New Housing Systems for the Iranian Desert Area

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III ACKNOWLEDpEMENT rhé pr~plltation of 'a report of th!. nature eould not have,' \)e~n compl~ted without the good ut11,

in~erest

and eo .. operation of .. nu~ber of people. \

1 w1sh to express my gratitude to my thesi~ superv1sor, Prof. NOrbert

""

Schoenauer 1 Who maintained a friendly lnterest in the rep
can~ents

~his

report,oQ

Salzman, Departmeht of

Anthropology, MeGnl University an'd Prof. Brian Spooner of the Uni ver.;st ty ,

,

Museu~,

u

Pennsylvania University for their interest and guidance in the

preparation of the firSt part of thls report.

To Prof. Hassan Fathy,

Department of Architecture, College. Qf Fine Arts, Cairo, who helped ,

. "

It

,

,

1

me discover new ways of 1001

1"

IV..

)

,)

A,

hospitality).

In particular, l wish ta thank Aligholi Mi~~ee, and

KhanaH Kllhali, 1 love them,,. respect them, and wish aH of them ,

B

hap,py, long life. /

,

)

Hassan. Moayeri, 'August 1975, Montréal.

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" V , CONTENTS

"

..

IN'l'RODUCT'ION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ ••••••••••••-• • • • • • • • •

Part One:

1

ENV,IRONMENTAL BACKGROUND

Geographieal Charaeteristics •••••••••••••••••••••••••••

3

CUmatologi oltl Charaeteristics: •••••••••••••••••••••••• 1. weather •••••••••••••••••••• , , ••••••••••• 2. wa ter ••••••••••••••• __ ....................... . 3. ~ vind ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

S 5 7

, '

...

9

/

Historiesl Characteristics ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 14

Agriculturel and Pastoral Economy •••••••••••••••••••••• 22

. '

Int,er-reln~iontlhip bet~leen Social, Economies1 '..a.nd ~ulturDl

forces ............. '•• :j' •••••••..•..•••••••••.•• 26 1. ~'o8tnic foctors •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2.7 2 •. Hum,,'n ,(1~tors: species% .. ethnic groups and tribes •••••• 21 3., Culturel fnètors: in~elligence:

eOl'll1lUnication ......... 'j, • • • • • • • • 29

wèlfare:

-

\0:

control: d

educ.tion •• ,', ................. . 29

health •••••••••••••••••••••••• 31 • • ttltation .................... . 32 ~

population •••••••••••••\, •••••• ,33 o~aants.tlon •••••••••••••••••• 35

•

"

admtnistJ'atton •••••••••• '.' ~ •• 3"8

1, '

,

.

,

~

~ ~

'''1 ,,-

... '

~fI

., '':

-protection •••••••••••••••••••• 38 !inaftce ••••••••••••••••••••••• 38 fI'Oduction: cultiv.tion ••••••••••••••••••• 39 trànsportation •••••• ~ •••• ~. '••• 42

ors_mut ion':

family uni ta ••••• '.' ••••••••••• 1.2 ' i'llcome groups ................ . 45 oeeupstion and se~ice grOUP~. 46 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • '. Il • • • • • • •

48

,

"

,

.

~

,'at "No:

IXISTING COMMUNITY AND INDIVIDUAL S~

Outlines of Village Formation ••••••••••••••• ~ •••••••••• 52 factors Influencing Village Formation •••••••••• '•••••• '. '.

.

55

~,.

j,

J,

l"

"

\

"'.........\O~f)Jf.v~_'"

"

,-'

_~..-...:.._ _ _ _ _ _ _ .... _ _ _ ~..::. .... _~_~_~--:...:.-

,1

1

1

_

VI Walled vlllag.......... ~ ••• i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semi-walled viltage ••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...l-underground villag••••••• ! ••••••••••••• ,

'1

Y111ag•• ,and Thelv- rouction ........... '.' • ". , • ,

61 62

1

,

, Maydén (village centre) ••••••••••••••••••••• Mahall~ (quarter) & Charsough (cro8sroad) ••• Haahti (neighbourhood centre) ••••••••••• , •••

J

Individuel Fam11y 'Shell •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Community Fac1lities complementing housing ••••••••••••• Ma.djed (Hoaque) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Hammam (public bath) •••••••,••••••••••••••••• Cbaikhane (tee house) ••••••••••••••••••••••• Ilefer enC8S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63 65 66 17 78 80

82

• t

83

Part Thr•• :'rRADITIONAL SOLUTIONS FOR WATER SUPPLY AND CLlMAnC PROBLEl1S .- Vater Supp1y Methods: ttQanat" syltem •••••••••• -••••••••••••••••••••

"qanat rl construction .................. .

as

Ci.tern ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Yakh-chal (ice-mak1ng ~nd storage) ••••••••••

91 93

Solution. for CU.matie Problema: ••• "•• '.', ~,' o... ~,.; ••' •••••• 2.

lhad1ng: •••••• ., ••••••••••••••••••••••••••

94 94 96

3.

v.ntilation ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• wind-catch.r ••••••••••••••••••••••••••

101

1.

.

84

lité

p~ann1ng •••••••••••••••••••••••••••

97

4. thermal_eapac1ty •••••••••', •••• , ......... . 105 5. réfl.ct1vit' •••• , ••••••••••••••••••• ~; •• ~ W .... u: t!.) v .... ~ a. t~ 1IJ ct O:! w 0.. ~.~ ::> ~/ ~ (J) o·z 0 ~

.... .... ~

(,)

..,

i'Q

l·J !JJ ('l f;.!~ .4

.., fî!

....... ~ \ }1i"imvm

.

...

,

9

tif tbe desert, one Hnda variou8 types of wlnds.

3. Wind:

,

Bach winc1 has Hs o.wn peculiarities depending on the region and direction in which it blows. Some ~f the winùs are very harmful for being hot

"

and travelling nt high speecls carryinB particles of sand and

salt~

they cause destruction. Measures

have been introcJlIced to avold the C:estruction, and use them for bcneficia l purposes. these will be discussecl in Part Three. Direction. and Particularities of the Wlnds: a)

Summer Winds:

1.

Winds of the Saud! Arabisn Desert:

Theae

·c

v1nds, which blow from south to north durlng the summer, bring slong with them large amounts of

heat energy, sand and sslt. and destrqy the crops.

They block the roada

Théy have

al80

been known

ta cover entire villages and many farma.

As a

result, very few villages are found in the' of these

w~nd8

pa th

and those that still exist are

rapidly vanishing.

Another major harmful effect

ia that the.e winds

ca~y gras8hop~er8

.nUre crops.

which destroy

The dam4ges are irrepairable(,).The

only natural reBouree which la preventing the complete disappearance pf the villages 18 a wild

*

plant whlch grow8 ,in the desert.

1

~

This plant i.

helpful beeause It reduce. the .peed of tbe wlnda ,

~

and tbe amount of .alt and sand being carrled '1

J

b~

tbem.

-

•

10

Unfortunately, the.e plantl are alowly being de.troyed by

011,

by

herd~

of camel and, most important of

man who uses them for

indus trial

purposes. (fig.6)

•

Gulf of Bengal Wiud: This wlnd b1'ows during ;

2.

the summer from east to west.

lt 1. aemi-hot and

humide (see fig.5) Scandinavian Wind:

3.

These winds whlch b10w

during the summer from the-northwest are dry and

cool. (see fig. 6) 4.

Mediterraneen and Bhek Sea Winds:

blow from the nort;hweat. ( •••

s.

Theae winds

They are hot and humid.(6)

,

fig.~)

Borthe.st or TurkiatanJ Wind:

(Bad-' Sada Biat Rooz)

This wind unabated blows for 120 days from tlié Qizll-qum .teppes of Turkistan aU the ;'

'>' ~

e • !

16. ..........-.)

'.

1

..

onction

of winter winds' .

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f

Q

Iralda.- Duert, V1D4a •

.

Med1t.n'aa••a au. ac.Ddlud•• Vi• •

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i

"

14

HISTORICAL cMRACTERISTICS

"The first Inda-Iranian, or Aryan, groups (a branch of Indo-European emigrants). who, coming from Europe towards south-east Asia, penetrated east of Iran and vere

forc:~d

.

to pus through a passage between two

native tt·ibes of Jhe Iranian Desert (Kavir). - t

These tribes

,~ere

the

Gorgan on the north and the S,agaha on the south-east." (8) "This took place in three wsves: the seond

follm~ed

50 B,p. 1I (9)

the Uret bet'ween 2000 and 1600 B.e.,

some 600 years later and the third between 100 to

Theae Aryans who began to live in this area on hunting

and gathering were the Parthiana on the north·eaat and the Peraiana on the southwest, t'wo of the thtèe major Aryan tribes. •

,

1

According to R.L. €arneriO~Q)) and the Iran~aQ' Desert geographical characteristics, it becomes clear tnat people who lived neal' fish-laden rivera ,

fi

and lakes (north, south and east) were the flrst groupa to become acqusinted with cultivatlon, and the l'est of the people rémained nomade. Rowever, sinle seven ta eight thousand years when the Neolithic aettlers began to grow crops and raise sheep" goats, and

ca~le

on

the~

Plateau" Peraia has been prima1."ily ah agricultural country. (11:) ;'t

But how did agr:f.è:ulture come to lUe in the aresa where fish1ng dld ~

ftot exist?

1.

,

This was due to the- following reasons:

,ï:

.-

The need of the nomadie èociety for agriculturel product.1orêed

_OI1le pebple to cultivate.

2.

For pol1tical reuons

the

~overnment.

preferred to

ma~e g~~upe

of

'f

J \Il'

~

Ilomada iuto farmera.

, !(

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15

The question of how states came to existence ia worth discussing. Here the historicsl sides of their existence Is explained. " For the fix:st two million years of hia existence, man lived in bands "

i

or villages which, as far as we can tell, were completely autonomous.

"

PNot until perhaps 5000 B.e. did villages begin to aggregate into lerger political units.

1

But, once this process of aggregation began,

lt continued st a progressively faster pace and led, around 4000 B.e., to the formation of the firat state in history.

(When l speak of a

state l mesn an aut6nomOU8 political unit, encompassing many communitiea

,

within its territory and having a centralized government with the power

t

Although it was by aIl odds the Most far reaching political development

,

to collect taxes, draft

~en

for work or wsr, and decree and enforce laws.)

"

•f

ln human history, the origin of the state is still very imperfectly understood.

lndeed, not one of the current theories of the rise

atate i8 entirely satisfactory. faU.

of

the

At one point or another, aIl of them

There ia one theory, though, which l

bel1ey~

.

does prov1de a'

convlndng explanation of how states began." (a) "

.,

liA close examination of hiftoty i'ndlcatês that only a coercive theory

can account for the rise of the state.

",

Force, and ndt enlightened

self-lnterest, ls the mechanlsm by whlch polltical evolutidn ~s led, step by step, from autonomous villages to the state. The vieu that war Iles at the root of the state la by no means new. Twenty-five hundred years ago, Heracl1tus wrote that·~ar ls the father ç

/

of a11 th:l.ng".

"

The tirst careful study ôf the role o'f warfare in the

tise of the sute." (13) ;:

...

1 1

.

Il

,

16

There are many theories in this respect, for example the "Natural1ty of the States" or the theory that "It WaB created by Historicsl Accidents". According to R.L. Carneiro (14) anG Herbert

~pencc;: (15), \-Jar

pl<Jyecl a decisive

role in the rise of the state and, according to Iranian history and archaeological Hnds, there i8 evidence of war.

Tb~

theory is most

acceptable for desert society. Ferdowsi, the Iranian historian, in his book "Shshnameh" which i8 an ancient Iranian history, has written that the creation of the first state in Iran

,f

t,, ,

b~gan

at the same time as the beginning of the long wars between

the inhabitants of the eastern desert snd the Touran* people. ly the existence of the first centralized government in the

Apparent-

d~sert

area began in about 2000 B.C. There are no documents about 1ife-duration and historie events unti1 the Islamic period, exeept for Alexander the Greatls invasion of Iran and India, in 330 B.C. which passed through the 80uthern parts of the desert.

A few years ago, a German' group of 80ciologists eal1\e

amali group of

farmer~

in the north-east Baluchistan.

~~~o~

a

'\,

They believe that

the ancestors of these farmers were the Greelc soldiers of Alexander who 8tayed in

t~is

the past, served

area. a8

8

The Iranian desert bas, on many occasions in

bridge between the steppes of Central Asia

on the one hand, and Anatolia and Europe, on

t~e

other.

also caused many invasions of Iran by different nations,

This situation

.

The trafflc

8topped the growth of the city population and developed individuality

*T~n:

name of the people who lived Tui'kiatan.

1n"~he north-eaat of Iran and

{

17

and nomadlc life ao that IIOV8daJ78, tribal aud

~clic

orgauizatloa iD

Iran la one of the IDOst c:omplez.

. The growth of Islam and tht! Arab invasion in tht! t!ight centory, via

the Peraian Gulf and aouthern desert had no cultural influence in thi. rei3\ol} ~

siace the apread of the Ialamic religion aud lta acceptaoc:e.

reached tnta ares only in the 12-14th centurit!S, at the time of the Mongol invasion.

Tht!

intt!rest:i~

point: is tbat, in some parts of the

desert, people bave kept tht!ir local relig!oua customs

tg

thia day.

It is alao possible ta find large groups of Zoro&strtana in the south-

west of the desert, Yazd and Kerman regi.ons.

Zoroastrlanism is one of

the oldest religlons of Iran, dat1ng back t~ 2000 B.C. this faith are the

()t""3\.na~

Iranians.

They bave strong falth in their

religion and bave avoided racial interchange. Zoroastrians

emigrate~

Many groups of

ta India fram the 10th ta the 17th ct!nturies.

Aftet' \he i~dÜchon of :6\3"".I:I.~ invasion wsa

Believers of

JAVAND1 Dr.P. 1. 'introduction

'1,'

)

a

l'Etude Générale des Tribus lfomades en Iran, L'Institut d'Etudes et de Recherches Sociales de l'V~iver81tê de 7éhéran, 1965, p.1S.

18.

SAlI-NEGAD, J. Ta1,b-Abad, 'Honography of a Villase Tehran University, 1966, Tehrau, pp. 22-24

19.

Sl'OORElt, Brian The Cultural Eeolo'gt' of Pastoral. Nomade No.4S Add:18on~ We.1ey Publiahing Co.lnc.,· 1973 PhiU.ppl... " p.2l.

20. Ibid.p.18. 21.

COBEN', 'Yehudl Â. Han 1ft Adaptation - The Cultural Pre.ence Aldin PublUhill8 Co. 1974" Clûc:aso" P.218.

,

,

.

1

îl

1

!

!

!

o

22.

SPOONER, Brian The Cultural EcoloBY of Pastoral NomAds No.45 AddisonWesky Publishing Cd.Inc., 1973 Phi1~ppines, p.20.

23.

VARDJAVAND, Dr.P. L'Introduction à l'Etude Générsle des Tribus Nomades én Iran Publication de l'Institut d'Etudes et de Recherches Sociales, Université de Téhéran, 1965, p.l2.

24.

SER 3 Schoo1 Environments Research, The University of Michigan, 1965, p.I,J.

,

r

25.

Ibid.pp.l,4-1,6.

26.

BARTH, Fredrik Nomads of South Persis, Allen.5. Urwin Co., 1961 London, pp.135-l53 & DOUGLAS, M~ry Natural Symbols Barrie .5. Rochiff Publishing Co., Gesset Press, 1970 London pp.IÜ-12.

27.

VARJAVAND, Dr.P. L'Introduction a l'Etude Générale des Tribus Nomades en Iran, L'Institut d'Etudes et de Recherches Sociales, l'Université de-Téhéran, 1965 p.135.

28.

IRONS, W. Persnective on Nomedism, 1972 London, p.6.

29.

S~,

Philip

ç.

Proceedings of the A~erican Philosophiea! Society, anon a N~~dic Peo~le, Vol.III, 1967, p.124.

Politic~l Qr~2nization

"0.

VAlU),lIWl.JID, Dr.P. Bamadi. a FamUv from Bakhtiari Tribes Technlcal

Research and Standard Bureau, 1968 31.

Tehr~n,

pp.81-120.

~, Philip C. proeeedings pf the American Philosophicsl Society, Politicsl Organization amang Nomadic Peopl~. Voi.III, 1967, p.124. il

32.

Ibid.p.123.

33.

Ibid. p.127.

34.

SPOONER, Brian The C~ltural Economy of ,Pastoral Nomads No.45 AddisonWesky Publishing Co.Inc., 1973 Philippines, pp.18-l9.& COHEN, Yehudi A. Man in Adaptation The Cultural Presence Aldin Publishing Co. 1974, Chicago, p.264. ' 1-

VARDJAVAND, 'Dr.P. L'Intro~ctipn ~ l'Etude Gén4rale des Tribhs Noms~e8

35.

en Iran LtInstitut d'Etudes et de Recherches Sociales, de Ténéran, 1965, pp.10-19. 36.

l'Universit~

FORDE, C. Dary11 Geographieal Journal, July 1937, p.21.

37.

wutPF, Bans E. The Traditioual-Crafts of Perala H.I.T. Press, 1966

London, p.260.

38.

SERVICE, Ebe1l R. The Ruttters Prentice-Hall l,ne., 1966 Eugiewood, N.J., \

p.34~

39. GLtJClCKA.R, Max Afrtcan Pol1tieal SV8tema Oxford University Press, 1946 toadon. .

1

'

50 40.

Ibid.p.36.

41.

BARTH, Fredrik Fatherrs brotherrs daughter Marriage in Kurdhtan, Southwestern Jouraal of Anthropology, Vol. 10, 1954, pp.164~171.

42.

SAFI-NEGAD, J. Taleb-Abad, Monography of 1966 Tehran.

à

Village Tehran University,

'.

1

/

1

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o

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,

"

,-

,

51 Note:

In the firet part, we tried to analize the environmental, cultural, and economical conditions in the desert, and we noted how strong the social "network" ia among the peasants and nomads sHke.

HoweV'er,

\

.\

in the forthcoming parts, the focua Is on the

pe~santlS

housing

•

"

"

pro~lems because of the following reasons:

the effects of nornadism on peasant architecture are not widely recognized, and cannot be Included in an architectural stupY

• as lone as the nomad

has~t

settled, his temporary shelter will

'\

reIllBin as ia becBuse it has been developed and adapted to the very nature of nomad society and the physical environment we have not attempted to take any change that would add to the

,,

.

î) nomad' 8 exiating problems. 1'

Rowever, it must.be stated here thst the problem of nomadlsm must be Bolved through careful study of national economy and rehabilitation.

.,"

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o

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4'"

.-.. -'--"-:._- ---~ "-' l----"- .:_-

52 orrr-LINES OF VILLAGE FORMATION

G

Although the reasons for the appearance of settled communities in the lranian Plateau are mostly unknown, they might have come about through historieal incidents but, it ls elear that a11 communities are gathered around vital sources, especially water.

Form and situation of these

vital sources specify the type of social and productive activities. Even though none of these communities have been preplanned, and ail are spontaneous, esch one has it\ own particularities which are influenced by severai factors luch as cultural, economicai and geographlcal 8S

well as histories!.

These give charaeter and distinction to each

particular area. In this section, without going into historical"and

~ultural

detalls,

firet outlines of the Iranian villages will be explained and then factors which influeneed village formations in the desert area will.

be described. wnen a location,ia éoeially and historieall)'

re~ognlzed

as a centre

of agricultural activity,' it in'eludes six: sectionà(1).These Bections as a whole are recognized aB a f.a,rm or a village commtJnily. (fI3\~)

.'

1 1

.___ - ____ ,~--~.r_~----~.-~~..~----~-------.•~~.--------------..~~------

53

Therefore we cao assume that s village ia

set up ir six circles

8S

Hs boundarles.

The dwelling8 are usually gathered in the first inner circle because of security and to prevent intrudets from entering,the core of the villaBe.

Even though this might not be the resson st this point in time,

traditions, ties of kinship and economy are the resson for retaining chiS, formation. The second circle consists of small gardena where

a

variety of vegetsbles v'

are grown.

These gardens either belong to a single family or to a

group of families and are usually annexed ta the The produce from these gardens provide the village.

~urrounding

houses.

e~~y necess~tles

V

for the

"er..-circle consists of plantation gprdens which might cultivate one \

The~rd

or different kinds of fruits. The fourth clrcle which ineludes the most important section of the vi~lage,

N~èdless

consista of the farm,lands.

,

to say, the village 18

economically dependent on tnis land ~nd, for this reason, th!s area has been the centre of'confliets pf

0\~ner8hip

and usage beeween the

fatllilies and the melllber8 of the village. Tbe fifth eircle consists of dry farro lands which mostly belong to the community, but in practice it t8 u8ed by families who are rlch or that have the manpower to cultlvate lt. , The outer ci!~le 18 u.uallY used for ·pasture.

in the

e

mOOn~a\M or

on

a ~\~ , .!rne ol:lter è..\t-c\e. .

~ rand c.a. Roomp are attached to the outer

walls forming a central court yard (fig. '1-). Each room houses one family and each walled village can accomodate ttarr to two hundred

families.

Sorne room8 have basement8 for

8torage and stables.

The central court yard

18 the place for social activities. lt should be noted tha t cven thou-;h some

villages have no walls around them, as such,

o

57 the outside houses are arranged to open onto the villar,e thug turning their backs to the outside world and forming a protective wall around the village.

2.

Protection from the elements: a) Semi-walled village: This type of village 18 located in the eas tern de sert (provinces of Khara88n and Sistan) which 1s exposed to the Turklstan

A village is surrounded by a straight

wind.

or cres cent shaped wall to break the wind(r~ 18)

which blows st 120 km per

hour~

and pro-

tects the village sgainst the sand carried The wall may be constructed

by the wind.

in one of two ways:

a solid mud wall of

80-150 cm high or a date-frond woven

fence supported by bambu or lotus After a fev years, the sand is

~nches.

pU~igh

against the wall and another parallel

-

.. ~:: :\.,~,:: ~---------

.,. "

.~ .... ,

o

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/

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ft

•

Windmills are common in the eastern desert. Most modern authors on the history of technology agree that the origin of the windmill ia Iran (2). The earliest known mention of a windmill is in an ancient Hindu book, the Artha8astra Kantilya (cirea 400 B.e.) which refers to a windmil~ used for lifting water (3). Next we hear that wind motors were the prayer wheels of Buddhists in Central Asia as described by Chinese travellers cirea )400 A.D.

:~

(4).

Al-MosudiJnlranian historian, in his book Tarikh Masudi writes abo t an lranian slave, Abolulua, to whom the Caliph Omar asked: ' "1 have b e told that you were heard toasting about the ability to build a t.nill which is driven by the wind", to which the Iranian slave replied: "By Gad', 1. will bul1d a mil! about which the who1e world will talk. '1 The Iranien windmi11s, with their vertical axis, spread through the Islamic world; they became an important power source in Egypt for the juicing of lJugar cane (5). During the Ilth Centuryl the windrnill had already reachea western Europe but the axis were no longer vertical but inclined about 30° to the horizontal. However, the first mention of windmi1ls in northern Europe i8 in a French tax law (1105 A.D.) which stated tbat each windmill owner shou!d pay \ 5X tax on it's turnover.

A /Vint/mil/ /'om 5/~filn ~Ih~}tyn

J~vl-

DrIlWl~ cf il

lIIIAc'mlll b;J ~rMn "*'~".fÎ'*' ;qL -lJi#w,w,ri " (1.2;6-1),2,6)

1)

58

.all 18 bul1t behlnd the fir8t wall and ou.

10

walls.

Sorne villages have three or more Another type of wall, perhaps the

mo8t 8ophlatlc8ted one, Is used in agrl-

•

cultural SItes where dry farming 18 practlced.

The main purpose of the wall

remaina the same but this heavier wall 18 mounted by windmills.

This 18 one of

the mon benefic::ial uses of the wind.(2.) It is interesting to note that this type "

...

-*':

of w1.ndmi Il, wi th vert iea 1 axis, 18 the

oldest type known àtil1 in operation and has

o

8

surprisin3 output. (P'j_

IfI)

'\

,

ln Iran today windmills are uaually ~8ed for grinding wheat and barley but the y are sometimes used for irrigation and for pumping salt brine. A w1ndmill has two stories with an upper room conaist1ng of two 6m. h1gh walls, 6m. apart, snd parallel to the preva1l1ng wind. The third wall of the ssme height (wingwall) ia only 3m. wide w1th a 30 0 inward deviation to bring 1n the wind at h1gh pressure. The other end is open to let the wind out. The wind wheel i5 approximately 5.Sm. high and its main wooden shaft with a steel pin at the ower end i5 1ed through a holè 1n the centre of a domed or vsulted roof to the lower Eloor (millhouse). The steel pin rests in a cavity of a wooden block. Many layers of strong cotton cloth are placed in this cavity to prevent eros1on of the block. The upper end of the shaft runs through heavy horizontal beams which, in turn, are fixed ta the side wslls of the mill. Five tiers of spokes with eight spokes in each tier are inserted into the shaft. Bundles of reed of 5.Sm. in helght are tied with pegs and ropè to the ends of the spokes. Diagonal stay ropes run from the top of the shaft to the end of the lowest tier of spokes ta prevent the spokes from sagging under the heavy weight of the reed bundles. The outer ends of the spokes are tied to each other.

-,

The upper end of the thrust block fits into the bed stone which 1n tum rests on a brick stn}cture. The runner stone rests on a steel whell set into a slot oE the thrust pin. This wheel in tum fits in 8 groove eut 1nto the unders1de of the runner stone. The dimentions of the mi11 stones are 2m. in diameter and O.2m. in thickness. The grain is fed into the throat of the runner stone, passes througb the feeder channel and flour 1s collected below the bedstoue.

,,e "

"

Approximately one ton of grain 1s milled datly in each of these windmills. This means 120 tons per m111ing season (7).

~;

I~. l "

"

,'hout th!'

-

the'.'

.1re

we11

nd,1pte(1

to the physicDl

'Inderst:lnd the str1lcture of the semi-IJnc1rr

\JC

present hcrc it's h

vill.l",c"' .1nd

r0 1 11111

(ii' .21).

it5

r'Jn,-f

1011.

JlC're strC'els ,Ire conr.Ji, C'r-

The nee-e.A

3 Gtdr.......~

.

~/200

room

roo'"

I.A." S

r

~or~e.

5 To; L.e..\6 Loo!""\-

~.

~at"'J

~

-4 .J

A

o "L RI

.'

~cc.....

.1

,

7S

Mt. Kahali's house in Mend, near Ganabad. (surveyed 1971) His father was the head man of the village, and Mr. Kahall ls proud of

it~

Kahali's

family has lived in this house for over four generations, it ago.

rebuilt about 15 years

w8S

He 18 a wealthy man, with two potter's

whee1s and one kiln.

He and his two wives

and their seven children are aIl patters. Haoshang Khan, his eldest son, has recently finished military service and has Just married.

As part of a group of researchers,

the writer w8S invited to attend this wedding party along wlth aIl the viltagers.

Everybody

enjoyed the hospitality and folk music for t~reè

days.

With the help of the villagers,

they have built a new room for the newly ~rried

couple.

It ia the biggeat room of

the house with windows fadng the street .r~J 30)

-

o

.

... · l

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.

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75

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., s

(

y

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rr

PlhH ing

~-a \~. rv \ ~\50

body

8,

~j 30)

=

II

76

Ardestani brothers' house in Ardestan. (surveyed 1970)

c

They are three brothers with their

famili~s,

making a total of 28 people including three daughters-in-law and three grandchlldren. Their houses are interconnected (see plan No.3Z) ànd aIl the cooking takes place in a communal ~1tchen.

There 18 not enough room for every-

body so Sorne have to sleep in the workshops.

1

Lil'l"'!J

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.1lA4f ~.­ .G·j~lt.h

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82

Chalkhane (téa house)," ~

. ' Although npbody preventa ladies from going ta teahousea, thia place is trèditionally used by men,

except for city visitors who do not

care for native traditions and ridicule them. The "Cheikhane" is used as a

time~honored

forum for exchanging idess, insulta and g08aip. , . It ls a gathering place for'all villsgers,

especially in wintertime when there 18 no work to be done, and the weather Is eold. People sit by the fire, savoring a water pipe, and 11atening to the naghal (narrator) .inga oid 80ng. and haroie stories.

~ho

(11.)1)

~

~

t-

J

t'

t~

r.

, "

~

_·,~;:~'.:~.!;~~~~~,;;.k~1.

Standing

on their ends on the side walls they are hammered into the plaster.

Tbe m8son then

takea soma ~d and,'agal~t the foot of these bricks, .-kèS a ltttie wedge-shaped packing, t~t

s~

the next course 18ans slightly towards the

end wall Instead of .tanding up straight.

In

order to break the l1ne of the joints between tbe brick., the second course start. with a half-briek followed by a full brick (fig;1').

If the joint. are in a .traight l1ne, the .trength of the vault

coUap...

i'

reduced and

tt may

The ....on nov put. in more mud

2

j

lb

$

2

24

•

•

packing agalnst the second course

80

that the

third course will lean even more towerds the centre of the parabole (fig. 1'1).

-In this way,

the mason gradually bullds the Inclined courses out, e8ch one outline of

th~

rl~ing

a little higher round the

arch, tiU the two curved lines

of brick meet at the top

(fi~t. H~1V). 1\9

he

bullds each complete course, the mason Is careful to insert into the gaps between the bricks dry packing such

8S st'o~,

or broken pottery.

lt la most important that no

mua

mortar·be put

between the ends of the bricks in e8ch course for mud can shrink by up to 37% in volume and 8uch

shrinklng would seriously dis tort the arch caudng the vault to collapse (/2.).

The ends of

the bricks must touch one another, dry w!th no . mortar.

At this stage the nalcent vault 18 3 to

7 bricks thick at the bottom and on1y one brick

thlck at the top, so that lt appeau to be lean-

lng at a considerable angle agalnst the end'wall. 1

Thu. lt

prese~~s

an inclined face to lay the

lucceeding\ courses and the bricks have planty ,

of IUppo-rt. ·Thia inclination stops the bricks

from .dropping off a. IIlight a 'lII()oth brick on a vertical face •. A . .ater mason can bulld . . .vault with str.tght eour ••• of brick. without vorrying about dropptng brick ••

"5' .~

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fnJIII4II"~ ,,, rucrd,.'!1 !{frfXI"d m"f,;;'"s ... .~ff'lll~UlI I/$~d D.,y c:h/'!t$1 ~~"'"h$f,J." h'ell

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b. ~e.1lt6

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J

13f\

Shallow focus earthquskes affect only very local areBS; sorne tens of

o

square miles. miles.

Deep foeus

ear.thq~akes

can affect hundreds of square

AlI the earthquakes in Iran, after 1900, have been shallow

earthquakes with a focal depth of between 20-40km (

~

).

1

A review of the earthquake history of Iràn shows that this country i8 1n a selsmic region. map

(fig.~O)

A glance at the location of epicentres on the

showB that ma8t of the activity for the per10d 1900-1969

1a apread through northern and western parts of Iran.

There are two

main distinct bands, one 8tarting,from the north-esat and extending towards the north-west a10ng the , Elburz mountain and the Caspian Sea cossts.

The second band starU from the north-west and ex tends 'towaros

the western and southern parts of Iran along the Zagros range. two bands of seismic activ1ty

al~gn

These

with pre-existing faul ts, or with

branches of these faults. There have been sorne earthquakea along the firat band of the Doruneh fault whieh by-pa8sea Torbat-Haydarie in the

north-ea8tern·.ee~ion

the desert, and some earthquakel dong the second band Bam in the south-western part ot the desert.

of

by Kerman and

Due to the fact that the

northern epicentres are very ~iose to numerous USSR selsmlc stations and western

épl~entrel

are close to European stations, there ia a

good collection of information available.

As for the rest of the

country, eapeeial1y for the central parts and the desert area, there 1. no adequate information.

Earthqu~ke freq~ency Itudy ba.ed on the data covering the palt fev centuriel bal failed to reveal any aignifieant informatIon, and could he ai.leadinS.

Thia section d.~~

no" ~rofoe~

to help in the predlcting

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140

of future earthquakes, but rather to show where past earthquakes have caused damage and may cause'in the future.

It seems that seismic

activity in Iran originstes 810ng the pre-existing fau1ts or branches of thèse faults.(5) t

The récent earthquake of 1962 at Buyin south of Qazvin in the northwestern desert, shows a revival of activity after a period of rest of nearly 300 year8.

This event be10ngs to the same zone of seismic

activity which, according ta historical data and ta the tectonics of the region, passes a few kilometers north of Tehran, a modern city about half a century old which so far experienced no earthquake damage of any consequence. many times; the last time

The nearby old city, Rey has been destroyed wU

800 years ago. 'l (6) 't

It is possible that these areas that are quiei~eht now and have been active in the p8st will he active again in the future.

~specially

since

specifie prediction 'of the Ume and magnitude of futUJ;'ê earthquskes 18 st the present time impossible, the palt seismic hiatory of a region is of great importance to the designers, and areal with a well-doeumented seismic history could hé • te.t alte for prediction of future earthquake •• Thil section _111 moltly dl.cu •• the effect. of the August 31st and September

~.t,

1968 earthquake. in the ealtern and northern desert based

on ,field ob.eTVatlon of a .clentiflc tee. and their analysls of the nature of fr,ctur •• and fi.sures ln the buildingl and discuisions with tbe Local population

~.

\

to the defect. they have noticed in their house ••

Aa part of a group of 'architecte And ...lne8r. for reconstruction and re-building the damaged towaa end village., the writer had the

oppo~unity

of spending sorne time ln the area.

Remarks

baaed on his observations

ar~

and field experiences. SiRce the enelneerlng aspect

of this problem Is not within the scope

of this paper, only a few architectural and general remarks will be

,

mentioned.

These may be useful

~o

future urban or rural development

prograllllles. During the great Buyin-Zahra earthquake of 1962 ( +), the most important and responsible cause of mass demolition of houses in the desert was the poor quality of the building mater!a1s and thelr unsafe deSign.

The problem ia aggravated by a rather 'chaotic distribution of

heavy roof-loadlng and the unstabl11ty of wal1s. As described in Part Two, up to the present, typi~l rural houses in single story adobe or

desert areas, wlth few exceptions, 'condst of

li

mud wall structure covered by fIat or vaulted

ro~fsJ,with

clay or lime

The mortar, without lime as has been used, ls a very poor

~rtar.

adheslve witb very 8mall reaiatance to comp,ession and, consequently, under the effect of any'strain, .tres8 or vibration, the entire syatem collap.es or may he partlally demolished. Bouses in

th~

epicentral area, moatly conatructed a few centuries ago,

would easily collapae.

.

The great destruction caused by the earthquake

1. mainly due to the fact that the 'bearins walls spread apart caua1nR

,

roofs to coll.p.e under th.lr own .tatie welsht and re.ulting in heavy caeuattiea to life and property. Although 1IIOit of the da_se' il cau.ed by the earthquak•• th.... elve., ft ahould

DOt he ,

...

\

forgotten tut

the _la agen .. of

" thé da..agè were poor

«

•

materials and

o

..

•

;u

th~

•

~

unsafe design of the buildings.

Foundation weakness: ;'

As described previously, the foundation of a

hous~

is a simple trench

of about 60cm. deep and slightly wider than the wall. with lime and water and poured into the trench in ly 20cm. and stone is trown into it.

Earth ia mixed

layer8~f

approxima te-

This ls repeated until the trench

is filled.· In some csses, we mentioned that the building sits on bare ground with only a course of stones used as foundation.

lt lB ohvlous

that this kind of building 'cannat withstand sven wma11 vibrations. A1though most houses had good foundations, because the lsst layer of the foundation of many houses waB made smooth

1

~th

a fine paste of

lime mortar covered by 8 layer of mudlatraw mbrtar, wh en the mud bricks , , ' are p1aced on top, there_as not 8ufficient adhesiveness to withstand 1

shocks.

Walls had sUd

cff their bases.

lu a few houses it was observed

that the surface of the foundations had not been made BmOoth and, as a' .. tter of fact, higger stones had been thrown on the ·last layer and the walls built directly on top.

Because of good interlocking between the

.. teriala, most of the damage was caused by weak walls and not by faulty. founda tian•• Although ground 1evel foundat1ons may Pa .trong eoough, they become part l

of the ground aud not part of the wall., therefore, when there 18 any kind ol ground mov...nt, the wa11s alide Qif their foundatione.

!!!!!!.: Althou8b coll.p.ed wall. were .oltly

~

to poor ..teriall and paor

workMuMp, the following re.aru .bow other by eartbèluake.:

rM8O'DI

for da_ge. cau.ad

)

.. 143

(

1.

Uslng weak mQrtari

2.

Uslng

wid~

joints between brick couraes;

often more than lcm.

J. Using rubble-stone and river atone for ) eonstructing the walls; [This kind of building; ) . could not resist even earthquakes of V M (8 ) ..] 4. lhin walls, leas than 20em. or one brick thick. S. ' ~ettl,ng openin~s in! ~"rotlg- places{q~(It wes ~oted,

even in weIl

buildings

conltructe~modern

that openings were tao close to corners (fi8.Q/) or ta ea~h other. (fig. fl. )] •

1 1

open~np,s

6. M.:aking

-

tao wide (fig. f" );

Setting chimnej

7.

~omersj

;Ln walls and in

[In the caBe of the public bath of Ghir whlch vas

a recent building with ehim~t~

reinfo~ced

concrete,

t~e

was set in the'wall and was the main

,

,

agent of damage, ta the bùUding (t 0 ) ~ ,c,',. "it ~ilding

8.

unconneeted walls sueh as walls

"

.

betv.en two door., calumn.; etc. were q,lIted by the eàrthquake. (fig.'~;

9.

,~ullding

.

weak corner. eapeclally external

cornera were a gres t cau.e of da_g8.

This

problem va. éarefully atudled tiy a group of acleftt18u: • Àn the JlUd aDd brick •• 11s .1thout ~

adequate iDterlocklng value st the. cornera or vltbout retatDlns vaU. vhteb coul"" 8ul,ort the corner, had

beén ••~loOJly 't,

__loIt

"

~

•

"

,~Ied.

....

..

........ ...... ......iS. . . . . .

~a~.a

~

~

i--~.~--~·~c~~~---------------..~,--------------------------

- all brick, concrete }lock and concrete ~""

!.

wall.

w~thout

adequate connectlon between

i.:

floors and cel1lngs at the corners, were damaged. 10. Damage to bearing walls, therefore

oofs.As

most of these are vaulted, the load

the vault is , ldeally carried by the bearing walls at an angle

of 900 but, uaually, the angle la not calculated 80

accurately.

If there ls no retalning wall, this

lo.d of the vault will push the wall outward Photos of the tomb of" Eman-Zadeh-Soltan-Mohsmm4md-Abld in. Kakhk shows clearly this ,Und of damage. (fig.96 a;~b)

_.- ....... .~

,"

r

r

1

1;. ,1'/' N{IJi~ ..

.,.n"'.J~ c/~~

~c e.,."e~.

6J,.H,~ ~en'1r ~h

.M~r.

-

fi

~t!. ~

----

-

..

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,

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,

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t>'

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rI lA ....

~1r;"'41

III

'lai "'. . ........,, ___ . __••_ ...._ ...... _._ _ _ _ _

-

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t._~

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''.ffJ .Ikr -I11t' U'f Ih rlll K~ .

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--;-

.

-"

ln

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,

/'J.'16 8. Hu famp of .E"'i",.Z.JÛI - 5611.,,1 }{,1t'fII",ad_ /Ibid e!:Jl'/ Jy, af krikurlltft!~ü ,

--------------

~~

~~

,

r

in /(.iM,

liJ7 ~:

Ae described above, IDOst of the roofs in this àrea' are either vaulted or dome shaped.

These types of roofs have had good results du ring earthquakes.

Damages ta the roofs were mostly small cracks which could ea811y be repaired.

Serious

dema~es

were caused by poor wa1ls and foundations or unsuit-

able design, most1y where the vaults meet each other.

It is interesting to

note that the main dame of the tomnof Sultan -Shah-Hassan in Dahbeh which was built with rubble stone and lime mortar has resisted an earthquake of VIII M. These were river stones which are round and considered unsuitable, especia11y for roofing.

In the earthquake of April 10, 1972 1n Ghir, ooly 1

the domed roof of the public bath'collapsed and thls was doe ta the un8uitable design of the dome. W8S

In this particular building, the main dame

constructed wi th a steèl frame f!lled wi th fIat arched bricks.

As a

matter of fact, the dome was shaped of several brick walls which were p1aced between curved beams and it ls clear that this dame could not work like a traditional dame.

Ano'ther cause of damage to roofs, a180 dealing

vi th design, was the fIat or basket vault.

As this vault requires leu

material and 1ess workmanspip, it i. commonly uaed especially for small

h

and narrow roorna. 88

lt i. also clear tha~ this kind of roof cannot work

well as full arches.

There are a1ao

~wo

They work in tension raihtr thaD ln compression.

type. of f1at roofs!

one ia used mostly in peasant

hou.es in the province. of Khora.an and Baluchistan.

These roofs are ),,

conJtructed vith the trunks of poplar or date trees with straw mats and .hingle. between the ... laid on top.

()

The~e

b~am&.

Several layera of mud/atrav mort.ar are

kind of, hou.es vere entirely demo1iah.d by earth.

quake. of V M or less.

The s.cond type, mo.tly for government or publie J\

building. and town hOu,."

are of .olid brick construction and concrete "

1 ,, ,

148

mortar with roofs made of steel beams with fIat arched' bricka ln between.

o

The top of the roof is filled with concrete and ia usually asphalted. Almo8t a11 of these buildings could notresist an earthquake of VII M. An earthqnake of, VI M had damsged them serioua ly but the afterahock made them collapse entirely.

These buildings had resisted earthquakes of IV M

and V M with sorne cracks (1ft).

lt ahould be mentioned that,

althou~h

Çhese buildings did not resist earthquakes or were partially dam8ged, with sorne attention to the deslen and good supervision

durin~

the building

process, one can ensure that they withstand an earthquake of VIII M. Most of the dama8;s to these buildings

w~re

becauae of unaafe design and poor

workmanship. Water Supply Systems: Be~au8e

of the importance and ahortage of water, earthquake damages to

this vital source has been one of the most lrrepa ra"1e.

'

and, in some

csses, the water supply systems of towné and villages have been

de5+ro~éd

and water stopped: 1. namage to the w8ter reservoir of

Ghir~

this

reservoir w81 conltructed with thick concrete ;

~al18

and the damage wa. no more than a.few cracks

in the side walls, but the water inside w8S discharged a few "

m1~utes

.fter the earthquake. The

structure of thla reservoit

W81

not reinforced.(12)

2. The plpltÎg lyst8m l of Ghir 'was conatructed with

.ebeltos,cement.

Almoat aIl the pipes were broken.

the vater tower of thi. town (25.. high) with a 'capacityof 15Om.'

Vi'

not damaged but, becaule

of the broken pipe., the tower dl.charged quickly

•

........... . . ,!Mo.'" . - .... ' .•

~

__ ,.....,...!......-... ......

~_.

__

~.'"

~

__

r

_~

,

....

-1---

149 and the town was left wit'hout water.

('3·)

3. The water towers of other towhS were damaged mostly

because of incorrect design or structural

errors.

Instead , of using flexible structures with

cables and bolts, most of the joints were oxygen acetylene welding. (14) 4.p1spiacement of the qanats by the faults or the

r&-€ûfs/,,~

~g.of

--'

qanat tunnels are two-of the most

serious damages to water 8upply systems. Qan8ts

of

Dasht~e-Bayaz,

Boskabad and Baynavaj are now

dry or the water flow considerably decreased by the earthquake of 1968.

However, the flow of sorne

qanata, sueh as Gonabad and Bidokht, far from, the area of epicentre, have increased after the earthqutke.

(15)

5. The rèmarkable thing 18 the incl'eaae in the out-

put

of pumplng from deep

epicentre.

".U. in

Thil phenomenon might

the area of the

he due to the

deformation of the aquifers, or to an inereas. in

the coefficient of tranam1ssibility of the water\

bearing beds.

( \6 )

SUIIIDIl 1")' :

Bere il • lUIIID8ry .nd remarka of leveral groupl of .cienU-"ts and earthquak• •ngineer.:

• A.

th. Iranian de••rt 1. one of the world' 1

••dimentary reglonl# seneral1y r18id and unflex~ \ . ible building. had reli.ted bitter tban oth.rl

81Ich a. .t.el fl"A8td building.. Thi. .... due to

1

Il

\

\

1

1 •

1

__________________________. . . . . .~"~ wi th burn t bricks and lime morta r .

o

11. Placing

'8fIy

kind of chimney, water or drain

.

pipe in the wall is not re~mmended as they split the wall in half and reduce its strength. 12. If the wall i9 built with mud bricks or burnt bricks, retaining walls for supporting the wall

• against horizontal movements and pressures are recommended,as approximately 951. of the earthquakes in Iran are horizontal ground motions. Roofs! As thé vaulted and domed roof are two of the hest types of roofing for earthquake regions, suitable design and workmanship are important.

The following

ramarlts deal with vaulted and domed roofs. 1. The shape of the vault must be designed to ita

best static form. 2.

"f lat or basket ar

3. 1 f the end of the vault 18

.

nnected to

the otber vault and is open, this end must he

done with burnt bricks' and lime mortar to a depth

of at le.sot 2Scm. or live brick courses. 4. The open end of the vault MUst be tied Inward vith ela.tic material •• uch as ateel vires or cablel-

a. 'thi. end ia veak and cannot re.ist

.-

..

\

vertical .hocks •

.tron~

-------------~---~----

-

157 5. 1ih.

.

he

()

hau~chea

or

footin~a

of tb. vault. muat

t1ed 1uyard due to the campra•• ion force ••

6. ïhe .pace wbich the vault covera mu.t he ~n1.. l,

a.

t~e

"

ama1ler vault bas greater re.iat-

.1lce to motiou. 7. lf the de.ign requir•• aeveral parenel vaulta

91th party walla, the lait outer wall mu.t be "

lupported by a retaining wall. T

8.

.

~~'. ~.

~r...

~er.ver

the tenaion force of the roof ia Maner

tban other points, a retaining wall ia requirea.

"

'

Ceneral

1. Roofed apace. arult he minimal.

r.quirement~:

2. A buildiq

~

tuu two ltori.. high t.

DOt

TecoaM1lded uni". the bulleliu.g i. COIIIpfetely ..rthquake re.i.tant.

,

,

r'

. .11 cOÙJiclereel in th. cleaigu of .. coaabiMt1cm of

",

" ~riaa wall1 8nel nofs.

rQ .'

.

f

(,

4. All· public buUdiql

aJlt he

COIIPletely _rt~

. . . rel1ata1lt •

.'

...

1

5. frni4i. . . .tu thrOulh t.he deep ,..,1111 welll)

., ,

.....f.a11' 'or . .11er ea tl 2ttltte.,i~

ftC] /,

_

. . . ., .... • pipt. .

.

SMed.

.;at- nd t'- "tar 'IY

•

t~1n (PO lI .......) _ t .. ~ W\tn

a-al.·....ul••

.

-

.

, ,

,

--

158

6. 1 n csse of earthquake., a11 rep4irable cracks

o.

and damages must be repaired immediately as molt of these damages will become serioul or will cause collapse of the building during the after shocks.

This 18 especially applicable for social, historicsl or artistically important bu1'ldings.

J

o

7. ~xpan810n and contraction of different materials .~

diff.rent temperatuTe. may cause damage to

buildings; thi8 must a180 be calculated by the

\

,

.'

159

Note:

o

Tying the footings and ende of the vaults are not a new method of securine the v~ults from tention forces,

8S

clearly one can see on

fig. 88 the maRon has tied the footings of the vault in a very prim!the way.

The figure 98 shows dHferent forms of damages of an earthqualce of

IIV H ta a single vault with different construction methods. In the figure 99 details of tying footings and enda of a vault.in a simple and prActical ways is shown.

•

.

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,

••• :';"

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, l,

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.

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.

i>

f

()

A. •

~Ic tII,,1f w,Ntqv/ $lJfP tH' f. eJlll'$l Il.~ "'''''f'.1Jc ",,//. 10- so 7. ".J ,...1: &<J-lDOX

,

co,,,,.,

,..,.,,.,.1.

" .,.,H ..,A

,.r,,",'!!

"./, .&5'-50% col5rs~

""II.,

w" : () -51. u/t.f.1C

1101 ry.r..J.

",.,;1"1/ ~

.

i; . • ",N

"'1

M~ Iltl

l-"iIs . cM., ,.,..,.ü

I~~JJ" .,,/1: 1) -11f, ctllltfH

".~ fW.~

~. , ,.,,11 wr'lj l,..'

"al

'-"'if- .",

NII*:J ., ".ID'~ III ~/,.

_"

J

~ t!IW/c.

H •.

,.,..,.~1.

"';".'••

1

,r

.14/

()

8 A~C=====--

~

;

,

A&~:.--==:======== l

~==-========:=:::::"'lj

'

~

A

L 1

,Ir ,

J"

~

,

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r.

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'.

.

..mf" ~ 111111

8&C

\U1tIf

8&C

,

, 162 REFERENCES

()

---

1.

HuDSON, John H. Earthquakes and Earthquake Structure Prentice HAll, 1946 New J~rsey

2.

Ibid.

J.

UNESCO Résumé Annuel d'InformRtions sur les Catastrophes Naturelles 1971 Paris.

4.

BANISADR, M. !he Seismicity of Iran 1900-lQ69 Planning & Progromming Department, 1969 Tehran, p.5

5.

Ibid.pp.10-22.

6.

Ibid.pp.25-26.

7.

ttHAAN UNlVERSI'lY The Great Dl1sht-e Baysl'! Earthquake lnstitute Geophyslcs, 1968 Iran l pp.70-79.

8.

MOINFAR, A.A. Preliminary Study of Ghir Earthquake Technical Resesrch and Standard Bureau, 1972 Tehran,p.33.

9.

TABARSI, M. Bandar-abas Earthquake of 1971 Plan 1971 Iran, pp.7-~.

l

&

10.

MOINFAR, A.A. Prel1mlnary Study of Ghlr Earthguàke and Standard Bureau, 1972 Tebran, pp.1-2.

11.

Ibld.p.29.

12.

Ibld.p-.63.

•

o~

Budget Organization Tec~nical

Research

13. Ibid.p.69. 14. Ibld.pp.67-70.

15. TBHRAN UNIVERSITY The Great Da.he-. Bayaz Barthguake In.titute of Geophy.lc., 1968 Tehraft, p.16. 16. Ibid.pp.17-18.

17. MOINFAI, Â.Â. 'Iel1mlnarr Beud! of Ghlr Earthguake Tachn1c.l Re ••arch aad St.nd.rd Bureau, 1972 Tehran, p.26. la.

UlfITlD HA'1'tœB Haœal on Building .1\d Pla""1n, 1.n RadOM Su1)ject ~turll Difi.ter., Economic'and SociJi Councit, dëntre for 1ftl, Bul1diftl and Plann1nl, unpubl1.had, December 1972.

t'

*'

M

20.

BUtLDING RESEARCH STATION,Seventh Note on Tropical Building Legislation, Model Rel?è!lntions for Small Buildings in Earthquake ànd Hurricane Areas Garston, Watfbrd, Herts, England, 1966.

21.

ENTRO INTERAMERI~O DE VIVIENDA y PLANEAMtlmTO ABism1cldad en Viviendas Economic8s, 1959 Bogota

22.

TEHRAN UNIVERSITY The Great Dasht-e Bayaz Earthquake of Geophysies, 1968 Tehran, p.73.

()

Insti~ute

, \

\ ;

\

,

\,

\

\

\ 1 \

'\

,

\

, \

" If

....

·1

'i

"

,

'~

.. ~ i.:

'".

"

:.

''':)\i'-

< ,

"

"..

. " , '

imagination, ingenuity snd enthusiasm the peasant can bring to building his

c

own house.

Of course, things such as

roa~s,

drainage and

fire-pro~fing

are

lacking. ln Cora, Jor"n in 1954, refugees from Palestine built such a settlement (2).

In Athens, (1920-37) refugees built many districts that are today the only ln Peru (4)# there is a

presentable native architecture in that city (3). lesson that a11 plaJUlers should heed:

in building the "Ciudad de Diosrr in, .

. 1959, 100,000 people previouslY,living in the slums of Lima decided, in aecrecy, without and despite govemment intervention, to build a new suburb thus demonstrating their contempt for government

p~anning.

The] planned the

roads, houses and even churches and, on Chrismas hight, carrying materials vith them tbey put up a thousand temporary houses.

Police intervenecl but

5,000 people stayed and are living there now.

The lesson canuot be stronger:

if 5,000 people can house themselves in a well

laid-~t

cocaun1ty deapite

the negative govemment intervention, what could be doue vith positive savemment participation?

Oua must not, of course# assume that a11 pealants can naturally produce fine hou.ea given the materials ne.decl and .bown how to u.e tbem.

Becaus. Qf the

'Very nature of man, people tend to copy ~hat othera, better off than the~

are, have. _ Thus a paor man will

~i1d

a cbeaper and ulUer verdon of a

rich man'. house who, in turn, copied it fram a

E~pe.n.

lven when he bulld. hb '_clam" houae or the 8O'YeràlMnt oUer. hi. a concrete one, h• •Y IlOt lbe in id ln the ca •• of the 1961 earthquake ~n lain-Zahra wbtch left hehiDd 30,000 ~

Il' ,.' .

. .4 and aDOther 30,000 or lIOn hoeel... # th.

A.,.e~t

decidec1 to hou ••

i

; who1e hlli1(ljn~ . \out of the ",roull,1 [lnf! provtcle llr'hcr roofr. /~ /Ja;,~ daij YI"'rflJ~ alJ(! VJt:.d ~ froYide é1 .j(~-farak xc.f;ÔQ f()r(/Je,r fomi/!{s

-

--~--------~~----------

:201

1 \

. \\o~ b ('Iè.'c. """c. Il ~" rie. ~ (..\ ...,\~. -'% f! ....Û~e.\O'l\e.c\ \II\o.c.."- 0'\

""J~~ (nMk KT

t 1-

,...,.". ,ftCJ

1 o

It'

t\.o1re.~ AI\ ,,,~\ck ~ Oob..d~ ~,,,,i~\o.,ftj o. ..,

0..

y\ ....S~~

..ç 't\(/~ ~ ~~""~ in r'c.h~

W\\\I ~_.

~ b\iS~

t._

0..

fo .. -\ .....

~o.~

0&

f

.ç~n..{

Y'\'')4!.r,;-eJ

t!.~.

(

~

___ Hu.l

br,,\,
{~~ ...."

I,_,

,~

... ).:,.

•

•

• c

•

•

'.

loS

4 ÇDMMUNITY

DESIGN:

Man takes refur,e in caves or he follows modern and \

advanc~d

programs to

givè forro to his community and, therefore, to his environment.

In each

case, sorne kind of oreanizBtion takes place:

"\ 1.

..

Self-growing or spontaneous community:

.

#,

A vital source has ahMY' attracted people to gather round the vital j

source of wster:

a riven; a weIl,

ft

sprine or the sea.

requires a different form of development. a linear form, a a)

b)

,

.ttract. a man to bul1d a house

\

the~Bea

or a spring a radiocentric or ring forme

vital source, a river

ft

,

~1e11

A river or

Each of them

;'

requires

206

c)

8S

his family grows or another man i8 attracted, another house

d)

their families grow and more people find out about them, houses are built

~oes

up'

(\ \

~o

more

...

"

e)

famiHes grow, more people come, more houses are built 80 pusage8 and road. are needed.

~ J "

.

j

f

ii,

f)

Roads meet each other,

,

. ,

.

1 ~ \

~.

,

g)

There is now a need for community and publie Sacilities, a pla~ fbr transactions, gatherind and meeting places: a main square. This la usual1y accompanied by a church or a mosque. Perhaps for security réssons, â wall will be built around the community.

,\

1

1

A

~>

J 11
,.116)

1

~-

"

1.

--

-

-

~---"~----~------

226

c

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/

/

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,, " " ,,/,'''

~"'.

~ --:-=---------.-- .

o

~

--~

3Q

'O~'20

~-

.....

-

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--' ~--_.... ~,.,." /

--

" 0

,"

,/

"

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11\

"

.'

,l'I";

"J;~

j

,

1

--. .-.,.,-

-- -.".---

.- ----.,.,-"'"

o \

~

-~."..---

...

-.,.,. ....

-- --

-- '

..,.--~

!loft!; ~ On~n laiton oF Ih~ bu/Idtn!l~ _ is ~11i!G/t!J ~ Iht At?rM po,irl ,iln4 d/~ ftOL1 \; of litt 'pr~P4"":I wÎnd5 • The bfjge.r !.ta I~ -liJNôrJ fh~ ~t/" 4hd W-ll7ds. Lan' V.J~ ln I/,e 1/;/kJ~ 1$ diy'lJ~d in 10 f'C/l;ltc ?OYS k (:V1adt!d élr~1I5 ),

il'"

II i~ f't:ô~ih/~ ~ brlt!:J 3kvl chUtft''S ;" I!Jl c~htf, ft;"'!> of /en/ 'v:Sc. IA~;'

~ t:N1~

CilIt etf'svrt!

~X~IIIÎ/1I!'.

h/~ Jt!~~

;é

'u ~B;'f5f,~d

/

;1 hlv~1 bt. A,,/kj

if/rd

l

,._ •

/

__

,,5

final

n.)~e.

i ....

-------~~-"--"-~-""->-"""-"'-~

~

--.--,

VARDJAVABD, Dr.P. Ltintroduction-a l'Etude G6nêtalè 4el Tribu. NOMade. en Iran Publication de l'Institut d'Etudes et de Recherches Sociales de l'Université de Téhéran, 1965. VAnDJAVAND, Dr.P. Bamadi. a Pamil1 fram Bakhtlari Tribes Technical Re.earch and Standard Bureau, 1968 Tehran.

'1

) i

W1lIINSON, C.K. The Kilns of Nilhapur. WULPF, Hanl E. The Traditional Cr.fte of Pere!a M.I.T. pr.ss, 1966 London. 1

,,-

,1 ' 1

'.

•

o

. .. )\,