Leo Strauss: "German Nihilism" [1941]

German Nihilism Leo Strauss Edited

by

David Janssens Vrije Universiteit Brussel

Daniel

Tanguay

University

The

of Ottawa

lecture

following

by Leo Strauss was delivered, according to internal February 26, 1941, in the General Seminar of the Graduate

textual evidence, on

Faculty

of

Political

and

in New York. The text

Social Science

will prove

of the

New School for Social Research

to be of particular

interest both for

students of

and for those more generally interested in the intellectual Germany. For the former, the lecture presents itself as one of

Leo Strauss's thought climate of prewar

the rare occasions on which Professor Strauss suspended his customary reti

directly addressed an important contemporary issue. For the latter, it offers an interesting and compelling outlook on the intellectual currents of one of this century's key periods. Finally, both audiences will find that Professor cence and

Strauss

combines

his

perspicacity with firsthand knowl discussion. As "a young Jew, bom and raised in

philosophical rigor and

edge of the problem under Germany,"

man

he

doubt

was without

nihilism, the influence

representatives and

The basis

its historical

of this edition

is

Chicago. The

University

of

ten pages.

It bears many

typewriter,

some

by

porated the changes edition

might

stances

in

in

faithfully

which we

interpretation,

Germany, its key

origins.

a typewritten manuscript which can at

the Regenstein

be found in

Library

of

The

mostly typewrit

additions, some of them inserted

corrections and

reflect

have

edited

comment,

the text Professor

handwriting

the phenomenon of Ger

postwar and prewar

manuscript consists of twenty-five

was

for a

actual

presentation.

readability.

few

We have

misspellings

We

note

by

also

the few in

taken the

with a short comment.

read or altogether

Vol. 26, No. 3

liberty

in the typescript. At

made a more substantial addition

in the text,

difficult to

Spring 1999,

his

Strauss

writing: these are mentioned

i

in

hand. In preparing the text, we have systematically incor and additions made by Professor Strauss so that the present

of correcting, without

the

well acquainted with

exerted

Strauss Papers (Box 8, Folder 15)

the Leo

points

it

In

some

in hand

some cases

illegible: this is indicated

354

Interpretation

between

in the text, Professor Strauss,

parentheses

by

underlined

present edition these of

notes,

languages have

with an asterisk

typewriter,

Certain

some

a view to

by

hand: in the

restricting the

by

were

words

hand

number

are

indi

immediately following the word. Words from by the editors. Finally, we

English have been italicized

other than

information concerning names,

dates

sources and

however,

remark, the present edition begins with two different ta

reader will

of contents.

second was

is

notes.

notes.

As the bles

by

have been italicized. With

added some additional

in the

some

in the

single words which were either added or underlined

in the text

cated

as well as

The first

found

on a

of these

handwritten

is

part of

the original typescript, while the

sheet attached to the typescript.

provides a more accurate synopsis of

presented.

For this reason,

we

have

the contents of the

chosen to

include it

The

latter,

lecture

directly

as

it

after the

original table of contents.

We

are grateful to

for their

generous

Cropsey, Leo Strauss's this publication.

Jenny Strauss Clay and Professor Joseph Cropsey deciphering Professor Strauss's handwriting. Professor literary executor, has also generously given permission for

Professor

help

in

German Nihilism Graduate

Faculty

Political

of

and

355

Social Science

New School for Social Research, 66 West 12 Street, New York, N. Y.

General Seminar: Experiences

of

Second World War

the

February 26,

German Nihilism The

I. a

(a) What is

questions:

specifically German German

II.

nihilism

nihilism?

is

III.

The

nihilism of the

IV.

The

nihilistic

German

German

One

VIII.

IX.

The

be

said to

be

broader than National Socialism.

passionate reaction of a certain

type of

term "wave of the

future."

as the rejection of the principles of civilization as such.

the principles of civilization as such in

favor

of

ideals.

nihilism

is

a radicalized

of the roots of

present

can nihilism

and the positivism of the old.

of the

nihilism rejects

war and of warlike

VII.

young

meaning

Nihilism is defined

VI.

How far

a phenomenon much

can

V.

Leo Strauss

phenomenon?

be described provisionally as the young atheist to the communist ideal. It

(b)

1941

German

Anglo-German

form

of

militarism

war

is

German

is

militarism.

moralism.

a war about principles.

German Nihilism

1.

The

questions:

What is

specifically German

2.

German

known

And how far

can nihilism

be

said

to be a

phenomenon?

nihilism

species.

nihilism?

is the genus,

of which

National

socialism

is the

best-

356 I.

Interpretation The ultimate,

3.

connection

moral protest against

II.

The

situation

4.

German

communist

5.

underlying German

non-nihilistic motive

The inseparable

in

the

of

morality

ideal

society:

the

principle of modem civilisation.

led to

which that non-nihilistic motive

nihilism

nihilism.

the closed

and

is the

nihilism.

reaction of a certain type of

atheist to the

young

or prediction.

On the affinity

of youth to

nihilism, and the

nihilistic consequences of

the emancipation of youth.

6. aim

On the affinity of progressivism to nihilism: progressivism leaves the undefined; it therefore opposes an indefinite No to the given order.

III. What is

And how far

nihilism?

be

can nihilism

said to

be specifically Ger

man ?

Nihilism is the

7.

isation is the

conscious culture of

Nihilism in the

8.

rather than of

9.

German

war and

sense

nihilism rejects

German

nihilism

is therefore

German

nihilism

is

is

characteristic

of

of

form the

militarism.

German militarism,

of

romantic opinion

is

related

to the

German idealist morality

of

ideal

synthesis of the modem

modem

the

influence

philosophy:

idealism, i.e.,

as

on

The

modem

of

led from the

such, the

nation

ideal

with

vs.

i.e.,

that synthesis did

on the pre-modem

interpreted

the classical

ideal.

as

that

ideal, they

a tradi

a

working the Germans

were

ultimately

to the rejection of the principle

to nihilism. The

German Herren

German

by

against the enlighten

German tradition is

so much

to be a

acceptance of the

ideal. While the English found

rejection of modern civilisation

perial

claimed

of the pre-modem

origin: the

break in the tradition

of civilisation as

as

intention

distortion

English

amalgamation of the modem overemphasized the

a polemic

a modem

ideal is

tion of criticism of the modem

fanatics.

ideal;

made the

ideal

the pre-modem

which

morality of self-sacrifice is the only unambig

with the pre-modem

German idealism

interpreted in

ment; and therefore: on

14.

of

ideal

courage

self-interest;

ideal impossible; the Germans had to fall back

ideal: that is to say,

that

concerning the

to the modem

reaction

uously non-utilitarian virtue. 13. German idealism, while opposing Western philosophy, not work;

and

as a whole.

nihilism

and self-denial vs.

German

akin to

a radicalized

is due to the victory

development

German

day Germany

the principles of civilisation as such in favor of

1 1.

12.

science and morals.

characteristic of present

virtues.

10.

modem

human reason, i.e.

defined is

other country.

any

the warlike

radicalization

Civil

rejection of the principles of civilisation as such.

English

a nation

of

gentlemen as an

provincial,

im

resentful

357

German Nihilism GERMAN NIHILISM. LECTURE TO BE DELIVERED ON FEBRUARY, 26, 1941.

1. What is

German to

elaborate*

And how far

nihilism?

I

phenomenon?

am not able

little. For the

them a

can nihilism

to

be

said

I

phenomenon which

too complex, and much too little explored, to

much

description scratch

its

within

disposal. I

the short time at my

a

specifically

am

try

going to discuss, is

permit

cannot

of an

do

adequate

than to

more

surface.

2. When

we

hear

the present time the expression "German

at

of us

naturally think at once of National Socialism. It

stood

from the

German

be

to

these questions; I can merely

answer

outset that

must

National Socialism is only the

nihilism,"

most

however be

most

famous*

under

form

of

its lowest, most provincial, most unenlightened and most dishonourable form. It is probable that its very vulgarity accounts for its great, nihilism

if appalling, mately

by

complete

mean

sarily

shall

motive

is

Hitler, Germany's defeat in

German nihilism, I

explain

first

in itself

not

definition

I

nihilistic.

led to

shall

is

in question,

3. Nihilism

I

way.

might mean:

including

believe, however,

from the

point of view of

basis

of that

definition,'

to give the

to describe

nihil, to will the nothing, the destruction of

and

that such a

shall attempt

fully.

velle

oneself,

Finally, I

not assailable

therefore primarily the will to self-destruc

tion. I am told that there are human not

following

is underlying German nihilism; this then describe the situation in which that

and on the

nihilism somewhat more

everything,

to proceed in the

propose

nihilistic aspirations.

of nihilism as

non-nihilistic motive

German

the World War and all that.

the ultimate motive which

explain

non-nihilistic motive such a

successes

the end of German nihilism. For that nihilism has deeper roots than

the preachings of

To

These

may be followed by failures, and ulti defeat. Yet the defeat of National Socialism will not neces

successes.

beings

have

who

desire is the

desires. I do

such strange

ultimate motive of

German

nihil

ism. Not only does the unarmed eye not notice any unambiguous signs of a will demonstrated* to be the se-//*-destruction. But even if such a desire were

to

ultimate on

the

motive,

form,

militarism.

not of the

To

advisable than

bump

explain

it is to

him;

The fact

not

being of

an

is

that

siecle

in terms

such terms

the desire

could not call

German

including

the

is

diseases, is

even

less

of a cornered gangster

the fellow

desire

a morbid

not absolute

to

who doubledesire.2

nihilism, desire

oneself, but a desire for the destruction

absolute nihilism

negation of modem civilisation,

clear positive conception.

that*

nihilism

of modern civilisation.

almost*

or

of mental

a couple of cops and

Stoic, I

everything

specific:*

something nihilism becomes

in

why that desire took of alcoholism, but of

understand

fin de

nihilism

himself a

of the matter

for the destruction of

explain

loss to

at a

mood called

German

off together with

crossed

be

we still should

No, is

not

That, if I may say

only for this

reason:

so, limited

because the

guided, or accompanied,

by

any

358

Interpretation

German

desires the destruction

nihilism

has

em civilisation

technical*

much to modem

to which the

As

a moral meaning.

German

devices. That

nihilists

object, is

lar

rights

The

precisely, that the

man; or: the

What is the

That

a moral protest.

that the internationalism inherent in

conviction

establishment of a

West*,

underlying the and in particu

perfectly

civilisation, or, more

modem

open

from the

protest proceeds

society

which

that goal, are irreconcilable with the basic demands of moral

from the

greatest possible

motive

the goal of modem civilisation, and therefore all aspirations

proceeds

as mod

West?

be: it is

answer must

of

civilisation, against the spirit of the

Anglo-Saxon*

of the

far

not object so

meaning of modem civilisation in formulations such as these:

moral

of the greatest possible number.

protest against modem

knows, it does

expressed

to relieve man's estate; or: to safeguard the

happiness

of modem civilisation as

everyone

is

it

as

were

directed toward life. That

protest

life is essentially

conviction that the root of all moral

and

therefore eternally the closed society; from the conviction that the open society

is bound to be, if

immoral,

not

at

least

amoral:

the meeting ground of seekers of

pleasure, of gain, of irresponsible power, indeed of any kind of and

lack

Moral life, it is asserted,

closed

confronted

flag

the

of seriousness of the

society,

means serious

society

on constant awareness of the

war.

the necessity, the

human: the

sublime

which claim

to

is

aspire

duty

being

sacrifices*

of sacrifice of

unknown

to the open

society."

by

Certain basic facts

by

the

belief that

The

das hochste

society

conviction

truly West

are closed societies

in

a

human

society, it is asserted, is

by what is called the largely fictitious or which have been honestly

at all

nature

is

also*

with

spade,

are at

by fictions legal

the and

by pacts not backed by breaks the pact, or by calling ministries of by calling punishment sanctions, or by calling

one can abolish

Strafmass.5

because

underlying

sically nothing to do

covered over war

who

ministries of defence* or

to the closed

of

denied, superficially

military forces punishing him capital punishment

its existence,

societies of the

earlier generations who used to call a spade a

time verbally

others, e.g.,

war*

open

toward the open society. For that progress

verbal.

owes

closed societies.

not proved

present

The

actually

actually impossible. Its possibility is

recognized

it

value, their respectability, depends entirely

moral

further. The

merely

distinctive features

worldly goods, is

and all

this argument a little

us pursue

progress*

are the

,

its very nature, is constantly

to which

life

toward the open society,

disintegration: their

their still

Let

flag by

basically oriented toward, the Ernstfall, the serious mo Only life in such a tense atmosphere, only a life which is

based

on

which

and the ceremonial

with, and

M-day,

state of

life. Seriousness,

and the oath to the

of the

ment,

and of

irresponsibility

seriousness.3

of

the

The

society is morally inferior former is based on hypocrisy. open

the protest against modem civilisation

bellicism,

with

love

of

war;

there were closed societies which were not nations;

has ba

nor with nationalism:

for

it has indeed something to

German Nihilism do

with what

best

the

is

tion I am

trying

is

love

rather a

to

of

The historians in Plato's

describe, is

society in

know that conviction,

love

origin a

responsibility for

it

of war:

endangered morality.

passion, from

or

convic

Glaukon's,

city of pigs, in the name of all, from Jean- Jacques Rousseau's passionate

passionate protest against the

know it,

They

above

the

protest against

easy-going and somewhat rotten civilisation of the century of from Friedrich Nietzsche's passionate protest against the easy-going

and

and somewhat rotten civilisation of the

let there be

passion

its

state offers

indicated. The

the sense

not, to repeat, in

a sense of

morality,

our midst

brother's,

noble virtue.

taste,

state, insofar as the sovereign

called the sovereign

modem example of a closed

359

century

no mistake about that

of

industry. It

which

was the same

turned, if in

a much more

infinitely less intelligent form, against the alleged or real corrup post-war Germany: against "the subhuman beings of the big cities (die

passionate and

tion of

Untermenschen der

Grossstadt),"

"cultural bolshevism

against

(Kulturbolsche-

wismus),"

That passion,

etc.

the examples of Plato and

by

shown

is then

or conviction

Rousseau, if

not

in itself nihilistic,

as

is

examples are needed at all.

(One may even wonder whether it was not a sound demand, remembering, e.g., the decision of the Oxford students not to fight for king and country and some more recent facts.) While not being nihilistic in itself, and perhaps even not

entirely unsound, that

conviction

led however to

nihilism

in

post-war

Germany

owing to a number of circumstances. Of those circumstances, I shall mention in the

survey

ciently

follows, only

which

those which, to my mind, have not

in the discussions

emphasized

of this seminar nor

been

in the literature

suffi

the

on

subject.6

4. One

would

have to

reporter, in order to give those of post-war ism.7

Germany,

Let

me

world and

an

adequate*

tentatively define

its potentialities,

of what one wants to put

desire No

could

of all

with

the

liberal

be

Bavaria in

not accompanied

place.

as such.

was simple about

seemed

And let

older ones

to many

with which

us

people

try

by

any

clear conception

to understand how such a

Germany

German liberal democ

to be absolutely unable to cope

was confronted.

This

created a pro

already in existence, against alternatives to liberal democracy were

Two

articulate

reaction, as expressed

by

the Crown Prince

these terms: "Some people say that the wheel of

be turned back. This is The

in its

in

or confirmed a profound prejudice

democracy One

nihilism as

desire

years

underlying German nihil the desire to destroy the present

of the emotions

satisfied with the post-war world.

descriptions

difficulties

found prejudice,

open.

a

you who

idea

lyrical

a

develop.

one could

racy

I totally lack, the gift of have not lived for many

possess a gift which

in

history

error."

The

an

other alternative was more

our midst still remember

serted that the conflicts

Ruprecht

inherent in the

to a revolution, accompanying

or

following

interesting.

the time when certain people as

present situation would another

proletariat and of the proletarianized strata of

of

cannot

World War

society

necessarily lead a

rising

which would usher

of

the

in the

360

Interpretation

withering away tion and

of the

injustice,

State,

the classless society, the abolition of all exploita

final

the era of

the desperate present, which without rulers and

ruled, of

peace.

led to

a

It

nihilism.

The

planetary society devoted to

positively horrifying to quite very decent, if very young, Germans. They did not was

merchandise,

as much as

prospect of a pacified

only, to the production and consumption of

sumption rial

least

was this prospect at

planet,

production and con

spiritual as well as mate

a

few very intelligent

object

and

to that prospect

be

position; for

about their own economic and social

they worrying certainly in that respect they had no longer anything to lose. Nor did they object to it for religious reasons; for, as one of their spokesmen (E. Jiinger) said, they cause

were

knew*

that

they

were

the*

sons and grandsons and great-grandsons of godless

What they hated, was the very prospect of a world in which everyone would be happy and satisfied, in which everyone would have his little pleasure

men.

by day beat

and

fice, i.e.

a

world

appeared to

Germans

by

night, a world in

which no great

heart

could

breathe, a world without real, unmetaphoric, sacri blood, sweat, and tears. What to the communists

without

be the fulfilment

as the arrival of the

in the

quel:

world and all

order to

thing

prevent

state of

more than:

man.

they

were

mankind, appeared to those young

They clear

tolerably

the otherwise

as the

did

coming

not

its allegedly necessary future

future.8

Their Yes

the chaos, the

proved

was

expression

jungle,

the Wild

final

they

West,

the

communist-

were unable to

say

sufficient as the preface to action, to

phenomenon

German

be destroyed

of the communist

better than the

inarticulate

however

destruction. This is the

I hear the

infinitely

or se

certain was that the present

necessary coming

nothing*

of the end of

really know, and thus language, what they desired to

absolutely

nature, seemed to them

No! This No

the action of whenever

of which

anything, the

anarchist-pacifist

It is

a

of

humanity,

the potentialities of the present world as such, must

literally

Hobbian

in

latest

of

place of the present world and

the only

order:

dream

of the

debasement

were unable to express

they

in

pleasure

as the greatest

humanity, put

his little

and no great soul could

which

occurs

to me

first

nihilism.

hardly necessary to point out the fallacy committed by the young men in They simply took over the communist thesis that the proletarian revo and proletarian dictatorship is necessary, if civilisation is not to perish.

question.

lution

But they insisted

rather more

of the communist prediction room

for

choice:

alternative ment was

ible

they

((/"civilisation is

chose what

according

not

to perish). That condition left

to the communists was the only

to communism. In other words:

in favour

argument what

argument

than the communists on the conditional character

of

communism; but

they

they knew of,

about the probable

called was

future,

they admitted that all rational argu they opposed to that apparently invinc

"irrational

decision."

historical argument,

predictions,

Unfortunately,

all rational

or more precisely: statements

which were

based

on

past, and above all, of the present. For that modem astrology,

analysis of the

predicting

social

361

German Nihilism science, had taken hold

before that

emphasized

5. One

or

ligent

is

by

young

a word

is

expressing

not unnatural

discover that

new

their

longings,

are unable

should

to express

be tempted to

last to

the

deny

the

to

describe. But I

as

I

assert an essential

juvenile

must

disagree

lover

of

their

a

conceivably

I

should

they

pupils.

be

I have tried

dangerous thing for these young

teachers,

aspirations

told

of paradoxes

of youth to nihilism.

such old-fashioned teachers of course as would

the

would

with the modem pedagogue all the more

called progressive education:

are

strong desire for

constitutionally unable to in articulate language more than

what

understand

they

being

precisely to

a

everything

that the intel

character of that specific nihilism which

am convinced that about the most

is

affinity

I have

and, considering that moderation

the negation of the aspirations of the older generation. A might

not

with what

have

Moreover, he

extreme word.

that the young people,

word,

feel that

not unnatural

be dissatisfied

they

youth.

people.9

argue, it is

generation should

youth, for an

not a virtue of

say, it

might

the older generation, and that

word, for

new

For, he

nihilism.

section of a

to believe

part of the academic

the other modem pedagogue would perhaps

bad in that

was

very large

of a

the nihilists were young

in

so

far

men was

rather needed old-fashioned

be

undogmatic enough

Unfortunately,

the

belief in

teaching declined considerably in post-war Germany. The inroads William II had made on the old and noble educational system founded by

old-fashioned which

by of

liberals

of the early 19th century, were not discontinued, but rather enlarged Republic. To this one may add the influence of the political emancipation youth, the fact frequently referred to as the children's vote. Nor ought we to

great

the

forget that

some of

discipline*

gone what

the young nihilists who refused to undergo severe intellectual

were sons or younger

may be described

brothers

of men and women who

as the emotional

discipline

of the youth

had

under

movement,

Our century has once it proved to be the age of the

of a movement which preached the emancipation of youth.

been

century of the child: in Germany Needless to say that not in all cases the natural progress from adolescence to senility ever interrupted by a period however short of maturity. called the

was*

adolescent.

The decline

for

of reverence

shameless reference to the

I have speaking,

old age

most

telling

expression

in Hitler's

the aged President Hindenburg.

fact that the young nihilists were atheists. Broadly to the World War, atheism was a preserve of the radical left, just

prior

history

atheism

ism. German philosophy

had been

connected with philosophic material

predominantly idealistic, and the German idealists Schopenhauer was, to my knowledge, the first non

was

were theists or pantheists.

materialist and conservative

with

of

alluded to the

as throughout

atheism.

found its

imminent death

German

philosopher

But Schopenhauer's influence fades into

who

openly

professed

insignificance, if

his

compared

that of Nietzsche. Nietzsche asserted that the atheist assumption is not only

reconcilable with,

but indispensable

and anti-pacifist policy:

for, a radical anti-democratic, anti-socialist, him, even the communist creed is only a

according to

362

Interpretation form

secularized

losopher

of theism, of the belief in providence. There is no other phi influence on postwar German thought is comparable to that of

whose

Nietzsche,

Nietzsche. I

of the atheist

I

am not a theologian.

I

am

A

Professor Carl Mayer

German

this aspect of published

The

of the

dwell

cannot

is

gentleman who

this important point, since

on

Graduate

Faculty it

nihilism all the attention

will

in Social

I

adolescents

meaning

am

speaking of,

They

their aspirations.

of

were

in

an article to

be

need of teachers who could ex

group Hitler (Spengler, Moeller

not

believed to have found

in that

van

paved the

or

to understand the singular success, not of

we want

destructive,

merely

such teachers

knowingly ignorantly way for den Bruck, Carl Schmitt, [illegible], Ernst Jiinger,

of professors and writers who

Heidegger). If

in

requires

Research.

to them in articulate language the positive, and

plain

in theology than certainly devote to

much more versed

Hitler, but

of

those writers, we must cast a quick glance at their opponents who were at the

young nihilists. Those opponents committed They believed to have refuted the No by refuting

same time the opponents of the

frequently the

a grave mistake.

Yes, i.e.

But

inconsistent, if

the

not

has

one cannot refute what one

ponents

did

not even

try

silly, positive assertions of the young not

thoroughly

men.

And many op

understood.

to understand the ardent passion underlying the nega

tion of the present world and its potentialities. As a consequence, the very refutations confirmed the nihilists

beg

of repetitions of

young

men

had

all these refutations seemed to

who

principles*

did

hard

merely methodically

civilisation; the

Those

or meth

great authorities of that

degenerate into

young

nihilists

and

independent thinking had overcome it. Many They had been brought up in the belief

that condition.

not meet

principles of modem

apt to

of the

of modem

and not

no

through years of

opponents

in the

doubt seriously,

decantata,

by heart.

longer impress them; it was evident that only such opponents have been listened to who knew that doubt from their own experience,

civilisation would

did

things which the young people knew already

come to

odologically, the

is

in their belief;

the question; most of the refutations seemed to consist of pueris

civilisation;

prejudice*

belief in

and a

Consequently,

which one

is brought up,

the attitude of the opponents

tended to become apologetic. Thus it came to pass that

the most ardent upholders of the principle of progress, of an sive

principle,

the mind,

were compelled

taking

defensive

a

stand

modem civilisation appeared to the

the adherents of the

had to resist, in the called the wave of

burden

ideal

future.

heavy

the

young nihilists, not and in the wars

the

The

ideas;

thus

awkward position that

they

what

of the mind no

opponents of the

in the

impression

tradition

movement

action spells victory.

in the

conservateurs, made

be the

generation to

They hoary with age and hampered by any tradition,

the

of a

young

of progress were

manner of

the

essentially aggres defensive stand; and, in the realm of looks like admitting defeat. The ideas of

to take a

young

meantime

of

being

somewhat

had

less than in nihilists

old

had

loaded

dusty,

complete real

has been with

whereas

freedom

of

wars, freedom of all the

advantages,

363

German Nihilism but likewise all the

disabilities, of the intellectually propertied class confronted by

intellectual proletarian, the sceptic. The situation of modem civilisation in general, and of its backbone, which is modem science, both natural and civil in

the

particular, appeared to be comparable to that of emergence of methods and

strong basic problems.

Or, if you is

the sun

when

shortly before the

It

reached astronomic proportions.

young nihilists, had to be

was

certainly

given

terms,

to

hide the its flight

perfection

characteristic of

at no

jump

impressed Flanders

following

of mankind

in

as much as we

German

about

them to see

by

have impressed the young

6. I have tried to

Germany in

particular,

Winston Churchill

granted

respectable.

justice,

moment at

circumscribe

in the life

of

in

base in its

all cases

that glory

Let

us

the

origin.

Moreover, I

take

they despised,

no

limits. Let I

then not

us

called

would

they

hesitate to look for

nihilism, from the

say, is a

How

which

are, of necessity, a

slogan used

of a new epoch at

its beginning,

is

setting?

she assists; she

is

usually

nothing

be

of the genius at whose

a competent gynaecologist.

reality is in the making; it is transforming a fertile nothing. The Nazis there is: nothing, but

the whole world;

present

by

said about

is merely the rather contemptible the birth of the new epoch, of a

understands

not even supposed to

clouds; the sky is hidden at

by its

first

the

adequate expression of

The Nazis? Hitler? The less is

midwife who assists at

and a midwife

those

considering that the owl of Minerva starts

the better. He will soon be forgotten. He

"History": the

by

caricature rather than an adequate

can a reasonable man expect an

when the sun

one

point of view of

the destruction of their spiritual property, who judge the new

deeds,

was

the new, who see merely the rejection of their cherished

not understand

its flight

which a

of a sense of solidarity which is not by forget that the highest duty of the scholar, truthfulness

phenomenon which

words and

spirit;

had taught which was

beware

us not

acknowledges

expression.

of

defeat in

limited

"Nihilism,"

ideal

have been

the intellectual and moral situation in

the nihilists themselves.

ideals,

would

that not everything to which the young nihilists objected, was

discretion. And let

do

if

in the

following

said after the

unobjectionable, and that not every writer or speaker whom

who

period

one of their greatest teachers

greatest moment

nihilism emerged which was not

or

nihilists

was given

Rome."

ancient*

it for

what

Britain's finest hour. For

in Cannae the

post-war

in Germany,

the communist world revolution, would be the

general and of

were,

apt

time negligible

they had heard it. It was not however given by a German and it year 1940 only. Those young men who refused to believe that the into liberty,

is

The only answer which could have impressed the in non-technical language. Only one answer was

given which was adequate and which would

finest hour

the

goddess of wisdom starts

For technical

wish, the bird of the

setting.

thought that the output of technical

the

perfection of

terminology of the old school, communism included, appeared to be a

argument against the old school.

only*

scholasticism

the new science of the 17th century: the technical

those*

are

as

in the

A

him, tool new

birth new

meantime

unsubstantial

as

devasclouds which announce a

364

Interpretation

tating

storm, but

at

the same time the long-needed rain which

life to the dried up soil;

(here I

and

appears to you the end of the which

began in 1517

am almost

quoting) do

world, is merely the

I

or so.

end of an

confess, I do

frankly

not

from

question

from the future

such*

as

bring

new what

epoch, of the epoch

not see

how those

first

resist the voice of that siren who expect the answer to the "History,"

will

lose hope;

can

last

and the

who mistake analysis of the

future for philosophy; who believe in a progress toward a itself progressive and therefore undefinable; who are not guided is

present or past or

goal which

by

known

a

able, and

is known

For if

reason,

changes; it is

distinction

which

is

one and unchangeable or on

is

not

arbitrary, between

as*

reliably,

as we were ever

informed

by

forces

it

noble and

has denied the rulership of reason. A German intimate intercourse with the superhuman father

it is not,

those

a servant or slave of the emotions; and

which

stable and not change

merely believed. In other words, the lack of to be due ultimately to the depreciation and the

is changeable, it is dependent

reason

is

a standard which

and not

resistance to nihilism seems contempt of

by

and stable standard:

which

and of science. which cause

be hard to

will

base emotions,

who could

boast

of all nihilism,

its

make a

once one

of a

life-long

has informed

any inspired author, that the

us

origina

tor of all nihilism admitted: "Just despise reason and science, the very highest power of

man, and I have got you

7. I had to and read

condense a number of recollections of what

while

I

was

living

in Germany, into the

marks, because I had to convey

irrational

frequently

the

however,

now,

nihilism.

completely."12

impression

an

reactions

to

it,

rather

reached the point where

I do this

not without

I

of an

I have heard, seen,

foregoing fragmentary irrational

re

movement and of

than a reasoned argument. I have

can venture to submit a

trepidation. Not

because

the

definition

definition

which

going to suggest, does not live up to the requirements of an tion (for I know that sins of that kind are the ones which are

orderly*

am

of

I

defini

more easily because it is in but for the opposite forgiven); any way novel, precisely It will seem to most of you that it is a commonplace and that it nor

reason.13

consists of commonplaces.

this: I expected to

Rauschning's in that book, triviality, if I

a

find

a

well-known gives

me

The only thing which I can say to definition of nihilism as a matter book.

Only

A

necessary triviality. Nihilism is the

nihilist

is then

myself, is

of course

in Mr.

my failure to discover such a definition indulge in what you will consider a

the courage to

shall then say:

such.

justify

a man who

rejection of the principles of civilisation as

knows the

civilisation, if only in is not a nihilist. This is savage, the difference between Ariovistus, the Teutonic chieftain whom Caesar de feated, and Hitler who otherwise have the characteristic qualities of the perfect a superficial way.

A merely

uncivilised

barbarian (arrogance

and

turbed the circles of

Archimedes,

civilisation, and not:

culture.

cruelty) in

principles of

man,

a

common.

was not a

For I have

The Roman

soldier who

nihilist, but just

noticed that

many

a soldier.

I

dis said

nihilists are great

365

German Nihilism lovers

of

(blood

vated

distinguished from,

as

culture,

leaves it

the term culture

hymns,

fairy

thing is

man a

making

and not a

citizen,

A tribal community may

Besides,

civilisation.

is to be

which

slave;

an

mstic; a lover of peace, and not of war; a polite

and not a

a ruffian.

the

and soil or the mind), whereas the term civilisation

once the process of

cities,

to,

and opposed

undetermined what

designates

at

inhabitant

of

being,

it

fact that Western pride, of his

man

lost

1

civilised.14

his former pride,

much of

civilised, is

being

however be

cannot

and not

culture, i.e. produce, and enjoy,

possess a

dances,*

songs, ornament of their clothes, of their weapons and pottery,

tales and what not;

culti

wonder

whether*

a quiet and

becoming

the bottom of the present lack of

not at

the

resis

tance to nihilism.

I

shall

try

be

to

being, i

e. the

By

somewhat more precise.

conscious culture of

humanity, i.e.

conscious*

of

Human

culture of reason.

being

is active,

reason

the

we understand

civilisation,

that which makes a human

a

human all, in

above

two ways: as regulating human conduct, and as attempting to understand whatever can

be

understood

by

man; as

practical

reason, and as theoretical

pillars of civilisation are therefore morals and without morals scientific effort

is

thus

universe and

identical noble

with

degenerates into cynicism,

itself;

cruelty.

man; it is therefore identical modern*

science.

degenerates into

Science is the

By morals,

with

reason.

united.

The

For science

destroys the basis

and thus

and morals without science

become fanatic

apt to

science, and both

of the

superstition and

attempt to understand the

philosophy; it is

we understand

not

necessarily

the rules of decent and

them; those rules are by their although we human being, may allow for the possibility any human beings have an equal natural aptitude for decent and noble

conduct, as

a reasonable man would understand

nature applicable to

that not all

Even the

conduct.

at

most violent sceptic cannot

least excusing, this

what

is implied in

or

such an action of

despising, I

well-known view of morals which

suffice

help from time to time despising,

or

that action and this or that man; a complete analysis of

if I illustrate decent

or even

sketched.

and noble conduct

For

by

excusing,

would

lead to that

our present purpose

the remark that it

it

will

is equally

from

deriving pleasure inability noble conduct has to decent and remark that other Or by the from inflicting remote

to inflict physical or other pain as

from

pain.15

do, not so much with the natural aim of man, as with the means toward that aim: view

that the end sanctifies the means,

is

a

tolerably

complete

expression*

the of

immoralism. I

"art"

deliberately

best-known

excluded

champion of

from the definition

nihilism,

of civilisation.

is famous for his love

of art and

Hitler, is

the

even an

artist himself. But I never heard that he had anything to do with search for truth or with any attempt to instill the seeds of virtue into the souls of his subjects. I "art"

am

confirmed

founding

in this

fathers

prejudice

concerning

of civilisation who

know the term

are, did

not

and the

discipline,

art as

it is in

aesthetics which

by

the observation that the

taught us what science

is

use since about

of

equally

is

and what morals

180 years,

recent origin.

nor

the

This is

term,

not to

366

Interpretation

deny, but

rather to

morals on the one

those relations are

assert, that there

are close

relations

between

science

and

and poetry and the other imitative arts on the other; but

hand,

bound to be misunderstood, to the detriment of both science poetry, if science and morals are not considered the

and morals as well as of pillars of

civilisation.16

The definition I

which

destroy

modern civilisation as

Civilisation is the identical

with

another

1 tentatively defined,

the present civilisation,

definition I intended to

not

I suggested, has

explicit.17

desire to

the

which

must make

implication,

at the

or

advantage,

beginning,

nihilism as

modern civilisation.

By

my

second

make clear that one cannot call the most radical critic of

such, a

nihilist.

conscious culture of reason.

human life

human

or

This

existence.

means that civilisation

There were,

and there

is

are,

many human beings who do not partake of civilisation. Civilisation has a natu ral basis which it finds, which it does not create, on which it is dependent, and on which

as a

it has only

highly

poetic

well

very limited influence. Conquest

in

from

against their enemies

8. I presume, it is

not

dominant in Germany,

nihilism

is the

nature, if not taken

need

of armed

without and against

necessary to

The

force

which

Japan,

less

rejection of

e.g.,

civilised

be

in the

they

must use

the criminals within.

prove that nihilism

cannot

basis

natural

all civilised communities

in the

sense

and that nihilism characterizes at present

than any other country. much

of

a nonsensical expression.

itself for instance in the fact that

as uncivilised ones are

Japan has been

is

overstatement,

of civilisation shows as

a

defined is

Germany

more

Germany, because defined than was Germany. If

as nihilistic as

sense

the principles of civilisation as such, and if civilisa

tion is based on recognition of the fact that the subject of civilisation is man as man, every interpretation of science and morals in terms of races, or of nations, or

of

cultures, is strictly speaking

Nordic

Different one of alist

German

or

or

nihilistic.

Faustic science, e.g.,

Whoever

rejects eo

accepts

the

ipso the idea

idea

of a

of science.

"cultures"

them can

may have produced different types of "science"; but only be true, can be The nihilist implication of the nation science.**

interpretation

of science

in

particular can

be described

somewhat

differ

ently in the following terms. Civilisation is inseparable from learning, from the desire to learn from anyone who can teach us something worthwhile. The na

interpretation of science or philosophy implies that we cannot really learn anything worthwhile from people who do not belong to our nation or our culture. The few Greeks whom we usually have in mind when we speak of the tionalist

Greeks,

were

willingness

distinguished from the

to learn

Greek barbarian are solved would

by,

barbarians, so to speak exclusively by their barbarians; whereas the barbarian, the as the Greek barbarian, believes that all his questions basis of, his ancestral tradition. Naturally, a man who

even

as well

or on the

from

limit himself to asserting that

understanding

non-

one nation

may have

phenomena of a certain type than other

a greater aptitude to

nations, would

not

be

a

367

German Nihilism nihilist: not

the accidental fate

decisive for the definition 9. The

nihilists

begin

nihilists reject

the

with on

tunity

basis

and the

German

nihilists

The

question

arises, in favor

those principles? I shall

to elucidate somewhat more the

Mr.

Rauschning

has

called

but "the

particular reject

This

(xi). This

wasteful and

necessarily

that N.S.

would mean

mean that

it is

passage quoted about the revolution as well.

definition

Nazis,

might

of nihilism.

ism

with

to, is the

nihilistic

conceivably

it is

be*

Rauschning said of the

not

in this

says

Communist

in its consequences, but

so

the "destruction of all traditional spiritual traditional*

by

nihil

standards"

(xn). What I

in the definition

that not all traditional spiritual standards are,

If

in its

not

Rauschning's: he identifies

reminds me of another remark of

use of the term

fruitful

of

in its effect, but it does

one cannot call communism a nihilist movement.

the communist revolution is nihilist,

intention. This

is

in its intention. What

nihilistic

And yet,

to

question

will give me an oppor

sources, material, mental, and moral, accumulated through generations labor"

the

do the

of what

it is not, as it claims to be, "a new order in destructive exploitation of irreplaceable re

means:

making,"

the

intention is

the foreign and domestic policy of the Nazis "the

nihilism."

This

foregoing

in

to answer that

try

book."

Mr. Rauschning's

of

revolution of

essential

of civilisation and therewith of nihilism.

in general,

principles of civilisation as such.

German

morals, but its

of science or

It is

of nihilism.

their nature,

beyond

object

evident

criticism and

is good, and not what we have inherited, to quote Aristotle. In other words, I believe it is dangerous, if the opponents of National Socialism withdraw to a mere conservatism which defines its ultimate goal by a

even rejection: we seek what

specific

tradition*

impressive

an

We

ought not,

The temptation to fall back from

past

and

however,

this that the Western tradition

is

one

in

engaged

is

in

polemics or

had

homogeneous

Voltaire is

To

is

a

a

is very

it may

as

great

indeed.

reason, at least

no other

appear as

long

for as

mention one example out of

representative, is hard to

representative,

Socialism.20

be equally hostile to National

not spoken of spiritual

impressive

apologetics.

the tradition of which Bellarmine

should

as such

temptation, if for

not so

many: the great tradition of which with

is

past

every

cede to that

an unimpressive present on

Besides, I

standards; this savours of the

even

wish, Mr.

view

reconcile

if both traditions

Rauschning

that materialism is

essentially nihilistic; I believe that materialism is an error, but I have only to recall the names of Democritus and Hobbes in order to realize that materialism is not

essentially

idealism is

nihilistic.

at the

Rauschning lack

of

any

Not to

bottom

of

German

fact

that a certain anti-materialism or

nihilism.

operates on somewhat safer ground when

settled aims.

He

(248). He

for the

by

sake of

"aimlessness"

sake"

stresses

have

no program except

their

revolution

"a

then

understands

destruction"

revolution of sheer

own

the

mention

the

action; that

they

replace

German

of the

stresses the

nihilism

destruction,

a

by

(55); he

Nazis'

the "permanent

"revolution for its

Nazis; he

doctrine

doctrine"

revolution without a

he

says that

they

(75); he

calls

tactics

speaks of the

"total

368

Interpretation doctrine"

rejection"

by

the

Nazis "of any

exaggeration.

For

elsewhere

not: a

doctrine

Judaism,

it is beyond

siderations, but in those

Their even

were

doctrine had a

loss to

Yet it has

of cultural

philosophy."

policy, is

being

but

without

can act without

any

having

by

the

Nazis. But

program or

entity; if he defines

he

then

nihilism

would

party be at

merely without a hard to conceive how

not

seems

John Dillinger probably had In other words: Rauschning has not

an aim.

nihilism as a political movement without

doctrine,

(22).21

party

the difference between program and aim. If he

enough

carefully

For it

aims.

program, but he doubtless had an aim.

as

have to

a political

aims, then he defines a non without a program

or

call all opportunists nihilists, which would

movement

be

true.22

too uncharitable to be

As

part of the

to be taken seriously

seem

material con

doctrine"

party, a government, a State

a

understand

any human

defines

only in

a more than provisional and tactical meaning, we still should

doctrine

no

to be an

appears

"One thing National Socialism is (23). Or: "the fight against

says:

a

true, that no single point of the original party

program or

considered

(56). This

question a central element not

policy does

anti-Jewish

if it

Rauschning

or philosophy.

while

sort of

fact, Rauschning does

deny that the Nazis have aims: "a permanent revolution of sheer destruction by means of which a dic (xif). Here, Rauschning tatorship of brute force maintains itself in states the aim of the Nazis: that aim is their power; they do not destroy in order to destroy, but in order to maintain themselves in Now, to keep them a matter of

not always

power"

power.23

in power, they depend, to

selves

Germans, happy,

subjects, the

This means,

mans.

power,

they

a certain

on their

as matters

extent, on their ability to

ability

make their

to satisfy the needs of the Ger

stand, that, in order to maintain themselves in

must embark upon a

policy

of

aggression,

a

policy directed toward

world-dominion.

Rauschning "the German Their

"goal"

aims, their principal scribed

the

corrects

his

remark about the aimlessness of the

by

infinite"

saying (275).

empire"

aims

form

even

a

hierarchy leading

aim, the redistribution of the

by Rauschning,

Germans

Nazis

indefinite to-day only because they are is "the world-wide totalitarian (58). They have aims are

is then

not

only

up to a principal aim: "the

world"

(229). German nihilism,

as

de

the aspiration to world-dominion exercised

dominated in their turn

by

by German elite; that aspiration becomes nihilistic, because it uses any means to achieve its end and thus de stroys everything which makes life worth living for any decent or intelligent who are

a

being. However low

an opinion we may have of the Nazis, I am inclined to believe that they desire German world-dominion not merely as a means for keeping themselves in power, but that they derive, so to speak, a disinterested

pleasure

from the

prospect of that glamorous goal

"Germany

world."

ruling the I should even go one step further and say that the Nazis probably derive a disinterested pleasure from the aspect of those human qualities which enable nations to conquer.

I

am certain

that the

Nazis

consider

any

pilot of a

bomber

or

German Nihilism submarine commander

any

ing

to any

salesman or

more educated than who

do

much

Geister, die

that no mind can

fell

Arbeiter, 20 preference

what

1.)24

The

given

nihilism:

in

does German

admiration

("Was

by

the statement: that

and not

peace, is

der Somme

oder

in

sind."

Junger, Der

a

it

rejects

in favor

those principles

Rauschning

have had in

must

war

considered the

is

considered

more noble

aim, the aim is for

than destruction. There is reason for

other

nothing

das fiir

und wissender sein

mind

nihilism"(21).

speaking War is a destructive business. And if

purposes

in Flan

or

aber sind

the principles of civilisation as such must

nihilism reject

"heroic

of

peace, if war,

an

bedurftig

warrior as

the military virtues. This is what Mr.

when

Somme

need."

wir

those

more profound and more

wissen, dass kein Geist tiefer

of the

and much

of minds are

type, the unconditional to the warrior as warrior, is however not only genuine in it is even its distinctive feature. Our question: in favor of

therefore be answered of

to any travel

intelligent

anywhere at the

Flandem fiel? Dies ist der Massstab, dessen

German

be

der jedes beliebigen Soldaten, der irgendwo

als

dignity

"What kind

stated:

standard of which we are

noch nicht einmal

in human

nihilist much more

than that of any soldier who

ders? This is the kann

German

Hitler himself has

know this

not even

knowing

a

superior

to the representative of any other relatively

physician or

For,

peaceful occupation.

absolutely

369

than

all practical

believing

that the

destroying, killing, torturing is a source of an almost disin terested pleasure to the Nazis as such, that they derive a genuine pleasure from business

and

and

of

the aspect of the strong and ruthless who subjugate, exploit, and torture the helpless.25

weak and

10. German

favor

of war and

conquest, in favor

therefore akin to German militarism

then the principles of civilisation as such in

rejects

nihilism

is. Militarism

can

To believe that

peace

eternal peace

plain commonsense;

it is

But to believe that

eternal

at

the warlike

This

any

is

is a

virtues.

German

nihilism

is

compels us to raise the question what

be identified

Moltke in these terms: "Eternal one."26

of

militarism.

by

the older

and not even a

beautiful

as the view expressed

dream, dream, is not a

militarism,

but

perhaps

bound up with a particular moral taste. is not a beautiful dream, is tantamount to

rate not

peace

is something desirable in itself; and to believe that war is desirable in itself, betrays a cruel, inhuman disposition. The view something good in that war is itself, implies the rejection of the distinction between just and unjust wars, between wars of defence and wars of aggression. It is ulti

believing

that war

nations. mately irreconcilable with the very idea of a law of but it is German akin to is nihilism militarism, 11. German with

it. Militarism

war with

Kultur;

always made at

nihilism

finished. Militarism

always

or almost equal

dignity,

rules of

decency

be

attempt*

is based

recognized

dignity,

cannot

least the

however*

on

the

to

reconcile

assumption

identical*

the ideal

that Kultur

of

is

that the virtues of peace are of equal

with the virtues of war.

applied

not

When

denying

that the

to foreign policy, it never denied the validity

370

Interpretation

rules as regards home policy or private life. It never asserted that is essentially national; it merely asserted that the Germans happen to be the teachers of the lesser breeds. German nihilism on the other hand asserts that of those science

in

ability to bear any physical is the only virtue left (see Jiinger's essay on Indian, Steine). The only virtue left: the implication is that we live

the military virtues, and

particular courage as the

pain, the virtue of the red pain

in

in Blatter

und

decline, of the decline of the West, in an age of civilisation as distinguished from, and opposed to culture; or in an age of mechanic society as distinguished from, and opposed to, organic community. In that condition of debasement, only the most elementary virtue, the first virtue, that virtue with which man and human society stands and falls, is capable to grow. Or, to ex an age of

press the same view somewhat possible

only remedy and to return potential*

stage of

to the

and not

else.

nothing

tion the romantic

in it

judgment

order of

civilisation,

is

corruption, the

"das

about

of the state

System"

condition of

of nature, is

form

then a radicalized

is due to the fact that

radicalization

the whole modem

during

of

cour

German

the last genera

development,

and therefore

the present, has become much more generally accepted than

is

which

human things

12. However

age of utter

incorruptible origin, to the

nihilism

Germany.*11

in 19th century

ever was even

stand a

culture or

German

judgment

particular about

an

the edifice of corruption

culture or civilisation: the characteristic virtue of that

actual,

militarism, and that

differently: in

destroy

uncorrupted and

potential*

merely

age and

is to

by during some

existed

By

romantic

under

period of the recorded past.

difference between German

great the

judgment, I

the opinion that an absolutely superior

guided

militarism and

German

may be: the kinship of the two aspirations is obvious. German militar ism is the father of German nihilism. A thorough understanding of German nihilism

understanding of German militar for militarism? A few, ex

nihilism would therefore require a thorough

ism.

Why has Germany

tremely sketchy To

are*

wiser

history and

of

Slavonic

sufficient

the ideal of

prehistory*

civilisation

during

to refer to the

fact that

modern civilisation

revision of

that

civilisation

is

ideal,

of

that

and

ideal is, is,

greatly mistaken,

one can

root of

Germany

from 1760

is

still younger than

to be as militaristic

German militarism, it might be and to look at the

reached the

hey-day

her letters

of

to that

to

ideal,

French origin; it is

of

nations

not appear

1830; i.e. after the elaboration of had been finished almost completely, and while a

or a reaction

English

do

German civilisation,

of

itself.

the period

Slavonic

nations

Germans. To discover the

German

of

civilisation of the

and the

disregard the

her thought

meaning

For the

Germans,

the

to

not

is considerably younger than the civilisation of the Western Germany is therefore perceivably nearer to barbarism than are the

countries.

that of the as

suffice.

civilisation

nations, that

Western

here

remarks must

German militarism, it is

explain

German

such a particular aptitude

course,

define

the

a

highly

took place. The not of

German

ideal

controversial question.

tendency

of the

of modern

origin.

What the

If I

am not

intellectual development

German Nihilism which as

it

lower the

moral

in the French Revolution, in the

were exploded

standards, the

following

371

terms: to

claims, which previously had been made

moral

by

teachers, but to take better care than those earlier teachers had done, for the putting into practice, into political and legal practice, of the rules of all responsible

human

The way in

conduct.

identification

of

morality lightened self-interest, or the

and no

(The two

and trade.

justice,

Against that debasement

truly

Germany. It

sisted on the

Opposing

it

the*

one

field

so

bad

is,

or

the cases of

in

However

by

had been meprise

effected

the

good and

forget the

and self-interest

lasting

of

self-interest, between the and

they

natural aim of man which

is

country, is

of

and

in the

most visible

case of

pays

to be

just, temperate,

urbane,

courage, i.e. death on the

of

never rewarded:

it is

the

flower

unutilitarian virtue.

In

of

self-

defending

philosophers

were

military virtue, and in very important cases,

Nietzsche, they

succumbed to that temptation.

ways, German philosophy created a peculiarly Ger

for

commonsense and

the aims of human

life,

as

they

the difference between German philosophy and the philoso

may be: German philosophy ultimately

countries

synthesis

synthesis

of

did

by

a

her

saying

not work:

of

in the 2nd half

natural child of

philosophers of

her philosophers,

influence

conceived

the pre-modem ideal and the ideal of the modem

Western positivism, the

Locke, is

self-denial;*

commonsense.

educated

by

of a

honour

the consummation of the actions of every

virtue:

dignity

work; she saw no way

from

were apt to

duty

one's

various other

by deep

as a

That

overrun

justice.)

decline

of the

may be, rewarded; it actually

the Western

period.

not

they

Fichte, Hegel,

are visualized

phy of itself

generosite,

utility as well as commonsense (Verstdndigkeit) be in German philosophy. Now, the difference between the

man tradition of contempt

of

identification

Courage is the only unambiguously

and

means of

and

names

tempted to overstress the

In this

up, to the

morality, i.e. non-mercenary morality, the German

menaced

in

Germany

stood

self-sacrifice*

much, that

honour, death for

of

sacrifice.28

by

Descartes, his

and against the concomitant

etc.; the consummation of the actions

munificent

the solu

or

there is no property, there is no

between the morally they insisted on

virtue, courage, military

other virtue

interest

morally good with the object however enlightened, the German philosophers in

the useful, between

noble and

and private

philosophers:

utile;

is happiness; happiness came almost

the

self-interest

difference*

and

on

morality,

to the best policy;

however precisely this reaction to the spirit of the 17th and 18th laid the foundation for German militarism as far as it is an intellec

of enlightened

insisted

where

spirit, the thought of

tual phenomenon.

honestum

of

interest

famous

most

one's rights, or with en

claiming

honesty

was

which

century

common

duties; Locke:

no

philosophic

reduction of

between

tion of the conflict

industry

this was most effectually achieved, was the

which

with an attitude of

in

Schelling's);

contempt of

the 19th century,

ideal

it

was

Germany

Western philosophy (Je

she now observed

of the pre-modem out except

of

the enlightenment.

that the synthesis

and the modem

ideal did

to purify German thought completely

the ideas of modem civilisation, and to return to the

pre-

372

Interpretation

modem

ideal. National Socialism is the

philosophy.

On

all

all

influence

and

indeed

Germany,

on post-war

Nazi*

revolution.

It may

one

be

not

Evil,

revolution

That is to

German revolution,

and

is

say:

is very

was

Hobbes, Hume

17th

and

18th century,

amiss to

Locke

and

cept of

It

and stood out.

Locke. In the fight

for

more

Schopenhauer

to the

for the

relation of

Nietzsche, but

attack on

and

Rousseau to the

is

one

not

Schelling

is

absolutely

from Beyond

no philosophic

debasement

interpretation

stood

of nature

Goethe

"That

were

[Newton],

what one calls

against which

of

and

ideas,

the German spirit stood up with profound

English origin, there

have merely been the imitators

up

unanimous

the ideas of the 18th century, or even the French

it is

con

to say Je meprise

that

disgust

race,

very

Hume, Kant

entitled*

was

of the

the modem

ideas, or ideal, in a word,

of the

the philosophic spirit as such.

than a century. Against

mechanist

Nietzsche

relation of

Nietzsche in the light

to our subject: "That

of whom

and

to

degradation

English

against

Nietzsche. The

quote one or the other passage

are a

Locke,

was

of all philosophers, none exercised

by interpreting

unjust

which are related

"philosopher"

and

of the

none was more responsible

comparable

these Englishmen. Bacon represents an

Hegel

by

ideal,

real pre-modem

idealists, i.e. interpreted

the German

philosophy

German nihilism, than

to the German

Good

against the

was a

pre-socratic

distorted.29

emergence of

unjust.

interpreted*

German philosophers,

a greater

French

the pre-modem ideal was not a

as

intention

with a polemic

and therefore

levels,

ideal

a pre-modem

Of

the most vulgar,

ideal. On its highest level, it

to what may be called the pre-literary stage of philosophy,

return

but

famous, because

most

example of such a return to a pre-modem

can

be

actors

no

doubt

about that.

The French

ideas, besides

of those

soldiers, and also, unfortunately, their first and most complete

their

best

victims."

(aph.

252 f.) I believe that Nietzsche is substantially correct in asserting that the* German tradition is very critical of the ideals of modem civilisation, and those ideals are of English origin. He forgets however to add that the English almost always

baby

had the very

un-German prudence and moderation not to throw out the

bath, i.e.

with the

reasonable adaptation of

and of that

liberty

which

the prudence to conceive of the modem

the old and eternal ideal of

is

not

license,

decency,

ideals

as a

law,

of rule of

to changed circumstances. This

taking

things easy, this muddling

through, this crossing the bridge when one comes to it, may have done some harm to the radicalism of English thought; but it proved to be a blessing to English life; the English never indulged in those radical

ever

breaks

with

may be wrong

originated

English poison.

it,

traditions which played such a role on the continent. What with

were at

always

store a

While the English

Cambridge.30

peculiarly

modem

the same time versed

kept in

the classical ideal of and

the

ideal:

in the

substantial amount of the

originated the modem

humanity,

the very

classical

was no where

ideal

better

Englishmen tradition,

necessary

the

counter-

the pre-modem

preserved than

who

and

ideal,

in Oxford

373

German Nihilism [Editors'

following

note:

war, it are the

of this

this, the

English,

empire"

has been

"

A

crossed out.

Germans,

"

+

the bottom of the page,

paragraph at

"Whatever may be the

sentence

and not the

it

indicating

in the text.] Anglo-German war is then

it

above

sign

an

to a handwritten

refers

be inserted

should

outcome

deserve to have

who

as a re

placement at this point

The

ing

present

modem civilisation against

German nihilism, the English No

eternal principles of civilisation.

this war. But this much

leader in the

tary

to be

claim

be,

this point the handwritten

Germans

very long time to jectis et debellare

insertion ends,

ceased to

[Editors'

in

understood that one

have any rightful and not the Ger note: at

nation:

and the typescript

continues] for only deserve*

order to

have learned for

must

to crush the arrogant:

spare the vanquished and

the

outcome of

choosing Hitler for their of who is to exercise mili

imperial

imperio populos,

regere

defending

are

be the

it is the English,

and to remain, an

Germans, have

and not the

imperial rule,

exercise

the

than a provincial nation;

more

English,

day,

In defend

by

the question

which

order of the

mans, who deserve to

the

one can tell what will

beyond any doubt:

clear

moment, in

crucial

became the

rule

is

of symbolic significance.

parcere

to a

sub-

superbos.*'

NOTES

1. The typescript indicates the

reads

order should

2. The typescript

"and to describe,

be

reads

"I

basis

desire

could not call that

"desire"

"morbid"

on the

of that

definition":

handwritten

a

sign

reversed.

and the word

it have been

following

"a"

morbid,"

The

added

by

words

before the

word

hand.

society,"

see Henri Bergson, Les deux 3. For the distinction between "closed society and open sources de la morale et de la religion, chaps. 1 and 4. The Two Sources of Morality and Religion

(Notre Dame, IN: University 4. Preceding "Moral

life"

of

is

Notre Dame Press, 1977). a sentence

beginning

with a

few illegible handwritten

words and

continuing in typewriting with "the typical representation of the open society is believed to be Both the handwritten words and the typewritten sentence have been crossed out. Hollywood."

The

"

the

words

Comma 5. The

after words

", it is

inserted

by

"

have been inserted

hand.

by

hand. hand.

asserted,"

have been inserted

by

"faced"

"recognized,"

Above the

flag

and the oath to the

flag

"existence"

has been

the word

word

added

by hand,

possibly

as

an

alternative. to"

spade."

The inserted

by hand, while the last two added by hand to replace

"e.g."

At the added

The

typescript reads "generations who called a spade a

by

end of the

sentence, the

letters

"called"

of

"i.e.,"

have been

has been

which

words

crossed out. Strafmass"

words

"or

by

calling

capital punishment

the typescript includes "[.

state"

not

have been

crossed out.

have been

hand.

6. After "insofar

does

"used

have

a

as

the

sovereign

superior, [. "is,"

"offers'

replaces

which

which

has been

has been

.

.],

the

perfect

society

crossed out.

"the only important contemporary

example,"

"the best ple,"

which

modern

has been

added

which

crossed out.

by hand,

replaces

exam

crossed out. morality"

In the typescript, "endangered

is followed

by

the sentence

"If there

should

be

a cynic

374

Interpretation love."

in

midst, he probably would call that love of morality an unhappy or

our

has been bracketed

and crossed out

by

which

unrequited

hand. "I"

The typescript "the"

has been

Commas

"passion,"

"conviction,"

McNally

out, while the

crossed

pigs"

after

"city

and

Republic, 372c-d; Co., 1964), pp. 93-96.

and

has been

in

hand.

by

capitalized

For Glaukon's protest, Rand

"But"

"But the historians [.

reads

see

inserted

of

by

hand.

Leo Strauss, The

see also

City and

Man (Chicago:

turned,"

In the typescript, "It has been

is

was the same

by

preceded

"The

which

same passion

crossed out.

Comma

"less intelligent

after

form"

inserted

hand.

by

Grossstadt"

Quotation

have been

marks

added

hand

by

"the

around

subhuman

.

.

and

.

"cultural

(Kulturbolschevismus)."

bolshevism

all"

The

"as is

passage

has been

added

shown

hand

by

at

Rousseau, if

the examples of Plato and

by

the bottom of the typescript,

with a sign

examples are needed at

it

indicating

be inserted

should

at this point. "was"

by

added

"a

hand to

"is,"

was added

Parentheses

around

"One

.

.

.

has been

has been

crossed out. sound,"

hand to

by

facts"

"sound"

In the typescript,

which

replace

demand"

sound

"basically have been added by hand. crossed out and

replaced,

has been

which

replace

by hand, by

crossed out.

"not entirely

un

sound."

Page 5

largely

of the typescript carries the title

crossed out.

bly

Presumably,

added the

first four "4,"

paragraph marked

lecture

at

Nihilism,"

"German

followed

by

two paragraphs which

the first two paragraphs above. Both the title and the two paragraphs have been

repeat

this

point.

this

is

pages

where a

later

first draft

the typescript began. Professor Strauss proba

of

on: after the two

deleted paragraphs, the text

continues with a

beginning

and continue the

suggesting that he intended to

With

a view to

the original

skip

completeness, the editors have included the two

paragraphs

below: German Nihilism

1. (crossed out) What is nihilism? And how far can nihilism be said to be a specifically German not indeed to answer these questions, but to elaborate them a little. For I shall try

phenomenon?

the phenomenon with which I have to

deal, is

much too complex

tion within the short time at my disposal. I cannot the

advance

discussion

speakers who will, no

do

more than

doubt, help

to

descrip

permit of an adequate

to

scratch

the surface.

I

thank

in

me and the passive part of the audience

clarity about a phenomenon which is so important to all of us. 2. (crossed out) When we hear at the present time the expression "German naturally think at once of National Socialism. It must however be understood from the

toward greater

nihilism,

most of us outset that

its lowest, most provincial, most unintel National Socialism is only one form of German nihilism ligent and most dishonourable form. It is probably its very lowness which accounts for its great, if appalling, successes. These successes may be followed by failures and ultimately by complete defeat. Yet the defeat For that crossed

7.

nihilism

will not

necessarily

roots than the preachings of

German

nihilism. ("First"

the

"4."

added added

by

hand to

by

replace the word

"feelings,"

which

"backward,"

with

"interesting,"

the word

the

"alluring"

latter

has been

added

State,"

"spiritual"

"Wir

crossed out.

Under

part crossed out.

"the withering away of the has been inserted has been added by hand to replace "material"

has been

hand.

8. The typescript has Above

sind.

mean the end of

Hitter, Germany's defeat in

out) World War and all that. inserted by hand.

"emotions"

lining

National Socialism

of

has deeper

by

by hand,

"material,"

has been

added

by

hand to

as an alternative.

which

has been

crossed out.

which

has been

crossed out.

"spiritual,"

replace

possibly

hand.

im Experiment; wir treiben Dinge, die durch keine Erfahrung begriindet Urenkel von Gottlosen, denen selbst der Zweifel verdachtig geworden ist,

aber stehen mitten

Sonne, Enkel

und

durch Landschaften, die das Leben mit hoheren und tieferen Temperaturen bedErnst Jiinger, Der Arbeiter; Herrschaft und Gestalt (Hamburg: Hanseatische Verlaganstalt,

marschieren wir

rohen."

375

German Nihilism

1932), pp. 193-94; Werke: Essays II (Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag, 1963), Bd. 6, p. 214). ["We, however, stand in the middle of the experiment; we are attempting things that have no foundation in experience. Sons, grandsons and great-grandsons of godless men, to whom even doubt has become suspect, we

life

through landscapes that threaten

march

higher

with

and

temperatures"

lower

(our

translation).] "latest,"

Above

Comma "the"

"last"

language"

"clear

after

by hand,

has been

which

have been inserted

words

as an alternative.

possibly

"its"

added to replace

"-anarchist-pacifist"

The

added

hand.

by

added

"potentialities"

before

has been

the word

crossed out.

hand.

by

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editors, as the word is difficult to read.

Carl Mayer, "On the Intellectual Origin

of

National

Socialism,"

Social Research 9

(May

1942):

225-47. "Schmitt"

1 1. Illegible

following

word

The typescript have

changed the

reads

spelling

replaces

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words

"be,"

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"consist

has been

above the

Professor Strauss

of which the

decantata,

of pueris

line.

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uses

further on, the

"principles"

typescript reads

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sentence

last letter has been

of

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added and underlined

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by hand,

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spreads

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only

University Press, 1975], Flanders"

(a

speech

is

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by

hand

crossed out. dusk."

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editors

crossed out.

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to replace the

as

throughout.

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but

hand

by

added

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falling

of the

(Hegel, Philosophy of

13.) insertion.

delivered first by Winston S. Churchill to the House

broadcast, June 18, 1940), in Into Battle (London: Cassell

and

Company, 1943),

of Commons and pp.

225-34.

376

Interpretation

Professor Strauss is referring to Oswald Spengler. See Der Untergang des Abendlandes: UmMorphologie der Weltgeschichte (Miinchen: Oskar Beck, 1923). Bd. 1, p. 49 |Einleitung,

risse einer

13]; The Decline of the West (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1939), p. 36 [Introduction, sec. 13]. At Cannae, located in Apulia, the Romans suffered a crushing defeat in the Second Punic War against Hannibal (216 B.C.). "6."

12.

inserted

"History"

added "who"

by hand. by hand to

after "H"

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in

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indicating which

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sentence

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inserted

world replace

by

capitalized

be inserted

added

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indicating

by

the editors

sign

for

at the

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bottom

of the

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by hand,

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to replace

it

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.]

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hand.

by

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.

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crossed out.

replace

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+

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man,"

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by

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crossed out.

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at

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which "which,"

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has been

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by

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be inserted

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added

at this point

by

hand

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at

in the text. Parentheses have been inserted

reasons of clarity.

14. See

Caesar, The Gallic Wars, I, 30-54. Livy, The History of Rome, XXV, xxxi, 5-11. Commas preceding and following the words "and 15. The typescript reads "[man]'s place in the

enjoy"

have been

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hand.

by

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has been

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in favor

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man."

universe and time"

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after

is

man"

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typescript,

other"

is

inserted

or that

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insertion.

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bear,

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insertion.

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hand.

by "to

by

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which

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out.

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"8."

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after

inserted

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by

by

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hand.

by

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hand to

replace Germany"

reading "Japan

.

has been

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indicating where it should added by hand to replace

with a sign "or"

inserted

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after

17. Comma

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by

at the

bottom

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before both "of

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science"

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indicating by hand to

it

the page, with a sign

inserted

where

.

.

has been

.

should

added

by

hand

at the

bottom

of

be inserted in the text.

"7."

replace

Hermann Rauschning, The Revolution of Nihilism: and Co., 1939).

Warning

West (New York: Longmans,

to the

Green

20. "and

rejection"

has been inserted

even

Aristotle, Politics, II, "

and

past

every

"Bellarmine"

21. Comma

is

by

hand.

vii, 1269a. as such

has been

impressive

by

added

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has been inserted

by

hand.

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replace

which

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crossed out.

"Judaism"

after

22. The typescript

added

reads

"had

by

in conformity with the text of Rauschning. handwritten sign indicates that the order should be

the editors

probably": a

reversed.

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reads

"had doubtless":

a

handwritten

sign

indicates

that the order should be

reversed.

John Dillinger "a

(1902-34)

was a

famous American bank

robber

in the twenties

and

thirties.

without"

political movement

have been

crossed out.

has been

added

by

hand to

replace the words

"lack

of,"

which

German Nihilism "non-entity"

"a

has been

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hand to

by

added

replace

without"

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political movement

added

has been

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hand to

by

crossed out.

of,"

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replace

377

has been

which

crossed out. have"

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23.

has been

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24.

by

added after

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by

replace

which

the editors

for

has been

crossed out.

reasons of clarity.

"destroy."

hand

has been

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by

added

after

by

added

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typewriter to replace

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which

crossed out.

"salesman"

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foreign

with "with the possible exception of their

continues after

minister,"

has been

which

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"Das"

after

is

crossed out.

inserted

"Dies"

instead

by

26. "Der

p.

201;

221).

p.

"destruction,"

25. The typescript has corrected

in the German text (see Ernst Jiinger, Der Arbeiter, 1932,

of

Werke, Bd. 6, 1963,

hand.

by

insertion.

a typewritten

after

"the business

of with the

latter

part crossed out and

hand. Friede ist

ewige

Gottes Weltordnung. In ihm

Traum,

ein

entfalten

und nicht einmal ein

die

sich

und

schoner,

der

Krieg

Glied in

ein

und En-

Tugenden des Menschen, Muth

edelsten

tsagung, Pflichttreue und Opferwilligkeit mit Einsetzung des Lebens. Ohne den Krieg wiirde die Welt im Materialismus ("Permanent peace is a dream, and not even a beautiful one, versumpfen."

is

and war

a

law

God's

of

order

in the world,

by

which the noblest virtues of

man, courage and

self-

death, are developed. Without war the world would deteriorate into materialism.") Letter to Dr. J. K. Bluntschli, 11 December 1880, in FieldMarshal Count Helmuth von Moltke as a Correspondent, trans. Mary Herms (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1893), p. 272. German text: Helmuth von Moltke, Gesammelte Schriften und Denkwiirdigkeiten (Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler und Sohn, 1892), Bd. 5, p. 194. denial, loyality

self-sacrifice, even to the point of

and

"recognized,"

"made"

27.

replaces the word Schmerz,"

"Uber den

154-213, in

particular p.

particular p.

197).

""

""

das System

28. Comma "militarism,"

history

Semi-colon In the

lapidary

of

typescript

there

More's

hand.

by

militarism"

inserted

"

root of

is

hand.

by

a typewritten

insertion, replacing

the word

crossed out.

by

hand.

inserted

only the

is

pp.

151-98, in

pp.

policy"

the sentence,

famous,"

most

also

"best

hand.

by

parenthesis at the end of

however,

suggests that

"The two

most

famous

.

is

.

printed.

Professor Strauss intended this to be

The

an aside

have added the opening parenthesis. Above the words "The two referring to a handwritten note at the bottom of the page, reading "Cf. Utopia =t Plato's austere

For this reason, the

remark.

German

has been inserted

after

style of

explain

has been

which

crossed out.

Steine (Hamburg: Hanseatische Verlaganstalt, 1934),

has been inserted

in "To discover the

"civilisation,"

"the

und

213 (Werke: Essays I [Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag, 1960],

"To

after

has been

which

in Blatter

editors

a sign

"hedonistic"

Republic."

Germany"

In the typescript, "honour of "But the way in which this

entirely:

is followed

by

a sentence which

reaction was effected, was

has been

too much determined

by

crossed out

the polemic

attitude against the

has been inserted

hand.

enlightened"

"the

object of

(Verstandigkeii)"

"as

well as commonsense

by

has been inserted

by

hand.

philosop

In the

referring

History

margin of

the typscript, next to the sentence

to a handwritten note at the

of

Greece,

Grote's History Before

vol.

8, Everyman, "fine"

the word

"modern"

has been

p.

342,

of the page, 1."

n.

The

reading "An amusing

is

a sign

in Grote's

editors were unable to trace the reference to

has been

"civilisation"

before

crossed out. "Western,"

has been

added

by

typewriter to replace

crossed out.

Before

there example

of Greece.

"flower,"

29.

bottom

"Opposing

"real,"

"return"

the word "i.e."

"interpreted"

after

has been

has been inserted

crossed out

by

in the typescript.

typewriter.

which

378

Interpretation

The been

words

"It may [.

distorted"

from" .

.]

have been

added

by hand. by hand

his,"

have been inserted

to replace "In

which

has

crossed out.

The

been

"and therefore

words

30. The

"which [.

words

read,"

subject"

.

have been inserted

.]

by hand,

to replace "we

which

has

crossed out.

Brackets "in

"Newton"

around

have been

added

by

hand. "therefore,"

word"

has been

a

Commas have been "stood

added

by hand,

added

by

has been inserted

Nietzsche, Above the

word

which

has been

crossed

out.

the editors.

up"

Beyond Good

to replace

by

and

hand to

"arose,"

replace

which

has been

crossed out.

Evil, 252-53.

"radicalism,"

the word

"profoundness"

has been

added

by hand,

possibly

as an

alternative. "-"

has been inserted

In the typescript, 31. Following

"the"

by hand, before

"doubt:"

be

an

"populos"

a comma.

is followed

the sentence "it are the

by

"ideal

English,

of,"

which

and not the

has been

Germans,

crossed out.

who

deserve to

nation"

imperial

The

to replace

"classical"

has been

has been inserted

words

beneath the text

"to

spare

crossed out.

by

with a sign.

";

not

the way of

empire."

road

to

.

arrogant"

See Virgil, Aeneid, VI, 853. After

ten words have been crossed out:

Augustus is the

hand. See Virgil, Aeneid, VI, 85 1

the vanquished and to crush the

have been

"superbos"

Ariovistus, but only

the

added

following

by

hand

handwrit

the way of Caesar and

Corrections to Leo Strauss, "German Nihilism": Published in

Interpretation,

vol.

26

no. 3

(Spring 1999),

353-78.

pp.

The transcription the typescript

of

Leo Strauss's handwritten insertions in

"German

Meier, Munich. The

and additions

Nihilism"

was checked against the original

in Interpretation

text published

should

be

by

to

Wiebke

corrected as

fol

lows:

Page 355, line 2 from bottom: National

socialism should read

National So

cialism

Page 356, line 4: [The

word

led is

motive

underlined

led to

nihilism, should read motive

led

to nihilism.

twice.]

Page 356, line 5: young atheist should read young atheists Page 356, line 23: German nihilism is related should read German

is

militarism

related

Page 356, line 5 from bottom: the break in the tradition

the

break

rejection of modern civilisation

to the

should read

with the tradition

Page 356, line 4 from bottom: from the rejection of

the

the

principle of civilisation as such should read

principles of modern civilisation

from the

rejection of

to the rejection of the principles of civilisa

tion as such

Page 359, line 17: it

was not a sound

demand

it has

should read

not a sound

element

Page 360, line 3 from bottom: argument, ment,

or more

precisely

should read argu

more

precisely Page 360, line 2 from bottom: about the probable future the future [probable crossed out by Leo Strauss]

Page 360, line 1 from bottom: should read of

of the past,

the past and, above all, of the

Page 361, line 2:

emphasized

before that

and above

should read about

all, of the

present.

present. should read emphasized

the

fact

that

Page 362, line 6: the Page 362, line 12:

der Philosoph

und

attention

should read

it

should read

the attention which it

Baumler [Alfred Baeumler,

author of

Nietzsche,

Politiker, Leipzig 1931]

Page 364, line 14: a servant or slave should read a servant and slave Page 364, line 15: distinction which should read distinction, which Page 364, line 28:

which are more

Page 373, lines 10-11: in

interpretation, Fall

which

easily

the

2000, Vol. 28, No. 1

should read which are most

question of who

is to

exercise

easily

military

34

Interpretation

rule

became the

order of the

day

should read

in

which the question of who

is

to exercise planetary rule became the order of the day.

Page 373, wrote:

note

4:

a

few illegible handwritten

words

should

read

Strauss

Cabaret des Westens, Ullstein

Page 375,

note

11: Illegible

to

page

362, line 12].

correction

word should read

Strauss

wrote:

Baumler [see