Model-oriented Systems Engineering Science: A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems (Crc Complex and Enterprise Systems Engineering)

MODEL-ORIENTED SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SCIENCE A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems COMPLEX AND ENTER...

Author: Duane W. Hybertson

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MODEL-ORIENTED SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SCIENCE A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems

COMPLEX AND ENTERPRISE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Series Editors: Paul R. Garvey and Brian E. White The MITRE Corporation www.enterprise-systems-engineering.com

Designing Complex Systems: Foundations of Design in the Functional Domain Erik W. Aslaksen ISBN: 1-4200-8753-3 Publication Date: October 17, 2008 Architecture and Principles of Systems Engineering Charles Dickerson and Dimitri N. Mavris ISBN: 1-4200-7253-6 Publication Date: January 30, 2009 Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science: A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems Duane W. Hybertson ISBN: 1-4200-7251-X Publication Date: February 15, 2009 Enterprise Systems Engineering: Theory and Practice George Rebovich, Jr. and Brian E. White ISBN: 1-4200-7329-X Publication Date: April 15, 2009 Leadership in Decentralized Organizations Beverly G. McCarter and Brian E. White ISBN: 1-4200-7417-2 Publication Date: May 15, 2009 Engineering Mega-Systems: The Challenge of Systems Engineering in the Information Age Renee Stevens ISBN: 1-4200-7666-3 Publication Date: June 25, 2009 Complex Enterprise Systems Engineering for Operational Excellence Kenneth C. Hoffman and Kirkor Bozdogan ISBN: 1-4200-8256-6 Publication Date: November 16, 2009 Social and Cognitive Aspects of Engineering Practice Stuart S. Shapiro ISBN: 1-4200-7333-8 Publication Date: March 30, 2010

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MODEL-ORIENTED SYSTEMS ENGINEERING SCIENCE A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems

Duane W. Hybertson

Zachman enterprise framework © 1987 John A. Zachman; hexagon model © 1998 Zachman Framework Associates; derivative work © 2002 Zachman Framework Associates; metamodel projection © 2008 Zachman Framework Associates. 2009 single commercial publication license 291345 issued to Duane W. Hybertson. All rights reserved.

Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Auerbach Publications is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-7251-8 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hybertson, Duane W. Model-oriented systems engineering science : a unifying framework for traditional and complex systems / author, Duane W. Hybertson. p. cm. -- (Complex and enterprise systems engineering) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-7251-8 (alk. paper) 1. Systems engineering--Simulation methods. 2. System analysis--Technique. 3. Engineering models. I. Title. II. Series. TA168.H93 2009 620.001’171--dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the Auerbach Web site at http://www.auerbach-publications.com

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Chapter 1:

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Chapter 2:

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Chapter 3:

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Chapter 4:

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Chapter 5:

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Chapter 6:

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Chapter 7:

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Chapter 8:

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Book Summary

Chapter 9:

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Chapter 10: 7JFXT $SPTTDVUUJOH GSFFGPSN BSDIJUFDUVSFSFMBUFE EVBMJUZ WJFXDBUFHPSJFT

Chapter 11: 4QFDJfiDBUJPO*OGPSNBUJPO *OUFSOBM FYUFSOBM BOEJOUFSGBDFDPOUFOU QSPCBCJMJTUJD GV[[Z

Chapter 12: .BQQJOHBOE6OJfiDBUJPO .BQQJOHNPEFMTUPUSBEJUJPOBMBSUJGBDUT VOJfiDBUJPOGFBUVSFT

Chapter 13: 4&"DUVBMJ[BUJPO1SPDFTTFT 5SBEJUJPOBM $4& NPEFMJOH BOEBDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTFT

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Acknowledgments ThSFF LFZ FMFNFOUT XFSF JOTUSVNFOUBM JO UIF DPVSTF PG BO JOUFSNJUUFOU KPVSOFZ PWFS UIF QBTU ZFBSTUIBUMFEUPUIJTCPPL*XBOUUPFYQSFTTNZBQQSFDJBUJPOUPUIPTFSFTQPOTJCMF'JSTU UIF 4PGUXBSF1SPEVDUJWJUZ$POTPSUJVNBOEJOQBSUJDVMBS'SFE7BO)PSOFGPTUFSFEUIFTUBSUPGUIF KPVSOFZJOo'SFETUJNVMBUFENZUIJOLJOHJOOVNFSPVTDPOWFSTBUJPOTXFIBEEVSJOH UIBUQFSJPEBOEJOPDDBTJPOBMEJTDVTTJPOTTJODFUIFO BOEIFQPJOUFENFUPTPNFTFNJOBMCPPLT BOEQBQFST4FDPOE .*53&GVOEFEBOJOUFSOBMSFTFBSDIQSPKFDUPOBSDIJUFDUVSFGPVOEBUJPOT UIBU * MFE GSPN UP .BOZ PG UIF JEFBT JODMVEJOH UIF CBTJDT PG NPEFM PSJFOUBUJPO SFBDIFE DSJUJDBM NBTT GSPN UIJT XPSL ThJSE JO UIF QBTU GFX ZFBST #SJBO 8IJUF PG .*53& IFMQFEFYQBOEUIFJEFBTBOEQSPWJEFEUIFJNQFUVTGPSUVSOJOHUIFNJOUPBCPPL1BSUPG#SJBOT DPOUSJCVUJPOXBTUISPVHIDPOOFDUJPOXJUIBOJOGPSNBMHSPVQPODPNQMFYTZTUFNTBU.*53& BOEQBSUJDJQBUJPOJOUIFTZTUFNTTDJFODFHSPVQUIBU#SJBOMFEBU*/$04&ThFPUIFSQBSUXBT UISPVHITVQQPSUGPSNZXPSLBOEUISPVHIUIFFTUBCMJTINFOU XJUI1BVM(BSWFZ PGUIJTTZTUFNT FOHJOFFSJOHCPPLTFSJFT .BOZ QFPQMF BffFDUFE NZ UIJOLJOH UIBU XFOU JOUP UIJT CPPL UPP NBOZ UP BDLOPXMFEHF IFSF #VU * XPVME MJLF UP FYQSFTT NZ UIBOLT UP B OVNCFS PG QFPQMF XIP IBWF NBEF QBSUJDVMBS DPOUSJCVUJPOTPWFSUIFQBTUZFBSPSUXPThF*/$04&4ZTUFNT4DJFODF(SPVQDPOUSJCVUFECPUICZ QSPWJEJOHTUJNVMBUJOHEJTDVTTJPOTBOEFYQBOEJOHNZVOEFSTUBOEJOHPGUIJTJNQPSUBOUBSFB BOE CZSFWJFXJOHNZFBSMZDIBQUFSTBOEQSPWJEJOHIFMQGVMDPNNFOUT FTQFDJBMMZ$IBQUFS i4ZTUFNT 4DJFODFwThFSFWJFXFSTJODMVEFE&SJL"TMBLTFO "MJSF[B'FSFJEVOJBO 5JN'FSSJT +PF,SVQB +BNFT .BSUJO %BO.D(SBUI BOE/JDLZ4J[FNPSF .BOZ PG NZ .*53& DPMMFBHVFT NBEF DPOUSJCVUJPOT *O UIF FBSMZ TUBHFT PG UIF CPPL +PF %F3PTBQSPWJEFEGFFECBDLPOTPNFPGNZQSFMJNJOBSZJEFBT 1BVM(BSWFZHBWFGFFECBDLPOPOFPG UIFfiSTUESBGUDIBQUFST BOE5POZ%J1JFUSPSFWJFXFEFBSMZWFSTJPOTPGUIFfiSTUTFWFSBMDIBQUFSTBOE HBWFNFIFMQGVMGFFECBDL*OUIFMBUFSTUBHFT )VFJ8BO"OH 1BVM#BSS 'BUNB%BOEBTIJ (FPSHF 3FCPWJDI .JDIBFM4BNVFMT BOE.JLF5JFSOFZSFWJFXFEBOEDPNNFOUFEPOWBSJPVTDIBQUFST 4FWFSBM.*53&DPMMFBHVFTQSPWJEFEFYQFSUJTFJOTQFDJfiDBSFBT-FP0CSTUNBEFTVCTUBOUJBM DPOUSJCVUJPOTUP$IBQUFS UPUIFFYUFOUUIBUIFCFDBNFDPBVUIPSPGUIFDIBQUFS&SJD#MBJSNBEF TJHOJfiDBOU JNQSPWFNFOUT UP UIF USFBUNFOU PG QSPCBCJMJUZ JO $IBQUFS XIJMF .BSD $PMPTJNP QSPWJEFEGFFECBDLBOEWBMJEBUJPOPGCJPMPHJDBMBTQFDUTPG$IBQUFS4FWFSBMQFPQMFBTTJTUFEPO $IBQUFS+PIO"OEFSTPODPOUSJCVUFEUPUIFEJTDVTTJPOPGBSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLTBTXFMMBT PUIFSQBSUTPGUIFDIBQUFS(BSZ7FDFMMJPBOE(FPff 3BJOFTQSPWJEFEGFFECBDLBOEDMBSJfiDBUJPO

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Acknowledgments

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About the Author %VBOF )ZCFSUTPO JT B SFTFBSDIFS BOE NFNCFS PG UIF UFDIOJDBM TUBff JO UIF *OGPSNBUJPO BOE $PNQVUJOH 5FDIOPMPHJFT $FOUFS BU UIF .*53& $PSQPSBUJPO JO .D-FBO 7JSHJOJB )F IBT B CSPBECBDLHSPVOEJOTPGUXBSFBOETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH CPUISFTFBSDIBOEQSBDUJDF)FIBTDPO EVDUFESFTFBSDIJOUIFGPVOEBUJPOTPGBSDIJUFDUVSFBOEIBTQVCMJTIFEQBQFSTPOBVOJGPSNNPEFM JOHBQQSPBDIUPBSDIJUFDUVSFBOETPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOH)FIBTTVQQPSUFEFOUFSQSJTFBSDIJUFDUVSF EFWFMPQNFOUBOEEFfiOFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHBQQSPBDIFTGPSMBSHFTZTUFNTGPSTFWFSBMDJWJMJBO EFGFOTF BOEJOUFMMJHFODFBHFODJFTPGUIF64(PWFSONFOU)FIBTBMTPDPOEVDUFESFTFBSDIPO DBQUVSJOHTFDVSJUZQBUUFSOTBOEEFUFSNJOJOHIPXUPJOUFHSBUFUIFTFQBUUFSOTJOUPBVTBCMFFOUFS QSJTF FOHJOFFSJOH DPOUFYU ThF PVUDPNF PG UIJT SFTFBSDI XBT B CPPL PO TFDVSJUZ QBUUFSOT UIBU IFDPBVUIPSFEBOEDPFEJUFE)JTSFDFOUSFTFBSDIIBTCFFOJOTUSFOHUIFOJOHUIFGPVOEBUJPOPG TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHXJUIJODSFBTFEWJTJCJMJUZPGTZTUFNTTDJFODF BOEJOFYUFOEJOHBOEBQQMZJOH QSJODJQMFTPGTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHUPDPNQMFYTZTUFNTTVDIBTPSHBOJ[BUJPOTBOEPUIFSTZTUFNTUIBU JODMVEFQFPQMF

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Chapter 1

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BOEDPNQSJTFThFfiSTUUXPQBJST BSFXPSETUIBUMPPLMJLFBOUPOZNTCVUBSFTZOPOZNTThFUIJSEXPSEJTCJQPMBSJUIBTUXPNFBO JOHTUIBUBSFBOUPOZNT O *OflBNNBCMFNFBOs flBNNBCMF*UJTKVEHFECZUIFQPQVMBUJPOUPCFBOBDDFQUBCMFXPSE O *SSFHBSEMFTTNFBOTSFHBSEMFTT"MUIPVHIJUIBTCFFOVTFEGPSOFBSMZBDFOUVSZ JUIBTDPOTJT UFOUMZCFFOKVEHFECZUIFQPQVMBUJPOUPCFBOVOBDDFQUBCMFXPSEJOQVCMJTIFEXPSLT O $PNQSJTF IBT UXP PQQPTJUF NFBOJOHT JODMVEF CF NBEF VQ PG &YBNQMF ThJT CPPL DPNQSJTFTDIBQUFST DPNQPTF DPOTUJUVUF &YBNQMFDIBQUFSTDPNQSJTFUIJTCPPL PSUIJTCPPLJTDPNQSJTFEPGDIBQUFST ThFUXPNFBOJOHTIBWFCFFOBSPVOEGPSPWFSB DFOUVSZ BOEUIFTFDPOENFBOJOHIBTBMXBZTCFFODSJUJDJ[FEBTXSPOHThJTTFDPOENFBO JOHIBTCFFOVTFEJOTDJFOUJfiDBOEUFDIOJDBMXSJUJOH CVUOPUJOMJUFSBSZXSJUJOH3FDFOUMZ IPXFWFS MJUFSBSZVTBHFIBTTIJGUFE BOEOPXUIFTFDPOENFBOJOHJTVTFEBCJUNPSFCVU JUJTOPUDPNQMFUFMZBDDFQUFEZFUJOUIBUDPNNVOJUZBOETUJMMDSJUJDJ[FE/FWFSUIFMFTT UIF UJEFJTUVSOJOHThFNFBOJOHPWFSBQFSJPEPGEFDBEFTBQQFBSTUPCFSFWFSTJOHJUTFMGJUJT DIBOHJOHQPMBSJUZ PSQFSIBQTDIBOHJOHGSPNCJQPMBSUPQPMBS ThFEJDUJPOBSZEPFTOPUTBZXIBUJTDPSSFDUBOEJODPSSFDUJUSFDPSETXIBUJTHFOFSBMMZDPOTJE FSFE CZNBTTDPMMBCPSBUJPO UPCFDPSSFDUBOEJODPSSFDU"OEUIFQPQVMBUJPOBTTFTTNFOUFWPMWFT PWFSUJNF*OBEEJUJPO EJDUJPOBSZXSJUFSTEPOPUDSFBUFOFXXPSETUIFQPQVMBUJPODSFBUFTJUTPXO XPSET /BUVSBM MBOHVBHF JT PSHBOJD OPU NFDIBOJTUJD ThF QPQVMBUJPO JT TFMGHPWFSOJOH XIFO JU DPNFTUPOBUVSBMMBOHVBHF

Storytelling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

Scaling in All Directions 4&JTFYQFSJFODJOHFYUFOTJPOTPGTDBMFJOBMMEJSFDUJPOTVQ EPXO BOEIPSJ[POUBM)PSJ[POUBMTDBM JOHJTSFflFDUFEJOUIFNBTTDPMMBCPSBUJPOQSBDUJDFTXFIBWFEJTDVTTFE BOEBMTPJOUIFWFSZMBSHF OVNCFSTPGQBSUTJODPNQMFYTZTUFNT EJTDVTTFEJOUIFTQBOPGDPOUSPMQPSUJPOPG$IBQUFS6Q BOEEPXOTDBMJOHJTBEESFTTFEIFSF

Scaling Up SE 4&JTBEESFTTJOHMBSHFSTZTUFNTThFFYBNQMFPGFYUFOEJOHGSPNQPXFSQMBOUUPQPXFSHSJESFflFDUFE UIJTThFUFSNiTZTUFNPGTZTUFNTwJTTPNFUJNFTVTFEUPSFflFDUBIJHIFSTDBMF XIFSFBWFSZMBSHF


TZTUFNJTQVUUPHFUIFSGSPNFYJTUJOHTZTUFNT"OPUIFSBSFBPGTDBMFVQJTPSHBOJ[BUJPOTPSFOUFS QSJTFT&OUFSQSJTFDBONFBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOPSNJTTJPOCVUDBOFYUFOEVQUPNVMUJPSHBOJ[BUJPOFOUJ UJFTPSNVMUJOBUJPOBMDPBMJUJPOGPSDFTThJTMFWFMPGTDBMFFYUFOETCFZPOEUIFTDPQFPGNBOBHFNFOU PGBTJOHMFPSHBOJ[BUJPOBOEQPTFTJUTPXODIBMMFOHFT

Scaling Down SE *OSFDFOUZFBST TNBMMTDBMFCJPMPHJDBMBOEQIZTJDBMTZTUFNTIBWFCFFOBOBSFBPGDPOTJEFSBCMFJOUFS FTU DSFBUJWJUZ SFTFBSDI BOEEFWFMPQNFOU0WFSMBQQJOHUPQJDTJODMVEFNJDSPFOHJOFFSJOH OBOP UFDIOPMPHZ OBOPCJPMPHZ OBOPTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH TZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZ TZTUFNTCJPMPHZ CJPMPHJDBM FOHJOFFSJOH NPMFDVMBSDPNQVUJOH BOERVBOUVNDPNQVUJOHThFTFBSFBTIBWFHSFBUQSPNJTFJO NBOZBQQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT JODMVEJOHNFEJDJOFBOEDPNQVUJOH6OJWFSTJUZEFHSFFQSPHSBNTBOE KPVSOBMTIBWFCFFODSFBUFEUPGPDVTPONBOZPGUIFTFJOEJWJEVBMUPQJDBSFBT 4ZTUFNTCJPMPHZBOETZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZBSFQBSUJDVMBSMZJOUFSFTUJOHBOEQBSUJBMMZPWFSMBQQJOH BSFBT*GUIFSFJTBEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOUIFUXP JUJTUIBUUIFHPBMPGTZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZJTUPFOHJOFFS CJPMPHJDBM QBSUT PS i#JP#SJDLT w BOE UIF HPBM PG TZTUFNT CJPMPHZ JT UP CVJME TZTUFNT GSPN UIFTF TUBOEBSEQBSUT.*5IBTFTUBCMJTIFEB3FHJTUSZPG4UBOEBSE#JPMPHJDBM1BSUT 3FHJTUSZ ThF QVSQPTFTBOEFNFSHJOHQSBDUJDFPGTZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZBSFEJTDVTTFEJO/BUVSF ThFFDPOPN JDTPGTZTUFNTCJPMPHZ JOUFSNTPGUIFQSPTQFDUTPGTVDDFTTGVMMZCVJMEJOHTZTUFNTGSPNTUBOEBSE CJPMPHJDBMQBSUT JTEJTDVTTFEJO)FOLFMBOE.BVSFS %PUIFTFTNBMMTDBMFTZTUFNTSFMBUFUP4& :FT TZTUFNTBSFCFJOHFOHJOFFSFEBUUIJTMFWFM BOE BOZXIFSFTZTUFNTBSFFOHJOFFSFEFWFOJGUIFZBSFBUBWFSZTNBMMTDBMFXPVMETFFNUPCFBO BQQSPQSJBUFBSFOBGPSBQQMZJOH4&ThJTTFOUJNFOUJTSFJOGPSDFECZUIFDVSSFOUTUBUFPGUIFFffPSU EFTDSJCFEBCPWFUPCVJMETZTUFNTGSPNMJCSBSJFTPGTUBOEBSECJPMPHJDBMQBSUT1BSUTIBWFCFFOTVD DFTTGVMMZCVJMU BMPOHXJUITPNFFYQFSJNFOUBMDJSDVJUT CVUUIFDPNNVOJUZJTTUSVHHMJOHUPCVJME XPSLJOH TZTUFNT GSPN UIFTF QBSUT "O FYBNQMF JT B SFQPSU UIBU PO POF TZTUFNT CJPMPHZ FffPSU UIF HSPVQ TQFOET PG JUT UJNF USZJOH UP fiOE BOE fiY VOJOUFOEFE JOUFSBDUJPOT CFUXFFO QBSUT ,FBTMJOH SFQPSUFEJO)FOLFMBOE.BVSFS ThJTQSPCMFNTPVOETWBHVFMZGBNJMJBSUP TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSTThFTFTZTUFNTCJPMPHJTUTNJHIUCFOFfiUGSPNBEEJUJPOBM4&BTTJTUBODFBOEFEVDB UJPO"EWPDBUFTGPSBO4&WJFXPGOBOPUFDIOPMPHZJODMVEF%BTFUBM BOE3PVTF

Multiscale SE .BOZPGUIFTFTZTUFNTJOWPMWFBOBMZTJTBOENPEFMJOHPGEJffFSFOUTDBMFTJOUIFTBNFTZTUFNThF QSFTFODFPGFNFSHFOUQSPQFSUJFTBUIJHIFSMFWFMTJTBEFTJSFEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGUIFTFTZTUFNT CVUJU BMTPDPNQMJDBUFTUIFBOBMZTJTBOEFOHJOFFSJOH0OFFYBNQMFPGUIJTJTUIFBOBMZTJTPGUIFQIZTJ DBM DIFNJDBM BOECJPMPHJDBMQSPQFSUJFTPGJPOJDMJRVJET UPDPNCJOFUIFNJOBXBZUIBUQSPEVDFT EFTJSFEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBUBIJHIFSTDBMF 3PHFST "OBQQMJDBUJPOPGUIJTJTUIFQSPEVDUJPOPG MJRVJENJSSPSTGPSUFMFTDPQFT'PSFYBNQMF POFQSPQPTBMJTUPQSPEVDFBNJSSPSUPNFUFST JOEJBNFUFSGPSBUFMFTDPQFPOUIF.PPOUIBUJUJTCFMJFWFEXPVMEHJWFVOQSFDFEFOUFEWJFXTPGUIF FBSMZVOJWFSTF #PSSB "OPUIFSFYBNQMFJTUIFFYQFDUFEGVUVSFVTFPGDBSCPOOBOPUVCFTJO DPNNFSDJBMBJSDSBGU BTEFTDSJCFEJO/BUVSF ThFFYQFDUBUJPOJTUIBUDPNQPTJUFTNBEF GSPNOBOPUVCFTXJMMSFTVMUJOBJSDSBGUTUSVDUVSFTUIBUSFUBJOUIFOFDFTTBSZTUSFOHUICVUTJHOJfiDBOUMZ SFEVDFUIFXFJHIUJODPNQBSJTPOUPQPMZNFSCBTFd fiCFST 4ZTUFNTTVDIBTUIFTFSFRVJSFBO4&BQQSPBDIUIBUDBOBOBMZ[FBOENPEFMNBOZEJffFSFOUTDBMFT JOBTZTUFNBOEDBOSFMBUFUIFEJffFSFOUTDBMFTBOEMFWFMTUPFBDIPUIFSThFTBMJFOU4&RVFTUJPOGPSB HJWFOTZTUFNJT8IBUMFWFMTPSTDBMFTEPFT4&OFFEUPBEESFTT "NVMUJTDBMFNPEFMJOHBOEBOBMZTJT

Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O 11

DPNNVOJUZJTFYBNJOJOHUIJTJTTVF"OFYBNQMFJTUIF$FOUFSGPS*OUFHSBUJWF.VMUJTDBMF.PEFMJOH BOE4JNVMBUJPO $*..4 BUUIF$BMJGPSOJB*OTUJUVUFPG5FDIOPMPHZ $*..4 $*..4 JTBNVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZDFOUFSTFUVQUPNPEFMBOEBOBMZ[FDPNQMFYTZTUFNTBDSPTTNVMUJQMFTDBMFT PGCPUIUJNFBOEMFOHUI"SFBTPGTUVEZJODMVEFBTUSPEZOBNJDT BUNPTQIFSF FBSUIRVBLFT flVJE NFDIBOJDT TJHOBMQSPDFTTJOH JNBHJOH NBUFSJBMT CJPMPHJDBMTZTUFNT BOEOBOPTDBMFTZTUFNT

Scale Viewpoints .BOZPGUIFFYBNQMFTQSFTFOUFEJOUIJTDIBQUFSSFflFDUDIBOHFTPGTDBMF0OFQFSTQFDUJWFPONBTT DPMMBCPSBUJPOPOBHMPCBMTDBMFJTUIBUJUSFQSFTFOUTBTDBMFVQPGFOHJOFFSJOH CVTJOFTT BOELOPXM FEHF QSPEVDUJPO $MFBSMZ CJPMPHJDBM TZTUFNT BOE OBOPUFDIOPMPHZ SFQSFTFOU TDBMFEPXO #PUI TDBMFVQBOETDBMFEPXOIBWFPDDVSSFEPWFSUIFQBTUGFXEFDBEFTThJTTUSFUDIJOHJOCPUIEJSFD UJPOTQSFTFOUTJNQPSUBOUDIBMMFOHFTGPSTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 5PBEFRVBUFMZVOEFSTUBOEUIFSPMFBOEFYUFOUPGTDBMFT XFOFFEUPMPPLBUBNPSFHFOFSBMDPO UFYU OBNFMZ UIFQPUFOUJBMSBOHFPGTDBMFTGSPNTFWFSBMWJFXQPJOUTThFTFWJFXQPJOUTUZQJDBMMZBSF USFBUFETFQBSBUFMZBMUIPVHIUIFZPWFSMBQTJHOJfiDBOUMZ. ThFZJODMVEF O 1IZTJDBMThFQPUFOUJBMSBOHFPGTDBMFTFYUFOETGSPNTVCBUPNJDQBSUJDMFTVQUPUIFFOUJSF VOJWFSTFBTXFLOPXJU O 4PDJBMPSPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMThFSBOHFFYUFOETGSPNJOEJWJEVBMQFPQMFVQUPTPDJFUJFT OBUJPOT BOENVMUJOBUJPOBMDPBMJUJPOTPSHSPVQT TVDIBTUIF6OJUFE/BUJPOT O &OUFSQSJTFThFSBOHFJOUIJTWJFXQPJOUUZQJDBMMZFYUFOETGSPNTZTUFNTUPPSHBOJ[BUJPOTPS FOUFSQSJTFT*OUIJTDPOUFYU TZTUFNUZQJDBMMZNFBOTTPNFUIJOHMJLFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFNPS NBDIJOF BOEFOUFSQSJTFUZQJDBMMZNFBOTPSHBOJ[BUJPOPSNJTTJPO CVUDBOHPVQUPNVMUJ PSHBOJ[BUJPOHSPVQTPSNVMUJOBUJPOBMDPBMJUJPOT*OSFDFOUZFBST UIFDPODFQUPGiTZTUFN PGTZTUFNTwUIBUJT BMBSHFTZTUFNQVUUPHFUIFSGSPNFYJTUJOHTZTUFNTIBTCFFOEJT DVTTFE PGUFOCVUOPUBMXBZTJOUIFDPOUFYUPGUIJTWJFXQPJOU O #JPMPHJDBM ThF SBOHF FYUFOET GSPN OBOPCJPMPHZ BTTFNCMJFT PG CJPNPMFDVMFT VQ UP FDPTZTUFNT O -JGFPSMJWJOHTZTUFNTThFSBOHFFYUFOETGSPNPSHBOJDNPMFDVMFTPSDFMMTVQUPNVMUJOB UJPOBMHSPVQT PSBQQSPYJNBUFMZUIFDPNCJOFESBOHFPGCJPMPHJDBM FOUFSQSJTF BOETPDJBM PSHBOJ[BUJPOBMTDBMFTThFGVMMFTUFYQSFTTJPOPGUIJTWJFXQPJOUJT+BNFT.JMMFSTNPOVNFO UBMXPSL-JWJOH4ZTUFNT O .BDIJOFThFSBOHFJOUIJTWJFXQPJOUFYUFOETGSPNOBOPEFWJDFTVQUPMBSHFNBDIJOFT UIBUBSFBOBMPHPVTUPPSHBOJTNTJOUIFTPDJBMPSCJPMPHJDBMWJFXQPJOUThBUJT BDBSPSUSBJO PSBJSDSBGUPSTIJQPSDPNQVUFSJTPGUFOSFHBSEFEBTBNBDIJOF CVUBUSBOTQPSUBUJPOTZTUFN PSBflFFUPGTIJQTPSBDPNQVUFSOFUXPSLJTVTVBMMZSFHBSEFEBTBOJOUFSBDUJOHHSPVQPG NBDIJOFTBOEPUIFSFMFNFOUTUIBUJT BTZTUFNBOEOPUBTBNBDIJOF O *OGPSNBUJPOThFSBOHFFYUFOETGSPNCJUTUPBMBSHFHMPCBMJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN PGXIJDI UIF*OUFSOFUJTUIFEPNJOBOUFYBNQMF O 5JNF ThFSBOHFPGUFNQPSBMTDBMFTFYUFOETGSPNOBOPTFDPOETPSUJNFDZDMFTPGBUPNJD CFIBWJPSUPCJMMJPOTPGZFBSTPSUIFMJGFPGUIFVOJWFSTF

/PUFUIBUCFDBVTFTPNFTZTUFNTBSFOPUSFHBSEFEBTNBDIJOFTEPFTOPUNFBOUIBUNBDIJOFTBSFOPUSFHBSEFE BTTZTUFNT.BDIJOFT BOEJOGBDUNPTUJUFNTBDSPTTUIFSBOHFPGTDBMFTJOBMMUIFWJFXQPJOUTJEFOUJfiFEIFSF BSF SFHBSEFEBTTZTUFNT BTUIJTCPPLFNQIBTJ[FTUISPVHIPVU


The Bridge: Information, Computation, Software *OGPSNBUJPO TZTUFNT JODMVEJOH DPNQVUBUJPO BOE FTQFDJBMMZ TPGUXBSF GPSN B QPUFOUJBM CSJEHF CFUXFFOUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT3FDFOUEFWFMPQNFOUTJOUIJTEPNBJOSFQSFTFOU TJHOJfiDBOUTUFQTUPXBSESFBMJ[JOHUIJTQPUFOUJBMThJTTFDUJPOEFTDSJCFTUIFQPUFOUJBMPGBOETUFQT UPXBSE SFBMJ[JOH JU $PNQVUBUJPO BOE TPGUXBSF DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT BSF EJWJEFE JOUP UISFF TFUT 54& SFMBUFE$4&SFMBUFEBOECSJEHFSFMBUFE

TSE-Related Characteristics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ff BOE4XFFU JEFOUJGZBVUPNBUJPOBTUIFGBTUFTUHSPXJOHBOETUSPOHFTUJOflVFODFPO4& ThF*OUFSOFUBOEUFDIOPMPHJFTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIF*OUFSOFUIBWFCFDPNFJODSFBTJOHMZJNQPS UBOUJO4&4PGUXBSFJTBLFZQBSUPG*OUFSOFUQSPDFTTFTBOEUFDIOPMPHJFT

CSE-Related Characteristics "NBKPSBSFBPGTPGUXBSFTVQQPSUUP$4&JTBHFOUCBTFETZTUFNT.VDIXPSLIBTCFFOEPOFJOUIJT BSFB FYQMPSJOHDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTTVDIBTBVUPOPNZ MFBSOJOH BEBQUBUJPO FWPMVUJPO GBVMUUPMFSBODF BOESPCVTUOFTT 0WFSUIFQBTUEFDBEFPSNPSF UIFDPODFQUPG TPGUXBSF DPHOJUJWFBHFOUTIBTCFFOQVSTVFE'PS FYBNQMF )VIOTBOE4JOHI EJTDVTTUIFHFOFSBMDPODFQU BOE.BKJEBOE"INFE EJT DVTTBTQFDJfiDBQQMJDBUJPO*OGBDU UIFJEFBPGBTDSJCJOHDPHOJUJWFPSNFOUBMRVBMJUJFTUPNBDIJOFT TPGUXBSF XBTQSPQPTFEZFBSTBHPCZ+PIO.D$BSUIZ "DPNNPONPEFMVTFEJOEFfiO JOHBOESFBTPOJOHBCPVUDPHOJUJWFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGTPGUXBSFBHFOUTBTXFMMBTNPEFMJOHIVNBO BHFOUTJTUIF#%*NPEFM CFMJFGT EFTJSFT BOEJOUFOUJPOT 3BPBOE(FPSHFff 1 *O *#.QSPQPTFEBDPODFQUDBMMFEBVUPOPNJDDPNQVUJOH ,FQIBSUBOE$IFTT

XIJDIUIFZEFTDSJCFBTBTZTUFNJDWJFXPGDPNQVUJOHNPEFMFEBGUFSBTFMGSFHVMBUJOHCJPMPHJDBM TZTUFNThFGPVSBSFBTXFSFTFMGDPOfiHVSBUJPO TFMGIFBMJOH TFMGPQUJNJ[BUJPO BOETFMGQSPUFDUJPO ThFPSJHJOBMNPUJWBUJPOXBTMBSHFMZUIFGBDUUIBUNBOZDPNQMFYJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFNTJOPQFSBUJPO BSFCSJUUMFBOEOPOSPCVTUBHBJOTUJOQVUPSFOWJSPONFOUWBHBSJFT BOELFFQJOHUIFNPQFSBUJOHJT CFDPNJOHBEJfficVMUBOESFTPVSDFJOUFOTJWFFffPSU4JODFUIFO UIFDPODFQUIBTCFDPNFBOBDUJWF BSFBPGSFTFBSDI BOEUIFTDPQFIBTCSPBEFOFEUPJODPSQPSBUFNPSFNBOBHFNFOUBTQFDUT 4BMFIJF BOE5BIWJMEBSJ 'PSFYBNQMF NPEFMTPGCJPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTFTBSFCFJOHBQQMJFEUPBTTJTUJO QPMJDZEFDPNQPTJUJPO ,FFOFZBOE8BEF "OPUIFS BSFB JT UIF JODSFBTJOH FNQIBTJT PO POUPMPHZ FOHJOFFSJOH BOE NBDIJOFNBOJQVMBCMF TFNBOUJDT4PGUXBSFQMBZTBNBKPSSole in these efforts. This arFBJTEJTDVTTFEGVSUIFSJO$IBQUFS


13

Bridge-Related Characteristics 4PGUXBSFJTBQSPNJOFOUTFHVF BMJOL CFUXFFOUIFNFDIBOJTUJDBOEPSHBOJDNPEFMT*UDBOSBOHF GSPNNFDIBOJTUJDTUSBJHIUGPSXBSEBMHPSJUINTPSEBUBQSPDFTTJOHUPBQQFBSJOHUPCFBOJOUFMMJHFOU BHFOUThFQPJOUBQQMJFTUPBVUPOPNZBTXFMMBTJOUFMMJHFODFTPGUXBSFBOEDPNQVUFSTZTUFNTDBOFYJTU BOZXIFSFJOUIFBVUPOPNZTQFDUSVNCFUXFFOUIFDPOUSPMMFENBDIJOFBOEUIFBVUPOPNPVTIVNBO 4PGUXBSFJTJOIFSFOUMZNPEFMPSJFOUFEThFTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHfiFMEIBTJOWFTUJHBUFENPEFMJOH JOHSFBUEFQUIBOEIBTQSPEVDFENVDINPEFMJOHNBDIJOFSZGPSEFTJHOBOEBOBMZTJTPGBMMEPNBJOT .PEFMJOHJTTPNFUIJOHUIBUBQQMJFTUPUIFFOHJOFFSJOHPGCPUIUSBEJUJPOBMBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT 4PDJBMBOECJPMPHJDBMTDJFODFTBSFBTPVSDFPGNVDIJOGPSNBUJPOGPSUIFOFX FYQBOEFE4&ThF TPGUXBSFDPNNVOJUZIBTBMSFBEZHJWFOUIFOFX4&BCJHIFBETUBSUUPXBSEQSFQBSJOHUIJTJOGPSNB UJPOGPS4&CZEFWFMPQJOHBOEFYFDVUJOHNPEFMT.VDIPGUIJTXPSLJTJOBHFOUNPEFMJOH "OPUIFSQFSTQFDUJWFPOUIFTPGUXBSFSPMFGPDVTFTPOUIFDIBMMFOHFTPGTPGUXBSFJUTFMG FTQFDJBMMZ MBSHFTDBMF TZTUFNT ThF 4PGUXBSF &OHJOFFSJOH *OTUJUVUF BU $BSOFHJF .FMMPO QSPEVDFE B SFQPSU POVMUSBMBSHFTDBMFTZTUFNTPGUIFGVUVSFBOEUIFJSDIBMMFOHFT JNQMJDBUJPOT BOEBSFBTPGOFFEFE SFTFBSDI 'FJMFSFUBM ThFTFMBSHFTPGUXBSFTZTUFNTBSFDIBSBDUFSJ[FEBTEJffFSFOUJOLJOE UIFZOFFEUPCFWJFXFEOPUBTTZTUFNTPSTZTUFNTPGTZTUFNT CVUBTTPDJPUFDIOJDBMFDPTZTUFNT ThFZFYIJCJUNBOZPGUIFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGMBSHFDPNQMFYTZTUFNT JODMVEJOHDPOUJOVBMDIBOHFBOE FWPMVUJPO DPOflJDUJOHHPBMT BOEEFDFOUSBMJ[FEDPOUSPM 4PGUXBSFQMBZTBLFZSPMFJOCPUIUIFFYUFOTJPOPG4& WJB$4NPEFMTBOEBHFOUT BOEJOVOJ fiDBUJPO TQFDUSVN PG BVUPOPNZ CSJEHF 54& BOE $4& BTQFDUT &YUFOTJPO BOE VOJfiDBUJPO BSF DIBMMFOHFBSFBTEJTDVTTFEJOUIFOFYUTFDUJPO

Challenges: A Foundation Needed for the Future SE #BTFE PO UIF TUBUF PG 54& UIF PQQPSUVOJUJFT GPS 4& FYQBOTJPO BOE UIF TPGUXBSF CSJEHF UIJT TFDUJPOQSFTFOUTUIFDIBMMFOHFTPGEFfiOJOHUIF4&PGUIFGVUVSF5XPFMFNFOUTSFQSFTFOUUIF4& DIBMMFOHFBOEBSFEJTDVTTFEJOUIJTTFDUJPOThFfiSTUJTUIFHFOFSBMOFFEUPTVQQPSUBOFYQBOEFE 4&ThFTFDPOEJTUIFHFOFSBMOFFEGPSVOJfiDBUJPOPGUSBEJUJPOBMBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT JODMVEJOH BVOJfiFEUBYPOPNZPGTZTUFNT BOEBVOJfiFEGPVOEBUJPOThFDIBMMFOHFTBSFUIFODBQUVSFEBTB TFUPGSFRVJSFNFOUTUIBUBO4&BQQSPBDIOFFETUPTBUJTGZUPBEFRVBUFMZTVQQPSUUIFFYQBOEFEBOE VOJfiFE4&

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NFTTFT "DLPff o

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Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O Extend? TSE

CSE?

15

Extended and Unified SE of the Future TSE ........... CSE Provide basis for

First define extended and unified science foundation

CSE = Complex Systems Engineering CSS = Complex Systems Science SE = Systems Engineering TSE = Traditional Systems Engineering

Figure 1.1

New Extended and Unified SE Science Foundation Traditional sciences Extend Life/social sciences – CSS – Physics – Biology – Chemistry – Psychology – Materials science – Sociology –... – Organization theory – Economics . . . Unify General systems science; Computation; Mathematics

Need for extended and unified SE science foundation.

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Specific Requirements List for New SE Foundation #BTFEPOUIFHFOFSBMDIBMMFOHFTBOEUIFJTTVFTSBJTFEJOUIFDIBQUFSUIVTGBS XFDBOEFfiOFBMJTUPG SFRVJSFNFOUTGPSBGPVOEBUJPOPGUIFGVUVSF4&"OFOBCMJOHGPVOEBUJPOGPSBVOJfiFE4&TIPVME TBUJTGZUIFSFRVJSFNFOUTMJTUFEJO5BCMF$PMVNOJOEJDBUFTBKVEHNFOUPGXIJDISFRVJSFNFOUT 54&TBUJTfiFTTVCTUBOUJBMMZ 4 PSQBSUJBMMZ 1 'PSUIFNBKPSJUZPGSFRVJSFNFOUTOPUTBUJTfiFECZ 54& UIFSFBTPOJTUIFVTFPGUIFNFDIBOJTUJDNPEFMPGTZTUFNT 54&BQQFBSTUPBUMFBTUQBSUJBMMZTBUJTGZNPTUPGUIFTFSFRVJSFNFOUT#VUUIFIPMFTBSFTJHOJfi DBOUPSHBOJD IZCSJE DIBOHF BOEVOJfiFEBQQSPBDIBSFMBSHFHBQT

Response: Model-Oriented SE Science ThF4NVUTRVPUFHJWFOBUUIFTUBSUPGUIJTDIBQUFSXBTUBSHFUFEUPiUIFNBJOQSPCMFNTPGTDJFODFBOE QIJMPTPQIZ FUIJDT BSU BOEBMMJFETVCKFDUTw 4NVUT Y )PXFWFS UIFRVPUFDBOBMTPCFJOUFS QSFUFEBTBHPPETVNNBSZPGUIFDVSSFOUTJUVBUJPOGBDJOH4&EFQJDUFEJOUIJTDIBQUFSUIFTZTUFNT FOHJOFFSJOHUFNQMFPGUIFGVUVSF XIJMFJUXJMMCFCVJMUMBSHFMZPGUIFPMEQSPWFONBUFSJBMT XJMMSFRVJSF OFXBOEBNQMFSGPVOEBUJPOTJOUIFMJHIUPGUIFJNNFOTFFYUFOTJPOPGPVSJOUFMMFDUVBMIPSJ[POT

16 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Table 1.1

Requirements of a Future SE Foundation

No.

Requirement

1 2 3

Support mechanistic characteristics of systems Support organic and agent characteristics of systems Support a hybrid mix of traditional and complex or sociotechnical systems in multiple disciplines (people and machines) in a seamless way, including characteristics in common to both TS and CS, and characteristics in which TS and CS differ Support a mix of matter, energy, and information elements in systems (i.e., a mix of conceptual and physical elements in systems) in a seamless way, including the dominant role of information and computation Support scale-up and scale-down of systems, and multiple scales in a single system, to include a variety of scale viewpoints Support arbitrary, fuzzy, and uncertain system boundaries Support the modeling of the interaction of a system with its environment, to anticipate mutual adaptation and side effects Facilitate precision, minimalism, and simplicity Support formal and informal approaches Be flexible, adaptable, and extensible, and evolve as needed Facilitate incorporation and use of knowledge and experience Support appropriate mass collaboration in systems engineering, including innovation and mechanisms for intellectual property Support multiple views and perspectives of a given system or class of systems Support tensions, dualities, contradictions, contrasts, and paradoxes in a unified way that includes both their separation and their integration; in the manner of yin-yang principles Support balance of simplicity and complexity: everything should be as simple as possible, but no simpler; recognize imperative of complexity Support balance of commonality and variability: Find everything in common but do not force one-size-fits-all; recognize imperative and benefits of diversity Support balance of stability and change: find everything that is stable but do not force false stability; recognize imperative and benefits of change Support clear communication among all SE stakeholders but recognize that not all clear communication is explicit; support both explicit and implicit communication Support clear articulation of problems and solutions Support analysis of alternatives Support uncertainty in specifications Support SE management by providing clear communications and analysis via appropriate management models Support the engineering modeling process; automate as much of it as possible Provide a unified approach to organizing and harnessing the knowledge from the array of disciplines supporting SE

4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

15 16 17 18

19 20 21 22 23 24

TSE Satisfies? S

S

P

P P S S

S

P S

P

P S P P P


17

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Scope and Basic Aspects .04&4 JT EFQJDUFE IFSF JO UXP XBZT 'JSTU UIF TDPQF PG UIF DPNQPTJUF .04&4 JT TIPXO JO 'JHVSF 4FDPOE UIF JUFNT JO UIF fiHVSF BSF FMBCPSBUFE BOE EFTDSJCFE BT B TFU PG .04&4 BTQFDUT

Scope of MOSES ThJTDIBQUFSIBTEJTDVTTFEUIFFYUFOTJPOPGTDPQFJOUIFUZQFTPGTZTUFNTUIBU4&JTBUUFNQUJOH UPFOHJOFFS)PXFWFS UIFUPUBMTDPQFPG4& BOEUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHTDPQFPGBO4&TDJFODF HP CFZPOEUIFTZTUFNTUIBUBSFFOHJOFFSFE'JHVSFTVNNBSJ[FTUIFTDPQFPG.04&4ThFTZTUFNT

Systems Taxonomy

Modeling Scope

1 SE Application Domains (D1…Dn)

Collective actualization space Dn

Model Space

Problem space TS/CS different in kind

2a

Traditional systems 3a

2b

Complex systems

TS/CS different in degree

3b Complex

Traditional

Define need

Complex

4 Traditional

Highest level system

All SE application domains…

TS is special case

5

Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and complex

6

Characteristics of all systems

Indivisible unit Model of individual system or component

Universal model

Common specification approach: Repeating internal/external structure Solution domain

Views exist within and across all the dimensions

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need

Solution/system space

Systems taxonomy partitions SE systems and shows traditional and complex systems relations Collective actualization space includes all SE and management processes, artifacts, contexts Problem space includes all application domains SE supports and in which systems are deployed Model Space contains all engineering and management artifacts (as models) Solution/system space includes all solutions/systems produced by actualization processes

Figure 1.2

Composite MOSES map.

Problem/ user domain

Conceptualization – Language/notation – Universe of discourse

e

D7

Ti m

D6

Composition

D5

C – om – Kin mo Ca d ni te s zat go io rie n s

D1 D2 D3 D4

18

O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

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Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O Table 1.2

19

Basic Aspects of MOSES

Aspect of MOSES Expanded and unified taxonomy of systems, including TS and CS Expanded and unified supporting disciplines Expanded scope of science and engineering, especially relative to natural vs. artificial systems, driven by SS, CSS, and CSE Model orientation: –Artifacts of SE and all supporting disciplines are models –Whole systems modeling: problem, model, solution, actualization spaces –Model space: dimensions: self-similar repeating patterns; scope includes models in all spaces, across full systems taxonomy, in all supporting disciplines, and in SE –Modular decoupled concepts –Unified specification approach: external, internal; common info types –Exploit software and computation as unifying bridge

Reqmts Satisfied 1, 2, 3, 14, 15 11, 24 2, 3, 24

1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 20, 24 7, 24 5, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 24

8, 10 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24 3, 4, 7, 23, 24

Collective actualization: –Actualization as a technical and social process: model vs. 2, 8, 12, 18 specification –Management as part of actualization: Management as engineering 22 –Actualization process: opportunistic; support for change 12, 23

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20

O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Table 1.3 Elements of Collective Actualization

Enterprise Produced System

Engineering

Autonomy

EEM

EA

enterprise engineering/management

enterprise autonomy

SE

SA

system engineering

system autonomy

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Opportunities and Challenges for Systems Engineering O Systems Taxonomy

3

1 SE Application Domains (D1…Dn) D6

D7

Dn Problem space

TS/CS different in kind

2a

Traditional systems 3a

TS/CS different in degree

3b Complex

Traditional Traditional

6

6 Define need

TS is special case


Model Space

Indivisible unit Model of individual system or component

7 Universal model

Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and complex 2

5


All SE application domains…

Complex

4

5

2b

Complex systems

13

Composition

D5

12

Collective actualization space

C – om – Kin mo C a d ni te s zat go io rie n s

D1 D2 D3 D4

Modeling Scope

4

25

Common specification approach: Repeating 11 internal/external structure Solution domain

8


Conceptualization – Language/notation – Universe of discourse Views exist within and across all the dimensions

9

e

m

Ti

10

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need


Systems taxonomy partitions SE systems and shows traditional and complex systems relations Collective actualization space includes all SE and management processes, artifacts, contexts Problem space includes all application domains SE supports and in which systems are deployed Model Space contains all engineering and management artifacts (as models) Solution/system space includes all solutions/systems produced by actualization processes

Figure 1.3

Composite map elements allocated to chapters.

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28


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Chapter 2

Systems Science Context 4DJFOUJTUTTUVEZUIFXPSMEBTJUJTFOHJOFFSTDSFBUFUIFXPSMEUIBUIBTOFWFSCFFO ThFPEPSFWPO,BSNBO "EBQUJOH WPO ,BSNBOT PCTFSWBUJPOT JU NBZ CF TBJE UIBU FOHJOFFSJOH TDJFODF JT UIF TUVEZPGUIBUQBSUPGUIFXPSMEXIJDIIBTCFFODSFBUFECZNBO .JDIBFM(SJffiO


Indivisible Unit

Model of Individual system or component

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Common specification approach: Repeating internal/external structure

Solution domain

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Define need

Composition

Systems taxonomy Modeling scope 4JODFUIFJOUFOUPGUIJTCPPLJTUPEFfiOFBTDJ 1 SE Application Domains (D1...Dn) Collective actualization space FODF PG 4& BMUIPVHI NPTU PS BMM PG UIF QJFDFT D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn Problem space Model Space BMSFBEZFYJTU

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Conceptualization Conceptualization -- Language/notation Language/notation -- Universe ofdiscourse discourse Universe of


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What Is Science? 8FTUBSUXJUITPNFDPNNPOEFfiOJUJPOTPGTDJFODF 29

30


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Systems Science Context

O 31

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32


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O 33

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34

O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Table 2.1 Extended Scope of Science and Engineering Natural systems

Artificial systems

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O 35

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Missile Guidance as a TSE Artificial Science An example of an artificial science is the domain of compiled knowledge of missile guidance and control. One compilation of this knowledge is (Siouris 2004). It includes mathematical models, taxonomies of missiles and other entities, and terms (referring to the universe of discourse). Chapter 4 of the Siouris book presents laws of tactical missile guidance. Two samples are selected from the book. The first is a taxonomy of missiles (Figure 2.1). The common characteristics and the differences between the various types are described. The second sample is the dominant guidance law, called the proportional navigation guidance law for homing missiles. It is expressed as follows:

BO/7D ELEU

where an Commanded normal (or lateral) acceleration, in [ft/sec2] or [m/sec2] N Navigation constant (also known as navigation ratio, effective navigation ratio, or navigation gain), a positive real number, [dimensionless] Vc Closing velocity, in [ft/sec] or [m/sec] dL/dt LOS (line of sight) rate measured by the missile seeker, in [rad/sec] The argument that this domain of knowledge represents an artificial science is this: it is artificial because its subject matter is a domain of engineered

36 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Missile

Guided

Nonhoming

Unguided

Homing

Direct (or external guidance)

Inertial

Programmed

Active Semiactive Passive

Command Beam rider

CLOS

Pursuit

Figure 2.1 Missile types and classification. (Source: Siouris, G. Missile Guidance and Control Systems. New York: Springer, 2004. Used with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.)

(i.e., artificial) systems. It is a science because it fits our definition of science given above: “the systematic practice of observing patterns in the characteristics of existing phenomena or systemsz” In the Siouris book, the field is defined in the title: Missile Guidance and Control Systems. A large number of patterns of the characteristics of existing missile guidance and control systems are defined and shared in this book, so clearly they can be independently examined. If other specialists disagree with these patterns or models, they can challenge them.

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Figure 2.2

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Close Intertwining with CSS in the Literature .VDIPGUIFTZTUFNTMJUFSBUVSFPWFSJUTIJTUPSZIBTJOUFSUXJOFEBOEFWFODPOflBUFE44BOE$44" EJTDVTTJPOPGIPMJTN XIJDIJTUZQJDBMMZQPSUSBZFEBTBUIFNFPG44 PGUFOJODMVEFTBEJTDVTTJPOPG FNFSHFOUQSPQFSUJFT XIJDIJTUZQJDBMMZQPSUSBZFEBTBUIFNFPG$44#PUI44BOE$44BSFNVMUJEJT DJQMJOBSZ"GBJSBNPVOUPGTZTUFNTMJUFSBUVSFDPOOFDUT44XJUIPSHBOJDNPEFMTJODPOUSBTUUPUSBEJ UJPOBMNFDIBOJTUJDNPEFMT BOEEFTDSJCFTIPXUIFPSHBOJDNPEFMTBQQMZBDSPTTNVMUJQMFEJTDJQMJOFT .BOZ JGOPUNPTU QSJNBSZ44BVUIPSTFYIJCJUBMMUISFFPGUIFTFUIFNFTCVUGFXJGBOZNBLF UIFEJTUJODUJPOTFYQMJDJUThFZTJNQMZHPCBDLBOEGPSUICFUXFFOIPMJTNBOENVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSJUZ


O 43

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Essence of SS and Its Relationship with CSS 'SPNUIFTFUIFNFT XFDPOTJEFSUIFFTTFODFPG44UPJODMVEFBUMFBTUUIFGPMMPXJOHFMFNFOUT 8IPMFTBOEQBSUTBSFCPUIFTTFOUJBMUP44 BOEUIFZGPSNSFQFBUJOHTUSVDUVSFTPSIPMBS DIJFT.04&4TVQQPSUTUIJTSFMBUJPOJOUIFDPNQPTJUJPOEJNFOTJPOPGUIFNPEFMTQBDF EJTDVTTFEJONPSFEFUBJMJO$IBQUFS .VMUJEJTDJQMJOBSJUZJTBOFTTFOUJBMFMFNFOUPG44.PSFTQFDJfiDBMMZ 44DBQUVSFTDIBSBDUFS JTUJDTPGTZTUFNTBDSPTTBMMEJTDJQMJOFTXIBUUIFZIBWFJODPNNPOTPMFMZCZWJSUVFPGUIF GBDUUIBUUIFZBSFTZTUFNTThJTJOGPSNBUJPOJTDBQUVSFEJOHFOFSBMNPEFMT44JTBHFOFS BMJ[BUJPOPGBMMPUIFSTDJFODFT BOEBHFOFSBMTVQQPSUGPSBMMFOHJOFFSJOHEJTDJQMJOFTThJT SFMBUJPOTIJQJTTVQQPSUFEJOUIFDPNNPOJ[BUJPOEJNFOTJPOPGUIFNPEFMTQBDF EJTDVTTFE JONPSFEFUBJMJO$IBQUFS ThFHFOFSBMJUZPG44JOGPSNTUIFJTTVF JNQMJDJUMZSBJTFEJOUIFMJUFSBUVSF PGUIFSFMBUJPO CFUXFFO44BOE$44UIFJSJOUFSUXJOJOHBOEFWFODPOflBUJPO0VSQPTJUJPOJTUIBUUIF UXP BSF EJTUJODU 8IJMF CPUI 44 BOE $44 BSF NVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZ UIF TDPQF PG $44 JT B TVCTFUPG44$44JTDPODFSOFEXJUIDPNQMFYPSHBOJDTZTUFNTBDSPTTNVMUJQMFEJTDJQMJOFT XIJMF44JTDPODFSOFEXJUIBMMTZTUFNT XIJDIJODMVEFTGPSUIFQVSQPTFTPG4&CPUI DPNQMFYPSHBOJDBOEUSBEJUJPOBMNFDIBOJTUJD$PNQMFYTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH $4&

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44 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Table 2.2 Disciplines That Contribute to SES Sciences

Mathematics

Algebra Anthropology Category theory Bioinformatics Complex functions Biology theory Catastrophe theory Continuous math Chaos theory (calculus, z) Chemistry Discrete math Cognitive science (logics, z) Complex systems science Dynamical systems Cybernetics Factor analysis Ecology Geometry Economics Graph theory Epidemiology Nonlinear systems Geology Numerical analysis Linguistics Probability and Medical/health science statistical theory Military science Topology Network science Organization theory/science Physics-classical, theory of relativity, quantum theory Political science Psychology Sociology Systems science

Computation, Informatics

Other Supporting Disciplines

Artificial intelligence Computer science Computing science Formal languages and methods Formal semantics Software science

Artificial life Conceptual modeling Decision theory Epistemology Forecasting Game theory Information theory Knowledge management Knowledge representation Law Mechatronics Mereology Public policy Ontology Operations research, management science Simulation Small worlds Urban planning

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O 45

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1a D1

1b D2

1c D3

1d D4

2. TS/CS different in kind

2a Traditional systems

3. TS/CS different in degree

3a Traditional

4. TS special case of CS

4 Traditional

5. Common to all SE systems

5

6. Common to all systems

6

1e D5

1f D6

1g D7

1h D8 2b

Complex systems 3b Complex

Complex

All SE systems Traditional and complex All systems

SES

1. Distinct domains*

Other supporting sciences


SS

46

Science foundation *Domains: Transportation; construction; aerospace; software; organizations; economy…

Figure 2.3

SE taxonomy and the range of supporting sciences.

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O 47

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48


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Chapter 3

Core Concepts of ModelOriented SE Science (MOSES) i5PTFFXIBUJTHFOFSBMJOXIBUJTQBSUJDVMBSBOEXIBUJTQFSNBOFOUJOXIBUJTUSBOTJ UPSZJTUIFBJNPGTDJFOUJfiDUIPVHIUw "8IJUFIFBE "O*OUSPEVDUJPOUP.BUIFNBUJDT Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope

SE Application Domains (D1...Dn)


D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a

TS/CS different in degree 3b Traditional Complex



Define need

Complex 4 Traditional TS is special case 5 Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and Complex 6

Model Space

All SE application domains...

Indivisible Unit Model of Individual system or component

Universal model

Composition

TS/CS different in kind 2b 2a Traditional systems Complex systems


Solution domain


ThJTDIBQUFSJOUSPEVDFTTPNFPGUIFCBTJDDPO DFQUTPGNPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOESFMBUFEGFBUVSFTPG NPEFMPSJFOUFE4&TDJFODF .04&4 ThFNBJO UPQJDTBSF fiSTU BOFYBNQMFPGIPX.04&4DBO CFBQQMJFE BOEUIFODPSFDPODFQUTPG.04&4 JO UXP QBSUT TZTUFNSFMBUFE DPODFQUT BOE DPOOFDUJPOSFMBUFEDPODFQUT


Conceptualization Conceptualization -- Language/notation Language/notation -- Universe Universe of ofdiscourse discourse


e

m Ti

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need


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Core Concepts of Model-Oriented SE Science (MOSES)

O

51

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52


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Approaches to Learning 0OFPGUIFNPTUDIBMMFOHJOHFMFNFOUTPGCVJMEJOHUIJTTZTUFNJTFffFDUJWFMZUFBDIJOHUIFSPCPUIPX UPESJWFThFSFBSFBUMFBTUUISFFQPTTJCMFBQQSPBDIFT XIJDIXFDBMM QSFEFfiOFESVMFTCBTFE TJNVMBUJPOMFBSOJOHCBTFE BOE PCTFSWBUJPOMFBSOJOHCBTFE

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Example Driving Models or Patterns Examples of models of driving a car, in the form of various types of patterns: O Basic object or concept patterns: Self (dimensions, mass, engine power, turning radius, braking effectiveness, fuel level, many general health status indicators, direction of movement, speed, etc.); external: car; vehicle; pedestrian; animal; obstacle; bicycle; road; lane; surface condition; speed; destination; direction of movement; adjacent vehicle (front, rear, left, right); clearance between vehicles, curve in road, straight ahead, right turn, left turn, right of way, speed limit, traffic signs, rain, snow, ice, slippery, wind speed and direction, temperature, amount of visibility, etc. O Basic primitive driving patterns: Avoid hitting other vehicles and pedestrians; change from stopped to moving forward, from moving forward to stopped, from stopped to moving backward, from moving backward to stopped; when moving forward, leave space in front 5 ft + (5 ft * speed in mph); drive in middle of lane; keep speed at posted speed limit; slow down if road is slippery; turn left turn signal on 10 sec and

Core Concepts of Model-Oriented SE Science (MOSES) 150 ft prior to turning left; likewise right signal prior to turning right; give right of way to oncoming traffic when turning left; turn left signal on prior to moving one lane to the left, and right signal on prior to moving one lane to the right; go around an obstacle. N Stop light pattern: stop at stop light if red, proceed if green, right turn after stop allowed on red if clear. N Stop sign pattern: stop, then proceed when clear right and clear left and clear ahead. O Basic intermediate patterns: Keep driving on current road unless otherwise instructed; turn left at the next stop light; turn right at the next intersection; find a parking spot; parallel park; keep speed low enough to maintain traction and keep car on road; override posted speed limit if adjacent cars are all exceeding the speed limit, and adjust to their speed. N Legal driving pattern: several primitives, including avoid hitting other cars, comply with traffic signs and stop lights, use turn signals, etc. N Defensive driving pattern: all patterns listed so far + drive no slower than 10 mph under the speed limit, conditions permitting; if major obstacles appear, go around them if possible, otherwise stop immediately; if minor obstacles appear (pothole, small to medium size rock, small box) and there is heavy traffic following close behind the car, do not stop, and if traffic is on both sides of car, do not go around the obstacles; at all times, assume the possibility that: N Surrounding vehicles may not follow same rules (e.g., they may not stop at stop lights or stop signs). N Traffic may suddenly stop. N The road may suddenly become slippery. N Obstacles may suddenly appear in road. N Pedestrians on the side of the road may suddenly walk on road in front of car. N Animals may suddenly run onto road in front of car. N Emergency driving pattern: avoid hitting other cars and pedestrians and major obstacles, keep speed low enough to maintain traction and keep car on road; proceed as fast as possible within those constraints; slow down when approaching stop sign or red stop light until verifying that cross road is clear; use turn indicators; all other rules are suspended. O Route patterns: The basic form is Drive from location A to location B (e.g., from Bob’s home to his office). Each route consists of a connected series of intermediate or primitive patterns, similar to the directions of a typical Internet direction finding service (e.g., turn right out of driveway, go straight 3 blocks, turn left on 11th Avenue, etc.). These patterns may be produced on-the-fly, rather than stored in the repository. But the repository might make it appear to the user that the route was stored; for example, the user asks for a route from A to B; the repository query processor requests an Internet service to determine this and passes the result along as if it were stored in the repository. For the purposes of this automated car, the most common routes between commonly used locations may be loaded into the robot data store and reused each day.

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56 O Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science O Route planning pattern: There is one basic pattern: It finds an appropriate route to get from current location to desired location, based on current road and traffic conditions (e.g., traffic backups, road construction, ice conditions, etc.). It can work with or without a route pattern. Example of using the planning pattern with a route pattern: Suppose there are two route patterns for getting from Bob’s home to work, called Primary and Backup. Each day just before Bob gets into the car, the route planning pattern follows an algorithm something like this: Check Primary route current conditions using online traffic service; if OK, then today’s route Primary; if not OK, then check Backup route current conditions; if OK, then today’s route Backup; if not OK, then go to online route-finding service and get another route, to exclude routes equivalent to Primary and Backup. Algorithm for using the planning pattern without a route pattern: First, go to online service and find a route from location A to location B. Then check current conditions of the route. If OK, use that route. If not OK, go back to the route finding service and get a different route; check current conditions of that; if OK, use that route.

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Key System Terms "SFBTPOBCMFTUBSUJOHQPJOUGPSBOZBQQSPBDIUPTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHJTUIFDPODFQUPGTZTUFNThJT TVCTFDUJPO MBZT PVU UIF .04&4 DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO PG TZTUFN BOE JUT SFMBUFE DPODFQUT PG XPSME NPTBJD FOUJUJFT FOWJSPONFOU XIPMF BOEQBSU 1SFMJNJOBSZJOGPSNBMDPODFQUT O "TZTUFNJTBOFOUJUZUIBUJTPGJOUFSFTUBTBXIPMFBOEBTBTFUPGUXPPSNPSFDPOOFDUFE QBSUT XIFSFDPOOFDUJPODBOCFEVFUPTUSVDUVSBMSFMBUJPOTPSEZOBNJDJOUFSBDUJPOT O "OPQFOTZTUFNJTBTZTUFNUIBUJTDPOOFDUFEXJUIPOFPSNPSFFYUFSOBMFOUJUJFT *OUIFUSBEJUJPOBMFOHJOFFSJOHXPSMEPGNBDIJOFT UIFTFUPGFOUJUJFTDPOOFDUFEXJUIBOPQFO TZTUFNJTDBMMFEJUTFOWJSPONFOU*OUIFCJPMPHJDBMXPSMEPGPSHBOJTNT UIFTFUPGFOUJUJFTDPOOFDUFE XJUIBOPQFOTZTUFNJTDBMMFEJUTFDPMPHZ*OUIFNBUIFNBUJDBMXPSMEPGOFUXPSLPSHSBQIUIFPSZ UIFTFUPGFOUJUJFTPSOPEFTDPOOFDUFEXJUIBOPQFOTZTUFNJTDBMMFEJUTOFJHICPSIPPE ThFNFBOJOH PGUIFTFUFSNTDBOBMTPJODMVEFUIFTZTUFNJUTFMGBOEUIFDPOOFDUJPOT*OUIFDBTFPGOFJHICPS IPPE PQFOOFJHICPSIPPEFYDMVEFTUIFTZTUFN XIJMFDMPTFEOFJHICPSIPPEJODMVEFTUIFTZTUFN *O.04&4 UIFUISFFUFSNTDBOCFVTFEJOUFSDIBOHFBCMZ CVUJOUIJTCPPLXFQSJNBSJMZVTFUIF UFSNiFOWJSPONFOUw /PNJOBMMZ BTZTUFNUIBUJTOPUPQFOJTDMPTFEUIBUJT JUIBTOPFOWJSPONFOU.PTUTZTUFNT PGJOUFSFTUUPTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHBSFDPODFQUVBMJ[FEBTPQFOCVUTPNFUJNFTJUJTVTFGVMUPNPEFM DFSUBJOTZTUFNTBTDMPTFE 8IJMFUIFBCPWFJOGPSNBMDPODFQUTQSPWJEFBSFBTPOBCMFTUBSUJOHQPJOU BTMJHIUMZNPSFGPSNBM TFUPGDPODFQUTJTOFFEFEGPSUIF.04&4GPVOEBUJPO O 8PSME4QBDFUJNFSFHJPO XIJDINBZCFQIZTJDBMPSDPODFQUVBMTQBDF BOENBZCFQBTU QSFTFOU PSGVUVSFUJNF N /PUF&YBNQMFTPGXPSMETThFDVSSFOULOPXOQIZTJDBMVOJWFSTFQMBOFU&BSUIPWFS UIFGVMMUJNFQFSJPEPGJUTFYJTUFODFBTBQMBOFU QBTUBOEGVUVSF BMMIVNBOCFJOHTDVS SFOUMZBMJWFPO&BSUINZPffiDFMBTU5VFTEBZBUBN&BTUFSO4UBOEBSE5JNFB TQFDJfiDQBSLJOHMPUEVSJOHUIFDPVSTFPGPOFEBZUIF/PSUI"NFSJDBODPOUJOFOU ZFBSTGSPNOPXUIFQSPCMFNTQBDFPGQIZTJDTBTDVSSFOUMZEFfiOFEUIFVOJWFSTFPGEJT DPVSTFPGTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHPWFSUIFOFYUZFBSTUIFXPSMEPGBMMQPTTJCMFXPSMET N /PUFThFXPSMEPGQSJNBSZJOUFSFTUUP4&JTUIFDPMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDFBT EFQJDUFEJO'JHVSF

60


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The Relationship between System and Mosaic "HFOFSBMWJFXPGNPTBJDJTUIBUJUJTUIFHSPVQPGBMMFOUJUJFT TPNFPGXIJDIBSFJOUFSDPOOFDUFE JO BEFfiOFEXPSME BOEXIJDIGPSNUIFDBOWBTPOXIJDIXFPWFSMBZTZTUFNTDPODFQUTBOEFTQFDJBMMZ EFTJHOBUJPOTPGTZTUFNT8IZEPXFTBZUIBUBNPTBJDFYJTUTXIJMFBTZTUFNJTNFSFMZBEFTJHOBUJPO ThFQSFMJNJOBSZBOTXFSJTUIBUBNPTBJDJTBDPOUFYUUIBUFYJTUTJOTPNFTFOTFTFQBSBUFMZGSPNBO PCTFSWFSTEFDJTJPOUPEFTJHOBUFJUPSBTVCTFUPGJUBTBTZTUFNThFNFBOJOHJTTJNJMBSUPTJUVBUJPO BMUIPVHITJUVBUJPONBQTNPSFUPBiNPTBJDPGJOUFSFTUwPSTFMFDUFETVCTFUPGBMBSHFSNPTBJD 8FEJTDVTTUIJTEJTUJODUJPOGSPNUXPQFSTQFDUJWFTQIZTJDBMBOEDPODFQUVBM1IZTJDBMMZ BHJWFO DPMMFDUJPOPGUSFFTJODMPTFQSPYJNJUZUIBUXFDBMMBGPSFTU PSBHJWFODPMMFDUJPOPGJOUFSBDUJOHQFPQMF UIBUXFDBMMBGBNJMZ PSBHJWFODPMMFDUJPOPGCPMUFEUPHFUIFSQJFDFTPGNFUBM HMBTT BOESVCCFSUIBU XFDBMMBDBSBMMFYJTUTFQBSBUFMZGSPNBOPCTFSWFS ThFZBSFBMMMFHJUJNBUFNPTBJDT PSQBSUPGBO PWFSBMMNPTBJD"OZPCTFSWFSDBODIPPTF PSOPU UPEFTJHOBUFUIFDPMMFDUJPOPGUSFFTBTBTZTUFNUIF JOUFSBDUJOHQFPQMFBTBTZTUFNPSUIFNFUBM HMBTT BOESVCCFSBTBTZTUFN8FTFFJOUIFGPMMPXJOH EJTDVTTJPOUIBUUIFDPODFQUTXFDBMMiGPSFTU wiGBNJMZ wPSiDBSwBSFBMTPQBSUPGUIFNPTBJD /PXDPOTJEFSUIFDPODFQUVBMDBTFThFSFBSFNBOZFOUJUJFTUIBUXFUIJOLPGBTFYJTUJOHFWFOUIPVHI QIZTJDBMMZUIFZEPOPUFYJTU&YBNQMFTBSFNBSLFUTBOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOT0SHBOJ[BUJPOTTVDIBTBDPVOUSZ BTUBUF BTDIPPMEJTUSJDU BQSPGFTTJPOBMTPDJFUZ BHPWFSONFOUBHFODZ PSBDPNNFSDJBMDPNQBOZFYJTUJO


O

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Individual

Category

Types of Mosaic Entities Physical

Conceptual

The person whose name is Bob; Bob’s car with serial no. 1234; Bob’s house with address XYZ; the U.S. power grid; the General Sherman tree in Yosemite National Park; the George Washington forest in Virginia; planet Earth —(Physical categories do not exist. See discussion in text)

Bob’s job; the company Bob works for (e.g., IBM); the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE); the names Bob, IBM, and NYSE; the serial number 1234; the address XYZ; the names General Sherman, George Washington, and Earth; the set S {1, 2, 3, 4} The categories person, car, house, power grid, tree, forest, planet. The categories job, company, stock exchange, name, serial number, address, set.


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O 63

POXIJDIUIFTZTUFNJTESBXO$POTJEFSUIFTFFYBNQMFTIVNBOCFJOH DBS UBYJDBC4VQQPTF#PC PXOTBOEESJWFTB5PZPUBXJUITFSJBMOVNCFS8FTUBSUXJUIUIFOPUJPOUIBUXFDBODMBT TJGZPSDBUFHPSJ[F#PCJONBOZEJffFSFOUXBZTThSFFPGUIPTFXBZTBSFDBSESJWFS IVNBOCFJOH BOETZTUFN-JLFXJTF XFDBODBUFHPSJ[F#PCTDBSJONBOZXBZT GPVSPGXIJDIBSF5PZPUB DBS WFIJDMF BOETZTUFN#PUITFUTPGDBUFHPSJFTBSFHJWFOJOJODSFBTJOHMFWFMTPGHFOFSBMJUZThFSFBTPO XFQSFTFOUUIFTFDBUFHPSJFTJTUPQPJOUPVUUIBUUIFEFTJHOBUJPOPGFOUJUJFTBTBTZTUFNJTFYBDUMZUIF TBNFBDUJWJUZUIBUXFQFSGPSNFWFSZEBZXIFOXFDBUFHPSJ[FFOUJUJFTGPSFYBNQMF XIFOXFUIJOL PG#PCBTBESJWFSPSBTBIVNBOCFJOH PSXIFOXFUIJOLPG#PCTDBSBTB5PZPUBPSBTBDBS*O GBDU DBUFHPSJ[JOHJOHFOFSBMJOWPMWFTCPVOEJOHBOEDMBTTJGZJOHFOUJUJFT /PXDPOTJEFSUIF5PZPUBSFMBUFEFOUJUJFTXJOEPXT NFUBMGSBNF FOHJOF UJSFT DPOUSPMT ESJWFS QBTTFOHFST GVFMUIBUFOUFST BJSUIBUFOUFST BJSUIBUMFBWFT FYIBVTU

SPBE GPSDFPGHSBWJUZThFCPVOE BSZPGUIFDBSTZTUFNTFFNTTUSBJHIUGPSXBSE*OTJEFUIFCPVOEBSZBSFBMMUIFNFUBM HMBTT FOHJOF UJSFT QBSUT BOEDPOUSPMFMFNFOUT TUFFSJOHXIFFM CSBLF BDDFMFSBUPS FUD UIBUNBLFVQUIF5PZPUB The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hFQBTTFOHFSTBOEESJWFSBSFQBSUPGUIF FOWJSPONFOU#VUOPXDPOTJEFSBTJUVBUJPOJOXIJDI#PCT5PZPUBJTBUBYJDBC8IBUJTUIFCPVOE BSZPGUIFUBYJDBCTZTUFN "SFBTPOBCMFNPEFMJOHDIPJDFIFSFJTBHBJOUPSFHBSEUIFQBTTFOHFSTBT PVUTJEFUIFTZTUFNCVUUPJODMVEFUIFESJWFS #PC XJUIJOUIFTZTUFNThF5PZPUBTZTUFNJTPOF QBSUPGUIFUBYJDBCTZTUFN#PCJTBIVNBOTZTUFNPVUTJEFUIF5PZPUBTZTUFNCVUJOTJEFUIFUBYJDBC TZTUFN8IZUIFEJffFSFODFJOUIFDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPGUIFESJWFSJOUIFUXPDBTFT #FDBVTFXIFO XFCVZBOEVTFBQFSTPOBMDBS XFEPOPUCVZPSVTFBESJWFSXJUIJU8IFOXFCVZUIFTFSWJDFTPGB UBYJDBC XFFYQFDUCPUIDBSBOEESJWFSBTBTZTUFN BTBTFSWJDFFOUJUZ*GXFTBXBUBYJDBCDBSXJUIPVU BESJWFSJOJU XFXPVMEOPUSFHBSEJUBTBDPNQMFUFUBYJDBCTZTUFNJUIBTBNJTTJOHDPNQPOFOU 0UIFSCPVOEBSZJTTVFTBSFEJTDVTTFEMBUFSJOUIFCPPLQFSNFBCJMJUZJO$IBQUFS BOEGV[[J OFTTBOEVODFSUBJOUZJO$IBQUFS

Model Model Definition ThF.04&4EFfiOJUJPOPGNPEFMJTEFSJWFEGSPN *&&& ThJTTUBOEBSEEFfiOFTNPEFMBT UIFiBQQSPYJNBUJPO SFQSFTFOUBUJPO PSJEFBMJ[BUJPOPGTFMFDUFEBTQFDUTPGUIFTUSVDUVSF CFIBWJPS PQFSBUJPO PSPUIFSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGBSFBMXPSMEQSPDFTT DPODFQU PSTZTUFNw0VSEFfiOJUJPOJT .PEFM&YQMJDJUBQQSPYJNBUJPO SFQSFTFOUBUJPO PSJEFBMJ[BUJPO PGTFMFDUFEBTQFDUTPG UIFTUSVDUVSF CFIBWJPS PQFSBUJPO QSPQFSUJFT PSPUIFSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUDBOCFBTTP DJBUFEXJUIPOFPSNPSFTZTUFNT *OBCSPBEFSTFOTF POFDPVMENPEFMNPTBJDTBOEXPSMETBTXFMMBTTZTUFNT*OUIJTCPPLUIFGPDVTJTPONPEFM JOHTZTUFNT#FDBVTFJONBOZDBTFTNPTBJDTBOEXPSMETDBOCFEFTJHOBUFEBTTZTUFNT UIJTGPDVTJTOPUPWFSMZ SFTUSJDUJWF


8IZ DIBOHF UIF GSPOU FOE BOE CBDL FOE PG UIF *&&& EFfiOJUJPO ThF GSPOU FOE i&YQMJDJUw JT BEEFE UP EJTUJOHVJTI FYQMJDJU SFQSFTFOUBUJPOT GSPN JNQMJDJU DPODFQUT ThJT EJTUJODUJPO JO .04&4JTCFUXFFONPEFMBOETQFDJfiDBUJPO BOEJTEJTDVTTFEJONPSFEFUBJMJOUIFTFDUJPOFOUJ UMFEi4QFDJfiDBUJPOBOE*UT3FMBUJPOUP.PEFMwThFCBDLFOE'JSTU iQSPQFSUJFTwJTBEEFECFDBVTF QSPQFSUJFTBSFDPNNPOMZVTFEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTJONPEFMJOH4FDPOE UIF*&&&EFfiOJUJPODPVQMFTB NPEFMXJUIBTZTUFN iSFQSFTFOUBUJPOzPGBSFBMXPSMEzTZTUFNw 8FDIBOHFEiDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT PGwUPiDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUDBOCFBTTPDJBUFEXJUIwUPEFDPVQMFNPEFMGSPNTZTUFNThBUJT XF XBOUBNPEFMUPFYJTUPOJUTPXOBTBEJTUJODUFOUJUZ*UTSFMBUJPOXJUIBTZTUFNTIPVMECFBTFQBSBUF BDUJWJUZPSEFDJTJPO OPUIBSEXJSFEJOUPUIFEFfiOJUJPOThJSE XFDIBOHFEiBSFBMXPSMEQSPDFTT DPODFQU PSTZTUFNwUPiPOFPSNPSFTZTUFNTw3FBTPO8FJODMVEFDPODFQUVBMTZTUFNTBTXFMMBT QIZTJDBMTZTUFNT BOEPVSEFfiOJUJPOPGTZTUFNJODMVEFTQSPDFTTFTBOEDPODFQUT*OBEEJUJPO XFEP OPUXBOUUPDPVQMFBNPEFMUPPOFTZTUFN"NPEFM JOBEEJUJPOUPCFJOHBOFOUJUZUIBUTUBOETPO JUTPXO DBOUBSHFUPSBQQMZUPPOFPSNPSFTZTUFNT BTXFEJTDVTTOFYU

Model as System " DPNNPO SFMBUJPO BNPOH TZTUFNT JT UIBU POF TZTUFN EFTDSJCFT JT BO BCTUSBDUJPO PG BOPUIFSTZTUFNPSTZTUFNT. ThJTEJTUJODUJPOMFBETUPBOJNQPSUBOUUBYPOPNZWJFXJOUIFPOUPM PHZPGTDJFODFBOEFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMTZTUFN XIJDIEFTDSJCFT BOEPCKFDUPSUBSHFUTZTUFN XIJDI JT EFTDSJCFE ThBU JT B NPEFM TZTUFN EFTDSJCFT B UBSHFU TZTUFN %FTDSJCF JT VTFE IFSF BT B CSPBEUFSN UPJODMVEFSFQSFTFOU BQQSPYJNBUF JEFBMJ[F TQFDJGZ PSBCTUSBDU BOEUIFEFTDSJQUJPO NBZSBOHFGSPNWFSZHFOFSBMUPWFSZTQFDJfiDBOEEFUBJMFE BOEGSPNGPSNBMUPJOGPSNBM BOE GSPNNBUIFNBUJDBMUPHSBQIJDBMUPUFYUVBM*UDBOBMTPSFQSFTFOUBOZNPEBMJUZ BTEJTDVTTFEJO $IBQUFS ThFTBNFTZTUFNDBOCFCPUIBNPEFMTZTUFNBOEBUBSHFUTZTUFN TVDIBTXIFOBUBSHFUTZTUFN JT JOUVSO BNPEFMTZTUFNPGBOPUIFSUBSHFUTZTUFN"TBOFYBNQMF TVQQPTFXFBSFCVJMEJOHBO JOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN BOEXFEFfiOFBOBSDIJUFDUVSFPGUIFEFTJSFETZTUFNBOEXFEFfiOFBEBUBWJFX PGUIFBSDIJUFDUVSFUIBUJT XFEFTDSJCFUIFEBUBFMFNFOUTUIBUBSFWJTJCMFBOEFYDIBOHFEBNPOH UIFQBSUTPGUIFTZTUFNThFO UIFEBUBWJFXDBOCFTFFOBTBNPEFMTZTUFNXIPTFUBSHFUTZTUFNJT UIFBSDIJUFDUVSF BOEUIFBSDIJUFDUVSFJTBNPEFMTZTUFNXIPTFUBSHFUJTUIFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN ThFBSDIJUFDUVSFJOUIJTDBTFJTCPUIBUBSHFUTZTUFNBOEBNPEFMTZTUFN8FEFfiOFBOFOEUBSHFU TZTUFNUPCFBUBSHFUTZTUFNUIBUJTOPUBNPEFMTZTUFN*OUIJTFYBNQMF UIFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN JTBOFOEUBSHFUTZTUFN/PUFUIBUBOZNPEFMVTFEJOUIFFOHJOFFSJOHPGBTZTUFNDBOIBWFUIF FOHJOFFSFE FOEUBSHFU TZTUFNBTPOFPGJUTUBSHFUTZTUFNTThVT JOUIJTDBTF UIFEBUBWJFXDBO BMTPIBWFBTJUTUBSHFUTZTUFNUIFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFNUIBUJT UIFEBUBWJFXDBOCFSFHBSEFEBTB NPEFMPGUIFJOGPSNBUJPOTZTUFN *OUIJTCPPL VOMFTTPUIFSXJTFOPUFE XFVTFUIFTIPSUDVUUFSNTiNPEFMwBOEiTZTUFNwUPNFBO SFTQFDUJWFMZ iNPEFMTZTUFNwBOEiUBSHFUTZTUFNw

Characteristic 4ZTUFNTIBWFOVNFSPVTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT*OUIJTCPPLUIFUFSNiDIBSBDUFSJTUJDwJTVTFEBTBCSPBE DPODFQU UPJODMVEFOPUPOMZTZTUFNQSPQFSUJFTTVDIBTQFSGPSNBODF CVUBMTPCFIBWJPS TUBUF FYJT UFODF BOEDBUFHPSZPSUZQFPGTZTUFN*UJTJOUIFTQJSJUPGUIFVTBHFPGUIFUFSNJOUIFEFfiOJUJPOPG NPEFMUBLFOGSPN *&&& JOUIFQSFWJPVTTVCTFDUJPO *OCPUITDJFODFBOEFOHJOFFSJOH XFXBOUUPCFBCMFUPJEFOUJGZ EFTDSJCF GPDVTPO FYBNJOF NFB TVSF FWBMVBUF BOEDPNQBSFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUBSFPGJOUFSFTUBOEUPJHOPSFPSIJEFUIPTFUIBUBSFOPU


O 65

8IBUXFGPDVTPO BOEXIBUXFJHOPSF WBSJFTBDDPSEJOHUPPVSQVSQPTFPSQFSTQFDUJWF*OBEEJUJPO JO FOHJOFFSJOHXFXBOUUPTQFDJGZBOECSJOHBCPVUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGJOUFSFTUBOEBWPJEDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBU BSFEFUSJNFOUBM. ThFVTFPGNPEFMTJTUIFEPNJOBOUXBZXFBDIJFWFUIJTGPDVTBOETFQBSBUJPO

Correspondence and Region Correspondence* ThFEPNJOBOUSFMBUJPOCFUXFFOBNPEFMBOEBTZTUFNJTDPSSFTQPOEFODFp*UFYJTUTJOUIFDPOUFYUPG BEFfiOFEXPSME"TZTUFNBOEBNPEFMDPSSFTQPOE PSIBWFDPSSFTQPOEFODF JGUIFTZTUFNSFTJEFT JOUIFEFfiOFEXPSMEBOEIBTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUNBUDIPSBSFDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIFNPEFM 0OFPGUIFDPOEJUJPOTPGDPSSFTQPOEFODFJTUIFMBXPGSFRVJTJUFWBSJFUZJOUSPEVDFEJO$IBQUFS "NPEFMdefines DFSUBJODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGJOUFSFTU BOEJHOPSFTPUIFSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT8JUIJOUIFTFU PGDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGJOUFSFTU UIFNPEFMNVTUSFQSFTFOUBWBSJFUZUIBUJTBUMFBTUBTHSFBUBTUIFWBSJFUZ PGUIFTZTUFNCFJOHNPEFMFEThe MBXPGSFRVJTJUFWBSJFUZEPFTOPUBQQMZUPUIFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTCFJOH JHOPSFECZUIFNPEFM'PSFYBNQMF TVQQPTFXFdefine BNPEFMPGUIFBDDFMFSBUJPOQFSGPSNBODFPGB DBS"DDFMFSBUJPOJTPGJOUFSFTUUPUIFNPEFMCVUPUIFSDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFDBS TVDIBTDPMPS BSFOPU The NPEFMNVTUCFBCMFUPSFQSFTFOUUIFSBOHFPGQPUFOUJBMBDDFMFSBUJPOPGUIFDBSUPCFBOBEFRVBUF NPEFMCVUJUEPFTOPUIBWFUPSFQSFTFOUUIFSBOHFPGQPTTJCMFDPMPSTPGUIFDBS $PSSFTQPOEFODFJTOPUEJSFDUJPOBMJUJTBTZNNFUSJDSFMBUJPO*GBTZTUFN4DPSSFTQPOETUPB NPEFM. UIFO.DPSSFTQPOETUP4 BOENPSFHFOFSBMMZCPUIBSFJOFBDIPUIFSTSFHJPO4JTPOFPG UIFTZTUFNTUIBUDPSSFTQPOEUP. BOE.JTPOFPGUIFNPEFMTUIBUDPSSFTQPOEUP4 ThJTJTBQSBDUJ DBMJTTVF OPUKVTUBOBDBEFNJDPSNBUIFNBUJDBMQSPQFSUZJTTVFThFTZNNFUSJDOBUVSFPGDPSSFTQPO EFODFBMMPXTNPEFMTBOETZTUFNTUPCFCVJMUPSEFfiOFEJOBOZTFRVFODF BTXFEJTDVTTJO$IBQUFS 8FDBOEFfiOFBNPEFMUPDPSSFTQPOEUPBOFYJTUJOHTZTUFN PSCVJMEBTZTUFNUPDPSSFTQPOEUPBO FYJTUJOHNPEFM Pr fiOEBOFYJTUJOHTZTUFNBOENPEFMBOEEFUFSNJOFJGUIFZDPSSFTQPOE $PSSFTQPOEFODFJTGVMMZEFTDSJCFEJOUFSNTPGBDPSSFTQPOEFODFTFU XIJDIJTJOUSPEVDFEBOE EJTDVTTFEJOEFUBJMJOUIFDPOUFYUPGEFDPVQMJOHNPEFM TZTUFN BOENPEBMJUZJO$IBQUFS

Region 8FEJTDVTTSFHJPOGSPNUXPQFSTQFDUJWFT BHJWFONPEFM BOE BHJWFOTZTUFN 1FSTQFDUJWF *O HFOFSBM NVMUJQMF TZTUFNT DPSSFTQPOE BU MFBTU QPUFOUJBMMZ UP B HJWFO NPEFMThFFYDFQUJPOTBSFDBTFTXIFSFBNPEFMJTTQFDJfiDBMMZEFTJHOFEUPJEFOUJGZJOEJ WJEVBMT TVDIBTBfiOHFSQSJOU B%/"NPEFMPGBIVNBO PSBNPEFMPGBDBSUIBUJODMVEFT UIFWFIJDMFJEFOUJfiDBUJPOOVNCFS 7*/ *OHFOFSBM BSFHJPOJTUIFTFUPGBMMTZTUFNTUIBU DPSSFTQPOEUPBHJWFONPEFM BOEXFSFGFSUPJUBTUIFSFHJPOPGUIFNPEFM PSNPSFFYQMJD JUMZ BTUIFSFHJPOPGUIFNPEFMJOUIFEFfiOFEXPSME&YBNQMFTJOUSBEJUJPOBMFOHJOFFSJOH JODMVEFBMUFSOBUJWFTZTUFNTUIBUTBUJTGZBHJWFOTFUPGSFRVJSFNFOUT PSBMUFSOBUJWFTZTUFNT UIBUBEIFSFUPBHJWFOSFGFSFODFBSDIJUFDUVSFq $PSSFTQPOEFODFJOUIJTCPPLJTEJTUJODUGSPNUIFDPSSFTQPOEFODFUIFPSZPGUSVUI TFFPWFSWJFXPGUIFMBUUFSJO %BWJE "TEJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFS XFBSFOPUJOUFSFTUFEJOXIFUIFSBNPEFMJTUSVFXIBUXFBSFJOUFSFTUFE JOJTXIFUIFSJUSFMBUFT DPSSFTQPOET UPBTZTUFNPSDBUFHPSZPGTZTUFNTJOBVTFGVMXBZ p *OUIJTTFDUJPO JODMVEJOHUIFFYBNQMFT UIFDPSSFTQPOEFODFNPEFJTBTTVNFEUPCFEFTDSJQUJWF BTPQQPTFEUP QSFTDSJQUJWF GPSFYBNQMF $IBQUFSFYUFOETUIJTUPBGVMMSBOHFPGNPEFTPSNPEBMJUJFT q "SDIJUFDUVSFBOESFRVJSFNFOUTBSFEFfiOFEJOB.04&4DPOUFYUJO$IBQUFS


1FSTQFDUJWF *OUIJTQFSTQFDUJWF BSFHJPOJTUIFTFUPGBMMNPEFMTUIBUDPSSFTQPOEUPB HJWFOTZTUFN BOEXFSFGFSUPJUBTUIFSFHJPOPGUIFTZTUFN&YBNQMFTJOUSBEJUJPOBMFOHJ OFFSJOH JODMVEF B TFU PG EPDVNFOUT SFRVJSFNFOUT EFTJHO FUD BTTPDJBUFE XJUI B HJWFO TZTUFN PSBTFUPGWJFXTPGUIFBSDIJUFDUVSFPGBHJWFOTZTUFN

Examples of Correspondence and Region *O UIF fiSTU FYBNQMF XF EFTJHOBUF B DBS BT B TZTUFN BOE FYQMPSF NPEFMXPSMESFHJPO SFMBUJPOT 'JHVSFJMMVTUSBUFT&YBNQMF*OUIFfiHVSF UIFTZTUFNTBSFSFQSFTFOUFECZEPUT UIFSFHJPOTCZUIF WBSJPVTCPYFT UIFNPEFMTCZCSBDFT\z^ BOEUIFXPSME 8 CZUIFPVUTJEFCPY$PSSFTQPOEFODF CFUXFFOBTZTUFNBOEBNPEFMJTJNQMJFECZUIFBQQFBSBODFPGUIFTZTUFNJOUIFSFHJPOXIFSFUIF NPEFMJTEFfiOFEThFCMVFEPU DJSDMFXJUI# MBCFMFE4JTUIFTZTUFN UIFCMVF)POEB JO&YBNQMF "MMCMVFEPUT CMVFDBST BSFJOUIFSFHJPOPG.BOEBMMSFEEPUT SFEDBST BSFJOUIFSFHJPOPG. "MMCMBDL CMVF BOESFEEPUT BMMDBST BSFJOUIFSFHJPOPG."MMXIJUFEPUTBSFTZTUFNTJO8 UIBUBSFOPUDBST&YBNQMFTPGXIJUFEPUT"OZUSFF QFSTPO QFODJM IPVTF DJUZ FUD UIBUJTJO8 "OZTZTUFNUIBUJTPVUTJEFPG8 XIFUIFSDBSPSOPODBS JTOPUBEPUJOUIJTfiHVSFJUJTPVUTJEF UIFCPY"MMEPUTPGBOZDPMPS BMMTZTUFNTJO8 BSFJOUIF.SFHJPO &YBNQMF.PEFM. O 4ZTUFN4UIFCMVF)POEB*IBEJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTJO O .PEFM. \^ .JTBOVODPOTUSBJOFENPEFMFWFSZTZTUFNJOUIFEFfiOFEXPSMEDPS SFTQPOETUPJUBOEJTJOJUTSFHJPO

O .PEFM.\JT$BS^ O .PEFM.\JT$BS JT#MVF^ O %FfiOFEXPSME8 ThF6OJUFE4UBUFTGSPNUISPVHI

R0 = Region of M0: {*} in world W1: United States in 2006

R1 = Region of M1: {isCar} in W1 R2 = Region of M2: {isCar, isBlue}

S1

B R

Figure 3.1

B

R

B

B

B

R3 = Region of M3: {isCar, isRed} R

B

B

R

B

= Blue car = Red car = Car that is not blue or red = System that is not a car

Models, systems, correspondence, and regions.

R

R R

R

W = world M = model S = system R = region


O

67

O 3FTVMUJOHDPSSFTQPOEFODFT N .BOE4DPSSFTQPOEJO8CFDBVTF4JTBTZTUFNJO8 N .BOE4DPSSFTQPOEJO8CFDBVTF4JTBDBSJO8 N .BOE4DPSSFTQPOEJO8CFDBVTF4JTBCMVFDBSJO8 N 3FHJPO3PG.JO8"MMDBSTJOUIF64JO\z 4 z^ N 3FHJPO3PG.JO8"MMCMVFDBSTJOUIF64JO\z 4 z^ N ThFSFHJPOPG4JO8BMMDPSSFTQPOEJOHNPEFMTJO8\. . .^ .PEFMT. . BOE.JMMVTUSBUFUIBU JOHFOFSBM UIFMBSHFSBNPEFMJOUFSNTPGUIFOVNCFS PGDPOTUSBJOUT UIFTNBMMFSBOENPSFIPNPHFOFPVTUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHSFHJPOTh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hFTF DMBTTJDBM FOHJOFFSJOH FYBNQMFT JMMVTUSBUF UIBU EFUFSNJOJOH DPSSFTQPOEFODF JT OPU TJNQMF $PSSFTQPOEFODF MJLFNBOZFMFNFOUTPG4& JTPGUFOGV[[ZPSVODFSUBJO8FPGUFOIBWFUPNBLFB KVEHNFOU TVDIBTi8FCFMJFWFUIBUUIJTTZTUFNTBUJTfiFTUIFSFRVJSFNFOUTNPEFMwPSi8FCFMJFWF UIBUUIJTNPEFMSFQSFTFOUTUIFDMBTTPGIVNBOHFOFTw

Specification and Its Relation to Model *O.04&4 TQFDJfiDBUJPOJTEFfiOFEBTUIFTIBSFEVOEFSTUBOEJOHPGBOBQQSPYJNBUJPO SFQSFTFOUB UJPO PSJEFBMJ[BUJPOPGTFMFDUFEBTQFDUTPGUIFTUSVDUVSF CFIBWJPS PQFSBUJPO QSPQFSUJFT PSPUIFS DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUDBOCFBTTPDJBUFEXJUIPOFPSNPSFTZTUFNT ThJTEFfiOJUJPOMPPLTTJNJMBSUPUIFFBSMJFSEFfiOJUJPOPGNPEFMThFCBTJDSFMBUJPOCFUXFFONPEFM BOETQFDJfiDBUJPOJTUIBUBNPEFMJTUIFFYQMJDJUQBSUPGBTQFDJfiDBUJPO"TQFDJfiDBUJPOEPFTOPUIBWF UPCFFYQMJDJUJUDBOCFQBSUMZPSFWFONPTUMZJNQMJDJU#VUBTQFDJfiDBUJPOIBTBOBEEFESFRVJSFNFOU UIFJEFBMJ[BUJPONVTUCFTIBSFECFUXFFOBUMFBTUUXPBHFOUT XIJDIDBOCFQFPQMFPSNBDIJOFT " NPEFMDBOFYJTUJOEFQFOEFOUMZPGDPOUFYUJUJTBTFUPGTZNCPMT"TQFDJfiDBUJPO IPXFWFS DBOPOMZ FYJTUJOUIFDPOUFYUPGBUMFBTUUXPBHFOUTUIBUCPUIIBWFUIFTBNFVOEFSTUBOEJOHPGJUTNFBOJOH ThFHPBMPG4&JTUPQSPEVDFVTFGVMTZTUFNTUIBUTBUJTGZEFTJSFEQVSQPTFT5PBDIJFWFUIJTHPBM FOHJOFFSTQSPEVDFBSUJGBDUTUIBUDIBSBDUFSJ[FUIFTZTUFNTUIBUUIFZFOHJOFFSThFHPBMPGUIFBSUJGBDUT JTUPEFTJHOBUFJOGPSNBUJPOBCPVUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFTZTUFNTBOEUPDPNNVOJDBUFUIJTJOGPSNBUJPO UPBMMQBSUJFTTQFDJfiDBMMZBNPOHBMMUIFTUBLFIPMEFSTPGFBDIBSUJGBDU4UBLFIPMEFSTJODMVEFQFPQMFJO WBSJPVTSPMFT TVDIBTVTFST CVZFST TVQQMJFST EFWFMPQNFOUNBOBHFST SFRVJSFNFOUTFOHJOFFST BSDIJ UFDUT EFTJHOBOEEFWFMPQNFOUFOHJOFFST GBCSJDBUJPOFOHJOFFST UFTUFST JOUFHSBUPST PQFSBUPST BOE BVEJUPST4UBLFIPMEFSTBMTPJODMVEFUPPMTBOENBDIJOFTUIBUQSPEVDFPSBOBMZ[FBSUJGBDUTPSTZTUFNT PSJOHFOFSBMNVTUiVOEFSTUBOEwDFSUBJOBTQFDUTPGUIFBSUJGBDUTPSTZTUFNT TVDIBTTPGUXBSFFEJUPST BOEDPNQJMFST IBSEXBSFTJNVMBUPST BOBMZ[FST QSPCFT TFOTPST BOENFBTVSFNFOUNFDIBOJTNT

68


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Figure 3.2

Role of model and specification concepts in MOSES.


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References %BWJE . The $PSSFTQPOEFODF TheorZ PG5SVUI 4UBOGPSE &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 1IJMPTPQIZ IUUQQMBUP TUBOGPSEFEVFOUSJFTUSVUIDPSSFTQPOEFODF "DDFTTFE+BOVBSZ

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Chapter 4

Features of MOSES i3FNFNCFSUIBUBMMNPEFMTBSFXSPOHUIFQSBDUJDBMRVFTUJPOJTIPXXSPOHEPUIFZ IBWFUPCFUPOPUCFVTFGVMw (FPSHF&1#PYBOE/PSNBO3%SBQFS &NQJSJDBM.PEFM#VJMEJOHBOE3FTQPOTF4VSGBDFT Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope



D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a




Define need


Model Space



Universal model

Composition



Solution domain


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e

m

Ti

Produce solution

Deployment

Satisfy need


Model Orientation 8FBSFOPXJOBQPTJUJPOUPEFTDSJCFUIFDPODFQUPGNPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOUIBUJTBOJNQPSUBOUFMF NFOUPGUIJTCPPL'JSTUXFSFWJFXUZQFTPGNPEFMTOPXBWBJMBCMFPSCFJOHVTFEJO4& BOEUIFO XFEJTDVTTIPXNPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOJO.04&4FYUFOETUIJTUPBMMFOHJOFFSJOHBSUJGBDUT BOEVOJfiFT UIFFYJTUJOHBOEFYUFOEFETFU

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78


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80


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Features of MOSES

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81

Table 4.1 Types of Models Variable Linearity

Type Linear

Non-linear

Brief Definition, Example Involves a single dimension, or all variables are of first order, or output is proportional to input; or elements are additive. Ex: F(x) ax b; linear differential equation Not linear; at least one variable is second or higher order; output is not proportional to input; or elements are not additive. Ex: F(x) ax2 b; nonlinear differential equation.

Distribution

Lumped or centralized Distributed

Dependent variables are independent of spatial coordinates Ex: ordinary differential equations Dependent variables are functions of spatial coordinates. Ex: partial differential equations; network model

Variability

Static or time invariant Dynamic or time varying

Model parameters are constant across time. Ex: differential equations with constant coefficients Model parameters vary across time. Ex: differential equations with time-varying coefficients; simulations

Continuity

Discrete

Dependent variables defined only for distinct values of independent variables. Ex: difference equations Dependent variables defined over continuous range of independent variables. Ex: differential equations

Continuous Determinism

Deterministic

Stochastic or probabilistic Analysis method

Quantitative Qualitative

Executability

Nonexecutable Executable

Outputs are known, certain, predictable given inputs. Ex: equation with fixed variables; deterministic cellular automaton model Outputs have a degree of uncertainty given inputs. Ex: equation with random variables; probabilistic cellular automaton model Uses and produces numbers; based on interval and ratio measurement scales. Ex: differential equation Uses and produces descriptions, categories, comparisons; based on nominal and ordinal measurement scales Ex: taxonomy Model does not imply a process; or no agent exists that can execute it or translate it into executable model Ex: requirements document; design document Model implies a process and an agent exists that can execute it or translate it into executable model. Ex: simulation; executable architecture; UML design model for which code generator exists; requirements written in Prolog

(Source: Kulakowski, B.T., J.F. Gardner, and J.L. Shearer. Dynamic Modeling and Control of Engineering Systems, 3rd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2007. Modified with permission.)

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Features of MOSES

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90


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92


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94


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Complex Systems Extensions of Modality and Correspondence ThFGPSFHPJOHEJTDVTTJPOJTCBTFEPOBCJOBSZOPUJPOPGQSFTDSJQUJWFJOTPNFDPOUFYU BNPEFM JTDPOTJEFSFEFJUIFSQSFTDSJQUJWFPGBTZTUFN PSOPUQSFTDSJQUJWFPGBTZTUFN JOXIJDIDBTFJUJT EFTDSJQUJWFPSTPNFPUIFSNPEF 1SFTDSJQUJWFJTNBQQFEJOUSBEJUJPOBMNPEFMTUPDPOUSPM8FQSF TDSJCFTZTUFN4UPTBUJTGZNPEFM. BOEXFDPOUSPMUIFCVJMEJOHPG4UPFOTVSFUIBUJUEPFTTBUJTGZ .#VUGPS$4TVDIBTQFPQMFBOEPUIFSBVUPOPNPVTBHFOUT QSFTDSJQUJWFJTNBQQFEUPBTQFDUSVN PGJOflVFODFUIBUSBOHFTGSPNQBSUJBMDPOUSPMUPTVHHFTUJPOPSEFTJSF8FXBOU4UPTBUJTGZ. BOE XFXJMMBSSBOHFUIFFOWJSPONFOUBOEPSPUIFSGBDUPSTUPJOflVFODF4UPTBUJTGZ.0WFSUIFDPVSTF

Features of MOSES

O 95

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Model Derivation and Application "OJNQPSUBOUEJTUJODUJPOJOUIFTVQQPSUPG44GPS4&JTUIBUCFUXFFOUIFEFSJWBUJPOBOEUIFBQQMJ DBUJPOPGBNPEFMThFEFSJWBUJPOPGBNPEFMJTUIFTFU DMBTT PSDBUFHPSZPGUIFTZTUFNTGSPNXIJDI JUJTEFSJWFEPSBCTUSBDUFEThFBQQMJDBUJPOPGBNPEFMJTUIFTFUPGTZTUFNTUIBUDPSSFTQPOEUPJU *GXFBTTVNFDPSSFTQPOEFODFPGBNPEFMUPCPUIJUTEFSJWBUJPOBOEJUTBQQMJDBUJPO UIFODMFBSMZUIF BQQMJDBUJPOTFUJTBUMFBTUBTHSFBUBT BOEJODMVEFT UIFEFSJWBUJPOTFUUIBUJT UIFEFSJWBUJPOTFUJTB TVCTFUPGUIFBQQMJDBUJPOTFU*OUFSNTPGNPEFMSFHJPOT UIFEFSJWBUJPOJTBiTUBSUFSTFUwPGUIFNPEFM SFHJPO BOEUIFBQQMJDBUJPOTFUJTUIFGVMMNPEFMSFHJPO *O UIF MBSHFS TDIFNF PG UIJOHT UIF EFSJWBUJPO PG B NPEFM JT PG MJUUMF JNQPSUBODF XIJMF UIF BQQMJDBUJPOPGBNPEFMJTPGDSJUJDBMJNQPSUBODF8FEPOPUDBSFXIFSFBNPEFMDBNFGSPNXFEP DBSFXIBUJUBQQMJFTUP 8IBUJGXFUSZUPBQQMZUIFCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPONPEFMCFZPOEJUTEFSJWBUJPOTFU UIBUJT CFZPOE QPQVMBUJPOTPGPSHBOJTNTPSMJWJOHUIJOHTBTEFfiOFEJOUSBEJUJPOBMCJPMPHZ 'PSFYBNQMF EPFDPOP NJFT PSHBOJ[BUJPOT TPDJFUJFT BJSDSBGU TPGUXBSFTZTUFNT BOECSJEHFTGPMMPXUIFNPEFMPGCJPMPHJDBM FWPMVUJPO ThBUJT EPUIFZFYJTUJOUIFSFHJPOPGUIJTNPEFM *GJUBQQMJFTBUBMM JUJTIFMQGVMUPEFUFS NJOFXIBUMFWFMPGUIFNPEFMBQQMJFT4VQQPTFXFXBOUUPBQQMZUIFNPEFMUPPSHBOJ[BUJPOTThF HPBMJTUPBQQMZUIFNPEFMBUUIFMFWFMUIBUTBUJTfi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hFSFJTBOPUIFSJNQPSUBOUXBZJOXIJDIUIFEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOEFSJWBUJPOBOEBQQMJDBUJPO JT JNQPSUBOU UP 4& BOE VOJfiDBUJPO ThF OPUJPO UIBU POMZ USBEJUJPOBM NPEFMT BSF BQQSPQSJBUF GPSUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTEPFTOPUIPMEJONBOZDBTFT4&IBTNBEFDFSUBJOBTTVNQUJPOTJO54 NPEFMTBOEJNQPTFEUIFNPOUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTIPXFWFS UIFTZTUFNTIBWFWBSZJOHEFHSFFTPG fiEFMJUZUPUIPTFNPEFMTBOEBTTVNQUJPOT$4NPEFMTPGUFOIBWFBIJHIFSfiEFMJUZUPUSBEJUJPOBM ThFEFSJWBUJPOTZTUFNTDBOCFBOFNQUZTFUThBUJT BNPEFMEPFTOPUIBWFUPCFEFSJWFEGSPNTZTUFNTJUDPVME CFDSFBUFEPSEFfiOFEJOEFQFOEFOUMZ


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JTUIBU DMPDLT BT XFMM BT PUIFS NBDIJOFT FYIJCJU DIBPT JO UIFJS OPSNBM PQFSBUJPO $MPDLT BSF PGUFO DJUFEBTBOFYBNQMFPGRVJOUFTTFOUJBMUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTJOEJTDVTTJPOTPGDPOUSBTUTCFUXFFO 54BOE$4 ThFQPJOUJTUIBUFWFOJGXFEFDJEFXFBSFFOHJOFFSJOHBUSBEJUJPOBMNBDIJOF UIBUEPFTOPU OFDFTTBSJMZJNQMZUIBUXFTIPVMEVTFUSBEJUJPOBMNPEFMT PSPOMZUSBEJUJPOBMNPEFMT8FOFFEUP DPOTJEFSUIFGVMMSBOHFPGNPEFMTBTDBOEJEBUFTGPSBOZTZTUFNUIBU4&FOHJOFFSTPSGPSXIJDIBDUV BMJ[BUJPOJTBQQMJFE. ThJTJTBOPUIFSSFBTPOXIZUIFVOJfiDBUJPOPG54&BOE$4&JTOFFEFE

Specified Behavior and Valuation *OUSBEJUJPOBMTQFDJfiDBUJPOTPGTZTUFNCFIBWJPS XFEFfiOFXIBUJTFYQFDUFEPSOPSNBM BOEEJTUJO HVJTIJUGSPNBCOPSNBMCFIBWJPSTheBTTVNQUJPOJTUIBUBMMQBSUJFTBHSFFPOXIBUCFIBWJPSPGUIF TZTUFNJTOPSNBMPSHPPE BOEXIBUCFIBWJPSJTBCOPSNBMPSCBE)PXFWFS JOUIFDPNQSFIFOTJWF BQQSPBDIUIBUJODMVEFT$4 TVDIBTBVUPOPNPVTBHFOUT OPUPOMZBSFUIFSFNPSFDBUFHPSJFTPGQPT TJCMFCFIBWJPS JODMVEJOHBiCFUUFSUIBOFYQFDUFEwDBUFHPSZ

CVUBMTPUIFBTTJHONFOUPGBCFIBWJPS UPBDBUFHPSZ JODMVEJOHUIFUSBEJUJPOBMOPSNBMBOEBCOPSNBM JONBOZDBTFTEFQFOETPODPOUFYU SPMF WJFXQPJOU PSJOUFSQSFUBUJPO"TBOFYBNQMF TVQQPTFBNBOBHFSJOBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOCFIBWFT JOBXBZUIBUFOUBJMTBTJHOJfiDBOUBNPVOUPGSJTLUPUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPOXJUIDPSSFTQPOEJOHQPUFOUJBM GPS DPOTJEFSBCMF CFOFfiU UP UIF PSHBOJ[BUJPO ThBU CFIBWJPS SFHBSEMFTT PG UIF TQFDJfiD PVUDPNF NBZCFJOUFSQSFUFEBTHPPECZBSJTLUBLJOHPSHBOJ[BUJPOBOEBTCBECZBSJTLBWFSTFPSHBOJ[B UJPOTheSFGPSF .04&4BMMPXTUIFWBMVBUJPOPSJOUFSQSFUBUJPOPGBCFIBWJPS TVDIBTHPPEPSCBE UPCFEFDPVQMFEGSPNUIFTQFDJfiDBUJPOPGUIFCFIBWJPSJUTFMG TPUIFDPOUFYUDBONBLFJUTPXO JOUFSQSFUBUJPO *O DPNQFUJUJWF HBNFT BOE DPOflJDU NPEFMT TVDI BT XBS UXP PS NPSF QBSUJFT IBWF PQQPTJOH WJFXTPGiHPPEwBOEiCBEwCFIBWJPSPSSFTVMUTPGCFIBWJPSThJTTJUVBUJPOSFRVJSFTEFDPVQMJOHPG WBMVBUJPOGSPNCFIBWJPS "OPUIFSSFBTPOGPSEFDPVQMJOHJTUIBUUIFWBMVBUJPOPGNBOZCFIBWJPSTJTOPULOPXOGPSTPNF QFSJPEPGUJNFBGUFSJUPDDVST PSJUNBZOFWFSCFLOPXO*GBDPNQBOZNBLFTBTJHOJfiDBOUDIBOHFJO EJSFDUJPO UIFSFTVMUTPGUIBUDIBOHFNBZOPUCFLOPXOGPSTPNFUJNF"OEJGUIFHPBMJTUPEFUFSNJOF JGJUXBTCFUUFSUPNBLFUIFDIBOHFUIBOUPNBJOUBJOUIFTUBUVTRVP UIBUNBZOFWFSCFLOPXO "MUIPVHICFIBWJPSBOEWBMVBUJPOBSFEFDPVQMFE .04&4EPFTOPUSFRVJSFUIFNUPCFVODPO OFDUFEJOBMMDBTFT'PSBMBSHFOVNCFSPGTZTUFNTJUJTMJLFMZUIBUBMMPCTFSWFSTXPVMEBHSFFPO DFSUBJO CFIBWJPST CFJOH HPPE BOE DFSUBJO PUIFS CFIBWJPST CFJOH CBE BOE GPS UIPTF DBTFT JU JT SFBTPOBCMFUPDPNNJUUPBTQFDJfiDWBMVBUJPOThFQPJOUJTUIBUUIJTEFDPVQMJOHJTJOUIF.04&4 SFQFSUPJSF BOEUIFSFGPSFDPNNJUNFOUEFDJTJPOTDBOCFMFGUPQFOPSEFFNFESFMBUJWFUPUIFPCTFSWFS JOBQQSPQSJBUFDJSDVNTUBODFT. ThFCFIBWJPSBOEWBMVBUJPOSFMBUJPOJTBQQMJFEJO$IBQUFS 7BMVBUJPOPGBHJWFOCFIBWJPSCZBHJWFOPCTFSWFSDBOBMTPDIBOHF BTXBTJMMVTUSBUFEJOUIF $IBQUFSTFDUJPOPOi3PMFT wXIFSFBOJOJUJBMWBMVBUJPOJOEJDBUFEBTFSWJDFCVUMBUFSBEJTTFSWJDF

Usefulness and “Truth” *OFOHJOFFSJOHJOHFOFSBM BOE.04&4JOQBSUJDVMBS XFEPOPUUBDLMFUIFJTTVFPGXIFUIFSTPNF UIJOHJTUSVF8FBSFJOUFSFTUFEJOXIFUIFSTPNFUIJOHJTVTFGVM'PSFYBNQMF 5SVUIIFSFNFBOTDPOUJOHFOUUSVUIXFEPBMMPXBOENBLFVTFPGMPHJDBMUSVUI OFDFTTJUZ UBVUPMPHZ QSPPG BOE SFTVMUTJNQMJFECZBYJPNTBOEQSFNJTFT

Features of MOSES

O

97

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Summary ThFEFDPVQMJOHEFTDSJCFEJOUIJTTVCTFDUJPOQSPWJEFTflFYJCJMJUZJO.04&4ThJT UPHFUIFSXJUI UIFNPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOEFTDSJCFEFBSMJFS FOBCMFT.04&4UPTVQQPSUUIFCSPBESBOHFPGFYUFOEFE 4&. ThFDIBQUFSTUIBUGPMMPXTQFMMUIJTPVUJONPSFEFUBJM

References "ckoff, R. 1979. The FVUVSFPG0QFSBUJPOBM3FTFBSDIJT1BTU +0QM3FT4PD o 1FSHBNPO1SFTT #MVN #4PGUXBSF&OHJOFFSJOH")PMJTUJD7JFX/FX:PSL0YGPSE6OJWFSTJUZ1SFTT #PDDBSB /.PEFMJOH$PNQMFY4ZTUFNT/FX:PSL4QSJOHFS7FSMBH #PFIN #BOE%1PSU8IFONPEFMTDPMMJEFMFTTPOTGSPNTPGUXBSFTZTUFNTBOBMZTJT*51SPGFTTJPOBM o4FFBMTPIUUQTVOTFUVTDFEVSFTFBSDI.#"4& "DDFTTFE+BOVBSZ

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$*0&OBCMJOHUIF.JTTJPO"1SBDUJDBM(VJEFUP'FEFSBM4FSWJDF0SJFOUFE"SDIJUFDUVSF%SBGU7FSTJPO 'FC'FEFSBM$*0$PVODJM $4$4 6OJWFSTJUZ PG .JDIJHBO $FOUFS GPS UIF 4UVEZ PG $PNQMFY 4ZTUFNT "CPVU UIF 4DJFODF PG $PNQMFYJUZIUUQXXXDTDTVNJDIFEVBCPVUDPNQMFYJUZIUNM "DDFTTFE+BOVBSZ

%BZBO 1 BOE + 8JMMJBNT 1VUUJOH UIF DPNQVUBUJPO CBDL JOUP DPNQVUBUJPOBM NPEFMJOH 1IBSNBDPQTZDIJBUSZ 4VQQM 4o4 %PSJ %0CKFDU1SPDFTT.FUIPEPMPHZ#FSMJO4QSJOHFS7FSMBH4FFBMTPBMTPIUUQXXXPCKFDUQSPDFTT PSHBOEIUUQXXXFSCZVFEVFSTMJEFT&315%PSJQEG "DDFTTFE+BOVBSZ

%PZMF +#"45NFBOTiJTBwPS TQFDJBMJ[BUJPOPGUIFPWFSBMMQSPDFTT ThJT JT UIF TUSVDUVSF GPS EFWFMPQNFOU UFSNT JOWPMWJOH UJTTVFT PSHBOT BOE PSHBOJTNT NFBOTUJTTVF PSHBO PSPSHBOJTNNFBOTDFMM [X] development [p] [X] morphogenesis ---[p] [X] formation ------[p] [Y] cell differentiation ---[p] [X] structural organization [p] [X] maturation

ThJTJTUIFTUSVDUVSFGPSEFWFMPQNFOUUFSNTJOWPMWJOHDFMMT cellular process [i] cell differentiation ---[p] cell fate commitment ------[p] cell fate specification ------[p] cell fate determination

198

O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science

---[p] cell development ------[p] cellular morphogenesis during differentiation ------[p] cell maturation

ThFUIJOHUPOPUJDFBCPVUUIJTFYBNQMFJTUIBUUISFFMFWFMTPGDPNQPTJUJPOBSFTFMGTJNJMBSXJUISFHBSE UPEFWFMPQNFOU BOEUIFGPVSUIMFWFMJTEJffFSFOUThFEFWFMPQNFOUPGUJTTVFT PSHBOT BOEPSHBOJTNT BMMDPOTJTUPGNPSQIPHFOFTJT GPSNBUJPO FUD XIJMFDFMMEFWFMPQNFOUGPMMPXTBEJffFSFOUQSPDFTT "UBCSPBEFSMFWFM UIFTJNJMBSJUJFTBOEEJffFSFODFTFYQSFTTFEJOUIJTFYBNQMFJMMVTUSBUFBQSJO DJQMFPG.04&4NPEFMJOHBOEFOHJOFFSJOHTIPVMEBMMPXTZTUFNTJNJMBSJUJFTBOEEJffFSFODFTUP BTTVNFUIFJSOBUVSBMQMBDFJONPEFMT5PPPGUFOXFFJUIFSUSZUPGPSDFFWFSZTZTUFNUPCFEJffFSFOU PSGPSDFBMMTZTUFNTUPCFUIFTBNFThF0#0EFWFMPQNFOUFYBNQMFJTDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIF.04&4 QSJODJQMFJUDBQUVSFEUIFTJNJMBSJUJFTBUUIFUJTTVF PSHBO BOEPSHBOJTNMFWFM CVUBMMPXFEUIFDFMM UP CF EJffFSFOU BOE DBQUVSFE UIF EJffFSFOU DFMM EFWFMPQNFOU QSPDFTT ThJT QSJODJQMF BQQMJFT OPU POMZUPDPNQPTJUJPOMFWFMT BTJOUIJTFYBNQMF CVUUPBMMUZQFTPGTJNJMBSJUJFTBOEEJffFSFODFT BT EJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFS "OPUIFSFYBNQMFPGBEPNBJOPOUPMPHZPGJOUFSFTUUP4&JT(6.0(FOFSBM6TFS.PEFM 0OUPMPHZ )FDLNBOOFUBM *UJTBUBYPOPNZPGVTFSEJNFOTJPOT BOEFBDIEJNFOTJPOJTB DBUFHPSZUIBUIBTBOVNCFSPGJEFOUJfiFEFMFNFOUT"GFXFOUSJFTGSPNUIFPOUPMPHZBSF O #BTJD6TFS%JNFOTJPOTDPOUBDUJOGPSNBUJPO EFNPHSBQIJDT BCJMJUZBOEQSPfiDJFODZ QFS TPOBMJUZ FNPUJPOBMTUBUF FUD O $IBSBDUFSJTUJDTUBMLBUJWF BTTFSUJWF EPNJOBOU RVJFU SFTFSWFE TIZ FUD O 1FSTPOBMJUZFYUSBWFSU JOUSPWFSU UIJOLJOH GFFMJOH FUD 8FJODMVEFUIJTNPEFMGPSTFWFSBMSFBTPOT0OFJTUPTIPXFffPSUTUPCSJOHIVNBOTNPSFGVMMZ JOUPUIF4&BSFOBBOEEFfiOFNPSFDPNQMFUFNPEFMTPGUIFN BTQBSUPGUIFFYQBOTJPOUP$4"TFD POESFBTPOJTUPTIPXBOFYBNQMFPGBOPOUPMPHZJOUIFFYQBOEFE4&ThF(6.0NPEFMFYUFOET CFZPOEUSBEJUJPOBMNPEFMTPGIVNBOTBTVTFST. ThJTNPEFMJTEJTDVTTFEGVSUIFSJO$IBQUFS

Bridging and Mapping Ontologies "O BSFB JNQPSUBOU UP 4& JT UIF XPSL UIBU BEESFTTFT NVMUJQMF EPNBJOT BOE POUPMPHJFT CSJEH JOH JOUFHSBUJOH NBQQJOH NFSHJOH BOE DPNQPTJOH 8F CSJFflZ EJTDVTT B GFX FYBNQMFT ThF 0OUP.BQQSPKFDU ,JSZBLPW 4JNPW BOE%JNJUSPW JTBOFffPSUUPQSPWJEFBHFOFSBMVQQFS MFWFMPOUPMPHZUIBUTFSWFTBTBDPNNPOMPDVTGPSNBQQJOHPOUPMPHJFT QSJNBSJMZVQQFSMFWFM UP JU BOEUIFSFCZUPFBDIPUIFS*UVTFTUIFHFOFSBMSFMBUJPOTXJUIJOJUTPOUPMPHZ QMVTBGFXDSPTT POUPMPHZSFMBUJPOT UPEFfiOFFBDINBQQJOH*GUIFPOUPMPHJFTBSFGPSNBMMZEFfiOFE UIJTQSPDFTT TIPVMECFBVUPNBUBCMF ThF $304* QSPKFDU $BQUVSJOH 3FQSFTFOUJOH BOE 0QFSBUJPOBMJTJOH 4FNBOUJD *OUFHSBUJPO ,BMGPHMPVFUBM JOWFTUJHBUFETFNBOUJDJOUFHSBUJPOUFDIOPMPHJFT JODMVEJOHBOFYUFOTJWFTVSWFZ PGFYJTUJOHUFDIOPMPHJFT GPSUIFQVSQPTFPGPOUPMPHZNBQQJOHThFZBMTPEFWFMPQFEBQSPUPUZQFPOUPM PHZNBQQJOHTZTUFN UIF$304*.BQQJOH4ZTUFN $.4

UIBUEFNPOTUSBUFTNBQQJOHUFDIOJRVFT 8PSLPODPNQPTJOHPOUPMPHJFTIBTCFFOEPOFCZ,BVTIJL 8JKFTFLFSB BOE"NNBOO ThFJSXPSLJTJOUIFDPOUFYUPGB4FNBOUJD8FCCBTFEFOWJSPONFOUJOXIJDINVMUJQMFPOUPMPHJFT BSFQSPQPTFECZEJTUSJCVUFEDPMMBCPSBUJWFDPNNVOJUJFTThFZIBWFEFfiOFEBUZQFTZTUFNGPSUIF 3%' BOEBOBMHFCSBGPSDPNQPTJOHPOUPMPHJFTCBTFEPOTUSVDUVSBMDPNQBSJTPOTThFZIBWFBMTP DPNQBSFEUIFJSBQQSPBDIXJUIFYJTUJOHBQQSPBDIFT

Conceptualization

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.PSFOBSSPXMZGPDVTFEMBOHVBHFNBQQJOHXPSLIBTCFFOEPOFCZ.BUVMFWJƦJVT )FZNBOT BOE0QEBIM ThFJSTDPQFJTHPBMPSJFOUFEMBOHVBHFT UIFJSJOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZXJUIFBDIPUIFS BOEXJUIPUIFSNPEFMJOHMBOHVBHFTThFBQQSPBDIJTUPNBQMBOHVBHFTPOUPUIFTBNFPOUPMPHZ XIJDIJTCBTFEPOUIF#VOHF8BOE8FCFS #88 SFQSFTFOUBUJPONPEFM 8BOEBOE8FCFS BOE ThFZJMMVTUSBUFJUVTJOHBHPBMPSJFOUFEMBOHVBHFDBMMFE,"04ThFZBSFBMTPBQQMZJOH UIFNFUIPEUPEFWFMPQBOFXWFSTJPOPGUIF6OJfiFE&OUFSQSJTF.PEFMMJOH-BOHVBHF 6&.-

Storytelling 4UPSZUFMMJOHXBTNFOUJPOFEJO$IBQUFSTBOEBTBNFBOTPGDPNNVOJDBUJOHUIBUJTJODSFBTJOHMZ CFJOHVTFEJO4&"QSFMJNJOBSZPOUPMPHZNPEFMPGTUPSZUFMMJOHIBTCFFOEFfiOFE /BLBTPOFBOE *TIJ[VLB ThFHPBMJTUPHFOFSBMJ[FNPEFMJOHPGTUPSZUFMMJOHUPBCSPBEFSMFWFM*UJTCBTFEPO SFMBUJPOTGSPNUIF3IFUPSJDBM4USVDUVSFThFPSZThFTUPSZUFMMJOHDMBTTFTJOUIFNPEFMJODMVEFDPO DFQU FWFOU SFMBUJPO BDU TDFOF BHFOU BOESPMF. ThF.PEFMEFfiOFTSFMBUJPOTBNPOHUIFTFDMBTTFT

Automation .BOZPGUIFQSPKFDUTMJTUFEBCPWFIBWFEFWFMPQFEUPPMTUIBUNPWFUPXBSEBVUPNBUJOHUIFWBSJ PVTQSPDFTTFT3FDBMMUIBUBVUPNBUJPOJTPOFPGUIFLFZFMFNFOUTPG4&BTFOWJTJPOFECZ.04&4 .PEFMPSJFOUBUJPOGPTUFSTUIFBVUPNBUJPOPGFOHJOFFSJOHTZTUFNTThFXPSLUPNBLFPOUPMPHJFT FYQMJDJUBOEGPSNBM XJUIUIFHPBMPGBVUPNBUJOHUIFBOBMZTJTBOEVTFPGPOUPMPHJFT GPTUFSTUIF SFDPODJMJBUJPOBOEJOUFHSBUJPOPGNVMUJQMFPOUPMPHJFTGSPNEJTQBSBUFEPNBJOTThBUJTBLFZFOBCMFS PGUIF4&PGUIFGVUVSF

Spectrum of Semantics and Ontologies Used in SE Models 'SPNUIFWJFXQPJOUPGTFNBOUJDTBOEPOUPMPHJFT BWBSJFUZPGNFUIPETBOEBQQSPBDIFTIBWFCFFO EFWFMPQFEPWFSUIFQBTUGFXEFDBEFTJOUIFEBUBCBTF TPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOH BOELOPXMFEHFSFQ SFTFOUBUJPODPNNVOJUJFT NBOZPGXIJDIXFSFOPUFEBCPWFThFSFBSFEFCBUFTDPODFSOJOHXIJDI PGUIFTFNFUIPETNBZQSPQFSMZCFDBMMFEPOUPMPHJFT4FWFSBMEJffFSFOUBVUIPSTIBWFJOEFQFOEFOUMZ EFfiOFEBOPOUPMPHZTQFDUSVNPSTFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNUIBUSFflFDUTBSBOHFPGPOUPMPHZSFMBUFEDIBS BDUFSJTUJDT&BDIBVUIPSVTFETMJHIUMZEJffFSFOUUFSNTUPDIBSBDUFSJ[FUIFSBOHF O %BDPOUB 0CSTU BOE 4NJUI EFfiOF B SBOHF GSPN MFTT UP NPSF FYQSFTTJWF XIFSF UIFMFTTFYQSFTTJWFJTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIXFBLTFNBOUJDTBOEUIFNPSFFYQSFTTJWFXJUITUSPOH TFNBOUJDT O 4NJUIBOE8FMUZ EFfiOFBSBOHFGSPNMPXUPIJHIDPNQMFYJUZ XIFSFUIFIJHIFOE JTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIBVUPNBUFESFBTPOJOHNFUIPET CVUOPUUIFMPXFOE O .D(VJOOFTT EFfiOFTBSBOHFGSPNMPXUPIJHITQFDJfiDBUJPOEFUBJMBOEFYQSFTTJWF OFTT XJUIJOUIFTDPQFPGPOUPMPHJFTFNFSHJOHPOUIF8FC O .D$PNC EFfiOFTBSBOHFPGTFNBOUJDQSFDJTJPO GSPNBTJNQMFEBUBDBUBMPHBUUIF MPXFOEUPHFOFSBMMPHJDBMDPOTUSBJOUTBUUIFIJHIFOE O ,BMGPHMPVFUBM EFfiOFBSBOHFPGTFNBOUJDJOUFOTJUZ XIFSFUIFMPXFOEJTDIBSBD UFSJ[FEBTTFNBOUJDBMMZQPPSBOEUIFIJHIFOEBTTFNBOUJDBMMZSJDI ThFTFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNQSFTFOUFEJO'JHVSFJTBTMJHIUNPEJfiDBUJPOPGUIBUQSFTFOUFEJO %BDPOUB 0CSTU BOE4NJUI *UQPSUSBZTBSBOHFPGTFNBOUJDNPEFMTUIBUQPUFOUJBMMZ

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Modal logic First order logic

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Logical theory Description logic DAML+OIL, LOW UML

Conceptual model RDF/S XTM Extended ER

Thesaurus ER

Relational model, XML

Is disjoint subclass of with transitivity property

Semantic interoperability

Has narrower meaning than

DB schemas, XML schema

Taxonomy

Is subclass of

Strong semantics

Structural interoperability

Is sub-classification of Syntactic interoperability

Weak semantics

Figure 8.3 Semantic spectrum (Source: Daconta, M., L. Obrst, and K. Smith. The Semantic Web: A Guide to the Future of XML, Web Services, and Knowledge Management. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley Publishing, 2003. Used with permission.)

DIBSBDUFSJ[FPOUPMPHZThFFYBNQMFTBSFPSHBOJ[FEBSPVOEGPVSDPOTUSVDUTUBYPOPNZ UIFTBVSVT DPODFQUVBMNPEFM BOEMPHJDBMUIFPSZ PSMPHJDBMEPNBJOUIFPSZ "UBYPOPNZJTUBLFOUPNFBO UFSNTPSDPODFQUTXJUINJOJNBMIJFSBSDIJDPSQBSFOUDIJMETUSVDUVSF"UIFTBVSVTJODMVEFTUFSNT TZOPOZNT BOEUFSNUBYPOPNJFTCBTFEPOUIFCSPBEFSUIBOOBSSPXFSUIBOSFMBUJPOBOEBTTPDJB UJPOSFMBUJPO"DPODFQUVBMNPEFMTUSVDUVSFTDPODFQUTJOBTVCDMBTTIJFSBSDIZXJUIHFOFSBMJ[FE SFMBUJPOT QSPQFSUJFT BUUSJCVUFT BOEJOTUBODFT"MPHJDBMNPEFMPSUIFPSZDPNQSJTFTFMFNFOUTPG BDPODFQUVBMNPEFMGPDVTFEPOSFBMXPSMETFNBOUJDTBOEFYUFOEFEXJUIBYJPNTBOESVMFT BOEJT SFQSFTFOUFEJOBMPHJDBMMBOHVBHFFOBCMJOHNBDIJOFTFNBOUJDJOUFSQSFUBUJPO"DPODFQUVBMNPEFM DBOCFDPOTJEFSFEBXFBLPOUPMPHZBMPHJDBMUIFPSZDBOCFDPOTJEFSFEBTUSPOHPOUPMPHZThF JOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ MBCFMT PO UIF SJHIU JOEJDBUF SPVHIMZ UIF FYQSFTTJWFOFTT PG UIF NPEFM SFRVJSFE UPBEESFTTFBDIMFWFMPGJOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ9.-JTTVfficJFOUGPSTZOUBDUJDJOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ 9.- 4DIFNB FOBCMFT TUSVDUVSBM JOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ CVU B NJOJNVN PG 3%' JT OFDFTTBSZ GPS TFNBOUJD JOUFSPQFSBCJMJUZ 'SPNUIJTBOBMZTJT %BDPOUB 0CSTU BOE4NJUITUBUFUIBUBOPOUPMPHZJODMVEFTDMBTTFT HFOFSBM UIJOHT

JOTUBODFT JOEJWJEVBMUIJOHT

SFMBUJPOTBNPOHUIJOHT QSPQFSUJFTBOEQSPQFSUZWBMVFTPG UIJOHT GVODUJPOTPGBOEQSPDFTTFTJOWPMWJOHUIPTFUIJOHT BOEDPOTUSBJOUTPOBOESVMFTJOWPMWJOH UIPTFUIJOHT*O.04&4 XIBUJTJNQPSUBOUJTOPUUIFEFCBUFBCPVUXIBUDPOTUJUVUFTPOUPMPHZPS XIFUIFSBMMPGUIFJUFNTJO'JHVSFSFQSFTFOUBOPOUPMPHZ8IBUJTJNQPSUBOUJTUIBUUIPTFJUFNT DBOSFQSFTFOU4&NPEFMT JODMVEJOHEPNBJOPOUPMPHJFTThJTVTBHFJTDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIF.04&4 DPODFQUUIBUHFOFSBMNPEFMTDBQUVSFBOESFQSFTFOU4&LOPXMFEHF BOEDPMMFDUJWFMZGPSNBCPEZPG LOPXMFEHFPG4&8FBMTPOPUFUIFTJNJMBSJUZPGUIJTMJTUPGPOUPMPHZJUFNTXJUIUIFTQFDJfiDBUJPO JUFNTJEFOUJfiFEJO$IBQUFS

Conceptualization

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Sample of Languages That Support SE %BDPOUB 0CSTU BOE4NJUI EFTDSJCFUIFCFOFfiUTPGVTJOHSFQSFTFOUBUJPOMBOHVBHFT UIBUBSFNPSFDMFBS QSFDJTF BOEVOBNCJHVPVTUIBOOBUVSBMMBOHVBHF"MUIPVHIOBUVSBMMBO HVBHFDBOCFVTFEUPEFfiOFNPEFMT JUJTOPUUIFfiSTUDIPJDF/VNFSPVTMBOHVBHFTBOESFQSF TFOUBUJPOBQQSPBDIFTBSFBWBJMBCMFJO4&8FMJTUBOECSJFflZEFTDSJCFTPNFPGUIFNIFSFThF MBOHVBHFDBUFHPSJFTSFQSFTFOUBOJOGPSNBMBOEBEIPDTFU BOEBSFOPUQSFTFOUFEJOBOZQBSUJDV MBSPSEFSThFDBUFHPSJFTBSFBMTPOPUNVUVBMMZFYDMVTJWFTPNFMBOHVBHFTCFMPOHUPNPSFUIBO POFDBUFHPSZ

Simulation Languages $POUJOVPVT4ZTUFN4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF $44- JTBOFWPMWJOHTFUPGMBOHVBHFTUIBUXBTJOJUJBMMZ EFfiOFEJOBOEJTEFTJHOFEUPIFMQFOHJOFFSTBOETDJFOUJTUTNPEFMUIFEZOBNJDCFIBWJPSPG QIZTJDBMQIFOPNFOB'PSCSJFGFYBNQMFT TFF)VOUTJOHFS 0OFNFNCFSPGUIJTTFUJTUIF &VSPQFBO4QBDF"HFODZ &4" 4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF &4- $SPTCJFFUBM "OPUIFSNFNCFS JTUIF"EWBODFE$POUJOVPVT4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF "$4-

XIJDIJTUBSHFUFEUPUJNFEFQFOEFOU OPOMJOFBSEJffFSFOUJBMFRVBUJPOT %ZNPMBBMTPTJNVMBUFTEZOBNJDCFIBWJPSPGQIZTJDBMTZTUFNTCVUJUJTEFTJHOFEUPGPMMPXUIF DPOTFSWBUJPO QSJODJQMFT PG FOFSHZ BOE NPNFOUVN BOE OPU SFMZ TUSJDUMZ PO TUBUFTQBDF NPEFMT 3BD[ZOTLJ /FVSBM 4JNVMBUJPO -BOHVBHF /4- JT EFTJHOFE GPS MBSHFTDBMF HFOFSBM OFVSBM OFUXPSLT 8FJU[FOGFME "SCJC BOE"MFYBOEFS

System Modeling and Design Languages ThF4QFDJfiDBUJPOBOE%FTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 4%-

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XIFO4%-JTVTFEGPSTZTUFNTFOHJ OFFSJOH JUJTVTVBMMZJODPNCJOBUJPOXJUIPUIFSMBOHVBHFT JODMVEJOH.FTTBHF4FRVFODF$IBSUT .4$

"4/ 55$/ BOE6.- 6.- 0.(B C JTBMTPVTFEFYUFOTJWFMZJOTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMJOHBOEEFTJHO BOE JT UIF CBTJT GPS PUIFS QSPfiMFT BOE MBOHVBHFT "O FYUFOTJPO PG 6.- DBMMFE 4ZT.- 0.( D IBTCFFOEFfiOFEUPBEESFTTNPSFTZTUFNTPSJFOUFENPEFMTTVDIBTCMPDLEJBHSBNT"OPUIFS FYUFOTJPOPG6.-UIBUBEESFTTFTSFBMUJNFTZTUFNTJT."35&.PEFMJOHBOE"OBMZTJTPG3FBM 5JNFBOE&NCFEEFETZTUFNT %FNBUIJFVFUBM0.( ."35&TVQQPSUTNPEFMJOH BOEEFTJHOPGCPUIIBSEXBSFBOETPGUXBSFBTQFDUTPGUIFTFTZTUFNT ThF "SDIJUFDUVSF "OBMZTJT BOE %FTJHO -BOHVBHF ""%- XBT EFfiOFE CZ UIF 4PDJFUZ PG "VUPNPUJWF&OHJOFFST 4"& UPCFBTUBOEBSEGPSNPEFMCBTFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH*UTVQQPSUT GPSNBMNPEFMJOHBOETZTUFNTQFSGPSNBODFBOBMZTJT 'FJMFS (MVDI BOE)VEBL ."35&JT BMTPDPNQBUJCMFXJUI""%- 'BVHFSFFUBM *O UIF IBSEXBSF BSFOB UXP MBOHVBHFT IBWF CFFO VTFE FYUFOTJWFMZ 7)4*$ )BSEXBSF %FTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 7)%- BOE7FSJMPH)%-#PUIDPOUBJOIBSEXBSFNPEFMJOHDPOTUSVDUT TVDIBTUJNFDPODFQUTBOEQBSBMMFMQSPDFTTJOH UIBUBSFOPUGPVOEJOUZQJDBMTPGUXBSFQSPHSBNNJOH

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PSNPEFMJOHMBOHVBHFT#PUIBMTPIBWFWBSJBOUTGPSBOBMPHBOENJYFETJHOBMBQQMJDBUJPOT DBMMFE SFTQFDUJWFMZ7)%-".4BOE7FSJMPH".4*O UIFUXPPSHBOJ[BUJPOT7)%-*OUFSOBUJPOBM BOE0QFO7FSJMPH*OUFSOBUJPOBMKPJOFEUPCFDPNF"DDFMMFSB "DDFMMFSB *O UIF*&&&JOJUJBUFEBOFXTUBOEBSEDBMMFE13PTFUUB4ZTUFN%FTJHO-BOHVBHF *)4 The HPBMJTUPQSPWJEFiBTZTUFNMFWFMBQQSPBDIGPSEFWFMPQJOH DPNQPTJOHBOEBOB MZ[JOH specification NPEFMT GSPN NVMUJQMF EFTJHO EPNBJOT FBDI XJUI UIFJS PXO WPDBCVMBSZ BOE TFNBOUJDTwThis TIPVMECFPGJOUFSFTUUP4&XJUIUIFNVMUJEPNBJODIBMMFOHFTEJTDVTTFEFBSMJFSJO UIJTDIBQUFS

Architecture Description Languages (ADLs) *OUIFT BDPBMFTDFODFPGSFTFBSDIBDUJWJUZQSPEVDFEBWBSJFUZPGBSDIJUFDUVSFEFTDSJQUJPOMBO HVBHFT JODMVEJOH3BQJEF $ "$.& 8SJHIU "FTPQ BOE6OJDPO"TJHOJfiDBOUQPSUJPOPGUIJT XPSLXBTGVOEFECZUIF%FGFOTF"EWBODFE3FTFBSDI1SPKFDUT"HFODZ %"31"

BOEUIFQSJNBSZ GPDVTXBTTPGUXBSFTZTUFNT"TVNNBSZPGUIJTXPSL BTXFMMBTBOBQQMJDBUJPO JTQSFTFOUFEJO 1FUUZ .D,FO[JF BOE2JOHXFO "NPSFSFDFOUVOJfiDBUJPOBOEFYUFOTJPOPGUIJTXPSLJT QSFTFOUFEJO%BTIPGZ 7BOEFS)PFL BOE5BZMPS ThF"%-SFTFBSDIXBTUIFTPVSDFPGUIF HFOFSBMDPNQPOFOUDPOOFDUPSNPEFMUIBUDBOCFBQQMJFEUPBMMTZTUFNT OPUKVTUTPGUXBSFTZTUFNT BOEXIJDIJTUIFCBTJDTUSVDUVSFPGUIFCJOBSZJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMJO$IBQUFS

Software Languages "MBSHFOVNCFSPGQSPHSBNNJOHMBOHVBHFTTVDIBT+BWBBOE7JTVBM#BTJDIBWFCFFOEFWFMPQFEBOE VTFEPWFSUIFQBTUIBMGDFOUVSZ.BOZPGUIFFBSMZMBOHVBHFT JODMVEJOHUIFWFOFSBCMF'PSUSBO BOE FWFO$0#0- BSFTUJMMJOVTF BMUIPVHIUIFZIBWFFWPMWFEUPTPNFEFHSFF ThFSF BSF BMTP NBOZ TDSJQUJOH MBOHVBHFT TVDI BT 1FSM BOE 1ZUIPO .PEFMJOH MBOHVBHFT XF NFOUJPOFEFBSMJFSTVDIBT6.-BSFBMTPVTFEFYUFOTJWFMZJOTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOH

Business Process Languages 84#1&- 8FC4FSWJDFT#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT&YFDVUJPO-BOHVBHF JTBOPSDIFTUSBUJPOMBOHVBHFGPS TQFDJGZJOHCVTJOFTTQSPDFTTCFIBWJPSCBTFEPO8FC4FSWJDFT 0"4*4 *UJTCBTFEPO9.- #1./ #VTJOFTT1SPDFTT.PEFMJOH/PUBUJPO JTBHSBQIJDBMNPEFMJOHMBOHVBHFGPSCVTJOFTT QSPDFTTFTPSJFOUFEUPXBSEXPSLflPXTThFOFYUWFSTJPO 7 JOUFOETUPJODPSQPSBUFUIFNFUB NPEFM HSBQIJDBMOPUBUJPO BOEJOUFSDIBOHFGPSNBUJOUPPOFQBDLBHF BOEUIFOBNFJTUIFSFGPSF DIBOHFEUPUIF#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT.PEFMBOE/PUBUJPO #1./ ThF9.-1SPDFTT%FfiOJUJPO-BOHVBHF 91%- JTBOJOUFSDIBOHFMBOHVBHFGPS#1./ :"8- :FU"OPUIFS8PSLflPX-BOHVBHF XBTEFTJHOFEUPTVQQPSUBCBTJDTFUPGXPSLflPXQBU UFSOTPSWJFXTDPOUSPMQFSTQFDUJWF EBUBQFSTQFDUJWF SFTPVSDFQFSTQFDUJWF BOEFYDFQUJPOIBOEMJOH QFSTQFDUJWF*UBMTPQSPWJEFTTPNFTVQQPSUGPSIVNBOUBTLT )VNBOCVTJOFTTQSPDFTTFTIBWFCFFOHFUUJOHNPSFBUUFOUJPOSFDFOUMZ"OFYUFOTJPOPG#1&- DBMMFE#1&-1FPQMFIBTCFFOEFfiOFEUIBUGPDVTFTPOIVNBOUBTLT "HSBXBMFUBM "GSBNF XPSLGPSEFfiOJOHIVNBOTFSWJDFTBOEVOJGZJOHIVNBOBOETPGUXBSFTFSWJDFTJTEFTDSJCFEJO4DIBMM 5SVPOH BOE%VTUEBS )PMNFTFUBM IBWFEFfiOFEBWJFXCBTFE NPEFMESJWFOGSBNFXPSLUIBUTVQQPSUTCPUI IVNBO BOE BVUPNBUFE CVTJOFTT QSPDFTTFT *U QSPWJEFT B IJHIFS MFWFM PG BCTUSBDUJPO UIBU BMMPXT

Conceptualization

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Requirements/External Specification Languages "MBSHFWBSJFUZPGTZTUFNSFRVJSFNFOUTPS FYUFSOBM TQFDJfiDBUJPOMBOHVBHFTIBWFCFFOEFfiOFEBOE VTFEPWFSUIFQBTUTFWFSBMEFDBEFT NBOZPGUIFNJOTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHThFZSBOHFGSPNOBUVSBM MBOHVBHFUPGPSNBMMBOHVBHFT BOEGSPNHFOFSBMQVSQPTFUPEPNBJOTQFDJfi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hFMBOHVBHF5 BDDPSEJOHUP4VOJL

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Figure 8.4

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Chapter 9

Time Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope



D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

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1. Same cycle: Model = Circle

2. Similar cycle: Model = Spiral

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3. Non-repeating cycles: Model = Strange attractor

Figure 9.2 Cyclic model variations. (Source: Wikipedia 2008.)

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State-similarity view

Figure 9.3

Timeline view

State-similarity and timeline views of cycles.

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Scale 1: Small portion of one cycle. Change is acyclic at this scale.

Scale 2: Cycle. Change is cyclic at this scale. But a modest number of cycles collectively show repeating cycles (circle on left) or an acyclic overall trend (spiral on right).

Scale 3: Large number of cycles. Only see constant (dot on left) or acyclic trend (line on right) at this scale.

Figure 9.4

Scale effects on views of cyclic and acyclic change.

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Modeling Levels of Process and Change 8e define thrFFMFWFMTPGQSPDFTTBOEDIBOHF O -FWFMXIBUBTZTUFNEPFTUIBUJT DIBOHFBDDPNNPEBUFEPSWBSJBUJPOTVQQPSUFEXJUIJO UIFSBOHFPGCFIBWJPSPGBHJWFOTZTUFN O -FWFMXIBUBTZTUFNJTUIBUJT DIBOHFJOWolving modification of the system (parUT O -FWFMDIBOHFJOIPXXFWJFXBTZTUFNUIBUJT DIBOHFJOWPMWJOHmodification PGTZTUFN NPEFMTTVDIBTDIBOHJOHUIFEFTJHOPSSFRVJSFNFOUTPGBTZTUFN *OTPNFDJSDVNTUBODFT DIBOHFDBOPDDVSJOBOZPOFPGUIFTFMFWFMTXJUIPVUDIBOHJOHUIFPUIFSUXP MFWFMT*OPUIFSDJSDVNTUBODFT JGPOFMFWFMDIBOHFT POFPSCPUIPGUIFPUIFSMFWFMTBMTPDIBOHFT "DBSBOEBQFSTPODBOCFVTFEUPJMMVTUSBUFUIFMFWFMT'PSBDBS -FWFMSFQSFTFOUTOPSNBMQSP DFTTFTPSDIBOHFTJOCFIBWJPS TVDIBTUIFFOHJOFCFJOHPOPSoff, PSUIFDBSDIBOHJOHEJSFDUJPOPS TQFFE-FWFMJODMVEFTSFQMBDJOHPSSFQBJSJOHFOHJOFQBSUT UJSFT FUD-FWFMDPVMEJODMVEFDIBOH JOHJOUFSOBMPSFYUFSOBMNPEFMT TVDIBTDIBOHJOHUIFFOHJOFUZQF PSBQFSGPSNBODFSFRVJSFNFOU 'PSBDBS XFVTVBMMZDPOTJEFS-FWFMBOE-FWFMUPCFDMFBSMZTFQBSBUFEDIBOHJOHCFIBWJPSTFFNT DMFBSMZEJTUJODUGSPNSFQMBDJOHBQBSU FWFOUIPVHI-FWFMDIBOHFPGUFOSFTVMUTJO-FWFMDIBOHFT

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JUHSBEVBMMZEFUFSJPSBUFT -FWFM /PUFUIBUDPODFQUVBMTZTUFNTTVDIBTTPGUXBSFQSPHSBNTEP OPUJOHFOFSBMEFUFSJPSBUFUISPVHIVTF TPUIFJS-FWFMDIBOHFTTFFNDMFBSMZEJTUJODUGSPNUIFJS -FWFMDIBOHFT)PXFWFS UIFPWFSBMMTPGUXBSFTZTUFNQFSGPSNBODFNBZEFUFSJPSBUF GPSFYBNQMF UISPVHIBDDVNVMBUJPOPGSFHJTUSZFOUSJFTPSEJTLGSBHNFOUBUJPO'VSUIFSNPSF TFMGNPEJGZJOHTPGU XBSFDMPTFMZDPOOFDUT-FWFMDIBOHFTBOE-FWFMDIBOHFTCZNPEJGZJOHJUTFMGXIJMFJUJTPQFSBUJOH EVFUPDPOEJUJPOTPGJUTPQFSBUJPO -FWFMDPWFSTDIBOHFTJONPEFMTPGIVNBOT'PSFYBNQMF PVSNPEFMPGIVNBOBOBUPNZNBZ CFGBJSMZNBUVSFBOETUBCMFBUUIFDVSSFOUUJNF CVUPVSNPEFMPGIVNBOHFOFTIBTFWPMWFETJH nificantly JOSFDFOUZFBSTCFDBVTFPGsignificant JODSFBTFTJOLOPXMFEHFUIBUIBWFMFEUPJNQSPWFE fidelity of the model. "GBJSDPODMVTJPOPGUIFGPSFHPJOHEJTDVTTJPOPG-FWFMBOE-FWFMDIBOHFTJTUIBUGPSTZTUFNT JOHFOFSBM JUNJHIUCFVTFGVMUPIBWFUXPWJFXTPOFJOXIJDI-FWFMDIBOHFTBSFDMFBSMZEJTUJO HVJTIFEGSPNMFWFMDIBOHFT BOEPOFJOXIJDIUIFZBSFOPUDMFBSMZEJTUJOHVJTIFE 1SPDFTTPSDIBOHFNPEFMTSFQSFTFOUJOHUIFTFUISFFMFWFMT BOEDPNCJOBUJPOTPGMFWFMT BSFEJT DVTTFE JO UIF TFDUJPOT UIBU GPMMPX 'JHVSF DPNQBSFT UIF MJGF TQBO PG QSPDFTTFT BU FBDI MFWFM The figur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his JT PGDPVSTF Bsimplification. 'PSFYBNQMF UIFMJOFCFUXFFONBUVSBUJPOBOEGVMMGVODUJPOJOH JTWFSZGV[[Z*OBMMUISFFMFWFMT QSPDFTTFTBOEDIBOHFTUPQBUSFUJSFNFOUp*OUIFDBTFPGUIFNPEFM -FWFM

UIFMJGFTQBOTIPXOJTUIFMJGFTQBOPGUIFDPSSFTQPOEFODFPGUIFNPEFMXJUIBTZTUFN This DPOUFYUGPDVTFTNPSFPOspecific NPEFMTBOEMFTTPOHFOFSBMNPEFMT*OUIFFYUSFNF Bspecific NPEFMNBZCFdefined GPS BOEPOMZDPSSFTQPOEUP UIJTTZTUFN JOXIJDIDBTFJUTMJGFTQBOJTUIF FYUFOUPGUIFMJOFGPS-JO'JHVSF#VUJOUIFHFOFSBMEFDPVQMFEDBTF BNPEFM BOEFTQFDJBMMZB HFOFSBMNPEFM IBTJUTPXOJOEFQFOEFOUMJGFTQBO XIJDIJTOPUTIPXOJOUIFfigurFCVUJTEJTDVTTFE 7JFXTBSFEJTDVTTFEJONPSFEFUBJMJO$IBQUFS pThJTJTCZEFfiOJUJPO3FUJSFNFBOT“FOEPGPQFSBUJPOBMQFSJPEPGJOUFSFTU ”XIJDIGPSBQFSTPODPVMECFSFUJSF NFOUGSPNUIFXPSLGPSDF PSBOFBSMJFSQPJOU PSBMBUFSQPJOU EFQFOEJOHPOXIBUJTCFJOHNPEFMFE

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Conceived Level

Planning

Born/IOC Reach adulthood/FOC Retire

Formation

Maturation

Full function

System behavior: L1

Retirement Range = System Versatility = Extent of phase portrait

System change: L2

Range = System adaptability

Model change: L3

Range = Model adaptability

IOC = Initial Operational Capability; FOC = Full Operational Capability

Figure 9.5

Process and change levels during system life span.

MBUFSJOUIFDIBQUFS"TZTUFNDBOEFBMXJUIFOWJSPONFOUBMDIBOHFBU-FWFMCZCFJOHWFSTBUJMF UIBU JT IBWJOHBCSPBESBOHFPGCFIBWJPSJOJUTSFQFSUPJSFXJUIPVUDIBOHJOHPSCFJOHDIBOHFEBOEBU -FWFMCZCFJOHBEBQUBCMF UIBUJT CFJOHBCMFUPDIBOHFUPCFUUFSfit UIFFOWJSPONFOU"NPEFMDBO BMTPEFBMXJUIDIBOHFCZCFJOHBEBQUBCMF

Models of Level 1 Change -FWFMQSPDFTTFTDPSSFTQPOEUPTZTUFNCFIBWJPS"MBSHFOVNCFSPGNPEFMTPGUIFTFQSPDFTTFTFYJTU JOCPUI54&BOE$4BSFOBT.BOZPGUIFTFBSFUSBEJUJPOBMMZDBMMFEEZOBNJDNPEFMT8FMJTUBOE briefly describe a feXPGUIFN 6nified .PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 6.- 0.(B C The HFOFSBMDBUFHPSZJTCFIBWJPSEJB HSBNT BTPQQPTFEUPTUSVDUVSFEJBHSBNT TherFBSFGPVSUZQFTBDUJWJUZEJBHSBN JOUFSBDUJPOEJB HSBN TUBUFNBDIJOFEJBHSBN BOEVTFDBTFEJBHSBNThe JOUFSBDUJPOUZQF JOUVSO IBTGPVSUZQFT TFRVFODFEJBHSBN JOUFSBDUJPOPWFSWJFXEJBHSBN DPNNVOJDBUJPOEJBHSBN BOEUJNJOHEJBHSBN "OBDUJWJUZEJBHSBNTIPXTUIFDPPSEJOBUJPOBOEfloXPGDPOUSPM EBUB PSPCKFDUTCFUXFFOOPEFT "TFRVFODFEJBHSBNTIPXTJOUFSDIBOHFPGNFTTBHFTCFUXFFOUXPPSNPSFFOUJUJFT DBMMFEMJGFMJOFT "DPNNVOJDBUJPOEJBHSBNBMTPTIPXTNFTTBHFJOUFSDIBOHFCVUGPDVTFTPOUIFBSDIJUFDUVSFPGUIF JOUFSOBMTUSVDUVSF"UJNJOHEJBHSBNTIPXTJOUFSBDUJPOTJOBXBZUIBUTVQQPSUTSFBTPOJOHBCPVU UJNF*UJODMVEFTDIBOHJOHDPOEJUJPOTBMPOHBUJNFBYJT"TUBUFNBDIJOFEJBHSBNNPEFMTTUBUFTBOE USBOTJUJPOTCFUXFFOTUBUFT"VTFDBTFJTBDPNCJOBUJPOPGTUBUJDBOEEZOBNJDNPEFMUIBUJTVTFEUP define the rFRVJSFECFIBWJPSPGBTZTUFNBOEJUTJOUFSBDUJPOXJUIBOFOWJSPONFOU 4ZT.-VTFTBTVCTFUPGUIF6.-CFIBWJPSEJBHSBNTBDUJWJUZEJBHSBN TFRVFODFEJBHSBN TUBUF NBDIJOFEJBHSBN BOEVTFDBTFEJBHSBN 0.(D "OPUIFSDBUFHPSZJOTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHJTBMHPSJUINT TDSJQUT BOEQSPHSBNTThese TJNJMBS NPEFMUZQFTBMMFYQSFTTQSPDFTTFTPGTFRVFOUJBM PSTPNFUJNFTQBSBMMFM BDUJPOTUPCFUBLFOCZBO BHFOU6TVBMMZUIFBHFOUJTBDPNQVUFSFTQFDJBMMZJOUIFDBTFPGTDSJQUTBOEQSPHSBNT "MMUIFBCPWFEJBHSBNTBOEBSUJGBDUTNBQUPJOUFSOBMNPEFMTJO.04&4The VTFDBTFEJBHSBN DBOBMTPCFVTFEUPFYQSFTTBOFYUFSOBMNPEFMJOUIFTFOTFPGEFTDSJCJOHUIFSFRVJSFECFIBWJPSPG UIFTZTUFNPGJOUFSFTU

Time

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0UIFSUSBEJUJPOBMNPEFMTJODMVEF1FUSJOFUTThese BSFNBUIFNBUJDBMMZCBTFEHSBQIJDBMNPEFMT PGEJTDSFUFCFIBWJPSPGTZTUFNTThe LFZFMFNFOUTBSFQMBDFT BSDT BOEUSBOTJUJPOT XIFSFBOBSDDPO OFDUTQMBDFTXJUIUSBOTJUJPOT&YUFOTJPOTUPUIFCBTJD1FUSJOFUTIBWFJODMVEFEDPMPSFE1FUSJOFUTBOE IJFSBSDIJDBM1FUSJOFUTUIBUBMMPXTVCOFUT (JSBVMUBOE7BML %ZOBNJDBMTZTUFNNPEFMTJODMVEFUIFQIBTFTQBDFPSCJUTPSUSBKFDUPSJFTPGTZTUFNT#PUIBUSB KFDUPSZBOEBOPSCJUBSFUIFTFRVFODFPGTZTUFNTUBUFTPWFSUJNF5ZQJDBMMZUIFUFSNiPSCJUwJTVTFE JGUIFCFIBWJPSTFRVFODFJTDZDMJD XIJMFiUSBKFDUPSZwJTVTFEJGUIFCFIBWJPSJTBDZDMJD%ifferFOUJBM FRVBUJPOTBSFVTFEUPNPEFMTZTUFNCFIBWJPSPOBDPOUJOVPVTUJNFTDBMF BOEdifferFODFFRVBUJPOT PSPUIFSUPPMT TVDIBT1FUSJOFUT BSFVTFEUPNPEFMTZTUFNCFIBWJPSPOBEJTDSFUFUJNFTDBMFThese NPEFMTUFOEUPNBQNPSFUP.04&4FYUFSOBMNPEFMTCFDBVTFUIFZDIBSBDUFSJ[FUIFCFIBWJPSPGUIF TZTUFNBTBXIPMF JODMVEJOHGPSQIZTJDBMTZTUFNTUIFJSQPTJUJPOBOEWFMPDJUZ GPSFYBNQMF"TVCTFU PGUIFEZOBNJDBMTZTUFNNPEFMTDIBSBDUFSJ[FTCFIBWJPSPGDIBPUJDTZTUFNT JODMVEJOHPSCJUTBSPVOE TUSBOHFBUUSBDUPST This DPOUFYUQSPWJEFTBOBEEJUJPOBMWJFXPGUIFMBXPGSFRVJTJUFWBSJFUZ $IBQUFS "TTVNFB TZTUFNIBTTJYEFHSFFTPGGSFFEPN PSTJYWBSJBCMFTPGCFIBWJPSThen JUTQIBTFTQBDFIBTTJYEJNFO TJPOT"TTVNFUIBUJUTQPTTJCMFCFIBWJPSUSBKFDUPSJFTBSFDBQUVSFEJOBTJYEJNFOTJPOBMQIBTFQPS USBJU/PXBTTVNFBSFHVMBUPSOFFETUPSFHVMBUFUISFFPGUIFTFWBSJBCMFTThen UIFSFHVMBUPSOFFET UPIBWFBUISFFEJNFOTJPOBMQIBTFQPSUSBJUUIBUJTUIFTBNFBTUIFUISFFEJNFOTJPOBMTVCTQBDFPG UIFTZTUFNTQIBTFQPSUSBJU XIFSFUIFTVCTQBDFJTCBTFEPOUIFUISFFWBSJBCMFTUPCFSFHVMBUFEThe QPJOUJTUIBUBNPSFQSFDJTFTUBUFNFOUPGUIFMBXJTUPTVDDFTTGVMMZSFHVMBUFBTZTUFN UIFWBSJFUZPG UIFSFHVMBUPSNVTUCFBUMFBTUBTMBSHFBTUIFWBSJFUZPGJOUFSFTUPGUIFSFHVMBUFETZTUFNThe WBSJFUZPG JOUFSFTUUPUIFSFHVMBUPSJOUIJTFYBNQMFJTUISFFPVUPGUIFTJYWBSJBCMFTThis JTDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIF i(PPE3FHVMBUPSwUIFPSFN EJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFS UIBUQPTJUTBSFHVMBUPSPGBTZTUFNBTBNPEFM PGUIBUTZTUFN

Models of Level 2 Change -FWFMQSPDFTTNPEFMTTIPXIPXBTZTUFNJUTFMGDIBOHFT BTPQQPTFEUPIPXJUCFIBWFT"TTIPXOJO 'JHVSF -FWFMDIBOHFTPDDVSEVSJOHTZTUFNGPSNBUJPO NBUVSBUJPO BOEGVMMGVODUJPOJOHThis TFDUJPOEJTDVTTFTDIBOHFNPEFMTGPSUSBEJUJPOBMBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT JODMVEJOHCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMT PGDIBOHF BOEUIFOEJTDVTTFT-FWFMCPVOEBSZDSPTTJOHDIBOHF

Traditional and Complex System Change Models 5BCMFTIPXTDPNNPOUFSNTGPSDIBOHFJOCPUIUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTBOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNT TVDI BTIVNBOT.BOBHJOHDIBOHFJTBMTPJODMVEFEJOUIFUBCMF #JPMPHZIBTNVMUJQMFNPEFMTBQQSPQSJBUFGPS-FWFMQSPDFTTFT5BCMFTVNNBSJ[FTBOVNCFS PGCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTPGDIBOHF*OFBDIDBTF UIFJOGPSNBUJPOJODMVEFTUIFDIBOHFNPEFMBOEUIF VOJUPGDIBOHF1SJNBSZTPVSDFTPGNBUFSJBMJOUIJTUBCMFBSF'VUVZNB BOE.BZS .PSFHFOFSBMNPEFMTUIBUVTFTPNFPGUIFBCPWFQSPDFTTFTBSFJOIFSJUBODFBOESFQSPEVDUJPO %FWFMPQNFOUPDDVSTPWFSNVDIPGUIFMJGFPGBOJOEJWJEVBMThe PUIFSQSPDFTTFTMJTUFEUFOEUP PDDVSNPSFTVEEFOMZ/PUFUIBUUIFEFTJHOBUJPOPGTVEEFODIBOHFWFSTVTDIBOHFPWFSUJNFJTOPU JOIFSFOUPSBCTPMVUF*ODBTFTXIFSFUIFUJNFTDBMFJTWFSZfine HSBJOFE BMMUIFDIBOHFTJO5BCMF DPVMECFSFHBSEFEBTPDDVSSJOHPWFSUJNF "OPUIFSTPVSDFPGCJPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTFTJTUIFPQFOCJPMPHJDBMPOUPMPHZ 0#0

BOEspecifically UIFCJPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTPOUPMPHZ 0#0

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Table 9.1 Level 2 Change and Change Management Change in Phase System Type

Formation

TS

Development

CS (humans)

Gestation

Maturation Improvement, refactoring Growth, learning

Full Functioning Sustainment (External) Adaptation (Self)

Managing Change Configuration mgt Feedback, peer pressure, homeostasis

Boundary Crossing Change .PTUPGUIFDIBOHFEJTDVTTFEJOUIJTTFDUJPOJTDIBOHFPGBOFOUJUZXJUIJOJUTFMGUIBUJT DIBSBD UFSJTUJDTDIBOHFCVUUIFFOUJUZSFUBJOTJUTJEFOUJUZPSUIFDBUFHPSJFTJUJTJOPSUIFDPSSFTQPOEFODF UPNPEFMT4PNFUJNFT IPXFWFS DIBOHFJTTPsignificant UIBUBOFOUJUZCFDPNFTBOPUIFSFOUJUZPS NPWFTUPBdifferFOUDBUFHPSZ BTJMMVTUSBUFEJO'JHVSF'PSFYBNQMF BTZTUFNDIBOHFTUPUIF QPJOUUIBUJUOPMPOHFSsatisfies JUTSFRVJSFNFOUTNPEFM TPJUDSPTTFTUIFCPVOEBSZPGUIFNPEFM SFHJPOGSPNJOTJEFUPPVUTJEF"MUFSOBUJWFMZ BTZTUFNDPVMEDIBOHFPSCFDIBOHFETPJUOPXEPFT TBUJTGZJUTSFRVJSFNFOUTJUNPWFTGSPNPVUPGUIFSFHJPOUPJOUIFSFHJPO GSPNOPUDPSSFTQPOEJOH UPDPSSFTQPOEJOHUPUIFNPEFM"OFWFONPSFESBTUJDDIBOHF GSPNUIFTZTUFNTQPJOUPGWJFX JTB DIBOHFUPUIFQPJOUXIFSFJUCFDPNFTBdifferFOUTZTUFN*OBEEJUJPO UIFDPSSFTQPOEFODFDIBOHFT DBOBMTPCFBDIJFWFEJGUIFNPEFM FH UIFSFRVJSFNFOUT DIBOHFTBOEUIFTZTUFNEPFTOPUDIBOHF That JTB-FWFMUZQFPGDIBOHFCVUJUJTJODMVEFEIFSFUPQSFTFOUBNPSFDPNQMFUFTFUPGCPVOEBSZ DSPTTJOHDIBOHFUZQFT

Comparison of Selected Engineering Models 8FDPNQBSFUISFFFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMTCJHCBOHNPEFM JODSFNFOUBMNPEFM BOEFWPMVUJPONPEFM They BSFJMMVTUSBUFEBOEDPOUSBTUFEJO'JHVSF"TTVNFBTJUVBUJPOJOXIJDI VTFSTdefine UIFJS OFFETBUBQPJOUJOUJNF TBZ5 BTZTUFNJTEFWFMPQFEPWFSUJNFUPTBUJTGZUIFVTFSOFFETBOE VTFSOFFETDIBOHFXIJMFUIFTZTUFNJTCFJOHEFWFMPQFE*OUIFfigurFUIFGVMMUJNFQFSJPEJOXIJDI UIJTPDDVSTTUBSUTBUUJNF5BOEFOETBU5The SFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFODIBOHJOHVTFSOFFETBOEUIF DIBOHJOHTZTUFNWBSJFTBDDPSEJOHUPUIFUISFFFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMTThe CJHCBOHNPEFMEFWFMPQT Table 9.2 Biological Models of Change Change Model Development/growth Mutation Recombination Division Replacement Birth Death

Unit of Change Individual organism DNA/RNA DNA Cell Cell Individual organism Individual organism

Time

O

225

Change correspondence System change

Model change

A

Time 1

Time 2

A

A

A A

B Time 1

Figure 9.6

B

Model change

A

A

A

A

Effect: -------- In to out --------

Change to different system

System change

A

-------- Out to in -------

Change A into different system Replace A with different system

Time 2

Boundary crossing change examples.

UIFFOUJSFTZTUFNUPTBUJTGZUIFGVMMTFUPGSFRVJSFNFOUTThe TZTUFNJTEFWFMPQFEBOESFBEZUPVTF BU5 BOEJUsatisfies UIFVTFSOFFETdefined BU5 UIFTZTUFNJTEFTJHOBUFEBT4#JOUIFVQQFSMFGU QBSUPGUIFfigurF #FDBVTFVTFSOFFETIBWFDIBOHFECFUXFFO5BOE5 UIFSFJTBsignificant HBQ CFUXFFOUIFTZTUFNDBQBCJMJUZBOEXIBUUIFVTFSTOPXOFFEBU5

Changing user needs over time

Changing system over time

Needs at T1

Needs at T2

SI5

System at T4

SI4

System at T3

SI3

System at T2

SI2, SE2

Figure 9.7

T1

Needs at T4

Needs at T5

SE5

System at T5 SB5

Start

Needs at T3

SE4

SE3

T1 .. T5 = Time 1 .. Time 5 or = User needs S B5= System at T5, developed using big bang model S I2 .. S I5= System at T2 .. T5, developed using incremental model S E2 .. S E5= System at T2 .. T5, developed using evolution model

Comparison of Engineering Models

226 O


The JODSFNFOUBMNPEFMEFWFMPQTUIFTZTUFNJOTFWFSBMJODSFNFOUT XJUIBMMSFRVJSFNFOUTdefined BOEBMMPDBUFEUPJODSFNFOUT 4* 4* 4* 4* BU5The first JODSFNFOUIBTNJOJNBMDBQBCJMJUZ BOEFBDIJODSFNFOUBEETUPJU VOUJM4*SFQSFTFOUTUIFGVMMTZTUFN)PXFWFS MJLF4# UIFJODSFNFO UBMMZEFWFMPQFETZTUFN4*JTTUJMMUBSHFUFEUPUIFVTFSOFFETBU5 TPUIFSFJTBTJNJMBSHBQCFUXFFO UIFTZTUFNBOEUIFVTFSOFFETBU5 The FWPMVUJPONPEFMEJWJEFTUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGUIFTZTUFNJOUPQJFDFT BTJOUIFJODSFNFOUBM NPEFM CVUUIFFWPMVUJPONPEFMBTTVNFTDIBOHFBOEEPFTOPUDPNNJUUPBfinal HPBM"UFBDIJUFSB UJPO JUSFWJTJUTVTFSOFFET BOEPOMZdefines EFUBJMFESFRVJSFNFOUTGPSUIFOFYUTUFQ UPXBSEUIF updated user needs at that point). Thus, for example, at 5 UIFFWPMVUJPONPEFMEFMJWFST4& BOE SFBTTFTTFTVTFSOFFETBU5#BTFEPOUIBUSFBTTFTTNFOU JUdefines UIFOFYUJUFSBUJPOBT4& XIJDIJT UIFOFYUTUFQUPXBSEUIFOPXSFWJTFEVTFSOFFET The CJHCBOHBOEJODSFNFOUBMNPEFMTBSFCBTFEPOBDPNNJUNFOUUPfixFEOFFETBOESFRVJSF NFOUTUIBUEPOPUDIBOHFPWFSUJNFThe FWPMVUJPONPEFM IPXFWFS JTEFTJHOFEUPFYQFDUBOEBEBQU UPDIBOHF"TBSFTVMU UIFTZTUFN4&FOETVQDMPTFSUPVTFSOFFETBU5UIBOUIFTZTUFNTEFWFMPQFE CZFJUIFSPGUIFPUIFSUXPFOHJOFFSJOHNPEFMT "DUVBMMZ XIBUUIFfigurFEPFTOPUTIPXJTUIBUUIFFWPMVUJPONPEFMDPOUJOVFTUPMPPLGVSUIFS JOUPUIFGVUVSFBUFBDIJUFSBUJPO CFZPOE5 UPUSBDLUIFDIBOHJOHMPOHUFSNEJSFDUJPOThis BTQFDU PG UIF 4& FWPMVUJPO QSPDFTT JT EJTDVTTFE JO $IBQUFS FTQFDJBMMZ JO UFSNT PG UIF SPMMJOH XBWF NPEFM

Models of Level 3 Change This TFDUJPODPODFSOTIPXNPEFMTDIBOHF"EJTUJODUJPOJTNBEFCFUXFFODIBOHFPGspecific NPEFMT BOEDIBOHFPGHFOFSBMNPEFMT

Change of Specific Models 4pecific NPEFMTUFOEUPFYJTUNPSFJOUIFXPSLTQBDFQPSUJPOPGUIFNPEFMTQBDFUIBOJOUIFLOPXM FEHFTQBDFQPSUJPO*OUIJTTFDUJPOXFEFTDSJCFUIFDIBOHFPGBspecific NPEFMBTTPDJBUFEPOMZXJUI a specific system; that is, it exists only in the context of a specific correspondence set. The life span PGTVDIBNPEFMJTUJFEDMPTFMZUPUIFTZTUFNMJGFTQBO 'PSNBUJPOPGBspecific NPEFMPDDVSTEVSJOHUIFTZTUFNQMBOOJOHQIBTF*UJTGPSNFEUISPVHI DSFBUJPO PSUISPVHIUBJMPSJOH .BUVSBUJPOPGBspecific NPEFMPDDVSTEVSJOHTZTUFNGPSNBUJPO BOENBUVSBUJPO QIBTF'PS FYBNQMF SFRVJSFNFOUTPGUFODIBOHFBOENBUVSFJOUIFDPVSTFPGEFWFMPQJOHUIFTZTUFNBOEBSF EFWFMPQFEBOESefined furUIFSXIJMFUIFTZTUFNJTHBJOJOHJUTGVMMGVODUJPOBMJUZ 'VMMGVODUJPOJOHPDDVSTEVSJOHTZTUFNGVMMGVODUJPOQIBTF#PUITZTUFNBOENPEFMBSFGVMMZ GVODUJPOBMJOUIJTQIBTF CVUCPUINBZDIBOHF

Change of General Models (FOFSBMNPEFMTUFOEUPFYJTUNPSFJOUIFLOPXMFEHFTQBDFQPSUJPOPGUIFNPEFMTQBDFUIBOJOUIF XPSLTQBDFQPSUJPO"-FWFMDIBOHFPGBHFOFSBMNPEFMSFQSFTFOUTBDBUFHPSZDIBOHFUIBUJTEFDPV QMFEGSPNPSEPFTOPUSFMZPOJOEJWJEVBMDIBOHF(FOFSBMNPEFMDIBOHFTUIBUBSFBTTPDJBUFEXJUI JOEJWJEVBM - DIBOHFBSFDBMMFE-DIBOHFTBOEBSFEJTDVTTFEJOUIFTFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi.PEFMTPG $IBOHF*OWPMWJOH-FWFMTBOEw

Time

O

227

(FOFSBMNPEFMTUFOEUPCFSFMBUJWFMZTUBCMF BOEUIFJSSPMFJTUPQSPWJEFBHVJEFGPSPUIFSDIBOHFT TVDIBT-specific NPEFMDIBOHFPS-JOEJWJEVBMDIBOHFThey UZQJDBMMZSFQSFTFOUUFDIOPMPHJFT UIFPSJFT NFUBNPEFMT SFGFSFODFNPEFMT BOEQBUUFSOT$IBOHJOHBHFOFSBMNPEFMUFOETUPCFB DPNNVOJUZefforUCFDBVTFJUJTQBSUPGUIFFWPMVUJPOPGUIFLOPXMFEHFTQBDF"OFYDFQUJPOJTUIF DBUFHPSZPGHFOFSBMNPEFMTUIBUSFQSFTFOUUIFBCTUSBDUWJTJPOPSHPBMPGBspecific TZTUFNThat DBU FHPSZPGNPEFMTUFOETUPCFJOUIFXPSLTQBDF

Models of Change Involving Levels 1 and 2 This section discusses prPDFTTFTBOEDIBOHFTUIBUDPWFSCPUI-FWFMBOE-FWFM

Autopoiesis "VUPQPJFTJT .BUVSBOBBOE7BSFMB JTUIFQSPDFTTPGTFMGDSFBUJPOPSTFMGQSPEVDUJPOThe LFZ DPODFQUJTNBJOUBJOJOHJUTPXOPSHBOJ[BUJPO QSFTFSWJOHUIFSFMBUJPOBMOFUXPSLUIBUdefines JUBT BTZTUFNJDVOJUZ .BUVSBOB The TZTUFNUIBUHBWFSJTFUPUIJTUFSNXBTUIFCJPMPHJDBMDFMM The UFSNJTDPOUSBTUFEXJUIBMMPQPJFTJT XIJDIJTBQSPDFTTJOXIJDIBTZTUFNPGPOFUZQFQSPEVDFT BOPUIFSUZQF TVDIBTBGBDUPSZQSPEVDJOHBDBS#ZPVSdefinitions, BVUPQPJFTJTJTB-FWFMCFIBWJPS UIBUIBTB-FWFMeffect, XIFSFBTBMMPQPJFTJTJTTUSJDUMZB-FWFMCFIBWJPS/PUF IPXFWFS UIBUUIF effect PGUIFBVUPQPJFUJDCFIBWJPSJTJOUIFEJSFDUJPOPGNBJOUBJOJOHTUSVDUVSFJOUIFGBDFPGDIBOHF SBUIFSUIBODIBOHJOHTUSVDUVSF

Phase Space Concepts Phase Trajectories, Orbits, Portraits 8FJOEJDBUFEFBSMJFSUIBUQIBTFUSBKFDUPSJFTPSPSCJUTSFQSFTFOUEZOBNJDCFIBWJPSTFRVFODFTPGB TZTUFN XIJDINBLFTUIFN-FWFMQSPDFTTFT)PXFWFS XFDPVMEBMTPDPODFJWBCMZdefine BQIBTF USBKFDUPSZPGXIBUBTZTUFNJT UIBUJT IPXUIFTZTUFNJUTFMGDIBOHFTPWFSUJNF BTPQQPTFEUPJUT CFIBWJPS. This would be a LevFMQSPDFTT TherFJTBMTPDPODFJWBCMZUIFOPUJPOPGUIFQIBTFTQBDFBOEQIBTFUSBKFDUPSZPGBNPEFM XIJDI defines IPXUIFNPEFMDIBOHFTPWFSUJNFThis XPVMECFB-FWFMQSPDFTT*OGBDU UIF4&NPEFM TQBDFNBZQFSIBQTCFWJFXFEBTUIFQIBTFTQBDFPGNPEFMTPG4&TZTUFNT

Phase Transition *OUIFSNPEZOBNJDT QIBTFUSBOTJUJPOJTUIFTVEEFODIBOHFJOBTZTUFNGSPNPOFQIBTFUPBOPUIFS DMBTTJDBMMZUSBOTJUJPOJOHCFUXFFOTPMJE MJRVJE BOEHBTGPSNT*ODIBOHFUFSNT QIBTFUSBOTJUJPOJTB -FWFMDIBOHF JOTUBUF UIBUSFTVMUTJOB-FWFMDIBOHF JOGPSN

Self-Organizing Processes Self-Organization 4FMGPSHBOJ[BUJPOJTBQSPDFTTJOXIJDIUIFJOUFSOBMTUBUFPSTUSVDUVSFPGBTZTUFNUFOETUPCFDPNF NPSF PSHBOJ[FE XJUIPVU FYUFSOBM EJSFDUJPO PS DPOUSPM The DPODFQU IBT CFFO BQQMJFE UP B WBSJ FUZ PG EJTDJQMJOFT BOE TZTUFNT CPUI OBUVSBM BOE BStificial. The JTTVF PG NFBTVSJOH UIF EFHSFF PG

228

O


PSHBOJ[BUJPOJTOPUFOUJSFMZSFTPMWFE1PMBOJ BSHVFTUIBUJUDBOOPUCFNFBTVSFEBTBOJOUSJOTJD DIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGBTZTUFNBOEOFFETUIFBEEJUJPOPGBOPCTFSWFSBOBMPHPVTUPUIFDBTFGPSFNFS HFODF XIJDIJTPGUFOBTTPDJBUFEXJUITFMGPSHBOJ[BUJPO

Self-Organized Criticality 4FMGPSHBOJ[FEDSJUJDBMJUZ 40$ #BL 5BOH BOE8JFTFOGFME JTJOPOFTFOTFSFMBUFEUPCPUI QIBTFUSBOTJUJPOBOETFMGPSHBOJ[BUJPOThe DSJUJDBMJUZDPSSFTQPOETUPUIFDSJUJDBMQPJOUPGBQIBTF USBOTJUJPO*GUIJTDSJUJDBMQPJOUJTBOBUUSBDUPS JOUIFEZOBNJDBMTZTUFNTTFOTF UIFOUIFTZTUFNJT ESBXOUPUIJTQPJOUJOBTFMGPSHBOJ[JOHNBOOFS)PXFWFS UIFSFJTTPNFEFCBUFPOUIFEFHSFFUP XIJDI40$SFQSFTFOUTTFMGPSHBOJ[BUJPO 7FTQJHOBOJBOE;BQQFSJ 40$JTDPOUSBTUFEXJUIIJHIMZPQUJNJ[FEUPMFSBODF )05 BTBMUFSOBUFWJFXTJO$IBQUFS

Panarchy 1BOBSDIZ (VOEFSTPOBOE)PMMJOH JTBDPNQSFIFOTJWFQSPDFTTJOUFOEFEUPTDBMFVQUPSFTJM JFODFBOETVTUBJOBCJMJUZBUUIFMFWFMPGJOUFSBDUJOHFDPTZTUFNT FDPOPNJFT BOETPDJFUJFTThe CSPBE TVCKFDUBSFBJTUIFJOUFSBDUJPOCFUXFFOQFPQMFBOEOBUVSFThe XPSEQBOBSDIZXBTQJDLFEUPDPO USBTUXJUIDPOUSPMIJFSBSDIJFTBOEUPJODPSQPSBUFUIFDPODFQUPGUJNFBOEDZDMFTThrFFUIFNFTBSF CSPVHIUUPHFUIFSJOUIJTQSPDFTT 4UBCJMJUZ DIBOHF BOESFTJMJFODF $SPTTTDBMFJOUFSBDUJPOTBDSPTTBXJEFSBOHFPGTDBMFT JODMVEJOHUIFUJNFTDBMFBOEBMTPNPTU PGUIFTDBMFWJFXTXFEJTDVTTFEJO$IBQUFS "EBQUJWFDIBOHFBOEMFBSOJOHTMPXDZDMFTJOUFSTQFSTFEXJUISBQJEDIBOHFDZDMFT This QSPDFTTFNCSBDFTUIFUFOTJPOTBOEQBSBEPYFTPGFYQMPJUBUJPOBOEDPOTFSWBUJPO EFTUSVDUJPO BOE CJSUI SFMFBTF BOE SFPSHBOJ[BUJPO BOE TUBCJMJUZ BOE DIBOHF The JOUFHSBUFE FMFNFOUT PG UIJT QSPDFTTBSFGVMMZDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIF.04&4BQQSPBDIUPFYUFOTJPOBOEunification PGUSBEJUJPOBM BOEDPNQMFYTZTUFNTThe QBOBSDIZNPEFMDPVMECFBsignificant DPOUSJCVUPSUPUIF4&QSPDFTTFT PGUIFGVUVSF

Models at Runtime "NPWFNFOUBEESFTTJOHNPEFMTBUSVOUJNFIBTFNFSHFE"QSJNBSZUIFNFJTFYUFOEJOHNPEFM JOH JOUP SVOUJNF FYFDVUJPO PG TPGUXBSF BOE JOGPSNBUJPO TZTUFNT The NPUJWBUJPO JT UIF DIBOHF PDDVSSJOH JO SVOUJNF FYQFDUBUJPOT PG TPGUXBSF 4PGUXBSF JT NPSF EZOBNJD BOE NPSF EFDJTJPOT BOEDIBOHFTBSFNBEFBUSVOUJNF*O.04&4UFSNT UIJTJTQBSUPGUIFCMFOEJOHPG-FWFMBOE DIBOHFTXIFSFUIFTZTUFNDIBOHFTEVSJOHPQFSBUJPO 4PGUXBSFOFFETUPCFBEBQUBCMF flexible, BOESeconfigurable OPUKVTUJOUIFEFTJHOFOWJSPONFOU CVU JO UIF SVOUJNF FOWJSPONFOU *O BEEJUJPO NPSF TPGUXBSF BVUPOPNZ BT JO TFMGNBOBHJOH PS BVUPOPNJDGVODUJPOT JTFYQFDUFE4FMGBXBSFOFTTBOESeflection BSFBMTPJNQPSUBOUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT .PEFMESJWFOBQQSPBDIFTIBWFTUSFOHUIFOFEEFTJHOBOEQSPEVDUJPOPGTPGUXBSF CVUNPEFMJOHTVQ QPSUEVSJOHSVOUJNFJTXeak. That is what this moWFNFOUJTBUUFNQUJOHUPSFNFEZ 4VNNBSJFTPGUIFfirst UXPXPSLTIPQTPGUIJTHSPVQBSFJO#FODPNP #MBJS BOE'SBODF BOE#FODPNP 'SBODF BOE#MBJS

Time

O

229

Models of Change Involving Levels 2 and 3 Example -FWFMDIBOHFJOWPMWFTDIBOHFJOBNPEFM - UIBUJTJOUJNBUFMZBTTPDJBUFEXJUIDIBOHFJOJOEJ WJEVBMTZTUFNT - The NPEFMQMBZTUIFSPMFPGDBUFHPSZBOEUIFJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFNTQMBZUIFSPMF PGJOTUBODFTPGUIBUDBUFHPSZ-DIBOHFJTUIFMPDVTPGCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPO"OFYBNQMFXJMMIFMQ SFWFBMUIFTJNQMJDJUZPGUIF-DPODFQU -FUTDPOTJEFSUIFGPMMPXJOHTDFOBSJPPGNPEFMTBOEQPQVMBUJPOTJOUIFEPNBJOPGIVNBOBOBUPNZ 'JSTU BTTVNFUIBUFTTFOUJBMBOBUPNZPGIVNBOTPO&BSUIIBTOPUDIBOHFEEVSJOHUIFNJMMFOOJVN CFUXFFOZFBSTBOE"TTVNFBMTPUIBUIVNBOTXJMMTVSWJWFJOTPNFGPSNGPSUIFOFYUNJM MJPOZFBST BOEFTTFOUJBMDIBOHFTUPIVNBOBOBUPNZXJMMPDDVSPWFSUIBUQFSJPE UIBUJT CFUXFFOZFBST BOE'VSUIFSBTTVNFUIBUUIFBDUVBMQSPDFTTPGCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPOPGQPQVMBUJPOTPO &BSUIJTTVTDFQUJCMFUPDIBOHF CVUUIBUEVSJOHUIFQFSJPEUPJUEPFTOPUDIBOHF /Pw define four models: "UIFNPEFMPGIVNBOBOBUPNZdefined CZUIFDPNNVOJUZPGIVNBOBOBUPNJTUTBUBOZ HJWFOQPJOUJOUJNF '"UIFhigh-fidelity NPEFMPGIVNBOBOBUPNZBUBOZHJWFOQPJOUJOUJNF UIBUJT UIF NPEFMUIBUSeflects actual human anatomy at that time. $UIFNPEFMPGCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPOdefined CZUIFDPNNVOJUZPGFWPMVUJPOBSZCJPMPHJTUT PSUIFFRVJWBMFOU BUBOZHJWFOQPJOUJOUJNF '$ the high-fidelity model of biological evPMVUJPOBUBOZHJWFOQPJOUJOUJNF 5BCMFTIPXTUIFTFNPEFMTBUTFWFSBMQPJOUTJOUJNF (JWFOUIFBTTVNQUJPOTBCPWF XIBUDBOXFTBZBCPVUUIFdifferFODFTCFUXFFOUIFTFNPEFMTBOE XIBUMFWFMTUIFZSFQSesent? The rFMFWBOUQPJOUTJODMVEF '" '" BOE'"BSFBMMUIFTBNFCVU'"JTdifferFOUCFDBVTFFWPMVUJPOPGBOBUPNZ PDDVSSFEJOUIFIVNBOQPQVMBUJPOGSPNUP*UJTBO-DIBOHFCFDBVTFJU JTBNPEFMDIBOHF - CBTFEPODIBOHFJOUIFQPQVMBUJPOPGJOEJWJEVBMT - " " BOE"BSFBMMTPNFXIBUdifferFOUUIBUJT BMUIPVHIBDUVBMIVNBOBOBUPNZEJEOPU DIBOHFEVSJOHUIJTQFSJPE PVSVOEFSTUBOEJOHBOENPEFMPGJUEJEThese DIBOHFTUIFSFGPSF SFQSFTFOU-DIBOHFJONPEFMCVUOPUJOTZTUFNT "differs GSPN"GPSUXPSFBTPOT'JSTUBOBUPNJTUTQSFTVNBCMZMFBSOFENPSFBCPVUBOBU PNZ XIJDIJT-DIBOHF4FDPOE BOBUPNJTUTUSBDLFEUIFDIBOHFJOIVNBOBOBUPNZPWFS UIFDPVSTFPGUIFNJMMJPOZFBST TPUIBUDIBOHFJTBO-DIBOHF

Table 9.3 Sample Model Changes across Time Year Model FA A FC C

Change Level

1009

1909

2009

1002009

L2-3 L3 (L2-3) L2-3 L3

FA1 A1 FC1 C1

FA2 A2 FC2 C2

FA3 A3 FC3 C3

FA4 A4 FC4 C4

230 O


'$ '$ '$ BOE'$BSFBMMUIFTBNF/PDIBOHFJOUIFFTTFOUJBMFWPMVUJPOQSPDFTT PDDVSSFEBDSPTTUIJTUJNFQFSJPE $ $ $ BOE$BSFBMMdifferFOU$XBTUIFNPEFMPGDIBOHFJOIVNBOBOBUPNZJO XIJDI XBT TPNFUIJOH MJLF UIJT IVNBO BOBUPNZ EPFT OPU DIBOHF PWFS UJNF JU JT DPOTUBOU$SFQSFTFOUTFTTFOUJBMMZ%BSXJOTUIFPSZPGFWPMVUJPO$SFQSFTFOUTUIFDVSSFOU UIFPSZPGFWPMVUJPO XIJDIJTNPSFPSMFTTUIFNPEFSOTZOUIFTJTUIBUclarified UIFHFOFUJD SPMFJOWBSJBUJPO 'VUVZNB $XJMMSeflect XIBUFWFSBEEJUJPOBMMFBSOJOHUBLFTQMBDF PGUIFQSPDFTTPGFWPMVUJPOPWFSUIFOFYUNJMMJPOZFBST"MMUIFTFDIBOHFTBSFUPUIFNPEFM POMZ -

OPUUPUIFFWPMVUJPOQSPDFTTJUTFMG XIJDIXFBTTVNFEPFTOPUDIBOHFEVSJOHUIJT QFSJPE The DIBOHFGSPN$UP$XBTQSPCBCMZHSFBUFSUIBOUIFDIBOHFGSPN"UP"CFDBVTF BMUIPVHIPVSLOPXMFEHFPGBOBUPNZJODSFBTFEsignificantly UIFDIBOHFQSPCBCMZXBTOPUBT SBEJDBMBTUIBUSFQSFTFOUFECZ%BSXJOTUIFPSZ This FYBNQMFJMMVTUSBUFTUIFEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOBO-NPEFMDIBOHF XIJDIJTOPUBTTPDJBUFE XJUI TZTUFN DIBOHF BOE BO - DIBOHF XIJDI JT NPEFM DIBOHF CBTFE PO TZTUFN DIBOHF *O UIJTDBTF -DIBOHFXBTCBTFEPOMFBSOJOHNPSFBCPVUUIFTZTUFNTCFJOHNPEFMFE UIBUJT BCPVU JODSeasing fidelity of the model.

Applying Biological Evolution &WPMVUJPOIBTCFFOBEPNJOBOUBOEHSPXJOHUPQJDJO4&JOSFDFOUZFBST NVDINPSFUIBOPUIFS CJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTPGDIBOHF8FFYQMPSFJOUIJTTFDUJPOBdefinition PGCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPOBOEIPX UIFUFSNiFWPMVUJPOwJTVTFEJO4&

Evolution: Definition and Introduction #iological definition: #JPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPO BDDPSEJOHUP'VUVZNB BOE

JT iDIBOHFJOUIFQSPQFSUJFTPGHSPVQTPGPSHBOJTNTPWFSUIFDPVSTFPGHFOFSBUJPOTThe EFWFMPQNFOU PS POUPHFOZ PG BO JOEJWJEVBM PSHBOJTN JT OPU DPOTJEFSFE FWPMVUJPO *OEJWJEVBMPSHBOJTNTEPOPUFWPMWF(SPVQTPGPSHBOJTNT XIJDIXFNBZDBMMQPQV MBUJPOT VOEFSHP EFTDFOU XJUI modification z The DIBOHFT JO QPQVMBUJPOT UIBU BSF DPOTJEFSFE FWPMVUJPOBSZ BSF UIPTF UIBU BSF QBTTFE WJB UIF HFOFUJD NBUFSJBM GSPN POF HFOFSBUJPOUPUIFOFYU#JPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPONBZCFTMJHIUPSTVCTUBOUJBMJUFNCSBDFT FWFSZUIJOHGSPNTMJHIUDIBOHFTJOUIFQSPQPSUJPOTPGdifferFOUGPSNTPGBHFOFXJUIJO BQPQVMBUJPOUPUIFBMUFSBUJPOTUIBUMFEGSPNUIFFBSMJFTUPSHBOJTNUPEJOPTBVST CFFT PBLT BOEIVNBOTzThe AHFOFUJDBMUIFPSZPGOBUVSBMTFMFDUJPOzJTUIFLFZTUPOFPG DPOUFNQPSBSZFWPMVUJPOBSZUIFPSZz/BUVSBMTFMFDUJPOJTOPUUIFTBNFBTFWPMVUJPO &WPMVUJPOJTBUXPTUFQQSPDFTTUIFPSJHJOPGHFOFUJDWBSJBUJPOCZNVUBUJPOPSSFDPNCJ OBUJPO GPMMPXFECZDIBOHFTJOUIFGSFRVFODJFTPGBMMFMFTBOEHFOPUZQFT DBVTFEchiefly CZHFOFUJDESJGUPSOBUVSBMTFMFDUJPOw &OHJOFFSJOHdefinitions:*ODPOUSBTUUPCJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPO JOFOHJOFFSJOHBDPNNPONFBOJOHPG FWPMVUJPOJTDIBOHFJOBHJWFOJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFN SBUIFSUIBOJOBQPQVMBUJPO*O.04&4UFSNT UIJT UZQFBQQMJFTUPUIF-FWFMDIBOHFPGBOJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFNThis NFBOJOHPGFWPMVUJPOJTSeflected JO QISBTFTTVDIBT“This TZTUFNFWPMWFTPWFSUJNFw#JPMPHZVTFTUFSNTTVDIBTiBEBQUBUJPO wiHSPXUI w

Time

O

231

iEFWFMPQNFOU wBOEiNBUVSBUJPOwGPSUIJTUZQFPGJOEJWJEVBMDIBOHF#FDBVTFUIJTVTBHFPGFWPMVUJPO JTFTUBCMJTIFEJOFOHJOFFSJOH UIFHPBMBUUIJTQPJOUJTUPQSPNPUFSFDPHOJUJPOPGCPUINFBOJOHTPG UIFUFSNBOENBLJOHUIFEJTUJODUJPOTFYQMJDJU FWPMVUJPOJTHSBEVBMDIBOHFJOBOJOEJWJEVBMTZT UFNPSFOUJUZ BOE FWPMVUJPOJTHSBEVBMDIBOHFJOBQPQVMBUJPOPGJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFNTPSFOUJUJFT Which definition is being used in a givFOTJUVBUJPOTIPVMECFNBEFDMFBS The remainder of this subsection discusses definition (2). .04&4QFSTQFDUJWFPOdefinition *OUIFDPOUFYUPG4&BOEUIFJTTVFPGDIBOHF UIF.04&4 QPTJUJPOJTUIBUJUNBLFTTFOTFUPEFTJHOBUFBQPQVMBUJPOBTBDBUFHPSZ XJUIJUTNFNCFSTBTJOTUBODFT PGUIFDBUFHPSZ&BDICJPMPHJDBMQPQVMBUJPOIBTBdefined TFUPGDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTUIBUIPMETGPSBMM JUTJOTUBODFT4P FWPMVUJPOPGBQPQVMBUJPOJTDIBOHFJOBDBUFHPSZ XIJDIJTBDIBOHFJOBHFOFSBM NPEFMB-FWFMDIBOHF"OECFDBVTFJUJTJOUJNBUFMZBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIFDIBOHFPGUIFQPQVMB UJPOJOEJWJEVBMT JUJTEFTJHOBUFEBT-

Define the Unit of Selection &WPMVUJPODBOCFBQQMJFEUPBOZEPNBJOJOXIJDIVOJUTPGTFMFDUJPOBSFdefined BOEUIFZFYIJCJU WBSJFUZPOXIJDITFMFDUJPOPQFSBUFT#BMEXJOBOE$MBSL EJTDVTTUIFBQQMJDBUJPOPGFWPMV UJPOJOUIJTTFOTFUPUIFHFOFSBMBSFBPGEFTJHO6OJUTPGTFMFDUJPOJOEFTJHOFWPMVUJPODBOJODMVEF BSUJGBDUT TZTUFNT EFTJHOT BOEUBTLTUSVDUVSFT6OJUTPGTFMFDUJPOJOJOEVTUSZFWPMVUJPODBOJODMVEF FOUFSQSJTFTBOEPSHBOJ[BUJPOT*ONPEVMBSTZTUFNT UIFVOJUPGTFMFDUJPOEPFTOPUIBWFUPCFUIF XIPMFTZTUFN*UDBOCFBTVCTZTUFNPSDPNQPOFOUBOZXIFSFJOUIFDPNQPTJUJPOIJFSBSDIZThis QSPWJEFTHSeater granularity in selecting fit elements oWer unfit. *OTPNFBQQMJDBUJPOT UIFVOJUPGTFMFDUJPOJTBCFIBWJPSPGBTZTUFNThe CFIBWJPSTSFQSFTFOUB WBSJFUZ BOEDFSUBJOCFIBWJPSTBSFTFMFDUFEBOEPUIFSTBSFOPU*GXFDPOTJEFSUIFJOEJWJEVBMCFIBWJPST UPDIBOHF PSUIFGSFRVFODZPGCFIBWJPSTUPDIBOHFJOUIFQPQVMBUJPOPGCFIBWJPST UIFOXFDPVME DBMMUIJTBO-DIBOHF8FTIPVMEOPUFUIBUXIJMFUIJTJTBSFBTPOBCMFBQQMJDBUJPOPGFWPMVUJPO JUJTOPUDMFBSUIBUUIJTJTNPSFVTFGVMUIBOUIFTJNQMFSCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTUIBUFYJTUBU- TVDIBT BEBQUBUJPOPSNBUVSBUJPOPGUIFTZTUFN PSFWFO-CFIBWJPSPGUIFTZTUFN

Applications 0OFDMFBSBOEBQQSPQSJBUFXBZUPBQQMZFWPMVUJPOUP4&JTUPVTFHFOFSBMNPEFMTUIBUSFQSFTFOU DBUFHPSJFT"QSPNJOFOUFYBNQMFJTUZQFTPSHFOFSBUJPOTPGUFDIOPMPHJFT"QFSTQFDUJWFUIBUIFMQT FYQMBJOUIJTUZQFPGBQQMJDBUJPOJTUIBUPGFWPMVUJPOJOBDIBOHJOHFOWJSPONFOU*GUIFFOWJSPONFOU DIBOHFTUPPSBQJEMZ UIFQPQVMBUJPODBOOPUFWPMWFRVJDLMZFOPVHIBOEJUEJFTPVU *OUFDIOPMPHZBOE4& UIFFOWJSPONFOUTPNFUJNFTDIBOHFTRVJDLMZ8IFOUIF*OUFSOFUFNFSHFE JOUIFT JUXBTBSBUIFSSBQJEBOEsignificant DIBOHFGPSJOEJWJEVBMT BOEBTPNFXIBUNPSF HSBEVBMDIBOHFGPSPSHBOJ[BUJPOT.BOZJOEJWJEVBMTRVJDLMZBEBQUFEBOEFYQMPJUFEUIFOFXFOWJ SPONFOU CVUTPNFEJEOPU"GUFSBQFSJPEPGUJNF JGPSHBOJ[BUJPOTEJEOPUBEBQU UIFZXFSFQSPC BCMZBUBEJTBEWBOUBHF/PXUIFSFJTBOPUIFSHFOFSBUJPOPGUFDIOPMPHJFTDBMMFE8FC TVDIBT CMPHTBOEXJLJT*OUIFDPOUFYUPGPSHBOJ[BUJPOT TPNFDBMMUIJT&OUFSQSJTFThis DPODFQUJTOPU HBJOJOHUSBDUJPOJOPSHBOJ[BUJPOTBTGBTUBTFYQFDUFE $IVSDI #BTFEPOBOFDEPUBMFWJEFODF UIFSFJTBHFOFSBUJPOBMdifferFODFJOBDDFQUBCJMJUZPG&OUFSQSJTFUFDIOPMPHJFTUIFPMEFSHFOFSB UJPOPGQFPQMFJTNPSFDPOUFOUUPTUBZXJUIfirst-generation *OUFSOFUUFDIOPMPHJFTTVDIBTFNBJM XIJMFUIFOFXFSHFOFSBUJPOJTVTJOHUIFOFXUFDIOPMPHJFTNPSF *O4& FWPMVUJPOJOQPQVMBUJPOTTVDIBTPSHBOJ[BUJPOTDBOPDDVSJOTFWFSBMXBZT0OFJTCZBEBQ UBUJPOPGUIFJOEJWJEVBMNFNCFSTUPBOFXFOWJSPONFOU XIJDIJTXIBUIBQQFOFE UPBMBSHFFYUFOU

232 O


XJUI UIF *OUFSOFU "OPUIFS JT CZ SFQMBDFNFOU FH UISPVHI SFUJSFNFOU BOE IJSJOH PG NFNCFST XIPIBWFOPUBEBQUFECZOFXNFNCFSTXIPBMSFBEZfit UIFOFXFOWJSPONFOU XIJDIBQQBSFOUMZJT IBQQFOJOHUPTPNFEFHSFFXJUI&OUFSQSJTF"defined QSPDFTTPGBQQMZJOHFWPMVUJPOUPPSHBOJ[B UJPOTJTQSFTFOUFEJO"YFMSPEBOE$PIFO BOEEJTDVTTFEGVSUIFSJO$IBQUFS The TBNFQBUUFSOFYJTUTXJUINPSFUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNT*GUIFFOWJSPONFOUPGBTZTUFNDIBOHFT JOBXBZUIBUSFRVJSFTsignificant DIBOHFTUPUIFTZTUFN BOBOBMZTJTOFFETUPCFEPOFUPDPNQBSF UIFPQUJPOTPGDIBOHJOH BEBQUJOH UIFTZTUFNUPUIFOFXFOWJSPONFOU PSSFQMBDJOHJUXJUIBOFX system that has a better fit. The NPSF HFOFSBM QBUUFSO JT UIBU HFOFSBUJPOT PG UFDIOPMPHZ SFQSFTFOU QPQVMBUJPOT BOE TZT UFNTVTJOHPSSFQSFTFOUJOHUIPTFUFDIOPMPHJFTBSFJOEJWJEVBMT5FDIOPMPHJFTFWPMWFWJBTFMFDUJPOPG TZTUFNT 4DJFOUJTUTBOEscientific UIFPSJFTIBWFFYIJCJUFEUIFTBNFUFOTJPO UIFTBNFQBUUFSO.BY1MBODL FYQSFTTFEUIFQBUUFSOUIJTXBZJO "OJNQPSUBOUscientific JOOPWBUJPOSBSFMZNBLFTJUTXBZCZHSBEVBMMZXJOOJOHPWFSBOE DPOWFSUJOHJUTPQQPOFOUT8IBUEPFTIBQQFOJTUIBUJUTPQQPOFOUTHSBEVBMMZEJFPVU BOEUIBUUIFHSPXJOHHFOFSBUJPOJTGBNJMJBSJ[FEXJUIUIFJEFBGSPNUIFCFHJOOJOH *OGBDU UIFQBUUFSOJOTDJFODFJODMVEFTUIFQIFOPNFOPOXIFSFFWFOBTDJFOUJTUXIPQSPQPTFTBOFX UIFPSZDBOOPUBDDFQUJU XIJMFUIFOFXFSHFOFSBUJPOJOUIFfiFMEFNCSBDFTJU"XFMMLOPXOFYBNQMFJT &JOTUFJO XIPNBEFTVCTUBOUJBMDPOUSJCVUJPOTUPRVBOUVNUIFPSZCVUDPVMEOPUBDDFQUNBOZBTQFDUT PGUIFUIFPSZ JODMVEJOHTPNFPGIJTPXOJNQMJDBUJPOT *TBBDTPO 4UPOF

Distinctions, Differences 4PNFEJTUJODUJPOTCFUXFFOUIFFWPMVUJPOQSPDFTTJOCJPMPHZBOEJO4&BSFEJTDVTTFEIFSF *OIFSJUBODFBOEJUTSPMFJOFWPMVUJPO*OCJPMPHZ UIFSFJTBTUSPOHHFOFUJDMJOLGSPNUIFPMEUPUIF OFXUISPVHIUIFJOIFSJUBODFDIBJO/PJOEJWJEVBMTZTUFN PSHBOJTN JTTJNQMZDSFBUFEXJUIBXIPMF differFOUTFUPGHFOFT&WFSZUIJOHJTMJOLFEUISPVHIDPNNPOEFTDFOU#VUJOFOHJOFFSJOH UIFSFJT BNVDIDMFBOFSCSFBLJONBOZDBTFTGSPNPOFUFDIOPMPHZHFOFSBUJPOUPUIFOFYUTher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

Time

O

233

*OCJPMPHZ NVUBUJPOTPDDVSXIFODPQZJOHUIFHFOPNF XIJDIJTPOFTPVSDFPGUIFWBSJBUJPO OFDFTTBSZGPSFWolution. The counterparUJOTPGUXBSFJTHFOFUJDQSPHSBNNJOH "Stificial FWPMVUJPOTherFJTBSFTFBSDIDPNNVOJUZFYQMPSJOHBStificial FWPMVUJPO XIJDIJTSFMBUFE UPBStificial MJGFThis field defines BOEVTFTNPEFMTPGBHFOUT fitness MBOETDBQFT TFMFDUJPODSJUFSJB FUD"DDPSEJOHUP%VDPVMPNCJFSBOE4FCBH

BStificial FWPMVUJPOVTVBMMZDPOTJEFSTfixFEFOWJ SPONFOUTPSfitness MBOETDBQFT'PSBQQMJDBUJPOUPUIFGVUVSFPG4& UIJTMJNJUBUJPOXPVMEOFFEUP CFSFWJTJUFE

Conclusions: Needed Change Models This TFDUJPObriefly DIBSBDUFSJ[FTUIFTVJUFPGDIBOHFNPEFMTOFFEFECZUIFGVUVSF4& CVJMEJOHPO UIFQSFDFEJOHTFDUJPOT'JSTU JUJTFYUSFNFMZJNQPSUBOUUPJODMVEFNPEFMTPGDIBOHFJOUIFBSTFOBM PG4&PGUIFGVUVSF8FCFMJFWFUIJTBSFBJTRVJUFXFBLJOUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH#JPMPHJDBM FWPMVUJPOJTPOFPGBOVNCFSPGCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTPGDIBOHF4&OFFETUPFYBNJOFPUIFSTBTXFMM The BQQSPQSJBUFTFMFDUJPOPGCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMTPGDIBOHF BOEBQQSPQSJBUFXBZTUPBQQMZUIFNBOE UBJMPSUIFNUP4&BUWBSJPVTMFWFMT JTBTVCKFDUGPSGVSUIFSSFTFBSDI 8FDBO IPXFWFS EFTDSJCFDFSUBJODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFOFFEFETVJUFPGDIBOHFNPEFMTGPS4& The TVJUF JODMVEFT NPEFMT BU BMM SBUFT GSPN WFSZ HSBEVBM DIBOHF PWFS UJNF UP TVEEFO DIBOHF *U JODMVEFTNPEFMTPGTFMGDIBOHF TVDIBTTFMGBEBQUJOH TFMGNPEJGZJOH TFMGPSHBOJ[JOH FH )PMMBOE Kauffman

HSPXUI EFDMJOF BOE UFSNJOBUJPO PS EFBUI *U BMTP JODMVEFT NPEFMT PG DIBOHFJOEVDFECZBOFYUFSOBMBHFOU TVDIBTBEFTJHOFSPSDPOUSPMMFSPSVQHSBEFSPSUFBDIFS*U includes purposeful change, accidental change, and influenced change. *U BMTP JODMVEFT EFTJSFE DIBOHF BOE VOEFTJSFE DIBOHF BT TIPXO JO5BCMF *O HFOFSBM B HJWFOTJUVBUJPOIBTCPUIGPSDFTGPSDIBOHFBOEGPSDFTGPSTUBCJMJUZ4PNFUJNFTXFEFTJSFDIBOHFBOE TPNFUJNFTXFEFTJSFTUBCJMJUZ'PSFYBNQMF JGXFBSFFOHJOFFSJOHBOFXTZTUFN XFPSUIFQFSTPO SFRVFTUJOHUIFOFXTZTUFNEFTJSFDIBOHFPGTPNFUZQF*GXFEFTJSFDIBOHF XFTIPVMEFYQMPJU UIFGPSDFTGPSDIBOHFBOEDPVOUFSUIFGPSDFTGPSTUBCJMJUZ*ONBOZDBTFTPGPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMDIBOHF TPNFQFPQMFEFTJSFUIFDIBOHF XIJMFPUIFSTEPOPUThose EFTJSJOHDIBOHFXJMMFYQMPJUUIFGPSDFT GPSDIBOHF TVDIBTUIFdifficulties DBVTFECZUIFDVSSFOUTJUVBUJPO BOEUIPTFPQQPTFEUPDIBOHFXJMM FYQMPJUUIFGPSDFTGPSTUBCJMJUZ, such as cost, difficulty of change, inerUJB *OLFFQJOHXJUIUIFNPEVMBSOBUVSFPG.04&4 JUJTJNQPSUBOUUPFNQIBTJ[FUIBUDIBOHFJT EFDPVQMFEGSPNUIFWBMVFPSEFTJSBCJMJUZPGUIFDIBOHF BTTUBUFEJO$IBQUFSThe BOBMZTJTBOE NPEFMJOHPGDIBOHFJTPOFBDUJWJUZ"TFQBSBUFBDUJWJUZJTUIFEFTJHOBUJPOUIBUUIFDIBOHFSFQSFTFOUT QSPHSFTTPSEFDMJOF PSJTEFTJSFEPSVOEFTJSFE5BCMFSFQSFTFOUTBTUBUFJOXIJDITVDIBEFTJHOB UJPOIBTCFFONBEF&WPMVUJPOJTEFDPVQMFEGSPNWBMVBUJPOPGUIFDIBOHFUIBUPDDVST

Table 9.4 Actions

Desired and Undesired Change

Forces Desired

Change

Stability

Change Stability

Exploit Counter

Counter Exploit

234

O


*O TFMFDUJOH NPEFMT GPS TZTUFNT FOHJOFFSJOH BOE FTQFDJBMMZ JO UIF DPOUFYU PG .04&4 XF FNQIBTJ[FBQPJOUNBEFJOFBSMJFSDIBQUFSTXFXBOUNPEFMTUIBUBSFVTFGVMXFBSFOPUTPDPO DFSOFEXJUIXIFUIFSUIFZBSFUSue. This should be kept in mind when wFBSFFYBNJOJOHCJPMPHJDBM NPEFMTGPSUIFJSVTFGVMOFTTUP4&The DPODFSOPGTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSTJTBCPVUUIFfidelity PGCJPMPHJ DBMUIFPSJFTPSNPEFMTUPUIFTPDJPUFDIOJDBMTZTUFNTXFCVJME "OJNQPSUBOUBTQFDUPGUIJTBSHVNFOUJTUIBUCJPMPHJDBMNPEFMT BOE$4NPEFMTJOHFOFSBM PGUFO IBWFHSFBUFSfidelity UPNBOZUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTUIBOEPNFDIBOJTUJDNPEFMT BTBSHVFEJO$IBQUFS 4. That claim is an element of MOSES unification.

Time and Change Related to Other Dimensions 8FIBWFNFOUJPOFETPNFDPOOFDUJPOTPGUJNFXJUIPUIFSEJNFOTJPOTJOFBSMJFSTFDUJPOTJOUIJT DIBQUFS)FSFBSFBGFXNPSFDPOOFDUJPOT

Dual Hierarchy ThFDPODFQUPGEVBMIJFSBSDIZIBTCFFOEJTDVTTFEJOTFWFSBMQMBDFT JO UIF CPPL *U PDDVST JO UIF DPNQPTJUJPO DPNNPOJ[BUJPO BOE DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOEJNFOTJPOTPGUIFNPEFMTQBDF*TUIFSFBOBOBMP HPVTEVBMJUZJOUIFUJNFEJNFOTJPO The BOTXFSJTZFT BOE4UFQIFO )BXLJOH $IBQUFS IBTQSPWJEFEBQIZTJDTWFSTJPOPGJU UIBUXFXJMMVTFBTUIFCBTJTGPSPVSNPSFHFOFSBM4&WFSTJPO 'JHVSFTIPXTUIFCBTJDTUSVDUVSFPGUIFEVBMIJFSBSDIZThe QSFTFOUJTUIFQPJOUJOUJNFUIBUDPOOFDUTBOETFQBSBUFTUIFQBTU BOE GVUVSF TQBDFT .PSF specifically UIF QSFTFOU JT UIF DVSSFOU TUBUFPGBTZTUFN UIFQBTUJTUIFTFUPGTUBUFTUIBUDPVMEMFBEUP UIFDVSSFOUTUBUF BOEUIFGVUVSFJTUIFTFUPGTUBUFTUPXIJDIUIF DVSSFOUTUBUFDPVMEMFBE"MMPUIFSTUBUFTMJFJOUIFiFMTFXIFSFwPG UIFDVSSFOUTZTUFNTUBUFUIFZDBOOPUMFBEUPUIFDVSSFOUTUBUF BOEUIFDVSSFOUTUBUFDBOOPUMFBEUPUIFNThe figurFDPVMEIBWF TFWFSBMJOUFSQSFUBUJPOT5XPPGUIFNBSF

ABSOLUTE FUTURE

PRESENT ELSEWHERE ELSEWHERE ABSOLUTE PAST

Figure 9.8 Dual hierarchies of time. (“Interior illustration” by Ron Miller, ©1988 by Ron Miller, from A Brief History of Time by Stephen W. Hawking. Used with permission from Bantam Books, a division of Random House, Inc.)

5SBKFDUPSZ QPUFOUJBM WJFX The QBTU QSFTFOU BOE GVUVSF SFQSFTFOU B TOBQTIPU PG UIF DPO TUSBJOFEQIBTFTQBDFPGUIFTZTUFN XIFSFUIFDPOTUSBJOUJTUIFDVSSFOUTUBUF N 1BTU BMMQPTTJCMFQSFWJPVTTUBUFTBOEUSBKFDUPSJFTPGTZTUFNUIBUMFBEUPUIFQSFTFOU TUBUF N 'VUVSFBMMQPTTJCMFGVUVSFTUBUFTBOEUSBKFDUPSJFTPGTZTUFNSFBDIBCMFGSPNUIFQSFTFOU TUBUF This JOUFSQSFUBUJPOJTUIFWJFX BMPOHXJUIUIFDPNQMFUFQIBTFTQBDF JOXIJDIXF define and analyzFNPEFMTPGTZTUFNCFIBWJPS 5SBKFDUPSZLOPXMFEHFWJFX N 1BTUBDUVBMQSFWJPVTTUBUFTBOEUSBKFDUPSZPGTZTUFN N 1SFTFOUDVSSFOUTUBUFPGTZTUFN )BXLJOHTEFTDSJQUJPO iThFBCTPMVUFGVUVSFPGJTUIFSFHJPOJOTJEFUIFGVUVSFMJHIUDPOF PG1*UJTUIFTFUPGBMMFWFOUTUIBUDBOQPTTJCMZCFBffFDUFECZXIBUIBQQFOTBU1w

Time

O

235

N 'VUVSFBDUVBMGVUVSFTUBUFTBOEUSBKFDUPSZPGTZTUFN The DPOTUSBJOUIFSFJTUIFBNPVOUPGLOPXMFEHFPGQBTU QSFTFOU BOEGVUVSFXIBU EPXFLOPXBCPVUUIFBDUVBMQBTUTUBUFTBOEUSBKFDUPSZUIBUMFEUPUIFQSFTFOUTUBUFBOE BCPVUUIFQSFTFOUTUBUFBOEBCPVUUIFBDUVBMTUBUFTBOEUSBKFDUPSZUIBUMFBEGSPNUIF QSFTFOUTUBUFUPUIFGVUVSF This JTUIFWJFXJOXIJDIXFdefine BOEBOBMZ[FTZTUFNTJOUFSNTPGBDUVBMQBTU TUBUFT BOE QSFEJDUFE GVUVSF TUBUFT *U XPVME CF SFBTPOBCMF UP TVQQPTF UIBU XF IBWF LOPXMFEHFPGUIFQBTUBOEDFSUBJOMZPGUIFDVSSFOUTUBUFPGBTZTUFN CVUJOHFOFSBMXF POMZIBWFQBSUJBMLOPXMFEHFPGCPUIUIFQBTUUSBKFDUPSZBOEUIFDVSSFOUTUBUF BTXFMMBT UIFGVUVSF FTQFDJBMMZPGMBSHFPSDPNQMFYTZTUFNT"GFXFYBNQMFT N 1BTU )JTUPSJBOTBOBMZ[FJOGPSNBUJPOBCPVUUIFQBTU GPSMBSHFTZTUFNTTVDIBT TPDJFUJFT UP EFUFSNJOF UIF QBTU TUBUFT BOE UIF USBKFDUPSZ UIBU MFE UP UIF DVSSFOU TUBUF %FUFDUJWFTBOEKVSZUSJBMTBOBMZ[FQBTUTUBUFTUPEFUFSNJOFJGBEFGFOEBOU BDUVBMMZDPNNJUUFEBDSJNF*GUIFEFGFOEBOUDBOQSPWJEFDPOWJODJOHFWJEFODFUIBU IFXBTJOUIFFMTFXIFSFPGUIFDSJNFFWFOUGPSFYBNQMF IFXBTJOBQIZTJDBM MPDBUJPOdiffer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

Other Relations "MM UIF EJNFOTJPOT IBWF TPNF WBSJBUJPO PG TUBUJD WJFXT BOE EZOBNJD WJFXT *O UIF DPNQPTJUJPO EJNFOTJPO BTUBUJDWJFXJTUIBUBDPOUBJOFEQBSUDBOPOMZCFJOPOFXIPMFBEZOBNJDWJFXJTUIBUB DPOUBJOFEQBSUDBOCFJONVMUJQMFXIPMFTDPOTFDVUJWFMZ BUdiffer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specification $IBQUFS

FTQFDJBMMZWerificaUJPO BOEJOBVUPNBUJPO"WJFXUIBUJTJNQPSUBOUUP4&BOE.04&4JTUIBUUFNQPSBMMPHJDJTB

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245

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V1

V2

V3

V4

C1

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r1

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p1

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Output view; e.g., pipeline model

r2

S2

p2

N2

r3

S3

Examples of interaction view; e.g., client-server model

Figure 10.1

Contrasting views of components in interaction.

p3

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Table 10.2 Recommended Design Views Design View

Scope

Entity Attributes

Decomposition

Partition of the system into design entities

Dependency

Description of the relationships Identification, type, among entities and system purpose, resources dependencies, resources List of everything a designer, Identification, programmer, or tester needs to function, interfaces know to use the design entities that make up the system Description of the internal Identification, design details of an entity processing, data

Interface description

Detail description

Identification, type, purpose, function, subordinates

Example Representations Hierarchical decomposition diagram, natural language Structure charts, data flow diagrams, transaction diagrams Interface files, parameter tables

Flowcharts, N-S charts, PDL

Source: IEEE. IEEE Recommended Practice for Software Design Descriptions. IEEE 1016-1998. New York: IEEE Computer Society, 1998. Used with permission.

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Figure 10.2 Zachman enterprise framework. (Source: Published by Zachman International, 2008. http://www.zachmaninternational.com/ index.php/the-zachman-framework.)


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Figure 10.3

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Figure 10.4

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Did Parnas Anticipate Features of Aspects? Parnas, in his famous decomposition criteria paper (1972, 1057), may have presaged or foreshadowed concepts that later became key elements of aspect-oriented programming. In his discussion of performance issues with his KWIC information hiding design (because it would cause many calls to the same Line Storage module), he said: “To save the procedure call overhead, yet gain the advantages that we have seen above, we must implement these modules in an unusual way. In many cases the routines will be best inserted into the code by an assembler; in other cases, highly specialized and efficient transfers would be inserted. To successfully and efficiently make use of the second type of decomposition will require a tool by means of which programs may be written as if the functions were subroutines, but assembled by whatever implementation is appropriate. If such a technique is used, the separation between modules may not

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science be clear in the final code. For that reason additional program modification features would also be useful. In other words, the several representations of the program (which were mentioned earlier) must be maintained in the machine together with a program performing mapping between them.” We suggest that this description contains concepts that have some resemblance to weaving and other processes that were defined 25 years later as features of aspect-oriented programming.

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Table 10.3 Examples of Harmonizing Traditional and Complex Dualities Traditional

Complex

Harmony/Balance

Order Simple Top down Control

Disorder Complex Bottom up Autonomy, laissez faire

Avoid change

Encourage change

Both coexist Both coexist Both: back and forth, opportunistic Both: arrangement, influence, higher-order patterns Both: find and exploit stability, find and exploit change, use stability to guide change Analyze both whole and parts

Reductionism: Analyze Emergence: Analyze parts whole Pure dictatorship/ Pure democracy/ one over all everyone is equal Avoid risk, even if it Embrace opportunity, arises from significant even if it entails opportunity significant risk Do what we know Try something new

Everyone has a voice, but leadership arises, emerges, sanctioned by the group; a few are leaders, many are followers Risk and opportunity; evaluate appropriate balance Explicitly trade off the two; or sometimes do a combination of both; or do both in parallel and see which works out better. In situations where a binary choice must be made, having the perspective, the sense, the awareness, the gestalt, to know which to pick is an important kind of knowledge or intuition. This is a universal trade-off.

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Definitions 8FIBWFJOGPSNBMMZEFfiOFEWJFXBOESFMBUFEDPODFQUTFBSMJFSJOUIFDIBQUFS/PXXFQSFTFOUUIF GVMMTFUPGEFfiOJUJPOT8FQSPQPTFUIBUUIFGPMMPXJOHFMFNFOUTFYJTUJODPOOFDUJPOXJUIFWFSZWJFX \WJFXQPJOU PCKFDUPSUBSHFU PCTFSWFSPSBHFOU TFMFDUPSPSJOUFSQSFUFSPSBCTUSBDUPS BCTUSBDUJPOPS WJFX^8FOPXFYQMBJOFBDIFMFNFOU O 7JFXQPJOUBTQBDFUJNFSFHJPO OPUKVTUBQPJOUDBOCFQIZTJDBMPSDPODFQUVBM UIBUSFQSF TFOUTBQPTJUJPOGSPNXIJDIUIFUBSHFUJTPCTFSWFE&YBNQMFFYUFSOBMWJFXPG%CMPDLJT PCTFSWFEGSPNWJFXQPJOU\JOTJEFB%TQIFSFTVSSPVOEJOHUIFCMPDLJOBUJNFSBOHFPS UJNFQPJOU^ O 5BSHFUTZTUFNPSPUIFSFOUJUZUIBUJTCFJOHPCTFSWFEPSWJFXFEThFUBSHFUNBZUBLFUIF GPSNPGBEFfiOFEXPSMEThFSFDBOCFNVMUJQMFWJFXTPGBUBSHFU5XPDPNNPOUBSHFUTBSF BTQFDJfiDTZTUFNUIBUFYJTUTPSUIBUXFQMBOUPCVJME BOE BMMQPTTJCMFTZTUFNTUIBU DPSSFTQPOEUPUIFNPEFM JF UIFNPEFMSFHJPO O 0CTFSWFSQFSTPOPSPUIFSBHFOUUIBUPCTFSWFTUIFUBSHFU QPTTJCMZXJUIUIFBJEPGTVQQPSU JOHUPPMTPSBHFOUTTVDIBT GPSQIZTJDBMUBSHFUT UFMFTDPQF NJDSPTDPQF UIFSNPNFUFS TFO TPS QSPCF DBNFSB N 7JFXPCTFSWFSTBHFOUTEPNPSFUIBOKVTUTFFUIFWJFXThFZEFfiOFUIFWJFX UIFWJFX QPJOU UIFPCKFDU BOETFSWFBTTFMFDUPS JOUFSQSFUFS PSBCTUSBDUPS4PWJFXPCTFSWFST HPCFZPOE BOEBSFNPSFBDUJWFUIBO TZTUFNPCTFSWFSTEFfiOFSTThFZBSFBTBDUJWFBT NPEFMEFfiOFSTPCTFSWFST N *UJTTPNFUJNFTVTFGVMUPEJTUJOHVJTIBOBDUJWFBHFOUTVDIBTBIVNBOGSPNBQBTTJWF PCTFSWFSTVDIBTBTFOTPS FH BUIFSNPNFUFS N 4PGUXBSFDBOCFBOBHFOU BOEDBOSBOHFGSPNQBTTJWFUPBDUJWF

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Figure 10.5

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Chapter 11

Specification Information Systems taxonomy 1

Modeling scope



D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

Problem space

3a




Define need


Model Space



Universal model

Composition



Solution domain


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e

m

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Deployment

Satisfy need


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External = Black box view Internal = Clear box view

Internal specification of A

A The internal specification of a system (A) includes the external specification of each of its components (B, ...) –or–

B r3

The architecture of a system (A) includes the requirements of each of its components (B, …)

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Figure 11.1 Internal, external, and interface specifications. (Source: Hybertson, D. Using a specification approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213–237. 2005. Modified with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.)

Specification Information

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Elements and Background of Approach A general source for the specification approach described here is Szyperski (1998), as well as the general SOA approach to service specifications. An important element of achieving precision in specification is a clear understanding of dependencies. Traditional systems specifications define what services or stuff are provided but not what are required. Luckham, Vera, and Meldal (1995) describe an “object connection architecture” as an architecture of a system in which component interfaces define services provided but not services used or required. They suggest, instead, “interface connection architectures” that specify both services provided and services required. An approach that supports this concept is Design by Contract (DBC), defined by Meyer (1997). DBC originally emphasized contract provisions in the code itself, and the focus was primarily on behavioral or functional — as opposed to non-functional or performance — issues. Other inputs to the approach defined here include UML (OMG 2007a, b), SysML (OMG 2007c), and RealTime Object-Oriented Modeling (Selic, Gullekson, and Ward 1994). The component-based development community has embraced the DBC concept and extended it for component use. First, the concept of trusted components has come into play. Meyer (2003) defines a trusted component as a reusable software element possessing specified and guaranteed property qualities. In the same paper, Meyer defines a high road and a low road toward establishing high-quality components. The low road is to start with today’s COTS or open-source components and move to certification based on contracts. The high road is to produce new components with correctness proofs by defining correctness properties based on contracts. Second, DBC has been extended to include nonfunctional information (performance, QoS) as well as cost. QoS in general has been defined and researched extensively over a period of time. Common metrics include performance, such as message throughput and reliability, as well as security. See, for example, Wang et al. (2004). Aagedal and Ecklund (2002) describe an approach to QoS modeling that features the notion of QoS profile. A profile defines a QoS region in which a component operates. Multiple different QoS profiles may be defined for a given component — for example, one profile defined for a PDA platform and another for a desktop platform. De Miguel, Ruiz, and Garcia (2002) adopt a similar idea in defining a QoS model using UML extensions and applying it to component frameworks. Urting et al. (2002) also use contracts to model nonfunctional constraints for embedded software. A metric that has emerged more recently is quality of experience (QoE), which is the ultimate effect experienced by a consumer or user; for example,

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science see Kilkki (2008) and Gallo, Siller, and Woods (2007). An earlier variation of QoE is work done on task-technology fit (TTF). Goodhue and Thompson (1995) proposed that for information technology to have a positive impact on individual performance, the technology must be utilized and it must be a good fit with the task that it supports. They measured the fit based on user perception and evaluation, which is what makes it a form of QoE. QoE is positioned at the user end of the interaction, in contrast to quality of direct output of system, and QoS of the connection or medium between system and user. Although the QoE value of a service or transaction is defined by the user, it can be included in a system specification in terms of a QoE response level that is received from the user or consumer. The cost might be the initial purchase of the component, the purchase of ongoing maintenance updates, or the cost of “renting” the component as a service on a pay-per-use basis. Cost may also be specified at a more granular level for each service. Brucker and Wolff (2001) and Paige and Ostroff (2001) discuss different approaches to increasing formal support for contracts in UML and OCL. The specification approach described here incorporates these extended contract concepts. It does not require formal specification or automation but it is fully consistent with these ideas. The well-developed area of reliability, with various metrics such as dependability, MTBF, etc., addresses much of the concept of probability of normal and abnormal characteristics. This provides a sound foundation for extending the approach of probabilistic specifications to autonomous agents and complex systems (CS). One basic theme: MOSES does not require any particular language or method of specification; many can be used. On the other hand, most current specification languages and methods have some deficiencies as viewed from the MOSES defined approach. For example, adequate semantics, and making explicit the dependencies in an external specification are often lacking, although in recent years more attention has been given to semantics.

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Table 11.1 Internal Specification Content Rules Identifier of the model: unique in a defined namespace Version of the model, if appropriate Mapping between views (if more than one view defined)

UML/OCL Interaction name Interaction stereotype or attribute Associations, OCL, stereotypes, annotations

For each view in the model (if only one, model view): Identifier of view Interaction or class name Identification of external models of system parts (components and Interaction, component, connectors) in this view (may be general or specific models) deployment diagrams (or simple list) Roles that may be assumed by parts in this view Role in association end or interaction Class/object definition; Rules about stuff visible in this view: information, goods stereotype definitions, invariants, initialization, states, relations etc. Process or behavior rules: flow of stuff, synchronization of parallel Interaction diagrams; processes, interactions, state transitions etc. state charts Types of components allowed Annotations, stereotypes, OCL Types of connectors allowed (e.g., Internet-based; distributed Associations specialized types: signal, operation, flow (RM-ODP 1996); software types: via stereotypes procedure call, data access, linkage, stream, event, arbitrator, adaptor, distributor (Mehta, Medvidovic, and Phadke 2000) Attachment of connector interfaces to component interfaces Interaction diagrams Protocol specification: format, sequence, error checking, Associations, OCL or properties stereotype or annotation System-wide constraints on supporting environment Annotations, stereotypes, (e.g., physical or information technology infrastructure) OCL Implementation rules (e.g., use certain suppliers of material, Annotations, stereotypes, or certain vendor products, or follow certain standards) OCL Creation, use, and deletion of resources in system Annotations, stereotypes Other constraints the system places on each component, Annotations, stereotypes, or on each connector (e.g., security constraints or policies) OCL For each component and connector: whether shared Annotations, stereotypes, or contained OCL For each component and connector: If inclusion in system is Annotations, stereotypes, uncertain, probability of inclusion OCL For each component and connector: if inclusion in system Annotations, stereotypes, is partial, fuzzy measure of inclusion OCL External specification of each part (by inclusion or reference Class or object name or hyperlink)—See Table 11.2 Optional information—e.g., architecture style, view type, Annotations, stereotypes, explanatory notes, correspondence information OCL Source: Hybertson, D. Using a specification approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213–237. 2005. Modified with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.

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Table 11.2 External Specification Content Rules Identifier of the model: unique in a defined namespace Version of the model, if appropriate Mapping between views (if more than one view defined) Cost of system (e.g., purchase, maintenance upgrades, cost-per-use) For each view in the model (if only one, model view): Identifier of view Identifiers of interfaces that provide a service Version of provider interface Identifiers of interfaces that require a service Version of receiver interface System invariant over all provided services and all required services (e.g., policies or other constraints) System externally observable properties Service or feature interactions among the interfaces of this system (sequence constraints, how one affects others, z) Specification of each interface (by inclusion or reference or hyperlink)—See Table 11.3 Optional information—e.g., view type, explanatory notes, correspondence information

UML/OCL Class or object name Class stereotype or attribute Associations, OCL, stereotypes, annotations Interface annotation or stereotype1 Package or class name Interface name Interface stereotype or attribute Interface2 Interface stereotype or attribute Interface invariant in OCL or annotation Interface attributes in OCL or annotation Interface invariant in OCL or annotation Interface Annotations, stereotypes, OCL

1

This assumes a cost is associated with the system; if cost is instead associated only with each interface, then this item will not apply.

2

For all cases where Interface appears in the table, an additional mapping to UML for systems in a connector role is Association or Association End.

Source: Hybertson, D. Using a specification approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213–237. 2005. Modified with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.

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Table 11.3 Interface Specification Content Rules Identifier of the interface: unique in a defined namespace Version of the interface, if appropriate Service if provided through this interface: Access method Semantics: What it requires of its users: precondition What it provides its users Part of invariant associated with service Provided post-condition Provided properties, QoS (performance, precision, reliability, throughput, capacity…) Policies or other constraints under which it operates Provided QoE (quality of experience) assessed by user Probability of meeting expectations (post-conditions, QoS, QoE) Ways of exceeding expectations and probability of each Ways of failing to meet expectations and probability of each Cost of service (CoS) Service if received through this interface: What it offers its providers: precondition What it requires of its providers: usage dependencies Part of invariant associated with service Required post-condition Required properties, QoS (performance, precision, reliability, throughput, capacity…) Required QoE (quality of experience) Probability of meeting expectations (post-conditions, QoS, QoE) Cost of service (CoS) constraints Optional information—e.g., explanatory notes, correspondence information

UML/OCL Class or object name Class stereotype or attribute Interface operation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation

Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OC or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation

Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Interface operation in OCL or stereotype or annotation Annotations, stereotypes, OCL

Source: Hybertson, D. Using a specification approach to facilitate component testing. In Testing Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components and Systems, S. Beydeda and V. Gruhn, Eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 213–237. 2005. Modified with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.

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Figure 11.2

Sample internal specification view types.


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Figure 11.3

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Probability(X)

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Figure 11.4

Wikipedia 2008

(e) Normal (Gaussian) density function

Examples of probability mass/density functions.

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Probability, PDF, and Knowledge We discuss two small examples. The first is a case where we have a good estimate of the PDF but do not know the outcome of an event in the past. In the second case, we do not know about the occurrence of an event and we also do not have a solid basis for a PDF. The discussion in Chapter 9 pointed out that uncertainty exists about past and present events as well as future events. Based on that, we can define probabilities about any uncertainties — past, present, or future. Suppose a friend of mine is on the phone at time T1 and says he is about to flip a coin, and asks what the probability is that the result will be heads. I have a good estimate of the PDF of the possible outcomes: Both heads and tails have a probability of .5. Therefore, my estimate of the probability that the outcome of this specific toss is heads is .5; that is what I tell him, and he agrees. Now he tosses the coin, and at time T2 he observes that it comes up heads but does not tell me the result. This observation changes his knowledge of the event, but not mine. Now he asks me again: “What is the probability that the result was heads?” I repeat my answer: “The probability is .5 that it was heads.” For him at this time T2, the probability that it was heads is 1.0, and the probability of it being tails is 0. Then at time T3 he tells me the result was heads. Now we both agree that the probability that it was heads is 1.0.* The estimated probabilities were based on knowledge of the PDF and presence or absence of knowledge of the event outcome. Probabilities do not have an independent or inherent existence in a situation; they depend on the knowledge of the observer. The second topic is PDF: Assume that today is April 17 and we want to estimate the probability that it will it rain a month from now, on May 17, in Hong Kong; and we also assume that we know nothing about the climate or rain patterns in Hong Kong. How do we estimate the probability? Because we know nothing about the PDF, we could assume a uniform PDF of rain or not rain, and estimate the probability of rain on May 17 (or any other day for that matter) to be .5. That is a very weak basis for estimating. Now suppose we obtain a better basis for the PDF. We find out the following two items of information: 1. Rainy days as a proportion of all the days of the past century in Hong Kong is .37 2. Rainy days as a proportion of all the days in May of the past century in Hong Kong is .47 We interpret (1) as an estimate for the PDF of rain on a randomly selected day of the year in Hong Kong; and (2) as an estimate for the PDF of rain on a random day in May in Hong Kong. Which of these two PDF estimates gives a better basis for estimating the probability that it will rain on May 17? The first is

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a larger sample, which generally means a better basis; note that in this case, the data are from two distinctly different distributions. However, the second indicates that there are cyclic seasons and May is a rainy month, so we would select (2) over (1) as our estimate of the PDF because it is the more specific population of which our event is a member. That is, our estimate of the PDF of the variable M rain on a day in May is: P(rain) .47; P(not rain) .53. Based on all this, we would estimate that the probability that it will rain in Hong Kong on May 17 is .47. If the only PDF estimate we had was (1), and we had no knowledge of Hong Kong rain cycles, we would estimate that the probability is .37. The collective point of the two examples is that our estimates of probabilities in system specifications are themselves relative and uncertain. That is, we make uncertain estimates of the uncertain behavior of systems. Does that mean the method is weak? No, it is still a useful method in specifying the uncertainty of behavior in systems.

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Other Uncertainty Methods "MJTUPGVODFSUBJOUZNFUIPETXBTQSFTFOUFECZ3BKBCBMMZFUBM ThFZJODMVEFUIFGPMMPX JOHGPSNBMJTNT

1SPCBCJMJUZUIFPSZ#BZFTJBOCFMJFGOFUXPSLT *OUFSWBMBOBMZTJT 3VMFCBTFETZTUFNTDFSUBJOUZGBDUPST &WJEFOUJBMSFBTPOJOH%FNQTUFS4IBGFSUIFPSZ 1PTTJCJMJUZUIFPSZGV[[ZMPHJD

"OPUIFS BQQSPBDI UP VODFSUBJOUZ JT NPEBM MPHJD PS UIF WBSJPVT MPHJDT PG QPTTJCJMJUZ ThF 4UBOGPSE&ODZDMPQFEJBPG1IJMPTPQIZJEFOUJfiFTTPNFPGUIFNPEBMSFMBUFEMPHJDT 4&1

Logic Modal Logic Deontic Logic

Symbols

Expressions Symbolized

It is necessary that z

O P F

It is obligatory that z It is permitted that z It is forbidden that z

It is possible that z


O 293

Temporal Logic

G F H P

It will always be the case that z It will be the case that z It has always been the case that z It was the case that z

Doxastic Logic

Bx

x believes that z

ThF.04&4BQQSPBDIVTFTTPNFPGUIFTFJOEJffFSFOUXBZT'JSTU BTUIJTDIBQUFSTIPXT JUVTFT QSPCBCJMJUZ UIFPSZ FYUFOTJWFMZ BT UIF QSJNBSZ UPPM GPS TQFDJGZJOH VODFSUBJOUZ 4FDPOE JU VTFT NPEBMMPHJDQSJNBSJMZJOFYQSFTTJOHSFMBUJPOTCFUXFFONPEFMBOETZTUFNJOBDPSSFTQPOEFODFTFU CVUBMTPVTFTJUJONPEFMTBOETQFDJfiDBUJPOTUIFNTFMWFTThJSE JUDPOTJEFSTGV[[ZMPHJDUPCFBCPVU QBSUJBMOFTT OPUVODFSUBJOUZ. ThJTJTBEESFTTFEJOUIFOFYUTFDUJPO

Partialness: Fuzzy Specifications 'V[[ZTQFDJfiDBUJPOTNBLFVTFPGGV[[ZMPHJDBOEGV[[ZTFUUIFPSZThFCBTJDDPODFQUJTUIBUDPO DFQUTUIBUXFOPSNBMMZUIJOLPGBTCFJOHEJTDSFUFTVDIBTXIFUIFSBOFMFNFOUJTBNFNCFSPGB TFU XIFUIFSTPNFUIJOHJTUSVFPSGBMTF PSXIFUIFSBQFSTPOJTJOBSPPNBSFJOTUFBEDPODFJWFE BTCFJOHBNBUUFSPGEFHSFF XJUIBSBOHFGSPNUP4PBOFMFNFOUDBOCFIBMGXBZJOBTFU PSBQSPQPTJUJPODBOCFIBMGUSVF *O .04&4 GV[[Z TQFDJfiDBUJPOT DBO CF VTFE GPS B OVNCFS PG QVSQPTFT &YBNQMFT JODMVEF UIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIBDPNQPOFOUJTJOBTZTUFNPSUIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIBTZTUFNJTJOBNPEFM SFHJPOUIBUJT UIFEFHSFFUPXIJDIBTZTUFNTBUJTfiFTBTQFDJfiDBUJPOPSQFSIBQTUIFEFHSFFUP XIJDIBTZTUFNJTFODBQTVMBUFE 'V[[ZTFUUIFPSZJTTPNFUJNFTJODMVEFEBMPOHXJUIQSPCBCJMJUZJOUIFTFUPGUFDIOJRVFTGPSSFQ SFTFOUJOHVODFSUBJOUZ BTJOUIFQSFWJPVTTFDUJPO"TTIPXOJO'JHVSF JOEJDBUPSTPGGV[[JOFTT BOEPGVODFSUBJOUZCPUIIBWFBSBOHFGSPNUP)PXFWFS UIFNFBOJOHJTEJffFSFOU1SPCBCJMJUZ JTBOJOEJDBUPSPGVODFSUBJOUZBCPVUXIFUIFSTPNFUIJOHJTUSVF TVDIBTXIFUIFSUIFOFYUDPJOflJQ XJMMCFIFBETPSUBJMT'V[[JOFTTJTBOJOEJDBUPSPGQBSUJBMOFTTPSHSBEVBMJTN*G*BNTUBOEJOHJOUIF EPPSXBZBOEBNIBMGJOUIFSPPNBOEIBMGPVU UIFGV[[JOFTTNFBTVSFEPFTOPUSFflFDUVODFS UBJOUZBCPVUXIFUIFS*BNJOUIFSPPNSBUIFS JUSFflFDUTUIFQBSUJBMOFTTPGNFCFJOHJOUIFSPPN *BNDFSUBJOMZIBMGXBZJOUIFSPPNThFSFGPSF GV[[JOFTTJO.04&4JTOPUVTFEBTBOVODFSUBJOUZ NFDIBOJTN

Examples )FSFXFHJWFTPNFWFSZCSJFGTLFUDIFTUIBUJMMVTUSBUFBTQFDUTPGUIFTQFDJfiDBUJPODPOUFOUQSPWJEFE JOUIJTDIBQUFS

A Human Performance Example ThJTFYBNQMFTQFDJfiFTIVNBOQFSGPSNBODFBTBNFNCFSPGBOPSHBOJ[BUJPO )PXFWFS GV[[JOFTTDBOCFVTFEJODPOKVODUJPOXJUIVODFSUBJOUZ"TJUVBUJPODBOCFNPEFMFEBTTJNVMUBOFPVTMZ GV[[ZBOEVODFSUBJO

294

O

Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science Universe of Systems

Region boundary interpreted as not certain: Probabilistic

Region boundary interpreted as not discrete: Fuzzy

Degree F to which systems are in region

Probability P of systems being in region P(A) = 0.0

A

C

B

D

E

F(A) = 0.0 F(B) = 0.4

P(B) = 0.4 P(C) = 1.0

F(C) = 1.0

P(D) = 0.6

F(D) = 0.6 F(E) = 0.0

P(E) = 0.0 P=0

P=1

Gradient from P = 0 to 1

F=1

F=0

Gradient F = 1 to 0

Figure 11.6 Fuzzy specifications use same gradient measure as probabilistic specifications but with different meaning.

8FIBWFEJTDVTTFEIPXEFfiOJOHBSPMFIFMQTOBSSPXUIFTQBDFGPSTQFDJGZJOHIVNBOCFIBW JPS*OGBDU BQSBDUJDBMBTTVNQUJPOXIFOBQQMZJOHUIFTQFDJfiDBUJPOBQQSPBDIJOUIJTDIBQUFSUP B IVNBO PS PUIFS BHFOU JT UIBU UIF BHFOU JT BDUJOH JO B TQFDJfiFE SPMF i1FSTPOw IBT BO BMNPTU VOMJNJUFE BOE IBSEUPEFfiOF PVUDPNF TQBDF #VU SPMF CFIBWJPS JT USBDUBCMF QBSFOU FNQMPZFF TPMEJFS GBDUPSZXPSLFS TPGUXBSFBHFOUJO99EPNBJOPSDPOUFYU HFPTQBUJBMBOBMZTU SFTFBSDIFS DPNQMFYTZTUFNTSFTFBSDIFS DPNQMFYTZTUFNTSFTFBSDIFSBU4BOUB'F*OTUJUVUF 4'*

DPNQMFYTZT UFNTSFTFBSDIFSBU4'*JOFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBNJDTThFFYBNQMFDPVMECFTPNFUIJOHMJLFBGBDUPSZ XPSLFSXJUIBXFMMEFfiOFEKPCCVUUPTIPXUIFSBOHFPGUIFBQQSPBDIJONPSFDPNQMFYTJUVBUJPOT XFDIPPTFUPTQFDJGZBSFTFBSDIFS XIJDIUZQJDBMMZJTBMFTTDJSDVNTDSJCFEBDUJWJUZGPSXIJDIJUJT EJfficVMUUPTQFDJGZQFSGPSNBODFThFTQFDJfiDSPMFGPSXIJDIXFXJMMTLFUDIBOFYUFSOBMTQFDJfiDBUJPO PGFYQFDUFEGVUVSFCFIBWJPSJTUIFMBTUPOFNFOUJPOFE UIBUJT DPNQMFYTZTUFNTSFTFBSDIFSBU4'* JOFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBNJDT ThFFYQFDUFECFIBWJPSDPVMECFEFfiOFEBTHFUUJOHBQBQFSQVCMJTIFEJOFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBN JDT2P4POFQBQFSBDDFQUFECZBSFGFSFFEKPVSOBMJOFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBNJDTJOPOFZFBS PS POFPSNPSFQVCMJDBUJPOTQPTUFEPOUIF4'*QVCMJD8FCTJUFUIBUDPMMFDUJWFMZHFU)IJUTJOUIF OFYUZFBSPS%EPXOMPBETJOUIFOFYUZFBSXJUIQSPCBCJMJUZPG8FEPOPUTQFDJGZXIBUUIF DPOUFOUPGUIFQVCMJDBUJPOXJMMCF POMZUIFEPNBJOPGFWPMVUJPOBSZEZOBNJDT XJUIQSPCBCJMJUZ TJODF DPNQMFY TZTUFNT SFTFBSDIFST BSF PGUFO NVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZ

BOE TPNF NFBTVSBCMF 2P4 BTTVHHFTUFEBCPWF4'*NBZJOGBDUOPUDBSFXIBUUIFTQFDJfiDDPOUFOUTBSF CVUPOMZJO BEWBODJOHUIJTfiFMEBOEHFUUJOHSFDPHOJUJPOBOEDPOUJOVFEGVOEJOH4PUIJTSFRVJSFNFOUTQFDJ fiDBUJPOPGUIFSFTFBSDIFSiTZTUFNwJTBUUIFBQQSPQSJBUFMFWFMPGHFOFSBMJUZThFQSFDPOEJUJPOTPS ThJTFYBNQMFJTVTFEIFSFUPJMMVTUSBUFTQFDJfiDBUJPOFMFNFOUTThFFYBNQMFJTSFWJTJUFEJO$IBQUFSBOEQBSTFE JOBEJffFSFOUXBZ JOUFSNTPGNBQQJOHUPUIFFYUFSOBMBOEJOUFSOBMUZQFNPEFMTBOEUPUSBEJUJPOBMBSUJGBDUTTVDI BTBSFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOU


O 295

Table 11.4 Possible Researcher Behavior in Each Category #

Category

1

Out of range — interpreted as good

2

In range, better than expected

3 4

What is expected In range, less than expected

5

Out of range — interpreted as bad

Possible behavior Researcher discovers or initiates whole new area of research Researcher publishes two or three papers instead of one Researcher publishes one paper; satisfies QoS Researcher does not write paper, or paper is published but not in a refereed journal Researcher destroys lab

EFQFOEFODJFTJODMVEFHFUGVOEJOHGPSSFTFBSDI TUBZBU4'* SFUBJOIFBMUI FUD/PUFUIBUHFUUJOH GVOEJOHGPSSFTFBSDINBZCFBQSFDPOEJUJPOJG4'*BTTVNFTSFTQPOTJCJMJUZGPSGVOEJOH PSNBZ JOTUFBECFQBSUPGUIFFYQFDUFECFIBWJPSPGUIFSFTFBSDIFSJGFBDISFTFBSDIFSJTFYQFDUFEUPfiOE UIFJSPXOGVOEJOH /PX DPOTJEFS QPTTJCMF CFIBWJPS EVSJOH UIF OFYU ZFBS PG UIF SFTFBSDIFS JO FBDI PG UIF fiWF CFIBWJPSDBUFHPSJFT4FF5BCMF/PUFUIBUUIFTFCFIBWJPSTBSFOPUBMMNVUVBMMZFYDMVTJWFThF SFTFBSDIFSDPVME JOJUJBUFBOFXSFTFBSDIBSFB QVCMJTIBQBQFS BOEUIFO HFUBOHSZBOE EFTUSPZUIFMBC

Other Sketches ThSFFCSJFGTLFUDIFTBSFHJWFOUPJOEJDBUFUIFBQQMJDBCJMJUZSBOHFPGUIFTQFDJfiDBUJPOBQQSPBDI

Organization 4VQQPTFXFXBOUUPTQFDJGZDFSUBJODIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGBOPSHBOJ[BUJPOPSFOUFSQSJTFJOJUTDVSSFOU TUBUFBOEJUTEFTJSFETUBUF &YUFSOBMNPEFM-FUTBTTVNFUIFQSFDPOEJUJPOJTUIFDVSSFOUBDUVBMDPOEJUJPO4UBUF UJNFJT OPXGVODUJPOPSQSPWJEFETFSWJDFQSPEVDFTXJEHFUTQSPQFSUJFTDVSSFOUQSPfiU TJ[F SFQVUBUJPO JONBSLFUQPTJUJPO OPUJOCFTUDPNQBOJFTUPXPSLGPS FUD "TTVNF QPTUDPOEJUJPO JT EFTJSFE DPOEJUJPO 4UBUF UJNF JT NPOUIT GSPN OPX TBNF GVODUJPONPSFQSPfiU MBSHFSPSTNBMMFSTJ[F CFUUFSSFQVUBUJPO JONBSLFUQPTJUJPO JO CFTUDPNQBOJFTUPXPSLGPS FUD /PXUIFPSHBOJ[BUJPOKVTUIBTUPSFEFTJHOJUTFMG UIBUJT EFfiOFBOJOUFSOBMNPEFMUIBUXJMM FOBCMFJUUPTBUJTGZUIFFYUFSOBMTQFDJfiDBUJPO&YBNQMFSFQMBDFDFSUBJODPNQPOFOUT TVDIBTUIF $&0. ThBUUBTLXJMMOPUCFQVSTVFEJOUIJTTLFUDI

Army $POTJEFSBOJOTVSHFODZoDPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZTJUVBUJPO *OUFSOBM NPEFM ThF DPNQPOFOUT JODMVEF BO PDDVQZJOH BSNZ UIF IPTU OBUJPO MFBEFST IPTU OBUJPOBSNZ JOTVSHFOUT BOEMPDBMQPQVMBUJPO%FfiOFBDVSSFOUJOUFSOBMNPEFMPGJOUFSBDUJPOJO XIJDIUIFJOTVSHFODZJTDBVTJOHTJHOJfiDBOUIBWPDBOEEFTUSVDUJPO IBTUIFTZNQBUIZPGNVDIPG

296 O


UIFMPDBMQPQVMBUJPO BOEUIFIPTUOBUJPOBSNZJTXFBLThFOEFfiOFUIFHPBMJOUFSOBMNPEFM XIFSF UIFMPDBMQPQVMBUJPOJTPQQPTFEUPUIFJOTVSHFOUTBOETVQQPSUTUIFIPTUOBUJPOMFBEFSTBOEBSNZ BOEUIFJOTVSHFOUTBSFPOUIFEFDMJOF ThFOEFfiOFBQMBOBOBDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTUPNPWFGSPNDVSSFOUNPEFMUPHPBMNPEFM "O FYBNQMF DPVME CF UBJMPSJOH UIF 64 "SNZ DPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZ NBOVBM 64 "SNZ

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Everyday Example: Safety Deposit Box *OBTBGFUZEFQPTJUCPYTJUVBUJPO BTFSWJDFDPOTVNFS4$HJWFTBTFSWJDFQSPWJEFS41JUFN T .JO DPOEJUJPO$BUUJNF541SFUVSOTUIFJUFNTJOUIFTBNFDPOEJUJPOBUBMBUFSUJNF5UIBUXJMMCF DIPTFOCZ4$The DIBSHFGPSUIJTTFSWJDFJT9NPOUIThe LFZspecification JUFNTPGUIFQSPWJEFE TFSWJDFBSF O 1SFDPOEJUJPO.JODPOEJUJPO$BUUJNF5 $JTiBTJTwJUJTOPUDPOTUSBJOFECZ41CVUJT SBUIFSBCFODINBSLGPSUIFJOWBSJBOU

O *OWBSJBOUDPOEJUJPO$PG.BU5DPOEJUJPOBU5 O 1PTUDPOEJUJPO.BWBJMBCMFUP4$BU5 O 2P4SFTQPOEPOEFNBOEBUVOLOPXO5XJUIQSPCBCJMJUZ1q.XJMMCFJODPOEJUJPO $BU5XJUI1q O $PTUPGTFSWJDF9UJNFT /VNCFSPGNPOUITCFUXFFO5BOE5

/PUJODMVEFEJOTQFDJfiDBUJPOTUPSF.JOBTBGFQMBDFTUPSFJOESZQMBDFTUPSFJOUFNQFSBUVSFSBOHF CFUXFFOUFNQBOEUFNQMJNJUOVNCFSPGFNQMPZFFTXJUINBTUFSLFZz

Scaling down the Approach for Software 8FDMBJNUIBUUIFTQFDJfiDBUJPOBQQSPBDIEFTDSJCFEJOUIJTDIBQUFSTDBMFTCPUIVQBOEEPXOUPBOZ MFWFMEFTJSFE. ThJTTLFUDITIPXTIPXJUTDBMFTEPXO $POTJEFSBGFXMJOFTPGTPGUXBSFDPEF x y a z r

3; y 1; x2; sqrt(x2 y2); z – 7;

&BDI MJOF PG DPEF PS TUBUFNFOU DBO CF DPOTJEFSFE B TZTUFN BOE UIF UZQFT PG TQFDJfiDBUJPO EFfiOFEJOUIJTDIBQUFS TQFDJfiDBMMZBOFYUFSOBMTQFDJfiDBUJPO DBOCFBQQMJFEUPFBDIThJTBQQSPBDI XBTFTTFOUJBMMZEFfiOFEZFBSTBHPCZ)PBSF JOXIBUCFDBNFLOPXOBTUIF)PBSFUSJQMF 1 \2^ 3 XIFSF 1 JT UIF QSFDPOEJUJPO 2 JT UIF TUBUFNFOU \2^ SFQSFTFOUT UIF FYFDVUJPO PG UIF TUBUFNFOU BOE3JTUIFQPTUDPOEJUJPO0OFXBZPGDIBSBDUFSJ[JOHUIFTQFDJfiDBUJPOBQQSPBDIPG .04&4JTBTBMBSHFFYUFOTJPOPG)PBSFTNFUIPEUPBMMUZQFTPGTZTUFNTBUBMMTDBMFT *O BEEJUJPO UIF DPMMFDUJWF TFU PG TPGUXBSF TUBUFNFOUT MJTUFE BCPWF DBO CF DPOTJEFSFE BT UIF JOUFSOBMNPEFMPGBMBSHFSTZTUFN XIFSFUIFTUVff FYDIBOHFEBNPOHUIFJOUFSBDUJOHDPNQPOFOU TUBUFNFOUTDPOTJTUTPGEBUBBOEDPOUSPM


O 297

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Chapter 12

Mapping and Unification Systems taxonomy 1


D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Dn

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Complex 4 Traditional TS is special case 5 Characteristics of all SE systems Traditional and Complex Characteristics of all systems

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6

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Figure 12.1

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CS Actualization *U UVSOT PVU UIBU UIF 4& JOTUJODUT UIBU TFQBSBUF UIF SFRVJSFNFOUT PG B TZTUFN BOE FYUFOE UIFN JOUP EJSFDU PS JOEJSFDU JOUFSBDUJPO FffFDUT XJUI UIF FOWJSPONFOU TFSWF VT XFMM XIFO XF DPOTJEFS FOHJOFFSJOHDPNQMFYTZTUFNT%VFUPBVUPOPNZ TVDITZTUFNTSFRVJSFNPSFFOWJSPONFOUTIBQJOH UIBOEJSFDUTZTUFNFOHJOFFSJOH TPUIFJOEJSFDUJOUFSBDUJPOJTBQQSPQSJBUFGPSUIBUThFFYBNQMFPG UIFFWPMVUJPOBSZSFTFBSDIFSHJWFOBCPWFJMMVTUSBUFTUIFBQQSPBDI8FEPOPUUFMMBQFSTPOPSPUIFS BVUPOPNPVTBHFOUXIBUCFIBWJPSUIFZTIPVMEFYIJCJUXFUFMMUIFNXIBUFffFDUXFXPVMEMJLFUIFN UPBDIJFWF PSUIFZEFDJEFXIBUFffFDUUIFZXPVMEMJLFUPBDIJFWF

Other Engineering Mappings Exploring Requirements by Looking Inward "USBEJUJPOBMSFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOUDBOJODMVEFOPUPOMZSFRVJSFNFOUTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIFFOWJ SPONFOUPGUIFTZTUFN CVUBMTPSFRVJSFNFOUTBOEDPOTUSBJOUTPOUIFJOUFSOBMEFTJHOPSBSDIJUFD UVSFPGUIFTZTUFN$PNNPOFYBNQMFTJODMVEFBSFRVJSFNFOUUIBUBHJWFOTUBOEBSENVTUCFVTFE

308 O


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Resulting Requirements Mapping Spectrum 8FIBWFMPPLFEBUUXPTFQBSBUFDPOUJOVVNTSFHBSEJOHIPXBSFRVJSFNFOUTTQFDFYUFOETBOFYUFS OBMTQFD8FMPPLFEFYUFOTJWFMZBUUIFPVUXBSENBQQJOH BOECSJFflZBUUIFJOXBSENBQQJOH O 0VUXBSEPOFDPOUJOVVNJTBOFYUFOTJPOJOUPUIFJOUFSOBMNPEFMPGUIF TZTUFNFOWJSPO NFOU JODMVEJOH UIF FYUFSOBM NPEFM PG UIF VTFS UP EFfiOF DPOTUSBJOUT BOE FffFDUT 0OF FYUSFNF FOE PG UIJT TQFDUSVN JT B QVSF FYUFSOBM TZTUFN TQFD XIJDI JODMVEFT POMZ TZT UFN CFIBWJPS EFQFOEFODJFT BOE TQFDJfiFT POMZ XIBU HPFT JO BOE DPNFT PVU PG UIF TZT UFNCPVOEBSJFTQPSUTThFPUIFSFYUSFNFEFfiOFTUIFDPNQMFUFFOWJSPONFOU UIFJOEJSFDU JOUFSBDUJPOFffFDUTPOUIFVTFS O *OXBSEUIFPUIFSDPOUJOVVNJTUIFQSFWJPVTMZBDLOPXMFEHFEFYUFOTJPOJOUPUIFJOUFSOBM NPEFMPGUIFTZTUFN UPQMBDFDPOTUSBJOUTPOJU0OFFYUSFNFFOEPGUIJTTQFDUSVNJTBQVSF FYUFSOBMTQFD XIJDIQMBDFTOPJOUFSOBMDPOTUSBJOUTThFPUIFSFYUSFNFJTXIFSFUIFFOUJSF EFTJHOPSJOUFSOBMNPEFMJTTQFDJfiFEJOUIFFYUFSOBMNPEFM BOEUIFJOUFSOBMPGFBDIQBSU BOETPPOBMMUIFXBZEPXOUPUIFCPUUPNPGUIFDPNQPTJUJPOIJFSBSDIZ &MFNFOUTBDSPTTUIJTFOUJSFTQFDUSVNDBOCFJODPSQPSBUFEJOUPBSFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOU)PXFWFS BTNFOUJPOFEBCPWF FYUFOEJOHPVUXBSEJTJONBOZDBTFTCFUUFSQSBDUJDFUIBOJTFYUFOEJOHJOXBSE FTQFDJBMMZGPSDPNQMFYTZTUFNT

Mapping Interaction Artifacts ThF$0/014EPDVNFOUNBQTGBJSMZDMFBOMZUPUIFFOWJSPONFOUSFMBUJPONPEFM7JO'JHVSF BMUIPVHIJUDPVMENBOEBUFPUIFSDPOTUSBJOUTPOUIFTZTUFNBSDIJUFDUVSF ThFBSDIJUFDUVSFEFTDSJQUJPONBQTTJNQMJTUJDBMMZUPUIFJOUFSOBMNPEFMPG4 XIJDIJT7JO 'JHVSF/PUFUIBUUIJTJOUFSOBMNPEFM BTBMMJOUFSOBMNPEFMT JODMVEFTUIFFYUFSOBMNPEFMT PGJUTQBSUT JOEJDBUFEJO'JHVSFBT7ThJTJTXIFSFJUTUPQT)PXFWFS UIFSFBMJTUJDNBQQJOH PGBOBSDIJUFDUVSFDBOESJWFEPXOBMMUIFXBZUPUIFCPUUPNPGUIFDPNQPTJUJPOTUBDLCZJNQPT JOHDPOTUSBJOUTPOBMMFMFNFOUTPGUIFTZTUFN BOBMPHPVTUPUIFJOXBSEMPPLJOHFYUFOTJPOPGUIF SFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOU

Significance of the Overall Engineering Mapping ThFFOHJOFFSJOHNBQQJOHFYBNQMFTBOEBOBMZTJTQSFTFOUFEJOUIJTTFDUJPOIBWFTIPXOUIBU.04&4 DMBSJfiFTDFSUBJOBTQFDUTPGUSBEJUJPOBMBSUJGBDUT BOEQMBDFTTPNFDPOTUSBJOUTPOUIFNCVUBMTPBMMPXT DPOTJEFSBCMFflFYJCJMJUZJOUIFN4FWFSBMTJHOJfiDBOUGFBUVSFTPGUIFNBQQJOHDBOCFJEFOUJfiFE&BDI JTQSFTFOUFEBOECSJFflZEJTDVTTFEJOUIFGPMMPXJOHTVCTFDUJPOT


O 309

The Mapping Makes Dependencies Clear 8FTUBUFEUIBUUIFiQSPWJEFTwBOEiSFRVJSFTwTUSVDUVSFPGBOFYUFSOBMJOUFSGBDFTQFDJfiDBUJPOHPFT CFZPOEUSBEJUJPOBMSFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOUTUPTQFDJGZEFQFOEFODJFT3FRVJSFNFOUTUIBUDPNQMZ XJUI.04&4NVTUNBLFUIFEFQFOEFODJFTDMFBSJOUIFTQFDJfiDBUJPO XIFUIFSUIFZBSFUIFNJOJ NBMEFQFOEFODJFTPGTZTUFNCFIBWJPSPSUIFNBYJNVNEFQFOEFODJFTPGJOEJSFDUFffFDUT ,OPXMFEHFPGUIFTFEFQFOEFODJFTBOEIPXUIFZBSFBMMPDBUFEBSFFTTFOUJBMGPSBEFRVBUFUFTUJOH *UJTSFMBUJWFMZTJNQMFUPEFfiOFUFTUTGPSTZTUFNCFIBWJPSCFDBVTFUIFEFQFOEFODJFTBSFNJOJNBM#VU EFQFOEFODJFTPGJOEJSFDUFffFDUTDBOCFTVCTUBOUJBM BOEJGUIFZBSFOPUVOEFSTUPPE UFTUJOHDBOCF WFSZDPNQMJDBUFEBOEVOGPDVTFE BOEUIFSFTVMUTIBSEUPJOUFSQSFU $PNQMJBODFJTBDUVBMMZCBTFEPOFTUBCMJTIFEEFQFOEFODJFTThJTSFGFSTUPUIFGBDUUIBUJOTPNF WJFXT OPEFQFOEFODJFTIBWFCFFOFTUBCMJTIFE*OUIF3SFRVJSFNFOUTWJFXPGUIFDBSFYBNQMFJO UIFTFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi0QQPTJUF&OEPGUIF5FMFTDPQF6TFS7JFXQPJOU wOPTPMVUJPOJTJEFOUJfiFE POMZUIFJOEJSFDUFffFDU/PEFQFOEFODJFTBSFFTUBCMJTIFEJOUIJTWJFX8IFOTPMVUJPOTBSFJOUSP EVDFE BTJO B UISPVHI H

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All Artifacts Are Views of the Model Space Structure #FDBVTFUSBEJUJPOBMBSUJGBDUTDBOSBOHFBDSPTTUIFDPNQPTJUJPOTQFDUSVN CPUIVQBOEEPXOGSPN UIFQPJOUPGJOUFSFTU XIBUNFDIBOJTNDBOXFVTFUPNPEFMUIFN ThFBOTXFSJTWJFX"MMBSUJGBDUT JODMVEJOH$0/014 SFRVJSFNFOUT BSDIJUFDUVSF BOEEFTJHO BSFWJFXTPGUIFJOUFSUXJOJOHDPN QPTJUJPOTUSVDUVSFUIBUDBOFYUFOEXFMMCFZPOEBOPNJOBMJOUFSOBMPSFYUFSOBMNPEFMThFNBQ QJOHBMTPNBLFTUIFUBSHFUPGUIFWJFXDMFBSJUJTOPUBMXBZTUIFTZTUFNPGJOUFSFTU*OBEEJUJPO UIF FYUFSOBMJOUFSOBMTUSVDUVSFPG.04&4DPNQPTJUJPONBLFTDMFBSFBDIPGUIFFMFNFOUTPGUIFWJFX BSUJGBDU BOEIPXUIFZSFMBUFUPFBDIPUIFS /PUFUIBUUIFUSFBUNFOUPGUSBEJUJPOBMBSUJGBDUTBTWJFXTJTSFJOGPSDFECZUIFGBDUUIBUUIFBSUJ GBDUTDBOBMTPWBSZBDSPTTPUIFSNPEFMTQBDFEJNFOTJPOT'PSFYBNQMF BOZPGUIFBSUJGBDUTDBOWBSZ JOTQFDJfiDJUZ XIJDIJTTVQQPSUFEJOUIFDPNNPOJ[BUJPOEJNFOTJPO ThFMBUJUVEFHJWFOUIFBSUJGBDUTSBJTFTQPUFOUJBMPWFSMBQTBOEDPOflJDUTCFUXFFOUIFEPDVNFOUT PSWJFXT(PPEQSBDUJDFJTUPEFfiOFCPVOEBSJFTCFUXFFOUIFNTPOPPWFSMBQTFYJTU#VUJGPWFSMBQT BSFBMMPXFE UIFZNVTUCFBEKVEJDBUFEUPCFDPOTJTUFOU PSCFUUFSZFU UPEFDJEFGPSFBDISVMFPS DPOTUSBJOUXIJDIWJFXJTUIFPXOFS BOEUIFPUIFSTSFGFSFODFJUThFPXOFSJTSFTQPOTJCMFGPSDPO fiHVSBUJPONBOBHFNFOUPGUIFSVMF'PSFYBNQMF JGUIFSFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOUEFfiOFTFOWJSPO NFOUFffFDUT XIJDIJTUSBEJUJPOBMMZUIFQSPWJODFPGUIF$0/014 BOBHSFFNFOUTIPVMECFNBEF POXIJDIJTUIFPXOFSPGUIJTSVMF&WFONPSFPWFSMBQDBOPDDVSPOUIFJOXBSETJEFJGCPUIUIF SFRVJSFNFOUTWJFXBOEUIFBSDIJUFDUVSFWJFXXBOUUPDPOTUSBJOBMMUIFXBZEPXOUIFDPNQPTJUJPO IJFSBSDIZ'PSFYBNQMF CPUINBZNBOEBUFUIBUBDFSUBJOTUBOEBSECFVTFEBUBMMMFWFMT"EFDJTJPO TIPVMECFNBEFBTUPXIFUIFSUIFSFRVJSFNFOUTWJFXPSUIFBSDIJUFDUVSFWJFXPXOTUIJTSVMF

SE General Problem Solving 4PNFSFRVJSFNFOUTBSFTUBUFEBTBNPEFMPGBVTFSSBUIFSUIBOBTBNPEFMPGBTZTUFN"TZTUFNT FOHJOFFS NVTU EFfiOF BOE BTTFTT QPTTJCMF TPMVUJPOT BOE EFUFSNJOF XIFUIFS UIF TPMVUJPO TIPVME JOWPMWFBO4&TZTUFN5BCMFTIPXTUIFQBUUFSOThFBOBMZTJTPG B JODMVEFTBWBSJFUZPGQPT TJCMFTPMVUJPOT NBOZPGUIFNOPU4&TZTUFNTThFDBSFYBNQMFJOUIFTFDUJPOFOUJUMFEi0QQPTJUF &OEPGUIF5FMFTDPQF6TFS7JFXQPJOUwMJTUFEBWBSJFUZPGTPMVUJPOT4VQQPTFUIFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFS

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Table 12.1

Pre-Systems Problem Solving

Traditional Artifact

Level

a. Need or gap

Indirect effect

b. CONOPS

Direct effect

c. Requirements specification

System behavior

MOSES Model External model of user (but not a requirement of the user) Internal model of interaction of system with its environment External model of system

BTTFTTFE UIF QPTTJCMF TPMVUJPOT BOE CBTFE PO UIF TJUVBUJPO SFDPNNFOEFE B XBML *G UIJT TPMVUJPOXFSFBEPQUFE JUXPVMEQSPCBCMZOPUCFDPOTJEFSFEBO4&TZTUFN%FDJEJOHXIFUIFSBO 4&TZTUFNJTOFFEFEBTUIFTPMVUJPOUPBQSPCMFNJTQBSUPG4& BOEJUJODMVEFTUIFNPEFMUZQFJO SPX B JO5BCMF*OSPX B

OPTZTUFNPSTPMVUJPOJTJEFOUJfiFEJOSPX C BOE D

BTZTUFNJT JEFOUJfiFEBTUIFTPMVUJPO ThFQPJOUJTUIBUQBSUPGUIFXPSLPGTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSTJTHFOFSBMQSPCMFNTPMWJOH BTPQQPTFE UPFOHJOFFSJOHPSBDUVBMJ[JOHBTZTUFNQFSTFThFHFOFSBMQSPCMFNTPMWJOHXPSL IPXFWFS EPFT PDDVSJOUIFDPMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDF

Autonomous Systems without External Models *ODBTFTXIFSFBOBVUPOPNPVTTZTUFNEFDJEFTUPBDIJFWFUIFJOEJSFDUFffFDUPSUIFEJSFDUFffFDU OP FYUFSOBMNPEFMPGUIJTTZTUFNJTOFFEFE ThFTZTUFNJTGSFFUPEFDJEFXIJDIFYUFSOBMCFIBWJPSXJMM BDIJFWFUIFEFTJSFEFffFDU3FRVJSFNFOUTBSFTUBUFEJOUFSNTPGUIFEJSFDUPSJOEJSFDUFffFDUNPEFMT ThJTNBZCFFYUFOEFEUPTPNFEFHSFFUPNPSFUSBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNT'PSFYBNQMF UIFHPWFSO NFOU NBZ EFDJEF UP EFfiOF EJSFDU FffFDUT PO UIF FOWJSPONFOU BOE BMMPX B DPOUSBDUPS UP CF UIF BVUPOPNPVTBHFOUUIBUEFDJEFTXIBUUIFTZTUFNCFIBWJPS FYUFSOBMTQFDJfiDBUJPO OFFETUPCFUP BDIJFWFUIPTFFffFDUT*OUIPTFDBTFT UIFHPWFSONFOUOFFETUPNBLFDMFBSUIFEFTJSFEFffFDUTBOE UIFFOWJSPONFOUBMDPOTUSBJOUT BOEUIFDPOUSBDUPSOFFETUPNBLFDMFBSUIFEFQFOEFODJFTPGUIF TPMVUJPO

Adaptation and Versatility ThFBOBMZTJTUIVTGBSJTPOMZQBSUPGUIFTUPSZ'PSBHJWFOTZTUFNUIBUJTSFBMJ[FE XFEFfiOFUIF FffFDUTBOEUIFTZTUFNQFSGPSNTJOBXBZUIBUBDIJFWFTUIPTFFffFDUT'JSTU EFQMPZNFOUPGBTZTUFN JOWPMWFT NPWJOH DPQZJOH PS JOTUBOUJBUJOH UIF TZTUFN GSPN UIF TPMVUJPO TQBDF JOUP B EFQMPZFE TUBUFJOPOFPSNVMUJQMFQSPCMFNTQBDFFOWJSPONFOUT TVDIBTBGBDUPSZQSPEVDJOHNVMUJQMF#PFJOH BJSDSBGUUPTFOEUPEJffFSFOUBJSMJOFT PSBTPGUXBSFTZTUFNCFJOHEJTUSJCVUFEUPNVMUJQMFVTFST 1BSU PG UIF EFQMPZNFOU NBZ CF DPOfiHVSJOH DVTUPNJ[JOH PS BEBQUJOH UP UIF TQFDJfiD FOWJSPO NFOUEVSJOHJOTUBMMBUJPO BOEDPOUJOVJOHUIFSFBGUFS ThFTPMVUJPOTQBDFTZTUFNBOEUIFBTTPDJ BUFEEFQMPZFETZTUFN T DPSSFTQPOEUP.BSUJOT JOUFSWFOUJPOTZTUFNBOEEFQMPZFETZTUFN SFTQFDUJWFMZ 4FDPOE XIFOUIFTZTUFNJTEFQMPZFE JUOPUPOMZFOUFSTUIFQSPCMFNTQBDF CVUJUBMTPCFDPNFT QBSUPGUIFQSPCMFNTQBDFBOEUIFSFCZDIBOHFTUIFQSPCMFNTQBDF8FOPXIBWFUPDPOTJEFSUIBU UIFTZTUFNBOEJUTFOWJSPONFOUBSFNVUVBMMZBEBQUJOHFOUJUJFTXJUIJOUIFQSPCMFNTQBDF"TTPPO BTUIFTZTUFNJTTVDDFTTGVMJOBDIJFWJOHJUTFffFDUT UIFFOWJSPONFOUDIBOHFTThPTFDIBOHFTPGUFO


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Definitions of Traditional Artifacts (JWFOUIFNBUFSJBMQSFTFOUFEUIVTGBSJOUIFCPPL XFBSFJOBQPTJUJPOUPEFfiOFUSBEJUJPOBMBSUJ GBDUTJO.04&4UFSNT8FIBWFHJWFOCSJFGEFfiOJUJPOTJOTFWFSBMQMBDFTCVUOPXXFDBOHJWFNPSF DPNQMFUFEFfiOJUJPOT$PODFQUPGPQFSBUJPOT SFRVJSFNFOUTEPDVNFOU BSDIJUFDUVSF BOEEFTJHOBSF EFfiOFE3FDBMMUIBU JO.04&4 FBDIPGUIFTFJTSFHBSEFEBTBNPEFM BOENPSFTQFDJfiDBMMZBTB WJFXUIBUDVUTBDSPTTUIFNPEFMTQBDF "DPODFQUPGPQFSBUJPOTPS$0/014FYJTUTJOBDPOUFYUJOXIJDIBTZTUFN4IBTCFFOJEFOUJ fiFEBOEBOFOWJSPONFOU&IBTCFFOJEFOUJfiFEBTUIFFOWJSPONFOUPG4&DPOTJTUTPGBMMFOUJUJFT UIBUBSFSFMBUFEUP4PSJOUFSBDUXJUI4'VSUIFSNPSF UIF$0/014JTSFHBSEFEBTUIF$0/014 PG 4 JO & UIBU JT B DPSSFTQPOEFODF IBT CFFO FTUBCMJTIFE UIBU BTTPDJBUFT UIF TZTUFN 4 XJUI UIF $0/014NPEFMJOUIFXPSME& QFSIBQTXJUIBNPEBMJUZTVDIBTiTIBMMwPSiEFTJSFEwThFWJFX QPJOUJOXIJDIUIF$0/014WJFXJTEFfiOFEJTUIFMPDVTPGBOJOUFSOBMNPEFMPGUIFJOUFSBDUJPO

312

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Table 12.2 Areas of SE Unified by MOSES

Model orientation Whole systems modeling Model space Self-similarity patterns Common specification approach Agents Use of systems science Similarities and differences Expanded systems taxonomy Collective actualization Opportunistic process Support for change

Composite SE BoK

DevelopmentOperations

ManagementEngineering

Disciplines

MOSES Element or Concept

TSE-CSE

What SE Areas It Unifies


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References ,VKBXTLJ & BOE ( .JMMFS 2VBOUJUBUJWF SJTLCBTFE BOBMZTJT GPS NJMJUBSZ DPVOUFSUFSSPSJTN TZTUFNT */$04&+4ZTUFNT&OH o .BSUJO +The TFWFO4BNVSBJPGTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHEFBMJOHXJUIUIFDPNQMFYJUZPGJOUFSSFMBUFE TZTUFNT 1SFTFOUFE BU UIF UI "OOV *OU 4ZNQ *OU $PVODJM PO 4ZTUFNT &OHJOFFSJOH */$04& 5PVMPVTF 'SBODFo+VOF 0"4*4 3FGFSFODF .PEFM GPS 4FSWJDF 0SJFOUFE "SDIJUFDUVSF 0"4*4 4UBOEBSE 0DUPCFS IUUQEPDTPBTJTPQFOPSHTPBSNW "DDFTTFE+BOVBSZ

Chapter 13

SE Actualization Processes


Indivisible Unit

Model of Individual system or component

Universal model


Solution domain


Define need

Composition

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e

m

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317

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Concept of operations Project definition

Operations and maintenance System verification and validation

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Figure 13.1 SE Vee model. (Source: Clarus Concept of Operations, Federal Highway Administration, 2005.)


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Offbeat History of Process Context This sidebar presents a view of process based on an examination of how process has been treated in several SE-related disciplines. The view, and the discussion that follows it, explain the role that process plays in MOSES.

The View Historical practice in several disciplines shapes the view presented here. The two primary historical examples are traditional architecture and science, especially the scientific method.

SE Actualization Processes Architecture. An evolution of the design process in the traditional architecture field in the 1960s and 1970s, especially in Britain, is described by Jones (1963), Hillier, Musgrove, and O’Sullivan (1972), Rittel (1972), and Broadbent (1979). In the 1960s, the people who studied the methods of architectural design decided that the process needed to become more systematic and more quantified. Architects needed to clear their mind of preconceptions. They needed a rationalized process of analysis then synthesis, with more emphasis on user requirements, and more open-ended designs and options as opposed to a standard set of built-in requirements. This approach, called Analysis-SynthesisEvaluation, has been designated a “First Generation” design method. (The way architectural design was done during the thousands of years prior to this period does not seem to deserve any name or generation number; perhaps we could call it Generation 0. Apparently, process was not a focus. In his ten books on architecture written in the first century BCE, for example, Vitruvius (1914) focused on designs and not so much on the process of creating them.) The result of this first-generation process, according to Hillier, Musgrove, and O’Sullivan (1972), was deterioration in user acceptability of buildings that were built. The problem seemed to be that designs did not incorporate the built-in knowledge of requirements they previously relied on and instead they relied too heavily on specified user requirements. A second generation then emerged, containing elements of political consideration; it was a rebellion against the notion that an expert designer was more knowledgeable than other stakeholders about how to design the system. The approach was more like design by committee, in which it was politically incorrect to think that anyone knew more than anyone else about design. The designer acted as coordinator. Also included were some legitimate ideas such as an argumentative approach in which each idea was to be open to discussion and challenge, rather than accepted as a pronouncement from an expert at face value. This approach resulted in buildings that were not quite usable because amateur designers on the committee wanted exotic features that were not workable, but the architect was not in a position to overrule them, and could not persuade them of the folly of their ideas until after the building was built. The third-generation process that followed owes much to the philosophy of Karl Popper (1965), and is called the conjecture-refutation model. It has these characteristics: it returns to the notion of an expert designer proposing a design in the form of a conjecture, which is then examined and opened up to refutation. The process also portrays definition of the problem and development of the solution(s) as simultaneous activities that support each other. The argument is that the old sequence view (define problem, design, implement) is inappropriate because problem and solution emerge together. The third generation seems to be the application of problem solving to design. That is, it seems to be an explication of how architecture was done before all these “generations” began, with perhaps the added value of explicit recognition of refutation and debate on proposed designs. Science. Medawar (1969), Weinberg (1994), and Bauer (1994) discuss the process of science and the scientific method. The basic argument of Medawar

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Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science and Bauer is that scientists have for the most part ignored the discussion about process and are able to be successful despite ignoring it. They are not really aware of what process they use, and are unable to accurately describe it if they are asked to do so. Furthermore, the people who have tried to define the scientific method, such as philosophers and methodologists, describe a process that is not what scientists actually follow. The physicist Weinberg (1994) relates that many physicists puzzle over two phenomena: the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics, and the unreasonable ineffectiveness of philosophy, in supporting the scientific enterprise. The general pattern that seems to apply in architecture, science, mathematics, and traditional engineering is that practitioners do not pay much attention to process, but methodologists and philosophers do. We would say that practitioners in all these disciplines apply the human problem-solving process. It is a natural, messy, trial-and-error, opportunistic, iterative, intuitive process that is part creative insight, part rational reasoning, part hard grinding work, and part social interaction with its attendant emotional and non-rational elements. The results, when successful, give the illusion of resulting from a clean, straightforward process. Philosophers, however, try to capture the illusion and prescribe it as the process to follow. That process is unnatural, clean, sequential, rationalized, and objective, and does not square with the practice of human problem solving.

Applying the View We have mentioned in several places in the book that TSE (and software engineering) has focused on process. We have also mentioned that the heritage of MOSES lies more in the orientation of traditional engineering handbooks and less in the process focus of software and systems engineering. More specifically, the heritage is a combination of the conventional designs of traditional engineering handbooks and the complex systems emphasis on ultimate effects, versatility, and adaptability. The structure and emphasis of the overall book reflects this heritage. The heart of the book, Chapters 5 through 11, is directed to models and the model space — the actual designs etc. The process chapter is last, and from the view presented above, one might wonder why we include it at all. It is included for two related reasons. First, the extended and unified SE of the future as depicted in this book has some implications for the SE process, and it is important to spell out those implications. Perhaps the most important general implication is to reduce the emphasis on process. Other implications are spelled out in this chapter. Second, the point of presenting this view is not to say that process does not matter. The point is that the history of process in SE-related disciplines, and the over-reliance on process in recent decades in software and systems engineering, both indicate that the future SE needs to find a more appropriate balance between product and process, or in MOSES terms, between models and modeling or actualization. Part of the needed balance is the recognition of CS and actualization processes.


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Figure 13.2

Creative Process

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–

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Implement solution Time

Figure 13.3 Pattern of cognitive activity of one designer: the “jagged” line. (Source: Conklin, J. Dialogue Mapping: Building Shared Understanding of Wicked Problems, Chichester, England: John Wiley. 2006. Used with permission.)

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Near term: specific, detailed, small, agile

Long term: abstract, not detailed, strategic, trends

High Degree of Abstraction

Just in time detail Low Now

Future Planning horizon

Figure 13.4

Unifying planning and agility.

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Projection View 2008 2009 review of 2008 performance 2009 as is models

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: What can we see from viewpoint; what is produced or projected 2009 2010 2011 2012 2009 current 2009 plan for 2009 plan for 2009 plan for actualization 2010 2011; Level 3 2012; Level 4 activities; actualization; models models Level 1 Level 2 detailed models models

Plan actualization activities for three years out, 2012, but general: Level 4 models Plan actualization activities for two years out, 2011, but with even less detail: Level 3 models Plan actualization activities for next year, 2010, but with less detail: Level 2 models Current year, 2009, collective actualization activities: Define detailed Level 1 models – both enterprise and system models Review performance of previous year, 2008, and update the “as is” state Viewpoint: In the current year, 2009, participants in collective actualization perform these activities

Figure 13.5

Short and long term actualization.

Viewpoint ‘Now’ is 2009

‘Now’ is 2010

‘Now’ is 2011

2008 2009 review of 2008 performance; 2009 as is models

Projection View : What can we see from viewpoint; what is produced or projected 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2009 current 2009 plan for 2009 plan for 2009 plan for actualization 2010 2011; Level 3 2012; Level 4 activities; actualization; models models Level 1 Level 2 detailed models models 2010 review of 2009 performance; 2010 as is models

2010 current actualization activities; Level 1 detailed models

2010 plan for 2010 plan for 2010 plan for 2011 2012; Level 3 2013; Level 4 actualization; models models Level 2 models

2011 review of 2010 performance; 2011 as is models



2012 review of 2011 performance; 2012 as is models


‘Now’ is 2012

Figure 13.6 Rolling wave model.

2015



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…

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Specificity

Stability

Agile Detailed

Releases: Each release fills a gap between current and vision Rel. n+1 Rel. n+2 Rel. n+3 Rel. n+4 Rel. n+5 Release n (2.1) (2.2) (3.0) (1.1) (2.0) (1.0)

Feedback

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Update high level goals, needs, technologies, architecture, research as needed Continuing research, technology assessment, prototyping

Forces on the process: User needs; environment volatility; legacy systems; available technology; budget; resources Figure 13.7

Release view of rolling wave.

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DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE o U G DPNNVOJUZ defined, 181 HVJEFTUP o NPEFMTQBDFBOE o #PFIN #BSSZ #PFJOH #P,4FF#PEJFTPGLOPXMFEHF #POEJOH o #PUUPNVQQSPDFTTFT o #PVOEBSJFT4FFBMTP.FNCSBOFT BSUJGBDUTBOE DIBOHFBOE G DPNQPTJUJPOBOE DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o MJWJOHTZTUFNTBOE NFNCSBOFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOE o G NZUIPGSFRVJSFNFOUTESJWFOBOE TZTUFNTBOE o #PVOEBSZQPJOUT #PVOEFESBUJPOBMJUZ #PYPMPHZ o4FFBMTP&ODBQTVMBUJPO #1&-1FPQMF #1./4FF#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT.PEFMBOE/PUBUJPO #SJDPMBHFBQQSPBDI #SJEHJOH o #SJEHJOHPOUPMPHJFT o #SPPLT 'SFE #VOHF8BOE8FCFS #88 SFQSFTFOUBUJPONPEFM #VTUPQPMPHZ G #VTJOFTTBSDIJUFDUVSFWJFX 50("'BOE #VTJOFTTNPEFMJOHWJFX 40"GSBNFXPSLTBOE #VTJOFTTQSPDFTTMBOHVBHFT o #VTJOFTT1SPDFTT.PEFMBOE/PUBUJPO #1./

Index #VTJOFTT3FGFSFODF.PEFM #VTJOFTT4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH #88SFQSFTFOUBUJPONPEFM4FF#VOHF8BOE8FCFS SFQSFTFOUBUJPONPEFM

C $BQBCJMJUJFTCBTFEBTTFTTNFOU $#"

$BQUVSJOH 3FQSFTFOUJOH BOE0QFSBUJPOBMJTJOH4FNBOUJD *OUFHSBUJPO $304* QSPKFDU $BSCPOOBOPUVCFT4FF/BOPUVCFT $BST o o $"4GSBNFXPSL4FF$PNQMFYBEBQUJWFTZTUFNT GSBNFXPSL $"4&4FF$PNQMFY"EBQUJWF4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH $"4-4FF$PHOJUJWF"HFOUT4pecification Language $BUBMZTJT $BUFHPSJFT4FFBMTP,JOET DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE o G U G G G G defining in ontologies, 190–191 NPTBJDTBOE U QPQVMBUJPOTBT $BUFHPSJ[BUJPOIJFSBSDIJFT G $#"4FF$BQBCJMJUJFTCBTFEBTTFTTNFOU $#%*4"&.FUB.PEFMGPS40" $FMMVMBSBVUPNBUB U $FMMVMBSQSPDFTTFT $FOUFSGPS*OUFHSBUJWF.VMUJTDBMF.PEFMJOHBOE 4JNVMBUJPO $*..4

$IBMMFOHFTPGTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH PWFSWJFX PG o $IBOHF4FFBMTP"DZDMJDDIBOHFNPEFMT$ZDMJD DIBOHFNPEFMT5JNF CJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPOBOE o CPVOEBSZDSPTTJOH G DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE EFTJSFEWTVOEFTJSFE o U PGJOUFSFTU o NPEFMJOHMFWFMTPG o G U G U OFFEFENPEFMTPG o U TDJFODFBOE UJNFBOE o XFBLOFTTFTPG54&BOE $IBOOFMBOEOFU $IBPT $IBPUJDTZTUFNT Characteristic, defined, 64–65. 4FFBMTP$PNQMFYTZTUFNT DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT CPYPMPHZBOE $IFNJDBMCPOET $IFNJDBMFOHJOFFSJOH $IFNJTUSZ WJFXTBOE $IPJDF4FF.PEFMJOHDIPJDF $IPSFPHSBQIZ BTJOUFSBDUJPONPEFM

O

349

$*..44FF$FOUFSGPS*OUFHSBUJWF.VMUJTDBMF.PEFMJOH BOE4JNVMBUJPO $JWJMFOHJOFFSJOH o $MBTTFT 4FFBMTP,JOET $MPDLT DIBPTBOE $.44FF$304*.BQQJOH4ZTUFN $PHOJUJWFBHFOUT $PHOJUJWF"HFOUT4pecification Language (CASL), 203, $PHOJUJWFTZTUFNT 4FFBMTP+PJOUDPHOJUJWF TZTUFNT $PME8BS o $PMMBCPSBUJPO o o4FFBMTP.BTT DPMMBCPSBUJPO $PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPO DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGQSPDFTT o G G G NJYFEDPNQPTJUJPOBOE PWFSWJFXPG U o U unification and, 315 unified prPDFTTGPS o G $PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDF4FFBMTP1SPCMFNTQBDF 4PMVUJPOTZTUFNTQBDF NPEFMTQBDFBOE G G PWFSWJFXPG G G $PNNPONPEFMT Common specification apprPBDI $PNNPOJ[BUJPO4FFBMTP%ifferFODFT4JNJMBSJUJFT BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE CBTJDDPODFQUTPG o G DBUFHPSZ LJOEBOE o G U G G G G (FOFSJD.PEFMJOH&OWJSPONFOUBOE JOUFOTJPO FYUFOTJPOBOE o LOPXMFEHF CPEJFTPGLOPXMFEHFBOE o U G MFWFSBHFBOE o MJNJUTPGHFOFSBMJUZBOE o NPEFMTQBDFBOE NPEFMTQBDFEJNFOTJPOTBOE NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G NVMUJMFWFMTUSVDUVSFTBOE o SFMBUJPOUPDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO TVNNBSZPGQSPDFTTFTSFMBUFEUP o UJNFBOE $PNNVOJDBUJPOEJBHSBNT $PNNVOJUZ .JMMFSTMJWJOHTZTUFNTBOE $PNQFUJUJWe interactions, defined, 73 $PNQMFUFOFTT NPEFMTQBDFBOE $PNQMFY"EBQUJWF4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH $"4&

$PNQMFYBEBQUJWFTZTUFNT $"4 GSBNFXPSL o $PNQMFYTZTUFNT $4

CPEJFTPGLOPXMFEHFBOE DBOEJEBUFQSPDFTTFTGPSFOHJOFFSJOHPG o DIBOHJOHQFSTQFDUJWFTPO DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPG o

350

O


DPMMBCPSBUJPOBOE o defined, 37 FOHJOFFSJOHBOE FYBNQMFTPG o mapping and unification and, 307 NPEFMUSFOETBOE o OFUXPSLTBOE WJFXTBOE o $PNQMFYTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH $4&

o G o $PNQMFYTZTUFNTTDJFODF $44

o $PNQMFYJUZ $PNQMJBODF EFQFOEFODJFTBOE $PNQPOFOUBOEDPOOFDUPSWJFXUZQF $PNQPOFOUCBTFETZTUFNT $PNQPOFOUDPOOFDUPSNPEFM $PNQPOFOUT o U $PNQPTJUJPO BHFOUTBOE DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPG o FMFNFOUTPG o MJWJOHTZTUFNTBOE NFNCSBOFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOE o G NPEFMTQBDFBOE o G NPEFMTQBDFEJNFOTJPOTBOE NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G NVMUJMFWFMTUSVDUVSFTBOE o G QSPDFTTFTBOE o QSPQFSUJFTPG o G SFMBUJPOUPDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO TDBMFBOE o TZNNFUSJD UJNFBOE o 7FFNPEFMBOE o G XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U ;BDINBO&OUFSQSJTF'SBNFXPSLBOE $PNQPTJUJPOIJFSBSDIJFT $PNQPTJUJPOWJFXT o $PNQSJTF $PNQVUBUJPO U $PNQVUFSTDJFODF $4

NPEFMTQBDFBOE $PNQVUFST o4FFBMTP4PGUXBSF $PODFQUT QSedefined rVMFT MFBSOJOHBOE o $PODFQUTPGPQFSBUJPOT $0/014

o U o $PODFQUVBMNPEFMT TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE $PODFQUVBMTQBDF $PODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO defining ontology categories and, 190–191 EFTJHOBOE GPSNBMBOEJOGPSNBMWJFXTPG o NJUJHBUJPOBOE o NPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOE NPEFMTQBDFBOE o G o G

NVMUJQMFEPNBJOTBOE o G ontology efforUTBOEUPPMTBOE o POUPMPHZWT PWFSWJFw and definitions of o SFMBUJPOTPG o UJNFBOE WJFXTBOE o $POEJUJPOBMQSPCBCJMJUJFT o Conflict, cooperation and, 154 $POKFDUVSFSFGVUBUJPONPEFM $POKVHBUFSFMBUJPOT XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE o G $POOFDUJPOT o o4FFBMTP*OUFSBDUJPOT 3FMBUJPOT $POOFDUPSQBSties, defined, 71 $POOFDUPST o G4FFBMTP*OUFSBDUJPOT 3FMBUJPOT $0/0144FF$PODFQUTPGPQFSBUJPOT $POTFDVUJWFDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT $POTFDVUJWFSFMBUJPOT U $POTUSBJOFEBDUJPOT $POTVNFST 4FFBMTP1SPEVDFST1SPWJEFST $POUBJOFEDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT o $POUFYU PGNPEFMTQBDF o G $POUFYUHFOFSBMFYUFSOBMNPEFMT o G G Context-specific external models, 133–134, 134f $POUJOVJUZ NPEFMUZQFTBOE U $POUJOVPVT EJTDSFUFWT $POUJOVPVT4ZTUFN4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF $44-

$POUJOVVN TDJFODFBT $POUSBDUT DPOUBJOFEBOETIBSFEDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT BOE o $POUSBEJDUJPO DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE $POUSBTUT o4FFBMTP%VBMJUZ1BSBEPYFT5FOTJPOT $POUSPM NPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOE o $POUSPMGVODUJPOT $POUSPMIJFSBSDIJFT $POWFSUFST Cooperation, conflict and, 154 $PPQFSBUJWe interactions, defined, 73 $PPSEJOBUJPO BTJOUFSBDUJPONPEFM $PSSFTQPOEFODF o G o $PSSFTQPOEFODFTFUT o o o $PTU BTSFTPVSDFDPOTUSBJOU $PVSUSPPNUSJBMT $304*.BQQJOH4ZTUFN $.4

$304*QSPKFDU4FF$BQUVSJOH 3FQSFTFOUJOH BOE 0QFSBUJPOBMJTJOH4FNBOUJD*OUFHSBUJPOQSPKFDU $SPTTDVUUJOH o G $44FF$PNQMFYTZTUFNT$PNQVUFSTDJFODF $4&4FF$PNQMFYTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH $444FF$PNQMFYTZTUFNTTDJFODF

Index $44-4FF$POUJOVPVT4ZTUFN4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF $VTUPNTPMVUJPOBQQSPBDIFT $ZCFSOFUJDT $ZD $ZDMFT $ZDMJDDIBOHFNPEFMT o G G4FFBMTP "DZDMJDDIBOHFNPEFMT

D %"31"4FF%FGFOTF"EWBODFE3FTFBSDI1SPKFDUT"HFODZ %BUBBSDIJUFDUVSFWJFX 50("'BOE %BUB3FGFSFODF.PEFM %BWJT (& %#$4FF%FTJHOCZ$POUSBDU %FDJEFST %FDJTJPONBLJOH FOUFSQSJTFFOHJOFFSJOH FOUFSQSJTF BVUPOPNZBOE %FDPEFST %FDPNQPTJUJPO U U4FFBMTP $PNQPTJUJPO %FDPVQMJOH o %FGFOTF"EWBODFE3FTFBSDI1SPKFDUT"HFODZ %"31"

%FGFOTJWFESJWJOH %efined worlds, 247 %FMFHBUJPO XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U o G %FMFHBUJPODPOOFDUPST %&-044FF%JHJUBM-JCSBSZ3FGFSFODF.PEFM %FQFOEFODJFT EFTJHOWJFXTBOE U NBQQJOHBOE NBQQJOHUPFYUFSOBMNPEFMTBOE specification apprPBDIBOE 7FFNPEFMBOE %FQMPZNFOU %FQMPZNFOUTQBDF G %FSJWBUJPO BQQMJDBUJPOWT o %FTDSJQUJWFNPEFMT %FTDSJQUJWF0OUPMPHZGPS-JOHVJTUJDTBOE$PHOJUJWF &OHJOFFSJOH %0-$&

%FTJHO o %FTJHOCZ$POUSBDU %#$

%FTJHOWJFXT o U %FUBJMT EFTJHOWJFXTBOE U %FUFSNJOJTN U4FFBMTP1Sobabilistic specifications %FWFMPQNFOU PQFSBUJPOWT o %JDUJPOBSJFT NBTTDPMMBCPSBUJPOBOE o %ifferFODFT o G 4FFBMTP 4JNJMBSJUJFT %JHJUBM-JCSBSZ3FGFSFODF.PEFM %-3.

%JHJUBM3FQPTJUPSZ*OGSBTUSVDUVSF7JTJPOGPS&VSPQFBO 3FTFBSDI4FF%3*7&3QSPKFDU %JNFOTJPOBMSFMBUJPOT NPEFMTQBDFBOE o

O

351

%JNFOTJPOT %JSect interaction effects, 301–302, 304–305, 310t. 4FFBMTP#FIBWJPSPGTZTUFN*OEJSFDUJOUFSBDUJPO effects %JSect interactions, defined, 73 %JTDJQMJOFT4FFBMTP4pecific disciplines DPOUSJCVUJOHUP4&4 o U G MBOHVBHFTBOE NPEFMTQBDFBOE G NVMUJQMFEPNBJOTBOE o unification and, 314–315, 314f unification of o U U WJFXTBOE %JTDSFUF DPOUJOVPVTWT %JTPSEFSWTPSEFS U %JTTFSvice consumers, defined, 72 %JTTFSvice initiators, defined, 72 %JTTFSWJDFQSPviders, defined, 72 %JTTFSWJDFT 4FFBMTP4FSWJDFT %JTUSJCVUJPO NPEFMUZQFTBOE U %JTUSJCVUJPOGVODUJPOT %JTUSJCVUJPOUSBOTQBSFODJFT %JTUSJCVUPST %-3.4FF%JHJUBM-JCSBSZ3FGFSFODF.PEFM %PDVNFOUBUJPO BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE %P%TFSJFT %P%"SDIJUFDUVSBM'SBNFXPSL %P%"'

o %P%"'4FF%P%"SDIJUFDUVSBM'SBNFXPSL %PHT DBUFHPSZ LJOEBOE o G G %0-$&4FF%FTDSJQUJWF0OUPMPHZGPS-JOHVJTUJDTBOE $PHOJUJWF&OHJOFFSJOH %PNBJOPOUPMPHJFT o %PNBJOT4FFBMTP"QQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT.VMUJQMF EPNBJOT BStificial science and, 35 DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPGNPEFMTQBDFBOE IJFSBSDIJFTPG NPEFMTQBDFBOE G o U U %PNJOBODF %0034 %ZOBNJD0CKFDU0SJFOUFE3FRVJSFNFOUT 4ZTUFN

%3*7&3QSPKFDU %VBMIJFSBSDIJFT G o G %VBMJUZ4FFBMTP$POUSBEJDUJPO$POUSBTUT1BSBEPYFT 5FOTJPOT UJNFBOE o G WJFXTBOE o U XBWFQBSUJDMF %ZNPMB %ZOBNJD TUBUJDWT o %ZOBNJDNPEFM U o o4FFBMTP 4UBUJDNPEFMT %ZOBNJD0CKFDU0SJFOUFE3FRVJSFNFOUT4ZTUFN4FF %0034 %ZOBNJDBMTZTUFNT U o

352 O


E &"4FF&OUFSQSJTFBVUPOPNZ &"GSBNFXPSLT4FF&OUFSQSJTFBSDIJUFDUVSF GSBNFXPSLT &BSMZBTQFDUT FC9-.4FF&MFDUSPOJD#VTJOFTTVTJOH&YUFOTJCMF.BSLVQ -BOHVBHF &DPMPHZ, defined, 59 &DPOPNJDT G &DPTZTUFNT &$4".4FF&NCFEEFE$PNQVUFS4ZTUFN"OBMZTJT BOE.PEFMJOH &EHFT /BSZSFMBUJPOJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE &&.4FF&OUFSQSJTFFOHJOFFSJOHBOENBOBHFNFOU Effects defined, 72 EJSFDUJOUFSBDUJPO o U JOEJSFDUJOUFSBDUJPO o U JOUFOEFEBOEVOJOUFOEFE TJEF o &MBQTFEUJNF &MFDUSPOJD#VTJOFTTVTJOH&YUFOTJCMF.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF FC9.-

&NCFEEFE$PNQVUFS4ZTUFN"OBMZTJTBOE.PEFMJOH &$4".

&NFSHFODF 4FFBMTP3FEVDUJPOJTN &NFSHFOUDPTIBQJOH &NFSHFOUQSPQFSUJFT &ODBQTVMBUJPO BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE DIBOHFTPGJOUFSFTUBOE o DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o DPOOFDUPSTBOE NFNCSBOFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOE o XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U &ODPEFST &OEQPJOUQBSties, defined, 71 &OHJOFFSJOH BSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLTBOE BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE o DPNQMFY IZCSJETZTUFNTBOE DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPG defined, 37 TDJFODFBOE o U G unification of &OHJOFFSJOHIBOECPPLT 4FFBMTP )BOECPPLT &OUFSQSJTF &OUFSQSJTFBQQSPBDIFT &OUFSQSJTFBSDIJUFDUVSF &" GSBNFXPSLT o G &OUFSQSJTFBVUPOPNZ &"

U o &OUFSQSJTFFOHJOFFSJOH &OUFSQSJTFFOHJOFFSJOHNBOBHFNFOU &&.

U o

&OUFSQSJTFTFMGPSHBOJ[JOHBDUJWJUZ &OUFSQSJTFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH &OUFSQSJTFXPSLTQBDFT &OUFSQSJTFT o &OUJUJFT o4FFBMTP.PTBJDT4ZTUFNT8PSMET &OWJSonments, defined, 59 &4-4FF&VSPQFBO4QBDF"HFODZ4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF &VSPQFBO4QBDF"HFODZ4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF &4-

&WFOJOHTUBS JOUFOTJPOWTFYUFOTJPOBOE o &WPMVUJPO4FFBMTP#JPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPO BOBMPHZUPCJPMPHJDBM BStificial, 233 BStificial and natural science and, 36 DIBOHFBOE o FOHJOFFSJOHBOE o FOUFSQSJTFDPODFQUBOE mapping and unification and, 301–302, 307 TPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHBOE UJNFBOE o &YDMVTJWJUZ BTDPNQPTJUJPOQSPQFSUZ o G &YFDVUBCJMJUZ NPEFMUZQFTBOE U &YFDVUBCMFNPEFMT G &YFDVUJPOEPNBJOT &YQBOTJPO &YQFDUFECFIBWJPS o4FFBMTP/PSNBMCFIBWJPS &YQMJDJUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT o &YUFOEFEXIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOT U &YUFOTJCMF.BSL6Q-BOHVBHF 9.-

o &YUFOTJPO o 4FFBMTP*OUFOTJPO &YUFOTJPOBMPOUPMPHJFT &YUFSOBMNPEFMT o 4FFBMTP*OUFSOBM NPEFMT &xternal specification languages, 203 &xternal specifications, 274, 274f U G 4FFBMTP*nternal specifications &YUFSOBMWJFXT o4FFBMTP*OUFSOBMWJFXT &YUSFNFFODBQTVMBUJPO4FF#PYPMPHZ &YUSFNFQSPHSBNNJOH 91

&YUSVEFST

F 'BJMVSF SFBTPOTGPS 'BJMVSFUSBOTQBSFODZ '&"QSPHSBN o 'FSUJMJ[BUJPO NPEFMJOHPG 'JEFMJUZ o 'lammable, inflammable vs., 9 'MJHIU NPEFMJOHPG o 'MPXJOHXBUFS NPEFMTFMFDUJPOBOE o '0$4FF'VMMPQFSBUJPOBMDBQBCJMJUZ 'PMLTPOPNJFT o 'PSNBMEFTJHO 'PSNBUJPO DIBOHFTBOE G U 'PVOEBUJPOT

Index WJFXT 'SBDUBMT 'SBNFXPSLT4FF&OUFSQSJTFBSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLT 4pecific frBNFXPSLT 'VMMGVODUJPOJOH DIBOHFTBOE G U 'VMMPQFSBUJPOBMDBQBDJUZ '0$

'VODUJPOT 'VTJPO 'VUVSF EVBMIJFSBSDIJFTBOE 'VUVZNBNPEFM 'V[[JOFTT NZUIPGSFRVJSFNFOUTESJWFOBOE 'V[[Z QSPCBCJMJUZWT G 'V[[ZCPVOEBSJFT 'V[[ZMPHJD 'V[[ZTFUUIFPSZ 'uzzy specifications, 293, 294f 'V[[ZUIJOLJOH o

G (4&#P,4FF(VJEFUPUIF4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH#PEZ PG,OPXMFEHF (BNJOH (BSCBHFDBONPEFM ($.

($.4FF(BSCBHFDBONPEFM (FOFSBM'PSNBM0OUPMPHZ ('0

o (FOFSBMNPEFMT4FFBMTP$PNNPOJ[BUJPO4pecific NPEFMT CPEJFTPGLOPXMFEHFBOE DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE NBJOUFOBODFPG specific models vs., 226–227 USBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHBOE o G (FOFSBM3FMBUJWJUZ o (FOFSBMTPMVUJPOBQQSPBDIFT (FOFSBM6TFS.PEFM0OUPMPHZ (6.0

o (FOFSBMJUZ o (FOFSBMJ[BUJPO (FOFSBMJ[BUJPOIJFSBSDIJFT DPODFQUVBMNPEFMJOHBOE JOIFSJUBODFBOE NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE (FOFSJD.PEFMJOH&OWJSPONFOU (.&

(FPHSBQIJD.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF (.-

('04FF(FOFSBM'PSNBM0OUPMPHZ (JFSF 3POBME (MPCBM$PMMBCPSBUJPO&OWJSPONFOU (lobal plant floor (MPCBM1PTJUJPOJOH4ZTUFNT (14

(.&4FF(FOFSJD.PEFMJOH&OWJSPONFOU (.-4FF(FPHSBQIJD.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF (PBMTUBUF NPEFMTQBDFBOE (PBMPSJFOUFEMBOHVBHFT (ÚEFMTJODPNQMFUFOFTTUIFPSFN

O 353

i(PPE3FHVMBUPSwUIFPSFN (144FF(MPCBM1PTJUJPOJOH4ZTUFNT (SBEBUJPO MBXPG (SBEVBMJTN GV[[JOFTTWT (SBWJUZ o (SFBU&YQFDUBUJPOT %JDLFOT

(SPXUI (VJEFUPUIF4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH#PEZPG,OPXMFEHF (4&#P,

(6.04FF(FOFSBM6TFS.PEFM0OUPMPHZ

H )BDLFST )BOECPPLT o o4FFBMTP &OHJOFFSJOHIBOECPPLT )BSEXBSFNPEFMT BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE )BSNPOZ WJFXTBOE o )BXLJOH 4UFQIFO o )FVSJTUJDT )JFSBSDIJDBM1FUSJOFUT )JFSBSDIJFT4FFBMTP%VBMIJFSBSDIJFT DBUFHPSZ LJOEBOE o G DPNQPTJUJPO PGEPNBJOT IPMPOTBOE NPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOE o NVMUJMFWFMDPNQPTJUJPO o WJFXTBOE o )JHIMZPQUJNJ[FEUPMFSBODF )05

)JHIMZPQUJNJ[FEUPMFSBODF TFMGPSHBOJ[FEDSJUJDBMJUJFT WT )JUDIJOs fivFMBZFSNPEFM )PBSFUSJQMF )PMBSDIJFT )PMJTN TZTUFNTTDJFODFBOE o )PMPOT )054FF)JHIMZPQUJNJ[FEUPMFSBODF )14GSBNFXPSL4FF)VNBOQSPWJEFETFSWJDFT GSBNFXPSL )VCT TDBMFGSFFOFUXPSLTBOE )VNBO.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF )VNBO.-

)VNBO.-4FF)VNBO.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF )VNBOQSPWJEFETFSWJDFT )14 GSBNFXPSL )VNBOT4FFBMTP)ZCSJETZTUFNT BOBUPNZFYBNQMFBOE o DPNQMFYTZTUFNTNPEFMTBOE TDBMFBOE WJFXTPG o )VNFEJTUJODUJPO )ZCSJETZTUFNT o G o

I *$.4FF*ODSFNFOUBM$PNNJUNFOU.PEFM *&&&TUBOEBSE

354

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*&&&4UBOEBSE **%4FF*UFSBUJWFBOEJODSFNFOUBMEFWFMPQNFOU *NQMFNFOUBUJPO *NQMJDJUDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT o4FFBMTP&YQMJDJU DIBSBDUFSJTUJDT.PEFMJOH *NQMJDJUDPODFQUT FYQMJDJUDPODFQUTWT *ODMVTJPO XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U *ODPNQMFUFOFTT */$04&4FF*OUFSOBUJPOBM$PVODJMPO4ZTUFNT &OHJOFFSJOH *ODSFNFOUBM$PNNJUNFOU.PEFM *$.

*ODSFNFOUBMNPEFMT *ODSFNFOUBMJTN *OEJSFDUDPNQPTJUJPOBHFOUT o *OEJSect interaction effects, 301–302, 304–305, o U *OEJSect interactions, defined, 73 *OEJWJEVBMT U *OEVTUSJBM4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH *nfinite loops, 259–260 *nflammable, flammable vs., 9 *nfluence, complex systems and, 221, 233, *OGPSNBUJDT TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODFBOE U *OGPSNBUJPO 4FFBMTP4tuff *OGPSNBUJPOIJEJOH 4FFBMTP&ODBQTVMBUJPO *OGPSNBUJPOTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH *OHFTUPST *OIFSJUBODF o *OJUJBMPQFSBUJPOBMDBQBDJUZ *0$

*OQVUUSBOTEVDFST *OTUBODFT TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE *OTUBOUJBUJPO DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE *OUFHSBUFE4ZTUFNPG'PVOEBUJPOBM0OUPMPHJFT *4'0

*OUFHSBUJPO4FFBMTP4FQBSBUJPO BTQFDUPSJFOUFEEFWFMPQNFOUBOE o DPSSFTQPOEFODFTFUTBOE o NPEFMTQBDFBOE o QBOBSDIZBOE WJFXTBOE o *ntended effects, 73. 4FFBMTP6nintended effects *OUFOTJPO o 4FFBMTP&YUFOTJPO *OUFSBDUJPOEJBHSBNT *OUFSBDUJPONPEFMT CJOBSZSFMBUJPOTBOE o G /BSZSFMBUJPOTBOE o G G *OUFSBDUJPOPWFSWJFXEJBHSBNT *OUFSBDUJPOT4FFBMTP"DUJPOT BTZNNFUSJD o CJOBSZ o G G DPNQFUJUJWF DPNQMFYBEBQUJWFTZTUFNTGSBNFXPSLBOE o DPPQFSBUJWF defined, 71

EJSFDUBOEJOEJSFDU o o o U JOUFSOBMBOEFYUFSOBM o NBQQJOHBSUJGBDUTPG TFSWJDF TZNNFUSJD WJFXTPG o G *OUFSFTU DIBOHFPG o *OUFSGBDFDPOOFDUJPOBSDIJUFDUVSFT *OUFSface specifications, 281t, 283–284 *OUFSGBDFT EFTJHOWJFXTBOE U *OUFSNFEJBSZQBSties, defined, 71 *OUFSNFEJBUFESJWJOHQBUUFSOT *OUFSOBMFOWJSPONFOUT G *OUFSOBMNPEFMT 4FFBMTP&YUFSOBMNPEFMT *nternal specifications, 274, 274f U o G 4FFBMTP&xternal specifications *OUFSOBMUSBOTEVDFST *OUFSOBMWJFXT 4FFBMTP&YUFSOBMWJFXT *OUFSOBUJPOBM$PVODJMPO4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH */$04&

o *OUFSOBUJPOBM4PDJFUZGPS4ZTUFNT4DJFODFT *444

*OUFSOFU o *OUFSQSFUBUJPO *OUFSSVQUDBQBCJMJUZ *OUFSTFDUJPOT DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE *OUFSUXJOJOHSFMBUJPOT *OWBSJBOUT *OXBSENBQQJOH *0$4FF*OJUJBMPQFSBUJPOBMDBQBCJMJUZ *POJDMJRVJET *SSFHBSEMFTT SFHBSEMFTTWT *4'04FF*OUFHSBUFE4ZTUFNPG'PVOEBUJPOBM 0OUPMPHJFT *TPNPSQIJDNPEFMT *4444FF*OUFSOBUJPOBM4PDJFUZGPS4ZTUFNT4DJFODFT *UFSBUJWFBOEJODSFNFOUBMEFWFMPQNFOU **%

J +BDLTPO .JDIBFM U +BWB +$44FF+PJOUDPHOJUJWFTZTUFNT +PJOUDPHOJUJWFTZTUFNT +$4

o4FFBMTP)ZCSJE TZTUFNT

K ,"04 ,"304FF,OPXMFEHF BCJMJUJFT SFTVMUT PQQPSUVOJUJFT ,*'4FF,OPXMFEHF*OUFSDIBOHF'PSNBU ,JOET4FFBMTP$BUFHPSJFT$MBTTFT DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE o G U G G G G NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G

Index ,OPXMFEHF4FFBMTP#PEJFTPGLOPXMFEHF%PNBJOT DBUFHPSJFTPG o U DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE o U G UBDJU WJFXTPG o ,OPXMFEHF BCJMJUJFT SFTVMUT PQQPSUVOJUJFT ,"30

,OPXMFEHF*OUFSDIBOHF'PSNBU ,*'

,OPXMFEHFSFQSFTFOUBUJPO ,3 MBOHVBHFT ,OPXMFEHFTQBDFT NPEFMTQBDFBOE o ,3MBOHVBHFT4FF,OPXMFEHFSFQSFTFOUBUJPOMBOHVBHFT ,SVUDIFOWJFXT ,8*$JOGPSNBUJPOIJEJOHEFTJHO o

L -BOHVBHF BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE -BOHVBHFMFWFSBHF G4FFBMTP-FWFSBHF -BOHVBHFT DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPGNPEFMTQBDFBOE o HPBMPSJFOUFE NBTTDPMMBCPSBUJPOBOE o NPEFMTQBDFBOE NPEFMTQBDFDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o 4FNBOUJD8FCBOE TVQQPSUJOHTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH o G VTFSDPNQVUFSDPNNVOJDBUJPOBOE -BXPGHSBEBUJPO -BXPGSFRVJTJUFQBSTJNPOZ -BXPGSFRVJTJUFWBSJFUZ o -BZFSFEBSDIJUFDUVSF o G -FBSOJOH BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE o -FWFMTPGBCTUSBDUJPO -FWFSBHF o o G G -JBSTQBSBEPY o -JCSBSJFT 4FFBMTP.PEFMTQBDF3FQPTJUPSJFT -JGFDZDMFT4FF-JGFTQBOT -JGFTQBOT G -JNJUTPGNPEFMJOH o -JNJUTPGTFQBSBUJPO BTQFDUPSJFOUFEEFWFMPQNFOUBOE -JOFPSHBOJ[BUJPOT -JOFBSNPEFM -JOFBSUFNQPSBMMPHJD -5-

-JOFBSJUZ U -JOFT /BSZSFMBUJPOJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE -JOHVJTUJDJOTUBODFT o G -JOVY -JUFSBUVSF JOTZTUFNTTDJFODF o -JWJOH4ZTUFNT .JMMFS

-JWJOHTZTUFNT DPNNPOGVODUJPOTPG o -PHJD o o -PHJDBMNPEFMT TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE -PHJDBMWJFXT -PHJDT o -PHJTUJDNBQT o -PSFO[BUUSBDUPS G G

O 355

M .BDIJOFNFUBQIPS o .BJFSBOE3FDIUJOWJFXT .BJOUFOBODFPGNPEFMT .BOBHFNFOU o .BQQJOH PGFOUFSQSJTFNBOBHFNFOUFMFNFOUT o FOWJSPONFOUBMWJFXPGSFRVJSFNFOUTBOE o FYBNQMFTPG o PWFSWJFXPG o G SFMBUJPOTCFUXFFONPEFMTBOE unification and, 314–316, 314f .BQQJOHPOUPMPHJFT o .BSLT4UBOEBSE)BOECPPLGPS.FDIBOJDBM&OHJOFFST "WBMMPOFFUBM

.BSLVQMBOHVBHFT o ."35&4FF.PEFMJOHBOE"OBMZTJTPG3FBM5JNFBOE &NCFEEFETZTUFNT .BTIVQT .BTT XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE .BTTDPMMBCPSBUJPO 4FFBMTP$PMMBCPSBUJPO .BUIFNBUJDBM.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF .BUI.-

.BUIFNBUJDT DPNQMFYTZTUFNTNPEFMTBOE JOWBSJBOUTBOE MBOHVBHFTBOE NPEFMTQBDFBOE SBUJPOBM MPHJDBMBOE o TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODFBOE U .BUI.-4FF.BUIFNBUJDBM.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF .BUUFSFOFSHZTUPSBHF o .BUVSBUJPO G U .BUVSFFOHJOFFSJOH G o .BUVSFTDJFODF G .BUVSJUZ NPEFMTQBDFBOE .#"4&4FF.PEFM#BTFE"SDIJUFDUJOHBOE4PGUXBSF &OHJOFFSJOH .#4&4FF.PEFMCBTFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH .D$BSUIZ +PIO .%"4FF.PEFM%SJWFO"SDIJUFDUVSF .FDIBOJTUJD 4FFBMTP0SHBOJD .FHBTZTUFNT .FNCSBOFT o G4FFBMTP#PVOEBSJFT &ODBQTVMBUJPO .FNPSZ .FSFPMPHZ .FSHJOH .FSSJBN8FCTUFSEJDUJPOBSZ .FTIUPQPMPHZ G .FTTBHF4FRVFODF$IBSUT .4$

.FTTFT .FUB0CKFDU'BDJMJUZ .0'

.FUB(.&GSBNFXPSL .FUBNPEFMT .FUBNPSQIPTJT

356 O


.FUB0CKFDU'BDJMJUZ .0'

.FUBQIPST NBDIJOF o QV[[MF TZTUFNBTPSHBOJTN o .FUSJDT RVBMJUZ .FZFS #FSUSBOE o .JEEMFXBSF .JHSBUJPOUSBOTQBSFODZ .JMMFS +BNFT .JMMT )BSMBO .*."%4FF.PEFMJOHMBOHVBHFGPSJOUFHSBUFENPEVMBS BWJPOJDTEFTJHO .JOJNBMJTN .JOJTUSZPG%FGFOTF"SDIJUFDUVSBM'SBNFXPSL .0%"'

o .JSSPST MJRVJE .JTTJMFHVJEBODF o G .JUJHBUJPO DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o .0%"'4FF.JOJTUSZPG%FGFOTF"SDIJUFDUVSBM'SBNFXPSL .PEBMJUZ o .PEFM%SJWFO"SDIJUFDUVSF .%"

.PEFMPSJFOUBUJPO CBTJDDPODFQUTPG o U DPNQMFYTZTUFNNPEFMTBOE o DPOUSPM IJFSBSDIZBOE o EFSJWBUJPO BQQMJDBUJPOBOE o MJNJUTPGNPEFMTBOE o NPEFMTQBDFBOE o NPEFMJOHDIPJDFBOE o NPEVMBSJUZPG.04&4BOE o PWFSWJFXPG o U specified behavior WBMVBUJPOBOE TZTUFNT NPEBMJUZBOE o VTFGVMOFTT USVUIBOE o .PEFMSFHJPOT 4FFBMTP4ZTUFN SFHJPOT .PEFMTQBDF4FFBMTP1SPCMFNTQBDF4PMVUJPOTZTUFN TQBDF DPMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDFBOE G G DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE DPNQPTJUJPOBOE o G DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o G DPOUFYUPG o G defined, 17f G o G G EFTJHOPG o G EJNFOTJPOBMSFMBUJPOTBOE o EPNBJOTBOE o U U JNQMFNFOUBUJPOPG o JOUFSOBMTUSVDUVSFPG o G MJUFSBUVSFPO o U U NBOBHFNFOUPG NPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOE o PWFSWJFXPG SFQPTJUPSJFTBOE o

SFRVJSFNFOUTPG U TDPQFPG TPGUXBSFTZTUFNTBOE UJNFBOE WJFXTBOE o .PEFMTZTUFNT UBSHFUTZTUFNTWT .PEFM#BTFE 4ZTUFNT "SDIJUFDUJOHBOE4PGUXBSF &OHJOFFSJOH .#"4&

.PEFM#BTFE4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH 8ZNPSF

.PEFMCBTFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH .#4&

.PEFMJOH BQQSPBDIFTGPSDPNQMFYTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHBOE BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE o CPYPMPHZBOE MBXPGSFRVJTJUFWBSJFUZBOE o MJNJUTPG o PWFSWJFXPG o TDJFODF FOHJOFFSJOHBOE o G TDPQFPG G G UZQFTPG U .PEFMJOHBOE"OBMZTJTPG3FBM5JNFBOE&NCFEEFE TZTUFNT ."35&

.PEFMJOHDIPJDF NPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOE o .PEFMJOHEPNBJOT .PEFMJOHMBOHVBHFGPSJOUFHSBUFENPEVMBSBWJPOJDT EFTJHO .*."%

.PEFMPSJFOUFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODF4FF.04&4 .PEFMT defined, 63 JOUFOTJPOWTFYUFOTJPOBOE specification and, 67–70, 68f TZTUFNTBOE o WJFXTBOE .PEFMTBUSVOUJNF .PEVMBSEFDPVQMFEDPODFQUT o .PEVMBSJUZ o .PEVMFWJFXUZQF .0'4FF.FUB0CKFDU'BDJMJUZ.FUB0CKFDU'BDJMJUZ .POPNFST G .PPO USBWFMUP .PSOJOHTUBS JOUFOTJPOWTFYUFOTJPOBOE o .PTBJDT o U .04&4 NPEFMPSJFOUFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODF

BTQFDUEFTDSJQUJPOTPG o U U PWFSWJFXPG o G QPUFOUJBMBVEJFODFTPG o SBUJPOBMFGPS o TDPQFPG o .PUPSDZDMFJOEVTUSZ .PUPST .4$4FF.FTTBHF4FRVFODF$IBSUT .VEEMJOHUISPVHI .VMUJEJTDJQMJOBSJUZ .VMUJEJTDJQMJOBSZOBUVSFPG5SE, need for unification BOE o G

Index .VMUJMFWFMDPNQPTJUJPOTUSVDUVSFT o G .VMUJMFWFMIJFSBSDIJFT o .VMUJMFWFMTUSVDUVSFT DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE o .VMUJQMFEPNBJOT DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o .VMUJTDBMFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH o4FFBMTP4DBMF .VUBCJMJUZ G o .VUBCMFDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT o .VUBUJPOT NZ0OUPMPHZQSPKFDU .ZUIT o

N /"'4FF/"50"SDIJUFDUVSF'SBNFXPSL /BNFTQBDFT /BOPUFDIOPMPHZ /BOPUVCFT /"50"SDIJUFDUVSF'SBNFXPSL /"'

o /BUVSBMMBOHVBHFT /BUVSBMTDJFODF o4FFBMTP"Stificial science /BUVSBMTZTUFNBVUPOPNZ U /FFET VTFS o G G /eighborhoods, defined, 59 /FJHICPST +JN /FTUFEWJFXT U /FTUJOH CPYPMPHZBOE /FUXPSLUPQPMPHJFT G /FUXPSLT o4FFBMTP4DJFODFPGOFUXPSLT /FVSBM4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF /4-

/FXUPOJBOHSBWJUZ o /PEFT /POEFMFHBUJPO XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U o /POQSPQBHBUJPO XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE o U /PSNBMCFIBWJPS o4FFBMTP&YQFDUFECFIBWJPS /PSNBMEFTJHO /PSNBMQSPCBCJMJUZEJTUSJCVUJPO o G /PSNBMTDJFODF /PUFTPOUIF4ZOUIFTJTPG'PSN "MFYBOEFS

/4-4FF/FVSBM4JNVMBUJPO-BOHVBHF

O 0CKFDUDPOOFDUJPOBSDIJUFDUVSFT 0CKFDU$POTUSBJOU-BOHVBHF 0$-

0CKFDU.BOBHFNFOU(SPVQ 0.(

0CKFDU1SPDFTT.FUIPEPMPHZ 01.

0CKFDUJWJUZ TDJFODFBOE 0CKFDU1SPDFTT-BOHVBHF 01-

0CKFDU1SPDFTT.FUIPEPMPHZ 01.

0#04FF0QFO#JPMPHJDBMPOUPMPHZ0QFOCJPNFEJDBM POUPMPHJFT 0CTFSWBUJPOCBTFEMFBSOJOH o 0CTFSWers, defined, 267 0$-4FF0CKFDU$POTUSBJOU-BOHVBHF 0OUPMPHJDBMJOTUBODFT o G

O 357

0OUPMPHJDBMNFUBNPEFMJOHWJFX o G 0OUPMPHJFT4FFBMTP$PODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO%PNBJO POUPMPHJFT CSJEHJOHBOENBQQJOH o DBUFHPSJFTJO o DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOWT defined, 189 EPNBJO o efforUTBOEUPPMTPG o VQQFSMFWFM o VTFEJO4&NPEFMT o G 0OUPMPHZ NPEFMTQBDFEJNFOTJPOTBOE 0OUPMPHZFOHJOFFSJOH o 0OUPMPHZ4VNNJU 0OUP.BQQSPKFDU 0QFO#JPMPHJDBMPOUPMPHZ 0#0

0QFOCJPNFEJDBMPOUPMPHJFT 0#0

0QFO%0"3 0pen systems, defined, 59 0QFO7FSJMPH*OUFSOBUJPOBM 0QFO$ZD 0QFOTPVSDFNPWFNFOU 0QFSBUJPO %FWFMPQNFOU WT o 0QFSBUJPOBMPVUDPNFT 0QFSBUJPOBMWJFX BSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLTBOE o 0QFSBUJPOTSFTFBSDI 03

o4FFBMTP $PODFQUTPGPQFSBUJPOT6OJUPQFSBUJPOT 01-4FF0CKFDU1SPDFTT-BOHVBHF 01.4FF0CKFDU1SPDFTT.FUIPEPMPHZ0CKFDU1SPDFTT .FUIPEPMPHZ 0QQPStunism, unification and, 315 0QQPSUVOJTUJDQSPDFTT 0QUJNJ[BUJPO OFUXPSLTBOE 0QUJPOBMJOGPSNBUJPO 034FF0QFSBUJPOTSFTFBSDI 0SCJUT4FF1IBTFTQBDFT 0SDIFTUSBUJPO BTJOUFSBDUJPONPEFM 0SEFSWTEJTPSEFS U 0SHBOJD 4FFBMTP.FDIBOJTUJD 0SHBOJTNNFUBQIPS o 0SHBOJ[BUJPO 40"GSBNFXPSLTBOE 0SHBOJ[BUJPOXPSLTQBDFT 0SHBOJ[BUJPOBMDIPJDF4FF(BSCBHFDBONPEFM 0SHBOJ[BUJPOBMNFSHJOH 0SHBOJ[BUJPOBMWJFXQPJOU TDBMFBOE 0SHBOJ[BUJPOT 0SHBOJ[FEBOBSDIJFT 0VUQVUUSBOTEVDFST 0VUXBSENBQQJOH 08- 0YGPSE$PNQBOJPOUP1IJMPTPQIZ, The )POEFSJDI

P 1BOBSDIZ 1BOUIFPOT

358 O


1BSBEPYFT o4FFBMTP$POUSBEJDUJPOT $POUSBTUT%VBMJUZ5FOTJPOT 1BSOBT %BWJE o o 1BSTJNPOZ4FF3FRVJTJUFQBSTJNPOZ MBXPG 1BSUJBMOFTT G4FFBMTP'V[[Z 1BSUJDMFT EVBMJUZBOE 1BSUJFT 1BSUJUJPOJOH NPEFMTQBDFEFTJHOBOE o 1BSUT SFMBUJPOTIJQPGXJUIXIPMFT o G G G oU 1BTU EVBMIJFSBSDIJFTBOE 1BUUFSOT o o o 1BUUFSOTCBTFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 1#4&

1#4&4FF1BUUFSOTCBTFETZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 1%'4FF1SPCBCJMJUZEFOTJUZGVODUJPO1SPCBCJMJUZ EJTUSJCVUJPOGVODUJPO 1FPQMFBTTZTUFNDPNQPOFOUT o o 1FSDFQUJPO TDJFODFBOE o 1FSGPSNBODF OFUXPSLTBOE 1FSGPSNBODF3FGFSFODF.PEFM o 1FSJPEJDUBCMFPGDIFNJDBMFMFNFOUT 1FSM 1FSNFBCJMJUZ NFNCSBOFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTBOE 1FSSZT$IFNJDBM&OHJOFFST)BOECPPL (SFFOBOE1FSSZ

1FSTJTUFODF UJNFBOE o 1FSTPOBMXPSLTQBDFT 1FUSJOFUT 1IBTFTQBDFUSBKFDUPSJFT 1IBTFTQBDFT 1IBTFUSBOTJUJPOT 1IBTFT G 1IJMPTPQIZ 1hysical space, defined, 111 1IZTJDBMWJFXQPJOU TDBMFBOE 1IZTJDT 1IZTJPNFQSPKFDU 1*.4FF1MBUGPSNJOEFQFOEFOUNPEFMT 1MBDFT 1FUSJOFUTBOE 1MBODL .BY 1MBOOJOH UJNFBOE G 1MBUGPSNJOEFQFOEFOUNPEFMT 1*.

1PJOUT /BSZSFMBUJPOJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE 1PMJDJFT 40"GSBNFXPSLTBOE 1PMZNFST G 1PMZUPQFT 1PQQFS ,BSM 1PQVMBUJPOT CJPMPHJDBMFWPMVUJPOBOE o 1PXFS MFWFSBHFBOE 1PXFSPGTPMVUJPO MFWFSBHFBOE 1SBHNBUJDT 1SFDJTJPO 1Sedefined rVMFT o 1SFEJDUBCJMJUZ o 1SFSFRVJTJUFMBXTPGTDJFODF o

1SFTDSJQUJWFNPEFMT 4FFBMTP%FTDSJQUJWFNPEFMT .PEBMJUZ 1SFTFOU EVBMIJFSBSDIJFTBOE 1SJNJUJWFESJWJOHQBUUFSOT o 1SPCBCJMJTUDPTUNPEFMT4FF.PEFM#BTFE"SDIJUFDUJOH BOE4PGUXBSF&OHJOFFSJOH 1Sobabilistic specifications, 284–289, 286f 1SPCBCJMJUZ GV[[JOFTTWT G 1SPCBCJMJUZEFOTJUZGVODUJPO 1%'

o 1SPCBCJMJUZEJTUSJCVUJPOGVODUJPO 1%'

o G 1SPCMFNEPNBJOT NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G 1SPCMFNTQBDF G G G G4FFBMTP "QQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT$PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPO TQBDF.PEFMTQBDF4PMVUJPOTZTUFNTQBDF 1SPDFTT4FFBMTP"DUJWJUJFT$PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPO 4FMGPSHBOJ[JOHQSPDFTTFT DPNQPTJUJPOSFMBUFE o GPDVTPOBTXFBLOFTTPG54& IJTUPSZPG o NPEFMJOHMFWFMTPG o G U G U scientific method and, 323–324 1SPDFTTPST 1Soduced systems, defined, 20, 20t 1SPEVDFST 4FFBMTP$POTVNFST 1SPEVDUMBZFST 1SPHSBNNJOHMBOHVBHFEPNBJOT o 1SPHSBNT 1SPKFDUMBZFST 1SPQBHBUJPO XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U o G 1SPQFSUJFT TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE 1Sosumers, defined, 8 1SPUPUZQFT BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE 1SPWJEFST 4FFBMTP$POTVNFST 1TFVEPTDJFODF 1TZDIPMPHZ WJFXTBOE 1VODUVBUFEFRVJMJCSJVN 1VSQPTFGVMBDUJWJUZ o 1V[[MFNFUBQIPS 1ZUIPO

Q 2P&4FF2VBMJUZPGFYQFSJFODF 2P44FF2VBMJUZPGTFSWJDF 2VBMJUBUJWFNPEFMT 2VBMJUZNFUSJDT 2VBMJUZPGFYQFSJFODF 2P&

o 2VBMJUZPGTFSWJDF 2P4

o

R 3BEJDBMEFTJHO o 3BOEPNOFTT VODFSUBJOUZBOE

Index 3BUJPOBM6nified PSPDFTT 3%' 3FBMJUZ TPGUXBSFTZTUFNTBOE o 3FBMJ[BUJPOTZTUFN4FF$PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDF 3FBM5JNF0CKFDU0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOH 3FDPNCJOBUJPO o 3FEVDUJPOJTN o4FFBMTP&NFSHFODF 3FGFSFODF.PEFMPG0QFO%JTUSJCVUFE1SPDFTTJOH 3.0%1

o 3FHBSEMFTT JSSFHBSEMFTTWT 3FHJPOT4FF.PEFMSFHJPOT4ZTUFNSFHJPOT 3FHJTUSZPG4UBOEBSE#JPMPHJDBM1BSUT 3FMBUJPOT G 4FFBMTP*OUFSBDUJPONPEFMT 3FMBUJWFIPMBSDIJFT 4FFBMTP)PMBSDIJFT 3FMBUJWJUZ o 3FQMJDBUJPO PGNPEFMT 3FQPTJUPSJFT o4FFBMTP.PEFMTQBDF 3FQSFTFOUBUJPO G 4FFBMTP $PODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO7JFXT 3FQSPEVDFST 3FRVJSFNFOUT EFQFOEFODJFTBOE o FYUFSOBMNPEFMTBOE o o 3FRVJSFNFOUTESJWFO NZUIPG 3FRVJSFNFOUTGPSGPVOEBUJPOPGGVUVSF U 3FRVJSFNFOUTMBOHVBHFT 3FRVJTJUFQBSTJNPOZ MBXPG 3FRVJTJUFWBSJFUZ MBXPG o 3FTFNCMBODFUIJOLJOH 3FTJMJFODF QBOBSDIZBOE 3FTPVSDFDPOTUSBJOUT 3FTPVSces, defined, 74 3FWFSTJCJMJUZ 3FWolutions, scientific, 31 3IFUPSJDBM4USVDUVSe TheorZ 3JFNBOOJBOHFPNFUSZ 3JOHUPQPMPHZ G 3JTL DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE 3JTLBTTFTTNFOU o 3.0%1'SBNFXPSL4FF3FGFSFODF.PEFMPG0QFO %JTUSJCVUFE1SPDFTTJOH 3PCVTUEFTJHO o 3PMFT o G o 3PMMJOHXBWFNPEFM o G G i3PTFUUB4UPOFw TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODFBOE o 3PTFUUB4ZTUFN%FTJHO-BOHVBHF 3PVUFQBUUFSOT 3PVUFQMBOOJOHQBUUFSOT 3VMFT o 3VOUJNF NPEFMTBU

S 4"4FF4ZTUFNBVUPOPNZ 4BGFUZEFQPTJUCPYes, specification apprPBDIBOE 4atisficing, 328

O 359

4DBMBCMF7FDUPS(SBQIJDT 47(

4DBMF BDZDMJD DZDMJDNPEFMTBOE o G DIBOHFTPGJOUFSFTUBOE o DPNQPTJUJPOBOE o MBXPGHSBEBUJPOBOE TUBUJDWTEZOBNJDBOE 4DBMFGSFFOFUXPSLT 4DBMJOH4FFBMTP.VMUJTDBMFTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH EPXO NVMUJTDBMF o VQ o WJFXQPJOUTBOE 4DFOBSJPT POUPMPHZEFWFMPQNFOUBOE 4DJFODF4FFBMTP4ZTUFNTTDJFODF DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPG o FOHJOFFSJOHBOE o U G MBOHVBHFTBOE MBXTPG o .04&4DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o OBUVSBMBOEBStificial, 34–37, 36f SBUJPOBM MPHJDBMBOE o 4IBXBOE'JODIIJTUPSJDBMQBUUFSOBOE 4DJFODFPGOFUXPSLT 4DJFODFQBUUFSOT4FF1BUUFSOT 4DJFODFT U o o Scientific method, 323–324 4DPQF o o 4$054FF4PDJBMDPOTUSVDUJPOPGUFDIOPMPHJDBM TZTUFNT 4DSJQUT 4%-4FF4pecification and DFTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 4&#P,HVJEF 4FDVSJUZ 4&*4FF4PGUXBSF&OHJOFFSJOH*OTUJUVUF 4FMFDUJPO VOJUTPG 4elf-configuration, 12 4FMGDPOTDJPVTEFTJHO 4FMGDSFBUJPO4FF"VUPQPJFTJT 4FMGIFBMJOH 4FMGPQUJNJ[BUJPO 4FMGPSHBOJ[BUJPO o o 4FMGPSHBOJ[FEDSJUJDBMJUJFT 40$

4FMGPSHBOJ[JOHQSPDFTTFT o 4FMGQSPUFDUJPO 4FMGTJNJMBSJUZ 4FNBOUJDOFUXPSLT 4FNBOUJDTQFDUSVN G 4FNBOUJD8FC 4FNBOUJDT BSDIJUFDUVSFPGTPGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOHBOE G DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOPGNPEFMTQBDFBOE NPEFMTQBDFDPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE G VTFEJO4&NPEFMT o G 4FOTPST BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE 4FQBSBUFDPNQPOFOUDBUFHPSJFT G

360

O


4FQBSBUJPO BTQFDUPSJFOUFEEFWFMPQNFOUBOE o DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPOBOE o NPEBMJUZBOE o VODFSUBJOUZBOE WJFXTBOE 4FQBSBUJPOPGDPODFSOT4FF.PEVMBSJUZ 4FRVFODFEJBHSBNT 4FSWJDF$PNQPOFOU3FGFSFODF.PEFM 4FSvice consumers, defined, 72 4FSvice initiators, defined, 72 4FSvice interactions, defined, 73 4FSWJDF.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 4.-

4FSWJDFPSJFOUFEBSDIJUFDUVSF 40"

o 4FSWJDFQSPviders, defined, 72 4FSWJDFPSJFOUFEBSDIJUFDUVSF 40"

4FSWJDF0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOHBOE"SDIJUFDUVSF 40."

4FSWJDF0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOH'SBNFXPSL 40.'

4FSWJDFT o 4FFBMTP4FSWJDF DPOTVNFST 4&44FF4ZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODF 4(.-4FF4UBOEBSE(FOFSBMJ[FE.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF 4(434FF4PDJFUZGPS(FOFSBM4ZTUFNT3FTFBSDI 4IBSFEDPNQPTJUJPONPEFMT G 4IBSFEVOEFSTUBOEJOH o G G 4FFBMTP4pecifications 4IBSFEXIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOT U 4IBXBOE'JODIIJTUPSJDBMQBUUFSO 4ide effects, unexpected, 4–5 4JNJMBSJUJFT o G 4FFBMTP %ifferFODFT 4JNPO )FSCFSU 4JNQMJDJUZ 4JNVMBUJPOMBOHVBHFT 4JNVMBUJPOMFBSOJOH 4JNVMBUJPONPEFMT 4NJUI #BSSZ 4.-4FF4FSWJDF.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 40"4FF4FSWJDFPSJFOUFEBSDIJUFDUVSF 40"SFGFSFODFNPEFM 40$4FF4FMGPSHBOJ[FEDSJUJDBMJUJFT 4PDJBMDPOTUSVDUJPOPGUFDIOPMPHJDBMTZTUFNT 4$05

4PDJBMQSPDFTTFT 4PDJBMTDJFODFT 4PDJBMTZTUFNT QFSTQFDUJWFBOE o 4PDJFUZGPS(FOFSBM4ZTUFNT3FTFBSDI 4(43

4PDJPMPHZ 4PGUXBSF MBOHVBHFTPG .FZFSPO o QFSTQFDUJWFBOE SPMFTPG o

specification apprPBDIBOE USBOTGPSNBUJPOTBOE U 5VSTLJPO 4PGUXBSFFOHJOFFSJOH 4PGUXBSF&OHJOFFSJOH*OTUJUVUF 4&*

o 4PGUXBSFNPEFMT BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE 40*4FF4ZTUFNTPGJOUFSFTU 4PMVUJPOEPNBJOT NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G 4PMVUJPONPEFMJOH 40"GSBNFXPSLTBOE 4PMVUJPOTZTUFNTQBDF G G G G 4FFBMTP"QQMJDBUJPOEPNBJOT$PMMFDUJWF BDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDF.PEFMTQBDF1SPCMFNTQBDF 40."4FF4FSWJDF0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOHBOE"SDIJUFDUVSF 40.'4FF4FSWJDF0SJFOUFE.PEFMJOH'SBNFXPSL 4QBDF4FF$PMMFDUJWFBDUVBMJ[BUJPOTQBDF.PEFMTQBDF 1IBTFTQBDF1SPCMFNTQBDF4PMVUJPOTZTUFN TQBDF 4QBDFUJNFSFHJPOT 4QBOPGDPOUSPM o 4QFDJBMJ[BUJPO DPNNPOJ[BUJPOBOE 4QFDJBMJ[BUJPOIJFSBSDIJFT 4pecific models, 180, 226–227, 335. 4FFBMTP(FOFSBM NPEFMT 4pecification and DFTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 4%-

4pecification apprPBDI DPOEJUJPOBMQSPCBCJMJUJFTFYBNQMFPG o G DPOUFOUUZQFTBOE o U U U FMFNFOUTBOECBDLHSPVOEPG o FYBNQMFTPG o U FYUFSOBMCFIBWJPSDBUFHPSJFTBOE o external specifications and, 280t, 283, 284f JOUFSface specifications and, 281t, 283–284 internal specifications and, 279t, 282–283, 282f QBSUJBMOFTTBOE G QSobabilistic specifications and, 284–289, 286f UZQFTBOETUSVDUVSFPG o G VODFSUBJOUZNFUIPETBOE o G G 4pecifications, 67–70, 68f o 4pecified behavior 4QFDUSB o o 4QJSBMNFUIPE 444FF4ZTUFNTTDJFODF 4UBCJMJUZ DIBOHFBOE 4UBOEBSE(FOFSBMJ[FE.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF 4(.-

4UBOEBSET o 4UBOGPSE&ODZDMPQFEJBPG1IJMPTPQIZ 4UBSUPQPMPHZ G 4UBST JOUFOTJPOWTFYUFOTJPOBOE o 4UBUFNBDIJOFEJBHSBNT 4UBUFT QFSTJTUFODFBOE 4UBUJD EZOBNJDWT o 4UBUJDNPEFM U 4UFQXJTFSFWPMVUJPO 4UPSZUFMMJOH

Index 4USBUFHJDWJFX BSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLTBOE 4USVDUVSF OFUXPSLTBOE 4USVDUVSFEJBHSBNT 4USVDUVSFNPEFM o 4tuff, 71, 74 4VHHFTUFE6QQFS.FSHFE0OUPMPHZ 46.0

46.04FF4VHHFTUFE6QQFS.FSHFE0OUPMPHZ 4VQQPSUFST 4VQQPSUJOHEJTDJQMJOFT4FF%JTDJQMJOFT 4VTUBJOBCJMJUZ QBOBSDIZBOE 47(4FF4DBMBCMF7FDUPS(SBQIJDT 4XBNQT 48&#P,HVJEF 4ymmetric interactions, defined, 73 4ZNNFUSZ o 4ZODISPOZ JOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE 4ZOPOZNT 4FFBMTP4ZOTFUT 4ZOTFUT 4ZOUIFTJT 4ZOUIFUJDCJPMPHZ 4ZT.-4FF4ZTUFNT.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 4ZTUFNBVUPOPNZ 4"

U 4ZTUFNCFIBWJPS o o 4ZTUFNDPNQPTJUJPOIJFSBSDIJFT 4ZTUFNMBZFST 4ZTUFNNPEFMJOHBOEEFTJHOMBOHVBHFT TFNBOUJD TQFDUSVNBOE o 4ZTUFNPGTZTUFNT 4P4

o 4ZTUFNSFHJPOT o G4FFBMTP.PEFMSFHJPOT 4ZTUFNTQBDF4FF4PMVUJPOTZTUFNTQBDF 4ZTUFNBTPSHBOJTNNFUBQIPS o 4ZTUFNT CPVOEBSJFTBOE o DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPG o DPSSFTQPOEFODF SFHJPOBOE o G defined, 60 EFWFMPQNFOUWTPQFSBUJPOPG o differFODFTXJUIJOBOEBDSPTT G NPEFMPSJFOUBUJPOBOE o NPEFMTBOE o NPTBJDTBOE o U SFHJPOTBOE o G UBYPOPNZPG o G UFSNJOPMPHZPG o 4ZTUFNTBOETFSWJDFTWJFX BSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLTBOE o 4ZTUFNTCJPMPHZ 4ZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 4& 4FFBMTP$PNQMFYTZTUFNT FOHJOFFSJOH5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH CPEJFTPGLOPXMFEHFBOE o G GV[[ZUIJOLJOHBOEMPHJDBOE MBOHVBHFTTVQQPSUJOH o G NPEFMTQBDFBOE U QSPCMFNTPMWJOHBOE o U TFNBOUJDTBOEPOUPMPHJFTVTFEJONPEFMT o G

O 361

unification and, 314–316, 314f WJFXTBOE o U G 4ZTUFNT&OHJOFFSJOH)BOECPPL */$04&

4ZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHTDJFODF 4&4

o U G 4ZTUFNT.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 4ZT.-

4ZTUFNTPGJOUFSFTU 40*

4ZTUFNTPGTZTUFNT 4P4

4ZTUFNTTDJFODF 44

DPNQMFYTZTUFNTTDJFODFBOE o IPMJTNBOE JOMJUFSBUVSF o NPEFMTQBDFBOE NVMUJEJTDJQMJOBSJUZ HFOFSBMJUZBOE TZTUFNTUBYPOPNZBOE o G UIFNFTPG o unification and, 315 VOJUZ, unification and, 45 4ZTUFNTUBYPOPNZ o G

T 5 MBOHVBHF

5BDJULOPXMFEHF 5BHHJOH 5BJMPSJOHVQWTUBJMPSJOHEPXO BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTT BOE 5BSHFUTZTUFNT 5argets, defined, 267 5ask-technology fit (55'

5BYPOPNJFT4FFBMTP4ZTUFNTUBYPOPNZ BStificial and natural science and, 36–37 CJPMPHJDBM '&"QSPHSBNBOE (6.0BOE IJFSBSDIJFTBOE G JOIFSJUBODFBOE TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE TZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOHBOE o G 5FBNXPSLTQBDFT 5FDIOJDBM3FGFSFODF.PEFM 5FDIOJDBMTUBOEBSEWJFX BSDIJUFDUVSFGSBNFXPSLT BOE o 5FDIOPMPHZ o 5FDIOPMPHZBSDIJUFDUVSFWJFX 5FMFTDPQFT 5FNQPSBMMPHJD o 5FOTJPOT o4FFBMTP$POUSBEJDUJPO $POUSBTUT%VBMJUZ1BSBEPYFT 5FTUJOH4FF7erification of model fidelity ThesaurVT TFNBOUJDTQFDUSVNBOE 5JNF BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE DIBOHFBOE o

362 O


DIBOHFPGJOUFSFTUBOE o DPNQPTJUJPOEJNFOTJPOBOE o differFODFTXJUIJOBOEBDSPTTTZTUFNTBOE G EVBMIJFSBSDIJFTBOE G FWPMVUJPOBOE o MFWFMTPGQSPDFTTBOEDIBOHFBOE o G U G U MFWFSBHFBOE NFBTVSFNFOUPG o NPEFMTQBDFBOE NPEFMTQBDFTUSVDUVSFBOE G OFFEFEDIBOHFNPEFMTBOE o U QFSTJTUFODF EVBMJUZBOE o TDBMFBOE TUBUJDWTEZOBNJDBOE o UZQFTPG o G G 7FFNPEFMBOE o G 5JNFJOWBSJBODFWTUJNFWBSJBODF o 5JNFST 5JNJOHEJBHSBNT 50("' 5PQEPXOQSPDFTTFT o 5PQPMPHJFT /BSZSFMBUJPOJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE o 5PSWBMET -JOVT o 5SBDF XIPMFoQBSUSFMBUJPOTBOE U 5rade-offs. 4FF-FWFSBHF 5SBEJUJPOBMFOHJOFFSJOHTQBDF VTFSSFRVJSFNFOUTWT 5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNT 54

DIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPG EVBMJUJFTJO o 5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 54&

HFOFSBMNPEFMTBOE o G QSPCMFNTXJUI o o TJNVMBUJPOBOE o TUBOEBSETBOE o UFNQPSBMDIBOHFBOE unification and, 314–315, 314f 5SBKFDUPSJFT o4FFBMTP1IBTFTQBDF USBKFDUPSZ 5ransactions, defined, 74 5SBOTEVDFST 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOT U 5SBOTJUJPOT 4FFBMTP1IBTFUSBOTJUJPOT 5SBOTMBUJPO 5SBOTQBSFODZ 5SFFUPQPMPHZ G 5SJBMT 5SVUI o 54&4FF5SBEJUJPOBMTZTUFNTFOHJOFFSJOH 55'4FF5ask-technology fit 5VSCJOFT 5VSTLJ 8MBEJTMBX o 5ZQFT4FF$MBTTFT,JOET

U 6%T4FF6OJWFSTFTPGEJTDPVSTF 6&.-4FF6nified EOUFSQSJTF.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 6.- 4FF6nified MPEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 6ODFSUBJONFNCSBOFT 6ODFSUBJOUZ o G 6OEFSTUBOEJOH4FFBMTP4IBSFEVOEFSTUBOEJOH 4pecifications 6OFYQFDUFECFIBWJPS o4FFBMTP&YQFDUFE CFIBWJPS 6nification BTBEWBOUBHFPG.04&4 BTHFOFSBMDIBMMFOHF o G NPEFMTQBDFBOE o QFSTQFDUJWFBOE QSPNPUJPOPGCZ.04&4 o G TZTUFNTTDJFODFBOE 6nified EOUFSQSJTF.PEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 6&.-

6nified MPEFMJOH-BOHVBHF 6.-

o 6nified PSofile for DP%"'BOE.P%"' 61%.

6nified specification apprPBDI o 6OJGPSNQSPCBCJMJUZEJTUSJCVUJPO 6nintended effects, 73. 4FFBMTP*ntended effects 6OJUPQFSBUJPOT 6OJUTPGTFMFDUJPO 6OJUZPGTDJFODF 6OJWFSTBMBSDIJUFDUVSF 6OJWFSTFTPGEJTDPVSTF 6%T

o 6/*9PQFSBUJOHTZTUFN 5PSWBMETBOE o 6OQSFEJDUBCJMJUZ DPNQMFYTZTUFNTBOE 6OTFMGDPOTDJPVTEFTJHO 61%.4FF6nified PSofile for DP%"'BOE.P%"' 6TFDBTFWJFXT 6TFGVMOFTT o 6TFMFTT"SJUINFUJD 1JMLFZ

o 6TFSOFFET o G G 6TFSSFRVJSFNFOUT USBEJUJPOBMFOHJOFFSJOHTQBDFWT

V 7BMVBUJPO 7BSJBCJMJUZ NPEFMUZQFTBOE U 7BSJBCMFT JNQPSUBODFPGTFMFDUJOHDPSSFDU 7BSJBUJPOT o 7BSJFUZ -BXPGSFRVJTJUF o 7FFNPEFM o G 7erification of model fidelity 7FSJMPH)%- o 7FSTBUJMJUZ G o4FFBMTP"EBQUBCJMJUZ 7FSUFY /BSZSFMBUJPOJOUFSBDUJPONPEFMTBOE 7)%-4FF7)4*$)BSEXBSF%FTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 7)4*$)BSEXBSF%FTDSJQUJPO-BOHVBHF 7)%-

o 7JFU/BN8BS

Index 7JFXQPJOUT 7JFXT BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE BEEJUJPOBMSFTFBSDIBOE o BSDIJUFDUVSFSFMBUFE o U G BSUJGBDUTBOE CBTJDDPODFQUTPG o CBTJDTZTUFNFOHJOFFSJOHSFMBUFE o U G DBUFHPSJFTPG o G PGDPNNPOTUSVDUVSFNPEFMT o G DPVSUSPPNUSJBMTBOE defined, 84, 268 EJTDSFUFWTDPOUJOVPVTBOE IBSNPOJ[JOHEVBMJUJFTBOE o U IJFSBSDIZBOE o NPEFMTQBDFBOE G o NPEFMTQBDFEJNFOTJPOTBOE PGQSPDFTTFT o TDJFODFTBOE o specification apprPBDIBOE o G G UJNFBOE WJFXQPJOUTBOE 7JHOFUUFT BVUPNBUFEDBSFYBNQMFBOE 7JODFOUJTFOHJOFFSJOHLOPXMFEHFDBUFHPSJFT o U 7JSUVBMNBDIJOFT MBZFSFEBSDIJUFDUVSFBOE 7JTVBM#BTJD 7JTVBMJ[BUJPO BDUVBMJ[BUJPOQSPDFTTBOE o G 7JUSVWJVT 7PJDF&YUFOTJCMF.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF 7PJDF9.-

7PJDF9.-4FF7PJDF&YUFOTJCMF.BSLVQ-BOHVBHF

O 363

8FC0OUPMPHZ-BOHVBHFCBTFEPO%FTDSJQUJPO-PHJDT 80-%-

8FC4FSWJDFT#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT&YFDVUJPO-BOHVBHF 84#1&-

8IJUFIFBE "MGSFE/PSUI 8IPMFTZTUFNTNPEFMJOH 8IPMFT4FFBMTP)PMPOT1BSUT4ZTUFNT 8IPMFT SFMBUJPOTIJQPGXJUIQBSUT o G G G oU G G 8JDLFEQSPCMFNT G 8JLJOPNJDT 8JLJQFEJB 8JOEUVSCJOFUFDIOPMPHZ 80-%-4FF8FC0OUPMPHZ-BOHVBHFCBTFEPO %FTDSJQUJPO-PHJDT 8PSE/FU 8PSLTQBDFT NPEFMTQBDFBOE o 8PSME8BS** o 8orlds, defined, 59–60, 247 84#1&-4FF8FC4FSWJDFT#VTJOFTT1SPDFTT&YFDVUJPO -BOHVBHF 8ZNPSF 8BZOF o

X 9.-4FF&YUFOTJCMF.BSL6Q-BOHVBHF 9.-.FUBEBUB*OUFSDIBOHF 9.* TUBOEBSE 9.-1SPDFTT%efinition Language (XPDL), 202 914FF&YUSFNFQSPHSBNNJOH 91%-4FF9.-1SPDFTT%efinition Language

Y W 8BSHBNJOH 8arfield, JPIO 8BUFSGBMMQSPDFTT G 8BWFT EVBMJUZBOE 8FBLOFTTFTPG54& o

:FU"OPUIFS8PSkfloX-BOHVBHF :"8-

:JO:BOH o U

Z ;BDINBO&OUFSQSJTF'SBNFXPSL o G

Model-oriented Systems Engineering Science: A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems (Crc Complex and Enterprise Systems Engineering)

Architecture and Principles of Systems Engineering (CRC Complex and Enterprise Systems Engineering)

Complex Systems

Complex Systems

Complex Time-Delay Systems: Theory and Applications (Understanding Complex Systems)

Complex Time-Delay Systems: Theory and Applications (Understanding Complex Systems)

Transforming Organizations: Strategies and Methods (Complex Systems Engineering and Management)

Modeling and Control of Complex Systems (Automation and Control Engineering)

Biological Networks (Complex Systems and Interdisciplinary Science)

Complex and Adaptive Dynamical Systems

Complex systems and applied linguistics

Complex Systems and Binary Networks

Approximation algorithms for complex systems

Approximation Algorithms for Complex Systems

Equilibrium Analysis Complex Systems

Superconductivity in Complex Systems

Modeling complex systems

Foundations of Complex Systems

Complex Systems Concurrent Engineering: Collaboration, Technology Innovation and Sustainability

Philosophy of Complex Systems

Modeling Complex Systems

Systems of Systems Engineering: Principles and Applications

Complex Systems in Biomedicine

Intelligent Complex Adaptive Systems

Life: An Introduction to Complex Systems Biology (Understanding Complex Systems)

Simulating Complex Systems by Cellular Automata (Understanding Complex Systems)

Complex and adaptive dynamical systems. A primer

Complex and Adaptive Dynamical Systems: A Primer

Complex and adaptive dynamical systems: A primer

Systems Engineering: A 21st Century Systems Methodology

Systems Engineering: A 21st Century Systems Methodology

Model-oriented Systems Engineering Science: A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems (Crc Complex and Enterprise Systems Engineering)

Architecture and Principles of Systems Engineering (CRC Complex and Enterprise Systems Engineering)

Complex Systems

Complex Systems

Complex Time-Delay Systems: Theory and Applications (Understanding Complex Systems)

Complex Time-Delay Systems: Theory and Applications (Understanding Complex Systems)

Transforming Organizations: Strategies and Methods (Complex Systems Engineering and Management)

Modeling and Control of Complex Systems (Automation and Control Engineering)

Biological Networks (Complex Systems and Interdisciplinary Science)

Complex and Adaptive Dynamical Systems

Complex systems and applied linguistics

Complex Systems and Binary Networks

Approximation algorithms for complex systems

Approximation Algorithms for Complex Systems

Equilibrium Analysis Complex Systems

Superconductivity in Complex Systems

Modeling complex systems

Foundations of Complex Systems

Complex Systems Concurrent Engineering: Collaboration, Technology Innovation and Sustainability

Philosophy of Complex Systems

Modeling Complex Systems

Systems of Systems Engineering: Principles and Applications

Complex Systems in Biomedicine

Intelligent Complex Adaptive Systems

Life: An Introduction to Complex Systems Biology (Understanding Complex Systems)

Simulating Complex Systems by Cellular Automata (Understanding Complex Systems)

Complex and adaptive dynamical systems. A primer

Complex and Adaptive Dynamical Systems: A Primer

Complex and adaptive dynamical systems: A primer

Systems Engineering: A 21st Century Systems Methodology

Systems Engineering: A 21st Century Systems Methodology

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