Massacre at Montsegur: A History of the Albiegensian Crusade

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MASSACRE AT MONTSEGUR

By

the

THE WORLD

same author

IS

NOT ENOUGH

THE CORNERSTONE

THE AWAKENED THE CHAINS OF LOVE DESTINY OF FIRE

by Librairie Gallimard, Paris, under LE BUCHER DE MONTSEGUR 1959, Librairie Gallimard. Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd translation 1961, George English and Pantheon Books, a Division of Random House, Inc., New York. Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 62-11076. Bound by H. Wolff Book Mfg. Co., New York, N.Y.

Originally published in French

the

title

CONTENTS

page Chapter

Chapter

I

The Background of the Crusade The Initial Facts 1 2 The Crusaders 3 The Land of Languedoc

II

Heresy and Heretics

3 Organization

4 Catharism 5

Chapter

III

in

Dogma

and Expansion its Social and Moral Aspects

The Struggle against 'Babylon'

Chapter IV The Campaign of 1209 1 Warfare in the Middle Ages Carcassonne

V Simon

5

32

44 62

70 82

82 93 102 103

109

2 Beziers

Chapter

1

28

The Pre-heretical Church 1 The Period before Innocent III 2 The Mission and Failure of St Dominic

3

1

7

28

1

Origins 2 Doctrine and

1

121

de Montfort

132

Portrait of a General

132

2 The Count of Toulouse

144

The King of Aragon

162

1

3

Chapter VI The Consecration and Failure of the Crusade 1 The Lateran Council 2 The

War

of Liberation

Chapter VII The King of France 1

Raymond VIFs

Victory

2 King Louis^ Crusade

177 177 187 201 201

207

CONTENTS

Vi

Chapter VIII The Final Years of Occitan Independence 1 The Consequences of the War 2 Catharism as a National Religion

The Treaty of Meaux

3

Chapter

X

The Church's Dilemma and Reform Movement

The 1

the

Dominican 273

286 286 298

Inquisition

Early Activities

2 The Inquisition at

Work

Chapter XI The Cathar Resistance

310

The Organization of the Resistance 2 The Sanctuary of Montsegur 3 Raymond VII's Rebellion and Defeat 1

Chapter XII The Siege of Montsegur

310 316 327

340

The Siege 2 The Massacre

340

1

356 365

Epilogue

Appendix A Appendix B

225 239

254 254 267

Chapter IX The Church's Peace 1 The Church and Heresy 2 The Council of Toulouse 3

218

218

:

:

Appendix C: Appendix D

:

A Catharist

Preliminary Discourse Addressed to the Postulant by the Elder

373

A

376

Catharist Prayer

Repressive Measures and Decrees Promulgated against the Cathars by Councils between 1179 and 1246

Appendix E: Sentences of the Inquisition Appendix F: The Debate between Izarn and Chronological Table Notes and References Bibliography Index

368

Ritual

377 383

Sicart

386

390 396 402

408

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

facing page 1

Painting by Berruguete (1477-1503) of Saint Dominic at the Tribunal of the Inquisition, from the Prado Gallery in

Madrid (Photo: Mansell 4

Collection)

2 Painting by Fra Angelico (1387-1455) of Saint Dominic and the Miracle of the Book, from the

Louvre 3

in Paris

(Photo

:

4-5

Giraudon)

A thirteenth century fresco of Pope Innocent III from the church

at Subiaco in Italy (Photo: Mansell Collection) 4 A drawing of Simon de Montfort taken from a

stained glass

5

window in the cathedral at Chartres

France (Mansell Collection) 5 Mediaeval seals, (a) Simon de Montfort and the crest he used on his shield from a wax impression in

in the British

Museum, London (Photo

:

68

British

Museum) and (b) enlarged drawings of wax impressions of seals from the Archives Nationales in Paris showing (i) a Knight from Languedoc, (ii) Raymond Pelet, Squire of Alais, (iii) Raymond Trencavel, Viscount of Beziers, (iv) Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, and (v) Raymond

VII,

Count of Toulouse

68-69

6 & Two manuscript pages from the Chanson de la Croisade by William of Tudela showing the taking of the town of Beziers and Count Raymond VII re-entering the town of Toulouse. The 7

book 8

the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris from a bas-relief in the thirteenth cen-

is in

Drawing

69

tury St Nazaire Church in Carcassonne believed to depict the death of Simon de Montfort

(Mansell Collection)

116

ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST OF

Vlli

9

An engraving by Nicolas Cochin (1688-1754) taken from a painting by Pierre- Jacques Gazes (1676-1754) showing Count Raymond VI of Toulouse receiving absolution first

published in

Volume

Generate de Languedoc by

at Saint-Gilles,

of the Histoire

III

Dom

Vaisselle

1

17

10 Glazed terra-cotta relief from the door of the

Cathedral in Florence by Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525) showing a meeting between Saint Dominic and Saint Francis (Photo: Mansell 117

Collection) 11

&

12 View and town plan of Toulouse both from seventeenth century engravings in the Cabinet des Estampes in Paris

148

13

The

149

fortified

14&15 A

church at Albi

view of the Cathedral and town of

from a nineteenth century Cabinet des Estampes in Paris

Beziers from the river

lithograph in the

and a modern photograph (Photo: Boudot212

Lamotte) 16

The

street

behind the St Nazaire Church in

Carcassonne (Photo

:

Archives Photographiques

de France) 17

The

8

The

1

213

Carcassonne (Photo: Archives Photographiques de France) castle

at

Castle of Montsegur on

244

hilltop seen from

Gallimard) view of the town of Carcassonne (Photo: Karquel from the French Government Tourist

245

Office)

245

the south-west (Photo 19

its

:

A

TRANSLATOR'S NOTE

The

anglicization of mediaeval French names always presents some difficulty I cannot claim to have been consistent in this respect. The :

better-known names

I

have converted according to traditional

Runciman's The English usage Mediaeval Manichee. Elsewhere I have been somewhat arbitrary, and acted as the context seemed to demand in terms of euphony or convenience thus, variously, William de Puylaurens, [Pierre des] Vaux de Cernay (where Sir Steven reads Peter de Vaux-Cernay), Peter Amiel, or Blanche of Castille. I trust that readers will take this captious attitude in the spirit with which T. E. Lawrence treated the proof-reader of The Seven Pillars of Wisdom. I would like to express my thanks publicly to Mme Oidenbourg as,

for example, in Sir Steven

:

for reading my entire typescript with scrupulous care, saving me from several egregious errors, and on occasion putting me to shame

by suggesting a better English phrase than

I

could have thought of

a rare pleasure for a translator to be blessed with so myself. amiable and co-operative an author. It is

PETER GREEN

Diagrammatic sketch of the leading

up

to

it

fortress of

MontsSgur with the road

CHAPTER

I

THE BACKGROUND OF THE CRUSADE

1.

The

Initial

Facts

ON 10TH MARCH 1208 His

Holiness Pope Innocent III issued a solemn call to arms, summoning all Christian nations to launch a Crusade against a country of fellow-Christians. This Crusade, he claimed, was not only justifiable but a matter of dire necessity the heretics who inhabited this land were 'worse than the very Saracens'. The Pope's appeal came four years after the capture of Constantinople by a Crusaders' army. The new enemy was Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, a cousin of the King of France and brother-inlaw to the Kings both of England and of Aragon. Besides being bound by ties of homage to these three monarchs he owed a similar allegi;

German Emperor he was, further, Duke of Narbonne, Marquis of South- West Provence, a feudal sovereign whose authority

ance to the

;

extended over the regions of Agenais, Quercy, Rouergue, Albigeois, Comminges and Carcasses, not to mention the County of Foix. He was, in short, one of the greatest princes in Western Christendom, premier baron of all the territories where the langue d'oc was spoken. Since this was a period when actual power was firmly in the hands of the nobility, and since this nobility, from the monarch down to the smallest landed proprietor, was by definition a military caste, it

war achieved a permanent, necessary status in their Christian princes were never short of an excuse for invading their neighbours' territories. But the preceding century had seen, first a slackening, then a sharp falling off in that enormous enthusifollows that lives.

asm with which Western Europe had

hitherto regarded the Holy Land. In the hey-day of the twelfth century, the warrior-pilgrim, though he might frequently be pursuing material ends, felt confident that he was fighting on God's behalf. But the nobility, their ranks

decimated on the

of Palestine, chafed bitterly against the were called upon to make, while the various

battlefields

useless sacrifices they


2

campaigns they had to conduct struck them as being both petty and dull. Later, at the time of the Fourth Crusade, Simon de Montfort (a warrior whose appetite for warfare even the most sceptical could

local

hardly question) was to refuse flatly to bear arms against a Christian or to put himself in the Doge's service rather than that of the

city,

Pope. Even though the bulk of the Crusaders failed to copy his example, and followed up their capture of Catholic Zara with an assault

on Constantinople, nevertheless the scandal occasioned by Crusade from its true goal left the French nobility

this deflection of a

with a certain feeling of disillusion, despite the perennially powerful lure of conquest and pillage. The Crusade itself was gradually be-

coming a dead end, and the Holy Land, increasingly threatened though it was, now attracted only a minority of enthusiasts. For a good many knights and men-at-arms this way of obtaining God's forgiveness (which allowed them to cover themselves with glory on the battlefield as well) had become an habitual practice. Sometimes genuine passion inspired it more often the motive was material need. ;

What

we

make of this new

type of Crusade, imposed upon Christendom by the Pope's emergency decree? One factor we should bear in mind is how cosmopolitan in their connections the aristocracy of this period were. In England the nobles all spoke French. Italian and Spanish poets were composing in the langue d'oc and German Minnesinger took lessons from the Troubadours. Above all, are

to

9

the intricate and complex ties created by feudal obligations, coupled with a whole network of political intermarriage, had ensured that all the great princes throughout Western Christendom were mutually

bound by conditions

responsibilities of vassalship, or kinship, or both. In it is

hard to see

how

a Holy

War

such

preached against the

Count of Toulouse ever reached the point of actually being fought. When, on this March day in 1208, Rome's Bull of Anathema was flung down on the soil of Languedoc, it cut the history of Catholic Christendom clean in two. The Papal sanction granted to a war conducted against a Christian people was to destroy, for ever, the moral authority of the Church, and to undermine the very foundations on which that authority rested. What the Pope regarded as a mere casual police action, dictated by particular circumstances, was soon to grow, under the pressure of events, into a methodical system of oppression and for millions of Western Christians Rome was to become an object of hatred and contempt. ;

The circumstances which

led Innocent III to take such severe action


3

against the Count of Toulouse suggest, a priori, some justification for the Pope's appeal. Every single district throughout the Count's

domains was a hotbed of heresy; and on 14th January 1208 Brother Peter of Castelnau, the Papal Legate, had been assassinated at Saint-Gilles by one of Raymond VFs officers. The murder of a Legate that is, of the Pope's Ambassador and Envoy Plenipotentiary was a capital crime, which fully justified a declaration of war. But the Church was not, in theory, a temporal power, and so could only answer this bloody affront with chastisement of a spiritual order. Nevertheless, such spiritual sanctions were formidable enough. Faced with a threat of excommunication or interdiction kings would at once yield, making chaos of their political alliances or private lives in order to avoid the Church's thunderbolts.

In 1170 King Henry II of England had been excommunicated for murder of Thomas & Becket, and had only received the Pope's pardon after a public apology and act of humiliation. Frenchmen

the

had by no means yet forgotten those long months of interdiction country had suffered in 1200 as a result of King Philip IPs illegal divorce. Excommunication made its victim no better than dead in the eyes of the law, and released his relatives or subjects from all obligations towards him while interdiction paralysed a country's life, by debarring its inhabitants from any participation in religious observances, and especially from Communion a thing as essential their

;

for the bulk of Christians as their daily bread. see the Pope intervening in the election of

We

an Emperor, trying

own

candidate against the will of the German princes. impose We see him putting England under an interdict because King John

to

his

obstinately preferred to select the archbishop he, rather than the Pope, had in mind. Philip II made submission, while John suffered

the humiliation of surrendering his crown and receiving it back at the hands of the Papal Legate. The King of Aragon, a Catholic

Crusade against the Moors, made Pope his oath of allegiance and be crowned by His Holiness he knew very well that Rome's friendship was a guarantee of internal stability. Innocent III was a Pope determined to treat any Catholic monarch as his vassal.

monarch engaged the journey to

in a perpetual

Rome in order to

offer the :

But when the Pope pronounced his excommunication against the County of Toulouse, he knew that his usual weapons were powerless there was no point in putting an interdict on a land that had already, more or less openly, severed itself from the Church of Rome. Raymond VI's crime was that of ruling a country where the authority of the Church was in decline, and of doing nothing to :


4

remedy such a state of affairs. The avowed aim of the Crusade, directed as it was against a country that had been Christian for a thousand years, was the overthrow of a prince whose very legitimacy made him somewhat over-prone to side with his own people. To save the Church from the danger threatening its continued existence in the Midi, it was essential that this country should be placed under the control of an alien, external government, that would have the courage to act firmly and without compromise. The outline of this far-reaching operation can already be traced, in its entirety, in the letter that Innocent III sent to the King of France before the assassin-

ation of his Papal Legate. On 10th March 1204 he wrote *It is your responsibility to harry the Count of Toulouse out of those lands :

at present he occupies to remove this territory from the conof sectarian heretics and to place it in the hands of true Cathowho will be enabled, under your beneficent rule, to serve Our

which trol lics

Lord

The

;

;

in all faithfulness.'

territories

under the Count of Toulouse's jurisdiction had been

a notorious nest of heresy for something over a hundred years. In every Christian country, ever since the foundation of the Church there

itself,

had

existed various

permanent

heretical enclaves, of

greater or lesser importance. At the time of the Crusades not only the Slav countries but the whole of Northern Italy had become a

battleground where Catholics and heretics waged unceasing warfare. In the French Midi, though the heretics remained a minority group, they had, nevertheless, long since formed a most important section of the population. This caused the Church considerable distress. Every kind of sanction was brought into play, including excommunication and the use of the secular

arm

;

but, in this area at least, such

proved Heresy or rather, a variety of heresies began to gain ground everywhere, with increasing speed. For over four years now Innocent III had realized that the

efforts

increasingly ineffectual.

only real chance of extirpating this heretical

movement

lay in a full-

scale expeditionary force.

The murder of Peter of Castelnau, even more than

Duke of Enghien, was something of which 'it

was worse than a crime

:

it

it

that of the

could well be said that

was a mistake'. There are, besides, Count himself had nothing

grounds for supposing that the

good to do with

it.

Peter of Castelnau, latterly Legate to the Apostolic See of Languedoc, had been Archdeacon of Maguelonne and a monk of the Cistercian

Abbey of

Fontfroide.

For a long while now he had been

1

Painting by Berruguete (1477-1503) of Saint

Tribunal of the Inquisition

Dominic

at the

Painting by FraAngelico (1387-1455) showing Saint Dominic handing he

book containing the profession of faith to an envoy of the Albigensians book miraculously leaping out of the flames

nd, on the right, the

3

A

thirteenth century fresco

portraying Pope Innocent

III

from the church

at

Subiaco in

Italy


5

engaged in a struggle to prevent government policy and the Church's

work from coming into direct collision. In order to convert the rebellious, he had plunged into political activity of the most violent sort. First, accompanied by his colleague Arnald-Amalric, the Abbot of Citeaux, Peter of Castelnau had set about those Languedoc prelates who were suspected of looking on heresy with a friendly, or at least a tolerant eye. In 1205 he suspended from office two bishops, those of BSziers and Viviers. Next, the two Legates ordered proII, Archbishop of Narbonne, and Primate of all Languedoc. But Berenger refused to be intimidated, and indeed openly defied the Papal envoys. Finally, towards the end of 1207, Peter of Castelnau managed to establish a league of Southern barons, the purpose of which was to hunt down heretics. When Raymond VI was asked to join this

ceedings to be taken against B6renger

league, he refused. As Pierre des Vaux de Cernay observes, the man of God [i.e. Peter of Castelnau] actually incited the seigneurs of Provence to rebel against their liege lord. 1 But he went further still.

Undaunted by the Count's disaffection, the Legate excommunicated him in public, put his territory under interdict, and wound up a most 'He lively occasion by pronouncing his anathema in round terms :

who

will

be accounted virtuous, he

who

strikes

dispossesses you you dead will earn a blessing.' Despite Raymond's obstinacy the excommunication had its effect the Count of Toulouse made his submission, and renewed the promises required of him. The interview an extremely stormy one took place at Saint-Gilles. Directly after :

Peter of Castelnau, together with the Bishop of Couserans, left the city. The following morning, just as the Papal party was about to it

cross the Rhone, an officer in the Count's service flung himself the Legate and ran him through with his sword.

This brief

summary of Peter of

upon

Castelnau's activities offers ample

proof that the Legate was by no means accommodating by nature, and that he had no fear of making enemies. But at a moment when

between the Count of Toulouse and the Church were already seriously strained, the murder of an Ambassador from the Holy See was the last drop that made the cup brim over. Innocent III had long been contemplating the idea of a Crusade against this heresy-tainted land. He only needed one solid, explosive incident, relations

something that would

fire

the public imagination

and

justify

a

declaration of war.

The Papacy had no armies in its pay. Crusades, which in the previous century had been a pretty popular kind of war, remained, above

all,

voluntary campaigns, despite the fact that kings

and


6

princes took part in them. The Pope could not force the French King to launch a Crusade, and in the event failed to persuade him.

was wholly dependent on the goodwill of the landed gentry, great and small, who would agree to join it. Accordingly the Pope dispatched letters to every French bishop, with the intention of launching a propaganda campaign in support of

The

success of the venture

new Crusade. His emissaries, strengthened by the evocation of Peter's bloodstained white habit, went the rounds of the French churches, expatiating on the tragic condition of a country thus abandoned to

this

the ravages of heresy. Arnald-Amalric, we are told by William de 2 Puylaurens, seeing that he was powerless to bring back these straying sheep to

God,

made his way

to France, a land that has ever fought in God's cause there he reached an agreement with the King and the barons, while sundry men of the people, suitable for such a task, began, in the name of the Apostolic authorities, to preach a war against the heretics, entailing indulgences comparable to those habitually dispensed to Crusaders who crossed the seas in order to bring succour to the Holy Land. ;

The author of the Chanson de la Croisade* puts the following words into the mouth of Arnald-Amalric during his journey to Rome 'May the man who abstains from this Crusade never drink :

wine again may he never eat, morning or evening, off a good linen cloth, or dress in fine stuff again to the end of his days and at his ;

;

death

may

he be buried

a dog!' Such sentiments could not have since at the time the Legate was actually in like

been uttered in Rome, but they doubtless convey a faithful enough representation of his characteristic fierceness in discourse. The propaganda drive

France

was so

;

successful that the

King of France (who had,

initially, tried

movement that seemed likely to rob him of troops at a time when he was liable to need them) found himself forced to to limit a

change his tune almost Volunteers streamed

at once.

in from all quarters: from Normandy and and Flanders, Picardy and Limousin. Not only Champagne, Anjou and but knights, peasants burghers, too, enrolled themselves for this

Crusade, eager to serve under the colours of their liege lord or their bishop. It is impossible to judge the strength of this army with any precision: such figures as the historians record are vague in the extreme. But certainly it was a large army as armies went in that period,

and

its

strength

temporary witnesses.

made a

considerable impression on con-


7

The Crusaders we make a detailed examination of the heresy which provoked the Albigensian Crusade, or sketch in the background of the country where one of the cruellest dramas in French history was destined to be played out, we must, first, study the Crusaders themselves. What manner of men were these, who dared to invade a Christian country that had never molested them, and which was closely allied to them both by speech and by racial descent? We have already seen that Crusades as such had long formed 2.

Before

part of the mores peculiar to the Western European aristocracy. Quite apart from the four major Crusades, the whole of the twelfth

century had witnessed an endless stream of small private wars, led and financed by various grands seigneurs at their own expense. It was

not only their vassals

numerous

who took

part in these forays either, but and conditions: many of the

volunteers, of all sorts

expeditionary forces were

commanded by

bishops.

The bulk of the

Crusaders were Frenchmen, from the Midi no less than from the North. The Christian empire now gradually foundering in the Near East was a French empire it stood in need of continual reinforce;

ments, and the Christian kingdoms of the West had for a century now paid a heavy tribute in human lives to the Holy Land. These warriorpilgrims were by no means all fired with a pure and disinterested passion a great number of them were ambitious adventurers. But the unreserved approval with which the Church regarded such a pious undertaking as a Crusade had an odd effect. Those who fought ;

in it were convinced that, by practising a profession which in different circumstances would have contributed nothing to their salvation, they were both serving God and saving their own souls. Crusaders

who campaigned in the Holy Land enjoyed indulgences granted by the Pope, while anyone who had taken part in such a Crusade not only won forgiveness for his sins, but also had the chance to acquire both fame and fortune. There was, on the face of it, something most attractive about such doubly profitable enterprises but a series of defeats, and the progressive decay of the French empire in Syria and Palestine, tended to discourage would-be adventurers. The new Latin Empire of Constantinople appeared to hold out greater opportunities, though it lacked the special appeal of the Holy Sepulchre. There were, nevertheless, a good many soldiers, especially in France, who needed a Crusade much in the same way as a Moslem needs his pilgrimage to Mecca. It is not, therefore, surprising that the Pope's appeal met with so favourable a reception in the provinces of Northern France. ;


8

Crusade were comin the Holy Crusaders on bestowed parable to those that had been less. Land and the effort involved was considerably Furthermore, to go on a Crusade was a very handy way of holding up the payment of one's debts, and keeping one's property clear of any ultimate claims that might be made upon it, since a Crusader's goods were

The indulgences promised

in respect of this

declared sacrosanct for the whole period of his absence. It is very probable, indeed, that the larger part of this Crusading army (a point which applies to the nobility just as much as to the

burghers and common people) was composed either of sinners anxious to win God's pardon, or else of debt-ridden wretches who

hoped

in this

way to escape being harried by their creditors or else, who had already vowed their services to the Holy ;

again, of those

Land, and were anxious to wriggle out of this in a shorter, less wearying Crusade.

The

liability

by taking part was probably

third category

the largest.

A

large number of these Crusaders were, indeed, little better than professional mercenaries, always glad of an honourable excuse for fighting. At the same time we should not forget that the army now being made ready for its venture, whether in great castle or parish

armoury, in beflagged tiltyard or private guardroom, princely palace or stately ecclesiastical pile, was an army of men who wore the Cross sewn upon their surcoats. The mere fact of bearing this Cross provided even the most lukewarm with a symbol eloquent enough to stir their enthusiasm.

Another point how did the Papal anathema contrive to transform of Toulouse, overnight, into a pagan and an infidel? Languedoc was not separated from France by the high seas and several thousand miles but it was, nevertheless, a foreign if not an actively hostile country. The great Southern barons, jealous above all else of their personal independence, were continually shifting :

Raymond

;

sometimes they leaned towards the King of France, sometimes to the King of England again, they might ally themselves with the German Emperor or the King of Aragon. The thread which their allegiance

:

;

bound the Count of Toulouse in vassalship to the French King was somewhat tenuous. High liegeman of the Crown the Count yet he could not even be regarded as the King's safe ally, but rather as a somewhat doubtful neighbour, always liable to support the political aims either of the English King (who was his

might be

;

and the uncle of his only son) or of the Emperor. barons of the North, the land of the langue d'oil, though great were no means all loyal to the French King, still remained they by

brother-in-law,

The

THE BACKGROUND OF THE CRUSADE French by culture and tradition themselves with those

:

9

they would not dream of allying

whom they somewhat contemptuously referred

to as 'Provencals'.

The most notable of were Eudes

II,

Duke

the great barons

who

of Burgundy, and Herv

joined the Crusade Count of Nevers.

IV,

These seigneurs were in no doubt why they were going to the wars. Heresy had already penetrated their own domains, and they had good cause for wanting to check its further expansion. Knights such as Simon de Montfort or Guy de L6vis were animated by sincere enthusiasm for what they regarded as God's cause: there were a great number of such 'soldiers of God' in the Crusaders' army that assembled in answer to Pope Innocent's appeal. The French nobility

had long become accustomed to regarding its own interests and God's interests as identical. The faith held by these Crusaders, who never hesitated to exterminate their fellow-men for the greater glory of God,

may strike us as

extraordinary indeed, as somewhat contemptible. Possibly it was not always like this ordinary human morality was never considered for a moment when God's interests appeared to be at stake. These :

could take on a surprisingly

interests this did

with

not shock anyone

human

:

God,

affairs. Faith, in

mundane

after all,

was so

character, closely

though

bound up

France as in other Christian countries

(perhaps especially in France), was deep, sincere, and violent a fact which ensured fierce attachment on the part of devotees to the Faith's external manifestations. The religious feeling which permeated every aspect of men's social and private life achieved a species of symbolism. This symbolism was treated in so literal a fashion that we might easily mistake the attitude involved with that

of the

fetichist.

Crusade,

When we

we should not

study the history of the Albigensian forget that there were other motives behind

apart from the purely political ones motives of sentiment or passion without which the war might never have taken place, or, at it

least,

would have avoided

destined to

mark

it

that peculiarly brutal quality which was war was not simply the business of a

out. This

It was not even a simple expression of the Catholic Church's opposition to heresy. It symbolized, in a

few fanatics or adventurers.

profound way, a special sort of Western civilization, a particular view of God and the Universe. I have described the faith held by these men in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as being, in a sense, 'mundane', since it seems clear that during this period the urge to delimit the supernatural

within increasingly concrete and coherent patterns developed with


10

hitherto unsurpassed vigour.

Roman and use, the

By either outlawing ancient mythology,

Church had

over and turning

it to profitable from into characters transformed the Saints

Celtic, or else taking

it

and, by a converse process, turned gods and demi-gods As a result the Christian lived in a world where the lives

folklore

into saints.

of the Saints and readings from sacred works largely filled the place occupied today by theatre, cinema, illustrated weeklies and fairytales. Secular and folk literature, alien by nature to religious in-

were

fluence,

still

restricted to

minor media or reserved for the

pleasure of a small Mite. The creative energy of these Western nations so young, so avid of new experience, so touched with

poetry even in their humblest occupations was almost wholly canalized into the religious life, which very soon took on the appearance of pure paganism, thinly veneered with Christianity. It has been said that the cathedrals were the poor man's Bible, and something more the great book by means of which the devotee was brought into contact with history, with the sciences both moral natural, with the mysteries of past and future alike. The remains of those twelfth century cathedrals give us no more than a partial notion of their splendour. It must not be forgotten that they were painted and gilded outside as well as in; that the statues and tympana that adorned their great portals were tricked out in polychrome that the naves were not only smothered with frescoes but, over and above this, decked with richly-woven tapestries, Eastern fabrics, and silken banners all embroidered with gold and that the altars, shrines, and miraculous images, on account of their superb craftsmanship no less than the rare materials which had gone to :

;

;

their

making, constituted a treasure of incalculable value.

The mass of the common people were poor the bourgeoisie had already become rich, but, like the bourgeoisie everywhere, was wholly self-regarding. The nobility practised a certain ostentatious extravagance, while the prelates of the Church frequently copied the nobility, both in their luxurious habits and their addiction to warfare. The country was constantly ravaged by famine, fire, battles great and small, plague epidemics, and every sort of banditry and yet from that same soil there arose these extraordinarily rich cathedrals. We have (if we want to reconcile these facts) to grant that men's ;

;

faith in this age possessed

a special temper

all its

own. This frantic

urge to incarnate the divine, to give it concrete shape, suggests both a deep regard for material objects and the created world, and a pro-

found contempt for human those

who

life.

The

cathedrals rose

also offered adoration to relics.

on the

faith of


11

The men of Northern France were by no means all fervent supporters of the Papacy far from it. In 1204 the French bishops stood out against the Papal Legates when they tried to force Philip II into peace with England. The barons continually squabbled with the :

bishops and abbots in the furtherance of their various private interests, and the common people continually resented the tithes they were forced to pay. This does not alter the fact that, during the period under discussion, the French people as a whole were deeply Catholic, and clung to their churches, religious customs, and centres of pilgrimage as though they formed a kind of national heritage.

Now the heresy that had gained ground in the districts of Languedoc was

fiercely

opposed in principle to

all

ecclesiastical life; so those emissaries

outward manifestations of Arnald sent out to

whom

preach the Crusade had little trouble in working up the indignation of their large audiences against 'God's enemies'.

The

stories

which reappear

like

a faint echo in the chronicle of

Vaux de Cernay must have formed the subject of endless discussion and comment throughout the length and breadth of France nor, we may be certain, do they represent all the incidents that took place, or even the worst of them. One man defiled a church altar. Some soldiers in service with the Count of Foix took a certain Canon and chopped him into pieces they also used the arms and Pierre des

;

;

legs of a crucifix to grind up spices with, in lieu of a pestle. Such things must have haunted the minds of even the most casual believer.

These heretics desecrated Communion chalices and asserted that by receiving the Sacred Host one swallowed a devil they uttered blasphemies against the Saints, declaring that they were all damned. ;

The Pope's words

were 'they are worse than the very Saracens' Those who listened to Rome's envoys, however, were not humanitarian by nature, and probably found the idea of a

quite literally true.

mutilated crucifix

more

distressing than that of

chopping a

man

to pieces.

The King, whose mind moved along political lines, was not (so we can judge) extravagantly moved by the development and spread of this heresy. He showed himself, indeed, about as unen-

far as

thusiastic over the proposed Crusade as he could, within the bounds of common decency. He wrote to Innocent III saying that he would not go on this Crusade unless the Pope forced the King of England to refrain from attacking France, and levied a special tax to finance

the expedition. In any case he had doubts concerning the legitimacy of the scheme. In February 1209, when military detachments were


12

gathering throughout every province, with contributions pouring in and the leaders busy preparing for the great day of departure, 4 Innocent III wrote to King Philip: It is to you that We especially entrust the cause of God's Holy Church. The army of the Faithful that is forming to combat heresy must have a leader to whom its members will owe unquestioning obedience. We therefore beg your Serene Highness to choose, on your own initiative, some loyal, discreet, and vigorous gentleman who may lead the champions of Our Holy Cause to final triumph under your banner.

The King, however,

refused.

He would

not go to the wars himself,

son go; he would not even accept the responsibility of choosing a deputy who could act in his name. The Pope wanted to use the King of France as a legal, secular agent of Divine Justice in or

let his

this Crusade but the Crusade remained what in sober fact it was, a war launched by the Church itself. The barons who followed the Cross would be soldiers of the Church and the leader whom the ;

;

army appointed over themselves was Arnald-Amalric, the Abbot of Citeaux. The King of France was to have his turn later. Crusaders'

Among

the barons

who joined

that Papal Legate

the Crusade in 1209

we know

the

names of Eudes II, Duke of Burgundy, Herv6 IV, Count of Nevers (both already mentioned above) Gaucher de Chatillon, Count of Saint-Pol; Simon de Montfort; Pierre de Courtenay; Thibaud Count of Bar Guichard de Beaujeu Gauthier de Joigny Guillaume de Rocher, the Seneschal of Anjou Guy de Levis, and many others. But Church dignitaries, too, figure as military leaders. The Archbishops of Rheims, Sens and Rouen, together with the Bishops of Autun, Clermont, Nevers, Bayeux, Lisieux and Chartres, all joined the Crusade. Each of them led a contingent composed half of seasoned fighters, and half of pilgrims who knew nothing of war, but were aflame with the desire to serve God's holy Cause. ;

;

;

;

;

A year had passed since the death of Peter of Castelnau, and now the threat looming over Languedoc began to take more precise shape. The Count of Toulouse, whose rank and position could still inspire some respect among those of the Crusaders who were bred in the same caste, had been much discredited by rumours accusing him of

complicity in the Legate's murder. But this crime might not suffice in itself to arouse wholehearted execration against him, since the

French barons were themselves constantly at daggers drawn with the clergy. Accordingly the propagandists were obliged to blacken

THE BACKGROUND OF THE CRUSADE his portrait yet further. Pierre des preter of the extremist movement

Count a

13

Vaux de Cernay, a faithful interamong the Crusaders, makes the

perfectly odious figure.

His private habits, we learn, were abominable. He had little respect for the sanctity of marriage a venial sin, considering that among the barons of the period a faithful husband was something of a rarity. The facts were simple he had been married five times, and two of his divorced wives were still alive. Better still, the Count had, as a young man, seduced certain of his father's mistresses. (Since the Count was now fifty-two, the complaint seems to have come a little late in the day.) His part in the murder of Peter of Castelnau, we are told, was notorious and this though the Pope himself dared make no more than a half-hearted assertion on the :

subject! In order to prove his statements, the chronicler tells us that

Raymond VI paraded the murderer throughout his domains, saying who cared to listen 'Do you see this man? He is the only 5 person who truly loves me and knew how to fulfil my desires

to anyone

:

.

The remark would appear

to be bitterly ironic; but in

could not allow himself

Raymond

little

.

.'

any case

pleasantries of this nature.

The Count of Toulouse was a politically cautious man, always anxious to keep on good terms with everyone. Even if he had, in fact, ordered the Legate's murder (which is most improbable) he would be forced to disown the agent he had used. If he failed to punish the man, it was out of concern for public opinion in his own domains. The man who killed so unpopular a Legate was doubtless regarded by his fellow-countrymen as a hero. The Pope and the leaders of the Crusade saw very clearly that it was the country as a whole which bore the responsibility for this crime,

and

that the

Count should not

suffer the abuse of the

except in his capacity as the country's leader.

His crime was,

it

mob must

be said, a heinous one in the eyes of every faithful member of the He was not content with mere indifference where heresy was

Church.

concerned he seemed actively to encourage it. On this point we possess a wealth of evidence, though since it comes from the Count's enemies it must be regarded with some ;

suspicion. It was alleged that he surrounded himself with known heretics whom he treated in the most courteous fashion. He even had

a notion to get his son taught by their ministers. His impiety was it was not enough for him to practise systematic perse-

notorious

:

cution of churches and monasteries

;

when he attended Mass he

the gestures of the priest. He was obparody served to prostrate himself before various heretical ministers, and

made

his jester

all


14

one day,

in

a

fit

of rage, he exclaimed

:

'I

can see that

it

was, indeed,

the Devil who created this world; nothing goes as I wish it!' In short, the Church (as embodied by Pierre des Vaux de Cernay, a man

of somewhat intemperate language but still, doubtless, a fairly accurate guide to the general opinion of his kind) regarded Count

Raymond

as 'a limb of Satan, a child of perdition, a hardened

6 criminal, a parcel of sinfulness'. Pope Innocent himself is scarcely more charitable 'impious, cruel tyrant, creature both pestilent and :

insane'

But

is

this

the

way he

addresses him. 7

was where Church and Crusaders

alike struck

one of the

biggest stumbling-blocks in their scheme: things turned out to be far more complex than they would have liked. The 'impious tyrant' performed an abrupt volte-face, reminding his adversaries that he was still the sovereign lord of a Christian country. After a bungled attempt to get both the King of France and the German Emperor

to intercede on his behalf a remarkable piece of stupidity, since the two monarchs were at daggers drawn, and neither of them was to forgive the Count for approaching the other Raymond finally declared himself an obedient son of the Church, ready to submit to every condition which the Pope might impose on him. This decision of the Count's has been severely criticized by historians, who have regarded it as a proof of feebleness, if not downright cowardice. But Raymond VI was by no means the kind of man liable to exclaim 'All is lost save honour' his personal honour seems to have been a matter of little concern to him his main concern was to minimize the damage done. We must remember that the majority of his subjects were Catholics, and that consequently they, no less than the heretics in their midst, were liable to suffer if war ;

;

came.

The Count owed his Catholic subjects this proof of his good faith and could also use it to cut the ground from under his enemies' feet. If he was no longer the foe, against whom were they marching out to war? Heresy as such was a faceless enemy it possessed neither :

army, nor headquarters, nor defensive positions let alone a Pope or a King. By depriving them of a concrete objective the Count destroyed half the raison d'etre of the Crusade. But it was far too late to check the mounting enthusiasm which

now

blazed throughout the

did not

make anyone

Army

down

of God. The Count's submission

arms

merely served to exasa manoeuvre weakened further, since such their moral position without in any way advancing the interests of the Church. So it came about that this army, with its 'soldiers of perate his enemies

lay

still

his

;

it

THE BACKGROUND OF THE CRUSADE Christ', injustice

invaded a country which ;

upon an

felt itself

and what had begun as a

15

the victim of a flagrant war became an attack

religious

entire nation.

3. The Land of Languedoc While the Crusaders were busy making preparations for war,

III was simultaneously invoking every sort of curse in heaven and earth on the Count of Toulouse in public, and con-

Innocent

ducting negotiations with him privately. The Count promised to submission, with one caveat: he would prefer to

make complete

discuss the terms of his capitulation with some other Legate than Arnald-Amalric, who was his sworn enemy. The Pope sent him Milo, the Lateran Apostolic Notary, together with Master Thedise,

a Genoese Canon. If the Count supposed he

now had to do

with

less

rigorous judges, he soon found out his mistake. These two men were merely there to execute orders which came from the Abbot of Citeaux. Pope Innocent must have told Milo that it was the Abbot to make decisions ; he, Milo, was to be no more

who would continue

than an agent. In point of fact the Pope had decided to beat the Count at his own game, and match Raymond's feigned submission with an equally feigned clemency. To his special representatives that is, the Abbot of Citeaux, together with the Bishops of Riez and Couserans he

wrote as follows

:

We have received many and urgent enquiries as to what attitude the Crusaders should take in respect of the Count of Toulouse. Let us follow the advice of that Apostle who said 'Being crafty, I caught you with guile.' Use a certain judicious dissimulation: leave him [i.e. the Count] alone to begin with, and concentrate on the rebels. It will be a far harder task to crush these minions of Antichrist if we give them time to unite their scattered groups into a single body of resistance. If the Count does not come to their aid, on the other hand, nothing should be easier than to finish them off; and perhaps the spectacle of their defeat will bring him back to his senses. However, if he persists in his evil purposes, we will be able (when he is isolated, and thrown back on his own unaided strength) to defeat and crush him without overmuch effort. :

The ceremony of

the Count's public apology took place in June 1209 at Saint-Gilles, where Peter of Castelnau had been killed. It

looks as though the Church were intent, before striking at her enemies, on demonstrating to the people through the persons of

how much

power of the great was worth when confronted by the might and majesty of God. her Legates

just

the worldly


16

In the great church of Saint-Gilles (a splendid edifice, which even today hints at both the piety and the luxuriousness which charac-

Counts of Toulouse) there had gathered three archbishops and no less than nineteen bishops while a great throng of other high dignitaries, together with their liegemen and various clerics, crowded both the church and the square outside. Between the two great lions that guarded the entry to the West Door were set terized the ancient

;

out various

relics

of Christ and the Saints. The Count, wearing a round his neck and a candle in his hand,

penitent's garb, with a cord

was brought into the square, stripped to the waist*! and here, over the reliquaries, he swore allegiance to the Pope and the Legates. Then Milo draped his stole round the penitent's neck, gave him Absolution, and marched him into the church, beating him smartly about the shoulders with a bundle of birch-twigs as they went. The

crowd that surged in behind him was so close-packed that he could not get out the way he had come, and was taken down through the ciypt where Peter of Castelnau was buried. His contemporaries, prone to find signs and portents everywhere, regarded this coincidence as a just punishment for the crime he was assumed to have committed. Before this cruel ceremony was enacted, the Count had been obliged to subscribe to the following conditions

(a)

He must

whom

offer apologies to

:

every bishop and abbot with

he was at loggerheads.

(b)

He must

(c)

houses throughout his domains. He must rid himself of the bands of veterans and mercenaries

whom (d)

relinquish his rights over the bishoprics

he employed to defend his

He must no longer He must give up

entrust any

and

religious

territories.

Jew with public

office.

of protecting heretics, and (e) deliver them up to the Crusaders. (/) He must regard as heretics all those denounced as such by his practice

ecclesiastical authority,

(g)

(K)

He must

abide by the Legates' decisions concerning complaints that had been laid against him.

He must himself observe, and enforce the

all

the

observance in others,

of every clause in the peace treaty drafted by the Legates. In short, by making this Act of Submission the Count had accepted a virtual Church dictatorship over his country. He must have calculated that the various clauses of the treaty

would be hard

to enforce

THE BACKGROUND OF THE CRUSADE in practice,

As soon

17

and doubtless supposed that time would work on his side. had got his Absolution, Count Raymond took the

as he

an unforeseen way he asked to be allowed to join the Crusade himself. This decision was somewhat startling, coming as it did from a prince who had always done his utmost to accommodate heretics. 'A further example of his double-dealing,' Vaux de Cernay wrote. 'His only motive for joining the Crusade was to render his person and property immune from seizure, and to provide a cloak for his nefarious schemes.' 8 With this view the evidence seems, indeed, to agree well eno^ph. But Raymond was also trying to go over the Legates' heads (there was, clearly, nothing more to be hoped for from them) and to win the trust of the Pope himself. And indeed, on 26th July Innocent wrote to him 'From an object of scandal to We many, lo, you have been transformed into a model subject.

initiative in

:

:

.

.

.

have no wish but for your welfare and your honour. You may rest assured that We shall not allow any wrong to be done you if you have not deserved it.' This was the language of diplomacy, and did not perhaps by intent commit the writer to any very weighty obligation

;

but

uttermost

it

was a card which Count Raymond was to play to

its

limit.

The Count of Toulouse was not merely drama that was to be played out across his

the

main actor

territory

:

in the

his character

resembles a scaled-down projection of all his country's weaknesses and contradictions, virtues and misfortunes. His behaviour was

much due to personal, individual decisions, whether for good as to the general condition of Languedoc at the time of the ill, disaster a condition which it in some sort reflects. His private not so or

character vanishes

when confronted with

the public role he

was

We

cannot even say that the task was too heavy for his shoulders to bear, since he seems to have identified himself so

obliged to play.

end they saw him as something very much more than a mere leader. He was their rightful sovereign, in the full sense of that term a sovereign whose function was to be his people's symbolic representative, and the slave of his subjects' wishes or needs. With all his faults and weaknesses, he closely with his people's cause that in the

:

remains saries

human

to the end

especially

when contrasted with adver-

whom

robbed

bigotry, fanaticism, ambition or plain ignorance had of all humane qualities. In an age when people were judged

and condemned according to the conduct of their princes, Count Raymond VI had committed a crime which carried such dire consequences that it was impossible to let him get off scot free he had :

been a tolerant

ruler.


18

Tolerance did not pass for a virtue in that period, and doubtless Raymond never boasted of possessing it. His ancestors indeed, his own father had burnt heretics, as their neighbouring monarchs

had also done. But towards the end of the twelfth century heresy had become so widespread that any attempt to observe the letter of the law would have entailed burning people by the thousand and reducing whole provinces to beggary. The Count could no longer persecute heretics, for the excellent reason that they now formed a large proportion of his subjects. What in other countries was still regarded as a monstrous scandal had become in ^^ Midi a sort of necessary evil, which in the end would no longer be regarded as an

When

evil at all.

Foulques, the Bishop of Toulouse, asked the they did not break up the nest of

Adhemar why

Chevalier Pons

heretics in their territories

'We cannot do

We

and

drive

them

out,

Adhemar

replied:

brought up together. Many of them are related to us. Besides, we can see for ourselves that they live 9 decent, honourable lives.' William de Puylaurens, who tells the it.

were

all

story, adds 'In this way heresy, shielding itself hypocritically behind the pretence of an honourable life, concealed the truth from these :

somewhat impercipient

5

souls.

Such were the facts but we still have to discover how a country with so lengthy and well-established a Catholic tradition could reach the point where it tacitly accepted a creed the avowed aim of which ;

was to destroy the Church utterly. In order to understand this phenomenon we must cast a rapid glance over the history of Languedoc during the twelfth century, examining its social and political condition and, in particular, analysing the spiritual and moral climate which prevailed there. This cluster of provinces was, after all, one of the main centres of Western culture during our period. The lands actually under the sovereignty of the Counts of Toulouse were almost as extensive as those that owed direct allegiance to the French Crown; but Languedoc itself, the area where the Occitan dialect was spoken, was not a major Power. Nevertheless, it remained an independent territory. In theory the Count of Toulouse was vassal to the King of France but in fact he was less a vassal than the Count of Champagne or even the Duke of Burgundy. Paris was a long way from Toulouse Northern speech was different from that of the Midi and the French King's power in the Midi remained purely nominal. On the other hand the Count held part of his domains in fief from the King of England, an equally distant and ;

;

;

theoretical sovereign. Certain important vassals of the Count's also

THE BACKGROUND OF THE CRUSADE owed

allegiance to the

King of Aragon

and

;

trolled certain areas in the heart of Languedoc

19

monarch con-

this

Montpellier for one,

and the viscountcies of Carlat and Millau. Aries, again, belonged to the Emperor. Such a diversity of overlords was in itself a guarantee of independence. Provided the Emperor kept his distance provided King of England remained busy defending his vast domains ;

the

against the growing power of successive Kings of France ; provided the King of Aragon (whose main concern in any case was to add to his territories beyond the Pyrenees) continued to be caught up with his endless campaign against the Moors; provided the French King's desire to extend his boundaries led him towards lands that marched with his own along geographically dictated frontiers why,

then the Count of Toulouse had nothing to fear. In their struggle to maintain a dominant influence over his terrain, the Count's rival overlords were not so

But

much

this picture is still

his masters as, virtually, his protectors.

too clear-cut: more remains to be told.

During the course of the twelfth century the County of Toulouse was by both the English and the Aragonese, who ravaged the Rouergue district and the environs of Toulouse. Raymond V, Raymond VI's father, spent his whole life defending himself successively invaded

against his dangerous 'protectors'. In 1181, among the allies of his adversary, the King of Aragon, he had to reckon his own major vassals the Counts of Montpellier, Foix and Comminges, and the :

Viscount of Beziers.

He was

of his marriage to Louis's

Louis VIFs brother-in-law by virtue Constance and the King did, in the

sister

;

come

to his aid to protect him against the English. But his conduct towards his wife was such that very soon he had to break off relations with the King of France and transfer his homage to the event,

House of Plantagenet. Unfortunately the old English King, Henry II, was at war with his own son, Richard Coeur-de-Lion and the latter invaded the Toulouse area at the head of his army of mercenaries. All this goes to show that a policy based on maintaining the balance of power has its dangers; nevertheless, the Counts of Toulouse clung stubbornly to their independence. The kings of France, England and Aragon all gave them their sisters in marriage and angled for their alliance each successive Raymond remained a free agent when he set foot on their soil, owing obedience to no man. Yet these same Counts had very little more authority over their ;

;

own provinces than the kings of France did over the County of Toulouse. The Trencavel family, hereditary Viscounts of Bziers, possessed domains that embraced the districts of Carcasses, Albigeois and

Razfes

;

these lands of theirs, which stretched in all

from the


20

Tarn to the Pyrenees, were in vassalage to the King of Aragon. Throughout the twelfth century the Counts of Toulouse were to struggle, unsuccessfully, against the growing power of the Trencavels. The Counts of Foix, too, safe in their mountain fastnesses, remained equally impervious to the authority of the Counts of Toulouse, and only formed alliances with them in order to fight against the Trencavels. Various vassal leagues were continually being formed against the Count, and as frequently dissolved, according to the state of each member's aims and interests. These examples would give a poor notion of the political situation in Languedoc on the eve of the Crusade if we did not bear in mind that the same conditions prevailed in almost every Western kingdom. The kings of France were constantly compelled to defend themselves against vassal leagues. In England a systematic fight conducted by feudal barons against the royal prerogative culminated in Magna Carta. Germany and Italy were the scenes of continual warfare,

ranging from parish-pump rivalry to the grim struggle for the Empire. In this period, when the moral ties binding a man to his seigneur

and

his

Church were a real and indisputable bond, each seemed inspired by the old saying about a man's

individual's conduct

home being

his castle.

These people never talked about liberty. Yet they acted, for the most part, as though their freedom was the one ideal, the only possession that they had to defend. We see towns rising in revolt against their lawful seigneur through fear of having their rights of

self-government curtailed. Bishops stood their ground against kings, even against Popes, while the seigneurs in turn attacked the bishops. All of them, apparently, made it a special point of honour not to accept any form of constraint. In the Midi this attitude had

about reached its apogee, for the country was wealthy, endowed with an ancient traditional culture of which it was most proud, and

just

at the

We

same time eager

for progress.

see, then, that the

Count of Toulouse was not

in control of even within his personal domains, which were traditionally loyal to him, he found himself unable to raise an army, and was forced to rely upon mercenaries. It was very his

own

vassals

;

but, odder

still,

had no vassals on whom he might call, North a seigneur's heritage would his to eldest after his death, son, in the Midi the fief was split pass, all his children. Thus after three generations or up equally amongst often the case that he simply

for this reason: whereas in the

9

so a chateau could belong to fifty or sixty 'co-seigneurs , who in their turn, whether by marriage or the rights of succession, might also be


21

co-seigneurs of other chateaux besides. The result was that the big have a true owner, but merely a kind of manager. brothers and cousins were frequently liable to since Furthermore,

estates did not

among themselves, a fief, even an important one, did not form a military unit, as was the case in France. Nor was the Count master of the major towns, which formed small autonomous republics, only acknowledging their overlord provided he left them alone. Since trade flourished in Languedoc, and several

quarrel

great trade-routes passed through it, its cities, notoriously, achieved a greater degree of prosperity than those elsewhere. A burgher's privileges were substantial indeed. Every inhabitant became a free man the moment he took up residence there, and his citizenship

was so strong a guarantee of

his security that

no

external authority

possessed the right to bring him to trial. Though he committed a crime a hundred leagues outside the walls, only that city's tribunal could pass judgment upon him.

The towns were governed by consuls a survival from Roman Law. This code still formed the basis of all local jurisdiction. The consuls (or capitouls) were elected from among the city nobility and bourgeoisie; and in this respect the burgher was the knight's equal, de facto no less than dejure. Here we may observe a relaxation of the caste-tradition which the Northern nobility were to hold against both classes in the Midi, and for which they could not forgive them. The rich burgher was a grand seigneur, and so confident of his rights that he would stand his ground against any knight. In the defence of their precious liberties these burghers shrank from nothing. During the year 1161 the citizens of Beziers, for example, murdered their Viscount and beat up their Bishop in the Church of the Madeleine.

but the

spirit

It is

true that this crime

provoked

frightful reprisals

;

of independence that glowed in these tiny republics

was tempered and strengthened by

their long battle against the abuse of princely power. In the midst of this organized chaos stood the Church, a supranational body, disciplined in theory, and obedient to one supreme

Head yet the Church too was forced, by pressure of circumstance, to yield before the prevalent contagion. In her capacity as temporal power she drew most cruel persecution upon herself; her wealth excited all manner of covetousness, while her authority seemed a ;

standing threat to all individual liberty. The bishops were haughty of speech and masterful in their actions they considered themselves after God and the Pope the country's rightful masters. In point ;

of fact there was no justification for their claims

:

here as elsewhere


22

they were great feudal landlords, who had at their disposal vast territories and very considerable revenues. They were frequently more concerned with the defence of their

perhaps here especially

temporal interests than the spiritual direction of those who dwelt in their diocese. They had an excuse for this. It was essential, they said, to cry with the pack, since the Church's earthly patrimony was a guarantee of her moral freedom, and that patrimony was very severely threatened.

These bishops were both indifferent to Papal authority and extremely unpopular in their own dioceses. The people refused to back them against the barons, and instead reviled them for their luxury, their lack of concern for the poor, and their passionate

The abbots, who, thanks to their richly endowed monasteries, could boast no less princely a state, were almost equally ill-regarded. The common clergy, through the neglect of their superiors, had fallen into such discredit that the bishops were hard put to it to find fresh priests, and would ordain the first candidates who came to hand. According to the unanimous testimony of every contemporary Catholic writer, the Church in the Midi at this period had neither authority nor prestige it was spiritually dead. So the Catholic population was reduced to one of two alternatives. Either they had to make do with a Church that might well lead even the best of them astray or else they must seek some other addiction to Crusades.

:

;

outlet for their spiritual aspirations.

The evidence cited hitherto might lead one to suppose that Languedoc was a kind of hell where discord and anarchy reigned. It was in fact a country where life was far less rigorous than elsewhere, a country that possessed a sort of unity. But this unity was internal rather than apparent, lying as it did in the civilization of which each inhabitant partook, and which formed an invisible bond between them, a bond expressed by a certain common mode of thought and

was not merely the burgher's wealth that made the knight him and though these Counts of Toulouse were for ever respect embroiled in disputes with their bishops and vassals, the people continued to show them unconditional love and respect. There were, indeed, numerous wars, which, though they involved a small number only of actual combatants, always caused much damage to the crops. Despite this the people as a whole were by no means poverty-stricken. From contemporary witnesses (such as 10 Etienne, Abbot of Ste Genevteve, the future Bishop of Tournai ) we learn that the roads were unsafe, being infested by Basque and feeling. It

;


23

Aragonese freebooters that the fields were burnt and the houses in ruins. (For lack of regular troops the barons in the Midi used to employ mercenaries.) But villages on the main roads were comparatively rare, being mostly fortified burghs or overflows from a nearby city thus the peasant was often a townsman too, and hoed his vines under the shadow of the city-walls. The soil was fertile, and the towns' prosperity was reflected in the lives led by the peasantry. Not only the burghers but a great number of peasants as well were free men; and in many of the fiefs the absence of one paramount seigneur meant that the serfs were not really responsible to anyone. The burgher was a privileged person he not only had his freedom, but was also protected by his community. The increasing develop;

;

:

ment of trade, too, had made its impact on the working Even humble artisans were gradually being transformed powerful

class,

with

full realization

classes.

into a

of their rights.

The influence and authority exercised by the bourgeoisie played a prominent part in the social evolution of Languedoc. The land of the troubadours was also the land of trade par excellence a country :

in

which the burgher's

social position

was beginning to

eclipse that

of the nobility. It is true that the burghers, whether out of snobbishness or through some lingering sense of inferiority, still made efforts to acquire noble escutcheons; but this was, in their case, mere gratuitous self-satisfaction. When any bourgeoisie is treated on an

equal footing by the aristocratic society of the day, this means, in fact, that it has the upper hand.

The Rhone and the Garonne were great arteries, along which was borne all merchandise and raw material exchanged between the North and the Midi. Marseilles, Toulouse, Avignon and Narbonne had been major ports since ancient times. The Crusades enriched all the cities of the West but Languedoc in particular, on account of its position as half-way house and key to the Near East, made a veritable fortune out of them. Those about to embark bought their stores and ;

equipment for the voyage there, while returning veterans sold their booty to Languedoc traders the local nobility, a feckless and footloose lot, were often forced to sell their lands and goods for a mere song to the bankers who financed expeditions to the Holy Land. ;

From

these perennially out-of-pocket overlords the

common

people

due course purchased various privileges and liberties which, once having got, they were never again to surrender. Since the burghers acknowledged no master apart from their consuls, it followed that the Count of Toulouse lacked any legal authority in his own city, and was only obeyed so long as he respected local common law. in


24

Every burgher had the right to buy, sell, or engage in barter without paying any duties or taxes on such transactions. There were no restrictions placed upon marriage. Resident aliens enjoyed full citizens' rights, regardless

of their nationality or creed. These

*free

towns' formed the centres of the country's social life the election of a consul was a great public event, celebrated with processions and :

a universal hammering of church bells, its pomp and splendour any religious festival. A citizen's life, from the cradle to the grave, was closely bound up with the life of the city itself. The nuptial blessing pronounced by the priest could not, for sheer solemnity, match the moment when bride and bridegroom were rivalling

brought before the consuls, magnificent in their ermine-trimmed and made their offering of flowers and fruit-laden branches.

robes,

As an instrument of spirit

and the

public

life

secularization (albeit permeated with both the

external ritual of religious faith) this flourishing in the 'free towns' stood very high.

Being predominantly commercial cities, the townships of the South attained an opulence which the North had every reason to envy. There was no comparison between Paris and Toulouse, and neither Troyes nor Rouen was a match for Avignon. The splendour

of such Catholic churches in the Midi as war and the passage of time have spared helps us to imagine just how magnificent these cities

must have been

in their hey-day great centres of religious and cultural development, where business, industry, and every sort of craft and art flourished. The larger ones could boast schools of

medicine, philosophy, mathematics and astrology: not only Tou-

Narbonne, Avignon, Montpellier and Beziers were nominal foundation of their At Toulouse, the course on Aristotle embodied various

louse, but also

in fact university cities before the universities.

recent discoveries

made by Arab philosophers

;

since the ecclesiastical

authorities in Paris refused to release this material, the philosophical school at Toulouse gained considerable prestige as a result of their

censorship. Regular contact with the

Moslem world had been established very medium of Arab merchants and doctors,

early on, mainly through the

who reached Languedoc either from the The

East, or across the Pyrenees.

could no longer be regarded as a natural enemy. The formed who a large and powerful community in every major Jews, business centre, were not debarred from public life through any sort of religious prejudice. Their doctors and savants were held in high infidel

regard by the general populace throughout the they had

their

own

schools,

where they gave

cities

of the area

;

free courses of lectures,

THE BACKGROUND OF THE CRUSADE some of which were open

25

had no we hear of a Saint-Gilles we find a

to the public. Catholic students

objection to attending such lectures. For instance,

Doctor Abraham from Beaucaire, and in named Simeon and a Rabbi Jacob. The influence of Jewish and Moslem apocryphal writings was widespread among the clergy, and even reached the common people. In some towns, indeed, Jews were appointed to the office of consul or magistrate. For good or ill, one thing is certain in this area secular life was scholar

:

considerably more flourishing than

to a religious counterpart point where the latter seemed likely to be snuffed out altogether. The nobles drifted with the tide of events. Some historians present them as a vain, ineffectual, degenerate body others see in them the its

;

of the knightly esprit courtois that the age could certain, however, is that the bulk of this nobility had

finest flowering

show.

What

is

acquired a strong bourgeois streak that its members were cultured gentlemen more addicted to civil than to military matters, even though, on occasion, the knights of Languedoc could show them;

selves every whit as brave as their Northern rivals. Here, in short, was an aristocracy which was beginning to forget that its main purpose, indeed, its traditional raison d'etre, was the profession of arms. Yet this did not prevent its members from being very fierce-

tempered indeed when their personal interests were at stake. There were no more great causes to fight for decentralization and the parcelling out of the estates had seen to that. The result was that ;

each baron fought merely for his own advantage, and yesterday's foes were only too likely to become today's friends or vice versa. In the end such petty local rivalries were no longer taken very seriously, even by the interested parties. Besides, though nobles and

burghers did not always see eye to eye with one another, they at to encroach systematically upon the rights of the

least united

Church. The Church's powers had been weakened, and her unpopularity made her all the easier to attack. Many bishops were ruined as a result of the wars they were forced to wage against the great or lesser barons. There was nothing uplifting for the nobility in campaigns of this nature and in any case, their minds were elsewhere. ;

The time was long past when the Church had a virtual monopoly in the production of what we may term the intellectual class. For over a century now the laity had enjoyed a mastery of the written word, and the literary language used in Christian countries was no longer Latin. Literature, indeed, was coming to play an increasingly important part in the lives, not only of the aristocracy, but of the

middle classes as

well.

Northern Frenchmen, Germans, and English-


26

men were

great readers of romances. Secular drama began, shyly, to appear side by side with its religious counterpart. all

somewhat The arts of poetry and music had become an essential daily perquisite even for the lesser nobility and the bourgeoisie. It is a curious fact that the Midi has left us no literature in the field of fictional romance. On the other hand its poetic heritage stands supreme in European history, being not only most ancient, but also unique in the quality of its inspiration. Its genius was universally recognized, and imitated as far afield as Germany. For French, Italian, and Catalan poets alike, the Occitan tongue was the language of literature par excellence we should not forget that Dante originally intended to compose his Divina Commedia in it. If we cannot think of the Southern French nobility without immediately evoking the name of the troubadours, the fact remains that these aristocrats were genuinely and passionately devoted to poetry, and tried, as best they could, to carry out in practice the literary ideals of their age. It is easy to accuse them of having their heads in the clouds but when we consider the matter more closely, they appear more realistic than, say, Louis XIV's courtiers, whose highest ambition was to have the honour of helping the King get up in the morning. For a Southern gentleman of the twelfth century, honour consisted in a certain disdain for the good things of this world, coupled with an unbounded exaltation of one's own personality. The adoration of the Lady, that marvellous and inaccessible ;

;

Lover,

is

nothing

else, surely,

but the urge to proclaim a triumph of

Even though one may be offering one's devotion, it is not to some divinity whom the whole world shares, but to a private self-will?

deity of one's

own,

freely chosen.

Some commentators have gone

so far as to claim that the Lady was purely symbolic, and represented either the Cathar Church or some esoteric revelation and it is true that the poems of certain troubadours bear considerable resemblance, in style and tone, to those of the Arab mystics. This can almost certainly be ascribed to mere literary imitation, for at the time it occurred to no one to ;

regard such poetry as being anything other than love-poetry. Nevertheless it remains true that troubadour verse appears to deal primarily, not with love

itself,

so

much as with a method

of attaining

moral and spiritual perfection through love's agency. These sighs and torments, these protracted vigils and metaphorical deaths seem once passionately sincere and, somehow, a little unreal. What the poet seems to be admiring, all through these bouts of suffering, is at

his

own

exquisite soul.


27

A

turbulent, restless, egotistical society, this; given to prodigal extravagance (e.g. the Seigneur de Venous, who out of sheer bravado

had thirty horses burnt alive in the presence of his guests), obsessed with most apparently impractical arts, hungry for unattainable loves. Yet behind such qualities there is evident a certain way of life which by no means lacked nobility. That superficial appearance of frivolity perhaps masked a desire for withdrawal, an unwillingness to treat

unworthy subjects upon them, and the initial

seriously.

surprise

When

was

the time of peril

came

over, the nobles of Languedoc

proved themselves warriors indeed: there was a stubborn, even a ferocious quality about their patriotism. The political weaknesses they showed cannot on any count be taken to signify a lack of vital energy.

One thing we know, at all events, is that the nobles of Languedoc were not only indulgent towards heresy, but became its most steadfast (and, indeed, notorious) supporters. It was because this new religion had won over the only class of the population who were in a position to defend the Church's cause by force of arms, that the Crusade was deemed essential in the first place. Languedoc was Catholic both in theory and actuality yet by a wholly natural process, quite smoothly and without any overt rebellion, it had become a land of heresy. The new doctrine was now :

it was already impossible to distinguish the the only alternatives were to strike indisnothing at all. Throughout this pitiless ten

so well acclimatized that

wheat from the

tares

criminately or to do years' war the heretics

:

for the Crusaders' real

came more and more to seem a mere excuse aim the destruction of the entire country. :

Yet far from eradicating this heresy, the Crusade in fact renewed and redoubled its strength. A century was to elapse before Catharism was finished, and then its end was only achieved by the gradual obliteration of everything which went to make up the living tradition of Languedoc.

CHAPTER

II

HERESY AND HERETICS

1.

Origins

THE EXISTENCE OF HERESY cannot be considered apart from the existence of the Church itself: the two run pan passu. Dogma is always accompanied by heresy from the very first the history of the Christian Church was a long catalogue of battles against various heresies battles no less bloody or bitter than those which the Christian communities fought against their pagan neighbours. But from the sixth century onwards Western Europe, still barely recovered from the shock of the great invasions, and constantly ;

threatened with the possibility of fresh inroads, nevertheless enjoyed

The authority of the Church was (in theory at least) respected and obeyed.* Yet heresy or rather, heresies proliferated everywhere. Survivals from those supposedly defeated creeds, the Arian and the relative stability in its religious affairs.

Manichaean, cropped up incessantly, sometimes in the shape of a compromise with orthodoxy, sometimes in open opposition

tacit

to

it.

lished

Furthermore, the inevitable abuses characteristic of an EstabChurch were in evidence here, and provoked a never-ending

stream of protest and would-be reforms these often became heresies by definition that is, they diverged from official doctrine. Heresies appeared in the country districts, where they probably represented a barely Christianized survival of Celtic mysticism; and in the ;

much meditation on the part of monks with minds of their own. They were uttered ex cathedra by learned Professors of Theology, and also turned up in the towns, where they monasteries, as the fruit of

tended to be identified with some sort of social revolution. * The Schism of 1054, which brought about final separation between the Churches of Rome and Byzantium, was no more than the ratification of a fait accompli. For all their community of doctrinal belief, the two Churches had long since parted company in a political and historical sense, and had no good reason for prolonging their mutual dependence. Rome was now, as far as the West was concerned, sole arbiter in matters of religious truth which meant, in effect, that she had a monopoly of truth in general.

HERESY AND HERETICS But

in

Northern

Italy

29

and the French Midi Rome was confronted

with a very different sort of situation. It was no longer a matter of local or individual manifestations of independence a rival religion, ;

had planted itself in the very heart of Christendom and was gaining ground fast largely by presenting itself as the one true Faith. The traditional means of persuasion which the Church employed against her straying flock here ran into an absolutely immovable brick wall. These heretics were no longer dissident Catholics: they drew their strength from the consciousness of belonging to a faith that had never seen eye to eye with Catholicism, and was more ancient than the Church itself. We should not, however, lose sight of one important fact. Very many of the heretics, both in Italy and in Languedoc, were not

no

less,

Cathars: they belonged to various 'reforming' sects, such as the Waldensian, which the Church would have almost certainly con-

long run, to draw within her orbit by means of a more and comprehensive policy. But as such vaguely extremist movements of reform were afterwards confused with the great central heresy, Catharism, it is this which we must primarily consider. trived, in the liberal

The

religion of the Cathars, or 'pure ones', came from the East. Their contemporaries labelled them as Manichaeans or Arians: indeed, the majority of heretical sects that appeared in Western

Europe from the eleventh century onwards were given the common of 'Manichaean'. This was merely a figure of speech the heretics themselves never claimed any connection with Mani, and it is clear that the various Churches with avowed Manichaean tendencies (e.g. those established in Spain, North Africa, and even in France) had for long now renounced so alarming an affiliation, with the anathemas and bonfires that it brought in its wake. There was no longer such a being as a 'Manichaean'; by now there were only title

:

'Christians'.

Some modern

historians

F. Niel, for

was not

example

have gone so far

an had nothing whatsoever in common with Christianity. It might be more accurate to say that it had nothing in common with the Christianity that ten centuries of Church history had produced. The Cathar religion was indeed a heresy, one which can be dated back to a time when the Church's doctrines had not yet hardened into dogma. During this period the ancient world was searching around desperately, by every means at its disposal, to find some formula capable of assimilating so wholly alien a creed. as to claim that Catharism alien religion that

in fact a heresy at all, but


30

Christianity was too explosive and dynamic: its contradictions, whether apparent or genuine, were not calculated to reassure minds

addicted to clarity.

One answer was Gnosticism, an attempt to make a synthesis of ancient philosophy and Christianity, which denied the possibility of God having created either evil or physical matter. Though speedily condemned by the Early Fathers, this system never completely disappeared.

Its

spirit

remained very

much

alive in the Eastern

Churches, and its influence on the Western tradition was much greater than is commonly supposed. The Gnostics influenced the doctrine of Mani, who, as the heir to Zoroastrianism, believed in

two

essential principles, those of

Good and

Evil.

Mani, in

his turn,

of this interpenetration there was born that great Dualist tradition which bore the name of Manichaeism, and which, by various underground routes, crept into the citadel of also influenced Gnosticism

:

orthodox Christi^hity. But the Manichaeans proper, after having spawned a series of powerful sects that spread right across Europe and Asia, even penetrating as far as China, suffered a series of cruel persecutions

The name of Mani was obliterated by that of There remained the Paulicians, a Manichaean sect with strong Christianizing tendencies, which flourished in Armenia and Asia Minor; but in 872 they were conquered by the Greeks and and

finally vanished.

Christ.

forced into submission, many of them being deported to the Balkan peninsula on the Emperor's orders. It was here that there formed the

nucleus of that Church which was later to be identified with the Cathars.

In the seventh century an Asiatic people called the Bulgars had reached the Balkans and established a kingdom there, to the south

of the Danube. When, during the eleventh century, the Greek and Latin Churches were simultaneously busy converting the Slav population of Bulgaria, it was here that the deported Paulicians, too,

were

still

engaged in their

own

missionary

activities.

And

it

was

in

the Catharism which spread through the also appeared in the tenth century, under the name of

Bulgaria that Catharism

Midi

Bogomilism. We do not

Bogomil surname

know whether

the founder of this sect

was

really called

(that is, the Beloved of God), and applied his ordinary to the creed he professed ; or whether, in accordance with

a tendency

common among

the Slavs, the

word was intended

to

suggest some symbolical, generalized personality. In the latter case, for lack of accurate information, devotees of the sect must ultimately

HERESY AND HERETICS

31

have assumed the existence of a real, flesh-and-blood founder. The orthodox writers of the period also refer to a certain Tapa' Jeremiah. The origins of the sect are shrouded in obscurity but it spread ;

rapidly,

and there was no denying

its

dynamic

force. In Bulgaria,

despite a series of persecutions (due to the creed's revolutionary tendencies, which worried the ruling classes), the Bogomils increased

and multiplied. Not only

that: they very soon began to send out throughout the whole Mediterranean world. The new religion gained ground in Bosnia and Serbia, where it main-

field missionaries,

tained itself so effectively that it frequently figured as the official State religion, and was not finally blotted out till the Turkish

invasion in the fifteenth century. By the eleventh century Bogomil doctrines had been disseminated

throughout Northern Italy and the Midi. We cannot tell just what, may have been in the way of Manichaean survivals

exactly, there

here to allow so rapid an assimilation of Bulgarian Catharism. It remains true that the Cathar faith became so firmly established in (its effect rather resembles that of yeast on bread) from the middle of the twelfth century it emerges as a quasiofficial, albeit persecuted, religion. It had its own local history and traditions, its own organized hierarchy. The Catharist movement was beginning to throw off, with increasing boldness, its hitherto clandestine and ineffectual nature. In 1167 the Bulgarian Bishop Nikita, or Nicetas,* arrived from Constantinople for the purpose of confirming the young Churches of Languedoc in the true Bogomil tradition, and called a Council of Cathar bishops and ministers at

these countries that

Caraman, near Toulouse. This one piece of evidence Cathar Church had gone towards proclaiming its own universality and supra-national unity, in direct defiance of the Church of Rome. It was no longer merely a sect, or an opposition movement aimed against the Established Church it had become a Church of its own. The authorities, scared by the size of this movement, at first responded by attempts to intimidate its members. The Count of Toulouse, Raymond V, even dreamed of a Crusade in which the Kings of both France and England would participate. Pope AlexSaint-Felix de

shows us how

far the

:

Cardinal Legate, Peter of Chrysogonus, to Toulouse head of a powerful delegation. But when the Legate saw that there were far too many heretics for him to hunt down and bring to book, he contented himself perforce with making an example instead.

ander

III sent his

at the

* Referred to by Catholic chronicles as papa, a fact doubtless due to confusion between the terms for 'Pope' and 'priest'.

some


32

He

got hold of a wealthy and universally respected old man, Peter

Mauran, who was a burgher of Toulouse known for his friendliness heretics, and had him publicly whipped. After three years' exile in the Holy Land, Mauran returned to Toulouse, and amid scenes of great pomp and rejoicing was elected capitoul. The Legate's demarche had merely served to increase the popularity of towards the

the

new

faith.

It is easy to explain the success which Catharism achieved by pointing out such factors as the spiritual insolvency of the Catholic hierarchy in Languedoc or the greedy ambition of burghers and ;

an excuse to plunder Church or the weakness which both classes had

nobility alike, both only too grateful for

property without scruple

;

We

for anything that smacked of novelty. have already observed that conditions were favourable for the blossoming of a new religion.

But favourable conditions do not of themselves explain very much. for this religion's extraordinary success must be sought

The reasons

inside the religion

2.

itself.

Doctrine and Dogma

is not the place to make a detailed study of the doctrine and ideas held by the Catharist Church. In the first place, even the little

This

evidence

we

possess concerning it would provide enough material and in the second, such evidence would not of

for several volumes

;

us what this vanished creed was really like. As well might we try to reconstruct a dead man's living features from a study of his skull. We can make a few brief hints, and any number of guesses. itself tell

Not only did the Cathar faith suffer a peculiarly violent demise it was also subjected to so systematic a process of denigration, slander, and distortion that even those who were not a priori biased against it ended up by finding it somewhat contrary to the normal dictates of reason. Such is the case with all dead religions besides, mediaeval Catholicism on occasion seems just as strange to us as does the ;

;

Catharist faith.

The best we can do is to give a brief outline of essential doctrine, draw what conclusions we may from such concrete facts as remain in our possession and attempt to form some sort of notion, however vague, of the spiritual climate in which this religion was enabled to develop and ripen.

One any

question immediately poses

sort of esoteric teaching?

itself:

did Catharism

There are certain

facts

embody

which suggest

HERESY AND HERETICS

33

that this might conceivably be the case among others, the existence of the stronghold of Monts6gur, and its very curious, not to say unique, design. But if this religion did have its mysteries and secret rites, their

perfecti

been kept extraordinarily well. Even those converted to Catholicism and joined the ranks of

secret has

who were

the Inquisition, such as Raynier Sacchoni, never breathed a word concerning them. Certain specific items of Catharist doctrine, in particular those relative to fasting and feast-days, remain obscure, for the excellent reason that

it

never occurred to the Inquisitors to

interrogate any heretic on such matters. Of a once abundant and varied Catharist literature nothing remains except one or two docu-

ments that accidentally escaped destruction 1 and we cannot tell whether these were important works, or even if they faithfully reflect :

the spirit of the Catharist

Church

as a whole. Besides, like all

Churches, this one too embraced numerous 'heresies' or divergent opinions within its main body; doubtless it might also have con-

unknown

tained one or two especially 'esoteric' sects of the faithful.

to the majority

What is quite certain is that the Cathars were great preachers, and made no secret of their beliefs. On several occasions we see them taking part in theological debates, or attending meetings at which

and Legates. These public from 1176 (Lombers) until the missionary campaign conducted by St Dominic and his companions between 1206 and 1208. They proved that the Cathars of Languedoc were men very much of their place and time mighty orators, passionate their learned doctors argue with bishops

discussions continued

:

who

never tried to take refuge behind vague but ineffable logicians not be revealed to the profane. On the contrary, that could mysteries claimed that doctrine rested on sound, reasonable common their they

and attacked the 'mysteries' of the Catholic Church, which they charged with being mere superstition and magic. But it is equally true that our knowledge of this doctrine is restricted to those points over which it came into conflict with the Church that is, in a sense, its negative side. It might be alleged that, granted the fact of Catharism being opposed to the Church in almost sense,

the points of disagreement should give a the Cathar's doctrinal position. But this of fairly complete picture is not at all certain indeed, the chances are that the whole positive all respects,

merely to

list

;

side of Catharist teaching

gave the

movement

its

is

lost to us,

and

that, after all,

was what

very real success.

Our knowledge of this evidence. First, there are

religion, then, is limited to its 'errors'

that

is,

two sources of

the points in which

it


34

diverged from Catholic doctrine; and secondly, there are certain features of its external organization the lives and customs of its adherents, its rites and ceremonies. Here we find ourselves rather in the position of a man who knows nothing about Christianity, and is trying to understand a description of the Mass that omits all mention

of

emotional, or symbolic significance. All we can do is with the respect that any profound mystical experience

its spiritual,

to regard deserves,

The

it

and not attempt

to explain

it.

of Catharism are legion. They date back to that Gnostic which proclaimed the absolute separation of Spirit and matter. As Manichaeans the Cathars were dualists, and believed in the existence of two opposed principles of Good and Evil. Some Cathar theologians held that these two principles had existed since 'errors'

tradition

the beginning of the world, while others regarded the principle of Evil as a later creation, a fallen angel. But whether the origin of Evil

was

set outside

be the result of

time altogether, in primeval Chaos, or supposed to ill-will on the part of one of God's creatures (and

God was

both unique and good), all Cathars were at one in the God, though good, was not omnipotent that Evil warred implacably against Him, for ever challenging His claim to supremacy. (The end of Time would, however, give the final victory to God.)

belief that

In a period

;

when men

believed just as firmly in the Devil as they did

in the Deity, this theory

The most

need hardly cause surprise.

for Christians to accept was the one which formed the very keystone of all Catharist doctrine that is, the assertion that the material world was never created by God, being in fact wholly the work of Satan. Without entering into a detailed discussion of various extremely complex cosmogonies, which explain the Fall of Satan and his Angels, and the Creation of matter, we can simply state that Cathars regarded the visible, tangible world (including, for most sects, the sun and stars) as a diabolical phenomenon and a manifestation of Evil. Then what about Man? He too, insofar as he was a creature of flesh and blood, was regarded as a creation of the Devil. The Spirit of Evil, however, was incapable of creating life, and therefore was supposed to have asked God for His help by breathing a soul into a body of clay. God of His bounty agreed to assist this depressingly difficult tenet

:

creator ; but the wisp of divine Spirit thus breathed into the gross envelope that Satan had wrought for it refused to remain there. However, by a series of ruses, the Devil succeeded in binding sterile

it

prisoner.

Our

first

parents,

Adam and

Eve, were supposed to have

HERESY AND HERETICS

35

been impelled by the Devil towards that carnal union which finally their position as creatures of matter. According to the doctrine of certain schools, the Spirit breathed by God transmitted

consummated

Adam's descendants, like a flame and multiplication. But the more generally accepted theory was as follows: The Devil (otherwise itself,

via the act of procreation, to infinite subdivision

undergoing

Lucifer or Lucibel) either brought down in his Fall, or else lured down from Heaven by various seductive deceits, a great crowd of souls who had been created by God and were living close to Him, in a state of beatitude. It

was from

this inexhaustible reserve

of fallen

or captive angels that human souls derived, and were then condemned to a yet more frightful degradation by being thrust into a fleshly

body. In the Catharist cosmogony the material world represented the very lowest aspect of reality, that which lay for all eternity at the furthest

remove from

God

:

there

was a whole graded sequence of

other worlds,which offered various possible degrees of salvation. The Devil was none other than the God of the Old Testament,

Sabaoth or Jaldabaoth, whose crude attempts to emulate the Good Deity merely produced a wretched

creative scope of the

universe in which, despite all his efforts, he never contrived anything lasting. The souls of those angels who had been forced, on account

of their

own

to this world in

them

weakness, into a material body remained utterly alien their life there, cut off from the Spirit which had been

;

prior to their

fall,

was one of unimaginable

suffering.

In this respect, too, the various Cathar sects show certain discrepancies between one another. Some of them claimed that the

number of

these 'lost souls' was limited, and that they merely from one body to another, in a continual sequence of births migrated and deaths a view very much akin to the Hindu doctrine of metempsychosis and karma. Others again believed the opposite of this. Each new birth, they thought, brought down one of those diabolically corrupted angels, if not from Heaven, at any rate from the region between heaven and earth. Hence the Cathars' notorious total

horror of procreation, the cruellest act of all in their view, since it dragged a heavenly soul into our world of material matter. Be that

may, the Cathars, generally speaking, acknowledged the docof metempsychosis as held by the Hindus, with the same precise calculations governing posthumous retribution for the individual. A man who had led a just life would be reincarnated in a body better suited for his further spiritual development whereas the criminal was liable, after his death, to be reborn in a body full of flaws and hereditary vices or even, in extreme cases, in that of an as

it

trine

;


36

animal. But apart from these endless and most depressing rebirths, no glimmer of hope, and could never

the fallen souls were allowed

return to their proper home unless a Messenger from the down into the world of matter on their behalf.

Good

Deity came

The Good Deity was all pureness and joy yet though He might be unaware of evil, He knew that certain heavenly souls had been cut off from Him, and longed to bring them back into His heaven. ;

He

could do nothing to aid them Himself, since a great gulf was between Him and them, and He could have no contact with the

fixed

universe created by the Prince of Evil. So He sought, among those blessed beings who surrounded Him in His glory, for a Mediator to re-establish contact

between Heaven and the fallen souk. In the end

God chose and dispatched Jesus, who was,

according to the Cathars,

perfect of the angels, or else one of the Sons of God the second, that is, Satan having been the first. This title, Son of

most

either the

God, carried no implication of equality between the Son and the Father. Jesus was at best a sort of emanation, an Image made in God's likeness. It was pity that enabled Jesus to descend into this impure world of matter, and not to shrink from so defiling a contact pity for the souls to whom he must needs show the way back to their true home. But it was unthinkable that purity should have any real contact with impurity, and so Jesus was assumed to possess the appearance only of a body he underwent, not incarnation, but what might be termed adumbration, a shadowing forth. He was, then, in some sense a phantom and if he made a show of submitting himself to the laws of earthly nature, this was all part of his plan to deceive the Devil's :

:

;

eternal vigilance. But the Devil, having recognized the Messenger of God, sought to encompass his death; and God's enemies, blinded

by appearances, were to hold it as an article of faith that Jesus had really suffered and died on the Cross. The truth, however, was far otherwise

:

Jesus' body, being non-fleshly, could neither suffer, die,

nor achieve resurrection. He had endured no outrage of this sort, and when he had shown his disciples the proper path to salvation, he reascended into Heaven. His mission was accomplished he had left behind on earth a Church impregnated with that Holy Spirit which alone could offer true consolation to the souls dwelling in :

exile.

But the Devil, the Prince of

this world, showed great skill in destroyed Jesus' work in a most complete and diabolical fashion, by substituting a false Church for the true one. This false Church claimed the title of 'Christian', but it was in

leading

men

astray.

He

HERESY AND HERETICS

37

Church of the Devil, and taught doctrines diametrically opposed to those of Jesus. The authentic Christian Church, the repository of the Holy Spirit, was that of the Cathars. The Church of Rome, then, figured as the Great Beast, the Whore of Babylon and none who remained obedient to her could hope to be saved. Everything appertaining to this Church was wicked and blasphemous. Her sacraments were not only worthless in them-

fact the

;

selves, but a snare set by the Devil, since they led men to believe that wholly material rites and mechanical gestures could bring them salvation. Neither the water of Baptism nor the bread of the Host

could be vehicles for the Holy Spirit, since they were impure matter. The Host itself could not be the Body of Christ for, the Cathar ;

preachers declared, with somewhat ingenuous irony, if all the Hosts dispensed throughout the world during the past ten centuries were

make up a

put together, they would mountain.

'Body' rather larger than a

The Cross, they claimed, should not be an

On

the contrary,

it

object of veneration. it had formed the

should inspire horror, since

instrument of Jesus' humiliation.

When

a roof-beam

falls

and

crushes the son of the house, they argued, it is not set in the place of honour and offered adoration or incense. This line of reasoning suggests that the Cathars in fact attached rather more importance to the Crucifixion than is supposed: why should the Cross inspire horror if Jesus had not, in some way or other, really suffered because

of

it?

Cross was the Devil's instrument par excellence, all the images and objects which the Church held to be sacred were equally the work of the Evil One. In the name of Christianity he had initiated a reign of paganism pure and unalloyed. Holy images were no more than idols, and relics worse still mere bits of crumbling bone, If the

wooden

splinters or scraps of cloth being picked

up any old where, as of pack plausible rogues parts of saints' bodies or other venerable objects. Those who bowed before such objects

and passed

off by a

were adoring matter, and matter was the Devil's handiwork. In any case, they said, all the Saints were really sinners, because they had served the Devil's Church they were blasted with the same anathema as the Just of the Old Testament, being reckoned the creatures and ;

servants of the Evil Deity. The Blessed Virgin was never the

Mother of

Jesus, since Jesus

never had a body. If He had decided to give the appearance of being born of Her, this meant that the Virgin too was a non-material being, an angel who had taken on the lineaments of a woman.


38

Perhaps she was even no more than a symbol, representing the Church fostering within herself the Word of God. stated as a principle that this world had been created by the Spirit of Evil, the Catharist Church was consequently obliged to condemn every manifestation of earthly life. All that was not

Having

pure Spirit was doomed to utter destruction, and merited neither affection nor respect. If the Church was the most visible embodiment of evil in

power

this world, secular authority

rested

on

constraint,

ran

it

a close second, since

and frequently on murder

(i.e.

its

war and

penal legislation). The family was condemned as a cause of earthly attachments; and marriage was, in addition, a crime against the Spirit, since it entangled men in the life of the flesh, and was liable to bring destruction upon yet more souls by dragging them down to the world of matter. All murder, including the killing of animals, was

a crime by taking life a man deprived one soul of the chance to achieve reconciliation with the Spirit, and improperly cut short its :

penitential span.

was

Even when lodged

in the

entitled to infinite consideration, for

body of an animal, a soul it still might have some

unforeseeable chance of being reborn in better circumstances. Therefore the carrying of arms was forbidden, to avoid the risk of killing even in self-defence. To eat food of animal origin was also banned, on the ground that such food was essentially impure even eggs and :

milk products, together with every other by-product of procreation, were to be strictly avoided. The Cathar must never lie, or utter an oath ; nor was he permitted to own worldly property. But even the fulfilment of all these conditions did not per se guarantee salvation.

One could not be saved

i.e.

reconciled with the

Holy

Spirit

except by entering the Catharist Church, which necessitated a laying on of hands by one of that Church's ministers. In this way alone

man be reborn, and cherish the hope of entering, after his death, a condition of divine beatitude unless, that is, various fresh could a

plunged him into the Devil's hellish Abyss. itself, however, did not exist spatially, but rather consisted of reincarnation in another body. Nevertheless, a long sequence of sins

Hell

evil lives could, ultimately, deprive a soul of any hope for salvation. There were, too, certain souls actually created by the Devil, a fact which ensured that the persons they inhabited could never be saved. It was difficult to distinguish them from the rest but presumably ;

kings, emperors,

and

prelates of the Catholic

Church were among

those thus predestined to damnation. All other souls were, finally, and the torture of earthly incarnations would continue

to be saved,

as long as there remained one heavenly soul

who had

not found the

HERESY AND HERETICS

39

path to salvation. In the end the tangible world would vanish, the sun and stars be extinguished, while fire consumed the waters and fire. The souls of all 'demons' would and nothing would remain but eternal

the waters in turn quenched the perish in this holocaust,

joy in God. This

rsumd

of Catharist doctrine might well lead the reader to

wonder how, with so many points separating

the Cathar's faith

from

traditional Christianity, a Catholic population could so easily discard the faith of their fathers in favour of so glaring a heresy.

Two

points

may

be noted here. In the

first

place, as a result of the

Church's pastoral incompetence a failing castigated by the Popes themselves the people often knew little or nothing about niceties of religious orthodoxy. Secondly (and this needs strong emphasis) the opponents of the Catharist faith were particularly concerned to

expose its doctrinal errors, giving these a prominence which they probably did not have in the eyes of the Cathars themselves. So much was this the case that many points may have been based upon differences of interpretation

and expression rather than genuinely

heretical opinions.

We must not, admittedly, neglect the unorthodox aspects of the Catharist creed; but we should endeavour to view it in its true perspective. When we examine the facts we see that the 'errors' which seemed most shocking in Catholic eyes were precisely those that had the appearance of stemming logically from orthodox contemporary doctrine. That was why they were considered so dan-

gerous. To take an example Catharist dualism (so wildly exaggerated by the Cathars' opponents) was simply a natural development from :

belief in the Devil,

who assumed

vast importance for Christians

throughout the Middle Ages. Catholic doctrine had always contained a latent streak of Manichaeism. The Devil was a very solid fact,

and

his

power continually

attested

by Catholic preachers,

who

never lost an opportunity of condemning as diabolically inspired every manifestation of the secular spirit sometimes even the most harmless, such as music and dancing. Indeed, the Church least as far as its

had gone so

itself (at

more

far in this

respectable representatives were concerned) direction that it is hard to see how the Cathars

could have improved on it. Mediaeval civilization, having been formed originally in a monastic mould, regarded the material world with undiluted loathing and contempt. It may not have actually claimed that matter was the work of the Devil, but it behaved


40

exactly as though it thought so. Where, before St Francis of Assisi, can we find a Catholic saint moved to glorify the beauties of the

natural world which

God

created?

How

often

do we hear of priests

children, or speaking in praise of earthly joys? Most of those festivals or religious customs in which love of life on earth bulks large were survivals extolling marriage, going into raptures over

either

from paganism, or

else

little

from Jewish

tradition.

Any

Christian contribution to the love of Creation has been

purely

weak

in

impulse and wholly theoretical. Such an attitude was not, doubtless, representative of the Church as a whole but it was certainly held by its holiest and most venerable ;

members, such as St Bernard who opposed not only the frivolous outlook of the laity, but also what he considered over-rich ornamentation in the churches. Beauty which seduced the eye could not achieve anything except to distract one's spirit from meditation. Here was a period in which the need to give material form to the divine, to

embody

it,

was stronger than ever before when towns or ;

were beggaring themselves in order to honour the or their local saint, with a house beside which a royal palace Virgin, seemed no more than a poor hut. Yet during this same period every entire regions

sincere Catholic believed that the world was hopelessly corrupt, and that the cloister offered the only true road to salvation. Between a universe created by the Devil, which was merely tolerated by God,

and a universe created by God, but wholly corrupted and perverted by the Devil, there might seem to be no great difference not, at least, in practice.

The Cathars condemned marriage and the flesh, then so rigorfrom any food which was a byproduct of the procreative act. But as we shall see, this condemnation was not absolute. Nevertheless, the Catholic Church held a very similar attitude to marriage itself. The priest, just like a Cathar minister, could not marry; and the institution was only tolerated among the faithful as a means of propagating the species and a ;

ously, indeed, that they abstained

remedy against concupiscence. Indeed, with regard to women the attitude of the Catholic Church was even harsher than that of the Cathars.

When

St Peter

Damian

fulminates against the mistresses

of the clergy, calling them 'Satan's bait, poison for men's souls, the delight of greasy pigs, inns where unclean souls turn in', we sense a real horror of woman qua woman, who is seen as the Devil's eternal lure. This general, barely concealed condemnation of marriage and the flesh carries an implicit denial of a world in which all life, from

the very flowers of the field upward,

is

subject to procreative laws.

HERESY AND HERETICS

41

When Catholic priests declared, in opposition to the Cathars, that a man could achieve salvation within the marriage-bond, they were merely showing their indulgence towards human frailty. As we shall see, this was exactly the case with the Cathars, too.

Though life in the eleventh and twelfth centuries showed a tremendous upsurge both of civilization and of artistic achievement and though, despite its worst miseries, it would appear to have been brimming over with a deep, intense were, after

all,

young)

joie de vivre (for the people

we cannot say

Church were consciously orientated

that the thoughts of the

in this direction. Catholicism

was, like Catharism, a self-avowed 'religion of souls' salvation was sole aim. If the Church also possessed a body a material, indeed at times an all-too-material body that was through the :

its

pressure of circumstances, and quite at odds with her declared doctrine.

Of

the Catharist

dogmas which Catholics found

particularly

shocking, those concerned with the Trinity and the Incarnation may have worried theologians and philosophers, but left the bulk

of the faithful relatively unperturbed. The Cathars,

it seems, were admit the equality of the three Persons of the Trinity. Nevertheless, certain words in the Creed et ex Patre natum ante omnia saecula suggest (despite the

really Arians insofar as they refused to

saving consubstantialem) a certain original supremacy for the Father. For the Cathars, too, Jesus was a Son 'born of the Father before time began' we cannot tell whether their adversaries inter:

But one thing beyond any doubt is the fact that the Cathars always displayed a devotion to the person of Christ such as no Catholic could exceed: we can argue with preted their views exactly or not.

everything except (in this sense) their Christianity. As far as the Incarnation is concerned, were not such tenets as Jesus' miraculous

or that apocryphal tradition according to which Mary's virginity remained intact after the Nativity, or indeed the Resurbirth,

rection and the Ascension were not these calculated to cast doubt and confusion in men's minds? The Catholics themselves appeared to admit, if only by implication, that Jesus' body was, in some way or other, different from those of ordinary human beings. In point of fact the Catharist dogma which Catholics found absolutely inadmissible was the denial of the Catholic Church herself. But and this is something which has not, perhaps, been sufwhat this faith had to offer its flock was, ficiently emphasized quite simply, Christ and the Gospel. The Book, the one and only true Book, the Book that took the place both of Cross and Chalice,


42

was the Gospel a Gospel read in the vernacular, available to young and old alike, brought home all the closer to them by constant preaching and discussion. All we know concerning the Catharist interpretation of the Gospels is what can be glimpsed through a haze of polemic. But the preachers who addressed themselves to the faithful were not now dealing in polemics. Their faith brought Christ close to His worshippers it ripped off the swathes of dogmas, tradition and superstition that had, century by century, gathered about primitive Christianity. We only have to read something like the Golden Legend (composed in the thirteenth century, but embodying oral and written traditions of much greater antiquity) to become aware how little popular piety had, on many occasions, to do with Christianity. :

Since the Church actively discouraged any attempts to translate the Scriptures into the vernacular tongues, it had scant defence against this particular danger. Even the most irreproachably orthodox Catholic became suspect of heresy if he displayed any inclination to read the Gospels in his own language and yet even the priests themselves sometimes knew no Latin. The Church in the Midi had ;

its priests no longer gave and if they did, no one paid any attention to them. The Church had hidden the Key of Knowledge; and she found it all the harder to combat her adversary since that adversary was attacking her in the name of Christ.

reached such a point of decadence that

religious instruction

What was more,

the Cathars declared themselves the heirs of a

was older than that held by the Church of Rome and, by implication, both less contaminated and nearer in spirit to the Apostolic tradition. They claimed to be the only persons who had kept and cherished the Holy Spirit which Christ had bestowed upon His Church; and it looks as though this claim was at least partially justified. The Catharist Ritual (of which we possess two

tradition that

texts,

both datable to the thirteenth century) demonstrates, as Jean

Guiraud proves in his magnum opus on the Inquisition, that this Church undoubtedly possessed certain most ancient documents, which were directly inspired by the traditions of the Primitive Church. In fact

and Guiraud shows

this too,

by a comparison of initiation

ceremonies

among the Cathars with the Baptism of the Catechumens in the Primitive Church the parallelism between the two traditions so consistent that

it could not conceivably be due to mere coinciThe Cathar neophyte, like the Christian catechumen, was received into his Church only after a probationary period and a vote

is

dence.

HERESY AND HERETICS

43

of approval by the Elders of the community. Baptism in the Primitive Church, like admission into the Catharist Church, was only granted to adults in full possession of their faculties, and was seldom debelievers except on their deathbeds. The minister who

manded by

received the neophyte into the Catharist

Church was known

as 'the

Ancient' (Senhor) an obvious translation of presbyter. The catechumens' renunciation of Satan has a parallel in the Cathars' renunciation of the Church of Rome. Apart from the anointing with oil, symbolizing the Holy Spirit, and the immersion in the baptismal

both of which sacraments were too closely connected with

piscina

matter, and therefore rejected by the Cathars, who only preserved the laying on of hands the admission of a catechumen into the Primitive

Church was

postulant into his

new

at all points identical with that of a

Faith.

between the devout Catholic's

Cathar

The same comparison can be drawn Act of Confession and the Remission

of Sins dispensed by the Cathars in assembly. Certain Inquisitors, particularly Bernard Gui in the fourteenth century, were struck by the proportion of Christian observances in the rites of the heretical Church, and assumed that they had to do

with a kind of parody of Catholic baptism. Today we are better informed than they were concerning the practices of the Early Church, and have to admit that the Cathars merely followed a

somewhat more ancient than that of the Church herself. was with some appearance of reason that they claimed Rome as the party guilty of 'heresy' through her falling-off from that original purity which had characterized the Church of the Apostles. The very text of the Ritual as we possess it today certainly goes back to an extremely early date, even though the two versions which survive, one in Occitan and the other in Latin, can be attributed to the thirteenth century. Was this text brought from the East and translated by Bulgarian missionaries? Where, and in what conditions, was it preserved? What was its precise origin? It consists for the most part of quotations from the Gospels and Epistles, with brief commentaries. There are constant references to the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, and to various episodes in the Gospels themtradition It

any good Catholic could have read

it approvingly and, as he he was savouring the that the have impression perused got full flavour and vigour of primitive Christianity, rather than the theological speculations of a sect that was credited with the most

selves

:

its text,

highly unorthodox doctrines.

Now

this Ritual,

which was a book of prayer and initiation, was it contained the most formal and

not meant for ordinary eyes;


44

sacred expression of Catharist beliefs, a verbal rendering of this Church's highest sacrament. When we find nothing in it that could suggest, even remotely, any tinge of Manichaean dualism or the

theory of metempsychosis, any denial of the Incarnation and the Eucharist when we even come upon statements that run contrary to Catharist doctrine as we know it on baptism by water then we can ;

only conclude that these texts go back a long

way beyond Catharism

in the accepted sense of the term. But the very fact that the Cathars (who lacked neither the courage of their convictions nor a taste for

had not

speculative theology)

felt

inclined to modify their ritual in

proves that such a ritual accurately expressed their doctrine as they conceived it, and that the 'errors' of which the Catholic Church accused them were, in all likelihood, only secondary

any way

this, surely,

aspects of their teaching

:

not so

much

basic elements of faith as a

cosmogony, a philosphical approach to life and the universe. If we are to judge a religion by its prayers and its ritual this is the little still the best approach to any estimate of its true essence we know concerning the Catharist faith cannot but lead us to respect its simplicity, moderation, and high spiritual qualities. The Ritual which so miraculously escaped destruction is of infinitely greater weight than all the sworn testimony of the Cathars' adversaries, and every word that has been written or spoken about them through the centuries.

3.

Organization and Expansion

The Cathar

religion

endeavoured to make an absolute and

literal

application of its doctrines in practice. The road to salvation was narrow, and seems to have been reserved for a minority only of the elect. Here, however, in a somewhat unexpected way, Catharist

observance coincides with that of Catholicism, both in its concern and by reason of its faith in the absolute

for the weaker brethren

The Cathars, just like the Catholics, reas a condition of salvation, one act of a sacranecessary quired, mental nature reconciliation in the Spirit by the laying on of hands, value of the sacraments.

:

being done by ministers of the sect who had already received the Spirit themselves. We are not concerned here with any sort of symbolical gesture: there is no doubt that this rite, the consolathis

mentum, contained genuine supra-natural virtues for the Cathars. it actually brought down the Holy Spirit upon its The of achieved beneficiary. degree sanctity by the administrant was immaterial what conferred the Holy Spirit was the physical laying In their eyes

;

HERESY AND HERETICS

45

on of hands, and this act formed the keystone, the central truth of the Catharist Church. Whether or not the Cathars admitted the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, they certainly held that the Spirit could only be passed on by untainted hands. However, such purity was a prime requirement in their ministers, and there were very few cases of the con-

solamentum being adjudged void by reason of an unworthy celebrant. The Spirit truly descended upon the man who received it; henceforward he was a 'Christian' (in the Cathar sense), and his death to this world was followed by a rebirth in the life of the Spirit. He had to submit himself, without caveat or compromise, to every obligation which his new faith might impose and these obligations were more exacting than those required of any monk on taking his monastic vows. Only a very tiny minority of believers had the strength and resolution to achieve salvation in this way. But the Catharist also granted the consolamentum to those on the point of and thus we find a large number of persons receiving this sacrament with no other guarantee of the purity of their faith apart from the knowledge of their imminent decease. Thus the sacrament

Church

death

;

could, in fact, be bestowed

upon people who were not a priori either

pure or among the elect and here the Catharist faith seems open to the same criticism which Cathars levelled against Catholics that of ;

turning a sacrament into a the spiritual condition of

mere mechanical ritual, independent of recipient. But though the principle

its

might be the same, at least the Cathars contrived to surround their sacrament with the requisite degree of solemn grandeur by making it a precious and unique gift unique in the sense that unless a man were prepared to sacrifice his life entirely for it, he might not obtain the consolamentum until the moment when death's agony had already torn him from this world. Once the Spirit had descended upon a believer, he was thereby at

once made a *new creature', and henceforth the slightest sin on his part became an act of sacrilege which was liable to destroy or lose

him the

Spirit in

which he stood

instances of perfecti

who

'clad'. In practice there can be found received the consolamentum several times

life, either as a result of some sin, or else because their had temporarily weakened. This seems to prove that the sacrament did not possess that binding and irrevocable power with which it is generally credited. The consolamentum had elements in common with at least five

during their faith

of the seven Catholic sacraments firmation, ordination,

baptism, Holy Eucharist, conit was a very

and extreme unction. Yet


46

simple ceremony. It was preceded by a long period of probation or a year, or even initiation ; the postulant had to spend some time Catharist on occasion two years in a seminary or maison des

was subjected to long and of novitiate and if, at the end rigorous tests. This formed a species had not of his preliminary trial, the postulant managed to satisfy htrdtiques

where

his sense of vocation

;

his superiors as to his sincerity

and powers of endurance, he was

often liable to find himself refused the consolamentum altogether. If he was adjudged worthy, he was presented before the community

of perfecti that must elect him; after which he prepared for the day of his consecration with lengthy fasts and vigils, and unending prayer.

When the day came, the postulant was brought into the hall or chamber where the faithful were gathered. The Cathars possessed no temples, and conducted their rites in private houses but in the towns they had houses specially set apart for services, doctrinal instruction, and the care of the sick. In these houses they lived as a ;

community, each individual perfectus being obliged to surrender his goods to the Church. Most of the larger towns generally reckoned on having several such maisons des hdr&iques. The room where the faithful assembled for prayer contained no outward sign of their cult. The walls had to be bare, and were usually whitewashed. The furnishings, too, were as simple as possible some benches, and a table covered in spotlessly white linen, on which lay the Book, that is, a text of the Gospels. This table, which served in lieu of an altar, would also have on it several napkins, again of the :

purest white and on a side table or chest there stood a ewer and basin for the washing of hands. The only decoration in this austere ;

chamber took the form of countless white candles, their flames symbolizing the Holy Spirit as it descended in tongues of fire at Pentecost upon the Apostles. In the presence of a congregation of the faithful the new postulant was led towards the table, before which there stood those ministers whose business it was to receive him deacons or ordinary perfecti, clad in the long black robes that symbolized their withdrawal from the world. The officiating minister and his two assistants now washed their hands, so as to be able to touch the holy Gospels. Then the ceremony began. The minister expounded to the postulant both the dogmas of the creed he was about to embrace, and the obligations to which he must needs submit himself. Next he recited the Our Father, glossing each phrase as he went, and the postulant had to repeat it after him. After this the neophyte had to solemnly abjure the Catholic faith in

HERESY AND HERETICS which he had been brought up, and

47

(after prostrating himself thrice)

ask for permission to be received into the true Church. He had to 'give himself to God and the Gospel'. He swore to abstain in future

from meat, intercourse

and and from

eggs, ;

all

lies

food of animal origin; from all carnal and oaths, for ever. He swore never to

renounce his faith, through fear of death by fire, water, or any other means. Finally he made a public confession of his sins and asked those present to forgive him. After his absolution he had to repeat once more

all

the solemn

vows he had just taken. Only then was he

ready to receive the Spirit. The moment of consecration took place when the minister placed the Gospels on the postulant's head, and, together with his assis-

hands on the future perfectus, praying God to receive him and send His Holy Spirit upon him. In that instant the man became a wholly new creature, he was 'born of the Spirit'. Those present now recited the Our Father aloud, after which the tants, laid his

minister read the

first

seventeen verses of St John's Gospel

beginning was the Word.

.

.

.'

Then he once more

:

'In the

recited the

Our

Father.

The newly-elected perfectus now received the kiss of peace first from the officiating minister, then from his assistants. He in his turn bestowed the kiss of peace on the member of the congregation standing nearest to him and so, like a torch passed from hand to hand, this brotherly salutation was transmitted to every single one of those present. If the postulant was a woman, however, the kiss of peace was replaced by a more symbolical gesture: the minister would touch her shoulder with the Gospel, and her elbow, briefly, with his own. The new recipient of the consolamentum would henceforth wear ;

the black robe proper to his condition, the mark of his special status it was an outward and visible sign of the dignity lately con:

upon him, and therefore never to be put aside. Later, however, when the perfectiwert forced, by reason of the persecutions, to exercise some caution in their calling, the robe was replaced by a cord worn under their clothes for men, round the neck, and for women, about ferred

the waist. But the very importance attached to this robe, or 'vesture' the heretical adepts were most often referred to by the title

of revestiti demonstrates that the consolamentum was in essence both sacramental and sacerdotal. Its recipient entered fully into the religious life, in every sense of that term which a Catholic would admit. He surrendered all his goods and chattels to the community after which, following the example set by Christ and His Apostles, ;


48

he embarked upon a wandering and charitable works.

life

devoted to prayer, preaching,

deacon or bishop would allot the new perfectus a companion, chosen from among his fellow-/?er/ec//. This companion was destined to be his socius (or soda in the case of two women), an inseparable comrade who would henceforth share all his labours and hardships. It has been said, with some justice, that the Catharist Church proper was composed only of those who had partaken of this sacrament that it was, in fact, a Church made up solely of priests.

The

local

;

Our

postulant, having received the terrible privilege of admission to the ranks of the perfecti, was now a 'Christian', cut off from the

of mankind. Wherever he went ordinary 'believers' or credentes were obliged to offer him 'adoration', or, more accurately, to show rest

by kneeling or bowing before him thrice, 'Pray God to make a good Christian of me, and bring me to a good end.' The perfectus would pray to God as requested but he would not reply, as a Catholic might, 'Pray for me, a sinner'. That theoretical equality which exists between all their respect for his office

with this ritual salutation

:

;

orthodox Christians, from the Pope seems to have been absent in

down

to the lowest criminal,

this realistic creed.

According to

their

own doctrine, mortals

:

theperfecti constituted a sort of higher echelon among the Spirit conferred upon them by the consolamentum did

not,

and could

this

sacrament.

not, dwell in the souls of those

(We should

who had

not received

evidently take the term perfectus in

its

etymological sense of 'finished' or 'complete' man being composed of body, soul, and spirit, the perfecti were those who, by virtue of :

this sacrament, had contrived to win back their 'spirit', that divine portion of the self which their original Fall had taken from them.) Thus we find ourselves faced with something of a paradox. Here was a powerful Church, constantly gaining fresh territory, which num-

bered amongst

adherents a good proportion of the country's nobility, bourgeoisie, and craftsmen; which held chateaux, walled its

under its sway; and which nevertheless had a few only hundred, at the very most several thousand, fully

cities, entire districts

effective

We

members.

shall return later to this question

of the credentes, the rank-

and the precise role they performed in a Church at first which, sight, would appear to have regarded them as being of little importance. It is certain that some vital clue is eluding us here, this since, despite apparent fundamental distinction between the perfectus and the ordinary believer, the religious conduct of the and-file believers,

HERESY AND HERETICS

49

was (as we shall see) exactly that of a good Catholic towards Church of Rome, while the attitude of the perfectus vis-&-vis the credentes hardly differed from that of a conscientious parish priest towards his flock. In Languedoc every province had its Catharist bishop, and each town or important district its own deacon such bishops and deacons were not appointed for the sake of a handful of perfecti alone. The Catharist bishops regarded themselves as spiritual latter

the

:

shepherds responsible for large communities. In

showed greater

all

probability they

solicitude for their as yet uninitiated brethren than

the Catholic bishops did where their own faithful were concerned, that a faith obliged to struggle for its very

for this simple reason

existence will treat

its

:

adherents with

much

greater consideration

than will any established religion. The credentes were very far from resembling a flock without shepherds, and never had any need to regard themselves as deprived of

But

it

all

contact with spiritual matters.

nevertheless remains true that the kernel, the living soul, of the

We

Catharist Church was formed by the perfecti. know what they were confessors, in the sense which the Church understands by that :

term. This ultra-select

body of men, chosen and ordained

in their

calling with such caution that even an already flourishing Church could have produced no more than a few of them, compelled the

To judge from the number of heretics burnt during the period of the Crusade (only the perfecti

admiration even of their worst enemies.

were normally condemned to the stake) it would seem that there several thousand of them in the Midi making

must have been

allowance, that is, for those who managed to escape detection throughout, those who got away into Italy, and those others who

must have

fallen victims in the general slaughter. Moreover, throughout the entire history of the Crusade and the years that followed it, scholars have only noted three instances of a perfectus recanting.

Even here the

first,

who embraced

conversion

in

extremis and only

escaped the fire by a miracle, was a neophyte still, and had not received the consolamentum ; the second, Pons Roger, who was converted by St Dominic, is merely assumed to have been & perfectus because of the rigorous penance imposed upon him by the Saint. The third case was that of William de Solier, who in 1229 recanted to avoid going to the stake, his brethren. If

denouncing

we may well

and bought

his

own

life

at the price

of

we consider what death by fire means, be amazed when we reflect that out of hundreds of men

and women threatened with such an end, only one can be found turned

traitor,


50

courage that won admiration for the perfectly in any case, before the Crusade they had not yet shown this quality to the full. What their adversaries unanimously admitted was the

But

it

was not

their

purity of their moral lives. The Pope and St Dominic paid them a striking tribute on the day that they decided to war against them 'with their own weapons', and the saintly Catholic took the road

himself as a preacher, bare-footed, living by alms, following the good

example

set

him by

the heretics.

perfecti were not, however, merely austere men who won admiration through their contempt for the good things of this world the people also dubbed them bons hommes, a phrase which in

The

:

modern French has

lost its true, original significance. They were, quite literally, 'good men'. This appellation alone would appear to give the lie to those who depict Catharism as a miserable kind of religion, indifferent to the wretchedness of a world which in any case it

despised. These lean, black-clad

men, with

their austere habits as

and pale reason of

their long hair

features, did not catch people's imagination so

much by

through their sheer goodness.

A crabbed, sour

would not have attracted anybody. These dedicated men and women, who went forth, two by two, to visit village, chateau, or city street, were received everywhere with the most rapturous veneration. When the Count of Toulouse pointed to an ill-clad, crippled perfectus and said 'I would rather be this man than a king or an emperor,' 2 he was merely expressing publicly, opinions which had been current among the common people for some time. These men exercised such powerful moral authority that the Church was very shy of openly charging them with hypocrisy. The most they were accused of was being over-ostentatious in their asceticism. The bons hommes were, indeed, most uncompromising over the matter of fasts. It was not enough for them to abstain from all 'impure' nourishment, and to observe three Lenten periods in the year, during which they ate nothing but bread and water for three days in the week; they would actually rather die than swallow so much as a crumb of any food forbidden by their religion. The pracasceticism

:

tice

of fasting, prominent throughout the ages in all religions, though than in the West, seems to have

far further developed in the East

played a very special part in the lives of the perfecti. At all events, for common people no less than the Church, they were, first and

the

foremost,

men who

fasted.

Cosmas Presbyter* had already described

A Bulgarian priest of the tenth century, author of a Tract against the Bogomils (ed. P6re Joseph Gafort, Theologia antibogomilistica Cosmae Presbiteri, *

Rome

1942).

HERESY AND HERETICS

51

and bearing all the characof privation. Like yogis or fakirs, certain perfecti were so passionately addicted

the Bogomils as pale-faced, emaciated, teristics

to extreme fasting that they incurred the charge of wanting to put an end to their own lives. This is the explanation behind the legend of

the endura, or voluntary death by starvation. There is only one on record, in the fourteenth century, by which time

detailed case

Catharism was in

and had already

lost its genuine could not possibly have countenanced suicide in any circumstances their horror of murder was so great that we find instances (e.g. those heretics who were hanged its

death-throes,

characteristics. In fact the perfecti

:

at Goslar, in

Germany,

themselves rather than

where they actually preferred to die a hen. Though their contempt for this

in 1052) kill

earthly life was so great, they nevertheless retained an absolute respect for the fact of life itself; they would not allow any violent intervention by the human will (which they regarded as invariably evil

and

arbitrary) in the fate of a soul pursuing

its

road to salvation.

men

did not court martyrdom, and their bravery in the face of death sprang less from indifference to life than from the burning

These

ardour of their

faith.

The perfecti were also distinguishable by their grave and moderate utterance, and their habit of constant prayer coupled with endless discourse concerning God. In this Cosmas affected to discern a skilful

ruse

not to mention symptoms of spiritual pride. They

never raised their voices, that was true enough they never uttered an offensive word, or so much as opened their mouths except to speak ;

piously; they were always praying in public places, just like the hypocritical Pharisees whom Our Lord denounced. They were

wolves in sheep's clothing, and it was this aggressive pietism of theirs which seduced the ignorant. It is possible that the method of prayer among the perfecti followed certain special rules and observances, in all likelihood of Eastern origin. There is a frequently cited example of the perfectus whom

Berbeguera, the Seigneur of Puylaurens' wife, went to visit, and found sitting on his chair 'motionless as a tree-trunk, entirely oblivious

of his surroundings'. 3 This puts one in mind of some Hindu sage in

a state of trance. But clearly hearts are not won by sitting still and the perfecti were, above all, famous for their charitable works. ;

themselves, they had at their disposal contributions faithful for succouring those who were distressed and even

Though poor from the

when they had no

;

to offer, they were there in person, bringing the comfort of their friendship and discourse, never shunning the gifts


52

company. They were often skilled in medicine something of a paradox in the case of men who so despised the body. Agreed that this offered a powerful avenue for propaganda but no one becomes a good doctor unless he bestows a certain degree of attention and love upon the body he is tending. Charity vilest outcast's

;

addresses

itself to

the

body

rather than the

soul.

The records

of the Inquisition refer to the testimony of one William Dumier, a knight who was tended with great care by one such medicallytrained perfectus until the day came when he formally refused to recant his Catholicism, after which he received no further treatment. This cannot have been a very common occurrence. Any

who made

a habit of acting in such a way must very soon a single stroke, both his patients and any future converts he might have made. The same applies to the evidence of William Viguier's wife.

doctor

have

lost, at

Although her husband her with a stick'

4

tried to convert her to

fc

Catharism by beating

not a very effective method of persuasion she hommes had told her that the child she

refused, because the bons

was carrying was a demon. The husband and wife were both clearly very ignorant, and the bon homme in the case was not, we may feel, over-tactful. But it is clear that this is one of the exceptions which confirm the

rule.

Preachers

who

always used such gambits with their

parishioners would hardly have acquired a reputation

for charity

or kindness. All the testimony agrees in stating that it was by the example they set that the perfecti won the hearts of their flock. Of their inner spiritual life or personal

from the

striking,

magnetism nothing survives today apart though vague, evidence offered by the amazing

success of their apostolic mission.

The secondary causes favouring a spread of Catharism at this time are so numerous and obvious that merely to list them might well make us think that the new Church did not need such formidable apostles in order to turn the folk of the Midi away from Rome. The most spectacular side of Catharism, and also the most revolting as far as Christendom was concerned, was the Cathars' absolute rejection of Catholic dogma, and even of the Church's most sacred symbols. This sent a wave of sheer horror through every country in which the Church was strong and heresy of infrequent occurrence. But in the French Midi the progress of heresy went pan passu with the increasing decadence of the Church itself, and it is

hard to say which of these two factors determined the other.

HERESY AND HERETICS

53

What we know

of the ecclesiastical dignitaries in the Midi during the Fourth Crusade suggests that such bishops might have caused even the most devoted Catholic to doubt the sanctity of his Church. Here is what Innocent III has to tell us about the clergy in the Languedoc area, and especially their leader, Berenger II, the Arch-

bishop of Narbonne

5 :

dumb hounds who can no longer bay, damning the poor and giving absolution to the rich. They do not even observe the laws of the Church. They acquire endless benefices, entrusting the priesthood and other ecclesiastical responsibilities to unworthy pastors and illiterate children. Hence the insolence of the heretics hence the contempt in which both gentry and people hold God and His Church. Throughout this region the prelates are the laughing-stock of the laity. But the root of all this evil lies in the Archbishop of Narbonne. This man knows no other God but money, and keeps a purse where his heart should be. During the ten years that he has They are blind

simoniacs

who

creatures,

sell justice,

;

held his office he has not once visited his own diocese, let alone the province as a whole. He extracted five hundred sous d'or as a fee for conseasked him to raise crating the Bishop of Maguelonne; and when subsidies for the relief of Christians in the East, he refused to obey Us. When a church living falls vacant, he refrains from nominating a fresh incumbent so that he can enjoy the revenues himself. He has reduced the number of Canons in Narbonne by half in order to appropriate their prebendaries, and similarly is keeping the vacant archidiaconates under his own control. In this diocese one may observe Regular monks or Canons who have cast aside their monastic habit, taken wives or mistresses, and are living by usury; some, indeed, have set up as lawyers, jongleurs, or doctors.

We

This picture speaks so eloquently for to

add any

itself that it

might seem

difficult

significant detail to it; but the Pope's enquiry also

revealed that the Archbishop's bailiff was a captain of Aragonese which means, in effect, a common highway robber.

mercenaries

it was in vain that the Pope fulminated against Berenger the stubborn old man, so much more zealous in the defence of his own interests than in the business of his diocese, was to hold out against Legate after Legate for years. He refused to be deposed until 1210, after the Crusade had been triumphantly concluded by force of arms. The Bishop of Toulouse, Raymond de Rabastens, who was born

But

:

of a strongly heretical family, spent most of his life fighting against his own vassals in order to provide himself with the sinews of war he was obliged to put his episcopal estates under mortgage. Finally, ;

was deposed for simony; but his successor, Foulques de of Thoronet, found nothing in the episcopal coffers Abbot Marseilles,

in 1206, he


54

save ninety-six Toulousain sous, and did not even have an escort to take his mules to the drinking-trough the bishop's authority being respected that he dared not send his mules to the common drinking-trough without one. He was, quite literally, hounded down

so

by

little

his predecessor's creditors,

him while

the Chapter

William de Puylaurens

was

who would

in session.

said,

even come and disturb The bishopric of Toulouse, as

was a dead

letter.

Councils held in Languedoc during this period ordered abbots and bishops to wear the tonsure and habit of their order, and forbade

them to wear

costly furs, play at games of chance, swear, introduce actors or musicians as guests at table, hear Matins in bed, indulge

excommunication random. They were recommended to convoke their once a year, and to avoid taking fees for conferring

in frivolous gossip during Divine Office, or practise wilfully

and

synod at

at

least

Holy Orders, celebrating

illegal

marriages, or quashing legitimate

wills.

What could the attitude of the laity be when confronted with who neglected their duties to such a degree? We know what

clergy

was no respectable person would any longer consider having his son trained for the priesthood, and, according to William de it

:

Puylaurens,

6

the laity became inspired with such disdain for all ecclesiastical offices that they gave rise to a form of oath, as in the case of the Jews. Just as 4 people say 'I would rather be a Jew', so now they declared: I would

When

rather be a priest than do so-and-so'. the clergy showed themselves in public they concealed their small tonsures by combing the long hair forward from the back of their head. It was seldom that the nobility put

a son into the priesthood they contented themselves with pushing their such livings as brought them tithes. The bishops conferred the tonsure on anyone they could, as circumstances permitted. ;

retainers' sons into

The lower clergy, being thus casually recruited, ignored by their bishops, and held in contempt by the people at large, lived an exceedingly miserable

Innocent

life:

so

much

so, indeed, that according to

above) priests began to desert their calling en masse for richer and more potentially profitable occupations. III (as cited

This lamentable state of affairs elicited indignant protests not only

from the Pope, but also from foreign bishops and abbots especially those, such as John of Salisbury, who were brought up in the Cistercian tradition. Geoffrey of Vigeois makes no bones about criticizing the

monastic clergy.

He

observes that

monks

frequently

wear lay garments, eat meat, and quarrel with each other

;

adding

HERESY AND HERETICS

55

that he personally has seen one monastery with four rival abbots in residence. critics condemned these clerical failings in even rounder The Troubadours composed various sirventts* full of angry railing against the luxury, debauched habits, and venality of the local prelates. Their stables, it was claimed, were better than those of any Count they only dined off the most costly fish, garnished with equally expensive and exotically spiced sauces they made presents

Lay

terms.

;

;

of rich jewellery to their mistresses. They were hypocrites, too they would fulminate against some quite innocent practice such as :

feminine self-adornment, yet remain wholly indifferent to the virtues of charity and justice. They loved the rich and oppressed the poor. Violent attacks on ecclesiastical morality had become a

common-

place of satirical literature, even in ecclesiastical circles. Many churches were abandoned for lack of a priest-in-charge ; some of them were used by the people to hold dances in, or for the singing of profane songs. Moreoever, this state of affairs developed part passu with the growing influence of the Catharist Church very often those parishioners who abandoned their own services went along :

to hear the sermons preached

by the bons hommes.

We

must also

take into account the fact that clerical negligence had, with the passage of time, brought people to a state of comparative indifference where religious matters were concerned. As for the upper classes, most of them were active heretics and those who were not ;

displayed such extreme tolerance as in that Age of Faith was bound to be a matter of public scandal. If there were (as there must have been) a number of sincere Catholics in this society, their Catholicism

was not

that of the

Pope or

his Legates,

nor indeed that of the bulk

of believers in other countries. Finally, the nobility as a class must have numbered among them very many who were either sceptical or indifferent to the whole matter, and who, with

all

the sincerity in

Pope and his Holy Roman Empire were as nothing compared to a kiss from their Lady. We must, it is true, always be on our guard against taking the diatribes of Popes and monks, or the furious invective of satirists, in too literal a fashion. A Church that could still allow itself selfexpression of this sort, and endure such violent attacks unmoved, the world, declared that the

*

A

type of Provencal lay, usually satirical, which was employed to attack or moral enemies, or to ventilate military rivalries. Notable exponents of the genre include Bertran de Born, Pons de Capdueil, and Guilhem Montanhagol. The form is variable: one popular version consists of three rhymed hendecasyllables followed by a quinary rhyming with the next three: a a an b 5 ; b b b u c6 c c Cn d 6 , etc. (Trs.)

political, personal,

;


56

was, beyond doubt, a strong Church. The dioceses of Languedoc all under the charge of bishops such as BSrenger of Nar-

were not

bonne. Not all the churches were abandoned. Indeed, we may well hazard a suspicion that Catholic chroniclers like William de Puylaurens blackened the picture somewhat in order to prove how frequently find a desperate a necessity the Crusade itself was. regime that has established itself by force exaggerating the short-

We

comings of its predecessor in all good faith, too. Even at the time of the Fourth Crusade the Midi cannot have lacked for peaceful parishes administered by decent priests and those who heard Mass in the great Cathedrals of Albi and Toulouse cannot all have nursed ;

secret

contempt for

their

Church.

It

nevertheless remains true that

Catholics found no great difficulty in breaking from a Church that was so enfeebled and discredited.

very

many

The

facts outlined

away

above also show that in the areas where the

Cathars conducted their apostolic missionary work the people were not sufficiently well instructed in their faith to stand up against the

arguments of these formidable logicians. find burghers, noblemen, the occasional

Among

the converts

grand seigneur,

we

priests,

but scarcely ever an abbot, bishop, professional or Doctor of the Church. (One exception was William, theologian, a former Dean of Chapter at Nevers in the years preceding the

monks,

artisans

;

Crusade he became one of the best-known Catharist preachers in Languedoc under the name of Theodoric.) It is true that such people had little to gain from being converted to heresy but it is not always ;

determines a conversion. This particular heresy as much through the religious ignorance of a largely triumphed just secularized laity as it did by virtue of its own forceful teaching. self-interest that

Indeed, this blazing heresy may well have appeared to many sincere Catholics as an expression of orthodoxy in its purest form. Lastly, whatever charges of inhumanity or exclusiveness may be levelled against a creed centred

upon

its

'Elect', it

remains true

that Catharist ministers stood far closer to their flock than any Catholic priest did. They were poor ; they mixed with people in their daily lives, and shared their labours. They were not above working at a loom or giving the reapers a hand with the harvest. They gave fresh courage to the poverty-stricken through the example of their own lives, which were harder than that of the meanest peasant. To their followers they embodied that genuine sort of power and

authority which needs no pomp or ceremony in order to impose its will. As they themselves proclaimed, they were the Church of Love,

and did violence

to

no man. So

their

Church

flourished throughout

HERESY AND HERETICS

57

and grew prosperous, because those who were converted feel that they now formed part of a community which offered greater unity, a richer spiritual life, and more inner life than the land, to

it

could

Catholicism.

We know

really very little

about the Catharist credentes, the body

not even their approximate numbers. We do know that the population of certain boroughs and country estates was of the faithful

;

composed wholly of heretics that in some districts such as the Ariege Valley they formed a comfortable majority and that they were more numerous in some guilds than others for instance, ;

;

'weaver' was a popular nickname for any heretic. But when we have assembled such facts as we possess, this mass of believers cannot but seem to us today both vaguer, more irresolute, and less organized

than in fact

we

shall see

No

official document contains so much as an which the Catharist Church was organized as from subsequent events, these people had nothing to it

outline of the

was.

way

in

:

gain by getting themselves officially registered as heretics. Nevertheless, this organization did in fact exist. To begin with, its own bishop, together with two assistants, the bishop's filius maior and filius minor, or as respectively elder and younger son. Before he died the bishop would ordain the

each province had

known filius

maior as his successor

;

now became

the filius minor in turn

filius maior, and the regional congregation of perfecti elected a new filius minor. Each important locality had its deacon, assisted by a

number of perfecti, both men and women. We know that many of them. The whole financial and administrative side of the Church's organization was in the hands of

varying

there were never all that

who had not renounced the world they ranged who were entrusted with the funds necessary to maintain various maisons communes, down to the common folk, both men and women, who acted as messengers, guides, or liaison ordinary credent es

from

:

rich merchants,

Wherever the bons hommes halted to preach, they would find asylum for the night with some faithful member of the Church,

agents.

known for his upright way of life or his religious zeal. When we read in the Inquisition's transcripts that such-and-such a man or

well

woman had

sheltered perfecti under their roof,

we may suppose

that

the credentes judged worthy of this honour were not picked at random, and that already they formed something of an ilite among the general body of the faithful.

In such communally maintained houses there were always to be found a number of persons whose desire it was to receive the Holy


58

Spirit, and whose life was therefore devoted to prayer, and to study of the Church's teachings. They might be young people (often entrusted to the perfecti by their parents while still mere children) or

converts of any age; and though they had not yet received the consolamentum, they were no longer classed with the rank and file

of the credentes. There were also those believers who, while still still observed a proportion of the restric-

living in the secular world,

imposed upon perfecti i.e. those concerned with fasting, and prayer. The greater majority, however, lived perfectly normal lives, and contented themselves with attending meetings and showing reverence to the bons hommes. Theoretically, the ordinary Cathar had only one ritual obligation, and that was to perform his melior amentum or act of veneration before the bons hommes. This very simple ceremony consisted in his bowing three times to the perfectus and saying Tray God to make a good Christian of me, and bring me to a good end.' The perfectus would then bless him, and say 'May God make a good Christian of you, and bring you to a good end.' The believer had no other religious obligation apart from this, and could even continue, out of tions

chastity,

:

:

prudence, to attend Mass in Catholic churches. The credentes, in fact, were people who had either given up going to church, or only

and as we have seen, there were very no need for them even to do this. Those whose faith was strong and sincere, and who despite this were still debarred from the sacrament, would regularly (once a month on the average) make their aparelhamentum, or self-correction this involved a public declaration of their sins, and a begging of God's forgiveness. It was not exactly a public confession in the full sense, but rather akin to an Act of Contrition, cast in sufficiently did so out of fear or habit

many

;

parishes in which there was

:

wide terms to include every sort of sin especially those of indolence or neglect in fulfilling God's wishes. The perfectus officiating at this

ceremony then absolved the congregation, one by one, from their sins, and imposed penances upon them in the form of fasting and prayer. The Cathars prayed a great deal, but most of their devotion consisted in repeating the Our Father in the Occitan tongue (with the phrase 'suprasubstantial bread' substituted for 'daily bread'*) and meditation on the commentaries with which they glossed the * This Cathar variant on the normal version of the Lord's Prayer results from a different interpretation of the Greek word epiousios, which is almost impossible to render precisely, and contains a certain ambiguity of form. 'SuprasubstantiaF

a quite

feasible rendering. Cf. Runciman, The Mediaeval Manichee (1947), explains it as a 'literal translation of the so-called Nikolski gospel, the Slavonic gospel of the Bosnian heretics' (Trs.).

is

p. 166,

who

HERESY AND HERETICS

59

Lord's Prayer. Specifically Catharist prayers do survive,* but the creed's one great central prayer, its focal point of truth, the daily nourishment of perfectus and credens alike, remained the Our Father.

We see, then, that a Catharist credens, despite his non-participation in the sacraments, led

fact that his illegal

and

a truly religious life and thanks to the simple if not actively persecuted, at any rate ;

Church was,

still

a partially clandestine organization, his personal and more intense level than could that

faith functioned at a deeper

of the majority of Catholics. It is true that in many districts the Cathars no longer made any pretence of concealment indeed, by the time of the Crusade a large number of people must already have ;

gone over to Catharism for motives of self-interest, or simply to be in line with the rest of the community. But the new Church still retained, unchanged, its original characteristics, which were those of a persecuted creed. The

man who

turned heretic through conmemory of still-recent

viction could always steel his faith with the

burnings.

At

(most of to the

on

community had Not only did the perfecti

the close of the twelfth century the Catharist

considerable resources at

whom

were

Church many

their

;

its

disposal.

men

of substance) will over all their property credentes also bequeathed their entire fortunes

deathbeds to the support of this new faith. Many rich and made special donations to the bons hommes,

influential credentes

not only in cash, but also in the shape of land, houses, even whole chateaux. Despite the vow of absolute poverty which they had

and which they never broke the perfecti nevertheless accepted all these gifts, and disposed of them according to the best interests of the Church. They were already being accused of rapacity and greed by their enemies, at least, if not yet by their friends. Besides emergency relief for the poor and needy, the Cathar communities were also obliged to maintain their maisons communes, which fulfilled the simultaneous roles of school, monastery and hospital. They also founded working craft guilds, especially large weaving establishments these served a double secondary function, being both educational centres for the young, and training establishments for the novitiate. Furthermore, a very large number of noble ladies surrendered their homes and wealth to the community, thus fostering the development of what were, in effect, Catharist convents. Here they brought up both the daughters of poor credentes, and such taken

;

*

See Appendix

III.


60

children of the nobility as were chosen by their parents to spend their lives in God's service. In the Arifege mountains there were established various hermitages, where widows, or young girls who wished to keep their virginity for ever, and even some married women who had left their husbands the better to serve God, all

gathered together, living in grottoes or tiny isolated huts, spending their time in prayer and meditation. These groups of recluses acquired

a great reputation for saintliness throughout the area. The importance of the part played by women in the Cathar communities has frequently been emphasized. There is nothing surprising about it, however. To begin with, it is a generally accepted fact that

on the appearance of any new religion, some great preacher will up and unleash a wave of mass enthusiasm mass hysteria, we might almost say to which women are more prone by nature than men. Every zealous propagator of a new religious sect infallibly turn

indeed, every priest with a strongly-marked personality

finds

him-

once surrounded by a group of devoted and fanatical women, ready to receive his every utterance as though it were the Gospel itself. We should not forget that even here, in heresy-ridden Langueself at

doc, it was the women rather than the men who also responded to the preaching of St Dominic. The same applies to the Cathar perfecti the women, as a rule, appear to have been more ardent than :

the

men

in acceptance of this

dragged a more cautious or their wake.

new

faith

less

;

it was they who husband along in

frequently

enthusiastic

Midi women enjoyed a far greater degree of moral did their Northern sisters. If respect for women than independence had been a commonplace in literature for more than a century, that Besides, in the

was because Provengal women had long known how to compel men's respect. It was from Languedoc that the tradition of amour courtois spread throughout Europe, and if the seigneurs of the Midi were not always too chivalrous in their actions, at least verbally, they remained beyond reproach. We may recall that famous remark

which St Dominic's companion, Brother Stephen of Minia, addressed to Esclarmonde, the sister of the Count of Foix 'Go tend your distaff, madam it is no business of yours to discuss matters such as these.' 7 It is not hard to imagine the astonishment and indignant disdain which that great lady must have experienced on being thus put in her place by so utterly crude a remark the more since she was mistress of her own lands, a dignified and elderly widow who had borne six children and now, as a perfecta, was revered by all Cathar believers. Brother Stephen must beyond doubt have been :

;

:

HERESY AND HERETICS

61

both a foreigner and a boor to allow himself such licence in the circumstances. The ladies of Languedoc (and indeed, the same could be said of French noblewomen) were not all accustomed to being dismissed to their distaffs they were often better educated than their husbands. Such, at any rate, was their position in secular society ; :

according to the Catholic dispensation, however, they remained

minors by

definition.

The Catharist denied the

faith,

'reality'

equality between

of

by denying the

all life in

'reality'

the flesh

men and women.

It is true

was

of the sexes

as

at least implying

it

an

that Catholicism did not

openly deny this equality; but it remained in practice at least a staunchly anti-feminist creed. Catharism favoured women a great deal

more those who had

Holy Spirit possessed, just as by the laying on of hands though as a rule they only did so in cases of emergency, and far less frequently than men. We do not find any women among the Cathar bishops or deacons; this active branch of the aspostolate was reserved for men, since they were better fitted to endure "he danger and fatigue of a wandering, vagabond existence. Nevertheless the perfectae enjoyed very great esteem, and some of them were regarded virtually as the Mothers Superior of their particular communities. Among the perfect!, then, there were fewer women than men :

men did,

the

power

received the

to transmit

but not markedly fewer.

When

it

the historians of the period speak of

the heretical vestiti captured by the Crusaders, they do not give us any precise figures ; but there does not appear to have been an over-

whelming predominance of males. These 'bonae Christianae' conducted their apostolate primarily among women credentes: as we have already observed, they were much concerned with girls' education, and also very often acted as nurses or doctors, since at this period

women

preferred a medical attendant of their

own

sex.

Moreover, more of them devoted themselves to the contemplative life than was the case among the male perfecti. Among the ordinary credentes, on the other hand, there seems to have been a greater number of women than men and certainly the women on the face of it were bolder and more fearless. From the great lady surrounded by her poets and admirers to the widow who devoted her life to prayer and works of charity not to mention the peasant women who served the bons hommes at table and carried their messages throughout the length and breadth of Languedoc the female credentes are more in evidence on the whole than their male counterparts. There was a fairly obvious reason for this. The men, even those of unquestioned and impassioned sincerity, had ;


62

which they could not renounce. In this society a large proportion of men's dealings with one another rested upon the use of the oath so one professional, social, or military

certain obligations

;

could not be too open in one's adherence to a religion which forbade all swearing whatsoever. In this respect women enjoyed greater liberty,

and could devote themselves more wholeheartedly to

religious activities without

scamping

their

their other obligations.

Besides, even before the Crusade, simple caution prevented people

from making too obvious a parade of their convictions. Though the Count himself and the majority of the great feudal landlords in the area were well disposed towards the new heresy, such a state of affairs might not last the Church of Rome was still powerful, and :

still

That

partially at least in control of local administration.

is

why

we

so often find heretics being given shelter in women's houses (e.g. Blanche de Laurac, Guillelmine de Tonneins, Fabrissa de

Mazeroles, Ferranda, Serrona,

Na

Baiona,

etc.).

In this

way

their

and husbands remained technically innocent before the law, since heresy was only tolerated, not given official recognition. Later we find the Count of Foix (himself a protector of heretics, and both husband and brother to perfectae) disclaiming all responsifathers, brothers

bility for the actions

monde yet

:

'If

my

no reason why

I

of that 'notorious

were

sister

in truth

an

evil

heretic', his sister Esclar-

and

sinful

should perish because of her

woman,

sins.

8 .

.

.'

that

is

This

is

not to say that men, on occasion, failed to show at least as great zeal for their faith as

women

did.

4. Catharism in its Social and Moral Aspects All evidence concerning the morality or rather the immorality of those holding the Cathar faith is worth a lengthy and detailed

scrutiny, since

it is

precisely

adversaries tended to attack

on these grounds that most of the sect's it. Since the essential value of any faith

must be judged by the effect it produces in the lives of its devotees, those whose business it was to fight against Catharism could hardly proclaim that

of the

rendered its adherents both charitable and was why they continually emphasized the hypocrisy and the immoral conduct of the ordinary believer.

this heresy

virtuous. That perfecti,

As

far as the perfecti are concerned, their behaviour in the very face of death must forever free them from any taint of hypocrisy.

Nevertheless, their austerity struck contemporary Catholics as so that they were repeatedly accused of secret and shameful vices,

odd and

in particular of homosexuality

a charge which arose from the

HERESY AND HERETICS fact that

both male and female perfecti lived in

pairs,

63

and were never

parted from their socius or soda. Even when they conceded moral purity to the perfecti, Catholic polemicists regarded such a condition as most unnatural, and asserted that these ascetics felt sourly envious of men who had not renounced the pleasures of this world.

monks during the period under discussion were very far from observing the rules of This suggests that the majority of priests and

poverty and chastity for if it had been otherwise, no one would have been astonished at the virtues displayed by the Cathar ministers. ;

In a society where even the clergy did not set a virtuous example from it, in fact, as the writings of various Popes, abbots, and bishops testify, not to mention the evidence to be adduced from

far

is it to be supposed that the laity were given to austere habits of morality? What was said concerning the immorality of various Cathars could equally well be applied to their

profane literature

more

Catholic contemporaries; while the private life of the grands seigneurs (we know very little about that of lesser individuals) shows that licentiousness was the rule rather than the exception. Mediaeval society in general, and that of the Midi in particular, was by no means given to hypocrisy vanity, greed and luxuriousness were not vices that anybody would be at pains to conceal. On the other hand one charge frequently levelled at the perfecti :

that they consorted with undesirable persons is far too reminiscent of that brought against Jesus by the Pharisees to be taken overseriously. In any case their apostolic zeal must have led them (the same applies to all Christian missionaries in a country with a wellorganized religion of its own) to take a special interest in every sort of pariah and declasse: such people tend to be of doubtful morality, which, we may assume, was not invariably reformed by the bons hommes' sermons. Besides, since the charity of the perfecti was well known, there must have been numerous parasites who feigned conversion in order to find with them a refuge from their destitute lot. But it is not by its weakest and least disinterested members that

a community should be judged. The principal complaint made against the true credentes, those who were devoted body and soul to their Church, who witnessed the consolamentum and received the ministers of the sect under their own roofs, seems to have been that they cohabited with 'concubines', and that

some of them had sired bastards. Cases are frequently cited of some heretical ceremony accompanied by their

credentes attending

concubines (0w&s/a==mistress): 'Willelmus Raimundi de Roqua et Arnauda, amasia ejus\ Petrus aura et Boneta, amasia uxor ejus\


64

9 Raimunda, amasia Othonis de Massabrac? etc. As far as the Catholic hierarchy were concerned, any woman not married in church was automatically classed as a 'concubine' and Cathar believers might well object to being married within a Church whose rites they abhorred and despised. Otho de Massabrac provides an excellent

example he was a young man, a knight of the Montsegur garrison whose family had been Cathars for three or four generations, and who was proscribed as such himself under the Inquisition. In any case, the fact that a person was not married in church does not per se afford proof of immorality. Towards the end of the nineteenth :

century

we

many

find

their right to

a

civil

extremely strait-laced ladies proudly asserting It is well known that, as a general

marriage.

of new religions tend towards puritanism rather than any relaxation of moral standards. On the other hand the Inquisitors are unanimous in their declaration that the heretics regarded marriage as an institution of the Devil. 10 'They claim,' Bernard Gui wrote, 'that for a man to have carnal knowledge of his wife is no less heinous a fault than incestuous rule, devotees

commerce with

his

mother, daughter, or

sister.'

Can we

really believe

that the perfecti sought, in their sermons, to spread such dangerous 'truths' as these among their followers? And might not such state-

ments encourage the faithful actually to commit incest with their mothers or daughters? It seems most likely that the sort of proposition which Gui cites (if authentic) was only addressed to adepts that is, to the perfecti themselves and those who aspired to such ;

initiation,

men for whom marriage

even a marriage blessed by

God

would have been no less a scandal than it would for a Catholic monk or priest. The Catholic Church herself has always maintained that for a monk even the most serious failings provided they are casual rather than persistent, and followed by true contrition weigh less heavily than the sacrilege caused by an officially consecrated yet sinful marriage. It is in this sort of context that the rigorous austerity of the perfecti must be viewed.

The bons hommes incurred censure for condemning procreation, often in violent language, and declaring that a pregnant woman was in a state of sin and impurity; but, as the churching of women proves, the Catholic Church, too, admitted procreation and childbirth to be basically impure acts. For Catholics, however, a child represented God's grace rather than a curse their theology accepted :

the inexplicable mystery of God's love for the material world, even in its corrupt aspects. But this wisdom, which stemmed from ancient

Judaism and possibly incorporated certain pagan

traditions, pre-

HERESY AND HERETICS sented the Church with a problem

:

how was

it

65 to be integrated with

her close-knit system of moral values? The Middle Ages dearly loved logic ; they were very much an epoch of reasoned argument. The

consequence was an apparent denial of the possibility of a Fourth Dimension even with God.

The accusations of immorality made the odder in that for

against the Cathars are all

of them, especially women, marriage symbolized their reconciliation with the Church. Covinens de Fanjeaux, having been converted by St Dominic, 'abandoned her

many

heresies and took a husband'. 'Bernarda,' we learn, 'lived three years as a heretic, but afterwards she married and had two children.' 11

We

are not told that these girls led a dissolute life prior to marrying, but merely that they kept their virginity. The same applies to the young

woman 1175 13

heretic

from Champagne who was burnt

at

Rheims

in

her belief in Catharism was revealel solely by her desire to remain a virgin at all costs. It was, then, by their purity rather than

any

:

of self-indulgence that sincere Cathar believers got them-

taint

selves specially noticed.

may be objected, were only a small elite what about the very likely that a certain number (of enthusiastic convictions but too little strength of will to resist temptation) actually These,

rest? It

it

:

is

abandoned the conjugal thereafter

fell

state in order to

renounce

this

world, but

which caused a public community as a whole.

into various sins of the flesh

scandal and brought discredit upon their Even if the perfecti did not turn their faces against these strayed sheep, they could hardly promote active support of immorality,

since it was, precisely, just such moral licence which they denounced most violently among their Catholic adversaries. The case of the young girl from Rheims is very typical in the light it sheds on the mentality of the Cathars' opponents. Radulph, Abbot of Coggeshall, relates that one day the Archbishop of Rheims was taking a stroll outside the city accompanied by some of his clergy and that one of these, Gervais Tilbury, noticing a young girl walking on her own through a nearby vineyard, went up and accosted her with amorous intent ('although,' as Radulph says, 'he was a Canon'). His proposals must have been blunt and direct in the extreme, since the girl, 'with modest and solemn mien, scarce daring to look at him', replied that she could not give herself to him for, said she, 'if I were to lose my virginity, my body would be corrupted on the instant, and I should be damned irremediably for all eternity'. From these utterances the holy clerk perceived that he had to do with a heretic, and denounced her as such to the Archbishop, who ;

;


66

meanwhile had come up with his suite. The girl herself, together with the woman who had instructed her in the Cathar faith, was condemned to the stake, and died with a courage that won great admiration from those who witnessed her end. It is hard to know which element in this story is more surprising the heroism of the anonymous martyr, or the moral callousness displayed by judges and chronicler alike. It seemed quite natural to them that a cleric should not only try to seduce a young girl, but also that he should utilize the very fact of his shameless conduct as an argument against his victim. A Church in which such moral decadence flourished was :

hardly qualified to cast the first stone against anyone else. The majority of the rank-and-file credentes would not appear, then, to have led lives any worse than those of the Catholics. Better still, when we examine the lists of those noble families who openly adhered to the Cathar faith (such lists are the only ones which have survived) there is not a vestige of evidence that this religion attempted,

in any way whatsoever, to undermine family life by condemning marriage or procreation. On the contrary the social edifice of the :

Catharist Church depended in great measure precisely

on these

great families, with their traditions handed down unbroken from father to son. The catalogue of names conjures up a picture of a society in which ties of kinship were both powerful and well-

Those particularly zealous credentes who were forced into 'conversion' under pressure of persecution all agreed that feigned had been they brought up in the Cathar faith by their mother, respected.

grandmother, uncle, aunt, or some other relative; they married their sons to the daughters of fellow-Cathars

consolamentum in the

home of

ladies such as Blanche de

;

they received the

their brothers or in-laws.

Laurac appear to have acted in

Great

all

respects as head of their clan, with countless sons, daughters, grandchildren, sons-in-law and daughters-in-law all brought up as fervently devoted

Cathars.

The

seigneurs of Niort, Saint-Michel, Festes, Fanjaux,

Mirepoix, Castelbon, Castelverdun, Carabet, Miraval and many other chateaux were notorious and open heretics ; and the testimony

of witnesses constantly refers to the various members of these a fact which suggests seigneurs' families in every degree of kinship that throughout this area (as in any feudally ruled district) the sense of family solidarity was very strong. The disruptive influence of Catharist doctrine would not appear to have been exercised here, at any rate: indeed, these families must be considered among the

staunchest supporters of the new religion, and had been for several generations. It would be absurd, therefore, to claim that Catharism

HERESY AND HERETICS

67

constituted a clanger to society through the disintegrating effect it liable to have upon family life. It is true that certain women of extreme piety retired into con-

was

life while their husbands were still alive but in general they did this at an advanced age, when their children were already grown up and married. More often they waited till they were widows, both of whom as Blanche de Laurac and Esclarmonde de Foix did

ventual

;

had numerous children. Another less common criticism which Catholics made against the Cathars was that of driving their followers into anarchy by the contempt they displayed for public authority, coupled with their rejection of all force and their refusal to take oaths. At first sight this complaint would appear to be better founded than its predecessor. The Cathars did, in fact, preach that temporal authority was originally established by Satan rather than God. Yet neither the Cathars in Languedoc nor the Vaudois sect* (whose morality was closely akin to that of the Cathars) had ever shown any revolutionary tendencies, such as had characterized the Bogomils. Though the Vaudois (or Waldensians) might insist on their followers observing a rule of poverty, this was by no means the case with the Cathars, whose most zealous adepts tended to come from the most wealthy sections of the

community. In any

incite their supporters to rebel

case, the Cathars certainly did

not

openly against public authority they had, with some logic, come to the conclusion that in a universe governed by the Prince of this world, no social organization whatso;

ever could be wholly satisfactory. Nevertheless the credentes, though living in this world, professed a creed that denied every principle on which their society rested.

Must it not inevitably follow that their sense of discipline, or of obligation to their seigneurs and the law of the land, was thereby seriously unsettled? Sincere believers, it would appear, even though they might be excellent citizens, must needs have performed their

knowledge that what they were doing was a useless and of entirely secondary importance. Yet did not the Catholic Church herself teach the faithful that the Kingdom of Heaven was worth far more than the principalities of this world? Would anyone civic duties in the

task,

accuse the

official

hierarchy of sowing the seeds of anarchy by such

pronouncements? * The heretical sect of the Vaudois [Waldensians] was formed independently of the Cathars at Lyons, about 1170: it showed distinct characteristics, with a bias towards evangelicism. See C. Schmidt, Histoire et Doctrine de la secte des Cathares ou Albigeois (1849), p. 68; and Runciman, The Mediaeval Manichee

(1947), pp. 124-5. (Trs.)


68

Various sorts of charges were brought against the credentes,a.nd repeated over and over again. Though Pierre des Vaux de Cernay may be a most partial witness, he cannot surely have been wholly

mistaken when he claimed that these credentes were addicted to 'usury, rapine, murder, perjury, and every kind of perversion'. He is here referring, clearly, to the Cathar seigneurs and knights ; and we should not forget that identical accusations were brought against the

untouched by any taint of heresy. The perennial between clergy and nobility would, indeed, give us a most

nobility of countries hostility

impression of the Catholic nobility if we had no evidence to go on save the writings of monks and churchmen apart from a few sinister

:

of Christ', these knights are drawn as men given over to every base instinct, bursting with brutality, glutted with honours and luxuries, only happy when engaged in warfare or rapine. Secular 'soldiers

literature,

on the other hand,

here the bishops

Saracen skulls narrative.

either ignores or despises the clergy

unless, like Turpin, they

figure at best as

;

happen to be cracking

mere decorative additions

to the

In the countries where Catholicism was most firmly

established the nobility and the ecclesiastic hierarchy seemed to live in completely separate worlds, as rivals and indeed as enemies to

Now the aristocracy of the Midi, though not worse counterpart in any other country, numbered among its plentiful shortcomings that of holding the Catholic religion in open contempt: so why should we be surprised at its incurring clerical one another.

than

its

censure, seeing that the clergy habitually kept up a running fire of criticism against the Catholic nobility as a whole? The great barons in the North by no means always honoured their oaths of allegiance

:

they seized the least excuse to rebel against

whom

they had sworn on the Gospels to serve faithfully. Those of the Midi (those at least who also happened to profess the Cathar faith, which compelled them to treat any oath as illicit) must have regarded such oaths as they were obliged to take as merely simple formalities, void of any moral force or at any rate, they were quite at liberty to do so when it suited their book. Possibly then this meant that they 'perjured' themselves more often than the men from the North? But, as against this, their religion also condemned any kind of lie which meant, by implication, that they had to preserve a certain scrupulousness in their conduct. The only people who were liable to be driven into perjury by reason of their religion were those who would have perjured themselves under any circumstances. Still, even the most honourable of them were often obliged to maintain some sort of relationship with the Catholic Church, since the overlords

;

4

A

drawing of Simon de Montfort taken from a stained glass in the cathedral at Chartres in France and thought to date

window

from 1231

5

Mediaeval

impressions

drawings

((/)

(/)

knights

were often

of

Raymond Raymond

wax impressions of Pelet,

VI,

Squire

their seals,

ponon

of Simon de Montfort and

seal

of Alais,

Count of Toulouse,

a;

:st

Here are (0&/>| wax

he used on his shield, and enlarged

/ing

a

(c)

pond

Knight

from Languedoc,

Trencavel, Viscount Beziers,

Raymond

VII,

Count of Toulouse

fo aiwafcftacom J>it;.Uma$*&ilcna

Uhaf fccaftclfa^ranca

amend.

oft

ftraftota entoin bcjcrf* attfgvi fuf la rcna rcuj?

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