Introduction to Process Technology

Introduction to Process Technology Third Edition

Charles E. Thomas

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Introduction to Process Technology, Third Edition Author: Charles E. Thomas Vice President, Editorial: Dave Garza Director of Learning Solutions: Sandy Clark Executive Editor: David Boelio Managing Editor: Larry Main Senior Product Manager: Sharon Chambliss Editorial Assistant: Lauren Stone Vice President, Marketing: Jennifer McAvey Executive Marketing Manager: Deborah S. Yarnell Marketing Manager: Jimmy Stephens Marketing Specialist: Mark Pierro Production Director: Wendy Troeger Production Manager: Mark Bernard Content Project Manager: Barbara LeFleur Art Director: Benj Gleeksman Technology Project Manager: Chrstopher Catalina Production Technology Analyst: Thomas Stover

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Preface ...........................................................................................................................xi Chapter 1 History of the Chemical Processing Industry ..........................1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Key Terms ..............................................................................................................2 History of the Chemical Processing Industry .........................................................3 Current Issues and Trends ...................................................................................14 Working in the Chemical Processing Industry .....................................................17 College Programs for Process Technology ..........................................................20 Your Career as a Process Technician ..................................................................24 Careers in the Chemical Processing Industry......................................................26 Roles and Responsibilities of a Process Technician ............................................29 Regulatory Agencies............................................................................................34 The Work Environment.........................................................................................37 Summary..............................................................................................................38 Chapter 1 Review Questions ...............................................................................40

Chapter 2 Introduction to Process Technology ..........................................41 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

Key Terms ............................................................................................................42 Introduction to Process Technology .....................................................................43 Safety, Health, and Environment..........................................................................47 The Principles of Quality Control .........................................................................50 Instrumentation and Process Control...................................................................51 Process Equipment ..............................................................................................53 Process Systems .................................................................................................55 Process Operations..............................................................................................57 Troubleshooting....................................................................................................60 iii

Contents 2.9 Applied General Chemistry and Physics..............................................................63 2.10 College Math ........................................................................................................65 Summary..............................................................................................................66 Chapter 2 Review Questions ...............................................................................68

Chapter 3 Safety, Health, and Environment ................................................69 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18

Key Terms ............................................................................................................70 Safety, Health, and Environment Overview ..........................................................71 Basic Safety Principles.........................................................................................72 Occupational Safety and Health Act ....................................................................73 The PSM Standard ..............................................................................................74 The Hazard Communication Program..................................................................74 Safe Handling, Storage, and Transportation of Hazardous Chemicals ................77 Physical Hazards Associated with Chemicals......................................................77 Health Hazards Associated with Chemicals ........................................................78 Material Safety Data Sheets ................................................................................79 Toxicology.............................................................................................................79 Respiratory Protection Programs .........................................................................79 Personal Protective Equipment ............................................................................80 Emergency Response..........................................................................................80 Plant Permit System.............................................................................................81 Classification of Fires and Fire Extinguishers ......................................................82 HAZWOPER ........................................................................................................82 Hearing Conservation and Industrial Noise .........................................................83 Department of Transportation ..............................................................................84 Summary..............................................................................................................84 Chapter 3 Review Questions ...............................................................................86

Chapter 4 Applied Physics One ........................................................................87 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

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Key Terms ............................................................................................................88 Basic Principles of Pressure ................................................................................89 Heat, Heat Transfer, and Temperature .................................................................99 Fluid Flow...........................................................................................................100 Basic Math for Process Technicians...................................................................104 Summary............................................................................................................109 Chapter 4 Review Questions .............................................................................112

Contents

Chapter 5 Equipment One .................................................................................113 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................114 Basic Hand Tools ...............................................................................................114 Valves.................................................................................................................115 Piping and Storage Tanks ..................................................................................121 Pumps ................................................................................................................124 Compressors......................................................................................................129 Steam Turbines ..................................................................................................132 Gas Turbines ......................................................................................................133 Electricity and Motors.........................................................................................134 Equipment Lubrication, Bearings, and Seals .....................................................135 Steam Traps .......................................................................................................137 Summary............................................................................................................138 Chapter 5 Review Questions .............................................................................139

Chapter 6 Equipment Two ..................................................................................141 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................142 Heat Exchangers ...............................................................................................142 Cooling Towers...................................................................................................147 Boilers (Steam Generation)................................................................................149 Furnaces ............................................................................................................151 Reactors.............................................................................................................154 Distillation...........................................................................................................157 Separators..........................................................................................................161 Summary............................................................................................................162 Chapter 6 Review Questions .............................................................................165

Chapter 7 Process Instrumentation One ....................................................167 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................168 Introduction to Process Instruments ..................................................................168 Symbols and Diagrams ......................................................................................173 Process Diagrams..............................................................................................182 Interlocks and Permissives ................................................................................184 P&ID Components .............................................................................................186 Summary............................................................................................................191 Chapter 7 Review Questions .............................................................................192

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Contents

Chapter 8 Process Instrumentation Two .....................................................193 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................194 Basic Elements of a Control Loop......................................................................195 Process Variables and Control Loops ................................................................196 Primary Elements and Sensors .........................................................................197 Transmitters and Control Loops .........................................................................197 Controllers and Control Modes ..........................................................................200 Final Control Elements and Control Loops ........................................................202 Summary............................................................................................................203 Chapter 8 Review Questions .............................................................................205

Chapter 9 Process Technology—Systems One ........................................207 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................208 Pump System.....................................................................................................208 Compressor System ..........................................................................................208 Electrical System ...............................................................................................212 Lubrication System ............................................................................................213 Hydraulic System ...............................................................................................213 Heat Exchanger System ....................................................................................214 Cooling-Tower System .......................................................................................214 Steam-Generation System (Boilers) ..................................................................216 Furnace System.................................................................................................218 Summary............................................................................................................221 Chapter 9 Review Questions .............................................................................223

Chapter 10 Process Technology—Systems Two ......................................225 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8

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Key Terms ..........................................................................................................226 Reactor System .................................................................................................227 Distillation System..............................................................................................228 Separation System.............................................................................................234 Pressure Relief Equipment and Flare System ...................................................235 Plastics System..................................................................................................236 Refrigeration System .........................................................................................241 Water Treatment System....................................................................................242 Utilities ...............................................................................................................243 Summary............................................................................................................243 Chapter 10 Review Questions ...........................................................................245

Contents

Chapter 11 Industrial Processes ....................................................................247 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 11.18 11.19 11.20

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................248 Common Industrial Processes ...........................................................................248 Petrochemical Processes...................................................................................251 Benzene .............................................................................................................251 BTX Aromatics ...................................................................................................252 Ethylbenzene .....................................................................................................253 Ethylene Glycols ................................................................................................253 Mixed Xylenes....................................................................................................253 Olefins ................................................................................................................255 Paraxylenes .......................................................................................................255 Polyethylene.......................................................................................................255 Xylene Isomerization..........................................................................................255 Ethylene .............................................................................................................256 Refining Processes ............................................................................................256 Alkylation............................................................................................................256 Fluid Catalytic Cracking .....................................................................................257 Hydrodesulfurization ..........................................................................................258 Hydrocracking ....................................................................................................259 Fluid Coking .......................................................................................................260 Catalytic Reforming............................................................................................260 Crude Distillation................................................................................................260 Summary............................................................................................................262 Chapter 11 Review Questions ...........................................................................264

Chapter 12 Process Technology Operations .............................................265 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................266 Overview of Process ..........................................................................................266 Pilot Plant Operations ........................................................................................266 Process Control Instrumentation........................................................................272 Safety and Quality Control .................................................................................274 Bench-Top Operations .......................................................................................276 Operating Procedures ........................................................................................276 Self-Directed Work Teams..................................................................................278 Walk-Through Qualification................................................................................278 Summary............................................................................................................278 Chapter 12 Review Questions............................................................................280 vii

Contents

Chapter 13 Applied General Chemistry ......................................................281 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................282 Fundamental Principles of Chemistry ................................................................283 Chemical Equations and the Periodic Table .......................................................286 Chemical Reactions ...........................................................................................291 Material Balance ................................................................................................293 Percent-by-Weight Solutions..............................................................................295 Measurements of pH..........................................................................................295 Hydrocarbons.....................................................................................................296 Applied Concepts in Chemical Processing ........................................................298 Summary............................................................................................................300 Chapter 13 Review Questions ...........................................................................303

Chapter 14 Applied Physics Two ....................................................................305 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................306 Fundamental Concepts ......................................................................................306 Density and Specific Gravity ..............................................................................308 Pressure in Fluids ..............................................................................................312 Complex and Simple Machines..........................................................................319 Electricity............................................................................................................323 Summary............................................................................................................328 Chapter 14 Review Questions ...........................................................................331

Chapter 15 Environmental Standards ..........................................................333 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6

Key Terms...........................................................................................................334 Air Pollution Control ...........................................................................................335 Water Pollution Control ......................................................................................336 Solid Waste Control............................................................................................336 Toxic Substances Control...................................................................................337 Emergency Response........................................................................................338 Community Right-to-Know .................................................................................338 Summary............................................................................................................339 Chapter 15 Review Questions ...........................................................................340

Chapter 16 Quality Control ...............................................................................341 Key Terms ..........................................................................................................342 16.1 Principles of Continuous Quality Improvement ..................................................342 16.2 Quality Improvement Cycle ................................................................................343 viii

Contents 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13

Supplier-Customer Relationship.........................................................................344 Quality Tools.......................................................................................................344 Statistical Process Control .................................................................................344 Flowcharts..........................................................................................................346 Run Charts.........................................................................................................348 Cause-and-Effect (Fishbone) .............................................................................348 Pareto Charts .....................................................................................................350 Planned Experimentation...................................................................................350 Histograms or Frequency Plots ..........................................................................351 Forms for Collecting Data ..................................................................................351 Scatter Plots.......................................................................................................352 Summary............................................................................................................352 Chapter 16 Review Questions............................................................................354

Chapter 17 Process Troubleshooting ............................................................355 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................356 Troubleshooting Methods ...................................................................................356 Troubleshooting Models .....................................................................................360 Basic Equipment Troubleshooting ......................................................................362 Process Control Instrumentation........................................................................362 Pump Model .......................................................................................................363 Compressor Model.............................................................................................365 Heat Exchanger Model.......................................................................................365 Cooling-Tower Model .........................................................................................367 Boiler Model .......................................................................................................369 Furnace Model ...................................................................................................371 Reactor Model....................................................................................................374 Absorption and Stripping Model.........................................................................376 Distillation Model ................................................................................................377 Separation Model ...............................................................................................379 Multivariable Model ............................................................................................381 Summary............................................................................................................381 Chapter 17 Review Questions............................................................................384

Chapter 18 Self-Directed Job Search ...........................................................385 Key Terms ..........................................................................................................386 18.1 The Job Search..................................................................................................386 18.2 Preemployment Testing......................................................................................392 ix

Contents 18.3 Work Experience................................................................................................392 Summary............................................................................................................393 Chapter 18 Review Questions............................................................................394

Chapter 19 Applied General Chemistry Two .............................................395 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8

Key Terms...........................................................................................................396 Fundamentals of Chemistry ...............................................................................396 The Periodic Table and Chemical Bonding.........................................................400 Organic Chemistry .............................................................................................403 Balancing Equations ..........................................................................................403 Petroleum Refining: Distillation...........................................................................405 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......................................................................................408 Alkenes and Alkynes..........................................................................................408 Alcohols..............................................................................................................411 Summary............................................................................................................413 Chapter 19 Review Questions............................................................................416

Chapter 20 Chemical Process Industry Overview ...................................417 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9

Key Terms ..........................................................................................................418 Industrial Processes...........................................................................................418 Chemical Manufacturing Petroleum Refining .....................................................419 Exploration and Production ................................................................................420 Power Generation ..............................................................................................423 Water and Wastewater Treatment ......................................................................424 Mining and Mineral Processing ..........................................................................426 Food and Beverage Processing .........................................................................427 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing...........................................................................428 Pulp and Paper Processing................................................................................430 Summary............................................................................................................431 Chapter 20 Review Questions............................................................................434

Glossary .....................................................................................................................435 Index ............................................................................................................................451

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The origin and standardization of the process technology program can be traced back to a series of activities and meetings in 1996–1998, organized by educators in the Gulf Coast area and supported by industry. The meetings were designed to officially standardize the process technology curriculum at the state level in Texas. The original process technology pioneers developed eight core courses and a series of physics and chemistry classes that are the foundation for most current process technology programs. The first course identified in this process was “Introduction to Process Technology”; the original vision of this group was to develop it as a survey or overview of each course in the process technology program. This text, Introduction to Process Technology, holds to the original vision of these pioneers and is the only work that reflects the principles they articulated. The course is designed to provide the apprentice technician with the foundation that future classes will build upon.This text devotes a chapter to each of these courses and provides key objectives that instructors can use to develop lesson plans and enhance their instruction. Each chapter includes objectives, key terms, photographs and line drawings, lecture material, summaries, and review questions. An instructor guide is available; however, the author strongly encourages each teacher to develop his or her own tests and learning activities. These activities can be linked to instructional videos, lab exercises, or field trips. Key topics covered in this text include:

• • • • • • • • • •

Introduction to process technology Safety, health, and environment Process instrumentation Process equipment Process systems Quality control Troubleshooting Process operations Applied general chemistry Physics

This textbook is divided into 20 chapters, with the more difficult concepts spread over more than one chapter. Each chapter is intended to cover the key objectives found in individual xi

Preface courses, but at a less intense level that is appropriate to the overview nature of the introductory course. Over the past 15 years, process technology has become one of the most popular programs in community colleges and universities located in heavily industrialized areas. A variety of programs appeared virtually overnight in response to government, industry, and community needs. As defined in the regionally accredited process curriculum, process technology is the study and application of the scientific principles (math, physics, chemistry) associated with the operation (instruments, equipment, systems, troubleshooting) and maintenance (safety, quality) of the chemical processing industry. Process technicians can be found working in petrochemical and refinery operations, the pharmaceutical industry, food processing, paper and pulp manufacturing, and many other areas. This group represents the fourth largest U.S. manufacturing segment. The chemical processing industry (CPI) is currently experiencing severe shortages in skilled technicians to operate plants. As the large Baby-Boomer group reaches retirement age, the CPI braces for a 70% to 80% employee turnover. The next three to seven years will bring massive changes as education levels in the United States continue to drop. The CPI is painfully aware of the changing requirements for process technicians. New technology, rightsizing, and redistribution of technical skills have created a new profile for this group. The term “gold collar” is being applied to the field of process technology, which can command incomes in the six-figure realm. The process technician of the future will have a one-year, state-approved certificate or a two-year AAS degree in process technology. The education needed to achieve that certification or degree will include instruction in modern manufacturing, engineering principles, math, physics, chemistry, unit operations, safety, equipment checking, sampling, data collection, data organization, data analysis, troubleshooting, and operation of new process control computer systems—among other things. These new apprentice technicians will need good interpersonal skills, strong technical and problem-solving skills, the ability to assimilate cutting-edge technologies quickly, and the ability to apply innovative ideas. In addition to these skills, a process technician will need to be able to handle conflict, look at a complex situation and see the overall picture, and communicate effectively. Exposure to these areas and experience will be gained both within technical and academic classes and on the job. The author would like to express his thanks to those individuals who have been involved in the development of the process technology program.

Charles E. Thomas, Ph.D.

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History of the Chemical Processing Industry After studying this chapter, the student will be able to: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Explain the history and development of the chemical processing industry. Define key terms used in process technology. List alternative fuel sources that will be used in the future. Identify the roles and responsibilities of a process technician. Describe batch operations, thermal cracking, fractional distillation, and catalytic cracking. Describe current issues and trends in the petroleum industry. Explain the future of oil, the “Big Rollover,” and the Hubbert peak theory. Contrast the development of the hydrocarbon industry with advances in modern society. List the skills required to work in the chemical industry. Describe college programs in process technology. Explain skills and techniques used by successful college students. Discuss the key elements of working in a diverse workforce. Define sexual harassment. Describe the chemical processing industry and future trends. Explain the responsibilities of various regulatory agencies. Describe the process technician’s work environment.

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Chapter 1

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History of the Chemical Processing Industry

Key Terms Batch process—order of work in which all ingredients are added to the process up front. Big Rollover—point at which global oil production peaks and then begins to decline. Biogenic theory—describes how natural gas and crude oil were formed using pressure or compression and heat on ancient organic material. Catalytic cracking—process that uses a catalyst to separate hydrocarbons. Chemical processing industry (CPI)—business segment composed of refinery, petrochemical, paper and pulp, power generation, and food processing companies and technicians. College programs in process technology—state-approved and regionally accredited programs that include courses such as Introduction to Process Technology; Safety, Health, and Environment; Process Instrumentation; Process Technology 1—Equipment, PT 2—Systems, and PT 3— Operations; Process Troubleshooting; Principles of Quality; and applied chemistry, physics, and basic math. Diversity training—identifies and reduces hidden biases between people with differences. Estimated ultimately recoverable (EUR)—technical term describing the total amount of crude oil that will ultimately be recovered. This number is difficult to calculate and fluctuates frequently. Oil reserves are typically underestimated and are adjusted as additional information and new technology become available. Most experts believe that 1.2 trillion barrels (without oil sands) and 3.74 trillion barrels (with oil sands) reflect the world’s total endowment of oil. Fractionating column—the central piece of equipment in a distillation system. Fractionating columns separate hydrocarbons by their individual boiling points. Future hiring trends—directions in employment; large numbers of retiring “baby boomers” will have to be replaced in the chemical processing industry. Goal setting—establishment of reasonable, specific, measurable objectives that lead toward the successful achievement of a goal. Gold collar—term used to describe process technicians. Housekeeping—maintenance of cleanliness and order; closely associated with safety in the chemical processing industry. Process technicians are required to keep their immediate areas clean. Hubbert peak theory—describes how future world petroleum production will peak and then begin the process of global decline. This decline will closely match the former rate of increase, as known oil reservoirs move to exhaustion. Industry training programs—programs whose primary focus is on mandatory safety training and on-the-job training; however, a number of employers’ programs still include some of the topics covered by college process technology courses. Lifelong learning—ongoing process of learning about new technologies and equipment. Global competition requires companies to adopt new and innovative techniques. Process technicians will come into contact with learning opportunities that cannot be found anywhere else. 2

1.1 History of the Chemical Processing Industry

Predicted model of shared responsibilities—forecast that the process technician of the future will take over tasks and job responsibilities presently performed by engineers and chemists. Process technician—a person who operates and maintains the complex equipment, systems, and technologies found in the chemical processing industry. Because these people work closely with specific pieces of equipment or processes, they are commonly called boiler operators, compressor technicians, distillation technicians, refinery technicians, or wastewater operators. Process technology—the study and application of the scientific principles (math, physics, chemistry) associated with the operation (instruments, equipment, systems, troubleshooting) and maintenance (safety, quality) of the chemical processing industry. Sexual harassment—behavior that constitutes unwelcome sexual advances; could take the form of verbal or physical abuse or unwelcome requests for sexual favors. The behavior may involve persons of the opposite sex or of the same sex; the offending conduct may run from supervisor to employee, student to student, employee to employee, teacher to student, and so on. (For further information on sexual harassment, see Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.) Thermal cracking—process that uses heat and pressure to separate small hydrocarbons from large ones. Time management—a structured system that arranges an individual’s study according to principles governing use of time.

1.1 History of the Chemical Processing Industry The lifeblood of modern society is found in petroleum products. Cars, planes, trains, ships, and farm equipment all require petroleum products to operate. Approximately 85% of all hydrocarbons manufactured are converted into gasoline, jet fuel, diesel, heating oils, and liquefied petroleum. The remaining 15% provides the foundation (feedstock) for fertilizers, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, solvents, plastics, and many other products. It is difficult to look around our world and not see the results of modern petroleum manufacturing. Before 1800, though, few people recognized the value or potential of hydrocarbon processing.

Petroleum The term petroleum combines two Latin words, petra (rock) and oleum (oil). It was first used by a German mineralogist named Georg Bauer (also known as Georgius Agricola) in 1556. Petroleum is a natural resource that took millions of years to develop and is traditionally found in porous rock formations in the Earth’s upper strata. The most dominant view, called the biogenic theory, describes how natural gas and crude oil were formed using pressure or compression and heat on ancient organic material. The biogenic theory hypothesizes that crude oil is made up of the remains of small ocean animals and plants that died, dropped to the bottom of the shallow ocean floor, and were covered by sediment. Over a long period, the tremendous weight of the sediment, combined with a low oxygen content and sustained temperatures around 150 degrees, formed the oil. Under these conditions, a chemical reaction occurs as carbohydrates, proteins, and other compounds are converted to crude oil. Natural gas forms under these same conditions if the temperature is maintained near 200 degrees. As the land masses shifted, the oil was forced by water into cracks, openings, and porous rocks. Crude oil normally varies from dark brown to black, although it occasionally appears to be green or yellowish. 3

Chapter 1

History of the Chemical Processing Industry

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Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons that vary in molecular structure and weight from region to geographic region. It is mostly composed of alkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and cycloalkanes. The balance of the compound includes nitrogen, oxygen, iron, nickel, copper, vanadium, and sulfur. Molecular composition also varies depending on geographic location. Typical crude oil compositions include:

• • • • • •

Hydrogen Carbon Sulfur Nitrogen Oxygen Metals

10–14% 83–87% 0.5–6% 0.1–2% 0.1–1.5%