148 158 166 183 189 195 219 223 229 242 269 296 313 342 363 365 378 387 402 411 422 425 439 453 454 459 FOAMING AGENT, 160 372 439 459 FOOD APPLICATION, 29 342 390 FOOD PACKAGING, 9 23 25 26 27 44 55 60 62 72 83 108 116 128 132 137 146 147 162 166 167 171 172 174 182 186 195 209 222 223 291 292 295 296 305 317 342 370 386 439 454 FOOD-CONTACT APPLICATION, 30 35 162 184 296 302 378 454 465 FOODSTUFF, 77 78 80 116 189 FOOTWEAR, 147 439 FORMULATION, 2 6 101 116 157 170 243 253 301 324 339 370 471 FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY, 13 33 46 58 71 89 95 122 143 156 157 235 280 328 356 383 459 FRACTURE MORPHOLOGY, 5 41 50 59 90 92 138 210 233 241 249 256 355 356 367 372 405 412 FRUIT, 157 FUNGUS, 161 163 263 376 446 456 FURNITURE, 15 192 195 226 277 425

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

G GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY, 104 246 383 404 407 451 GAS PERMEABILITY, 269 296 326 382 GEL, 24 101 148 210 253 284 293 294 439 GEL PERMEATION CHROMATOGRAPHY, 13 43 47 100 111 112 142 149 206 228 235 333 338 346 367 393 395 407 GELATIN, 12 24 29 31 43 141 143 244 257 293 444 GELATIN POLYMER, 67 145 GENETIC ENGINEERING, 37 107 128 132 140 155 161 172 198 214 278 341 369 394 408 GEOGRID, 374 GLASS FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 117 312 332 423 435 445 GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE, 3 7 24 71 90 99 111 112 123 129 136 142 154 156 161 200 201 212 236 239 255 267 269 288 300 311 330 352 356 370 372 373 385 392 400 411 448 457 459 464 465 476 GLOSS, 25 94 238 243 366 GLUCOMANNAN, 390 GLUCOSE, 11 86 98 136 198 219 240 271 378 404 GLUTAMIC ACID, 354 GLUTEN, 16 29 50 373 GLYCERINE, 31 74 116 198 269 299 326 363 385 415 430 GLYCEROL, 31 74 116 198 269 299 326 363 385 415 430 GLYCOLIC ACID COPOLYMER, 148 268 293 294 404 451 GLYCOLIDE COPOLYMER, 105 378 GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN, 294 GLYCOSIDE, 136 GOLF TEE, 146 151 166 410 GRAFT COPOLYMER, 134 142 148 164 178 257 293 373 386 461 462 474 GRAFT COPOLYMERISATION, 39 142 244 257 266 442 GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS, 47 61 68 71 79 87 111 112 113 142 333 343 430 GREENHOUSE EFFECT, 76 129 172 188 198

133

Subject Index

GUM, 393 GUTTA PERCHA, 295 442

H HARDNESS, 176 212 243 313 HEALTH HAZARD, 77 101 117 140 149 182 206 239 260 273 294 296 404 455 HEALTHCARE APPLICATION, 38 54 387 HEAT DEGRADATION, 23 31 61 87 113 136 142 153 161 173 181 265 311 312 314 334 380 383 HEAT INSULATION, 18 117 313 HEAT RESISTANCE, 1 54 55 61 64 71 87 99 104 141 144 202 257 280 296 310 311 329 372 389 427 HEAT STABILITY, 87 144 159 HEMICELLULOSE, 109 253 404 452 HEMP, 1 117 HEXANE DIISOCYANATE, 179 433 HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE, 23 38 45 78 104 182 341 345 HOLLOW ARTICLE, 166 205 219 296 HORTICULTURE, 116 166 216 364 376 HOSPITAL, 77 116 HOT MELT ADHESIVE, 37 38 216 290 HUMIDITY, 181 239 265 281 373 398 415 HUMIDITY RESISTANCE, 78 334 HYALURONIC ACID, 42 118 294 432 HYDROGEL, 46 79 148 210 258 293 308 HYDROLYSIS, 34 47 134 148 149 150 161 167 213 227 228 234 239 245 268 287 293 294 296 330 333 354 363 365 367 374 378 381 400 404 407 441 472 HYDROLYTIC DEGRADATION, 22 47 56 144 167 239 294 311 387 HYDROPHILIC, 76 134 148 170 190 205 227 239 244 249 258 272 279 398 411 HYDROPHOBIC, 39 148 170 205 207 209 258 272 398 466 HYDROXYALKANOATE COPOLYMER, 142 224 247 371

134

HYDROXYAPATITE, 82 187 225 235 HYDROXYBUTYRATE, 404 HYDROXYBUTYRATE COPOLYMER, 14 86 147 183 230 233 235 240 248 256 298 311 316 338 367 386 397 414 420 456 472 HYDROXYVALERATE COPOLYMER, 14 147 233 235 240 248 256 311 316 338 367 386 397 414 420 456 472

I IMPACT PROPERTIES, 3 6 12 15 36 97 129 229 243 252 255 378 445 456 461 IMPLANT, 5 77 80 93 148 150 187 234 235 253 260 293 294 335 417 432 464 IN-VITRO, 79 88 93 135 206 231 268 294 337 417 438 451 466 IN-VIVO, 231 239 293 294 303 417 432 451 466 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION, 52 77 117 124 382 INITIATOR, 79 106 202 212 217 280 378 384 INJECTION MOULDING, 1 3 6 8 10 15 23 29 37 44 50 64 66 74 82 97 116 123 131 147 151 155 160 161 166 167 170 178 184 187 205 208 209 214 216 219 229 238 242 259 269 277 296 311 312 321 327 340 348 351 363 364 367 370 373 374 378 387 415 437 439 447 456 INJECTION MOULDING MACHINE, 426 INJECTION STRETCH BLOW MOULDING, 72 195 INSULATION, 18 117 313 INTERFACIAL ADHESION, 1 136 168 190 391 461 IR SPECTROSCOPY, 46 58 71 89 90 113 122 143 149 156 157 179 220 228 249 280 328 337 356 427 ISOCYANATE, 220 450 470

J JUTE, 1 117 280 437 JUTE COPOLYMER, 280 JUTE FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 1 117 437

K KENAF, 1 18 KITCHENWARE, 205 KONJAC GLUCOMANNAN, 390 KRAFT LIGNIN, 189 KRAFT PAPER, 346

L LACTIC ACID, 25 47 77 81 98 147 155 186 198 226 378 404 LACTIC ACID COPOLYMER, 148 268 273 293 294 378 LACTIDE, 164 228 LACTIDE COPOLYMER, 71 88 96 105 230 287 295 309 378 404 448 464 LACTIDE POLYMER, 1 3 22 25 47 55 56 58 65 71 72 80 81 86 87 94 96 98 105 106 110 111 112 129 130 150 155 162 171 181 184 187 200 203 213 214 228 229 234 237 238 254 259 287 289 290 291 316 333 378 381 396 404 417 434 LACTONE COPOLYMER, 318 421 448 LACTONE POLYMER, 18 106 318 LALLEMANTIA IBERICA, 315 LAMINATE, 12 183 269 378 422 443 468 LAMINATED FILM, 25 209 288 LANDFILL, 20 23 26 51 62 172 222 223 291 305 317 323 410 420 LATEX, 37 288 376 436 LEACHING, 148 373 438 LECITHIN, 440 LEGISLATION, 51 73 115 167 171 186 198 223 302 305 323 347 414 LID, 128 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS, 51 73 124 172 242 259 388 LIGHT DEGRADATION, 25 383 386 389 441 LIGNIN, 61 109 133 136 157 210 277 404 421 427 473 474 LIGNIN COPOLYMER, 130 474 LIGNIN POLYMER, 209 227 425 LIGNIN-ALDEHYDE RESIN, 159 LIGNIN-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 313 427 LIGNIN-PHENOLFORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 61 313

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

LIGNOCELLULOSE, 190 445 LIGNOCELLULOSE COPOLYMER, 280 LINEN, 12 LINOLEIC ACID, 99 315 LINSEED OIL, 1 99 376 384 407 415 LIPASE, 20 149 LIPOSOME, 231 LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY, 393 431 LIQUID CRYSTAL POLYMER, 70 182 191 227 LOAD BEARING, 321 370 391 LONG-TERM, 92 96 240 252 264 333 420 LOOSE FILL, 39 119 128 172 223 305 368 392 422 439 LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE, 19 23 26 38 45 89 147 163 173 178 182 299 310 311 323 345 383 386 404 430 451 LUBRICANT, 140 253 291 415 LYOPHILISATION, 148 393 LYSINE COPOLYMER, 293 LYSINE DIISOCYANATE, 433 LYSINE POLYMER, 21 304

M MACHINERY, 10 72 78 116 141 184 205 237 259 269 289 312 325 415 417 426 428 456 MAIZE, 25 76 147 166 195 245 395 419 MALEIC ANHYDRIDE COPOLYMER, 163 178 354 363 373 437 461 MARINE APPLICATION, 471 MARINE DEGRADATION, 240 MARKET SHARE, 26 40 77 128 146 172 182 222 288 291 327 368 439 MARKET SURVEY, 104 167 MARKET TREND, 80 167 319 MATERIAL REPLACEMENT, 10 18 25 38 64 76 78 94 102 117 119 121 122 124 139 141 147 157 158 172 182 196 219 227 273 313 340 354 366 402 405 422 427 445 446 455 475 MATRIX, 1 18 77 90 101 113 148 253 430 435 443 445 461 MEDICAL APPLICATION, 5 28 41 52 54 58 63 67 77 80 95 101 116 118 125 138 147 148 149 150 160 161 187 197 231 234

235 239 253 254 258 260 270 293 294 298 304 308 335 348 370 378 386 408 412 424 433 439 448 464 472 475 MELT, 3 47 56 84 94 170 181 185 338 373 398 430 466 MELT PROCESSING, 104 146 164 311 456 MELT RHEOLOGY, 162 395 MELT SPINNING, 211 287 464 MELT STRENGTH, 222 311 378 456 MELT TEMPERATURE, 36 208 366 387 415 456 MELTING POINT, 7 24 38 39 66 95 136 144 161 166 200 246 249 255 296 311 354 356 364 370 373 378 456 457 MEMBRANE, 77 149 206 249 293 304 335 355 METABOLISM, 161 294 404 METHYL CELLULOSE, 26 80 METHYL HYDROXYPROPYL CELLULOSE, 141 METHYL OLEATE, 100 MICROBIAL SYNTHESIS, 32 246 247 251 271 285 286 404 408 MICROCAPSULE, 149 304 355 MICROORGANISM, 86 96 103 116 147 167 239 245 281 363 386 404 408 456 MILK, 29 MILK BOTTLE, 25 MINERALISATION, 264 296 404 424 MIXING, 15 82 84 85 89 161 179 190 205 233 361 370 415 426 MODIFICATION, 2 39 46 52 61 70 113 114 149 168 205 224 227 245 260 294 331 354 373 382 386 404 442 MODIFIED, 37 38 113 116 163 383 MODULUS, 1 74 97 99 153 170 176 211 212 269 282 283 366 373 427 430 MOISTURE ABSORPTION, 332 370 MOISTURE CONTENT, 15 24 161 170 181 205 269 311 331 346 363 370 373 385 393 395 405 411 415 419 432 MOISTURE RESISTANCE, 27 141 265 312 322 365 MOISTURE SENSITIVE, 74 398 MOLASSES, 147 189 475 MOLECULAR STRUCTURE, 14

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

21 22 24 29 41 46 61 69 81 83 99 100 105 106 118 134 142 143 149 154 155 156 175 180 189 202 213 219 220 224 236 239 253 267 269 294 299 311 315 330 337 350 360 363 364 370 375 378 382 386 398 399 404 419 421 436 438 441 448 456 458 460 462 464 467 468 473 474 MOLECULAR WEIGHT, 14 24 25 34 39 42 47 65 69 71 94 95 96 98 109 135 149 150 155 180 185 200 203 206 217 220 229 239 263 264 265 283 284 294 307 311 330 333 338 341 342 346 363 378 381 383 386 393 395 401 404 413 417 428 431 456 457 464 472 MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION, 24 47 96 109 383 393 MONOGLYCERIDE, 376 MONTMORILLONITE, 67 MORINGA OLEIFERA, 350 MORPHOLOGY, 5 19 21 41 50 59 66 85 88 90 92 114 118 138 143 148 158 160 161 210 219 225 233 241 249 255 256 269 299 311 355 356 361 363 367 372 373 405 412 430 457 472 476 MOULD FILLING, 269 311 415 456 MOULDING, 1 8 12 15 23 39 53 54 68 74 147 160 189 192 219 311 312 370 385 391 409 411 417 418 419 425 439 440 454 MULCH, 166 219 222 242 296 348 439 MULTILAYER FILM, 25 35 183 MUNICIPAL WASTE, 51 361

N NANOCOMPOSITE, 14 21 193 210 NANOFIBRE, 15 NAPPY, 102 172 242 348 NATURAL FIBRE, 1 8 18 81 117 188 210 369 376 435 443 445 461 NATURAL FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 1 2 6 8 12 15 97 104 117 139 168 190 192 256 269 312 320 332 377 443 461 468 470 NATURAL POLYMER, 6 10 11 12 18 24 26 38 42 52 60 69 70 76

135

Subject Index

77 78 80 81 84 110 123 130 140 149 157 161 166 171 173 175 176 182 187 188 195 202 205 209 210 212 219 229 231 233 238 239 259 261 269 272 273 285 293 294 295 296 304 312 321 336 337 350 356 363 370 376 379 386 393 394 404 405 409 412 414 415 426 432 441 442 467 475 476 NATURAL RESOURCE, 40 44 62 81 107 109 117 155 182 189 278 341 394 NATURAL RUBBER, 40 176 210 343 350 NEEDLE PUNCHING, 332 NERVE REGENERATION, 303 NITROCELLULOSE, 263 NON-WOVEN, 54 77 107 118 155 209 312 339 364 434 439 NON-WOVEN FABRIC, 195 226 396 424 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE, 13 20 46 113 135 142 149 220 228 246 266 267 337 381 401 407 448 460 463 NYLON, 11 34 51 117 218 239 250 276 319 386 425 475

O OCTYL OLEATE, 161 OFFICE FURNITURE, 195 OFFSHORE APPLICATION, 209 423 OIL ABSORPTION, 373 OIL INDUSTRY, 57 OIL RESISTANCE, 147 OIL SEED, 315 OLEIC ACID, 315 OLIVE OIL, 300 OPTICAL PROPERTIES, 24 25 85 91 167 195 276 296 363 364 386 393 429 448 ORTHOPAEDIC APPLICATION, 149 187 213 235 253 293 417 464 OSTOMY BAG, 141 OXIDATION, 23 161 294 334 383 404 441

P PACKAGING, 9 10 25 26 27 29 35 36 38 51 55 60 72 78 80 83 85 94 98 107 108 110 115 116 119 120 121 124 125 130 137 147

136

151 155 158 161 166 167 171 172 174 182 186 195 196 205 209 214 216 219 221 222 227 229 232 238 242 248 259 269 279 288 292 296 297 302 305 307 310 317 334 345 347 348 359 360 361 366 368 369 374 376 378 386 387 390 392 401 402 403 408 411 414 422 424 426 453 456 465 469 475 PACKAGING FILM, 25 26 27 29 35 83 85 108 151 166 167 174 182 195 269 296 310 334 378 401 403 PACKAGING WASTE, 130 166 167 221 302 PAINT, 49 113 189 216 394 446 471 PAPER, 10 23 37 38 115 117 147 166 169 195 196 216 249 345 376 378 388 394 413 PAPER COATING, 128 147 305 364 PATENT, 30 165 198 216 278 301 312 341 345 347 354 425 439 PEANUT, 29 275 PEANUT OIL, 300 PEAT, 376 PECTIN, 394 PEN, 219 PENCIL, 219 PEPTIDE COPOLYMER, 41 PERMEABILITY, 57 162 219 269 294 296 304 326 348 363 364 403 424 PERSONAL STEREO, 64 PH, 24 47 79 114 148 239 393 431 456 PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATION, 29 80 105 148 149 234 293 294 298 355 424 434 465 466 PHENOL FORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 61 113 157 227 427 450 PHENOLIC RESIN, 1 61 70 189 227 275 276 313 PHOSPHOLIPID, 231 PHOTOCROSSLINKING, 91 154 258 304 PHOTODEGRADABLE, 89 386 408 439 444 PHOTODEGRADATION, 20 23 147 161 221 368 386 PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM, 24 257 PHOTOINITIATOR, 384 PHOTOLYSIS, 386 PHOTOOXIDATION, 383 386 441

PHOTOPOLYMERISATION, 22 384 PHOTOSENSITISER, 304 383 384 386 PHOTOSYNTHESIS, 195 278 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, 15 23 38 50 56 95 144 161 166 168 196 211 238 247 254 255 257 263 287 295 296 311 342 354 364 370 374 378 387 391 392 393 397 408 412 424 436 445 462 475 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES, 33 257 359 466 PHYSICOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES, 63 359 PILOT PLANT, 131 155 198 223 302 354 368 436 439 PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRE, 18 280 PLANT POT, 205 376 439 PLANT START-UP, 10 26 55 64 94 107 108 128 146 155 172 182 195 209 222 223 238 312 345 362 PLASTICISATION, 2 66 142 164 178 197 205 208 269 289 326 385 PLASTICISER, 7 29 68 74 118 166 170 179 193 201 269 273 279 299 334 343 363 385 391 396 397 398 400 405 411 421 449 PLASTICS WASTE, 51 130 221 PLATE, 10 410 PLYWOOD, 450 POLLUTION, 76 117 161 POLLUTION CONTROL, 188 227 POLY-BETAHYDROXYBUTYRATE, 298 POLY-D-LACTIDE, 378 POLY-EPSILONCAPROLACTONE, 66 85 86 87 111 112 160 242 256 319 433 POLY-L-LACTIC ACID, 428 POLY-L-LACTIDE, 378 POLYADIPATE, 397 POLYADIPIC ACID, 451 POLYALDEHYDE GULURONATE, 308 POLYALKANOATE, 118 147 239 POLYAMIDE, 11 34 51 117 218 239 250 276 319 386 425 475 POLYAMINO ACID, 239 294 438 POLYANHYDRIDE, 105 148 268 293 294 441 466 POLYASPARTIC ACID, 102 354 375 439

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

POLYBUTYLENE ADIPATE, 283 POLYBUTYLENE SUCCINATE, 283 352 368 420 439 POLYBUTYLENE SUCCINATE ADIPATE, 170 POLYCAPROLACTONE, 39 58 66 84 85 87 96 105 111 112 147 148 152 164 166 170 194 219 222 223 225 228 232 239 255 256 285 293 294 296 298 302 311 316 317 319 326 329 333 338 344 346 363 368 373 381 386 397 414 424 439 POLYCAPROLACTONE TRIOL, 372 POLYCARBONATE, 38 105 276 294 438 441 POLYCARBOXYLATE, 354 POLYDIOXANONE, 148 293 294 POLYEPOXIDE, 1 78 117 189 230 276 315 384 POLYESTER FILM, 111 112 POLYESTER RESIN, 17 276 POLYESTER-URETHANE, 220 330 POLYESTERAMIDE, 34 166 170 208 222 223 239 281 282 295 296 323 327 347 348 364 368 387 410 439 POLYETHER, 249 256 384 POLYETHYLENE, 19 23 26 30 38 39 45 78 89 92 94 104 116 128 132 146 147 161 163 172 173 178 182 186 221 222 232 239 260 274 276 299 301 310 311 317 323 327 329 331 334 341 345 346 347 350 363 366 368 369 376 383 386 404 423 430 444 451 462 POLYETHYLENE GLYCOL, 189 372 POLYETHYLENE GLYCOL DIGLYCIDYL ETHER, 432 POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE, 23 38 51 55 72 94 107 116 182 186 198 259 296 323 348 368 374 387 410 475 POLYGLACTIN, 293 POLYGLUTAMATE, 293 POLYGLYCOLIC ACID, 148 225 239 268 293 294 298 319 387 POLYGLYCOLIDE, 187 213 234 POLYGLYCONATE, 293 POLYHYDROXYALKANOATE, 32 37 38 54 60 105 107 126 128 135 142 154 155 161 172 175 204 227 232 235 239 246

247 267 278 286 293 294 315 319 323 346 358 371 381 399 404 407 429 436 441 457 POLYHYDROXYALKANOIC ACID DEPOLYMERASE, 358 POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATE, 54 87 111 112 118 126 127 147 152 153 161 187 201 208 211 221 227 230 235 239 248 256 271 290 291 293 294 297 298 306 310 318 356 357 367 380 386 387 404 439 447 451 456 461 463 475 476 POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATE DEPOLYMERASE, 463 POLYHYDROXYBUTYRATEVALERATE COPOLYMER, 17 39 232 317 368 410 456 POLYHYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID, 130 267 297 POLYHYDROXYVALERATE, 152 161 227 239 293 387 399 475 POLYHYDROXYVALERIC ACID, 297 POLYLACTIC ACID, 5 7 8 9 17 23 26 30 33 34 35 38 44 53 55 59 60 62 64 93 94 95 107 108 115 116 120 124 128 129 132 134 138 146 147 148 165 166 167 172 179 180 185 186 194 195 196 199 203 209 214 215 220 222 223 225 226 232 236 239 251 252 254 258 259 264 265 268 270 285 291 292 293 294 296 298 302 303 305 307 317 319 323 329 330 335 338 346 347 348 349 352 353 355 362 364 366 368 369 378 386 387 397 400 410 413 414 420 426 428 431 438 439 451 POLYLACTIDE, 1 3 22 25 47 55 56 58 65 71 72 80 81 86 87 94 96 98 105 106 110 111 112 129 130 150 155 162 171 181 184 187 200 203 213 214 228 229 234 237 238 254 259 287 289 290 291 316 333 378 381 396 404 417 434 448 464 469 POLYLACTONE, 18 106 318 POLYLEUCINE, 293 POLYLYSINE, 21 304 POLYMERIC SURFACTANT, 103 354 POLYMERISATION, 22 38 46 48 65 69 71 79 81 88 96 98 100 106 126 127 135 142 148 154 155 164 175 185 196 200 202

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

203 204 212 214 229 230 236 237 239 244 259 266 271 294 307 318 337 354 378 384 404 428 433 440 448 464 POLYMERISATION CATALYST, 41 71 96 98 106 127 135 185 200 230 237 318 468 POLYMERISATION INITIATOR, 79 106 202 212 217 280 378 448 POLYMERISATION KINETICS, 32 106 135 200 372 POLYMERISATION MECHANISM, 79 106 135 142 156 204 237 280 337 357 384 442 463 468 POLYMERISATION TEMPERATURE, 95 220 280 341 354 POLYMETHOXYETHYL GLUTAMATE, 144 POLYMETHYL METHACRYLATE, 182 256 280 293 386 POLYOL, 13 99 189 300 363 459 POLYPEPTIDE, 21 24 41 241 322 354 386 POLYPHENYLLACTIDE, 203 POLYPROPYLENE, 1 23 38 39 45 94 104 116 128 139 146 182 210 221 274 282 299 301 311 312 331 332 363 366 368 369 386 437 439 445 461 POLYPROPYLENE GLYCOL, 7 459 POLYSACCHARIDE, 29 42 48 60 69 88 101 118 121 130 137 149 210 219 245 253 256 293 294 295 324 385 386 390 392 393 394 404 414 421 454 POLYSEBACIC ACID, 268 POLYSTYRENE, 10 38 39 45 50 65 94 128 146 147 172 182 259 302 331 350 366 368 369 386 402 422 439 POLYSUCCINATE, 252 POLYTARTARAMIDE, 239 POLYTRIMETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE, 146 214 362 POLYUREA-URETHANE, 433 POLYURETHANE, 1 13 51 72 90 99 122 137 148 182 189 220 227 230 263 276 293 294 300 312 369 372 386 389 406 422 425 459 POLYVINYL ACETATE, 18 43 89 116 146 223 256 276

137

Subject Index

POLYVINYL ALCOHOL, 17 26 31 39 43 86 141 145 146 147 148 209 227 239 249 256 285 294 295 296 316 323 363 365 386 398 414 439 POLYVINYL CHLORIDE, 23 38 45 51 94 104 128 146 182 260 273 301 331 350 386 440 458 POLYVINYL SACCHARIDE, 48 POROSITY, 13 63 114 148 160 303 310 335 363 376 POTATO, 76 342 PRESSURE-SENSITIVE ADHESIVE, 65 100 288 PRICE, 38 45 54 55 64 77 80 94 102 108 115 130 131 140 147 166 167 205 218 223 259 262 296 297 302 305 323 332 347 349 354 366 368 374 439 475 PROCESSABILITY, 1 147 227 242 296 311 312 321 338 348 353 363 364 373 387 424 438 438 PROCESSING, 5 6 10 11 15 17 29 33 52 54 59 66 69 74 76 80 81 82 84 94 101 116 117 138 147 153 167 170 175 178 181 184 193 195 198 199 205 211 217 219 233 237 241 261 269 276 283 287 289 296 303 310 311 321 328 357 359 367 369 373 378 380 385 390 391 392 403 411 419 421 424 430 435 436 445 456 472 475 PRODEGRADANT, 163 201 386 404 444 451 PRODUCTION CAPACITY, 9 25 26 30 55 102 107 108 128 131 146 155 166 172 195 209 214 222 223 291 312 347 348 349 354 362 368 387 416 439 PROPANETRIOL, 31 74 116 198 269 299 326 385 430 PROSTHESIS, 148 253 293 464 PROTEIN, 2 16 24 83 85 88 118 190 239 294 295 304 354 369 373 393 404 409 411 PROTEIN PLASTIC, 60 285 405 PROTEIN POLYMER, 29 40 80 187 207 261 322 341 382 408 PSEUDOMONAS, 224 429 PSEUDOMONAS OLEOVORANS, 142 154 PSEUDOMONAS PUTIDA, 96 PULLULAN, 414 PULLULAN COPOLYMER, 46 PULP, 117 143 PUNCTURE RESISTANCE, 116 396

138

Q QUALITY, 9 23 24 75 161 262 325 361

R RAILWAY APPLICATION, 18 RAMIE, 18 443 RAW MATERIAL, 76 116 128 146 188 195 198 218 259 300 301 302 324 341 435 454 RAYON, 346 REACTION INJECTION MOULDING, 312 425 REACTIVE EXTRUSION, 199 200 205 217 287 289 325 RECYCLABILITY, 169 288 388 RECYCLABLE, 171 214 RECYCLED CONTENT, 345 446 RECYCLING, 1 10 23 26 38 51 72 84 94 116 117 127 130 137 147 161 166 167 169 177 182 186 219 239 279 288 291 298 302 312 325 327 345 370 373 374 388 454 459 REFUSE BAG, 23 38 62 146 147 166 167 172 205 223 242 292 296 347 416 REFUSE CONTAINER, 279 REGENERATED CELLULOSE, 26 239 263 REINFORCED PLASTIC, 1 2 6 8 10 12 15 18 34 97 104 117 139 168 190 192 193 210 235 256 261 269 276 281 282 293 301 312 320 332 377 413 423 424 425 435 437 443 445 461 468 470 REINFORCEMENT, 1 109 178 219 421 461 RENEWABLE RESOURCE, 1 9 18 25 29 38 39 55 60 68 70 72 73 74 76 81 94 99 100 108 117 120 121 124 129 140 141 146 151 171 176 188 195 196 198 200 202 205 214 218 222 223 232 238 242 288 315 320 323 327 348 350 364 366 368 369 376 378 384 387 388 389 399 401 421 460 469 RESILIENT, 170 195 219 311 392 RESIN TRANSFER MOULDING, 15 312 425 RESOLE RESIN, 157 427 RESORBABLE, 293 294 448 RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, 24 33 38 49 50 57 84 99 113

118 129 149 162 167 180 227 228 239 241 250 257 269 284 287 288 306 311 338 339 344 363 373 378 389 393 395 412 415 RIBOFLAVIN, 44 RICE, 29 77 RIGID, 10 38 94 122 171 205 238 RING OPENING POLYMERISATION, 48 88 96 98 106 164 203 214 230 236 237 266 294 307 318 337 378 404 ROAD BARRIER, 115 ROLLING RESISTANCE, 76 219 324 ROOF, 468 ROPE, 117 ROSIN, 40 91 394 455 467 471 ROSIN ESTER, 91 ROSIN ESTER COPOLYMER, 91 ROTATIONAL MOULDING, 311 418 RUBBER, 16 28 40 76 110 117 122 127 137 176 182 201 210 212 219 220 256 258 276 290 300 308 324 339 343 349 350 376 389 404 408 425 429 436 442 449 457 474

S SACK, 147 296 SAFFLOWER OIL, 300 SANITARY APPLICATION, 77 SANITARY TOWEL, 141 219 SATURATED POLYESTER, 10 11 19 32 34 36 37 38 53 54 60 64 74 84 96 98 108 110 131 147 148 154 155 161 166 167 170 172 179 180 184 185 196 204 211 223 224 233 239 246 247 248 251 252 264 265 267 268 279 283 285 287 290 293 294 296 298 303 311 317 318 319 326 329 330 333 335 338 341 348 353 356 363 386 397 399 404 416 420 428 429 438 441 449 457 461 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 5 13 14 19 43 50 53 66 79 85 88 92 114 143 163 170 176 178 241 280 283 313 328 333 335 350 356 365 395 401 430 431 437 443 448 457 461 462 SCRAP, 1 25 147 166 167 219 239 SCRAP POLYMER, 182 331

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

SCREW DESIGN, 199 395 426 SCREW SPEED, 6 181 205 217 269 344 415 421 456 SEA WATER, 111 112 SEBACIC ACID, 466 SEBACIC ACID COPOLYMER, 268 SELF-DRYING, 24 49 96 116 181 184 243 287 393 SELF-REINFORCED, 34 417 SERVICE LIFE, 133 147 242 SERVICE TEMPERATURE, 425 SEWAGE, 141 SEWAGE TREATMENT, 77 SHEAR, 205 288 338 398 415 SHEAR PROPERTIES, 34 113 180 284 311 328 395 415 417 SHEAR RATE, 180 306 395 415 SHEAR VISCOSITY, 250 269 306 338 SHEET, 10 23 38 74 83 94 116 117 143 297 301 422 SHELF LIFE, 74 116 SHOE, 147 SHORT FIBRE, 1 332 SHRINK WRAPPING, 310 SHRINKAGE, 59 170 353 415 456 SILK, 12 16 118 328 341 442 SINGLE SCREW EXTRUDER, 84 326 395 415 430 SISAL, 1 468 SKIN, 94 141 270 SLUDGE, 247 316 420 SODIUM ALGINATE, 274 308 SOFT DRINK BOTTLE, 72 SOIL, 43 274 299 336 SOIL BURIAL, 43 92 145 161 163 252 263 264 281 283 333 334 350 365 SOLUBILITY, 1 24 29 50 69 77 91 113 116 125 131 147 148 149 159 176 206 219 239 257 293 294 296 326 354 363 386 393 458 465 471 SOLUBLE, 26 141 146 159 193 206 209 222 422 439 SOLUTION CASTING, 148 227 432 SOLUTION POLYMERISATION, 203 337 SOLVENT, 37 49 56 77 95 96 113 149 198 248 267 280 335 393 412 465 SOLVENT CASTING, 56 96 148 160 SORBITOL, 269 363 411 SOY POLYMER, 18 227 312 405 SOY PROTEIN, 18 29 50 187 391

SOY PROTEIN POLYMER, 74 321 370 405 SOYABEAN, 18 77 118 261 279 405 SOYABEAN OIL, 13 142 154 300 SOYABEAN OIL COPOLYMER, 202 212 SPIDER SILK, 341 SPINNING, 59 118 153 195 211 241 287 311 396 403 464 SPONGE, 63 189 SPORTS GOODS, 166 182 SPORTS SHOE, 147 439 SPORTS SURFACE, 439 SPRAY DRYING, 24 49 96 116 181 184 243 287 393 SPRAYING, 149 270 STABILITY, 54 61 71 87 88 99 104 116 141 144 149 202 280 310 311 329 348 355 372 373 387 389 427 STANDARD, 23 38 73 75 77 93 115 186 194 222 232 239 262 305 310 316 317 351 368 436 459 STANDARDISATION, 347 364 STARCH, 2 8 10 12 19 25 29 30 33 38 40 62 66 76 80 81 82 84 89 92 108 121 123 124 125 128 131 136 137 146 147 152 158 161 163 165 166 167 170 172 178 179 182 183 187 193 194 195 197 198 205 216 219 222 233 239 240 250 251 255 269 283 285 288 292 295 296 299 305 311 316 317 319 321 325 326 334 342 347 348 351 361 363 365 368 369 372 376 377 385 386 395 398 404 406 414 415 419 421 422 426 430 435 440 444 451 452 454 458 STARCH ACETATE, 356 376 STARCH COPOLYMER, 217 219 266 319 458 462 STARCH ESTER, 290 376 STARCH POLYMER, 39 116 130 209 223 227 232 242 291 319 329 340 346 385 392 409 419 439 443 452 454 458 STATISTICS, 15 26 38 40 45 55 62 77 80 102 108 110 115 128 130 137 140 146 147 155 161 167 172 174 186 188 198 218 222 223 232 236 238 288 291 302 305 312 317 327 345 357 364 368 369 376 436 STEARIC ACID, 315 STERILISATION, 63 93 213 296

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

STIFFNESS, 1 18 25 37 38 85 94 117 195 238 311 312 370 391 398 422 425 443 475 STRAW, 117 461 STRAW-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 461 STRENGTH, 74 221 275 304 312 370 391 401 403 417 419 423 STRESS, 208 211 269 415 STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES, 59 85 153 241 380 385 433 457 459 468 STRETCH BLOW MOULDING, 195 238 STYRENE COPOLYMER, 217 309 458 SUCROSE, 147 267 411 SUCROSE ACRYLATE COPOLYMER, 79 SUGAR, 77 81 147 188 195 198 388 475 SUGAR ACID ESTER, 81 SUGAR BEET FIBRE, 195 366 SUGAR BEET PULP, 77 379 SUGAR CANE, 61 143 320 427 SUGAR COPOLYMER, 288 SUNFLOWER OIL, 300 SURFACE DEGRADATION, 294 456 SURFACE PROPERTIES, 104 143 144 328 367 SURFACE TREATMENT, 15 56 139 219 260 332 461 470 SURFACTANT, 103 354 369 382 459 SURGICAL ADHESIVE, 294 SURGICAL APPLICATION, 54 77 93 149 150 161 187 213 235 253 293 298 303 355 417 424 464 472 475 SURGICAL GOWN, 54 77 93 150 161 187 213 293 298 SUSTAINABILITY, 32 73 155 388 410 SUTURE, 77 147 149 293 294 378 464 SWELLING, 15 24 46 79 99 154 258 293 363 382 406 464 465 SYNTHESIS, 22 32 33 41 42 46 61 65 70 79 83 91 95 96 100 102 103 114 118 133 134 135 142 143 144 153 154 157 159 162 163 165 175 185 189 196 202 204 210 212 217 220 224 226 227 230 243 246 247 251 266 267 271 278 280 286 288 289 295 304 314 315 318 322 335 337 341 372 379 384 389 399

139

Subject Index

408 427 428 429 433 441 442 448 459 475 SYNTHETIC WOOD, 301 345

T TABLEWARE, 55 60 124 125 166 167 195 219 239 305 327 439 TALC, 64 TAMPON, 77 TANNIN, 57 113 157 450 TANNIN-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 275 450 460 TAPE, 288 TAPE PLAYER, 64 TDI, 220 TEAR STRENGTH, 116 353 363 433 TEMPERATURE, 24 42 46 53 54 116 117 153 181 184 195 205 239 252 264 265 269 282 301 311 329 346 361 370 373 376 392 393 395 415 421 439 456 464 TENSILE MODULUS, 19 68 158 190 310 331 387 445 TENSILE PROPERTIES, 1 3 7 8 12 15 19 33 36 50 66 68 74 77 82 89 92 94 99 111 112 116 129 142 143 152 153 158 160 176 179 190 200 205 208 211 218 228 229 255 265 282 283 310 311 326 331 332 333 343 352 366 373 378 387 392 396 412 413 415 430 433 437 457 458 459 461 TENSILE STRENGTH, 1 8 19 36 66 68 74 77 94 99 111 112 116 129 142 143 152 153 158 160 176 190 205 208 218 229 282 332 366 373 378 413 415 464 TENSILE STRESS, 111 310 311 TEREPHTHALIC ACID, 11 38 107 167 174 TEST, 7 10 20 22 37 50 56 63 81 103 159 163 165 167 190 192 194 198 205 235 238 239 264 268 269 296 311 316 328 329 359 360 361 363 367 380 381 393 400 401 406 415 417 431 435 445 448 454 456 458 459 461 462 463 468 472 TEST METHOD, 19 23 77 93 116 161 167 187 221 222 232 259 288 299 339 346 347 364 424 439 443 TEXTILE, 72 189 195 287 TEXTILE APPLICATION, 77 80

140

81 198 226 259 296 TEXTILE FINISH, 280 THERMAL ANALYSIS, 31 71 136 149 161 193 269 314 329 415 417 430 459 THERMAL DEGRADATION, 23 31 61 87 113 136 142 153 161 173 181 265 311 312 314 334 343 380 383 457 THERMAL INSULATION, 18 117 313 THERMAL PROPERTIES, 7 21 24 31 53 54 59 66 67 118 134 135 144 159 161 166 173 180 212 225 233 239 246 249 255 267 269 276 283 287 296 300 311 321 329 350 354 356 363 372 373 377 378 400 411 412 415 421 433 448 456 459 464 476 THERMAL STABILITY, 1 54 55 61 64 71 87 94 99 104 141 144 202 257 280 296 310 311 329 372 389 427 THERMOFORMING, 9 25 38 72 94 108 128 167 171 195 205 214 219 238 259 269 296 351 363 364 366 374 378 387 425 THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS, 21 31 61 68 71 79 87 113 136 142 157 159 163 280 329 343 415 427 430 457 468 THERMOOXIDATION, 334 383 THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMER, 65 230 389 404 THERMOSET, 1 11 18 48 49 61 67 69 77 78 80 81 93 101 110 113 117 119 121 122 123 127 134 139 152 156 157 159 168 176 187 188 189 192 198 202 207 210 212 213 215 243 258 259 262 263 275 276 290 300 301 308 309 312 313 314 315 320 322 324 339 349 351 384 393 402 406 409 414 422 425 427 443 449 450 460 468 474 THROMBOGENICITY, 149 293 TISSUE ENGINEERING, 28 41 58 101 148 160 293 438 TISSUE REGENERATION, 293 294 335 438 TOILET, 141 TOLUENE DIISOCYANATE, 13 220 TOOTHBRUSH, 439 TOUGHNESS, 7 37 38 205 212 252 283 312 353 405 475 TOXICITY, 77 101 117 140 149

182 206 239 260 294 296 404 466 TOYS, 182 273 439 TRANSFER MOULDING, 15 TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 14 21 50 85 138 163 176 231 241 401 TRANSPARENCY, 24 25 85 167 195 448 TRANSPARENT, 164 348 387 TRAY, 38 83 116 128 171 172 209 222 376 426 454 TRIGLYCERIDE, 99 100 TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER, 17 44 82 181 185 199 200 205 217 269 289 325 326 373 392 395 428 430 TYRE, 76 124 125 146 219 324 TYROSINE, 438

U UNDERWATER APPLICATION, 322 471 UNSATURATED POLYESTER, 1 11 17 154 227 276 312 320 UPHOLSTERY, 72 155 UREA-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN, 192 474 URETHANE ELASTOMER, 122 UV CURING, 154 260 267 UV DEGRADATION, 147 334 UV IRRADIATION, 20 77 154 383 UV RESISTANCE, 456 UV STABILITY, 25 389

V VALERATE COPOLYMER, 86 126 183 VALEROLACTONE COPOLYMER, 318 VAPOUR PERMEABILITY, 167 296 326 403 VASCULAR GRAFT, 293 VEGETABLE FIBRE, 376 VEGETABLE OIL, 1 99 205 300 315 334 369 384 415 459 VEHICLE, 169 312 VETERINARY APPLICATION, 219 434 VIBRATION DAMPING, 117 422 VIBRATIONAL SPECTROSCOPY, 90 113 149 168 179 220 249 337 427 VISCOELASTIC PROPERTIES, 180 197 219 269 306 VISCOSE, 336

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Subject Index

VISCOSITY, 24 38 99 113 129 149 180 228 239 241 250 257 269 284 288 306 311 338 339 363 373 389 393 415 433 450 460 VITAMIN, 141 362 VITAMIN B2, 44 VULCANISATION, 176 343

W WADDING, 72 WALL THICKNESS, 10 205 312 WALLPAPER, 117 WASTE, 1 25 31 39 51 72 130 147 166 167 189 195 219 221 239 301 302 361 376 WASTE COLLECTION, 26 305 323 347 454 WASTE DISPOSAL, 10 18 23 25 38 94 110 116 119 121 166 167 171 182 194 222 246 279 291 330 346 348 361 376 387 388 420 421 436 443 454 469 WASTE MANAGEMENT, 26 51 72 76 110 121 130 186 223 227 232 238 305 410 435 454 WASTE WATER, 77 113 WASTE WOOD, 446 WATER, 10 13 23 38 77 116 167 196 248 262 363 372 378 385 392 393 395 398 411 459 WATER ABSORPTION, 15 18 74

143 148 163 173 193 274 293 373 391 398 431 445 446 WATER CONTENT, 205 269 311 373 385 411 415 419 432 WATER RESISTANCE, 145 174 183 263 269 321 322 326 365 370 391 409 452 456 WATER SOLUBILITY, 1 24 26 29 131 141 146 147 148 149 159 193 206 209 219 293 296 363 386 422 439 WATER VAPOUR PERMEABILITY, 167 296 326 403 WATER-BASED, 78 189 216 290 WAX, 109 205 WEAR RESISTANCE, 24 77 324 WEATHERING, 334 WEIGHT LOSS, 47 92 163 173 240 329 333 346 359 404 420 432 456 WELD LINE, 373 456 WHEAT BRAN, 379 WHEAT GLUTEN, 29 50 373 WHEAT STARCH, 17 76 WHEAT STRAW, 109 WHEY-BASED RESIN, 85 WINDOW, 301 WOOD, 18 23 104 189 277 301 331 345 376 394 404 450 467 WOOD ADHESIVE, 275 WOOD FIBRE, 1 190 205 345 470

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

WOOD FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 1 15 131 470 WOOD FLOUR, 136 WOOD PULP, 190 WOOD REPLACEMENT, 446 WOOL, 117 WOUND DRESSING, 63 101 253 424 448 WOUND HEALING, 101 270

X X-RAY SCATTERING, 13 14 20 21 65 66 90 103 114 157 158 168 178 211 235 269 299 337 389 395 472 XANTHAN, 390

Y YIELD, 37 66 76 117 154 208 247 271 341 459 YOGHURT POT, 25 166 YOUNG’S MODULUS, 8 12 46 49 66 92 111 112 153 205 239 252 310 311 405 438 461

Z ZEIN PROTEIN, 29 83 409

141

Subject Index

142

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Company Index

Company Index A

B

ACADEMIA SINICA, 356 401 ACS DIV. OF POLYMER CHEMISTRY, 42 ADVANCED ENVIRONMENTAL RECYCLING TECHNOLOGIES INC., 345 AERT CORP., 301 AGRO INDUSTRIE RECHERCHES ET DEVELOPMENTS, 170 AICHI, PREFECTURAL GOVERNMENT, 56 AJOU UNIVERSITY, 444 AKEBONO BRAKE R&D CENTER LTD., 87 AKRON UNIVERSITY, 154 ALBERT-LUDWIGS UNIVERSITY, 133 421 AMERICAN EXCELSIOR CO., 422 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING & MATERIALS, 77 93 AMERICAN WOOD FIBERS, 301 AMES NATIONAL LABORATORY, 198 AMPRICA SPA, 9 ANDERSEN CORP., 301 APACK AG, 38 APME, 259 ARCHER DANIELS MIDLAND, 198 ARGO INDUSTRIE RESEARCHES & DEVELOPMENTS, 198 ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY, 198 ARIZONA CHEMICAL BV, 315 ASHLAND CHEMICAL INC., 467 ASPEN RESEARCH CORP., 199 ASTM, 262 346 ASTON UNIVERSITY, 318 397 472 ATHENS NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 95 ATO-DLO AGROTECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 385 419 AUBURN UNIVERSITY, 408 AUDUBON SUGAR INSTITUTE, 198 AUTOBAR, 166 259 AVILA HOSPITAL PROVINCIAL, 293 294

B & F PLASTICS, 301 BANGOR UNIVERSITY, 168 BARCELONA UNIVERSIDAD POLITECNICA DE CATALUNYA, 144 BASF, 38 131 166 167 174 198 296 BASILICATA UNIVERSITY, 16 BATH UNIVERSITY, 156 168 468 BAUSANO GROUP, 301 BAYER, 38 102 166 167 296 354 360 387 BEIJING INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY, 356 BERLIN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 157 280 281 282 BERSTORFF GMBH, 205 BIMO, 238 259 BIO PAC BIOLOGISCHE VERPACKUNGSSYSTEME, 454 BIODEGRADABLE PRODUCTS INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE, 262 BIOFIBRES, 117 BIOMASS INDUSTRIAL CROPS LTD., 169 BIOMER, 447 BIOPLASTICS POLYMERS & COMPOSITES, 38 BIOPROGRESS TECHNOLOGY LTD., 141 BIOTEC GMBH, 340 BIRMINGHAM POLYMERS INC., 213 BLACHOWNIA INSTITUTE OF HEAVY ORGANIC SYNTHESIS, 272 BOY GMBH, 426 BRUNEL UNIVERSITY, 3 82 187 BUCHEON TECHNICAL COLLEGE, 392 BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS CO., 115

C CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY, 21 41 322 CAMBRIDGE BIOPOLYMERS, 109 CAMPINAS UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL, 335

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

CANADA, DEFENCE RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT, 355 CANADA, ENVIRONMENT & PLASTICS INDUSTRY COUNCIL, 77 CANADA, NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, 329 CANADIAN PLASTICS INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION, 77 CARGILL, 195 238 259 CARGILL DOW, 9 25 38 44 55 81 94 107 120 132 147 162 166 180 184 186 188 195 196 198 214 215 226 229 238 259 265 296 302 307 349 366 387 CASTOR OIL INC., 140 CATALUNA UNIVERSIDAD POLITECNICA, 239 CEARA UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL, 393 CEMAGREF, 166 CERMAV-CNRS, 193 CERTAINTEED CORP., 301 CETIM, 269 CHEMQUEST GROUP INC., 40 CHENGDU INSTITUTE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 356 CHINA NATIONAL KEY LABORATORY OF ADVANCED COMPOSITES, 136 CHINA NATIONAL NATURAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION, 442 CHINA TEXTILE UNIVERSITY, 406 CHINESE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 88 228 CHRONOPOL INC., 265 378 CHUNG YUAN UNIVERSITY, 114 CINCINNATI MILACRON, 301 CIRAD-SAR, 411 CIUFFOGATTO, 219 CLEMSON UNIVERSITY, 71 CNR, 225 CNRS, 224 431 COLORADO SCHOOL OF MINES, 59 129 180 COMPTRUSION CORP., 301 CON-AGRA, 469 CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY, 474 CONNECTICUT UNIVERSITY, 298 COPENHAGEN ROYAL

143

Company Index

VETERINARY & AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, 60 CORNELL UNIVERSITY, 18 258 CORTEC CORP., 30 38 CPC INTERNATIONAL INC., 452 CRANE PLASTICS, 301 CREANDO FIBRETECH, 117 CRILA PLASTICS INC., 301 CSIC, 187 CUBAN INSTITUTE OF SUGAR CANE DERIVATIVES, 235 CZECH REPUBLIC ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 299

D DAICEL CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES, 20 DAINIPPON INK & CHEMICAL, 38 302 DEBRECEN UNIVERSITY, 220 DELAWARE UNIVERSITY, 21 100 DELFT UNIVERSITY, 208 DETROIT TOOL & ENGINEERING CO., 10 DEUTSCHE FORSCHUNGSANSTALT FUER LUFT-& RAUMFAHRT, 435 DIACEL CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES LTD., 302 DITECO LTDA., 450 DLR, 1 443 DMT AMERICAS, 94 DONLAR BIOSYNTREX CORP., 102 DONLAR CORP., 354 DOW CHEMICAL, 78 140 184 195 238 259 366 DOW PERFORMANCE CHEMICALS, 38 DRESDEN INSTITUTE FOR POLYMER RESEARCH EV, 211 287 DRILLING SPECIALTIES CO., 57 DUNLOP JAPAN, 94 DUNLOP SPORTS CO. LTD., 25 DUPONT, 11 55 107 198 214 259 341 387 469 DUPONT DE NEMOURS E.I. & CO., 166 167 253 296 374 DUPONT PACKAGING & INDUSTRIAL POLYMERS, 10 38 DURA PRODUCTS

144

INTERNATIONAL, 301

G

E E & A ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTANTS INC., 346 EAGLEBROOK PRODUCTS, 301 EARTHSHELL CORP., 10 38 EASTMAN CHEMICAL, 9 36 38 49 166 167 189 EC POLYMERS, 301 ECM BIOFILMS INC., 23 ECOCHEM, 469 ECOSYNTHETIX INC., 288 ECOVER PRODUCTS NV, 198 EINDHOVEN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, 457 ELDIB ENGINEERING & RESEARCH INC., 354 ELECTROSOLS, 270 EMBRAPA, 210 EMORY UNIVERSITY, 241 ENVIRONMENTAL POLYMERS, 116 ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES CO., 302 ESIEC, 415 EUROMASTER, 44 EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDISATION, 262

G.H. ASSOCIATES, 72 GALACTIC LABORATORIES SA, 236 GENENCOR INTERNATIONAL INC., 11 198 GENEVA UNIVERSITY, 465 GOODYEAR, 76 324 GOODYEAR RESEARCH CENTER, 219 GOTTINGEN GEORG-AUGUSTUNIVERSITAT, 457 GOTTINGEN UNIVERSITY, 358 GRANIT SA, 133 GRAZ TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITAT, 32 GREEN EARTH PACKAGING INC., 10 GREEN LIGHT PRODUCTS, 119 GREEN PACKAGING SDN BHD, 10 GRENOBLE, JOSEPH FOURIER UNIVERSITY, 168 377 GREPAC, 415 GRONINGEN UNIVERSITY, 217 433 457 464 GUJARAT SCIENCE COLLEGE, 89

H

F FAR EASTERN TEXTILE LTD., 11 FERRY INDUSTRIES INC., 418 FGUP ‘NII POLIMEROV, 130 FIAT RESEARCH CENTER, 8 FIBER COMPOSITES CORP., 301 FIBERWEB SODOCA, 434 FILMOTECA ESPANOLA, 24 FLUNTERA AG, 363 FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY, 445 FORMICA INC., 198 FORMTECH ENTERPRISES INC., 301 FRAUNHOFER-INSTITUT FUER ANG. POLYMERFORSCHUNG, 98 FRAUNHOFER-INSTITUT FUER CHEMISCHE TECHNOLOGIE, 277 FREEDONIA GROUP, 80 FREIBURG UNIVERSITY, 133 FROST & SULLIVAN, 218 FUKUI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, 189

H.B. TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, 83 HAAS F., MACHINERY OF AMERICA, 365 HACETTEPE UNIVERSITY, 96 187 HALLE, MARTIN-LUTHERUNIVERSITAT, 380 HAMBURG UNIVERSITY, 448 HANYANG UNIVERSITY, 392 HARCOURT BUTLER TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, 70 HAVANA UNIVERSITY, 235 HELSINKI UNIVERSITY, 22 34 330 473 HELSINKI UNIVERSITY, CENTRAL HOSPITAL, 417 HERCULES INC., 284 394 HIGH PLAINS CORP., 198 HOECHST TRESPAPHAN GMBH, 94 HOFF FOREST PRODUCTS, 301 HOKKAIDO UNIVERSITY, 284 375 HONG KONG POLYTECHNIC

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Company Index

UNIVERSITY, 246 247 HUHTAMAKI OYJ, 10 HYDROTOX GMBH, 316

I IASI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 173 ICI, 37 147 259 456 ICI AGRICULTURAL DIV., 476 ICMA, 301 IDROPLAST, 147 296 IFTS, 415 ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY, 409 IMRE, 149 INDIA, CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF PLASTICS ENGNG.& TECH., 157 INDIA, CENTRAL LEATHER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 113 143 INDIA, REGIONAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, 343 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY, 334 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 176 343 350 389 INDORE DEVI AHILYA UNIVERSITY, 52 INHA UNIVERSITY, 86 306 INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES LTD., 412 INRA, 245 269 379 INSTITUT FUER TECHNIK IN GARTENBAU UND LANDWIRTSCHAFT, 376 INSTITUTO DE CIENCIA Y TECNOLOGIA DE POLIMEROS, 24 148 149 293 294 386 INTEMA, 235 INTERFACE INC., 198 INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATES LTD., 453 IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, 74 104 157 202 212 264 265 280 321 370 391 405 IOWA UNIVERSITY, 48 IPER, 25 ISOTIS NV, 187 ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 142 ISTITUTO DI RICERCA E TECNOLOGIA DELLE

MATERIE PLASTICHE, 233 255 256 461

J JAPAN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY CORP., 204 JAPAN STEEL WORKS, 185 428 JAPAN, BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS SOCIETY, 186 JAPAN, HEIAN JOGAKUIN COLLEGE, 92 JAPAN, INSTITUTE OF PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL RESEARCH, 87 201 JAPAN, NATIONAL INST. FOR ADVANCED INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH, 187 JAPAN, NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, 20 JAPAN, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HEALTH SCIENCES, 42 JAPAN, ORGANICS RECYCLING ASSOCIATION, 186 JERUSALEM HEBREW UNIVERSITY, 466 JON WAI MACHINERY WORKS CO. LTD., 426 JOSE ANTONIO ECHEVARRIA POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY, 235

K KAISERSLAUTERN UNIVERSITY, 12 KANAGAWA UNIVERSITY, 463 KANEKA CORP., 54 KANSAI UNIVERSITY, 134 KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY, 261 KASSEL UNIVERSITAT, 15 331 KINKI UNIVERSITY, 92 KOREA, ADVANCED INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 103 266 286 357 KOREA, INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 86 251 420 KTM INDUSTRIES, 78 KURARAY CO., 302 KYOTO BUNKA COLLEGE, 328 KYOTO INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 185 230

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

KYOTO UNIVERSITY, 164 189 333 337 432 KYUSHU UNIVERSITY, 53

L LA HABANA UNIVERSIDAD, 149 LEAR CORP., 301 LENOX POLYMERS, 425 LIEGE UNIVERSITY, 200 237 289 LIMERICK UNIVERSITY, 150 LIMOGES UNIVERSITY, 245 379 LIONS ADHESIVES INC., 388 LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY, 187 LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY ROYAL HOSPITAL, 101 LLOYD INSTRUMENTS LTD., 157 LODZ INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL FIBRES, 63 274 336 LODZ TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 249 LOMONOSOV INSTITUTE OF FINE CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY, 310 LONDON UNIVERSITY, IMPERIAL COLLEGE, 168 LOUISIANA-PACIFIC POLYMERS, 301 LOWELL MASSACHUSETTS UNIVERSITY, 352 353 413 414

M MADRID INSTITUTO DE CIENCIA Y TEC. DE POLIM., 144 MADRID UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE, 24 MAINE UNIVERSITY, 104 MANCHESTER METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY, 386 MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY, 168 MARTIN MARIETTA MATERIALS, 423 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 28 MASSACHUSETTS UNIVERSITY, 7 135 252 283 367 390 400 MASSEY UNIVERSITY, 79 MASTER BUILDERS, 423

145

Company Index

MASTER ROPEMAKERS, 117 MATTEL TOYS, 273 MAX-PLANCK-INSTITUT FUER KOLLOID- & GRENZFLAECH., 403 MCDONALD’S, 77 MCGILL UNIVERSITY, 4 355 MELITTA, 363 METABOLIX INC., 37 38 107 278 MG MARGA DESIGN, 117 MICHIGAN BIOTECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE, 458 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY, 38 68 73 97 139 194 203 232 285 MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY, 308 MIDWEST CONSORTIUM FOR SUSTAINABLE BIOBASED PRODUCTS & BIOENERGY, 198 MIKRON INDUSTRIES, 301 MINHO UNIVERSIDADE, 82 136 160 187 197 MINNESOTA UNIVERSITY, 13 65 126 309 338 373 MITSUBISHI CHEMICAL CORP., 375 MITSUBISHI GAS CHEMICAL, 38 302 MITSUBISHI PLASTICS, 64 94 MITSUI CHEMICAL, 94 186 302 MOBIL CHEMICAL CO., 446 MONS UNIVERSITY, 237 MONSANTO, 37 118 147 166 267 278 297 MONTEDISON SPA, 219 MONTPELLIER II UNIVERSITE, 318 MONTREAL ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, 430 MONTREAL MCGILL UNIVERSITY, 463 MOTILAL NEHRU REGIONAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, 52 MUENSTER UNIVERSITY, 4 MUMBAI UNIVERSITY, 165 227 243 MUNSTER, WESTFALISCHE WILHELMS UNIVERSITY, 127 175 267 399

N NAPIER UNIVERSITY, 117 NAPLES SECOND UNIVERSITY, 225 NAPLES UNIVERSITY, 372 NARA WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY,

146

92 NASA, 117 NATIONAL STARCH & CHEMICAL, 78 123 290 NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES, 301 NESTE OY, 434 NESTE OY CHEMICALS, 396 NEW YORK STATE UNIVERSITY, 268 361 NIIGATA UNIVERSITY, 328 NIPPON SHOKUBAI, 302 NISSEI ASB MACHINE CO. LTD., 426 NOF CORP., 231 NORTE FLUMINENSE UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL, 320 NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY, 241 NORTH FLUMINENSE STATE UNIVERSITY, 235 NORTHWOOD PLASTICS INC., 301 NOVA PHARMACEUTICAL CORP., 466 NOVADOUR, 166 NOVAMONT, 6 9 38 76 84 124 125 166 219 242 296 311 319 359 363 NSF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER RESEARCH CENTER, 179

O OHIO C.W., 301 ORSTOM, 431 OSAKA UNIVERSITY, 20 OTSUMA WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY, 459 OWENS CORNING, 198

P PAIS VASCO UNIVERSIDAD, 248 PALERMO UNIVERSITY, 84 311 PARIS INSTITUT PASTEUR, 224 PETRU PONI INSTITUTE OF MACROMOLECULAR CHEMISTRY, 173 PHOENIX COLOR & COMPOUNDING INC., 301 PIRA INTERNATIONAL, 117 PISA UNIVERSITY, 31 43 145 PITTSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY, 99 300

PLASTIC TECHNOLOGIES INC., 94 POHANG UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 402 POLAND INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL FIBRES, 159 POLARCUP, 166 297 POLIMEROV FGUP NII, 110 POLYWOOD PRODUCTS, 301 PORT HARCOURT UNIVERSITY, 275 PREFORM BIOCOMPOSITES, 1 PROCTER & GAMBLE, 38 54 PROTEIN TECHNOLOGIES INTERNATIONAL, 405 PUERTO RICO UNIVERSITY, 240 PUNJAB UNIVERSITY, 182 PUSAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, 19

Q QUEBEC UNIVERSITE A TROIS-RIVIERES, 470 QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY AT KINGSTON, 168 QUIMICOS CORONEL SA, 450

R R & I CONSULTING INTERNATIONAL, 398 RAVENSHAW COLLEGE, 29 157 280 314 389 RCI CONSULTING, 167 REIMS UNIVERSITY, 170 REMCON PLASTICS, 418 RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, 48 384 RHONE-POULENC RHODIA AG, 421 RICE UNIVERSITY, 303 RIGA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 331 RIKEN INSTITUTE, 204 RIO DE JANEIRO PONTIFICIA UNIVERSIDADE, 320 RODENBURG BIOPOLYMERS, 131 ROHM & HAAS CO., 354 ROME UNIVERSITA LA SAPIENZA, 46 RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 90 234 310

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Company Index

S SAARBRUCKEN INSTITUT FUER NEUE MATERIALIEN, 117 SABANCI UNIVERSITY, 154 SAEHAN INDUSTRIES, 11 SAINSBURY J., PLC, 27 SAITAMA INSTITUTE OF PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL RESEARCH, 271 SAM YANG GENEX RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 392 SANGMYUNG UNIVERSITY, 86 SANT LONGOWAL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, 39 182 SAO FRANCISCO UNIVERSIDADE, 152 SAO PAULO INSTITUTO DE PESQUISAS TECNOLOGICAS, 192 SAO PAULO UNIVERSITY, 61 192 313 427 SEOUL HONG IK UNIVERSITY, 179 SEOUL NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, 91 SHIMADZU, 53 94 302 SHORE PACIFIC LLC, 301 SHOWA DENKO, 38 SHOWA HIGHPOLYMER, 186 252 302 416 SHRI G.S., INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, 52 SINGAPORE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, 187 SK CHEMICALS CO. LTD., 38 SOCIETY OF PLASTICS ENGINEERS, 78 SOFIA UNIVERSITY, 12 SOLVAY INTEROX INC., 38 SOLVAY INTEROX LTD., 424 SOLVAY SA, 166 SONY, 25 38 64 SOUTHERN MISSISSIPPI UNIVERSITY, 207 STAR GUARD INC., 301 STARPOL INC., 449 STAZIONE SPERIMENTALE PER LA CARTA, CELLULOSA E FIBRE TESSILI, 461 STOCKHOLM KUNGL TEKNISKA HOGSKOLAN, 441 STOCKHOLM ROYAL

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 383 404 451 STOROPACK, 422 STRANDEX CORP., 301 STRATHCLYDE UNIVERSITY, 153 STRUCTURAL PRESERVATION SYSTEMS, 423 STRYKER OSTEONICS, 150 STUTTGART INSTITUT FUR KUNSTSTOFFTECHNOLOGIE, 200 STUTTGART UNIVERSITY, 237 287 289 SUPOL GMBH, 205 218 SUZUKA UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCE, 254 SWEDEN, NATIONAL SCHOOL OF PAPER MAKING, 117 SWEDEN, ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 85 105 106 381 SWEDISH INSTITUTE FOR FIBRE & POLYMER RESEARCH, 181 SWEETHEART CUP CO., 10 SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 436

T TAICHUNG PLASTICS INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT CENTRE, 344 TAIPEI VETERANS GENERAL HOSPITAL, 304 TAIWAN, CHINESE NAVAL ACADEMY, 114 TAIWAN NATIONAL CENTRAL UNIVERSITY, 114 TAIWAN NATIONAL YANG MING UNIVERSITY, 304 TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, 34 326 417 TANTA UNIVERSITY, 145 TATE & LYLE, 11 TATE & LYLE CITRIC ACID, 198 TECHSCOPE LLC, 118 TEICH FLEXIBLES LTD., 94 TEIJIN, 11 TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY, 5 TERMOPLAST, 171 TESCO STORES LTD., 62 TETRA PAK, 238 259 TEXAS A & M UNIVERSITY, 405 TEXAS UNIVERSITY, 5 138 303 THESSALONIKI ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY, 66 178 295

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

THUERINGISCHES INSTITUT FUER TEXTIL- & KUNSTSTOFF-FORSCHUNG EV, 332 TIANJIN NANKAI UNIVERSITY, 14 TIANJIN UNIVERSITY, 67 TNO, 51 TOHOKU UNIVERSITY, 337 TOKYO INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 87 191 201 TOPCHIEV INSTITUTE OF PETROCHEMICAL SYNTHESIS, 153 TORAY, 11 TOULOUSE ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE DES INGENIEURES EN ARTS CHIMI, 2 TOYOHASHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, 47 56 111 112 254 333 TRENTO UNIVERSITY, 148 TRESPAPHAN, 238 259 TRESPAPHAN SA, 35 TREX CO., 301 TRICOMED SA, 69 TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY, 442 TUBITAK MARMARA RESEARCH CENTER, 142 154 TWENTE UNIVERSITY, 3 187

U UCB FILMS LTD., 27 UK GOVERNMENT, 117 UK HEALTH & SAFETY EXECUTIVE, 455 UKRAINE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 90 UMIST, 168 UNESP, 210 UNION CAMP CORP., 339 UNION CARBIDE, 38 UNITIKA, 25 URAL STATE UNIVERSITY, 250 URETHANE SOY SYSTEMS, 13 US AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE, 17 US ARMY SOLDIER SYSTEMS COMMAND, 283 US BIODEGRADABLE PRODUCTS INSTITUTE, 23 75 US COMPOSTING COUNCIL, 262 US DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE, 50

147

Company Index

140 158 168 183 198 240 342 462 US DEPT. OF ENERGY, 37 188 198 US FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION, 81 US FOOD & DRUG ADMINISTRATION, 184 198 206 US FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY, 437 US GRAINS COUNCIL, 177 186 US NATIONAL BIOENERGY CENTER, 188 US NATIONAL CENTER FOR AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION RESEARCH, 33 365 395 US NATIONAL INST. OF STANDARDS & TECHNOLOGY, 58 USP, 210

V VALE DO ACARAU UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL, 393 VERTEC BIOSOLVENTS LLC, 198

148

WISCONSIN UNIVERSITY, 445 WITWATERSRAND UNIVERSITY, 460 WOLFF WALSRODE AG, 166 360 WROCLAW TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, 299 WUHAN UNIVERSITY, 263 401

VIVADOUR, 166 VTT BIOTECHNOLOGY & FOOD RESEARCH, 326 VTT CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY, 216

W WAGENINGEN AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, 407 WAGENINGEN AGROTECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, 190 382 WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY, 187 WALES, UNIVERSITY, 109 WARNER-LAMBERT CO., 363 WARSAW INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 440 WARWICK MANUFACTURING GROUP, 169 WARWICK UNIVERSITY, 6 122 169 WENGER MANUFACTURING CO., 78 WERNER & PFLEIDERER GMBH, 325 WILLOW RIDGE PLASTICS INC., 23

Y YAMAGATA UNIVERSITY, 271 YAMATAKE BUILDING SYSTEMS CO. LTD., 20 YORK UNIVERSITY, 121 YORKE A., ENGINEERING LTD., 418 YUCATAN CENTRO DE INVESTIGACION CIENTIFICA, 168

Z ZENECA BIO PRODUCTS, 456 ZENECA LTD., 297 ZONGULDAK KARAELMAS UNIVERSITY, 142 154 ZURICH EIDGENOSSISCHE TECHNISCHE HOCHSCHULE, 8 429

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

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