Josephus and Modern Scholarship, 1937-1980

Louis H. Feldman Josephus and Modern Scholarship (1937-1980)

Louis H. Feldman

Josephus and Modern Scholarship

(1937-1980)

Walter de Gruyter . Berlin· New York 1984

This volume has been issued under the general editorship of Wolfgang Haase, Tiibingen

CIP-KurztitelauJnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek· Feldman, Louis H.:

Josephus and modern scholarship : (1937-1980) I Louis H. Feld­ man. - Berlin; New York : de Gruyter, 1984. ISBN 3-11-008138-5

©

1984 by Walter de Gruyter & Co ., Berlin 30 Aile Rechte, insbesondere das der Dbersetzung in fremde Sprachen, vorbehalten. Ohne ausdriickliche Genehmigung des Verlages ist es auch nicht gestattet, dieses Buch oder Teile daraus auf photomechanischem Wege (Photokopie, Mikrokopie) zu vervielfaItigen. Printed in Germany Satz und Druck: Arthur Collignon GmbH, Berlin Buchbinder: Liideritz & Bauer, Berlin

Table of Contents 1 : Introduction : General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .0 : Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . 1 : The Quantity and Languages of Josephan Scholarship .

1 2

2: Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0: Bibliography of Jewish Bibliographies . . 2� 1 : General Bibliography of Hebrew Books . 2.2: Published Catalogues of Jewish Collections . 2 . 3 : Dissenations on Jewish Subjects. 2.4: Indices of Jewish FestschriJten . 2.5: Annual Classical Bibliographies 2.6: Annual Biblical Bibliographies . 2 .7 : Annual Jewish Bibliographies . 2 . 8 : Collected Bibliographies of Jewish Studies Aiming at Completeness 2.9: Selective Bibliographies Pertaining to Josephus through the Nineteenth Century . 2 . 1 0 : Selective Bibliographies Pertaining to Josephus for the Twentieth Century . 2. 1 1 : Regularly Appearing Annotated Bibliographies of Hellenistic Judaism . . . . . . 2 . 1 2 : Brief Selective Bibliographies of Hellenistic Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 3 : Specialized Bibliographies i n Areas Covered b y o r Related t o Josephus : the Septuagint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 4 : Specialized Bibliographies : the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 5 : Specialized Bibliographies: Philo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 1 6 : Specialized Bibliographies : the Essenes, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Slavonic Josephus (see also 22. 10 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 17: Specialized Bibliographies : Bibliographies o f Individual Scholars . 2.18: Bibliographies Devoted Specifically to Josephus .

4 4 4 4 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 11 12

3 : The Text . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0: Editions of the Greek Text . 3 . 1 : Transmission of the Text . . 3.2: Studies of Individual Manuscripts and of Early Printed Editions . 3 . 3 : Textual Criticism . . . . . . . . . .

20 20 21 24 25

4 : Translations into Modern Languages . 4.0: Translations (with or without Commentaries) into English . 4 . 1 : Translations (with or without Commentaries) into French . 4.2: Translations (with or without Commentaries) into German . 4.3: Translations (with or without Commentaries) into Hebrew . 4.4: Translations (with or without Commentaries) into Italian . 4.5: Translations (with or without Commentaries) into Spanish . 4.6: Translations (with or without Commentaries) into Other Languages: Arabic, Czech, Dutch, Modern Greek, Hungarian, Japanese, Polish, Ponuguese, Russian, Serbian

28 28 32 33 34 36 36

12 13 14 14 16 16

37

VI

CONTENTS

5: The Latin and Syriac Versions . 5.0: The Latin Versions: Introduction . 5. 1 : The Name Hegesippus 5.2: The Text of Hegesippus . . . . . 5 . 3 : Authorship of Hegesippus . . . . 5.4: The Content of Hegesippus and Its Relation to Josippon . 5.5: The Text of the Latin Version Made under Cassiodorus' Direction . 5.6: Individual Manuscripts and Early Printed Editions of the Latin Version . 5.7: Authorship of the Latin Josephus 5.8 : Importance of the Latin Version . 5.9: The Syriac Version .

40 40 40 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

6: The Slavonic Version . 6.0: The Text of the Slavonic Version and Translations Thereof . 6. 1 : The Language of the Slavonic Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . 2 : The Date, Source, Authorship, and Purpose of the Slavonic Josephus . 6 . 3 : Problems of Genuineness, Omissions, and Additions of the Slavonic Version . 6.4: The Slavonic Version, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Essenes . 6.5: Translations Dependent upon the Slavonic Version .

48 48 49 49 51 55 56

7: Josippon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0: Josippon Qosefon, Yosephon, Josephon) (the Hebrew Version of the 'Jewish War') : General . . . . . . . . . 7. 1 : The Text of Josippon . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2: Translations of Josippon . . . . . . . . . . 7 . 3 : Authorship and Authenticity of Josippon . 7.4: The Date and Place of Composition of J osippon . 7.5: The Sources of J osippon . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6: The Content and Outlook of Josippon . . . . 7.7: The Arabic and Ethiopic Versions of Josippon

57 57 58 61 62 62 66 71 73

8: Josephus' Life . . . . . . . 8.0: Josephus' Life: General . . 8 . 1 : Sources for Josephus' Life 8 . 2 : Josephus' Family, Education, and Early Life . 8 . 3 : Josephus' Appointment as Military General in Galilee . 8.4: Josephus' Conduct as Military General in Galilee . 8 . 5 : Josephus' Surrender at Jotapata . . 8.6: Josephus' Prophecy to Vespasian . 8 .7: Josephus and Justus of Tiberias .

75 75 76 79 84 87 88 93 96

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9 : General Accounts of Josephus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 9.0: Older Books and Articles on Josephus in General . . . . . . . . . . 99 1 04 9. 1 : Book-length Studies ( 1 937 - 1980) Dealing with Josephus in General . 9.2: Shorter General Accounts of Josephus' Life and Works in Encyclopedias 1 07 9 . 3 : Shorter General Accounts of Josephus' Life and Works in Books Other than Ency1 12 clopedias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4: Josephus' Conception of Historiography in General . 1 17 1 0 : Josephus' Paraphrase of the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . 121 1 0 . 0 : Josephus' Treatment o f the Biblical Period : the Problem o f Josephus' Modifications of the Bible Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 1 0. 1 : The Nature o f Josephus' Modifications o f the Bible i n General . . . . . . . . 125 .

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CONTENTS

VII

10.2: Josephus' Biblical Text in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3: Josephus' Use of the Septuagint and of Targumim for the Hexateuch . 1 0.4: The Canon o f the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0. 5 : Josephus' Version of Genesis for the pre-Abrahamic Period . 1 0.6: Josephus' Portrayal of Abraham, Melchisedek, and Isaac 1 0.7: Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8: Moses and the Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0.9: Manetho, the Hyksos, and the Exodus . . . . . . 1 0 . 1 0 : The Sojourn of the Israelites in the Wilderness . 1 0.1 1 : Joshua and Judges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 . 1 2 : Ruth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. 1 3 : Josephus' Biblical Text for Samuel through I Maccabees . 1 0 . 1 4 : Josephus on Specific Passages in Samuel and Kings . 10. 1 5 : Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 . 1 6 : The Prophetic Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 . 17: Ezra and Nehemiah : General (see 1 1 . 1 ) . . . . . . . 1 0. 1 8 : Particular Passages in Ezra and Nehemiah (see 1 1 . 1 ) . 1 0 . 1 9 : Esther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 30 131 1 34 1 39 1 43 148 1 49 1 57 161 1 63 164 1 65 1 70 178 181 1 83 1 86 1 89

1 1 : Josephus as Historian of the Post-Biblical Period (until 63 B . C . E . ) : General Issues . 1 1 .0: Josephus' Treatment of the Post-Biblical Period : General . 1 1 . 1 : Josephus' Treatment of the Persian Period . . . . . . . . . 1 1 .2 : Josephus' Treatment of the Hellenistic Period: General .

192 1 92 199 200

1 2 : Josephus as Historian of the Post-Biblical Period: Specific Events . 1 2 . 0 : Josephus on Alexander the Great . . . . . . . 12. 1 : Josephus' Version of the 'Letter of Aristeas' . 1 2 . 2 : Early Seleucid History 1 2 . 3 : Antiochus I I I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 . 4 : The Tobiads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 . 5 : The Relationship between the Jews and the Spartans 12.6: Josephus' Version o f I Maccabees . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 . 7 : Josephus' Relationship t o II Maccabees . . . . . . . . 1 2, . 8 : Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) and the Background of the Maccabean Revolt . 1 2 . 9 : Mattathias and Judah Maccabee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 . 1 0 : Antiochus V, VI, and VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 . 1 1 : The Rulers of Egypt during the Third, Second, and First Centuries B .C . E . . 1 2 . 1 2 : Anti-Semitism in Ptolemaic Egypt . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 . 1 3 : The Hasmonean Kings Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 . 1 4 : The Alliance of the Hasmoneans with the Romans . . . . . 1 2.1 5 : The Kittim of the Dead Sea Scrolls : Seleucids or Romans ? . 1 2 . 1 6 : Jonathan the Hasmonean . 1 2 . 1 7 : Simon the Hasmonean . 1 2 . 1 8 : John Hyrcanus . . . 1 2 . 1 9 : Alexander J annaeus . .

207 207 208 210 212 215 217 219 225 226 233 234 236 237 241 245 245 247 248 249 251

13: Josephus as Historian of the Roman Period (from Pompey until Herod) . 1 3 .0: The Roman Period : General . . . . . . . . 1 3. 1 : Anti-Semitism during the Roman Period . 1 3 .2 : Josephus on Roman Institutions . 1 3 . 3 : Roman Taxation on Jews . 1 3 . 4 : Jews in the Roman Army . 1 3 . 5 : Hyrcanus II and Pompey .

259 259 266 267 267 267 268

VIII 1 3 .6: 1 3 .7: 13.8: 1 3 .9 :

CONTENTS 272 273 276 277

The Partition of Judaea by Gabinius . . . The Documents in 'Antiquities', Book 14 . Antigonus Antipater

1 4 : Herod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.0: Herod: General Treatments . . . . 14. 1 : Herod: the Numismatic Evidence . 14.2: Herod's Appearance . . . . . . . . 1 4 . 3 : Herod's Title 'the Great' . . . . . 14.4: The Chronology of Herod's Reign . 1 4 . 5 : Herod's Trial before the Sanhedrin . 14.6: Herod's Legal Position vis-a-vis Augustus and the Roman Empire . 1 4.7: Herod and Babylonian Jewry . . . . . 1 4 . 8 : Herod as Administrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9: Herod's Military Colony of Batanaea . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 . 1 0 : The Place of Sports in Herod's Politics (see also 20.9 ) . 1 4. 1 1 : Herod's Building Program . . . . . . . . . . . 14. 1 2 : Herod, the Temple, and the High Priesthood 1 4 . 1 3 : Herod' s Trial against H is Sons . 1 4 . 1 4 : Herod and Mariamne 1 4 . 1 5 : Herod and Cleopatra . 1 4 . 1 6 : Herod as Messiah . . 14. 17: Herod's Death . . . . 14. 1 8 : The Aftermath of Herod's Death 1 4 . 1 9 : The Herodian Family in General . 14.20 : Phasael and Archelaus . . . . 14.21 : Herod Antipas and Herodias . . .

278 278 287 288 288 289 289 290 291 292 292 292 293 295 296 296 297 297 298 299 300 301 301

1 5 : The Period after Herod until the Outbreak of the War against the Romans . 15.0: Josephus on Parthian Affairs (Antiquities 1 8 . 39- 52, etc.) . . . . . . . . 1 5. 1 : The Autonomous Jewish State of Anilaeus and Asinaeus under the Parthians . 1 5.2: Josephus on Arab Affairs (d. 25.21 ) . . . . . . . . . 1 5 . 3 : The Ituraeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 . 4 : Josephus on Petty States in Asia Minor and Vicinity . 1 5 . 5 : The Emperor Augustus and the Jews . . . . . . 1 5.6: The Emperor Tiberius and the Jews . . . . . . 1 5.7: The Roman Procurators before Pontius Pilate . 1 5 . 8 : Pontius Pilate: General . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5.9: The Episode of Pilate's Introduction of the Emperor's Standards into Jerusalem . . 1 5 . 1 0 : Pilate: the New Inscription . 1 5. 1 1 : The Procurators after Pilate . 1 5 . 1 2 : Agrippa I . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 . 1 3 : Gaius Caligula and Claudius . 1 5 . 1 4 : The Citizenship of the Alexandrian Jews and Claudius' Edict . 1 5 . 1 5 : Josephus on Philo and His Family . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 . 1 6 : The Status of the Jews in Syria, Especially Antioch 1 5. 1 7 : The Jews of Asia Minor . . . . . 1 5 . 1 8 : The Status of the Jews in Cyrene . 1 5. 1 9 : The Jews of Rome . . . . . . . . 1 5 .20: Agrippa II and Berenice . . . . . 1 5 .2 1 : Izates and Adiabene (see also 24. 1 ) . 1 5.22 : Nero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

304 304 306 307 308 308 309 309 311 312 316 317 320 323 326 331 338 338 339 340 341 341 343 345

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16: The War against the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.0: Josephus as a Source for the Great Jewish Revolt against the Romans (66-74 C.E.) 16.1: Chronology of Events of the War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 : The Coins as a Source for the Jewish War in General (see also 25.25) . 16. 3 : Numismatic Evidence for the Jewish War in Galilee (see also 25.25 ) . 16.4: The Causes and Goals of the War . 16.5: Babylonian Jewry and the War . 16.6: The Progress of the War . . . . 16.7: The Siege of Jerusalem . . . . . . 16. 8 : The Burning of the Temple . . . 16.9 : The Population of Palestine and of Jerusalem in Particular in the First Century 16.10: Military Aspects of the War and in Josephus in General . 16.11 : Vespasian and Titus 16.12 : The Arch of Titus . 16.13 : Domitian . . . . . .

346 346 350 350 351 351 356 356 361 363 366 370 371 375 377

17 : Special Problems in Connection with Josephus' Works . 17.0: Special Problems in Connection with Josephus' Works : the 'War' . 17.1: Special Problems in Connection with Josephus' Works : the 'Life' . 17.2: Special Problems in Connection with Josephus' Works : 'Against Apion' . 17. 3 : Proposed Works . . . . . . . 17.4: Doubtful and Spurious Works 17.5: Falsifications in Josephus

378 378 3 80 384 387 389 391

18 : Josephus' Sources . . . . . 18 .0: Josephus' Sources: General . 18.1: Herodotus and Thucydides . 18 .2 : Other Classical Greek Writers of the Fifth Century B .C.E . . 18. 3 : Menander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 : Clearchus of Soli and Hermippus of Smyrna . 18. 5 : Hecataeus and Pseudo-Hecataeus . 18.6: Berossus . . . . . . . . 18.7: Demetrius of Phalerum 18. 8 : Aristobulus . . . . . 18 .9 : Alexander Polyhistor 18.10: Eupolemus . . . . . 18 .11: Artapanus . . . . . 18.12 : Nicolaus of Damascus . 18.13 : Strabo . . . . . . . . . 18.14 : Dionysius of Halicarnassus 18.15 : 'Longinus' . . . . . . . . . 18.16: The Testament (Assumption) of Moses 18.17 : Philo (see also 2.15 ) . . . . . . . . . 18 .18 : Pseudo-Philo's 'Biblical Antiquities' . 18.19 : Sallust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

392 392 394 394 394 395 396 400 400 400 401 401 402 402 406 407 408 409 410 418 419

19 : Josephus' Views on the Jewish Religion . 19.0: Josephus' Outlook on Judaism : General . 19.1: G-d . . . . . . 19.2: The Decalogue 1 9 .3: Demons 19.4: Magic . 19. 5 : Dreams

420 420 423 428 429 429 430

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CONTENTS

19.6: The Soul . 1 9.7: Fate and Free Will . 1 9 . 8 : Suffering 1 9.9 : Prayer . . . . . . 19. 1 0: The Synagogue . 19. 1 1 : Baptism . . . . 1 9 . 1 2 : The Priests Generally 1 9. 1 3 : The Description of the Temple . 1 9 . 1 4 : The Warning Inscription of the Temple . 19.1 5 : The Half-Shekel Tax of the Temple and Other Donations . 19 . 1 6 : Excavations of the Temple Area (see also 25. 1 2 ) . 19. 17: The High Priesthood . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19. 1 8 : The Clothing and Stones of the High Priest . 1 9 . 1 9 : The Effects of the Destruction of the Temple . 19.20: The Temple at Leontopolis . . . . . . . . . . 19.21 : The Sanhedrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.22 : Rabbinic Sages : Onias (J:Ioni) and Pollio (Abtalion) . 1 9.23 : Prophecy . . . 19.24: False Prophets . . . . . . . . . . 19.25: Miracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 .26: Josephus' Philosophy of History . 19.27: Josephus' Political Theory . . . . 19.28: The Chosen People . . . . . . . 19.29 : Josephus' Philosophy of Education 19.30 : Josephus' Attitude toward the Land of Israel . 19. 3 1 : Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.32 : The Messiah and Eschatology in General . . . 19.33 : The Messianic Background of the Jewish Revolt . 19.34: Josephus' Attitude toward Women . . . .

430 431 434 435 436 437 437 438 444 447 447 448 457 458 459 463 467 469 476 477 480 48 1 482 482 482 483 484 489 491

20: Josephus' Views on Halakhah Oewish Law) . 20. 0 : Josephus' Attitude toward Halakhah Oewish Law): General . 20. 1 : Courts, Witnesses, and Punishments . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2: Religious Law: the Priesthood and Other Laws of Ritual . 20. 3 : The Calendar . . . . . . . . . 20.4: The Sabbath . . . . . . . . . . 20. 5 : Sabbatical Years and Jubilees . 20. 6 : Festivals . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.7: Sacrifices and Ritual Banquets . 20.8: Idolatry . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.9: Athletics (see also 1 4 . 1 0) . . . 20. 1 0 : Attitude toward Foreign Cults . 20. 1 1 : Attitude toward Other Philosophies 20. 1 2 : Law of Persons : Slavery, Charity, Marriage, Abortion, Divorce . 20. 1 3 : Theft, Kidnapping, Agency 20. 1 4 : Suicide . . . . . . . . 20. 1 5 : Treatment of Animals . . .

492 492 498 500 502 503 506 507 511 512 515 516 519 519 522 524 526

2 1 : Religious Movements : the Samaritans . 2 1 .0 : Religious Movements : the Samaritans : Josephus as a Source 2 1 . 1 : The Origin of the Samaritans . . . . . . . 2 1 .2: The Building of the Samaritan Temple . . 2 1 .3 : Events in the History of the Samaritans .

528 528 533 537 539

XI

CONTENTS 22 : The Pharisees and Divergent Jewish Sects . . . 22.0: The Jewish Sects : General . . . . . . . . . . 22. 1 : The Views of the Sects : Fate and Prophecy . 22.2: The Pharisees : General . . . . . . . . . . . 22. 3 : The Pharisees in the 'War' and in the 'Antiquities' 22.4 : The Name, Definition, and Origin of the Pharisees . 22 . 5 : The Beliefs and Practices of the Pharisees . . . . . 22.6: The History of the Pharisees : Opposition to Hellenism, to the Hasmonean Kings, and to the Great War against Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.7 : The Relationship of the Pharisees to Apocalyptic Groups and to the Dead Sea Sect 22 . 8 : The Influence of the Pharisees (see also 22.3) . . . . . 22.9: The Sadducees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. 10 : The Essenes in Josephus : Bibliography (see also 2. 1 6) 22. 1 1 : The Texts Pertaining to the Essenes in Josephus . . . 22. 1 2 : Josephus' Account of the Essenes : General . . . . . . 22. 1 3 : The Authenticity of Josephus' Account of the Essenes . 22 . 14 : Comparison of the Accounts of the Essenes in the 'War' and in the 'Antiquities' 22. 1 5 : The Etymology of the Name Essenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. 1 6 : The Origin of the Essenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. 17 : Josephus' Relationship to Other Sources for the Essenes : Philo, the 'Sibylline Oracles', Hippolytus (see also 27. 1 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. 1 8 : Beliefs and Practices of the Essenes: General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. 1 9 : The Attitude of the Essenes toward the Temple and Sacrifices . . . . . . . . . 22 .20 : Ritual and Practices of the Essenes : Initiation, Baths, Purity, Asceticism, Prayer, Work . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2 1 : The Meals of the Essenes . . 22.22 : The Oaths of the Essenes . . 22.23 : The Pacifism of the Essenes . 22.24 : The History of the Essenes . . 22.25 : The Relationship o f the Essenes t o Other Movements : the Herodians 22.26: The Essenes and Hermeticism, Gnosticism, the Therapeutae, and the Essenes of Ephesus . . . . . . . . . . . 22.27 : The Essenes and the Dacians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.28: The Essenes and the Magi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 .29 : The Relationship of the Essenes to the Dead Sea Sect . 22 .30: The Relationship of the Essenes to the Christians . 22.3 1 : The Zealots : General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 . 32 : The Name and Origin of the Zealots . . . . . . . . 22 .33 : The Relationship of the Maccabees to the Zealots . 22.34 : The Views of the Zealots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.35: The Relationship of the Zealots to the Essenes and to the Dead Sea Sect . 22.36: The Relationship of the Zealots to Jesus and to Early Christianity . 22 .37: The Sicarii, the Fourth Philosophy, and the Zealots . 22.38 : The Galilaeans' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.39 : The A:nO'taC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.40: Individual Revolutionary Leaders : Judas of Galilee, John of Gischala, Simon bar Giora, Menahem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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569 572 574 579 580 580 582 586 587 588 590

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592 594 597

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600 605 607 609 610 612

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23: Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 .0: Josephus on John the Baptist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 . 1 : The 'Testimonium Flavianum' on Jesus : Bibliography 23 .2: The 'Testimonium Flavianum' : General . . . . . . . 23 . 3 : Josephus' Sources for the 'Testimonium Flavianum' . .

542 542 549 551 560 562 566

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614 616 617 61 8 633 637 642 646 647 648 651 655 667 670 670 673 673 679 680 691

XII

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23.4: Josephus' Motives for Inserting the Testimonium' . 23.5 : The Testimonium Flavianum' : "He Was the Messiah" . 23.6: The lica, 2 1 ) . Leiden 1973 . (3089) SAUL LIEBERMAN: How Much Greek in Jewish Palestine? In: ALEXANDER ALTMANN, ed. , Philip W. Lown Institute of Advanced Judaic Studies, Brandeis University, Studies and Texts, 1 . Cambridge, Mass. 1 963. Pp. 1 23 - 1 4 1 . Rpt. in his : Texts and Studies. New York 1 974. Pp. 2 1 6- 234. Rpt. in : HENRY A. FISCHEL, ed. , Essays in Greco-Roman and Related Talmudic Literature. New York 1 977. Pp. 325- 343. (3090) ROBERT GORDIS: On the Heroism of the Defenders of Masada (in Hebrew). In: Hadoar 47, no. 40, Oct. 25, 1 968, pp. 756- 757. (3091) ZALMAN DIMITROVSKY: Masada. In: Conservative Judaism 22 . 2 , Winter 1 968, pp. . 36-47. (3092) SIDNEY B . HOENIG : The Sicarii in Masada - Glory or Infamy? In: Tradition 1 1 , 1 970, pp. 5-30. (3093) LEO GUTMAN : Letter. In : Tradition 1 0, no. 4, 1 969, pp. 98-99. (3094) SHUBERT SPERO : In Defense of the Defenders of Masada. In : Tradition 1 1 . 1 , 1970, pp. 3 1 - 43 . (3095) SAUL LIEBERMAN: Greek in Jewish Palestine. New York 1 942 . In addition to Josephus, the only ancient writers who mention Masada are Strabo ( 1 6 . 44), who speaks of the rocks and crevices in its vicinity ; Pliny the Elder (Naturalis History 5. 73) , who has a reference to the fortress Masada on a rock not far from the Dead Sea ; and Solinus (third century C . E . ) , whose reference to the fortress of Masada (Collectanea 35. 1 2) is clearly derived from Pliny .

770

25 : JOSEPHUS AND ARCHAEOLOGY

The suspicions of a number of scholars have been aroused by the baffling silence of the Talmud with regard to Masada. The rabbis, as HELLER (3084) notes, did praise the victims of Bethar in the revolt of Bar Kochba in 1 35 C . E . and hence showed that they were not opposed to military belligerency a s such ; but, says HELLER, the Sicarii, who were in charge of Masada, operated within a secular frame of reference and, moreover, violated Jewish law by committing mutual suicide. Hence he suggests that the rabbis wished to set up a dam by their silence against the Stoic doctrine that gave legitimacy to such a suicide. While it is true that a number of scholars, such as BERGMANN (3085) , KAMINKA (3086) , and FISCHEL (3087) , have tried to show Stoic influence on the Talmudic rabbis, and FISCHEL (3088) has now tried to demonstrate Epicurean influence as well, LIEBERMAN (3089) effectively argues that the alleged bor­ rowings have only a superficial similarity or are commonplaces . We may add that there is no mention throughout the Talmud of the Stoics or of any of their leaders ; and they were hardly a threat to Judaism, as apparently the Epicureans were . Moreover, even Josephus, who so bitterly denounced the Sicarii, acknowl­ edges that they, far from operating within a secular frame of reference, stressed the point, as we see, for example, in their behavior under torture in Egypt (War 7. 4 1 8 - 4 1 9) , that their key doctrine was their refusal to accept anyone other than G-d as their master, a view which they shared with the Fourth Philosophy (Ant. 1 8 . 23 - 25), with whom they are usually identified and from whose founder, Judas the Galilaean, Eleazar, the leader of the Sicarii at Masada, was descended (War 7. 253) . HELLER (3084) , furthermore, suggests that the rabbis' silence is due to their opposition to martyrdom when impelled by excessive zeal and especially to mutual suicide such as occurred at Masada. GORDIS (3090) notes that the Hasmoneans are also only very slightly mentioned in Talmudic literature, but this is, we may suggest, largely because of the rabbis' intractable opposition to them . The rabbis , we may note, are silent about the Dead Sea sect(s) and the Essenes , as well as about Philo and Josephus . The Talmud is not a history book, nor is it primarily concerned with theology as such . Moreover, the rabbis are generally, though not always, circumspect in references to the Romans. DIMITROVSKY (309 1 ) says that the omission of Masada from rabbinic litera­ ture may, in part, be due to the rabbis' fear of the Romans ; but Josephus , we may remark, who certainly has great regard for the Romans, not only does not omit the incident but sets it forth at great length . In any case, the rabbis were not afraid to speak very negatively about such figures as Titus (Ginin 56 b - 57 a) . DIMITROVSKY concludes that the primary reason for the silence i s the new policy of political passivity developed at Yavneh after the fall of Jerusalem in 70, which objected to suicide for even the noblest of purposes ; but, we may note, that this was not a new policy is clear from the initial opposition of the greatest rabbinic leaders, Jol}anan ben Zakkai and his followers (Ginin 56 a) , to the activists who had brought on the war with Rome. HOENIG (3092) takes a point of view opposite to that of D IMITROVSKY, declaring that the Talmud's silence is due to the disdain of the rabbis toward their

25: JOSEPHUS AND ARCHAEOLOGY

77 1

attitude of resignation in a situation where they should have put up a vigorous defense, although indications from the Talmud, we may remark, show that most rabbis were in favor of peace with the Romans. GUTMAN (3093) more plausibly suggests that rabbinic opposition may have been due to the heterodox calendar of the sectaries ; there were fierce debates during this period with regard to the calendar, as we see, for example, in the dispute between Rabbi Joshua ben J:Iananiah and Rabban Gamaliel (Rosh Hash­ anah 5 a) . The very fact that the Sicarii , who appear from YADIN'S excavations to have been ultra-religious in observing the laws of purity and of tithing, engaged in a raid on Ein Gedi on Passover (War 4 . 402), when such raids would be strictly prohibited according to Jewish law, may be explained by the suggestion that, according to the calendar of the Sicarii, it was not Passover. SPERO (3094) elucidates the Talmud's silence by correctly noting that the Talmud is not a systematic chronicle of historical events, and that since Masada involved relatively few people, it was considered a minor event. Josephus , for his own reasons, we may add, may have chosen to inflate its importance, but the truth is that the war had long since ended, as the Romans realized by delaying this mopping-up operation ; and the episode had no great military or political signifi­ cance . As to SPERO'S suggestion that the rabbis omitted it because their last memory of the revolutionaries in connection with the civil war in Jerusalem had not been pleasant, the rabbis do not shy away from mentioning unpleasant matters, as we see in their long digression about the siege of Jerusalem (Ginin 55 b - 5 8 a) ; but their concern with Jerusalem is explained by the fact that the Temple was in Jerusalem, whereas Masada had no religious significance. In any case, the rabbis are not silent about the Sicarii, whom they mention negatively (Mishnah, Makhshirin 1 . 6 and 'll'tT) e;: '\jJUX'll : 32 19y

13 19, 2022;, 2774v,

1978

B. Latin Accaron : 783 aequus: 2 1 01 b aJJectantem : 2591 , 2654 Bitbus contra Baccbium: 1358c Catapbractarii: 3303 Cbristiani: 1581 consilium : 1 1 69w credebatur esse Cbristus: 2 788, 28 1 8 b diligentissimus: 566 excidium : 186b fiscus Judaicus : 1 1 69x lao : 1 084c in terram visionis: 2 1 30 iubeo : 3307b ludaeae caput : 2968 e

Iudaei: 985 ius gladii: 1281 latus clavus: 1 3 73 legatus Caesaris: 2855 legatus censuum accipiendorum : 2855 legatus iuridicus: 2855 [legatus pro praetore] divi Augusti iterum Syriam et Pb[oenicem optinuit]: 2852 limes : 3058 lituus: 3 1 88 numina: 1 395 opus reticulum : 2987 pallium : 1 95 7 per saeculorum milia : 2390 perplurima multitudo : 2 720s

INDICES: II. WORDS

praefectus: 1399- 1415, 1429c princeps: 1 469 procurator: 1 399 - 1 4 1 5, 1429c proc(urator) Aug(usti) : 1 406 relegatio : 2116d

1 029

sanctissimi commilitiones: 1 85 senatum, id est orbis terrae consilium : 1 1 69w studiosos: 2 59 1 , 2654 Tiphys: 1 265e zelotas: 2591

C. Hebrew and Aramaic (arranged according to the order of the Hebrew alphabet)

'abtilos: 1 957 'adon : 3219i 'ob : 786 'or: 2377, 2378 isiin : 2373 'akbsaniab : 749 'el ba-(ba)kbilab : 784 'el-nakbon : 784 'aseya' : 237 1 , 2372, 2466, 2467 'Apikoros : 232 1 'apalyon : 1 957 'esh : 2377, 2378 'esbin : 2377 balan : 385 benei ?adok : 2326e bar bezwa' : 2559a Biryoni: 2569, 2597, 2605 beselamin : 1 138 bat kol: 1 967 Gibor: 1 3 1 6 gavra ketila' : 3302 gader: 843 , 844 giora' : 643 legaleab nazir: 2082 ger tosbav : 2 100 hakbeno : 2057 zaken : 3 75 lJaburah : 2486 baburotb : 2438 bozeh : 2375, 2376, 2559b boshen : 2365, 2370 bazoya' : 2375, 2376 lJezwana' : 2375, 2376 bakhamim : 32 1 9a balema' : 2559a lJamas: 2445 besed: 753 b br? : 303 1 1 lJasba'im: 2369, 2374 basha'in : 2369, 2374 tebul yom : 2425a yeharog v'al yeeavor: 32 1 g e 10' tosef . . . velo' tigerae : 595 ,

lo' tosifu . . . velo' tigereeu : 595 midelok : 783 c malakh : 1 970 ha-Mora'ah : 2 1 30 moreh : 2519 moreh ha-?edek : 25 1 9 ha-Moriah : 2 1 30 merape' : 2371 , 2372 mikveh : 1 1 1 4 mikvaoth : 3 125, 3 147 Nikaulin : 820i nafal 'al 'apov : 32 1 9 e Sikarin : 2642, 3095 seneh : 2555 Serikonin : 3095 eeved: 3203e eeden : 1 1 1 8 ealal: 32 1 9zd eam ha-'are? : 1 1 07, 2380 ea?emoth bamor: 3204 Asartha CA?artha): 329 1 b, 329 1 c eAqulah : 3388f earakhin : 2055b eeshah : 2479 philosophos : 3 76c Pascha: 329 1 b Perushim: 2247, 2269, 2270 ?edek: 2429p, 2543v ?edakah : 3208 kedem : 984 koreea ead sheyegaleh eth lebo: 32 1 9 e ketila' : 1 357, 3302 kanna'i: 2595, 2598 Kannaim (Qannaim): 2570, 2597, 260 1 , 2602 kaneh : 2598 korban : 32 1 2 a, 32 1 2b, 32 1 2 c rosh : 32 1 9 i rab : 1271 rabim : 2392a ha-rabim: 2470, 2472 rualJ : 1 974, 32 1 9y shosim : 783c teeudoth : 2881

1 030

INDICES : III. NAMES OF MODERN SCHOLARS

D. Other Languages Rumanian plisc: 2473

Arabic 'tlw: 1 5 1 2 Egyptian yao : 1 084c Hyksos bikkhase : 739 Tkb : 730

Sumerian Gan-na-im-a-an : 2602 Ush-gu-ri: 2679 Syriac lJazoiai: 2556

Parthian (Persian) safsira: 3307a saqratiyun : 2679

Thracian pleisk : 2473 , 2475, 2476

Phoenician 'eved 'elyon : 1 957 tryl: 1 1 1 7

Indo-European ':pleus : 2475, 2476

III. Index ofNames of Modern Writers ANONYMOUS: 49 1 , 498, 50 1 , 504, 506, 508, 5 1 6, 5 1 9, 523 , 528 , 529 , 533 , 535 , 1 259, 2718, 3432 , 3433 , 3435, 3436, 3462, 3463 , 3464, 3465 AALDERS, GERHARD J. D . : 1 1 40 AALEN, SVERRE : 1 82 1 , 2077, 2837, 32 14 ABEL, E RNEST L. : 1 366, 1 547b, 1 699, 291 1 ABEL, FELIX-MARIE : 368 , 991 b, 1 001 , 1 056, 1 1 05, 1 1 73 , 1 32 1 , 1 337, 1 564, 1 708, 2935, 2989 ABERBACH, M OSES (MOSHE) : 395 , 4 1 8 , 719, 1 1 43 , 1 1 44, 1 1 45, 1 209a, 1 245, 1 426, 1 538, 2909, 3327 VON ABERLE, MORITZ : 2855 ABRAHAMS, ISRAEL: 409, 93 7, 1 600 ACCAME, SILVI O : 2856 ACKROYD, PETER R. : 2 1 35, 2 1 48 ADAM, ALFRED : 59b, 384, 2332 ADAN (BAYEWITZ), DAVID: 303 1 j ADINOLFI, MARCO : 1 099b ADLE� ELHANAN : 23 a ADRIANI, MAURILIO : 1 077 AEScOLY, AARON Z. : 363 , 3460, 346 1 , 3549, 3550 AFRICA, THOMAS W. : 369 AGMON (B ISTRITSKI), NATHAN: 3500, 3501 AGOURIDES, SABBAS c . : 247, 524, 933zb AHARAH, S. : 1 605 b AHARONI, Y Ol:IANAN : 3043 , 3045 AHRENS, WILHELM : 3429

AIZAWA, BUNZO : 555, 1 1 69f, 1265a, 1265b, 1 494a, 2583 a ALBECK, HANOCH (CHANOCH) : 1936, 2048a, 2326£ ALBREKTSON, BERTIL: 656 ALBRIGHT, WILLIAM F. : 803 , 820c, 2225, 3003 , 3009 ALESSANDRI, SALVATORE : 1 1 69h ALEXANDER, PHILIP S. : 676 ALFARIC, PROSPER : 22 10d ALFOLDY, GEzA: 1 366 a ALKALAj, ARON: 370 ALLEGRO, JOHN M . : 91 1 , 1 1 32, 2453, 2602, 2679 , 3 1 1 8 ALLEN, j . E . : 2054d ALLERHAND, jACOB : 2242 za ALLGEIER, ARTHUR: 730 ALLON (ALON), GEDALIAH (GEDALIAHU, GEDALYAHU) : 438c, 1 1 69j , 1481 a, 1 528e, 1 587, 1 892 , 2055 c, 2291 , 2299b, 2299d ALON, AZARIAH : 3039 ALON, GEDALIAH : see ALLON ALT, ALBRECHT: 728 , 74 1 , 96 1 , 2 1 39, 2944 , 2975 ALTANER, BERTHOLD : 3357 ALTER, ROBERT: 3 1 49, 35 1 0 ALTHEIM, FRANZ : 1 358a, 1 5 1 1 , 29 1 7 ALTSHULER, DAVID: 1 65 1 b, 1 726, 2048, 3314b ALY, WOLF'GANG: 1 1 85, 1 7 1 7

INDICES : III. NAMES OF MODERN SCHOLARS AMADON, G RACE: 2072 AMARU, B ETSY : 2012b AMATO, ANGELO: 2774zi AMIKAL, ADAH : 3493 AMIR, JOSHUA (YEHOSHUA, JEHOSHUA) :

1 803 m, 2022f

AMIRAN, DAVID H . K . : 300 1 n , 300 1 0 AMIRAN, RUTH : 301 1 AMIT, DAVID: 1 54b, 2986e, 2988 e, 3036b,

3 1 12d, 3 1 73 b

AMOUSSINE (AMUSSIN, A MUSIN), J OSEPH (I.) D . : 1 070h , 1 0nk, 1 1 35, 1 1 38e, 1 1 38j,

1484, 22 1 0m, 2445, 3 1 57e, 3 1 58, 3 1 58 a

AMSTUTZ, J OSEPH : 3206 AMUSSIN (AMUSIN), JOSEPH : see AMOUSSINE VON ANDEL, G . K . : 1 594 b ANDERSEN, F RANCIS I . : 232, 3375 ANDERSON, G EORGE W. : 658 ANDERSON, HUGH: 900, 1 250, 2539 D'ANDILLY, ARNAULD : 130, 565h ANGELOV, BONJu ST. : 3443 ANGUS, SAMUEL: 2565 ApPLEBAUM, SHIMON : 933zc, 1 0nf, 1 1 68,

1 1 69p, 1 1 69 y, 1 258, 1 265 g, 1 287, 1340 b , 1 487, 14885, 1493 , 1 494, 1 547 e, 1 547 d, 1563p, 1 628 d, 2672, 3 1 33, 3 1 73 s, 3 1 73 t A RARAT, NISAN : 84 1 A RAZY, ABRAHAM : 32 19q ARENDZEN, J OHN P.: 2812 ASHMAN, AHARON : 3490 ASHTON, WINIFRED : see DANE, CLEMENCE ATKINSON, K . M. T. : 1 934a Atti del Convegno biblieo-franeeseano: 1 5 75 ATTRIDGE, HAROLD W . : 594, 624, 72 1 , 1 725, 1 803 a, 2583 , 3252 AVENARIUS, G ERT: 573 , 593 , 626, 1 63 1 , 1 671 , 1 723, 1994, 3333 AVIGAD, NAHMAN: 1 297b, 3001 e, 3001q, 3001 r, 3012, 3043 , 3 1 73 g A VIGAD, NIGEL: 599 AVIGDOR, HAVA: 340 1 AVISHAR, E ITAN : 1 054 AVI-SHMUEL [sic] : 3497 AVI-YIFTAI;I, S . : 3038 AVI-YONAH, MICHAEL: 874, 933 , 933r, 1 1 1 3 , 1 1 89, 1 25 1 , 1 295, 1 296, 1 563k, 1 567, 1 836, 1 839, 1 840, 1857r, 2087, 2934, 2938, 2943 , 2957j, 29571, 2964, 2971 , 2972, 2978, 2992, 2993 , 2998, 300 1 d, 3001 i, 3001 t, 3010, 301 4a, 3014h, 3028 , 304 1 , 3042 , 3043 , 3044, 3 1 58d, 3 1 58e, 3 1 73 r, 3366 AZIZA, CLAUDE: 3354a

1 03 1

B AARLINK, HEINRICH : 2898f BADIA, L. F . : 2720w B ADIAN, ERNST: 1 03 1 BAECK, LEO : 2242 � 2247 B AER, YITZHAK F. : 1 86, 320, 344, 354a, 39 1 ,

427, 1 024, 1 1 36, 1 527, 1 576, 1 67l f, 1942, 2242 m, 2469, 2705e, 3083 , 3283a, 333 1 , 3384b, 3453 BAGATTI, BELLARMINO : 1 868, 1 868a BAGLIO, GAETANO : 2865a BAGNALL, ROGER S. : 983 d BAHAT, D . : 303 l f BAIER, WERNER : 38a, 1 825a, 2986a BAILLY, AUGUSTE : 1 307e BALCH, DAVID L. : 1 647a, 1 647b BALSDON, JOHN P . V . D . : 1448 BAMBERGER, B ERNARD J . : 2899, 29 1 3 BAMMEL, ERNST (ERNEST) : 1 1 9 1 , 1 1 96, 1 284, 1 302 a, 1 373 b, 1 377, 1 433, 1 608, 1 890, 1 895, 1 948, 2326e, 2724c, 2774z, 2800, 28 1 0, 2 8 1 8 , 2898a B AR-ADON, PESSAI;I : 2543 r, 3 1 73 i BARAG, D . : 1 508d BARAS, ZVI : 2 774x, 2825j BARASCH, MOSES: 475 BARDTKE, HANS: 58, 868b, 2548 B ARDY, GUSTAVE: 3341 BARISH, DAVID A . : 1 646a, 1 65 1 a, 3314a BAR-KoCHVA, B EZALEL: 933zd, 1 009d, 1 00ge, 1 009f, 1057, 1057a, 1 057b, 1 0nh, 1 1 0 1 c, 1 1 38e, 1 563g, 1 563 h, 1 7 1 6e, 2974, 3 1 12c, 3 1 73k B ARNES, TIMOTHY D . : 1 275 , 1 594a BARNETT, P . W . : 1 366d, 1984w, 1984x, 2873 e B ARNIKOL, ERNST: 2713, 2 748 B ARON, SALO W. : 1 08, 269, 304, 876, 1488a, 2 1 04, 2568, 2905 , 3548 B ARR, JAMES: 3202 B ARRETT, ANTHONY A . : 1 508c BARRETT, C HARLES K . : 1 1 0, 1 43 , 550, 2747 BARRETT, D . S. : 1 558 BARTHELEMY, DOMINIQUE: 626g, 770 BARTINA, SEBASTIAN : 1 403 BARTLETT, J OHN R. : 1 005 B ASKIN, J UDITH R . : 7441 BASNAGE, JACQUES : 3 1 6 BASTOMSKY, S . J . : 1 5 1 4 B AUER, WALTER: 1 958, 2336, 2750 B AUERNFEIND, OTTO : 1 38, 453, 806, 3 1 1 5 , 3255 , 35 1 4 B AUMANN, ARNULF: 403

1 032

INDICES: III. NAMES OF MODERN SCHOLARS

BAUMBACH, GUNTHER: 22 1 0t, 224 1 , 23 1 7, 2577, 2600, 261 2 , 2630, 2640h , 2640 1, 2664, 2665, 2666, 2667, 3097 B AUMGARTEN, JOSEPH M . : 2286a, 2407, 241 8f, 2425, 2425a BAVIER, RICHARD: 3 7 BAYER, BATHJA: 1 260, 3434, 3439 BAYEWITZ, DAVID: 303 1 ; B EASLEy-MuRRAY, G EORGE R . : 2429b, 291 1 e B EATTIE, D. R. G . : 753 a B ECHER, I LSE: 1 070b B ECK, HANS G. : 3378 B ECKWITH, ROGER T. : 2055i, 24 1 8 B ECQ, JEAN : 1 23 7 B EE, KAY: 3484 B EEK, MARTINUS A . : 1 64, 1 65, 884, 1 925, 24 1 4 BEILIN, ELAINE: 3397b B ELKIN, SAMUEL: 1 770, 2007, 2044, 2046, 2049, 2095, 2 1 07, 2 1 2 1 BELL, ALBERT A . , JR. : 1 84 a, 1 86 a, l86b, 2724b, 2800a, 3 192d B ELL, HAROLD IDRIS: 1 084d , 1 473 , 1 474, 1 488b BELLINGER, ALFRED R. : 1 104 B EN-AMOS, DAN: 3457c BEN-ARIEH, SARA: 30141, 3014m BEN CHAIM, SHELOMO: 968[ B EN-CHORIN, SCHALOM: 2774n B EN-DAVID, A RYE: 2093e, 3 1 86, 3 192b BEN-Dov, MEIR: 300 1 1 D E BENETTI, LINo : 660 B ENGTSON, H ERMANN: 549, 1 278, 1 298, 1 620g B EN I EHUDA, ELIESER: 2378 B ENKO, STEPHEN: 1 469a BENNETT, BOYCE M . : 3 1 65 B ENOIT, ANDRE: 38, 902, 2542, 2613, 2678, 3512 BENOIT, PIERRE: 2429i, 2720e, 3020, 3020a, 3026 B ENTWICH, NORMAN D . : 402, 405, 462, 482, 490, 1 73 7, 2098, 2229, 2382 B ERANGER, J EAN: 1 362 BERARD, J EAN : 738 B ERDICHEVSKY, E MANUEL: see B IN G ORION B ERENDTS, ALEXANDER: 2 1 8, 2 19, 236 VAN DEN BERG, H ILDA: 3377 B ERGER, FRITZ : 2983 B ERGER, KLAUS: 787, 1 803 0, 321 0a, 32 1 9p BERGMANN, JUDAH : 2279, 3085 B ERGMEIER, ROLAND : 1 844, 1 909, 2442, 2836, 3265 BERLIN, CHARLES: 6, 1 5

B ERNAYS, JAKOB : 1 580 B ERNHARDT, KARL-H . : 1 398a BERNSTEIN, LEON: 476 BERNSTEIN, MOSHE J . : 753 b BERTHOLET, ALFRED: 500 BERTRAM, GEORG : 567, 200 1 , 32 1 9zd BESSONE, L. : l517a B EST, ERNEST: 1 974, 32 1 9z B ETz, OTTO : 385e, 806, 195 1 b , 1 983, 1989, 1 998, 2344, 242 1 , 2435, 2549, 26 1 8 a, 2663 BEVAN, EDWYN (ROBERT) : 469, 1 092a, 2086, 22 1 0b, 22 16a, 2357b B ICKERMAN (BICKERMANN, B IKERMAN), ELIAS (E LIE) J . : 862, 962, 963 , 967, 971 , 1 0 1 4, 1 0 19, 1 020, 1 02 1 , 1 025, 1 082, 1 083, 1 1 71 , 1 206c, 1 647d, 1 670, 1 86 1 , 1 935, 2 1 00a, 2 1 6 1 , 24 1 8 a, 3387 B ICKERMANN, ELIAS J . : see BICKERMAN BIELER, LUDWIG: 701 B IENERT, WALTHER: 242, 272 7 BIETENHARD, HANS: 1 805, 2955, 3 1 76 d BIGARE, G . : 525 B IHL, WOLFDIETER: 1 3 , 1 3 b B IHLER, JOHANNES: 1 803 f, 2418c BIKERMAN, ELIAS J.: see B ICKERMAN B ILDE, PER: 1 469d, 1 5471, 1 77 1 j B ILGRAY, ALBERT: 1 4 BIN GORION (BERDICHEVSKY), EMANUEL (MICHA J . ) : 1 5 1 , 425a, 1 984c, 27201, 2774h, 28 1 8 n BIRLEY, ERIC: 1 603 B ISTRITSKI, NATHAN: see AGMON BJERKELUND, CARL J . : 32 1 5 B LACK, MATTHEW: 2334f, 2357/, 2392e, 2400a, 24 1 8b, 2429f, 2512, 25 1 5, 2614, 2689, 2690j, 2884, 3347 BLAIKLOCK, EDWARD M . : 1 1 54 BLANCHETIERE, FRANS;OIS : 954 BLATT, FRANZ: 82, 1 88, 1 89, 1 93, 1 96, 633 B LAU, JOSEPH L. : 108 BLEICKEN, J OCHEN: 1 1 69w, 1 429a, 289 1 e BLENKINSOPP, JOSEPH : 1 98 1 , 2020, 22 1 6, 2891 , 3262 BLIDSTEIN, GERALD J . : 2429n BLINZLER, J OSEF: 5 1 0, 1 228, 1 396, 2 746, 2823, 2825g, 2832 B LOCH, ABRAHAM P. : 207la B LOCH, HEINRICH: 1 666, 3536c B LOCH, RENEE: 601 , 623, 643 b, 723 e BLOMQVIST, JERKER: 3286 BLUMENKRANZ, BERNHARD: 3371 B OAS, HENRIETTE: 578 BOCHER, OTTO: 2032

INDICES: III. NAMES OF MODERN SCHOLARS B OELTER, FRANCIS W. : 3 1 73 u B OMSTAD, ROLAND G . : 488b, 1 635f, 3259f B ONSIRVEN, J OSEPH : 882, 2 1 75, 2223, 2609 B ORG, MARC: 2596 BORGER, RIEKELE: 1 42 BORST, ARNO: 676j, 1 77 1 c, 3266b B ORZsAK, ISTVAN: 1 7 D E B OSQUE, ANDREE: 1 97 BOSWORTH, A. B . : 1 358f BOTEZ, AL. A.: 1241 B OTTE, BERNARD: 1 653 BOTTERWECK, G. J OHANNES: 565 b BOUCHE-LECLERCQ, A. : 1 05 1 f BOWERSOCK, GLEN W. : 474a, 1 282, 1620i, 2957f, 3 1 55 a BOWKER, J OHN: 640, 2270 B OWMAN, JOHN: 1 8 77, 1 904c, 2074i, 2 1 34, 2 1 65 Box, GEORGE H . : 899 Box, HERBERT: 1 477 B RADFORD, ERNLE: 1 070d, 1307h B RAND, jEHOSHUA (YEHOSHUA, J OSHUA) : 1 855, 1 9 1 8, 3083 a, 3 1 64 B RANDON, SAMUEL G. F. : 234, 416, 4 16 a, 904, 1 233, 1 3 79, 1 380, 1 398, 1413, 1 520, 1 529, 1 549, 1 568, 201 6, 2573 , 260 1 , 2635, 2636, 2637, 2638, 2640n, 2640u, 2647, 2668 , 2682, 2 764, 2789, 2822, 2825d B RANT, WALTER: 2339, 2712 B RASLAWSKY, J OSEPH : 3037 BRATKE, E . : 2790b B RAUER, G EORGE c . , jR. : 3074 BRAUN, FRAN�OIS-MARIE: 2643, 2774e B RAUN, HERBERT: 57, 2396, 2501 BRAUN, MARTIN: 55 1 , 692, 693, 702, 1 222 BRAUNERT, HORST: 2861 B RAVERMAN, JAY: 66 1 £, 822, 1 092j , 1 1 0 1 , 1 563d, 3356 BRAYER, MENAHEM M. : 240 1 BREITENSTEIN, URS: 1 663b B REITHAUPT, JOHANN F. : 328 B RESLAUER, S . DANIEL: 3150/ B RIEND, JACQUES: 93 1 BRIESSMANN, ADALBERT: 1 609, 3 1 05, 3325 BRINTON, CRANE: 1 547g, 1 554 B ROCK, SEBASTIAN P. : 39, 783 b, 783 c, 3362 c, 3536b B ROCKINGTON, LEONHARD H . : 643 B RODSKY, ALYN : 1 092 e B RONKHORST, ALEXANDER J . : 891 B RONNER, LEAH: 2062, 2 1 92, 2273, 2537 B ROSHI, MAGEN: 1297/, 1 599b, 1 599c, 1635i, 303 1 £, 3112k

1 033

BROUGHTON, THOMAS ROBERT S. : 1 1 69 c, . 1 206a B ROWNE, LAURENCE E . : 875, 2 1 55 B ROWNE, LEWIS: 1 06 B ROWNLEE, WILLIAM H . : 2480, 2543 a B RUCE, FREDERICK F. : 398a, 5 1 2 , 82 1 , 890, 1 334, 1 429d, 1 488d, 1 620b, 1 984rn, 1 984p, 2338, 2357d, 2583d, 2774 u, 2878, 3083 b B RUCE, I . A. F. : 1 6 1 9 BRUCKLMEIER, MAX: 1 1 69 b B RULL, NEHEMIAH: 3 73 B RUNE, B ERNHARD: 46 1 B RUNT, PETER A . : 1 547k BUCHANAN, GEORGE W. : 2022 rn, 2242 g, 2424, 2898d, 3319d BUCHLER, ADOLPHE: see BUCHLER BUCHWALD, WOLFGANG: 571 BUCHLER (BUCHLER), ADOLF (ADOLPHE, ADOLPH) : 1 000, 1 888, 1 949, 2 1 42 BUEHLER, W. W. : 225 1 BUITKAMP, JAN : 2406£, 2543u BULHART, VINZENZ: 95, 1 78, 1 94 BULL, R OBERT j. : 2 1 39rn BUNGE, J. G . : 1 904d BURCHARD, CHRISTOPHER (CHRISTOPH) : 52, 84, 87 e, 385, 2334d, 2395a, 2395f, 3350a BURDACH, KONRAD: 1 728 B URGMANN, HANS: 1 1 02b, 1 1 02c BURKE, PETER: 3388a B URKILL, T. A . : 2640a BURKITT, FRANCIS c . : 2 777 BURR, VIKTOR: 1 1 89a, 1 424 BURROWS, MILLAR: 2492, 2502 BURSTEIN, WILLIAM : 262 1 B USCEMI, MARCELLO : 3210b B USCH, FRITZ-OTTO ( = CORNELISSEN, PETER) : 1 323, 1 324 B USINK, TH. A . : 1297h, 1 857c, 1857p, 3020c BYATT, ANTHONY: 1 599 CADBURY, HENRY j . : 2830, 2874, 2886, 289 1 i CAHAN, YA