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LANGE’S HANDBOOK OF CHEMISTRY James G. Speight, Ph.D. CD&W Inc., Laramie, Wyoming

Sixteenth Edition

MCGRAW-HILL New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 84-643191 ISSN 0748-4585

Copyright © 2005, 1999, 1992, 1985, 1979, 1973, 1967, 1961, 1956 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Copyright renewed 1972 by Norbert Adolph Lange. Copyright 1952, 1949, 1946, 1944, 1941, 1939, 1937, 1934 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

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ISBN 0-07-143220-5

The sponsoring editor for this book was Kenneth P. McCombs and the production supervisor was Sherri Souffrance. It was set in Times Roman by International Typesetting and Composition. The art director for the cover was Anthony Landi. Printed and bound by RR Donnelley.

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Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.

ABOUT THE EDITOR James G. Speight, Ph.D., has more than 35 years’ experience in fields related to the properties and processing of conventional and synthetic fuels. He has participated in, and led, significant research in defining the uses of chemistry with heavy oil and coal. The author of well over 400 professional papers, reports, and presentations detailing his research activities, he has taught more than 50 related courses. Dr. Speight is the author, editor, or compiler of a total of 25 books and bibliographies related to fossil fuel processing and environmental issues. He lives in Laramie, Wyoming.

PREFACE TO THE SIXTEENTH EDITION

This Sixteenth Edition of Lange’s Handbook of Chemistry takes on a new format under a new editor. Nevertheless, the Handbook remains the one-volume source of factual information for chemists and chemical engineers, both professionals and students. The aim of the Handbook remains to provide sufficient data to satisfy the general needs of the user without recourse to other reference sources. The many tables of numerical data that have been compiled, as well as additional tables, will provide the user with a valuable time-saver. The new format involves division of the Handbook into four major sections, instead of the 11 sections that were part of previous editions. Section 1, Inorganic Chemistry, contains a group of tables relating to the physical properties of the elements (including recently discovered elements) and several thousand compounds. Likewise, Section 2, Organic Chemistry, contains a group of tables relating to the physical properties of the elements and several thousand compounds. Following these two sections, Section 3, Spectroscopy, presents the user with the fundamentals of the various spectroscopic techniques. This section also contains tables that are relevant to the spectroscopic properties of elements, inorganic compounds, and organic compounds. Section 4, General Information and Conversion Tables, contains all of the general information and conversion tables that were previously found in different sections of the Handbook. In Sections 1 and 2, the data for each compound include (where available) name, structural formula, formula weight, density, refractive index, melting point, boiling point, flash point, dielectric constant, dipole moment, solubility (if known) in water and relevant organic solvents, thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity. The presentation of alternative names, as well as trivial names of long-standing use, has been retained. Section 2 also contains expanded information relating to the names and properties of condensed polynuclear aromatic compounds. Enthalpies and Gibbs Energies of Formation, Entropies, and Heat Capacities of Organic and Inorganic Compounds, and Heats of Melting, Vaporization, and Sublimation and Specific Heat at Various Temperatures, are also presented in Sections 1 and 2 for organic and inorganic compounds, as well as information on the critical properties (critical temperature, critical pressure, and critical volume). As in the previous edition, Section 3, Spectroscopy, retains subsections on infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and X-ray spectrometry. The section on Practical Laboratory Information (now Section 4), has been retained as it offers valuable information and procedures for laboratory methods. As stated in the prefaces of earlier editions, every effort has been made to select the most useful and reliable information and to record it with accuracy. It is hoped that users of this Handbook will continue to offer suggestions of material that might be included in, or even excluded from, future editions and call attention to errors. These communications should be directed to the editor through the publisher, McGraw-Hill. JAMES G. SPEIGHT, PH.D. Laramie, Wyoming

vii

PREFACE TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION

This new edition, the fifth under the aegis of the present editor, remains the one-volume source of factual information for chemists, both professionals and students––the first place in which to “look it up” on the spot. The aim is to provide sufficient data to satisfy all one’s general needs without recourse to other reference sources. A user will find this volume of value as a time-saver because of the many tables of numerical data that have been especially compiled. Descriptive properties for a basic group of approximately 4300 organic compounds are compiled in Section 1, an increase of 300 entries. All entries are listed alphabetically according to the senior prefix of the name. The data for each organic compound include (where available) name, structural formula, formula weight, Beilstein reference (or if un- available, the entry to the Merck Index, 12th ed.), density, refractive index, melting point, boiling point, flash point, and solubility (citing numerical values if known) in water and various common organic solvents. Structural formulas either too complex or too ambiguous to be rendered as line formulas are grouped at the bottom of each facing double page on which the entries appear. Alternative names, as well as trivial names of long-standing usage, are listed in their respective alphabetical order at the bottom of each double page in the regular alphabetical sequence. Another feature that assists the user in locating a desired entry is the empirical formula index. Section 2 on General Information, Conversion Tables, and Mathematics has had the table on general conversion factors thoroughly reworked. Similarly the material on Statistics in Chemical Analysis has had its contents more than doubled. Descriptive properties for a basic group of inorganic compounds are compiled in Section 3, which has undergone a small increase in the number of entries. Many entries under the column “Solubility” supply the reader with precise quantities dissolved in a stated solvent and at a given temperature. Several portions of Section 4, Properties of Atoms, Radicals, and Bonds, have been significantly enlarged. For example, the entries under “Ionization Energy of Molecular and Radical Species” now number 740 and have an additional column with the enthalpy of formation of the ions. Likewise, the table on “Electron Affinities of the Elements, Molecules, and Radicals” now contains about 225 entries. The Table of Nuclides has material on additional radionuclides, their radiations, and the neutron capture cross sections. Revised material for Section 5 includes the material on surface tension, viscosity, dielectric constant, and dipole moment for organic compounds. In order to include more data at several temperatures, the material has been divided into two separate tables. Material on surface tension and viscosity constitute the first table with 715 entries; included is the temperature range of the liquid phase. Material on dielectric constant and dipole moment constitute another table of 1220 entries. The additional data at two or more temperatures permit interpolation for intermediate temperatures and also permit limited extrapolation of the data. The Properties of Combustible Mixtures in Air has been revised and expanded to include over 450 compounds. Flash points are to be found in Section 1. Completely revised are the tables on Thermal Conductivity for gases, liquids, and solids. Van der Waals’ constants for gases have been brought up to date and expanded to over 500 substances. Section 6, which includes Enthalpies and Gibbs Energies of Formation, Entropies, and Heat Capacities of Organic and Inorganic Compounds, and Heats of Melting, Vaporization, and Sublimation and Specific Heat at Various Temperatures for organic and inorganic compounds, has expanded by

ix

x

PREFACE TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION

11 pages, but the major additions have involved data in columns where it previously was absent. More material has also been included for critical temperature, critical pressure, and critical volume. The section on Spectroscopy has been retained but with some revisions and expansion. The section includes ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, fluorescence, infrared and Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray spectrometry. Detection limits are listed for the elements when using flame emission, flame atomic absorption, electrothermal atomic absorption, argon induction coupled plasma, and flame atomic fluorescence. Nuclear magnetic resonance embraces tables for the nuclear properties of the elements, proton chemical shifts and coupling constants, and similar material for carbon-13, boron-11, nitrogen-15, fluorine-19, silicon-29, and phosphorus-31. In Section 8, the material on solubility constants has been doubled to 550 entries. Sections on proton transfer reactions, including some at various temperatures, formation constants of metal complexes with organic and inorganic ligands, buffer solutions of all types, reference electrodes, indicators, and electrode potentials are retained with some revisions. The material on conductance has been revised and expanded, particularly in the table on limiting equivalent ionic conductance. Everything in Sections 9 and 10 on physiochemical relationships, and on polymers, rubbers, fats, oils, and waxes, respectively, has been retained. Section 11, Practical Laboratory Information, has undergone significant changes and expansion. Entries in the table on “Molecular Elevation of the Boiling Point” have been increased. McReynolds’ constants for stationary phases in gas chromatography have been reorganized and expanded. The guide to ion-exchange resins and discussion is new and embraces all types of column packing and membrane materials. Gravimetric factors have been altered to reflect the changes in atomic weights for several elements. Newly added are tables listing elements precipitated by general analytical reagents, and giving equations for the redox determination of the elements with their equivalent weights. Discussion on the topics of precipitation and complexometric titration include primary standards and indicators for each analytical technique. A new topic of masking and demasking agents includes discussion and tables of masking agents for various elements, for anions and neutral molecules, and common demasking agents. A table has been added listing the common amino acids with their pI and pKa values and their 3-letter and I-letter abbreviations. Lastly a 9-page table lists the threshold limit value (TL V) for gases and vapors. As stated in earlier prefaces, every effort has been made to select the most useful and reliable information and to record it with accuracy. However, the editor’s 50 years of involvement with textbooks and handbooks bring a realization of the opportunities for gremlins to exert their inevitable mischief. It is hoped that users of this handbook will continue to offer suggestions of material that might be included in, or even excluded from, future editions and call attention to errors. These communications should be directed to the editor. The street address will change early in 1999, as will the telephone number. JOHN A. DEAN Knoxville, Tennessee

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

This book is the result of a number of years’ experience in the compiling and editing of data useful to chemists. In it an effort has been made to select material to meet the needs of chemists who cannot command the unlimited time available to the research specialist, or who lack the facilities of a large technical library which so often is not conveniently located at many manufacturing centers. If the information contained herein serves this purpose, the compiler will feel that he has accomplished a worthy task. Even the worker with the facilities of a comprehensive library may find this volume of value as a time-saver because of the many tables of numerical data which have been especially computed for this purpose. Every effort has been made to select the most reliable information and to record it with accuracy. Many years of occupation with this type of work bring a realization of the opportunities for the occurrence of errors, and while every endeavor has been made to prevent them, yet it would be remarkable if the attempts towards this end had always been successful. In this connection it is desired to express appreciation to those who in the past have called attention to errors, and it will be appreciated if this be done again with the present compilation for the publishers have given their assurance that no expense will be spared in making the necessary changes in subsequent printings. It has been aimed to produce a compilation complete within the limits set by the economy of available space. One difficulty always at hand to the compiler of such a book is that he must decide what data are to be excluded in order to keep the volume from becoming unwieldy because of its size. He can hardly be expected to have an expert’s knowledge of all branches of the science nor the intuition necessary to decide in all cases which particular value to record, especially when many differing values are given in the literature for the same constant. If the expert in a particular field will judge the usefulness of this book by the data which it supplies to him from fields other than his specialty and not by the lack of highly specialized information in which only he and his co-workers are interested (and with which he is familiar and for which he would never have occasion to consult this compilation), then an estimate of its value to him will be apparent. However, if such specialists will call attention to missing data with which they are familiar and which they believe others less specialized will also need, then works of this type can be improved in succeeding editions. Many of the gaps in this volume are caused by the lack of such information in the literature. It is hoped that to one of the most important classes of workers in chemistry, namely the teachers, the book will be of value not only as an aid in answering the most varied questions with which they are confronted by interested students, but also as an inspiration through what it suggests by the gaps and inconsistencies, challenging as they do the incentive to engage in the creative and experimental work necessary to supply the missing information. While the principal value of the book is for the professional chemist or student of chemistry, it should also be of value to many people not especially educated as chemists. Workers in the natural sciences—physicists, mineralogists, biologists, pharmacists, engineers, patent attorneys, and librarians—are often called upon to solve problems dealing with the properties of chemical products or materials of construction. For such needs this compilation supplies helpful information and will serve not only as an economical substitute for the costly accumulation of a large library of monographs on specialized subjects, but also as a means of conserving the time required to search for

xi

xii

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

information so widely scattered throughout the literature. For this reason especial care has been taken in compiling a comprehensive index and in furnishing cross references with many of the tables. It is hoped that this book will be of the same usefulness to the worker in science as is the dictionary to the worker in literature, and that its resting place will be on the desk rather than on the bookshelf. N. A. LANGE Cleveland, Ohio May 2, 1934

CONTENTS

Preface to the Sixteenth Edition Preface to the Fifteenth Edition Preface to the First Edition xi

vii ix

Section 1. Inorganic Chemistry

1.1

Section 2. Organic Chemistry

2.1

Section 3. Spectroscopy

3.1

Section 4. General Information and Conversion Tables

4.1

Index

I.1

v

SECTION 1

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

SECTION 1

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1.1 NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 1.1.1 Writing Formulas 1.1.2 Naming Compounds 1.1.3 Cations 1.1.4 Anions 1.1.5 Acids Table 1.1 Trivial Names for Acids 1.1.6 Salts and Functional Derivatives of Acids 1.1.7 Coordination Compounds 1.1.8 Addition Compounds 1.1.9 Synonyms and Trade Names Table 1.2 Synonyms and Mineral Names 1.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 1.2.1 Density 1.2.2 Melting Point (Freezing Temperature) 1.2.3 Boiling Point 1.2.4 Refractive Index Table 1.3 Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds Table 1.4 Color, Crystal Symmetry and Refractive Index of Inorganic Compounds Table 1.5 Refractive Index of Minerals Table 1.6 Properties of Molten Salts Table 1.7 Triple Points of Various Materials Table 1.8 Density of Mercury and Water Table 1.9 Specific Gravity of Air at Various Temperatures Table 1.10 Boiling Points of Water Table 1.11 Boiling Points of Water Table 1.12 Refractive Index, Viscosity, Dielectric Constant, and Surface Tension of Water at Various Temperatures Table 1.13 Compressibility of Water Table 1.14 Flammability Limits of Inorganic Compounds in Air 1.3 THE ELEMENTS Table 1.15 Subdivision of Main Energy Levels Table 1.16 Chemical Symbols, Atomic Numbers, and Electron Arrangements of the Elements Table 1.17 Atomic Numbers, Periods, and Groups of the Elements (The Periodic Table) Table 1.18 Atomic Weights of the Elements Table 1.19 Physical Properties of the Elements Table 1.20 Conductivity and Resistivity of the Elements Table 1.21 Work Functions of the Elements Table 1.22 Relative Abundances of Naturally Occurring Isotopes Table 1.23 Radioactivity of the Elements (Neptunium Series) Table 1.24 Radioactivity of the Elements (Thorium Series) Table 1.25 Radioactivity of the Elements (Actinium Series) Table 1.26 Radioactivity of the Elements (Uranium Series) 1.4 IONIZATION ENERGY Table 1.27 lonization Energy of the Elements Table 1.28 lonization Energy of Molecular and Radical Species

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.11 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.64 1.86 1.88 1.90 1.91 1.92 1.93 1.94 1.95 1.95 1.96 1.96 1.96 1.97 1.121 1.122 1.124 1.128 1.132 1.132 1.135 1.136 1.137 1.137 1.138 1.138 1.141

1.1

1.2

SECTION ONE

1.5 ELECTRONEGATIVITY Table 1.29 Electronegativity Values of the Elements 1.6 ELECTRON AFFINITY Table 1.30 Electron Affinities of Elements, Molecules, and Radicals 1.7 BOND LENGTHS AND STRENGTHS 1.7.1 Atom Radius 1.7.2 Ionic Radii 1.7.3 Covalent Radii Table 1.31 Atom Radii and Effective Ionic Radii of Elements Table 1.32 Approximate Effective Ionic Radii in Aqueous Solutions at 25°C Table 1.33 Covalent Radii for Atoms Table 1.34 Octahedral Covalent Radii for CN = 6 Table 1.35 Bond Lengths between Elements Table 1.36 Bond Dissociation Energies 1.8 DIPOLE MOMENTS Table 1.37 Bond Dipole Moments Table 1.38 Group Dipole Moments 1.8.1 Dielectric Constant Table 1.39 Dipole Moments and Dielectric Constants 1.9 MOLECULAR GEOMETRY Table 1.40 Spatial Orientation of Common Hybrid Bonds Table 1.41 Crystal Lattice Types Table 1.42 Crystal Structure 1.10 NUCLIDES Table 1.43 Table of Nuclides 1.11 VAPOR PRESSURE 1.11.1 Vapor Pressure Equations Table 1.44 Vapor Pressures of Selected Elements at Different Temperatures Table 1.45 Vapor Pressures of Inorganic Compounds up to 1 Atmosphere Table 1.46 Vapor Pressures of Various Inorganic Compounds Table 1.47 Vapor Pressure of Mercury Table 1.48 Vapor Pressure of Ice in Millimeters of Mercury Table 1.49 Vapor Pressure of Liquid Ammonia, NH3 Table 1.50 Vapor Pressure of Water Table 1.51 Vapor Pressure of Deuterium Oxide 1.12 VISCOSITY AND SURFACE TENSION Table 1.52 Viscosity and Surface Tension of Inorganic Substances 1.13 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY Table 1.53 Thermal Conductivity of the Elements Table 1.54 Thermal Conductivity of Various Solids 1.14 CRITICAL PROPERTIES 1.14.1 Critical Temperature 1.14.2 Critical Pressure 1.14.3 Critical Volume 1.14.4 Critical Compressibility Factor Table 1.55 Critical Properties 1.15 THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS (CHANGE OF STATE) Table 1.56 Enthalpies and Gibbs Energies of Formation, Entropies, and Heat Capacities of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds Table 1.57 Heats of Fusion, Vaporization, and Sublimation and Specific Heat at Various Temperatures of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds 1.16 ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS Table 1.58 Individual Activity Coefficients of Ions in Water at 25°C Table 1.59 Constants of the Debye-Hückel Equation from 0 to 100°C Table 1.60 Individual Ionic Activity Coefficients at Higher Ionic Strengths at 25°C

1.145 1.145 1.146 1.146 1.150 1.151 1.151 1.151 1.151 1.157 1.158 1.158 1.159 1.160 1.171 1.171 1.172 1.172 1.173 1.174 1.175 1.176 1.177 1.177 1.177 1.199 1.199 1.201 1.203 1.212 1.220 1.222 1.223 1.224 1.225 1.226 1.226 1.230 1.231 1.232 1.233 1.233 1.233 1.234 1.234 1.234 1.237 1.237

1.280 1.299 1.300 1.300 1.301

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.3

1.17 BUFFER SOLUTIONS 1.17.1 Standards of pH Measurement of Blood and Biological Media Table 1.61 National Bureau of Standards (U.S.) Reference pH Buffer Solutions Table 1.62 Compositions of Standard pH Buffer Solutions [National Bureau of Standards (U.S.)] Table 1.63 Composition and pH Values of Buffer Solutions 8.107 Table 1.64 Standard Reference Values pH* for the Measurement of Acidity in 50 Weight Percent Methanol-Water Table 1.65 pH Values for Buffer Solutions in Alcohol-Water Solvents at 25°C 1.17.2 Buffer Solutions Other than Standards Table 1.66 pH Values of Biological and Other Buffers for Control Purposes 1.18 SOLUBILITY AND EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS Table 1.67 Solubility of Gases in Water Table 1.68 Solubility of Inorganic Compounds and Metal Salts of Organic Acids in Water at Various Temperatures Table 1.69 Dissociation Constants of Inorganic Acids Table 1.70 Ionic Product Constant of Water Table 1.71 Solubility Product Constants Table 1.72 Stability Constants of Complex Ions Table 1.73 Saturated Solutions 1.19 PROTON-TRANSFER REACTIONS 1.19.1 Calculation of the Approximate Value of Solutions 1.19.2 Calculation of the Concentrations of Species Present at a Given pH Table 1.74 Proton Transfer Reactions of Inorganic Materials in Water at 25°C 1.20 FORMATION CONSTANTS OF METAL COMPLEXES Table 1.75 Cumulative Formation Constants for Metal Complexes with Inorganic Ligands Table 1.76 Cumulative Formation Constants for Metal Complexes with Organic Ligands 1.21 ELECTRODE POTENTIALS Table 1.77 Potentials of the Elements and Their Compounds at 25°C Table 1.78 Potentials of Selected Half-Reactions at 25°C Table 1.79 Overpotentials for Common Electrode Reactions at 25°C Table 1.80 Half-Wave Potentials of Inorganic Materials Table 1.81 Standard Electrode Potentials for Aqueous Solutions Table 1.82 Potentials of Reference Electrodes in Volts as a Function of Temperature Table 1.83 Potentials of Reference Electrodes (in Volts) at 25°C for Water-Organic Solvent Mixtures 1.22 CONDUCTANCE Table 1.84 Properties of Liquid Semi-Conductors Table 1.85 Limiting Equivalent Ionic Conductances in Aqueous Solutions Table 1.86 Standard Solutions for Calibrating Conductivity Vessels Table 1.87 Equivalent Conductivities of Electrolytes in Aqueous Solutions at 18°C Table 1.88 Conductivity of Very Pure Water at Various Temperatures and the Equivalent Conductance’s of Hydrogen and Hydroxyl Ions 1.23 THERMAL PROPERTIES Table 1.89 Eutectic Mixtures Table 1.90 Transition Temperatures

1.301 1.301 1.303 1.304 1.304 1.306 1.307 1.307 1.308 1.310 1.311 1.316 1.330 1.331 1.331 1.343 1.343 1.350 1.350 1.351 1.352 1.357 1.358 1.363 1.380 1.380 1.393 1.396 1.397 1.401 1.404 1.405 1.405 1.407 1.408 1.411 1.412 1.417 1.418 1.418 1.418

1.1 NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS The following synopsis of rules for naming inorganic compounds and the examples given in explanation are not intended to cover all the possible cases.

1.4

SECTION ONE

1.1.1 Writing Formulas 1.1.1.1 Mass Number, Atomic Number, Number of Atoms, and Ionic Charge. The mass number, atomic number, number of atoms, and ionic charge of an element are indicated by means of four indices placed around the symbol: mass number atomic number

ionic charge SYMBOL number of atoms

15 3− 7N2

Ionic charge should be indicated by an Arabic superscript numeral preceding the plus or minus sign: Mg2+, PO3− 4 1.1.1.2 Placement of Atoms in a Formula. The electropositive constituent (cation) is placed first in a formula. If the compound contains more than one electropositive or more than one electronegative constituent, the sequence within each class should be in alphabetical order of their symbols. The alphabetical order may be different in formulas and names; for example, NaNH4HPO4, ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate. Acids are treated as hydrogen salts. Hydrogen is cited last among the cations. When there are several types of ligands, anionic ligands are cited before the neutral ligands. 1.1.1.3 Binary Compounds between Nonmetals. For binary compounds between nonmetals, that constituent should be placed first which appears earlier in the sequence: Rn, Xe, Kr, Ar, Ne, He, B, Si, C, Sb, As, P, N, H, Te, Se, S, At, I, Br, Cl, O, F Examples: AsCl3, SbH3, H3Te, BrF3, OF2, and N4S4. 1.1.1.4 Chain Compounds. For chain compounds containing three or more elements, the sequence should be in accordance with the order in which the atoms are actually bound in the molecule or ion. Examples: SCN– (thiocyanate), HSCN (hydrogen thiocyanate or thiocyanic acid), HNCO (hydrogen isocyanate), HONC (hydrogen fulminate), and HPH2O2 (hydrogen phosphinate). 1.1.1.5 Use of Centered Period. A centered period is used to denote water of hydration, other solvates, and addition compounds; for example, CuSO4 · 5H2O, copper(II) sulfate 5-water (or pentahydrate). 1.1.1.6 Free Radicals. In the formula of a polyatomic radical an unpaired electron(s) is (are) indicated by a dot placed as a right superscript to the parentheses (or square bracket for coordination compounds). In radical ions the dot precedes the charge. In structural formulas, the dot may be placed to indicate the location of the unpaired electron(s). Examples:

(HO)·

(O2)2·

·

(NH+3)

1.1.1.7 Enclosing Marks. Where it is necessary in an inorganic formula, enclosing marks (parentheses, braces, and brackets) are nested within square brackets as follows: [ ( ) ],

[ { ( ) } ],

[ { [ ( ) ] } ],

[{{[()]}}]

1.1.1.8 Molecular Formula. For compounds consisting of discrete molecules, a formula in accordance with the correct molecular weight of the compound should be used. Examples: S2Cl2, S8, N2O4, and H4P2O6; not SCl, S, NO2, and H2PO3. 1.1.1.9 Structural Formula and Prefixes. In the structural formula the sequence and spatial arrangement of the atoms in a molecule are indicated. Examples: NaO(O˙ C)H (sodium formate), Cl´S´ SĆl (disulfur dichloride).

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.5

Structural prefixes should be italicized and connected with the chemical formula by a hyphen: cis-, trans-, anti-, syn-, cyclo-, catena-, o- or ortho-, m- or meta-, p- or para-, sec- (secondary), tert(tertiary), v- (vicinal), meso-, as- for asymmetrical, and s- for symmetrical. The sign of optical rotation is placed in parentheses, (+) for dextrorotary, (–) for levorotary, and (±) for racemic, and placed before the formula. The wavelength (in nanometers is indicated by a right subscript; unless indicated otherwise, it refers to the sodium D-line. The italicized symbols d- (for deuterium) and t- (for tritium) are placed after the formula and connected to it by a hyphen. The number of deuterium or tritium atoms is indicated by a subscript to the symbol. Examples:

cis-[PtCl2(NH3)2] di-tert-butyl sulfate methan-ol-d

methan-d3-ol (+)589 [Co(en)3]Cl2

1.1.2 Naming Compounds 1.1.2.1 Names and Symbols for Elements. Names and symbols for the elements are given in Table 1.3. Wolfram is preferred to tungsten but the latter is used in the United States. In forming a complete name of a compound, the name of the electropositive constituent is left unmodified except when it is necessary to indicate the valency (see oxidation number and charge number, (formerly the Stock and Ewens-Bassett systems). The order of citation follows the alphabetic listing of the names of the cations followed by the alphabetical listing of the anions and ligands. The alphabetical citation is maintained regardless of the number of each ligand. Example: K[AuS(S2)] is potassium (disulfido)thioaurate (1–). 1.1.2.2 Electronegative Constituents. The name of a monatomic electronegative constituent is obtained from the element name with its ending (-en, -ese, -ic, -ine, -ium, -ogen, -on, -orus, -um, -ur, -y, or -ygen) replaced by -ide. The elements bismuth, cobalt, nickel, zinc, and the noble gases are used unchanged with the ending -ide. Homopolyatomic ligands will carry the appropriate prefix. A few Latin names are used with affixes: cupr- (copper), aur- (gold), ferr- (iron), plumb- (lead), argent(silver), and stann- (tin). For binary compounds the name of the element standing later in the sequence in Sec. 1.1.1.3 is modified to end in -ide. Elements other than those in the sequence of Sec. 1.1.1.3 are taken in the reverse order of the following sequence, and the name of the element occurring last is modified to end in -ide; e.g., calcium stannide. ELEMENT SEQUENCE He

Li

Be

B

C

N

O

F

Ne

Na

Mg

Al

Si

P

S

Cl

Ar

K

Ca

Se

Ti

V

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

Ca

Ge

As

Se

B

Kr

Rb

Sr

Y

Zr

Nb

Mo

Te

Ru

Rh

Pd

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

Sb

Te

I

Xr

Cr

Ba

La

Lu

Hr

Ta

W

Re

Os

Ir

Pr

Au

Hg

Tl

Ph

Bi

Po

Ai

Rr

Fr

Ra

Ac

Lr

1.1.2.3 Stoichiometric Proportions. The stoichiometric proportions of the constituents in a formula may be denoted by Greek numerical prefixes: mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta-, octa-, nona(Latin), deca-, undeca- (Latin), dodeca-, …, icosa- (20), henicosa- (21), …, triconta- (30), tetraconta(40), …, hecta- (100), and so on, preceding without a hyphen the names of the elements to which they refer. The prefix mono can usually be omitted; occasionally hemi- (1/2) and sesqui- (3/2) are used. No elisions are made when using numerical prefixes except in the case of icosa- when the letter “i” is elided in docosa- and tricosa-. Beyond 10, prefixes may be replaced by Arabic numerals.

1.6

SECTION ONE

When it is required to indicate the number of entire groups of atoms, the multiplicative numerals bis-, tris-, tetrakis-, pentakis-, and so on, are used (i.e., -kis is added starting from tetra-). The entity to which they refer is placed in parentheses. Examples: Ca[PF6]2, calcium bis(hexafluorophosphate); and (C10H21)3PO4, tris(decyl) phosphate instead of tridecyl which is (C13H27–). Composite numeral prefixes are built up by citing units first, then tens, then hundreds, and so on. For example, 43 is written tritetraconta- (or tritetracontakis-). In indexing it may be convenient to italicize a numerical prefix at the beginning of the name and connect it to the rest of the name with a hyphen; e.g., di-nitrogen pentaoxide (indexed under the letter “n”). 1.1.2.4 Oxidation and Charge Numbers. The oxidation number (Stock system) of an element is indicated by a Roman numeral placed in parentheses immediately following the name of the element. For zero, the cipher 0 is used. When used in conjunction with symbols, the Roman numeral may be placed above and to the right. The charge number of an ion (Ewens-Bassett system) rather than the oxidation state is indicated by an Arabic numeral followed by the sign of the charge cited and is placed in parentheses immediately following the name of the ion. Examples: P2O5, diphosphorus pentaoxide or phosphorus(V) oxide; Hg2+ 2 . mercury(I) ion or dimercury (2+) ion; K2[Fe(CN)6], potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) or potassium hexacyanoferrate(4–); PbII2PbIVO4, dilead(II) lead(IV) oxide or trilead tetraoxide. Where it is not feasible to define an oxidation state for each individual member of a group, the overall oxidation level of the group is defined by a formal ionic charge to avoid the use of fractional oxidation states; for example, O2−. 1.1.2.5 Collective Names. Collective names include: Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At) Chalcogens (O, S, Se, Te, Po) Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) Alkaline-earth metals (Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) Lanthanoids or lanthanides (La to Lu) Rare-earth metals (Sc, Y, and La to Lu inclusive) Actinoids or actinides (Ac to Lr, those whose 5f shell is being filled) Noble gases (He to Rn) A transition element is an element whose atom has an incomplete d subshell, or which gives rise to a cation or cations with an incomplete d subshell. 1.1.2.6 Isotopically Labeled Compounds. The hydrogen isotopes are given special names: 1H (protium), 2H or D (deuterium), and 3H or T (tritium). The superscript designation is preferred because D and T disturb the alphabetical ordering in formulas. Other isotopes are designated by mass numbers: 10B (boron-10). Isotopically labeled compounds may be described by inserting the italic symbol of the isotope in brackets into the name of the compound; for example, H36Cl is hydrogen chloride[36Cl] or hydrogen chloride-36, and 2H38Cl is hydrogen [2H] chloride[38Cl] or hydrogen-2 chloride-38. 1.1.2.7 Allotropes. Systematic names for gaseous and liquid modifications of elements are sometimes needed. Allotropic modifications of an element bear the name of the atom together with the descriptor to specify the modification. The following are a few common examples:

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Symbol H O2 O3 P4 S8 Sn

Trivial name

Systematic name

Atomic hydrogen (Common oxygen) Ozone White phosphorus a-Sulfur, b-Sulfur m-Sulfur (plastic sulfur)

Monohydrogen Dioxygen Trioxygen Tetraphosphorus Octasulfur Polysulfur

1.7

Trivial (customary) names are used for the amorphous modification of an element. 1.1.2.8 Heteroatomic and Other Anions. These are ÓH, hydroxide ion (not hydroxyl) ´ CN, cyanide ion ´ NH−2 hydrogen difluoride ion ´ NH2, amide ion

A few heteroatomic anions have names ending in -ide. ´ NH´ , imide ion ŃH´ NH2, hydrazide ion ŃHOH, hydroxylamide ion ´ HS−, hydrogen sulfide ion

Added to these anions are ´ triiodide ion ´ N3, axide ion ´ O3, ozonide ion

ÓÓ´, peroxide ion ´ S´S´, disulfide ion

1.1.2.9 Binary Compounds of Hydrogen. Binary compounds of hydrogen with the more electropositive elements are designated hydrides (NaH, sodium hydride). Volatile hydrides, except those of Periodic Group VII and of oxygen and nitrogen, are named by citing the root name of the element (penultimate consonant and Latin affixes, Sec. 1.1.2.2) followed by the suffix -ane. Exceptions are water, ammonia, hydrazine, phosphine, arsine, stibine, and bismuthine. Examples: B2H6, diborane; B10H14, decaborane (14); B10H16, decaborane (16); P2H4, diphosphane; Sn2H6, distannane; H2Se2, diselane; H2Te2, ditellane; H2S5, pentasulfane; and pbH4, plumbane. 1.1.2.10 Neutral Radicals. Certain neutral radicals have special names ending in -yl: HO CO ClO ClO2 ClO3 CrO2 NO NO2

hydroxyl carbonyl chlorosyl* chloryl* perchloryl* chromyl nitrosyl nitryl (nitroyl)

PO SO SO2 S2O5 SeO SeO2 UO2 NpO2

phosphoryl sulfinyl (thionyl) sulfonyl (sulfuryl) disulfuryl seleninyl selenoyl uranyl neptunyl†

Radicals analogous to the above containing other chalcogens in place of oxygen are named by adding the prefixes thio-, seleno-, and so on; for example, PS, thiophosphoryl; CS, thiocarbonyl. *Similarly for the other halogens. †Similarly for the other actinide elements.

1.8

SECTION ONE

1.1.3 Cations 1.1.3.1 Monatomic Cations. Monatomic cations are named as the corresponding element; for example, Fe2+, iron(II) ion; Fe3+, iron(III) ion. This principle also applies to polyatomic cations corresponding to radicals with special names ending in -yl (Sec. 1.1.2.10); for example, PO+, phosphoryl cation; NO+, nitrosyl cation; NO2+ 2 , nitryl cation; O2+ 2 oxygenyl cation. Use of the oxidation number and charge number extends the range for radicals; for example, + UO2+ 2 uranyl(VI) or uranyl(2+) cation; UO2 , uranyl(V) or uranyl(1+) cation. 1.1.3.2 Polyatomic Cations. Polyatomic cations derived by addition of more protons than required to give a neutral unit to polyatomic anions are named by adding the ending -onium to the root of the name of the anion element; for example, PH+4phosphonium ion; H2I+, iodonium ion; H3O+, oxonium ion; CH3OH+2methyl oxonium ion. Exception: The name ammonium is retained for the NH+4 ion; similarly for substituted ammonium ions; for example, NF +4, tetrafluoroammonium ion. Substituted ammonium ions derived from nitrogen bases with names ending in -amine receive names formed by changing -amine into -ammonium. When known by a name not ending in -amine, the cation name is formed by adding the ending -ium to the name of the base (eliding the final vowel); e.g., anilinium, hydrazinium, imidazolium, acetonium, dioxanium. Exceptions are the names uronium and thiouronium derived from urea and thiourea, respectively. 1.1.3.3 Multiple Ions from One Base. Where more than one ion is derived from one base, the ionic charges are indicated in their names: N2H+5 , hydrazinium(1+) ion; N2H62+, hydrazinium(2+) ion. 1.1.4 Anions See Secs. 1.1.2.2 and 1.1.2.8 for naming monatomic and certain polyatomic anions. When an organic group occurs in an inorganic compound, organic nomenclature (q.v.) is followed to name the organic part. 1.1.4.1 Protonated Anions. Ions such as HSO4− are recommended to be named hydrogensulfate with the two words written as one following the usual practice for polyatomic anions. 1.1.4.2 Other Polyatomic Anions. Names for other polyatomic anions consist of the root name of the central atom with the ending -ate and followed by the valence of the central atom expressed by its oxidation number. Atoms and groups attached to the central atom are treated as ligands in a complex. Examples: [Sb(OH) 6− ], hexahydroxoantimonate(V); [Fe(CN 6 ] 3– , hexacyanoferrate(III); [Co(NO2)6]3–, hexanitritocobaltate(III); [TiO(C2O4)2(H2O)2]2–, oxobisoxalatodiaquatitanate(IV); [PCl6]–, hexachlorophosphate(V). Exceptions to the use of the root name of the central atom are antimonate, bismuthate, carbonate, cobaltate, nickelate (or niccolate), nitrate, phosphate, tungstate (or wolframate), and zincate. 1.1.4.3 Anions of Oxygen. Oxygen is treated in the same manner as other ligands with the number of -oxo groups indicated by a suffix; for example, SO2− 3 , trioxosulfate. The ending -ite, formerly used to denote a lower state of oxidation, may be retained in trivial names in these cases (note Sec. 1.1.5.3 also): †

Similarly for the other actinoid elements.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

AsO33− BrO− ClO− ClO2− IO− NO2− N2O22−

arsenite hypobromite hypochlorite chlorite hypoiodite nitrite hyponitrite

NOO2− PO3− 3 SO2− 3 S2O2− 5 S2O2− 4 S2O2− 2 SeO2− 3

1.9

peroxonitrite phosphite* sulfite disulfite dithionite thiosulfite selenite

However, compounds known to be double oxides in the solid state are named as such; for example, Cr2CuO4 (actually Cr2O3 ⋅ CuO) is chromium(III) copper(II) oxide (and not copper chromite). 1.1.4.4 Isopolyanions. Isopolyanions are named by indicating with numerical prefixes the number of atoms of the characteristic element. It is not necessary to give the number of oxygen atoms when the charge of the anion or the number of cations is indicated. Examples: Ca3Mo7O24, tricalcium 24-oxoheptamolybdate, may be shortened to tricalcium hepta2− 4− molybdate; the anion, Mo7O6− 24, is heptamolybdate(6–); S2O7 , disulfate(2–); P2O7 , diphosphate(V)(4-). When the characteristic element is partially or wholly present in a lower oxidation state than corresponds to its Periodic Group number, oxidation numbers are used; for example, [O2HP ´ O´ PO3H]2–, dihydrogendiphosphate(III, V)(2–). A bridging group should be indicated by adding the Greek letter m immediately before its name and separating this from the rest of the complex by a hyphen. The atom or atoms of the characteristic element to which the bridging atom is bonded, is indicated by numbers. Examples:

[O3P ´ S´ PO2 Ó´PO3]5–, 1, 2-m-thiotriphosphate(5–) [S3P´ O ´ PS2 Ó´PS3]5–, di-m-oxo-octathiotriphosphate(5–)

1.1.5 Acids 1.1.5.1 Acids and -ide Anions. Acids giving rise to the -ide anions (Sec. 1.1.2.2) should be named as hydrogen … -ide; for example, HCl, hydrogen chloride; HN3, hydrogen azide. Names such as hydrobromic acid refer to an aqueous solution, and percentages such as 48% HBr denote the weight/volume of hydrogen bromide in the solution. 1.1.5.2 Acids and -ate Anions. Acids giving rise to anions bearing names ending in -ate are treated as in Sec. 1.1.5.1; for example, H2GeO4, hydrogen germanate; H4[Fe(CN)6], hydrogen hexacyanoferrate(II). 1.1.5.3 Trivial Names. Acids given in Table 1.1 retain their trivial names due to long-established usage. Anions may be formed from these trivial names by changing -ous acid to -ite, and -ic acid to -ate. The prefix hypo- is used to denote a lower oxidation state and the prefix per- designates a higher oxidation state. The prefixes ortho- and meta- distinguish acids of differing water content; for example, H4SiO4 is orthosilicic acid and H2SiO3 is metasilicic acid. The anions would be named silicate (4–) and silicate(2–), respectively. 1.1.5.4 Peroxo- Group. When used in conjunction with the trivial names of acids, the prefix peroxo- indicates substitution of Ó´by ÓÓ´.

*Named for esters formed from the hypothetical acid P(OH)3.

1.10

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.1 Trivial Names for Acids

1.1.5.5 Replacement of Oxygen by Other Chalcogens. Acids derived from oxoacids by replacement of oxygen by sulfur are called thioacids, and the number of replacements are given by prefixes di-, tri-, and so on. The affixes seleno- and telluro- are used analogously. Examples: HOO´ C ˙ S, thiocarbonic acid; HSS´ C ˙ S, trithiocarbonic acid. 1.1.5.6 Ligands Other than Oxygen and Sulfur. See Sec. 1.1.7, Coordination Compounds, for acids containing ligands other than oxygen and sulfur (selenium and tellurium). 1.1.5.7 Differences between Organic and Inorganic Nomenclature. Organic nomenclature is largely built upon the scheme of substitution, that is, the replacement of hydrogen atoms by other atoms or groups. Although rare in inorganic nomenclature: NH2Cl is called chloramine and NHCl2 dichloroamine. Other substitutive names are fluorosulfonic acid and chlorosulfonic acid derived from HSO3H. These and the names aminosulfonic acid (sulfamic acid), iminodisulfonic acid, and nitrilotrisulfonic acid should be replaced by the following based on the concept that these names are formed by adding hydroxyl, amide, imide, and so on, groups together with oxygen atoms to a sulfur atom: HSO3F HSO3Cl NH2SO3H

fluorosulfuric acid chlorosulfuric acid amidosulfuric acid

NH(SO3H)2 N(SO3H)3

imidobis(sulfuric) acid nitridotris(sulfuric) acid

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.11

1.1.6 Salts and Functional Derivatives of Acids 1.1.6.1 Acid Halogenides. For acid halogenides the name is formed from the corresponding acid radical if this has a special name (Sec. 1.1.2.10); for example, NOCl, nitrosyl chloride. In other cases these compounds are named as halogenide oxides with the ligands listed alphabetically; for example, BiClO, bismuth chloride oxide; VCl2O, vanadium(IV) dichloride oxide. 1.1.6.2 Anhydrides. Anhydrides of inorganic acids are named as oxides; for example, N2O5, dinitrogen pentaoxide. 1.1.6.3 Esters. Esters of inorganic acids are named as the salts; for example, (CH3)2SO4, dimethyl sulfate. However, if it is desired to specify the constitution of the compound, the nomenclature for coordination compounds should be used. 1.1.6.4 Amides. Names for amides are derived from the names of the acid radicals (or from the names of acids by replacing acid by amide); for example, SO2(NH2)2, sulfonyl diamide (or sulfuric diamide); NH2SO3H, sulfamidic acid (or amidosulfuric acid). 1.1.6.5 Salts. Salts containing acid hydrogen are named by adding the word hydrogen before the name of the anion (however, see Sec. 1.1.4.1), for example, KH2PO4, potassium dihydrogen phosphate; NaHCO3, sodium hydrogen carbonate (not bicarbonate); NaHPHO3, sodium hydrogen phosphonate (only one acid hydrogen remaining). Salts containing O2− and HO− anions are named oxide and hydroxide, respectively. Anions are cited in alphabetical order which may be different in formulas and names. Examples: FeO(OH), iron(III) hydroxide oxide; VO(SO4), vanadium(IV) oxide sulfate. 1.1.6.6 Multiplicative Prefixes. The multiplicative prefixes bis, tris, etc., are used with certain anions for indicating stoichiometric proportions when di, tri, etc., have been preempted to designate condensed anions; for example, AlK(SO4)2 · 12H2O, aluminum potassium bis(sulfate) 12-water (recall that disulfate refers to the anion S2O72−). 1.1.6.7 Crystal Structure. The structure type of crystals may be added in parentheses and in italics after the name; the latter should be in accordance with the structure. When the typename is also the mineral name of the substance itself, italics are not used. Examples: MgTiO3, magnesium titanium trioxide (ilmenite type); FeTiO3, iron(II) titanium trioxide (ilmenite).

1.1.7 Coordination Compounds 1.1.7.1 Naming a Coordination Compound. To name a coordination compound, the names of the ligands are attached directly in front of the name of the central atom. The ligands are listed in alphabetical order regardless of the number of each and with the name of a ligand treated as a unit. Thus “diammine” is listed under “a” and “dimethylamine” under “d.” The oxidation number of the central atom is stated last by either the oxidation number or charge number. 1.1.7.2 Anionic Ligands. Whether inorganic or organic, the names for anionic ligands end in -o (eliding the final -e, if present, in the anion name). Enclosing marks are required for inorganic anionic ligands containing numerical prefixes, and for thio, seleno, and telluro analogs of oxo anions containing more than one atom. If the coordination entity is negatively charged, the cations paired with the complex anion (with -ate ending) are listed first. If the entity is positively charged, the anions paired with the complex cation are listed immediately afterward.

1.12

SECTION ONE

The following anions do not follow the nomenclature rules: F− Cl− Br− I− O2− H− OH− O22−

fluoro chloro bromo iodo oxo hydrido (or hydro) hydroxo peroxo

HO2− S2− S22− HS− CN− CH3O− CH3S−

hydrogen peroxo thio (only for single sulfur) disulfido mercapto cyano methoxo or methanolato methylthio or methanethiolato

I.1.7.3 Neutral and Cationic Ligands. Neutral and cationic ligands are used without change in name and are set off with enclosing marks. Water and ammonia, as neutral ligands, are called “aqua” and “ammine,” respectively. The groups NO and CO, when linked directly to a metal atom, are called nitrosyl and carbonyl, respectively. I.1.7.4 Attachment Points of Ligands. The different points of attachment of a ligand are denoted by adding italicized symbol(s) for the atom or atoms through which the attachment occurs at the end of the name of the ligand; e.g., glycine-N or glycinato-O, N. If the same element is involved in different possible coordination sites, the position in the chain or ring to which the element is attached is indicated by numerical superscripts: e.g., tartrato(3–)-O1, O2, or tartrato(4–)-O2, O3 or tartrato(2–) O1, O4 1.1.7.5 Abbreviations for Ligand Names. Except for certain hydrocarbon radicals, for ligand (L) and metal (M), and a few with H, all abbreviations are in lowercase letters and do not involve hyphens. In formulas, the ligand abbreviation is set off with parentheses. Some common abbreviations are Ac acac Hacac Hba Bzl Hbg bpy Bu Cy D2dea dien dmf H2dmg dmg Hdmg dmso Et H4edta Hedta, edta

acetyl acetylacetonato acetylacetone benzoylacetone benzyl biguanide 2, 2′-bipyridine Butyl cyclohexyl diethanolamine diethylenetriamine dimethylformamide dimethylglyoxime dimethylglyoximato(2–) dimethylglyoximato(1–) dimethylsulfoxide ethyl ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid coordinated ions derived from H4edta

Hea

ethanolamine

en Him H2ida Me H3nta nbd ox phen Ph pip Pr pn Hpz py thf tu H3tea tren trien tn ur

ethylenediamine imidazole iminodiacetic acid methyl nitrilotriacetic acid norbornadiene oxalato(2–) from parent H2ox 1, 10-phenanthroline phenyl piperidine propyl propylenediamine pyrazole pyridine tetrahydrofuran thiourea triethanolamine 2, 2′, 2″-triaminotriethylamine triethylenetetraamine trimethylenediamine urea

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.13

Examples: Li[B(NH2)4], lithium tetraamidoborate(1–) or lithium tetraamidoborate(III); [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl3, pentaamminechlorocobalt(III) chloride or pentaamminechlorocobalt(2+) chloride; K3[Fe(CN)5CO], potassium carbonylpentacyanoferrate(II) or potassium carbonylpentacyanoferrate(3–); [Mn{C6H4(O)(COO)}2(H2O)4]–, tetraaquabis[salicylato(2–)]manganate(III) ion; [Ni(C4H7N2O2)2] or [Ni(dmg)] which can be named bis-(2, 3-butanedione dioximate)nickel(II) or bis[dimethylglyoximato(2–)]nickel(II).

1.1.8 Addition Compounds The names of addition compounds are formed by connecting the names of individual compounds by a dash (—) and indicating the numbers of molecules in the name by Arabic numerals separated by the solidus (diagonal slash). All molecules are cited in order of increasing number; those having the same number are cited in alphabetic order. However, boron compounds and water are always cited last and in that order. Examples: 3CdSO4 ⋅ 8H2O, cadmium sulfate—water (3/8); Al2(SO4)3 ⋅ K2SO4 ⋅ 24H2O, aluminum sulfate—potassium sulfate—water (1/1/24); AlCl3 · 4C2H5OH, aluminum chloride—ethanol (1/4). 1.1.9 Synonyms and Mineral Names TABLE 1.2 Synonyms and Mineral Names

(Continued)

1.14

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.2 Synonyms and Mineral Names (Continued)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

TABLE 1.2 Synonyms and Mineral Names (Continued)

1.15

1.16

SECTION ONE

1.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Names follow the IUPAC Nomenclature. Solvates are listed under the entry for the anhydrous salt. Acids are entered under hydrogen and acid salts are entered as a subentry under hydrogen. Formula weights are based upon the International Atomic Weights and are computed to the nearest hundredth when justified. The actual significant figures are given in the atomic weights of the individual elements. Each element that has neither a stable isotope nor a characteristic natural isotopic composition is represented in this table by one of that element’s commonly known radioisotopes identified by mass number and relative atomic mass. 1.2.1 Density Density is the mass of a substance contained in a unit volume. In the SI system of units, the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water at 15°C is known as the specific gravity (relative density). Various units of density, such as kg/m3, lb-mass/ft3, and g/cm3, are commonly used. In addition, molar densities or the density divided by the molecular weight is often specified. Density values are given at room temperature unless otherwise indicated by the superscript figure; for example, 2.48715 indicates a density of 2.487 g/cm3 for the substance at 15°C. A superscript 20 over a subscript 4 indicates a density at 20°C relative to that of water at 4°C. For gases the values are given as grams per liter (g/L). 1.2.2 Melting Point (Freezing Temperature) The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the solid and the liquid are the same and the pressure totals one atmosphere and the solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium. For a pure substance, the melting point is equal to the freezing point. Thus, the freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid at normal atmospheric pressure. The triple point of a material occurs when the vapor, liquid, and solid phases are all in equilibrium. This is the point on a phase diagram where the solid-vapor, solid-liquid, and liquid-vapor equilibrium lines all meet. A phase diagram is a diagram that shows the state of a substance at different temperatures and pressures. Melting point is recorded in a certain case as 250 d and in some other cases as d 250, the distinction being made in this manner to indicate that the former is a melting point with decomposition at 250°C while in the latter decomposition only occurs at 250°C and higher temperatures. Where a value such as –6H2O, 150 is given it indicates a loss of 6 moles of water per formula weight of the compound at a temperature of 150°C. For hydrates the temperature stated represents the compound melting in its water of hydration. 1.2.3 Boiling Point The normal boiling point (boiling temperature) of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the substance is equal to atmospheric pressure. At the boiling point, a substance changes its state from liquid to gas. A stricter definition of boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid and vapor (gas) phases of a substance can exist in equilibrium. When heat is applied to a liquid, the temperature of the liquid rises until the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere (gases). At this point there is no further rise in temperature, and the additional heat energy supplied is absorbed as latent heat of vaporization to transform the liquid into gas. This transformation occurs not only at the surface of the liquid (as in the case of evaporation) but also throughout the volume of the liquid, where bubbles of gas are formed. The boiling point of a liquid is lowered if the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere (gases) is decreased. On the other hand, if the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere (gases) is increased, the boiling point is raised. For this reason, it is customary when the boiling point of a substance is given to include the pressure at which it is observed, if that pressure is other than standard, i.e., 760 mm of mercury or 1 atmosphere (STP, Standard Temperature and Pressure). The boiling

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.17

point of a solution is usually higher than that of the pure solvent; this boiling-point elevation is one of the colligative properties common to all solutions. Boiling point is given at atmospheric pressure (760 mm of mercury or 101 325 Pa) unless otherwise indicated; thus 8215mm indicates that the boiling point is 82°C when the pressure is 15 mm of mercury. Also, subl 550 indicates that the compound sublimes at 550°C. Occasionally decomposition products are mentioned. 1.2.4 Refractive Index The refractive index n is the ratio of the velocity of light in a particular substance to the velocity of light in vacuum. Values reported refer to the ratio of the velocity in air to that in the substance saturated with air. Usually the yellow sodium doublet lines are used; they have a weighted mean of 589.26 nm and are symbolized by D. When only a single refractive index is available, approximate values over a small temperature range may be calculated using a mean value of 0.000 45 per degree for dn/dt, and remembering that nD decreases with an increase in temperature. If a transition point lies within the temperature range, extrapolation is not reliable. The specific refraction rD is given by the Lorentz and Lorenz equation, rD =

nD2 − 1 1 ⋅ nD2 + 2 r

where r is the density at the same temperature as the refractive index, and is independent of temperature and pressure. The molar refraction is equal to the specific refraction multiplied by the molecular weight. It is a more or less additive property of the groups or elements comprising the compound. An extensive discussion will be found in Bauer, Fajans, and Lewin, in Physical Methods of Organic Chemistry, 3d ed., A. Weissberger (ed.), vol. 1, part II, chap. 28, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1960. The empirical Eykman equation nD2 − 1 1 ⋅ = constant nD + 0.4 ρ offers a more accurate means for checking the accuracy of experimental densities and refractive indices, and for calculating one from the other, than does the Lorentz and Lorenz equation. The refractive index of moist air can be calculated from the expression (n − 1) × 10 6 =

103.49 177.4 86.26  5748  p1 + p2 + 1+ p3 T T T  T 

where p1 is the partial pressure of dry air (in mmHg), p2 is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (in mmHg), p3 is the partial pressure of water vapor (in mmHg), and T is the temperature (in kelvins). Example: 1-Propynyl acetate has nD = 1.4187 and density = 0.9982 at 20°C; the molecular weight is 98.102. From the Lorentz and Lorenz equation, rD =

(1.4187)2 + 1 1 ⋅ = 0.2528 2 (1.4187) + 2 0.9982

The molar refraction is MrD = (98.102)(0.2528) = 24.80 From the atomic and group refractions, the molar refraction is computed as follows: 6H 5C 1 CæC 1 O(ether) 1 O(carbonyl)

6.600 12.090 2.398 1.643 2.211 MrD = 24.942

1.18 TABLE 1.3 Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds Abbreviations Used in the Table a, acid abs, absolute abs ale, anhydrous ethanol acet, acetone alk, alkali (aq NaOH or KOH) anhyd, anhydrous aq, aqueous aq reg, aqua regia atm, atmosphere BuOH, butanol bz, benzene c, solid state

Name

ca., approximately chl, chloroform cone, concentrated cub, cubic d, decomposes dil, dilute disprop, disproportionates EtOAc, ethyl acetate eth, diethyl ether EtOH, 95% ethanol expl, explodes fcc, face-centered cubic

Formula

Formula weight

fctetr, face-centered tetragonal FP, flash point fum, fuming fus, fusion, fuses g, gas, gram glyc, glycerol h, hot hex, hexagonal HOAc, acetic acid i, insoluble ign, ignites

Density

Melting point, °C

L, liter lq, liquid MeOH, methanol min, mineral mL, milliliter org, organic oxid, oxidizing PE, petroleum ether pyr, pyridine s, soluble satd, saturated sl, slightly Boiling point, °C

soln, solution solv, solvent (s) subl, sublimes sulf, sulfides tart, tartrate THF, tetrahydrofuran v, very vac, vacuum viol, violently volat, volatilizes , greater than Solubility in 100 parts solvent

(Continued) 1.19

1.20 TABLE 1.3 Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds (Continued) Name

Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, Boiling point, °C °C

Solubility in 100 parts solvent

(Continued)

1.21


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.23


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.25


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.27


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.29


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.31


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.33


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.35


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued) 1.37


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued) 1.39


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.41


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.43


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.45


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.47

Next Page 1.48 TABLE 1.3 Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds (Continued) Name

Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


Previous Page

(Continued)

1.49


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.51


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.53


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.55


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued) 1.57

1.58

TABLE 1.3 Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds (Continued) Name

Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.59


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


(Continued)

1.61


Formula

Formula weight

Density

Melting point, °C

Boiling point, °C


1.63

1.64

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.4 Color, Crystal Symmetry and Refractive Index of Inorganic Compounds Abbreviations Used in the Table Color B BE BK CL G GN O P

Compound

brown blue black colorless gray green orange purple

Formula

R SL V W Y

red silver violet white yellow

Molecular weight

Crystal Symmetry cubic hexagonal monoclinic rhombic Rhombohedral tetragonal trigonal triclinic

C H M R RH T TG TR

Color

Crystal symmetry

Refractive index nD

Actinium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Oxide

AcBr3 AcCl3 AcF3 Ac2O3

466.7 333.4 284.0 502.0

W W W W

H H H H

Aluminum Bromide Carbide Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide Iodide Nitrate Nitride Oxide Phosphate Silicate Sulfate Sulfide

AlBr3 Al4C3 ACl3 AlF3 Al(OH)3 AlI3 Al(NO3)3 ⋅ 9H2O AlN Al2O3 AlPO4 Al2SiO5 Al2(SO4)3 Al2S3

266.7 143.9 133.3 84.0 78.0 407.7 375.1 41.0 102.0 122.0 162.0 342.2 150.2

CL Y W CL W W CL W CL W W W Y

R H H TR M

Americium Oxide IV

AmO2

275.1

B

C

Ammonium Bromide Carbonate Chlorate Chloride Chromate Fluoride Iodate Iodide Nitrate Nitrite Oxalate Perchlorate Hydrogen Phosphate Dihydrogen Phosphate Sulfate Hydrogen sulfide Thiocyanate

NH4Br (NH4)2CO3 ⋅ H2O NH4ClO3 NH4Cl (NH4)2CrO4 NH4F NH4IO3 NH4I NH4NO3 NH4NO2 (NH4)2C2O4 ⋅ H2O NH4ClO4 (NH4)2HPO4 NH4H2PO4 (NH4)2SO4 NH4HS NH4SCN

98.0 114.1 101.5 53.5 152.1 37.0 192.9 144.9 80.0 64.0 142.1 117.5 132.1 115.0 132.1 51.1 76.1

W W W W Y W W W W Y CL W W W W W CL

C C M C M H R C R

1.711

R R M T R R M

1.44–1.59 1.49 1.53 1.48–1.53 1.53 1.74 1.61–1

R H H R R R H

2.70 1.56 1.38

1.54 1.68 1.56 1.66 1.47

1.642 1.315 1.703 1.413

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.65

TABLE 1.4 Color, Crystal Symmetry and Refractive Index of Inorganic Compounds (Continued) Compound

Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Antimony Bromide III Chloride III Chloride V Fluoride III Fluoride V Hydride III Iodide III Iodide V Oxide III Oxide V Oxychloride III Sulfate III Sulfide III Sulfide V

SbBr3 SbCl3 SbCl5 SbF3 SbF5 SbH3 SbI3 SbI5 Sb2O3 Sb2O5 SbOCl Sb2(SO4)3 Sb2S3 Sb2S5

361.5 228.1 299.0 178.8 216.7 124.8 502.5 756.3 291.5 323.5 173.2 531.7 339.7 403.8

CL CL W CL CL CL RD B CL Y W W BK Y

Arsenic Acid, ortho Bromide III Chloride III Chloride V Fluoride III Fluoride V Hydride III Iodide III Iodide V Oxide III Oxide V Sulfide II Sulfide III Sulfide V

H3AsO4 ⋅ 1/2H2O AsBr3 AsCl3 AsCl5 AsF3 AsF5 AsH3 AsI3 AsI5 As2O3 As2O5 As2S2 As2S3 As2S5

151.0 314.7 181.3 252.2 131.9 169.9 77.9 455.6 709.5 197.2 229.9 214.0 246.0 310.2

CL CL CL CL CL CL CL R B CL W R Y Y

Barium Bromate Bromide Carbide Carbonate Chlorate Chloride Chromate Fluoride Hydride Hydroxide Iodide Nitrate Oxalate Oxide Perchlorate Sulfate Sulfide Titanate

Ba(BrO3)2 ⋅ H2O BaBr2 BaC2 BaCO3 Ba(ClO3)2 ⋅ H2O BaCl2 BaCrO4 BaF2 BaH2 Ba(OH)2 ⋅ 8H2O BaI2 Ba(NO3)2 BaC2O4 BaO Ba(ClO4)2 BaSO4 BaS BaTiO3

411.2 297.2 161.4 197.4 322.3 208.3 253.3 175.3 139.4 315.5 391.2 261.4 225.4 153.3 336.2 233.4 169.4 233.3

CL CL G W CL CL Y CL G CL CL CL W CL CL W CL

Crystal symmetry

Refractive Index nD

R R LIQ R LIQ GAS H

1.74 1.74 1.6011

R C M

2.35

R

4.064

R LIQ

1.598

LIQ GAS GAS H M C M M M

M R T R M M R C M M C C H R C T/H

2.46–2.52 2.4–2.6

1.75 1.676 1.56–1 1.736 1.474 1.502 1.572 1.98 1.636 2.155 2.40 (Continued)

1.66

SECTION ONE


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Beryllium Bromide Carbide Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide Iodide Nitrate Nitride Oxide Sulfate Sulfate

BeBr2 Be2C BeCl2 BeF2 Be(OH)2 BeI2 Be(NO3)2 ⋅ 3H2O Be3N2 BeO BeSO4 BeSO4 ⋅ 4H2O

168.8 30.0 79.9 47.0 43.0 262.8 187.1 55.1 25.0 105.1 177.1

W Y W CL W CL W CL W CL CL

Bismuth Bromide III Chloride III Fluoride III Hydroxide III Iodide III Nitrate III Nitrate, Basic III Oxide III Oxide IV Oxide V Oxychloride III Phosphate III Sulfate III Sulfide III

BiBr3 BiCl3 BiF3 Bi(OH)3 BiI3 Bi(NO3)3 ⋅ 5H2O BiO(NO3) ⋅ H2O Bi2O3 Bi2O4 ⋅ 2H2O Bi2O5 BiOCl BiPO4 Bi2(SO4)3 Bi2S3

448.7 315.4 266.0 260.0 589.7 485.1 305.0 466.0 518.0 498.0 260.5 304.0 706.1 514.2

Y W G W RD CL W Y B B W W W B

Boron Arsenate Boric Acid Bromide Carbide Chloride Diborane Fluoride Iodide Nitride Oxide Sulfide

BAsO4 H3BO3 BBr3 B4C BCl3 B2H6 BF3 BI3 BN B2O3 B2S3

149.7 61.8 250.5 55.3 117.2 27.7 67.8 391.6 24.8 69.6 117.8

Bromine Chloride I Fluoride I Fluoride III Fluoride V Hydride I

BrCl BrF BrF3 BrF5 H Br

Cadmium Bromide Carbonate Chloride

CdBr2 CdCO3 CdCl2

Crystal symmetry

Refractive index nD

OR H OR T R RH C H T T

1.44–1.47

C

1.74

H TR H R

1.91

1.72

T M

2.15

R

1.34–1.46

W W CL BK CL CL CL W W W W

T TR LIQ RH LIQ GAS GAS

1.68

115.4 98.9 136.9 174.9 80.9

R B CL CL CL

GAS GAS LIQ LIQ GAS

272.2 172.4 228.4

W W W

H TG H

1.531216

H C

1.453625 1.352925 1.32510

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.67


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Cadmium (Continued) Fluoride Hydroxide Iodide Nitrate Oxide Sulfate Sulfate Sulfide

CdF2 Cd(OH)2 CdI2 Cd(NO3)2 ⋅ 4H2O CdO CdSO4 3CdSO4 ⋅ 8H2O CdS

150.4 146.4 366.2 308.5 128.4 208.5 769.6 144.5

W W B W B W CL Y

Calcium Bromate Bromide Carbide Carbonate Chloride Chloride Chromate Fluoride Hydride Hydroxide Iodide Nitrate Nitrate Nitride Oxalate Oxide Perchlorate Peroxide Sulfate Sulfate Sulfide

CaBrO3 ⋅ H2O CaBr2 ⋅ 6H2O CaC2 CaCO3 CaCl2 CaCl2 ⋅ 6H2O CaCrO4 ⋅ 2H2O CaF2 CaH2 Ca(OH)2 CaI2 Ca(NO3)2 Ca(NO3)2 ⋅ 4H2O Ca3N2 CaC2O4 CaO Ca(ClO4)2 CaO2 CaSO4 CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O CaS

313.9 308.0 64.1 100.1 111.0 219.1 192.1 78.1 42.1 74.1 293.9 164.1 236.2 148.3 128.1 56.1 239.0 72.1 136.1 172.2 72.1

CL CL CL CL C Y CL W CL W CL CL B CL CL CL W CL CL CL

Carbon Dioxide Disulfide Monoxide Oxybromide Oxychloride Oxysulfide

CO2 CS2 CO COBr2 COCl2 (Phosgene) COS

44.0 76.1 28.0 187.8 98.9 60.1

CL CL CL CL CL CL

Cerium Bromide III Chloride III Fluoride III Iodate IV Iodide III Molybdate III Nitrate III Oxide III Oxide IV Sulfate III Sulfide

CeBr3 CeCl3 CeF3 Ce(IO3)4 CeI3 Ce2(MoO4)3 Ce(NO3)3 ⋅ 6H2O Ce2O3 CeO2 Ce2(SO4)3 Ce2S3

380.0 246.5 197.1 839.7 520.8 760.0 434.2 328.2 172.1 568.4 376.4

CL W Y Y Y CL GN W CL Y

Crystal wymmetry C TR H C R M H

M H T R C T M C R H H C M H C C T M M C

GAS LIQ GAS LIQ GAS GAS

Refractive index nD 1.56

1.565 2.51

1.75 1.681 1.52 1.417 1.434 1.574

1.498

1.838

1.576 1.5226 2.137

1.6290

H H H R T

2.01

H C M/R C (Continued)

1.68

SECTION ONE


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Cesium Bromide Carbonate Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide Iodide Iodide III Nitrate Oxide Perchlorate Periodate Peroxide Sulfate Superoxide Trioxide

CsBr Cs2CO3 CsCl CsF CsOH CsI CsI3 CsNO3 Cs2O CsClO4 CsIO4 Cs2O2 Cs2SO4 CsO2 Cs2O3

212.8 325.8 168.4 151.9 149.9 259.8 513.7 194.9 281.8 232.4 323.8 297.8 361.9 164.9 313.8

CL CL CL CL W

Chlorine Dioxide Fluoride Trifluoride Monoxide Hydrochloric Acid Perchloric Acid

ClO2 ClF ClF3 Cl2O HCl HClO4

67.5 54.5 92.5 86.9 36.5 100.5

Y CL CL B CL CL

GAS GAS GAs GAS GAS LIQ

Chromium Bromide II Carbide III Chloride II Chloride III Fluoride II Fluoride III Iodide II Nitrate III Nitrate III Oxide II Oxide III Oxide IV Oxide VI Phosphate III Sulfate III Sulfide II Sulfide III

CrBr2 Cr3C2 CrCl2 CrCl3 CrF2 CrF3 CrI2 Cr(NO3)3 CrN CrO Cr2O3 CrO2 CrO3 CrPO4 ⋅ 6H2O Cr2(SO4) ⋅ 18H2O CrS Cr2S3

211.8 180.0 122.9 158.4 90.0 109.0 305.8 238.0 66.0 68.0 152.0 84.0 100.0 255.1 716.5 84.1 200.2

W G W V GN GN B GN

M R R R M R M

BK GN B RD V V BK B

Cobalt Bromide II Chlorate II Chloride II Fluoride II Fluoride III Hydroxide II Iodate II

CoBr2 Co(ClO3)2 ⋅ 6H2O CoCl2 CoF2 CoF3 Co(OH)2 Co(IO3)2

218.8 333.9 129.8 96.9 115.9 92.9 408.7

GN R BE R B R V

BK W R CL W Y CL Y B

Refractive index nD

C

1.642

C C

1.534 1.481

C R H

1.661; 1.669

R R R R

1.55 1.479

1.564

C

C H H R TR C M TG

H C H M H R

1.25410

2.551

1.564

1.55

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.69


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Cobalt (Continued) Iodide II Nitrate II Oxide II Oxide III Oxide II–III Perchlorate II Sulfate II Sulfate II Sulfide II Sulfide III

CoI2 Co(NO3)2 ⋅ 6H2O CoO Co2O3 Co3O4 Co(ClO4)2 CoSO4 CoSO4 ⋅ 7H2O CoS Co2S3

312.7 291.0 74.9 165.9 240.8 257.8 155.0 281.1 91.0 214.1

BK R GN B BK R BE R R BK

Copper Bromide I Bromide II Carbonate, Basic II Chloride I Chloride II Chloride II Fluoride II Hydroxide I Hydroxide II Iodide I Nitrate II Oxide I Oxide II Sulfate II Sulfate II Sulfide I Sulfide II Thiocyanate I

CuBr CuBr2 2CuCO3 ⋅ Cu(OH)2 CuCl CuCl2 CuCl2 ⋅ 2H2O CuF2 ⋅ 2H2O CuOH Cu(OH)2 CuI Cu(NO3)2 ⋅ 3H2O Cu2O CuO CuSO4 CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2O Cu2S CuS CuSCN

143.5 223.4 344.7 99.0 134.5 170.5 137.6 80.6 97.6 190.5 241.6 143.1 79.5 159.6 249.7 159.1 95.6 121.6

W BK BE W Y Y W Y BE W BE R BK W BE BK BK W

Curium Bromide III Chloride III Fluoride III Fluoride IV Iodide III

CmBr3 CmCl3 CmF3 CmF4 CmI3

488 353 304 323 628

W W B W

R H H M H

Dysprosium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Nitrate Oxide Sulfate

DyBr3 DyCl3 DyF3 DyI3 Dy(NO3)3 ⋅ 5H2O Dy2O3 Dy2(SO4)3 ⋅ 8H2O

402.3 268.9 219.5 543.2 438.6 373.0 757.3

CL Y CL GN Y W Y

R M H H TR C M

Erbium Bromide Chloride Fluoride

ErBr3 ErCl3 ErF3

407.1 273.6 224.3

V V RD

R M R

Refractive index nD

H M C R C 1.50 C M H

C M M C M R M

1.48

1.731

C

2.346

C TR R TR C H

2.705 2.63 1.52

(Continued)

1.70

SECTION ONE


Formula

Molecular weight

Color V R W R

Erbium (Continued) Iodide Oxide Sulfate Sulfide

ErI3 Er2O3 Er2(SO4)3 Er2S3

548.0 382.6 622.7 263.5

Europium Bromide II Bromide III Chloride II Chloride III Fluoride II Fluoride III Iodide II Iodide III Oxide III Sulfate III

EuBr2 EuBr3 EuCl2 EuCl3 EuF2 EuF3 EuI2 EuI3 Eu2O3 Eu2(SO4)3 ⋅ 8H2O

311.8 391.7 222.9 258.3 190.0 209.0 405.8 532.7 351.9 736.2

Fluorine Dioxide Hydride Oxide

F2O2 HF F2O

Cadolinium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Nitrate Oxide Sulfate Sulfide

Crystal symmetry

Refractive index nD

H C M

G W Y Y W GN

R R R H C R M

R R

C M

70.0 20.0 54.0

B CL CL

GAS GAS GAS

GdBr3 GdCl3 GdF3 GdI3 Gd(NO3)3 ⋅ 6H2O Gd2O3 Gd2(SO4)3 Gd2S3

397.0 263.6 214.3 538.0 451.4 362.5 602.7 410.7

W W W Y W CL Y

H H R H T C

Gallium Arsenide III Bromide III Chloride II Chloride III Fluoride III Iodide III Oxide I Oxide III Sulfide I Sulfide II

GaAs GaBr3 Ga2Cl4 GaCl3 GaF3 GaI3 Ga2O Ga2O3 Ga2S Ga2S3

144.6 309.5 281.3 176.0 126.7 450.4 155.4 187.4 171.5 235.6

G CL W CL W Y G G G Y

Germanium Bromide IV Chloride IV Fluoride IV Hydride IV Iodide IV Oxide II

GeBr4 GeCl4 GeF4 GeH4 (Germane) GeI4 GeO

392.2 214.4 148.6 76.6 580.2 88.6

G CL CL CL R G

C

C

TR RH

M (b)

1.95

H

LIQ GAS GAS C

1.627 1.464 1.00089 1.607

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.71


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Germanium (Continued) Oxide IV Sulfide II Sulfide IV

GeO2 GeS GeS2

104.6 104.7 136.7

CL Y W

Gold Bromide I Bromide III Chloride I Chloride III Hydroxide III Iodide Iodide III Sulfate III Sulfide I Sulfide III

AuBr AuBr3 AuCl AuCl3 Au(OH)3 AuI AuI3 Au2(SO4)3 · H2O Au2S Au2S3

276.9 436.7 232.4 303.3 248.0 323.9 577.7 490.5 426.0 490.1

G B Y R B Y G B B B

Hafnium Bromide Carbide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Nitride Oxide Sulfide

HfBr4 HfC HfCl4 HfF4 HfI4 HfN HfO2 HfS2

498.1 190.5 320.3 254.5 686.1 192.5 210.5 242.6

W

Y W

C T H

Holmium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide

HoBr3 HoCl3 HoF3 HoI3 Ho2O3

404.7 271.3 221.9 545.6 377.9

Y Y B Y

R M H

Hydrogen Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide Oxide-Deutero Peroxide Selenide Sulfide Telluride

HBr HCl HF HI H2O 2H2O H2O2 H2Se H2S H2Te

80.9 36.5 20.0 127.9 18.0 20.0 34.0 81.0 34.1 129.9

CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL

GAS GAS GAS GAS LIQ LIQ LIQ GAS GAS GAS

Indium Bromide I Bromide III Chloride I Chloride III Fluoride III

InBr InBr3 InCl InCl3 InF3

194.7 354.5 150.3 221.2 171.8

B CL R CL CL

C M H

Refractive index nD

H R R

R

TR

C W CL

M

1.56

C 2.77–67

1.466 1.3333 1.3284 1.41422 1.374

(Continued)

1.72

SECTION ONE


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Indium (Continued) Iodide I Iodide III Oxide III Sulfate III Sulfide III

InI InI3 In2O3 In2(SO4)3 In2S3

241.7 495.5 277.6 517.8 325.8

B Y Y W R (b)

Iodine Bromide I Chloride I, a Chloride I, b Chloride III Fluoride V Fluoride VII Oxide IV Oxide V Iodic Acid Hydrogen Iodide

IBr ICl ICl ICl3 IF5 IF7 I2O4 I2O5 HIO3 HI

206.8 162.4 162.4 233.3 221.9 259.9 317.8 333.8 175.9 127.9

BK R R Y CL CL Y CL W CL

Iridium Bromide II Bromide IV Chloride III Chloride IV Fluoride VI Iodide III Iodide IV Oxide IV Sulfide IV

IrBr3 · 4H2O IrBr4 IrCl3 IrCl4 IrF6 IrI3 IrI4 IrO2 IrS2

504.0 511.8 298.6 334.0 306.2 572.9 699.8 224.2 256.3

GN BK GN R Y GN BK BK BK

Iron Arsenide Arsenide, di– Bromide II Bromide III Carbide Carbonate II Chloride II Chloride III Fluoride III Hydroxide II Hydroxide III Iodide II Nitrate II Nitrate III Nitride Oxide II Oxide III Oxide II-III Phosphate III Phosphide Sulfate II

FeAs FeAs2 FeBr2 FeBr3 · 6H2O Fe3C FeCO3 FeCl2 FeCl3 FeF3 Fe(OH)2 Fe(OH)3 FeI2 Fe(NO3)2 · 6H2O Fe(NO3)3 · 9H2O Fe2N FeO Fe2O3 Fe3O4 FePO4 · 2H2O Fe2P FeSO4 · 7H2O

130.8 205.7 215.7 403.7 179.6 115.9 126.8 162.2 112.9 89.9 106.9 309.7 288.0 404.0 125.7 71.9 159.7 231.6 186.9 142.7 278.0

W G GN R G G G GN W GN B BK GN CL G BK B BK W G GN

Crystal symmetry

Refractive index nD

M C M C

OR C LIQ R LIQ GAS

R GAS

1.466

H C T

R R H C H H R H H R M C TG C M H M

2.32 3.04 2.42 1.35 1.48

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.73


Formula

Molecular weight

Color Y GN BK BK Y

Iron (Continued) Sulfate III Sulfate II, Ammonium Sulfide II Sulfide III Sulfide, di

Fe2(SO4)3 (NH4)2 Fe(SO4) · 6H2O FeS Fe2S3 FeS2

399.9 392.2 87.9 207.9 120.0

Lanthanum Bromate Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Molybdate Oxide Sulfate Sulfide

La(BrO3)3 · 9H2O LaBr3 LaCl3 LaF3 LaI3 La2(MoO4)3 La2O3 La2(SO4)3 La2S3

684.8 378.6 245.3 195.9 519.6 757.6 325.8 566.0 374.0

Lead Acetate II Acetate IV Arsenate II Bromide II Carbonate II Chloride II Chloride IV Chromate II Fluoride II Hydroxide II Iodate II Iodide II Molybdate II Nitrate II Oxide II Oxide IV Oxide II–IV Phosphate, III Sulfate II Sulfide II Tungstate II

Pb(C2H3O2)2 Pb(C2H3O2)4 Pb3(AsO4)2 PbBr2 PbCO3 PbCl2 PbCl4 PbCrO4 PbF2 Pb(OH)2 Pb(IO3)2 PbI2 PbMoO4 Pb(NO3)2 PbO PbO2 Pb3O4 Pb3(PO4)2 PbSO4 PbS PbWO4

325.3 443.4 899.4 367.0 267.2 278.1 349.0 323.2 245.2 241.2 557.0 461.0 367.2 331.2 223.2 239.2 685.6 811.6 303.3 239.3 455.1

W CL W W CL W Y Y CL W W Y CL CL R B R W W BK CL

Lithium Aluminum Hydride Bromide Carbonate Chloride Fluoride Hydride Hydroxide Iodide Nitrate Oxide

LiAlH4 LiBr Li2CO3 LiCl LiF LiH LiOH LiI LiNO3 Li2O

37.9 86.9 73.9 42.4 25.9 8.0 24.0 133.9 68.9 29.9

W W W W W CL W W W W

W W W G W W Y

Crystal symmetry R M H H C

Refractive index nD 1.81 1.49

H H H H R T R H

M R R R LIQ M R H H T C T T T H R C M

C M C C C T C TG C

1.80–2.08 2.22 2.33

2.30 1.782

1.95 1.85 3.911

1.784 1.43; 1.5 1.662 1.391 1.46 1.955 1.435;1.439 1.644 (Continued)

1.74

SECTION ONE


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

W CL CL W

Crystal symmetry

Lithium (Continued) Peroxide Perchlorate Phosphate Sulfate, Sulfide

Li2O2 LiClO4 Li3PO4 Li2SO4 Li2S

45.9 160.4 115.8 109.9 45.9

Lutetium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide

LuBr3 LuCl3 LuF3 LuI3 Lu2O3

414.7 281.3 232.0 555.7 397.9

W W W B

TG M R H C

Magnesium Aluminate Bromide Carbonate Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide Iodide Nitrate Oxide Silicide Silicate, m Silicate, o Sulfate Sulfide

MgO · Al2O3 MgBr2 MgCO3 MgCl2 MgF2 Mg(OH)2 MgI2 Mg(NO3)2 · 6H2O MgO Mg2Si MgSiO3 Mg2SiO4 MgSO4 MgS

142.3 184.1 84.3 95.2 62.3 58.3 278.2 256.4 40.3 76.7 100.4 140.7 120.4 56.4

CL W W W CL CL W CL CL BE W W CL R

C H TG H T H H M C C M R R C

Manganese Bromide II Carbonate II Chloride II Fluoride II Iodide II Oxide II Oxide III Oxide IV Oxide II–IV Potassium Permanganate Silicide Sulfate II Sulfide II

MnBr2 MnCO3 MnCl2 MnF2 MnI2 MnO Mn2O3 MnO2 Mn3O4 KMnO4 MnSi MnSO4 MnS

214.8 114.9 125.9 92.9 308.8 70.9 157.9 86.9 228.8 158.0 83.0 151.0 87.0

W W W R W GN BK BK BK P

H R H T H C C R R R C

R GN

C

Mercury Bromide I Bromide II Chloride I Chloride II Cyanide II Fluoride I

Hg2Br2 HgBr2 Hg2Cl2 HgCl2 Hg(CN)2 Hg2F2

561.1 360.4 472.1 271.5 252.7 439.2

W CL W CL CL Y

T R T R T C

H H R M C

Refractive index nD

1.465

1.723 1.51; 1.70 1.59; 1.67 1.38 1.57

1.736 1.66 1.65 2.271

1.817

2.16

1.59

1.97; 2.66 1.72; 1.97 1.645

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.75


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Mercury (Continued) Fluoride II Iodide I Iodide II Nitrate I Nitrate II Oxide I Oxide II Sulfate I Sulfate II Sulfide III

HgF2 Hg2I2 HgI2 Hg2(NO3)2 · 2H2O Hg(NO3)2 · 1/2H2O Hg2O HgO Hg2SO4 HgSO4 HgS

238.6 655.0 454.4 561.2 333.6 417.2 216.6 497.3 296.7 232.7

CL Y R/Y CL W BK Y/R CL CL R

C T T/R M

Molybdenum Carbide II Carbide IV Chloride II Chloride III Chloride V Fluoride VI Iodide II Molybdic Acid Oxide IV Oxide VI Silicide IV Sulfide IV

Mo2C MoC MoCl2 MoCl3 MoCl5 MoF6 MoI2 H2MoO4 · 4H2O MoO2 MoO3 MoSi2 MoS2

203.9 108.0 166.9 202.3 273.2 202.9 349.8 180.0 127.9 143.9 152.1 160.1

W G Y R BK Cl B Y G CL G BK

H H

Neodymium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide Sulfide

NdBr3 NdCl3 NdF3 NdI3 Nd2O3 Nd2S3

384.0 250.6 201.2 524.9 336.5 384.7

V V V G BE GN

R H H R H

Neptunium Bromide II Chloride III Chloride IV Fluoride III Fluoride VI Iodide III Oxide IV

NpBr3 NpCl3 NpCl4 NpF3 NpF6 NpI3 NpO2

476.7 343.4 378.8 294.0 351.0 617.7 269.0

GN GN BN P O B GN

R H T H R R C

Nickel Arsenide Bromide II Carbonyl Chloride II Fluoride II Hydroxide II Iodide II Nitrate II Oxide II

NiAs NiBr2 Ni(CO)4 NiCl2 NiF2 Ni(OH)2 NiI2 Ni(NO3)2 · 6H2O NiO

133.6 218.5 170.7 129.6 96.7 92.7 312.5 290.8 74.7

W Y CL Y Y GN BK GN G

H

R M R H

Refractive index nD

2.45; 2.7

2.37; 2.6

2.85; 3.2

M

M T R T H

LIQ H T H M C

4.7

1.45810

2.37 (Continued)

1.76

SECTION ONE


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Nickel (Continued) Phosphide Sulfate II Sulfide II

Ni2P NiSO4 NiS

148.4 154.8 90.8

G Y BK

C TR

Niobium Bromide Carbide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide

NbBr5 NbC NbCl5 NbF5 NbI5 Nb2O5

492.5 104.9 270.2 187.9 727.4 265.8

R BK W CL BRASS W

R C M M M R

Nitrogen Ammonia Hydrazine Hydrazoic Acid Hydroxylamine Nitric Acid Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide I (nitrous-) Oxide II (nitric-) Oxide III (tri-) Oxide IV (per-) Oxide V (penta-) Sulfide II Nitrosyl Chloride Nitrosyl Fluoride Nitryl Chloride

NH3 N2H4 NH3 NH2OH HNO3 NCl3 NF3 NI3 N2O NO N2O3 NO2 N2O5 N4S4 NOCl NOF NO2Cl

17.0 32.0 43.0 33.0 63.0 120.4 71.0 394.7 44.0 30.0 76.0 46.0 108.0 184.3 65.5 49.0 81.5

CL CL CL W CL Y CL BK CL CL B B W O O CL CL

GAS LIQ LIQ R LIQ LIQ GAS

Osmium Chloride IV Fluoride V Fluoride VI Fluoride VIII Iodide IV Oxide IV Oxide VIII Sulfide IV

OsCl4 OsF5 OsF6 OsF8 OsI4 OsO2 OsO4 OsS2

332.0 285.2 304.2 342.2 697.8 222.2 254.1 254.3

R G GN Y BK BK CL BK

T M C

Oxygen Fluoride Ozone

OF2 O3

54.0 48.0

B CL

GAS GAS

Palladium Bromide II Chloride II Fluoride II Iodide II Oxide II Sulfide II

PdBr2 PdCl2 PdF2 PdI2 PdO PdS

266.6 177.3 144.4 360.2 122.4 138.5

B R B BK G BK

GAS GAS GAS GAS R M GAS GAS GAS

M C

C T T T

Refractive index nD

1.325 1.4707 1.44023.5 1.39716

1.19316

2.046

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.77


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Phosphorus Hypophosphorous Acid Phosphoric Acid Phosphorous Acid Bromide III Bromide V Chloride III Chloride V Fluoride III Fluoride V Hydride (Phosphine) Iodide III Oxide III Oxide IV Oxide V Oxybromide V Oxychloride Oxyfluoride Sulfide Sulfide V Thiobromide V Thiochloride V

H3PO2 H3PO4 H3PO3 PBr3 PBr5 PCl3 PCl5 PF3 PF5 PH3 PI3 P4O6 PO2 P2O5 POBr3 POCl3 POF3 P4S7 P2S5 PSBr3 PSCl3

66.0 98.0 82.0 270.7 430.5 137.3 208.3 88.0 126.0 34.0 411.7 219.9 63.0 142.0 286.7 153.4 104.0 348.4 222.3 302.8 169.4

CL CL CL CL Y CL W CL CL CL R W CL W CL CL CL Y Y Y CL

Platinum Bromide II Bromide IV Chloride II Chloride IV Fluoride IV Fluoride VI Hydroxide II Hydroxide IV Iodide II Oxide II Oxide IV Sulfate IV Sulfide II Sulfide III Sulfide IV

PtBr2 PtBr4 PtCl2 PtCl4 PtF4 PtF6 Pt(OH)2 Pt(OH)4 PtI2 PtO PtO2 Pt(SO4)2 · 4H2O PtS Pt2S3 PtS2

354.9 514.8 260.0 336.9 271.2 309.1 229.1 263.1 448.9 211.1 227.1 459.4 227.2 486.6 259.2

B B GN B R R BK B BK G BK Y BK G G

C

Plutonium Bromide III Carbide IV Chloride III Fluoride III Fluoride IV Fluoride VI Iodide III Nitride III Oxide IV

PuBr3 PuC PuCl3 PuF3 PuF4 PuF6 PuI3 PuN PuO2

481.7 256.0 346.4 299.0 318.0 356.0 622.7 256.0 274.0

GN SL GN P B B GN BK GN

R C H H M R R C C

Refractive index nD

R LIQ R LIQ T GAS GAS GAS H M R H

1.694519

LIQ GAS

C LIQ

1.63525

H

T

T

2.4 (Continued)

1.78

SECTION ONE


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Polonium (Continued) Bromide IV Chloride II Chloride IV Oxide IV

PoBr4 PoCl2 PoCl4 PoO2

529.7 281.0 351.9 242.0

R R Y R/Y

C R M T/C

Potassium Bromate Bromide Carbonate Chlorate Chloride Cyanide Dichromate Ferrocyanide Fluoride Hydroxide Iodate Iodide Nitrate Oxide Perchlorate Periodate Permanganate Peroxide Phosphate, o Sulfate Sulfide Superoxide Thiocyanate

KBrO3 KBr K2CO3 KClO3 KCl KCN K2Cr2O7 K4[Fe(CN)6] · 3H2O KF KOH KIO3 KI KNO3 K2O KClO4 KIO4 KMnO4 K2O2 K3PO4 K2SO4 K2S KO2 KSCN

167.0 119.0 138.2 122.6 74.6 65.1 294.2 422.4 58.1 56.1 214.0 166.0 101.1 94.2 138.6 230.0 158.0 110.2 212.3 174.3 110.3 71.1 97.2

CL CL CL CL CL CL O Y CL W CL W CL CL CL CL P Y CL CL B Y CL

TR C M M C C M/TR M/T C C/R M C R/TR C R T R R TR R/H C T R

Praseodymium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide Sulfate Sulfide

PrBr3 PrCl3 PrF3 PrI3 Pr2O3 Pr2(SO4)3 · 8H2O Pr2S3

380.6 247.3 197.9 521.6 329.8 714.1 378.0

GN GN GN G Y GN B

H H H R H M

Protactinium Bromide IV Chloride IV Fluoride IV Iodide III Oxide IV

PaBr4 PaCl4 PaF4 PaI3 PaO2

470.9 372.9 307.1 611.8 263.1

R GN B BK BK

T T M R C

Radium Bromide Chloride Sulfate

RaBr2 RaCl2 RaSO4

385.8 296.1 322.1

Y Y CL

M M R

Refractive index nD

1.559 1.426; 1.431 1.409; 1.423 1.490 1.410 1.738 TR 1.577 1.35

1.677 1.335; 1.? 1.47 1.63 1.59

1.495

1.55

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.79


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Rhenium Bromide III Chloride III Chloride V Fluoride IV Flouride VI Flouride VII Oxide IV Oxide VI Oxide VII Oxybromide VII Oxychloride VII Sulfide IV Sulfide VII

ReBr3 ReCl3 ReCl5 ReF4 ReF6 ReF7 ReO2 ReO3 Re2O7 ReO3Br ReO3Cl ReS2 Re2S7

425.9 292.6 363.5 262.5 300.2 319.2 218.2 234.2 484.4 314.1 269.7 250.4 596.9

B R B GN Y O BK R Y W CL BK BK

Rhodium Chloride III Fluoride III Hydroxide III Oxide III Oxide IV Sulfide III

RhCl3 RhF3 Rh(OH)3 Rh2O3 RhO2 Rh2S3

209.3 159.9 155.9 253.8 134.9 302.0

R R Y G B BK

Rubidium Bromate Bromide Carbonate Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide Iodide Nitrate Oxide Perchlorate Peroxide Sulfate Sulfide Superoxide

RbBrO3 RbBr Rb2CO3 RbCl RbF RbOH RbI RbNO3 Rb2O RbClO4 Rb2O2 Rb2SO4 Rb2S RbO2

213.4 165.4 231.0 120.9 104.5 102.5 212.4 147.5 187.0 189.4 202.9 267.0 203.0 117.5

CL CL CL CL CL W CL CL Y

Ruthenium Chloride III Fluoride V Oxide IV Oxide VIII Sulfide IV

RuCl3 RuF5 RuO2 RuO4 RuS2

207.4 196.1 133.1 165.1 165.2

R GN BE Y BK

TR/H M T R C

Samarium Bromate III Bromide II Bromide III Chloride II

Sm(BrO3)3 · 9H2O SmBr2 SmBr3 SmCl2

696.2 310.2 390.1 221.3

Y B Y B

H

Y CL Y Y

Refractive index nD

T LIQ C M C H LIQ H T

R

C C C C R C C C/R C R

1.5530 1.493 1.398 1.6474 1.52 1.4701 1.513

T

R R (Continued)

1.80

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.4 Color, Crystal Symmetry and Refractive Index of Inorganic Compounds (Continued) Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Samarium (Continued) Chloride III Fluoride II Fluoride III Iodide II Iodide III Nitrate III Oxide III Sulfate III Sulfide III

SmCl3 SmF2 SmF3 SmI2 SmI3 Sm(NO3)3 · 6H2O Sm2O3 Sm2(SO4)3 · 8H2O Sm2S3

256.7 188.4 207.4 404.2 531.1 444.5 348.7 733.0 396.9

Y Y W Y Y Y Y Y Y

Scandium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Nitrate Oxide Sulfate

ScBr3 ScCl3 ScF3 ScI3 Sc(NO3)3 Sc2O3 Sc2(SO4)3

284.7 151.3 102.0 425.7 231.0 137.9 378.1

W CL

Selenium Bromide I Bromide IV Chloride I Chloride IV Fluoride IV Fluoride VI Hydride II Oxide IV Oxide VI Oxybromide Oxychloride Oxyfluoride Selenic Acid Selenous Acid

Se2Br2 SeBr4 Se2Cl2 SeCl4 SeF4 SeF6 H2Se SeO2 SeO3 SeOBr2 SeOCl2 SeOF2 H2SeO4 H2SeO3

317.7 398.6 228.8 220.8 154.9 192.9 81.0 111.0 127.0 254.8 165.9 133.0 145.0 129.0

R B B CL CL CL CL CL W O Y CL W CL

Silicon Bromide Carbide Chloride Fluoride Hydride (silane) Hydride (disilane) Hydride (trisilane) Iodide Nitride Oxide II Oxide IV (amorph) Oxychloride Sulfide

SiBr4 SiC SiCl4 SiF4 SiH4 Si2H6 Si3H8 SiI4 Si3N4 SiO SiO2 Si2OCl6 SiS2

347.7 40.1 169.9 104.1 32.1 62.2 92.3 535.7 140.3 44.1 60.1 284.9 92.2

CL BK CL CL CL CL CL CL G W CL CL W

Compound

W CL W CL

Crystal symmetry H C R M H TR M M C

Refractive index nD

1.55

RH RH H C

LIQ LIQ C LIQ GAS GAS T T LIQ LIQ LIQ R H

LIQ C/H LIQ GAS GAS GAS LIQ C H C

1.807 1.895 >1.76

1.651

1.57971 2.67

1.4588 LIQ R

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.81


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Silver Bromate Bromide Carbonate Chlorate Chloride Cyanide Fluoride Iodate Iodide Nitrate Nitrite Oxide Perchlorate Phosphate, o Sulfate Sulfide Telluride Thiocyanate

AgBrO3 AgBr Ag2CO3 AgClO3 AgCl AgCN AgF AgIO3 AgI AgNO3 AgNO2 Ag2O AgCIO4 Ag3PO4 Ag3SO4 Ag2S Ag2Te AgSCN

235.8 187.8 257.8 191.3 143.3 133.9 126.9 282.8 234.8 169.9 153.9 231.8 207.4 418.6 311.8 247.8 343.4 166.0

CL Y Y W W W Y CL Y CL Y B W Y W BK G CI

Sodium Bicarbonate Bromate Bromide Carbonate Chlorate Chloride Cyanide Fluoride Hydride Hydroxide Iodate Iodide Nitrate Nitrite Oxide Perchlorate Periodate Peroxide Phosphate, o Silicate, m Sulfate Sulfide Sulfite Thiosulfate

NaHCO3 NaBrO3 NaBr Na2CO3 NaCIO3 NaCl NaCN NaF NaH NaOH NaIO3 NaI NaNO3 NaNO2 Na2O NaClO4 NaIO4 Na2O2 Na3PO4 Na2SiO3 Na2SO4 Na2S Na2SO3 Na2S2O3

84.0 150.9 102.9 106.0 106.4 58.4 49.0 42.0 24.0 40.0 197.9 149.9 85.0 69.0 62.0 122.4 213.9 78.0 163.9 122.1 142.1 78.1 126.1 158.1

W CL Cl W CL CL CL CL SL W W CL CL Y G W CL Y W CL CL W W CL

Strontium Bromide Carbonate Chloride Fluoride Hydride

SrBr2 SrCO3 SrCl2 SrF2 SrH2

247.5 147.6 158.5 125.6 89.6

W CL CL CL W

Crystal symmetry T C T C H C R H/C R R C C C R C/R M

M C C C C C C C R/C R C TR R C C/R T H

Refractive index nD 1.874,1.904 2.253

2.071 1.685,1.9

2.21 1.74

1.500 1.594 1.6412 1.535 1.513 1.544 1.452 1.336 1.470 1.358 1.775 1.34;1

1.46

M R C H M

1.52 1.48

R R C C R

1.575 1.521 1.650 1.442

1.5

(Continued)

1.82

SECTION ONE


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Strontium (Continued) Hydroxide Iodate Iodide Nitrate Oxide Peroxide Sulfate Sulfide

Sr(OH)2 Sr(IO3)2 SrI2 Sr(NO3)2 SrO SrO2 SrSO4 SrS

121.7 437.4 341.4 211.7 103.6 119.6 183.7 119.7

CL CL W CL CL CL

TR –– C C T R C

Sulfur Bromide I Chloride I Chloride II Chloride IV Fluoride I Fluoride VI Hydride Oxide IV Oxide VI Pyrosulfuric Acid Sulfuric Acid Sulfuryl Chloride Thionyl Bromide Thionyl Chloride

S2Br2 S2Cl2 SCl2 SCl4 S2F2 SF6 H2S SO2 SO3 H2S2O7 H2SO4 SO2Cl2 SOBr2 SOCl2

224.0 135.0 103.0 173.9 102.1 146.0 34.1 64.1 80.1 178.1 98.1 135.0 207.9 119.0

R Y R R CL CL CL CL CL CL CL CL Y CL

LIQ LIQ LIQ LIQ GAS GAS GAS GAS LIQ LIQ LIQ LIQ LIQ LIQ

Tantalum Bromide Carbide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Nitride Oxide Sulfide

TaBr5 TaC TaCl5 TaF5 TaI5 TaN Ta2O5 Ta2S4

580.5 193.0 358.2 275.9 815.4 194.9 441.9 490.1

Y BK Y CL BK BK CL BK

R C M M R H R H

Tellurium Bromide II Bromide V Chloride II Chloride IV Fluoride VI Hydride Iodide IV Oxide IV Oxide VI Telluric Acid, o

TeBr2 TeBr4 TeCl2 TeCl4 TeF6 H2Te TeI4 TeO2 TeO3 H2TeO6

287.4 447.3 198.5 269.4 241.6 129.6 635.2 159.6 175.6 229.7

GN Y GN W CL CL BK W Y W

Terbium Bromide Chloride

TbBr3 TbCl3

398.6 265.3

W W

Refractive index nD

W

M GAS GAS R T/R C

1.567 1.870 1.62 2.107

1.736 1.66614 1.557

1.374

1.42923 1.44412 1.52710

2.00–2.35

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.83


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Terbium (Continued) Fluoride Iodide Nitrate Oxide

TBF3 TbI3 Tb(NO3)3 · 6H2O Tb2O3

215.9 539.6 453.0 365.8

W CL W

R H M C

Thalliun Bromide I Carbonate I Chloride I Chloride III Fluoride Hydroxide I Iodide I Nitrate I Oxide I Oxide III Sulfate I Sulfide I

TlBr Tl2CO3 TlCl TlCl3 TlF TlOH TlI TlNO3 Tl2O Tl2O3 Tl2SO4 Tl2S

284.3 468.8 239.8 310.8 223.4 221.4 331.3 266.4 424.7 456.7 504.8 440.8

W CL W W CL Y Y/R W BK CL CL BK

C M C H R R R/C C/TR RH C R T

Thorium Bromide Carbide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide Sulfate Sulfide

ThBr4 ThC2 ThCl4 ThF4 ThI4 ThO2 Th(SO4)2 ThS2

551.7 256.1 373.9 308.0 739.7 264.0 424.2 296.2

W Y W W Y W W BK

T T T M M C M R

Thulium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide

TmBr3 TmCl3 TmF3 TmI3 Tm2O3

408.7 275.2 225.9 549.6 385.9

W Y W Y Y

H M R H C

Tin Bromide II Bromide IV Chloride II Chloride IV Fluoride II Fluoride IV Hydride Iodide II Iodide IV Oxide II Oxide IV Sulfide II Sulfide IV

SnBr2 SnBr4 SnCl2 SnCl4 SnF2 SnF4 SnH4 SnI2 SnI4 SnO SnO2 SnS SnS2

278.5 438.4 189.6 260.5 156.7 194.7 122.7 372.5 626.3 143.7 150.7 150.8 182.8

Y CL W CL W W

R R R LIQ M M GAS R C T T R H

R R BK W BK Y

Refractive index nD

2.4–2.8 2.247

2.78

1.87

1.512

2.106 1.996

(Continued)

1.84

SECTION ONE


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Titanium Bromide IV Carbide IV Chloride II Chloride III Chloride IV Fluoride IV Iodide IV Nitride Oxide II Oxide IV Sulfide IV

TiBr4 TiC TiCl2 TiCl3 TiCl4 TiF4 TiI4 TiN TiO TiO2 TiS2

367.6 59.9 118.8 154.3 189.7 123.9 555.5 61.9 63.9 79.9 112.0

O G BK V Y W B Y BK BK Y

Tungsten Bromide V Carbide II Carbide IV Chloride V Chloride VI Fluoride VI Oxide IV Oxide VI Sulfide IV Tungstic Acid

WBr5 W2C WC WCl5 WCl6 WF6 WO2 WO3 WS2 H2WO4

583.4 379.7 195.9 361.1 396.6 297.8 215.9 231.9 248.0 250.0

B G G GN BE CL B Y BK Y

Uranium Bromide III Bromide IV Carbide Carbide Chloride III Chloride IV Fluoride IV Fluoride VI Nitride Oxide IV Oxide VI Oxide IV–VI Uranyl Acetate Uranyl Nitrate

UBr3 UBr4 UC UC2 UCl3 UCl4 UF4 UF6 UN UO2 UO3 U3O8 UO2(C2H3O2)2 · 6H2O UO2(NO3)2 · 6H2O

477.8 557.7 250.0 262.0 344.4 379.9 314.1 352.1 252.0 270.1 286.1 842.2 422.1 502.1

R B BK BK R GN GN Y B BK R BK Y Y

H M C T H T M R C C H R R R

Vanadium Carbide IV Chloride IV Fluoride III Fluoride V Iodide II Oxide III Oxide IV Oxide V Oxychloride V Sulfide II

VC VCl4 VF3 VF5 VI2 V2O3 VO2 V2O5 VOCl3 VS

62.9 192.7 107.9 145.9 304.7 149.9 82.9 181.9 173.3 83.0

BK R GN CL V BK BE R Y BK

C LIQ R R H RH T R LIQ H

M C H H LIQ C C C T H

Refractive index nD

1.61

2.55

H C C GAS T M H R

2.24

1.38

1.49

1

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.85


Formula

Molecular weight

Color

Crystal symmetry

Xenon Fluoride II Fluoride IV Fluoride VI Oxide VI

XeF2 XeF4 XeF6 XeO3

169.3 207.3 245.3 179.3

CL CL CL CL

T M M R

Yttebium Bromide III Chloride II Chloride III Fluoride III Iodide II Iodide III Oxide III Sulfate III

YbBr3 YbCl2 YbCl3 YbF3 YbI2 YbI3 Yb2O3 Yb2(SO4)3

412.8 244.0 279.3 230.0 426.9 553.8 394.1 634.3

CL GN W W BK Y CL CL

R M R H H C

Yttrium Bromide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Oxide Sulfate

YBr3 YCl3 YF3 YI3 Y2O3 Y2(SO4)3

328.6 195.3 145.9 469.6 225.8 466.0

W W W W W W

Zinc Acetate Bromide Calbonate Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide Iodide Nitrate Oxide Sulfate Sulfide

Zn(C2H3O2)2 ZnBr2 ZnCO3 ZnCl2 ZnF2 Zn(OH)2 ZnI2 Zn(NO3)2 · 6H2O ZnO ZnSO4 ZnS

183.5 225.2 125.4 136.3 103.4 99.4 319.2 297.5 81.4 161.4 97.5

CL CL CL W CL CL CL CL W CL CL

Zirconium Bromide Carbide Chloride Fluoride Iodide Nitride Oxide

ZrBr4 ZrC ZrCI4 ZrF4 ZrI4 ZrN ZrO2

410.9 103.2 233.1 167.2 598.8 105.2 123.2

W G W W W B W

Refractive index nD

1.79

M H C

M R TR H M R C T H R C/H

C C M

M

1.5452 1.168 1.687

2.01 1.669 2.36

1.59

1.86

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.5 Refractive Index of Minerals Mineral name

Refractive index

Actinolite Adularia moonstone Adventurine feldspar Adventurine quartz Agalmatoite Agate Albite feldspar Albite moonstone Alexandrite Almandine garnet Almandite garnet Amazonite feldspar Amber Amblygonite Amethyst Anatase Andalusite Andradite garnet Anhydrite Apatite Apophyllite Aquamarine Aragonite Augelite Axinite Azurite

1.618–1.641 1.525 1.532–1.542 1.544–1.533 1.55 1.544–1.553 1.525–1.536 1.535 1.745–1.759 1.76–1.83 1.79 1.525 1.540 1.611–1.637 1.544–1.553 2.49–2.55 1.634–1.643 1.82–1.89 1.571–1.614 1.632–1.648 1.536 1.577–1.583 1.530–1.685 1.574–1.588 1.675–1.685 1.73–1.838

Barite Barytocalcite Benitoite Beryl Beryllonite Brazilianite Brownite

1.636–1.648 1.684 1.757–1.8 1.577–1.60 1.553–1.562 1.603–1.623 1.567–1.576

Calcite Cancrinite Cassiterite Celestite Cerussite Ceylanite Chalcedony Chalybite Chromite Chrysoberyl Chrysocolla Chrysoprase Citrine Clinozoisite Colemanite Coral Cordierite Corundum

1.486–1.658 1.491–1.524 1.997–2.093 1.622–1.631 1.804–2.078 1.77–1.80 1.53–1.539 1.63–1.87 2.1 1.745 1.50 1.534 1.55 1.724–1.734 1.586–1.614 1.486–1.658 1.541 1.766–1.774

Mineral name

Refractive index

Crocoite Cuprite

2.31–2.66 2.85

Danburite Demantoid garnet Diamond Diopsite Dolomite Dumortierite

1.633 1.88 2.417–2.419 1.68–1.71 1.503–1.682 1.686–1.723

Ekanite Elaeolite Emerald Enstatite Epidote Euclase

1.60 1.532–1.549 1.576–1.582 1.663–1.673 1.733–1.768 1.652–1.672

Fibrolite Fluorite

1.659–1.680 1.434

Gaylussite Glass Grossular garnet

1.517 1.44–1.90 1.738–1.745

Hambergite Hauynite Hematite Hemimorphite Hessonite garnet Hiddenite Howlite Hypersthene

1.559–1.631 1.502 2.94–3.22 1.614–1.636 1.745 1.655–1.68 1.586–1.609 1.67–1.73

Idocrase Iolite Ivory

1.713–1.72 1.548 1.54

Jadeite Jasper Jet

1.66–1.68 1.54 1.66

Kornerupine Kunzite Kyanite

1.665–1.682 1.655–1.68 1.715–1.732

Labradorite feldspar Lapis gem Lazulite Leucite

1.565 1.50 1.615–1.645 1.5085

Magnesite Malachite Meerschaum

1.515–1.717 1.655–1.909 1.53.… none

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.87

TABLE 1.5 Refractive Index of Minerals (Continued) Mineral name

Refractive index

Microcline feldspar Moldavite Moss agate

1.525 1.50 1.54–1.55

Natrolite Nephrite Nephrite jade

1.48–1.493 1.60–1.63 1.600–1.627

Obsidian Oligoclase feldspar Olivine Onyx Opal Orthoclase feldspar

1.48–1.51 1.539–1.547 1.672 1.486–1.658 1.45 1.525

Painite Pearl Periclase Peridot Peristerite Petalite Phenakite Phosgenite Prase Prasiolite Prehnite Proustite Purpurite Pyrite Pyrope

1.787–1.816 1.52–1.69 1.74 1.654–1.69 1.525–1.536 1.502–1.52 1.65–1.67 2.117–2.145 1.54–1.533 1.54–1.553 1.61–1.64 2.79–3.088 1.84–1.92 1.81 1.74

Quartz

1.55

Rhodizite Rhodochrisite Rhodolite garnet Rhodonite Rock crystal Ruby Rutile

1.69 1.60–1.82 1.76 1.73–1.74 1.544–1.553 1.76–1.77 2.61–2.90

Sanidine Sapphire Scapolite Scapolite (yellow) Scheelite

1.522 1.76–1.77 1.54–1.56 1.555 1.92–1.934

Mineral name

Refractive index

Serpentine Shell Sillimanite Sinhalite Smaragdite Smithsonite Sodalite Spessartite garnet Spinel Sphalerite Sphene Spodumene Staurolite Steatite Stichtite Sulfur

1.555 1.53–1.686 1.658–1.678 1.699–1.707 1.608–1.63 1.621–1.849 1.483 1.81 1.712–1.736 2.368–2.371 1.885–2.05 1.65–1.68 1.739–1.762 1.539–1.589 1.52–1.55 1.96–2.248

Taaffeite Tantalite Tanzanite Thomsonite Tiger eye Topaz (white) Topaz (blue) Topaz (pink, yellow) Tourmaline Tremolite Tugtupite Turquoise Turquoise gem

1.72 2.24–2.41 1.691–1.70 1.531 1.544–1.553 1.638 1.611 1.621 1.616–1.652 1.60–1.62 1.496–1.50 1.61–1.65 1.61

Ulexite Uvarovite

1.49–1.52 1.87

Variscite Vivianite

1.55–1.59 1.580–1.627

Wardite Willemite Witherite Wulfenite

1.59–1.599 1.69–1.72 1.532–1.68 2.300–2.40

Zincite Zircon Zirconia (cubic) Zoisite

2.01–1.03 1.801–2.01 2.17 1.695

1.88 TABLE 1.6 Properties of Molten Salts

Material

Melting point Tm (°K)

Boiling point (°K)

Density at melting point (g ⋅ cm−3)

LiF NaF KF RbF LiCl NaCl KCl LiBr NaBr KBr NaNO2 KNO2 LiNO3 NaNO3 KNO3 RbNO3 AgNO3 TlNO3 Li2SO4 Na2SO4 K2SO4 ZnCl2 HgCl2 PbCl2 Na2WO4 Na3AlF6 KCNS

1121 1268 1131 1048 883 1073 1043 823 1020 1007 544 692 527 583 610 589 483 480 1132 1157 1347 548 550 771 969 1273 450

1954 1977 1775 1681 1655 1738 1680 1583 1665 1656 d > 593 d623 — d653 d > 613 — d > 485 706 — — — 1005 577 1227 — — —

1.83 1.96 1.91 — 1.60 1.55 1.50 2.53 2.36 2.133 1.81 — 1.78 1.90 1.87 2.48 3.97 4.90 2.00 2.07 1.88 2.39 4.37 3.77 3.85 1.84 1.60

Notes: (a) 5893 Å; (b) 5890 Å.

Critical temperature (°K) 4140 4270 3460 3280 3080 3400 3200 3020 3200 3170

Volume change on melting ∆Vf /∆Vs 100 29.4 27.4 17.2 — 26.2 25.0 17.3 24.3 22.4 16.6 — — 21.4 10.7 3.32 −0.23

Surface tension at melting point (dynes ⋅ cm−1) 252 185 141 167 137 116 99 — 100 90 120 109 116 116 110 109 148 94 225 192 144 53 — 137 202 135 101

Viscosity at melting point (centipoise)

Sound velocity at melting point (m ⋅ cm−1) 2546 2080 1827

1.73 1.43 1.38

2038 1743 1595 1470 1325 1256

5.46 2.89 2.93

1853 1808 1754

4.25

1607

Cryoscopic constant (°K/mole ⋅ kg) 2.77 16.6 21.8 38.4 13.7 20.0 25.4 27.6 34.0 55.9

5.93 15.4 30.8 89.0 25.9 58 142 66.3 68.7

1002 39.3 4.25

4952

12.7

Material LiF NaF KF RbF LiCl NaCl KCl LiBr NaBr KBr NaNO2 KNO2 LiNO3 NaNO3 KNO3 RbNO3 AgNO3 TlNO3 Li2SO4 Na2SO4 K2SO4 ZnCl2 HgCl2 PbCl2 Na2WO4 Na3AlF6 KCNS

Heat capacity, Cp (cal./°K ⋅ mole) 15.50 16.40 16.00 15.0 16.0 16.0

26.6 37.0 29.5 30.6

47.8 24.1 25.0

Heat of fusion at melting point (kcal ⋅ mole−1)

Entropy of fusion at melting point (entropy units)

6.47 8.03 6.75 6.15 4.76 6.69 6.34 4.22 6.24 6.10

5.77 6.33 5.97 5.76 5.39 6.23 6.08 5.13 6.12 6.06

5.961 3.696 2.413 1.105 2.886 2.264 1.975 5.67 9.06 2.45 4.15 4.40

11.66 6.1 4.58 1.91

27.64 3.07

Decomposition potential of melt (volts)

Measurement temperature for decomposition potential (°K)

Molar refractivity at 5461 Å (cm3 ⋅ mole−1)

Refractive index at 5461 Å

Measurement temperature for refractive index, (°K)

151 120 148

2.20 2.76 2.54

1273 1273 1273

2.89 3.41 5.43

1.32 1.25 1.28

1223 1273 1173

178.5 152.3 122.4 181 149 108 58 ~87 44 58 46 35 38 27 123 90 157 ~0.08 0.00096 52.3 46

3.30 3.25 3.37 2.95 2.83 2.97

1073 1073 1073 1073 1073 1073

1.43 0.86 1.12

973 973 973

8.32 9.65 11.75 11.81 13.19 15.40 9.63a 11.67 10.74 11.54 13.57 15.31b 16.20a 21.38 14.87 16.53 20.93 18.2 22.9 26.1 24.58 17.2 19.65

1.501 1.320 1.329 1.60 1.486 1.436 1.416a 1.356a 1.467 1.431 1.426 1.431b 1.660a 1.688b 1.452 1.395 1.388 1.588 1.661 2.024 1.542 1.290 1.537

883 1173 1173 843 1173 1173 573 873 573 573 573 573 573 573 1173 1173 1173 593 563 873 1173 1273 573

Equivalent conductance at 1.1 Tm [(ohm)−1cm2 (equiv)−1]

17.3

1.89

1.90

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.7 Triple Points of Various Materials Substance Ammonia Argon Boron tribromide Bromine Carbon dioxide Cyclopropane Deuterium oxide 1-Hexene Hydrogen, normal Hydrogen, para Hydrogen bromide Hydrogen chloride Iodine heptafluoride Krypton Methane Methane-d1 Methane-d2 Methane-d3 Methane-d4 Molybdenum oxide tetrafluoride Molybdenum pentafluoride Neon Neptunium hexafluoride Niobium pentabromide Niobium pentachloride Nitrogen 1-Octene Oxygen Phosphorus, white Plutonium hexafluoride Propene Radon Rhenium dioxide trifluoride Rhenium heptafluoride Rhenium oxide pentafluoride Rhenium pentafluoride Succinonitrile (NIST standard) Sulfur dioxide Tantalum pentabromide Tantalum pentachloride Tungsten oxide tetrafluoride Uranium hexafluoride Water Xenon

Triplet point, oK

Pressure, mmHg

195.46 83.78 226.67 280.4 216.65 145.59 276.97 133.39 13.95 13.81 186.1 158.8 279.6 115.95 90.67 90.40 90.14 89.94 89.79 370.3 340 24.55 328.25 540.6 476.5 63.15 171.45 54.34 863 324.74 103.95 202 363 321.4 313.9 321 331.23 197.68 553 489.0 377.8 337.20 273.16 161.37

45.58 516 44.1

54 ~232

548 87.60 84.52 81.80 80.12 79.13

324 758.0

94

32 760 533.0 ~500

1.256

1 139.6 612

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

TABLE 1.8 Density of Mercury and Water The density of mercury and pure air-free water under a pressure of 101, 325 Pa(1 atm) is given in units of grams per cubic centimeter (g ⋅ cm–3). For mercury, the values are based on the density at 20°C being 13.545 884 g ⋅ cm–.3. Water attains its maximum density of 0.999 973 g ⋅ cm–3 at 3.98°C. For water, the temperature (tm, °C) of maximum density at different pressures (p) in atmospheres is given by tm = 3.98 – 0.0225(p – 1) Density of water

Temp., °C

Density of mercury

Density of water

Temp., °C

Density of mercury

1.91

1.92

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.9 Specific Gravity of Air at Various Temperatures The table below gives the weight in grams ⋅ 104 of 1 mL of air at 760 mm of mercury pressure and at the temperature indicated. Density in grams per milliliter is the same as the specific gravity referred to water at 4°C as unity. To convert to density referred to air at 70°F as unity, divide the values below by 12.00.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.93

TABLE 1.10 Boiling Points of Water psi 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14.69 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42

Boiling point, °F 79.6 101.7 126.0 141.4 125.9 162.2 170.0 176.8 182.8 188.3 193.2 197.7 201.9 205.9 209.6 212.0 213.0 216.3 219.4 222.4 225.2 228.0 233.0 237.8 242.3 246.4 250.3 254.1 257.6 261.0 264.2 267.3 270.2

psi 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 105 110 115 120

Boiling point, °F 273.1 275.8 278.5 281.0 283.5 285.9 288.3 290.5 292.7 294.9 297.0 299.0 301.0 303.0 304.9 306.7 308.5 310.3 312.1 313.8 315.5 317.1 318.7 320.3 321.9 323.4 324.9 326.4 327.9 331.4 334.8 338.1 341.3

psi 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700 725 750 775 800 825 850 875 900 950 1000

Boiling point, °F 358.5 371.8 381.9 391.9 401.0 409.5 417.4 424.8 431.8 438.4 444.7 450.7 456.4 461.9 467.1 472.2 477.1 481.8 486.3 490.7 495.0 499.2 503.2 507.2 511.0 514.7 518.4 521.9 525.4 528.8 532.1 538.6 544.8

1.94

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.11 Boiling Points of Water

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.95

TABLE 1.12 Refractive Index, Viscosity, Dielectric Constant, and Surface Tension of Water at Various Temperatures Temp., °C

Refractive index, nD

Viscosity mN ⋅ s ⋅ m−2

Dielectric constant, e

Surface tension mN ⋅ s ⋅ m−2

TABLE 1.13 Compressibility of Water In the table below are given the relative volumes of water at various temperatures and pressures. The volume at 0°C and one normal atmosphere (760 mm of Hg) is taken as unity.

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SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.14 Flammability Limits of Inorganic Compounds in Air Limits of Flammability Compound Ammonia Carbon monoxide Carbonyl sulfide Cyanogen Hydrocyanic acid Hydrogen Hydrogen sulfide

Lower volume %

Upper volume %

15.50 12.50 11.90 6.60 5.60 4.00 4.30

27.00 74.20 28.50 42.60 40.00 74.20 45.50

1.3 THE ELEMENTS The chemical elements are the fundamental materials of which all matter is composed. From the modern viewpoint a substance that cannot be broken down or reduced further is, by definition, an element. The Periodic Table presents organized information about the chemical elements. The elements are grouped into eight classes according to their properties. The electronic configuration for an element’s ground state is a shorthand representation giving the number of electrons (superscript) found in each of the allowed sublevels (s, p, d, f) above a noble gas core (indicated by brackets). In addition, values for the thermal conductivity, the electrical resistance, and the coefficient of linear thermal expansion are included. Hund’s Rule states that for a set of equal-energy orbitals, each orbital is occupied by one electron before any oribital has two. Therefore, the first electrons to occupy orbitals within a sublevel have parallel spins.

TABLE 1.15 Subdivision of Main Energy Levels Main energy level Number of sublevels(n) Number of orbitals(n2) Kind and no. of orbitals per sublevel Maximum no. of electrons per sublevel Maximum no. of electrons per main level (2n2)

1 1 1 s 1

2 2 4 s p 1 3

3 3 9 s p d 1 3 5

4 4 16 s p d f 1 3 5 7

2

2 6

2 6 10

2 6 10 14

2

8

18

32

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

TABLE 1.16 Chemical Symbols, Atomic Numbers, and Electron Arrangements of the Elements Element name Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese

Chemical symbol Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr or Lw Pb Li Lu Mg Mn

Atomic number 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 4 83 107 5 35 48 20 98 6 58 55 17 24 27 29 96 105 66 99 68 63 100 9 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 2 67 1 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 3 71 12 25 (Continued)

1.97

1.98

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.16 Chemical Symbols, Atomic Numbers, and Electron Arrangements of the Elements (Continued) Element name Meitnerium Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Ununbium Ununhexium Ununnilium Ununoctium Ununquadium Unununium Uranium

Chemical symbol Mt Md Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W Uub Uuh Uun Uuo Unq Uuu U

Atomic number 109 101 80 42 60 10 93 28 41 7 102 76 8 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 112 116 110 118 114 111 92

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.99

TABLE 1.16 Chemical Symbols, Atomic Numbers, and Electron Arrangements of the Elements (Continued) Element name Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium

Chemical symbol

Atomic number

V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr

23 54 70 39 30 40

*As of the time of writing, there were no known elements with atomic numbers 113, 115, or 117.

Hydrogen (1) Symbol, H. A colorless, odorless gas at room temperature. The most common isotope has atomic weight 1.00794. The lightest and most abundant element in the universe. • Electrons in first energy level: 1 Helium (2) Symbol, He. A colorless, odorless gas at room temperature. The most common isotope has atomic weight 4.0026. The second lightest and second most abundant element in the universe. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 Lithium (3) Symbol, Li. Classified as an alkali metal. In pure form it is silver-colored. The lightest elemental metal. The most common isotope has atomic weight 6.941. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 1 Beryllium (4) Symbol, Be. Classified as an alkaline earth. In pure form it has a grayish color similar to that of steel. Has a relatively high melting point. The most common isotope has atomic weight 9.01218. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 2 Boron (5) Symbol, B. Classified as a metalloid. The most common isotope has atomic weight 10.82. Can exist as a powder or as a black, hard metalloid. Boron is not found free in nature. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 3 Carbon (6) Symbol, C. A nonmetallic element that is a solid at room temperature. Has a characteristic hexagonal crystal structure. Known as the basis of life on Earth. The most common isotope has atomic weight 12.011. Exists in three well-known forms: graphite (a black powder) which is common, diamond (a clear solid) which is rare, and amorphous. Another form of carbon is graphite. Used in electrochemical cells, air-cleaning filters, thermocouples, and noninductive electrical resistors. Also used in medicine to absorb poisons and toxins in the stomach and intestines. Abundant in mineral rocks such as • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 4 Nitrogen (7) Symbol, N. A nonmetallic element that is a colorless, odorless gas at room temperature. The most common isotope has atomic weight 14.007. The most abundant component of the

1.100

SECTION ONE

earth’s atmosphere (approximately 78 percent at the surface). Reacts to some extent with certain combinations of other elements. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 5 Oxygen (8) Symbol, O. A nonmetallic element that is a colorless, odorless gas at room temperature. The most common isotope has atomic weight 15.999. The second most abundant component of the earth’s atmosphere (approximately 21 percent at the surface). Combines readily with many other elements, particularly metals. One of the oxides of iron, for example, is known as common rust. Normally, two atoms of oxygen combine to form a molecule (O2). In this form, oxygen is essential for the sustenance of many forms of life on Earth. When three oxygen atoms form a molecule (O3), the element is called ozone. This form of the element is beneficial in the upper atmosphere because it reduces the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth’s surface. Ozone is, ironically, also known as an irritant and pollutant in the surface air over heavily populated areas. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 6 Fluorine (9) Symbol, F. The most common isotope has atomic weight 18.998. A gaseous element of the halogen family. Has a characteristic greenish or yellowish color. Reacts readily with many other elements. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 7 Neon (10) Symbol, Ne. The most common isotope has atomic weight 20.179. A noble gas present in trace amounts in the atmosphere. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 Sodium (11) Symbol, Na. The most common isotope has atomic weight 22.9898. An element of the alkali-metal group. A solid at room temperature. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 • Electrons in third energy level: 1 Magnesium (12) Symbol, Mg. The most common isotope has atomic weight 24.305. A member of the alkaline earth group. At room temperature it is a whitish metal. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 • Electrons in third energy level: 2 Aluminum (13) Symbol, Al. The most common isotope has atomic weight 26.98. A metallic element and a good electrical conductor. Has many of the same characteristics as magnesium, except it reacts less easily with oxygen in the atmosphere. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 • Electrons in third energy level: 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.101

Silicon (14) Symbol, Si. The most common isotope has atomic weight 28.086. A metalloid abundant in the earth’s crust. Especially common in rocks such as granite, and in many types of sand. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 • Electrons in third energy level: 4 Phosphorus (15) Symbol, P. The most common isotope has atomic weight 30.974. A nonmetallic element of the nitrogen family. Found in certain types of rock. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 • Electrons in third energy level: 5 Sulfur (16) Symbol, S. Also spelled sulphur. The most common isotope has atomic weight 32.06. A nonmetallic element. Reacts with some other elements. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 • Electrons in third energy level: 6 Chlorine (17) Symbol, Cl. The most common isotope has atomic weight 35.453. A gas at room temperature and a member of the halogen family. Reacts readily with various other elements. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 • Electrons in third energy level: 7 Argon (18) Symbol, A or Ar. The most common isotope has atomic weight 39.94. A gas at room temperature; classified as a noble gas. Present in small amounts in the atmosphere. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 • Electrons in third energy level: 8 Potassium (19) Symbol, K. The most common isotope has atomic weight 39.098. A member of the alkali metal group. • • • •

Electrons in first energy level: 2 Electrons in second energy level: 8 Electrons in third energy level: 8 Electrons in fourth energy level: 1

Calcium (20) Symbol, Ca. The most common isotope has atomic weight 40.08. A metallic element of the alkaline-earth group. Calcium carbonate, or calcite, is abundant in the earth’s crust, especially in limestone • • • •


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SECTION ONE

Scandium (21) Symbol, Sc. The most common isotope has atomic weight 44.956. In the pure form it is a soft metal. Classified as a transition metal. • • • •


Titanium (22) Symbol, Ti. The most common isotope has atomic weight 47.88. Classified as a transition metal. • • • •


Vanadium (23) Symbol, V. The most common isotope has atomic weight 50.94. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is whitish in color. • • • •


Chromium (24) Symbol, Cr. The most common isotope has atomic weight 51.996. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is grayish in color. • • • •


Manganese (25) Symbol, Mn. The most common isotope has atomic weight 54.938. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is grayish in color. • • • •


Iron (26) Symbol, Fe. The most common isotope has atomic weight 55.847. In its pure form it is a dull gray metal. • • • •


Cobalt (27) Symbol, Co. The most common isotope has atomic weight 58.94. Classified as a transition metal. In the pure form it is silvery in color. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.103

• Electrons in third energy level: 15 • Electrons in fourth energy level: 2 Nickel (28) Symbol, Ni. The most common isotope has atomic weight 58.69. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is light gray to white. • • • •


Copper (29) Symbol, Cu. The most common isotope has atomic weight 63.546. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it has a characteristic red or wine color. • • • •


Zinc (30) Symbol, Zn. The most common isotope has atomic weight 65.39. Classified as a transition metal. In pure form, it is a dull blue-gray color. • • • •


Gallium (31) Symbol, Ga. The most common isotope has atomic weight 69.72. A semiconducting metal. In pure form it is light gray to white. • • • •


Germanium (32) Symbol, Ge. The most common isotope has atomic weight 72.59. A semiconducting metalloid. • • • •


Arsenic (33) Symbol, As. The most common isotope has atomic weight 74.91. A metalloid used as a dopant in the manufacture of semiconductors. In its pure form it is gray in color. • • • •


1.104

SECTION ONE

Selenium (34) Symbol, Se. The most common isotope has atomic weight 78.96. Classified as a nonmetal. In its pure form it is gray in color. • • • •


Bromine (35) Symbol, Br. The most common isotope has atomic weight 79.90. A nonmetallic element of the halogen family. A reddish-brown liquid at room temperature. Has a characteristic unpleasant odor. Reacts readily with various other elements. • • • •


Krypton (36) Symbol, Kr. The most common isotope has atomic weight 83.80. Classified as a noble gas. Colorless and odorless. Present in trace amounts in the earth’s atmosphere. Some common isotopes of this element are radioactive. • • • •


Rubidium (37) Symbol, Rb. The most common isotope has atomic weight 85.468. Classified as an alkali metal. In its pure form it is silver-colored. Reacts easily with oxygen and chlorine. • • • • •

Electrons in first energy level: 2 Electrons in second energy level: 8 Electrons in third energy level: 18 Electrons in fourth energy level: 8 Electrons in fifth energy level: 1

Strontium (38) Symbol, Sr. The most common isotope has atomic weight 87.62. A metallic element of the alkaline-earth group. In pure form it is gold-colored. • • • • •


Yttrium (39) Symbol, Y. The most common isotope has atomic weight 88.906. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is silver-colored. • • • • •


INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.105

Zirconium (40) Symbol, Zr. The most common isotope has atomic weight 91.22. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is grayish in color. • • • • •


Niobium (41) Symbol, Nb. The most common isotope has atomic weight 92.91. Classified as a transition metal. This element is sometimes called columbium. In pure form it is shiny, and is light gray to white in color. • • • • •


Molybdenum (42) Symbol, Mo. The most common isotope has atomic weight 95.94. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form, it is hard and silver-white. Used as a catalyst, as a component of hard alloys for the aeronautical and aerospace industries, and in steel-hardening processes. It is known for high thermal conductivity, low thermal-expansion coefficient, high melting point, and resistance to corrosion. Most molybdenum compounds are relatively nontoxic. • • • • •


Technetium (43) Symbol, Tc. Formerly called masurium. The most common isotope has atomic weight 98. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form, it is grayish in color. This element is not found in nature; it occurs when the uranium atom is split by nuclear fission. It also occurs when molybdenum is bombarded by high-speed deuterium nuclei (particles consisting of one proton and one neutron). This element is radioactive. • • • • •


Ruthenium (44) Symbol, Ru. The most common isotope has atomic weight 101.07. A rare element, classified as a transition metal. In pure form it is silver-colored. • • • • •


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SECTION ONE

Rhodium (45) Symbol, Rh. The most common isotope has atomic weight 102.906. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is silver-colored. Occurs in nature along with platinum and nickel. • • • • •


Palladium (46) Symbol, Pd. The most common isotope has atomic weight 106.42. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is light gray to white. In nature, palladium is found with copper ore. • • • • •


Silver (47) Symbol, Ag. The most common isotope has atomic weight 107.87. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is a bright, shiny, and silverish-white colored metal. • • • • •


Cadmium (48) Symbol, Cd. The most common isotope has atomic weight 112.41. Classified as a transition metal. In its pure form it is silver-colored. • • • • •


Indium (49) Symbol, In. The most common isotope has atomic weight 114.82. A metallic element used as a dopant in semiconductor processing. In pure form it is silver-colored. In nature, it is often found along with zinc. • • • • •


Tin (50) Symbol, Sn. The most common isotope has atomic weight 118.71. In pure form it is a white or grayish metal. It changes color (from white to gray) when it is cooled through a certain temperature range. It is ductile and malleable. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.107

• Electrons in third energy level: 18 • Electrons in fourth energy level: 18 • Electrons in fifth energy level: 4 Antimony (51) Symbol, Sb. The most common isotope has atomic weight 121.76. Classified as a metalloid. In pure form, it is blue-white or blue-gray in color. Has a characteristic flakiness and brittleness. • • • • •


Tellurium (52) Symbol, Te. The most common isotope has atomic weight 127.60. A rare metalloid element related to selenium. In pure form, it is silverish-white and has high luster. In nature it is found along with other metals such as copper. It has a characteristic brittleness. • • • • •


Iodine (53) Symbol, I. The most common isotope has atomic weight 126.905. A member of the halogen family. In pure form it has a black or purple-black color. • • • • •


Xenon (54) Symbol, Xe. The most common isotope has atomic weight 131.29. Classified as a noble gas. Colorless and odorless; present in trace amounts in the earth’s atmosphere. • • • • •


Cesium (55) Symbol, Cs. Also spelled caesium (in Britain). The most common isotope has atomic weight 132.91. Classified as an alkali metal. In pure form, it is silver-white in color, is ductile, and is malleable. • • • • • •

Electrons in first energy level: 2 Electrons in second energy level: 8 Electrons in third energy level: 18 Electrons in fourth energy level: 18 Electrons in fifth energy level: 8 Electrons in sixth energy level: 1

1.108

SECTION ONE

Barium (56) Symbol, Ba. The most common isotope has atomic weight 137.36. Classified as an alkaline earth. In pure form it is silver-white in color, and is relatively soft; it is sometimes mistaken for lead. • • • • • •


Lanthanum (57) Symbol, La. The most common isotope has atomic weight 138.906. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is white in color, malleable, and soft. • • • • • •


Cerium (58) Symbol, Ce. The most common isotope has atomic weight 140.13. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is light silvery-gray. It reacts readily with various other elements and is malleable and ductile. • • • • • •


Praseodymium (59) Symbol, Pr. The most common isotope has atomic weight 140.908. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-gray, soft, malleable, and ductile. • • • • • •


Neodymium (60) Symbol, Nd. The most common isotope has atomic weight 144.24. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is shiny and is silvery in color. • • • •


INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.109

• Electrons in fifth energy level: 8 • Electrons in sixth energy level: 2 Promethium (61) Symbol, Pm. Formerly called illinium. The most common isotope has atomic weight 145. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is gray in color, and is highly radioactive. • • • • • •


Samarium (62) Symbol, Sm. The most common isotope has atomic weight 150.36. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silvery-white in color with high luster. • • • • • •


Europium (63) Symbol, Eu. The most common isotope has atomic weight 151.96. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-gray in color, and has ductility similar to that of lead. • • • • • •


Gadolinium (64) Symbol, Gd. The most common isotope has atomic weight 157.25. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver in color, is ductile, and is malleable. • • • • • •


Terbium (65) Symbol, Tb. The most common isotope has atomic weight 158.93. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-gray, soft, malleable, and ductile. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8 • Electrons in third energy level: 18

1.110

SECTION ONE

• Electrons in fourth energy level: 27 • Electrons in fifth energy level: 8 • Electrons in sixth energy level: 2 Dysprosium (66) Symbol, Dy. The most common isotope has atomic weight 162.5. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it has a bright, shiny silver color. It is soft and malleable, but it has a relatively high melting point. • • • • • •


Holmium (67) Symbol, Ho. The most common isotope has atomic weight 164.93. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver in color. It is soft and malleable. • • • • • •


Erbium (68) Symbol, Er. The most common isotope has atomic weight 167.26. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silverish, soft, malleable, and ductile. • • • • • •


Thulium (69) Symbol, Tm. The most common isotope has atomic weight 168.93. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form this element is grayish in color, soft, malleable, and ductile. • • • • • •


Ytterbium (70) Symbol, Yb. The most common isotope has atomic weight 173.04. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-white in color, soft, malleable, and ductile. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

• • • •

1.111

Electrons in third energy level: 18 Electrons in fourth energy level: 32 Electrons in fifth energy level: 8 Electrons in sixth energy level: 2

Lutetium (71) Symbol, Lu. The most common isotope has atomic weight 174.967. Classified as a rare earth. In its pure form, it is silver-white and radioactive, with a half-life on the order of thousands of millions of years. • • • • • •


Hafnium (72) Symbol, Hf. The most common isotope has atomic weight 178.49. Classified as a transition metal. In pure form, it is silver-colored, shiny, and ductile. • • • • • •


Tantalum (73) Symbol, Ta. The most common isotope has atomic weight 180.95. Classified as a transition metal; an element of the vanadium family. In pure form it is grayish-silver in color, ductile, and hard, with a high melting point. • • • • • •


Tungsten (74) Symbol, W. Also known as wolfram. The most common isotope has atomic weight 183.85. Classified as a transition metal. In pure form it is silver-colored. It has an extremely high melting point. • • • • • •


1.112

SECTION ONE

Rhenium (75) Symbol, Re. The most common isotope has atomic weight 186.207. Classified as a transition metal. In pure form it is silver-white, has high density, and has a high melting point. • • • • • •


Osmium (76) Symbol, Os. The most common isotope has atomic weight 190.2. A transition metal of the platinum group. In pure form it is bluish-silver in color, dense, hard, and brittle. • • • • • •


Iridium (77) Symbol, Ir. The most common isotope has atomic weight 192.22. A transition metal of the platinum group. In pure form it is yellowish-white in color with high luster; it is hard, brittle, and has high density. • • • • • •


Platinum (78) Symbol, Pt. The most common isotope has atomic weight 195.08. Classified as a transition metal. In pure form it has a brilliant, shiny, white luster. It is malleable and ductile. • • • • • •


Gold (79) Symbol, Au. The most common isotope has atomic weight 196.967. A transition metal. In pure form it is shiny, yellowish, ductile, malleable, and comparatively soft. • • • •


INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.113

• Electrons in fifth energy level: 18 • Electrons in sixth energy level: 1 Mercury (80) Symbol, Hg. The most common isotope has atomic weight 200.59. Classified as a transition metal. In pure form it is silver-colored and liquid at room temperature. • • • • • •


Thallium (81) Symbol, Tl. The most common isotope has atomic weight 204.38. A metallic element. In pure form it is bluish-gray or dull gray, soft, malleable, and ductile. • • • • • •


Lead (82) Symbol, Pb. The most common isotope has atomic weight 207.2. A metallic element. In pure form it is dull gray or blue-gray, soft, and malleable; relatively low melting temperature. • • • • • •


Bismuth (83) Symbol, Bi. The most common isotope has atomic weight 208.98. A metallic element. In pure form it is pinkish-white and brittle. • • • • • •


Polonium (84) Symbol, Po. The most common isotope has atomic weight 209. Classified as a metalloid. It is produced from the decay of radium and is sometimes called radium-F. Polonium is radioactive; it emits primarily alpha particles. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8

1.114

SECTION ONE

• • • •

Electrons in third energy level: 18 Electrons in fourth energy level: 32 Electrons in fifth energy level: 18 Electrons in sixth energy level: 6

Astatine (85) Symbol, At. The most common isotope has atomic weight 210. Formerly called alabamine. Classified as a halogen. The element is radioactive. • • • • • •


Radon (86) Symbol, Rn. The most common isotope has atomic weight 222. Classified as a noble gas. It is radioactive, emitting primarily alpha particles, and has a short half-life. Radon is a colorless gas that results from the disintegration of radium. • • • • • •


Francium (87) Symbol, Fr. The most common isotope has atomic weight 223. Classified as an alkali metal. This element is radioactive, and all isotopes decay rapidly. Produced as a result of the radioactive disintegration of actinium. • • • • • • •

Electrons in first energy level: 2 Electrons in second energy level: 8 Electrons in third energy level: 18 Electrons in fourth energy level: 32 Electrons in fifth energy level: 18 Electrons in sixth energy level: 8 Electrons in seventh energy level: 1

Radium (88) Symbol, Ra. The most common isotope has atomic weight 226. Classified as an alkaline earth. In pure form it is silver-gray, but darkens quickly when exposed to air. This element is radioactive, emitting alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. It has a moderately long half-life. • • • • • • •


INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.115

Actinium (89) Symbol, Ac. The most common isotope has atomic weight 227. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-gray in color. This element is radioactive, emitting beta particles. The most common isotope has a half-life of 21.6 years. • • • • • • •


Thorium (90) Symbol, Th. The most common isotope has atomic weight 232.038. Classified as a rare earth and a member of the actinide series. In pure form it is silver-colored, soft, ductile, and malleable. • • • • • • •


Protactinium (91) Symbol, Pa. Formerly called protoactinium. The most common isotope has atomic weight 231.036. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-colored. • • • • • • •


Uranium (92) Symbol, U. The most common isotope has atomic weight 238.029. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-colored, malleable, and ductile. • • • • • • •


Neptunium (93) Symbol, Np. The most common isotope has atomic weight 237. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-colored, and reacts with various other elements to form compounds. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8

1.116

SECTION ONE

• • • • •

Electrons in third energy level: 18 Electrons in fourth energy level: 32 Electrons in fifth energy level: 23 Electrons in sixth energy level: 8 Electrons in seventh energy level: 2

Plutonium (94) Symbol, Pu. The most common isotope has atomic weight 244. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-colored; when it is exposed to air, a yellow oxide layer forms. Plutonium reacts with various other elements to form compounds. • • • • • • •


Americium (95) Symbol, Am. The most common isotope has atomic weight 243. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silver-white and malleable. • • • • • • •


Curium (96) Symbol, Cm. The most common isotope has atomic weight 247. Classified as a rare earth. In pure form it is silvery in color, and it reacts readily with various other elements. This element, like most transuranic elements, is dangerously radioactive. • • • • • • •


Berkelium (97) Symbol, Bk. The most common isotope has atomic weight 247. Classified as a rare earth. It is radioactive with a short half-life. Berkelium is a human-made element and is not known to occur in nature. • • • •


INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.117

• Electrons in fifth energy level: 26 • Electrons in sixth energy level: 9 • Electrons in seventh energy level: 2 Californium (98) Symbol, Cf. The most common isotope has atomic weight 251. Classified as a rare earth. It is radioactive, emitting neutrons in large quantities. It is human-made element, not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Einsteinium (99) Symbol, E or Es. The most common isotope has atomic weight 252. Classified as a rare earth. It is radioactive with a short half-life. Einsteinium is a human-made element and is not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Fermium (100) Symbol, Fm. The most common isotope has atomic weight 257. Classified as a rare earth. It has a short half-life, is human-made, and is not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Mendelevium (101) Symbol, Md or Mv. The most common isotope has atomic weight 258. Classified as a rare earth. It has a short half-life, is human-made, and is not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


1.118

SECTION ONE

Nobelium (102) Symbol, No. The most common isotope has atomic weight 259. Classified as a rare earth. It has a short half-life (seconds or minutes, depending on the isotope), is human-made, and is not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Lawrencium (103) Symbol, Lr or Lw. The most common isotope has atomic weight 262. Classified as a rare earth. It has a half-life less than one minute, is human-made, and is not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Rutherfordium (104) Symbol, Rf. Also called unnilquadium (Unq) and Kurchatovium (Ku). The most common isotope has atomic weight 261. Classified as a transition metal. It has a half-life on the order of a few seconds to a few tenths of a second (depending on the isotope), is human-made, and is not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Dubnium (105) Symbol, Db. Also called unnilpentium (Unp) and Hahnium (Ha). The most common isotope has atomic weight 262. Classified as a transition metal. It has a half-life on the order of a few seconds to a few tenths of a second (depending on the isotope), is human-made, and is not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.119

Seaborgium (106) Symbol, Sg. Also called unnilhexium (Unh). The most common isotope has atomic weight 263. Classified as a transition metal. It has a half-life on the order of one second or less, is human-made, and is not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Bohrium (107) Symbol, Bh. Also called unnilseptium (Uns). The most common isotope has atomic weight 262. Classified as a transition metal. It is human-made and is not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Hassium (108) Symbol, Hs. also called unniloctium (Uno). The most common isotope has atomic weight 265. Classified as a transition metal. It is human-made and not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Meitnerium (109) Symbol, Mt. Also called unnilenium (Une). The most common isotope has atomic weight 266. Classified as a transition metal. It is human-made and not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Ununnilium (110) Symbol, Uun. The most common isotope has atomic weight 269. Classified as a transition metal. It is human-made and not known to occur in nature. • Electrons in first energy level: 2 • Electrons in second energy level: 8

1.120

SECTION ONE

• • • • •

Electrons in third energy level: 18 Electrons in fourth energy level: 32 Electrons in fifth energy level: 32 Electrons in sixth energy level: 17 Electrons in seventh energy level: 1

Unununium (111) Symbol, Uuu. The most common isotope has atomic weight 272. Classified as a transition metal. It is human-made and not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


Ununbium (112) Symbol, Uub. The most common isotope has atomic weight 277. Classified as a transition metal. It is human-made and not known to occur in nature. • • • • • • •


(113) As of this writing, no identifiable atoms of an element with atomic number 113 have been reported. The synthesis of or appearance of such an atom is believed possible because of the observation of ununqadium (Uuq, element 114) in the laboratory. Ununquadium (114) Symbol, Uuq. The most common isotope has atomic weight 285. First reported in January 1999. It is human-made and not known to occur in nature. (115) As of this writing, no identifiable atoms of an element with atomic number 115 have been reported. The synthesis or appearance of such an atom is believed possible because of the observation of ununhexium (Uuh, element 116) in the laboratory. Ununhexium (116) Symbol, Uuh. The most common isotope has atomic weight 289. First reported in January 1999. It is a decomposition product of ununoctium, and it in turn decomposes into ununquadium. It is not known to occur in nature. (117) As of this writing, no identifiable atoms of an element with atomic number 117 have been reported. The synthesis or appearance of such an atom is believed possible because of the observation of ununoctium (Uuo, element 118) in the laboratory. Ununoctium (118) Symbol, Uuo. The most common isotope has atomic weight 293. It is the result of the fusion of krypton and lead and decomposes into ununhexium. It is not known to occur in nature.

TABLE 1.17 Atomic Numbers, Periods, and Groups of the Elements (The Periodic Table) Group Period 1

1 1 H 3 Li 11 Na 19 K 37 Rb 55 Cs 87 Fr

2 3 4 5 6 7

2

4 Be 12 Mg 20 Ca 38 Sr 56 Ba 88 Ra

3

* **

*Lanthanides

*

†Actinides

**

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

21 Sc 39 Y 71 Lu 103 Lr

22 Ti 40 Zr 72 Hf 104 Unq

23 V 41 Nb 73 Ta 105 Unp

24 Cr 42 Mo 74 W 106 Unh

25 Mn 43 Tc 75 Re 107 Uns

26 Fe 44 Ru 76 Os 108 Uno

27 Co 45 Rh 77 Ir 109 Mt

28 Ni 46 Pd 78 Pt 110 Uun

29 Cu 47 Ag 79 Au 111 Uuu

30 Zn 48 Cd 80 Hg 112 Uub

5 B 13 Al 31 Ga 49 In 81 Tl 113 Uut

57 La 89 Ac

58 Ce 90 Th

59 Pr 91 Pa

60 Nd 92 U

61 Pm 93 Np

62 Sm 94 Pu

63 Eu 95 Am

64 Gd 96 Cm

65 Tb 97 Bk

66 Dy 98 Cf

67 Ho 99 Es

14

15

16

17

18

1 H 9 F 17 Cl 35 Br 53 I 85 At 117 Uus

2 He 10 Ne 18 Ar 36 Kr 54 Xe 86 Rn 118 Uuo

6 C 14 Si 32 Ge 50 Sn 82 Pb 114 Uuq

7 N 15 P 33 As 51 Sb 83 Bi 115 Uup

8 O 16 S 34 Se 52 Te 84 Po 116 Uuh

68 Er 100 Fm

69 Tm 101 Md

70 Yb 102 No

1.121

1.122

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.18 Atomic Weights of the Elements Name Actinium Aluminium Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Caesium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Mendelevium

Atomic number

Symbol

Atomic weight

89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 4 83 107 5 35 48 55 20 98 6 58 17 24 27 29 96 105 66 99 68 63 100 9 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 2 67 1 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 3 71 12 25 109 101

Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Cs Ca Cf C Ce Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lu Mg Mn Mt Md

[227] 26.981538 [243] 121.76 39.948 74.9216 [210] 137.327 [247] 9.012182 8.98038 [264] 10.811 79.904 112.411 132.90545 40.078 [251] 12.0107 140.116 35.4527 51.9961 8.9332 63.546 [247] [262] 162.5 [252] 167.26 151.964 [257] 18.9984032 [223] 157.25 69.723 72.61 196.96655 178.49 [265] 4.002602 164.93032 1.00794 114.818 126.90447 192.217 55.845 83.8 138.9055 [262] 207.2 6.941 174.967 24.305 54.938049 [268] [258]

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.123

TABLE 1.18 Atomic Weights of the Elements (Continued) Name Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Ununbium Ununnilium Ununnunium Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium

Atomic number 80 42 60 10 93 28 41 7 102 76 8 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 112 110 111 92 23 54 70 39 30 40

Symbol Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W Uub Uun Uuu U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr

Atomic weight 200.59 95.94 144.24 20.1797 [237] 58.6934 92.90638 14.00674 [259] 190.23 15.9994 106.42 30.973761 195.078 [244] [209] 39.0983 140.90765 [145] 231.03588 [226] [222] 186.207 102.9055 85.4678 101.07 [261] 150.36 44.95591 [263] 78.96 28.0855 107.8682 22.98977 87.62 32.066(6) 180.9479 [98] 127.6 158.92534 204.3833 232.0381 168.93421 118.71 47.867 183.84 [277] [269] [272] 238.0289 50.9415 131.29 173.04 88.90585 65.39 91.224

1.124 TABLE 1.19 Physical Properties of the Elements The relative atomic masses in the following table are based on the 12C = 12 scale; a value in brackets denotes the mass number of the most stable isotope. The data are based on the most recent values adopted by IUPAC, with a maximum of six significant figures. r denotes density, qC,m denotes melting temperature, qC, b denotes boiling temperature, and cp denotes specific heat capacity. subl. denotes sublimes

Element

Symbol

Atomic number

Relative atomic mass

Actinium Aluminium Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic (a, grey) Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Boron Bromine Cadmium Caesium Calcium Californium Carbon

Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi B Br Cd Cs Ca Cf C

89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 4 83 5 35 48 55 20 98 6

227.028 26.9815 (243) 121.75 39.948 74.9216 (210) 137.33 (247) 9.01218 208.980 10.81 79.904 112.41 132.905 40.08 (251) 12.011

Cerium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Dysprosium Einsteinium

Ce Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Dy Es

58 17 24 27 29 96 66 99

140.12 35.453 51.996 58.9332 63.546 (247) 162.50 (252)

r/g cm−3

qC,m /°C

qC,b /°C

cp /J kg−1 K−1

10.1 2.70 11.7 6.62 1.40 (87 K) 5.72

1050 660 (1200) 630 −189

3200 2470 (2600) 1380 −186 613 subl. (380) 1640

900 140 209 519 326 (140) 192

3.51

(302) 714

1.85 9.80 2.34 3.12 8.64 1.90 1.54

1280 271 2300 −7.2 321 28.7 850

2477 1560 3930 58.8 765 690 1487

1.82 × 103 121 1.03 × 103 448 230 234 653

2.25 (graphite) 3.51 (diamond) 6.78 1.56 (238 K) 7.19 8.90 8.92

3730 subl.

4830

795 −101 1890 1492 1083

3470 −34.7 2482 2900 2595

711 (graphite) 519 (diamond) 184 477 448 435 385

8.56

1410

2600

172

Oxidation states 3 3 3, 4, 5, 6 3, 5 3, 5 2 3, 4 2 3,5 3 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 2 1 2 3 2,4 3,4 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 2,3,6 2,3 1,2 3 3 3

Erbium Europium Fermium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium

Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lu Mg Mn Md Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb

68 63 100 9 87 64 31 32 79 72 2 67 1 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 3 71 12 25 101 80 42 60 10 93 28 41

167.26 151.96 (257) 18.9984 (223) 157.25 69.72 72.59 196.967 178.49 4.00260 164.930 1.0079 114.82 126.905 192.22 55.847 83.80 138.906 (260) 207.2 6.941 174.967 24.305 54.9380 (258) 200.59 95.94 144.24 20.179 237.048 58.69 92.9064

9.16 5.24

1500 826

2900 1440

167 138

1.11 (85 K) 7.95 5.91 5.35 19.3 13.3 0.147 (4 K) 8.80 0.070 (20 K) 7.30 4.93 22.5 7.86 2.16 (121 K) 6.19

−220 (27) 1310 29.8 937 1063 2220 −270 1460 −259 157 114 2440 1535 −157 920

−188 (680) 3000 2400 2830 2970 5400 −269 2600 −252 2000 184 5300 3000 −152 3470

824 (140) 234 381 322 130 146 5.19 × 103 163 1.43 × 104 238 218 134 448 247 201

11.3 0.53 9.84 1.74 7.20

327 180 1650 650 1240

1744 1330 3330 1110 2100

130 3.39 × 103 155 1.03 × 103 477

13.6 10.2 7.00 1.20 (27 K) 20.4 8.90 8.57

−38.9 2610 1020 −249 640 1453 2470

357 5560 3030 −246

138 251 188 1.03 × 103

2730 3300

439 264

3 2, 3 3 1 1 3 3 4 1, 3 4 3 1 1, 3 1, 3, 5, 7 2, 3, 4, 6 2, 3, 6 2 3 2, 4 1 3 2 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 3 1, 2 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 3 3, 4, 5, 6 2, 3 3, 5 (Continued)

1.125

1.126 TABLE 1.19 Physical Properties of the Elements (Continued) Relative atomic mass

Symbol

Atomic number

Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus

N No Os O Pd P

7 102 76 8 46 15

14.0067 (259) 190.2 15.9994 106.42 30.9738

Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protoactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Samarium Scandium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulphur (a, rhombic)

Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rb Ru Sm Sc Se Si Ag Na Sr S

78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 37 44 62 21 34 14 47 11 38 16

195.08 (244) (209) 39.0983 140.908 (145) 231.036 226.025 (222) 186.207 102.906 85.4678 101.07 150.36 44.9559 78.96 28.0855 107.868 22.9898 87.62 32.06

Tantalum Technetium Tellurium

Ta Tc Te

73 43 52

180.948 (98) 127.60

Element

r/g cm−3 0.808 (77 K) 22.5 1.15 (90 K) 12.0 1.82 (white) 2.34 (red) 21.4 19.8 9.4 0.86 6.78 15.4 5.0 4.4 (211 K) 20.5 12.4 1.53 12.3 7.54 2.99 4.81 2.33 10.5 0.97 2.62 2.07 (a) 1.96 (b) 16.6 11.5 6.25

qC,m/°C

qC,b/°C

cp/J kg−1 K−1

Oxidation states

−210

−196

1.04 × 103

1, 2, 3, 4, 5

3000 −218 1550 44.2 (white) 590 (red) 1769 640 254 63.7 935 1030 1230 700 −71 3180 1970 38.9 2500 1070 1540 217 1410 961 97.8 768 113 (a) 119 (b) 3000 2200 450

5000 −183 3980 280 (white)

130 916 243 757 (white) 670 (red) 134

2, 3, 4, 6, 8 2 2, 4 3, 5

4530 3240 960 774 3130 2730

2, 4, 6 3, 4, 5, 6 2, 4 1 3, 4 3 4, 5 2

1140 −61.8 5630 4500 688 4900 1900 2730 685 2360 2210 890 1380 445

126 753 192 184 121 121 92 138 243 360 238 197 556 322 711 234 1.23 × 103 284 732

2, 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 3, 4 1 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 2, 3 3 2, 4, 6 4 1 1 2 2, 4, 6

5420 3500 990

138 243 201

5 7 2, 4, 6

Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin (white)

Tb Tl Th Tm Sn

65 81 90 69 50

158.925 204.383 232.038 168.934 118.71

Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium

Ti W U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr

22 74 92 23 54 70 39 30 40

47.88 183.85 238.029 50.9415 131.29 173.04 88.9059 65.39 91.224

8.27 11.8 11.7 9.33 7.28 (white) 5.75 (grey) 4.54 19.4 19.1 5.96 3.52 (165 K) 6.98 4.34 7.14 6.49

1360 304 1750 1540 232

2800 1460 3850 1730 2270

184 130 113 159 218

3, 4 1, 3 3, 4 2, 3 2, 4

1675 3410 1130 1900 −112 824 1500 420 1850

3260 5930 3820 3000 −108 1430 2930 907 3580

523 134 117 481 159 146 297 385 276

2, 3, 4 2, 4, 5, 6 3, 4, 5, 6 2, 3, 4, 5 2, 4, 6, 8 2, 3 3 2 2, 3, 4

1.127

1.128 TABLE 1.20 Conductivity and Resistivity of the Elements

Name

Symbol

Atomic number

Electronic configuration

Thermal conductivity, W ⋅ (m ⋅ K)−1 at 25°C

Electrical resistivity, mΩ ⋅ cm at 20°C

Coefficient of linear thermal expansion (25°C), m ⋅ m−1(× 106)

(Continued)

1.129

1.130 TABLE 1.20 Conductivity and Resistivity of the Elements (Continued)

Name

Symbol

Atomic number

Electronic configuration

Thermal conductivity, W ⋅ (m ⋅ K)−1 at 25°C

Electrical resistivity, mΩ ⋅ cm at 20°C

Coefficient of linear thermal expansion (25°C), m ⋅ m−1(× 106)

1.131

1.132

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.21 Work Functions of the Elements The work function f is the energy necessary to just remove an electron from the metal surface in thermoelectric or photoelectric emission. Values are dependent upon the experimental technique (vacua of 10–9 or 10–10 torr, clean surfaces, and surface conditions including the crystal face identification). Element Ag Al As Au B Ba Be Bi C Ca Cd Ce Co Cr Cs Cu Eu Fe Ga Ge Gd Hf

f, eV

Element

f, eV

Element

f,eV

4.64 4.19 (3.75) 5.32 (4.75) 2.35 5.08 4.36 (5.0) 2.71 4.12 2.80 4.70 4.40 1.90 4.70 2.50 4.65 4.25 5.0 3.1 3.65

Hg In Ir K La Li Mg Mn Mo Na Nb Nd Ni Os Pb Pd Po Pr Pt Rb Re Rh

4.50 4.08 5.6 2.30 3.40 3.10 3.66 3.90 4.30 2.70 4.20 3.1 5.15 4.83 4.18 5.00 4.6 2.7 5.40 2.20 4.95 4.98

Ru Sb Sc Se Si Sm Sn Sr Ta Tb Te Th Ti Tl U V W Y Zn Zr

4.80 4.56 3.5 5.9 4.85 2.95 4.35 2.76 4.22 3.0 4.70 3.71 4.10 4.02 3.70 4.44 4.55 3.1 4.30 4.00

TABLE 1.22 Relative Abundances of Naturally Occurring Isotopes Element Aluminum Antimony Argon

Arsenic Barium

Beryllium Bismuth Boron Bromine

Mass number

Percent

Element

27 121 123 36 38 40 75 130 132 134 135 136 137 138 9 209 10 11 79 81

100 57.21(5) 42.79(5) 0.337(3) 0.063(1) 99.600(3) 100 0.106(2) 0.101(2) 2.42(3) 6.59(2) 7.85(4) 11.23(4) 71.70(7) 100 100 19.9(2) 80.1(2) 50.69(7) 49.31(7)

Cadmium

Calcium

Carbon Cerium

Mass number 106 108 110 111 112 113 114 116 40 42 43 44 46 48 12 13 136 138 140 142

Percent 1.25(4) 0.89(2) 12.49(12) 12.80(8) 24.13(14) 12.22(8) 28.7(3) 7.49(9) 96.941(18) 0.647(9) 0.135(6) 2.088(12) 0.004(3) 0.187(4) 98.89(1) 1.11(1) 0.19(1) 0.25(1) 88.43(10) 11.13(10)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.133

TABLE 1.22 Relative Abundances of Naturally Occurring Isotopes (Continued) Element Cesium Chlorine Chromium

Cobalt Copper Dysprosium

Erbium

Europium Fluorine Gadolinium

Gallium Germanium

Gold Hafnium

Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium

Mass number

Percent

Element

133 35 37 50 52 53 54 59 63 65 156 158 160 161 162 163 164 162 164 166 167 168 170 151 153 19 152 154 155 156 157 158 160 69 71 70 72 73 74 76 197 174 176 177 178 179 180 4 165 1 2 113 115

100 75.77(7) 24.23(7) 4.345(13) 83.79(2) 9.50(2) 2.365(7) 100 69.17(3) 30.83(3) 0.06(1) 0.10(1) 2.34(6) 18.9(2) 25.5(2) 24.9(2) 28.2(2) 0.14(1) 1.61(2) 33.6(2) 22.95(15) 26.8(2) 14.9(2) 47.8(5) 52.2(5) 100 0.20(1) 2.18(3) 14.80(5) 20.47(4) 15.65(3) 24.84(12) 21.86(4) 60.108(9) 39.892(9) 21.23(4) 27.66(3) 7.73(1) 35.94(2) 7.44(2) 100 0.162(3) 5.206(5) 18.606(13) 27.297(4) 13.629(6) 35.100(7) 100 100 99.985(1) 0.015(1) 4.29(2) 95.71(2)

Iodine Iridium Iron

Krypton

Lanthanum Lead

Lithium Lutetium Magnesium

Manganese Mercury

Molybdenum

Neodymium

Neon

Nickel

Mass number

Percent

127 191 193 54 56 57 58 78 80 82 83 84 86 138 139 204 206 207 208 6 7 175 176 24 25 26 55 196 198 199 200 201 202 204 92 94 95 96 97 98 100 142 143 144 145 146 148 150 20 21 22 58 60

100 37.27(9) 62.73(9) 5.85(4) 91.75(4) 2.12(1) 0.26(1) 0.35(2) 2.25(2) 11.6(1) 11.5(1) 57.0(3) 17.3(2) 0.0902(2) 99.9098(2) 1.4(1) 24.1(1) 22.1(1) 52.4(1) 7.5(2) 92.5(2) 97.41(2) 2.59(2) 78.99(3) 10.00(1) 11.01(2) 100 0.15(1) 9.97(8) 16.87(10) 23.10(16) 13.18(8) 29.86(20) 6.87(4) 14.84(4) 9.25(3) 15.92(5) 16.68(5) 9.55(3) 24.13(7) 9.63(3) 27.13(12) 12.18(6) 23.80(12) 8.30(6) 17.19(9) 5.76(3) 5.64(3) 90.48(3) 0.27(1) 9.25(3) 68.077(9) 26.223(8) (Continued)

1.134

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.22 Relative Abundances of Naturally Occurring Isotopes (Continued) Element

Niobium Nitrogen Osmium

Oxygen

Palladium

Phosphorus Platinum

Potassium

Praseodymium Protoactinium Rhenium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium

Samarium

Mass number

Percent

61 62 64 93 14 15 184 186 187 188 189 190 192 16 17 18 102 104 105 106 108 110 31 190 192 194 195 196 198 39 40 41 141 230 185 187 103 85 87 96 98 99 100 101 102 104 144 147 148 149 150 152

1.140(1) 3.634(2) 0.926(1) 100 99.634(9) 0.366(9) 0.020(3) 1.58(2) 1.6(4) 13.3(1) 16.1(1) 26.4(2) 41.0(3) 99.76(1) 0.04 0.20(1) 1.02(1) 11.14(8) 22.33(8) 27.33(3) 26.46(9) 11.72(9) 100 0.01(1) 0.79(6) 32.9(6) 33.8(6) 25.3(6) 7.2(2) 93.258(4) 0.0117(1) 6.730(3) 100 100 37.40(2) 62.60(2) 100 72.17(2) 27.83(2) 5.52(6) 1.88(6) 12.7(1) 12.6(1) 17.0(1) 31.6(2) 18.7(2) 3.1(1) 15.0(2) 11.3(1) 13.8(1) 7.4(1) 26.7(2)

Element Scandium Selenium

Silicon

Silver Sodium Strontium

Sulfur

Tantalum Tellurium

Terbium Thallium Thorium Thullium Tin

Titanium

Mass number

Percent

154 45 74 76 77 78 80 82 28 29 30 107 109 23 84 86 87 88 32 33 34 36 180 181 120 122 123 124 125 126 128 130 159 203 205 228 169 112 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 122 124 46 47 48 49 50

22.7(2) 100 0.89(2) 9.36(11) 6.63(6) 23.78(9) 49.61(10) 8.73(6) 92.23(2) 4.67(2) 3.10(1) 51.839(7) 48.161(7) 100 0.56(1) 9.86(1) 7.00(1) 82.58(1) 95.02(9) 0.75(4) 4.21(8) 0.02(1) 0.012(2) 99.988(2) 0.096(2) 2.603(4) 0.908(2) 4.816(6) 7.139(6) 18.952(11) 31.687(11) 33.799(10) 100 29.52(1) 70.48(1) 100 100 0.97(1) 0.65(1) 0.34(1) 14.53(11) 7.68(7) 24.23(11) 8.59(4) 32.59(10) 4.63(3) 5.79(5) 8.25(3) 7.44(2) 73.72(3) 5.41(2) 5.4(1)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.135

TABLE 1.22 Relative Abundances of Naturally Occurring Isotopes (Continued) Element Tungsten

Uranium

Vanadium Xenon

Ytterbium

Mass number

Percent

180 182 183 184 186 234 235 238 50 51 124 126 128 129 130 131 132 134 136 168

0.12(1) 26.50(3) 14.31(1) 30.64(1) 28.43(4) 0.0055(5) 0.720(1) 99.275(2) 0.250(2) 99.750(2) 0.10(1) 0.09(1) 1.91(3) 26.4(6) 4.1(1) 21.2(4) 26.9(5) 10.4(2) 8.9(1) 0.13(1)

Element

Yttrium Zinc

Zirconium

Mass number 170 171 172 173 174 176 89 64 66 67 68 70 90 91 92 94 96

Percent 3.05(6) 14.3(2) 21.9(3) 16.12(2) 31.8(4) 12.7(2) 100 48.6(3) 27.9(2) 4.1(1) 18.8(4) 0.6(1) 51.45(3) 11.22(4) 17.15(2) 17.38(4) 2.80(2)

TABLE 1.23 Radioactivity of the Elements (Neptunium Series) Element Plutonium ↓ Americium ↓ Neptunium ↓ Protactinium ↓ Uranium ↓ Thorium ↓ Radium ↓ Actinium ↓ Francium ↓ Astatine ↓

Symbol 241

Radiation

Half-life

Pu

b

13.2 years

Am

a

462 years

a

2.20 × 106 years

b

27.4 days

U

a

1.62 × 105 years

229

Th

a

7.34 × 103 years

225

Ra

b

14.8 days

Ac

a

10.0 days

Fr

a

4.8 min

At

a

1.8 × 10−2 sec

241

237

Np

233

Pa

233

225

221

217

(Continued)

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SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.23 Radioactivity of the Elements (Neptunium Series) (Continued) Element Bismuth 98% | 2% −−−−−−−−−−−−| ↓ | Polonium ↓ | Thallium | |____________| ↓ Lead ↓ Bismuth (End Product)

Symbol

Radiation

Half-life

213

Bi

b and a

213

Po

a

4.2 × 10−6 sec

Tl

b

2.2 min

Pb

b

3.32 hr

Stable

—

209

209

209

Bi

47 min

TABLE 1.24 Radioactivity of the Elements (Thorium Series) Radioelement Thorium ↓ Mesothorium I ↓ Mesothorium II ↓ Radiothorium ↓ Thorium X ↓ Th Emanation ↓ Thorium A ↓ Thorium B ↓ Thorium C 66.3% | 33.7% −−−−−−−−−−−−| ↓ | Thorium C′ ↓ | Thorium C′′ | |____________| ↓ Thorium D (End Product)

Corresponding element

Symbol

Radiation

Half-life

Thorium

232

a

1.39 × 1010 years

Radium

228

Ra

b

6.7 years

Actinium

228

Ac

b

6.13 hr

Thorium

228

a

1.91 years

Radium

224

Ra

a

3.64 days

Radon

220

Rn

a

52 sec

Polonium

216

a

0.16 sec

Lead

212

b

10.6 hr

Bismuth

212

Bi

b and a

Polonium

212

Po

a

3 × 10−7 sec

Thallium

208

Tl

b

3.1 min

Lead

208

Pb

Stable

—

Th

Th

Po Pb

60.5 min

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.137

TABLE 1.25 Radioactivity of the Elements (Actinium Series) Radioelement Actinouranium ↓ Uranium Y ↓ Protactinium ↓ Actinium 98.8% | 1.2% −−−−−−−−−−−−| ↓ Radioactinium | ↓ | Actinium K | |____________| ↓ Actinium X ↓ Ac Emanation ↓ Actinium A ⵑ100% | ⵑ5 × 10−4% −−−−−−−−−−−−| ↓ | Actinium B ↓ | Astatine-215 | |____________| ↓ Actinium C 99.7% | 0.3% |−−−−−−−−−−−−↓ | Actinium C′ ↓ Actinium C′′ |____________| ↓ Actinium D (End Product)


Symbol

Radiation

Half-life

Uranium

235

a

7.13 × 108 years

Thorium

231

b

25.6 hr

Protactinium

231

a

3.43 × 104 years

Actinium

227

b and a

21.8 years

Thorium

227

a

18.4 days

Francium

223

b

21 min

Radium

223

a

11.7 days

Radon

219

a

3.92 sec

Polonium

215

a and b

Lead

211

b

36.1 min

Astatine

215

a

ⵑ10−4 sec

Bismuth

211

a and b

2.16 min

Polonium

211

a

0.52 sec

Thallium

207

b

4.8 min

Lead

207

Stable

U Th Pa Ac

Th Fr

Ra Rn Po

Pb At

Bi

Po Tl Pb

1.83 × 10−3 s

—

TABLE 1.26 Radioactivity of the Elements (Uranium Series) Radioelement Uranium I ↓ Uranium X1 ↓ Uranium X2* ↓ Uranium II ↓ Ionium ↓ Radium ↓


Symbol

Radiation

Half-life

Uranium

238

a

4.51 × 109 years

Thorium

234

b

24.1 days

Protactinium

234

b

1.18 min

Uranium

234

a

2.48 × 105 years

Thorium

230

a

8.0 × 104 years

Radium

226

a

1.62 × 103 years

U Th Pa U Th Ra

(Continued)

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SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.26 Radioactivity of the Elements (Uranium Series) (Continued) Corresponding element

Radioelement Ra Emanation ↓ Radium A 99.98% | 0.02% −−−−−−−−−−−−| ↓ | Radium B ↓ | Astatine-218 | |____________| ↓ Radium C 99.96% | 0.04% −−−−−−−−−−−−| ↓ | Radium C′ ↓ | Radium C′′ | |____________| ↓ Radium D ↓ Radium E ⵑ100% | 2 × 10−4% −−−−−−−−−−−−| ↓ | Radium F ↓ | Thallium-206 | |____________| ↓ Radium G (End Product)

Symbol

Radiation

Half-life

Radon

222

a

3.82 days

Polonium

218

a and b

3.05 min

Lead

214

b

26.8 min

Astatine

218

a

2 sec

Bismuth

214

b and a

Polonium

214

a

1.6 × 10−4 sec

Thallium

210

b

1.32 min

Lead

210

b

19.4 years

Bismuth

210

b and a

Polonium

210

a

138.4 days

Thallium

206

b

4.20 min

Lead

206

Stable

—

Rn Po

Pb At Bi

Po Tl

Pb Bi

Po Tl Pb

19.7 min

5.0 days

*Uranium X2 is an excited state of 234Pa and undergoes isomeric transition to a small extent to form uranium Z (234Pa in its ground state); the latter has a half-life of 6.7 h, emitting beta radiation and forming uranium II (234U).

1.4 IONIZATION ENERGY TABLE 1.27 Ionization Energy of the Elements The minimum amount of energy required to remove the least strongly bound electron from a gaseous atom (or ion) is called the ionization energy and is expressed in MJ ⋅ mol–1. At. no.

Spectrum (in MJ ⋅ mol−1) Element

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.139

TABLE 1.27 Ionization Energy of the Elements (Continued) At. no.


I

II

III

IV

V

VI

(Continued)

1.140

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.27 Ionization Energy of the Elements (Continued) At. no.


I

II

III

IV

V

VI

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.141

TABLE 1.28 Ionization Energy of Molecular and Radical Species Ionization energy Species

In MJ ⋅ mol−1

In electron volts

∆f H (ion) in kJ ⋅ mol−1

(Continued)

1.142

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.28 Ionization Energy of Molecular and Radical Species (Continued) Ionization energy Species

In MJ ⋅ mol−1

In electron volts


INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.143


In Mj ⋅ mol−1

In electron volts


(Continued)

1.144

SECTION ONE


In Mj ⋅ mol−1

Source: Sharon, G., et al., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 17:Suppl. No 1 (1988).

In electron volts


INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.145

1.5 ELECTRONEGATIVITY Electronegativity c is the relative attraction of an atom for the valence electrons in a covalent bond. It is proportional to the effective nuclear charge and inversely proportional to the covalent radius:

χ=

0.31(n + 1 ± c) + 0.50 r

where n is the number of valence electrons, c is any formal valence charge on the atom and the sign before it corresponds to the sign of this charge, and r is the covalent radius. Originally the element fluorine, whose atoms have the greatest attraction for electrons, was given an arbitrary electronegativity of 4.0. A revision of Pauling’s values based on newer data assigns −3.90 to fluorine. Values in Table 1.29 refer to the common oxidation states of the elements.

TABLE 1.29 Electronegativity Values of the Elements H 2.20 Li 0.98

Be 1.57

B C 2.04 2.55

N O F 3.04 3.44 3.90

Na 0.93

Mg 1.31

Al Si 1.61 1.90

P S Cl 2.19 2.58 3.16

K 0.82

Ca 1.00

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu 1.36 1.54 1.63 1.66 1.55 1.83 1.88 1.91 1.90

Zn Ga 1.65 1.81

Ge As Se Br 2.01 2.18 2.55 2.96

Rb 0.82

Sr 0.95

Y Zr 1.22 1.33

Nb 1.6

Mo Tc 2.16 2.10

Ru 2.2

Rh Pd Ag 2.28 2.20 1.93

Cd In 1.69 1.78

Sn Sb 1.96 2.05

Te 2.1

I 2.66

Cs 0.79

Ba 0.89

La 1.10

Ta 1.5

W 1.7

Os 2.2

Ir 2.2

Hg 1.9

Pb 1.8

Po 2.0

At 2.2

Fr 0.7

Ra 0.9

Ac 1.1

Hf 1.3

Lanthanides

Ce Pr Nd 1.12 1.13 1.14

Actinides

Th 1.3

Pa 1.5

U 1.7

Re 1.9

Sm 1.17 Np 1.3

Pu 1.3

Pt 2.2

Au 2.4

Gd 1.20 Am 1.3

Cm 1.3

Bk 1.3

Tl 1.8

Bi 1.9

Dy Ho 1.22 1.23

Er Tm 1.24 1.25

Cf 1.3

Fm 1.3

Es 1.3

Md 1.3

Lu 1.0 No 1.3

The greater the difference is electronegativity, the greater is the ionic character of the bond. The amount of ionic character I is given by: I = 0.46 | cA – cB | + 0.035(cA – cB)2 The bond is fully covalent when (cA – cB) < 0.5 (and I < 6%).

1.146

SECTION ONE

1.6 ELECTRON AFFINITY TABLE 1.30 Electron Affinities of Elements, Molecules, and Radicals Electron affinity of an atom (molecule or radical) is defined as the energy difference between the lowest (ground) state of the neutral and the lowest state of the corresponding negative ion in the gas phase. A(g) + e– = A–(g) Data are limited to those negative ions which, by virtue of their positive electron affinity, are stable. Uncertainty in the final data figures is given in parentheses. Calculated values are enclosed in brackets.

Electron affinity, Atom

Next Page INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.147

TABLE 1.30 Electron Affinities of Elements, Molecules, and Radicals (Continued)

Electron affinity, Atom

Electron affinity, Molecule

(Continued)

Previous Page 1.148

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.30 Electron Affinities of Elements, Molecules, and Radicals (Continued)

Electron affinity, Molecule

Electron affinity Radical

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.149

TABLE 1.30 Electron Affinities of Elements, Molecules, and Radicals (Continued) C. Radical Electron affinity, Radical

(Continued)

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SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.30 Electron Affinities of Elements, Molecules, and Radicals (Continued) C. Radical Electron affinity, Radical

Source: H. Hotop and W. C. Lineberger, J. Phys. Chem. Reference Data 14:731 (1985).

1.7 BOND LENGTHS AND STRENGTHS Distances between centers of bonded atoms are called bond lengths, or bond distances. Bond lengths vary depending on many factors, but in general, they are very consistent. Of course the bond orders affect bond length, but bond lengths of the same order for the same pair of atoms in various molecules are very consistent. The bond order is the number of electron pairs shared between two atoms in the formation of the bond. Bond order for C=C and O=O is 2. The amount of energy required to break a bond is called bond dissociation energy or simply bond energy. Since bond lengths are consistent, bond energies of similar bonds are also consistent. Bonds between the same type of atom are covalent bonds, and bonds between atoms when their electronegativity differs slightly are also predominant covalent in character. Theoretically, even ionic bonds have some covalent character. Thus, the boundary between ionic and covalent bonds is not a clear line of demarcation.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.151

For covalent bonds, bond energies and bond lengths depend on many factors: electron affinities, sizes of atoms involved in the bond, differences in their electronegativity, and the overall structure of the molecule. There is a general trend in that the shorter the bond length, the higher the bond energy but there is no formula to show this relationship, because of the widespread variation in bond character.

1.7.1 Atom Radius The atom radius of an element is the shortest distance between like atoms. It is the distance of the centers of the atoms from one another in metallic crystals and for these materials the atom radius is often called the metal radius. Except for the lanthanides (CN = 6), CN = 12 for the elements. 1.7.2 Ionic Radii One of the major factors in determining the structures of the substances that can be thought of as made up of cations and anions packed together is ionic size. It is obvious from the nature of wave functions that no ion has a precisely defined radius. However, with the insight afforded by electron density maps and with a large base of data, new efforts to establish tables of ionic radii have been made. Effective ionic radii are based on the assumption that the ionic radius of O2– (CN 6) is 140 pm and that of F– (CN 6) is 133 pm. Also taken into consideration is the coordination number (CN) and electronic spin state (HS and LS, high spin and low spin) of first-row transition metal ions. These radii are empirical and include effects of covalence in specific metal-oxygen or metal-fluorine bonds. Older “crystal ionic radii” were based on the radius of F– (CN 6) equal to 119 pm; these radii are 14–18 percent larger than the effective ionic radii.

1.7.3 Covalent Radii Covalent radii are the distance between two kinds of atoms connected by a covalent bond of a given type (single, double, etc.).

TABLE 1.31 Atom Radii and Effective Ionic Radii of Elements Effective ionic radii, pm Coordinator number

(Continued)

1.152

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.31 Atom Radii and Effective Ionic Radii of Elements (Continued) Effective ionic radii, pm Coordinator number

*CN = 3

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.153


*CN = 10

(Continued)

1.154

SECTION ONE


*CN = 3 †CN = 7

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.155


(Continued)

1.156

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.31 Atom Radii and Effective Ionic Radii of Elements (Continued) Effective ionic radii, pm

Element

*CN = 11

Atom radius, pm

Coordinator number Ion Charge

4

6

8

12

TABLE 1.32 Approximate Effective Ionic Radii in Aqueous Solutions at 25°C å (in Å)

Inorganic ions −

−

− −

å (in Å)

Organic ions

1.157

1.158

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.33 Covalent Radii for Atoms Element Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Beryllium Boron Bromine Cadmium Carbon Chlorine Copper Fluorine Gallium Germanium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Magnesium Mercury Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Silicon Selenium Silver Sulfur Tellurium Tin Zinc

Single-bond radius, pm* 126 141 121 106 88 114 148 77.2 99 135 64 126 122 30 144 133 140 148 70 66 110 117 117 152 104 137 140 131

Double-bond radius, pm 131 111

104 66.7 89

60.3

54 112

123

60 55 100 107 107 94 127 130

* Single-bond radii are for a tetrahedral (CN = 4) structure.

TABLE 1.34 Octahedral Covalent Radii for CN = 6

Triple-bond radius, pm

55 93 100

87

TABLE 1.35 Bond Lengths between Elements Elements

Bond type

Bond Length, pm

Elements

Bond type

B-B B-Br B-Cl B-F B-H B-N B-O

B2H6 BBr3 BCl3 BF3, R2BF Boranes Bridge Borazoles B(OH)3, (RO)3B

H-Al H-As H-Be H-Br H-Ca H-Cl H-F H-Ge H-I H-K H-Li H-Mg H-Na H-Sb H-Se H-Sn D-Br D-C1 D-I T-Br T-Cl

AlH AsH3 BeH HBr CaH HCl HF GeH4 HI KH LiH MgH NaH H3Sb H2Se SnH4 DBr (2HBr) DCl DI TBr (3HBr) TCl

177(1) 187(2) 172(1) 129(1) 121(2) 139(2) 142(1) 136(5)

O-H

O-O

Hydrogen 164.6 151.9 134.3 140.8 200.2 127.4 91.7 153 160.9 224.4 159.5 173.1 188.7 170.7 146.0 170.1 141.44 127.46 161.65 141.44 127.40

O-Al O-As O-Ba O-Cl O-Mg O-Os O-Pb

N-D N-N

N-O N˙O N-Si

NO2Cl NF3 NH+4 NH3, RNH2 H2NNH2 R[CO[NH2 HN˙C˙S ND (N2H) HN3 R2NNH2 N2O N+2 NO2Cl RO[NO2 NO2 N2O RNO2 NO+ SiN

179(2) 136(2) 103.4(3) 101.2 103.8 99(3) 101.3(3) 104.1 102(1) 145.1(5) 112.6(2) 111.6 124(1) 136(2) 118.8(5) 118.6(2) 122(I) 106.19 157.2

H2O ROH OH+ HOOH D2O (2H2O) OD HO[OH O+2 O−2 O2− 3 O3 AlO As2O6 bridges BaO ClO2 OCl2 MgO OsO4 PbO

95.8 97(1) 102.89 96.0(5) 95.75 96.99 148(1) 122.7 126(2) 149(2) 127.8(5) 161.8 179 190.0 148.4 168 174.9 166 193.4

Phosphorus P-Br P-Cl P-F P-H P-I P-N P-O P-S

Nitrogen N-Cl N-F N-H

Bond Length, pm

Oxygen

Boron

P-C

PBr3 PCl3 PFCl2 PH3, PH+4 PI3 Single bond Single bond p3 bonding sp3 bonding p3 bonding sp3 bonding In rings Single bond p3 bonding

223(1) 200(2) 155(3) 142.4(5) 252(1) 149.1 144.7 167 154(4) 212(5) 208(2) 220(3) 156.2 187(2)

Silicon Si-Br Si-Cl Si-F Si-H Si-I Si-O Si-Si

SiBr4, R3SiBr SiCl4, R3SiCl SiF4, R3SiF SiF6 SiH4 R3SiH Sil4 R3Sil R3SiOR H3SiSiH3

216(1) 201.9(5) 156.1(3) 158 148.0(5) 147.6(5) 234 246(2) 153.3(5) 230(2)

Sulfur S-Br S-Cl S-F S-H S-O S-S

SOBr2 S2Cl2 SOF2 H2S RSH D2S SO2 SOCl2 RSSR

227(2) 158.5(5) 158.5(5) 133.3 132.9(5) 134.5 143.21 145(2) 205(1) 1.159

1.160

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.36 Bond Dissociation Energies The bond dissociation energy (enthalpy change) for a bond A—B which is broken through the reaction AB → A + B is defined as the standard-state enthalpy change for the reaction at a specified temperature, here at 298 K. That is,

∆Hf298 = ∆Hf298(A) + ∆Hf298(B) – ∆Hf298(AB) All values refer to the gaseous state and are given at 298 K. Values of 0 K are obtained by subtracting $RT from the value at 298 K. To convert the tabulated values to kcal/mol, divide by 4.184.

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.161

TABLE 1.36 Bond Dissociation Energies (Continued)

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

(Continued)

1.162

SECTION ONE


Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.163


Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

(Continued)

1.164

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.36 Bond Dissociation Energies (Continued) Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.165


Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

(Continued)

1.166

SECTION ONE


Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.167


Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

(Continued)

1.168

SECTION ONE


Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.169


Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

(Continued)

1.170

SECTION ONE


Bond

∆Hf298, kJ/mol

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.171


1.8 DIPOLE MOMENTS The dipole moment is the mathematical product of the distance between the centers of charge of two atoms multiplied by the magnitude of that charge. Thus, the dipole moment (m) of a compound or molecule is: m=Q×r where Q is the magnitude of the electrical charge(s) that are separated by the distance r; the unit of measurement is the Debye (D) All bonds between equal atoms are given zero values. Because of their symmetry, methane and ethane molecules are nonpolar. The principle of bond moments thus requires that the CH3 group moment equal one H—C moment. Hence the substitution of any aliphatic H by CH3 does not alter the dipole moment, and all saturated hydrocarbons have zero moments as long as the tetrahedral angles are maintained. TABLE 1.37 Bond Dipole Moments Bond H—C Aliphatic Aromatic C—C C≡≡C C—O Ether, aliphatic Alcohol, aliphatic C==O Aliphatic Aromatic O—H C—S C==S S—H S—O S==O Aliphatic Aromatic

Moment, D* 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.74 0.7 2.4 2.65 1.51 0.9 2.0 0.65 (0.2) 2.8 3.3

Bond C—N, aliphatic C==N C≡≡N (nitrile) NC (isonitrile) N—H N—O N==O N (lone pair on sp3 N) C—P, aliphatic P—O P==O P—S P==S B—C, aliphatic B—O Se—C Si—C Si—H Si—N

*To convert debye units D into coulomb-meters, multiply by 3.33564 × 10−30.

Moment, D* 0.45 1.4 3.6 3.0 1.31 0.3 2.0 1.0 0.8 (0.3) 2.7 0.5 2.9 0.7 0.25 0.7 1.2 1.0 1.55

1.172

SECTION ONE

TABLE 1.38 Group Dipole Moments Bond

Moment, D*

Bond

Moment, D*

*To convert debye units D into coulomb-meters, multiply by 3.33564 × 10−30.

The group moment always includes the C—X bond. When the group is attached to an aromatic system, the moment contains the contributions through resonance of those polar structures postulated as arising through charge shifts around the ring.

1.8.1 Dielectric Constant The dielectric constant (also referred to as the relative permittivity, K ) is the ratio of the permittivity of the material to the permittivity of free space and is the property of a material that determines the relative speed with which an electrical signal will travel in that material. − /C − K=C T 0

Signal speed is roughly inversely proportional to the square root of the dielectric constant. A low dielectric constant will result in a high signal propagation speed and a high dielectric constant will result in a much slower signal propagation speed. The dielectric loss factor is the tangent of the loss angle and the loss tangent (tan ∆) is defined by the relationship: tan ∆ = 2s/e u s is the electrical conductivity, e is the dielectric constant, and u is the frequency. The loss tangent is roughly wavelength independent.

1.173

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

TABLE 1.39 Dipole Moments and Dielectric Constants Substance Air AlBr3 Ar (g) (lq) AsBr3 AsCl3 AsH3 (arsine) BBr3 BCl3 BF3 B2H6 (diborane) B4H10 B5H9 B6H10 B3H6N3 Br2 (g) (lq) BrF3 BrF5 Cl2 (g) (lq) ClF3 ClF5 ClO3F CO (g) (lq) CO2 (g) (lq) COCl2 COF2 COS COSe CS CS2 (g) (lq) CrO2Cl2 D2 (deuterium) DH D2O F2 GaCl3 GeBr4 GeBr4 GeCl4

Dielectric constant, e 1.000 536 4 3.38100 1.000 517 2 1.538−191, 1.325−132 8.8335 12.620 2.40−72, 2.0520 2.580 1.872−92.5 21.125 1.012820 3.148425 106.825 7.9124.5 2.147−65, 1.9114 4.39420, 4.2925 4.28−80 2.194−123 1.000 700 1.000 922 1.60°C, 50 atm, 1.44923 4.3422 4.47−88 3.4710 1.00290 2.63220 2.620 1.290−255, 1.277−253 1.26916.78 K 79.7520, 78.2525 1.491−220, 1.54−202

Dipole moment, D 5.2

0 1.61 1.59 0.20 0 0 0 0 0.486 2.13 2.50 0 0 1.1 1.51 0

0.554 0.023 0.112 0

1.17 0.95 0.712 0.73 1.98 0 0.47

1.87

0.85 2.95526 2.4630, 2.43025

0

Substance GeClH3 H2(g) t (lq) HBr(g) (lq) He (g) (lq) (II) (III) (IV) HCl (g) (lq)

Dielectric constant, e 1.000 253 8 1.27913.5 K, 1.22820.4 K 1.003 130 8.23−86, 3.8225 1.000 0565 0 1.0552.055 K 1.00460 14.3−114, 4.6028

HClO HCN 114.920 HCNO (isocyanate) HCNS HF 83.60 HFO HI (g) 1.002 340 (lq) 3.87−53, 2.9022 HN3 (azide) H2O (see Table 1.12) H2O2 84.20, 74.617 HNO3 H2S (g) 1.00400 (lq) 5.9310 H2Se HSO3Cl 6060 HSO3F ca. 12025 H2SO4 10025 H2Te Hg I2 IBr IF IF5 IF7 IOF5 Kr (g) (lq) Mn2O7 Ne (g) (lq) N2 (g) (lq) NH3 (g) (lq)

11.1118 37.1320 1.9723 1.7525 1.644−153.4 3.2820 1.000 063 920 1.1907−247.1 1.000 548 020 1.468−210, 1.454−203 1.00720 22.4−33.5 16.6120

Dipole moment, D 2.13 0

0.827 0

1.109

1.3 2.98 1.6 1.7 1.826 2.23 0.448 1.70 1.573 2.17 0.97 0.24

C(OR)2, where R may be different, are named (1) as dialkoxy compounds or (2) by the name of the corresponding aldehyde or ketone followed by the name of the hydrocarbon radical(s) followed by the word acetal. For example, CH3[CH(OCH3)2 is named either (1) 1,1-dimethoxyethane or (2) acetaldehyde dimethyl acetal. A cyclic acetal in which the two acetal oxygen atoms form part of a ring may be named (1) as a heterocyclic compound or (2) by use of the prefix methylenedioxy for the group [O[CH2[O[ as a substituent in the remainder of the molecule. For example,

Acylals, R1R2C(OCOR3)2, are named as acid esters;

2.24

SECTION TWO

α-Hydroxy ketones, formerly called acyloins, had been named by changing the ending -ic acid or -oic acid of the corresponding acid to -oin. They are preferably named by substitutive nomenclature; thus CH3[CH(OH) [CO[CH3

3-Hydroxy-2-butanone (formerly acetoin)

2.1.3.2 Acid Anhydrides. Symmetrical anhydrides of monocarboxylic acids, when unsubstituted, are named by replacing the word acid by anhydride. Anhydrides of substituted monocarboxylic acids, if symmetrically substituted, are named by prefixing bis- to the name of the acid and replacing the word acid by anhydride. Mixed anhydrides are named by giving in alphabetical order the first part of the names of the two acids followed by the word anhydride, e.g., acetic propionic anhydride or acetic propanoic anhydride. Cyclic anhydrides of polycarboxylic acids, although possessing a heterocyclic structure, are preferably named as acid anhydrides. For example,

2.1.3.3 Acyl Halides. Acyl halides, in which the hydroxyl portion of a carboxyl group is replaced by a halogen, are named by placing the name of the corresponding halide after that of the acyl radical. When another group is present that has priority for citation as principal group or when the acyl halide is attached to a side chain, the prefix haloformyl- is used as, for example, in fluoroformyl-. 2.1.3.4 Alcohols and Phenols. The hydroxyl group is indicated by a suffix -ol when it is the principal group attached to the parent compound and by the prefix hydroxy- when another group with higher priority for citation is present or when the hydroxy group is present in a side chain. When confusion may arise in employing the suffix -ol, the hydroxy group is indicated as a prefix; this terminology is also used when the hydroxyl group is attached to a heterocycle, as, for example, in the name 3-hydroxythiophene to avoid confusion with thiophenol (C6H5SH). Designations such as isopropanol, sec-butanol, and tert-butanol are incorrect because no hydrocarbon exists to which the suffix can be added. Many trivial names are retained. (Table 2.10). TABLE 2.10 Alcohols and Phenols

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

TABLE 2.10 Alcohols and Phenols (Continued)

2.25

2.26

SECTION TWO

The radicals (RO[) are named by adding -oxy as a suffix to the name of the R radical, e.g., pentyloxy for CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2O[. These contractions are exceptions: methoxy (CH3O[), ethoxy (C2H5O[), propoxy (C3H7O[), butoxy (C4H9O[), and phenoxy (C6H5O[). For unsubstituted radicals only, one may use isopropoxy [(CH3)2CH[O[], isobutoxy [(CH3)2CH2CH[O[], sec-butoxy [CH3CH2CH(CH3)[O[], and tert-botoxy [(CH3)3C[O[]. Bivalent radicals of the form O[Y[O are named by adding -dioxy to the name of the bivalent radicals except when forming part of a ring system. Examples are [O[CH2[O[ (methylenedioxy), [O[CO[O[ (carbonyldioxy), and [O[SO2[O[ (sulfonyldioxy). Anions derived from alcohols or phenols are named by changing the final -ol to -olae. Salts composed of an anion, RO[, and a cation, usually a metal, can be named by citing first the cation and then the RO anion (with its ending changed to -yl oxide), e.g., sodium benzyl oxide for C6H5CH2ONa. However, when the radical has an abbreviated name, such as methoxy, the ending -oxy is changed to -oxide. For example, CH3ONa is named sodium methoxide (not sodium methylate). 2.1.3.5 Aldehydes. When the group [C(˙O)H, usually written [CHO, is attached to carbon at one (or both) end(s) of a linear acyclic chain the name is formed by adding the suffix -al (or -dial) to the name of the hydrocarbon containing the same number of carbon atoms. Examples are butanal for CH3CH2CH2CHO and propanedial for, OHCCH2CHO. Naming an acyclic polyaldehyde can be handled in two ways. First, when more than two aldehyde groups are attached to an unbranched chain, the proper affix is added to -carbaldehyde, which becomes the suffix to the name of the longest chain carrying the maximum number of aldehyde groups. The name and numbering of the main chain do not include the carbon atoms of the aldehyde groups. Second, the name is formed by adding the prefix formyl- to the name of the -dial that incorporates the principal chain. Any other chains carrying aldehyde groups are named by the use of formylalkyl- prefixes. Examples are

When the aldehyde group is directly attached to a carbon atom of a ring system, the suffixcarbaldehyde is added to the name of the ring system, e.g., 2-naphthalenecarbaldehyde. When the aldehyde group is separated from the ring by a chain of carbon atoms, the compound is named (1) as a derivative of the acyclic system or (2) by conjunctive nomenclature, for example, (1) (2-naphthyl)propionaldehyde or (2) 2-naphthalenepropionaldehyde. An aldehyde group is denoted by the prefix formyl- when it is attached to a nitrogen atom in a ring system or when a group having priority for citation as principal group is present and part of a cyclic system. When the corresponding monobasic acid has a trivial name, the name of the aldehyde may be formed by changing the ending -ic acid or -oic acid to -aldehyde. Examples are Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde Propionaldehyde Butyraldehyde

Acrylaldehyde (not acrolein) Benzaldehyde Cinnamaldehyde 2-Furaldehyde (not furfural)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

2.27

The same is true for polybasic acids, with the proviso that all the carboxyl groups must be changed to aldehyde; then it is not necessary to introduce affixes. Examples are Glyceraldehyde Glycolaldehyde Malonaldehyde

Succinaldehyde Phthalaldehyde (o-, m-, p-)

These trivial names may be retained: citral (3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienal), vanillin (4-hydroxy-3methoxybenzaldehyde), and piperonal (3,4-methylenedioxybenzaldehyde). 2.1.3.6 Amides. For primary amides the suffix -amide is added to the systematic name of the parent acid. For example, CH3[CO[NH2 is acetamide. Oxamide is retained for H2N[CO[CO[NH2. The name -carboxylic acid is replaced by -carboxamide. For amino acids having trivial names ending in -ine, the suffix -amide is added after the name of the acid (with elision of e for monomides). For example, H2N[CH2[CO[NH2 is glycinamide. In naming the radical R[CO[NH[, either (1) the -yl ending of RCO[ is changed to -amido or (2) the radicals are named as acylamino radicals. For example,

The latter nomenclature is always used for amino acids with trivial names. N-substituted primary amides are named either (1) by citing the substitutents as N prefixes or (2) by naming the acyl group as an N substituent of the parent compound. For example,

2.1.3.7 Amines. Amines are preferably named by adding the suffix -amine (and any multiplying affix) to the name of the parent radical. Examples are CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2 Pentylamine H2NCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2 1,5-Pentyldiamine or pentamethylenediamine Locants of substituents of symmetrically substituted derivatives of symmetrical amines are distinguished by primes or else the names of the complete substituted radicals are enclosed in parentheses. Unsymmetrically substituted derivatives are named similarly or as N-substituted products of a primary amine (after choosing the most senior of the radicals to be the parent amine). For example,

Complex cyclic compounds may be named by adding the suffix -amine or the prefix amino- (or aminoalkyl-) to the name of the parent compound. Thus three names are permissible for

Complex linear polyamines are best designated by replacement nomenclature. These trivial names are retained: aniline, benzidene, phenetidine, toluidine, and xylidine. The bivalent radical [NH[linked to two identical radicals can be denoted by the prefix imino-, as well as when it forms a bridge between two carbon ring atoms. A trivalent nitrogen atom linked to

2.28

SECTION TWO

three identical radicals is denoted by the prefix nitrilo-. Thus ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (an allowed exception) should be named ethylenedinitrilotetraacetic acid. 2.1.3.8 Ammonium Compounds. Salts and hydroxides containing quadricovalent nitrogen are named as a substituted ammonium salt or hydroxide. The names of the substituting radicals precede the word ammonium, and then the name of the anion is added as a separate word. For example, (CH3)4N+I− is tetramethylammonium iodide. When the compound can be considered as derived from a base whose name does not end in -amine, its quaternary nature is denoted by adding ium to the name of that base (with elision of e), substituent groups are cited as prefixes, and the name of the anion is added separately at the end. Examples are C6H5NH+3HSO−4 Anilinium hydrogen sulfate + 2− [(C6H5NH3) ]2PtCl 6 Dianilinium hexachloroplatinate The names choline and betaine are retained for unsubstituted compounds. In complex cases, the prefixes amino- and imino- may be changed to ammonio- and iminio- and are followed by the name of the molecule representing the most complex group attached to this nitrogen atom and are preceded by the names of the other radicals attached to this nitrogen. Finally the name of the anion is added separately. For example, the name might be 1-trimethylammonio-acridine chloride or 1-acridinyltrimethylammonium chloride. When the preceding rules lead to inconvenient names, then (1) the unaltered name of the base may be used followed by the name of the anion or (2) for salts of hydrohalogen acids only the unaltered name of the base is used followed by the name of the hydrohalide. An example of the latter would be 2-ethyl-p-phenylenediamine monohydrochloride. 2.1.3.9 Azo Compounds. When the azo group ([N˙N[) connects radicals derived from identical unsubstituted molecules, the name is formed by adding the prefix azo- to the name of the parent unsubstituted molecules. Substituents are denoted by prefixes and suffixes. The azo group has priority for lowest-numbered locant. Examples are azobenzene for C6H5[N˙N[C6H5, azobenzene4-sulfonic acid for C6H5[N˙N[C6H5SO3H, and 2′,4-dichloroazobenzene-4′-sulfonic acid for ClC6H4[N˙N[C6H3ClSO3H. When the parent molecules connected by the azo group are different, azo is placed between the complete names of the parent molecules, substituted or unsubstituted. Locants are placed between the affix azo and the names of the molecules to which each refers. Preference is given to the more complex parent molecule for citation as the first component, e.g., 2-aminonaphthalene-l-azo-(4′chloro-2′-methylbenzene). In an alternative method, the senior component is regarded as substituted by RN˙N-, this group R being named as a radical. Thus 2-(7-phenylazo-2-naphthylazo)anthracene is the name by this alternative method for the compound named anthracene-2-azo-2′-naphthalene-7′-azobenzene. 2.1.3.10 Azoxy Compounds. Where the position of the azoxy oxygen atom is unknown or immaterial, the compound is named in accordance with azo rules, with the affix azo replaced by azoxy. When the position of the azoxy oxygen atom in an unsymmetrical compound is designated, a prefix NNO- or ONN- is used. When both the groups attached to the azoxy radical are cited in the name of the compound, the prefix NNO- specifies that the second of these two groups is attached directly to [N(O)[; the prefix ONN- specifies that the first of these two groups is attached directly to [N(O)[. When only one parent compound is cited in the name, the prefixed ONN- and NNO- specify that the group carrying the primed and unprimed substituents is connected, respectively, to the [N(O)[ group. The prefix NON- signifies that the position of the oxygen atom is unknown; the azoxy group is then written as [N2O[. For example,

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

2.29

2.1.3.11 Boron Compounds. Molecular hydrides of boron are called boranes. They are named by using a multiplying affix to designate the number of boron atoms and adding an Arabic numeral within parentheses as a suffix to denote the number of hydrogen atoms present. Examples are pentaborane(9) for B5H9 and pentaborane(11) for B5H11. Organic ring systems are named by replacement nomenclature. Three- to ten-membered monocyclic ring systems containing uncharged boron atoms may be named by the specialist nomenclature for heterocyclic systems. Organic derivatives are named as outlined for substitutive nomenclature. 2.1.3.12 Carboxylic Acids. Carboxylic acids may be named in several ways. First, [COOH groups replacing CH3[ at the end of the main chain of an acyclic hydrocarbon are denoted by adding -oic acid to the name of the hydrocarbon. Second, when the [COOH group is the principal group, the suffix -carboxylic acid can be added to the name of the parent chain whose name and chain numbering does not include the carbon atom of the [COOH group. The former nomenclature is preferred unless use of the ending -carboxylic acid leads to citation of a larger number of carboxyl groups as suffix. Third, carboxyl groups are designated by the prefix carboxy- when attached to a group named as a substituent or when another group is present that has higher priority for citation as principal group. In all cases, the principal chain should be linked to as many carboxyl groups as possible even though it might not be the longest chain present. Examples are

Removal of the OH from the [COOH group to form the acyl radical results in changing the ending -oic acid to -oyl or the ending -carboxylic acid to -carbonyl. Thus the radical CH3CH2CH2CH2CO[ is named either pentanoyl or butanecarbonyl. When the hydroxyl has not been removed from all carboxyl groups present in an acid, the remaining carboxyl groups are denoted by the prefix carboxy-. For example, HOOCCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CO[ is named 6-carboxyhexanoyl. Many trivial names exist for acids (Table 2.11). Generally, radicals are formed by replacing -ic acid by -oyl.* When a trivial name is given to an acyclic monoacid or diacid, the numeral 1 is always given as locant to the carbon atom of a carboxyl group in the acid or to the carbon atom with a free valence in the radical RCO[. 2.1.3.13 Ethers (R1[O[R2). In substitutive nomenclature, one of the possible radicals, R[O[, is stated as the prefix to the parent compound that is senior from among R1 or R2. Examples are methoxyethane for CH3OCH2CH3 and butoxyethanol for C4H9OCH2CH2OH. When another principal group has precedence and oxygen is linking two identical parent compounds, the prefix oxy- may be used, as with 2,2′-oxydiethanol for HOCH2CH2OCH2CH2OH. Compounds of the type RO[Y[OR, where the two parent compounds are identical and contain a group having priority over ethers for citation as suffix, are named as assemblies of identical units. For example, HOOC[CH2[O[CH2CH2[O[CH2[COOH is named 2,2′-(ethylenedioxy) diacetic acid.

*Exceptions: formyl, acetyl, propionyl, butyryl, isobutyryl, valeryl, isovaleryl, oxalyl, malonyl, succinyl, glutaryl, furoyl, and thenoyl.

2.30

SECTION TWO

TABLE 2.11 Names of Some Carboxylic Acids

* Systematic names should be used in derivatives formed by substitution on a carbon atom. Note: The names in parentheses have been discontinued.

Linear polyethers derived from three or more molecules of aliphatic dihydroxy compounds, particularly when the chain length exceeds ten units, are most conveniently named by open-chain replacement nomenclature. For example, CH3CH2[O[CH2CH2[O[CH2CH3 could be 3,6dioxaoctane or (2-ethoxy)ethoxyethane. An oxygen atom directly attached to two carbon atoms already forming part of a ring system or to two carbon atoms of a chain may be indicated by the prefix epoxy-. For example, CH2[CH[CH2Cl is named 1-chloro-2,3-epoxypropane. 8O7 Symmetrical linear polyethers may be named (1) in terms of the central oxygen atom when there is an odd number of ether oxygen atoms or (2) in terms of the central hydrocarbon group when there is an even number of ether oxygen atoms. For example, C2H5[O[C4H8[O[C4H8[O[C2H5 is bis-(4-ethoxybutyl)ether, and 3,6-dioxaoctane (earlier example) could be named 1,2-bis(ethoxy)ethane.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

2.31

Partial ethers of polyhydroxy compounds may be named (1) by substitutive nomenclature or (2) by stating the name of the polyhydroxy compound followed by the name of the etherifying radical(s) followed by the word ether. For example,

Cyclic ethers are named either as heterocyclic compounds or by specialist rules of heterocyclic nomenclature. Radicofunctional names are formed by citing the names of the radicals R1 and R2 followed by the word ether. Thus methoxyethane becomes ethyl methyl ether and ethoxyethane becomes diethyl ether. 2.1.3.14 Halogen Derivatives. Using substitutive nomenclature, names are formed by adding prefixes listed in Table 2.8 to the name of the parent compound. The prefix perhalo- implies the replacement of all hydrogen atoms by the particular halogen atoms. Cations of the type R1R2X+ are given names derived from the halonium ion, H2X+, by substitution, e.g., diethyliodonium chloride for (C2H5)2I+Cl−. Retained are these trivial names; bromoform (CHBr3), chloroform (CHCl3), fluoroform (CHF3), iodoform (CHI3), phosgene (COCl2), thiophosgene (CSCl2), and dichlorocarbene radical ( CCl2). Inorganic nomenclature leads to such names as carbonyl and thiocarbonyl halides (COX2 and CSX2) and carbon tetrahalides (CX4). 2.1.3.15 Hydroxylamines and Oximes. For RNH[OH compounds, prefix the name of the radical R to hydroxylamine. If another substituent has priority as principal group, attach the prefix hydroxyamino- to the parent name. For example, C6H5NHOH would be named N-phenylhydroxylamine, but HOC6H4NHOH would be (hydroxyamino)phenol, with the point of attachment indicated by a locant preceding the parentheses. Compounds of the type R1NH[OR2 are named (1) as alkoxyamino derivatives of compound R1H, (2) as N,O-substituted hydroxylamines. (3) as alkoxyamines (even if R1 is hydrogen), or (4) by the prefix aminooxy- when another substituent has priority for parent name. Examples of each type are 1. 2. 3. 4.

2-(Methoxyamino)-8-naphthalenecarboxylic acid for CH3ONH[C10H6COOH O-Phenylhydroxylamine for H2N[O[C6H5 or N-phenylhydroxylamine for C6H5NH[OH Phenoxyamine for H2N[O[C6H5 (not preferred to O-phenylhydroxylamine) Ethyl (aminooxy)acetate for H2N[O[CH2CO[OC2H5

Acyl derivatives, RCO[NH[OH and H2N[O[CO[R, are named as N-hydroxy derivatives of amides and as O-acylhydroxylamines, respectively. The former may also be named as hydroxamic acids. Examples are N-hydroxyacetamide for CH3CO[NH[OH and O-acetylhydroxylamine for H2N[O[CO[CH3. Further substituents are denoted by prefixes with O- and/or N-locants. For example, C6H5NH[O[C2H5 would be O-ethyl-N-phenylhydroxylamine or N-ethoxylaniline. For oximes, the word oxime is placed after the name of the aldehyde or ketone. If the carbonyl group is not the principal group, use the prefix hydroxyimino-. Compounds with the group N[OR are named by a prefix alkyloxyimino- oxime O-ethers or as O-substituted oximes. Compounds with the group C˙N(O)R are named by adding N-oxide after the name of the alkylideneaminc compound. For amine oxides, add the word oxide after the name of the base, with locants. For example, C5H5N[O is named pyridine N-oxide or pyridine 1-oxide. 2.1.3.16 Imines. The group C˙NH is named either by the suffix -imine or by citing the name of the bivalent radical R1R2C as a prefix to amine. For example, CH3CH2CH2CH˙NH could be named 1-butanimine or butylideneamine. When the nitrogen is substituted, as in CH2˙N[CH2CH3, the name is N-(methylidene)ethylamine.

2.32

SECTION TWO

Quinones are exceptions. When one or more atoms of quinonoid oxygen have been replaced by NH or NR, they are named by using the name of the quinone followed by the word imine (and preceded by proper affixes). Substituents on the nitrogen atom are named as prefixes. Examples are

2.1.3.17 Ketenes. Derivatives of the compound ketene, CH2˙C˙O, are named by substitutive nomenclature. For example, C4H9CH˙C˙O is butyl ketene. An acyl derivative, such as CH3CH2[CO[CH2CH˙C˙O, may be named as a polyketone, 1-hexene-1,4-dione. Bisketene is used for two to avoid ambiguity with diketene (dimeric ketene). 2.1.3.18 Ketones. Acyclic ketones are named (1) by adding the suffix -one to the name of the hydrocarbon forming the principal chain or (2) by citing the names of the radicals R1 and R2 followed by the word ketone. In addition to the preceding nomenclature, acyclic monoacyl derivatives of cyclic compounds may be named (3) by prefixing the name of the acyl group to the name of the cyclic compound. For example, the three possible names of

When the cyclic component is benzene or naphthalene, the -ic acid or -oic acid of the acid corresponding to the acyl group is changed to -ophenone or -onaphthone, respectively. For example, C6H5[CO[CH2CH2CH3 can be named either butyrophenone (or butanophenone) or phenyl propyl ketone. Radicofunctional nomenclature can be used when a carbonyl group is attached directly to carbon atoms in two ring systems and no other substituent is present having priority for citation. When the methylene group in polycarbocyclic and heterocyclic ketones is replaced by a keto group, the change may be denoted by attaching the suffix -one to the name of the ring system. However, when ≥CH in an unsaturated or aromatic system is replaced by a keto group, two alternative names become possible. First, the maximum number of noncumulative double bonds is added after introduction of the carbonyl group(s), and any hydrogen that remains to be added is denoted as indicated hydrogen with the carbonyl group having priority over the indicated hydrogen for lowernumbered locant. Second, the prefix oxo- is used, with the hydrogenation indicated by hydro prefixes; hydrogenation is considered to have occurred before the introduction of the carbonyl group. For example,

When another group having higher priority for citation as principal group is also present, the ketonic oxygen may be expressed by the prefix oxo-, or one can use the name of the carbonylcontaining radical, as, for example, acyl radicals and oxo-substituted radicals. Examples are

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

2.33

Diketones and tetraketones derived from aromatic compounds by conversion of two or four CH groups into keto groups, with any necessary rearrangement of double bonds to a quinonoid structure, are named by adding the suffix -quinone and any necessary affixes. Polyketones in which two or more contiguous carbonyl groups have rings attached at each end may be named (1) by the radicofunctional method or (2) by substitutive nomenclature. For example,

Some trivial names are retained: acetone (2-propanone), biacetyl (2,3-butanedione), propiophenone (C6H5[CO[CH2CH3), chalcone (C6H5[CH˙CH[CO[C6H5), and deoxybenzoin (C6H5[CH2[CO[C6H5). These contracted names of heterocyclic nitrogen compounds are retained as alternatives for systematic names, sometimes with indicated hydrogen. In addition, names of oxo derivatives of fully saturated nitrogen heterocycles that systematically end in -idinone are often contracted to end in -idone when no ambiguity might result. For example,

2.34

SECTION TWO

2.1.3.19 Lactones, Lactides, Lactams, and Lactims. When the hydroxy acid from which water may be considered to have been eliminated has a trivial name, the lactone is designated by substituting -olactone for -ic acid. Locants for a carbonyl group are numbered as low as possible, even before that of a hydroxyl group. Lactones formed from aliphatic acids are named by adding -olide to the name of the nonhydroxylated hydrocarbon with the same number of carbon atoms. The suffix -olide signifies the change of CH…CH3 into C…C˙O. O Structures in which one or more (but not all) rings of an aggregate are lactone rings are named by placing -carbolactone (denoting the[O[CO[bridge) after the names of the structures that remain when each bridge is replaced by two hydrogen atoms. The locant for [CO[ is cited before that for the ester oxygen atom. An additional carbon atom is incorporated into this structure as compared to the -olide. These trivial names are permitted: g-butyrolactone, g-valerolactone, and d-valerolactone. Names based on heterocycles may be used for all lactones. Thus, g-butyrolactone is also tetrahydro-2-furanone or dihydro-2(3H)-furanone. Lactides, intermolecular cyclic esters, are named as heterocycles. Lactams and lactims, containing a[CO[NH[and[C(OH) ˙N[group, respectively, are named as heterocycles, but they may also be named with -lactam or -lactim in place of -olide. For example,

2.1.3.20 Nitriles and Related Compounds. For acids whose systematic names end in -carboxylic acid, nitriles are named by adding the suffix -carbonitrile when the [CN group replaces the [COOH group. The carbon atom of the [CN group is excluded from the numbering of a chain to which it is attached. However, when the triple-bonded nitrogen atom is considered to replace three hydrogen atoms at the end of the main chain of an acyclic hydrocarbon, the suffix -nitrile is added to the name of the hydrocarbon. Numbering begins with the carbon attached to the nitrogen. For example, CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CN is named (1) pentanecarbonitrile or (2) hexanenitrile. Trivial acid names are formed by changing the endings -oic acid or -ic acid to -onitrile. For example, CH3CN is acetonitrile. When the [CN group is not the highest priority group, the [CN group is denoted by the prefix cyano-. In order of decreasing priority for citation of a functional class name, and the prefix for substitutive nomenclature, are the following related compounds:

2.1.3.21 Peroxides. Compounds of the type R[O[OH are named (1) by placing the name of the radical R before the word hydroperoxide or (2) by use of the prefix hydroperoxy- when another parent name has higher priority. For example, C2H5OOH is ethyl hydroperoxide.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

2.35

Compounds of the type R1O[OR2 are named (1) by placing the names of the radicals in alphabetical order before the word peroxide when the group [O[O[ links two chains, two rings, or a ring and a chain, (2) by use of the affix dioxy to denote the bivalent group [O[O[ for naming assemblies of identical units or to form part of a prefix, or (3) by use of the prefix epidioxy- when the peroxide group forms a bridge between two carbon atoms, a ring, or a ring system. Examples are methyl propyl peroxide for CH3[O[O[C3H7 and 2,2′-dioxydiacetic acid for HOOC[CH2[O[O[CH2[COOH. 2.1.3.21 Phosphorus Compounds. Acyclic phosphorus compounds containing only one phosphorus atom, as well as compounds in which only a single phosphorus atom is in each of several functional groups, are named as derivatives of the parent structures (Table 2.12). Often these are purely hypothetical parent structures. When hydrogen attached to phosphorus is replaced by a hydrocarbon group, the derivative is named by substitution nomenclature. When hydrogen of an [OH group is replaced, the derivative is named by radicofunctional nomenclature. For example, C2H5PH2 is ethylphosphine; (C2H5)2PH, diethylphosphine; CH3P(OH)2, dihydroxy-methyl-phosphine or methylphosphonous acid; C2H5[PO(Cl)(OH), ethylchlorophosphonic acid or ethylphosphonochloridic acid or hydrogen chlorodioxoethylphosphate(V); CH3CH(PH2)COOH, 2-phosphinopropionic acid; HP(CH2COOH)2, phosphinediyldiacetic acid; (CH3)HP(O)OH, methylphosphinic acid or hydrogen hydridomethyldioxophosphate(V); (CH3O)3PO, trimethyl phosphate; and (CH3O)3P, trimethyl phosphite. 2.1.3.22 Salts and Esters of Acids. Neutral salts of acids are named by citing the cation(s) and then the anion, whose ending is changed from -oic to -oate or from -ic to -ate. When different acidic residues are present in one structure, prefixes are formed by changing the anion ending -ate to -atoor -ide to -ido-. The prefix carboxylato- denotes the ionic group [COO−. The phrase (metal) salt of (the acid) is permissible when the carboxyl groups are not all named as affixes. Acid salts include the word hydrogen (with affixes, if appropriate) inserted between the name of the cation and the name of the anion (or word salt). Esters are named similarly, with the name of the alkyl or aryl radical replacing the name of the cation. Acid esters of acids and their salts are named as neutral esters, but the components are cited TABLE 2.12 Phosphorus-Containing Compounds

2.36

SECTION TWO

in the order: cation, alkyl or aryl radical, hydrogen, and anion. Locants are added if necessary. For example,

Ester groups in R1[CO[OR2 compounds are named (1) by the prefix alkoxycarbonyl- or aryloxycarbonyl- for [CO[OR2 when the radical R1 contains a substituent with priority for citation as principal group or (2) by the prefix acyloxy- for R1[CO[O[ when the radical R2 contains a substituent with priority for citation as principal group. Examples are

The trivial name acetoxy is retained for the CH3[CO[O[ group. Compounds of the type R2C(OR2)3 are named as R2 esters of the hypothetical ortho acids. For example, CH3C(OCH3)3 is trimethyl orthoacetate. 2.1.3.22 Silicon Compounds. SiH4 is called silane; its acyclic homologs are called disilane, trisilane, and so on, according to the number of silicon atoms present. The chain is numbered from one end to the other so as to give the lowest-numbered locant in radicals to the free valence or to substitutents on a chain. The abbreviated form silyl is used for the radical SiH3[. Numbering and citation of side chains proceed according to the principles set forth for hydrocarbon chains. Cyclic nonaromatic structures are designated by the prefix cyclo-. When a chain or ring system is composed entirely of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms, the parent name siloxane is used with a multiplying affix to denote the number of silicon atoms present. The parent name silazane implies alternating silicon and nitrogen atoms; multiplying affixes denote the number of silicon atoms present. The prefix sila- designates replacement of carbon by silicon in replacement nomenclature. Prefix names for radicals are formed analogously to those for the corresponding carbon-containing compounds. Thus silyl is used for SiH3[, silyene for [SiH2[, silylidyne for [SiH, greater than

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