Miracles in Korea

Miracles in Korea

SERIES VII THEOLOGY AND RELIGION VOL. 306

PETER LANG

New York y Washington, D.C./Baltimore y Bern Frankfurt y Berlin y Brussels y Vienna y Oxford

Hong Manjong

Miracles in Korea

Translated by Dal-Yong Kim

PETER LANG

New York y Washington, D.C./Baltimore y Bern Frankfurt y Berlin y Brussels y Vienna y Oxford

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hong, Man-jong, 1643–1725. Miracles in Korea / Hong Manjong; translated by Dal-Yong Kim. p. cm. — (American university studies. VII, Theology and religion; v. 306) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Korea—Biography. 2. Hermits—Korea—Biography. 3. Taoists—Korea—Biography. I. Kim, Dal-Yong. II. Title. DS905.H64 299.5’140922519—dc22 2010050489 ISBN 978-1-4331-0965-2 ISSN 0740-0446

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek. Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the “Deutsche Nationalbibliografie”; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de/.

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★ Contents

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIV

Translator’s Preface .......................................................................... vii Bibliographical Introduction ............................................................... 1 Preface................................................................................................. 5 Dangun ................................................................................................ 9 Hyeokgeose ....................................................................................... 17 King Dongmyeong ............................................................................ 21 Four Divine Taoists ........................................................................... 25 Okbogo .............................................................................................. 27 Two Divine Taoists Named Kim Gyeomhyo and So Ha .................. 29 Daese and Guchil .............................................................................. 31 Damsi ................................................................................................ 33 Kim Gagi ........................................................................................... 35 Choi Chiwon ..................................................................................... 39 Gang Gamchan .................................................................................. 43 Enlightened Taoist Gwon .................................................................. 47 Kim Siseup ........................................................................................ 59 Hong Yuson ...................................................................................... 63 Jeong Bung and Jeong Sugon ........................................................... 67 Jeong Huiryang ................................................................................. 69 Nam Chu ........................................................................................... 75 A Divine Taoist in Mt. Jiri ................................................................ 77 Seo Gyeongdeok ............................................................................... 79

vi XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXIX XXX XXXI XXXII

Contents Jeong Yeom....................................................................................... 85 Jeon Uchi .......................................................................................... 91 Yun Gungpyeong .............................................................................. 95 A Divine Taoist in Mt. Hanla ............................................................ 97 Nam Sago .......................................................................................... 99 Park Jihwa ....................................................................................... 103 Lee Jiham ........................................................................................ 107 An Old Buddhist Monk in Mt. Hangye ........................................... 111 Yu Hyeongjin .................................................................................. 113 Jang Hanung .................................................................................... 119 A Divine Taoist in the South Sea .................................................... 123 Jang Saeng....................................................................................... 125 Gwak Jaeu ....................................................................................... 129 Postscript ......................................................................................... 133 Index ............................................................................................... 135

★ Translator’s Preface

Miracles in Korea is a collection of thirty-eight stories about Korean mountain wizards, Taoist hermits with supernatural powers, divine Taoists, and divine beings, who enjoy perennial youth, longevity, and immortality and sometimes ascend to heaven. Its author, Hong Manjong (1643–1725), drew upon A Survey of the Geography of Korea and several unauthorized chronicles and compiled the stories in chronological order from the Ancient Joseon Age (2333 B.C.–346) to the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910). Jeong Dugyeong drew up the “Preface” to this collection, Song Siyeol wrote the “Postscript,” and Hong Manjong’s adopted son added some anecdotes. Hong Manjong showed that the idea of a mountain wizard and Taoist thought had always existed as underlying presences within Korean history. He implicitly argued against the widespread belief that they failed to develop religious denominations or cultural sects. Miracles in Korea enumerates a large number of anecdotal details in illustration of the idea of mountain wizardry and presents the idea as an inherent traditional form of Korean spirituality which later merged with Taoist thought. The thirty-eight anecdotes demonstrate that mountain wizardry, Taoism, and supernaturalism have survived to influence all classes of the Korean people in their pursuit of eternal youth, longevity, and immortality and in their practices of fortune-telling, animism, totemism, geomancy, and sun worship. Traditional Korean spirituality is a syncretic multiplicity of conventional religions including Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism, and Taoism. The elective and contrastive components of the religions have produced a strong sense of cultural dynamism. Korean mountain wizardry, Taoism, and supernaturalism did not act as the primary ruling ideologies of ancient Korean kingdoms but have formed the spiritual backbone of the common people. Hong Manjong’s book provides much information about the people, activities, and customs associated with the original aspects of Korean religiosity.

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Hong Manjong was a scholar and poetry critic during the middle of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Uhae and by the pen name of Hyeonmukja or Jangju. He passed the first state examination for office in the first year (1675) of the reign of King Sukjong and was appointed to several government posts. He later resigned from government service and engaged in Korean and Chinese studies. He wrote books on history, geography, narrative literature, songs and ballads, and poetry and published Fifteen Critical Essays. He also compiled The Complete Catalogue of the Eastern Country’s Chronicles, The Dense Wood of Poems and Narratives, and Miracles in Korea. Hong Manjong presented Korean mountain wizards, Taoist hermits, divine Taoists, and divine beings as weary of social activism and aware of the fragility of human achievements. They usually retreated to a countryside or mountain setting to commune with natural beauty. The wizards, the hermits, and the divine Taoists composed or recited poetry about nature or painted pictures of natural settings in their attempts to capture the creative forces at the center of nature’s vitality. They shared their outings with friends, drinking a bit of wine, and enjoying the autumn leaves or the moon. The author included the founders of the ancient Korean kingdoms in the list of the Korean mountain wizards and supernatural beings of divine birth, perennial youth, longevity, and immortality. All of the founders including Dangun, Park Hyeokgeose, and King Dongmyeong existed before Chinese Taoism was first introduced to the Goguryeo Kingdom (37 B.C.–668). It was in the seventh year (624) of the reign of King Yeongnyu that Chinese Emperor Gaozu of the Tang Dynasty sent a Taoist preacher to teach The Classic of Morality. Hong Manjong traced the original source of Korean Taoism to the birth myths of ancient Korean kingdoms. He made his book a precious source for the study of Korean mountain wizards, Taoist hermits, and supernatural beings. Korean mountain wizardry, based on mountain worship, formed the basis of Korean primitive religions. The idea of mountain wizardry is a key component of almost all the myths and folk narratives of the Korean people. The idea was also associated with modern folk religions that appeared after the Eastern Learning Revolution in the North Jeolla region in 1894. Korean mountain wizardry generated the birth myths of ancient Korean kingdoms, whose original archetype is the Dangun mythology. The wizardry, along with Korean shamanism, has served as the background knowledge for Korean popular spirituality. As Choi Chiwon (857–?) in “A Preface to the Epitaph of Gentleman Nan” explains, Korean mountain wizardry demonstrates a romantic turn of mind that later materialized into the profound reason and immeasurable arts of the flowers of youth in the Silla Dynasty (57 B.C.–935). The system of Silla chivalry began to be put into practice in the thirty-seventh year (570) of the reign of King Jinpyeong and appropriated the care-free and elegant lifestyle of the four

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mountain wizards of Silla. Sill chivalry replenished the style with Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist virtues. The chivalry aimed at excelling in beauty, bravery, and military arts and functioned as a basic instrument for educating the talented youths of the kingdom. Indigenous Korean mountain wizardry merged with the disciplinary Chinese Taoism introduced in the wake of frequent cultural exchange between the Unified Silla Kingdom and the Tang Empire. The scholars of the Silla Kingdom who returned home from studying in Tang introduced disciplinary Taoism to the Korean people. Mountain wizardry became the most unique and remarkable folklore legacy of Korean Immortal Taoism, or Korean Taoism immersed in mountain wizardry and supernaturalism. Miracles in Korea deals with the identity and personality traits that led Korean Taoist hermits to transform themselves into Korean mountain wizards. Miracles in Korea compiles the lives of various Korean Taoist hermits and mountain wizards by drawing upon a diversity of sources: expositions, comments, direct observations and the like. Hong Manjong picks out more than thirty personages of various backgrounds who typify Korean Taoism and mountain wizardry and concentrates on their dominant religious traits to the exclusion of other aspects of personality. The hermits and wizards demonstrate the nature of Korean religiosity by revealing their moral qualities, ethical standards, and religious principles through their actions, speech, thoughts, and outward appearances. More than thirty Korean Taoist hermits and mountain wizards are, however, identifiable individualized variants of a traditional type built around the single idea of Korean Immortal Taoism. They are all portrayed with much individualizing detail and subtle particularity in various moral temperaments, psychological motivations and spiritual leadership, so they are named “mountain wizards,” “Taoist hermits with supernatural powers,” “divine Taoists,” or “divine beings,” respectively or interchangeably, in English terms. However, their lives provide readers with direct and immediate access to many distinguished aspects of that inner Taoist life, i.e., to the intellectual, emotional, and moral complexities of Korean Taoist personality that lie behind the title of a Korean Taoist. The lives of Korean Taoist hermits and mountain wizards probe and explore the puzzling questions of Taoist human existence. Miracles in Korea gives meaningful insights into Korean Immortal Taoism and provides a comprehensive vision of ancient Korean life. Taoism is based upon the ideas and attitudes of Laozi (580 B.C.?–480 B.C.?) and Chuangzi (370 B.C.?–280 B.C.?), two Chinese scholars who dedicated their lives to balancing their inner spirit. These scholars lived at the time of social disorder and religious skepticism after the collapse of the Zhou Kingdom. They developed the notion of the Tao (way of life) as the origin and force of all creation, speaking of the Tao as unknowable in its essence but observable in its manifestations. Almost all Taoists believe that the Tao lies not only behind the functions and changes of the natural world but also behind the

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bewildering multiplicity and contradictions of human society. Laozi and Chuangzi thought that the concept of Tao was the answer to the burning issue of that day—how to find a stable, unified, and enduring social order—and that the order and harmony of nature is far more stable and enduring than either the power of the state or the civilized institutions constructed as a result of human learning. Many Chinese Taoists maintained that the purpose of human life is to lead a life according to the fundamental, universal principle of Tao which requires passivity, calm, non-striving, humility, and lack of planning. Laozi and Zhuangzi reinterpreted the ancient nature worship and esoteric arts of Chinese people in order to find out how to use knowledge of the Tao to enhance and prolong life. Some Taoist hermits searched for “isles of the immortals” whom they understood as many supernatural manifestations of the one Tao in the natural world and within the human body. They experimented with herbal medicine and pharmacology that could ensure immortality and practiced both magic and proto-science. Miracles in Korea implicitly deals with the principles and practices of Immortal Taoism through its narratives of Korean Taoist hermits. Chinese Taoism won the sympathy of the Korean people without difficulty who were already familiar with the conventional ideas of Korean mountain wizardry and supernaturalism. As Chinese Taoists encouraged avoiding public duty in order to search for the transcendental world of the spirit, Korean mountain wizards and divine Taoists beings had no concern for affairs of the state, mundane matters of administration or elaborate ritual. Miracles in Korea shows that Korean mountain wizards, Korean divine Taoists, and Korean immortal Taoists never failed to use Taoist methods for building up a healthy body. They endeavored to inhale the “atmospheric force” of nature through dietary treatment, medicine, and breathing exercises. Yeon Gaesomun (603–665), the prime minister of the Goguryeo Kingdom, expressed his belief in the superiority of Taoism over Confucianism and Buddhism and invited Chinese Taoists including Shuda to the kingdom. Chinese Taoism was established as the state religion of the Goguryeo Kingdom in the second year (643) of the reign of King Bojang. During the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392) that established Buddhism as the state religion, legalistic and ritual Taoism came into vogue and was used even to pray for the good luck and virtue of the royal household. Korean mountain wizardry became so intermixed with Buddhism by the mid Goryeo Dynasty that its original ideology was hardly perceptible. Korean mountain wizards now have their shrines in almost every modern Buddhist temple. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), the Confucian doctrines of Zhuzi (1130–1200) prevailed, but Immortal Taoism was popular enough to draw religious attention from the populace. Groups of Confucian intelligentsia adopted the idea of disciplinary

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Taoism. Taoism has been established as a traditional Korean religion which serves as a link between the Confucian tradition and folk tradition. Immortal Taoism encouraged the Korean people to take the joyful and carefree attitude toward life which Korean mountain wizards and divine Taoists had already promoted. Taoism, mountain wizardry, and supernaturalism historically performed major roles in offsetting the moral and duty-conscious, austere and purposeful character of the Korean people that was usually ascribed to Confucianism. Miracles in Korea shows that both the Taoist idea of Laozi and Zhuangzi and the image of a mountain wizard or supernatural being inspired in the Korean people both a love of nature and a wish to retreat into a mountain. Both the ideas and the images present nature as inspiring an intense affirmation of life and encourage the life of health, well-being, vitality, longevity, and even immortality. Miracles in Korea demonstrates that the search for the elixir of life, Taoist regimen, and internal discipline characterize the life of a Korean mountain wizard or immortal Taoist. Taoism, mountain wizardry, and supernaturalism encourage a positive, active attitude toward the occult and metaphysical theory on the nature of reality, whereas the agnostic, pragmatic Confucian tradition considers these issues of only marginal importance. The Taoist heritage has put emphasis on individual freedom and spontaneity, laissezfaire government and social primitivism, mystical experience, and techniques of self-transformation. Immortal Taoism represents the antithesis to Confucian concern with individual moral duties, community standards, and governmental responsibilities. Miracles in Korea deals with the cultural fabric of the Korean populace into which Korean mountain wizardry, Taoism, and supernaturalism were woven, so the book serves as a source of insight into Korean spirituality and culture. Several anecdotes present Korean popular magico-religious practices that constitute unique aspects of Korean spirituality in general and Korean Immortal Taoism in particular. The ancient practices of spirituality have been admired by the Korean populace and are found particularly in biographies of noted Korean religionists. The practices can give access to some of the mythical, archaic, and primordial wisdom of the Korean populace that has been lost or buried through the modernization process. As Jeong Dugyeong (1597–1673) said in the “Preface” to Miracles in Korea, Hong Manjong rendered a distinguished service in preserving precious knowledge of Korean spirituality for posterity. The book demonstrates that Korean people have grafted the foreign religion of Taoism onto the native idea of a mountain wizard and a supernatural being and developed it into their own culture. The English translation of Miracles in Korea primarily intends to introduce to the English-speaking world many Korean Taoist hermits’ incorporation of Taoism into their world view, value system, attitudes, and beliefs. Thus, the English edition is not guided by the Korean text alone but considers English-

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speaking cultures’ conceptions of social institutions, religious spirituality, and linguistic norms. This edition endeavors to recognize the ideological, cultural, and linguistic background presented in the original text by the author and open the way to realize the overall meaning potential at the other end of the communicative channel. The English version aims to enable communication to take place across cultural barriers. The original copy of Miracles in Korea gives brief accounts of Korean mountain wizards, Taoist hermits with supernatural powers, divine Taoists, and immortal Taoists who appear in anecdotes, legends, and some books. The original text of Miracles in Korea was written in Chinese characters in 1666 and translated into modern Korean by Lee Seokho in 1982. My English version of the book attempted to be made in consultation with the original copy in literary Chinese as well as with the modern Korean translation. Hong Manjong cited and mentioned many works of Korean and Chinese literature, so the Romanticized spelling of the East Asian proper nouns in the English edition is done according to “The Romanization of the Korean Language” published in 2000 by the National Academy of the Korean Language and to “The Standard Pronunciation of the Chinese Language” set in 1985 by the National Construction Committee of the Chinese Language. The English version of Hong Manjong’s work has the Romanized names of persons, kingdoms, and places used in Korea and China, side by side or alternatively, in accordance with the language used by the speaker or narrator. Their literary meanings in English are sometimes added, where necessary. The translator added footnotes with specific details in order to discuss peculiar Taoist events and define Taoist terms, concepts, and points of view that have been prevalent in Korean and Chinese society. The footnotes can lead to understand Korean (and Chinese) spirituality, religiosity, cultural features, and popular psychology. An index was also added to provide a comprehensive list of Taoists, monarchs, books, Taoist concepts, and cultural items that Hong Manjong mentioned for demonstrating his interpretation of Korean history, society, and culture. The index supplements the Romanization of Korean or Chinese proper nouns by the addition of Korean or Chinese characters for the convenience of readers who have knowledge of the Korean or Chinese language. The English translation of Miracles in Korea attempts to elucidate the cultural patterns, themes, and postulates presented in the Korean text, considering the norms prevalent in the English culture. Korean and English discourse have their own specific ways of expression that are associated with different social contexts. Hong Manjong dated events in two ways: by the reigns of Korean or Chinese monarchs and the sexagenary years of the lunar calendar that could be converted into the twelve-year cycle of the animals of the zodiac. The translator let those titles and names stand and added the corresponding dates of the Chinese era parenthetically.

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The formulation of Korean ideas in the English language requires various translation-inherent explications that are dictated by differences in the syntactic and semantic structure of the two languages, such as an increase in the number of separate words in the English syntax and a choice of words with more specificity in the English text, by differences in text-building strategies and stylistic preferences between the Korean and English languages and by differences between the two cultures. For a proper rendering of the Korean words and phrases into the English language, the translator needs a wide range of information about the meanings of word choices, about how the Korean and English languages combine their collocational and syntactic behaviors, about what values, beliefs, and perceptions the language behaviors produce and about what the behaviors tell the reader about the author’s attitude. St. Jerome maintained that the sense should have priority over the form when he translated the Hebrew Bible and the major deuterocanonical books into Latin. He rendered one sentence rather than one word at a time, going across the boundary between freedom and fidelity. St. Jerome launched a divergent attack on literalism, but the English version of Miracles in Korea has a word-for-word translation of book titles and cultural items in Korean and Chinese. The important semantic element carried implicitly in the Korean (and Chinese) language requires both implicit introduction into and explicit identification in the English language. The translation of songs and poems needs to be rendered literally because the language of poetry is predominantly connotational rather than denotational and always removed from ordinary speech. The translation of poetry presents difficulties in conveying all the features of the original source language in a manner acceptable to the target language culture and tradition, so the success of the translation is determined by the intrinsic poetic value of the translated text. The English poet Robert Browning insisted that poetry translation “ought to be absolutely literal, with [the] exact rendering of [the] words, and the words placed in the order of the original. Only a rendering of this sort gives any real insight into the original.” The English edition of Miracles in Korea endeavors to do a literal translation of the original poetic text, constantly reworking and reassessing the translated English text in an attempt to make it correspond to the Korean text on as many levels as possible. The English translation of Miracles in Korea benefited from the help of professors, including Professor Kim Gihyeon and Professor Na Kyung Soo of Chonnam National University in Korea on the Chinese language and Chinese philosophy and on Korean folklore, respectively. The professors assisted me in specific areas, but the responsibility for the translation falls on me. I am grateful to the Korea Literature Translation Institute for financially supporting the English translation of this work. I also thank Chonnam National University for financially helping the publication of the work.

★ Bibliographical Introduction

A human being should not lack what he or she has to be mindful of, nor can he or she live without what he or she must pay attention to. I had a good memory in my childhood and did not make up my mind to be a fine writer until I was fifteen or sixteen years old. When I was in my twentieth year, I was attacked by a serious illness and lay sick in bed over a year. My strength and energy dwindled, so I fell short of my duties. I opened an ancient book but gave up reading before finishing one page because I got into uncontrollable confusion and my eyes had dimmed even before reading through two lines. I collected trifling stories about various masters of all ages to divert my mind and while away the time. I found miraculous traces of mountain wizards, Taoist hermits, and Immortal Taoists in the stories, with which I passed very happy hours. Stories of mountain wizards, Taoist hermits, and Immortal Taoists are not on the lips of men of virtue because they are chimerical. Cheng Mingdao1 said that 1

Cheng Mingdao (1032–1085) was a scholar during the Chinese Northern Song Dynasty, who went by the personal name of Hao, by the nickname of Bochun and by the pen name of Mingdao. Cheng Mingdao and Cheng Yichuan (1033–1107), his brother, have been called the “two Cheng brothers.” Cheng Mingdao studied all classes of philosophers including Laozi and Zhuangzi and Buddhism but converted to Confucianism. He formulated his theory of vital force in the universe on the basis of the unity of all creatures. He promoted the unity between the “basic principles” and the “atmospheric force” of nature, generally expressed “理氣” in Chinese characters. He insisted that human beings should perceive the principles with intuitive power and obey them. Cheng Mingdao believed that all things in the universe are formed by the correspondence between the dual forces of yin and yang and the differences of the things depend on the biased settlement of the way (Tao) of the correspondence. He thought of good and evil as postnatal factors rather than as the dispositional differences of nature and explored the method of moral culture. He became a royal secret inspector during the early period of the Xining Reign and often counseled Emperor Shenzong. Cheng Mingdao set forth such essential

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Bibliographical Introduction

the stories could give people a new lease on life and help them enjoy longevity. They lay the groundwork for the natural force that generates the progress of life, death, production, and growth. Zhu Ziyang2 made notes on The Gradation and Equality of All Creation,3 so it does not go beyond all reason for a human being to be able to become a supernatural beig even through such laborious efforts that

points that a monarch should reform himself, control his desire and find and educate kindhearted persons. The emperor raised Wang Anshi to a higher position to enhance national prosperity and defense, but Cheng Mingdao stood against the new laws Wang Anshi promoted and volunteered to accept a local government position. Cheng Mingdao clarified the morality and courtesy of a sage, so he is said to stand foremost among sages since Mengzi. His ideas passed through Cheng Yichuan and exerted influence on Zhuzi. The ideas laid the foundation for the new thought of Confucianism during the Song Dynasty. Cheng Mingdao wrote The Book of Character Formation and The Book of Virtue Cognition and left The Posthumous Works of Chengzi. 2 Zhu Ziyang refers to Zhuzi (1130–1200), one of whose nicknames was Ziyang, a Confucian scholar during the Chinese Song Dynasty. The name “Ziyang” was derived from “Ziyang Village School,” the name of the office building in which he attended to his business while he lived in Chongan, an ancient town northwest of Fujian Province. When he entered his first government service in Tongan, Fujian Province, he carried out reforms of tax and inspection affairs and renovated libraries and established the regulations of local memorial halls for Confucianist services to honor distinguished scholars and statesmen. He also enacted unheard-of and strict regulations concerning ceremonies of coming-of-age, marriage, funerals, and ancestor worship. Zhuzi studied Buddhism and Taoism but converted to Confucianism after he met with Li Yanping in his twenty-fourth year and modeled himself on his mentor. He applied himself closely to his study while debating on subjects not only with his colleague students but also with opponents in argument. He systematized the speculative philosophy and practical morality of Confucianism in a way that was unprecedented in the history of Chinese thought. 3 The Gradation and Equality of All Creation, written by Wei Boyang of the Chinese Eastern Han Dynasty, explicates in three volumes the mysteries of how to make an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar and become a supernatural being by training the mind. Wei Boyang studied the notion of appearance that The Classic of Changes explains and discussed the magical tricks of perennial youth and long life. Zhuzi wrote “Notes on The Classic of Changes and on The Gradation and Equality of All Creation.”

Bibliographical Introduction

3

he or she makes a whole survey of the Three Thousand Great Worlds.4 Our eastern kingdom, within whose territory the so-called three divine mountains5 rise, has the most outstanding landscapes of scenic beauty in the world. Learned men who renounced the world and concealed their whereabouts left their vivid miraculous traces behind to several people. They entrusted themselves to Buddhist temples, retired to hermitages in the mountains or lived together with other persons in town. The proverb that persons of great caliber are born in a land of great scenic beauty is not wrong. Those historical accounts appear too sporadically in several books to think over and peruse. I have compiled them into this book. I have also added my knowledge to help gratify people’s curiosity. It is not certain whether what has been given attention to shows more wisdom than what exists without clumsy efforts.

4 The Three Thousand Great Worlds, called “Trisahasramahasahasro locadhatu” in Sanskrit and written “三千大羅” in Chinese characters, refer to the whole Buddhist cosmos of heaven and earth, which consist of One Thousand Small Worlds, One Thousand Middle Worlds, and One Thousand Great Worlds. One Thousand Small Worlds (perhaps the galactic system in the modern sense) are one thousand times as many as one world (perhaps the solar system in the modern sense) that is made up of one sun and one moon and covers a wide range from the Wind Wheel to the abode of the Great Brahma-Deva. One Thousand Middle Worlds are one thousand times as many as One Thousand Small Worlds, while One Thousand Great Worlds are one thousand times as many as One Thousand Middle Worlds. According to Buddhist cosmology, the cosmos is up in the air in layers of Wind Wheel, Water Wheel, and Golden Wheel, with Mt. Sumi in the center of the surface of the Golden Wheel. The mountain rises to a height of about 560,000 kilometers, surrounded by its seven folded ranges, each of which is among oceans. The Four Devas live on the mid-slope of the mountain and thirty-three heavenly gods including the Harvest God live on its top. Above Mt. Sumeru there exist the Six Heavenly Palaces, which are also called “Six Desire Heavens” because those inhabitants are so morally imperfect as not to curb their desires. Above the Six Desire Heavens exit heavens of colorful beauty that take the shapes of Zen but give up desires completely. The heavens proceed through the stages of Initial Zen, Second Zen, Third Zen, and Fourth Zen and enter the final stage of Colorless Sphere. The Great Brahma-Deva and its dependents live in the Initial Zen. 5 The three divine mountains where people believed supernatural beings lived, refer to Mt. Bongnae, Mt. Bangjang and Mt. Yeongju in the territory of Balhae State. Another report says that the three mountains indicate Mt. Geumgang, Mt. Jiri, and Mt. Halla in the Korean Peninsula.

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Bibliographical Introduction

Jangju6 makes the above introductory remark at the beginning of January in the year of the horse (1666) (the Byeongo year, the 43rd year of the sexagenary cycle)7 according to the lunar calendar.

6

Jangju is another nickname of Hong Manjong, the author of Miracles in Korea. The Byeongo year refers to the year of the horse, the forty-third year of the sexagenary cycle. From ancient times until now, Asian people have used the sexagenary cycle of years, which consists of ten celestial stems and twelve terrestrial branches in perfect harmony between heaven and earth. The branches are adjusted to the stems in regular sequences to make the threescore separate cyclical units. The ten celestial stems originate from the five primary substances (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water) of the cosmic dual forces of yin and yang. The original source of the dual principles of yin and yang is the Great Absolute, the entity of the cosmos that is formed out of the chaos. Each of the five substances has its own dual manifestations: the substance of wood has the yang manifestation of “甲” and the yin manifestation of “乙,” which represent “a big tree” and “ a small tree,” respectively; the substance of fire has the yang manifestation of “丙” and the yin manifestation of “丁,” which represent “the sunlight” and “the lamplight,” respectively; the substance of earth has the yang manifestation of “戊” and the yin manifestation of “己,” which represent “a mountain” and “a field,” respectively; the substance of metal has the yang manifestation of “庚” and the yin manifestation of “辛,” which represent “solid iron” and “liquid iron,” respectively; and the substance of water has the yang manifestation of “壬” and the yin manifestation of “癸,” which represent “an ocean” and “a little water,” respectively. These ten manifestations of the five primary substances represent the ten celestial stems, which Asian people count in regular sequence, namely the sequence of “甲,” “乙,” “丙,” “丁,” “戊,” “己,” “庚,” “辛,” “壬,” and “癸,” pronounced “Jia” and “Gap,” “Yi” and “Eul,” “Bing” and “Byeong,” “Ding” and “Jeong,” “Wu” and “Mu,” “Ji” and “Gi,” “Geng” and “Gyeong,” “Xin” and “Sin,” “Ren” and “Im,” and “Gui” and “Gye” in Chinese and Korean, respectively in that order. Each of the ten celestial stems is combined in regular succession with each of the twelve terrestrial branches to name the years of the sexagenary cycle. The twelve branches are named after animals on the earth, namely “子” (rat), “丑” (ox), “寅” (tiger), “卯” (hare), “辰” (dragon), “巳” (serpent), “午” (horse), “未” (ram), “申” (ape), “酉” (fowl), “戌” (dog), “亥” (swine), pronounced “Zi” and “Ja,” “Chou” and “Chuk,” “Yin” and “In,” “Mao” and “Myo,” “Chen” and “Jin,” “Si” and “Sa,” “Wu” and “O,” “Wei” and “Mi,” “Shen” and “Sin,” “You” and “Yu,” “Xu” and “Sul,” and “Hai” and “Hae” in Chinese and Korean, in that order. The first year of the cycle is named “甲子” (pronounced “Jiazi” and “Gapja” in Chinese and Korean, respectively), the second year “乙丑” (“Yichou” and “Eulchuk”), the third year “丙寅” (“Bingyin” and “Byeongin”), the fourth year “丁卯” (“Dingmao” and “Jeongmyo”), the fifth year “戊辰” (“Wuchen” and “Mujin”), the sixth year “己巳” (“Jisi” and “Gisa”), the seventh year “庚午” (“Gengwu” and “Gyeongo”), the eighth year “辛未” (“Xinwei” and “Sinmi”), ninth year “壬申” (“Renshen” and “Imsin”), the tenth year “癸酉” (“Guiyou” and “Gyeyu”), the eleventh year “甲戌” (“Jiaxu” and “Gapsul”), and the twelfth year “乙亥” (“Yihai” and “Eulhae”). The Jiazi or Gapja year comes back to the beginning of the cycle sixty years later. Each year is referred to in a simple and convenient way according to the twelve terrestrial branches named after animals, such as “the year of the rat,” “the year of the ox,” “the year of the tiger,” and “the year of the swine.” The sexagenary cycle is said to have been used as the calendar during the Chinese Yin Dynasty and as the means to tell a person’s fortune by necromancers after the Han Dynasty. This cycle has been used in Korea since the Unified Silla Dynasty. 7

★ Preface

There is only one Tao (Way of Life), in general. What way of thought or life is there on earth besides our Tao (Confucianism)? Religious enthusiasm had not been worked up widely in the world until Laozi in the Chinese Zhou Dynasty and Buddha established religions. Thus, people say that there are three major religions in the world, that is, those two religions along with our Confucianism. Our eastern kingdom primarily respected Buddha but did not esteem Laozi. We have no idea how many tens of thousands of Aranyas (Buddhist temples) and Sarmanas (Buddhist monks)1 existed all over the country. But no Taoist study hall2 existed in the nation, nor did a Taoist. Does this not prove that only Buddha, not Laozi, has been honored? Laozi and Buddha are both heretics. When their religious doctrines are carefully examined, Laozi’s doctrines are worth being applied to ruling over the whole country. Chinese Emperor Wen of the Han Empire achieved a reign of peace by putting into practice the governing ideas of Tao. Feudal Lord Zhang Liu3 rendered distinguished service by applying the guiding principles of Tao. 1 “Aranya” and “Saramana” are Sanskrit words that have the meanings of “a place of calm” and “a person who cuts his hair, joins in a Buddhist family, and cultivates his religious sense,” respectively. 2 This hall was a wooden building where apprentices or students studied Taoist doctrines and held meetings. 3 Feudal Lord Liu Zhang (?-189 B.C.) was a meritorious retainer of Liu Bang, the first Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang went by the real name of Liang and by the nickname of Zifang, on whom Emperor Gaozu bestowed the title of “Feudal Lord Liu.” His grandfather and father had been premiers during the Han Dynasty. When the Qin Empire ruined the Han Empire, Zhang Liang risked his life on an assassination plot against the First Emperor of Qin. He spent his fortunes to seek an assassin. The killer mistakenly attacked the other wagon accompanying the royal carriage, while Zhang fled to Xiapi in Jiangsu Province. While on the run, he met an old man on a bridge and was initiated into the tactics of Grandfather Wang, a gentle subject at the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty. Zhang later became

6

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Cao Can4 and Ji An5 learned the doctrine of Tao and became noted retainers. All those persons equally perceived the truth though they showed some distinction in their profundity of thought. Thus, we can say that Laozi’s doctrines are far better than Buddha’s. Our eastern kingdom is the best in landscape in the grand total of six directions, that is, heaven, earth, east, west, south, and north. There have been many people since the times of Dangun and Gija who fed on the universal spirit implicitly underlying living things and trained their bodies. They drew in the wind and drank dew. However, they have not usually been known to the general public because they were not respected in the world. Learned men who broke off relations with the mundane world thought such a condition pitiable. Hong Manjong, a classics licentiate, collected and summarized their stories from A Survey of the Geography of the Eastern Kingdom6 and several unauthorized a schemer who helped Liu Bang bring the whole world under his single authority. In the evening of his life, he loved Laozi and learned the life style of Taoist hermits in which they avoided grains and ate a small amount of pine needles, jujubes, and chestnuts, etc. He cultivated his religious sense and became a supernatural being. 4 Cao Can (?-190 B.C.), originally from Pei County in Jiangsu Province, served as a jailor in the Qin Dynasty and played an active part in military campaigns together with Xiao He when Liu Bang raised an army. He was rewarded with the title of “Feual Lord Pingyang” for his distinguished services after the foundation of the Han Dynasty and served well by a prime minister during the reign of Emperor Hui at the recommendation of Xiao He. Cao Can justly took the reins of the government by inheriting and observing the laws Xiao He enacted. 5 Ji An (?-112 B.C.) was a wise retainer during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Earlier Han Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Changru and loved men of chivalrous spirit and integrity. He served as a high-ranking official in the Crown Prince’s palace during the reign of Emperor Jing and as a receptionist in the Royal Audience Chamber during the reign of Emperor Wu. He later became governor-general of Donghai and Huaiyang. He learned Taoism and efficiently conducted the affairs of state. 6 A Survey of the Geography of the Eastern Kingdom consists of fifty-five volumes that Lee Haeng, Yun Eunbo, Shin Gongje and others compiled in 1530 in obedience to the royal command of King Jungjong of the Joseon Dynasty. This book itemized all the counties and provinces of Korea during the early Joseon Dynasty by considering the organization of A Survey of the Geography by Zhu Mu of the Southern Song Dynasty and the grouping of arrangement of A Record of the Whole Geography of the Great Ming Empire. A Survey of the Geography of the Eastern Kingdom expands The Geography of the Eight Provinces of Korea compiled in 1477 and adds the poetry and prose of Korean literary men from The Anthology of Korean Literary Works. The first two volumes are about the geography of the capital city, the third about Hanseong Prefecture, the fourth and fifth about Gaeseong Prefecture, the sixth through the thirteenth about Gyeonggi Province, the fourteenth through the twentieth about Chungcheong Province, the twenty-first through the thirty-second about Gyeongsang Province, the thirty-third through the fortieth about Jeolla Province, the forty-first through the forty-third about Hwanghae Province, the forty-fourth through forty-seventh about Gangwon Province, the forty-eighth through the fiftieth about Hamgyeong Province, and the fifty-first through the

Preface

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chronicles, compiling them into a book named Miracles in Korea. In ancient times, Liu Xiang7 and Ge Hong8 wrote biographies of supernatural or divine human beings, so the names of ancient persons of unusual ability have eventually became known to posterity. We cannot deny that those two persons produced brilliant achievements. Now, Mr. Hong also rendered distinguished services recognized as of equal value to Liu Xiang and Ge Hong’s. Dongmyeongja9 wrote a preface to this book on a certain month of a certain year at Mr. Hong’s request.

fifty-fifth about Pyeongan Province. A Survey of the Geography of Korea provides the complete map of each province and documents the history of each province. The book also describes family names, ancestral shrines, customs, governmental offices, local products, important personages, lodging facilities, and historical remains belonging to each province. 7 Liu Xiang (77 B.C.-6 B.C.) was a Chinese Confucian scholar during the reign of Emperor Xuan of the Earlier Han Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Zizheng and by the real name of Gengsheng. He was a descendant four generations removed from Liu Jiao, the step-brother of Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty. Liu Xiang was acknowledged as a man of rare ability in his youth and raised even to the rank of a great royal adviser. He was wellacquainted with Confucian classics. He learned the Annotated Book of History by heart in the daytime and observed the stars at night. He was interested in the method and technique of supernatural powers and discussed politics according to the principles of yin and yang and good or ill luck. He was a pioneer in cataloguing stories and wrote Biographies of Chaste Women and Biographies of Taoist Hermits. 8 Ge Hong (284–363) was a Chinese scholar and Taoist during the Jin Dynasty. He went by the nickname of Zhichuan and by the pen name of Baopozi. He was interested in the way to bring up Taoist hermits and instructed by Zheng Yin, a disciple of his uncle Ge Xuan, in the alchemical secrets of boiling cinnabar into gold or drugs. He later took his sons and nephews to Mt. Luofu in Guangdong Province. Ge Hong succeeded in the alchemical transformations and became a supernatural being after he left his body behind. He wrote Biographies of Taoist Hermits with Supernatural Powers and Collected Tales of Miracles. . 9 Dongmyeongja was the nickname of Jeong Dugyeong (1597–1673), a scholar during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty. He went by the nickname of Gunpyeong and his ancestral home originated from the city of Onyang. He later took high official posts in the Office of Special Advisers. He was a master of poetry and calligraphy and a broad-minded satirist. He handed down Collected Works of Dongmyeong.

I ★ Dangun

The post of primitive tribal society ruler had been established in our eastern kingdom (Korea) since the era of Dangun. An Ancient Record 1 states the following: “Once upon a time Heavenly Ruler Hwanin 2 ordered his son Hwanung to take the three divine objects3 and descend with his 3,000 beings on a tree standing beside the divine altar at the peak of Mt. Taebaek (referring to the present mountain of Myohyang). This place was called a theocratic city. He became Heavenly King Hwanung who ruled over the Wind Magician, the Rain Magician and the Cloud Magician. He held sway over grain, life span, disease, and punishment, etc. He governed the world by managing more than 360 human matters. “At that time, a bear constantly prayed to God that she might be transformed into a human being. The Lord of Heaven gave her a miracle drug and let her eat it. When the bear ate the drug, she was transformed into a female goddess.4 In consequence, Hwanung was falsely transformed into a male human and got married to this goddess. He impregnated the incarnate woman, who gave birth to 1

An Ancient Record refers to An Ancient Record of Dangun, which is the oldest book on the accomplishments of Dangun. This record is now missing. Its author and the date of its writing are unidentified. 2 Some notes to the original texts including Overlooked Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms by Ilyeon (1206–1289) consider Hwanin the legendary king of the Daoli Heaven at the top of Mt. Sumi. The Heavenly Ruler who controls the Four Devas, the four heavenly guardians, protects the people devoted to the vinaya (disciplinary rules) of Buddha and conquers the devils of self-conceit and green envy. For this reason, Hwanin refers to the Heavenly King. 3 The three divine objects are what court officials and doctors shared and regarded as divine marks. The objects seem to have represented the divine authority to accompany the gods of wind, rain, and clouds. 4 The female goddess was also called a bear girl.

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a son. The son was Dangun, whom the people called by the name of ‘Wanggeom’ and nominated as their tribal society leader. They named the country ‘Joseon.’ That was in the year of the dragon (2332 B.C.), the twentyfifth year of the reign of King Tangyao.5 “Dangun first set up his capital at Pyeongyang Fortress and moved it to Mt. Baekak (referring to Mt. Guwol of today in Munhwa County, Hwanghae Province). The feudal Lordship of the Joseon Kingdom was conferred on Gija (called ‘Jizi’ by Chinese pronunciation6) in the first year of the reign of Chinese King Wu of the Zhou Kingdom, the year of the hare (1122 B.C.) (the Gimyo year, the 16th year of the sexagenary cycle). Dangun moved to Dangjang Capital7 (situated east of Mt. Guwol) and later returned to Mt. Asadal (another name of Mt. Guwol). He became the god of the mountain and lived to the age of 1580.” Chamseong Altar was built on Mt. Mani on Ganghwa Island. Dangun has been reported to the world to have performed sacrificial rites to heaven on the altar. (This story is mentioned in “The Annals of the Joseon Monarchs” in The History of the Eastern Kingdom.8) A Survey of the Geography of Korea also reports that Dangun moved to Dangjang Capital when King Wu of Zhou conferred on Gija the feudal lordshipof the Joseon Kingdom. Dangun later went to Mt. Asadal and was transformed into a god. According to A Handbook of the

5

King Tangyao was an ancient Chinese sage monarch, who was simply called King Yao and reigned from 2357 B.C. to 2284 B.C. He was initially conferred with the title of “Feudal Lord Tao” and later with the title of “Feudal Lord Tang.” He was also called Mister Taotang after he gained political power. Historiographers call him by the name of Fang Xun. He ruled the country so wisely for more than 100 years that the people sang songs celebrating good harvests and a peaceful reign. King Tangyao abdicated the throne in favor of Shun because Danzhu, his son, was not worth succeeding to the rights. 6 Jizi was a sage during the final Chinese Yin Dynasty, who went by the personal name of Xuju or Suyu. Jizi is said to have been a relative of the last king of the Yin Dynasty and known as one of the three wise men of Shang. He was imprisoned by the corrupt king because he remonstrated against the misrule. After King Wu of the Zhou Kingdom destroyed the Yin Kingdom, Jizi gave King Wu advice on politics when the king visited him. King Wu enfeoffed Jizi on Joseon, which is identified as northwestern Korea today. He established the Gija Joseon Kingdom in the twelfth century B.C. there and taught the people rites, agriculture, sericulture, and weaving. 7 Dangjang Capital is situated between Mt. Guwol and Mt. Anak in Hwanghae Province, Korea. Overlooked Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms mentions this place as Jangdang Capital. 8 This document refers to “The Annals of the Silla Monarchs” in Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms by Kim Busik. However, the record on Dangun does not appear in this book, but it is written in “The Ancient Joseon Kingdom” in Overlooked Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms.

Dangun

11

History of the Eastern Kingdom,9 Dangun acceded to the throne in the year of the dragon, the twenty-fifth year of the reign of King Tangyao. He passed away in the year of the rat (1317 B.C.) (the Gapja year, the first year of the sexagenary cycle), the eighth year of the reign of Chinese King Wuding10 of the Yin Kingdom. As I infer from The Book of the Administration of the State by Divine Normative Laws,11 1007 years passed from the Mujin year (the year of the dragon, the 5th year of the sexagenary cycle) of the reign of King Tangyao to the Gapja year, the eighth year of the reign of King Wuding of Shang. 1,202 years passed from the Mujin year to the Gimyo year, the first year of the reign of King Wu of Zhou. I have no idea which theory is correct. Anyway, Dangun ruled the 9

The author of this book is unidentified. King Wuding refers to King Gaozong, the twentieth monarch of the Chinese Yin Kingdom who was a son of Shaoyi. The Yin Kingdom was originally called the Shang Kingdom that had been founded by Tang, the leader of the Shang villages, about the sixteenth century B.C. Around the fourteenth century B.C., King Pangeng transferred the capital to the Yin region and changed the name of the country to the Yin Kingdom. King Wuding wanted to embark on the reconstruction of the country that had weakened since the reign of King Pangeng. King Wuding did not get any sage who could give counsel to him, so he did not administer the affairs of state but committed them to his retainers’ cares. The king saw a sage in his dream who went by the name of Yue and attempted to search the sage among ministers and officials in vain. The sage was eventually spotted in prisoners who were conscripted for forced labor for road building in the village called Fuxian. King Wuding appointed him to the post of the premier and constructed the rich and powerful country. The king called the sage Fu Yue after he conferred the family name “Fu” on him after the name of the village where he was found out. 11 The Book of the Administration of the State by Divine Normative Laws consists of twelve volumes and was written by Shao Yong (1011–1077), a philosopher during the era of the Northern Song. He explicated the formation and change of the universe by means of mathematical principles by the application of the principles mentioned in The Classic of Changes and unfolded a grandiose vision of the universe and human history. Shao Yong established the system of constant numbers and explained the formation, maintenance and collapse of the world in the cycle of 129,600 years by setting the twelve “horary signs” as one “day,” thirty days as one “month,” twelve months as one “year,” thirty years as one “generation,” twelve generations as one “fortune,” thirty fortunes as one “assembly” and twelve assemblies as one “source” (written “辰,” “日,” “月,” “年,” “世,” “運,” “會,” and “元” in Chinese characters, respectively). Thus, one source is counted as 129,600 years. Shao Yong maintained that the universe transforms itself after it has spent one source and all things in the universe make progress according to the law of double addition to their original number in such a chronological sequence. The Book of the Administration of the State by Divine Normative Laws applies apriori mathematical principles and assigns sixty-four trigrams mentioned in The Classic of Changes to the terms of source, assembly, fortune, and generation. The book follows out the train of reasoning the peace and war of the period from the year of the dragon (the forty-first year of the sexagenary cycle) of the reign of Sage King Yao to the sixth year of the Xiande Reign of the Later Zhou Kingdom. 10

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Dangun

country for a total of more than 1000 years. On reflection, the Lord of Heaven is said to have lived for 18,000 years (these years ought to be reduced to one tenth). The Lord of Earth is also said to have lived for 18,000 years. The Book of the Administration of the State by Divine Normative Laws by Shaozi12 has counted one “source” as twelve “assemblies” and one “assembly” as 10,800 years. Thus, historians attempted to count the number of missing years before the reign of King Tangyao as branching off from the ages of the Three Chinese Augusts13 and to meet the requirements of one source. What is called 18,000 years is obviously not the span of life those personages really had. The monarchs who enjoyed longevity are enumerated as follows. Fu Xi 14 passed away one hundred fifteen years after he acceded to the throne. Shen Nong 15 passed away one hundred twenty years after he came into power. Huang Di 16 lived to be one hundred ten years. 12

Shaozi refers to the honorific title of Shao Yong. The Three Chinese Augusts refer to legendary Chinese monarchs, about whose identities there are a variety of views: the Lord of Heaven, the Lord of Earth, and the Lord of Human Beings; the Lord of Heaven, the Lord of Earth, and the Great Lord; Fu Xi, Nü Wa, and Shen Nong; Fu Xi, Shen Nong, and Zhu Rong; Suiren, Fu Xi, and Shen Nong; or Fu Xi, Shen Nong, and Huang Di. 14 Fu Xi was a legendary Chinese monarch who founded the Shang Kingdom and set up the capital at Chen. He was called Taihao (Endless Huge Sky) because his royal virtues shone like the sun and the moon. The monarch used the base of the cosmic dual principles of yin and yang and described the eight trigrams, the eight images of things in the the universe which represent “Qian” (heaven), “Dui” (pond), “Li” (fire), “Zhen” (lightning), “Xun” (wind), “Kan” (water), “Gen” (mountain), and “Kun” (earth). The monarch also taught the people skills of hunting, fishery, and stock-farming. 15 Shen Nong was a legendary Chinese monarch in ancient times who taught the people agricultural methods for the first time, so he took the name of Shen Nong (Divine Cultivator). He was born in Lieshan, he was called by the name of Mr. Lieshan. He is also said to have devised the method of manufacturing medicine by trying the flavors of various plants. He set up the capital at the town of Chen and later moved it to the town of Lu and was buried at Changsha. 16 Huang Di was one of three Chinese legendary monarchs who brought the whole country under his rule and established Chinese culture and institutions including the creation of Chinese letters, construction of wagons and ships and the manufacture of tables of weights and measures and of lunar calendar. According to Historical Records by Sima Qian, the great grandfather of Chinese historians, Huang Di went by the family name of Gongsun and took the personal name of Xuanyuan because he was born in a hill in Xuanyuan. He put down the rebellion of Chi You, the leader of the Jiuli tribe, at Zhuolu on behalf of Shen Nong. Feudal lords obliged him to take the seat of power and called him the Son of Heaven in reverence. Many historical books present various versions of him as an inventor of Chinese civilization and implicitly imply the literal interpretation of the name as “Shining Golden God.” Huang Di appointed Cangxie to the post of a historiographer and let him create the six calligraphic styles of Chinese characters. Historical Records says that he was on the throne for one hundred 13

Dangun

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Shaohao17 lived until he was one hundred years old. Diku18 lived to be one years, later entered Mt. Shouyang where he dug copper, cast a precious and rare kettle, and ascended to heaven on a dragon. Huang Di is said to be a fictional personage created out of various myths and legends at the end of the Warring States Age. One school of Taoism regarded him as the inventor of Taoism in advance of Laozi. The title “Huang Di” (written “黃帝” in Chinese characters) was said to be derived from the Supreme Being in High Heaven. The derivation has some connection to do with the idea of the five primary substances. The eastern, western, southern, and northern directions with Mt. Kunlun as the center are governed by Blue God, White God, Red God, and Black God, while the center is ruled by Yellow or Golden God. Thus, the title “Supreme Being in High Heaven” was replaced by the Golden God (called “Huang Di” in Chinese). According to the idea of the five elements, wood has blue leaves and implies the color “blue” that refers to the east and fire has red flames and implies the color “red” that refers to the south. Metal refers to a knife and implies the color “white” that indicates the west and water refers to the boiled medicine water or the rotten water in the lake and implies the color “black” that indicates the north. Earth refers to the center that takes charge of all directions and implies the color “yellow” that stands for the throne, so the general public is prohibited from using the color. Some ancient Chinese diviners inherited the cosmic dual forces of yin and yang that cause the formations and changes of all things in the universe and added the idea of fortunetelling that the movements of the five primary substances determine at once the prosperity and decay of all creatures and the vicissitudes of human life. Shen Nong is said to have possessed the virtue of fire that led him to become a monarch and given the name “火” (fire) to official titles, so he was also called by the title of “Yan Di,” implying the “god of flame” and written “炎帝” in Chinese characters. Zouyan, a diviner in the Chinese Qi Dynasty, suggested that the rise and fall of a Chinese empire does not depend on the activities of human beings but on the possession of the atmospheric forces of the five elements that spring from the harmony and incompatibilities among one another. According to the diviner, Huang Di, the founder of the Chinese civilization, prospered by the virtue of earth, while King Yu founded the Xia Kingdom by the virtue of wood. the Yin Kingdom flourished by the virtue of metal, the Zhou Kingdom thrived by the virtue of fire and the following dynasties grew prosperous by the virtue of water. 17 Shaohao was a Chinese monarch in ancient Chinese times who revised and enacted the public laws Fu Xi had established. He was called by the name of Shaohao (written “少昊” in Chinese characters and implying “Small Heaven”) after Fu Xi whose nickname was Dahao (written “大昊” in Chinese characters and implying “Limitless Broad and Big Heaven”). He was a son of Huang Di who went by the personal name of Xuanxiao or Zhi. By the virtue of metal, he became a monarch who regined over the whole country, so he was also called by the title of Mr. Jintian, written “金天” in Chinese characters and implying “Golden Heaven” or “Autumnal Sky.” According to the idea of the primary substances, metal has something to do with the west and autumn. Shadodao later became a god who took charge of autumn. When he ascended to the throne, a Chinese phoenix flew over to him, so he wore a crown on which the letter 鳥 (bird) was written. He set up the capital at Qufu and was on the throne for eightyfour years. He once led a life at Qiongsang, established his government at Qingyang and buried at Yunyang, so he was also called by the nickname of Mr. Qiongsang, Mr. Qingyang or Mr. Yunyang. 18 Diku was a Chinese monarch in ancient Chinese times who was a grandson of Huang

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hundred five years and King Yao lived for one hundred eighteen years. King Shun19 and King Yu20 were both one hundred years old when they died. King Tang21 lived to be one hundred years old. King Mu22 of the Zhou Kingdom Di and went by the personal name of Jun and by the pen name of Gaoxindi. He was born as a marvelous and strange being. He was granted a feudal land at the region of Xin in compensation for his support for Zhuan Xu and became a monarch in succession to Zhuan Xu. He set up the capital at the region of Bo. 19 Shun was a legendary Chinese sage king whom Confucian historians presented as a model of moral kingship. His family name was Yao and his personal name Zhonghua. He gained fame as a devoted son in his hometown. He was responsible for political achievements during the reign of King Yao and succeeded to the throne. He set up the capital at Puban and ruled the country for forty-eight years. 20 Legendary Chinese King Yu, the founder of the Xia Dynasty, controlled the flood of the Luo River and discovered a passage written on the back of a divine turtle. He was a grandson of Huang Di, who went by the family name of Si and by the personal name of Wenming. He explored nine counties and imposed duties on the land after he distinguished between good and bad soils. He succeeded to the throne after King Shun and governed the country for eight years. 21 King Tang founded the Chinese Yin Kingdom after he subdued King Jie, the tyrant of the Xia Kingdom and gained political power. He was also called Tianyi and ruled the country for thirteen years. 22 King Mu was the fifth monarch of the Zhou Kingdom who went by the personal name of Man and gained the posthumous title of Mu. King Mu was a sage monarch who set the disordered country at ease. The peopled called him by the title of “Son of Heaven Mu.” According to Historical Records by Sima Qian, he acceded to the throne when he was fifty years old and ruled the country for fifty-five years. King Mu once received a call from a divine being who said that he lived at the end of the west of the earth. The being had such supernatural power that he could keep himself unburned even in flames and pass through a wall. The king held the divine being in esteem as if he were a god and attended to him with a warm reception as if he were a monarch. However, the being did not take up his residence in the court because he regarded it as dirty, nor did he eat rich viands and sumptuous fare because he thought they smelt disgusting. A few days later, the divine being suggested taking a journey somewhere together. As soon as the king took him by the sleeve, the monarch suddenly flew in midair and arrived at a heavenly palace decorated with treasures. He looked down at the earth and found his palace shabby piled in clods and covered with straw mats. After he said that he wanted to return to his palace, he felt he fell from the air and recovered consciousness. When the king asked the divine being what had happened to them, the being answered, “Your Majesty made a mental trip with me.” After King Mu had the mystical experience together with the divine being, he yearned for the western world. The monarch organized a large expedition and went on a royal wagon dragged by eight swift horses, escorted by the royal guards that consisted of seven elite contingent units. The horses were the descendants of the combat horses that had joined in the battle of King Wu of the Zhou Kingdom against King Zhou, the last tyrant monarch of the Yin Dynasty. The descendents were originally wild horses that were turned loose in a mountain after the war was over but tamed for the royal carriage by Zao Fu, the best packhorse driver of those days. They were said to be so swift as to skim over the ground and run quicker than

Dangun

15

passed away one hundred years after he acceded to the throne. I have never heard that any monarch enjoyed longevity of more than one thousand years. Guang Chengzi23 lived to be one thousand two hundred years old and Peng Zu24 enjoyed longevity of eight hundred years. These examples of longevity are the length of life an ordinary man expanded by cultivating his mind. However, Dangun was the only human sovereign ruler that enjoyed longevity of one thousand five hundred eight years. It is true that he cannot be regarded as a human being because his birth and death were divine and extraordinary. But we cannot deny that he was human. Thus, I once thought that Dangun bears a resemblance to Fu Xi and King Dongmyeong is the very image of Xuanyuan.25 birds. The horses were so energetic as to go the long distance of 24,403 miles overnight. The expedition arrived at Mt. Yangyu, in the neighborhood of which Hebo, the god of water who ruled the Yellow River, set up the capital. The king performed a sacrificial rite to the god, throwing to the river offerings including white gems, cows, horses, pigs, and sheep. Through an official of god, Hebo promised King Mu eternal bliss and informed him of treasures in Mt. Kunlun. While the king was on the way to the mountain, the thirty-seven feudal lords of the border areas brought local products including cattle and grains as tributes to the king without any disputes and complaints. King Mu gave them silk and gold in return. After a while, the king reached Mt. Kunlun where he took a look around the Palace of the Supreme Being and performed a religious service. Mt. Qunyu (written “群玉” in Chinese characters and implying “The Group of Jades”), one of the peaks of Mt. Kunlun, formed a mountain and field of jades. The king had the carriage loaded with ten thousand jades. After King Mu returned to the home country, he made Chu Ren subjugate the Xu Kingdom. The monarch of the kingdom fled to Pengcheng where he died. King Mu also ordered Lu Hou, the minister of justice, to write Luxing, the book of punishment and announced it officially. When the nation grew weak, the king attempted to conduct a campaign against Quanrong in the western region who had been in conflict since he acceded to the throne. King Mu did not listened to the advice of Mou Fu, an official priest, against the expedition without any moral obligation. The king returned to his country, gaining nothing but four white foxes and four white deer. Thereafter, many barbarian tribes of the frontier districts did not send envoys to pay tributes. 23 Guang Chengzi was a Chinese mountain wizard in ancient times who went into retirement in a stone cell in Mt. Kongtong, of whom Huang Di once inquired about the cardinal points of Tao. 24 Peng Zu was a Chinese macrobian in ancient times who went by the family name of Jian and by the personal name of Keng. He was a grandson of Zhuan Xu, one of the legendary monarchs, who was appointed to a government position during the reign of King Yao. Peng Zu lived for more than seven hundred years from the Xia Dynasty to the Yin Dynasty. 25 Xuanyuan was a Chinese emperor of ancient times who is said to have acceded to the throne in 4617 B.C. and started to teach astronomy, geography and personnel management. He is praised as a sage monarch with both knowledge and virtue who originated Chinese civilization. The emperor was a son of Shaodian, a feudal lord of the Youtai Kingdom, who went by the family name of Gongsun and by the personal name of Xuanyuan. He set up the capital at Shangyu in Hebei Province.

II ★ Hyeokgeose

Hyeokgeose was the founder of the Silla Kingdom. There were once six villages in the land of Jinhan,1 but they had no tribal society leader. The six village chieftains assembled for a meeting on the bank of the Al Stream in the Imja year (the forty-ninth year of the sexagenary cycle) (69 B.C.), the first year of the Dijie Reign of Chinese Emperor Xuan of the Han Empire. Feudal Lord Sobeol, the chieftain of Goheo Village, stared at the slope of Mt. Yang and recognized an extraordinary sign near Na Spring as if a streak of lightning had struck the ground. In a short time, he looked around the slope and found a big purple egg.2 The egg was cracked, out of which a boy came. He was a boy of beautiful appearance and upright conduct. When the boy was washed in the East Pond, he shone. Birds and wild animals all broke into dances and the sun and the moon were cleared. The people of the six villages (six districts) looked upon him as a being of divine and uncommon birth. They adopted him and raised him. The boy grew up to be the primitive tribal society leader. The title of “Geoseogan” (the venerable elder in a local dialect) Hyeokgeose was conferred on him. The nation was named “Seoyabeol” (later called Silla). The people of Jinhan called a gourd 1

Jinhan State was established out of twelve small towns in the southeastern region of the Korean Peninsula and later developed into the Silla Kingdom. Ilyeon in Overlooked Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms explains the following: “The History of the Later Han Empire states, ‘An old person from Chenhan (called Jinhan by Korean pronunciation) State said that some refugees came to Korea from the Chinese Empire of Qin and Mahan gave them some land on its eastern border. They called each other comrades, which sounded like the language of Chen. That is why this place was also called Chenhan. There are twelve small states here that each had 10,000 households, the states calling themselves nations.’” Choi Chiwon, a scholar during the final era of the Silla Kingdom, mentioned, on the other hand, that Jinhan originally referred to the land in which the refugees from the Chinese Yan Kingdom stayed. 2 This egg myth was widespread in the northeastern region of Asia as an explanation of the divine origins of founders of dynasties.

18

Hyeokgeose

dipper by the name of “park” and Hyeokgeose took the family name of “Park” because the big egg out of which he came looked like a gourd dipper. Hyeokgeose eventually ascended to heaven. His four limbs were separated from the bulk of his body. They all fell separately on the ground seven days later. The people attempted to bury the five pieces of his body in one grave. But a big snake appeared and stood to stand in the way. Therefore, the pieces had to be buried separately in distinct places, hence the places were named “Five Graves.” Hyeokgeose acceded to the throne at the age of thirteen and ruled the country for sixty-one years. (This story is mentioned in “The Annals of the Silla Monarchs” in The History of the Eastern Kingdom.) According to A Survey of the Geography of Korea, “The Divine Mother Shrine is located on Mt. Seondo (in Geongju), a mountain to the west of the city. The divine mother was originally a daughter of a Chinese emperor and her name was Suosu. She mastered the disciplinary secrets for becoming an Immortal Taoist at an early age and flew through the air to the country east of Balhae State.3 She did not return to her home country but stayed there for a long time. She finally became a goddess. The story that Hyeokgeose was a child delivered by a divine mother was handed down from generation to generation. Thus, a panegyric poem written by a Chinese person says, ‘Divine Mother Xiantao4 bore a benevolent king and had him found a nation for the first time.’” Collected Works of Misu Lee Inro5 states, “Chief Minister Kim Busik6 once entered the Chinese Song Empire and visited the shrines of gods and goddesses called ‘Youshen Halls.’ He found an image of a female divine Taoist had been enshrined in one of the halls. A reception official named Wang said to him, ‘Do you know this image of a divine Taoist is that of the goddess of your country?’ 3

The country east of Balhae State, a paraphrase for Korea, was used in ancient times. Xiantao, written “仙桃” in Chinese characters and called “Seondo” by Korean pronunciation, implies “faerie peach.” 5 Lee Inro (1152–1220) was a scholar during the reign of King Myeongjong of the Goryeo Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Misu and by the pen name of Ssangmyeongjae. He had been noted for his sagacity since his childhood and was versed in writing poetry and the cursive and ornamental styles of writing Chinese characters. When the military revolt headed by Jeong Jungbu occurred, Lee Inro had his head shaved and joined the Buddhist priesthood. He later returned to secular life and took several official posts in the Royal Archives Office. He had close intimacy with men of deep learning in those days including Oh Sejae and Im Chun and enjoyed drinking and writing poetry. He left twenty volumes of Collected Works from the Silver Heights, four volumes of Collected Later Poems and Essays, Collected Works of Ssangmyeongjae, and Collected Idleness-Relieving Essays. 6 Kim Busik (1075–1151) was a high government official of the Goryeo Kingdom who compiled Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms, endeavoring to write the officially sanctioned chronicles of ancient Korean monarchs. Kim imitates the Chinese convention of Confucian historiography that evaluates the executive services of past rulers in light of Confucian virtues and decorum. 4

Hyeokgeose

19

The official continued to explain, ‘In the old days, a princess of the emperor of China bore a child without a husband. People held doubts about her conception. She crossed the sea and went to Chenhan State. She gave birth to a son there. The son became the founder of the country east of Balhae State and was later transformed into an Immortal Taoist in heaven. The princess became a divine Taoist in earth who lived long on Mt. Xiantao. This picture is precisely the image of the divine being.’” On reflection, it is concluded that the drifting Korean people were scattered on mountains and valleys and led their lives. They formed six villages called the “Six Districts of Jinhan State.” The first was the village of Yangchon near the Al Stream, the second the village of Goheo on Mt. Dol, the third the village of Daesu on Mt. Mu, the fourth the village of Jinji on Mt. Chwi, the fifth the village of Gari on Mt. Geum and the sixth the village of Goya in Myeonghwal. Na Spring was situated south of Gyerim District.

III ★ King Dongmyeong

The personal name of King Dongmyeong was Jumong. Geumwa,1 the king of Eastern Buyeo, happened to see a woman near the Ubal River2 (situated in Yeongbyeon) and later asked her who she was. She replied, “I am a daughter of Habaek3 and my name is Yuhwa. I went out with my younger brothers and sisters to play. A man came to me and identified himself as a son of heaven by the name of Hae Mosu. He enticed me to a house on the bank of the Amnok River beneath Mt. Ungsin4 and made love to me. My parents scolded me for accompanying him without matchmaking and eventually made me live in exile in this place.” Geumwa thought her statement extraordinary and shut her in a room. The sun shed light on her, so she dragged herself along and avoided the sunbeam. The sun followed her and streamed into her room again. Thereby, she became pregnant and laid a big egg. Geumwa cast the egg away to dogs and pigs, but they did not eat it. When he threw it away in the road, cows and horses shied away from it. He abandoned the egg in the field, which birds came to cover with their wings. He attempted to cleave it in vain and then returned it to its mother. The mother wrapped up the egg and put it in a warm place. A boy came out of the egg. He was a person of extraordinary build and sagacious appearance. Even at the age of seven, he made bows and arrows for himself and never missed the target. An expert archer was called “Jumong” in the common speech of Buyeo, so the child was named “Jumong.” Geumwa had seven sons, who regarded Jumong’s talent with jealousy and wanted to kill him. Jumong ran away from them and reached the Eomho River5 1 2 3 4 5

Geumwa means “golden frog.” The Ubal River is situated at the southern side of Mt. Baekdu. Habaek was the spirit of the waters of the Yellow River in China. Mt. Ungsin is another name for Mt. Baekdu. The Eomho River is called by another name of the “Eomsa River” in Historical

22

King Dongmyeong

(situated in Yeongbyeon). He intended to pass over the river but found no bridge there. He prayed to heaven, “I am the son of the Heavenly King and the son of Habaek’s daughter. I have escaped from a difficult situation and have reached here. The soldiers who have pursued me are following me closely. What shall I do?” When Jumong finished his words, fish and snapping turtles formed a bridge. So he passed over the river in the end. He arrived at Jolbon Buyeo (the Seongcheon of today)6 and set up his capital near the Biryu River.7 He called the kingdom by the name of “Goguryeo,” hence he decided to name his family “Go.” (His original family name was Hae. But he changed it to Go because he thought that he was the son of the Heavenly King who was born through exposure to the sun.) That was in the year of the ape (37 B.C.) (the Gapsin year, the twenty-first year of the sexagenary cycle), the second year of the Jianzhao Reign of Emperor Yuan of the Han Dynasty. King Dongmyeong once raised a giraffe8 in a cave. In September in the fall of the nineteenth year of his reign, he came out of the cave riding on the animal to a rock and flew on a rock to the sky. The king never returned to the ground. He lived to be one hundred and nineteen years old. The crown prince buried at Yongsan (referring to Junghwa)9 the beaded whip he inherited. The footprints of the giraffe still remain on the rock, which is called “Jocheon (Morning Heaven) Records of the Three Kingdoms. Kim Jonggwon adds a note in his translation of the book, “The river was also called the Gaesa River, which is now situated northeast of the Amnok River.” Overlooked Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms calls it the “Eom River,” but Lee Byeongdo says in his translation of this book, “We cannot now give a detailed account of the river.” A note to the original copy of Miracles in Korea explains that the river “exists in Yeongbyeon.” 6 Kim Jonggwon, in his translation of Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms, says that Jolbon Buyeo refers to Jolbon Stream. A History of the Wei Kingdom mentions that Jolbon Buyeo refers to “the Hun River of today, which reaches the Heshenggu Fortress.” Lee Byeongdo, in his translation of Overlooked Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms, states that Jolbon Buyeo refers to the region of Hyeondo County. 7 A History of the Goryeo Kingdom implies that the Biryu River was in the northeastern region of Pyeongyang. 8 According to Asian folklore, a giraffe is the shadow of a fabulous animal that appears to the world before a great sage is born. Asian people have thought of the animal as standing for benevolence because they thought that it does not tread on grass in the mountains, nor kill animate beings. Giraffes, dragons, tortoises, and phoenixes have been regarded as spiritual and auspicious animals. The giraffe is deer-bodied, cow-tailed, wolf-browed, and horsehoofed. The animal grows one horn-shaped clump of flesh without bones. It grows fivecolored hairs but the hair on its abdomen is yellow. 9 Yongsan is situated in Junghwa County, South Pyeongyang Province. There are now three old tombs in Jinpa, one of the villages in the county, which are supposed to be royal tombs.

King Dongmyeong

23

Stone.” (This story is mentioned in “The Annals of the Goguryeo Monarchs” in The History of the Eastern Kingdom.) A Survey of the Geography of Korea presents the following story: “King Dongmyeong reached the Biryu River for the first time and met Songyang, the king of that region. King Songyang said to King Dongmyeong, ‘This region is such a limited space that two kings cannot govern it. Thus, would you come under my sway?’ King Dongmyeong replied, ‘I have succeeded to the throne of Heavenly Emperor. You now call yourself by the title of king in a high-handed way though you are not descended from a god. If you do not come under my jurisdiction, heaven will kill you by all means.’”10 King Dongmyeong then went on a shooting expedition and came back after he caught a white deer. He hung the deer upside down and said the magic words, “If heaven does not let rain fall to sweep away the capital city near the Biryu River, I will never let you loose.” The deer that hung headfirst cried pitiably, which touched the heart of heaven. Downpours continued for seven days and washed away the city of Songyang. The city became extinct.11 In July of the third year of the reign of King Dongmyeong, dark clouds were rising above Gol Ridge, so the people could not see the mountain. Several thousands of people sounded as if they were starting engineering works. King Dongmyeong said, “Heaven is building a fortress for me.” In reality, the clouds cleared away in seven days and the stronghold and heights had already been built in the palace. A poem of Gentleman Wonoe Kim Geukgi12 reads, To drive a carriage to a morning meeting in heaven, Jumong raised an esteemed giraffe on a golden bank halfway up a ridge. He suddenly dropped a treasure whip but never returned to the last. Who in the Nine-Laddered Palace will again climb up the autumn sky?

10 The saga of King Dongmyeong (58 B.C.-19 B.C.) in “The Annals of the Goguryeo Monarchs” in Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms mentions that King Dongmyeong wrested territory away from King Songyang. 11 Such a mystical tale is from an unidentified source that the royal capital of King Songyang was flooded by the power of heaven whose heart the cry of a white deer touched. The following mythological tale that King Dongmyeong saw the construction of his royal palace and fortress accomplished in seven days is also from an unknown source. 12 Wonoe Kim Geukgi (?-?) was a scholar during the Goryeo Dynasty, who went by the name of Nobong. He wrote in a good style even in his early age and composed poems whenever he opened his mouth. After he passed the Literary Licentiate Examination, he lived in seclusion and enjoyed poetry. King Myeongjong appointed him to the post of royal archivist but the king died some time later. According to The Model Poems of the Three Han States published at the close of the Goryeo Kingdom, his poems extended to one hundred fifty volumes.

24

King Dongmyeong A poem by Mokeun Lee Saek13 reads, 14

15

I now passed by Yeongmyeong Temple, climbing Bubyeok Tower awhile. A crescent moon appears over the high fortress. Clouds are one millennium years old. Where is the grandson of heaven playing, as the giraffe has not yet returned? While I give a long whistle against a windy and stony road, the mountain grows green and the river flows by itself.

The Nine-Laddered Palace refers to the building in which King Dongmyeong took up his residence. The palace was once situated located in thee territory Yeongmyeong Temple north of Pyeongyang Prefecture. The cave in which a giraffe was raised existed within the Nine-Laddered Palace and Jocheon Stone was south of the cave.

13 Lee Saek (1328–1396) was a civil minister and scholar during the Goryeo Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Yeongsuk and by the pen name of Mokeun. He visited the Yuan Empire in the fourth year (1348) of the reign of King Chungmok. He became a member of the National Confucian Academy in China who studied the doctrines of Zhuzi. He returned to the home country to mourn for his father in the third year (1351) of the reign of King Chungjeong and recommended the urgent policies of farmland reform, national defense and anti-Buddhism in the first year (1353) of the reign of King Gongmin. He again visited the Yuan Empire as an attendant of a royal envoy in 1354 before he won second place in the state examination for office and served as a recording officer for national affairs. He returned to the Goryeo Kingdom and was appointed to high government posts. Lee Saek later became an esteemed teacher of King U. He improved personnel administration, abolished the office of political affairs, and framed new school regulations for the National Confucian Academy. He rendered great services to the development of the doctrines of Zhuzi. 14 Yeongmyeong Temple is located east of Mt. Geumsu in Pyeongyang, which is said to be one of the temples Great King Gwanggaeto built. 15 Bubyeok Tower is located on a cliff beneath Moran Heights in Pyeongyang and the tower is said to have been built over one thousand years ago. People often climb the tower to enjoy the picturesque scenery of the banks of Daedong River.

IV ★ Four Divine Taoists

There were four divine Taoists named Gentleman Sul, Gentleman Nam, Gentleman Yeong, and Ahn Sang during the Silla Dynasty. All of them were from the Yeongdong or Yeongnam region.1 They all went out to Goseong to amuse themselves but did not return home after three days. Thus, the place was called “Samil (Three Days) Port.” South of Samil Port rises a small mountain peak, on which a stone niche2 stands. The six letters “永郞徒南石行” are written on the surface of a rock on the steep slope north of the peak. The words “南石行” here probably represents “Gentleman Nam,” so the six letters mean “The group of Gentlemen Yeong and Nam.” There was no pavilion on the little island in ancient times, but Feudal Lord Park (whose personal name is unidentified),3 a provincial governor, built a pavilion named “Four Divine Taoists’ Pavilion” on the island. A purple cave is situated about 24.4 miles away in the south of the county and “Four Divine Taoists’ Peak” is located in Tongcheon. Those are the places where the four divine Taoists amused themselves. Seonyu (Divine Being’s Pastime) Pond and Yeongnang (Gentleman Yeong) Lake are located in Ganseong, while Yeongnang Peak is situated on Mt. Geumgang. Gentleman Yeong and other Taoist hermits amused themselves in those places, so the places are named after the hermits. Arang Port is located in Jangyeon. Hansong Pavilion is in Gangneung. Beside this pavilion lie a spring whose water can be served as tea, a stone fireplace and a stone mortar. These are also the places into which the four divine Taoists made excursions. 1

The Yeongdong region refers to the land east of Daegwan Ridge in Gangwon Province, while the Yeongnam region refers to the southwestern parts of South and North Gyeongsang Provinces. 2 This niche refers to a cabinet in which an ancestral tablet is enshrined. 3 The section of “Gyeongpo Heights in Great Gangneung Prefecture” in A Survey of the Geography of Korea identifies Feudal Lord Park as Park Suk.

26

Four Divine Taoists One of Misu Lee Inro’s poems reads, Four divine Taoists, the persons of Silla, transfigured themselves in broad daylight and ascended into heaven. I chased after one thousand years old traces but found only medical herbs in the three mountains.

From Collected Works of Dongeun Lee Uigeon4 is quoted, “I once heard from Lee Yulgok5 (whose personal name was Yi) that what a person living at Gyeongpo had said reached Yulgok’s ears: ‘The music of a bamboo flute is occasionally heard in the distance among clouds under the moonlight.’ That is a mysterious incident.” Lee Uigeon then wrote the following poem: Four divine Taoists left their traces behind the mountain in mid-sea. They rode on a wagon with a feathered cover but never returned. Now on the lake under the bright moonlight, The music of precious bamboo flutes is heard among white clouds.

4

Lee Uigeon (1533–1621) was a man of letters during the early years of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Uijung and by the pen name of Dongeun. He was a descendant six generations removed from King Sejong. Dongeun secured a high government post in 1610, at the recommendation of Lee Hangbok, one of the most influential cabinet members in those times. Lee Uigeon was a person of noble personality who usually collected medicinal herbs to save people in poverty or in a critical condition. He excelled in poetry and calligraphy. 5 Lee Yulgok (1536–1584) was a noted scholar and statesman during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Sukheon and by the pen name of Yulgok or Seokdam. He retired to Mt. Geumgang to study Buddhism at the age of nineteen but descended the mountain the next year. Lee Yulgok was devoted to the study of the doctrines of Zhuzi. He won first place in the Special Examination nine times and was appointed to several high government posts. He was a man of broad views and understanding who gained the confidence of monarchs. He endeavored to resolve political crises caused by factional wrangling and suggested to kings extensive reforms of national administration. He established Eunbyeon Cloister to educate his disciples.

V ★ Okbogo

Okbogo was a son of Sachan1 (the title of a government post) Gong Yeong. He was a person during the reign of King Gyeongdeok. He entered Unsang Institute on Mt. Jiri and where he studied the geomungo.2 He composed more than thirty pieces of new melodies during the fifty years after he learned to play the instrument. When he played one of the pieces, black cranes flew over and danced to the melody. Thus, the instrument has also been called the “BlackCrane Heptachord” or “Black Heptachord.” It is publicly known that Okbogo understood the way of a Taoist hermit with supernatural powers. Geumsong (Heptachord Pine) Pavilion is on the peak of Mt. Geumo (situated in Gyeongju) where Okbogo amused himself. The following is from Collected Works of Dongsan Choi Ja3: “The eastern region originally refers to the Silla Kingdom where a person called ‘Divine Taoist Okbu’ once existed and composed one hundred musical pieces. Bokya Min Gageo of the Goryeo Dynasty was relatively well-initiated into the secrets of the melody. While he sat by himself one time and played the geomungo, a pair of cranes flew over and spun round him. Thereby, another tune was composed:

1

The name of the eighth of the seventeen civil service grades in the Silla Kingdom. The geomungo is a Korean zitherlike instrument with six strings. 3 Choi Ja (1188–1260) was a civil minister during the reigns of King Gangjong and King Gojong of the Goryeo Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Sudeok and by the pen name of Dongsansu. He performed the official duty of writing in the central government at the recommendation of Lee Gyubo. Choi Ja visited the Mongolian Empire as an envoy in the thirty-seventh year (1250) of the reign of King Gojong and later consecutively filled various government posts. He excelled in poetry and prose and won literary fame. He left ten volumes of Collected Works of Choi Munchunggong Family and three volumes of A Collection of Supplementary Idleness-Relieving Essays. 2

28

Okbogo 4

The traces of a divine Taoist in Wolseong are far afield, While the music of Okbu became faint. Why does a pair of cranes fly over so late? I would intend to return together with you.

On my reflection, the very person referred to as the divine taoist seems to have been Okbogo.

4

Wolseong was the ancient name of Gyeongju, the capital city of the Silla Kingdom.

VI ★ Two Divine Taoists Named Kim Gyeomhyo and So Ha Gyeomhyo Heights is in Dongnae. The heights are situated 12.2 miles away in the south of Dongnae Province where a divine Taoist named Kim Gyeomhyo amused himself. A poem by Wonjae Jeong Chu1 reads, Gyeomhyo gets in portly shape like a lotus flower, His heart devouring the eight points of the compass and his spirit excelling in a red sky. How could he turn his head to a town of ten thousand houses with envy? An Immortal Taoist came and went, fluttering higher and higher.

There is another pavilion called “Soha Pavilion” in that place. So Ha once rode on a white deer and played together with divine Taoists on golden tortoises. Thus, the people have said that birds build no nests on the pavilion. Another poem by Wonjae Jeong Chu reads, Where does Master So Ha now stay? No birds sing on the aged trees before the pavilion, Nor do golden tortoises appear, nor is the white deer seen. Flowers on rocks bloom and fall, though the owner does not exist in the garden.

On reflection, I found that the lives of the two divine Taoists named Kim Gyeomhyo and So Ha cannot be verified in detail on historical evidence. 1 Jeong Chu (?-1382) was a scholar during the reign of King Gongmin of the Goryeo Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Gonggwon and by the pen name of Wonjae. He was appointed not only to a high official position in the National Confucian Academy during the reign of King Gongmin but also to the job of teacher of Prince Gangnyeong Buwon, who later became King U. Jeong Chu excelled in poetry.

30

Two Divone Taoist Named Kim Gyeomho and So Ha

However, Wonaje called them divine Taoists, so I wrote down their poems one after the other.

VII ★ Daese and Guchil

Daese was a person during the Silla Dynasty who strove to renounce vulgar matters in the world. In the ninth year (587) of the reign of King Jinpyeong, he conversed with Monk Damsu. He said, “How can we be different from fish in a pond or birds caught in cages when we finish our lives in the hills of Silla? Someday I will attempt to cross the sea in a log raft and enter the land of the Wu-Yue Kingdom,1 where I will find my master and learn Tao. If a person of mediocre talent were to learn that he can be transfigured into an Immortal Taoist, I would unexpectedly ride on the wind and fly into empty space. This event will be an extraordinary excursion as well as a magnificent spectacle. Would you follow me?” Monk Damsu gave no answer and Daese retreated. Daese met a person named Guchil just in time. Guchil was a real character of high principles, moral integrity, and extraordinary fidelity. Daese started to associate with Guchil. They made an excursion to Namsan Temple (located in Gyeongju) together. All of a sudden a rainstorm came. Leaves fell on standing water in the yard and floated buoyantly. Daese said, “I will try to do the sights of the west. Let us each build a ship out of one leaf and see which one goes first or which one goes next.” When Daese’s leaf ship arrived in front of the two persons after a while, lead, he said with a broad smile on his face, “Excuse my going first.” Guchil flew into a rage and said, “I am also a courageous man. Why can I not go first by myself?” They finally kept friends with each other and took ships together to the South Sea. Nobody has found out what became of them.2 1

The Wu-Yue Kingdom was founded by Qian Liu, a military commander of the Tang army in Zhenhai. He set up his capital city at Hangzhou. The kingdom surrendered to the Song Empire after the reigns of its five kings and existed from the period of the year 902 through the year 978. 2 This story appears in the fourth section of “The Reign of King Jinpyeong” in “The Annals of the Silla Monarchs” in the sixth book of Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms.

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Daese and Guchil

On reflection, Daese and Guchil were both learned men who renounced the world and floated on the sea on ships with the intention of learning the supernatural powers of a divine Taoist. However, nobody knows the end of their journey. This event is extraordinary.

VIII ★ Damsi

Divine Taoist Damsi led his life on Mt. Chiljeom. King Geodeung of the Garak Kingdom (the present region of Gimhae) sent a person out to invite him. The person turned up on a ship with a geomungo in his arms. The king amused himself with Damsi on Chohyeon Heights, sharing his joys with him to the full. The lotus stone on which the monarch sat is still in existence with the baduk (Korean checkers) board. Chohyeon Heights is situated seventeen miles to the east of the village.1 On reflection, it was concluded that King Geodeung was a son of King Suro, whose family name was Kim. King Geodeung ruled the kingdom for fifty-five years. That story took place during the Cao-Wei Dynasty.2

1

This story appears in the article “The Historical Spot” in “Gimhae Defense Prefecture” in the thirty-second book of A Survey of the Geography of Korea. 2 The Cao-Wei Kingdom was founded by Cao Pi during the Three Chinese States Age, that of the Wei, Shu, and Wu Kingdoms after the collapse of the Later Han Empire. The CaoWei Kingdom lasted from the year 220 through the year 246.

IX ★ Kim Gagi

Kim Gagi was a person during the Silla Dynasty who passed the Bingong (Guest Recommendation) Examination for Chinese office.1 He had a staid character and loved the teachings of Tao. He never glanced at luxurious things. He took a great delight in disciplining his mind and body by hypogastric breathing.2 He was such a well-informed man with broad vision and good memory that he wrote in a clear and refined style. His beautiful countenance was admirable and his conduct and use of language were in good Chinese taste. He passed the state examination. Kim Gagi led his life in a thatched house in Ziwu Valley on Mt. Zhongnan.3 He had good taste in a sequestered life, planting odd flowering trees with his own hands and growing various curious fruit trees. He always burned incense and sat in deep meditation. He never stopped reciting from memory The Classic of Morality and several scriptures about Taoist hermits with supernatural powers. Three years later, he crossed the sea on a ship with the intention of returning to his homeland. He then went back to China and climbed Mt. Zhongnan. He 1 The Bingong Examination for Chinese office was conducted for foreigners by the ancient Chinese governments of the Tang, Song, Yuan, and Ming Empires but abolished by the Ming Administration. The Silla people studying i the Tang Empire increased at the end of the Silla Kingdom. Many Silla students including Choi Chiwon, Choi Seungu, and Kim Gagi passed the Bingong Examination. 2 Hypogastric breathing is a Taoist method of cultivating one’s mind and body, which refers to deep respiration in a manner of breathing even to the lower abdomen while concentrating one’s whole strength in the hypogastric center and then flinging out the breath. Hypogastric breathing is said to receive energy through the inhalation of air, build it up at the lower abdomen and make use of it through meridian pathways and apertures. The breathing aims at getting mental and physical health and maximizing personal prosperity. 3 Mt. Zhongnan is situated near Changan, the capital city of the Tang Empire. The mountain extends over the boundaries among Shanxi, Henan, and Gansu Provinces, whose main peak is located in the south of Changan County in Shanxi Province.

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pushed himself to do kind acts in secret and never rejected at the outset what people demanded of him. He did his works with the utmost sincerity and diligence but did not work together with other people. In December of the eleventh year (857) of the Dazhong4 Reign of the Tang Dynasty, Kim Gagi abruptly reported to the imperial throne, “I have received the edict of the Supreme Being.5 I will have to become a Shilang6 official of Yingwen Heights and ascend to heaven on February 25 of the next year.” Emperor Xuanzong thought it an extremely odd thing and sent a eunuch in charge of delivering an imperial command to invite Kim Gagi to the palace. However, Kim declined the invitation and did not make a step forward. Asked to show the edict of the Supreme Being, he rejected the request. He said that the edict did not exist in the world of mortals because other Immortal Taoists took charge of it. Emperor Xuanzong eventually not only granted Kim Gagi four court ladies, incense, medicine, gold, and silk but also sent eunuchs to attend to him. However, Gagi was sitting in a quiet room by himself, so all of the court ladies and eunuchs could not come close to him. He was heard to have pleasant chats with some guests all the time inside the room every night. The eunuchs secretly peeped into the room through a crack in the window. They saw an official and a nymph of a fairyland sitting on a dragon and a Chinese phoenix, respectively and keeping company with him in dignified ways. The court ladies and eunuchs did not dare to frighten the party of holy beings. On February 25, the spring offered a beautiful and lovable view: flowers were in full bloom; clouds shined brilliantly in various colors; cranes whooped; and Luan birds7 took wing. Reed instruments,8 bamboo flutes and metal and rock instruments gave out clamorous sounds. In the sky crowded with wagons made of pieces of jade with feathered covers and various flags, the Immortal Taoist ascended to heaven, helped by a large number of spiritual beings who held his arms. Bystanders including several illustrious officials of the royal court and common folk gathered around the mountain valley. The audience looked at 4

Dazhong refers to the name of the chronological era of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty. 5 The Supreme Being refers to the Highest of the Heavenly Gods of Taoism. 6 Shilang referred to a Chinese high-ranking position in the Bureau of Royal Edits in the General State Affairs Office during the Tang Dynasty, but it indicated a government post that undertook to safeguard the royal palace during the Qin or Han Dynasty. The post of Shilang in the Yingwen Heights of heaven seems to have referred to the duty of a guard of the heavenly palace. 7 A Luan bird is an imaginary spiritual bird mentioned in Chinese myths, whose shape looks like that of a phoenix. The bird is said to have five-colored feathers and produce sounds in five tones. 8 A reed instrument consists of a number of pipes of different lengths.

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the miraculous spectacle with proper decorum and were all struck with admiration. (The story above appears in the Chinese book named Biographies of Taoist Hermits.9) A poem titled “Seeing off Jin Keji Who Is Returning to the Xinluo10 Kingdom,” written by Zhang Yubiao11 of the Tang Dynasty, reads, He passed the state examination of Tang and spoken its language. He pined for the old forest at home, looking at the place where the sun rises. 12 13 He slept in an odd mermaid’s room in the blazing chilly light. A mirage appearing in the morning, the fog thickening in the evening, The wind blowing high, a light skiff flying above the back of fish, The lake keeping silence, three mountains rises in the heart of the sea. 14 Methinks, I will attune my pen to the music of Eastern Barbarians And take ginseng from fairy peach that blooms once in thirty thousand years.

In consideration of Widespread Documents on Many Events,15 every Taoist in the world prayed for heavenly blessings on the day when Gagi ascended to heaven. If under proper consideration, all the people in the whole world including women and children never failed to know that Gagi was an enlightened Taoist hermit with supernatural powers. However, our Korean 9 The biography of Kim Gagi (?-859) actually appears in Further Biographies of Taoist Hermits, a sequel to Biographies of Taoist Hermits. The original text above is copied from the biography of Kim Gagi in the fifty-third volume of Widespread Documents on the Peaceful World, a comprehensive collection of Chinese narratives on Taoist hermits, chaste women, Taoist magic, and Taoist magicians, which consists of five hundred volumes and was compiled in 977 in accordance with the imperial command of Taizong of the Song Dynasty. The biography of Kim Gagi also appears in The Complete Collection of Taoist Scriptures, a massive collection of 5,485 volumes, whose discourse on Kim Gagi has a little different writing style. 10 Jin Keji and Xinluo are called “Kim Gagi” and “Silla” by Korean pronunciation, respectively. 11 Zhang Yubiao was a person from Tonglu during the Tang Dynasty who passed the first state examination for office during the Yuanhe Reign of Emperor Xuanzong and was appointed to several government posts. He composed good poems. 12 According to the second volume of A Record of Inherited Miracles, “An odd mermaid’s room exists in the South Sea where a queer creature that looks like a fish lives, constantly weaving fabrics. The mermaid often cries, whose tears flow down and make precious stones.” 13 Blazing lights are formed in the sea by the action of salt especially in cloudy and rainy weather, which are generally called “a jack-o-lantern” or “an elf fire.” 14 Chinese people regarded the tribes living to the east of China as “Eastern Barbarians” in contempt, specifically the Korean, Japanese, and Manchurian tribes living to the east of the middle and lower Yellow River (Huanghe River). 15 This book is unidentified.

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people disliked such Taoist books. They did not hand down them to posterity, nor had they any idea of Kim Gagi. When the Chinese people inquire of him, we make no reply. How can we not be ashamed of ourselves?

X ★ Choi Chiwon

Choi Chiwon was a person during the Silla Dynasty who went by the nickname of Goeun. He took a ship to the Tang Empire at the age of twelve and passed the first Chinese examination for office at the age of eighteen. When Huang Chao1 rose in revolt, Choi Chiwon was appointed to the government post of an attendant officer by Gao Pian, the Vice-Minister of Military Affairs in the Tang Empire. Almost all documents and manifestoes appearing in those times were written by his hand. When he was twenty-eight years old, Choi Chiwon returned to the Silla Kingdom in obedience to the royal edict and settled down there. He consecutively filled various government posts of Royal Lecturer of the Confucian Classics, Drafter of the Royal Edict, Minister of the Military Affairs and Inspector of Envoys’ Letters. Later, he went down into the provinces and became a governor-general of Daesan and later of Buseong. While Choi Chiwon led an active life after he returned to the home country from studying in the Tang Empire toward the west, all was anarchy all the time. He grieved over his misfortune to go on in the troubled world. He roamed about mountains and waters. Later, he led his family to Mt. Gaya where he retired to hermitage. (The story above appears in Records Illustrious Retainers2). 1 Huang Chao (?-884) was the leader of farmers’ rebellion at the end of the Tang Dynasty, who raised a revolt in response to the rebellion of Wang Xianzhi. Huang Chao fought in almost all parts of the country including Henan, Shandong, and Guangzhou and destroyed the government troops. Five years later, his troops entered the castle of Changan and helped him ascend to the imperial throne of his own accord. He committed suicide under the counterattack of the government troops. He was reported to have written poems at the age of five. He failed in the state examination for office several times, so he entertained antipathy against bureaucracy. He made a business of selling salt on the black market. When farm workers were severely exploited through the government monopoly of salt and tea, he rose up in rebellion with them in 875. 2 Records of Illustrious Retainers consists of sixty-three volumes and thirty books and

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Choi Chiwon got up early in the morning one day and went out of his house. He disappeared after he left his traditional cylindrical Korean hat3 and shoes in the woods. Nobody knows of his whereabouts. He perhaps became a Taoist hermit with supernatural powers. Buddhist monks of a temple prayed for the repose of his soul on that day. His portrait with the beard like a cloud and the jade face shadowed by white clouds remained in the reading hall and has been preserved until today. Located almost 24.4 miles away from the Mukyo Pavilion at the entrance of the village, the hall was built on a red ridge with a red precipice over which pine and spindle trees grew luxuriant. Winds and waters collided with each other against the precipice and produced the same sounds that metals and rocks made. Gentleman Choi composed a quatrain at one time and wrote it on a stone in the valley: Waters run madly among layered rocks and shout to range after range of mountains. Human languages cannot be caught even within a foot. Uneasy quarrels about right and wrong may always come to the ears, So running waters are intentionally made to shelter the whole mountain.

Up to the present, people call that stone by the name of “The Stone on Which Gentleman Choi Wrote a Poem.” (The story above appears in Collected Works of Misu.) A Handbook of the History of the Eastern Kingdom states, “Gentleman Choi knew in advance that the Goryeo Dynasty would prosper in the future. He said in his memorial to the throne that ‘Gyerim is a yellow leaf while Gok Ridge4 is a green pine.’ The king of Silla heard of the statement and hated him. The gentleman hid himself in Haein Temple in Mt. Gaya where he made a fresh determination to be Taoist friends with Monk Hyeonjun, his mother’s brother and Monk Jeonghyeon. One day later, Gentleman Choi got up early and left his traditional cylindrical Korean hat and shoes in the woods. He concealed his whereabouts. ‘A Poem on Mt. Cheongpyeong’ written by Lee U in the Lee Dynasty states, compiles the biographies of noted subjects from the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty to the reign of King Injo in a chronological order. 3 This hat, called “gat” by Korean pronunciation, was woven from horsehair filaments and formerly worn by a married gentleman. 4 Gok Ridge is a place related to the foundation myth of the Goryeo Kingdom. An ancestor of Wang Gon, the founder of the kingdom, had a dream in which the urine he passed after he climbed the Gok Ridge in Songak County overflowed the Korean peninsula and turned into the silvered-colored sea. When he spoke of his dream, his elder brother interpreted that a great person will surely be born to his clan. When Emperor Suzong of Tang was the heir apparent to the throne, he did the sights of mountains and streams. He reached the Gok Ridge and predicted that the land would be the seat of government.

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People go out and come in, while mountains and streams remain unchanged. Who witnessed Goeun? He has not appeared in the world.

Mt. Cheongpyeong is the place where he read books. Rumor said that Choi Chiwon flew away to the sky and became a divine Taoist. The posthumous title of ‘Feudal Lord Munchang’ was conferred on him in the reign of King Hyeonjong of the Goryeo Dynasty. Memorial services for him were held in a Confucian shrine.” An Author’s Trivia5 by Seo Geojeong says, “Gu Yun,6 a scholar of the Tang Dynasty, wrote a poem when he saw off Choi Chiwon who was returning to his native soil. The poem says, He crossed over the sea by ship at the age of twelve And shook China hard by his polished composition.

Gentleman Choi also recalled his past, saying ‘I went to China in the year of many peaks in Wuxia and came home in glory in the year of constellations in the Galaxy.’7 Gentleman Choi implied on the whole that he entered the Tang Empire at the age of twelve and returned to the home country at the age of twenty-eight. The home country was in a difficult position after he returned. He went to Haein Temple in Mt. Gaya where he retired to hermitage and associated with monks. The three mountains including Mt. Yeongju that the gentleman flew over are now vivid. The remains of Bongha Rocks in Hongryu Village on which he wrote are also distinct. The public does not recognize that the gentleman passed away, so they say that he became an Immortal Taoist.” A poem on Ssanggye Temple by Seokcheon Im Eokryeong8 states, 5

An Author’s Trivia is a collection of essays, which consists of two volumes of anecdotes and leisurely conversations that have been handed down since ancient times. Seo Geojeong, the author of the book, was a scholar during the reign of King Seongjong of the Joseon Dynasty. 6 Gu Yun was a person from Zhizhou in the Tang Dynasty who passed the state examination for office during the years of the Xiantong reign and became the vice governor of Huainan Province. During the years of the Dashun reign, he took part in the compilation of the three chronicles of Emperor Xuanzong, Emperor Yizong, and Emperor Xizong of the Tang Dynasty. Later, he retreated to Sachuan where he confined himself at home by devoting himself to writing books. 7 Mt. Wu in Wuxia, China has twelve peaks and twenty-eight constellations that are thought to be at the center of the Galaxy, so the numbers refer to twelve and twenty-eight, respectively. 8 Im Eokryeong (1496–1568) was a civil minister during the reign of King Munjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the pen name of Seokcheon and by the nickname of Daesu. He was a person of profound knowledge and moral integrity who handled public affairs very

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Choi Chiwon

Chiwon was a divine Taoist Renouncing the world abruptly. Characters on a short stone monument still remain, While a tomb does not exist in the deep valley. Lodging in the world for a while, Cranes do not form a clique in the blue sky. How dare I look up at the high mountain? I idly sniff at the fresh fragrance here.

Ssanggye Temple is located in Mt. Jiri where Goeun was reading books.

skillfully and wrote in a good style. He took the government post of the Magistrate of Damyang Prefecture and left Collected Works of Seokcheon.

XI ★ Gang Gamchan

Pyeongjangsa 1 Gang Gamchan 2 was a person during the reign of King Hyeonjong of the Goryeo Kingdom who maintained moral integrity and simple tastes. He cared nothing for keeping body and soul together but had the extraordinary ability to accommodate himself to circumstances. When he became a local minister of Hanyang Prefecture, tigers often appeared in the roads and did harm to people. The governor-general of Hanyang was concerned about the tigers. Gang Gamchan gave him his word: “It is a walk in the park. Let’s get rid of them as soon as possible.” The governor-general asked, “What shall we do?” “Just wait and see,” Gang Gamchan answered. Gang Gamchan wrote a note and gave it to a petty town official3: “When you get out of the north gate and reach some valley, you never fail to meet two Buddhist monks. Give the note to them.” When the official did what he was told to do, he found the two monks as expected. They read the note and followed the official. They threw themselves flat in the yard of the eastern garden and made a low bow. Gang Gamchan scolded them, “Why do you dare to leave your dwelling places? Whey do you descend even to the street and do harm to people? Go away quickly at the head of your group. If you delay just a moment, you will be punished.” The two monks knocked their foreheads on the ground and responded, “We will obey your order.”

1 Pyeongjangsa refers to the high government post in the Goryeo Kingdom, which is the office similar to the present post of a vice minister. 2 Gang Gamchan (948~1031) was a distinguished general during the Goryeo Dynasty who defeated the Qidan tribe. The tribe formed the large force of 100,000 soldiers and invaded the Korean territory in the eighth year (1018) of the reign of King Hyeonjong. Gang Gamchan held several high government posts including vice minister and prime minister. 3 The petty town officials of former times had permanent, hereditary and usually unsalaried jobs.

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When the governor-general heard the words and said with a broad smile on his face, “Mr. Minister, have you had your mental faculties impaired? You spoke of the monks as tigers!” Gang Gamchan pointed to the monks and said, “Both of you, reveal yourselves for a little while.” The two monks took off their surplices and turned into two big tigers. The animals jumped onto the steps of the building, climbed the railings and growled savagely. The growling sounded like peals of thunder. The petty town officials ran away all at once with their hearts in their mouths. The governor-general was so astounded that he fainted. However, Gang Gamchan said, “Get out of here immediately.” The two tigers finally flew off, whose whereabouts were unknown. Henceforth, people had nothing to worry with tigers. When Gang Gamchan was born, an envoy saw a big meteor falling into a dwelling place while he entered the Siheung County (the Geumju of today) at night.4 The envoy sent his official to the place that he might see what happened. The official found that the wife of the house where the meteor fell had given birth to a boy. The envoy believed that the event was extraordinary. He brought the boy to his house and raised him. When Gang Gamchan was promoted to the position of prime minister, an envoy from the Chinese Song Empire came to see him and made a low bow to him in spite of himself. The envoy said, “It has been a long time since we have not seen Wenqu Star.5 I came here and finally found it out.” When Gam Gamchan was seventy years old, the king bestowed a cushion and a staff on him.6 He returned to his villa in Seongnam and died at the age of eighty. He was granted the posthumous title of “Inheon.” People said that Feudal Lord Gang became an Immortal Taoist and soared skyward. (This story appears in “The Annals of the Goryeo Monarchs” in The History of the Eastern Kingdom.) A poem by Heobaekdang Seong Hyeon7 reads, 4 The place where a star shot refers to the “Star-Shooting Height” of today in Gwanak Ward in Seoul. 5 Wenqu Star is one of nine stars that ancient Chinese astrologers drew up to predict a person’s fortune. Nine stars are applied to the five primary substances, the ten celestial stems and the twelve terrestrial branches in order to assign each star to the master of each year. The nine stars are Tanlang, Chenmen, Lucun, Wenqu, Lianzhen, Wuqu, Pojun, Zuofu, and Youbi Stars, while the Chinese words are written “貪狼,” “臣門,” “祿存,” “文曲,” “廉貞,” “武曲,” “破軍,” “左輔,” and “右弼,” respectively. Some year when a person is born, his or her personal character and fortune are predicted by the consideration of the points of the applied star. 6 The king usually held a banquet in which state ministers who were over seventy were granted a cushion and a staff. The banquet was the most honorable event for old cabinet members. 7 Seong Hyeon (1439–1504) went by the nickname of Gyeongsuk and by the pen name

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He drove the enemy out of the Western Capital and set a flower on the hair behind the ears. When he wielded his dignity over Mt. Bukhan, tigers betrayed themselves. He suddenly became an Immortal Taoist in broad daylight and soared skyward. He turned into a star in the blue sky that has not changed since.

When the Tungustic people in Manchuria invaded during the reign of King Hyeongjong of the Goryeo Kingdom, Feudal Lord Gang was appointed to the post of the governor-general of the Western Capital and liquidated the enemy at the head of soldiers. The feudal lord was so much honored that the monarch cut off a golden flower and set it on his hair.

of Yongjae or Heobaekdang. He entered several high government services and became The Minister of Rites during the reign of King Seongjong. He took part in the compilation of Canon of Music and wrote Assorted Writings of Yongjae that is valuable material for the study of the political, social, and cultural systems of the early Joseon Dynasty.

XII ★ Enlightened Taoist Gwon

Enlightened Taoist Chisang (perhaps miswritten for Jeoksang) Gwon was a mentor of Taoist Namgung Du. Namgung Du passed the first Sama Examination1 in the year of the hare (1555) (the Eulmyo year, the thirty-second year of the sexagenary cycle) during the Jiajing2 Reign and once lived in Impi.3 He kept a lovable mistress, but she committed secret adultery with a son of his male cousin. Namgung Du killed these two persons and became a Buddhist monk after he had his hair cut in order to escape punishment for his crime. He took the Buddhist name of Chongji and led a life in Ssanggye Temple in Mt. Duryu.4 Later, he left the temple for Mt. Taebaek and lived in a hermitage in the field of Uiryeong5 on his way to the mountain. One day, a young and handsome monk put off his hempen hood and stole a glance at Namgung Du through a bamboo blind hung across the door of the room. He said, “Why do you have your hair cut though you have come of good stock?” The monk suddenly added, “You are a person of patient temperament.” After a good while, he commented, “You made quite a name for yourself after you made a profession of studying abroad.” He said again after a spell with a broad smile on his face, “You are a fugitive from justice after you committed the

1

The Sama Examination was one of the state examination for offices during the Joseon Dynasty, which was a kind of a qualifying examination that consists of Classics Licentiate Examination and Literary Licentiate Examination. 2 Jiajing refers to the name of the chronological era of Emperor Shizong of the Chinese Ming Dynasty. 3 Impi refers to a place in Okgu County, North Jeolla Province. 4 Ssanggye Temple is located in Mt. Jiri in Hadong County, South Gyeongsang Province, which Monk Hyecho built in the Silla Dynasty. The temple was first called Okcheon Temple. Mt. Duryu is another name of Mt. Jiri. 5 Uiryeong refers to Uiryeong County in South Gyeongsang Province.

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crime of killing two people.” The four statements were all correct. Namgung Du was so surprised that he was at a loss to know what to do. Next night, Namgung Du entered the bedroom of the young monk and placed his forehead on the floor. He confessed to the crime and begged the monk to give him an instruction. The boy monk said, “I am no more than a person who can read a person’s fortune from facial features. Our mentor has so various gifts that he can predict a person’s ability by reading his or her face and advise him according to his or her capacity by the uses of a talisman against evil, incantations, astrology, the theory of divination based on topography and divination by inference. I was initiated into the secrets of physiology but have had no profound knowledge yet. How can I dare to be a teacher of other people?” Namgung Du inquired of the place where his mentor now stayed. The monk responded, “He has gone to Mt. Chisang in Muju. You can see him if you go there.” Namgung Du made a low bow and withdrew from the bedroom. He waited until morning dawned. He again went to the bedroom and waited to see the monk, but the monk had already left. Namgung Du immediately turned his staff in the other direction and climbed Mt. Chisang. He looked for the strange monk in vain in dozens of the districts of every temple. He stayed in the mountain for one year. He took pains to search for the monk by making three or four tours of rocky cliffs even to the places where he left no traces behind. However, Namgung Du could not find the monk. He thought the monk had played a trick on him. When he was at the lowest ebb of his fortune, he unexpectedly saw a big peach seed washed out in a stream flowing from the forest. Namgung Du wondered if that was a dwelling place where a Taoist master took up his abode. He hastened his steps and went in the wake of the waterway to the distance of six or seven miles. He found a mountain peak rising loftily in which pine and fur trees kept the sun off a three-room thatched house. The thatched house leaned on an inaccessible precipice, whose foundation was solidified by stacked stones on a clean and cool place. No sooner had he climbed the cliff while holding up the ends of his clothes than a youngster was delighted to see him. The boy asked, “From where have you come?” Namgung Du bowed politely with joined hands in front and answered, “This man called Chongji came to see a Taoist master.” When the boy opened a left door toward the east, an old monk was found, who looked like a withered tree. The old monk came out in a Buddhist monk’s robe that was tattered and said, “You are a monk of eminent appearance and physique that are distinguished from those of an ordinary person. What makes you come here?” Namgung Du went down on his knees and answered, “I am a stupid person who is not so talented. I heard that an old master is a person of varied attainments. I have sought for the master from so far away with the intention of learning one talent and putting it to use in the world. I have barely

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found you in one year. I hope you can teach me some ability.” The elder rejected his request, responding, “I am simply a person who lives in the mountain and stands in the presence of death. What gifts can I have?” Namgung Du made one hundred bows and made an earnest request, but the old master stubbornly rejected the request. The master closed the door and did not come out of the room. Namgung Du appealed to the master until morning dawned, lying on his face behind the rooms on both sides of the main gate where servants lived. He never stopped entreating even in the morning. The elder did not glance up at him but sat with his legs completely crossed and folded over each other as in Buddhist statues and attained the perfect state of spiritual concentration. Namgung Du never failed to attend to bows and requests until three days passed. The elder was finally moved by his utmost sincerity. He opened the door and permitted him to enter the room. When Namgung Du entered the room, it had the size of a person’s height on all sides where nothing but a wooden pillow stood. To the north of the room was a niche with six hollows, which was locked and had a spoon on its post. To the south of the room was a window with a shelf on top which had nothing but five or six books. The elder took a careful look at Namgung Du and said with a big smile on his face, “You are a person of strong perseverance. You are so stupid and simple that I cannot teach you other abilities except the way to live eternally.” After Namgung Du listened to the elder’s words, he got up and made a low bow. He said, “The way of an eternal life is enough. Where can I make use of other capacities though I learn them?” The elder said again, “All methods and techniques can be attained when all mental powers are concentrated. Much more concentration is required if you want to be a divine Taoist who controls the soul and lets the mind take flight. Mental concentration starts from wakefulness. You should not sleep at first.” The elder had not eaten food for four days since Namgung Du arrived there. The youngster had one meal, only 0.2 liters of black bean flour per a day but hardly felt hungry. It struck Namgung Du as strange. He honored the elder’s instruction with his whole heart and soul in order to realize his wishes. While he sat straight up until three o’clock in the morning on the first night, his eyes shut of their own accord. However, he withstood all hardships with great patience until day broke. On the second night, he got fuzzy and tired and almost lost his senses. He showed a firm front to the best of his capacity by bracing himself up cruelly. On the third and fourth nights, he grew more tired, so he could not sit up. He knocked his head against the wall or the doorpost and hung in with great perseverance. On the seventh night, however, he had a clear mind as if something wrong fell off and felt refreshed. The elder said with delight, “What work can you not achieve because you are a person of great perseverance?” He gave Namgung Du two Taoist classics, saying, “The Gradation and Equality of All Creation by Wei Boyang is the best

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doctrine of a Taoist sect that leads to train the mind to acquire the mysteries of how to make an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar. The Scripture of Internal and External Scapes of Human Life6 hits on the clever idea of Taoism on the key rules for health. The rules are both about how to recover from diseases by the mediation of joints by breath and exercises and about the training of internal organs. If you read these two books ten thousand times, you can automatically reason with and comprehend their meanings. Thus, you should learn the books, respectively, by heart ten times every day.” The elder continued to say, “As a general rule, those who would like to acquire the knowledge of a Taoist hermit with supernatural powers should first of all free themselves of evil thoughts. They should sit down in a peaceful mind and train the three treasures7 (mind, energy, and spirit), mix the trigrams of Kan and Li,8 in other words, Long and Hu9 together into the cinnabar of perennial youth and long life. This is the fastest way of attaining the magic of making an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar. However, the mysteries cannot be attained without the inquirer’s own best intelligence and eminent innate disposition. You are such a person of simple and strong character that I cannot teach you the best doctrines. You had better first reject eating grains and acquire high knowledge of the mysteries by learning basic ideas step by step. Every human being is born with the energy and force of the five primary substances, so the five viscera of heart, liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys preside over the five elements. The spleen is tinged with the force of earth out of the five elements. Every food human beings eat goes to the spleen. The stomach is tinged with the energy of grains, so it is so strong and harmless. However, it drives the atmospheric force of nature from earth. Thus, the soul is bound to return to the 6 The Scripture of Internal and External Scapes of Human Life is one of Taoist scriptures, which is used as a textbook for the preservation and care of one’s health. 7 The three treasures to which Taoism attaches great importance refer to the three internal treasures, such as original energy, original force, and original deity; or to the external three treasures, such as ear, eye, and mouth. 8 The trigrams of Kan and Li from The Classic of Changes stand for water and fire, respectively. Fu Xi, the Chinese monarch of the ancient times, is said to have drawn the total number of eight trigrams, basically consisting of the yin and yang strokes (―― and ―), after he observed astronomical phenomena and geography. The eight trigrams are “Qian” ( , Heaven), “Dui” ( , Pond), “Li” ( , Fire), “Zhen” ( , Thunder), “Xun” ( , Wind), “Kan” ( , Water), “Gen” ( , Mountain), and “Kun” ( , Earth), pronounced in each, which are written “乾,” “兌,” “離,” “震,” “巽,” “坎,” “艮,” and “坤,” respectively. Later, people set up sixty-four double trigrams by making out the eight trigrams in combination in order to forecast good or ill luck and weal or woe of human beings. 9 The Chinese words “Long” and “Hu” refer to “dragon” and “tiger,” which Taoism speaks of as standing for water and fire, respectively and which are written “龍” and “虎,” also respectively.

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earth. Those who rejected grains in ancient times did in this manner. Thus, you try to reject grains, too.” Namgung Du was forced to eat two meals per day, cooked rice for one meal and porridge for the other for seven days. He had one bowl of porridge subtracted for the next seven days. For the third seven days, he was forced to eat porridge instead of cook rice. He finally ordered to have neither cooked rice nor porridge for the fourth seven days. The elder unlocked the niche with a key, out of which he took two boxes for keeping side dishes, one box for black bean flour and another for the flour of Solomon’s seals.10 Namgung Du was made to spoon out the flours one time, mix them with water and eat them twice each day. He was originally such a heavy eater that he could not stand severe hunger. He became haggard and had a weak body. He felt so tired and giddy that he could not exercise discretion. However, he took a firm stand to the best of his capacity. When he took black bean flour for thirty-seven days, he seemed to have plenty and had no desire for food. The elder then made Namgung Du eat the leaves of big cone pines and sesames. After dozens of days passed, he got boils all over his body. His patience became almost exhausted. When one hundred days passed, scabs came off and new flesh grew. His body was eventually back to its normal state. The elder said with delight, “You have become truly a useful vessel. You are obliged to reject your avarice. When you stay here for three years and read these two scriptures ten thousand times, you will then feel relieved at heart and seem to come to an understanding about divine spirits.” The elder taught Namgung Du at once how to count the respirations and how to set the atmospheric force of nature in motion. When the force was kept in good working order, he drew his breath by the secret of six trigrams11 at four of the twenty-four periods of the day, that is, the first (11:30–12:30 p.m.), the thirteenth (11:30–12:30 a.m.), the seventh (5:30–6:30 a.m.), and the nineteenth (5:30–6:30 p.m.) of the periods of the day. Namgung Du eventually had a brighter complexion and was in fresher and higher spirits. He dismissed various worldly thoughts from his mind. He spent six years in such a state. The elder then said, “You have the skeletal structure of a Taoist. You will be necessarily an Immortal Taoist according to the interpretation of Taoist laws. Though you descend the mountain, you will be by no means inferior to Wang Ziqiao12 or 10

A Solomon’s seal is said to strengthen the spleen and the stomach and stimulate the atmospheric force of nature. 11 The secret of six trigrams refers to the numbers of the trigrams that two trigrams Qian and Kun draw up in combination. 12 Wang Ziqiao was a son of Chinese King Ling of the Zhou Kingdom who went by the name of Jin. He was an excellent player of a reed instrument (consisting of a number of pipes of different lengths) who was known to be proficient in producing sounds that imitate the

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Peng Zu. You should control yourself though some desire arises. All wild fancies are harmful to the search for truth though the desire is not related to food or sex. By all means, you should train the mind and the soul by emptying yourself in tranquility.” The elder made the second room empty and let Namgung Du sit down. The elder elaborately taught him how to go up and come down, how to turn upside down and how to add a grammatical particle to a Chinese phrase or clause. In obedience to his instructions, Namgung Du vividly sat up square and remained stationary. He closed his eyes and often looked into his body. The elder took such care of Namgung Du that he was concerned if his student was sensitive to cold or hunger. One day, Namgung Du recognized that he got a small abscess the size of a little plum on his upper gums. Saliva flooded over his tongue. When the elder was informed of this fact, he asked Namgung Du to swallow the saliva slowly and let it return to the inside of the stomach. The elder stated with joy, “Such symptoms will appear that a precious stone of the same size as a grain of millet comes out and the atmospheric force of fire moves.” The elder hung a triangle-shaped mirror on the wall and set up two swords with the picture of the Great Bear on both sides. He took a slow walk, muttering charms that might drive away evil spirits and praying that Namgung Du might achieve spiritual enlightenment. When Namgung Du had trained himself for almost six months, his whole strength was concentrated in the hypogastric center and his lower abdomen seemed to emit golden luster. He recognized this symptom of spiritual awakening. He was so delighted that he was eager to achieve it as soon as possible. His face powder13 could not control mercury. The scattered fire rose up and burned his brain, the upper hypogastric center. So Namgung Du uttered cries and rushed out of the room. The elder struck the head of Namgung Du with a walking stick and shouted, “Oh-oh! You have not carried it off.” He was in a hurry to let Namgung Du be comfortably seated and possessed him with the atmospheric force of nature. Namgung Du was in a better temper but lacked stability all day because he felt nausea. The elder sighed, “I met a person of the rarest personality in the world and tried my utmost to teach him. However, I could not make him achieve spiritual enlightenment because of retribution for the deeds of his former life. Your fate has been sealed. What assistance can I give to you?”

singing of a phoenix. When he made merry between the Yi River and the Luo River, Feudal Lord Fu Qiu, a Taoist, took him to Mt. Chong where he sought after truth. He became a supernatural being and disappeared after he rode on a white crane at the peak of Mt. Goushi. 13 Taoism says that a supernatural being uses face powder for the production of the elixir of life.

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The elder made Namgung Du drink a tea of beefsteak plants. After seven days passed, Namgung Du finally had his mind at rest and was protected against the obstruction of the airway. The elder responded, “You have not become an Immortal Taoist but deserve to be a divine Taoist on the earth. When you remain more in the same position and cultivate your mind, you can enjoy the long life of eight hundred years. You are destined to have children as a matter of course but have the pathway of sperms clogged already. When you take medicine, you will have it opened up.” The elder then took out two pills made of red paulownia nuts and let Namgung Du swallow them. Namgung Du asked, “I am so clumsy and stupid that I cannot carry out what I was instructed to do. How can I grieve over my tough luck? It has been seven years since I waited on my mentor. But I have no idea of his personal history. Please let me know it. Would you give me the chance to admire my mentor with sincerity another day?” The elder responded, “I will flatly decline others’ request. However, I will tell you in specific detail because you are a person of great patience. I was a son of noted family in Sangnak14 and grandson of Minister Haeng. I was born in the second year (1069) of the Xining15 Reign of the Song Empire and was leprous at the age of fourteen. My parents did not take care of me. They abandoned me in the forest. At night, a tiger held me in its mouth and put me in a stone room where it was suckling two cubs on its breast in an earnest manner. The tiger had no intention of doing harm to me. I felt such great pain that I regretted that the tiger did not bite me to death once. “One clump of grass grew on a cliff. Its leaves spread out large and its roots were big. I tried the grass after I washed it and ate plenty. No sooner had I eaten the grass for a few months than my abscesses fell out. I could stand up gradually without others’ help. I dug up a large amount of the grass and then ate it at every meal. I ate almost half of the grass on the mountain. After I led such a life for several hundreds of days, almost all my abscesses came off and blue hairs grew all over my body. I was so glad that I forced myself to eat more. “In one hundred days, I could fly to the mountaintop in an instant. When I got over my illness, I could not distinguish between the road I took from my hometown and my dwelling place. I was at a loss to know what to do. All of a sudden a Buddhist monk was going beneath the mountain peak. I stepped forward to him with a humble bow. I stood in his way and asked him, ‘What mountain is this?’ The monk answered, ‘It is Mt. Taebaek. This land is under the jurisdiction of Jinju Prefecture.’ When I again asked him if there was a temple in this neighborhood, he responded, ‘There is a temple at the western mountain 14

An ancient name of Sangju in North Gyeongsang Province. Xining refers to the name of the chronological era of Chinese Emperor Shenzong of the Song Empire. 15

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peak. The mountain pass is so steep that you will have some difficulty in climbing it.’ “I immediately flew up to a hermitage. Zen meditation was studied and practiced in the house. It kept its gate closed even in the daytime and had no residents. The hermitage kept a deep silence. I pushed the gate of servants’ quarters open with my hands and walked to the middle house. I found an old and sick monk in rags leaned on a writing table, breathing hard on the point of death. “The monk barely looked up and said, ‘An old man appeared in a dream last night and told me that a person who is about to receive the secret book of my mentor will come today. You are the right person by your physiognomy.’ The monk arose and took a book out of a chest in a neat pouch. He said, ‘If you read this book once, it will reveal its meaning of its own accord. Make every effort but do not get lazy.’ “When I asked the monk who had handed the book down, he responded, ‘Great Buddhist Priest Euisang of the Silla Kingdom inherited the book from Enlightened Taoist Zhengyang.16 The priest met the Taoist after he entered the midlands of China. When Euisang was faced with death, he told me that a person who is destined to inherit the books would appear two hundred years later. You are the right person for whom he made the prediction. Take and keep it. Make every effort. I have to leave this place.’ He passed away quietly with his legs completely crossed and folded over each other. “When I burned him to ashes, one hundred navy blue sariras were produced and preserved in a sarira stupa. I then opened his chest and found Taoist classics, such as The Scripture of the Secret Crux of Matters by Huang Di, 17 The Scripture of Fine-Colored Water and Fire,18 The Gradation and Equality of All Creation, The Scripture of Internal and External Scapes of Human Life, The 16

Enlightened Taoist Zhengyang refers to the title of Zhong Liquan of the Tang Empire of China. He was from Xianyang in Shanxi Province, inherited the disciplinary secrets for becoming a Taoist hermit with supernatural powers from an old man and handed Tao down to Enlightened Taoists Huayang, Shangxian, and Wang Xuanfu. He later entered Mt. Kongtong and became a supernatural being. 17 The Scripture of the Secret Crux of Matters by Huang Di is one of Taoist classics that discusses the correspondence between the profound secrets of heaven and the crux of matter. The authorship of the book is controversial: it is claimed to have been written by Grandfather Jiang, a gentle subject at the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty; it is said to be a forgery of Li Quan of the Tang Dynasty; or it is spoken of as a work of Kou Qianzhi, a head of the Taoist Sect. Many historical writings categorize The Secret Crux of Matters by Grandfather Jiang into a book of a military strategist and The Scripture of the Secret Crux of Matters by Huang Di into a book of Taoism. Zhuzi commented that the latter had been written by a person of profound and extensive learning of Taoism. 18 The Scripture of Fine-Colored Water and Fire is a book on Taoism, whose author is unidentified.

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Scripture of Dosage by Gentleman Choi, The Scripture of Abdominal Breathing and Mental Imprint, 19 The Scripture of Classics Studies and Correct Observation, and The Scripture of Openheartedness and Cleanliness. I went to the hermitage where I led a solitary life and disciplined myself. Devils surrounded me in all directions, but I pretended not to hear or see them. They disappeared of their own accord. After I went through all sorts of troubles for eleven years, I mastered the concept of theism. I thought I ought to free myself from the world, but the Highest of the Heavenly Gods of Taoism told me to stay here and control several gods in three provinces of Korea. Thus, it has been five hundred years since I have stayed here. I ought to ascend to heaven because the time becomes due. I met several persons all the while, some having a keen or dull force of nature and some lacking patience. Some had no close affinity with me and others were avaricious. They all failed to achieve spiritual enlightenment. If there is a person who can attain spiritual awakening, I will entrust him with my task as a matter of course and return to the capital city where the Supreme Being lives. However, I have not found such a person for the long one thousand years. It seems to me that my karmic affinity with the world has not drawn to an end.” Namgung Du shared the bedroom with the elder for a long time. The elder strangely hided the spot 12 inches down from his navel and never showed it to other people. Namgung Du wanted to ask him the reason for hiding it. The elder answered in all smiles, “It is not easy by any means. I am afraid that you will be astonished when you take a look at the spot.” Namgung Du said, “Why would I be startled? I hope that you may show it to me once.” When the elder took the cover off his underbelly in the dark, a golden light shot one hundred streaks even into the crossbeam of the roof. Namgung Du could not look straight at the light. He threw himself flat on the bed. When the elder again drew the cover over his abdomen, the situation returned to its original state. The elder summoned Namgung Du the next day and said, “You have no close karmic ties with this place. It is not proper that you stay here longer. You had better descend the mountain. Let your hair grow long and eat the roots of a Solomon’s seal. Make a low bow to the Great Bear. You should not kill animals, nor commit adultery, nor steal things. You must not eat vegetables of peculiar smell, such as green onions and garlic, nor eat dog meat and beef. Do not do harm to other people by stealth. Then you will become a Taoist hermit with supernatural powers on the earth. 19 The Scripture of Abdominal Breathing and Mental Imprint is about the Taoist principles of breathing and confident belief. Taoists believe that they can enjoy long life when they make it a daily rule to dismiss worldly thoughts from their mind, take slow and peaceful breaths, and make energy reach below the navel. Taoism and Zen Buddhism lay stress on a firm belief less by letters than by an impression provided in real inward feeling.

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“If you never stop disciplining yourself, you can also ascend to heaven. Never be tardy in learning by heart the supreme scriptures of Taoism, such as The Scripture of Internal and External Scapes of Human Life and The Gradation and Equality of All Creation. The Scripture of the Salvation of Human Beings20 is a book of Tao that Laozi handed over. The Scripture of Pearly Pivots pays deference to several gods in the division the god of thunder has under his charge. The gods will admire you. Devils stand in fear of you when you keep the book. “Besides, the best key to cultivating your character is not to serve a trick. Generally speaking, the good or evil in a person’s thought is perceived in advance by ghosts who sit around on both sides. The Supreme Being descends in the nearest place. Even one action a person does is recorded in the Great Bear and is immediately requited. However, a stupid person commits an error but has no fear. How can the person be aware that the Supreme Being presides over the universe in that Grand Blue and has the authority to pass judgment? You are very patient but have not had your desires removed. You could yield to some strange taste and suffer perpetual hardships if you do not use prudence. Why don’t you be on your guard?” Namgung Du received the elder’s instruction in tears and sent a farewell greeting to him. While he descended the mountain, he turned his head and recognized that the residence the elder had taken up was out of sight. He made progress and reached Impi. He found that the site where he made his home did not remain. His paddy and dry fields had had their ownership transferred several times. He was reminded of an old and faithful servant who lived in possession of many paddies and upland fields in Haenam. When Namgung Du called on the servant, the servant did not know him at first sight but recognized his former master after a good while. Both of them embraced each other and wept loudly. The servant helped the master take up his abode in an unoccupied land. Namgung Du got married to a woman in a commoner’s house. He had one son and one daughter each. Though Namgung Du set up a home again, he never fell into habits of laziness because he took his master’s instruction deep to heart. He concealed himself in the land of Yongdam and took up his residence in high mountains and secluded valleys because Mt. Chijang was easy of access. With the intention of seeing his Taoist master again, he ate the roots of a Solomon’s seal and pine needles for several years. He became healthier and had neither gray hair nor moustache. He had a light gait as if he had flown low in the air.

20

The Scripture of the Salvation of Human Beings consists of sixty-one volumes, which discusses the first highest heaven out of the five heavens and the opening of eons as well as the salvation of human beings, rituals, laws, exorcism, and self-discipline.

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In the summer of the year of the ape (1608) (the Musin year, the forty-fifth year of the sexagenary cycle), the year of the Wanli21 Reign, when I left government service in Gongju and stayed in Buan, Namgung Du walked from Gobu to see me in an inn. He taught me the profound meanings of the four scriptures and gave a full account of the meeting with his master. Namgung Du was eight-three years old at that time but had the young appearance of a fortyyear-old. His eyesight, hearing ability and energy were not failing at all. He had the pupil of the eye like that of a Luan bird and had his blue hair stand up on end. He looked like a skinny crane. He never ate food nor went to bed but kept on learning by heart The Gradation and Equality of All Creation and The Scripture of Internal and External Scapes of Human Life without a break. Namgung Du suddenly said, “Never commit atrocities by stealth. Do not say that there are no ghosts in the world. Do good deeds, cultivate virtue and reject desires. Be unselfish. You may become a divine Taoist and ascend to heaven. A Luan bird and cranes will come to take you in a few days.” Namgung Du then stayed for dozens of days. He cleared dust off his clothes and left. People say that he entered Yongdam. An anonymous person said, “According to hearsay, the people of the Eastern Kingdom (Korea) worship Buddhism but disrespect Taoism. They have never heard that a person has perceived a truth and become an Immortal Taoist for the period of several thousand years from the Silla to the Joseon Dynasty. Thus, that story can bear witness to the report, as expected.” However, I thought that Namgung Du’s words sounded strange. Who was the person to whom he looked up as his mentor? How did the person take over the teachings of Tao from Great Buddhist Priest Euisang? We cannot believe that the story is infallible, nor say that Namgung Du’s words certainly all come true. In sum, every event can be understood in its relations, as a form has its shadow and a sound has its echo. If Namgung Du had not been, judging from his age and countenance, a person who could truly achieve spiritual enlightenment, how could he be in such robust health at the age of eighty? We cannot say that such a thing never took place. Anyway, it sounds strange. Our country is situated across the ocean. It has not produced noble and lofty men of virtue like Xian Men22 and An Qisheng23 but had a man of unusual 21

Wanli refers to the name of the chronological era of Chinese Emperor Shenzong of the Song Empire. 22 Xian Men was an ancient mountain wizard who went by the personal name of Zigao and for whom the First Emperor of Qin looked hard when he took a sightseeing tour to the east. 23 An Qisheng was from Fu Prefecture in Langye in the Qin Empire. While he sold out medicine, he gained knowledge from He Shang’s father-in-law. He enjoyed longevity and was called the “Old Mr. Ten Thousand Years.” When the First Emperor of Qin saw the sights of the east, he talked with An Qisheng for three nights and days and gave him gold and precious

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ability in a stone cave. Namgung Du was permitted to meet with the man once in several thousand years. Who can say that a person of that kind did not exist in a small country? If we achieve spiritual enlightenment, we can become Immortal Taoists. If not, we linger as ordinary persons. What is a difference between a person who conveys what he or she has heard and a person who believes what he or she hears and follows like a sheep? If Namgung Du had not been in a hurry to achieve spiritual enlightenment but eventually obtained the desired results of the long-term discipline, what difficulty would he have had in taking rank with Xian Men and An Qisheng? He lacked nothing but patience and failed in the achievement he almost produced. What a pity it is! (This story appears in Collected Works of Mr. Anonym .24) Lee Sukwang said in his book Topical Discourses of Jibong, “Namgung Du was a person from Hamyeol who passed the Literary Licentiate Examination in the year of the hare (1555). In his youth, he lived in exile due to a certain accident. When he met Lee In, he inherited the secret of Taoism and wandered about mountains and waters. At the age of ninety, his countenance was unchanged and fresh. Thus, he was called a divine Taoist on the earth.”

stones. An Qisheng did not receive them but left books and shoes made of red jewels and left him after he told the monarch to search him out beneath Mt. Penglai. The First Emperor sent persons to look around for him on the beach in vain and built his shrines in the neighborhood of Fuxiang Pavilion. 24 A History of Korean Taoism by Lee Neunghwa states that Collected Works of Mr. Anonym refers to A Collection of Gazes at a Bamboo by Heo Gyun.

XIII ★ Kim Siseup

Kim Siseup went by the nickname of Yeolgyeong and by the pen name of Dongbong, Byeoksancheongeun, Cheonghanja or Maewoldang. Even when he was eight months old, he could read of his own accord. Choi Chiun1 looked on him as unusual and gave the personal name of “Siseub”2 to him. At the age of three, Kim Siseup composed the following verses: At late spring with red peach blossoms and blue willow leaves, Dews on pine needles are pearls a blue needle threads.

Heo Jo,3 the prime minister of those days, called at the house of Kim Siseup and said, “I am old. I would like you to compose a verse with the Chinese letter ‘老’ (implying ‘old’).” Kim Siseup responded to the request and wrote, An aged tree blooms and is not old in spirit.

Heo Jo slapped his lap and exclaimed in admiration, “This child is really a marvel.”

1

Choi Chiun (1390–1440) was a civil official during the reign of Sejong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Baekgyeong and by the pen name of Joeun. 2 The name “Siseub,” written “시습” and “時習” in Korean and Chinese each, was taken from the opening phrase of “學而時習” in The Analects of Confucius, which means “Knowledge implies carrying it into practice.” 3 Heo Jo (1369–1439) was a cabinet member during the reign of King Sejong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Jungtong and by the pen name of Gyeongam and was granted the posthumous title of Mungyeong. He engaged in studies under the guidance of Gwon Geun. Heo Jo was versed in the study of rites and made efforts to put in order and carry out the system of rites. He played active parts in international diplomacy by attempting to settle a dispute with Daema Island by diplomatic negotiations and by visiting the Chinese Ming Empire on a congratulatory mission.

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King Sejong heard of Kim Siseup and summoned him to the Royal Secretariat. The monarch ordered Minister Park Yichang4 to test his verse-making ability. King Sejong gave a royal order, saying “I would like to see him personally. I am afraid that others would be informed. It is proper that we leave him alone without disturbances. Let him be instructed and brought up. We will later hire him for a high position when he will advance in years and digest the learning.” The monarch granted him silk fabrics and sent him home. Kim Siseup heard at the age of twenty-one that Prince Nosan (King Danjong)5 abdicated the throne, while he was reading books in Mt. Samgak. After he closed the door and did not get out of the house for three days, he lamented at the top of his voice. He destroyed all his books by fire. He went out of his mind and fell into a communal lavatory. He eventually made his escape and entered the priesthood. He took the Buddhist name of Seoljam (Snow on a Mountain Top) and stayed for the longest period of time in Jungheung Temple.6 When the stream rose on the valley after a rainfall, Kim Siseup never failed to make one hundred pieces of paper and prepare writing instruments. He took a seat at a place where the current was swift. He was lost in deep meditation while muttering to himself. He wrote Chinese quatrains, eight-lined verses or archaic style with five Chinese characters in each line on the pieces of paper and wafted them away. He returned to his residence after he set afloat all the papers on which his

4

Park Yichang (?-1451) was a civil official during the reign of King Munjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who held the position of Vice-Minister of the Board of Punishment concurrently with those of Governor of Pyeongan Province and Military Commander in the Provincial Legion in 1450 just before the king acceded to the throne. He visited the Chinese Ming Empire as one of an imperial birthday embassy. He was so concerned about the long journey to China that he took grains in great quantities. On his journey home, he was arrested in Uiju after his misconduct was detected and committed suicide due to a guilty conscience. 5 King Danjong was the sixth monarch of the Joseon Dynasty who acceded to the throne at the age of twelve in 1452 after King Munjong, his father, died of illness. King Danjong became a monarch in name only after his loyal subjects named Hwangbo In and Kim Jongseo was killed by Prince Suyang, the uncle of King Danjong. The monarch was forced to abdicate the crown in favor of the prince in 1455 and his six martyred ministers attempted to reinstate the abdicated king in vain. The king was degraded to the lower rank of Prince Nosan in 1457 after his uncle Prince Geumseong was punished for another attempt to reinstate the ex-king. Prince Nosan was forced to commit suicide and died in 1457. Kim Siseup was one of six loyal subjects who looked on themselves as sinners in resentment over the usurpation of the throne by Prince Suyang. 6 Jungheung Temple was located to the south of the Nojeok Peak of Mt. Samgak in Seoul, but nothing remains of the temple except its site. Many Buddhist monks stayed in the temple while the fortress of Mt. Bukhan was built during the reign of King Sukjong of the Joseon Dynasty. The temple took the job of compounding and boiling medicine for the royal household.

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verses were written. He recited The Epic of Being Full of Cares7 with pleasure and then mourned bitterly all the time. When King Sejo held a Buddhist lecture meeting at one time, Kim Siseup was selected as its superintendent. He suddenly ran away at daybreak and concealed his whereabouts. An envoy was sent to locate his traces. He was mired on a village lavatory on purpose and stuck half of his head out. (This story appears in Records Illustrious Retainers.) When Kim Siseup once retired to hermitage in Mt. Seolak (situated in Anyang), Choi Yeon8 from Gangneung, with his five or six young colleagues, would like to follow him and receive his instruction. Kim Siseup rejected all their requests but allowed Choi Yeon alone to stay with him. He thought that Choi was the only person that was worthy of his instruction. Choi did all his duty as a student by accompanying Kim Siseup day and night for half a year. When Choi Yeon was aroused out of sleep at moonlit and deep night, Kim Siseup disappeared and left his bed empty. Choi held it strange but did not dare to chase after him to the place where he went. Such a thing happened several times. One day when the moon shone bright, Kim Siseup was formally attired and slipped away by stealth. Choi Yeon followed him a long way off. Choi went over a valley and crossed a ridge. He stole a glance at the forest of lush vegetation and found an even and broad rock beneath the ridge that was a good place for persons to take a seat. Kim Siseup and some other person bowed politely to each other with joined hands in front and entered into conversation, though the other person’s native place was unidentified. Choi Yeon could not hear in the distance what they were talking about. After a good while, they parted from each other. Choi returned in advance and went to bed in a self-possessed manner as before. Kim Siseup said to Choi Yeon the next day, “I thought at first that you were a person worthy of my instruction. However, I find now for the first time that you are troublesome and coarse. I cannot teach you any longer.” He kicked Choi out. Nobody has known if the person with whom Kim talked was a person or a divine Taoist. Kim Siseup later grew hair and returned to secular life. He entered the priesthood again after a while and died at Muryang Temple9 at Hongsan.10 He let a 7 The Epic of Being Full of Cares is a full-length epic written by Quyuan (343 B.C.?278 B.C.?), a poet of the Chinese Chu Kingdom in the Warring States Age, who composed the cares of a loyal subject about the attention of the monarch to the evil advices of villainous retainers after he was kicked out of the royal court. 8 Choi Yeon (1576–1651) was a civil minister during the reign of King Jungjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Yeonji and by the pen name of Ganjae and was granted the posthumous title of Munyang. During the “Purge of Literati in 1545,” he performed a meritorious deed of writing a letter that urged to pardon Shin Gwanghan. He was said to write in a good style and have an elegant and stately appearance. 9 Muryang Temple is located on Mt. Mansu in Oelsan Town in Buyeo County, South Chungcheong Province, which was founded in the Silla Dynasty and repaired many times

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dying injunction asking his body not to be cremated after he died. The monks of the temple buried him temporarily beside the temple. Three years later, his coffin was opened to perform his formal funeral service. His complexion looked as if he were alive. How can we say that he was a dead person? The Biography of Maewoldang, written by Sangguk Yun Chunnyeon,11 states, “Kim Siseup could summon five hundred arhats,12 so he is a mystery person still more.” (The story above appears in The Historical Romance of Eou. Eou is the nickname of Yu Mongin.13) The Biography of Kim Siseup, which Lee Yulgok wrote in obedience to the royal command, says, “Dongbong finished his life at the age of fifty-nine at Muryang Temple in Hongsan in the sixth year (1492) of the Hongzhi14 Reign. He was not cremated by his will but buried temporarily beside the temple. Three years later, his coffin was opened to be committed to the earth. His complexion looked as if he were alive. The monks thought in admiration that he had attained Buddhahood.” later. The Hall of Paradise, the Stone Lantern and Five-storied Stone Pagoda in the temple have been designated as national treasures. This temple was noted for the place where Kim Siseup died after he kept aloof from the world when King Sejo acceded to the throne. 10 Hongsan is situated in Buyeo County, South Chungcheong Province, which was originally called Daesan County during the Baekje Dynasty, renamed Hansan by King Gyeongdeok of the Silla Kingdom and again changed to Hongsan during the early Goryeo Dynasty. 11 Yun Chunnyeon (1514–1567) was a civil servant during the reign of King Myeongjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Yeonmun and by the pen name of Changju. He kicked out the elder statesmen during the “Purge of Literati in 1545” by an appeal and secured the government positions of Attorney General, Minister of the Board of Personnel, and Minister of the Board of Rites Affairs. He was dismissed from office in 1565 and returned to his hometown. 12 The arhats (Attained Ones) were Buddha’s disciples noted for their learning and moral conduct. They were ascetics of high virtue who deserve to receive offerings from people because they have practiced austerities, renounced all desires and perceived Buddhist principles. 13 Yu Mongin (1559–1623) was an illustrious retainer during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Eungmun and by the pen name of Eoyudang or Ganjae and was granted the posthumous title of Uijeong. He once engaged in studies under the guidance of Seong Hon but was kicked out when he acted on impulse and disobeyed the instruction of his mentor. He harbored a grudge against his master and developed intimate relationship with the opposing party of the master. He secured the government position of Minister of the Board of Personnel during the reign of Prince Gwanghae but did not take the penalty when the king was forced to step down from the throne by Westerners Faction because he did not join in the disposal of the royal mother, King Seonjo’s queen. He was later killed after he was involved in the Great Treason of 1622. He wrote The Historical Romance of Eou, a collection of folk tales and historical romances, which consists of two volumes. 14 Hongzhi refers to the name of the chronological era of the reign of Chinese Empire Xiaozong of the Ming Empire.

XIV ★ Hong Yuson

Jochong Hong Yuson1 was a man of virtue in seclusion during the reign of King Sejo. He made light of worldly things and kept aloof from the madding crowd. He had no thought of any gain. Nam Chugang (Hyowon)2 always praised him, as follows: “His literary style is like that of Qiyuan3 and his poetry ranges over that of Shanyu.4“ 1

Hong Yuson (1431–1529) was a poet during the reign of King Jungjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Yeogyeong and by the pen name of Jochong or Gwangjinja. He led a poor but honest life but was open-hearted and unbound to custom. The Magistrate of Namyang recognized the good style in which he wrote and exempted him from all official duties. He could idle away his time writing poetry and drinking. He kept company with Kim Siseup and Kim Suon and was renowned for his good poems. 2 Nam Chugang (1454–1492) was one of six loyal subjects who went by the real name of Hyowon, by the nickname of Baekgong and by the pen name of Chugang or Haengu. He was granted the posthumous title of Munjeong. He engaged in studies under the guidance of Kim Jonggik. He appealed to the monarch for the restoration of Queen Hyeondeok, the queen of King Munjong and the mother of King Danjong, in vain. He finished his life after he lived the life of an exile. He left The Cruel Words of Chugang and Records of Teachers’ and Friends’ Noted Lifestyles. 3 Qiyuan refers to Zhuangzi at the Warring States Age, who went by the real name of Zhou and by the nickname of Zixiu. He was once a government official of Qiyuan in the region of Mongolia and a contemporary of King Lianhui and King Qixuan. He was a man of great talent and profound knowledge who wrote in a good style and became a famous public figure when Hui Shi, his friend, secured the government position of cabinet member. King Cheng of the Chu Kingdom planed to make presents to Zhuangzi and appoint him as a prime minister but Zhuangzi courteously declined the appointment. He was posthumously praised as one of the founders of Taoism. 4 Shanyu is the pen name of Huang Tingjian (1045–1105), a Chinese poet of the Song Empire who went by the nickname of Luzhi. He was appointed to the post of Secretary of the Directorate of Royal Decree and later to the post of Inspector of the Chronicle of Emperor Shenzong after he was summoned to the capital city when Emperor Zhezong acceded to the

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When Hong Yuson was young, he stayed at Wongak Temple,5 where he engaged in studies. Kim Goiae6 and Seo Saga7 went to Wongak Temple on the way home after they attended the morning meeting in the royal court. They met Hong Yuson and sang a rhyme. Hong Yuson immediately responded by writing an improvised poem, one stanza of which reads, Green mountains and emerald streams border on my house. Who has the bright moon and the refreshing wind in charge?

Dongbong Kim Siseup took a seat on the right side and read this stanza. He shed tears for a good while. He gazed at Saga and said to him, “Gangjung, can you also compose such a poem?” Hong Yuson was renowned widely in the world. All persons of noble birth wanted to cultivate their acquaintance with him. Even junior scholars wanted him to criticize their works. Hong Yuson roamed around mountains and waters with Kim Siseup. When he heard that Chugang did the sights of Mt. Geumgang, he went to the mountain for a picnic. He climbed a high tree on which he wrote the following poem on a cliff: Emperor Dangun was born before the year of the dragon But foresaw the Gija Joseon and Mahan Dynasties. throne. Though his poetical style is distinguished from that of Su Dongpo, he was called Sud Huang because both of them were well-known at the same age. He wrote Chinese characters in an excellent cursive style. 5 Wongak Temple was situated in Tapgol Park in Jongno in Seoul, which had been built in the tenth year (1464) of the reign of King Sejo of the Joseon Dynasty. Its original name was Heungbok Temple which had been founded during the Goryeo Dynasty. The temple was used as the main center of the Korean Buddhist Jogye Order during early years of the Joseon Dynasty and was ruined in the reign of Prince Yeonsan. In the temple site is now a pagoda designated as a national treasure and a monument. 6 Kim Goiae (1409–1481) was a scholar during the reigns of King Sejo and King Seongjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the real name of Suon and by the nickname of Munryang and by the pen name of Goiae. He was granted the posthumous title of Munpyeong. He was well-acquainted with Korean and Chinese classics and wrote in a good style. Kim Goiae wrote an epitaph in Wongak Temple in obedience to the command of King Sejo and translated into Korean the Diamond Sutra. 7 Seo Saga (1420–1488) was a scholar during the reigns of King Sejo and King Songjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the real name of Geojong, by the pen name of Saga and by the nickname of Gangjung. He was granted the posthumous title of Munchung. He was appointed to the post of ministers of six boards, to the post of Attorney General two times, and to the post of state examiner twenty-three times. He could read Chinese characters even at the age of six, so he was called a marvel. He wrote A Collection of Saga in thirty-three volumes, The Historical Records of the Eastern Kingdom, Collected Poems of the Eastern Kingdom, A Chronological Table of Kings of Many Generations, and An Author’s Trivia.

Hong Yuson

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I made merry at the Palace of Sea God with Yeongnang And ran into the human world with spring liquor in my hand.

After he finished writing the poem, he cut down the tree he had climbed. He pulled up its roots and left no traces behind. Chugang later arrived and found the poem. He just cast an upward glance without finding the tree he could climb. He regarded it as strange. He thought that it could have been written by a flying divine Taoist. It was not until Hong Yuson was seventy-six years old that he took a wife and had a son named Jiseong. His son also made a name for himself in the world. After Jochong later made tours of noted mountains, nobody had any idea where he had gone. Oh-oh! What an unusual event? (The story above appears in Mukam’s Trivia by Ugye Seong Hon.8 Mukam is the pen name of Seong Hon.)

8 Seong Hon (1535–1598) was a scholar during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Howon and by the pen name of Ugye or Mukam. He engaged in studies under the guidance of Baek Ingeol and excelled in moral repute and learning from his adolescence. He was offered high government positions several times but did not accept them. He later secured the Minister of the Board of Personnel. He advocated the new theory of the basic principles and the atmospheric force of nature with Lee Yulgok and was praised highly for his learning when he discussed the doctrine of Zhuzi with Yuanhuang, an envoy of the Chinese Ming Empire.

XV ★ Jeong Bung and Jeong Sugon

Jeong Bung and Jeong Sugon were both celebrities during the reign of King Songjong who wrote in good styles. People said that both of them became Immortal Taoists because music was heard in the sky when they died. It was said that Jeong Bung took care of the affairs of Classics Licentiate Nam Su when he worked as Jeongeon, an official of the senior grade of the sixth court rank in the Office of the Censor-General. (This story appears in The Detailed Accounts of Cheonggang. Cheonggang is the pen name of Lee Jesin.1) According to The First Record of Jeong Clan’s Works, “Jeong Sugon went by the nickname of Bulgeon and was born in Baecheon County in the third year (1452) of the Jingtai2 Reign. In the year of the dragon (1472) (the Imjin year, the twenty-ninth year of the sexagenary cycle), he passed the Erudite Examination under the dynasty and held several government posts. He entered the services of instructor and philosopher in the National Confucian Academy and was many times recommended for the posts of inspector and high-ranking librarian in Office of Special Advisers. In the year of the horse (1486) when he was thirty-five years old, he died. “When Jeong Sugon read anything once, he learned it by heart. He memorized seven Chinese lines one and all. When he read any book once, he had thorough knowledge of it. He loved ‘Annotations to The Classic of Songs’ 1

Lee Jesin (1536–1584) was a civil minister during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Mongeung and by the pen name of Cheonggang. Even at the age of seven, he wrote in a good style and engaged in studies under the direction of Jo Uk. He produced administrative achievements as the mayor of Jinju but resigned from the office and spent his time reading in his hometown. He was appointed to the post of military commander of Hamgyeong Legions but was defeated by Manchurian barbarians and condemned to exile in Insangjin where he died. 2 Jingtai refers to the name of the chronological era of Chinese Emperor Jingzong of the Ming Empire.

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exceedingly and read it five times. He composed lines unrhymed above and below. “Once during the last phase of his life, Jeong Sugon dreamed that he wore the fantastic clothes of heaven and reached the Upper Blue.3 The Highest of the Heavenly Gods of Taoism asked him how old he was. He answered, ‘I am not yet forty years old. I am of use. Useful.’ He wrote a Chinese poem, one of whose lines reads, ‘I looked the Emperor of Void4 in the face in the five-colored clouds.’ “Jeong Sugon had a severe relapse and was writing his epitaph with his own hands. The epitaph started, ‘There was a classical scholar named Jeong Sugon in the East. The age of a person is granted by heaven. How can I talk about my fate?’ However, he came back to life a little later. He began to rewrite his epitaph: ‘There was a classical scholar named Jeong Sugon in the East . . . .’ He died before he finished writing his inscription. His room was filled with a strange fragrance.”

3

Taoism explains that heaven consists of the Jade Blue, the Grand Blue, and the Upper

Blue.

4

The Emperor of Void refers to a Taoist god.

XVI ★ Jeong Huiryang

Jeong Huiryang1 went by the nickname of Sunbu. He was a well-informed man with broad vision who wrote in a good style. He had good knowledge of The Classic of Changes and had a head for mathematics. He was also a man of great integrity and few words. Jeong Huiryang passed the state examination for office and became a scholar in the Office of Annals Compilation. When he lost his father at the age of thirty-seven, he built a chief mourner’s room in Pungdeok Prefecture.2 He looked into, examined, and divined the movements of heavenly bodies there. Jeong Huiryang perceived the onset of troubled times. He imagined that he might separate his soul from his body and conceal its traces. Jeong Huiryang consulted with the monk of a Buddhist temple in a mountain with whom he had associated at ordinary times and made a plan. He sometimes climbed a mountain ridge by himself and loitered about with his hands folded behind his back. When he returned home, he shed tears. His servants thought that he did such extraordinary acts because he missed his father. On May 5, the monk of the temple in the mountain visited him. Jeong Huiryang sent his servants across the water for firewood and ran away with the monk. The servants returned home in the evening and were on the lookout for him even to the bank of the Jo River. They found nothing but his straw hat, shoes, and walking stick. Thus, people thought that he had drowned to death.

1

Jeong Huiryang (1469-?) was a civil minister during the reign of Prince Yeonsan who went by the nickname of Sunbu and by the pen name of Heoam. He had a strong personality, excelled in writing prose and poetry, had good knowledge of necromancy. He worked as a censor in the Office for Annals Compilation. He was banished to Uiju during the “Purge of Literati in 1498” and granted clemency. While he was bereaved of his mother, he covered his traces. Nobody saw his death. 2 Pungdeok Prefecture was situated in Gaepung County, Gyeonggi Province.

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Several decades later, Mojae Kim Anguk3 was appointed to the post of superintendent. When he was proceeding to his new post, he stayed in the tall building of a station where he found the following poem written on its wall: A rainstorm startles to remind of the previous day But civilization turns its back on the time. A lonely walking stick takes a stroll in the universe. I stop writing poetry, loath to mix with the noise.

The inky water with which the poem was written did not dry yet. Kim Anguk was astonished and asked the station official what had happened. The official responded, “A while ago, an old Buddhist monk dressed in clerical garb took two Buddhist acolytes to the tall building He recited Chinese poems and commanded a view of the surroundings. A clerk of the station motioned him away, but he did not leave. When he saw you coming, he descended the building slowly.” Master Kim Anguk recognized that the monk was Jeong Huiryang and hastily scattered horsemen to search for him in vain. Later, Master Kim Anguk called at a temple as well and saw the following verse written on the wall: A bird stole a glance at a hole in a crumbled stone wall, But a monk drew water from a well at dusk.

Master Kim thought that none but Jeong Huiryang could compose such a verse. His traces and movements were never known to the world, which were like those of Luobinwang.4 (The story mentioned above appears in Collected Works of Ugye.) Jeong Huiryang figured out the destiny of a person by the three pivotal points of January 15, July 15, and October 15 on the lunar calendar. He put out several books written in elaborate styles. His handwriting of fine Chinese 3

Kim Anguk (1478–1543) was a scholar and illustrious retainer during the reign of King Jungjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Gukgyeong and by the pen name of Mojae and was granted the posthumous title of Mungyeong. He was well-versed in Taoism under the guidance of Kim Goingpil. Kim Anguk wrote many books and exerted himself to promote Confucianism. During the “Purge of Literati in 1519,” he was ousted from office but saved from death and moved down to Yicheon in Gyeonggi Province where he looked after the younger generations. In 1532, he was reappointed to the court and held the posts of vice-minister and minister in the Office of Special Advisers in succession. 4 Luobinwang (640?-684?) was a poet during the Tang Dynasty who wrote a prose poem at the age of seven and was called one of the four greatest poets of the early Tang Dynasty. He secured a high-ranking government position during the reign of Queen Zetianwu but joined in the rebellion of Li Jingye. After the rebellion was quelled, he lived in exile and concealed his whereabouts.

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characters looked like the end of a hair and that of large Chinese characters like ladles. His more than one hundred volumes were named The Number of a Clear Mirror. One night when Jeong Huiryang sat in meditation in a room of a house on a mountain and discussed the science of Taoism with Kim Yun, his disciple, a fox let out hasty yelps beyond the mountain. Jeong drew a long breath. He chanted some spells toward the mountain and snapped his fingers a few times. Next morning, he made Kim Yun search the fox out in the mountain. The fox was killed with its tongue sticking out. Kim Yun was extremely surprised and made a low bow. Kim Yun said, “I have inherited the dregs of mathematics from this teacher for a long time. I have never heard of marvelous methods of talisman and spells. I want to learn even their outlines.” Jeong Huiryang responded, “You can afford to buy food and clothes automatically if you are taught my mathematics. Why do you want to learn such a thing by all means?” Kim persisted in his learning, but Jeong did not teach him to the last. He declared resolutely, “I do not let you control your mind yet. If you engaged in this mystery, you will surely do harm to others and obstruct the natural movement of matters.” When Lee Toigye (alias Lee Hwang) met a Buddhist monk in Samga Prefecture5 and discussed The Classic of Changes with him, the monk replied like a flowing stream and expressed himself coherently. Toigye eyed him with suspicion and said to him, “I heard that Jeong Huiryang had entered the priesthood. He has certainly become old until now. He might not be worried about the present world that he faced. Why does he not enter government service?” The monk answered, “Jeong Huiryang is not dead. He has been an undutiful son because he did not finish his mourning for his parents and a disloyal subject because he ran away from the king. How can he dare to appear in the world because he has been undutiful and disloyal?” He added while setting forward, “I will stay in a straw-thatched hut in a mountain at the back.” Toigye later became aware of the monk and sent a person to look for him in the straw-thatched hut. He had already packed up his things and retired from the world. (This story appears in The Historical Romance of Eou.) When Kim Yun was young, he met with Lee Cheonnyeon, a person who improved the magic tricks of a divine Taoist. Kim Yun had seen the sights of Mt. Myohyang in Pyeongan Province. While he accompanied Lee Cheonnyeon and made an extensive tour of many mountains, it was not until six or seven years passed that he inherited the magic tricks. Kim Yun took leave of Lee Cheonnyeon to see his parents and returned to his home in Yeongdong District. He practiced the tricks, concluding the good or ill luck and happiness and misery of a person. He never passed a misjudgment on one hundred cases. 5

Samga Prefecture was situated in Hapcheon County in South Gyeongsang Province.

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Lee Cheonnyeon and Kim Yun made a promise that they would wait for me in Mt. Guryong in Gangseo Prefecture6 in the year of the fowl (the Giyu year, the forty-sixth year of the sexagenary cycle). Lee Cheonnyeon gave me the following poem that he wrote with his own hands: I lived in a mountain until I was eighty years old. 7 The three worms have already disappeared from my body. Never dreaming of living in the human world But keeping good company with cranes, I taste a boundless atmosphere. The moonlight is cool on the bed on which snow falls. The traces of the sun are formed on the window on which clouds settle. Who is aware of a pattern for an unshackled life? I cannot help being a clear and void soul all ages.

A young servant who attended to Lee Cheonnyeon was nearly thirteen or fourteen years old. He gave me the following poem that he composed in person: A wanderer of mountains and waters has no house in heaven and earth And has an irregular line of life. What intent does he have? The moss-grown mountain path is in thick white clouds. The traces of the moon are clear and cold. But the shadows of bamboos are sparse.

The servant wrote another poem: The deep blue mountain lies in ten thousand piles of clouds And the open sea has a vast and borderless expanse. I would ask what business makes you Turn your mind to a northern palace gate.

The poetry of Lee Cheonnyeon demonstrates its elegant character and antiquated style. The strokes of his pen were peculiar and solid. Even the young attendant displayed his extraordinary poetic genius and calligraphy technique. Lee Cheonnyeon must have been a person of uncommon ability who improved the magic tricks of a divine Taoist. According to a Buddhist priest living in the western mountains, a strange monk came from and went to many mountains and met a person who had once known Jeong Huiryang by face and definitely recognized him in person. Another 6

Gangseo Prefecture refers to the Gangseo County of today to the southwest of South Pyeongan Province. 7 According to Asian folklore, three formless worms were believed to live on the upper, middle, and lower human body and inflict injury. The worms were said to recognize faults of a person. They get out of the body at night when he or she sleeps, ascend to heaven, and report to God.

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person reported that a Buddhist devotee let his hair grow long and concealed his whereabouts. He was said to take up his residences in several mountains. The devotee’s verse was handed down to a monk and spread to the world. People vied for one another in learning it by heart. Kim Yun always accompanied his master and remembered the time, day, month, and year of the master’s birth in specific detail. When he arrived at the capital city, he found that Minister Shin Gyeonggwang loved telling a person’s fortune. The minister wrote down the five primary substances by which the destiny of a learned man or high government official would be predicted and tentatively told their fortunes without others’ help. The five primary substances by which Jeong Huiryang’s destiny was predicted were also written on the list. Kim Yun called on Shin Gyeonggwang and had a table talk with him. Kim Yun read the record that included the substances of Jeong. He was extremely surprised at them all of a sudden and shouted, “They reveal the destiny of my master Lee Cheonnyeon.” They show that Jeong Huiryang was not dead but is still alive now. (The story above appears in Collected Words of Sajae.8 Sajae is the nickname of Kim Jeongguk.) According to Records of Illustrious Retainers, Gentleman Jeong Huiryang went by the pen name of Heoam and attempted to figure out his own destiny. He found out that the time and place of his life were not set and sighed, “I cannot tell what celestial stems and terrestrial branches of the sexagenary cycle cause a human being to be in good or ill luck.” Jeong Huiryang always intended to escape from the world. He usually said to his children, “A disaster in the year of the rat is more terrible than in the year of the horse (the Muo year, the fifty-fifth year of the sexagenary cycle). Do not make even one step forward.” When he was later in mourning for his parent in the south of Deoksu Prefecture,9 he sent his servants to enter the mountain and gather firewood. When the servants returned home, he was invisible. His whole family went out in all directions to look around for his traces and discovered nothing but the pairs of his shoes

8

Collected Words of Sajae is a collection of illustrated poems by Kim Jeongguk (1485– 1541), a scholar and civil minister during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Gukpil and by the pen name of Sajae or Buddhist Devotee Palyeo and was granted the posthumous title of Munmok. He was a younger of Kim Anguk and engaged in studies under the guidance of Kim Goengpil. Kim Jeongguk secured the government posts of royal secretary and Governor of Hwanghae Province. He was removed from office in the “Purge of Literati in 1519” and shut himself in his hometown. He devoted himself to writing books and educating the younger generation. He resumed office in the thirty-second year (1537) of the reign of King Jungjong and obtained the posts of Governor of Jeolla Province and Vice-Minister of the Board of Punishment. He excelled in poetry and prose and had profound knowledge of medical books. 9 Deoksu Prefecture refers to Pungdeok in Gaepung County, Gyeonggi Province.

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kicked off in sands in the southern riverbank. They suspected that he might be drowned to death. They could not find his body to the end. Minister Haepyeong Kim Gisu told Prince Yeonsan that he would order a thorough search of Jeong Huiryang in every village. The king responded, “What is the use of searching for an insane person who died while he ran away?” Kim Gisu could not eventually exercise his influence. The literati purges mainly took place in the year of the reign of Prince Yeonsan, that is, the year of the horse. After Heoam was condemned to exile in Yongman,10 Prince Yeonsan was so brutal as to punish people with death in his own way. The atrocity has been called the “Purge of Literati in 1504.” If Heoam had existed in the world, he could not have escaped the disaster. Thus, he took flight to the Place of Void where he drank fragrance and frost and wandered in mountains and waters. People understood that he lived in the human world.

10

Yongman was the ancient name of Uiju in North Pyeongan Province.

XVII ★ Nam Chu

Nam Chu was a person from Gokseong. He had not studied his lessons in his earliest days but knew everything easily. When his father recommended that he should read books, he responded, “There are no books I have not read.” One day when thick clouds and fogs rose, Nam Chu disappeared all of a sudden. He took a seat on a rock and translated books with a few adults. People spoke of him as extraordinary. Nam Chu once gave his servant a letter that he had written. He said to the servant, “When you call at Cheonghak Village in Mt. Jiri, you will certainly find two people sitting facing each other. You have to bring a reply to my letter.” The servant visited the village as he had been ordered to do. He found a few partitions of a picturesque pavilion placed in front of a stone cave. The pavilion was unrivaled in its elaborate and graceful figure. A Taoist played a game of baduk with an old Buddhist monk. When the servant offered the letter to the Taoist, the latter answered with a broad smile on his face, “I have already known it.” After he finished playing the game, he sent the servant with his letter and a baduk piece made of blue jade. The servant arrived at the village in September when fallen leaves rolled on the street and small flakes fluttered in the sky. When he was about to return home after he said good-bye, he did not feel hungry. He saw old grasses pushing forth shoots under the tracks of shoes. He thought of it as strange. He came out of the cave and realized that it was the time of genial weather and sprouting plants in the spring season that corresponded to February in the human world. Nam Chu passed the state examination for office and secured the government position of librarian in the Office of Special Advisers. He later passed away. After he died, the baduk stone he received from the Taoist was gone. Some people said that the Taoist referred to Choi Goeun and the old monk to Zen Master Geomdan. (This reference appears in Topical Discourses of

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Nam Chu

Jibong.) According to A Record of the Gimyo Year,1 Nam Chu was a person who won first place in the state examination for office and enjoyed a worldwide reputation. Two of his poems, “An Ode to the Shadow of a Candle” and “An Ode to a Wide-Open Gate,” became the talk of the people of those days. Nam Gon2 called Nam Chu to win him over to his side. Nam Gon said to him, “People say you write in a good style. Compose a poem and show it to me.” Nam Gon pointed at the pine tree planted in a pot and let Nam Chu compose a poem on that tree. Nam Chu responded to his request and wrote, Though a pine tree takes its weak roots in a pot, The white snow makes its figure gallant for many years. Who dares to straighten your crooked shape? Who makes it stretch out high above clouds in the evening?

Nam Gon got into a great rage at the poem and eventually broke off with Nam Chu. Nam Chu quitted the job of the librarian in the Office of Special Advisers at the age of twenty-eight.

1 A Record of the Gimyo Year was written by Kim Yuk (1580–1658) during the reign of King Hyojong of the Joseon Dynasty. The book describes scholars who met with disasters in the party strife of the Joseon Dynasty. The author classifies and records more than two hundred learned men’s discharges from prison, conducts, exiles, removing from office and petitions during the period of the “Purge of Literati in 1498” through the “Purge of Literati in 1519,” and adds their brief biographies. 2 Nam Gon (1471–1527) was a politician and literary man during the reign of King Jungjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Sahwa and by the pen name of Jijeong. He was talented in his earlier days and engaged in studies under the guidance of Kim Jonggik. He was a good writer and calligrapher and secured the high-ranking government positions of Attorney General, Royal Secretary and Prime Minister. He became the target of criticism because he plotted the “Purge of Literati in 1519” with Shim Jeong. Nam Gon repented of his faults and burned all the manuscripts that he had written throughout his life when he died.

XVIII ★ A Divine Taoist in Mt. Jiri

There was a divine Taoist in Mt. Jiri who was unidentified. Seo Hwadam1 once saw the sights of the mountain and intended to get to its highest peak sooner or later. He opened the lots cast for divination in the morning and said to his attendants, “I will certainly meet with a man of unusual ability today.” Seo gained the top of the mountain with a walking stick and in straw shoes. He straddled a stone while leaning against a pine tree. A good while later, a man standing in midair gave a low and long bow with his hands in front. He said, “I have known that you would pay me a visit.” Master Seo responded, “I have already known as well that you would call on me.” The man said, “If one discipline one’s atmospheric force of nature and cultivate one mind, one can soar high up in broad daylight at the upper stage of spiritual attainment. One may wield one’s power even in the broad range of every direction at the middle stage. One can sit in meditation for a thousand years at the lower stage. Would you follow me and saunter around?” Master Seo Hwadam answered, “Rumor says that some people have been initiated into the Immortal Taoist’s magic of gold and silver.2 A student of 1

Hwadam is the pen name of Seo Gyeongdeok (1489–1546), a Neo-Confucian scholar in the middle of the Joseon Dynasty who spent his whole life in scholarly pursuits. He was the pioneering proponent of the school of thought that gave primary emphasis to the atmospheric force of nature (氣) over its mysterious formative principle (理). He stressed the immortality of the force, explicating even the death of a human being as a return to the force. Hwadam thought of the original source of the universe as the “Great Void” and all kinds of phenomena as being generated and developed from the Void. Hwadam not only absorbed the ideas of Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism but displayed interests in Taoism. He was badly off and educated himself, but he had not intention of taking the state examination for public office. He retired to hermitage in the mountain and saw the sights of Mt. Jiri and Mt. Sokni with scholars in retirement, including Jo Sik and Seong Un. 2 The supernatural being’s magic of gold and silver is a Taoist panacea of transforming

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Confucianism ought not to talk about the magic. I am a person who studies the science of Confucius. Your nine curious methods of making an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar deserve to be acquired. I would not like to learn them.” The man replied, “We cannot seek something in common because we take up different ways of life. I also know the nobility of your mind well.” Master Seo Hwadam alone had a conversation with the man though his attendants did not see him. The attendants regarded it as uncommon. When one of the attendants raised his hand, the man disappeared like a flash of lightning. The man put on the clothes of feathers and hung down both his arms in lengths of twelve inches or so. He looked as if he were more than thirty years old. Seo Hwadam once did not tell others this story. When he was seriously ill later, he informed his father of the story in specific detail. The deceased father (Jikgang Cha Sik) had called on him in the capital city from Songdo. (This story appears in Collected Discourses of Osan.3 Osan is the nickname of Cha Cheonno.4) A Survey of the Geography states, “Mt. Jiri is the place above which the god of the North Pole takes up his abode. In the mountain, sages assemble themselves and dead high priests dwell.” I can recognize that A Survey of the Geography mentions the man with whom Seo Hwadam met. That story is not a fiction. Ruo Shi,5 a divine Taoist who led a perpetual life, definitely often visited as one of the group of sages. Many people did not see him, but only Seo Hwadam met with him. As this story demonstrates, it is not true that an enlightened Taoist hermit with supernatural powers does not exist in the world. Only a person who has achieved spiritual enlightenment can spontaneously meet the enlightened Taoist. .

things into gold and silver by adding into them the elixir of life into which gold and silver are boiled. 3 Collected Discourses of Osan is a collection of stories about the events that took place during the earlier Joseon Dynasty through the reign of King Seongjong. 4 Cha Cheonno (1556–1615) was a literary man during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Bokwon or Osan. He secured the position of high-ranking government official in the Office of Sacrificial Rites and Posthumous Titles. He wrote in an excellent style, so King Seonjo ordered him to take whole charges of royal credentials that would be sent to the Chinese Ming Empire. When the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592 occurred, Cha wrote a state letter that asked for reinforcements to the Ming Empire. King Seonjo asked Cha to compose a farewell poem for Li Rusong, a Ming general. Cha Cheonno was reputed to be the “Literary Man of the East.” 5 Ruo Shi was a supernatural being whom Lu Ao met in Mt. Menggu while making an excursion to a northern sea. When Lu Ao visited him, Ruo Shi was dancing to the wind then but hid himself beneath a tombstone. He ate clam shells and held a dialogue with Lu Ao. Ruo Shi then made a quick rise and disappeared to clouds.

XIX ★ Seo Gyeongdeok

Hwadam Seo Gyeongdeok went by the nickname of Gagu. He was born with an extraordinary temperament. He rose out of a desolate wilderness and knew by himself that he had to learn The Classic of Changes from Shao Yong.1 Hwadam was so versed in inferring a stratagem for administering state affairs that he made no mistakes. He stood foremost among Korean scholars who had thorough knowledge of The Classic of Changes. One of the poems written by Master Hwadam reads, I aimed high at administering state affairs in those days when I read books. 2 I can enjoy the poverty of Yan Hui again at the close of the year. Wealth and fame cause contention, at which I cannot try my hand. Forests and springs are worth taking a rest, never refusing entrance. I live in comfort, gathering trees in the mountain and catching fish in the water.

1

Shao Yong (1011~1077) was a scholar during the Chinese Song Dynasty who went by the nickname of Yaofu and was granted the posthumous title of Kangjie. He learned the formation and change of the universe by means of mathematical principles from Li Zhicai. Shao Yong was versed in the science of changes and completed the establishment of the celestial trigrams from The Classic of Changes. He gave the name of “Posterior Celestial Changes” to the science of changes written by King Wen and the name of “Anterior Celestial Changes” to the science of changes by Fu Xi. He was appointed to high-ranking government positions but did not proceed to the posts. He read books on a place named Baiyuan in Mt. Sumen, so his academic traditions have been called the “Baiyuan School.” He strolled around Luozhong with contemporary notables, called his residence by the name of “Anle (Ease) Villa,” and assumed the title of “Master Anle.” 2 Yan Hui (521 B.C.- 490 B.C.) was a scholar during the last years of the Warring States Age, who went by the nickname of Ziyuan and was called one of the ten sages. He was the most able student of Confucius who excelled in learning and virtue. He was noted for being content amid poverty and taking pleasure in acting in an honest way.

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Seo Gyeongdeok Singing songs carried on the wind and reciting poems at the moon, I feel refreshed. Having achieved learning without any doubts, I am truly in a cheerful spirit. I have escaped giving vain lessons to people for long. 3 (This poem appears in Collected Works of Sangchon. )

A deceased father (Chodang Heo Yeop4 ) engaged in studies under the guidance of Seo Gyeongdeok. In July when the father once called at Hwadam’s house, he heard that it had been six days since Master Hwadam left for a flowery marsh. He immediately departed for Hwadam’s villa but could not pass over the stream that had risen in fall. He barely waded across the rapids that grew smaller at sunset. Master Hwadam then recited a poem loudly while playing the geomungo. When the father asked the master to prepare supper, he answered, “Let us cook supper and eat it together because I have not had food.” The servant entered the kitchen and found that only a lot of moss had grown in the cauldron. When the father asked the reason for the moss-covered cauldron, the master replied, “The water rose for six days. The road was so blocked that nobody could leave my house. I have not had a meal and nothing but the moss grew in the cauldron.” The late father looked up at the face of the master but knew that it did not show the slightest sign of hunger. (This story appears in Collected Works of Mr. Anonym.) One day when Master Hwadam took a stroll on the edge of the flowery marsh, he found minnows playing in the water and realized the related significance of the bridge over a pond.5 He wrote a few Chinese characters on a 3

Collected Works of Sangchon is a selection of poetry and prose compiled by Shin Heum (1566–1628) during the reigns of King Seonjo and Prince Gwanghae of the Joseon Dynasty. The collection consists of sixty-three volumes and twenty books. Shin Heum went by the pen name of Sangchon, Hyeonhyeon, Hyeonong or Bangong and by the nickname of Gyeongsuk and was granted the posthumous title of Munjeong. He studied under the guidance of So Insu and secured high-ranking government posts including Censor-General, Chief Royal Secretary and Prime Minister. When the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592 occurred, he joined in battles. He got married to Princess Jeongsuk, King Seonjo’s daughter by a concubine. He wrote in an excellent style and took part in the production of diplomatic and ceremonial documents and the compilation of poetry and prose. 4 Heo Yeop (1517–1580) was a civil minister during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Taehwi and by the penname of Chodang. He engaged in studies under the guidance of Seo Gyeongdeok and secured high-ranking government positions including the Censor-General and the Chief Royal Adviser and passed himself off as a leader of the Easterners’ Faction for more than thirty years. He expostulated with the king the self-governing village rules to the effect that virtue should be promoted and vice removed. He led a frugal and upright life and was granted the title of “Clean-Handed Government Officer.” 5 “The Section of the Autumn Wasters” in Zhuangzi states that Zhuangzi and Huizi were

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piece of paper that he cut twelve inches in length. He threw the paper into the water. A pair of minnows thirty-six inches long jumped out of the water and fell on a rock with splashes. Master Hwadam picked them up in his hands, examined them carefully and threw them again into the water. He said with a big smile on his face, “The words of ancient people are not false!” Master Hwadam was then reading “The Section of the Autumn Waters” in Zhuangzhi. The late father had pursued his studies under Master Hwadam’s instruction since childhood. He witnessed this event and often talked about it. Seo Sungdeok, Master Hwadam’s younger brother, returned ten years after he did the sights of mountains and waters at one time. The master asked him, “Have you ever met a person of unusual ability while you went on excursions to noted mountains for a long time?” Seo Sungdeok answered, “My elder brother, why do you not put me to the test? I have learned magical practices from the man of unusual ability I met.” Seo Sungdeok eventually produced a bowl of liquor in front of himself. He dropped an angling rod into the jar and caught a goldfish more than eighteen inches long after a while. Master Hwadam said with a broad smile on his face, “Is that all? I will try on my little ability briefly as well.” He dropped the fishing rod again and caught a yellow dragon. The elder brother said, “I have not little knowledge of such a magical practice but do not simply display it voluntarily.” A Buddhist monk heard of the lofty character of Master Hwadam and came from Mt. Jiri to see him. The monk said to him, “I heard the master is a scholar who has perceived a truth. This little monk would like to perceive even a little of the vinaya (disciplinary rules) of Nirvana. Let us try together the method of keeping ourselves awake.” Master Hwadam responded, “Put it in practice against each other.” Both of them kept themselves awake for fifteen days. The monk was so tired that he threw himself down and barely raised his head three days later. However, Master Hwadam did not go to bed for another dozen days. He got along well as usual. The monk yielded to the master’s victory. He built a house in the neighboring mountain and grew many vegetables and fruits and presented them to the master. The monk offered them at calculated dates and never missed the offering. He returned home three years later. Master Hwadam once stated, “There are three ways of truth. The best way is Confucianism, the next is Buddhism and the last is the science of a Taoist hermit with supernatural powers. The road to learning is the same.” He also said to the deceased father, “A far-sighted person thinks of life and death as the natural course of morning and evening. As for me, the date of return to the original state is so imminent that spending a day in the world is like spending more than one

observing minnows playing in the water under the bridge over a pond and discussed the happiness of fish.

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year.” He continued, “My age will be almost equal to that of Zhang Hengqu.6“ Master Hwadam died at the age of fifty-eight. Suam Park Jihwa7 took Master Hwadam’s classes for the longest time. He considerably understood the teachings of the master. (The story above appears in Collected Discourses of Osan.) Chijae Hong Inu8 always said, “All things in the universe have not only their united fundamental principle but also their special particularity according to their individuality.9 Those who truly know important matters have full knowledge of little matters.” Seo Hwadam made a lifetime profession of studies and was conversant with all fields including even medicine and witchcraft. Why was he not the ideal pattern of a person who knows important matters? Taekdang Lee Sik10 said that Seo Hwadam’s mathematical principles were descended from Shao Kangjie. Lee Toigye did not take the 6

Zhang Hengqu (1020–1077) was a scholar during the Chinese Song Dynasty who went by the real name of Zai and by the nickname of Zihou and was granted the posthumous title of Ming. After he secured the position of document censor in the Royal Secretariat, he retired to a hermitage in Mt. Nan and taught his disciples. He comprehended the gist of Taoism and interpreted in a due form of Confucius’ and Mengzi’s discourse The Classic of Changes as a religious sect, The Doctrine of the Mean as a target of learning and The Book of Rites as a system of ideas. He said that he intended to attend to the whole creation and obey people’s orders. He endeavored to inherit discontinued sciences of ancient sages and open the time of peace for all generations. He left many books including Decorous Attires, Western Engravings and The Explanation of Divination. 7 Park Jihwa (1513–15920 was a scholar during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Gunsil and by the pen name of Suam. He was Seo Gyeongdeok’s disciple. He had profound knowledge of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism and was versed in The Book of Rites. He secured the government position of prefecture magistrate. 8 Hong Inu (1515–1554) was a scholar during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Eunggil and by the pen name of Chijae. He was not interested in government positions, but he devoted himself to studies, whom Roh Sajin, a great scholar of Confucianism, inquired of learning. In his last few years, he studied medical books and had his father’s disease treated. He left Daily Records of Gwandong and Posthumous Works of Chijae. 9 Neo-Confucianism discusses the basic principle of nature (“理”), using the term “理一分殊” and explaining both the universality and particularity of the principle. The universe reveals the catholicity of the principle (“理一”) ubiquitous in all things and the individuality of the principle immanent in them (“分殊”) 10 Lee Sik (1584–1647) was an illustrious retainer and good writer during the reign of King Injo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Yeogo and by the pen name of Taekdang and was granted the posthumous title of Munjeong. When the deposition of a king’s mother was debated during the reign of Prince Gwanghae, Lee Sik left government service but was appointed as the minister of the Board of Personnel after the accession of King Injo. He later secured the high-ranking positions of Censor-General and Minister of the Boards of Punishments.

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principles because they were close to a heretical doctrine. Rumor said that Master Hwadam transformed magical tricks including methods and techniques of a divine Taoist and writings of divination and preserved them. That rumor seems to have been ungrounded. However, it sounded convincing because the master was competent enough to discuss them at ordinary times.

XX ★ Jeong Yeom

Jeong Yeom1 lived during the reign of King Jungjong and went by the nickname of Sagyeol and by the pen name of Bukchang. He had been a human being of a wonderful and singular disposition since he was born. In his earliest days, he gathered his wits and observed things for three days with the intention of putting six supernatural powers of the Zen sect2 to the test. He had thorough knowledge of events that occurred 244 miles away beyond the mountain. Jeong Yeom learned astronomy, geography, medicine, divination, musical rhythms, mathematics and foreign languages including the Chinese language. He was versed in all of them by himself. Though he had no idea at first of events that happened more than 2440 miles away, he found them out immediately whenever he concentrated his mind. Jeong Yeom later entered China and met a Taoist in Fengtian Palace. The Taoist asked him, “Is there a Taoist in your kingdom?” Master Jeong replied in an easy and composed manner, “There are three divine mountains in my eastern kingdom. Immortal Taoists are always seen even at midday to ascend to heaven. 1

Jeong Yeom (1506–1549) was a scholar during the reigns of King Jungjong and King Myeongjong of the Joseon Dynasty. He was appointed to the government positions of chief bookkeeper in the Music Reviser Institute, Director of Meteorological Observatory and professor in the Public Center. He later proceeded to the new post of Magistrate of Pocheon Prefecture but left the service because of his disease and went to Cheonggye Temple in Gwangju and to Mt. Gwanak in Gwacheon to seek a herb remedy. He was said not only to have thorough knowledge of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism but also to be wellacquainted with astronomy, geography, and medicine. He played the geomungo very well. 2 A Buddha or Bodhisattva is said to acquire six divine powers by means of justice or wisdom that are free from all obstacles and unrestricted, such as supernatural powers that he or she is conversant with the stage of gods, has a keen divine insight, perceives truth with divine ears, reads others’ minds, divines human destiny and deprives the mind of worldly desires.

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What is more estimable?” The Taoist responded in great wonder, “How can such a thing happen?” The master immediately opened Taoist scriptures including The Scripture of Internal and External Scapes of Human Life, The Gradation and Equality of All Creation, The Classic of Morality, and The Scripture of the Secret Crux of Matters by Huang Di. He explained in specific detail the phases of becoming a divine Taoist. The Taoist made a low bow and stole away. An envoy from the Ryukyu Islands was also a man of unusual ability. He figured out from the divination of numbers that he could see an enlightened Taoist later when he enters China. He continually asked people his way to Beijing and arrived at the city. He looked carefully all around the official residence where many envoys from several kingdoms stayed. He failed in finding the enlightened Taoist. As soon as the envoy met Master Jeong, he was startled and made a low bow unconsciously. The envoy picked a small book out of his pouch which said that he would meet an enlightened Taoist on a certain day of a certain month in a certain year when he entered China. He showed the book to Master Jeong and said, “Who can be the so-called ‘Enlightened Taoist’ except you?” He asked the master to teach him the science of divination. Master Jeong gave lessons in The Classic of Changes in the language of Ryukyu without delay. Many envoys in the official residence heard of that story. They vied with one another in calling on Master Jeong and watched the scene. The master answered each question without hesitation in each native tongue. All the people were startled out of their wits and spoke highly of him as a divine human. Someone asked Master Jeong, “There is a person in the world who can understand the voices of birds or beasts. The languages of other countries sound like the voices of wild animals including birds and beasts. There is occasionally a certain person who may understand foreign languages. However, is speaking them not totally a different matter from understanding them?” The master replied, “I do not understand foreign languages by listening to them. I have already known them for a long while.” Master Jeong was well-acquainted with the three religions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism but attributed their essence to Confucianism. He gave his dying instructions to strive only for filial piety and brotherly love. He looked on Little Science3 and A Record of Approaches to Ideas4 as a beginner’s rudiments. 3

Little Science is a book that Liu Zideng wrote under the guidance of Zhu Xi, which discusses the good manners of cleaning, interview, and attitude and compiles the good conduct and exemplary speech from ancient and modern books. 4 A Record of Approaches to Ideas was a book that Zhu Xi and Lu Zuqian (1137–1181) compiled together to present the substance of Taoism. They cite the remarks of the four Taoists in the Song Empire, such as Zhou Lianxi, Cheng Mingdao, Cheng Yichuan, and Zhang Hengqu and pick out six hundred twenty-two items vital for everyday affairs including

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The master once said, “Neo-Confucianism attaches such great importance to ethics that it does not speak of essential and abstruse ideas. However, the sciences of Taoist hermits and Buddha regard as fundamental principles the cultivation of moral character and the perception of the original nature. They often lead to inquire of superiors and attain the high states of enlightenment but not to learn low and easy matters. The three religions differ from one another, but the sciences of Taoist hermits and Buddha keep similar identity with minor differences.” Master Jeong did not like meat that he thought was not congenial to his tastes, but he liked to drink. He did not become intoxicated when he drank even nine or ten gallons of raw rice wine. He was a great whistler. When he once climbed to the peak of Mt. Geumgang, he gave a whistle. The whistle sound set off vibrations in rocks and valleys. Buddhist monks in the mountain were startled at the whistle and thought of it as the sound of a pipe. They later found out that the master whistled. The royal court appointed Master Jeong to the government positions of chief bookkeeper in the Music Reviser Institute, Director of Meteorological Observatory and professor in the Public Health Center because the master had thorough knowledge of astronomy, medicine, and music. He was also appointed to the provincial government post of Magistrate of Pocheon Prefecture but left the service after a while. He retired to a hermitage in Goaera Village in Yangju. He lived in seclusion, having no contacts with the world. He trained to devise the method of making an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar on a beacon mound. One day, he composed an elegy about himself, I have read through ten thousand books in my life And drunk thousand bowls of rice wine in a day. Fu Xi discoursed previous events in a lofty manner But never breathed a word of common talks on the tongues. 5 Yanzhi is called a sage of second rank, though having led a thirty-year life. However, why is the life of the master so long?

Master Jeong passed away on his knees at the age of forty-four. Rumor said that he could have spoken languages just after the date of his birth and did not cast his shadow in broad daylight. Jeong Jak,6 Jeong Yeom’s younger brother, was also a man of unusual ability who went by the pen name of Go-ok. He trod in his brother’s footsteps moral training, the management of a household and the rule of a nation. 5 Yanzi is an honorific title of Yan Hui (521 B.C.–490 B.C.), the best pupil of Confucius, who has been called a sage of second rank because he was ranked next to his master. 6 Jeong Jak (1533–1603) was a scholar during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Gungyeong and by the pen name of Go-ok. He had

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and got the knack of making an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar. He led a solitary life for thirty-six years and kept away from women. He liked to drink and was proficient in composing poetry. Jeong Jak had profound knowledge of medicine and practiced many marvelous medical virtues. He never entered government service all his life. He wrote the following poem: The head of white hairs is due to The Gradation and Equality of All Creation 7 And the ruddy face attributable to barley wine.

He died of a trivial illness on his knees at the age of seventy-two. Gyeheon Jeong Cho, 8 Master Joeng’s elder brother and cousin on his father’s side, passed the Erudite Examination at an early age and displayed the splendid dignity of a high-ranking government official. However, he later resigned the government post under the pretense of illness and improved the secret art of making an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar in a stay-at-home life. An immortal Taoist came down from heaven to his room and sent him the gift of a poem, which reads When a cinnamon tree sends forth its sweet fragrance, The crane on which an Immortal Taoist rides descends from heaven.

The pen name of Jeong Cho was taken from the cinnamon tree, whose first letter “gye” represents the tree. One of Go-ok’s poems reads 9

The medicine of King Huai is in the iron pot, 10 So people tell the house is owned by Xu Yuan.

profound knowledge of medicine and joined in the compilation of Exemplar of Korean Medicine. When his father sided with the “Purge of Literati in 1545,” he set out on a wandering life. He loved poetry and drink and was versed in the style of writing ornamental “seal” Chinese characters. 7 Barley wine was manufactured in such a process that barley was boiled, soaked in cold water for three days, made dry, and heated up again. 8 Jeong Cho was a man from Onyang who went by the nickname of Jeongsu and by the pen name of Gyeheon. He passed the Literary Licentiate Examination in the seventeenth year (1522) of the reign of King Jungjong of the Joseon Dynasty and the Erudite Examination in the twenty-third year (1528) of the reign of King Jungjong. He secured a high-ranking post in the Office of Special Advisers but resigned the post on the pretext of illness. He trained in devising the method of making an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar. 9 King Huai refers to Liu An (179 B.C.-122 B.C.), the Chinese ruler of the Huainan Kingdom during the Earlier Han Dynasty, who liked Taoism and assembled many Taoist magicians to deliver lectures on truth. The lectures were organized into Master Huainan. He attempted to make an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar that he might become a supernatural being.

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Is this poem not a real record of the real state of affairs in the family? Bukchang’s and Go-ok’s poems were put together into one book, which was widely liked throughout the world. (This story appears in Collected Main Works of Jeong Yeom.) According to Records Illustrious Retainers, Jeong Yeom was so concerned with his weak constitution that he always checked the condition of his illness and ordered his servants to prepare different medicine mornings and evenings. He waited for the time of breakfast with his mouth shut in the evening and did not open his mouth to say something until the sun rose. He sat up square at night and stayed awake until at daybreak. People say that that daily habit led him not only to be bent on disciplining himself but also kept the mind noble, wise, and strong with the sense of justice. Many seniors commented on Master Jeong as a man of honor who made every effort to study the principles of human nature. What are human nature and natural laws? What will be a person who has exerted himself or herself to study those principles? Mengzi said, “Those who are aware of human nature come to understand providence.” What can those who understand providence be unaware of? The public regarded Master Jeong as a person who perceived the mediation of Zen Buddhism and cultivated the true character of a human being. That is not true. I heard predecessors once say, “It is not a big deal if there is no Immortal Taoist in the world. However, if an Immortal Taoist exists, Bukchang will be the being without fail.”

10 Xu Yuan refers to Xu Yang, a person during the Later Han Dynasty who went by the nickname of Weijun. He loved to practice magical tricks and was promoted to the post of vice-minister when Wang Mang summoned him after Wang Mang committed himself to politics. Xu Yuan later became a shaman practicing medicine when Wang Mang usurped the throne.

XXI ★ Jeon Uchi

Jeon Uchi had thorough knowledge of miscellaneous arts1 and wrote in a good style. One day, he called at the house of Gijae Shin Gwanghan2 and Song Insu3 arrived immediately. Shin Gwanghan looked up at Song Insu and pointed to Jeon Uchi, saying, “Do you know this guest? He is Mr. Jeon, a Taoist.” Song Insu responded to the remark, “I have heard of him from hearsay all the time like a person mentioned in a book. It is regretful that I meet him so late.” Shin Gwanghan suggested to Jeon Uchi, “Why do you not play a trick on him?” Jeon Uchi replied with a broad smile on his face, “How can you speak of a trick?” A while later, boiled rice mixed with water was brought for lunch from the master’s house. While Jeon Uchi was eating the boiled rice, he blew the grain out of his mouth toward the garden. All the grains were immediately transformed into white butterflies. They fluttered away. When Jeon Uchi once called to dine at the house of his friend, one of the assembly asked him, “Can you obtain a mythical peach growing in heaven?” Jeon replied, “What is the difficulty?” He asked for hundreds of fine straw rope. 1 The miscellaneous arts mentioned here refer to medical art, the art of divination, mountain wizardry, etc. 2 Shin Gwanghan (1484–1555) went by the nickname of Hanji or Sihoe and by the pen name of Gijae, Nakbong, Seokseonjae or Cheongseongdongju and was granted the posthumous title of Mungan. He was a grandson of Shin Sukju, a noted retainer during the reign of King Sejo. He was removed from office during the “Purge of Literati in 1519” but was reinstated in the government service. He secured high-ranking positions including Chief Royal Secretary and the Chair of State Council. 3 Song Insu (1487–1547) went by the nickname of Misu and by the pen name of Gyuam and was granted the posthumous title of Munchung. He secured the positions of chief editor in the Office of Special Advisers and vice-ministers of the Boards of Military Affairs, Rites, and Punishment. He took the highest post in the Office of Special Advisers where he gave lectures on the teachings of Zhu Xi. Song Insu was dismissed from office during the “Purge of Literati in 1545” and eventually bestowed poison as a death penalty.

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A servant brought them to him without delay. He pointed to a child and told him to come close. The child did what he was told to do. Jeon threw the straw rope toward the sky. The rope soared skyward into clouds, one end of which stretched loosely on the ground. Jeon Uchi asked the child to climb up on the rope, saying, “Many blue peaches hang on the other end of the rope. You ought to gather them and send them down.” All the company present came out of the house and simply saw the child seeping more and more into the sky. In a long while, blue peach trees on which fruits and leaves hung fell in a multitude. All the guests present vied with one another in picking out blue peaches and trying their flavor. The peaches were found full of sweet water. They were not ones produced in the world. All of a sudden, blood drops fell one by one from the sky. Jeon Uchi was startled out of his wits to say, “We have attempted to eat a peach but unnecessarily lost the life of a child.” The guests asked the reason with suspicion and Jeon answered, “A guard on the mythological peaches must have informed the Highest of the Heavenly Gods of Taoism and killed the child.” In an instant, one arm fell on the ground from the air and another arm subsequently fell. Two legs, the frame of the body and the head continually fell one by one. The guests present were frightened at the sight. All of them turned pale with fear. Jeon Uchi walked slowly and collected the legs, arms, and frame of the child. He joined them together into the original state. After a while, the child sat up slowly and ran away with hurried steps. All the company present looked at one another and laughed loudly. Some other day, Jeon Uchi was arrested in Sincheon4 on the charge of the bewilderment of people by magical tricks. He died in prison. The prefect of the county made people bury his body in the ground. But his relatives found his coffin empty when they dug his grave and opened the coffin to change his burial site. (This story appears in The Historical Romance of Eou.) One poem Jeon Uchi once composed reads, Cranes are in high spirits, but swallows flew jaggedly. Five-colored clouds accompany me on the way back from the three mountains. After I hang the hempen hood on a Samhwa Tree, 5 I sing a lyric on a gromwell, fiddling with the clean brook water.

4

Sincheon is the name of a place in Hwanghae Province. The lyric on a gromwell is said to refer to the lyric of one movement sung to the accompaniment of a zitherlike instrument with six strings. Four old men with white eyebrows and moustaches, such as Feudal Lord Dong Yuan, Qi Liji, Feudal Lord Xia Huang, and Master Luli, were said to do nothing but sing the lyric though Emperor Gaozu of the Chinese Han Empire sent for them. They had retired to hermitage in Mt. Shang to keep aloof from the social tumult during the reign of the First Emperor of Qin. 5

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The poem is roughly parallel to the words of a divine Taoist. The deceased father said that Jeon Uchi had called on him to borrow a set of The Poems of Du Gongbu.6 The father lent him the set without any idea of his death. However, he later heard that it had been already long since he was dead. Jasun Im Baekho7 often stated, “When I once met a Buddhist monk and took a careful look at a scroll of his poems, he found a poem titled ‘Letters 口十’ in Chinese characters. He thought that the title looked strange. He asked the monk what he meant by it. The monk replied, ‘I met with a scholar at a mountain temple a while ago. He said that his pen name was ‘Letters 口十.’ He composed this poem and gave it to me. I have no idea what his name is.’” Generally speaking, the Chinese letter “田” of Jeon is breakable into the letters “口” and “十,” so the letter “田” may stand for Jeon Uchi. Rumor says that he has not been dead. There are persons nowadays who have met him. (The story above appears in Collected Discourses of Osan.) Topical Discourses of Jibong says, “Jeon Uchi was originally a low-born scholar who lived in the capital city. He was a man of many talents who practiced magic arts very well and could manage ghosts. The poems he composed are circulated in the world, an epigram from which reads, When the moon shines on the clean window, plume blossoms go into ecstasy. When the blue sky has no speck of cloud, wild geese pass through the vast 8 universe.

These lines are like the words of those who attain spiritual enlightenment.” Collected Works of Mr. Anonym says, “Other people state that Jeon Uchi became a divine Taoist and was off. His poetry is very transparent and rises above the ways of the world. He composed a poem while he strolled around Samil Port reads. The poem reads, When the tide of frost moves clearly on a beautiful pond in late autumn, The heavenly wind blows the sound of a purple bamboo flute. 6

The Poems of Du Gongbu consists of twenty volumes of works by Du Fu, alias Du Gongbu, the greatest poet during the Chinese Tang Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Zimei and by the pen name of Shaoling. His poetry is said to express mental agony in a sublime style and is overflowing with honest and purehearted affections for natural facts. 7 Im Baekho (1549–1587) was a man of letters in the Joseon Dynasty who went by the real name of Je, by the nickname of Jasun and by the pen name of Baekho, Gyeomjae, Punggang or Sochi. He held a high-ranking post in the Board of Rites. However, he deplored party squabbles and led a wandering life by making frequent visits to noted mountains. He died before his time. He entered Mt. Songni at an early age and engaged in studies under the guidance of Seong Un. 8 Ancient Asian people spoke of the universe as the six spaces of heaven, earth, and the four directions of east, west, south, and north.

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Jeon Uchi A blue Luan bird hardly comes, but the sky is spacious above the ocean. 9 The autumn moon is bright on the thirty-six mountain peaks.

When I read this poem, I feel refreshed.”

9 Mt. Song in Dengfeng Prefecture in Henan Province in China has thirty-six peaks, in which supernatural beings were figuratively said to take residence.

XXII ★ Yun Gunpyeong

Yun Gunpyeong was a person living in the capital city. He met with a man of an usual ability on the way to Beijing and received The Scripture of Internal and External Scapes of Human Life. He acquainted himself with military arts in his youth and made himself familiar with the method of Taoist discipline. He was by far the best in Taoist magic with Jeon Ulchi for a while. Yun Gunpyeong died at the age of eighty. His corpse was very light as hollowed clothes. People say that he had his body dissected. Yun Im, his son, cultivated his religious sense and passed away at the age of ninety. (This story appears in Topical Discourses of Jibong.) Yun Im once said, “My deceased father put people on guard against eating to excess. He ascribed all diseases to the lack of moderation in eating and drinking. He always held four cold pieces of iron under his two arms by turns. They generated heat in a while as if they were heated in fire. He felt at ease only when heated pieces of iron were alternately replaced by cold ones. When they were not changed, he did not feel comfortable. He liked to take a bath in cold weather or in hot weather. He kept his shoulders and back cold and threw a jar of spring water over his back even on the winter solstice. So he finished his life free from diseases and passed away.” (The story above appears in The Detailed Accounts of Cheonggang.) Someone said, “Jeon Uchi mostly bewildered the people by evil magic.1 The district office of the government attempted to arrest him in vain. The office urged Yun Gunpyeong to bring him before the authority.” I would like to say that She Fashan2 was afraid of Zhang Guo3 in ancient times and Zhang Guo 1 The evil magic mentioned here implies a magical trick that is contrary to the principle of Confucianism. 2 She Fashan was a Taoist during the Chinese Tang Dynasty who went by the nickname of Daoyuan. He was a person from Guacang who acquainted himself with various magical arts including the cosmic dual forces of yin and yang, prognostication, and amulets and managed

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was afraid of Qing Chengwanglao.4 Jeon Uchi exercised his ability to sit down but run away without delay. However, he was then caught by Yun Gunpyeong. Is this story not a difference between a small shaman and a big shaman?

ghosts. He was summoned to the capital city during the reign of Emperor Gaozong and appointed to the post of Feudal Lord Honglu and conferred the title of “Sir Yueguo” during the reign of Emperor Ruizong. He died at the age of one hundred seven. He once asked Li Yong, a province governor, to compose an epitaph for his grandfather. When Li composed it in person, She Fashan again asked him to write it. However, Lie did not comply with the request. Li later dreamed that She Fashan brought paper, writing brushes, and ink stick to him and asked him to write the epitaph. Li could not help but write it. While he was writing the letter “丁” (pronounced “ding” in Chinese) in the epitaph, a bell rang. Li Yong said with big surprise, “I thought I dreamt at first, but it is real.” The epitaph has been called “Dingding Epitaph.” 3 Zhang Guo was a Taoist during the Chinese Tang Dynasty who retired to hermitage in Mt. Zhongtiao in Hengzhou and professed himself to have been born during the reign of King Yao. He was summoned to the capital city during the Kaiyuan Reign of Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty and conferred the title of nobility. He was called “Master Tongxuan.” He has been spoken of as one of eight Taoist hermits with supernatural powers in China, whom the people also called “Zhang Guolao” in esteem after they gave part of the name “Laozi” to him. Zhang Guo has been said to have trained his body to master the secrets of perennial youth and long life. He personally said to the people, “I have lived several hundred years.” 4 Qing Chengwanglao, written “淸城王老” in Chinese characters, is an unidentified person.

XXIII ★ A Divine Taoist in Mt. Hanla

In those times when County Magistrate Yang Sayeong and Lee Gyeongrok1 were in government service, a forest ranger once caught a white deer that could not have been seen in the past nor would be seen in the future. According to the words of a young Buddhist monk, deer made way to streams to drink water at night. When the forest ranger concealed himself by a rivulet at night, the herd of deer numbered dozens of hundreds came in crowds. One of them was big and white. A gray-haired old man mounted on the back of the white deer. The forest ranger was startled and held it strange. He did not shoot an arrow at the deer. He merely hit a deer lagging behind. A good while later, the old man riding the white deer seemed to take a roll call of the herd and suddenly went out of sight at a long whistle. (This story appears in A Record of Southern Rafts by Cheongeum. Cheongeum is the pen name of Kim Sangheon.2) 1 Lee Gyeongrok (1533–1599) was a military officer who enjoyed shooting with a bow and arrow and riding a horse from his childhood and was courageous and full of chivalry. He was appointed to the position of Declaration of War Officer and secured the post of Magistrate of Gyeongheung Prefecture. In the twentieth year (1587) of the reign of King Seonjo when a barbarian bandit invaded Nokdun Island, he defeated them with General Lee Sunshin but was punished for heavy damages on his forces. In the next year, he bravely served in a war on barbarians as a commoner and was later promoted to the posts of Magistrate of Gimhae Prefecture and Magistrate of Naju County. In the twenty-fifth year (1592) of the reign of King Seonjo when the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592 occurred, he provided Kim Cheonil with armament who raised an army in the cause of loyalty and was appointed to the post of Magistrate of Jeju County. 2 Kim Sangheon (1570–1652) went by the nickname of Sukdo and by the pen name of Cheongeum or Mountaineer Seoksil and was granted the posthumous title of Munjeong. He secured the high-ranking government positions of Attorney General, Vice-minister in the Office of Special Advisers and Minister of the Board of Rites during the reign of King Injo and Prime Minister during the reign of King Hyojong. He insistently argued against friendly relations during Mongol invasions and was pulled to Shenyang in China. He was examined

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A Survey of the Geography of Korea says, “A square rock is located in the out-of-the-way peak of Mt. Hanla. The rock has such a quadrilateral shape that a human being seems to have cut it off. A large patch of lawn makes a road beneath the rock. People often hear the fascinating sound of a reed instrument that consists of a number of pipes of different lengths but cannot locate the spot where the sound is produced. Thus, people say that a Immortal Taoist always visits the rock where he takes a ramble. Jeongui, Geumnyeong and Hamdeok are all prefectures of Jeju3 where a great number of Immortal Taoists are said to take residence.”

and put in jail for three years. The Chinese officials were moved by his fidelity to principles and set him free. He wrote Chinese characters in a very good hand. 3 Jeongui, Geumnyeong, and Hamdeok are all situated to the southeast of Jeju Island.

XXIV ★ Nam Sago

Nam Sago1 was a person from Uljin. He devoted himself to studies and went deep into The Classic of Changes. He was so well-versed in the sciences of astronomy, geomancy and divination that he curiously made good guesses at some words or acts. He took the state examinations for office several times in his hometown but failed them. His friends asked him, “You can tell others’ fortunes but do not divine your fortune. You idle your time away every year. What is the matter with you?” Nam Sago responded with a big smile on his face, “I cannot practice magical tricks from a selfish motive like an intention of having great personal success in life.” When he stayed at the capital city as a professor of astronomy in his declining years, the star that stood for an astronomical official got misted. Lee Beonsin, Director of Meteorological Observatory, said that the astronomical phenomenon is really applied to him. Nam Sago responded beaming with a smile, “The phenomenon will be applied to me.” Nam eventually died of illness a few months later, as expected. (This story appears in Collected Works of Mr. Anonym.) In his childhood, Nam Sago met a Buddhist monk on the way to Bulyeong Temple (located in Uljin) with books on his back. The monk stood on the roadside with a sack on his back and said to Nam, “This humble servant of Buddha has difficulty in walking. He is carrying a heavy burden on his back. I wish you would leave it in the care of your servant or horse, sir.” Nam Sago complied with his request with pleasure and arrived at the temple with the monk. 1

Nam Sago (1509–1571) was a soothsayer during the reign of King Myeongjong of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the pen name of Gyeokam. He was said to be so well-versed in the matters of geomancy, astronomy, divination of good and evil, and physiognomy that he made good guesses whenever he told persons’ fortunes. In the nineteenth year (1564) of the reign of King Myeongjong, Nam Sago predicted that Mt. Tae would be sealed in the next year. Nobody could figure it out. Queen Munjeong passed away in the next year and was buried in the Mausoleum Tae.

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A few days later when Nam sauntered about Buyong Fortress with the monk, the monk said to Nam, “This humble servant of Buddha can play baduk. How would you make a bet, sir?” Nam Sago responded, “All right.” The two eventually played baduk under a pine tree. The monk made a sound and went out of sight when the wager did not progress even to the half of the way. A good while later, the end of the monk’s nose began to appear in front of Nam. He gradually returned to the original shape and said, “Are you not afraid of me?” Nam Sago replied with a big smile on his face, “What can I stand in fear of?” The monk was pleased at the answer and said, “This humble servant of Buddha gave others charge of my traveling outfit several times. Each time I was flogged. You heartily took it with you, sir. Whenever I scared others by magical tricks, there were none that were not been frightened. You knew no fear. You deserve to be instructed, sir.” The monk initiated Nam Sago into the secrets of arts and said again, “You are truly a person of uncommon ability who can be high-minded and far-sighted. You can seek after truth and discipline yourself, sir. Make every endeavor assiduously.” When he finished his words, he shook the sleeves of his clothes and went out of sight. Nam Sago perceived the abstruse truth. His words marvelously did good all the time. While he once passed through the east of Yeongnam Region, he suddenly looked up at the sky. He was so extremely surprised that he fell off his horse. Nam Sago said, “A person who will do damage to Korea will make his appearance today.” It was heard later that Toyotomi Hideyoshi2 had been born on that day. Nam Sago once said toward the east in the clear morning that showed some symptoms of a tangled tide, “A thirst for blood is widespread. It is evil.” He also said to others, “Japanese pirates surely will invade on a large scale in the year of the dragon (the Imjin year, the twenty-ninth year of the sexagenary cycle). I will not see the horrible spectacle. You ought to be careful.” Nam Sago died soon. His words took effect. (The story above appears in Collected Discourses of Osan.) According to Topical Discourses of Jibong, Lee Dal3 said in an elegy for Nam Gyeokam: 2 Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598) was the second of the three unifiers of Japan in the sixteenth century who unsuccessfully invaded Korea in 1592 and 1597 in order to secure a bridgehead for the conquest of China. He rose from humble status to power by means of his skills as a general and a politician. He was the homeless son of a peasant but rose to become the complete master of Japan by 1590. He attempted to unify Japan not only through brutal force but also by the arts of peace and administration. He intended to establish a national structure which allowed regional feudatories to remain independent but cooperate with one another. He made the “samurai,” the professional soldiers of Japan, into a separate class and prohibited anyone except the samurai from carrying weapons. 3 Lee Dal (1561–1618) was a Chinese poem composer during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Ikji and by the pen name of Songok. He was

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He left on a blue Luan bird for a tree in the sun-setting place. 4 Who was another one beneath the bamboo blind of Yan Yunping ? When I gather the rough copy my disciple left in the east of my bed, 5 Spring has come to a jade cave where peach blooms hang on ten thousand branches.

Gyeokam is the pen name of Nam Sago. He was said to have once met a man of unusual ability. Under his guidance, he realized a real truth and was eventually versed in secret arts. At one time, Nam Sago said that the country would nearly perish if a person riding a white horse comes from the South Sea in the year of the dragon. Some other day, Kato Kiyomasa, a Japanese general, indeed came on a white horse. He also said at one time that the fires of war would not reach Mt. Taebaek within five thousand years. A Buddhist monk in Mt. Taebaek says that a grandchild born of his concubine is still living in the ancient house site.

absorbed in reading from his early days and wrote in a good style. He secured the government post of an official in charge of Chinese writings in the archives and document section. 4 Yan Yunping was a person from the land of Shu during the Chinese Han Dynasty who went by the personal name of Zun and by the nickname of Yunping. He studied Laozi and made a living by fortune-telling in Chengdou. He died at the age of ninety. 5 A jade cave refers to a Taoist hermit’s or a supernatural being’s place of residence.

XXV ★ Park Jihwa

Park Jihwa was a government official in the Office of Diplomatic Documents who went by the nickname of Gunsil and by the pen name of Suam. He engaged in studies under the guidance of Seo Hwadam at one time. Park Jihwa made an extensive tour of noted mountains from his youth and ate only small amounts of pine needles, jujubes, and chestnuts except grains. He lived together with scholars in mountain temples. He wore a suit of cotton clothes during the whole one-month period. He slept with his head on books at night, on his left side for fifteen days and on his right side for another fifteen days. His cotton clothes became smoothed out all the time as if ironed out anew. Park Jihwa excelled in all the three fields of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. He wrote Chinese characters in an excellent ornamental “seal” style. He wrote in a good detailed style of broad and deep knowledge. Both his poetry and prose had lofty virtues. Park Jihwa once wrote an elegy for Gwang Cheonwi, a son-in-law of the king. Jeong Jiseung never praised Park enough, saying, “This person is of low birth but occupies the highest position in the world of poets.” The poem reads, Having primarily parted from each other into the east and the west, 1 The Vega and the Altair enjoy the five human blessings in order and to the full. They ate soup and rice cakes in jade bowls on that year But ride together on a phoenix at a bamboo heights today. When gentlemen perform a ceremony with proper decorum, Clouds cover the splendid house and get a Buddhist image enchanted. The house is placed in the princess’s garden. They gaze at each other But hardly bears the luxuriance of spring plants.

1

death.

The five human blessings refer to longevity, wealth, health, love of virtue, and peaceful

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When Park Jihwa was seeing the sights of Mt. Geumgang, he jumped among bottomless depths and soaring heights at a rapid pace even at the age of more than seventy as if he were flying over them. Thus, Buddhist monks thought him strange. While he lived in the capital city, he closed up all sides and sat up straight in one room all day long. He led a calm and lonely life as if in a forest. When Japanese soldiers invaded the capital city during the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, Park Jihwa went with Jeong Goinghae to Satam Village in Mt. Baekun to escape from the Japanese pirates. The Japanese invaders drew even near the mountain, so Jeong departed with his family. While Suam took leave of him, he said, “I cannot follow you because I am old and tired. You can find me here on some other day.” Many days later when the Japanese invaders withdrew gradually, Jeong Goinghae went to see Suam but could not find him. He found nothing but a piece of paper hung on a branch of a tree on the bank of a stream, on which Du Fu’s verse with five Chinese characters in each line was written. The poem implies that Park Jihwa was drowned to death of his own accord in the midst of the stream under a tree while he held a stone in his arms. The poem reads, Placed outside the mountain clouds that reach the royal palace, My house is not brought any letter of tidings. A wayfarer who composed poems of ethereal relations Is enervated, staring blankly toward his hometown. He is weak and ill, lying down on the bank of a river. His friend is a long way off even when the sun sets. A seagull makes it an original rule to sleep in waters, Over what does it have a heartrending sorrow?

This poem turns out true in everything. It is truly an elegy for Suam himself. Jeong Goinghae pulled up his body and covered it with grass. Somebody suspects he was dissolved into water. A Taoist book says that the dissolution of the body is done in the ways of the changes of the five primary substances of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. (This story appears in The Historical Romance of Eou.) According to Collected Works of Jeho Yang Gyeongu,2 “Park Jihwa once went down to the land of Pocheon to avoid Japanese invaders when he was seventy years old by that time. He climbed a mountain and concealed himself in the forest. He said to people one day, ‘Of what use am I until this year that I 2

Yang Gyeongu (1568-?) was a person from Namwon who went by the nickname of Jajeom and by the pen name of Jeho or Jeomyeokjae. He secured the government post of an inspector in the Office of Sacrificial Rites and Posthumous Titles.

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should struggle to lead such a humiliating life?’ He eventually asked his family to wash his clothes. He intended to kill himself on a certain day he would set. Those who stayed close to him did not dare to deter him from the suicide. When the fixed date came, he changed his clothes. “Park Jihwa followed a mountain range and descended down to an abysmal chasm. He was rambling beneath a pine tree. When people went to see him about the time of sunset, they found that he had entered the deep inside. He sat up straight with hands held together. They carried him by holding him among themselves because he would not lean to one side. They buried him temporarily beside a bog.” Collected Works of Taekdang Lee Sik writes, “Park Jihwa had wide knowledge and wrote in a good style. He was versed in Neo-Confucianism. A person named Seo Gi was of humble birth but so well-acquainted with the Confucian classics that he taught students. The two persons liked to do the sights of mountains and waters and retired to a hermitage in noted mountains. Both of them were under Seo Hwadam’s instruction. Rumor says that Park Jihwa became a divine Taoist and Seo Gi learned magic formula for looking ahead into the future. I heard that Seo Hwadam had such a great appearance and attitude that he exercised good influences.”

XXVI ★ Lee Jiham

Lee Jiham1 went by the nickname of Hyeongbaek and by the pen name of Tojeong. He was made an orphan in his early days and took lessons from his brother. He became a son-in-law taken into the family of Mo Sansu but returned to his home the next day. He forgot taking his Korean full-dress attire with him. When his family members asked the reason for it, he answered, “I saw young beggars becoming ill and quivering from the cold. I cut the attire into three pieces and distributed them to the beggars.” The listeners thought that his remark was strange. Lee Jiham was well-acquainted with almost all books including religious scriptures and collections of literary works. He promptly wrote compositions with a pen as if the ink made a quick rise. When he saw a neighbor who had passed the Erudite Examination, he made light of the person in the bottom of his mind. When he entered the state examination hall, he did not write a composition nor did he hand in his composition. When asked the reason for this, he replied, “A human being is bound to have his or her own taste for something. I enjoyed doing that kind of thing.” 1

Lee Jiham (1517–1578) was a scholar during the Joseon Dynasty who was granted the posthumous title of Mungang. He was a descendant of Mokeun Lee Saek and engaged in studies under the guidance of Seo Gyeongdeok. He was well-acquainted with Chinese classics, history, and sages and had good knowledge of mathematic. He thought of respect and research as basic principles of science. He obtained a government post in compensation for his noble conduct in the sixth year (1573) of the reign of King Seonjo and secured the posts of Magistrate of Pocheon and Asan Prefecture. During his period of service in the position of Magistrate of Asan Prefecture, he established the Office of Beggars for relief works. He behaved as a man of unusual ability, whose anecdotes of rare wisdom, prophecy, and magical tricks were told. He was on such good terms with Lee Yulgok that the great scholar recommended him to study the doctrines of Zhuzi. However, he replied that he was too ambitious to study them. Lee Jiham was noted as the author of The Secrets of Tojeong.

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Lee Jiham made his livelihood with empty hands and heaped up more than 1,500 bushels of grains in a few years. He entered the sea and planted gourds there. He split them in two and made gourd dippers. Lee Jiham sold the dippers and bought 5,120 bushels of grain to serve all of them to the poor and needy. However, his wife and children always went hungry. Lee Jiham visited almost all mountains and streams in the country, even the remotest ones. He repeatedly went to some places to avoid the summer heat or the winter cold. Nobody identified the places. He ate no cooked food for more than ten days, nor did he drink water in high summer. Lee Jiham knocked about here and there, putting on cotton clothes and straw shoes and carrying the paper mulberry on the back. While he wandered about, he put on an iron crown. He often took off the crown and used it as an iron pot. He put it on again after he washed it clean. When Lee Jiham climbed a mountain to find a burial place where he intended to bury his grandparents, he foresaw that two prime ministers would be born during his posterity, the lastborn of whom would suffer a sinister fate. Thus, he decided the fate on purpose that he might meet with the misfortune of his own accord. Later, both Lee Sanhae2 and Lee Sanbo3 indeed obtained the highestranking posts in the government. In the year of the fowl (1573), (the Gyeyu year, the tenth year of the sexagenary cycle), the year of the Wanli4 Reign, he was recommended for the post of Magistrate of Pocheon Prefecture in compensation for his distinguished achievements. He had every intention of leaving public office. When he was returning to his hometown, the townspeople stood in his way and dissuaded him from quitting office. He could not help but hold his post.

2 Lee Sanhae (1538–1609) was a civil minister during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Yeosu and by the pen name of Agye ore Jongnamsuung and was granted the posthumous title of Munchung. He prosecuted the crimes of the three Yuns, such as Yun Dusu, Yun Geunsu, and Yun Hyeon, when he secured the post of inspector-general. Lee Sanhae was later appointed to the post of prime minister. He was intelligent from his earliest days and engaged in studies under the guidance of Tojeong, his uncle, at the age of five. He wrote in a good hand at the age of six and was called a prodigy. 3 Lee Sanbo (1539–1594) was an illustrious retainer during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Junggeo and by the pen name of Myeonggok and was granted the posthumous title of Chunggan. He secured the various government posts of Magistrate of Haemi Prefecture, Secret Inspectory, Attorney General, and Censor-General. After he visited the Chinese Ming Empire as an imperial birthday embassy, he held the posts of Attorney General and Governor of Hwanghae Province. During the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, he filled the government posts of Censor-General and Minister of the Board of Personnel. He died while he was coping with the great famine in 1594. 4 Wanli refers to the name of the chronological era of Chinese Emperor Shenzong of the Ming Dynasty.

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Later, during his term of office as the Magistrate of Asan Prefecture, he died at the age of sixty-two. Kim Gyehwi5 asked Yulgok, “What sort of a person is Hyeongbaek?” Yulgok replied, “To compare the man to an object, he is a rare bird, an oddlyshaped stone, a singular flower or a queer plant.” (This story appears in Records Illustrious Retainers.) Tojeong liked to row a ship. Once when he amused himself in the sea, he saw an old man go slowly by ship. Tojeong held him extraordinary. He chased the old man by rowing his ship in a hurry but could not catch up with him though he rowed to the utmost of his ability all day long. The old man looked back at him and said with a broad smile on his face, “You cannot show more tact in rowing a ship than to that extent. I will teach you how to row a ship. Though a violent gale produces turbulent waves, sweeps over the ground and shakes the sky, you never meet with any accidents. You can go the long way of ten thousand miles in an instant.” Afterwards, Tojeong went to Jeju Island three times by a small ship to whose four corners he tied big gourd dippers. He was never swept away by any storm, nor did he encounter any disasters. He could come to the state of recognizing the gateway of every river from which sea water is excreted without cease. Tojeong composed a poem at one time, which reads I have my two feet strong to wander long around the world. My one hundred-year old body is light as a gourd dipper.

This poem reflects his life as it has been. Tojeong once sat up alone and muttered to himself, “Ten years later, a fire will break out in the nation. What will become of the country? What will become of the country?” He told his wife and children to practice laboring to go up and down the rear garden while carrying a heap of earth on their backs. This story shows that he knew the outbreak of the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592 in advance. Some people tell the following story”: “Tojeong went on board a ship at Mapo Port to the ocean with his friend and cast anchor at an island. The island was surrounded with rugged mountains in layers. Tojeong looked back at the friend and said to him, ‘You stay here for a while. I will go into the heart of the 5

Kim Gyehwi (1526–1582) was a civil minister during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Junghoi and by the pen name of Hwanggang. He secured high-ranking government posts including Senior Royal Secretary, Senior Censor in the Censor-General and Senior Adviser in the Office of Special Advisers. He visited the Chinese Ming Empire as an envoy. He was a man of broad view, high intelligence, and erudition who were well-acquainted with all affairs.

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mountain and stay there a little while before I come back.’ He eventually climbed up a cliff. His friend trailed after him and examined the course of the path he took. The friend found a steep blue precipice that rose more than one hundred feet. He roamed about and saw three or four beautiful ladies who stayed on the top of the mountain and seemed to wait for someone. “Tojeong sprang up on the peak, exchanged a pleasant smile with the ladies and went out of sight. His friend did not understand what happened and returned to the ship where he lay on his back. Tojeong eventually returned and said, ‘You have taken pains to wait for me?’ When the friend asked him where he had gone, he did not answer his friend with a broad smile on his face. They finally veered the ship and returned. Nobody can identify what the ladies Tojeong met with are.” (The story above appears in The Historical Romance of Eou.) Lee Yulgok said in the funeral address of Tojeong, “Dachun6 towers high among trees that grow thick and a ganoderma lucidum stands out above grasses that grow sparsely. How strange! The gentleman is also called a divine Taoist who stays in the water.” Collected Works of Taekdang Lee Sik says, “The gentleman led a quiet life to keep aloof from the world. Toegye7 regarded his disposition as noble and kept good company with him. The gentleman earlier became the Magistrate of Asan Prefecture and kept control over deceitful government officials. He suddenly died one day. Thus, people suspected if he had been killed by poison. However, Tojeong would not meet with a heinous accident because he had the spirit and will of a ghost that enabled him to know others or get a hint of them.”

6

Dachun, written “大椿” in Chinese characters, refers to a big chinaberry tree in an ancient Chinese myth, a tree whose spring and autumn seasons each had a period of 80,000 years. Thirty-two thousand years of the tree’s life corresponded to a one-year span of a human being’s life. 7 Toegye is the pen name of Lee Hwang (1501–1570), the foremost Korean Confucianist philosopher in the middle of the Joseon Dynasty. He entered the National Confucian Academy in the eighteenth year (1523) of the reign of King Jungjong and passed the Triennial Erudite Examination in 1534. He held several high government posts and established Dosan Private Academy, where he made efforts to engage in studies and cultivate men of talent. Toegye proceeded to develop a full explication of the primacy of the basic principles of nature to its atmospheric force which Lee Eonjeok stressed. He followed the dualistic position of Zhuzi that explicates the two fundamental elements of the universe but gave primary emphasis to the formative or normative element (理) as the basis of the activity of the concretizing and energizing element (氣). He understood the vital determinative pattern as lying at the foundation of nature and spoke of human moral volition as being existentially based on the pattern.

XXVII ★ An Old Buddhist Monk in Mt. Hangye

An old Buddhist monk in Mt. Hangye cannot be identified. He always dozed on his knees in a library in a temple in Mt. Hangye. Sangguk Lee Wonik1 happened to stop by the temple before he did not pass the Erudite Examination. The old monk found Wonik considerably well-mannered. The monk sat straight up for a good while, picked out a piece of paper and wrote a few words on the paper. When he threw the piece of paper into the air, it was not a long time until a crane on which an Immortal Taoist rides descended into the yard. The crane turned round and round. Lee Wonik held it strange. When he asked the reason, the monk said in surprise, “I will communicate with that scholar because he alone can see the thing that others cannot see. Follow me if you would like to see a wonderful spectacle.” The old monk went out on a goosefoot stick. Lee Wonik followed him. When they eventually climbed the peak of a mountain at the back of the temple, Wonik found that the path on which he treaded was all littered with jades and shells. The path looked so luxurious. He asked, “How many jewels are spread?” The monk replied, “Beads and jades exist everywhere. None but those who are not greedy for them are able to see them. You deserved to be instructed.” All of a sudden, the music of a reed instrument consisting of a number of pipes of different lengths was heard from clouds. Five-colored clouds appeared on the snow-capped peak. The old monk was hesitant on the ridge. He gazed at the snow-capped peak and did not intend to go forward. When Lee Wonik took a 1

Lee Wonik (1547–1634) was a civil minister during the reigns of Prince Gwanghae and King Injo, who went by the nickname of Gongnyeo and by the pen name of Ori and was granted the posthumous title of Munchung. He was a grandson of Prince Iknyeong, a son of King Taejong. Lee Wonik secured several high-ranking government posts including Attorney General, Minister of the Board of Personnel and Prime Minister. He visited the Chinese Ming Empire as an envoy in 1573. He had such a righteous personality that he hated social fellowship and was concerned only with public affairs.

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step forward to ask him, the monk said, “This place is where those who have ascended to heaven and become Immortal Taoists take a ramble. The prime minister in the human world does not dare to visit the place.” They just turned to the lower place and descended the mountain. Later, Lee Wonik passed the state examination for office and became a royal secretary in charge of royal order. He left office and led a life of leisure. Lee Wonik made an excursion to Mt. Hangye but could not meet with the old monk. He attempted to find the pass to the peak of the mountain at the back of the temple but got lost. Then, he recognized that the old monk was truly an Immortal Taoist. (This story appeared in The Historical Romance of Eou.)

XXVIII ★ Yu Hyeongjin

Heo Gyun1 said, “I was summoned by the king to a riverside in the year of the horse (1606) when I was a vice-general. I happened to meet with Won Sari, the head priest of Naewon Hermitage in Seongju Temple in Uiju and lodge with him in the same residential quarters of a high priest. I asked Won Sari, ‘Mt. Myohyang is such a splendid and remote sight of many crooked ridges and high layered peaks that people cannot enter the mountain. Immortal divine Taoist must live there. Have you ever met with such a being who would come from and go to the mountain?’ Won Sari replied, ‘This humble servant of Buddha was in Mt. Duryu for a long time. Just six or seven years have passed since I stayed in Mt. Myohyang. I have such an indolent disposition that I have not made an intensive investigation into its picturesque scenery. Nor have I met a divine Taoist yet. However, I have seen a man of unusual ability in autumn of the year of the hare (1603) (the Gyemyo year, the fortieth year of the sexagenary cycle).’ “When I (Heo Gyun) asked Won Sari what the hermit was like, he gave the following story: 1

Heo Gyun (1569–1618) was a civil minister and novelist during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Danbo and by the pen name of Gyosan, Seongso or Buddhist Devotee Baekwol. He secured high-ranking government posts including Chief Annotator in the Office of Annals Compilation, a senior official in the Board of Punishment and Magistrate of Suan Prefecture. When he served as a government official of Hwanghae Province, he was dismissed from office under accusation of the call of entertaining girls in the capital city. He was renowned as a fine stylist when he received Zhu Zhifan, an envoy from the Chinese Ming Empire. When he visited the Ming Empire as an envoy, he became a first Roman Catholic and brought Catholic books and rosary to Korea. He resisted against the unlawful oppression of Prince Gwanghae and joined in the insurrection. The plot was laid bare, so he was beheaded in 1618. He was the author of The Legend of Hong Gildong, a representative masterpiece of the Joseon Dynasty that criticizes the contradiction and corruption of the Joseon society.

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This humble servant of Buddha stayed in Bohyeon Temple in September of that year. In the east appeared an old man of a commanding appearance with a glossy face and flying whiskers who put on worn-out clothes sewn with numberless stitches. He had extremely polite manners. He said, ‘Where is Mr. Han Muoi,2 a classics licentiate?’ Persons who sat down there could not answer the question. A Buddhist monk who had earlier seated himself at Geumseon Heights knew the man and responded, ‘Mr. Han has now made trips between Deokcheon and Gaecheon for more than thirty years. His features have never been changed. When he entered the mountain area, he wandered about in it for one or two years. There was a place in Hyangno Peak where the Buddhist ritual of prayer for blessings could be performed while paper lanterns were lighted. Mr. Han said that he could skillfully ascend the peak which rumor said nobody could go up. I recently stopped by a government office for a matter and heard that he would certainly come back in the eleventh month of the lunar calendar.’ The old man was disappointed at the statement and found his way back. I went to the Naewon Hermitage when the eleventh month of the lunar calendar came. The monk informed me that Han Muoi came to Geumseon Heights a moment ago. I immediately went there at the risk of a snowstorm and found a skinny scholar who seemed to be around forty years old clad in rags and lay on his back on hemp bedclothes with his head on a clay pillow. When I asked him in detail where he was from, he answered me at first that he was from the capital city. He later said that he was from Cheongju. He gave ambiguous answers. I stayed there a few more days and observed him. I knew that he did nothing but sleep and eat from morning to evening. When I asked him certain questions, he sometimes answered me or did not respond to me. When more than ten days passed as expected, an old man with lustrous face and flying moustache suddenly came upon Han Muoi. The old man made a low bow 2 Han Muoi (1517–1610) was a scholar from Cheongju during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty. He was a man of chivalrous spirit who kept to himself all entertaining girls in the local government office of Cheongju. One day he killed the husband of an entertaining girl and ran away to Yeongbyeon in Pyeongan Province to avoid the act of retaliation. He met Gwak Chiheo there, from whom he learned secret recipes of medicine. Han Muoi indulged himself in Taoism and Buddhism. Even when he was eighty years old, he had his shining eyes and jet-black moustache. Heo Gyun met with Han Muoi and held him a man of unusual ability. They made their home together and learned the science of the secrets for becoming a Taoist hermit with supernatural powers together. Han Muoi said to Heo, “If you would learn the principles of a Taoist hermit with supernatural powers, you should not plot assassination, nor punish innocent people, nor deceive people, nor collect treasures, no be stingy to poor people, nor seek carnal pleasures, nor play miscellaneous games.” Han Muoi remained unmarried for forty years. He was poor but never disgraced as a teacher. He died free from diseases and was buried in Sunan. Five or six years later after he passed away, his friend met with him in Mt. Myohyang and found that he was of young countenance. The friend asked him, “How can you become younger than before though people say that he died?” He said with a broad smile on his face, “That is a lie.”

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to him and mourned bitterly while taking firm hold of his hands. A good while later, they whispered in their ears for a long time. Our three people eventually shared the same room and lodged in the same house. The old man ate or drank nothing for more than one month. One day, he was about to leave all at once. When Han Muoi asked the old man where he intended to go, he answered, ‘The monk with whom I have been on good terms since I stayed in the south is now in the Northern Heights. I gave my word that I would pass the winter with him. I have to keep the promise.’ The old man went off. When I asked Han Muoi who the old man was, he replied, ‘The person once 3 learned how to make an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar. His family name is Yu. He served as a local governor of Eunjin at one time.’ I asked him again, ‘Does that benefactor indeed practice magical tricks?’ Han Muoi answered, ‘The method of making an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar refers to the great Tao of Huang Di and Laozi. If a person perceives the truth, he or she can enjoy longevity. So how can we speak of the truth in equal measure to the worldly method and art?’ I kept on asking Han Muoi, ‘Have you already perceived the way of immortality?’ He answered, ‘I was also initiated by my mentor into the secrets of the way and disciplined myself for many years. I have not satisfactorily rendered distinguished services or undergone discipline.’ Many days later, I returned to the Naewon Hermitage to do my work. I heard later that Han Muoi had left the Geumson Heights for the Northern Heights where he took up his abode. Nobody now knows where he has gone.

“I (Heo Gyun) heard this story and regarded it as very doubtful. I had no further information concerning Han Muoi. When I later had an audience with Prime Minister Baeksa Lee Hangbok,4 we happened to speak of Yu Hyeongjin. Prime Minister Lee told the following story in surprise: 3 Yu Hyeongjin was a man during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who loved books on Taoism from his earliest days. He carried The Gradation and Equality of All Creation with himself at all times and was well-acquainted with the ideas of Taoism. He had a glowing complexion even at the age of sixty. During the Second Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1597, his wife and children were all killed, so he entered the mountain area and covered his traces. When he was once the Magistrate of Eunjin Prefecture, he gave a warm reception for a Buddhist monk. He was said to have met the monk in Mt. Myohyang later and concealed himself together with him. 4 Lee Hangbok (1556–1618) was an illustrious retainer during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Jasang and by the pen name of Baeksa, Pilun or Enlightened Taoist Cheonghwa. He secured several high-ranking government posts including Minister of the Board of Personnel, Right Deputy Prime Minister, and Prime Minister. He visited the Chinese Ming Empire to ask for the dispatch of forces as the Minister of the Board of Military Affairs during the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592 and efficiently wound up the affairs of the post-war. He stood aloof from party strife and faction and took the trouble of mediation. He argued against the dethronement of the Queen Mother led by Lee Yicheom in 1617 and was removed from office and exiled to Bukcheong in South Hamkyeong Province where he died.

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The personal name of Yu was Hyeongjin and a son-in-law of Oh Gyeom, the Chair of State Council. He loved books on Taoism from his earliest days. He trained himself in modulating his breathing and swallowing his saliva. He did not decline in health even at the age of sixty. During the Second Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1597, Yu was bereft of his family by Japanese invaders and concealed his whereabouts. When he once served as the Magistrate of Eunjin Prefecture, Yu Hyeongjin showed a Buddhist monk hospitality. Between the year of the dog (1598) (the Musul year, the thirty-fifth year of the sexagenary cycle) and the year of the swine (1599) (the Gihae year, the thirty-sixth year of the sexagenary cycle), Yu met with the monk in Mt. Myohyang. Yu told him that he alone was saved from death by Japanese pirates. Yu said that he had no residence and rendered himself invisible in the mountain. I once regarded the statement as nonsense. My son also heard of it. I held it only strange. Gosan Gwongon said as well, “Gentleman Yu Hyeongjin, my uncle on my mother’s side, was well-acquainted with the ideas of Taoism. He carried The 6 Gradation and Equality of All Creation and The Book on Spiritual Enlightenment with himself at all times. My uncle unexpectedly advised others to disciple themselves when he met with them. He did not decline in health but had a glossy countenance even when he advanced in years. He was bereft of his wife and children in the war by Japanese invaders. My uncle left his house and entered the mountain area, so nobody knows his whereabouts.”

Accordingly, the person whom Won Sari met the other day is certainly Yu Hyeongjin. We can know that he learned the religious truth and took a new lease of life. “Byeon Heon 7 met a person called ‘Classics Licentiate Han’ in Mt. Myohyang who fasted for ten days and usually washed himself naked in cold spring water. The person said that he was more than eighty years old but robust 5

Oh Gyeom (1496–1582) was a person during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Gyeongbu and by the pen name of Jijokam. He engaged in studies under the guidance of Seobong Yu U. He secured government posts of Left Chair of State Council and Right Deputy Prime Minister. 6 The Book on Spiritual Enlightenment consists of three volumes of one hundred poems by Zhang Boduan (984~1082) in the Chinese Song Dynasty, on which Weng Baoguang made comments and to which Dai Pizong of the Yuan Dynasty appended notes. The book elucidates the main points of making an elixir of life by boiling cinnabar and carries one of the two faces of Taoism while The Gradation and Equality of All Creation carries the other. 7 Byeon Heon (1570–1636) was a man of letters during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Sijae, by the pen name of Mountaineer Samil, Posterity Palgye or Uyong and by the Buddhist name of Ssangik. He joined the army of Buddhist soldiers in the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592. He excelled in composing Chinese poems and was praised for good writing by Chinese people when he followed an envoy to the Ming Empire.

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like a young boy. He was said to have profound knowledge of Laozi and Classics of Changes. I heard from Buddhist monk Seok Yongwon that Han Muoi had already become a divine Taoist and had gone out of sight. “Another Buddhist monk said, ‘I heard that a person with a glossy countenance and flying moustache had just now come to Mt. Duryu, though his dwelling place could not be identified. The person must be Yu Eunjin (alias Yu Hyeongjin). Yu Hyeongjin always regretted that he could not enter the Buddhist priesthood because he was taken up with the care of his wife and children. When he lost his family, he suddenly entered the mountain area. He cultivated the inherent disposition and completed the great task that he really liked to perform.’ “Alas! That is truly strange as well. How can Han Muoi hold Gentleman Yu Hyeongjin by the sleeve on the heights for Taoist hermits with supernatural powers? How can he listen to what the gentleman would elucidate the principles of the innate disposition? How can he finally flutter away?” (This story is cited from Collected Works of Mr. Anonym. The same is as above.)

XXIX ★ Jang Hanung

Mountaineer Jang went by the personal name of Hanung, but the town where he was from is not identified. His ancestors practiced medicine as a family profession during the period of three generations. His father was said to be able to recognize and handle ghosts since he once ate the perennial root of Shanglu.1 The father looked like a forty-year-old person even at the age of ninety-eight. He left the house, so nobody knows where he died. When he left the house, he gave the mountaineer two books named The Scripture of Jade Nuclei 2 and The Application and Change of Abstruse Principles.3 Mountaineer Jang received the books and read them tens of thousands times. He was also easily able to invoke spirits and cure evil diseases. When he finished studying such magic, he suddenly left home at the age of forty and entered Mt. Jiri. Mountaineer Jang met with a person of unusual ability in the mountain and was initiated into the methods of taming ghosts. He ate nothing for three years in an empty hermitage while he was reading more than ten books on the study of Taoist truth. One day, while Jang Hanung was walking in a mountain valley, two Buddhist monks followed him. When he entered into the woods, a pair of tigers stepped out to receive him. When the mountaineer gave the tigers a scolding, 1

Shanglu refers to an acute perennial root of Asian medicine used to cure edema, sequela, and diuresis. 2 The Scripture of Jade Nuclei is said to be a forged book of Taoism which private citizens read when they had their fortune told and performed sacrificial rites during the Joseon Dynasty. Blind persons or sorcerers used to read the book when they performed exorcism to cure diseases or fall into trance. When the book was read, almost all ghosts were believed to move even in an enormous distance. The scripture does not belong to the Chinese canons of Taoism. It is the Taoist book of popular beliefs which Wang Shizheng concluded that Du Guangting had fabricated. 3 The Application and Change of Abstruse Principles is of doubtful provenance.

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they wagged their tails with their ears dangled. They seemed to plead for life. Mountaineer Jang rode on one of the tigers and let the two monks mount the other together. When they arrived in front of the gate of a temple building, the tigers threw themselves flat on their stomachs and took their leave. The mountaineer stayed in the mountain for eighteen years. He eventually returned to the capital city and lived outside of Hongin Gate. He did not decline in health even at the age of sixty. There was an empty house next door in the vicinity of Jang Hanung’s. People would not enter into the house because they regarded it as an ill omen. The owner of the house asked the mountaineer to offer a prayer. When the mountaineer entered the house in the middle of the night, two ghosts stepped forth to say on their knees, “We are gods in charge of kitchens. A vicious snake occupied our positions and played sly games. Please get rid of it.” The ghosts pointed to the roots of a zelkova tree in the garden. When the mountaineer spouted the water of incantation, a big snake of human face with eyes like mirrors was crawling out meanderingly after a while. The snake was dead before it had the half of its body crawl along. When he made the snake burn away, the haunted house was exorcised. When Mountaineer Jang Hanung amused himself catching fish with other people on Salgoji Bridge,4 he picked out dead fish. He put them in a washbasin and threw some medicine onto them with a spoon. The dead fish sprang up and came back to life. Some people attempted to test him with a dead pheasant. He also put medicine into its bill and it immediately beat its wings and returned to life. All the people held it strange. When they asked if he could save a dead person, the mountaineer replied, “Generally speaking, a human being comes into existence and displays his or her emotions in his or her own way. His or her three spirits and seven genii5 finish really leaving their dwelling places three years later. Thus, a dead person cannot be restored to life by medicine.” Mountaineer Jang Hanung was unfortunately unable to understand writings very well, but he liked sentences of his own accord. He was called a person with tiny downward-slanted eyes but could easily read small letters in the darkness even though he did not step forward some place brightened at night. He liked to 4

Salgoji Bridge was a traditional model of Korean bridge that was frequently constructed during the Joseon Dynasty. The bridge was formed through the following process: giant stone pillars were erected in the river, supporting stones were piled up on them into a long rectangular plate, the plate was paved with long shelving stones as if paving a floored room with stones, and a passage was finally made. 5 Taoism speaks of a human being’s soul as having the shapes of three spirits and seven genii in specific detail. The three spirits refer to the “Great Light,” “Clear Psyche,” and “Abstruse Mind,” expressed in Chinese characters “太光,” “爽靈,” and “幽精,” respectively, which reside in the human body. The seven genii are said to dwell in two ears, two eyes, two nostrils, and one mouth.

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play miscellaneous games, such as brewing raw rice wine in a bottle made of hemp cloths and getting a fire going in a paper can. All the events that used to dazzle common people cannot be placed on record. There was a person named Lee Hwa who was noted for his fortune-telling. Mountaineer Jang Hanung treated him as his younger brother. Jang Hanung often corrected the fortune of other people that Lee Hwa had told by mistake. Thus, Lee Hwa always made good hits but never once dared to bestow praise on the mountaineer. Lee Hwa just said, “The mountaineer is always surrounded with three thousand gods on both sides. He is really a man of unusual ability.” When the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592 occurred, Mountaineer Jang Hanung was seventy-four years old. He disposed of his family property and distributed it among his cousins. He wore a Buddhist monk’s robe and carried nothing but a stick. He took to Mt. Soyo in May. He said to a monk, “My life will come to an end this year. Don’t fail to remate me.” Before long, Japanese pirates invaded and he at once suffered a sword stroke on his knees. He shed blood that looked like white oil and kept his body from falling down on the ground. All of a sudden, the thunder crashed and rumbled. The Japanese invaders left with fear. When the Buddhist priest living in the mountains burned his body to ashes, a luminary shined toward the sky at all hours for three days. Seventy-two sariras appeared out of his ashes, which were about the size of water chestnuts and had the color of dark blue. All the sariras were preserved in a pagoda. In September of that year when Mountaineer Jang Hanung appeared in the house of Jeong Bung in Ganghwa Island, Jeong did not know that the mountaineer had already died. People said that he had been dissected by a sword. Jeong Bung divined good or ill luck by the shapes, lights and movements of clouds and identified persons’ temperaments by their countenances and bearings. He was well-acquainted with astrology after he met the mountaineer. Jeong Bung made many good guesses curiously. He became an officiating priest6 but did not go into government service. Yang Yesu,7 a chief government officer in charge of medical practices and pharmaceutical dispensing, once compiled A 6 An officiating priest usually performed sacrificial rites in the ancestral shrine of the royal family, in a household shrine, in a Buddhist sanctum, in a palace, in a royal mausoleum or in a temple, during the Joseon Dynasty. 7 Yang Yesu (?-1597) was a medical officer during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who was learned and skilled in medical arts. He attempted to heal the disease of Crown Prince Sunhoe as a royal doctor but took the responsibility for his death. He was cast into prison but immediately set free. He attended King Myeongjong until his last moments of life. When the king died, all the medical officers including Yang Yesu were punished and put in jail. He returned to his former position without delay and became the chief government official in charge of medical practices and pharmaceutical dispensing. He joined in the compilation of Exemplar of Korean Medicine.

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Handbook to Medical Scriptures which has a passage on the praise of Mr. Jang’s medical arts. Mr. Jang precisely refers to Jang Hanung. Some people say that the divine techniques of Yang Yesu are largely derived from Mountaineer Jang’s magical tricks.

XXX ★ A Divine Taoist in the South Sea

According to the words of the common people living on the beach of the South Sea, they went to the sea to catch fish and came on an old man putting on a raincoat and a gold crown. The old man rode on a cloud after the rain was over. He cleared the way over the sea and went forward. Innumerable beautiful maidens followed the old man, performing music. That was such a general sight that the people saw an Immortal Taoist come and go. The being seems to have been a person with whom some karmic tie was formed as well. (This story appears in Topical Discourses of Jibong.)

XXXI ★ Jang Saeng

Nobody knows where Jang Saeng was from. During the year of the ox (1589) (the Gichuk year, the twenty-sixth year of the sexagenary cycle), he came from and went to the capital city area, begging for bread. When people asked him what his name was, he always answered, “I do not know my name, either.” When they asked again where his ancestors had lived, he replied, “I was born to the world when my father served as the Magistrate of Milyang Prefecture. My mother died when I was three years old. Deluded by his slave concubine’s false charge against me, my father kicked me out into the house of his servant. When I was fifteen years old, the servant made a daughter of a commoner’s house my wife. She died in a few years. I wandered about dozens of villages to the west of the Honam district and have now come to the capital city.” Jang Saeng was a picturesque figure of graceful features. He cracked jokes and was good at singing. He sang such sad songs that they touched the hearts of people. He always wore purple-lined cotton clothes but never changed his clothes in the cold or hot weather. He frequented all houses of gisaengs1 or 1 Gisaengs refer to singing and dancing girls who waited on the nobility at a drinking party. They are generally said to have been derived from female shamans in the ancient tribal society. The sorceresses were originally officiating priests in the theocratic society and later acquired the social status of a gisaeng in partnership with influential persons in local regions while the tribal society was formed into a nation after the separation of church and state. The History of the Later Han Empire mentions prostitutes in the Goguryeo Kingdom, who were originally female servants from conquered tribal countries and later became official prostitutes when the structure of a nation was being organized. Gisaengs’ schools were established during the Goryeo Dynasty and their schools and guilds spread all over the nation in the Joseon Dynasty. The schools and unions made some contributions to the development of traditional Korean literature by producing intelligent gisaengs who enjoyed Goryeo ballads and composed Korean odes. In the last years of the Joseon Dynasty, gisaengs were branched into the three groups of artists as preservers of traditional songs and dances, unlicensed prostitutes, and licensed prostitutes.

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prostitute quarters. He used to get acquainted with persons easily. Jang Saeng amused himself making cups filled to the brim with wine at a drinking party for himself, drinking them and singing songs. He then went his way back. When he was pleasantly drunk, he mimicked a blind fortune-teller’s, a drunken shaman’s, a lazy scholar’s, a kicked-out widow’s, a beggar’s or an old woman’s way of actions. He did real imitations of those persons. Jang Saeng also imitated eighteen arhats by facial expressions in exactly the same manner. He produced with his mouth the sounds of a pipe, a bamboo flute, a thirteen-stringed musical instrument and a Korean mandolin. He also imitated the cries of a wild goose, a swan, a crane, a sacred ibis and a crow. People could not distinguish between real and feigned sounds. When he mimicked the crows of a rooster or the barks of a dog at night, all roosters or dogs in the neighborhood kept on crowing or barking. As the morning came, Jang Saeng went into town asking for alms. He gained almost seventeen or eighteen gallons of grains by begging a day. He had meals after he boiled four or five liters of grains and divided the rest among other beggars. When he went out, many child beggars followed him. He did the same thing the next day, but people did not figure out what he did. Jang Saeng was always parasitic on the house of Lee Han, a court musician. He became acquainted with a female servant whom he met mornings and evenings when she came to learn the geomungo. One day she lost a decoration made of threaded beads in the shape of red flowers and a phoenix tail. She had no idea where it was. When she took a walk in the street in the morning, she found that a boy gave a sardonic smile. The boy pretended to lean against her and went out of sight. When the female servant never stopped crying, Jang Saeng went away quickly, saying, “Heavens! How do you dare do that? Do not cry, young lady. It will be necessarily brought back in the evening.” When the evening came, Jang Saeng took the female servant out along the main road in the west. He went with her alongside the western wall of Gyeongbok Palace and finally to the corner of Sinho Gate.2 He fastened a big belt to the waist of the servant and tied it around his left arm. He jumped once quickly. They flew up and entered into the inner gate of the palace. It was such a pitch-dark night that they were unable to tell one road from another. They arrived at Gyeonghoi Pavilion in an instant. Two boys came out with lighted candles in their hands to meet Jang Seang and the female servant. When Jang Saeng saw the boys and yelled out, gold, beads, silk, and other items poured down out of a dented cave above a crossbeam. Among the materials, the decoration of a phoenix tail the female servant had lost was found. The boys returned the article to her of their own accord. Jang Saeng 2 Sinho Gate refers to the northern gate of Gyeongbok Palace, which is now called “Sinmu Gate.”

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earnestly asked them, “The two younger brothers should behave themselves with discretion. They do not let the public watch for the chance to run after me.” Jang Saeng took the female servant and flew out of the northern castle together. He returned her to her house. When Jang Saeng called at Mr. Lee’s at daybreak to offer an apology, the owner of the house dropped off into deep slumber under the influence of drink. Other people did not know either that Jang Saeng had gone out of the house at night. On April 1 of the year of the dragon (1592), Jang Saeng bought ten or eleven gallons of raw rice wine. He gulped the wine down and got dead drunk. He obstructed the passage and danced joyfully. Jang Saeng kept on singing songs and fell down beside Supyo (Watermark) Bridge.3 People came out to find at dawn that he had already been dead for a long time. His body corroded and swarmed with worms. The worms feathered their wings and flew away. The body was eventually gone. Only his clothes and Korean socks were left to Hong Sehui, a soldier, who was most intimately acquainted with Jang Saeng while they lived in Yeonhwa Village.4 Hong Sehui followed Lee Il5 on foot to Jo Ridge6 to guard against Japanese invaders in April and came on Jang Saeng who wore straw shoes and carried a stick. Jang Saeng took firm hold of his hands with great joy and said, “I have not really been dead. I set off in search of a paradise in our country.” He continued, “You are not fated to die this year. The disaster of war will occur. You should take to the woods but not enter the waters. You are forbidden to come to the south in the year of the fowl (1597) (the Jeongyu year, the thirty-fourth year of the sexagenary cycle). Do not climb a mountain fortress wall even if for the

3 Supyo Bridge was built over Cheonggye Stream in Jongno Street during the reign of King Sejong of the Joseon Dynasty. The bridge was recently moved in Jangchungdan Park when the covers were constructed over the stream in 1957. The bridge, all made of granite, had its pillars in hexagonal shape, on which letters “Gyeong Jin Ji Pyeong” were carved in a vertical line after the stream bottom was dredged, in order to plumb the depth of water and make preparation against flood. The phrase, written “庚辰地平” in Chinese characters, implies “ground level in the year of the dragon.” 4 Yeonghwa Village refers to the present area of Yeongeon Block in Jongno Street, Seoul. 5 Lee Il (1538–1601) was a military commander during the reign of King Seonjo of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Junggeyong and was granted the posthumous title of Jangyang. He was appointed to the post of Magistrate of Gyeongwon Prefecture in the sixteenth year (1583) of the reign of King Seonjo. Lee Il drove back Ni Tangjie, the leader of Nüzhen Tribe in the Manchurian region and later destroyed the leader that invaded Hoiryeong. Lee Il defended Pyeongyang Fortress and won the capital city back during the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592. 6 Jo Ridge is situated between Mungyeong County in North Gyeongsang Province and Goisan County in North Chungcheong Province and rises to the height of 1017 meters.

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purpose of performing your public duties.” As soon as he finished his words, he went out of sight as if he flew away. Nobody knew where he went in a flash. When Hong Sehui truly engaged in a battle in Tangeum Heights, 7 he remembered Jang Saeng’s words. He quickly climbed a mountain and was really saved from death. In July of the year of the fowl, Hong went on duty as a royal guard. Just at the right time, he delivered a royal writ to Prime Minister Ori Lee Wonik. Hong completely forgot the precaution of Jang Saeng and was chased by Japanese invaders on the way of return to the capital city vie Seongju.8 Hong Sehui quickly entered into Hwangseok Castle after he heard that it provided against emergencies. The castle surrendered with the loss of his life. Heo Gyun said, “I was well-acquainted with persons of chivalrous spirit in my earlier years. I enjoyed good-humored banter with them and witnessed all their talents in person. Oh-oh! They were beyond human power! They are exactly what was called the swordsmanship of a divine Taoist in ancient times.” (This passage is cited from Collected Works of Mr. Anonym.) Governor Hong Myeongwon9 praised Youngster Jang for having done many unaccountable acts while he lived in Cheongpa. Hong Myeongwon always spoke highly of him when he got into conversation with others because he put faithful confidence in him and heard thoroughly of him as a looker-on. From my point of view, the word “youngster” is a slang word that represents the title of a man who has not been married. Jang Saeng took a daughter of a commoner’s house but has never established a home at one time. The so-called “Youngster Jang” obviously refers to Jang Saeng.

7

Tangeum Heights is a place of scenic beauty and historic interest where U Reuk was said to amuse himself by playing the geomungo and where Shin Ip fell in battle during the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592. 8 Seongju is situated to the southwest of North Gyeongsang Province. 9 Hong Myeongwon (1573–1623) was a civil minister during the reign of Prince Gwanghae of the Joseon Dynasty, who went by the nickname of Nakbu and the pen name of Haebong. He secured the government posts including the Magistrate of Jukju Prefecture and the Magistrates of Jeongju and Uiju County. He also held the central government office of a royal secretary but became the local Magistrate of Gwangju County to raise his parents. He won official recommendation for his good administration. He suggested the policy of gold worship and endeavored to see fair and impartial justice done by rejecting relationship with influential persons and relatives. He had thorough knowledge of prose in the Chinese Han Dynasty and poems in the Chinese Tang Dynasty.

XXXII ★ Gwak Jaeu

Gwak Jaeu1 went by the nickname of Gyesu. He was of the family origin of Hyeonpung and a son of Governor Gwak Wol. In his youth, he accompanied Nammyeong Jo Sik2 and learned from him. Nammyeong married a daughter of his daughter to Gwak. Gentleman Gwak Jaesu gave up preparation for the state examination for office and amused himself fishing until he was forty years old. He led a poor life as a scholar without a government office who put on a reed hat and straw shoes.

1

Gwak Jaeu (1552–1617) went by the nickname of Gyesu and by the pen name of Mangudang and was granted the posthumous title of Chungik. He spent his time fishing but raised an army in the cause of justice in Uiryeong when the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592 occurred. He wore red clothes and defeated Japanese invaders at the head of his army, so he was called the “Commder of Red Clothes.” During the Second Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1597, he defended Uiryeong to the last. He was appointed to the posts of Army Commander and Naval Commander of Gyeongsang Province Legions in the first year (1609) of the reign of Prince Gwanghae but refused to accept them. He was once the governor of Hamgyeong Province but secluded himself from the society after he regretted that the government and the public were corrupted and disordered. 2 Jo Sik (1501–1572) was a scholar during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Geonjung and by the pen name of Nammyeong and was granted the posthumous title of Munjeong. In his earliest days, he studied the teachings of Zhu Xi and was well-acquainted with them. During the reign of King Myeongjong, he was appointed to the posts of Magistrate of Danseong Prefecture and Judge in the Secretariat for State Affairs but refused to accept them. When he was summoned by the king in 1566, he presented a tabular statement in which he summed up the principles of ruling a nation and approaches to studies. He took up his residence in Deoksan village in Mt. Duryu, to which he gave the name of “Sancheon Residence” and in which he was absorbed in meditation and studies. He was looked up to as a man of enlightenment and leadership, on whom King Seonjo later conferred the posthumous honor of Censor-General and on whom Prince Gwanghae granted the posthumous title of Prime Minister.

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When the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592 occurred, Gwak Jaeu raised an army and subdued Japanese pirates. He always wore red clothes and took the initiative in fighting. The Japanese invaders called him by the name of “RedClad Commander Descending from Heaven.” He obtained the post of Jwayun3 in the government in recognition of his utter defeat of the Japanese invaders. He was appointed to the post of Governor of Hamgyeong Province but refused to accept it. He held the governmental office in the capital city where he supported himself by eating nothing but pine needles. Gwak Jaeu entered Mt. Bipa where he avoided grains and ate only pine needles. He later entered Chang Cave in Mt. Chwi where he gave up eating cooked food permanently. Gentleman Gwak composed the following poem: Though my friends held my despair of cooked food as pitiable, Let us build a house on the bank of the Nakdong River. I am not hungry, eating pine needles alone. I am not thirsty, drinking spring water that looks like a gem. Living in tranquility and playing the geomungo, I keep a serene state of mind. Closing windows and drawing a deep breath, I have a deep affection. When I lament my incapacity after I have spent one hundred years, Those who laughed at me will call me an Immortal Taoist.

Park Suhong,4 a royal secretary from Seonsan County, always called on Gentleman Gwak before he passed the state examination for office. The gentleman asked him, “What would you like to do in the future?” Park answered, “I will merely go to take the state examination.” Gentleman Gwak asked again, “Of what use is it to take the examination at this time?” Gentleman Gwak set the drinking table and drank four or five bowls of raw rice wine. He blurted out a remark, “I am ill at ease because of alcoholic drinks. I am in a bad mood.” He asked for a bowl. He poured out into the bowl the wine he had drunk after he tilted his ears. All the wine poured out of his ear holes. (This story appears in Records Illustrious Retainers.) According to Topical Discourses of Jibong, “Gentleman Gwak was a man of spirit, integrity, and great ambition, so he was not scrupulous about trifles. During the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, he gathered his male servants 3 Jwayun refers to the junior grade of the second rank in the Hanseong Prefecture in the Joseon Kingdom. 4 Park Suhong (1588–1644) was a civil minister during the middle years of the Joseon Dynasty who went by the nickname of Yeonyu. He accompanied King Injo to Gwanghwa Island in the fifth year (1627) of his reign and was appointed to the post of Magistrate of Geumgu Prefecture where he made every effort to restore postwar damages. He later secured the government posts of Vic-Minister of the Board of Punishments and Governor of Gyeongju Province.

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and local resident soldiers. He fought desperately and subdued Japanese invaders. He spent all his fortune to meet his war expenses. Gentleman Gwak blocked the Nakdong River and beheaded many enemy soldiers. Japanese pirates stood in fear of him and called him ‘Red-Clad Commander.’ When Japanese invaders drew back, he said, ‘We bring up a cat in order to catch mice. Now, I have nothing to do after Japanese pirates have been subjugated. I had better leave.’ “Gwak Jaeu eventually entered the mountain area to learn magical methods and techniques. He gave up eating grains and fasted for almost one year. He became light in weight and was in robust health. He ate nothing but a piece of the flower of the pine in a day because he got the knack of absorbing the energy of yin and yang into the body.” When I come to think of it, Gwak Jaeu fought furiously in the serious disturbance and rendered distinguished services of subduing Japanese invaders. However, he kept aloof from the crowd and entered the mountain area. He avoided grains and ate nothing for almost one year. He became light in weight and strong. Why does he not come under the category of so-called divine Taoist? His achievements are simply analogous to Feudal Lord Zhang Liu’s. They are full of mysteries.

★ Postscript

Mr. Hong Manjong thought it wrong to have nothing to concentrate his energies. He collected several theories on the principles of Taoist hermits with supernatural powers into a book. However, I take it wrong to devote oneself to what one should not do, though it is really not good to have nothing to concentrate on. Mater Zhu Xi once put Fan Chun on record: he scolded Fan Chun for saying that he undertook his obligation after he once made a summary of the words of the sages. It is not right to pick out the words of the wise, abridge them and place them on record, much less to write down strange events and arrange them into an uncommon book. Master Cheng (Cheng Yi1) guarded against such a deviation from common reason that the scale of nature is pilfered. He thought that people could not be advised to try to train themselves in the practice of the strange events. Master Zhu (Zhu Xi) wrote notes on The Gradation and Equality of All Creation, but his notes are simple and clear and written in an antiquated style. He strictly rejected it in the “The Section of Recollections,” as well. Mr. Hong cited two masters’ theories. How has he not studied them at one time? Master Zhu lamented bitterly that he was so old that he would not be able to see the midlands of China restored. If Quyuan had had the intention of saving the world, he could have exhausted his patience with the deceitful people of those days and attempted to bring all things to an end. How could things have turned out? In the notes on The Gradation and Equality of All Creation, Master Zhu could have made such comments on the “comparison of a pork to the flesh 1

Cheng Yi was a Chinese Confucian scholar during the middle years of the Northern Song Dynasty who went by the nickname of Zhengshu and by the pen name of Yichuan and later became a professor of National University. He engaged in studies with his elder brother Cheng Mingdao under the guidance of Zhou Tunyi and created the dual theory of the basic principles and the atmospheric force of nature. He had profound knowledge of The Classic of Changes and his philosophy was handed down to Zhuzi.

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of a dragon”; on Confucius’s words “How is a blade used to kill a chicken when it is usually used to kill a cow?”; and on an anecdote told of Liu An that “he left the elixir of life when he became a divine Taoist and flew, on which chickens and dogs fed before they flew through the sky.” Mr. Hong might have looked out for such an idea and done this work. He would have more difficulty than vulgar people have mentioned. Dongmyeong (Jeong Dugyeong) encouraged him to do the work without dissuading him from doing it. Did he have the same idea? I understood that idea as well. I could not say a word and guard against the work. I feel so sad likewise. On the contrary, when I found that ancient people once had discussed uncommon books, I wondered why those books had not raised doubts. This book has particularly salient features of those doubts. Therefore, I have corrected mistakes briefly in response to Mr. Hong’s request. I would rather ask him whether Dongmyeong had mentioned me or not. Walking in this autumn wind, I am also reciting phrases “The Twilight of the Elixir of Life by Boiling Cinnabar” in a fruity voice toward the large-bamboo wall. Hwayangdongju2 wrote in August of the year of the dog [the Gyeongsul year, the forty-seventh year of the sexagenary cycle] in the house named “Sungjeong.”

2

Hwayangdongju is the nickname of Song Siyeol, a civil minister, scholar, and great master of the teachings of Zhu Xi in the later Joseon Dynasty, who went by another nickname of Uam and by the pen name of Munjeong. He won first place in the Classics Licentiate Examination in the eleventh year (1633) of the reign of King Injo. Song Siyeol was a fathering teacher of Prince Bongnim who later became King Hyojong. He secured many high-ranking government positions including Minister of the Board of Personnel and Prime Minister. He became the spearhead of an attack in factional wrangling and was bestowed poison as a death penalty. He carried on the scholastic mantle of Lee Yi that had given primary emphasis to the basic principles of nature, rather than to the atmospheric force of nature, as formative elements that account for what things are and how they fundamentally behave. He had such a violent temper that he made many political enemies. He raised innumerable competent persons under his instruction and contributed to establishing many private academies all over the country.

★ Index

A Ahn Sang (안상), Gentleman, 25 An Qisheng (安期生), 57, 57n, 58 The Analects of Confucius (論語), 59n The Annotated Book of History (書傳), 7n The Anthology of Korean Literary Works (동문선), 6n The Application and Change of Abstruse Principles (運化玄機), 119, 119n Arhats (阿羅漢), 62, 62n, 126 Asian astrology, 48, 121 Nine stars, 44n Asian folklore, ix, xiii, 22n, 72n

B Biographies of Chaste Women (列女傳), 7n Biographies of Taoist Hermits (列仙傳), 7n, 37, 37n Biographies of Taoist Hermits with Supernatural Powers (神仙傳), 7n Bojang (보장), a monarch of the Goguryeo (고구려) Kingdom, viii, x The Book of Rites (禮記), 84n Buddhism, vii, x, 1n, 2n, 24n, 26n, 54n, 57, 83, 84n, 85n, 86, 89, 103, 114n Aranya (Buddhist temples), 5, 5n Buddha, 5, 6, 9n, 85n, 86, 87, 99, 100, 113 Daoli Heaven (忉利天), 9n

Four Devas (四天王), 2n, 9n Great Brahma-Deva (梵天), 2n, 3n Harvest God (帝釋), 2n Saramana (Buddhist monks), 5n Three Thousand Great Worlds (三千大羅), 2, 2n Zen (禪) Buddhism, 2n, 3n, 53, 54n, 85, 89 Byeon Heon (변헌), 117, 117n

C The Canon of Music (악학궤범), 44n Cao Can (曹參), 6, 6n Cao Pi (曹丕), 33n Cha Cheonno (차천로), 80, 80n The Collected Discourses of Osan (오산설림), 80, 80n, 84, 93, 100 Chamseong (참성) Altar, 10 Cheng (成), a monarch of the Chinese Chu (楚) Kingdom, 65n Cheng Mingdao (程明道), 1, 1–2n, 86n, 133n The Book of Character Formation, 1– 2n The Book of Virtue Cognition, 1–2n The Posthumous Works of Chengzi, 1– 2n Cheng Yi (程頤), 133, 133n Cheng Yichuan (程頤川), 1–2n, 86n Chi You (蚩尤), 12n Choi Chiun (최치운), 59, 59n

136

Index

Choi Chiwon (최치원), viii, 17n, 35n, 39– 42 “A Preface to the Epitaph of Gentleman Nan” (난랑비서), viii Choi Ja (최자), 27n Collected Works of Choi Munchunggong, Family ( 최문충공가집), 27n Collected Works of Dongsan Choi Ja (동산최자집), 27 A Collection of Supplementary Idleness-Relieving Essays (보한집), 27n Choi Seungu (최승우), 35n Choi Yeon (최연), 61, 61n Chuangzi (莊子), ix–x The Classic of Morality (道德經), viii, 35, 86 The Classic of Songs (詩歌), 69, 69n Collected Tales of Miracles (集異傳), 7n, 70 Collected Works of Mr. Anonym, 58, 58n, 82, 93, 99, 117, 128 Confucianism, vii, x–xi, 1–2n, 2n, 5, 72n, 79, 79n, 83, 84n, 85n, 86, 95n, 103, 105,

D Daese (대세), 31 Dai Pizong (戴啓宗), 116n Damsi (담시), 33 Dangun (단군), viii, 6, 9–15, 66 The Ancient Record of Dangun, 9, 9n Danjong (단종) (alias Prince Nosan [노산]), a monarch of the Joseon (조선) Kingdom, 60, 60n, 65n Diamond Sutra (金剛經), 66n Diku (帝嚳), 13, 13n The Doctrine of the Mean (中庸), 84n Dong Yuan (東園), 92n Dongmyeong (동명), the first king of the Goguryeo Kingdom (alias Jumong [주몽]), viii, 7, 15, 21–24, 134 Du Fu (杜甫), (alias Du Gongbu [杜工部]), 93n, 104,

The Poems of Du Gongbu (杜工部), 93, 93n Du Guangting (杜光庭), 119n

E Eastern Learning Revolution (동학혁명), viii

F The First Record of Jeong Clan’s Works, 69 Fu Xi (伏羲), 12, 12n, 13n, 15, 50n, 81n, 87 The Classic of Changes, 2n, 11n, 50n, 71, 73, 81, 81n, 84n, 86, 99, 133n Fu Yue (傅說), 11n Further Biographies of Taoist Hermits (續列仙傳), 37n

G Gang Gamchan (강감찬), 43–45 Gao Pian (高駢), the Vice-Minister of Military Affairs in the Tang (唐) Empire, 39 Gaozu (高祖), a monarch of the Chinese Tang Empire, viii, 5n, 7n, 92n Ge Hong (葛洪), 7, 7n Ge Xuan (葛玄), 7n Geodeung (거등), a monarch of the Garak (가락) Kingdom, 33 The Geography of the Eight Provinces of Korea (팔도지리지), 6n Geomungo (거문고), a Korean zitherlike instrument with six strings, 27, 27n, 33, 82, 85n, 126, 128n, 130 Geoseogan (거서간), a verable elder in a local dialect, 17 Geumseong (금성), Prince, 60n Geumwa (금와), 21, 21n Gisaengs (기생), singing and dancing girls, 125, 125n Gongmin (공민), a monarch of the Goryeo Kingdom, 24n, 29n Gu Yun (顧雲), 41, 41n Guang Chengzi (廣成子), 15, 15n

Index

137

Guchil (구칠), 31 Gwak Chiheo (곽치허), 114n Gwak Jaeu (곽재우), 129–31 Gwanghae (광해), a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, 62n, 82n, 84n, 111n, 113n, 128n, 129n Gwanggaeto (광개토), a monarch of the Goguryeo Kingdom, 24n Gwon (권), Enlightened Taoist, 47–58 Gwon Geun (권근), 59n Gyeongdeok (경덕), a monarch of the Silla (신라) Kingdom, 27

H Habaek (하백), 21, 21n, 22 Hae Mosu (해모수), 21 Han Muoi (한무외), 114, 114n, 115, 117 A Handbook of the History of the Eastern Kingdom (동사보감), 10, 10n, 40 He Shang (河上), 57n Heo Gyun (허균), 58n, 113, 113n, 114n, 115, 128 A Collection of Gazes at a Bamboo (간죽집), 58n The Legend of Hong Gildong (홍길동전), 113n Heo Jo (허조), 59, 59n Heo Yeop (허엽), 82, 82n The History of the Eastern Kingdom [동국사], 10, 18, 22, 44 The History of the Goryeo Kingdom (고려사), 22n The History of the Later Han Empire (後漢書), 17n, 125n The History of the Wei Kingdom (魏書), 22n Hong Inu (홍인우), 84, 84n Daily Records of Gwandong (관동일록), 84n Posthumous Works of Chijae (치제유고), 84n Hong Manjong (홍만종), vii-ix, xi-xii, 4n, 6, 133

The Complete Catalogue of the Eastern Country’s Chronicles (동국역대총목), viii The Dense Wood of Poems and Narratives (시화총림), viii Fifteen Critical Essays (순오지), viii Miracles in Korea (해동이적), vii-xiii, 4n, 7, 22n Hong Myeongwon (홍명원), 128, 128n Hong Yuson (홍유손), 65–67 Huang Chao (黃巢), 39, 39n Huang Di (黃帝), 12, 12n, 12–13n, 14n, 15n, 115 Huang Tingjian (黃庭堅), 65n Huayang (華陽), 54n Huizi (惠子), 82n Hwangbo In (황보인), 60n Hwanin (환인), 9, 9n Hwanung (환웅), 9 Hyeonjun (현준), a Buddhist Monk, 40

I Ilyeon (일연), 9n, 17n Overlooked Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms (삼국유사), 9n, 10n, 17n, 22n Im Baekho (임백호), 93, 93n Im Chun (임춘), 18n Im Eokryeong (임억령), 41–42, 41–42n Injo (인조), a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, 39n, 84n, 97n, 111n, 130n, 134n

J Jeong Bung (정붕), 68–70, 121 Jeong Cho (정초), 88, 88n Jeong Chu (정추), 29, 29n Jeong Dugyeong (정두경), vii, xi, 7n, 134 Collected Works of Dongmyeong (동명집), 7n Jeong Goinghae (정굉해), 104 Jeong Huiryang (정희량), 71–76 Jeong Jak (정작), 87–88, 87n Exemplar of Korean Medicine (동의보감), 87n

138

Index

Jeong Jisang (정지상), 103 Jeong Jungbu (정중부), 18n Jeong Sugon (정수곤), 69–70 Jeong Yeom (정염), 85–89 Collected Main Works of Jeong Yeom, 89 Jeonghyeon (정현), a Buddhist Monk, 40 Ji An (汲黯), 6, 6n Jiang (姜), Grandfatherm 54n The Secret Crux of Matters, 54n Jie (傑), a monarch of the Chinese Xia (夏) Kingdom, 14n Jinpyeong (진평), a monarch of the Silla Kingdom, viii, 31, 31n Jizi (箕子), 10, 10n Jo Sik (조식), 79n, 129, 129n Jo Uk (조욱), 69n Jungjong (중종), a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, 6n, 61n, 65n, 75n, 78n, 85, 85n, 88n, 110n

K Kim Anguk (김안국), 72, 72n, 75n Kim Busik (김부식), 10n, 18, 18n The History of the Three Kingdoms (삼국사기), 18n, 21–22n, 31n “The Annals of the Goguryeo Monarchs,” 22, 23n, 44 “The Annals of the Silla Monarchs,” 10n, 18, 31n Kim Cheonil (김천일), 97n Kim Gagi (김가기), 35–38 Kim Geukgi (김극기), 23, 23n Kim Gisu (김기수), 76 Kim Goiae (김괴애), 66, 66n Kim Goingpil (김굉필), 72, 72n, 75n Kim Gyehwi (김계휘), 109, 109n Kim Gyeomhyo (김겸효), 29 Kim Jeongguk (김정국), 75, 75n Kim Jonggik (김종직), 65n, 78 Kim Jonggwon (김종권), 21n Kim Jongseo (김종서), 60n Kim Sangheon (김상헌), 97, 97n A Record of Southern Rafts, 95 Kim Siseup (김시습), 59–63, 66 Kim Suon (김수온), 65m

Kim Yuk (김육), 77n A Record of the Gimyo Year, 77, 77n Kim Yun (김윤), 73–75 Kou Qianzhi (寇謙之), 54n

L Laozi (老子), ix–xi, 1n, 5–6, 5n, 13n, 56, 96n, 101n, 115, 117 Lee Beonsin (이범신), 99 Lee Byeongdo (이병도), 22n Lee Cheonnyeon (이천년), 73–75 Lee Dal (이달), 100, 100n Lee Eonjeok (이언적), 110n Lee Gyeongrok (이경록), 97, 97n Lee Gyubo (이규보), 27n Lee Haeng (이행), 6n Lee Han (이한), 126 Lee Hangbok (이항복), 26n, 116, 116n lee Hwa (이화), 120–121 Lee Il (이일), 127, 127n Lee Inro (이인로), 18n, 25–26 Collected Works of Lee Inro, 18 Lee Jesin (이제신), 69, 69n Lee Jiham (이지함), 107–110 The Secrets of Tojeong (토정비결), 107n Lee Neunghwa (이능화), 58n A History of Korean Taoism (조선도교사), 58n Lee Saek (이색), 24, 24n, 107n Lee Sanbo (이산보), 108, 108n Lee Sanhae (이산해), 108, 108n Lee Seokho (이석호), 97n Lee Sik (이식), 84, 84n Collected Works of Lee Sik, 105, 110 Lee Sukwang (이수광), 58 Topical Discourses of Jibong (지봉유설), 58, 77, 93, 95, 100, 122, 130 Lee Sunshin (이순신), 97n Lee Toigye (이퇴계) (alias Lee Hwang [이황], 73, 84, 110n Lee U (이우), 40–41 Lee Uigeon (이의건), 26, 26n Collected Works of Lee Uigeon, 26 Lee Wonik (이원익), 111–12, 128

Index

139

Lee Yicheom (이이첨), 116n Lee Yulgok (이율곡) (alias Lee Yi [이이]), 26, 26n, 62, 67n, 107n, 110, 134n The Biography of Kim Siseup, 62 Li Jingye (李敬業), 72n Li Quan (李筌), 54n Li Rusong (李如松), 80n, Li Yanping (李延平), 2n Li Yong (李邕), 95–96n Li Zhicai (李之才), 81n Liu An (劉安) (alias King Huai [淮]), 88n, 133 Liu Bang (劉邦), the first monarch of the Chinese Han (漢) Empire, 5n, 6n Liu Jiao (劉交), 7n Liu Xiang (劉向), 7, 7n Liu Zideng (劉子澄), 86n Little Science (小學), 86, 86n Luan (鸞) bird, 36, 36n, 56, 57, 94, 101 Lu Ao (盧敖), 80n Lu Zuqian (呂祖謙), 86n Luli (甪里), 92n Luobinwang (駱賓王), 72, 72n

M Master Huainan (淮南子), 88n Mengzi (孟子), 1n, 84n, 89 Min Gageo (민가거), 27 The Model Poems of the Three Han States (삼한시귀감), 23n Mu (穆), a monarch of the Chinese Zhou (周) Kingdom, 14, 14n, 15n Munjeong (문정), a queen of Joseon, 99n Munjong (문종), a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, 41–42n, 60n, 65n Music Reviser Institute (장악원), 85n, 87 Myeongjong (명종), a monarch of the Goryeo Kingdom, 18n, 23n Myeongjong (명종), a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, 62n, 85n, 99n, 121n, 129n

N Nam (술), Gentleman, 25 Nam Chu (남추), 77–78

Nam Chugang (남추강), 65, 65n The Cruel Words of Chugang (추강냉화), 65n The Records of Teachers’ and Friends’ Noted Lifestyles (사우명행록), 65n Nam Gon (남곤), 78n Nam Sago (남사고), 99–101 Nam Su (남수), 69 Ni Tangjie (尼湯介), 127n

O Oh Gyeom (오겸), 116, 116n Oh Sejae (오세재), 18n Okbogo (옥보고), 27–28

P Park Heokgeose (박혁거세), the first monarch of the Silla Kingdom, viii Park Jihwa (박지화), 84, 84n, 103–05 Park Suhong (박수홍), 130, 130n Park Suk (박숙), 25, 25n Park Yichang (박이창), 60, 60n Peng Zu (彭祖), 15, 15n, 51 “Purge of Literati in 1498” (무오사화), 71n, 78n “Purge of Literati in 1504” (갑자사화), 76 “Purge of Literati in 1519” (기묘사화), 72n, 75n, 78n, 91n “Purge of Literati in 1545” (을사사화), 61n, 62n, 87–88n, 91n

Q Qi Liji (綺里季), 92n Qian Liu (錢鏐), 31n Quanrong (犬戎), 15n Quyuan (屈原), 61n, 133 The Epic of Being Full of Cares (離騷經), 61, 61n

140

Index R

The Record of Approaches to Ideas (近思錄), 86, 86n The Records of Illustrious Retainers (명신록), 39, 39n, 61, 75, 89, 109, 130 A Record of Inherited Miracles (述異記), 37n The Record of the Whole Geography of the Great Ming Empire (大明一統志), 6n Roh Sajin (노사진), 84n Ruo Shi (若士), 80, 80n

S The Scripture of Abdominal Breathing and Mental Imprint (胎息心印經), 54, 54n The Scripture of Classics Studies and Correct Observation (洞古定觀), 54 The Scripture of Dosage by Gentleman Choi (崔公入藥鏡), 54 The Scripture of Fine-Colored Water and Fire (金碧龍虎經), 54, 54n The Scripture of Internal and External Scapes of Human Life (黃庭內外景經), 49, 49n, 54, 55, 57, 85, 95 The Scripture of Jade Nuclei (玉樞經), 119n The Scripture of Openhandedness and Cleanliness, (大桶淸淨), 54 The Scripture of Pearly Pivots (玉樞經), 55–56 The Scripture of the Salvation of Human Beings (度人經), 55, 55n The Scripture of the Secret Crux of Matters by Huang Di (黃帝陰符經), 54, 54n, 85–86 Sejo (세조), (alias Prince Suyang [수양]), a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, 61, 62n, 65, 66n, 91n, Sejong (세종) a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, 26n, 59n, 60, 127n

Seo Geojeong (서거정), 41, 66, 66n An Author’s Trivia (필원잡기), 41, 41n, 66n A Chronological Table of Kings of Many Generations (역대연표), 66n Collected Poems of the Eastern Kingdom (종문선), 66n A Collection of Saga (사가집), 66n The Historical Records of the Eastern Kingdom (동국통감), 66n Seo Gyeongdeok (서경덕), 79–80, 79n, 80– 84, 103, 105, 107n Seo Sungdeok (서숭덕), 83 Seo Ji (서지), 105 Seong Hon (성혼), 62n, 67, 67n Mukam’s Trivia, 67 Seong Hyeon (성현), 44–45, 44n Assorted Writings of Yongjae, 44n Seong Un (성운), 79n, 93n Seongjong (성종), a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, 41n, 66n, 44n, 80n Sexagenary cycle of years, 3, 3–4n, 10, 11, 11n, 17, 22, 47, 56, 69, 74, 75, 76, 100, 108, 113, 116, 125, 127, 134 Shangxian (上仙), 54n Shao Yong (邵雍), 11n, 12, 12n, 81, 81n The Book of the Administration of the State by Divine Normative Laws (皇極經世書), 11–12, 11n Shaohao (少昊), 13, 13n She Fashan (葉法善), 95–96, 95–96n Shen Nong (神農), 12, 12n, Shim Jeong (심정), 78n Shin Gongje (신공제), 6n Shin Gwanghan (신광한), 61n, 91, 91n Shin Heum (신흠), 82n Collected Works of Sangchon (상촌집), 82, 82n Shin Ip (신입), 128n Shin Sukju (신숙주), 91n Shuda (叔達), x Shun (舜), a legendary Chinese monarch, 10n, 13, 14n Sima Qian (司馬遷). 12n, 14n Historical Record (史記), 12n, 14n So Ha (소하), 29

Index

141

So Insu (소인수), 82n Sobeol (소벌), 17 Song Insu (송인수), 91, 91n Song Siyeol (송시열), vii, 134, 134n Songyang (송양), 23, 23n State Examinations for office, vii, 24n, 35, 37, 37n, 39n, 41n, 47n, 71, 77, 78, 79n, 99, 107, 112, 129, 130 Bingong (賓貢) Examination, 35, 35n Classics Licentiate Examination (생원과), 6, 47n, 69, 114, 117, 134n Erudite Examination (문과), 69, 88, 88n, 107, 110n, 111 Literary Licentiate Examination (진사과), 23n, 47n, 58, 88n Sama (사마) Examination, 47, 47n Special Examination (별시), 26n Su Dongpo (蘇東坡), 65n Suiren (燧人), 12n Sukjong (숙종), a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, vii, 60n Sul (술), Gentleman, 25 Suosu (娑蘇), 18 Suro (수로), a monarch of the Garak Kingdom, 33 A Survey of the Geography of the Eastern Kingdom (동국여지승람), 6, 6n A Survey of the Geography of Korea (여지승람), vii, 6n, 10, 18, 23, 25n, 33n, 98 Suzong (肅宗), a monarch of the Chinese Tang Empire, 40n

T Tang (湯), the first monarch of the Chinese Yin (殷) Kingdom, 14, 14n Tangyao (唐堯), 10, 10n, 11, 11n, 12, 14, 14n Taoism, vii–xi, 2n, 6n, 12n, 36n, 49, 50n, 52n, 54n, 55, 57, 58, 65n, 70, 70n, 72n, 73, 79n, 84n, 85n, 86, 86n, 88n, 92, 103, 114n, 115n, 116, 116n, 119n, 120n

The “atmospheric force” (氣) of nature, 1n, 13n, 10, 50, 51, 51n, 52, 67n, 79, 79n, 110n, 133n, 134n The basic principles (理) of nature, 1n, 67n, 107n, 110n, 133n, 134n Five human blessings, 37, 103, 103n, 114 Health, x–xi, 35n, 49, 49n, 57, 85n, 103n, 116, 120, 131 Longevity, vii–viii, xi, 2, 12, 15, 57n, 103n, 115 Love of virtue, 103n Peaceful death, 103n Wealth, 81, 103n Five primary substances (五行), 3n, 3– 4n, 13n, 44n, 50, 75, 104, Great Absolute (太極), 3 Heaven, vii, 2–3n, 6, 9, 10, 12n, 13n, 23n, 18, 19, 22, 23–24, 26, 36, 36n, 37, 50n, 54n, 55, 55n, 57, 70, 70n, 74, 74n, 85, 88, 91, 93n, 111, 130 The Grand Blue (太淸), 56, 70n The Jade Blue (玉淸), 70n The Upper Blue (上淸), 70, 70n Mountain wizards, vii–xii, 1, 15n, 57n, 91n Seven genii, 120, 120n Taoist hermits with supernatural Powers, vii–xii, 7n, 35, 96n, 117, 133 Ten celestial stems (十干), 3–4n, 44n, 75 Three Chinese Augusts (三皇), 12, 12n Three divine mountains (삼신산), 3, 3n, 85 Three human spirits “Abstruse Mind” (幽精), 120n “Clear Psyche” (爽靈), 120n “Great Light” (太光), 120n Three internal treasures, 50n, 56 Original deity (元神), 50n Original energy (元精), 50n

142

Index

Original force (元氣), 50n Trigrams, 11n, 12n, 50, 50n, 51, 51n, 81n Twelve terrestrial branches (十二支), 3–4n, 44n, 75 Virtues Calm, x, 5n, 104 Humility, x Lack of planning, x Non-striving (無爲), x Passivity, x Yin and yang (陰陽), 1n, 3n, 7n, 12n, 13n, 50n, 95n, 131 Toyotomi Hideyoshi (豊臣秀吉), 100, 100n

U

X Xia Huang (夏黃), 92n Xian Men (羨門), 57, 57n, 58 Xiantao (仙桃), a Divine Mother, 18, 18n, 19 Xiao He (蕭何), 6n Xiaozong (孝宗), a monarch of the Chinese Ming (明) Empire, 62n Xu Yang (許楊) (alias Xu Yuan [許掾]), 88, 89n Xuan (宣), a monarch of the Chinese Han Empire, 7n, 17 Xuanyuan (軒轅), a Chinese monarch of ancient times, 12n, 15, 15n Xuanzong (宣宗), a monarch of the Tang Empire, 36, 36n, 37n, 41n

U Reuk (우륵), 128n

Y W Wang Anshi (王安石), 1n Wang Gon (왕건), 40n Wang Mang (王莽), 89n Wang Shizheng (王世貞), 119n Wang Xianzhi (王仙芝), 39n Wang Xuanfu (王玄甫), 54n Wang Ziqiao (王子喬), 51, 51n Wei Boyang (魏佰陽), 2n, 49 The Gradation and Equality of All Creation (參同契), 2, 2n, 49, 54, 55, 56–57, 85, 88, 115n, 116, 116n, 133 Wen (文), a monarch of the Chinese Han Empire, 5, 81n Weng Baoguang (翁葆光), 116n Widespread Documents on Many Events (事林廣記), 37, 37n Widespread Documents on the Peaceful World (太平廣記), 37n Wu (武), a monarch of the Chinese Zhou Kingdom, 10, 10n, 11, 14n Wu (武), a monarch of the Earlier Han Empire, 6n Wuding, a monarch of the Chinese Yin (殷) Kingdom, 11, 11n

Yan Hui (顔回) (alias Yanzi [顔子]), 81, 81n Yan Yunping (嚴君平), 101, 101n Yang Gyeongu (양경우), 104n Collected Works of Jeho Yang Gyeongu, 104 Yang Sayeong (양사영), 97 Yang Yesu (양예수), 121, 121n Yeon Gaesomun (연개소문), iv Yeong (영), Gentleman, 25 Yeongnyu (영류), a monarch of the Goguryeo Kingdom, viii Yeonsan (연산), a monarch of the Joseon Kingdom, 66n, 71n, 76 Yu (禹), the first monarch of the Chinese Xia (夏) Kingdom, 13, 14n Yu Eunjin (유은진), 117 Yu Hyeongjin (유형진), 113–17 Yu Mongin (유몽인), 62, 62n The Historical Romance of Eou (어우야담), 62, 62n, 73, 92, 104, 110, 112 Yu U (유우), 116n Yuan (元), a monarch of the Han Empire, 22 Yuhwa (유화), 21 Yun Chunnyeon (윤춘년), 62, 62n

Index

143

Yun Eunbo (윤은보), 6n Yun Gunpyeong (윤군평), 95–96 Yun Im (윤임), 95

Z Zetianwu (則天武), a queen of Chinese Tang Empire, 72 Zhang Boduan (張伯端), 116n The Book on Spiritual Enlightenment (悟眞篇), 116n Zhang Guo (張果), 95–96, 96n, 116n Zhang Hengqu (張橫渠), 83, 83n, 86n Decorous Attires (正蒙), 84n The Explanation of Divination (易說), 84n Western Engravings (西銘), 84n Zhang Liu (張留), 5–6, 5n, 131 Zhang Yubiao (章孝標), 37, 37n Zheng Yin (鄭隱), 7 Zhezong (哲宗), a monarch of the Chinese Northern Song (宋) Empire, 65n Zhong Liquan (鐘離權), 54n Zhou Lianxi (周濂溪), 86 Zhou Tunyi (周敦頤), 133 Zhu Mu (祝穆), 6n A Survey of the Geography (方輿勝覽), 6n, 80 Zhu Rong (祝融), 12n Zhu Zhifan (朱之蕃), 113n Zhuan Xu (顓頊), 13n, 15n Zhuangzi (莊子), x–xi, 1n, 63n, 80n Zhuzi (朱子) (alias Zhu Xi [朱熹] or Zhu Ziyang), x, 2, 2n, 24n, 26n, 54n, 65n, 86n, 91n, 107n, 110n, 129n, 133, 133n, 134n Zouyan (鄒衍), 13n