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Volume57 Number2
A Publicationof the AmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch
66
86
Archaeology in Lebanon in the Twentieth Century WilliamA. Ward So much of archaeologicalinterestin Lebanonis inaccessible,covered by modem successors to ancient towns in which the competitionbetween the archaeologistand the demands of modem society rumbles on. The long civil war that destroyed much of the country has had devastating effects on archaeologicalresearchand the preservationof cultural resources.Yet archaeology in Lebanon is alive and getting well again. Long-time member of the community of the American University of Beruit,Bill Ward chronicles the ebb and flow of archaeologicaldiscovery in this crucial crossroads of the ancient world.
Had the Works of Philo Been Newly Discovered Abraham Terian The voluminous works of Philo have been known for so long; their existence is taken for granted.But imagine the headlineshad this first-century Jew's commentaries on the Pentateuch,his declamatorybooks, and his dialogues appeared unexpectedly, even mysteriously, from some dry corner of Alexandria!Though the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrollsand the Nag Hammadi Codices has eclipsed scholarlyinterest in Philo, renewed devotion to Philonic studies will be requiredfor the advancement of scholarshipon EarlyJudaismand Christianity.
page 66
98
page 98
June1994
Hellenization in Syria-Palestine: The Case of Judea in the Third Century BCE RobertHarrison How and to what degree was Judea Hellenized during the third century BfE? Its Ptolemaic masters laid their hands on the Judean economy; Ptolemaic Yehud coins indicate that much. But do the coins signal Hellenistic culturalinfluence as well? What of monumental remains at principalHellenistic sites? Taken as a whole, the growing body of archaeologicaldata depicts third century BCEJudea as still aloof from the Hellenistic cultural inundation of the next century.
110 LiterarySources for the History of Palestine and Syria: The Ph'enician Inscriptions, PartTwo
Donald R. Vance Find spots of Phlencian inscriptionsspan the entireMediterraneanbasin, stretchingfromSyriato Spain.Such a broaddistributionminors the phenomenal range of this seafaringculture.Vanceconcludes his catalogand commentaryon the richlegacy of Phoencianinscriptions,gatheringthose of chief importance found apartfrom the famed cities of the Phcenciancoast. The inscriptionsoffera crucialwindow into Phcenciancultureand its influence.
page 110
On the cover: A monumental Roman archway from the Lebanese city of Tyre. The surface remains of the Roman-Byzantinecity dominate the archaeological landscape, but the recent discovery of a Phoenician period cemetery offers an exciting new glimpse at pre-Roman Tyre. Photograph courtesy of Aramco World.
Fromthe Editor and I will be hot and dusty digging in Amman as this issue comes Myoffson the press. We join thousands of other archaeologists,volunteers, and staff who form the crest of this summer's archaeological wave. Brian-nearly 13-is a veteran now, returning for his second season. Things will likely be a bit different this time around, I tell him, anticipating diminished excitement at finding a stray tessera or glazed sherd. He doesn't believe me. He is summoned by the lure of recollected joy. I will admit to the same, in some measure, though it is fascination with more persistent anthropological and historical questions that impels so many to return to the field season after season. An arrayof persistent questions finds expression in articlesof this issue. Robert Harrison assesses the state of researchon Hellenistic Judea:how assimilated were the indigenous peoples into Greek culture during the Ptolemaic third century?His analysis of monumental architectureand material culture-coins to jarhandlesdiscounts the pervasiveness of Hellenistic culture. Yet archaeologists still labor at a preliminary stage in their assessments of the cultural phenomenon of Hellenization, even as like questions of multi-culturalism and community identity swirl around the late twentieth century. Persistencedogs a related area of inquiry-the persistence of neglect. According to Abraham Terian,the tremendously prolific and strategicallywell-placed figure of Philo of Alexandria remains virtually undiscovered among historians of Early Judaism and Christianity.Terianillustratesthe potential inherent in Philo's legacy: whether following the history of Hebrew Scripture interpretation through his works or exploring their pertinence for New Testament interpretation or assessing the interactionof Judaism and Hellenistic philosophy expressed in his thought, it is undoubtedly time to rediscover Philo. Terian shows how the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Nag Hammadi libraryhas drained energy from Philonic studies. Ironically,the heightened interestin the emergence of Judaism and Christianity kindled by these well-advertised discoveries heralds a re-discovery of Philo himself. A re-awakening of another sort focuses Bill Ward'sreview and assessment of the archaeology of Lebanon. Lebanese archaeology has lived through a terrible time of civil war. It now finds itself able to begin to attend to the enormous needs for rescue and preservationas well as to fill the huge gaps that exist in the cultural history of Lebanon. Ward chronicles the war's decimation of Lebanon's ancient heritage and the faithfulness of those who struggled to protect it. His account injects a realistic and needful word into current debates about the ownership of cultural property and the intractablebattle between modern needs and development and the heritage of ancient times. Archaeological excavators dig to portray the past: many enmeshed in Lebanon's war dug to survive the present. Archaeological projects return in force to the field this summer, focused on how their research relates to one or another set of persistent questions. As the new day in Lebanon teaches, the opportunity to engage in such research is also an occasion for joy. My son, Brian, knows this, and so should we.
Biblical
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ontheAncientWorldfrom Perspectives Mesopotamia to theMediterranean Editor David C. Hopkins
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Gaetano Palumbo Paul Zimansky Annual Subscriptions subscription rates are $35 for individuals and $45 for institutions. There is a special annual rate of $28 for those over 65, physically challenged, or unemployed. Biblical is also available as part of the benefits Archaeologist of some ASOR membership categories. Postage for Canadian and other internationaladdresses is an additional $5. Payments should be sent to ASOR Membership/ Subscriber Services, P.O. Box 15399, Atlanta, GA 30333-0399 (ph: 404-7272345; Bitnet: SCHOLARS@EMORYUI).VISA/ Mastercard orders can be phoned in. Back issues Back issues can be obtained by calling SP Customer Services at 800-437-6692or writing SP Customer Services, P.O. Box 6996, Alpharetta, GA 30239-6996. Postmaster Send address changes to Biblical ASOR Membership/Subscriber SerArchaeologist, vices, P.O.Box 15399,Atlanta, GA 30333-0399. Second-class postage paid at Atlanta, GA and additional offices. Copyright @ 1994 by the American Schools of Oriental Research. Correspondence All editorial correspondence should be addressed to BiblicalArchtaeolcgist, 4500 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016-5690 (ph: 202-885-8699;fax: 202-885-8605). Books for review should be sent to Dr.James C. Moyer, Department of Religious Studies, Southwest Missouri State University, 901 South National, Box 167,Springfield,MO 65804-0095. Advertising Correspondence should be addressed to Sarah Foster,Scholars Press, P.O. Box 15399, Atlanta, GA 30333-0399 (ph: 404-727-2325; fax:404-727-2348).Ads for the sale of antiquities will not be accepted. (ISSN0006-0895)is published BiblicalArchaeologist quarterly(March,June,September,December) by Scholars Press,819 Houston Mill Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, for the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch(ASOR),3301 North Charles Street,Baltimore,MD 21218. Printedby Cadmus JournalServices, BaltimoreMD.
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30 aO~? 47
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Archaeology in Lebanon in the Twentieth Century Author(s): William A. Ward Source: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 57, No. 2 (Jun., 1994), pp. 66-85 Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210385 Accessed: 02/04/2010 11:00 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=asor. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact
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in Lebanon Archaeology
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By William A. Ward
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it theopportunity to do so. Unfortunatehilearchaeological discovery" do not oftenhave that in Lebanon has a long and ;y,archaeologists Theislandof Aradusoffthe opportunitv: productive history,research southernm Syriancoastis coveredby\the into the nation'spast has beetnsomewhat Theancienttellsof Beirut, by long-standingdemograph- moderntoxwin. hamperetd liebeneaththeinhabicand economic factors.As a result,many\ Sidon,andBaalbek itedareasof thesecities,makingexcavaof the sites important to the history of tionnearlyimpossible.Therearea fewl Lebanon have not xbeenexcavated. tWe suchas Bvblosand know from ancient accounts that cities gleamingexceptions, in fieldsoutside both situated Sarafand, Tvre like Aradus, Beirut,Sidon, and the and modernm toxwns, Kamidel-LCz, playe!dan importantrole in world affairs, the southern in BeqaaValley\\here the though written sources cannot replace Butsitessuch ancient tell is uninhabited. the material evithese the are rare. On other as hand,in dence that arh thenew tthniquexs chaeology of urban recentvearrs usmuch produced couldproha\ve archaeology able dataon early\remainsat still vide had site.s is thus Thepossibility occupiedtoday.: open thatthe ancientcitiesof the Levantcouldat leastbe partially Tourism,a majorfactorin the Lebanrevealedc ese economyuntil 1975when it was toby thene\wmethodologyL: tallyhaltedby thecivil\war,also placed certainrestrictionson archaeological work.The Departmentof Antiquities Egyptian sphinx of Amenemhat IV regularlyspentmuchof itslimitedbuddiscoveredin 1926 dunring (ca. 1798-1789 BCE) on restoration projectsaimedat both constructionof a buildingin downtown Beirut. get scientific research and thecreationof Thisimportantpiece was quietlysold on the sites. tourism Amongthese,arethesplenantiquitiesmarket,hence its archaeological did Roman and Byzantineremainsat contextwhich may have been a Middle the BronzeAge temple is lost. Thisis one of T\re, imposingRomantemplesat severalMiddleKingdomEgyptian Baaltbk,andthetleserknownbutjustas royalstatuesfound at keysites in importantRomantownat BeitMeri in Syria-Palestine, mostof which the foothillsabove Beirut.One should have no cleararchaeological not minimizethe effort spenton restorcontext. for it some ation, produced archaeologPhotographcourtesyof icalmarvelsthatotherwisemightnot TheBritishMuseum. exist.Butit alsomeantthatgovernment fundsforexcavationwerelimitedand thatfieldarchaeology\\wasoftenleftto localand foreigninstitutionls. The InstitutFranoaisd'Archdolo~gie 66
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de Beyrouthhas supported excavation and researchfrom the early 1920s to the present.The Orient-Institutder Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft,also in Beirut,has a continuing researchprogram centering on the Islamic period. The American University of Beirut,the Universit6Ste. Joseph and, more recently, the Lebanese University, have all sponsored excavationsover the years. In the 1970s, there was a growing interest in Lebanesearchaeologyon the part of foreign institutions,but several planned expeditions were cancelled because of the civil war that began in 1975. The groundwork has been done, however. Before1975,several foreignsurvey teams worked in Lebanon, and a recent work (Hakimian 1992) is the first step toward the creation of a complete archaeological map of the country. The story of archaeological work in
and around Beirutbest illustratesanother problem in Lebanese archaeology, i.e., competition between the archaeologist and the demands of modem society. This is not unique to Lebanon,of course; it is symptomatic of archaeological work around the world. To put it bluntly, the issue is: who gets to dig the holethe archaeologistor the contractorerecting a new building? This problem is particularlyacute in Lebanonwhere land for urban expansion is at a premium and ancient towns and burial grounds almost blanketthe country).Archaeology in the Beirutregionalso demonstratesthe most crushing blow to archaeological research,namely, the devastating effects of the long civil war thatdestroyedmuch of the country. In 1926, the municipality of Beirut erecteda new building downtown in the vicinity of the Rivoli and Byblos cine-
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Byblos, temple of the obelisks. ThisMiddle BronzeAge temple is uniquein the Canaanite world,the votiveobelisksbeing one of many obvious Egyptianinfluencesat the site. Some have smallrecessesin which bronzestatuettes of deitieswere once placed.Itis generallyfelt that this temple was dedicatedto the Canaanite god Reshep.Thetemple of the obeliskswas found directlyoverthe EarlyBronzeAge temple and moved stone by stone to its present location. Photographcourtestyof Darel-Machreq Publishers,Beirut.
mas.2 As the site for the new building was being prepared, the contractor found an Egyptian royal sphinx of the Twelfth Dynasty and immediately sold it to a local antiquitiesdealer.Two years later,the sphinx turned up in the British Museum (Hall 1928)and, because of its intrinsic artistic value, the object was immediately discussed at length (e.g., Biblical Archaeologist 57:2 (1994)
67
Moret 1928;von Bissing 1930). Within weeks of the initialpublication,Dunand (1928)was able to run down the circumstancesand locationof this discovery.The sphinx has been a sore point in Lebanese archaeologyever since.This monument, potentially of great historicalsignificance, became just another piece of art in a museum collection because it had no archaeologicalcontext.Its importance as a historical document is lost forever, but neitherthe antiquitiesdealer nor the BritishMuseum is to blame. The value of the sphinx was lost the moment it was taken from the ground (so that construction on the new municipal building could continue without a break).
Historians have wondered for decades if the sphinx was an isolated find or if, as we all suspect, a Middle Bronze temple was swept away in the name of instant progress. Instant progress accounts for many other lost opportunities. In the 1960s, a Britishteam surveyed the entirecountry for prehistoricsites. The first volume of this survey recordsa Neolithic deposit behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema (Copelandand Wescombe1965: 74-75). VolumeTwo of this survey notes the following: We regret to report the destruction of the Byblos Cinema site. Funds
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requested a year ago...were not allocated in time to examine it. A large intersection now marks the spot (Copeland and Wescombe 1966:162). Once again, archaeology and urban development came into conflict with yet another little piece of history being buried under modem pavement. Similarly, in the 1960s, a small Neolithic tell was swept away by a bulldozer when the runways of the Beirut International Airport were enlarged, and an important Natufian site was covered over as the southern suburbs of Beirutexpanded (Saidah 1970:9). The runways of the airportplay a role in another archaeologicalstory,this one successful. When the airportrunways were again expanded some years ago just south of Beirut at Khaldeh, several tombs were discovered and immediately reported to the authorities. The resulting excavation (Saidah 1966) yielded a Phoenician cemetery, though it could not be completely exposed since it lies partially beneath the modem coastal highway. Still,some 150 tombs were uncovered, providing a corpus of Phoenician pottery of the earlier first millennium BCE.Large quantities of pottery of this period are known from southern Lebanon (Chapman 1972),and current excavations are making this age known in the north (Thalman 1978a, 1978b). Khaldeh,however, provides the firstdatable Phoenician material in the Beirut region.Along with the localpottery,there are imported wares which indicate that Beirut was a trade center at the time, though we have no Phoenicianremains from the city itself. A few years later,excavationsat nearby Khan Khaldehuncovered the remains
Tomb no. 121 in the Phoenician cemetery at Khaldeh. Lateninthto late eighth centuries BCE. Thisis a multipleburial,includingboth inhumationand cremationin cineraryumrns. The lattertype of burialwas far more common among the Phoeniciansthan generallyrealized, both in Lebanonitselfand at Punicsettlements in the west. Inboth regions,the two types of burialare frequentlyfound in the same tomb.
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Kamid el-L6z, ancient Kumidi, seen from the northin 1969. Situatedin the southern BeqaaValley,Kumidiwas an importantBronze Age cityon the crossroadsof two majortrade carried of Saarbrucken routes.TheUniversity out excavationsherefor two decades, reaching the laterMiddleBronzeAge strata,before workwas haltedby the civilwar.Photograph courtesyof BerytusArchaeologicalStudies.
of a small basilicabuilt in the sixth century CEand enlarged in the seventh. The most significant finds are the specmosaicswhich cover much of the tactular floor area in several rooms (Duval and Caillet 1982). Fine and well-preserved mosaic floors in both churchesand private houses are a hallmark of Lebanese archaeologyof the classicaland Byzantine periods and are described in the extensive survey of this materialknown in the late 1950s (Chehab 1959, see also Chehab1975). In 1969,the Department of Antiquities began a sounding in downtown Beirutthat suggested continuous occupation of the city back into prehistoric times. Nothing was reported of this ex-
70
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cept a brief note on the surface survey (Saidah 1970:11-12).Whatever the reason, this opportunity to investigate the whole history of the ancient city was abandoned. This may be remedied by another projectof much greater magnitude that has at last become a reality Around 1980, during a lull in the civil war, an intensive survey program was begun in the downtown area in preparationfor an excavationof the pre-Roman was alcity. Since everything modemrn ready destroyed, archaeologists did not have to tear down anything to investigate the city's past. Because of renewed fighting, this work was stopped soon afterit began.The survey team could not even finishrecordingthe Romanremains that lie just below the surface. The projecthas been revived,and local and foreignarchaeologicalteams under the auspices of UNESCOare currently making soundings at several points in the city center. This is a unique opportunity, perhaps the last one, to discover ancient Beirut beforethe downtown area is
rebuilt. We know practicallynothing about the city in pre-Roman times and may have a wealth of new, information over the next year or so, provided archaeology can prevail for a while over urbandevelopment.Thereareambitious plans for the immediate reconstruction of the city's center.Archaeologists will have to compete again, this time not with militiasand armies,as was the case during the war years, but now with a government anxious to re-
storethefocalpointof Lebanon's economyx Another promising archaeological success story began in 1954 and may finally be completed in another two or threeyears. It -f it
started,as so many of thesethingsdo, with the constructionof a new office buildingin downtownBeirut.The builderwas a businessmanwith an interestin localarchaeology,unlike the governmentofficialwho foundthe sphinxin the same neighborhood thirtyyearsearlier. As excavationfor the underground
tery,a numberof metalweapons, ing. Thebuildingitselfis badlydama fine collection of Egyptian aged and an enormousnumberof artifactshavebeen destroyedor aremiss, scarabs and alabastervessels, MinoanandMycenaean vases, ing. Whilethe Beiruttombsmaterial jewelry,and otheritems.Here, may or may not eventuallybe found,4 at last,was a chanceto get a enoughprogressin photoof glimpse graphingand
Beirutin the
Middleand Late BronzeAges.3 This impor-
tantcollection of material was storedin boxesin the museum basementand forgotten,with onlya shortnoteon itsdiscovery Someyears levelsprogressed, (Chehab1955:5051). the construction later,RogerSaidah,an archaeologist of the Departmentof Antiquities, crewcameacrossa foundthismaterialandput togetheran smallcave containinternational teamof expertsto deal ing a largenumber with the variedcontentsof thetombs. of antiquities.ConButtwo thingshaltedthisprojectin its structionwas haltinitialstages.In 1975,thewarbeganin ed for two weeks so the archaeLebanon,and in 1979,Saidah,stilla to could young man,died aftera long illness. get ologists Theprojectis now on againunderthe workand,while directionof Prof.Helga Seedenof the two weeks is hardly AmericanUniversityof Beirut,thoughit enoughto do a will not be as completeas it couldhave final the properjob, been.As notedabove,thisextraordinary countwas four collectionof objectswas storedaway in tombsfilledto overthe NationalMuseum,locatedon the with intact flowing infamousgreenline thatdividedBeirut burials.Twotombs intoeastand west for 15 years.The dateto the Middle BronzeAge, two to greenline,todayfortunatelygone,was 0 .25 cm a genuinefrontier,completewith nothe LateBronzeAge. All man'slandand check-pointson either the artifactswereremoved side mannedby very seriousmilitiaand sent to the National men.Nearlyeverythingalongthe Museum.Thiswas the firstsolid archaeological lengthof the greenline was destroyed, evidenceforancientBeirut and the museumrn thathad a context.And it could was an importantcontext. : Therewas a massof localpothardly es-_
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cape damage. The museum was continuously occupied for years by a successionof local militias and invading armies. A report on the condition of the museum published recently (Asmar "' 1992) makes S very sad read-
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recordingthe objectswas madesome yearsago to makea publicationpossible. Some40 yearsafterthey were found,the Beiruttombswill at lastbe made known.5 in Beirut research Whilearchaeological illustratesthe problemsof excavations in an urbansetting,a sitein thesouthern BeqaaValleyrepresentsthe excavator'sideal.Workon a telladjacentto the townof Kamidel-L6z , revealedtheancient cityof Kumidi, mentionedin the AmarnaLetters of the fourteenth
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Ivory figurines from Kamid el-L6z. They
areof goodquality andincludea lyre-player, a handleintheformof an acrobat,a calf,anda locust.Theseandotherivoriesbelongto a cachefoundina tombcomplexinthe palace formembersof the area,perhapsmaintained of Berytus courtesy royalfamily.Photographs ArchaeologicalStudies.
BiblicalArchaeologist 57:2 (1994)
71
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tellwas uninhabited,none of the difficultiesof urbanarchaeologyprevailed here,thoughancientKumidiultimately becamea monumentalcasualtyof the civil war. Theexcavationat Kamidel-L6z, whichwas meticulouslyplannedand executed,is a modelof what an excavationought to be. archaeological Ledforalmost20 yearsby Rolf Hachmannof the Universityof Saarbriicken,the expeditionuncoveredthe IronAge and LateBronzeAge cities, completewith templesandpalaces. Soundingsreachedeven furtherinto the city'spast to the Chalcolithic Period,
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While the terms "temple" and "palace" imply imposing buildings, this is not the case at Kamid el-L6z, where the public structuresare quite small.The collective archaeological remains of the site indicate a town of much less wealth and importance than the
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Planof the temple andpalacecomplexes at el-L6z.ThesearesmallanduncompliKamid town. suitablefora provincial catedbuildings, Thetempleat the top measuresonly30 X 20 meters.Thepalaceareabelowis somewhat thoughstillverysmallcomparedto the larger, Ugaritandothersites. palacesof contemporary of Berytus Studies. Plancourtesy Archaeological
72
57:2 (1994) BiblicalArchaeologist
century BCEas an Egyptianadministrative center for its Canaaniteprovinces. The site is locatedat the crossroadsof two majorBronzeAge trade routes,one
goingnorthand souththroughthe BeqaaValley,theothereastandwestbetweenSidonandDamascus.Sincethe
life of rural society in ancient Leba. non, quite unlike that of the coastal seaports oriented toward commerce and the sea. We will never know the full story that Kamid elL6z had to tell. Becauseof dangerous conditions in that region, the excavation had to be closed down in 1981.Since then, the site has been severely damaged by bulldozers and rob-
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sinceprehistorictimes.Thevalleyis sprinkledwith tells,all of which representancienttownsand villagesof varying sizes,none very imposing,but ancientsettlementsnonetheless(Kuschke 1954-58;Kuschke,Mittman,and Miuller workin theBeqaa 1972).Archaeological been somewhat has Valley neglectedin of there.One the vast spite opportunities of the numeroustells,Tellel-Ghassil, aboutmid-wayup the valley,is situated Farmof the Ameron theAgricultural icanUniversityof Beirutand was excavatedby theuniversityin the 1950s(Baramki1961;1964;1966).Whilethis
on the IronAge expeditionconcentrated town and cemetery,includingthe first templesof Phoeniciantimesdiscovered in Lebanon,it was evidentfromthestart thatthe site was occupiedfromChalcolithictimes. Theimportantexcavationof Diana in 1%6nearthevillageof LabKirkbride weh some 30 kilometersnorthof Baalbek becameyet anothervictimof the civil war.Shefoundherean earlyNeolithicvillage yielding much information aboutearlyLebanonin the Beqaa Valley.Herbaseof operations,as with so manyotherarchaeologists workingin
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Studies of Berytus graphcourtesy Archaeological
bertrenchesin a franticsearchfortreasureby the localinhabitants (Seeden visit A to the Fisk 1993:248-51). 1989; siteby Prof.Hachmannin 1993preparatorytoresumingexcavationssuggests thatremovalof the damagedportions of the Tellwill exposeintactstrata lowerdown. Kamidel-L6zis nottheonlyancient town in the BeqaaValley.Thislong plateaubetweenthe two ranges of the Lebanesemountainsis extremelyfertileand has supportedsettled populations
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Below.Ivorybowl in the shape of a duck The fromthetombcomplexat Kamid el-L6z. lidhasa handleintheformof two ducklings. Thisandotherivories, two game including boards,areof Egyptian courtesy style.Drawing Studies. of Berytus Archaeological
Above. Kamidel-L6zin 1991 afteritstotal destruction byillicitdigging.Theimpetusfor thiswasprobably thediscovery of tombsinthe palaceareathatcontainedsomegoldjewelry andfineivories. Thesearchformoregoldhas reducedthe entiresiteto a pileof rubbleand forever the history of thiscitypriorto destroyed the late MiddleBronzeAge. Photograph courtesy of Berytus Studies. Archaeological
57:2 (1994) BiblicalArchaeologist
73
Lebanon, was the FrenchInstituteof Archaeology near downtown Beirut. Kirkbridehad almostcompletedthe manuscript and illustrative material when she returnedto Europefor a shortwhile. During her absence, fighting in the neighborhood forced the evacuation of the FrenchInstitute;all her materialwas left behind by mistake and attempts to find it later on were unsuccessful. Although this was a small excavation,Kirkbride's manuscript would have told us much of a time and place in Lebanese archaeology about which we know very
little. The only published reports are a shortnote a year afterthe excavationtook place (Saidah 1%7:172-73)and a later summary by Kirkbride(1%9:46-50). The premier site in the Beqaa Valley is Baalbek.The splendid Roman temples there are in an excellent state of preservation, and much effort has gone into their restoration.The site is a two-hour drive from Beirut across the rugged mountains and up the fertileBeqaaValley to where the great temples suddenly appear in the plain at the modem city of Baalbek.Certainly,Baalbekcontains outstanding provincialRoman architectureof the Eastern provinceswith major Oriental features
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and workmanship (Jidejian1975; Ragette 1980).Until the war began, Baalbek was the location of the annual Baalbek Festival that began in 1956. During the summer months, the broad outer court of the Temple of Jupiterbecame the stage for professionalperformances by Lebanesefolkloresinging and dancing troupes. On the great entrance stairway of the Bacchus Temple, one could hear the symphony orchestra of Vienna or watch the London Ballet. Affairslike this were truly unique experience-the finest artists performing in the open air with a huge Roman temple complex as the backdrop. Baalbek: reconstruction of the temples. 1. Ceremonialforecourt.2. Propylaea.3. Hexagonal Court.4. GreatCourt.5. Observation tower.6. Altar.7. Templeof Jupiter.8. Templeof Bacchus.9. Templeof the Muses.10. Templeof Venus. Thereconstructionis by E Ragette,Professor of Architectureat the AmericanUniversity of Beirutformanyyearswho has a specialinterestin the Romantemplesof Lebanon.AfterRagette 1980,
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BiblicalArchaeologist 57:2 (1994)
endpaper
Thetwo maintemplesto Jupiterand Bacchuswere once separate,but they Lebanon'sTragedy werelinkedtogetherin the twelfthcenand turyby massivewalls when the Arabs portionof the acmcompanying essaycarnemstheth of antiquities of war sites in the convertedthesiteintoa fortress.Thesolooting archaeological duringthelongcivil Leban>or ofscholats Theintemational hasrightly theseillegal calledBacchustempleowes its excelcommunity condemned activitiesas have thoseof us who lived throughthatawful timeand witlentpreservationto the factthatit was the destructionof Lebanon'sancienthe•itageat firsthand.However, nessed works protectedby theArabfortification the to archaeologymustbe seenfromtheperspectiveof thecontextin losses andtransformed intothekeepof a thrivwhich theyoccurred. ingMedievalfortresstownwithhouses, Thetragedyof archaeologyin Lebanonis a minorone, reallyalmost mosques,baths,anda watersystemsupinsignificant,comparedto the tragedyof Lebanonitself.At leasta thirdof pliedby aqueductfromnearbysprings. thepopulationbecamerefugees.Entiretowns and villageswere destroyed, Thetempleof Jupiter-Heliopolitanos is with not a houseleftstanding.Tensof thousandsdied duringthewar some one of the largestin Lebanon,and exyears,tensof thousandsmorewere maimedand wounded.Itwas a very cavationshavebeen carriedon herefor died,familyfriendsdisappearedand mostof thiscentury.Duringtheclearing personalwarin whichyourneighbors of were never heard students werekilledon theirway to class, of one areain the templeprecinctover again,your and the child across the became of manywithoutarmsor legs.A street one housesand thirtyyearsago,pre-Roman whole was robbed of its childhood andbecameadultin experiburialswere discovered.Whilea short generation in ence if not its before time. The excavationwas undertaken,only a brief yearslong onlylaw was thatof thestreetand armed with the most modern militias statementon thisappeared,whichnoted gangs weaponsavailable.Above all a fear so that one thatthe finds go backinto the Middle lay deeplypervasive adoptedit as a way of life,acit as normal of All us were cepting BronzePeriod(Chdhab1965:111-12). changedforeven a On less the level, Lebanese Otherimportant personal economy,in 1975one of the most discoveries, amongthem in stable the was The world, andPhoenician Romansarcophagi ostrawrecked. thrivingcomplexof smallindustries was a majorcomponentin thecountry's systematically destroyed.Tourism, ca,have likewisebeen mentionedonly Lebanese oncesupportedby ample income, The in passing(Saidah1967:160-61). currency, disappeared. became While reserves, worthless. Withtheexceptionof theBeqaaValley gold manyyoungpeoplejoinedthenuout merous militias of conviction, sitesI have noted,littlemorehasbeen many othersjoinedsinceno otheremwas available and anincome,familieswenthungry. without in that doneby way of seriousexcavation ployment theft of The Lebanon's must be seen in thiscontextof personal history region.Therehavebeensomesoundings and A of chaos. economic hereand there,but, again,theseare tragedy scrap gold,a coin,any ancientobject, a often meant could eat for a few moredays. Lootingan archaeofamily mostlyunpublished.One significant site mean a logical might village could last throughthe winter.Suchardiscoverywas madein the 1960sat Tell are Hizzinin theBaalbekregion.Thebaseof guments generallyrejectedby opponentsof illegalexcavationand,in most cases,the objectionis valid.Inthe Lebanesesituation,however,it is a statuetteof SebekhotepIVof theThirteenthDynastywas foundherealong importantto separatethosemotivatedby greedandprofitfromthose whose survivalsometimesdependedon the littlebits and piecesthey withfragmentsof a statuetteof an Egyptcould ianofficial.Otherthanthesetwo objects, dig fromthe ground. WAW. nothingfurtheris known,even though an extensivesoundingwas made at the siteby the Departmentof Antiquities Ch6hab1969:22,28; of the otherseaports?At Tyre,one of Latininscriptionsfromthe site (Rey(Montet1954:76; the mostprominentPhoeniciantrading Coquais1977)andMedievalTyre(Ch&1975:13).Now that a relative peace has returned to Lebanon, this great valley cities,therehasbeenlittleeffortthrough hab 1979).Whatknowledgewe haveof with its scores of ancient tells and settlelegalexcavationsto find anythingolder pre-RomanTyrecomesfroma small, localizedexcavationin 1973thatoffersa ments provides an archaeologicalgoldthanthe Roman-Byzantine city on the surface.Tobe sure,thisperiodin Tyre's valuablethoughlimitedlookat thecity mine. The valley was an important backto the EarlyBronzeAge (Bikai trade and migration route in antiquity, historyis important,its study having results.TheRoman 1978).6 and we know that settled village life producedremarkable and Byzantineperiodshavebeen the A uniquelookat pre-RomanTyreis existed along its length from Neolithic times on. particularinterestof MauriceCh6hab, now possiblebecauseof the mostexcitwho hasproduceddetailedstudiesof the ing archaeological find in recentyears, Majorefforts have been made along a cemeteryof thePhoenicianperiod.The the coast,even though most ancientcities Romansarcophagi (1968)andtheexcaareburiedbeneath modem ones. I have vationsin thelargenecropolis(1983-86). storyof how thiscameto lightis one Othervolumesdealwith theGreekand smallepisodein thesadnation-wide already said something of Beirut.What pheBiblicalArchaeologist 57:2 (1994)
75
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nomenon of the plundering of ancient sites that has reached epic proportions. Looting has occurred at most known archaeological sites throughout the country.Some new sites,severalof great importance, have been stripped of
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everything they contain.This material has flooded the antiquitiesmarketboth in Lebanonand abroad,and some of it appears regularlyin Europeanauctions. Lebanese antiquities arrive in foreign ports literallyby the boat-load (Hakimian 1987;Fisk 1993).7 Such illegal digging on the seashore at Tyreuncovered the new cemetery there. In 1990,a new crop of antiquities appeared on the local market:large cremation urns, Iron Age pottery,small objects and jewelry,and some 200 inscribed funerarystelae.The potteryand small objects were nothing new, since legal excavationsin the region had long produced such material.Nor were the cremationurns unprecedented,since this kind of burial for both adults and chilSmall objects rescued from illegaldigging at the Tyrecemeteryfound in 1990. Theseindude a bronzescorpion(upperleft)and amulets, pendants,and beads made of variousstones. Scale:drawings1: .50, photos 1:1. Photograph
ofBerytus Studies. courtesy Archaeological
Stelae and pottery from a newlydiscovered cemeteryat Tyre.Theseobjectswere purchased from the clandestinetomb robberswho first discoveredthe site. Theyare on exhibitionat the Rifbankin Beirutuntilsuitablepermanent locationis available. TheAmericanUniversity of Beirutis planninga properexcavationof the cemeteryin the nearfuture.Photograph courtesy of BerytusArchaeologicalStudies.
dren is characteristicat several sites in south Lebanon. Inscribedstone funerarystelae,however, are another matter. These are engraved with short inscriptionsand immediately recall the large number of inscribed stelae found throughout the western Punic sites. This is something entirely new in Lebanese archaeology. The rescueoperationof this Tyrianmaterial now under way might never have occurred were it not for an undergraduate student at the American University from Tyre who recognized the importance of objects then appearing on the local antiquitiesmarket.Funds were
n--
raised from privatedonors to purchase at least some of this material,now on temporary display at the Bank of Lebanon for the National Museum until a permanent and safe location is available. Preliminaryreports have now appeared (Seeden 1993;Ward 1993), including a study of twelve of the stelae (Sader 1992;1993). This discovery provides a new perspective in the study of Phoenician archaeology and culture. It is now certain that the inscribed funerary stelae, a dis-
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carvedface which may representa humanor a deity.Right:an Egyptianankh-sign(meaning "life")engravedon the backof a stela;some believethiscouldbe the originforthe common symbolof Tanitthough this does not seem likely.Thefrontof the stela is engravedwith the Belowrightthe text personalnameG-R-G-SH. of thissteladearlybeginswith the name of the Tanit,though it is difficultto goddess T-N-T, translatethe restwith certainty,perhaps:"[to] Tanit;[dedicatedby] Sheba,wife of Ilima."
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BiblicalArchaeologist 57:2 (1994)
77
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Sidon, anthropoid stone sarcophagi of variousperiods.Overthe past 150 years,these sarcophagi,based originallyon Egyptianprototypes, have been found in cemeteriesaround the city.Left:the seriesbeginswith the sarcophwho usurped agus of KingTabnit(ca. 500 BCE) that of an Egyptianarmygeneral.Middle:by Hellenistic times,some Egyptianinfluenceis still recognizablein the headdressand royalbeard, but the treatmentof the hairand legs is distinctly not Egyptian.Right:in the Romanperiod, onlythe generalanthropoidshaperemains,with portraitsculpturehavingreplacedthe older idealized faces. PhotographsafterJedidjian1972.
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tinguishing feature of Punic cemeteries, had antecedents in the Levant, though it is prematureto carry the analogy furtherand suggest this might be a "tophet," or child cemetery.The initial study of the bone remnantscemented to the bases and shoulders of some of the cinerary urns (emptied of their contents by the looters) does not suggest that infant children are involved (Conheeny and Pipe 1993). Archaeologists from the AmericanUniversityof Beiruthave located the site and plan to retrievematerial in its original context.
The ancient city of Sidon lies a few kilometersup the coast from Tyre.Sidon itselfcannotbe excavated,but much has been done around its perimeter.Vast cemeteries surround the city and date from prehistoric to Roman times (Guigues 1937-39; Meurdrac and Albanese 1938-39;Macridy1904).In the late 1960s, during the excavation of one of these cemeteries at Dakerman, about a kilometer and a half south of Sidon's center, part of a chalcolithicvillage and accompanying burials were discovered. Some twenty-five oval huts of mud brickand
rubblewerefound,as well as partof the earthernenclosurewall with an inner liningof stoneblocks.A dozenjar-burials werefoundwithinthe hutsor immediatelyoutside.Thepotteryand burialtypescomparefavorablywith thoseof Byblos(Saidah1979;Concontemporary has tenson1982),andthehutarchitecture closeanalogiesat Kabriin northernIsrael(Kempinskiand Neimeier1991). atSidon Themajorgovernment project formanyyearshasbeentheexcavation of thetempleof Eshmunin the foothills justnorthof Sidon,datingfromthe
seventhcenturyBCEto lateRomantimes. Whilea Germanexpeditionworkedthere at thebeginningof thiscentury,mostof the excavationsat the Eshmuntemple havebeendirectedby MauriceDunand, who dug the site foralmosta halfcentury.Eshmunwas thePhoenician god of the and templecompoundinhealing, dudesa sacredpoolin whichsupplicants couldbathe.Thispoolwas fedby a nearby river,knownin classicaltimesas the RiverAsklepiosafterthe Greekgod of healing,with whom Eshmunwas identified.Preliminary reportsappeardregu-
larlyin the Bulletindu Museede Beyrouth,and one articlesummarizedthe historyof thesite(Dunand1973b)which has now beenmorefullypublishedby R.A. Stucky (1993).8
Sidonis also known forthe dozens of stoneanthropoidsarcophagifromthe cemeteries 1972: aroundthecity(Jidejian 111-42),Theearliestof the seriesis that of an Egyptianarmygeneralusurpedby and thenenKingTabnit(ca.500BCE) with a Phoenician graved funerarytext. How or why thisobjectcameto Sidonis unknown.Tabnit'sson and successor, BiblicalArchaeologist 57:2 (1994)
79
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EshmunazerII,was buried in a sarcophagus evidently copied from that of his father,for it retainsthe same fully Egyptian style. From that point to the Roman period, the stone sarcophagi of Sidon graduallychanged until only the anthropoid form remained and Classical portraitsculpturereplacedthe older Egyptianizing style. Sarepta,9about thirteen kilometers south of Sidon, was excavated by James. B. Pritchardin the early 1970s (Pritchard 1978).The city was founded toward the beginning of the Late Bronze Age and continued to exist into Roman times. It was a thriving seaport in the Late Bronzeand IronAges, which emphases its great importance for modem study, as Sareptais the only coastal city of the classical Phoenician period currently known. Even at Byblos,where the entire ancientcity has been uncovered,the Phoenician levels have all but disappeared. Sareptathus preserves a unique look at the residentialand industrialareasof a provincialcoastal town of the period.
80
Biblical Archaeologist 57:2 (1994)
9'
Sidon, aerial view of the temple of Eshmun. Thetemple itselfis builtinto the hillsidewith monumentalstairwaysleadingup to it. The mainstreetat ground levelis borderedby houses of the adjacentvillage.The RiverAsklepius,today calledthe NahrEI-Awaly, fromwhich were drawn the healingwatersof this temple to a god of healing,runsbehindthe site. Photograph courtesy of DareI-MachreqPublishers,Beirut
The industrialsector,indcluding a dye olive and numerous presses, factory, pottery kilns,is also the site of a small shrine where the most significant discovery was an ivory plaque engraved in Phoenician. The text records the dedication of a statue to the goddess Tanit-Ashtart (or Tanitand Ashtart;Pritchard1982). This was the first solid evidence that Tanit,so prominentin the western MediterraneanPunicworld, was honored in the Phoenician homeland, now proved beyond doubt by the funerary stelae fromTyre(see above).SeveralHellenistic tesserae naming Tanit,along with objectsbearingthe symbol of Tanit,are also known from Lebanon(Bordreuil1987). The ancient site of Byblos is a halfhour drive up the coast from Beirut at the town of Jebail.1iByblos is the best
known of the coastal cities only because it is situated outside the limits of the modern town and could be completely excavated. Archaeologists have worked here continuously for some 65 years, since 1926, under the direction of Maurice Dunand. Occupation is evidenced from the Neolithic period down to Roman times when it remained an importantsanctuaryand became another of those summer resorts the Romans built on sea-shoresaround theirempire. Byblos was the leading mercantilecity of the Levantduring the Earlyand Middle Bronze Ages, for which there are abundant house and temple remainsand much materialindicatingstrong Egyptian influence. The rulers here used both Egyptian (Montet 1964) and a local semitic language to recordofficialactivities,
the latter written in a syllabic script unique to Byblos(Mendenhall1985).Few archaeologicalremains are known from the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages (Scandoni1984:142-48)due to extensive rebuildingduring the Persianoccupation. Though well-preservedbuildings are very much in evidence,no palacecan be identified.It was probably on site of the Crusader Castle just inside the north wall beside the main gateway The castle is mute testimony to what happened to the city through much of its history. Rows of column drums takenfrom older buildings on the site were built into the castle walls. The frequent destruction of older buildings through the centuries is one reason why so much of the archaeologicalhistory of the city remains obscure. Another reason is the method by which the site was excavated.The initial expedition here was led by PierreMontet in the early 1920s.Montetinvestigated only temples and tombs where the recordingof finds was fairlyeasy (Mon-
tet 1928). For the next 60 years or so, a method of excavationand recordingwas used that minimized the generaltopography and stratificationof the site. This, plus the fact that the whole city was excavated in this manner,means that much of the archaeological history of Byblos is lost and cannot be recovered.11 A more recentexcavationat the inland site of Tell Arqa near the Syrian border promises to be a key to the archaeology of that region.A Frenchteam worked the site from 1978-1981 and returned there to continue the excavation in 1992 (Thalmann 1978a;1978b; 1993). To date, building levels from the Early Bronze IIIAge and later have been uncovered,and it is evident that the town was at its height of importance during the Middle BronzeAge. The Late Bronze period is hardly represented, but there are Iron Age and Hellenistic levels. Illegaldigging in the areaindicates a sizable Roman and Byzantine town. The excavatorsare certainthey will find much earlierremains, perhaps back
into prehistorictimes. Tell Arqa could easily become the type site for northLebanon in the Early and Middle Bronze Age periods. This excavationis partof the broader survey of the Plain of Akkarthat extends into Syria. Tell Kazel (probably ancient Simyra), an important site in this plain just acrossthe Syro-Lebaneseborder,has close cultural affinities with Tell Arqa. Soundings made here indicate occupation fromNeolithicto Romantimes (Dunand, Bounni, and Saliby 1964).A major excavationby the AmericanUniversityof Beirut in cooperation with the Syrian Byblos, temple of the Early Bronze Age. Thewallsare builtof stone up to shoulder height and were originallycompletedin mud brick.Soundingsin the temple precinctshow remainsof an earliertemple of considerable size underneath,againwith stone walls.This earliertemple was neverexcavatedsincethis would have requiredmovingor destroyingthe temple shown here. Photographcourtestyof Dar eI-MachreqPublishers,Beirut.
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Department of Antiquities which was begun at Tell Kazel in 1985 has so far reachedLateBronzematerial(Badre,et al 1990).The resultsso far are quite promising, including much imported Cypriot and Aegean pottery. The university intends to continuethis excavationwhich, togetherwith TellArqa,will fill significant gaps in the archaeologicalhistory of northern Lebanon. As a final note, mention should be made of currentattempts to repairthe damage to archaeologyincurredthrough 15 years of civil war.In 1991,a UNESCO colloquium on the protection of Lebanon's culturalheritagewas held in Beirut. Its recommendationscover a wide range of positive moves in education, preservation, and scientific archaeologicalresearch. The UNESCO report comes down especiallyhard on the destruction of archaeologicalsites (UNESCO1993; see also Joukowsky 1993).Such moves will certainlyreceive support from the knowledgeable and vocal public audience that has always been interestedin preserving Lebanon's past. Regional museums already planned before 1975can now be constructedand,
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in spite of the plunder of archaeological sites, thereare still many where proper excavationcan take place. While Lebanese archaeology has suffered enormous set-backsduring the war years, there is a great deal that can be done to reverse this trend.Internationalinterestin Lebanese archaeologygrows strongereach year. The returnof the Frenchteam to their work at TellArqaand the excavationsof the Departmentof Antiquitiesin downtown Beirutsponsoredby UNESCOhave been noted above. Chief among other effortsis the InternationalAssociationfor the Safeguarding of Tyre,with 12 national committees in Europe and America. In January,1988, the American Committee on Tyresponsored a symposium on the history of that city at the SmithsonianInstitutionin Washington (Joukowsky 1992).In July, 1993, the Deutsch-LibanesischeKulturgesellschaftheld a symposium on Lebanese archaeology in Frankfurt.12In November, 1993, in spite of its present damaged condition, the National Museum in Beirutwas opened to the public for ten days with an exhibition to illustratethe museum's past and future.The
Byblos,miniatureRomantheater originally found in frontof the Crusader Castle,but moved to its presentlocationoverlookingthe sea. Lebanese theatergroupsregularly performedGreek courplayshere beforethe civilwar.Photograph testy of Darel-MachreqPress,Beirut
Associationof the Friendsof the National Museum and the Departmentof Antiquities are currentlycollecting funds to restore the building. All these efforts and more indicate that both the local and internationalcommunities have joined in the massive rescue operation that will be necessary and that archaeology in Lebanon is alive and getting well again.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Prof. Helga Seeden of the American University for commenting on this articleand bringing it up to date at several points.
Notes 1Thisalways encouragedillegalexcavationin Lebanon,the historyof which is a long and profitableone. Even beforethe war,therewas
a thrivingantiquities market,includinga con-
stantstreamof objectsfromSyria.Over the years,I have seen veritabletreasureson the market,such as two solid gold weights inscribedwith the name of Tutankhamon,and a largehoardof completepotteryvessels of the froma still unlate thirdmillenniumBCE known cemetery.Fordecades, sites such as Byblosand Tyrehave been regularlyrobbed of small objectsthatwere missed in excavations and thrownout in the dumps. Suchclandestine activityencouragedan activeindustry in the productionof fake antiquities.This is largelygearedto the unwary touristbut is sometimesexpertenough to fool even knowledgeable collectorsand museums. 2The Rivoliand Bybloscinemasappearfrequentlyin archaeologicalreportson Beirut,as they markone edge of the ancienttell. Along with the whole of the downtown areaof the city,they arenow totallydestroyed. 3AnotherMiddle BronzeAge tomb was discoveredsome yearsbeforeat Sin el-Fil,two kilometerseast of downtown Beirut(Ch6hab 1939).WhileSinel-Filis now a suburbof Beirut, it must have been the site of a dependentvillage in antiquity.If the size of Byblosis typical, the ancientcoastalcitieswere quite small. 4In 1980,Prof.HelgaSeedenand I receivedpermission fromthe then currentoccupiersto visit the building.We were able to find only three potteryvesselswhichmighthave come fromthe Beiruttombs.By thatyear,the museum had alreadysufferedseveredamage,both to the buildingand the collections.It has recentlybecome known thatearlyin the war some of the Museumcollectionswerehiddenbehindsealed walls in the basementto preventtheft.This cachewill remainedsealeduntilsufficienttechnologicalservicesareavailableforthe treatment of objectsstoredin a wet and humid context for severalyears. While therewas some looting of the Museum collections,it is difficultat presentto judge the extentof theftor who was responsible.The then Directorof Antiquities,EmirMaurice Ch6hab,made a valianteffortto hide the small objectsin the basementcache and encase the largerones in situ in concrete.It should be noted thatEmirMauriceand Mme. Ch6habremainedin theirapartmentin theMuseumbuilding throughoutmuch of the war to do what they could to protect the priceless collections. 5sThismaterial will be published in BerytusArchaeologicalStudies 41(1993). 6 Excellent though somewhat out-of-date histories of the site have appeared (Jidejian 1969; Katzenstein 1973) and a more recent publication (Joukowsky 1992) presents a comprehensive survey of the city from prehistoric to Medieval times. The gaps in our knowledge of ancient Tyre are evident in all these works.
7The scale of the plundering is extraordinary and includes unique pieces. Fisk (1993: 244) reports one Graeco-Roman bronze statue that
sold for half a million dollarsin Europe.
8Some of the so-called"temple-boysof Esh-
mun,"stone statuesof infantswith Phoenician dedications,found at this temple were stolen from the Departmentof Antiquitiesstorage building at Byblos.In 1991,severalappeared on the antiquitiesmarketsin Switzerlandand Francewhere archaeologistswho knew them well spotted them and alertedthe relevantauthorities. 9The Greekname for the site;the ancientname was Sariptu(biblicalZarephath),presently known as Sarafand(Wild1973:241).Publication of the site has proceededfarmore expeditiously than most:Anderson 1988;Khalifeh 1988;Koehl 1985;Pritchard1975,1978,1988. While the Universityof Pennsylvaniaexpedition did not excavatecemeteryareas,Late Bronzeand IronAge tombs were known prior to the beginningof the expedition;Baramki 1958;Saidah1969:134-37. 10"Byblos"was the Greekname for the city. Its originalname was Kubla,found in Sumerian and Akkadiandocuments,laterGublaand, in Egyptby normalphoneticchange,Kbn/Kpn ian. No satisfactoryderivationof the Greek name from the Semitichas been forthcoming (Wild1973:249-50;285-86;Horn 1963). 11Preliminaryreportson the excavationsappearedalmostannuallyin the BulletinduMusde de Beyrouth. The majorfinalreports(Dunand 1939;1954)areusefulmostlyforthe discussions of individualobjects,though some armhaeologicalinformationon the main buildingsis included.The prehistoricfinds are fully studied in two volumes (Dunand 1973a;Cauvin 1968)and Saghieh(1984)has produceda study of the EarlyBronzeAge stratigraphy. 12Tobe publishedin a specialissue of Antike Welt:Zeitschrift fiir ArchiologieundKulturgeschichteon the archaeologyof Lebanon.
Bibliography Anderson,W.P. 1988 SareptaL TheLateBronzeandIronAge StrataofAreaII,Y Beirut:The LebaneseUniversity Asmar,C. 1992 The NationalMuseum Collectionof Lebanon.Pp. 131-33in TheHeritageof Tyre.Editedby M. S. Joukowsky. Dubuque:Kendall/Hunt. Badre,L.,etal. 1990 TellKazel,Syria.AUB Museum Excavations 1985-87.PreliminaryReports. Studies BerytusArchaeological 38:10-124. Baramki,D.C. 1958 A LateBronzeAge Tombat Sarafand, AncientSarepta.BerytusArchaeologicalStudies12:129-42. 1961 PreliminaryReporton the Excavations at Tellel-Ghassil.Bulletindu
Museede Beyrouth16:87-102. 1964 SecondPreliminaryReporton the Excavationsat Tellel-Ghassil.Bulletindu Museede Beyrouth17:47-103. 1966 ThirdPreliminaryReporton the Excavationsat Tellel-Ghassil.Bulletindu Mus&e de Beyrouth19:29-48. Bikai,PM. 1978 ThePotteryof Tyre.Warminster: Aris and Phillips. Bisson,Fr.W von 1930 Ein indirekterBeweis fiir das Alter der "Hyksossphingen".Zeitschrift fiir AgyptischeSpracheundAltertumskunde 65:116-19. Bordreuil,P. 1987 Tanitdu Liban.Pp. 79-85 in Studia PhoeniciaV Phoenicia andtheEast Mediterranean in theFirstMillennium B.C.Editedby E. Lipinski.Louvain: Peeters. Cauvin,J. 1968 Fouillesde ByblosIV Lesoutillages de Bybloset du littoral ndolithique libanaise. Paris:A. Maisonneuve. Chapman,S. 1972 A Catalogueof IronAge Pottery from the Cemeteriesof KhirbetSilm, Joya,Qrayeand Qasmiehof South Lebanon.BerytusArchaeological Studies21:55-194. Chehab,M. 1939 Tombph&niciennede Sin el-Fil.Pp. 803-10 in Melangesoffertsa RendDussaudII.Paris:Geuthner. 1955 Chronique.Bulletindu MusdedeBeyrouth12:47-58. 1957 Mosaiquesdu Liban.Texte.Bulletin du Musdee de Beyrouth14 (fullvolume). 1959 Mosaiquesdu Liban.Planches.BulletinduMusdee de Beyrouth15 (fullvolume). 1965 Chronique.Bulletindu Musdede Beyrouth18:111-25. 1968 Sarcophagesa reliefsde Tyr.Bulletin du Musdee de Beyrouth 21 (fullvolume). 1969 Noms de personnalitis6gyptiennes d6couvertesau Liban.Bullentindu Musdede Beyrouth 9922:1-47. 1975
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lArchdologie12:8-23. Tyr a l'6poque des croisades. Bulletin du Musde de Beyrouth31-32 (full volumes).
1983-86Fouilles de Tyr.La n6cropole. Bulletin du Musde de Beyrouth33-36 (full volumes). Contenson, H. de 1982 A propose du niveau chalcolithique de Dakerman. Pp. 79-85 in Archdologie au Levant.Recueil la mimoirede Roger Saidah.Edited by J. Starcky and F. Hours. Collection de la Maison de
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12.Lyon:MailOrientM6diterran6en sonde l'Orient. L.andWescombe, P.J. Copeland, of Stone-Age Sitesin 1965 Inventory Lebanon.Melangesde l'Universitj 41:31-175. Saint-Joseph
1966 Inventory of Stone-Age Sitesin
Lebanon.PartTwo.Melangesde lUni42:1-174. versitjSaint-Joseph Dunand,M.
1928 Les6gyptiensa Beyrouth. Syria 9:300-0)2.
1939 Fouillesde ByblosI. 1926-1932.Paris:
Geuthner.
1954 Fouillesde ByblosII. 1933-1938.Paris:
Maisonneuve.
ProfessorWilliamA. Wanidevotednearly a quarter-cetury (1963-1986) of his
professionallife to the AmericanUniver-
inLbanonwherehe taught sityofBei4ut
and held numerousadministrative positionsincludingthatof AssociateDean. CurrentlyVisitingProfessorat Brown Dr.Wardreceivedhis Ph.D.in University, SemiticLanguagesat BrandeisUniversity. Authorof numerousbookson aspectsof Egyptologyandscoresof scholarlyartides, his latestworkwill appearas Scarab Context:An Archaeological Typologyandru
AgeChronology EssayonMiddleBrornze
Studies onScarab Seals (withW.G.Dever;,
3. SanAntonio:VanSiden Press,1994). Prof.Wardservedas editorof Berytus Studiesfrom 1969 to 1985 ArcheWolgical
and continuesas co-editoxr. GJAT
IN
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