No title

AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEMCH ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE ASOR,711WEST40TH STREET SUITE354, BALTIMORE, MD 21211 1301)889-1383

EricM. Meyers,President lames W.Flanagan,First VicePresidentfor Publications WalterE. Rast,Second VicePresidentforArchaeologicalPolicy Gough W.Thompson,lr., Chairmanof the Boardof 7Eustees RobertH. lohnston, ViceChairmanof the Boardof 7Fustees PaulF.lacobs, VicePresidentfor the Corporation LydieShufro,VicePresidentfor Development GeorgeM. Landes,Secretary RogerS. Boraas,Assistant Secretary Holden Gibbs,7Eeasurer KateGould Assistant 7Eeasurer StephenWi;helm,ExecutiveDirector MarkGallagher,AdministrativeDirector ASORNewsletter;VictorH. Matthewsand lames C. Moyer,Editors BiblicalArchaeologist;EricM. Meyers,Editor Bulletin of the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch; lames W.Flanagan,Editor lournalof CuneiformStudies;ErleLeichty,Editor Editorfor Books,WalterE.Aufrecht W.F.AlbrightInstitute of ArchaeologicalResearch(AIAR) P.O. Box 19096,91 190lerusalem,Israel. SeymourGitin, Director loe D. Seger,P esident Carol Meyers,Fi st VicePresident loy Ungerleider-Mayerson, Second Vice P esident; Acting BoardChair JohnSpencer,Secretary-Deasurer BaghdadCommittee forthe BaghdadSchool lerroldS. Cooper,Chairman Near EasternStudies The lohns Hopkins University Baltimore,MD 21218 AmericanCenterof OrientalResearch(ACOR) P.O. Box2470, lebel Amman, Amman, lordan. Bertde Vries,Di ector RobertCoughenour,President LawrenceT. Geraty,Vice President MariorieCooke, Secretary Anne Ogilvy,Deasurer CyprusAmericanArchaeologicalResearchInstitute {CAARI) 41 KingPaulStreet,Nicosia, Cyprus. StuartSwiny,Director CharlesU. Harris,President LydieShufro,VicePresident Ellen Herscher,Secretary AndrewOliver,lr., Tteasurer ASORAncient ManuscriptsCommittee amesC VanderKamChairman Departmentof Phiiosophyand Religion North CarolinaState University Raleigh,NC 27695-810^3 Damascus Committee GiorgioBuccellati,Chairman Center for MesopotamianStudies 405 HilgardAve. LosAngeles,CA 90024

Biblical

Arc1faeologast

P.O. BOXH.M., DUKESTATION DURHAM,NC 27706 1919)684-3075 Biblical Archaeologist IISSN0006-0895)is publishedquarterly

lMarch,lune, September,December)by The lohns Hopkins UniversityPressfor the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch IASOR),a nonprofit,nonsectarianeducationalorganization with administrativeoffices at 711 West40th Street,Suite 354, Baltimore,MD 21211. Subscriptions:Annual subscriptionratesare S19.95for individuals and S33 for institutions. There is a special annual rate of S17.95for students and retirees.Single issues are S7 for individuals and S10for institutions. In foreigncountries,addS8.50 for annualsubscriptionsand S2 for single issues. Ordersshould be sent to The lohns HopkinsUniversityPress,701 West40th Street,Suite275, Baltimore,MD 212111telephone:301-338-6964; telex: 5101012198,lHU Presslnls). Postmaster:Send addresschanges to Biblical Archaeologist, The lohns Hopkins UniversityPress,701 West40th Street, Suite 275, Baltimore,MD 21211.Second-classpostagepaidat Baltimore,MD 21211and additionaloffices. Copyright° 1991by the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch. All rightsreserved.No portionof this joumal maybe reproduced by any processor techniquewithout the formalconsent of the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearchandThe lohns Hopkins UniversityPress.Authorizationto photocopyitems forpersonal or intemal use is grantedfor librariesand other users registered with the CopyrightClearanceCenter lCCC)Transactional that the copierpay the base fee of ReportingService,prourided S1.00percopy plus S.10perpagedirectly to CCC, 27 Congress Street,Salem, MA 01970.This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying,such as copyingforgeneraldistribution,for advertisingor promotionalpurposes,for creatingnew collective works,or for resale.0006-8095/S87S1.00 + .10 Editor in Chief Associate Editor Associatc Editor Book Review Editor Senior Editor Consulting Editor Assistant Editor Designer

WalterE.Aufrecht EdwardF.Campbell Douglas L. Esse VolkmarFritz SeymourGitin lo Ann Hackett

EricM. Meyers LawrenceT. Geraty DavidC. Hopkins 1amesC. Moyer ToddMcGee Leslie Watkins StephenGoranson LauraHughes

EditorialCommittec A. T. Kraabel Thomas E. Levy P.KyleMcCarter DavidW.McCreery CarolL. Mcycrs S. Thomas Parker

1ackSasson Neil A. Silberman MarkS. Smith StuartSwiny L. MichaelWhite

Advertising:Correspondenceshould be addressedto The 1ohns HopkinsUniversity Press,701 West40th Street,Suite 275, Baltimore,MD 21211ltelephone:301-3384982). Biblical Archaeologist is not responsiblefor errorsin copypreparedby the advertiser.The editor reservesthe right to refuse any ad. Ads for the sale of antiquities will not be accepted.

EditorialComspondence: Article proposals,manuscriptsand editorialcorrespondenceshould be sent to the ASORPublications Office, P.O.BoxH.M., Duke Station,Durham,NC 27706. Unsolicited manuscriptsmust be accompaniedby a selfaddressed,stampedenvelope.Foreigncontributorsshould fumish internationalreplycoupons. Manuscriptsmust conformto the formatused in Biblical Archaeologist, with full bibliographicreferencesanda minimum of endnotes.See recent issues for examplesof the properstyle. Manuscriptsmust also include appropriateillustrationsand legends.Authorsare responsiblefor obtainingpermissionto use illustrations. Compositionby LiberatedTypes,Ltd.,Durham,NC. Printedby PBMGraphics,Inc., Raleigh,NC. Publisher.The 1ohnsHopkins UniversityPress

BiblicalArchaeolo A Publicationof the AmericanSchoolsof OrientalResearch

Volume54 Number1

March1991

WomenZs Monumental Markon AncientEgypt

^

_

Page4

_ _

4

Barbara S. Lesko

Egypt'sroyalwomenleft manyremindersof theirlives, includinggrandtemples,tombsandcolossalstatues.Butcommonwomenalso left a monumental mark.This insufficiently-studiedlegacyconsists of tomb chapelswith extensivewall decoration,portraitstatues,funeraryandvotivestelae, and offeringtables,all bearingthe namesandtitles of their ownersor dedicators.

I

OfDrumsandDamsels:Women's Performance in AncientIsrael ,

Carol L. Meyers

4

The mention of drummerstodayusually conjuresup imagesof male musicians.Certainlyfemalepercussionistsexist, but whetherforrockcombos or symphonyorchestras,we tend to think of men, not women,with drumsticks in hand.Has it alwaysbeen this way?Is it that wayin othercultures?

TheLocationof theHolyHouseof Herod'slbmple: Evidencefromthe Post-Destruction Period

__

16

28

Lawrence D. Sporty

The preciselocation of the holy house of Herod'sTemplehas beenwidely discussedanddisputedduringthe pastcentury.Prevailingcurrentopinion holds that the holy house was locatedwherethe Dome of the Rocknow

Page 16

_e_

stands. Evidencefromthe periodafterthe Romansdestroyedthe templein 70 C.E. suggestsa location to the north.

__ __

Archaeological Evidenceof MilitaryOperations in SouthernJudah 36 duringthe EarlyHellenisticPeriod

_g1_

tohn

__ __ __ __

A greatdeal is knownof the LateHellenisticperiod1198to 63 B.C.E.)when the HasmoneansruledJerusalemandwhen PompeyassertedRome'sclaim to Jewishlands.Butwhat happenedin these landsjust beforeandafterthe armiesof Alexanderthe Greatlaid siege to villagesandtowns that daredto standin their way?

_ _

Surveyof theDeadSeaScrollsFragments andPhotographs at the Rockefeller Museum

Betlyon

44

Stephen A. Reed

| ..

W

|

_

= _

k J

? L

S

Page36

Whilethe Dead SeaScrollshaveprovidedmuch new informationin the areasof the text andcanonof the Bibleandthe historyof earlyJudaismand Christianity,their publicationandongoingstudyhavebeen severelyhandicappedbecausea comprehensiveinventoryof all texts andphotographsof the scrollshas neverbeen made.Suchan inventoryis now in progress.

From the Editor's Desk Arti-FACTS:News, Notes, and Reports from the Institutes Qumran Update Introducing the Authors Book Reviews

3 52 54 2 55

On the cover:A sculpturedportraitof Amenirdis I, who shared rule for at least 13 years during the Twenty-fifthDynasty. Photo courtesy of the oslyn Art Museum in Omaha, Nebraska.

Lawrence D. Sporty

StephenA. Reed

tohn

W

Betlyon

Carol L. Meyers

BarbaraS. Lesko

Introducing the

Authors

BarbaraS. Leskois a ResearchAssistantin the DepartmentofEgyptologyatBrownUniversity.Shereceivedher bachelor'sandmaster'sdegreesfromthe Departmentof OrientalLanguages andCivilizationsattheUniversityof Chicago.Herlong-timecommitmentto womeSshistory is reflectedin her book, The Remarkable Women of Ancient Egypt (1987,Providence, RI:B.C.ScribePublications), and in the volume she edited, Women's Earliest Records: From Ancient Egypt and Western Asia (1989, Atlanta:ScholarsPress).She andher husband,Egyptologist LeonardH. Lesko,are collaboratingeditorsof A Dictionary of Late Egyptian, now in fivevolumes.

stationedin the Saudi desert. He participatedin the excavationof Tellel-Hesiin the summersof 1973,1979, 1981 and 1983 as a volunteer,squaresupervisorand administrator.Dr. Betlyon has also dug at Idalionin Cyprusand has workedon coins from severalASORrelatedexcavationsin TunisiaandJordan. He receivedhis Ph.D.fromHarvardUniversityand for eight yearswas Chaplainand AssociateProfessorof Religionat Smith Collegein Northhampton,Massachusetts.

StephenA. Reedis presentlyservingas Cataloguerat the AncientBiblicalManuscriptCenter(ABMC). As a Dorot Fellowin 1989 he residedat the AlbrightInstitutein LawrenceD. Sportyis AttendingPsychiatristandSenior Jerusalemandcataloguedthe DeadSeaScrolls(DSS)fragLecturerin the Departmentof Psychiatryand Human ments andphotographsat the Roclrefeller Museum.At Behaviorat the Universityof Californiaat Irvine.He has the SBL/AAR meetingin New Orleanshe gavea report longbeeninterestedin the use of symbolsas a meansof on the DSSinventoryprojectatABMC.Dr.Reedreceived culturalexpression,stemmingin largemeasurefromhis his Ph.D.atClaremontGraduateSchool.Hehasservedas workas a psychiatristandpsychotherapist. Dr. Sporty's an adjunctprofessorat AzusaPacificUniversityandas a currentresearchconcernsthe originsof contemporary lecturerat CaliforniaStateUniversityat LongBeach. Westernpsychotherapy. He hashada long-standing interest in the inter-relationship of spirituality,religionand emotionalhealth.His interestin the SecondTemplein CarolL. Meyersis Professorof Religionandis activein particularstems fromthe profoundimpactthe Temple's the Women'sStudiesprogramat DukeUniversity.Sheis destructionhas hadon the subsequentevolutionof the alsoa Codirectorof the JointSepphorisProject,as well as three great contemporaryreligionsof Judaism,Chris- FirstVice Presidentof the W. F. AlbrightInstitute of tianityandIslam. ArchaeologicalResearch.She has excavatedfor more than 20 yearsat sites in IsraelandNorthAmerica.Her Aftera careerin academia,JohnW.Betlyonis now serv- most recent book, Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite ing in the U.S. Armyas Chaplainto the 2nd Battalion, Women in Context (1988lwaspublishedby OxfordUni69th Armor,Fort Benning,Georgiaand is currently versityPress.

2

BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991

From

the

Editor

's

Desk

is impossibleto publishthis issue of Biblical Archaewithoutsharingsomeof mythoughtsontheGulf Warandits impacton NearEasternscholarshipandthe archaeology of the region.As presidentof the American I amalsoacutelyawareof Schoolsof OrientalResearchIASOR), the peril of our overseasresearchcenters,which find themselvessituatedin positionsof hostility,dangeranduncertainty. Asof thiswriting,theAmericanCenterof OrientalResearchin Amman,Jordanhas temporarilysuspendedoperationsuntil thepoliticalsituationbecomesclearer,theAlbrightInstituteof is operatingon a limited Archaeological Researchin Jerusalem ResearchInstibasis,andthe CyprusAmericanArchaeological tute is movinginto new quartersin Nicosia as discretelyas possible.It is not a goodtime forAmericansandwesternersin the regionandASOR.As a societydevotedto researchinto the languagesandliteraturesof the regionandto the studyof the culturalheritageof that area,especiallyits rich heritageof archaeologicaltreasures,we must alreadybegin the task of discoveringwaysof continuingthatworkafterthe warends. We in ASORare concernedfor the wellbeingof archaeologicalsites,as well as the museumsandlibrariesthatarein dangeralso. However,the loss of human life, on all sides, remainsour overridingconcern.Let me expressmy personal hopethatwhen this warendsmanyof us who haveworkedso hardandso longto uncoverthe gloriesof the pastwill havethe opportunityto workagainwith all the peoplesof the region who havededicatedthemselvesto thattask. To that end, I have appointedan ASORTask Forceto exploreways of fulfillingour historicmission of promoting researchandconductingfieldworkin viewof the dramatically changedcircumstancesthatnowprevailin the regionandthat surelywill be thereforsometimeto come.Inthinkingthrough ourfuturerole,the changedpoliticallandscapecannotdeterus fromlookingto the diverseculturalheritageof the regionas it existed in formertimes, from the prehistoricperiodsto the modernera;ASORmust continueto do what we havebeen doingfornearlya centuryandwe mustredoubleoureffortsto do it effectively. Thereis perhapsa silverliningin the darkcloudsof war hoveringoverthe MiddleEast;at no time in historyhas the public been as interestedin or as hungryfor information pertainingto the ancientculturesof the NearEastas today.As a resultofthisenormousinterest,BA andASORhaveanobligathelevelof its publishing tionto meetthoseneedsbyupgrading betterto the generalpublic,whetherin andbycommunicating theprintmediaortelevision.I encourageeachof ourreadersto referpeopletobackissuesofBA ortheBulletin of the American individuals Schools of Oriental Research, andI alsoencourage leadership, whichliterallycoversall tobein touchwithASOR's the areasof the modernMiddleEast. EachissueofBiblicalArchaeologist is akindof microcosm of the ancientworldat a givenmomentor momentsin time. The kinds of disputesand debatesthat affectedthe past can providea helpfulperspectiveon presentrealitiesandcurrent events.The materialculturethatwas createdin formertimes, It

ologist

todayin dangerbecauseof the GulfWar,can provideus with powerfulsymbolsof religioustraditions,technicalandaesthetic achievementsthat can compelcontemporaryhumansto reflecton the importanceof historyandpropelthemto ensure a betterfuture.All of us, therefore,at ASORjoinwith menand womeneverywherein prayingfora peacethat will last anda onceagainin theglory futurethatenablesallofus toparticipate of ourNearEasternheritage. The forcedresignationof JohnStrugnellas editor-in-chief oftheDeadSeaScrollspublicationteamshouldnotbe theoccasion for anyjoy in academe.Undoubtedlyone of the threeor scholarsin the field,seriousmental fourmostknowledgeable illness anda chronicdrinkingproblemfinallygot the best of him.Wemayneverknowwhetherornot his unfortunateinterviewin the November9 issueof theIsraelinewspaperHa'aretz, in whichhe madevariousanti-Semiticremarks,wasinfluenced by these factors.In anycase,his remarks,combinedwith his his abilityto leadthe interhealth,compromised deteriorating nationalteamstudyingthe scrolls,whichareanunprecedented sourceof informationon earlyJudaismandChristianorigins. it is time to turn Ratherthandwellingon recriminations, our attention to facilitatingpublicationof the remaining scrolls. ASOR is presentlyarticulatinga policy on greater access to these documentsthat would be recommendedfor Cave4 editorialteamandthe to theinternational consideration IsraelAntiquitiesAuthorityIIAA).I am hopeful,andhaveso recommendedto ASOR'sAncient ManuscriptsCommittee, thatwithinmonthssucha policywill be adoptedbyASORand otherinfluentiallearnedbodies.Inthis issue,StephenA. Reed of the AncientBiblicalManuscriptCenterin Claremont,California,describeshis workon a detailedcatalogueof the scroll fragmentsfromQumran,whichwill greatlyassistin the study of the unpublishedscrolls. TheIAAandtheCave4 editorialteamhavetakenmeasures of late to hasten the publicationprocess.The IAA named to replace EmanuelTovof the HebrewUniversityof Jerusalem, Strugnellas the editor-in_ chief of the project,while _ the Cave 4 team named _ Tov,Emile Puech of the . _ Ecole Bibliquein Jerusa^_ lem andEugeneUlrichof , _ Notre Dame as the three X _ generaleditorsof the internationalteam. Forthe _ latest informationon the _ fragments and unpublished _ newsfromthe committees _ < involved,see the Qumran i Update section in this issue.

Eric M. Meyers Editor-in-Chief and President of ASOR

BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991

3

|_ -P9 usually are nently Even withusually female grace in figures tomb portrayed workers andscenes promi-

Womeas Monumental templesandtombs Grand chronologicalchart}offerthe rare on Mark andcolossalstatuesbear opportunityto look at a society ofEgypt's manyreminders aboutits business,not just going Ancient religiousandfuneraryritesbut aIlcientqueensandfebutevencommon agricultural,huntingandeconomic malepharaohs, Egypt mark. pursuitsas well as entertainment womenlefta monumental

andsports.The svelte,attractively Thislegacyconsistsoftombchapels porbyBarbaraS.Lesko groomedsnd fetchinglygarbed withextensivewalldecoration, Egyptianwoman traitstatues,funerary cuts a strikingfigure _ andvotivestelae,and _ _ in almostall scenes. offeringtables,all thenamesand bearing titlesoftheirowners _== (even ordedicators g dignity.The wife 1\X thoseoftheirnearest _ of the tombowner _b i,jx Thiscorpus relatives). _a iS notwellpublished a _ andis littlestudied, = buthassurvivedin as herhusband's _ R quanti- E ! unbelievable companionandsupR ! ties,oftenbecause porter.In OldKingEi s theseobjectswere dom sceneschildren |sMi madeof stone.Publiandretainersare 1sX1 typicallyrenderedon al cationandanalysisof a muchsmallerscale. | ! has thesemonuments Whenviewing I _ not unfortunately walls,it is easy tomb keptpacewiththeir by the anset trap usuallyportrayed the were into workers fall to female Even gleaned sotheinformation discoveries, female these as such gzace, and dignity with where perspective, artistic cient to subject be will far thus fromthem decoratingtheFifthDynasty farmworkers shown be to meant are that figures more as orenhancement, correction, tombof Tiat Sakkara.DrawingbyLeonard be sitto appear side by side seated Lesko. H. available. become sourcematerials Because another. one behind ting agreefirm no is there Although the wife is most oftendepictedas onthecivil mentamongEgyptologists the survivorandmourner,she is difof the levels economic and rights oftenportrayedas supportingor Reveals soArt Egyptian Xmb What ancient in classes ferent otherwiseclaspingherhusband.It Woman Average distinguish to the of how ciety-or, indeed, importantforthe Egyptianartist was throughout found are tombs common Ancient that know them-we among the entirehumanfigure, present to cliffs limestone its Valley, elite Nile the the in women as well as women providedconvenientandeasily andthis necessitatedplacingthe androyalclasseswerecommemo- harring I will cut rockthat couldbe usedas build- wife in such a waythat she appears ratedbyphysicalmonuments. on thesemonuments, ingblocksor hollowedinto,depend- to be takinga positionbehindher concentrate husbandwhen in fact,she is meant ing on the preferenceof the age. asa bothartisticandarchitectural, theindependence, Vastexpansesof wall decoration to be seen as sittingor standingbewayofillustrating positionsandself-respect datingfromthe laterOldKingdom sidehim, as in sculpturedgroups responsible that survivefromthe threemajor byvariousclassesofwomen andsubsequentMiddleandNew enjoyed Kingdomperiods{seeaccompanying earlyperiods. society. in ancientEgyptian

4

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991

.@

ze-4Flw

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A; t

ThroughoutEgyptianhistory womenprominentin tombscenesare most oftendepictedas companions of the men beingcommemorated. Theirattainments,such as literacy, or theirmost prestigiouspublicactivities areusuallyonly subtly hintedat in theseportraits(through the ornamentstheyhold)andare mentionedverybriefly,if at all, in the accompanyinginscriptions.We canalso wonderwhy moredetailed descriptionsof a man'scareer, whetherin the military,the civil service,or the templehierarchy,are not shown,whereasin OldKingdom tombsandsome tombsdatingto laterperiodsthe supervisingof work on estatesandworkshopsis emphasized.It is likely thatreligiousmotivationwasbehindthe choiceof tombscenes.Perhapsthe perpetual abundanceof foodandwaterin the beyond,eventhe renewalof the life cycle,is beingassuredandnot the continuationof earthlyconcerns andidentities.Thustombscenesare only of limitedvaluein reconstructingpeoples'lives,offeringa partial andbiasedlook at the Egyptian familyandsociety. Neverthelessit is obviousfrom these tombscenesthat ancient Egyptianwomenwererespectedand that theyfully mingledin society, playingmanyroles,whetherin the household,the templecults,or the economicrealm.Peasantwomenare depictedas helpingwith the harvest andtrappingbirds;townswomenare shownas professionalmourners, musiciansanddancers,membersof a templestaffandpartyguests.Rare, thoughextant,arescenesof a woman commandinga boatorbuyingand sellinggoodsin the marketplace

'

if_

_

X

Thisscenefromthe tombof Nakhtat Thebes, datingto theEighteenthDynasty,shows femalemusiciansentertainingat a banquet. Scenessuchas thisindicatethatancient Egyptianwomenfullymingledin society. PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko.

Egyptian

Throughout history

women

promillent

in

scenes often

are

most

depicted

companions men

tomb as of

the

commemorated.

bearingthetitleMistressof theHouse Iyt-hotep, andChantressofAmon,is picturedin thiswall decorationfromtombnumber96 at Thebes. Noticesheis carryingan ankhandothercult implements.Photoby LeonardH. Lesko.

(Fischer1989:21).This givesus a strongindicationthatwomenwielded the family'spurchasingpower,a prestigiousanddefinitelynot universalposition.Also significantis evidencethat in the earliesthistorical periodsweavingworkshopswere filledexclusivelybywomen,whereas men didnot moveinto this importantindustryforseveralcenturies. In the OldKingdom,titles denotingpositionsof responsibility andauthoritybelongedto womenof the elite class,who generallywere closelytied bybloodor marriageto the royalfamily.Tombinscriptions of some womenprovidestartling evidenceof theirprofessionalinvolvements.Onewomantells of being an overseerof femalephysicians (Ghalioungui1975).Anotherused the importanttitles of judgeand vizier,althoughtheymayhavebeen purelyhonorific(Fischer1976:7475).Thereis, however,an abundance of titles forwomenin positionsof authority,such as Directorof the DiningHall,Overseerof Funerary PriestsandOverseerof the Weavers' House,to namea few (Fischer1976: 70-71).It wouldseem thatfewrestrictionswereplacedon womenof abilityandhighsocialstatusin the OldKingdom.It is interestingto note thatreligiouspositionswere not limitedto noblewomen,forwe havefoundpriestessesof majorgoddesseswho bearhumbletitles such as tenantfarmer. honorific Manyadministrative, andpriestlytitles forwomenhave beenrecoveredfromOldKingdom monuments;fewerhavebeenfound fromthe MiddleKingdom,which followedthe FirstIntermediate Period,a time of socialandeconomic

BiblicalArchaeologistsMarch1991

5

Throughout Egyptianhistoryprominent womenin tombscenesaremostoftendepicted as companionsof themen beingcommemorated.HereareRenutet,priestessof EIathor, andherhusband,Yuny.ThisNew Kingdom portraitdatesto theNineteenthDynasty. Photocourtesyof theMetropolitan Museum of Art,New York(15.2.1,RogersFund).

piece as beingunmistakablyfrom the OldKingdom. A moreattractivefemaleportrait is the MiddleKingdomstatueof LadySentluwy,wife of the Nomarch Hapdjefi.OriginallyfromAsslutand now in the Museumof FineArtsin Boston,this statueis a supremeexampleof lifesized Egyptianportraiturecarvedin granite.The graceof the femalefigureis enhancedbythe unknownsculptor'sdisperlsirlg with the backpillar,which too oftenmars Egyptiansculpturein the round.A veryfull coiffurelendsnecessary supportforthe head,resultingin a instability.MiddleKingdomtitles forwomenseldomreflectpositions of authority(Ward1989:34-391, which suggestspoliticalandeconomic changes.Instead,they reveal a rangeof jobsin the serviceindustries,fromscribeto hairdresser, gardenerto miller (Ward1986:8-171. Duringthe prosperousempireof the New Kingdom,the civil service andtemplehierarchiesbecameeven moreprofessionalizedt yet thereis evidencethatwomenagainservedin the cults of majoras well as minor templesandthat theyfilled some administrativepositions,such as controllingaccessto templestores (Lesko1987a:211.Numeroustexts havesurvivedfromthis period,includingcourtdocumentsandprivate lettersrevealingthatwomenhad theirown independentlegalidentity on a parwith men andthatthey couldinheritorpurchaseproperty anddisposeof it without a malecosignatoryor legalguardian.Indeedt womenwereheadsof households, testifiedin court,witnesseddocuments,actedas executorsof their familyestatesandassumedthe obligationsof a citizenvis-a-visthe State.

6

Numerousrecordsshowthis was trueof freewomenin generaltnot justthose of the gentry(Allam1985: 14-221.On a personalleveltit is clearthat womenenjoyedfreedom of movementandassociation,that they couldmarryanddivorceat will, that they engagedin commerceand that theywereableto exercise authorityoverothersin the workplaceor temple. Statuaryof women.In additionto wall scenes,tombsandtemplescontainedprivatestatuaryofbothwomen andmen. Privatemonumentsfrom ancientEgypttendto be diminutivet especiallyif carvedout of stone. Formuch of its history,the pair statueshowinga husbandandwife (sometimesa son andmother)seated side by sidewaspopular.A woman wasnot only portrayedin the companyof herhusbandor son, however, as individualportraitsof womenare foundfromthroughoutthe centuries. Oneexampleis the Mitr.t-priestess fromGizadiscoveredearlierthis centuryby an excavationteamfrom the Universityof California.The simpledress,stockybuildandbold planesof the statuecharacterizethis

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991

Thepairstatuewas verypopular, but women werenot onlyportrayed in the companyof theirhusbandsorsons.Individualfemale portraitshavebeenfoundfromthroughout the centuries.Oneexampleis thisMitr.tpriestessfromGiza,discoveredearlierthis centurybyan excavationteamfromthe Universityof Californiaat Berkeley.The simpledress,stockybuildand boldplanesof thestatuecharacterize it as belongingto the OldKingdom.Photocourtesyof theLowie MuseumofAnthropology, the Universityof Californiaat Berkeley(619802).

Artin New York,wasfoundat Adana in AsiaMinor. Egypt'sempirecontinuedto expandin the New Kingdom,resulting in greatercosmopolitansophistzcation.Duringthis periodportraits of womerlwerecreatedin all media andsizes,with the womarSssocial statusor wealthgenerallyreflected in the size of the statue.The wife of a high officialmightbe commemoratedin a life-sizedsculpture,while womenof morehumblestations hadto be contentwith statuettes measuringonly a foot ortwo in height.Althougha womanwas

believed

Egyptians when

that

their it

tombs perpetuate into

put

were

depictions in

eternal

thanstatues,presumablybecause theywereeasierto produceandcost less,arestelaededicatedto preserving the memoryof individuals.These stelaedepictthe deceased,and sometimesfamilymembers,seated at a tableloadedwith foodanddrinl*>outer fragments from the upper In ' conclusion this ditional ">'> He initially reached and Warren Charles i' century, >.+;.,

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