BIBLE
REVIEW
V O L U M E
XX
N U M B E R
3
J U N E
2 0 0 4
2 Readers Reply Inspired The Bold Apostle Pharaoh’s Daughter
8 Columnist Ronald S. Hendel Eve Ate the Apple 1 0 Jo ts & Tittles Two-Faced Shroud What America Believes BR Grows Up The Bible in the News L e o n a r d J. G r e e n s p o o n 4 1 Rible Books The Passion o f the Christ review by Stephen J. Patterson 4 5 Authors 48
Gallery The Beast from the Sea
12 Samson et Datila DAN W. C L A N T O N , J R . The popular image of Delilah as evil temptress may have more in common with a 19th-century French opera than the Bible.
20 D ealing with the Devil DAVI D R. C A R T L I D G E What happened after the Fall? A collection of ancient apocryphal tales supplements the brief biblical account of what happened to Adam, Eve and Satan east of Eden.
27 Pilate in the Dock For the Defense P AUL L. MA I E R
For the Prosecution S T E P HE N J. P ATTERS ON Was Pilate reluctant to condemn Jesus? An historian and a Bible scholar debate the evidence.
34 Acting Like Apes
'
ON THE COVER: Jesus stands on the gates of Hell (marked with a skull) in this Japanese ink and gouache painting of the Anastasis (Resurrection), by contemporary New York artist Stefan Arteni. With his right hand, Jesus pulls Adam up; in his left hand, he holds a scroll. According to early Christian tradition, after Jesus died, he descended into Hell, where he raised the Old Testament heroes from the dead and invited them to join him in heaven. The scroll Jesus holds in images of the descent (also called the Harrowing of Hell) may stem from a medieval tradition that remains alive today in Eastern European folk tales. According to these legends (described by David R. Cartlidge in “Dealing with the Devil,” p. 20), Jesus not only saved Adam, he also tore up the scrolled contract the first man had signed with Satan after the Fall. Photo by Robert D. Rubic, courtesy o f Stefan Arteni.
W I L L I A M H. C. P R O P P Human beings share 98 percent of their genes with the great apes. Is it any surprise, then, diat so many biblical heroes act like primates, using sex and violence to dominate their rivals?
R eaders R eply BR
■ Inspired I want to thank you for being a part of my spiritual growth. Your magazine has had a large inspirational effcct on me. Krishna O’Connell Surrey, British Columbia Canada
■ Informed As a leader of a Bible study group of 80 to 100 people at my local church, 1 want to commend you on the combination of scholarship and readability in your publi cation. 1 plan to share the February 2004 issue with the group and to encourage them to subscribe. Your article on Peter (by Pheme Perkins) represents a wonder ful example of scholarship for lay people, and your discussion of The DaVinci Code (in Jots & Tittles) will answer many questions that have arisen over the past few months. Pat Doyle Church of the Nativity Leawood, Kansas
■ Indexed? Your magazine is just about the only one I have continued to read for several years, and 1 would like to have an annual index so 1 can quickly find articles when 1 need to reference them. This would be extra helpful in preparing homilies.
handling) and is available by calling 1-800221-4644, ext. 3. Before the end o f the year, BR will also b e available to preachers, pro fessors and students in a fully searchable online archive (fo r institutions only). The online archive will include all editoiial con tent and all images (everything but the ads!) from every issue o f BR, BAR and Odyssey. It can be searched by index term, author name, biblical citation or any word or phrase. Contact Matt Weinbaum at 1-800221-4644, ext. 204, fo r more information.
T en C o m m a n d m en ts
Fr. Robert J. Palladino Church of St. John Welches, Oregon
■ No No-Brainer
Our most recent print index covers every issue o f BR (as well as Biblical Archaeology Review and Archaeology Odyssey) through 2001. It costs $29.95 (+$6.95 shipping and
While I enjoy your magazine and always look forward to the next edition, Ronald S. Hendel’s latest column, “The Ten Commandments and the Courthouse”
2 B IBLE R E V IE W « |U N E 2 0 0 4
(February 2004), was infuriating to say the least. I am sure that Professor Hendel is a very knowledgeable man when he stays in his field. His discussion of an Alabama court’s decision to remove Judge Roy Moore, however, was completely off base. Judge Moore was removed because he refused to take down a statue of the Ten Commandments in the state courthouse. Hendel writes: “The principle of the sepa ration of church and state is so central to our democracy that the court’s action in this case was a no-brainer.” The decision may have been a nobrainer but not the way Flendel suggested. Most people think that the phrase “sep aration of church and slate” is somewhere in the U.S. Constitution or the Declaration of Independence. In truth, this phrase appears in neither document. The phrase originated in a letter from Thomas Jefferson to the Danbury, Connecticut, Baptist Association on January 1, 1802. The Baptist congregation was alarmed by a widespread rumor that another denom ination, the Congregationalists, was to become a national religion. Thomas Jefferson was trying to assure the Baptists that this could not happen in the United States under our Constitution. He wrote: “1 contemplate with solemn reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should 'make no law respecting an estab lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof,' thus building a wall of separation between Church and State. Congress [is] thus inhibited from acts respecting religion, and the Executive authorized only to execute their acts.” Jefferson is here quoting and comment ing on the First Amendment of the Con stitution, which reads in part: “Congress
BR VOL. XX NO. 3
Helicopter Footage o f Bible Sites on D VD
_______ EDITOR_______ H ersh el Sh an k s MANAGING EDITOR M o lly D e w sn a p M e in h a rd t ASSOCIATE EDITOR E r ic W a rg o CONTRIBUTING EDITORS S tev en F e ld m a n , S te p h e n J . P a tte rs o n , S u z a n n e F. S in g e r EDITORIAL ASSOCIATE B o n n ie M u llin DESIGN DIRECTOR R o bert Sugar
“Jerusalem : The Holy City” DVD contains 52 narrated video clips
ART DIRECTOR
“Samaria, Judea and Dead Sea” DVD contains 37 narrated video clips
D av id F o x
“Galilee and the North” DVD contains 42 narrated video clips
_________WEB_________
“Coast, Shephelah & Negev” DVD contains 37 narrated video clips
S a r a M u rp h y EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD R o b e rt Alter, B e rn h a rd A n d erso n ,
Extraordinary Aerial Footage o f Bible Sites, Areas and Regions
J a m e s C h arle sw o rth , F r a n k M o o re C ro ss, D avid N oel Free d m an , E rn e s t S. F reric h s,
A sk for our Sam p ler D VD & Product Broch u re
T ik v a Frym er-K ensky, W illia m W . H allo, P au l D. H a n so n , P h ilip J . K in g , A brah am M alh erb e, Ralp h P. M artin , B n ic e M . M etzger, J a c o b M ilgrom ,
p. 301-838-7401 • f. 301-838-8985 •
[email protected] K evin G . O 'C o n n e ll, Je r o m e M urph y-O ’C o n n o r,
1 P R E S E R V IN G 3 B IB L E T IM E S
S h a lo m P au l, B irg e r P e a rso n , P h e in e P e rk in s, K ent H. R ic h a rd s , K a th a rin e D o o b S a k en feld ,
visit our website for more information
www.preservingbibletimes.org
G eza V erm es, M o sh e W ein feld PUBLISHER S u s a n L ad e n OPERATIONS K e n n eth M . K e rr (F in a n ce D irector) H eath er M etzger (Production Manager) M ich ae l M o n h e it (Advertising Director) J a m e s O n le y (H u m an R esources M anager) L y n T a e c k e r (Travel/Study M anager) C a th y T ije r in a (M arketing)
New Biblical Resource from Herald Press
________ STAFF________
God and Violence: Biblical Resources for Living in a Small World
A licia B r e g o n , L ily L ee, J o n i W e b ste r, M a tth e w W e in b a u m NEWSSTAND CIRCULATION B ig T o p N e w ss ta n d S e rv ic e s a d ivision o f the 1PA (4 1 5 ) 6 4 3 -0 1 6 1 • Fax: (4 1 5 ) 6 4 3 - 2 9 8 3
V io l^ ce fin fittng m o biiut& uw ki
info@ bigtoppubs. com
contain resources for turning violence to service
Phone: ( 7 0 3 ) 733-2163; Fax: ( 7 0 3 ) 4 7 1 -1 5 5 9 csm ith@ sovhom estead.com
of God and humanity. As varied and complex as P atricia M . M cD on ald
Editorial &r Business Office 4710 41 st St., NW, Washington, DC 20016; (202) 364-3300;
[email protected]; Web site: www.biblcrcview.org S u b scrip tio n Q u e stio n s? Write to PO Box 7027, Red Oak, 1A 51591, or ca ll toll-free 1 -8 0 0 -6 7 8 -4 4 4 4
Bible’s support for their battles. Patricia M. as part of a canon from Genesis to Revelation,
S o v e re ig n M e d ia C o m p a n y 441 Carlisle Drive, H em don, VA 2 0 1 7 0 C o lin S m ith (Advertising Manager)
Articles and the opinions expressed herein do not necessarily represent the view of the Editorial Advisory Board or any mem ber thereof or of any particular editor. Unsigned articles are attrib utable to the editor. Advertising in BR does not necessarily imply editorial endorsement.
in the Middle East, warriors have long claimed the
McDonald argues that many biblical stories, read
U.S. ADVERTISING REPRESENTATIVE
BR (ISSN 1544-2160) is published bimonthly by the Biblical Archaeology Society, a nonprofit society, 4710 41st St., NW, Washington, DC 20016. Subscription price is $27.00 per year in the United States, $39.00 elsewhere. Copyright 2004 by the Biblical Archaeology Society. Printed in the U .SA Periodicals postage paid at Washington, DC, and additional mailing offices. Postmaster: Send address changes to BR, PO Box 7027, Red Oak, IA 5159L
From the medieval crusades to the latest violence
life itself, these narratives can provide us with imaginative possibilities and steady motivation to
move beyond the narrow defensiveness and self-interest that are becoming ever more problematic in an increasingly interconnected world. “This book is an act of courage that invites a wide and thoughtful reading.”
— Walter Brueggemann, Columbia Theological Seminary Paper,
174
pages,
$
Herald Press
16.99 J*
1 800 245-7894 3 B IBLE R E V IE W ♦ |U N E 2 0 0 4
•
www.heraldpress.com
READERS
upon the capacity of each and all of us to govern ourselves ... according to the Ten Commandments.” Chief Justice William Rehnquist of the U.S. Supreme Court has stated: “The sec ular application of the Ten Command ments is clearly seen in its adoption as the fundamental legal code of Western Civilization and the Common Law of the United States.” An image of the Ten Commandments
shall make no law respecting an estab lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” The First Amendment’s straightfor ward admonition simply prohibits Con gress from passing laws that would estab lish a national religion or that prevents the free exercise of religion. Jam es Madison, the principal author of our Constitution, said, “We have staked the whole future of American civilization ...
JONATHAN
M a sters of
THE
REPLY
DAVID
PUBLISHERS
MASTERS OF THE TALMUD: Their Lives and Views
Stanton O. Berg Minneapolis, Minnesota Ronald S. Hendel responds: I was relying on the consensus view o f legal experts that the court’s ruling on this issue (which was upheld by the Supreme Court) was in accord with previous rulings on the intention and scope o f the First Amendment. It would take, as Mr. Berg notes, a legal expert to explain this fully, which I'm not competent to do.
■ Thanks
Alfred J . K oiatch
Ta lm ud
An essential reference for anyone seeking to understand the origin and development of the Talmud and to learn about the sages whose wisdom it contains.
T hei r L iv es a n d V iew s
0-8246-0434-2
A l f r e d |. K o ia t c h
is carved on a wooden door in the U.S. Supreme Court. Why then cannot Alabama display the Ten Commandments in a public place? Why not indeed?
S24.95
“Rabbi Koiatch describes each scholar’s contribution and cites the precise passages where they are quoted . . . An aid to any student of the Talmud.”— Publishers Weekly
1 am thankful that at least a few scholarly voices are willing to speak up on the vari ous attempts to “legalize” the Decalogue. It seems clear to me that the real intent of many of the Decalogue legalizers is not to legitimize the biblical text but to blur the church-state distinction. George Wetzel Houston, Texas
■ Core Values JUDAISM: A Religion of Reason Je h u d a M elber F orew ord by E m an u el S. G old sm ith
JU D A ISM
A vitally important work that sheds light on the life and ideas of Hermann Cohen, leading philosopher of Judaism in the twentieth century. Originally titled Hermann Cohen’s Philosophy o f Judaism.
A Religion o f Reason
lehuda Melber
0-8246-0450-4 $29.95 “Dr. Melber’s analytical exposition is an important addition to the understanding of Cohen . . . Of great usefulness to students of Jewish philosophy.”— Library Journal
1 HE JEW ISH Book o f W h y THE TO R AH
THE JEW ISH BOOK OF WHY: The Torah A lfred J . K oiatch Popular in its orientation, this marvelous volume uses a question-and-answer format to address over 500 questions frequently asked about the most sacred Jewish text. Originally titled This Is the Torah. 0-8246-0454-7
Ted Peterson Killen, Alabama
S23.95
“Authoritative . . . excellent.”— Library Journal A LSO AVAILABLE:
The Jewish Book of Why The Second Jewish Book of Why The Jewish Mourner's Book of Why
1 do believe Ronald Hendel missed the point. Obviously, as he well says, we can not legislate the Decalogue. We Christians can’t even decide among ourselves how to properly observe the Sabbath, and there is no way we are going to reinstitute the old Blue Laws. We want to uphold the sanctity of marriage, but we don’t want anyone snooping around our bed rooms trying to enforce the command ment on adultery. But that is not what this is all about. Rather, the Alabama judge’s actions should be seen as part of a desperate search for core values. In a day when all societal values are being questioned, people need to know what core values, such as the Ten Commandments, are holding us together. The challenge before us this day is how- to appeal to the divine outside of society while being mindful of the diver sity and pluralism within that society.
0-8246-0256-0 0-8246-0305-2 0-8246-0355-9
S23.95 S23.95 S23.95
6 8 -2 2 E L IO T A V E . • M ID D L E V I L L A G E , N Y 1 1 3 7 9 • W W W .J D B O O K S .C O M
BIBLE R E V IE W * |U N E 2 0 0 4
Ronald S. Hendel responds: I agree with Mr. Peterson on the challenge that our society faces and the need fo r thoughtful and inclusive solutions. But the Alabam a ju dge’s actions seemed to many ( myself included) to be a divisive move, and his disrespect fo r the law certainly enhanced this impression.
A M A Z IN G TREASURE DISCOVERY OVER 1,670 YEARS IN THE M AKING
FO U N D : G LAD IATOR’S O RIG IN A L PAYCHECK HOLD THE GLORY OF ROME IN TH E PALM OF YOUR HANDS he old saying “don’t judge a book by it’s cover” is more than just idle advice. It also led to a truly amazing treasure discovery that can put the glory and splendor of ancient Rom e into the palm of your hands! During a recent construction project in north ern Turkey, a dirt-encrusted earthen jar was uncovered. T h e curious worker was about to throw the filthy thing away as nothing more than trash. But then something made him tug on the old cloth visible through the cracks. To his surprise, a pile of coins spilled out. His discovery is now your opportunity because these weren’t just any coins— they were scarce historic Rom an Commemorative coins that had been buried 1,670 years ago!
Sh e is surrounded in Rom an letters V R B S R O M A to signify the tribute to the City of Rom e. T h e co in ’s reverse vividly depicts the origin of Rom e— a she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus. In Rom an legend, Romulus and Remus, the twin sons o f the war god Mars, laid the foundation of Rom e in the Seven Hills near the Tiber River. Romulus built his own city wall, killed his jealous brother and assumed dominion over the settlement. Rom an historians tradi tionally set the date of Rom e’s founding at 753 BC. T h e image o f the she-wolf and the twins became the symbol of the city o f Rom e. In addition to the scene, two stars appear above the she-wolf, which refer to Rom e’s perpetualness.
C O M M E M O R A T IN G T H E F O U N D IN G OF R O M E
L IM IT E D Q U A N T IT IE S AVAILABLE
Just who buried these coins is still a mystery. It could have been a Roman soldier, a merchant or even a barbarian chieftain who had been given the coins as a bribe not to wage war on Rome. W hat is known is that these coins were first issued in 3 3 0 A D by Emperor Constantine the G reat. T hey were struck to honor the city of Rome as the cultural center of the Rom an Empire in what has to be one of the most successful marketing campaigns in history. C onstantine used these coins as an effective public relations ploy as he moved the capital from Rom e to his new city, aptly named Constantinople. To honor the founding of his new capital— and to soothe the hearts of Rom an identity— these “Urbs R om a" (City o f Rom e) bronze coins were handed out during the consecration ceremony for Constantinople on May 11, 3 30. Som e experts o f ancient coins agree that no other Roman coin was ever struck for such a specific event making the City of Rom e coin the FIR ST Commemorative Com of the Rom an Em pire!
More than sixteen centuries old, this stunning coin has survived the rise and fall o f empires, earthquakes, floods and two world wars. It was carried by everyone from Rom an emperors to soldiers and from merchants to peasants. T here’s no better way to touch the history of the great Rom an Empire than to hold the coins o f that era literally in the palm o f your hand. This classic Rom an coin is perfect for novice enthusiasts, seasoned coin collectors, students and anyone who has ever been moved by the romance, beauty and rich history o f Rome. Unfortunately, quantities are extremely limited. Demand is certain to be overwhelming so call now for your best chance at obtaining this historic piece of the Rom an Empire.
T
S A T IS F A C T IO N G U A R A N T E E D Imagine owning the first commemorative coin of the world’s first superpower! Compare that to the first U .S . commemorative, the 1892 Columbian Exposition Half-Dollar, which sells for over $7 0 0 in Brilliant Uncirculated condition. You could expect to pay hundreds o f dollars for this “City of R om e” coin. Fortunately for you, we were able to secure the rights for the entire hoard allowing us to make them available at the very affordable price of only $ 3 7 .5 0 per coin. You can also buy three coins for only $99. Your “City of R om e” Bronze C o in will be protected in a clear acrylic holder and comes mounted in a deluxe presentation case. You’ll also receive an all-important C ertificate of A uthenticity. T h e First Federal M int is so sure o f the lasting value o f these antiquities that we will repurchase your coins at any tim e in the next 24 m onths at the full purchase price.
RESERVE Y O U R C O IN TO D A Y ! These “City o f Rom e” Bronze Coins are not available in stores. Do not let this chance to own an important piece o f history at such a low price pass you by. C all now to reserve your coin. Orders will be accepted on a strict firstcall, first-served basis. Sold-out orders will be promptly refunded. E a c h C o in is o v e r 1,600 yea rs o ld with V E R Y lim ited qu a n tities— O rd e r N ow !
City of Rome Bronze Coin $ 3 7 .5 0 +S&.H T o ll-F r e e 2 4 h o u rs
a
day
1 -8 0 0 -3 8 6 -7 1 8 7 P r o m o tio n a l C o d e C R B I 18-01 P le a s e m en tion Promotional C od e w h en you ca ll.
W e can also a c c e p t y o u r c h e c k by ph on e. To o r d e r by mail call fo r details.
S T U N N IN G D E S IG N T h e detailed design of this coin is a history lesson and an epic folk tale rolled into one. For the first tim e, the obverse of a Rom an coin did not show the portrait of the emperor. Instead, it showed the bust of Roma, goddess of the City of Rome, wearing a crested helmet.
W W W .FIR S TFE D ER A LM IN T.C O M
iF a n s s T P
is id k r a l
M
in t
14 10 1 Southcross D riv e W „ D e pt. CRB 118 - 0 1 Burnsville, M innesota 55337
1-800-386-7187
N o t e :T h e F ir s t Fe d e ra l M in t. L L C is a p riva te d istrib u to r o f g o ve rn m e n t and p riva te co in and m e d allic issu es and is n o t affiliated w ith th e U n ite d S ta te s G o v e rn m e n t.
READERS
BOOK STANDS
■ Please Help Hendel
W ill
GOD
S p a r e It?
An E x h au stiv e S tu d y o f Tem porary P u n ish m en t for U nfaithful C h ristian s a t th e J u d g m e n t.S e at and D uring t h e M illennial Kingdom
Imagine putting your heaviest books and biggest documents — or a single sheet of paper — at a comfortable height and viewing angle! Imagine not having your neck ache when you read or do computer work for a long time! So strong they're named "Atlas," these book holders adjust for hands-free reading. Guaranteed. $65-$99. Visa, MC.
I ju st received your subscription renewal form with the apocalyptic headline “TIME IS RUNNING OUT!” Having subscribed for some 17 years, I find myself vacillat ing between letting it lapse versus extend ing it for another year ju st to see what new outrage will be foisted on readers by your enfant terrible, Ronald Hendel. Let me think awhile about subscribing. In the meantime, may the readers of your journal take pity on the poor fellow and, in a spirit of love and patience, help him to the light. Mike Paripovich Buffalo, Minnesota
PETER 450 pages. Filled with historical quotes and excerpts.
ERGONOMIC BOOK & COPY HOLDERS (800) G E T ATLAS (438-2852) b o okand cop yho lders.com
REPLY
b b b
The Crown o f Thorns Cross A tender yet powerful depiction o f I Corinthians 1:18. A 1-1/4” I4kt. white gold cross with a I4kt. yellow gold crown o f thorns. The cross is available by itself or on an 18 in. white or yellow gold chain.
■ The Bold Apostle Thanks for the excellent article “Peter” by Pheme Perkins in the February issue. 1 do take issue, however, with her opinion that “the most striking character istic of Simon Peter” may be his “hesitance.” It seems to me Peter’s inclinations were quite the opposite. He reacted quickly when Jesus called him to be a fisher of men; he was so eager he even tried walking on water. He was the first disciple to answer when Jesus asked them, “But who do you say that I am?” He did not hesitate to confront Jesus when he learned about the necessity of Jesus’ suffering. He was quick to whip out his sword at Gethsemane. And even though John beat him to Jesus’ tomb, Peter was first to enter. Peter was hardly slow to act; he was ju st slow to develop a theology that saw the necessity of a suf fering Messiah. Once he did, he was hardly hesitant in proclaiming it. Pastor Donald F. Riechers Diamond City, Arkansas
Po t p o u r r i ■ Pharaoh’s Daughter
Other exquisite designs by Poppy Vincent include her popular “Vine an d Branch Collection” as well as her innovative new work with genuine butterfly wings and peacock feathers set under hand-beveled glass. Truly an original classic!
217-483-2156 www.jewelrybypoppy.com
[email protected] 6610 Iron Bridge Road, Chatham, IL 62629
BIBLE R E V IE W * |U N E 2 0 0 4
In a letter in the February 200 4 issue, the sixth-grade class of Karin Eason requested the name of Pharaoh’s daughter in Exodus 2:5. According to The Legends o f the Jews, by Louis Ginzberg, Pharaoh’s daughter is named Thermutis in Josephus’s Antiquities and in the extrabiblical Book of Jubilees. However, in rabbinic tradition her name co n tin u es o n p a g e 46
Can We Prove that God Does or Does Not Exist? And What Counts as Proof? find out with this thought-provoking 36-lecture series on audio or video from The Teaching Company A bout Y our T each er
oes God exist? W ho or what made this world? Was it made at all? And i f it wasn’t made, how did it get here? How did I get here? W hat do these answers mean to me as I decide how to live?
D
Ja m e s
H a ll
is
th e
Ja m e s
Thom as
P ro fe s s o r a n d C h a ir o f th e D e p a r tm e n t o f P h ilo s o p h y a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f R ic h m o n d . H e is t h e r e c i p i e n t o f h i s u n iv e r s it y ’s 2 0 0 1 D is tin g u is h e d E d u c a to r A w ard . H e has a s t r o n g b a c k g r o u n d in t h e h u m a n i t i e s , t h e
Questions such as this have tantalized and perplexed our species since the first moment we were capable o f asking them. It’s hard to imagine anyone— no matter what they ultimately conclude or how long they ponder the issues— who hasn’t asked these same questions. And the answers we have formulated have produced hope and serenity, anguish and war.
o lo g y ,
T h e C reation o f M a n , d e ta il, b y M ic h e l a n g c io , 1 5 0 8 - 1 2 , T h e S is t i n c C h a p e l, R o m e .
Philosophy o f Religion invites you on an intellectual journey to explore the ques tions of divine existence, not from the standpoint o f theology, but as an issue of epistemology, the classic branch of philoso phy that concerns itself with knowledge theory— how we can know things, and how we can know we know them. This course offers benefits you can take far beyond the issue o f God’s existence or the broader subject o f religion. Tools of knowing and logic included are ones you can use to dissect and analyze arguments in virtually any arena.
a lo n g w ith
m ore
Logic Problems B elief an d Transcendence.
Knowledge,
a u th o r o f
Terms like ontology, cosmology, and teleology—-along with the rationale for a divine presence that grew out of these three forms o f argument— are presented with clarity and context, using examples rang ing from Descartes to William Paley’s 18thcentury presentation o f a clock on a rockstrewn beach.
W h a t is Philosophy? ... W h at is Religion? ... W h at is Philosophy o f Religion? ... How is the W ord “G od ” Generally Used? ... How D o Various T heists Use the Word ‘G od’? ... W h at is Knowledge? ... W h at Kinds o f Evidence C ount? ... W h at C onstitutes Good Evidence? ... W h y A rgue for the Existence o f God? ... How O n to log ical A rgum ent W orks ... W hy O n to log ical A rgum ent is Said to Fail ... How C osm ological A rgum ent W orks ... W hy Cosm ological Argum ent is Said to Fail ... How Teleological Argum ent W orks ... H ow Teleological Argum ent W orks (continued) ... W h y Teleological Argument is Said to Fail ... Divine Encounters Make A rgu m ent U nnecessary ... D iv ine Encounters Require Interpretation ... W h y is Evil a Problem? ... Taking Evil Seriously ... N on-Justificatory Theodicies ... Justifying Evil ... Justifying N atural Evil ... Justifying Hum an Evil ... Evidence is Irrelevant to Faith ... Groundless Faith is Irrelevant to Life ... God is Beyond Hum an Grasp, Bu t T h a t’s O .K . Transcendental T alk is “Sound and Fury” ... Discourse in an Intentionalist Paradigm ... Evaluating Paradigms ... Choosing and Changing Paradigms ... Language G am es and T h e istic D iscourse ... Fabulation— T heism as Story ... T h eistic Stories, Morality, and Culture ... Stories, M oral Progress, and Culture Reform ... Conclusions and Signposts
and
L e c tu r e T itle s
This course encompasses far more than just positive arguments for the central question: “Can humans know that God exists?” Professor Hall also considers the reverse side: “Can humans know that God does not exist?” He introduces a new, equally vital, area o f argument centering on the existence o f evil. Just as there are rebuttals available for all of the arguments put forth in favor of a divine existence so, too, are there rebuttals for arguments that attempt to prove God does not exist, and Professor Hall examines each in detail.
The focus of these lectures is on apply ing these tools to the question o f the exis tence of a god or gods. Professor Hall has crafted a course that is both intellectually challenging and superbly clear, and fits well with his friendly, engaging style of lec turing. If you especially enjoy wrapping your mind around questions for which every potential answer triggers new ques-
p h ilo s o p h y
tions and issues, you should find this course enjoyable no matter what your beliefs.
Professor Hall examines the definition o f the term “god” and explores each argu ment in turn, using the analytical tools taught earlier in the course to show why such arguments are said to fail and to introduce challenges other thinkers offered.
T o o ls Y o u ’ll Use Every Day
and
t h a n 4 0 y e a r s in t h e c l a s s r o o m . H e is th e
T
he
T
C
e a c h in g
o m pa n y'
T he J o y o f Lifelo n g L e a rn in g E very D a y G reat T eachers, G reat Courses , G reat Value G uaranteed .
SA VE UP TO $ 2 7 5 ! OFFER GOOD U N T I L A U G U S T 30
2004
T o o rd er, m a il o r fa x c o u p o n below . O r c a ll o u r to ll-fr e e n u m b e r: (P le a se re fe r to P r io r it y C o d e 1 6 3 3 8 )
A bout T h e T e a ch in g C o m p an y: We review hundreds o f top-rated profes sors from America’s best colleges and universities each year. From this extraor dinary group, we choose only those rated highest by panels o f our customers. Fewer than 10% o f these world-class scholar-teachers are selected to make The Great Courses. We’ve been doing this since 1990, producing more than 2,000 hours o f material in modern and ancient history, philosophy, literature, fine arts, the sciences, and mathematics for intelli gent, engaged, adult lifelong learners. If a course is ever less than completely sat isfying, you may exchange it for another or we will refund your money promptly.
1-800-TEACH-12 (1-800-832-2412) F ax:703-378-3819 www.TEACH12.com/br Great Courses” T h e T e a c h in g C o m p a n y " 4 1 5 1 L a fa y e tte C e n t e r D r iv e , S u ite 1 0 0 C h a n til ly , V A
C h a rg e m y
□
’►STl □
2 0 1 5 1 -1 2 3 2
P rio rity C o d e 1 6 3 3 8 Please send me P h ilo sop h y o f R eligion, which consists o f 3 6 half-hour lectures, with complete lecture outlines. □
□
Ac c o u n t N umber
_______________ Signature
D V D $ 9 9 .9 5 (rcg. price $ 3 7 4 . 9 5 ) SAVE § 2 7 5 ! plus S I 5 shipping, handling, and lifetim e satisfaction guarantee.
Name (please print)
□ V id eo tap e $ 7 9 .9 5 (reg. price $ 2 9 9 . 9 5 ) SAVE $ 2 2 0 ! plus S i 5 shipping, handling, and lifetim e satisfaction guarantee.
□
plus S I 5 shipping, handling, and lifetim e satisfaction guarantee.
□
C ity /State/Zip
A udiotape $ 4 9 .9 5 (reg. price $ 1 9 9 . 9 5 ) SAVE $ 1 5 0 ! plus $ 1 0 shipping, handling, and lifetim e satisfaction guarantee.
□
M ailing Address
Audio C D $ 6 9 .9 5 (r c g . p r ic e $ 2 6 9 . 9 5 ) SAVE $ 2 0 0 !
P h o n e ( I f we have question* regarding y o u r order)
C h e ck or M oney O rd er enclosed
‘Non-U.S. Orders: Additional shipping charges apply. Call or visit the FAQs page a t www.teachl2.com fo r details. **Virginia residents please ad d 4.5% sales tax.
CD
F R E E CA TA LOG . Please send me a free copy o f your current catalog (no purchase necessary). O ffer Good Through: August 3 0 . 2004
Ro n a ld S. H endel E ve A te th e A p p le O r did she?
1 recently heard a Yiddish folksong about what Eve ate in the Garden of Eden: “Cham hot dos E pfel gegessen " the song goes— “Eve ate the apple.” Tempting, delicious and potentially dangerous, the apple is an appropriate fruit for this dramatic biblical scene: Its red color says “danger” (hence red is the color for “stop”), yet it is sweet inside. The problem is that the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden isn’t an apple at all. It’s a knowledge-of-good-and-evil fruit, which, according to the end of the story, none of us has ever seen. In Genesis 2:16, God commands Adam: “You may eat from every tree of the Garden, but you may not eat from the tree of the knowl edge of good and evil.” In the course of the story, Adam and Eve eat the fruit of this tree, whereupon “the eyes of both of them opened, and they knew that they were naked, and they sewed together fig leaves, which served them as loincloths” (Genesis 3:7). This fruit gives some kind of special knowledge, which includes a consciousness of sex, so that the two are embarrassed to be naked in front of each other and try to cover up. Somehow this type of knowledge makes them “like gods, knowing good and evil” (compare Genesis 3:5 and 3:22). This is an amazing and mysterious kind of fruit. It is a standard rule of biblical interpre tation that where the Bible is reticent or obscure, later interpreters will expand the story with explanatory details. The earliest interpretive description of this tree is in the extrabiblical Book of Enoch. In 1 Enoch 32:4, a passage probably from the third century B.C.E., Enoch is taking a tour of heaven, where he sees the “paradise of righteousness,” in
which grows the “tree of wisdom.” He reports: “That tree is in height like the fir, and its leaves, like (those of) the carob, and its fruit like the clusters of the vine—very cheerful; and its fragrance penetrates far beyond the tree.” 1 The tree and its fruit are still mysteri ous, but they are now imaginable in com parison with other known species. Later interpreters were more explicit. In the Midrash Rabbah (c. fourth century C.E.) and other rabbinic writings, the major pro posals are the fig, grape, wheat, carob, etrog and nut.2 The fig is a candidate because Adam and Eve used the leaves of a fig tree to cover themselves. The reason for grapes is that wine was regarded as a drink of the gods (see Judges 9:13) and because of a thematic link with Deuteronomy 32:32: “Their grapes are poisonous grapes, their grape-clusters are bitter for them.” Wheat, carob and etrog are proposed because their names are similar to Hebrew' or Aramaic words for “sin ,” “d estru ction” and “he d esired,” respectively. The nut tree is advanced because nuts were believed to produce sexual desire. In each of these opinions, something obscure in Scripture is aligned with something knowoi elsew'here, either from Scripture, popular lore or lan guage. The principle is straightforward: One explains the unknown by connecting it with the known. A different rabbinic opin ion is that God chose not to reveal the name of the tree. It is a mystery that cannot be solved, perhaps because God does not wish the tree’s name to be known, lest people be cruel to it. In early Christian interpretation, the tree and its fruit are most commonly identified 8 B IBLE R E V IE W ♦ |U N E 2 0 0 4
as the fig, grape or nut, as in the early Jewish interpretations. The earliest known identification of the fruit as an apple is by the Christian Latin poet Commodianus, who lived sometime between the third and fifth century C.E. He w'asn’t much of a poet—accord in g to the E n cy clop aed ia Britannica, “his verse has no poetic value”— but he may have preserved for us a bit of popular lore. Why is the forbidden fruit an apple? Probably for the same reason that in Hebrew it was identified as wheat, carob or etrog: the power of words, the nexus between sound and meaning. In Latin, the word for “apple” is the same as the w'ord for “evil”—both are malus. The forbidden fruit, from the “tree of the knowl edge of good and evil” ( lignumque scientiae honi et mali, in the Latin translation of Genesis) was naturally identified, by the inner magic of wwds, as the apple (malus). This identification became the dominant interpretation in C h ristian trad ition, whence it entered into Jewish tradition too. Although almost no one speaks Latin today, this wordplay in Latin still has its hold over us. Eve ate the apple. Ronald S. Hendel is the Norma and Sam Dabby Professor o j Hebrew Bible and Jewish Studies in the Department o j N ear Eastern Studies at the University o f California, Berkeley. 1 T r a n s . G e o rg e W .E . N ic k e ls b u r g ,
1 E n och
1
(M in n eap o lis: F o rtre ss P ress, 2 0 0 1 ) , p. 3 2 0 . 2 G en esis R a b b a h 15.7. O n the fo llow in g Je w is h and C hristian interpretations, see L ou is G inzberg, T he Legends o f t h e J e w s , v o l. 5 (P h ila d e lp h ia : J e w is h P u b lica tio n Society, 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 9 7 - 9 8 ; a n d G in zb erg, D ie H ag g a d a b ei d en K irch en \ atem und in d e r ap oh ry p h isch en Litteratur (B erlin : Calvary, 1 9 0 0 ), pp. 3 8 -4 2 .
0
BIBLICAL A R C H A E O L O G Y SOCI ETY
S T U D Y T O U R S & S E MI N A R S Summer Vacation Seminars 20 f a s c i n a t i n g lectures in 6 days! W A K E F O R E S T U N IV E R S IT Y W IN S T O N - S A L E M , N C
ST. O L A F C O L L E G E N O R T H F IE L D , M N
Ju n e 1 3 -1 9 , 2 004
J u ly 2 5 - 3 1 , 2 0 0 4
W hat Has Archaeology Taught Us About the World o f Jesus? • Tombs, Scrolls and Jesus
Egypt & the Hebrew Bible • Early Christianity and the Early Christians
REED CO LLEG E PO R TLA N D , OR A u g u st 8 -1 4 , 2004
C raig Evans (Acadia Divinity C ollege) and Ja m es Strange (Univ. o f Sou th Florida)
Jam es K . H offm eier (Trinity In ternation al University) and Ja m es D . T a b o r (Univ. o f N orth C arolina, C h arlotte)
Scrolls and Papyri from Late Antiquity; The Most Important Tombs and Ossuaries f o r Jesus Research; Simon ben Kosiba: Israel’s Last M ajor Messianic Figure; Galilee: Its Archaeological and Historical Context fo r the Emergence o f Christianity and Jewish Mysticism; Excavating Sepphoris o f Galilee; The Synagogue as Metaphor: An Interpretation o f Architecture.
Egypt Before the Time o f Moses; The Challenges o f Identifying Exodus Sites; Egypt in the Empire Age; Joseph in Egypt; Where Is Mt. Sinai?; The Covenant and the Tabernacle; Egypt and Israel in the Monarchy; Locating the Site o f the Crucifixion o f Jesus; Sorting Out Ja m es and the Jam es Ossuary; Is There an Ancient Hebrew Matthew?; When Did Jesus Become God?
r V
NEW EM IN A R SITE ' in Portlanc J, sam e date 5- A
The Everyday World in Which Jesu s Lived • Archaeology, Geography and Faith R o b e rt Alullins (Univ. o f C alifornia, LA) and Richard R ohrbau gh (Lewis & C lark C ollege) Archaeology and Faith in Conversa tion; The Impact o f Geography on the Bible; The Impact o f Archaeology on Biblical Interpretation; Tel Beth Shean: From Canaanite Settlement to Egyptian Garrison; Honor and Shame: Core Values o f the M edi terranean World; The E vil Eye: Core B elief in the Biblical World; The Social/Cultural Context o f Jesus' Parables.
ALSO COMING
Study Tours F R O M M A L T A T O R O M E W IT H P A U L ( w ith e xte n sio n to Naples, Capri, A m a lfi Coast, June 16-20) Ju n e 6 -1 6 , 2004
W ith Jim Flem in g Follow Paul’s journey from Malta to Rome with the director o f the Biblical Resources Study Center.
BAS SEMINAR AT O X F O R D S t . E d m u n d H all O x f o r d , E n g lan d Au g u st 8 -2 0 , 2 0 0 4 W it h S u sa n A c k e r m a n
EASTERN T U R K EY F ro m t h e L a n d o f A b r a h a m t o M t A r a r a t a n d th e B la c k Sea O c t o b e r 4 - 2 1 , 2 00 4
W ith Avner G oren Much-loved g'uide Avner Goren turns his passion for eastern Turkey into an unforgettable 17-day tour created especially for us. D IS C O V E R E G Y P T ! N o v e m b e r 3 -1 9 , 2 004
W ith Avner G oren Visit the world’s most spectacular ancient sites. Begin and end in Cairo; enjoy two luxurious cruises on the N ile and Lake Nasser.
W
il l ia m
D
ev er
Stories the Bible D id n ’t Tell Us: Womens Religion, Folk Religion a n d Everyday Life in Ancient Israel
3-Day Seminars b o sto n , m a S e p te m b e r 9 -1 1 , 2004 T he S a cre d a n d th e P ro fa n e in th e A n c ie n t M e d ite r r a n e a n W o r ld
Alan L . Boegehold (Brown), K athleen M . Colem an (Harvard), Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow (Brandeis), M ary R. Lefkow itz (W ellesley C ollege) Learn from the experts about life in the ancient Mediterranean world. U N IV E R S IT Y O F O K L A H O M A N o rm a n , O K O cto b e r 1 4 -1 6 , 2004 A r c h a e o lo g y a n d th e B ib le : C u r re n t Issues a n d D e b a te s
Ram i Arav (Univ. o f Nebraska), W illiam D ever (Univ. o f Arizona), R ichard Freund (Univ. o f H a rt ford), Joseph Ginat (Univ. o f Haifa), Jodi M agness (Univ. o f N orth Carolina, Chapel Hill), R Kyle M cC arter (Johns Hopkins Univ.) B IB LE F E S T VII S a n A n t o n io , T X N o v e m b e r 1 9 -2 1 , 2 004
W ith m ore than 24 scholars
B iblical A rc h a e o lo g y S ociety: 8 0 0 -2 2 I-4 6 4 4 x22l • tra v e l@ b ib -a rc h .o rg • w w w .b ib lica la rcha e o lo g y.o rg
A
S&TITTLES
A FAINT IMAGE (right) on the back side of the Shroud of Turin, when digitally “cleaned,” has revealed a face similar to the famous face (left) on the front side of the relic that many believe is the face of Jesus.
T w o-Faced S h ro u d Christianity’s most famous and controver sial relic, the Shroud of Turin, is divulging more secrets. Two physicists from the University of Padua, Giulio Fanti and Roberto Maggiolo, have discovered a second face on the shroud’s reverse side. The face is nearly— but not exactly—identical to the famous face that appears on the front side, which some believe to be the face of Jesus. The reverse side of the shroud was con cealed by a layer of cloth that had been sewn on for protection in the 16th cen tury, after a fire slightly damaged the relic. During restoration work in 2002, this pro tective layer was removed, however, and photographs were taken of the underside before a new backing w'as attached. The second face is not visible to the naked eye but was discovered by analyzing those photographs.
B R G row s U p February 2005 will mark Bible Review’s 20th anniversary. We’re planning a year’s worth of special features to celebrate, and we’d like to hear from you. Have you subscribed to BR since the beginning? Has BR changed your life? Write and tell us how: BR’s Anniversary 4710 41st St., NW Washington, DC 20016
[email protected] We’ll print the best responses in our February 2005 issue.
The discovery is detailed in the April issue of Journal o f Optics A: Pure and Applied Optics, a publication of London’s Institute of Physics. The scientists used a process called digital optical image processing, in which a computer is used to “clean” the background noise from a fuzzy or low-detail image to produce a sharper one. The process revealed a face corresponding almost pre cisely to the one on the front of the shroud, but with some differences in the nostrils. The hands were also visible on the back of the shroud, but the scientists could not detect the rest of the body image that appears clearly on the front of the cloth. The obvious explanation—that whatever produced the image on the front just seeped through to the back—is rejected by the sci entists. Fanti told the BBC: “On both sides, the face image is superficial, involving only the outermost linen fibers.” Many believe the shroud, and its famous ghostly image of a naked man laid out for burial, to be a medieval forgery. Carbon-14 tests performed on the shroud by three inde pendent labs in 1988 all agreed that the flax used in the shroud’s linen dated to the 13th or 14th century—not the first century A.D. But the validity of those tests has always been disputed, both by shroud believers and some scientists. Some sindonologists— scholars of the relic (from sindon, meaning “shroud”)—have claimed to have found other evidence supporting the authenticity of the shroud. In 1999, for instance, a team of scientists reported traces of pollen from Jerusalem on the cloth.* *See Vaughn M. Bryant, Jr., “Does Pollen Prove the Shroud Authentic?” Biblical Archaeology Review, November/December 2000. 10 BIBLE R E V IE W « |U N E 2 0 0 4
The physicists have no explanation yet for the shroud’s second face, but Fanti does not see it as evidence of a forgery: “It is extremely difficult to make a fake with these features,” he told the BBC.
W h at A m e ric a B elieves A growing minority of Americans believe the Jew's were responsible for the crucifix ion of Jesus, according to a national sur vey conducted in March by the Pew Research Center in Washington, D.C. Overall, 26 per cent of Americans currendy hold that belief, up from 19 percent as reported by a simi lar poll conducted by ABC New's in 1997— a significant increase. The Pew survey, which polled 1,703 Americans of all ages on a range of ques tions related to the Bible and Christianity, found that the belief in the Jews’ culpabil ity in the death of Jesus had increased most dram atically among young people and African Americans. Thirty-four percent of people under 30 now' say Jews were respon sible for Jesus’ death—up from ju st 10 per cent in 1997—and 4 2 percent of African Americans now' hold that belief—up from 21 percent in 1997. The majority of Americans, of all ages and ethnicities, however, still believe the Jews weren’t responsible. With its emphasis on the question of Jesu s’ death, the new survey comes at a time w'hen scholars and religious groups are worried over the impact of Mel Gibson's film, The Passion o f the Christ, which crit ics say offers an anti-Semitic depiction of Jew s as “Christ killers” (see for example Stephen J. Patterson on p. 41 of this issue). The Pew survey did not measure what
I t w as apparently the author of the
New Testa
THE BIBLE
ment Letter of James w ho coined the phrase "the patience of Jo b " (James 5:11) to describe
southeast Queensland ski paddling m eet on the Gold Coast." Redistricters: "Redistricting takes the patience
what is required of those who aw ait the coming
of Job and the wisdom of Solomon. Any shift
of the messiah. And although the Job of the
poses a potential threat to a political stronghold,
Hebrew Bible w a s anything but patient, the
and w hat politician in his right mind w ill let you
expression has endured, making frequent appear ances in the daily press. As astute readers of
cut into his turf?"
W
m
this column, assuredly among those blessed with Job's reputed patience, w ill soon observe, there
COMPILED BY
LEONARD J. GREENSPOON
Santa Claus: "It's not all ho, ho, ho fo r Santa as Christmas approaches. But it's lucky he has the patience of Job as hundreds of excited
is hardly a profession, from A to Z, that doesn't
children line up fo r a fe w m om ents w ith a
require patience:
jolly old man."
Athletic trainers: "It's a job that often requires
Journalists: "N o journalist who's w orth the
Teachers: "They not only teach our children
the patience of Job, the analytical qualities of
ink that runs in his veins can pass up a cheap
h o w to read and w rite, but they also wipe runny
Sherlock Holmes and the diplomatic skills of
biblical simile. (And Lord knows how I, w ith the
noses, lend a shoulder or an ear and generally
Colin Powell."
patience of Job, have tried.)"
display the patience of Job."
Bass fishers: "Tabbed as one of the sport's
Knoxville judges: "Theirs is not an easy lot.
Umpires: "The perfect umpire w ould have
fastest rising stars, David Dudley had the cast
M ost, I believe, at least th e good ones, are
the vision of Ted W illiams, the patience of Job,
ing skills of a veteran, an encyclopedic knowl
descendants of King Solomon. And while we're
th e w isd o m of Solom on, and th e a b ility of
edge of lures and the patience of Job."
throw ing Bible terms around, they m ust have
Thurgood Marshall fo r interpreting rules."
Cigar rollers: " 'If smoking cigars is not per
Viewers: "Viewers w ill need the patience of
the patience of Job."
mitted in Heaven, I w o n 't go’— M ark Twain. The
Librarians: "Like the little train th a t could,
Job to sit through 'Reluctant Saint: Francis of
creation of a cigar demands the patience of Job,
[Delray's 50-year-old library] keeps chugging
the perfectionism of the purist, an eagle eye for
along toward its goal: a brand-new building with
Whiskey bottlers: "Richard Patterson is a man
detail, a refusal to be rushed."
lots and lots of rooms. It's predicted to have a
of passion. Coupled w ith the kind of patience
Assisi,' airing tonight."
D rivers: "Trying to navigate Vero Beach's
happy ending. After all, the characters in this
that w ould have had Job chewing his finger
barricade-lined M iracle M ile at lunchtime Friday
tale have the determination of an ox and the
nails, this enables him to create whiskies that
did not require an act of God. Ju st the patience
patience of Job."
are not only excellent, but unique."
o f Job."
M usic directors: "W ith the patience of Job,
Xmas-tree hunters: "M y uncle w ould hitch
choir conductor Sue Bohlin excuses one little
our faithful horse, Bill, to the sleigh and off we
of Pollyanna and the patience of Job to find
girl a fte r another to use the bathroom . She
would go in search of w h a t w ould most cer
much good business news in Texas during 2002."
then giggles as she tells the girls the rules of
tainly be the 'perfect' Christmas tree. This dear
Footballers (Soccer players): "The patience
break tim e, and one student asks her to add
man seemed to have the patience of Job as he
of Job earns its reward as Boro [Middlesbrough] hits the heights: Cameroon striker [Joseph-Desire
another rule: no playing w ith spiders."
spent hours walking the woods w ith me look ing fo r this elusive tree."
Job, by name] happy to be back in the team."
needs the patience of Job."
Gam e-show fans: "V iew ers of the world's firs t in te rn e t re a lity game sh o w fin a lly lost
Open winners: "Tiger W oods holed a suc cession of sizeable putts, many to save par, as
patience w ith Job last night— and told him to
he displayed w hat Open winners have to— -the
rampages from the farm s of Sicily to the piaz
w a lk the plank. Job is the first Bible hero to be voted off The Ark."
patience of Job."
zas of Rome in the 1957 science-fiction favorite
Entrepreneurs: " It w ould take the optimism
N e t su rfe rs: "Finding reliable inform ation
Perch anglers: "B ut anglers who would stalk
Y m ir-m akers:
"T h e
m aking
of
Ray
H arryhausen's 'Y m ir'— th e fo rk-ta ile d , fa stgrowing, upright lizard-thing from Venus that
'20 M illion Miles to Earth'— took the patience
High school sen/ors; "Selecting a college can
jungle perch must be prepared to hunt their prey
of Job."
challenge the bravery of a pioneer, the patience of Job."
in often d iffic u lt jungle te rra in , possess the
Zingers: "A re you talking to me? Language th a t could make a sailor blush. Attitude that
Italian developers: "The complexity, bureau
patience of Job, accept failure readily and pos sess a pair of bionic legs."
cracy and parochialism in Italian planning law
Queensland ski p addlers:" Having displayed
means that fo r a successful retail scheme to be developed, the patience of Job is a pre
the patience of Job, Townsville paddler M ick de Rooy w ill take his firs t steps to expelling
Leonard J. Greenspoon holds the Klutznick Chair
requisite."
'a fe w d e m o n s' w h e n he c o m p e te s in a
in Jewish Civilization at Creighton Univ., in Omaha.
impact, if any, The Passion of the Christ had on the views of those who had seen it. It did however show that those who either had already seen or had plans to see Gibson’s film were about twice as likely to consider Jews culpable for Jesus’ death than those who did not intend to see the film—sug gesting that the film appeals to the minor ity of Am ericans who already share its
interpretation of the events surrounding Jesu s’ trial and execution. However, on other issues, the religious views of Americans seem to be holding fairly steady. According to the new poll, 92 per cent of Americans believe Jesus did die on the cross, as the Gospels say, and 83 per cent think he rose from the dead—numbers that were almost exactly the same in 1997. 11 B IB LE R E V IE W ♦ |U N E 2 0 0 4
could te st the patience of Job. It's called back talk and teens have it down pat."
The belief that the Bible should be taken as the literal word of God is up slighdy from 1997: 40 percent now hold that belief (up from 35 percent in 1997); 42 percent say it is God’s word but that it is not meant to be taken literally (down from 47 percent); and a steady minority, 13 percent (14 per cent in 1997), say the Bible is a book writ ten by men.
D A N , VV.
CLANTON,
J R.
FEW BIBLICAL WOMEN SEEM MORE SCANDALOUS than Delilah. A harlot and a temptress, she uses her beauty and her wiles to ensnare the mighty Samson. A great deceiver, she tricks her lover into revealing the secret source of his strength. For selling that secret to Samson’s Philistine enemies, she is thought of as a betrayer or even a mercenary. And in the pages of BR, she was even portrayed as a master spy.1 It may be exciting to think of Delilah as some kind of Iron Age fem m e fatale, and Samson as the powerful hero she brings down. But as is so often the case when interpreting a biblical story or ascribing motives to its characters, there is surprisingly little in the Bible itself to go on. Much of our modern picture of Delilah and Samson, in fact, comes instead from later art, literature
SAMSON
&r D A L 1 L A
PREVIOUS PAGES: The wicked temptress Delilah (right) points triumphantly at the shorn head of her now-helpless lover Samson, in this dramatic 1886 work by the British painter Solomon J. Solomon. As the Philistines bind the mighty Israelite warrior, whose strength had been hidden in his hair, he seems to plead to Delilah: “How could you betray me like this!” Delilah seems as wicked and false-hearted as they come. But as Dan W. Clanton, Jr., shows in the accom panying article, the biblical story (in Judges 16) actually tells us very little about her. Most of our modem impres sions of this woman and the biblical judge she toppled come from the art, literature and music it inspired. One of the most influential interpretations is the 1876 opera Samson et Dalila. by the French composer Camille Saint-Saens (below).
performances o f the work until 1892, when it finally played at the Paris Opera. Since then, Sam son et D alila has established itself in the com m on repertoire and as one of Saint-Saens’s m ost beloved w orks .4 As with other musical adaptations of the Bible, the characters and situations in Saint-Saens’s three-act opera have been expanded and changed dramatically from their com pact biblical source.* In the Bible, Samson is a ladies’ man, a bumbling oaf and a brute. Sam son’s story begins in Judges 14, when he spies an attractive Philistine woman and tells his parents, “Get her for me, because she pleases me” (Judges 14:3). His parents comply. The couple marries and Samson promises his wife’s townsfolk that he will shower them with gifts if they answer a riddle. The townsmen secretly urge the wife to ferret out the answer.
and music inspired by the tragic but terse account of Israel’s am orous twelfth ju d g e .2 O ne o f the m ost com plex and intriguing modern
She weeps and nags, and Samson gives in. But when he returns to her town and finds that the townsmen have “solved” the riddle, he accuses them of using his
adaptations is Camille Saint-Saens’s opera Sam son et D alila, w hich removes certain ambiguities of the bib lical text while complicating the compact story sketched
wife to trick/deceive him: “If you had not plowed with my heifer, you would not have found out my riddle” (Judges 14:18). He then kills 3 0 Philistines and leaves
in Judges 16. Like other reinterpretations of the tale, the opera depicts Delilah as alluring and exotic and evil, and Sam son as the tragic hero. But the opera also recasts the biblical narrative as a story of rival religions and a conflict betw een faith and passion. A careful
his wife, w'ho meets a gruesome end in 15:6. After his famous escapade with a donkey’s jaw bone in chapter 15, Sam son visits a prostitute in Gaza (Judges 16:1). T h ree verses later, he falls “in love” w ith D elilah
com parison of the operatic and biblical tales helps us see ju st how Sam son and Delilah’s story was adapted
*For another example of how a composer and librettist altered a biblical text, see William Propp, “A Scholar Rips Handel’s Messiah,” BR, December 2002.
throughout history. At the same time, it helps us bet ter understand what the Bible is trying to tell us about this famous couple. One of France’s greatest, yet m ost underrated, com posers, Saint-Saens began working on the Sam son and Delilah story as an oratorio in 1867. He was inspired by a libretto (now lost) that Voltaire had written for a n o th er great co m p o se r, Je a n P h ilip p e R am eau. However, due to the lack o f m usical understanding and low tolerance for biblical subjects in 19th-century France, Saint-Saens only scored Act Two before giving it up. Five years later he took up the subject again, this time as an opera with an original libretto written by Ferdinand Lemaire, a Creole poet from Martinique (and the husband o f one o f Saint-Saens’s cousins). In 1876, Saint-Saens completed the project. Due to the m usically conservative clim ate in France at this time, the first performance of his progressive opera did not take place there .3 The great pianist Franz Liszt had heard the piece, and used his influence to have it pre miered in W eim ar in December 1877. France saw no CAMILLE SAINT-SAENS (1835-1921). A child prodigy who could read, write and even play the piano by age three, Saint-Saens composed his first symphony at the age of 16. His opera Samson et Dalila, which he completed in 1876, remains one of his most popular works today, although in his day the music was considered too pro gressive for conservative French ears, and for almost two decades it was only performed outside France—first in Weimar in 1877. 14
B IB LE R E V IE W ♦ JU N E 2 0 0 4
(Judges 16:4). W e are n ot told why he is enamored with her .5
“SERVE US WITH YOUR POWER! ... Sell me your slave Samson!” the Philistine high priest (played by baritone Gregory Yurisich) coaxes Delilah (played by mezzosoprano Markella Hatziano) to betray her lover in a 1996 Royal Opera (London) production of Saint-Saens’s masterpiece. The opera makes for a stirring adaptation, although it often departs from the biblical story. In Judges 16:5, for example, it is not a priest of the deity Dagon that approaches Delilah but the “lords of the Philistines”—that is, Philistine political leaders. It is one of many ways in which Saint-Saens turned the strife between Israelites and Philistines into an epic of com peting religions. The composer also clarified Delilah’s motives. In the Bible she appears to betray Samson for the “eleven hundred pieces of silver” (Judges 16:5) the lords offer her; but in the opera, she does it for her burning hatred of Samson and his God: “What matters your gold to Delilah?” she replies after the high priest offers her riches. “And what could a whole treasure matter if I was not dreaming of vengeance?”
In some ways, it is difficult to understand why Samson is included among the biblical judges. It is true that the Sam son cycle does not fit neatly with the other sto ries in Judges. In fact, his story was probably edited into that book at a late date. Even so, Sam son is twice called a judge (Judges 15:20 and 16:31). Further, in the last scen e, Sam son b rin g s dow n the p illars of the Philistine temple—thus sacrificing his own life in order to kill Israel’s Philistine oppressors. This act seems to be born primarily from personal vengeance and sec ondarily from religious faith (see 16:28), but it never theless establishes Sam son’s place among the judges. U n lik e the b ib lical Sam son , Sain t-Saen s’s m ale lead is no foolhardy ladies’ m an, weakened by love. Instead, he is a prophet, a military cham pion and a priest with great depth and dignity. T his is established
He will arm you with invincible swords !”6 Scene Two of the opera fram es the Sam son and Delilah saga as a rivalry between competing religions.
clearly in Act O ne, Scene O ne, o f the opera, w hen Sam son speaks to the Hebrew s w ith the voice of God and convinces them not to lose faith in Jehovah
Abimelech, the satrap of Philistine Gaza, com es forth and questions the power of the Hebrew God compared with that o f his own god, Dagon. Im bued with the power and voice of Jehovah, Sam son slays Abimelech.
(a corrupt form of Yahweh, the name of the Israelite God): “Miserable W retches, be quiet! Your lack of faith is a blasphemy! Let us implore on our knees the Lord who loves us! Place again in his hands the care of
Abimelech’s name is borrowed from the Philistine king Abimelech, who, according to Genesis 26:1, ruled in the days o f Abraham.
our glory, and then gird up our loins, sure of our vic tory! He is the God of battles! He is the God of hosts! 15
B IBLE R E V IE W * |U N E 2 0 0 4
SA M SON
&
DALILA
“BROTHERS, LET US BREAK OUR CHAINS and lift up the altar of the one God of Israel!” Spanish tenor Jose Carreras, as Samson, exhorts the Hebrew people, in a 2001 Barcelona production of Samson et Dalila. The operatic Samson is not only a judge and warrior but also a priest and prophet, fighting for his God as well as his people. Saint-Saens’s upstanding Samson is a far cry from the betrayed lover of Judges 16, who, accord ing to author Clanton, is intent on nothing but revenge. In Judges 13-16, the national conflict between the Israelites and the Philistines is played out in micro cosm via the stories of Sam son’s interactions with cer tain Philistines. Because of this local emphasis, the bib lical narrative focu ses n ot on grand iose claim s of religious affiliation, but rather on more mundane top ics, such as feasting, betrayal and the love of women. In contrast, Saint-Saens has turned the story in Judges 16 into a more religiously oriented and com plex tale. He does so by heightening the role of the Philistine high priest, by basing D elilah’s m otivations on both per sonal vengeance and religious fervor, and by shaping Samson into a cham pion o f God. Thus, the opera high lights the religious themes im plicit in the biblical nar rative in order to m ake a stronger religious statement about the im portance o f m onotheistic faith versus the more m aterialistic idolatry o f the Philistines. It is not until Scene Six of Act One that we meet Delilah, as she and the Philistine maidens sing an ode to spring. In the midst o f this enchanting song, we learn that Delilah and Sam son had a previous rela tionship that had ended. She bem oans the loss of her lover, and tells Sam son in no uncertain terms that her
Delilah immediately embarks on a mission to discover the secret o f Sam son’s power. Is this implicit agreem ent a legitimate source for Delilah’s bad reputation? Shouldn’t she be disparaged for agreeing to betray the man she loves—and who
charm s are more enticing than those of spring. An Old Hebrew tries to warn Sam son against the “serpent’s poison” contained in the words of this foreign woman,
loves her? Even these seemingly simple questions impose wide spread assum ptions on the biblical account and twist
and Sam son him self prays to God to still his passion for Delilah. Sam son never specifies what’s wrong with Delilah, although it seems she somehow limits his abil
Delilah into som ething she is not. First, the Bible only tells us Sam son loved Delilah; it never states that she loved him in return .7 Thus, Delilah’s feelings for Samson cannot be used as evidence of her deception or betrayal
ity to fight or speak for God to his fullest ability! He prays to God, “Cover her charm s whose beauty trou bles my senses, vexes my spirit! And from her eyes put out the flame which robs me o f my freedom.” From
o f Samson. Second, the text never tells us why Delilah agrees to the offer. Feminist Bible scholar Mieke Bal has suggested that Delilah might ju st as fairly be praised
the very start, then, Delilah is no good. T his portrayal is a drastic change from the Bible, which never clearly characterizes Delilah as good or
for this act: “In wartime, and it is such a time, no blame is attached to patriotism. Delilah ju st uses her specific
bad, beautiful or ugly. (Indeed the Bible doesn’t even tell us if she is a Philistine, although the context sug
WITH EYES GOUGED OUT and arms fettered in bronze chains, Samson languishes in a Philistine prison in Gaza, in this 1912 painting by German artist Lovis Corinth. Corinth, who had suffered a stroke in 1911, saw Samson’s blindness as a metaphor for his own helplessness and pain. Other artists and writers—including the English poet John Milton, who set most of his 1671 poetic drama Samson Agonistes in the prison—have turned Samson’s imprisonment into a scene of soul-searching and repentance. As a last temptation for Samson to overcome, Milton has the wicked Delilah visit him behind bars and pretend to beg his forgiveness. Blind at last to her charms, Samson resists her trickery.
gests she probably is.) In the two biblical verses that introduce Delilah, we learn simply that Sam son fell in love with her, and that the lords of the Philistines sub sequently came to her and said: “Coax him, and find out what makes his strength so great, and how we may overpower him , so that we may bind him in order to subdue him; and we will each give you eleven hun dred pieces o f silver” (Judges 15:5). Although there is no explicit agreem ent between the parties, there does seem to be an im plicit one; 16
B IB LE R E V IE W ♦ JU N E 2 0 0 4
SAMSON
potential for helping her tribe and makes enough money
&
DALILA
out of it to preserve her financial independence .”8 Or, as others have argued, Delilah, a single woman, may have needed the money .9 Thus, the biblical account should
is the Valley of Sorek, outside Delilah’s hom e, where Delilah awaits the arrival of Samson. In the first scene, Delilah delivers a soliloquy revealing her motivations. In the next scene, the high priest of Dagon discusses
not lead us to assume that Delilah’s motivation w^as base. For Saint-Saens, however, there is no doubt: Delilah herself tells us she w'ants to get revenge on Sam son
a plan of action with Delilah. He instructs Delilah, “Sell me your slave Sam son!” In return, he adds, Delilah “can choose from among all my wealth.”
and appease her gods. The bulk of the interaction between Sam son and Delilah takes place in Act Two of the opera. The setting
Note that it is a religious leader (the high priest), and not a political leader (a lord of the Philistines), who approaches Delilah. This alteration is significant
t
BIBLE R E V IE W ♦ |U N E 2 0 0 4
SAMSON GETS HIS REVENGE by pulling down the pillars of Dagon’s temple onto thousands of Philistine worshipers and himself, in this painting by the 18thcentury Italian painter Antonio Joli. Samson’s captors hadn’t calculated that as his hair slowly grew back in prison, so would his strength. In the Bible, Samson’s captors drag him out to enter tain them during a religious festival, and he prays to God for strength so that he can “pay back the Philistines for [his] two eyes” (Judges 16:28). In the opera, Samson’s goal is loftier: to avenge his God and redeem himself for his misdeed. And like a Hollywood ending, SaintSaens’s opera makes sure the bad guy—or in this case, bad girl—gets what’s coming: Delilah, the high priest and the Philistines simultaneously cry out in shock and terror as the temple collapses upon them. In the Bible, when Samson destroys the temple, there’s no hint that Delilah is present
because, as I note above, it contributes to the thematic thrust of the opera, in which Saint-Saens emphasizes the religious conflict submerged in the biblical story. Delilah then reveals her true feelings for Sam son to the high priest. She hates him: “W hat m atters your gold to Delilah? And what could a whole treasure if I was not dreaming of vengeance ... For, as much as you, I loathe him !” W e then learn that Delilah has already tried to discover the secret o f Sam son’s strength three times before and failed. However, after her ode to spring in the first act she is convinced that he has now “sur rendered to [her] power” and that he is coming to meet her “to tighten the bond between [them].” Following this, she and the high priest exclaim together: “Death to the Hebrew leader!” By having Delilah mention in passing her three pre
where each attempt is described in real time. In the Bible, Delilah first tries to discover Sam son’s secret by asking him flat out: “Explain to m e ... how could you be bound,
vious attempts to discover Sam son’s secret, the opera diminishes the drama of this part of the biblical account, 18
BIBLE R E V IE W ♦ JU N E 2 0 0 4
SAMSON
&r D A L I L A
He then hesitatingly follows her in, whereupon Philistine soldiers approach the house. Offstage, Sam son has evi
so as to subdue you?” (Judges 16:6). He gives her false instructions: “If they bind me with seven fresh bowstrings that are not dried out, then I shall become weak, and be like anyone else” (Judges 16:8). Delilah follows his direc tions and, as enemy assassins burst in to slay him, she
dently revealed his secret to Delilah, for she calls the soldiers into her house, and we hear Sam son scream, “Treachery!” as the curtain closes on Act Two.
cries out, “The Philistines are upon you Samson!” (Judges 16:9). But of course, the mighty Sam son breaks free. Delilah then repeats her question two more limes (Judges
Delilah’s actions in this scene—as told in the Bible and the opera—seem to offer the clearest evidence of her betrayal o f Sam son as well as her role in his cap
16:10,13); each time her param our lies to her. Each time he breaks free from the fetters in which Delilah has bound him. After the third try, Delilah com plains bitterly, “How can you say, ‘I love you,’ when your heart is not with
ture and death. She shaves his hair; she hands him over to the Philistines. But, once again, if we ju st scratch the surface of the biblical story, we find that the clear evidence of Delilah’s betrayal is not so clear after all. First, is Delilah really betraying Sam son when she asks him how' he could be bound? In the Bible, Samson
me?” (Judges 16:15). The biblical Delilah doesn’t give up, but she is not as
clearly knows w'hat she is doing; she tells him pointblank: “Explain to me what lies in your great strength
confident as her operatic counterpart, w'ho is convinced Samson will reveal his secret because he loves her. In Act Two, Scene Three, the secret is revealed.
and how you could be bound, so as to subdue you” (Judges 16:6). If anyone is being deceptive, it is Samson, who then toys w ith Delilah by giving h er incorrect responses to her request. In contrast, it is difficult to
This scene is (very loosely!) the equivalent of Judges 16:15-22. It begins with Delilah trying once again to reveal Sam son’s secret; it ends with Sam son shaven
imagine the Sam son o f the opera lying or deceiving anyone. In fact, D elilah re co u n ts her thrice-failed attem pts to the high priest in Act Two, Scene Two,
and shackled. In the Bible, we are told that Delilah “harassed him with her words all the days and urged him, and his soul was vexed to death” (Judges 16:15). At last, worn
and says, “Three times already, disguising my purpose, I have tried to discover the secret of his strength. I kin dled this love, hoping that by its flame I should read
dowm, Sam son reveals his secret: He’s a Nazirite, con secrated to God from b irth and b ou n d by vow to leave his hair unshorn. Delilah immediately recognizes
the unknow n hidden in the depths o f his soul. But three times too, frustrating my hopes he has not been at all frank, has let me see nothing.” The fact that Delilah
w hat th is m ea n s. She su m m o n s th e lo rd s o f the Philistines, who bring her the payment in silver. It’s the clim ax of the story and the downfall o f Samson:
sought Sam son’s secret prior to her encounter with the high priest enhances her thirst for personal vengeance. Also, her com m ents portray Sam son not as a deceiver,
“She let him fall asleep on her lap; and she called a m an, and had him shave off the seven locks o f his head. He began to weaken, and his strength left him ”
as in the biblical narrative, but simply as careful and guarded. Thu s, Saint-Saens exto ls the character of Sam son at the sam e time he heightens the ruthless ness o f Delilah .10 Second, is Delilah really responsible for stealing
(Judges 16:19). The Philistines descend on Samson, gouge out his eyes and bring him to Gaza in chains. In the opera, Act Two, Scene Three, Sam son grudg ingly acknowledges his love for Delilah but claims he
Sam son’s strength or might som eone else be to blame? That is, is she the one who shaved his hair? The Hebrew
must submit to the will of his God and “break the sweet bond of our love.” Delilah now deploys her m ost potent weapon: She begins to cry. Sam son cannot resist her
Bible (or Masoretic Text) tells us, “She made (let) him sleep on her knees, then called to a man, shaved seven locks on his head, and then began to humiliate him. And his strength departed from him” (Judges 16:19).
tears and loudly declares that he loves her. The two then exchange several verses of am orous exclamations until Delilah reminds Sam son that he has lied to her before, when he misled her as to the secret of his power.
But why did Delilah need to call to a man? She has already successfully bound Sam son twice and woven his hair together without any assistance.
He responds that his love m eans he has forgotten his God, w'hich should be sufficient proof, w hereupon
Ancient translators tried to solve this problem by specifying that the m an was a barber. In the Greek
Delilah replies that she is jealous of his God because o f the vow he and Sam son share. She begs him to allay her distrust by revealing the nature of his sacred bond with God. Throughout the scene, distant thunder and
Septuagint prepared in Alexandria in the third to second century B.C.E. and in the Latin Vulgate of Jerom e from the fourth century C.E., Delilah sum mons a barber who gives Samson his close shave. Modern translations such
lig h tn in g have b ee n grow ing clo ser, and Sam son takes this to be the voice of God telling him to remember his vow. W hen he tells this to Delilah, she plays her last card and rejects him, saying, “Coward! Loveless
as the New Revised Standard Version reflect this under standing: “She called a man, and had him shave off the seven locks of his head” (Judges 16:19). Since we have
heart, I despise you. Farewell!” She turns and enters her house, leaving Sam son with his hands in the air.
continues on p a g e 44 19
B IB LE R E V IE W ♦ |U N E 2 0 0 4
A
dam and Eve’s disobedience in the Garden of Eden serves as the foundation for Western theologies of the way we are: sinful and guilty. As the New England Primer of 1683 suc cinctly states: “In Adam's fall, We sinned all.” For their sin, Adam and Eve are expelled from the Garden in Genesis 3. In the next chapter, we find them established farmers with two illfated sons. But the Bible tells us little beyond that. Did Adam and Eve ever regret their mistake? Did they repent and mend their ways? Or, in their lives east of Eden, did they continue to pass the blame for the human condition, ju st as Adam once blamed Eve and Eve blamed the snake? Ancient authors couldn’t resist speculating about what hap pened to the first couple between Genesis 3 and 4. The first such accounts likely originated among Jews during the Second Temple period (roughly 515 B.C.E.-72 C.E.). It was at this time that the serpent became identified with a figure adversarial to God, namely Satan, whose influence over Adam and Eve, and humankind in general, lasted long after the Fall. (In Genesis, the serpent plays instead the role o f the “trickster,” a com m on figure in many religious traditions.)1 These Jewish tales of Adam and Eve’s traffic with Satan exerted noteworthy influence on the Christian community, especially in 20 BIBLE R E V IE W ♦ |U N E 2 0 0 4
ST®
r i r r r
mm
c
r
\
r,
r x llm ' I
iln M DAVID
R.
T ' r 'r
CARTLIDGE
ADAM’S CONT R ACT
PREVIOUS PAGE: The angel assigned by God to guard Paradise drives Adam and Eve out with his flaming sword, in this 16th-century painted enamel plaque from the National Museum of the Renaissance in Ecouen, France. For eating the forbidden fruit, the first couple was banished from the Garden. But what happened then? Between the Fall in Genesis 3 and the story of Cain and Abel in Genesis 4, the Bible doesn’t really tell us what Adam and Eve’s lives were like, except that Adam tilled the earth as a farmer and Eve bore him sons. Several apocryphal stories, however, that may date from as early as the late Second Temple period— and that arc still repeated as folktales in Eastern Europe—describe how Adam and Eve had more problems with Satan after they relocated “east of Eden” (Genesis 3:24). In the accompanying review, David R. Cartlidge discusses a new book about these popular leg ends that fill the gap in the story of Adam and Eve.
How hast thou been again ensnared by our adversary, by w hose m eans we have been estranged from our abode in paradise and spiritual jo y ?”3 Thus Adam com pletes his penitence while Eve does not, and the blame for human troubles is thereby laid specifically and heav ily at Eve’s feet. This account reflects the church’s tendency to blame Eve, rather than Adam and Eve jointly, for the Fall. The same trend can be traced by com paring Romans 5:14, in w hich Paul lays the responsibility on Adam—“death held sway from Adam to Moses, even over those who had not sinned as Adam did, by disobeying a direct com m and”—with 1 Tim othy 2:13-14, where we read that “it was not Adam who was deceived; it was the woman who, yielding to deception, fell into sin.”*
the East, almost from the very beginning of the church.
The second tradition, popular in the Balkan areas from at least as early as the Middle Ages, adds a fur ther twist. In this version, Satan’s second temptation
The Christian community recorded the tales in several fascinating and fun yet relatively little-known apocryphal texts with an unusual theological point all their own. Michael E. Stone, professor of Armenian studies and
o f Eve fails—but, in Satan’s mind, if two wrongs don't m ake a right, try a third. This third time, Satan takes no chances. He tricks Adam into signing a contract
the Gail Levin de Nur Professor of Religion at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem , has long had an interest in the Adam and Eve apocryphal literature. His History o f the
(Greek, c h eiro g ra p h o s-literally meaning “handwritten docum ent”) agreeing to be Satan's servant. There are three variants of this second tradition,
Literature o f A dam an d Eve (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992) is a technical discussion of interrelationships among the dozens of Adam and Eve apocrypha. His m ost recent publication, A d am ’s Contract with Satan:
but in each Satan takes advantage of Adam and Eve’s ignorance to get Adam to sign on the dotted line. In the first version, Adam sets out to till the earth,
The Legend o f the C heirograph o f Adam (under review here), presents his analysis o f the stories in a manner
as God had com manded (in Genesis 3 :7-19,23). But Satan approaches him and forbids Adam to plow, claim ing that he owns the earth. Adam “knew that the Lord would descend on the earth and would take upon him
that is not only useful to scholars but is accessible to the interested public. The Adam and Eve apocrypha occur in at least two
self the form of a m an and would tread the devil under him ,”4 so Adam assum es that Satan must be telling the truth, that he temporarily owns the earth. Duped by
layers of tradition. The first, probably dating from the Greco-Roman period and most popular in Judaism and the very early church, includes such m anuscripts as The Life o f A dam and
the devil, Adam signs the contract, or cheirograph, m aking him Satan’s ten ant farmer until the com ing of Jesus.
Eve, the misnamed Apocalypse o f Moses (which is actually about the Adam and Eve stories) and the Penitence o f Adam. The stories are found in Greek, Latin, Slavon ic, G eorgian, A rm enian and other languages.2 The gist of these tales
In a second version of the cheiro graph tale, Adam and Eve, when they are first cast out of the garden, do not k now w hat day and night are. (According to these tales, the garden had always been lit with a heavenly
is that Adam and Eve, a fter th eir expulsion, wish to repent and do so by fasting for 4 0 days while standing in the Tigris River. Satan is so upset at this that he appears to Eve in the form of an angel and tricks her into thinking that the 4 0 days are up and she has already completed the penance. She succum bs to Satan’s trickery once again, ju st as she had in the Garden, and Adam is furious. He had warned Eve that she might be tempted again, and so now he rails at her: “O Eve, Eve, where is the labor o f thy penitence?
light.) It happens to be nighttime when they leave Eden, and so Adam believes he will have to live in darkness forever. Satan takes advantage of his ignorance:
Adam's Contract w ith Satan M ich ael E. Stone (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2002) 194 pp., S39.95 (hardback)
22 B IB LE R E V IE W ♦ J U N E 2 0 0 4
“I shall give you light. Inscribe yourself (as belonging to m e) by your handwTiting and also (about) your family and children.” So Adam signs the con tract and only realizes he has been duped when the daylight occurs natu rally. But Satan has hidden the contract: *See Susan Greiner, “Did Eve Fall or Was She Pushed?" BR, August 1999.
ADAM SIGNS A CONTRACT WITH SATAN in this mural from the 16th-century church at Voronet in Moldavia, Romania. Several stories about Adam and Eve that were popular in Eastern Europe, the Balkans and Armenia tell how Satan tricked Adam into signing a contractcalled a cheirograph (Greek for “handwritten document”) —making Adam Satan’s servant for all eternity. In one version of the story, Satan persuades Adam that the earth is his (the devil’s) possession and forbids Adam to till it until he signs a contract making him Satan’s tenant farmer. In another version, the devil pretends he controls the rising and setting of the sun. He convinces naive Adam to sign himself and his family over to Satan, in return for some daylight On the contract in this mural, Adam is writing “Cheirograph of Adam” in Slavonic characters.
“The devil look Adam’s handwriting and hid it (in the Jord an) under a stone where Christ was baptized .”5 The third form o f the cheirograph story is more elaborate. Cain is born as a m onster: “His head was like others, but on his breast and forehead there were tw elve sn ak e h ead s. W h e n Eve su ck le d h im , the snake heads tormented her stom ach, and our original m other Eve w as covered by a scab becau se o f this torment and fierce torture .”6 Satan promises to relieve Eve’s pain and cure Cain if Adam will sign a contract with the devil. So Adam slaughters a goat and uses its blood to sign the cheirograph with the words: “The living are God’s and die dead are yours”—that is, Satan’s. Satan then removes the torturing snakes and puts them
brings “the remainders of the handwriting ... to Hell where the saints were im prisoned.” But when Jesu s rises from the dead and descends into Hell, he tears
in the Jordan to guard the cheirograph. But when Jesus is later baptized in the Jord an, he crushes the snakes. The devil holds on to the cheirograph, however, and 23
B IB LE R E V IE W * |U N E 2 0 0 4
i
up (o r sm ash es—in som e version s the c o n tra ct is inscribed on stone) the contract, “and he bound the devil and released the souls from Hell and brought
JOHN BAPTIZES JESUS and both tread on Satan who, in the form of an underwater serpent, holds the eheirograph in his mouth, in this 1587 gospel illumination from Armenia. In the later versions of the cheirograph story, Satan hides the contract in what he thinks is a safe place, the Jordan River, never suspecting that the arrival of Jesus will undo his schemes.
them to the first [kind of] Paradise .”7 These stories about Adam and Eve and the contract with Satan live in contem porary folktales, especially in the Balkans, Russia and Greece, and have long been part of the pictorial arts in these areas of the Eastern church. A 16th-century mural (see photo, p. 2 3 ) from
Elem ents o f the second and third variant o f the cheirograph story (in w hich Satan hides the cheiro graph in the Jord an, where it is protected by snakes, and Jesu s later crushes the snakes and retrieves the contract from Hell) appear more frequently—in Eastern
a church in Moldavia, in Romania, shows Adam sign ing the cheirograph in the presence of Satan. 24
BIBLE R E V IE W ♦ JU N E 2 0 0 4
ADAM’S CONTRACT
images of Je su s’ baptism and the Resurrection.
not simply by being nailed to the cross, but by going down into Hades, repossessing the bill, destroying it,
In the Eastern church, images of the Resurrection are called the Anastasis (from the Greek for “Resurrection”), and they depict Jesu s beating down the doors of Hell
and bringing Adam and Eve out .” 10 This is the theme of the images of the Anastasis, m entioned above. In his sixth homily, Jo h n Chrysostom (ca. 3 7 0 -4 0 0 ) says
and rescuing Adam, Eve and other souls. (In the W est the scene is know n as the “Descent into Hell” or the “Harrowing of Hell”).* Anastasis images appear in vir
“we were all under sin and punishm ent. He Himself, through suffering punishm ent, did away with both the sin and p u n ish m en t... To the cross then He affixed it;
tually every Eastern O rthodox church, and som e (like the painting on the cover o f this issue) show Jesu s carrying a scroll, which is probably the cheirograph
as having power, He tore it apart.” 11 W hat are we to make of these rather obscure leg ends? They are virtually unknow n, especially in the W estern church. According to Stone, in his summary
he retrieved from Hell. At least one 17th-century icon (draw ing on p. 2 6 ) show s Je s u s tearing the scroll right out of Satan’s hands.
chapter, they represent an informal but important type o f Christian tradition, especially popular in the Eastern
In the third version of the cheirograph story, the con tract protected by serpents is sometimes described as being a stone tablet or clay brick rather than a scroll.
church of the Middle Ages and continuing to this day in folklore. Stone dem onstrates that the texts and tra
Stone relates a Romanian folktale in which “Satan asks for the contract to be written. Adam says he cannot write because when he was small there was no school
ditions of these legends tended to survive in certain areas, namely, in Armenia, Russia, Greece, Old Slavonic churches, Romania and Moldavia . 12
for either Hungarians or Romanians .”8 So Satan accepts a handprint on a brick. In images of the baptism, Jesus is sometimes shown treading upon the serpents in the
Nevertheless, as Michael Stone notes, the stories of Adam’s contract with Satan present a provocative the ological position. In the W est, in a view influenced highly by Paul, Augustine, Calvin, Luther and others,
river (as in the 16th-century Armenian gospel illumi nation, shown opposite) or standing upon a rock tablet— the contract—guarded by serpents.
the occasion of sin and the fall of humankind are the direct results of disobedience to a divine com m and ment. In the cheirograph story, however, our fallen
The earliest manuscripts containing stories of Adam’s contract with Satan date to the early Middle Ages, but the tales themselves are likely much older. It is possi ble they w ere even know n to som e New Testam ent
state arises from ignorance: namely, Adam’s and Eve’s ignorance. As Stone puts it, “within [the cheirograph stories’] overarching economy of salvation from Adam’s
writers. The word cheirographos occurs only once in the New Testament, in Colossians 2:13-14, but it is a
sin to Christ’s crucifixion, a more limited world was perceived ... The human condition was, in this smaller perspective, due to a m istake and not to sin ... The sense of sin and guilt must have been less oppressive;
key word in a powerful and suggestive passage: “And though we were dead in our transgressions and in the circum cision of our flesh, he has made us alive with him, forgiving us of all sins. He has canceled the con
the yearning for freedom from this worldly subjection to the devil very acute . "13 These stories thus propose a concept of the human
tract (cheirographos) and all its stipulations which were laid upon us, and he has set it aside, nailing it to the cro ss.” T his raises the intriguing question, Did the
cond ition that differs significantly from that o f the W estern church and its Augustinian view that w^e are creatures who suffer from personal sin and guilt because,
author of Colossians have in mind the legend of Adam’s contract with Satan? The prevailing interpretation of the “contract” in C olossians 2:13-14 is that it represents a bill of sin-
in Adam, we broke a divine com m andm ent. In this W estern view; we are, in Martin Luther’s phrase, “at the same time justified and sinners.” Thus, we celebrate our freedom from sin gained on the cross and yet con
indebtedness that humans incurred because of Adam’s sin; die first couple had broken a divine commandment in a contract held by God. Stone points out, however,
fess that we are still bound by it. It is very possible, then, to picture our struggle as a personal one between
that the author of Colossians may be referring instead to a contract in Satan’s keeping, w hich gives Satan
our redeemed self and our sinful nature. The cheiro graph legend holds a different approach. In its theol ogy, we are a deceived people, no divine edict was trans
dom inion over the earth; the contract does not neces sarily involve the breaking of a divine commandment. The church father Tertullian (c. 2 0 0 C.E.), in his De pudicitia (About Chastity) speaks of Satan’s holding the “contract .”9 As Stone notes, there was a widespread tra
gressed, and our ignorance of the deceit holds us in bondage to a usurper lord of the cosm os, Satan. The struggle then becomes one in which we must overthrow this usurper lord while at the same time understand
dition in the church “that Christ annulled Adam’s debt
ing that we are already freed from his dominion over the earth. Both the Augustinian (Western) and the cheiro
* F o r m o r e e x a m p l e s o f t h i s s u b je c t i n E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n a rt,
graph legends’ theologies therefore explain a basic human paradox. But they do so in significandy different
s e e H e id i J . H o r n i k a n d M ik e a l C . P a r s o n s , “T h e H a r r o w i n g o f H e ll,” B R , J u n e 2 0 0 3 .
25 B IBLE R E V IE W * |U N E 2 0 0 4
ADAM’S CONTRACT
JESUS RIPS THE CHEIROGRAPH from the clutches of the devil, as he liberates Adam and other Old Testament heroes from Hell, in the bottom scene of this drawing of a 17th-century Russian icon. According to church tradition, immediately before Jesus' Resurrection (the top scene), he descended to Hell to release the righteous imprisoned there. Not only does Jesus makes things right for humanity by offering salva tion from the Fall, he uses his opportu nity in Hell to annul the cheirograph, undoing Adam's second transgression. Paul himself may have known about the cheirograph, as the following quo tation from Colossians suggests: “And though we were dead in our transgres sions and in the circumcision of our flesh, he has made us alive with him, forgiving us of all our sins. He has can celled the contract ( cheirographos ) and all its stipulations which were laid upon us, and he has set it aside, nailing it to the cross” (Colossians 2:13-14). Jesus' trip to Hell to liberate the righteous dead has always been a popular scene in the art of the Eastern church, where it is called the Anastasis. (In the West, it is known as the Harrowing of Hell.) Jesus is often shown holding a scroll—appar ently a copy of Adam’s contract—as in the modem Anastasis painting on the cover of this issue.
I# , o«
£froA
