Industrial Control Technology: A Handbook for Engineers and Researchers

Industrial Control Technology Industrial Control Technology A Handbook for Engineers and Researchers Peng Zhang Beij...

Author: Peng Zhang

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Industrial Control Technology

Industrial Control Technology A Handbook for Engineers and Researchers

Peng Zhang Beijing Normal University, People’s Republic of China

N o r w i c h , NY, USA

Copyright © 2008 by William Andrew Inc. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. ISBN: 978-0-8155-1571-5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Zhang, Peng. Industrial control technology : a handbook for engineers and researchers / Peng Zhang. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Process control--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Automatic control--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title. TS156.8.Z43 2008 670.42--dc22 2008002701 Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Published by: William Andrew Inc. 13 Eaton Avenue Norwich, NY 13815 1-800-932-7045 www.williamandrew.com

Environmentally Friendly This book has been printed digitally because this process does not use any plates, ink, chemicals, or press solutions that are harmful to the environment. The paper used in this book has a 30% recycled content.

NOTICE To the best of our knowledge the information in this publication is accurate; however the Publisher does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy or completeness of, or consequences arising from, such information. This book is intended for informational purposes only. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for their use by the Publisher. Final determination of the suitability of any information or product for any use, and the manner of that use, is the sole responsibility of the user. Anyone intending to rely upon any recommendation of materials or procedures mentioned in this publication should be independently satisfied as to such suitability, and must meet all applicable safety and health standards.

Contents Preface

xix

1 Sensors and Actuators for Industrial Control 1.1 Sensors 1.1.1 Bimetallic Switch 1.1.1.1 Operating Principle 1.1.1.2 Basic Types 1.1.1.3 Application Guide 1.1.1.4 Calibration 1.1.2 Color Sensors 1.1.2.1 Operating Principle 1.1.2.2 Basic Types 1.1.2.3 Application Guide 1.1.2.4 Calibration 1.1.3 Ultrasonic Distance Sensors 1.1.3.1 Operating Principle 1.1.3.2 Basic Types 1.1.3.3 Application Guide 1.1.3.4 Calibration 1.1.4 Light Section Sensors 1.1.4.1 Operating Principle 1.1.4.2 Application Guide 1.1.4.3 Specifications 1.1.4.4 Calibration 1.1.5 Linear and Rotary Variable Differential Transformers 1.1.5.1 Operating Principle 1.1.5.2 Application Guide 1.1.5.3 Calibration 1.1.6 Magnetic Control Systems 1.1.6.1 Operating Principle 1.1.6.2 Basic Types and Application Guide 1.1.7 Limit Switches 1.1.7.1 Operating Principle 1.1.7.2 Basic Types and Application Guide 1.1.7.3 Calibration

1 1 1 1 2 4 5 6 6 7 9 9 10 10 11 12 12 15 15 16 19 20 22 22 25 26 27 28 33 38 38 40 43

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Photoelectric Devices 1.1.8.1 Operating Principle 1.1.8.2 Application Guide 1.1.8.3 Basic Types 1.1.9 Proximity Devices 1.1.9.1 Operating Principle 1.1.9.2 Application Guide 1.1.9.3 Basic Types and Specifications 1.1.10 Scan Sensors 1.1.10.1 Operating Principle 1.1.10.2 Basic Types 1.1.10.3 Technical Specifications 1.1.11 Force and Load Sensors 1.1.11.1 Operating Principle 1.1.11.2 Basic Types 1.1.11.3 Technical Specifications 1.1.11.4 Calibration Actuators 1.2.1 Electric Actuators 1.2.1.1 Operating Principle 1.2.1.2 Basic Types 1.2.1.3 Technical Specification 1.2.1.4 Application Guides 1.2.1.5 Calibrations 1.2.2 Pneumatic Actuators 1.2.2.1 Operating Principle 1.2.2.2 Basic Types and Specifications 1.2.2.3 Application Guide and Assembly on Valve 1.2.3 Hydraulic Actuators 1.2.3.1 Operating Principle 1.2.3.2 Basic Types and Specifications 1.2.3.3 Application Guide 1.2.3.4 Calibration 1.2.4 Piezoelectric Actuators 1.2.4.1 Operating Principle 1.2.4.2 Basic Types 1.2.4.3 Technical Specifications 1.2.4.4 Calibration 1.2.5 Manual Actuators

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CONTENTS 1.3

2

Valves 1.3.1 Control Valves 1.3.1.1 Basic Types 1.3.1.2 Technical Specifications 1.3.1.3 Application Guide 1.3.2 Self-Actuated Valves 1.3.2.1 Check Valves 1.3.2.2 Relief Valves 1.3.3 Solenoid Valves 1.3.3.1 Operating Principles 1.3.3.2 Basic Types 1.3.3.3 Technical Specifications 1.3.4 Float Valves 1.3.4.1 Operating Principle 1.3.4.2 Specifications and Application Guide 1.3.4.3 Calibration 1.3.5 Flow Valves 1.3.5.1 Operating Principle 1.3.5.2 Specifications and Application Guide 1.3.5.3 Calibration

Computer Hardware for Industrial Control 2.1 Microprocessor Unit Chipset 2.1.1 Microprocessor Unit Organization 2.1.1.1 Function Block Diagram of a Microprocessor Unit 2.1.1.2 Microprocessor 2.1.1.3 Internal Bus System 2.1.1.4 Memories 2.1.1.5 Input/Output Pins 2.1.1.6 Interrupt System 2.1.2 Microprocessor Unit Interrupt Operations 2.1.2.1 Interrupt Process 2.1.2.2 Interrupt Vectors 2.1.2.3 Interrupts Service Routine (ISR) 2.1.3 Microprocessor Unit Input/Output Rationale 2.1.3.1 Basic Input/Output Techniques 2.1.3.2 Basic Input/Output Interfaces 2.1.4 Microprocessor Unit Bus System Operations 2.1.4.1 Bus Operations 2.1.4.2 Bus System Arbitration

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x

CONTENTS 2.1.4.3 Interrupt Routing 2.1.4.4 Configuration Registers Programmable Peripheral Devices 2.2.1 Programmable Peripheral I/O Ports 2.2.2 Programmable Interrupt Controller Chipset 2.2.3 Programmable Timer Controller Chipset 2.2.4 CMOS Chipset 2.2.5 Direct Memory Access Controller Chipset 2.2.5.1 Idle Cycle 2.2.5.2 Active Cycle Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) 2.3.1 ASIC Designs 2.3.1.1 ASIC Specification 2.3.1.2 ASIC Functional Simulation 2.3.1.3 ASIC Synthesis 2.3.1.4 ASIC Design Verification 2.3.1.5 ASIC Integrity Analyses 2.3.2 Programmable Logic Devices (PLD) 2.3.3 Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) 2.3.3.1 FPGA Types and Important Data 2.3.3.2 FPGA Architecture 2.3.3.3 FPGA Programming

223 224 226 226 229 233 235 235 238 239 240 242 242 243 244 246 247 248 250 251 252 255

System Interfaces for Industrial Control 3.1 Actuator–Sensor (AS) Interface 3.1.1 Overview 3.1.2 Architectures and Components 3.1.2.1 AS Interface Architecture: Type 1 3.1.2.2 AS Interface Architecture: Type 2 3.1.3 Working Principle and Mechanism 3.1.3.1 Master–Slave Principle 3.1.3.2 Data Transfer 3.1.4 System Characteristics and Important Data 3.1.4.1 How the AS Interface Functions 3.1.4.2 Physical Characteristics 3.1.4.3 System Limits 3.1.4.4 Range of Functions of the Master Modules 3.1.4.5 AS Interface in a Real-Time Environment

259 259 259 260 261 263 266 267 269 275 275 275 276

2.2

2.3

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CONTENTS 3.2

3.3

3.4

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Industrial Control System Interface Devices 3.2.1 Fieldbus System 3.2.1.1 Foundation Fieldbus 3.2.1.2 PROFIBUS 3.2.1.3 Controller Area Network (CAN bus) 3.2.1.4 Interbus 3.2.1.5 Ethernets/Hubs 3.2.2 Interfaces 3.2.2.1 PCI, ISA, and PCMCIA 3.2.2.2 IDE 3.2.2.3 SCSI 3.2.2.4 USB and Firewire 3.2.2.5 AGP and Parallel Ports 3.2.2.6 RS-232, RS-422, RS-485, and RS-530 3.2.2.7 IEEE-488 Human–Machine Interface in Industrial Control 3.3.1 Overview 3.3.2 Human–Machine Interactions 3.3.2.1 The Models for Human–Machine Interactions 3.3.2.2 Systems of Human–Machine Interactions 3.3.2.3 Designs of Human–Machine Interactions 3.3.3 Interfaces 3.3.3.1 Devices 3.3.3.2 Tools 3.3.3.3 Software Highway Addressable Remote Transducer (HART) Field Communications 3.4.1 HART Communication 3.4.1.1 HART networks 3.4.1.2 HART Mechanism 3.4.2 HART System 3.4.2.1 HART System Devices 3.4.2.2 HART System Installation 3.4.2.3 HART System Configuration 3.4.2.4 HART System Calibration 3.4.3 HART Protocol 3.4.3.1 HART Protocol Model 3.4.3.2 HART Protocol Commands 3.4.3.3 HART Protocol Data

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4

HART Integration 3.4.4.1 Basic Industrial Field Networks 3.4.4.2 Choosing the Right Field Networks 3.4.4.3 Integrating the HART with Other Field Networks

Digital Controllers for Industrial Control 4.1 Industrial Intelligent Controllers 4.1.1 Programmable Logic Control (PLC) Controllers 4.1.1.1 Components and Architectures 4.1.1.2 Control Mechanism 4.1.1.3 PLC Programming 4.1.1.4 Basic Types and Important Data 4.1.1.5 Installation and Maintenance 4.1.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Controllers 4.1.2.1 Components and Architectures 4.1.2.2 Control Mechanism 4.1.2.3 CNC Part Programming 4.1.2.4 CNC Controller Specifications 4.1.3 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Controllers 4.1.3.1 Components and Architectures 4.1.3.2 SCADA Protocols 4.1.3.3 Functions and Administrations 4.1.4 Proportional-Integration-Derivative (PID) Controllers 4.1.4.1 PID Control Mechanism 4.1.4.2 PID Controller Implementation 4.1.4.3 PID Controller Tuning Rules 4.1.4.4 PID Control Technical Specifications 4.2 Industrial Process Controllers 4.2.1 Batch Controllers 4.2.1.1 Batch Control Standards 4.2.1.2 Control Mechanism 4.2.2 Servo Controllers 4.2.2.1 Components and Architectures 4.2.2.2 Control Mechanism 4.2.2.3 Distributed Servo Control 4.2.2.4 Important Servo Control Devices 4.2.3 Fuzzy Logic Controllers 4.2.3.1 Fuzzy Control Principle 4.2.3.2 Fuzzy Logic Process Controllers

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5 Application Software for Industrial Control 5.1 Boot Code for Microprocessor Unit Chipset 5.1.1 Introduction 5.1.2 Code Structures 5.1.2.1 BIOS and Kernel 5.1.2.2 Master Boot Record (MBR) 5.1.2.3 Boot Program 5.1.3 Boot Sequence 5.1.3.1 Power On 5.1.3.2 Load BIOS, MBR and Boot Program 5.1.3.3 Initiate Hardware Components 5.1.3.4 Initiate Interrupt Vectors 5.1.3.5 Transfer to Operating System 5.2 Real-Time Operating System 5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 Task Controls 5.2.2.1 Multitasking Concepts 5.2.2.2 Task Types 5.2.2.3 Task Stack and Heap 5.2.2.4 Task States 5.2.2.5 Task Body 5.2.2.6 Task Creation and Termination 5.2.2.7 Task Queue 5.2.2.8 Task Context Switch and Task Scheduler 5.2.2.9 Task Threads 5.2.3 Input/Output Device Drivers 5.2.3.1 I/O Device Types 5.2.3.2 Driver Content 5.2.3.3 Driver Status 5.2.3.4 Request Contention 5.2.3.5 I/O Operations 5.2.4 Interrupts 5.2.4.1 Interrupt Handling 5.2.4.2 Enable and Disable Interrupts 5.2.4.3 Interrupt Vector 5.2.4.4 Interrupt Service Routines 5.2.5 Memory Management 5.2.5.1 Virtual Memory 5.2.5.2 Dynamic Memory Pool

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5.2.5.3 Memory Allocation and Deallocation 5.2.5.4 Memory Requests Management 5.2.6 Event Brokers 5.2.6.1 Event Notification Service 5.2.6.2 Event Trigger 5.2.6.3 Event Broadcasts 5.2.6.4 Event Handling Routine 5.2.7 Message Queue 5.2.7.1 Message Passing 5.2.7.2 Message Queue Types 5.2.7.3 Pipes 5.2.8 Semaphores 5.2.8.1 Semaphore Depth and Priority 5.2.8.2 Semaphore Acquire, Release and Shutdown 5.2.8.3 Condition and Locker 5.2.9 Timers 5.2.9.1 Kernel Timers 5.2.9.2 Watchdog Timers 5.2.9.3 Task Timers 5.2.9.4 Timer Creation and Expiration Real-Time Application System 5.3.1 Architecture 5.3.2 Input/Output Protocol Controllers 5.3.2.1 Server or Manager 5.3.2.2 I/O Device Module 5.3.3 Process 5.3.3.1 Process Types 5.3.3.2 Process Attributes 5.3.3.3 Process Status 5.3.3.4 Process and Task 5.3.3.5 Process Creation, Evolution, and Termination 5.3.3.6 Synchronization 5.3.3.7 Mutual Exclusive 5.3.4 Finite State Automata 5.3.4.1 Models 5.3.4.2 Designs 5.3.4.3 Implementation and Programming

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CONTENTS 6 Data Communications in Distributed Control System 6.1 Distributed Industrial Control System 6.1.1 Introduction 6.1.1.1 Opened Architectures for Distributed Control 6.1.1.2 Closed Architectures for Distributed Control 6.1.1.3 Similarity to Computer Network 6.1.2 Data Communication Model for Distributed Control System 6.1.2.1 Data Communication Models for Open Control Systems 6.1.2.2 Data Communication Models for Closed-Control Systems 6.2 Data Communication Basics 6.2.1 Introduction 6.2.1.1 Data Transfers within an IC Chipset 6.2.1.2 Data Transfers over Medium Distances 6.2.1.3 Data Transfer over Long Distances 6.2.2 Data Formats 6.2.2.1 Bit 6.2.2.2 Byte 6.2.2.3 Character 6.2.2.4 Word 6.2.2.5 Basic Codeword Standards 6.2.3 Electrical Signal Transmission Modes 6.2.3.1 Bit-Serial and Bit-Parallel Modes 6.2.3.2 Word-Parallel Mode 6.2.3.3 Simplex Mode 6.2.3.4 Half-Duplex Mode 6.2.3.5 Full-Duplex Mode 6.2.3.6 Multiplexing Mode 6.3 Data Transmission Control Circuits and Devices 6.3.1 Introduction 6.3.2 Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) 6.3.2.1 Applications and Types 6.3.2.2 Mechanism and Components 6.3.3 Universal Synchronous Receiver Transmitter (USRT)

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CONTENTS 6.3.4

6.4

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Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART) 6.3.4.1 Architecture and Components 6.3.4.2 Mechanism and Modes 6.3.5 Bit-Oriented Protocol Circuits 6.3.5.1 SDLC Controller 6.3.5.2 HDLC Controller 6.3.6 Multiplexers 6.3.6.1 Digital Multiplexer 6.3.6.2 Time Division Multiplexer (TDM) Data Transmission Protocols 6.4.1 Introduction 6.4.2 Asynchronous Transmission 6.4.2.1 Bit Synchronization 6.4.2.2 Character Synchronization 6.4.2.3 Frame Synchronization 6.4.3 Synchronous Transmission 6.4.3.1 Bit Synchronization 6.4.3.2 Character-Oriented Synchronous Transmission 6.4.3.3 Bit-oriented Synchronous Transmission 6.4.4 Data Compression and Decompression 6.4.4.1 Loss and Lossless Compression and Decompression 6.4.4.2 Data Encoding and Decoding 6.4.4.3 Basic Data Compression Algorithms Data-Link Protocols 6.5.1 Framing Controls 6.5.1.1 High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) 6.5.1.2 Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) 6.5.2 Error Controls 6.5.2.1 Error Detection 6.5.2.2 Error Correction 6.5.3 Flow Controls 6.5.3.1 Stop-and-Wait 6.5.3.2 Sliding Window 6.5.3.3 Bus Arbitration 6.5.4 Sublayers 6.5.4.1 Logic Link Control (LLC) 6.5.4.2 Media Access Control (MAC)

709 709 712 718 719 721 721 722 723 725 725 726 726 727 730 733 734 737 739 740 741 741 742 749 749 750 752 753 754 755 758 758 759 760 760 760 762

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6.6

763 763 764 765 766 766 767 767 768 768 769 770

7

Data Communication Protocols 6.6.1 Client–Server Model 6.6.1.1 Two and Three-Tier Client–Server 6.6.1.2 Message Server 6.6.1.3 Application Server 6.6.2 Master–Slave Model 6.6.2.1 Master 6.6.2.2 Slave 6.6.3 Producer–Consumer Model 6.6.3.1 Designs 6.6.3.2 Implementations 6.6.4 Remote Procedure Call (RPC)

System Routines in Industrial Control 7.1 Overview 7.2 Power-On and Power-Down Routines 7.2.1 System Hardware Requirements 7.2.1.1 Low Voltage Power Supply Circuit (LVPSC) 7.2.1.2 Basic Input and Output System (BIOS) 7.2.2 System Power-On Process 7.2.3 System Power-On Self Tests 7.2.3.1 When Does the POST Apply? 7.2.3.2 What does the POST do? 7.2.3.3 Who Does the POST? 7.2.4 System Power-Down Process 7.3 Install and Configure Routines 7.3.1 System Hardware Requirements 7.3.1.1 PCI Address Spaces 7.3.1.2 PCI Configuration Headers 7.3.1.3 PCI I/O and PCI Memory Addresses 7.3.1.4 PCI-ISA Bridges 7.3.1.5 PCI-PCI Bridges 7.3.1.6 PCI Initialization 7.3.1.7 The PCI Device Driver 7.3.1.8 PCI BIOS Functions 7.3.1.9 PCI Firmware 7.3.2 System Devices Install and Configure Routine 7.3.3 System Configure Routine

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7.5

Index

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CONTENTS Diagnostic Routines 7.4.1 System Hardware Requirements 7.4.2 Device Component Test Routines 7.4.3 System NVM Read and Write Routines 7.4.4 Faults/Errors Log Routines 7.4.5 Change System Mode Routines 7.4.5.1 System Modes List 7.4.5.2 System Modes Transition 7.4.6 Calibration Routines 7.4.6.1 Calibration Fundamentals 7.4.6.2 Calibration Principles 7.4.6.3 Calibration Methodologies Simulation Routines 7.5.1 Modeling and Simulation 7.5.1.1 Process Models 7.5.1.2 Process Modeling 7.5.1.3 Control Simulation 7.5.2 Methodologies and Technologies 7.5.2.1 Manufacturing Process Modeling and Simulation 7.5.2.2 Computer Control System Modeling and Simulation 7.5.3 Simulation Program Organization 7.5.3.1 Simulation Routines for Single Microprocessor Control Systems 7.5.3.2 Simulation Routines for Distributed Control Systems 7.5.3.3 Simulation Routine Coding Principles 7.5.4 Simulators, Toolkits, and Toolboxes 7.5.4.1 MATLAB 7.5.4.2 SIMULINK 7.5.4.3 SIMULINK Real-Time Workshop 7.5.4.4 ModelSim 7.5.4.5 Link for ModelSim

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Preface Objectives Industrial control consists of industrial process control and industrial production automation. This book applies to both industrial process control and industrial production automation, and it covers the technology in three branches: theory, design, and technology. In recent years, there has been a technical revolution in the semiconductor industry and in the electronics industry, which has significantly advanced the existing technologies in industrial control. The recent technical developments in the semiconductor and electronics industries are mainly represented as these seven aspects: (1) The microprocessor chipsets have been very capable in interrupt handling, data passage, and interface communication. (2) The operating speeds of both microprocessors and programmable integrated circuits have become much faster. (3) The enhancements in the register arrays and the instruction set of microprocessor units have made multitasking or multithreads possible. (4) The sizes of various semiconductor chips are being increased and their production costs are going lower and lower. (5) The controllers of intelligent functionalities are more and more designed to perform various control strategies and protocols. For example, Programmable Logic Control (PLC) controllers implement Ladder Logic, and fuzzy logic controllers operate in terms of fuzzy control theory; the Controller Area Network (CAN) is a very powerful automatic system used even in aerospace. These industrial intelligent controllers are being increasingly used in industrial control so that the establishment of industrial control systems is becoming more and more feasible. (6) The various development tools for both hardware and software are becoming more and more feasible and powerful, which is largely shortening the time for developing software and hardware and is significantly enhancing their quality. (7) The programmable application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC) have now approached an intelligence similar to that of microprocessors, so that they are performing a more important functional role in various control systems.

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These technical developments in both the semiconductor industry and the electronics industry have advanced industrial control into both realtime control and distributed control. Real-time control requires controllers to capture all the significant target activities and to deliver their responses as swiftly as possible so that system performance is never degraded. Distributed control indicates that controls are performed by a number of microprocessor controllers and executed in a group of independent agents or units that are physically and electronically connected and communicate with each other. This tendency in industrial control has led to the future continuation of both real-time control and distributed control. Consequently, industrial control has been gradually extended from device and machine control to plant and enterprise and industry. To demonstrate that these technical developments satisfy the new industrial control requirements, this book provides comprehensive technical details, including the necessary rationales, methodologies, types, parameters, and specifications, for the devices of industrial control. As a technical handbook for engineers, a technical reference, and an academic textbook for students, this book particularly emphasizes the following seven areas: (1) the sensors, actuators, and valves currently existing in all kinds of industrial control systems; (2) the electronic hardware resident on the microprocessor chipset system; (3) the system interfaces including devices, Fieldbuses, and techniques used for all kinds of industrial control; (4) the digital controllers performing the written programs and the given protocols; (5) the embedded software on a microprocessor chipset for real-time control applications; (6) the data-transmission hardware and protocols between independent agents or units of their own microprocessors; (7) the routines, containing special hardware and software, which are very useful to any kind of industrial control system. All these seven areas are crucial for accomplishing both real-time control and distributed control in industry. This book, therefore, provides the key technologies applied to modern industrial control so that it will be widely available to all the engineers and researchers as well as students who are working in industrial control and its relative disciplines.

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Readership This book has been written primarily as an engineering handbook for those engineers working in the research and development of all kinds of control systems. However, the faculties and postgraduates in universities or colleges will also find this book a useful technical reference for their projects related to control and computer engineering. For university students, this book can be taken as a textbook in classes such as automation, control, computer network, and other related technical subjects. As an engineering handbook, this book will help professionals to design, deploy, and make both manufacture control equipment and production process control systems. Modern industrial control technologies involve three essential phases: machinery, hardware, and software. However, no matter what phase a control engineer is working with, he or she will find that this book is very helpful. As a reference, this book will aid the faculties and postgraduates in universities and colleges to understand all the technical details involved in their research projects on controls. The wide coverage of this book allows it to bridge the gap between theory and technique in control. In addition, it is suitable for practicing postgraduates who wish or need to gain an engineering knowledge of the control topics. This book is also intended to be a course textbook for students studying the subjects of automatic control, computer hardware and electronics, computer network, as well as data communication. Typically, the students will be in electronic engineering, computer control, control systems, or industrial automation courses.

Synopsis This book has been organized into chapters, sections, and titled graphs, etc. The first of its seven chapters, “Sensors and Actuators for Industrial Control,” lists the typical sensors, meters, actuators, and valves that are crucial devices located between the front and the rear of industrial control systems. This chapter provides the mechanism concepts, working principles, device types, technical data, and the guides to enable engineers to design and develop industrial control systems. The second chapter, “Computer Hardware for Industrial Control,” provides a detailed list of the types of electronic devices resident on the

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system given by a microprocessor chipset. These are the microprocessor, programmable peripheral devices, and ASIC. The architecture of the electronic components on a computer motherboard is also plotted so that engineers are able to see how the microprocessor chipset is populated. This chapter provides engineers with an explanation of how microprocessors operate, and also all the necessary technical data for microprocessors to perform. The third chapter, “System Interfaces for Industrial Control,” discusses four types of interfaces: actuator–sensor interface, control system interfaces, human–machine (or human–controller) interfaces, and highway addressable remote transducer (HART) field interfaces. These four interfaces basically cover all the interface devices and technologies existing in various industrial control systems. The actuator–sensor interface is located at the front or rear of the actuator–sensor level to bridge the gap between this level and the controllers. The control system interfaces include the Fieldbus and microprocessor chipset interfaces that are used for connecting and communicating with controllers. The human–machine interfaces contain both the tools and technologies to provide humans with easy and comfortable methods of handling the devices. The HART field communications include the HART protocol and HART interface devices used for field communications in industrial process control. The fourth chapter is entitled “Digital Controllers for Industrial Control.” A controller, similar to a computer, is a system with its own hardware and software capable of performing independent control. This chapter lists the controllers necessary for both industrial production control and industrial process control: they are PLC controllers, CNC controllers, SCADA system, PID controller, batch controllers, servo controllers, and the fuzzy controllers. The title of the fifth chapter is “Application Software for Industrial Control.” The real-time control works with the microprocessor chipset installed on a motherboard or a daughter board. Any microprocessor chipset, except for the inherent microcode and BIO to the CPU, must have a software package consisting of three program systems: boot code, operating system, and application system. This chapter provides engineers with the basic rationale, semantics, principles, work sequence, and program structures for each of these three systems. With reference to this chapter, an experienced software engineer should be capable of programming the design of the whole software package of a microprocessor controller board. The sixth chapter is “Data Communications in Distributed Control System.” Several independent units, each of which will probably have their own microprocessor to monitor a number of mechanical systems, are

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physically and electronically connected together. These communicate with each other electronically in an interactive manner so as to form a distributed control system. In distributed control, to set up this type of industrial control system the engineers must understand the connection methodologies and communication rationales between the independent units. This chapter contains all the technical information, data, methodologies, and some theories necessary for the implementation of a distributed control system. The seventh chapter is for the complex topics. These are the topics dealing with subjects that are over and above the basics when compared with the first six chapters. Chapter 7 explains system routines that make the control systems more user friendly and safe to operate. With the Power-up and Power-down routines, the system is able to safely establish and terminate when power is switched ON and OFF, respectively. The installation and configuration routines permit the system devices to communicate with each other through both the software and the hardware. The diagnostic routines then allow engineers to determine the root reasons when a system suffers from a malfunction.

Bibliography Writing this book has involved reference to a large number of sources including academic books, journal articles, and in particular industry technical manuals and company introductory or demonstrational materials displayed on web sites of various dates and locations. The number and the scale of the sources are such that it would be practically impossible to acknowledge each source individually in the body of the book. The sources are, therefore, alphabetically ordered and placed at the end of each chapter. This method has two benefits. It enables the author to acknowledge the contribution of other individuals and institutions whose scholarship or products have been referred to in this book. It also provides the reader the convenience of tracing more relevant sources.

Acknowledgments My most sincere thanks go to my family: to my wife, Minghua and my son Huza for their unwavering understanding and support. I would also like to thank my younger brother Zhang wei for the ideas he contributed to this book.

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PREFACE

I am extremely grateful to Professor D. T. Pham, director of the Manufacturing Engineering Center, Cardiff University, United Kingdom, who granted me some very valuable suggestions in his review of some portions of this manuscript, and to Dr. Chunquian Ji in Cardiff University and to Dr. Wenbo Mao in Hewlett Packard Research Laboratory, United Kingdom, for their valuable comments and suggestions on the manuscripts. Without the support of these people, there would not have been this book. Peng Zhang Beijing May 2008

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1

Sensors and Actuators for Industrial Control

1.1 Sensors 1.1.1

Bimetallic Switch

Bimetallic switches are electromechanical thermal sensors or limiters that are used for automatic temperature monitoring in industrial control. They limit the temperature of machines or devices by opening up the power load or electric circuit in the case of overheating or by shutting off a ventilator or activating an alarm in the case of overcooling. Bimetal switches can also serve as time-delay devices. The usual technique is to pass current through a heater coil that eventually (10 s or so) warms the bimetal elements enough to actuate. This is the method employed on some controllers such as cold-start fuel valves found on automobile engines.

1.1.1.1

Operating Principle

A bimetallic switch essentially consists of two metal strips fixed together. If the two metals have different expansibilities, then as the temperature of the switch changes, one strip will expand more than the other, causing the device to bend out of the plane. This mechanical bending can then be used to actuate an electromechanical switch or be part of an electrical circuit itself, so that contact of the bimetallic device to an electrode causes a circuit to be made. Figure 1.1 is a diagrammatic representation of the typical operation of temperature switches. There are two directional processes given in this diagram, which cause the contacts to change from open to close and from close to open, respectively: (1) Event starts; the time is zero, the temperature of switch is T1, and the contacts are open. As environment temperature increases, the switch is abruptly heated and reaches the temperature of T2 at some moment causing the contacts to close. (2) When the temperature of the switch is T2 and the contacts are closed, if the environment temperature keeps decreasing, the switch is abruptly cooled, which takes the temperature to T1 at some instance causing the contacts to open again. 1

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Temperature Contacts closed T2 Differential Decreasing temperature

Increasing temperature

Environment temperature

T1

Contacts open

0 Time

Figure 1.1 Typical operation of temperature switches.

1.1.1.2

Basic Types

Bimetallic switches and thermal controls basically fall into two broad categories: (1) Creep action devices with slow make and slow break switching action and (2) snap action devices with quick make and quick break switching action. Creep action devices are excellent in either a temperature-control application or as a high-limit control. They have a narrow temperature differential between opening and closing, and generally have more rapid cycling characteristics than snap action devices. Snap action devices are most often used for temperature-limiting applications, as their fairly wide differential between opening and closing temperature provides slower cycling characteristics. Although in its simplest form a bimetallic switch can be constructed from two flat pieces of metal, in practical terms a whole range of shapes is used to provide maximum actuation or maximum force during thermal cycling. As given in Fig. 1.2, the bimetallic elements can be of three configurations in a bimetallic switch: (1) In Fig. 1.2(a), two metals make up the bimetallic strip (hence the name). In this diagram, the black metal would be chosen to expand faster than the white metal if the device were being used in an oven, so that as the temperature rises the black metal expands faster than the white metal. This causes the strip to bend downward, separating from contact so that current is cut off. In a

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1: SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL

3

Contact

Rivet

Bimetallic strip (a)

Base

Set-point adjustment screw Insulating connection spring

Switch contact Bimetallic strip (b) Electrical connections Base

Contact

(c)

Bimetallic disc

Figure 1.2 The operating principle for bimetallic switches: (a) basic bimetallic switch, (b) adjustable set-point switch, and (c) bimetallic disc switch.

refrigerator you would use the opposite setup, so that as the temperature rises the white metal expands faster than the black metal. This causes the strip to bend upward making contact so that current can flow. By adjusting the size of the gap between the strip and the contact, you can control the temperature. (2) Another configuration uses a bimetallic element as a plunger or pushrod to force contacts open or closed. Here the bimetal does not twist or deflect, but instead is designed to lengthen or travel as a means of actuation as illustrated by Fig. 1.2(b). Bimetallic switches can be designed to switch at a wide range of temperatures. The simplest devices have a single set-point temperature determined by the geometry of the bimetal and switch packaging. Examples include switches found in consumer products.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY More sophisticated devices of industrial usages may incorporate calibration mechanisms for adjusting temperature sensitivity or switch-response times. These mechanisms typically set the separation between contacts as a means of changing the operating parameters. (3) Bimetal elements can also be disc shaped as in Fig. 1.2(c). These types often incorporate a dimple as a means of producing a snap action (not appropriately plotted in this figure). Disc configurations tend to handle shock and vibration better than cantilevered bimetallic switches.

1.1.1.3 Application Guide Bimetallic devices are generally specified for temperatures from –65°F to several hundred degrees Fahrenheit. Specialized devices can handle upward of 2000°F. Set-point tolerance and repeatability is generally on the order of ±5°F, and set-point drift is usually negligible. (1) Choosing the right thermal control. The rate of temperature rise, location of the thermal control, the electrical load, and the mass of the application can each greatly affect cycling (operational) characteristics of a thermal control. Because of these variables, it is strongly recommended that you conduct testing of the switches specifically in your application. Certain aspects should be taken into consideration when applying both creep and snap action devices. Careful attention must be paid to input voltage, load currents, and the characteristics of the load. Final design criteria should be based upon results of the testing of our devices in your application, at your facility. (2) Choosing the right bimetallic switches. It has been realized that each application for thermal controls is unique in one form or another. Because of this, there is no standard product. A wide range of options is offered, including the calibration temperature range and tolerances. The length of the lead wires and the type of insulation material also require deliberate consideration. You should require samples for your application testing before deciding to use bimetallic switches. (3) Snap action configurations. Snap action bimetal elements are used in applications where an action is required at a threshold temperature. As such, they are not temperature-measuring devices, but rather temperature-activated devices. The typical temperature change to activate a snap action device is several degrees and is determined by the geometry of the device. When

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the element activates, a connection is generally made or broken, and a gap between the two contacts exists for a period of time. For a mechanical system, there is no problem; however, for an electrical system, the gap can result in a spark that can lead to premature aging and corrosion of the device. Having the switch activate quickly, hence the use of snap action devices, reduces the amount and duration of spark. Snap action elements also incorporate a certain amount of hysteresis into the system, which is useful in applications that would otherwise result in an oscillation about the set point. It should be noted, however, that special design of creep action bimetals can also lead to different ON/ OFF points, such as in the reverse lap-welded bimetal. (4) Sensitivity and accuracy. Modern techniques are more useful where sensitivity and accuracy are concerned for making a temperature measurement; however, bimetals find application in industrial temperature control where an action is required without external connections. Evidently, geometry is important for bimetal systems as the sensitivity is determined by the design, and a mechanical advantage can be used to yield a large movement per degree temperature change.

1.1.1.4

Calibration

Temperature range calibration can be conducted with the following two methods: (1) The ice method. Immerse the temperature probe at least 2 in. into a glass of finely crushed ice. Add cold tap water to remove air pockets. Wait at least 1 min. The gauge should read 32°F. If it does not, turn the adjustment nut on the back of the reading dial with a pair of pliers until the dial reads 32°F. Wait at least 1 min to verify correct adjustment. (2) The boiling method. Submerge the probe into boiling water. Wait until the needle stops moving, then adjust the calibration nut until the dial reads 212°F. Since the boiling point of water decreases as altitude increases, this method may not be as accurate as the ice method at altitudes above sea level unless the exact boiling point temperature is known. Calibration is a broad topic and includes the ultimate reference sources, such as the national metrology laboratories, which are the custodians of the International Temperature Scale, and those services that are directly traceable to the national standards. For example, this is the scale that

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

the national labs, or those affiliated to those labs, refer to in the calibration certificates of reference devices that may be used in corporation or university or other measurement laboratories that provide a more local service, such as to working instruments in a process plant or experimental apparatus.

1.1.2

Color Sensors

Color sensors that can operate in real time under various environmental conditions can benefit many applications, including quality control, chemical sensing, food production, medical diagnostics, energy conservation, and monitoring of hazardous waste, etc. Analogous applications can also be found in other fields of economy, for example, in the electric industry for recognition and assignment of colored cords, in the electronic industry for the automatic test of mounted LED arrays or matrices, in the textile industry to check coloring processes, or in the building materials industry to control compounding processes. These color sensors are generally advisable wherever color structures, color processes, color nuances, or colored body rims must be recognized in homogeneously continuous processes over a long period and have influence on the process control or quality protection as measuring or controlled variables.

1.1.2.1

Operating Principle

The color detection occurs at the color sensors according to the threefield procedure. Color sensors cast light on the objects to be tested, calculate the chromaticity coordinates from the reflected or transmitted radiation, and compare them with previously stored reference tristimulus (red, green, and blue) values. If the tristimulus values are within the set tolerance range, a switching output is activated. Color sensors can detect both the color of opaque objects through their reflections (incident light) and of transparent materials in transmitted light, whereby a reflector is mounted opposite the sensor. In Fig. 1.3, the color sensor can sense eight colors: red, green, and blue (primary colors); magenta, yellow, and cyan (secondary colors); and black and white. The ASIC chipset of the color sensor is based on the fundamentals of optics and digital electronics. The object whose color is to be detected should be placed in front of the system. The light rays reflected from the object will fall on the three convex lenses that are fixed in front of

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1: SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Light

Color sensor Blue Green

Object

Red

LDR1

Magenta LDR2

ASIC chipset

LDR3

Cyan Yellow Black White

Figure 1.3 Operating principle of an assumed color sensor.

the three LDRs. The convex lenses are used to cause the incident light rays to converge. Red, green, and blue glass filters are fixed in front of LDR1, LDR2, and LDR3, respectively. When reflected light rays from the object fall on the gadget, the filter glass plates determine which of these three LDRs would get triggered. When a primary color light ray falls on the system, the glass plate corresponding to that primary color will allow that specific light to pass through. But the other two glass plates will not allow any light to pass through. Thus, only one LDR will get triggered and the gate output corresponding to that LDR will indicate which color it is. Similarly, when a secondary color light ray falls on the system, the two primary glass plates corresponding to the mixed color will allow that light to pass through while the remaining one will not allow any light ray to pass through it. As a result two of these three LDRs get triggered and the gate output corresponding to these indicates which color it is. When all three LDRs get triggered or none of them are triggered, you will observe white and black light indications, respectively.

1.1.2.2

Basic Types

In accordance with the working processes and application features, color sensors can be categorized into three-field color sensors and structured color sensors. (1) Three-field color sensors. The sensor works based on the tristimulus (standard spectral) value function and identifies colors with absolutely unerring precision and 10,000 times faster than the human eye could. It provides a compact and dynamic technical

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY solution for general color detection and color measurement jobs. It is capable of detecting, analyzing, and measuring minute differences in color, for example, as part of LED testing, calibration of monitors, or where mobile equipment is employed for color measurement. These color sensors can have these advantages: (a) dielectric color filters adaptable for individual customers; (b) MHz signal frequency for time critical measurements; (c) profitable and fast signal processing; (d) compact design—without optical beam guidance; (e) high aging resistance; (f) temperature stability and environmental resistance. Based on the techniques used, there are two kinds of threefield color sensors: (i) Three-element color sensor. This sensor includes special filters so that their output currents are proportional to the function of standard XYZ tristimulus values. The resulting absolute XYZ standard spectral values can thus be used for further conversion into a randomly selectable color space. This allows for a sufficiently broad range of accuracies in color detection—from “eye accurate” to “true color,” that is, standard-compliant colorimetry to match the various application environments (ii) Integral color sensor. This kind of sensor accommodates integrative features including (1) detection of color changes; (2) recognition of color labels; (3) sorting colored objects; (4) checking of color-sensitive production processes; and (5) control of the product appearance. (2) Structured color sensors. Structured color sensors are used for the simultaneous recording of color and geometric information including (1) determination of color edges or structures and (2) checking of industrial mixed and separation processes. These color sensors can have the following advantages: (a) high selection of the sensor during applications in fast continuous processes of manufacture; (b) high signal sequence and parallel data transfer; (c) implementation of integral colorimetry; (d) applications with high-measuring frequencies; (e) adapted receiver geometries; (f) specific color adaptation. Based on the techniques used, there are two kinds of structured color sensors: (i) Row color sensor. The row color sensor has been developed for detecting and controlling the color codes and color sequences in the continuous measurement of

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moving objects. These color sensors are designed as PIN-photo-diode arrays. The photo diodes are arranged in the form of honeycombs for each three rhombi. The diode lines consist of two honeycomb lines displaced to each other half-line. As a result, it is possible on least expanse to implement a high resolution. In this case, the detail to be controlled is determined by the choice of suitable focusing optics. (ii) Hexagonal color sensor. This kind of sensor generates information for the subsequent electronics about the three-field chrominance signal (intensity of the threereceiving segments covered with the spectral filters) as well as about the structure and the position.

1.1.2.3 Application Guide In industrial control, color sensors are selected by means of the applicationoriented principle. Although having many factors is a required consideration, the following technical items are of primary reference: (1) operating voltage, (2) rated voltage, (3) output voltage, (4) residual ripple maximum, (5) no-load current, (6) spectral sensitivity, (7) size of measuring dot minimum, (8) limiting frequency, (9) color temperature, (10) light spot minimum, (11) permitted ambient temperature, (12) enclosure rating, (13) control interface type, etc.

1.1.2.4

Calibration

Calibration is used to establish the link between the output signals (voltage, digital numbers) of the color sensor and their absolute physical values at color sensor input, which describe the overall transfer function of the color sensor. Calibration is a part of the color sensor characterization. Different applications require calibrating different parameters. For example, calibrating an ocean color sensor for remote sensing particularly concerns with spectral and radiometric parameters if geometric calibrations are not considered. Many companies or organizations in the world provide color sensor calibration services with their (1) software, (2) platform, and (3) evaluation boards. For example, SONY Corporation provides the ARTISANTM COLOR REFERENCE SYSTEM; DMN Digital Inc. provides Pantone ColorPlus Color Calibrator, etc.

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1.1.3

Ultrasonic Distance Sensors

There are numerous applications for ultrasonic distance sensors in industrial control. Ultrasonic distance sensors are used in all industries for measuring the distance to or size of material objects. That covers almost any size and type of object that can be measured in most industrial sectors. (1) Machine builders. Whether retrofitting existing machines or building new ones, ultrasonic distance sensors are used for motion control, or level control, or dimensioning, or proximity sensing. These are common applications in the converting, pulp and paper, printing, rubber, metals, textile, and other manufacturing industries. (2) Automation. Ultrasonic distance sensors reduce automation costs by providing a simple and effective means of monitoring the size or position of objects in production processes. Sensor information is used to accept or reject objects based on size, position, or fill level; make decisions on the routing of packages based on size or position; control the flow of liquid, solid, or granular materials; indicate when an object is nearby or in position, in/out of tolerance, or provide alarms when objects are in/out of position, near full/empty, or indicate process completion. (3) Process controls. Common applications include measuring the level of bulk materials in a tank or bin (inventory) or controlling the amount of material dispersed from a vessel (batching). Tank levels can be locally displayed or reported to a remote computer by a data network. Alarms can warn of low level, order levels, high level, or other conditions.

1.1.3.1

Operating Principle

Ultrasonic distance sensors measure the distance or presence of target objects by sending a pulsed ultrasound wave at the object and then measuring the time for the sound echo to return. Knowing the speed of sound, the sensor can determine the distance of the object. As displayed in Fig. 1.4, the ultrasonic distance sensor regularly emits a barely audible click. It does this by briefly supplying a high voltage either to a piezoelectric crystal or to magnetic fields of ferromagnetic materials. In the first case, the crystal bends and sends out a sound wave. A timer within the sensor keeps track of exactly how long it takes the sound wave to bounce off something and return. This delay is then converted into a voltage corresponding to the distance of the sensed object. In the second case, the physical response of a ferromagnetic material in a magnetic field

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Figure 1.4 Operating principle of ultrasonic distance sensor.

is due to the presence of magnetic moments. Interaction of an external magnetic field with the domains causes a magnetostrictive effect. Controlling the ordering of the domains through alloy selection, thermal annealing, cold working, and magnetic field strength can optimize this effect. The generated magnetostrictive effects are the use of magnetostrictive bars to control high-frequency oscillators and to produce ultrasonic waves in gases, liquids, and solids. Applying converters based on the reversible piezoelectric effect makes one-head systems possible where the converter serves both as transmitter and as receiver. The transceivers work by transmitting a short burst ultrasonic packet. An internal clock starts simultaneously, measuring propagation time. The clock stops when the object reflects the sound packet back to the sensor. The time elapsed between transmitting the packet and receiving the echo is the basis for calculating distance. Complete control of the process is realized by an integrated microcontroller, which allows for excellent output linearity.

1.1.3.2

Basic Types

The ultrasonic distance sensor can be operated in two different modes. The first mode, referred to as continuous (or analog) mode, involves the sensor continuously sending out sound waves at a rate determined by the manufacturer. The second mode, called clock (or digital) mode, involves the sensor sending out signals at a rate determined by the user. This rate

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can be several signals per second with the use of a timing device, or it can be triggered intermittently by an event such as the press of a button.

1.1.3.3 Application Guide The major benefit of ultrasonic distance sensors is their ability to measure difficult targets—solids, liquids, granulates, powders, and even transparent and highly reflective materials that cause problems for optical sensors. In addition, analog output ultrasonic sensors offer comparatively long ranges, in many cases >3 m. They can be made very small too; some tubular models are only 12 mm in diameter, and 15 mm × 20 mm × 49 mm square-bodied versions are available for limited space applications. Ultrasonic devices do have some limitations. Foam and other attenuating surfaces may absorb most of the sound, significantly decreasing measuring range. Extremely rough surfaces may diffuse the sound excessively, decreasing range and resolution. However, an optimal resolution is usually guaranteed up to a surface roughness of 0.2 mm. Ultrasonic sensors emit a wide sonic cone, limiting their usefulness for small target measurement and increasing the chance of receiving feedback from interfering objects. Some ultrasonic devices offer a sonic cone angle as narrow as 6°, permitting detection of much smaller objects and sensing of targets through narrow spaces such as bottlenecks, pipes, and ampoules. For various distance-measuring sensors, there are four types of technical definitions emphasized in their applications: (1) resolution, (2) linearity, (3) repeat accuracy, and (4) reaction time. Figure 1.5 provides graphic illustrations of these four technical definitions for measuring distance sensors.

1.1.3.4

Calibration

Ultrasonic distance sensors in either continuous or clock mode can be calibrated by means of some uncomplicated method. Once calibrated, switching between modes will not affect calibration. To calibrate an ultrasonic distance sensor, a voltmeter is essential. First, fasten the sensor to a surface such that there will be nothing but the target in front of it, at the same time leaving plenty of room behind it to adjust the small screws on the potentiometers by hand. Apply power to the sensor to begin warming it up. Allow several minutes for warm-up before starting the calibration process. The device should start clicking once power is applied. Figure 1.6 shows location of pots on an ultrasonic sensor.

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∇

Output

Output


Deviation

Distance

∇

Distance

Distance

(b)

Output

Distance (a)

Output

∇

Response time Time

Time (c)

(d)

Figure 1.5 Technical definitions of distance-measuring sensors: (a) Resolution corresponds to the smallest possible change in distance that causes a detectable change in the output signal. (b) Linearity is the deviation from a proportional linear function or a straight line, given as a percentage of the upper limit of the measuring range (full scale). (c) Repeat accuracy is the difference between measured values in successive measurements within a period of 8 h at an ambient temperature of 23 ± 5°C. (d) Reaction time is the time required by the sensor’s signal output to rise from 10% to 90% of the maximum signal level. For sensors with digital signal processing, it is the time required for calculation of a stable measured value. Zero pot

Scale adjust pot

Full-scale pot

No connector Analog output Clock out Trig-enable Ext-trigger Common 8–16 V DC Gain

Figure 1.6 Location of pots on an ultrasonic sensor.

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The gain control must now be set to 50%. It is the potentiometer with the screw head near the bottom of the device. It should rotate between what would correspond to 8 and 4 on the face of a clock, but no further. Set it to the “12” position The positive lead of a voltmeter is put on pin 6 and the negative lead on pin 2. Try to find a way to fasten these leads in place, or get someone to hold them there. A screwdriver with a very small flat head is required to do this. Rotate the zero and full-scale potentiometer screws fully counterclockwise, or about 12 turns. The screws will not stop turning after 12 turns, so you have to keep track. Now place the target at the maximum distance from the sensor of interest. The literature claims a maximum distance of 10 ft, which we found to be quite accurate. The sensor will work for objects at least 13 ft away, but the objects must be very sound reflective and/or large (such as a refrigerator door) to obtain a usable reading. Once the target is in place, adjust the scale adjust potentiometer. This potentiometer compensates for the varying voltages that may be supplied to the sensor. Rotate its screw until the voltmeter reads +5 V. Rotate the full-scale potentiometer clockwise until its voltage ceases to change, and then slowly rotate it counterclockwise until the +5 V reading is obtained again. Place the target at the minimum distance from the sensor. Do not put it any closer than 6 in. Slowly rotate the zero adjust potentiometer until a reading of 0 V is attained. We could not get a reading below 0.034 V, but anything from +0.5 to –0.5 V is acceptable. At this point it would be useful to move the target back and forth between the minimum and maximum distances while watching the voltmeter. It should read +5 V when the target is at its maximum distance and 0 V when at the minimum. Make sure to keep the target within the sensor’s line of sight, which can be thought of as an imaginary cone emanating from the sensor to a width of 2.6 ft when standing 10 ft away. The more you step outside the cone, the less likely you are to get a good reading. To adjust the gain, put the target at maximum distance. Rotate the gain screw fully counterclockwise, and then slowly rotate it clockwise until detection occurs. Rotate it an additional 1/16th turn after this. It is always best to keep the gain setting as low as possible, since higher gain settings increase the likelihood of false target detection. Once all the above steps have been completed, the sensor should be calibrated and ready for detection.

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1.1.4

15

Light Section Sensors

Light section methods have been utilized as a three-dimensional measurement technique for many years as noncontact geometry and contour control. The light section sensor is primarily used for automating industrial production processes and testing procedures in which system-relevant positioning parameters are generated from profile information. Twodimensional height information can be collected by means of laser light, the light section method, and a high resolution of receiver array. Height profiles can be monitored, filling level detected, magazines counted, and the presence of objects checked.

1.1.4.1

Operating Principle

The light section can be simply achieved in many cases with the laser light section method. The laser light section method is a three-dimensional procedure to measure object profiles in one-sectional plane. The principle of laser triangulation (see Fig. 1.7) requires a camera position orthogonal to the object’s surface area to measure the lateral displacement or the deformation of a laser line projected at an angle q onto the object’s surface (see Fig. 1.8). The elevation profile of interest is calculated from the deviation of the laser line from the zero position. A light section sensor consists of one camera and laser projector also called laser line generator. The measurement principle of a light section sensor is based on active triangulation (Fig. 1.7). Its simplest realization is Camera

Laser projector

q

h

Figure 1.7 Laser triangulation (optical scheme), where h is elevation measurement range and q is the angle between the plane of the laser line and the axis of the camera. A high resolution can be obtained by increasing h and decreasing q and vice versa.

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A

Figure 1.8 Laser light sectioning is the two-dimensional extension of the laser triangulation. By projecting the expanded laser line an elevation profile of the object under test is obtained. Inset A: Image recorded by the area camera. The displacement of the laser line indicates the object elevation at the point of incidence.

scanning a scene by a laser beam and detecting the location of the reflected beam. A laser beam can be spread by passing it through a cylindrical lens, which results in a plane of light. Its profile can be measured in the camera image thus realizing triangulation along one profile. In order to generate dense range images, one has to project not only one but also many light planes (Fig. 1.8). This can be achieved either by moving the projecting device or by projecting many stripes at once. In the latter case the stripes have to be encoded somehow; this is referred to as the coded-light approach. The simplest encoding is achieved by assigning different brightness to every projection direction, for example, by projecting a linear intensity ramp. Measuring range and resolution are determined by the triangulation angle between the plane of the laser line and the optical axis of the camera (see Fig. 1.7). The more grazing this angle, the larger is the observed lateral displacement of the line. The measured resolution is increased, but the measured elevation range is reduced. Criteria related to objects’ surface characteristics, camera aperture or depth of focus, and width of the laser line might reduce the achievable resolution.

1.1.4.2 Application Guide In applications, the laser light section method has some technical details requiring particular attention.

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(1) Object surface characteristics. One requirement for the utilization of the laser light section method is an at least partial diffuse reflecting surface. An ideal mirror would not reflect any laser radiation into the camera lens, and the camera cannot view the actual reflecting position of the laser light on the object surface. With a complete diffuse reflecting surface, the angular distribution of the reflected radiation is independent of the angle of incidence of the incoming radiation as it hits the object under test (Fig. 1.8). Real technical surfaces usually provide a mixture of diffuse and reflecting behavior. The diffuse reflected radiation is not distributed isotropic, which means that the more grazing the incoming light, the lesser the radiation reflected in an orthogonal direction to the object’s surface. Using the laser light section method, the reflection characteristics of the object’s surface (depending on the submitted laser power and sensitivity of the camera) limit the achievable angle of triangulation q (Fig. 1.7). (2) Depth of focus of the camera and lens. To ensure widely constant signal amplitude on the sensor, the depth of focus of the camera lens as well as the depth of focus of the laser line generator have to cover the complete measurement elevation range. By imaging the object under test onto the camera sensor the depth of focus of the imaging lens increases proportional to the aperture number k, the pixel distance y, quadratic to the imaging factor @ (= field of view/sensor size). The depth of focus 2z is calculated by 2z = 2yk@ (1+@). In the range ±z around the optimum object distance, no reduction in sharpness of the image is evident. Example: Pixel distance y = 0.010 mm Aperture number k = 8 Imaging factor @ = 3 2z = 2 × 0.010 × 8 × 3 × (1 + 3) = 1.92 mm With fixed imaging geometry a fading aperture of the lens increases its depth of focus. A larger aperture number k cuts the signal amplitude by a factor of 2 with each aperture step; it decreases the optical resolution of the lens and increases the negative influence of the speckle effect. (3) Depth of focus of a laser line. The laser line is focused to a fixed working distance. With actual working distances diverging from the setting the laser line widens and the power density of the radiation decreases. The region around the nominal working distance, where line width does not increase by more than a given factor, is according

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY to agreement characterized as the depth of focus of a laser line. There are two types of laser line generators: laser micro line generators and laser macro line generators. Laser micro line generators create thin laser lines with Gaussian intensity profile orthogonal to the laser line. The depth of focus of a laser line at wavelength L and of width B is given by the so-called Rayleigh range 2ZR:2ZR = (pB2)/(2L), where p = 3.1415926. Laser macro line generators create laser lines with increased depth of focus. At the same working distance macro laser lines are wider than micro laser lines. Within the two design types, macro and micro line generators, the respective line width is proportional to the working distance. Due to the theoretical connection between line width and depth of focus, the minimum line width of the laser line is limited by the application due to the required depth of focus. (4) Basic setback: Laser speckle. Laser speckling is an interference phenomenon originating from the coherence of the laser radiation, for example, the laser radiation reflected by a rough-textured surface. Laser speckle disturbs the edge sharpness and the homogeneity of the laser lines. Orthogonal to the laser line, the center of intensity is displaced stochastically. The granularity of the speckle depends on the setting of the lens aperture viewing the object. With a small aperture number the arising speckles have a high spatial frequency; with a large k number the speckles are rather rough and particularly disturbing. Because a diffuse reflective and thus an optically rough-textured surface is essential for the utilization of the laser light section method, laser speckling cannot be avoided in principle. A reduction of the disturbing effect is possible by (1) utilizing laser beam sources with decreased coherence length, (2) a relative movement between object and sensor, possibly using a necessary or existent movement of the sensor or the object (e.g., the profile measurement of railroad tracks while the train is running), (3) diminishing the speckle pattern by choosing large lens apertures (small aperture numbers), as long as the requirements of depth of focus tolerate this. (5) Dome illuminator for diffuse illumination. The introduced application requires simultaneously with the three-dimensional profile measurement, control of the object outline, and surface. For this purpose, the object under test is illuminated homogeneously and is diffused by a dome illuminator. An LED ring lamp generates the illumination that propagates, scattered by a diffuse

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reflecting cupola, to the object of interest. In the center of the dome an opening for the camera is located. There is no radiation falling onto the object from this direction. Shadow and glint are widely avoided. Because the circumstances correspond approximately to the illumination on a cloudy day, this kind of illumination is also called “cloudy day illumination.” (6) Optical engineering. Using a laser light section application with high requirements, the design of the system configuration is of great importance. This “optical engineering” implies the choice and the contractive design of the utilized components like camera, lens, and laser line generator from the optical point of view. Considering the optical laws and their interactions, an optimum picture recording within the given physical boundary conditions is accomplished. Elaborate picture preprocessing algorithms are avoided. Arranging first steps to measure objects with largely diffuse reflecting surfaces or with reduced requirements in resolution, cameras and laser line generators from the electronic mail order catalog may be utilized for first system testing (e.g., school practicum, etc). These simple laser line generators utilize mostly a glass rod lens to produce a Gaussian intensity profile along the laser line (as mentioned in the Operating Principle section). With increased requirements, laser lines with largely constant intensity distribution and line width have to be utilized.

1.1.4.3

Specifications

The specifications of the light section sensors are routinely documented with these technical data: (1) supply voltage which is the voltage of the direct current power supplied to the sensor; (2) voltage ripple which defines the maximum tolerance for the ratio of the maximum voltage bias to the supply voltage; (3) reverse polarity protected which indicates whether or not the sensor has functionality protected from reverse polarity; (4) short circuit protected which indicates whether or not the sensor can be protected from damage if short circuit occurs; (5) power consumption which represents the power consumption of the sensor; (6) maximum output load which is the output power value of the sensor;

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (7) maximum operation frequency which is the permitted working frequency of the sensor; (8) response time tON/tOFF , where tON is the time interval from when the sensor is turned on to when it is ready to be loaded for tasks and tOFF is the time interval from when the sensor is turned off to when it completely stops; (9) hysteresis which is the sensing delay of the sensor; (10) length of light line which is maximum working laser length, etc.

In addition to these technical data, the specifications of the light section sensors normally also include some environmental data as below: (1) vibration which is the allowed environmental vibration; (2) shock which is the allowable energy of exterior air shocks; (3) operation temperature that is the tolerant environmental temperature for the sensors, etc.

1.1.4.4

Calibration

In the process of calibration, camera and projector parameters are estimated simultaneously using the nonlinear least squares estimation model. The three-dimensional coordinates of checkpoints are introduced as additional unknowns, and thus they are estimated simultaneously with the model parameters. This estimation model was chosen because its output contains not only the estimated parameters but also their accuracy. Obtaining the checkpoint accuracy is the major topic of this work. The estimation of camera and projector parameters requires a threedimensional calibration standard with well-defined target points. These control points are characterized by their three-dimensional coordinates, the two-dimensional coordinates of their images, and their one-dimensional projector coordinates. Given n control points as input, the maximum likelihood estimation of unknown parameters can be derived by the general nonlinear least squares estimation. Here are some important requirements for the calibration standard popularly used in industrial control. (1) The control points have to be regularly distributed in threedimensional workspace. (2) The images of the control points have to have a good contrast and an extent of at least 10 pixels. In this case they can be measured very accurately using least squares template matches.

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(3) Highly accurate three-dimensional coordinates of control points as well as their errors have to be available. For example, assume an aluminum plate with white squares printed on a black background is used as a calibration standard. To achieve a regular distribution of control points in work space, the calibration plate can be precisely displaced along the third axis. Figure 1.9 shows the section sensor setup as it was used in this work. Both camera and projector are inclined to facilitate the measurement of not only horizontal, but also vertical, and even of overhanging surfaces for our application of grasping threedimensional objects. The position of the RSP projected onto the XY plane of the world coordinate system is also given in Fig. 1.9(b). From Fig. 1.9(a) it should be clear that the angle q between the optical axes of the camera and the projector was chosen to be relatively small; it is approximately 15o. This choice has the advantage of making it possible to measure surfaces of larger orientation range while the achievable accuracy is not ideal as it would be theoretically with q. = 90o. Notice that the optical axis of the section sensor ar is defined as the symmetry axis of ac and ap in Fig. 1.9(a). The work space in this example (200 × 200 × 100 mm3) is mainly constrained by the depth of focus of the projector and the camera, which is about 200 mm at a distance of 1300 mm. Weights of observations depend on the measurement process. For light section sensor calibration, three types of observations are used: (1) a priori knowledge about the three-dimensional coordinates of white squares on the calibration plate, (2) image measurements of square centers, and (3) measurements of the projector coordinates of square centers. (a)

(b)

Y

Projector Work space

RSP

Camera ap ac

Z

ai

X

1300 mm q

RSP

200 mm

Z

100 mm

Work space

XY plane 200 mm

Figure 1.9 Experimental range sensor setup: (a) relative position of camera, projector, and work space in the range sensor plane (RSP); (b) position of the RSP and the work space projected onto the XY–Z plane of the world coordinate system.

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1.1.5 Linear and Rotary Variable Differential Transformers The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a well-established transducer design which has been used throughout many decades for the accurate measurement of displacement and within closed loops for the control of positioning. The LVDT design lends itself for easy modification to fulfill a whole range of different applications in both research and industry: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

pressurized versions for hydraulic cylinder applications; materials suitable for sea water and marine services; dimensions to suit specific application requirements; multichannel, rack amplifier–based systems; automotive suspension system.

The rotational variable differential transformer (RVDT) is also a wellestablished transducer design used to measure rotational angles and operates under the same principles as the LVDT sensor. Whereas the LVDT uses a cylindrical iron core, the RVDT uses a rotary ferromagnetic core. Some of the typical applications of RVDT are (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

1.1.5.1

flight control/navigation flap actuators fuel control cockpit control automation assembly equipment.

Operating Principle

(1) An LVDT is much like any other transformer in that it consists of a primary coil, secondary coils, and a magnetic core as illustrated in Fig. 1.10(a). The primary coils (the upper coil in Fig. 1.10(a)) are energized with constant amplitude alternating current. This produces an alternating magnetic field in the center of the transducer which induces a signal into the secondary coils (the two lower coils in Fig. 1.10(a)) depending on the position of the core. Movement of the core within this area causes the secondary signal to change (Fig. 1.10(b)). As the two secondary coils are positioned and connected in a set arrangement (push–pull mode), when the core is positioned at the center, a zero signal is derived.

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Primary coil

Movable core

(a)

Secondary coil

Secondary #1

Secondary coil

Primary

Secondary #2

Lead wires

Displacement

(b)

Moveable core

Figure 1.10 The working principles of an LVDT: (a) the three coils and the movable core and (b) the displacement system of a sensor.

Movement of the core from this point in either direction causes the signal to increase. As the coils are wound in a particular precise manner, the signal output has a linear relationship with the actual mechanical movement of the core. The secondary output signal is then processed by a phasesensitive demodulator which is switched at the same frequency as the primary energizing supply. This results in a final output which, after rectification and filtering, gives direct current output proportional to the core movement and also indicates its direction, positive or negative, from the central zero point (Fig. 1.10(b)). As with any transformer, the voltage of the induced signal in the secondary coil is linearly related to the number of coils. The basic transformer relation is Vout/Vin = Nout/Nin where Vout is the voltage at the output, Vin is the voltage at the input, Nout is the number of windings of the output coil, and Nin is the number of windings of the input coil. The distinct advantage of using an LVDT displacement transducer is that the moving core does not make contact with other electrical components of the assembly, as with resistive types, and so offers high reliability and long life. Further, the core can

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY be so aligned that an air gap exists around it, which is ideal for applications where minimum mechanical friction is required. (2) An RVDT is an electromechanical transducer that provides a variable alternating current output voltage. This output voltage is linearly proportional to the angular displacement of its input shaft. When energized with a fixed alternating current source, the output signal is linear within a specified range over the angular displacement. RVDT utilizes brushless, noncontacting technology to ensure long life, reliability, and repeatable position sensing with infinite resolution. Such reliable and repeatable performance ensures accurate position sensing under the most extreme operating conditions. As diagrammed in Fig. 1.11, rotating a ferromagnetic-core bearing supported within a housed stator assembly provides a basic RVDT construction and operation. The housing is passively stainless steel. The stator consists of a primary excitation coil and a pair of secondary output coils. A fixed alternating current excitation is applied to the primary stator coil that is electromagnetically coupled to the secondary coils. This coupling is proportional to the angle of the input shaft. The output pair is structured so that one coil is in phase with the excitation coil, and the second is 180° out of phase with the excitation coil. When the rotor is in a position that directs the available flux equally in both the in phase and out of phase coils, the output voltages cancel Rotary ferromagnetic core

Vin Vout

Figure 1.11 The working principles of a typical RVDT.

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and result in a zero value signal. This is referred to as the electrical zero position. When the rotor shaft is displaced from the electrical zero position, the resulting output signals have a magnitude and phase relationship proportional to the direction of rotation. Because the performance of an RVDT is essentially similar to that of a transformer, excitation voltage changes will cause directly proportional changes to the output (transformation ratio). However, the voltage out to excitation voltage ratio will remain constant. Since most RVDT signal conditioning systems measure signal as a function of the transformation ratio, excitation voltage drift beyond 7.5% typically has no effect on sensor accuracy and strict voltage regulation is not typically necessary. Excitation frequency should be controlled within ±1% to maintain accuracy.

1.1.5.2 Application Guide The following factors should be considered when selecting an LVDT (AC, alternating current; DC, direct current): (1) (2) (3) (4)

measurement range armature type AC–AC vs DC–DC environment.

LVDTs are available with ranges from ±0.01" to ±18.5". An LVDT with a ±18.5" range can be used in one direction to measure up to 37". If accuracy is important, the range selected should not be any larger than necessary. Three armature types are available: free unguided armatures, captive guided spring return armatures, and captive guided armatures. Free unguided armatures are recommended for applications in which the target being measured moves parallel to the transducer body as well as those which require frequent or continuous measurements. This armature type is well suited for dynamic applications. When using a free unguided armature, the armature and the LVDT body must be mounted so that their correct relative positions are maintained. This type of LVDT features an armature/ threaded push rod assembly which is completely separable from the LVDT body. Since the free unguided armature involves no mechanical coupling between the armature and the LVDT body, there are no springs or bearings to fatigue. This unit has a virtually unlimited fatigue life. Captive guided spring return armatures are well suited for those applications requiring the measurement of multiple targets or applications in which the target moves

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transverse to the armature and changes in the structure’s surface are to be measured. In this type of LVDT, the armature moves over bearings in the LVDT body. The armature is biased by an internal spring so that the ballended probe bears against the surface of the target whose displacement is being measured. The LVDT is held in position by clamping the body alone. The armature is not attached to the target being measured. Captive guided armatures are designed for applications requiring a longer working range. The armature moves freely over machined bearings but cannot be removed from the body. The LVDT body has a threaded mounting hole, and the armature is attached to the structure being measured. The armature end is threaded so that special adapters such as spherical bearings or rollers can be attached. The major advantages of DC–DC LVDTs are the ease of installation, the ability to operate from dry cell batteries in remote locations, and lower system cost, while the advantages of AC–AC LVDT include greater accuracy and a smaller body size. An AC–AC LVDT can be equipped with more sophisticated electronics such as SENSOTEC SC instrumentation. The SC instrument provides an AC power supply, a phase-sensitive demodulator, a scaling amplifier, and a DC output. The AC–AC LVDT system has less residual noise at minimum readings than DC–DC units which utilize internal electronics. For applications involving very high humidity or requiring submersion of the LVDT, a submersible LVDT is required. Submersible units are available for either AC–AC or DC–DC operation and with free unguided or captive spring return armatures. The unit selected should also operate and survive at the temperatures dictated by the application. Note that AC–AC units will operate at higher temperatures (up to 257°F) than the DC–DC units (up to 158°F) which have internal electronics. Side loads must be kept to a minimum since they will cause rubbing between the armature and the LVDT body. This friction will cause excessive wear of bearings, and in extreme cases the armature may bend. At a minimum, side loads will reduce the unit’s life and accuracy.

1.1.5.3

Calibration

The manual calibration procedure for both the LVDT sensors and the RVDT sensors is to check and adjust the zero and gain settings of the signal conditioner, which includes these steps: (1) First, the signal conditioner at zero displacement should be made to be zero. (2) Second, the micrometer should be traversed to a maximum displacement that can be anticipated in the calibration experiment. (3) The gain setting should be adjusted

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to attain a transducer “high” output value. (4) Finally, the “reference values” of the zero, maximum displacement, and the corresponding transducer output must be recorded. In further experiments, it may be necessary to set the zero and gain of the signal conditioner to these “reference values” and use the calibration results or curves obtained from this laboratory for displacement measurements. The laboratory assignments are executed with the following procedure: (1) Take at least five different settings to cover the displacement range of 0–1 in. For each displacement setting, repeat five times for increasing displacement (or, low to high) and repeat five times for decreasing displacement (or, high to low) to check for hysteresis. (2) Establish a spread sheet and calculate the average voltage for each displacement. (3) Plot the averaged voltage output of the signal conditioner vs displacement and obtain a linear correlation between the averaged voltage output vs displacement using a least squares technique (e.g., in the format of y = a + bx ± c).

1.1.6

Magnetic Control Systems

Magnetic control systems are dominated with magnetic field sensors, magnetic switches, and instruments that measure magnetic fields and or magnetic flux by evaluating a potential, current, or resistance change due to the field strength and direction. They are used to study the magnetic field or flux around the Earth, permanent magnets, coils, and electrical devices in displacement measurement, rail inspection system, and the linear potentiometer replacement, etc. Magnetic field sensors and switches can measure and control these properties without physical contact and have become the eyes of many industrial and navigation control systems. Magnetic field sensors and switches are typically applied in industrial control for proximity detection, displacement sensing, rotational reference detection, current sensing, and vehicle detection. Magnetic field sensors indirectly measure properties such as direction, position, rotation, angle, and current by detecting the magnetic field and its changes. The first application of a permanent magnet was a third-century bc Chinese compass, which is a direction sensor. Compared to other direct methods such as optical or mechanical sensor, most magnetic file sensors require some signal processing to get the property of interest. However, they provide reliable data without physical contact even in adverse conditions such as dirt, vibration, moisture, hazardous gas and oil, etc. At present,

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there are two kinds of magnetic switches: magnetic reed switches and magnetic level switches. Magnetic switches are suitable for applications requiring a switched output for proximity, linear limit detection, logging or counting, or actuation purposes. Flux gate and coil instruments perform a continuous measurement of the differences in the magnetic field at the ends of a vertical rod and plot these differences on a grid of the area. Hall effect describes a device that converts the energy stored in a magnetic field to an electrical signal by means of the development of a voltage between the two edges of a current carrying conductor whose faces are perpendicular to a magnetic field.

1.1.6.1

Operating Principle

A unique aspect of using magnetic sensors and switches is that measuring magnetic fields is usually not the primary intent. Another parameter is usually desired such as wheel speed, presence of a magnetic ink, vehicle detection, or heading determination, etc. These parameters cannot be measured directly but can be extracted from changes or disturbances in magnetic fields. The most widely used magnetic sensors and switches are Hall effect sensor switches, magnetoresistive (MR) series of sensors switches, magnetic reed switch, magnetic level switch, etc. (1) Hall effect sensors and switches. The Hall effect is a conduction phenomenon which is different for different charge carriers. In most common electrical applications, the conventional current is used partly because it makes no difference whether positive or negative charge is considered to be moving. But the Hall voltage has a different polarity for positive and negative charge carriers, and it has been used to study the details of conduction in semiconductors and other materials which show a combination of negative and positive charge carriers. The Hall effect can be used to measure the average drift velocity of the charge carriers by mechanically moving the Hall probe at different speeds until the Hall voltage disappears, showing that the charge carriers are now not moving with respect to the magnetic field. Other types of investigations of carrier behavior are studied in the quantum Hall effect. An alternative application of the Hall effect is that it can be used to measure magnetic fields with a Hall probe. As shown in Fig. 1.12, if an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a transverse force on the moving charge carriers, which tends to push

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1: SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL VH Fm = Magenetic force on negative charge carriers

I

Magenetic field B

+

−

Fe

− −

− d

I

+

− F m

−

+ +

+ +

Fe = Electric force from charge buildup

Direction of conventional electric current

Figure 1.12 The Hall effect.

them to one side of the conductor. This is most evident in a thin, flat conductor as illustrated. A build up of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall effect, after E. H. Hall who discovered it in 1879. Note that the direction of the current I in the diagram is that of conventional current, so that the motion of electrons is in the opposite direction. This further confuses all the “right-hand rule” manipulations you have to go through to get the direction of the forces. As displayed in Fig. 1.12, the Hall voltage VH is given by VH = IB/(ned), where I is the induced electric current, B is the strength Input signal

Magnetic flux

Sensor

HAL

Out signal

VOUT

Figure 1.13 The functional principle of a Hall sensor.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY of the magnetic filed, n is the density of mobile charges, e is the electron charge, and d is the thickness of the film. In the Hall sensor, the Hall element with its entire evaluation circuitry is integrated on a single silicon chip. The Hall plate with the current terminals and the taps for the Hall voltage are arranged on the surface of the crystal. This sensor element detects the components of the magnetic flux perpendicular to the surface of the chip and emits a proportional electrical signal which is processed in the evaluation circuits integrated on the sensor chip. The functional principle of a Hall sensor is, as displayed in Fig. 1.13, that the output voltage of the sensor and the switching state, respectively, depend on the magnetic flux density through the Hall plate. (2) Magnetoresistive sensors and switches. Magnetoresistance is the property of some conductive materials to gain or lose some of their electrical resistance when placed inside a magnetic field. The resistivity of some materials is greatly affected when the material is subjected to a magnetic field. The magnitude of this effect is known as magnetoresistance and can be expressed by the equation: MR = (r(H)–r(0))/r(0) where MR is the magnetoresistance, r(0) is the resistivity at zero magnetic field, and r(H) is the resistivity in an applied magnetic field. The magnetoresistance of conventional materials is quite small, but materials with large magnetoresistance have been synthesized now. Depending on the magnitude, it is either called giant magnetoresistance (GMR) or colossal magnetoresistance (CMR). Magnetoresistive sensor or switch elements are magnetically controllable resistors. The effect whereby the electric resistance of a thin, anisotropic ferromagnetic layer changes through a magnetic field is utilized in these elements. The determining factor for the specific resistance is the angle formed by the internal direction of magnetization (M) and the direction of the current flow (I). Resistance is largest if the current flow (I) and the direction of magnetization run parallel. The resistance in the base material is smallest at an angle of 90° between the current flow (I) and the direction of magnetization (M). In addition, highly conductive material is applied below an angle of 45°. The current passing the sensor element takes the shortest distance between these two ranges. This means that it flows at a preferred direction of 45° against the longitudinal axis of the sensor element. Without an external field, the resistance of the element is then in the medium range. An external magnetic

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field with field strength (H) influences the internal direction of magnetization, which causes the resistance to change as a factor of the influence. Figure 1.14 gives an example using Permalloy (NiFe) film to illustrate that the resistance of a material depends upon the angle between the internal direction of magnetization M and the direction of the current flow I. The actual sensor element is often designed with four magnetic field sensitive resistors interconnected to form a measuring bridge (Fig. 1.15). The measuring bridge is energized and Current I Magnetization M q

Easy axis

No applied field I M

HApplied

Figure 1.14 As an example, the Permalloy (NiFe) film has a magnetization vector, M, that is influenced by the applied magnetic field being measured. The resistance of the film changes as a function of the angle between the vector M and current flow, I, flowing through it. This change in resistance is known as the magnetoresistive effect. Bias current

Permalloy

Out−

Shorting bars

Vb

GND

Easy axis

Out+

Sensitive axis

Figure 1.15 As an example, the magnetoresistive bridge is made up of four Permalloy parallel strips. A crosshatch pattern of metal is overlaid onto the strips to form shorting bars. The current then flows through the Permalloy, taking the shortest path, at a 45° angle from shorting bar to shorting bar. This establishes the bias angle between the magnetization vector M of the film and the current I flowing through it.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY supplies a bridge voltage. A magnetic field which influences the bridge branches in different degrees leads to a voltage difference between the bridge branches which is then amplified and evaluated. The sensor detects the movement of ferromagnetic structures (e.g., in gearwheels) caused by the changes in the magnetic flow. The sensor element is biased with a permanent magnet. A tooth or a gap moving past the sensor influences the magnetic field at different degrees. This causes changes in the magnetic field dependent on resistance values in a magnetoresistive sensor. The changes in the magnetic field can therefore be converted into an electric variable and can also be conditioned accordingly. The output signal from the sensor is a square wave voltage which reflects the changes in the magnetic field. Changes in the magnetic field cause the bridge voltage to be deflected. This voltage is amplified and supplied to a Schmitt trigger after conditioning. If the effective signal reaches an adequate level, the output stage is set accordingly. The sensor is used for the noncontact rotational speed detection on ferromagnetic sensing objects such as gearwheels. The distance between the sensed object and the surface of the active sensor is described as air gap. The maximum air gap is dependent on the geometry of the object. The measurement principle dictates the direction-dependent installation. The magnetoresistive sensor is sensitive to changes in the external magnetic field. For this reason the sensed objects should not have different degrees of magnetization. (3) Magnetic switches. Most magnetic switches actually work with two mechanisms: the magnetic reed switches and the magnetic level switches. Magnetic reed switches normally consist of two overlapping flat contacts which are sealed into a glass tube filled with inert gas. When approached by a permanent magnet the contact ends attract each other and make contact. When the magnet is removed, the contacts separate immediately (Fig. 1.16). For magnetic level switches, the operation is achieved using the time-proven principle of repelling magnetic forces. One permanent magnet forms part of a float assembly which rises and falls with changing liquid level. A second permanent magnet is positioned within the switch head so that the adjacent poles of the two magnets repel each other through a nonmagnetic diaphragm. A change in liquid level moves the float through its permissible range of travel causing the float magnet to pivot and repel the switch magnet. The resulting snap action of the repelling magnets actuates the switch.

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1: SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Flat contacts

33

Magnet

Glass tube

Figure 1.16 Operating principle of a simple magnetic reed switch.

1.1.6.2

Basic Types and Application Guide

One way to classify the various magnetic sensors and switches is by the magnetic field sensing range. These sensors and switches can be arbitrarily divided into three categories: (1) low field, (2) medium field, and (3) high field sensing. Sensors that detect magnetic fields less than 1 µG will be classed as low field sensors. Sensors with a range of 1 µG to 10 G will be considered Earth’s field sensors, and those sensors that detect fields above 10 G will be considered bias magnet field sensors in this book. Only those magnetic field sensors and switches used in industrial control are listed below so that the low field magnetic sensors are neglected because these are primarily used for medical applications and laboratory research. (1) Earth’s field sensors. (1 µG to 10 G) The magnetic range for the medium field sensors lends itself well to using the Earth’s magnetic field. Several ways to use the Earth’s field are to determine compass headings for navigation, detect anomalies in it for vehicle detection, and measure the derivative of the change in field to determine yaw rate. (a) Fluxgate. Fluxgate magnetometers are the most widely used sensors for compass navigation systems. Fluxgate sensors have also been used for geophysical prospecting and airborne magnetic field mapping. The most common type of fluxgate magnetometer is called the second harmonic device. This device involves two coils, a primary and a secondary, wrapped around a high-ability ferromagnetic core. The magnetic induction of this core changes in the presence of an external magnetic field. Another way of looking at the fluxgate operating principle is to sense the ease, or resistance, of saturating the core caused by the change in its magnetic flux. The difference is due to the external magnetic field.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (b) Magnetoinductive. Magnetoinductive magnetometers are relatively new with the first patent issued in 1989. The sensor is simply a single winding coil on a ferromagnetic core that changes permeability within the Earth’s field. The sense coil is the inductance element in an L/R relaxation oscillator. The frequency of the oscillator is proportional to the field being measured. A static DC current is used to bias the coil in a linear region of operation. (c) Anisotropic magnetoresistive (AMR). Magnetoresistive (MR) sensors come in a variety of shapes and forms. The newest market growth for MR sensors is high density read heads for tape and disk drives. Most AMR sensors are made of Permalloy (NiFe) thin film deposited onto a silicon substrate and patterned to form a Wheatstone resistor bridge. AMR sensors provide an excellent means of measuring both linear and angular position and displacement in the Earth’s magnetic field. Permalloy thin films of a sensor deposited on a silicon substrate in various resistor bridge configurations provide highly predictable outputs when subjected to magnetic fields. Low cost, high sensitivity, small size, noise immunity, and reliability are advantages over mechanical or other electrical alternatives. Highly adaptable and easy to assemble, these sensors solve a variety of problems in custom applications. (2) Bias magnet field sensors. (above 10 G) Most industrial sensors use permanent magnets as a source of the detected magnetic field. These permanent magnets magnetize, or bias, ferromagnetic objects close to the sensor. The sensor then detects the change in the total field at the sensor. Bias field sensors must not only detect fields which are typically larger than the Earth’s field, but they must also not be permanently affected or temporarily upset by a large field. Sensors in this category include reed switches, InSb magnetoresistors, Hall devices, and GMR sensors. (a) Reed switch. The reed switch can be considered the simplest magnetic sensor used to produce a usable output for industrial control. Reed switches are maintenance free and highly immune to dirt and contamination. Rhodium-plated contacts ensure long contact life. Typical capabilities are 0.1–0.2 A switching current and 100–200 V switching voltage. Contact life is measured at 106–107 operations at 10 mA. Reed switches are available with normally open, normally closed, and class C contacts. Latching reed switches are also available. Mercury-wetted reed switches can switch currents as high as 1 Å and have no contact bounce.

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Low cost, simplicity, reliability, and zero power consumption make reed switches popular in many applications. The addition of a separate small permanent magnet yields a simple proximity switch often used in security systems to monitor the opening of doors or windows. The magnet, affixed to the movable part, activates the reed switch when it comes close enough. The desire to sense almost everything in cars is increasing the number of reed switch sensing applications in the automotive industry. (b) Lorentz force devices. There are several sensors that utilize the Lorentz force, or Hall effect, on charge carriers in a semiconductor. The Lorentz force equation describes the force FL experienced by a charged particle with charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B: FL = q (v × B). The Hall effect is a consequence of the Lorentz force in semiconductor materials. The following sensors work with the Lorentz force and the Hall effect. (i) Magnetoresistors. The simplest of Lorentz force devices are magnetoresistors using semiconductors with high room temperature carrier mobility. If a voltage is applied along the length of a thin slab of semiconductor material, a current will flow and a resistance can be measured. When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the slab, the Lorentz force will deflect the charge carriers. If the width of the slab is greater than the length, the charge carriers will cross the slab without a significant number of them collecting along the sides. The effect of the magnetic field is to increase the length of their path and, therefore, the resistance. An increase in resistance of several hundred percentage is possible in large fields. In order to produce sensors with hundreds to thousands of ohms of resistance, long, narrow semiconductor stripes a few microns wide are produced using photolithography. The required length to width ratio is accomplished by forming periodic low-resistance metal shorting bars across the traces. Each shorting bar produces an equipotent across the semiconductor stripe. The result is, in effect, a number of small semiconductor elements with the proper length to width ratio connected in series. (ii) Hall effect sensors. The second type of sensor, which utilizes the Lorentz force on charge carriers, is a Hall sensor.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The Hall resistance and Hall voltage increase linearly with applied field to several teslas (10 s of kG). The temperature dependence of the Hall voltage and the input resistance of Hall sensors are governed by the temperature dependence of the carrier mobility and that of the Hall coefficient. The Hall voltage is measured between electrodes placed at the middle of each side. This differential voltage is proportional to the magnetic field perpendicular to the slab. It also changes sign when the sign of the magnetic field changes. The ratio of the Hall voltage to the input current is called the Hall resistance, and the ratio of the applied voltage to the input current is called the input resistance. (iii) Integrated Hall sensors. Hall devices are often combined with semiconductor elements to make integrated sensors. By adding comparators and output devices to a Hall element, manufacturers provide unipolar and bipolar digital switches. Adding an amplifier increases the relatively low voltage signals from a Hall device to produce radiometric linear Hall sensors with an output centered on one-half the supply voltage. (c) Giant magnetoresistive (GMR) devices. Large magnetic field dependent changes in resistance are possible in thin-film ferromagnetic and/or nonmagnetic metallic multilayers. This phenomenon was first observed in 1988. Changes in resistance with magnetic field of up to 70% were observed. Compared to the few percentage change in resistance observed in anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR), this phenomenon was truly giant magnetoresistance (GMR). GMR devices involve a sandwich of two outer layers of a ferromagnetic material, such as cobalt or iron, with a center of a nonmagnetic metal. One of the ferromagnetic layers is kept under a constant magnetic field, while the other layer is exposed to the variable magnetic field to be sensed. Maximum current flows when both ferromagnetic layers are magnetized in the same direction; minimum current flows when the layers are magnetized in reverse directions. GMR sensors are currently used in read-write heads for disk drives. (i) Unpinned sandwich GMR. These materials consist of two soft magnetic layers of iron, nickel, and cobalt alloys separated by a layer of a nonmagnetic conductor such as copper. With magnetic layers 4–6 nm (40–60 Å) thick separated by a conductor layer typically 3–5 nm thick, there is relatively little magnetic coupling between

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the layers. For use in sensors, sandwich material is usually patterned into narrow stripes. The magnetic field caused by a current of a few milliamperes per micron of stripe width flowing along the stripe is sufficient to rotate the magnetic layers into antiparallel or high resistance alignment. An external magnetic field of 3–4 kA/m applied along the length of the stripe is sufficient to overcome the field from the current and rotate the magnetic moments of both layers parallel to the external field. A positive or negative external field parallel to the stripe will produce the same change in resistance. An external field applied perpendicular to the stripe will have little effect due to the demagnetizing fields associated with the extremely narrow dimensions of these magnetic objects. The value usually associated with the GMR effect is the percentage change in resistance normalized by the saturated or minimum resistance. Sandwich materials have values of GMR typically 4–9% and saturate with 2.4–5 kA/m applied field. Figure 1.21 shows a typical resistance vs field plot for sandwich GMR material. (ii) Antiferromagnetic multilayer. These materials consist of multiple repetitions of alternating conducting magnetic layers and nonmagnetic layers. Since multilayer has more interfaces than do sandwiches, the size of the GMR effect is larger. The thickness of the nonmagnetic layers is less than that for sandwich material (typically 1.5–2.0 nm) and the thickness is critical. Only for certain thicknesses, the polarized conduction electrons cause antiferromagnetic coupling between the magnetic layers. Each magnetic layer has its magnetic moment antiparallel to the moments of the magnetic layers on each side—exactly the condition needed for maximum spin-dependent scattering. A large external field can overcome the coupling which causes this alignment and can align the moments so that all the layers are parallel— the low-resistance state. If the conducting layer is not of proper thickness, the same coupling mechanism can cause ferromagnetic coupling between the magnetic layers resulting in no GMR effect. (iii) Spin valves. These materials, or antiferromagnetically pinned spin valves, are similar to the unpinned spin valves or sandwich materials described earlier. An additional layer of an antiferromagnetic material is provided

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY on the top or the bottom. The antiferromagnetic material couples to the adjacent magnetic layer and pins it in a fixed direction. The other magnetic layer is free to rotate. These materials do not require the field from a current to achieve antiparallel alignment. (iv) Colossal magnetoresistance (CMR). CMR occurs in crystals of manganese oxide known as “magnates.” Under certain conditions these mixed oxides undergo a semiconductor to metallic transition with the application of a magnetic field of a few teslas (10 s of kG). The size of the resistance ratios, measured at 103–108%, has generated considerable excitement even though they required high fields and liquid nitrogen temperatures. The MR of these crystals actually decreases in the presence of a magnetic field. CMR requires cryogenic cooling.

1.1.7

Limit Switches

A limit switch is an electromechanical device that can be used to determine the physical position of equipment. For example, an extension on a valve shaft mechanically trips a limit switch as it moves from open to shut or shut to open. The limit switch is designed to give a signal to an industrial control system when a moving component like an overhead door or piece of machinery has reached the limit (end point) for its travel or just a specific point on its journey. The primary purpose of the limit switch is to control the intermediate or end limits of a linear or rotary motion. In industrial control systems, the limit switch is often used as a safety device to protect against accidental damage to equipment.

1.1.7.1

Operating Principle

A linear limit switch is an electromechanical device that requires the physical contact of an object with the activator of the switch to make the contacts change state. As an object (target) makes contact with the actuator of the switch, it moves the activator to the “limit” where the contacts change state. Limit switches can be used in almost any industrial environment because of their typically rugged design. However, the device uses mechanical parts that can wear over time and the device is “slower” when compared to noncontact, electrical devices such as proximity sensors and photoelectric sensors. Rotary limit switches are similar to relays in that they are used to allow or prevent current flow when in closed or open position. The groupings

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within this family are usually defined based on the manner in which the switch is actuated (e.g., rocker, foot, read, lever, etc.). Switches can range from simple push button devices, usually used to delineate between ON and OFF, to rotary and toggle devices, for varying levels, through to multiple entry keypads, for multiple control functions. In addition to maintaining or interrupting flow, and maintaining flow levels, switches are used in safety applications as security devices (locker switches) and as functionary actuators when controlled by sensors or computer systems. Normally, the limit switch gives ON/OFF output that corresponds to valve position. Limit switches are used to provide full open or full shut indications as illustrated in Fig. 1.17 which gives a typical linear limit switch operation. Many limit switches are of the push button variety. In Fig. 1.17, when the valve extension comes in contact with the limit switch, the switch depresses to complete, or turn on, the electrical circuit. As the valve extension moves away from the limit switches, spring pressure opens the switch, turning off the circuit. Limit switch failures are normally mechanical in nature. If the proper indication or control function is not achieved, the limit switch is probably faulty. In this case, local position indication should be used to verify equipment position. Full open limit switch

Indicating and control circuite

Stem

Full closed limit switch

Flow

Figure 1.17 Operations of a linear limit switch.

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1.1.7.2

Basic Types and Application Guide

Limit switches come in many different forms, from small, enclosed switches to large, heavy-duty multicircuit switches and are divided into several types as given below. The basic types of limit switches are (1) linear limit switches where an object will move a lever (or simply depress a plunger) on the switch far enough for the contact in the switch to change state; (2) rotary limit switches where a shaft must turn a preset number of revolutions before the contact changes state, used in cranes, overhead doors, etc.; and (3) magnetic limit switches, or reed switches, where the object is not touched but sensed. One heavy-duty application would be in mine hoists where a stationary switch will sense a strong magnet mounted to a car going up or down the mine shaft. (1) Linear limit switches. Linear limit switches basically have these three types: (a) Safety limit switches. Safety limit switches are designed for use with moveable machine guards/access gates, which must be closed for operator safety and for any other presence, and position-sensing application normally addressed with conventional limit switches. Their positive opening network connection contacts provide a higher degree of reliability than conventional spring-driven switches whose contacts can weld or stick shut. These limit switches are of multiple actuator styles and four 90° head position so that they provide application versatility. (b) Comprehensive range limit switches. Comprehensive range limit switches are provided in the most popular industrial sizes, shapes, contact configurations, as well as an innovative series of encapsulated limit switches, available with a connection cable or plug. Their output contacts are offered in snap action, slow action, or overlapping configurations. Various types of push button and roller actuators, roller levers, and multidirectional levers are available. These switches are ideal for manufacturers of material handling, packaging, conveying, and machine tool equipment. (c) Mechanical limit switches. Mechanical limit switches are frequently used in position detection on doors and machinery and parts detection on conveyors and assembly lines. Their range comprises various housing and actuator styles, choice of slow or fast action contacts, and various contact arrangements.

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(2) Rotary limit switches. Rotary switches move in a circle and can stop in several positions in their range, which provide singledeck rotary limit and multiple-deck rotary limit. (a) Single-deck rotary switches. Single-deck rotary switches can control several circuits at a time. Actuator choices for singledeck rotary switches include flush actuator, bare shaft actuator, knobbed shaft, and locker. In a flush actuator configuration the actuator does not project above the switch body. Typically it requires a screwdriver for operation. In a bare shaft actuator configuration the shaft has no knob, but may be notched to accept various knob configurations. A knobbed shaft comes with an integral knob. In a locker configuration the actuation is done with a key or other security or tamperproof method. Important physical switch specifications to consider when searching for single-deck rotary switches include angle between positions, mechanical life, number of decks, number of poles per deck, and number of poles. The angular distance (in degrees) exists between positions. For example, for a 4-position switch, the angle of throw is 90°, and for a 100position switch, the angle of throw is 3.6°. The mechanical life is the maximum life expectancy of the switch. Often, electrical life expectancy is less than mechanical life (please consult manufacturer). The number of decks specifies the maximum number of decks that can be attached to a common actuating shaft. The number of poles per deck refers to the number of separate circuits that can be activated through a switch at any given time per deck. The number of poles refers to the number of separate circuits that can be activated through a switch at any given time. Important electrical switch specifications to consider include maximum current rating, maximum AC voltage rating, and maximum DC voltage rating. Common materials of construction for the base and actuator include plastics and metals. Other specifications to consider for single-deck rotary switches include stop style, contact style, actuator features, terminal type, features, and environmental parameters. Stop style choices include fixed stop, adjustable stop, and continuous or no stops. Contact style choices are shorting or nonshorting. Actuator features include integral potentiometer, actuator detents, tease proof, and guarded positions. Terminal type choices include wire leads, solder terminals, screw terminals, and PCB pins. An important environmental parameter to consider is the operating temperature.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (b) Multiple-deck rotary switch. Multiple-deck rotary switches can control several circuits simultaneously. Actuator choices for multiple-deck rotary switches include flush actuator, bare shaft actuator, knobbed shaft, and locker. In a flush actuator configuration the actuator does not project above the switch body, and typically requires a screwdriver for operation. In a bare shaft actuator configuration the shaft has no knob, but may be notched to accept various knob configurations. A knobbed shaft comes with an integral knob. In a locker configuration the actuation is done with a key or other secure or tamperproof method. Important physical switch specifications to consider when searching for multiple-deck rotary switches include angle between positions, mechanical life, number of decks, and number of poles per deck. The angular distance (in degrees) exists between positions. For example, for a 4-position switch, the angle of throw is 90°; for a 100-position switch, the angle of throw is 3.6°. The mechanical life is the maximum life expectancy of the switch. Often, electrical life expectancy is less than mechanical life (please consult manufacturer). The number of decks specifies the maximum number of decks that can be attached to a common actuating shaft. The number of poles per deck refers to the number of separate circuits that can be activated through a switch at any given time per deck. Important electrical switch specifications to consider include maximum current rating, maximum AC voltage rating, and maximum DC voltage rating. Common materials of construction for the base and actuator include plastics and metals. Other specifications to consider for multiple-deck rotary switches include stop style, contact style, actuator features, terminal type, features, and environmental parameters. Stop style choices include fixed stop, adjustable stop and continuous or no stops. Contact style choices are shorting or nonshorting. Actuator features include integral potentiometer, actuator detents, tease proof, and guarded positions. Terminal type choices include wire leads, solder terminals, screw terminals, and PCB pins. Common features for multiple-deck rotary switches include optional coded outputs, momentary on, wiping contacts, CE certification, CSA certification, UL listed, dustproof, and weather resistant or waterproof. An important environmental parameter to consider is the operating temperature.

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(c) Magnetic limit switches. Magnetic limit switches work based on the operation of reed switches (see Section 1.2.8), and are more reliable than the read switches because of their simplified construction. The switches are constructed of flexible ferrous strips (reeds) and are placed near the intended travel of the valve stem or control rod extension. When using reed switches, the extension used is a permanent magnet. As the magnet approaches the reed switch, the switch shuts. When the magnet moves away, the reed switch opens. This ON/OFF indicator is similar to a mechanical limit switch. By using a large number of magnetic reed switches, incremental position can be measured. Failures are normally limited to a reed switch, which is stuck open or stuck shut. If a reed switch is stuck shut, the open (closed) indication will be continuously illuminated. If a reed switch is stuck open, the position indicator for that switch remains extinguished regardless of valve position.

1.1.7.3

Calibration

Limit switches are not adjusted at the factory. Limit switches should be set during installation according to the specifications from the factories and vendors. In most cases, turning some screws performs these adjustments. Figure 1.18 is an example of a rotary limit switch that gives eight positions. By turning some screws, each of these positions can be fitted in installations.

Position 1

Position 2

Position 3

Position 4

Position 5 Position 7

Position 6

Position 8

Figure 1.18 The positions of a rotary limit switch.

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1.1.8


Photoelectric Devices

Photoelectric sensors and switches represent perhaps the largest variety of problem-solving choices in the industrial sensor market. Today, photoelectric technology has advanced to the point where it is common to find a sensor or a switch that can detect a target less than 1 mm in diameter while other units have a sensing range up to 60 m. These factors make them extremely adaptable in an endless array of applications. Photoelectric sensors and switches and their future successors will continue to be key detection devices that can be depended on for these applications. Photoelectric sensors and switches are used extensively on packaging machinery, automatic door systems, automotive and metal industries, and food processing industry. For example, they are used for detecting the presence of automobile wheel rims and tire presence on an assembly line in automotive and metal industries, or for detecting the part cases on an assembly line in food processing and packaging. A very familiar application of photoelectric switches is that they can turn the trap on at dark and off at daylight. This enables the user to set the trap out earlier and retrieve it later in the morning while reducing wear on the battery. Quite often, a garage door opener has a through beam photoelectric sensor mounted near the floor, across the width of the door. This sensor makes sure nothing is in the path of the door when it is closing. A more industrial application for a photoelectric device is detecting objects on a conveyor. An object will be detected any place on a conveyor running between the emitter and the receiver as long as there is a gap between the objects and the sensor’s light does not “burn through” the object. This is more a figurative term than a literal one. It refers to an object that is thin or light in color and allows the light emitted from the emitter to penetrate the target so the receiver never detects the object.

1.1.8.1

Operating Principle

Almost all photoelectric sensors and switches contain an emitter, which is a light source such as a light emitting diode or laser diode, a photodiode, or a phototransistor receiver to detect the light source, as well as the supporting electronics designed to amplify the signal relayed from the receiver. Photoelectric sensing uses a beam of light to detect the presence or absence of an object: the emitter transmits a beam of light either visible or infrared, which in some fashion is directed to and detected by the receiver. All photoelectric sensors and switches identify their output as “dark on” and “light on,” which refer to output of the sensor or switch in

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relation to when the light source is hitting the receiver. If an output is present while no light is received, this would be called a “dark-on” output. In reverse, if the output is ON while the receiver is detecting the light from the emitter, the sensor or switch would have a “light-on” output. Either way, a light-on or dark-on output needs to be selected prior to purchasing the sensor unless it is user adjustable. In this case it can be decided upon during installation by either flipping a switch or wiring the sensor accordingly. The method in which light is emitted and delivered to the receiver is the way to categorize the different photoelectric configurations. They can be categorized into three main categories: through beam, retroreflective, and proximity. (1) Through beam photoelectric sensors or switches. are configured with the emitter and detector opposite the path of the target and sense presence when the beam is broken. (2) Retroreflective photoelectric sensors or switches. are configured with the emitter and detector in the same housing and rely on a reflector to bounce the beam back across the path of the target. This type may be polarized to minimize false reflections. (3) Proximity photoelectric sensors or switches. have the emitter and detector in the same housing and rely upon reflection from the surface of the target. This mode can include presence sensing and distance measurement via analog output. The proximity category can be further broken down into five submodes: diffuse, divergent, convergent, fixed field, and adjustable field. With a diffuse sensor the presence of an object is detected when any portion of the diffuse reflected signal bounces back from the detected object. Divergent beam sensors and switches are shortrange, diffuse-type sensors or switches without collimating lenses. Convergent, fixed focus, or fixed distance optics (such as lenses) are used to focus the emitter beam at a fixed distance from the sensor or switch. Fixed-field sensors or switches are designed to have a distance limit beyond which they will not detect objects, no matter how reflective. Adjustable field sensors or switches utilize a cut-off distance beyond which a target will not be detected, even if it is more reflective than the target. Some photoelectric sensors and switches can be set for multiple different optical sensing modes. Reflective properties of the target and environment are important considerations in the choice and use of photoelectric sensors and switches.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Diffuse sensors or switches operate under a somewhat different style than retroreflective and through-beams although the operating principle remains the same: diffuse photoelectric sensors and switches actually use the target as the “reflector,” such that detection occurs upon reflection of the light off the object back onto the receiver as opposed to an interruption of the beam. The emitter sends out a beam of light. Most often it is a pulsed infrared, visible red, or laser beam, which is reflected by the target when it enters the detectable area. The beam is diffused off of the target in all directions. Part of the beam will actually return to the receiver inside the same housing from which the sensor or switch originally emitted it. Detection occurs and the output will either turn on or off (depending upon if it is light on or dark on) when sufficient light is reflected to the receiver. This can be commonly witnessed in airport washrooms, where a diffuse photo will detect your hands as they are placed under the faucet and the attending output will turn the water on. In this application, your hands act as the reflector.

To ensure repeatability and reliability, photoelectric sensors and switches are available with three different types of operating principles: fixed-field sensing, adjustable field sensing, and background suppression through triangulation. In the simplest terms, these sensors and switches are focused on a specific point in the foreground, ignoring anything beyond that point. (1) Standard fixed-field sensors and switches. operate optimally at their preset “sweet spot,” the distance at which the foreground receiver will detect the target. As a result, these sensors and switches must be mounted within a certain fixed distance of the target. In fixed-field technology, when the emitter sends out a beam of light, two receivers sense the light on its return. The shortrange receiver is focused on the target object’s location. The long-range receiver is focused on the background. If the longrange receiver detects a higher intensity of reflected light than the short-range receiver, the output will not turn on. If the shortrange receiver detects a higher intensity of reflected light than the long-range receiver, an output occurs and the object is detected. (2) Adjustable field sensors and switches. operate under the same principle as fixed-field sensors or switches, but the sensitivity of the receivers can be electrically adjusted using a potentiometer. By adjusting the level of light needed to trigger an output, the range and sensitivity of the sensor or switch can be altered to fit the application.

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(3) Background suppression by triangulation. also emits a beam of light that is deflected back to the sensor or switch. Unlike fixedand adjustable field sensors and switches, which rely on the intensity of the light reflected back to them, background suppression sensors rely completely on the angle at which the beam of light returns. Like fixed- and adjustable field sensors or switches, background suppression sensors or switches feature short-range and long-range receivers in fixed positions. In addition, background suppression sensors or switches have a pair of lenses that are mechanically adjusted to precisely focus the reflected beam to the appropriate receiver, changing the angle of the light received. The long-range receiver is focused through the lens on the background. Deflected light returning along that focal plane will not trigger an output. The short-range receiver is focused, through a second lens, on the target. Any deflected light returning along that focal plane will trigger an output—an object will be detected.

1.1.8.2 Application Guide In industrial control systems which require photoelectric sensors and switches, it is important to check whether the parameters and principle of the sensors and switches satisfy your applications. (1) Choosing the right parameters. Important parameters to consider when looking for photoelectric sensors and switches include sensing mode, detecting range, position measurement window, minimum detectable object, and response time. Sensing modes can be used for detecting presence or absence and position measurement. With a presence or absence sensor, the sensor detects presence or absence in an ON or OFF mode. In position measurement, the sensing mode of the sensor can detect position in a linear region by the intensity of reflected light. Analog output is linear with position in the measurement range. The detecting range is the range of sensor detection. For presence sensors, this goes up to the maximum distance for which the signal is stable. For position measurement sensors, this is the distance or range over which the position vs output response is linear and stable. The position measurement window is the width of linear region for the sensor. For example, if the sensor could measure between 14 and 24 cm, this window would be 10 cm. The minimum detectable object is the smallest sized object detectable by the sensor. The response time is the time from target object entering detection zone to the production of the detection signal.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Common configuration features for photoelectric sensors and switches include beam visibility, light-on or dark-on modes, light and dark programmability, adjustable sensitivity, self-teaching, laser source, fiber-optic glass, and fiber-optic plastic. The body style of the sensor can be threaded barrel, cylindrical, limit switch, rectangular, slot, ring, and window or frame. The sensor may be self-contained and may have a remote head. Repeatability and reliability are critical to the overall performance of a photoelectric sensor or switch in an industrial processing line. One of the most common type of sensor and switch used for object detection is the diffuse photoelectric sensor which performs well in a wide range of industrial processing applications. However, these sensors and switches can experience problems with some target or background materials. The accuracy of diffuse sensors is often at the mercy of the surface properties of the target and background materials. A nonreflective target, such as a matte or dull black material, is difficult for diffuse photoelectric sensors to detect, because it reflects much less light than a brightly colored or white target. Similarly, if the target is presented against a light-colored or reflective background, the sensor can be falsely triggered by light reflected from the background material rather than the target object. To overcome these challenges, a variety of technologies have been developed to allow the sensors to see an object while ignoring background materials. (2) Choosing the right principle. Photoelectric sensors and switches are reliable, versatile, and able to sense and take on or off action with objects of almost any material, size, and shape at distances ranging from 5 mm to 40 m depending on type and configuration used. The addition of fiber cables considerably extends application opportunities for photoelectric sensors, allowing their installation in confined areas, as well as in areas in which intrinsic safety would normally disallow the use of electronics. For applications where backgrounds are not within sensing range and target color is consistent, a standard diffuse sensor or switch is completely sufficient for object detection. These sensors and switches are also quite effective for detecting large objects. Similarly, if a background within the sensing range is not particularly reflective and the color and reflectivity of the target will remain relatively constant, a fixed- or adjustable field sensor will likely provide trouble-free performance. These sensors are also appropriate for smaller targets than standard diffuse sensors. When reliable sensing is challenging due to shiny backgrounds and targets, shifting colors, and reflectivity, background

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suppression by triangulation is the most repeatable and reliable solution. These sensors and switches, especially laser varieties, are very effective for detecting ultra-small targets. The precisely focused, finely collimated beam allows them to detect extremely small items. When an application requires the durability and performance of a full-featured photoelectric sensor or switch but distances are shorter and space is tight, you can take a 90° turn to right sight of photoelectric sensors and switches. Right sight of photoelectric sensor and switches takes many of the features of the Series 9000 and puts them in a smaller, more adaptable package to deliver excellent detection capabilities where size and shape matter. These photoelectric sensors and switches combine universal voltages (24–264 V AC/DC) with short-circuit protection across the full voltage range.

1.1.8.3

Basic Types

(1) Diffuse photoelectric sensors (a) Standard diffuse sensors. The emitter and receiver are in the same housing. The emitter sends out a beam of pulsed red or infrared light that is reflected directly by the target. When the beam of light hits the target at any angle, it is diffused in all directions and some light is reflected back. The receiver sees only a small portion of the original light, switching the sensor when a target is detected within the effective scan range. The simplest diffuse photoelectric sensors use the target object as the reflective surface for object detection. Detection occurs when a beam of infrared, visible red, or laser light emitted from the sensor is deflected off the target material in all directions and detected by the receiver. Standard diffuse sensors have these features: (1) the sensing range depends largely on the reflective properties of the target’s surface, (2) suitable for distinguishing between black and white targets, (3) relatively large active range, and (4) positioning and monitoring with only one sensor. The typical applications of standard diffuse sensors are (1) distinguishing and sorting of objects according to their volume or degree of reflection, (2) counting of objects, and (3) presence detection of boxes. (b) Diffuse sensors with background suppression. These sensors are a special development of the diffuse sensor. The beam of light is closely focused, and therefore able to distinguish a

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY target within a precisely defined scan range and ignore targets outside the range. Diffuse sensors with background suppression have these features: (1) sensing range largely independent of the color and surface of the target and (2) they detect small objects. They obtain the following typical applications: (a) sorting objects without concern for the background color, purely on their distance from the sensor and (b) sensing contents within transparent packaging. (2) Retroreflective photoelectric sensors (a) Retroreflective sensors. With the emitter and receiver in the same housing, this sensor transmits a pulsed infrared or red light beam which is reflected back from a “triple prism” reflector or reflective tape. The sensor switches when the light beam is interrupted. These devices recognize objects independent of their surface qualities, as long as they are not too shiny. Retroreflective sensors offer these features: (1) large sensing range and (2) matte-finished objects are recognized independent of their surface properties. The typical applications are (1) height detection of stacked objects and (2) control of randomly positioned objects on a conveyor. (b) Retroreflective sensors with polarization filter. Retroreflective sensors with polarization filters correctly recognize highly reflective objects. The polarizing filter prevents false switching with shiny objects. Only the stray and nonpolarized light from the reflector actuates the sensor. Features are similar to retroreflective sensors, but with the added advantage of being able to accurately distinguish shiny objects. Typical application is for monitoring shiny cans on a conveyor belt. (3) Through-beam photoelectric sensors. Emitter and receiver are in two separate housings facing each other. The sensor switches whenever the light beam is interrupted. The features of the through-beam photoelectric sensors are (1) through-beam sensors offer the largest sensing ranges, (2) the switching point is independent of the surface nature of the object, and (3) due to the narrow effective beam, through-beam sensors have excellent repeatability. Typical applications are (1) monitoring doors and gates and (2) counting and monitoring of objects over large distances. (4) Fiber-optic photoelectric sensors. The front surfaces of the fibers, which are set and glued into the sensing head, are precisely

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ground and polished to provide outstanding optics. Even difficult multiple sensing problems can be solved by using fiber optics. There are two types of fibers: Reflective fiber types may be applied using the same guidelines as diffuse sensors. Throughbeam type fiber optics may be applied using the same guidelines as through-beam sensors. Typical applications are (1) sorting various objects, (2) measuring of diameters and heights, (3) checking for double sheets, (4) detecting small objects, (5) monitoring flow of bread in an oven, and (6) detecting absence/presence of lids on a process filling line. (5) Light barrier photoelectric sensors. The infrared light barrier photoelectric sensors are a series of infrared light through beams, mounted in a tower-type emitter and receiver housing. The beam arrays can be used to recognize objects or to make continuous measurements. The system consists of individual emitters and receivers separately mounted in two towers, placed opposite each other. In addition, a micro controller is also mounted in one of the housings to control the light beams. During a measuring cycle, individual emitting diodes are activated in sequence. At the same time the corresponding receiving diode is enabled. Each light beam is defined as interrupted as soon as the imaginary line from transmitter to receiver is blocked. The same principle is followed for all subsequent beams; hence a light barrier is created. During a measuring cycle all interrupted beams are registered. Light grid sensors with retroreflective technology are simple in installation and setup. (6) Level monitoring photoelectric sensors. Levels can be measured simply and accurately using infrared light, without the need for any electrical or thermal connection between the target medium and sensor. The ratio of reflective indices changes depending on whether the tip of the sensor is surrounded by liquid or air. If the sensor tip is immersed in liquid, the light rays will be deflected into the liquid and the electronics of the receiver changes its switching status. The operating principle remains the same irrespective of whether the liquid medium can conduct electricity or not. The medium can also be clear or cloudy. (7) Line photoelectric sensor. Line photoelectric sensors can easily detect positions, edges, or widths of objects. The accurate information can be read out either as a 4–20 mA or via serial interface. The adopted integrated illumination allows a reliable function without spending too much time on maintenance and installation.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The three different measuring principles (width, edge, middle) are reachable by a button—the current measuring mode, if the sensor is powerless for a certain time. (8) Photoelectric safety switches. Single-beam or through-beam photoelectric safety switches are used as noncontact access protection to hazardous zones. Photoelectric safety switches consist of testable sender and receiver units in combination with a safety evaluation unit, which are mainly used on robot systems and processing machines. (9) Photoelectric proximity switches. Photoelectric proximity switches are sought for reliable detection of objects within a defined scanning range on a conveyor system. Objects which reduce distance from scanning plane to sensor are detected. Adjusting sensitivity can set scanning range and switching point. In the case of photoelectric switches with fiber-optic cable, the sender and receiver are contained in a single housing. A separate fiber-optic cable is used for the sender and the receiver for operation as a throughbeam system. For use as a proximity switch the sender and receiver fiber-optic cables are combined in one cable.

1.1.9

Proximity Devices

Proximity sensing is the ability of a device to tell when it is near an object or when something is near it. This sense keeps a device from running into things. It can also be used to measure the distance from a device to some object. Proximity sensors detect the presence of an object without physical contact, and proximity switches execute necessary responses when sensing the presence of the targets or some critical positions located by the targets. A position sensor determines an object’s coordinates (linear or angular) with respect to a reference; displacement means moving from one position to another for a specified distance (or angle). In effect, a proximity sensor is a threshold version of a position sensor. Proximity sensing is the technique of detecting the presence or absence of an object using a critical distance. Typical applications include the control, detection, position, inspection, and automation of machine tools and manufacturing systems. They are also used in the following machinery: packaging, production, printing, plastic merging, metal working, and food processing, etc. The measurement of proximity, position, and displacement of objects is essential in many different applications: valve position, level detection, process control, machine control, security, etc. Special purpose proximity sensors perform in extreme environments (exposure to high temperatures or harsh chemicals) and address specific

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needs in automotive and welding environments. Inductive proximity sensors are ideal for virtually all metal sensing applications, including detecting all metals or nonferrous metals only.

1.1.9.1

Operating Principle

In terms of physics, proximity sensors and switches operate with capacitive, inductive, photoelectric, ultrasonic, and magnetic mechanisms to achieve both the proximity sensing and proximity switching in industrial control. The sensing principle with ultrasonic waves is given in Section 1.1.3; the operating principle with magnetism is given in Section 1.1.6 and with photoelectric physics is given in Section 1.1.8; this subsection therefore introduces the working principle for capacitive and inductive proximity sensors and switches. (1) Capacitive proximity sensors and switches make use of the variation of the parasitic capacitance that develops between the sensor and the object to be detected. When the object is at a predetermined distance from the sensitive side of the sensor, an electronic circuit inside the sensor begins to oscillate. A capacitive sensor can detect metallic and nonmetallic objects like wood, plastic, and liquid materials. The operating distance can be trimmed, making the sensor useful for each specific application. Capacitive proximity sensors are housed in smooth or threaded cylindrical metallic cases. Capacitive proximity sensors sense “target” objects, owing to the target’s ability to be electrically charged. Since even nonconductors can hold charges, this means that just about any object can be detected with this type of sensor. Figure 1.19 demonstrates the working principle of capacitive proximity sensing. As given in Fig. 1.19, a capacitive proximity sensor or switch normally contains four essential components: an electrode assembly, an oscillator circuit, an evaluation circuit, and an output circuit. When the increase in capacitance is large enough, an oscillation is set up. This oscillation is detected by the evaluation circuit, which then changes the state of the output circuit. An electrode assembly is designed so that an electrostatic field is formed between the active electrode and the earth electrode. Any object entering this field will increase the capacitance. The increase in capacitance depends on the following factors: the distance and position of the object in front of the active electrode, the dimensions of the object, and the dielectric constant of the object.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Internal capacitor plate Effective capacitor plate in target

Current sensor Oscillator + DC supply

DC output

−

Air (dielectric)

+

Figure 1.19 Capacitive proximity sensor and its sensing principle.

(2) Inductive proximity sensors and switches comprise an oscillating circuit, a signal evaluator, and a switching amplifier. The coil of this oscillating circuit generates a high-frequency electromagnetic alternating field. This field is emitted at the sensing face of the sensor. If a metallic object (switching trigger) nears the sensing face, eddy currents are generated. The resultant losses draw energy from the oscillating circuit and reduce the oscillations. The signal evaluator behind the oscillating circuit converts this information into a clear signal. Figure 1.20 demonstrates its operating principle. The supply DC is used to generate AC in an internal coil, which in turn causes an alternating magnetic field. If no conductive materials are near the face of the sensor, the only impedance to the internal AC is due to the inductance of the coil. If, however, a conductive material enters the changing magnetic field, eddy currents are generated in that conductive material, and there is a resultant increase in the impedance to the

Oscillator (generates AC)

Induction coil (generates changing magnetic field)

+

Magnetic field (metal sensing region)

DC supply − + DC output (NO or NC available)

Current sensor

Figure 1.20 Inductive proximity sensor and its sensing principle.

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AC in the proximity sensor. A current sensor, also built into the proximity sensor, detects when there is a drop in the internal AC current due to increased impedance. The current sensor controls a switch providing the output. The operating principle for both capacitive and inductive is based on a high-frequency oscillator that creates a field in the close surroundings of the sensing surface. The presence of a metallic object (inductive) or any material (capacitive) in the operating area causes a change in the oscillation amplitude. The rise or fall of such oscillation is identified by a threshold circuit that changes the output state of the sensor. The operating distance of the sensor depends on the shape and size of both capacitive and inductive proximity sensing devices and is strictly linked to the nature of the material. Table 1.1 gives the sensitivity of the capacitive proximity sensing devices with respect to several typical metals, and Table 1.2 gives the sensitivity of the inductive proximity sensing devices with respect to several typical metals. Normally, both a capacitive and inductive proximity sensor and switch have a screw that allows regulation of the operating distance. This sensitivity regulation is useful in applications such as detection of full containers and nondetection of empty containers. Table 1.1 The Sensitivity of Capacitive Proximity Sensors for Different Metals Metal Water Plastic Glass Wood

1 ⫻ Sn 1 ⫻ Sn 0.5 ⫻ Sn 0.5 ⫻ Sn 0.4 ⫻ Sn

Note: Sn is the operating distance.

Table 1.2 The Sensitivity of Inductive Proximity Sensors for Different Metals Fe37 (iron) Stainless steel Brass–bronze Aluminum Copper

1 ⫻ Sn 0.9 ⫻ Sn 0.5 ⫻ Sn 0.4 ⫻ Sn 0.4 ⫻ Sn

Note: Sn is the operating distance.

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1.1.9.2 Application Guide The most important parameter to consider when specifying proximity sensors is the operating distance. The rated operating distance is the distance at which switching takes place. Common body styles for proximity sensors are barrel, limit switch, rectangular, slot style, and ring. Important dimensions to consider when specifying proximity sensors include barrel diameter, length, width, and height. Proximity sensors can be a sensor element or chip, a sensor or transducer, an instrument or meter, a gauge or indicator, a recorder or totalizer, or a controller. A sensor element or chip denotes a “raw” device such as a strain gage, or one with no integral signal conditioning or packaging. A sensor or transducer is a more complex device with packaging and/or signal conditioning that is powered and provides an output such as DC voltage, a current loop, etc. An instrument or meter is a self-contained unit that provides an output such as a display locally at or near the device. Typically it also includes signal processing and/or conditioning. A gauge or indicator is a device that has a (usually analog) display and no electronic output such as a tension gauge. A recorder or totalizer is an instrument that records, totalizes, or tracks force measurement over time. It includes simple data logging capability or advanced features such as mathematical functions, graphing, etc. Load configurations are also important parameters to consider. Proximity sensors may switch an AC load or a DC load. DC load configurations can be NPN or PNP. NPN is a transistor output that switches the common or negative voltage to the load; load is connected between sensor output and positive voltage supply. PNP is a transistor output that switches the positive voltage to the load; load is connected between sensor output and voltage supply common or negative. Wire configurations are 2-wire, 3-wire NPN, 3-wire PNP, 4-wire NPN, and 4-wire PNP. Switch types can be normally open or normally closed.

1.1.9.3

Basic Types and Specifications

Proximity sensors and switches can have one of many physics and technology types. The physics types of proximity sensors and switches include capacitive, inductive, photoelectric, ultrasonic, and magnetic proximity sensors or switches. Common terms for technology types of proximity sensors and switches include these kinds of proximity sensing devices: eddy current, air, capacitance, infrared, fiber optics, etc. Proximity sensors and switches can be of the contact or noncontact type.

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(1) Physics types of proximity sensors and switches (a) Capacitive proximity sensors and switches. Capacitive sensing devices utilize the face or surface of the sensor as one plate of a capacitor and the surface of a conductive or dielectric target object as the other. Capacitive proximity sensors can be a sensor element or chip, a sensor or transducer, an instrument or meter, a gauge or indicator, a recorder or totalizer, or a controller. Common body styles for capacitive proximity sensors are barrel, limit switch, rectangular, slot style, and ring. A barrel body style is cylindrical in shape, typically threaded. A limit switch body style is similar in appearance to a contact limit switch. The sensor is separated from the switching mechanism and provides a limit of travel detection signal. A rectangular or block body style is a one-piece rectangular or block-shaped sensor. A slot style body is designed to detect the presence of a vane or tab as it passes through a sensing slot, or “U” channel. A ring-shaped body style is a doughnutshaped sensor, where the object passes through the center of the ring. Electrical connections for capacitive proximity sensors can be fixed cable, connector(s), and terminals. A fixed cable is an integral part of a sensor and often includes “bare” stripped leads. A sensor with connectors has an integral connector for attaching into an existing system. A sensor with terminals has the ability to screw or clamp down. Important specifications for capacitive proximity sensors include operating distance, repeatability, and switching frequency. Rated operating distance is the distance at which switching takes place. Repeatability is the distance within which the sensor repeatably switches. It is a measure of precision. The switching frequency is the frequency at which the switch may be turned ON and OFF. Other important parameters to consider when specifying capacitive proximity sensors include housing materials, dimensions, whether or not the sensor is shielded and intrinsically safe, and environmental operating condition parameters. (b) Inductive proximity sensors and switches. Inductive proximity sensors are noncontact proximity devices that set up a radio frequency field with an oscillator and a coil. The presence of an object alters this field and the sensor is able to detect this alteration. The body style of inductive proximity sensors can be barrel, limit switch, rectangular, slot, or ring. Electrical connections

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY for inductive proximity sensors can be fixed cable, connector(s), and terminals. A fixed cable is an integral part of the sensor and often includes “bare” stripped leads. A sensor with connectors has an integral connector for attaching into an existing system. A sensor with terminals has the ability to screw or clamp down. Important specifications for inductive proximity sensors include operating distance, repeatability, field adjustability, and minimum target distance. Rated operating distance is the distance at which switching takes place. Repeatability is the distance within which the sensor repeatably switches. It is a measure of precision. Field adjustable sensors can be adjustable while in use. Depending on the sensor’s technology, there can be minimum target size requirements. Other important parameters to consider when specifying inductive proximity sensors include power requirements, housing materials, dimensions, special features, and environmental operating conditions. (c) Photoelectric proximity sensors and switches. These sensors utilize photoelectric emitters and receivers to detect distance, presence, or absence of target objects. Proximity photoelectric sensors have the emitter and detector in the same housing and rely upon reflection from the surface of the target. This mode can include presence sensing and distance measurement via analog output. The proximity category can be further broken down into five submodes: diffuse, divergent, convergent, fixed field, and adjustable field. A diffuse sensor presence is detected when any portion of the diffuse reflected signal bounces back from the detected object. Divergent beam sensors are short-range, diffuse-type sensors without any collimating lenses. Convergent, fixed focus, or fixed distance optics (such as lenses) are used to focus the emitter beam at a fixed distance from the sensor. Fixed-field sensors are designed to have a distance limit beyond which they will not detect objects, no matter how reflective. Adjustable field sensors utilize a cutoff distance beyond which a target will not be detected, even if it is more reflective than the target. Some photoelectric sensors can be set for multiple different optical sensing modes. Reflective properties of the target and environment are important considerations in the choice and use of photoelectric sensors. Important parameters to consider when looking for photoelectric sensors include sensing mode, detecting range, position measurement window, minimum detectable object, and

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response time. The modes can be presence or absence sensing and position measurement. With a presence or absence sensor, the sensor detects presence or absence in an ON/OFF mode. In a position measurement sensing mode, the sensor can detect position in a linear region by the intensity of reflected light. Analog output is linear with position in the measurement range. The detecting range is the range of sensor detection. For presence sensors, this goes up to the maximum distance for which the signal is stable. For position measurement sensors, this is the distance range over which the position vs output response is linear and stable. The position measurement window is the width of the linear region for the sensor. The minimum detectable object is the smallest sized object detectable by the sensor. The response time is the time from target object entering detection zone to the production of the detection signal. Common configuration features for photoelectric proximity sensors include beam visibility, light-on or dark-on modes, light and dark programmability, adjustable sensitivity, selfteaching, laser source, fiber-optic glass, and fiber-optic plastic. The body style of the sensor can be threaded barrel, cylindrical, limit switch, rectangular, slot, ring, and window or frame. The sensor may be self-contained and may have a remote head. (d) Ultrasonic proximity sensors and switches. Ultrasonic proximity sensing can be a sensor element or chip, a sensor or transducer, an instrument or meter, a gauge or indicator, a recorder or totalizer, or a controller. The body style of the ultrasonic proximity sensors can be barrel, limit switch, rectangular, slot, or ring. Electrical connections can be fixed cable, connector(s), or terminals. Intrinsically safe ultrasonic proximity sensors are incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy under normal or abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture in its most ignited concentration. Important performance specifications to consider when searching for ultrasonic proximity sensors include maximum operating distance, repeatability, sonic cone angle, impulse frequency, and transmitter frequency. Load configurations are also important parameters to consider. Ultrasonic proximity sensors may switch an AC load or a DC load. Additional parameters that are important to consider when searching for ultrasonic proximity sensors include switch types, housing materials, dimensions, and environmental operating parameters.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (e) Magnetic proximity sensors and switches. These noncontact proximity devices utilize inductance, Hall effect principles, variable reluctance, or magnetoresistive technology. Magnetic proximity sensors are characterized by the possibility of large switching distances, available from sensors with small dimensions. They detect magnetic objects (usually permanent magnets), which are used to trigger the switching process. As the magnetic fields are able to pass through many nonmagnetic materials, the switching process can also be triggered without the need for direct exposure to the target object. By using magnetic conductors (e.g., iron), the magnetic field can be transmitted over greater distances so that, for example, the signal can be carried away from high-temperature areas. Important specifications for magnetic proximity sensors include operating distance, repeatability, field adjustable, and minimum target distance. Rated operating distance is the distance at which switching takes place. Repeatability is the distance within which the sensor repeatably switches. It is a measure of precision. Field adjustable sensors can be adjustable while in use. Depending on the sensor’s technology, there can be minimum target size requirements. Other important parameters to consider when specifying magnetic proximity sensors include power requirements, housing materials, dimensions, special features, and environmental operating conditions. (2) Technical types of proximity sensors and switches (a) Eddy current proximity sensor or switch. In an eddy current proximity sensor, electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced magnetic field. Interruptions in the flow of the electric currents (eddy currents), which are caused by imperfections or changes in a material’s conductive properties, will cause changes in the induced magnetic field. These changes, when detected, indicate the presence of change in the test object. Eddy current proximity sensors and switches detect the proximity or presence of a target by sensing the magnetic fields generated by a reference coil. They also measure variations in the field due to the presence of nearby conductive objects. Field generation and detection information is provided in the kilohertz to the megahertz range. They can be used as proximity sensors to detect presence of a target, or they can be configured to measure the position or displacement of a target. Target materials for eddy current proximity sensors can be magnetic, nonmagnetic, ferrous, and nonferrous. Magnetic

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target materials are magnetized, usually with a permanent magnet component. Nonmagnetic detection targets do not require magnetization. Ferrous targets for position detection include iron or iron-based materials such as steel, stainless steel, etc. Nonferrous target materials are metallic but are not iron- or steel-based, such as aluminum, brass, and copper. Electrical connections for eddy current proximity sensors can be fixed cable, connector(s), and terminals. A fixed cable is an integral part of a sensor and often includes “bare” stripped leads. A sensor with connectors has an integral connector for attaching into an existing system. A sensor with terminals has the ability to screw or clamp down. Other important parameters to consider include switched output types, position or distance output type, housing materials, dimensions, and environmental operating parameters. (b) Air proximity sensor or switch. The air proximity sensor is a noncontact, no moving part sensor. In the absence of an object, air flows freely from the sensor resulting in a near zero output signal. The presence of an object within the sensing range deflects the normal air flow and results in a positive output signal. At low supply pressure, flow from the sensor exerts only minute forces on the object being sensed and is consequently appropriate for use where the object is light weight or easily marred by mechanical sensors. Since there are no moving mechanical parts in the air proximity sensor, there are no inherent wear mechanisms or life limitations. In this regard, the sensor is not cycle dependent and is particularly appropriate for applications requiring large numbers of cycles. Also, the air proximity sensor is inherently explosion-proof and self-purging. Consequently, it is suitable for many adverse environments. (c) Capacitance proximity sensor or switch. Many industrial capacitance sensors or switches work by means of the physics of capacitance. The physics of capacitance claims that the capacitance varies inversely with the distance between capacitor plates in this arrangement, and a certain value can be set to trigger target detection. Note that the capacitance is proportional to the plate area but is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. When the plates are close to each other, even a small change in distance between the plates can result in a sizeable change in capacitance. Some of the capacitance proximity switches are tiny 1-in. cube electronic modules that operate using a capacitance

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY change technique. These sensors or switches contain two switch outputs: a latched output, which toggles the output ON and OFF with each cap input activation, and a momentary output, which will remain activated as long as the sensor input capacitance is higher than the level set by the module’s adjustment screw. (d) Infrared proximity sensor or switch. Infrared light is beyond the light range visible to the naked human eye and falls between the visible light and microwave spectra (the wavelength is longer than visible light). The longest wavelengths are red, which is where infrared got its name (“beyond red”). Infrared waves are electromagnetic waves and may be detected as also heat; heat from campfires, sunlight, etc., is actually infrared radiation. Infrared proximity sensors work by sending out a beam of infrared light, and then computing the distance to any nearby objects employing the characteristics of the returned signal. (e) Fiber-optic proximity sensor or switch. Fiber-optic proximity sensors are used to detect the proximity of target objects. Light is supplied and returned via glass fiber-optic cables. Fiber-optic cables can fit in small spaces, are not susceptible to electrical noise, and exhibit no danger of sparking or shorting. Light is supplied and returned via glass fiber-optic cables. Glass fiber exhibits very good optical qualities and typically carries high-temperature ratings. Plastic fiber can be cut to length in the field and can be flexible enough to accommodate various routing configurations. Important parameters to consider when specifying fiberoptic proximity sensors include detecting range, position measurement window, minimum detectable object, and response time. The detecting range is the range of sensor detection. For presence sensors, this goes up to the maximum distance for which the signal is stable. For position measurement sensors, this is the distance range over which the position vs output response is linear and stable. The position measurement window is the width of linear region for the sensor. For example, if the sensor could measure between 14 and 24 cm, this window would be 10 cm. The minimum detectable object is the smallest sized object detectable by the sensor. The response time is the time from target object entering detection zone to the production of the detection signal. Other important parameters to consider include output options, dimensions, electrical connections, and environmental operating conditions.

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1.1.10

63

Scan Sensors

Scan sensors, also called image sensors or vision sensors, are built for industrial applications. Common applications for these sensors in industrial control include alignment or guidance, assembly quality, bar or matrix code, biotechnology or medical, color mark or color recognition, container or product counting, edge detection, electronics or semiconductor inspection, electronics rework, flaw detection, food and beverage, gauging, scanning and dimensioning, ID detection or verification, materials analysis, noncontact profilometry, optical character recognition, parcel or baggage sorting, pattern recognition, pharmaceutical packaging, presence or absence, production and quality control, seal integrity, security and biometrics, tool and die monitoring, and web inspection.

1.1.10.1

Operating Principle

A scan or vision or image sensor can be thought of as an electronic input device that converts analog information of a document like a map, photograph, or an overlay into an electronic image of a digital format that can be used by the computer. Scanning is the main operation of a scan or vision or image sensor, which automatically captures document features, text, and symbols as individual cells, or pixels, and produces an electronic image. While scanning, a bright white light strikes the image and is reflected onto the photosensitive surface of the sensor. Each pixel transfers a gray value (values given to the different shades of black in the image ranging from 0 (black) to 255 (white), that is, 256 values to the chipset (software). The software interprets the value in terms of 0 (black) or 1 (white), thereby forming a monochrome image of the scanned portion. As the sensor moves ahead, it scans the image in tiny strips and the sensor continues to store the information in a sequential fashion. The software running the scanner pieces together the information from the sensor into a digital form of the image. This type of scanning is known as one-pass scanning. Scanning a color image is slightly different as the sensor has to scan the same image for three different colors: red, green, and blue (RGB). Nowadays most of the color scans or vision or image sensors operate in one-pass scanning all the three colors in one go by using color filters. In principle, a color sensor works in the same way as a monochrome sensor. But in this each color is constructed by mixing red, green, and blue as given in Fig. 1.21. Thus, a 24-bit RGB sensor presents each pixel by 24 bits of information. Usually, a sensor using these three colors (in full 24 RGB mode) can create up to 16.8 million colors.

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Red

85

Green 43 Blue

6

“Brown”

Figure 1.21 The scan sensor operation of scanning a color image. In this figure, a pixel of red = 85, and green = 43, and blue = 6 is being scanned which is identified as “brown.”

A new technology: full width, single-line contact sensor array scanning has emerged in which the document to be scanned passes under a line of chips which captures the image. In this technology, a scanned line could be considered as the cartography of the luminosity of points on the line observed by the sensor. This new technology enables the scanner to operate at previously unattainable speeds. (1) CCD image sensors. A charge-coupled device (CCD) gets its name from the way the charges on its pixels are read after an exposure. After the exposure the charges on the first row are transferred to a place on the sensor called the read out register. From there, the signals are fed to an amplifier and then on to an analog-to-digital converter. Once the row has been read, its charges on the readout register row are deleted, the next row enters, and all of the rows above march down one row. The charges on each row are “coupled” to those on the row above so when one moves down, the next moves down to fill its old space. In this way, each row can be read one row at a time. Figure 1.22 is an elucidation of the CCD scanning process. (2) CMOS image sensors. A complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) typically has an electronic rolling shutter design. In a CMOS sensor the data is not literally passed from bucket to bucket. Instead, each bucket can be read independently to the output. This has enabled designers to build an electronic rolling slit shutter. This shutter is typically implemented by causing a reset to an entire row and then, some time later, reading the row out.

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Last row read

First row read To output amplifier

Figure 1.22 The CCD image sensor shifts one whole row at a time into the readout register. The readout register then shifts one pixel at a time to the output amplifier.

The readout speed limits the speed of a wave that passes over the sensor from top to bottom. If the readout wave is preceded by a similar wave of resets, then uniform exposure time for all rows is achieved (albeit, not at the same time). With this type of electronic rolling shutter there is no need for a mechanical shutter except in certain cases. With these advantages, CMOS image sensors are used in some of the finest industrial control devices or finest cameras. Figure 1.23 gives a typical architecture of industrial control devices with CMOS image sensor.

1.1.10.2

Basic Types

All scan (or image or vision) sensors can be monochrome or color sensors. Monochrome sensing sensors present the image in black and white or grayscales. Color sensing sensors are able to read the spectrum range using varying combinations of different discrete colors. One common technique is sensing the red, green, and blue components (RGB) and combining them to create a wide spectrum of colors. Multiple chip colors are available on some scan (image or vision) sensors. In a widely used method, the colors are captured in multiple chips, each of them being dedicated to capturing part of the color image, such as one color, and the results are combined to generate the full color image. They typically employ color separation devices such as beam-splitters rather than having integral filters on the sensors.

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WR RD

Address

Data

RAM

Address

Pixel data CMOS image sensor

Pixel clock Line valid Frame valid Clock out

Programmable logic

Data RD CS

12c data 12c clock

Figure 1.23 Block diagram of an industrial control device having CMOS image sensor.

The imaging technology used in scan or image or vision sensors includes CCD, CMOS, tube, and film. (1) CCD image sensors (charge-coupled device) are electronic devices that are capable of transforming a light pattern (image) into an electric charge pattern (an electronic image). The CCD consists of several individual elements that have the capability of collecting, storing, and transporting electrical charges from one element to another. This together with the photosensitive properties of silicon is used to design image sensors. Each photosensitive element will then represent a picture element (pixel). With semiconductor technologies and design rules, structures are made that form lines or matrices of pixels. One or more output amplifiers at the edge of the chip collect the signals from the CCD. An electronic image can be obtained in this way: after having exposed the sensor with a light pattern, apply a series of pulses that transfer the charge of one pixel after another to the output amplifier, line after line. The output amplifier converts the charge into a voltage. External electronics will transform this output signal into a form suitable for monitors or frame grabbers.

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CCD image sensors have extremely low noise figures and can also be a color sensor or a monochrome sensor. Choices for array type include linear array, frame transfer area array, full-frame area array, and interline transfer area array. Digital imaging optical format is a measure of the size of the imaging area. Optical format is used to determine what size lens is necessary for use with the imager. Optical format refers to the length of the diagonal of the imaging area. Optical format choices include 1/7, 1/6, 1/5, ¼, 1/3, ½, 2/3, ¾, and 1 in. The number of pixels and pixel size are important to consider. Horizontal pixels refer to the number of pixels in a row of the image sensor. Vertical pixels refer to the number of pixels in a column of the image sensor. The greater the number of pixels, the higher the resolution of the image. Important image sensor performance specifications to consider when searching for CCD image sensors include spectral response, data rate, quantum efficiency, dynamic range, and number of outputs. The spectral response is the spectral range (wavelength range) for which the detector is designed. The data rate is the speed of a data transfer process, normally expressed in megahertz. Quantum efficiency is the ratio of photon-generated electrons that the pixel captures to the photons incident on the pixel area. This value is wavelength dependent so the given value for quantum efficiency is generally for the peak sensitivity wavelength for the CCD. Dynamic range is the logarithmic ratio of well depth to the readout noise in decibels, the higher the number, the better. Common features for CCD image sensors include antiblooming and cooling. Some arrays for CCD image sensors offer an optional antiblooming gate designed to bleed off overflow from a saturated pixel. Without this feature, a bright spot, which has saturated the pixels, will cause a vertical streak. Some arrays are cooled for lower noise and higher sensitivity. An important environmental parameter to consider is the operating temperature. (2) CMOS image sensors operate at lower voltages than CCD image sensors, reducing power consumption for portable applications. In addition to their lower power consumption when compared with CCD image sensors, CMOS image sensors are generally of a much simpler design: often just a crystal and decoupling. For this reason, they are easier to design with, generally smaller, and require less support circuitry. Each CMOS active pixel sensor cell has its own buffer amplifier and can be addressed and read individually. A commonly

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY used cell has four transistors and a photo-sensing element. The cell has a transfer gate separating the photo sensor from a capacitive “floating diffusion,” a reset gate between the floating diffusion and power supply, a source-follower transistor to buffer the floating diffusion from readout-line capacitance, and a row-select gate to connect the cell to the readout line. All pixels on a column connect to a common sense amplifier. In addition to being a color sensor or a monochrome sensor, CMOS sensors have two categories as defined by their manner of output: analog and digital. Analog sensors feed their encoded signal in a video format that can be fed directly to standard video equipment. Digital CMOS image sensors provide digital output, typically via a 4/8- or 16-bit bus. The digital signal is direct not requiring transference or conversion via a video capture card. CMOS image sensors can offer many advantages over CCD image sensors. Just some of the technical advantages of CMOS sensors are (1) no blooming, (2) low power consumption, ideal for battery-operated devices, (3) direct digital output (incorporates ADC and associated circuitry), (4) small size and little support circuitry, and (5) simple to design. (3) Tube camera is also an electronic device in which the image is formed on a fluorescent screen. It is then read by an electron beam in a raster scan pattern and converted to a voltage proportional to the image light intensity. (4) Film technology exposes the image onto photosensitive film, which is developed to play or store. The shutter, a manual door that admits light to the film, typically controls exposure.

CCD and CMOS are the important types of image sensors. A comparison of CCD and CMOS features is given in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Comparison of CCD and CMOS Image Sensors Features CCD Smallest pixel size Low noise Lowest dark current –100% fill factor for full-frame CCD Established technology market base Highest sensitivity Electron shutter without artifacts

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CMOS Single power supply Single master clock Low power consumption X,Y addressing and subsampling Smallest system size Easy integration of circuitry

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1.1.10.3 Technical Specifications Inspection functions include object detection, edge detection, image direction, alignment, object measurement, object position, bar or matrix code, optical character recognition (OCR), and color mark or color recognition. Other parameters to consider when specifying scan or vision or image sensors include performance features, physical features, lens mounting, shutter control, sensor specifications, dimensions, and operating environment parameters. Sensor specifications to consider when searching for scan or image or vision sensors include number of images stored and maximum inspection rate. The number of images stored represents captured images that can be stored into on-board memory or nonvolatile storage. The maximum inspection rate is the maximum number of parts or process steps that can be inspected or evaluated per unit time. This is usually given in units of inspections per second. Other important parameters of the sensor specifications include (1) Image sensor resolution. Image resolution is a way of expressing how sharp or detailed images are. There are two kinds of resolution: optical and interpolated. The optical resolution of an image sensor is an absolute number because an image sensor’s pixels or photo-elements are physical devices that can be counted. To improve resolution in certain limited respects, the optical resolution can be increased using software. This process, called interpolated resolution, adds pixels to the image to increase the total number of pixels. To do so, software evaluates those pixels surrounding each new pixel to determine what its color should be. For example, if all of the pixels around a newly inserted pixel are red, the new pixel will be made red. It is important to keep in mind that interpolated resolution does not add any new information to the image; it just adds pixels and enlarges the file. This same thing can be done in a photo-editing program such as Photoshop by resizing the image. (2) Color depth. Resolution is not the only factor governing the quality of your images. Equally important is color. When you view a natural scene, or a well done photographic color print, you are able to distinguish millions of colors. Digital images can approximate this color realism, but whether they do so depends on their capabilities and settings. For example, almost all newer computer systems can display what’s called 24-bit True Color. It’s called True Color because these systems display 16 million colors, about the number the human eye can distinguish.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (3) Shutter control. There is much confusion about the need for a mechanical shutter with scan and image sensors. This discussion below clarifies the differences. Most progressive scan and image sensors can be considered to be long chains of pixels or buckets that are each sensitive to light. Sensing begins by clearing the sensor, and then exposing it to light. After the proper exposure time, the buckets pass from pixel to pixel in a bucket brigade fashion to the output pin. If the sensor is being exposed to light while it is passing the data, the pixels will be polluted with additional light that confuses the image. Therefore, this type of a progressive scan sensor requires a mechanical shutter to block the sensor while it is shifting the data out. Alternatively, some other progressive scan and image sensors have an entire frame store. This frame store is a place to save the contents of each pixel in a shielded bucket that is insensitive to light. The shielded buckets are then passed to the output pin and are, by their nature, not corrupted by additional light. Unfortunately, these sensors must be almost twice the size of their counterparts without the shielded frame storage area. So, it is important to compare the cost of the larger sensor to the savings associated with not needing a mechanical shutter. Both of these implementations can be used for flash photography since the flash can be fired when the sensor is in integration mode. Interlaced scan and image sensors are similar to progressive sensors except that there is a shielded row store located between each pair of odd and even rows. For normal use, alternating frames copy either the odd or even rows into the shielded store prior to shifting while the other row (even or odd) is being exposed. In this way there is the advantage of not requiring a mechanical shutter. However, note that each frame has only half the vertical resolution of the entire sensor. This is the type of sensor commonly found in television cameras. When the flash fires only one-half of the rows will be in integration mode. So, this type of sensor cannot be used for flash photography unless you are willing to limit the vertical resolution. (4) Sensitivity. An International Organization for Standardization (ISO) number that appears on the film package specifies the speed, or sensitivity, of a silver-based film. The higher the number the “faster” or more sensitive the film is to light. Each doubling of the ISO number indicates a doubling in film speed so each of these films is twice as fast as the next fastest. Image sensors are also rated using equivalent ISO numbers. Just as with film, an image sensor with a lower ISO needs more light for a good exposure than one with a higher ISO. All things

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(5)

(6) (7)

(8)

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being equal, it is better to get an image sensor with a higher ISO because it will enhance freezing motion and shooting in low light. Typically, ISOs range from 100 (fairly slow) to 3200 or higher (very fast). Some cameras have more than one ISO rating. In low-light situations, you can increase the sensor’s ISO by amplifying the image sensor’s signal (increasing its gain). Some cameras even increase the gain automatically. This not only increases the sensor’s sensitivity, it also increases the noise or “grain,” making the images softer and less sharp. Aspect ratio. Image sensors have different aspect ratios—the ratio of image height to width. The ratio of a square is 1:1 (equal width and height) and that of 35 mm film is 1.5:1 (1.5 times wider than it is high). Most image sensors fall in between these extremes. The aspect ratio of a sensor is important because it determines the shape and proportions of the photographs you create. When an image has a different aspect ratio than the device it’s displayed or printed on, it has to be cropped or resized to fit. Your choice is to lose part of the image or waste part of the paper. To imagine this better, try fitting a square image on a rectangular piece of paper. The aspect ratio of an image sensor determines the shape of your prints. An image will only perfectly fill a sheet of paper if both have the same aspect ratio. If the ratios are different, you have to choose between losing part of the image or leaving some white space on the paper. To calculate the aspect ratio of any camera, divide the largest number in its resolution by the smallest number. For example, if a sensor has a resolution of 3000 × 2000, divide 3000 by 2000. In this case the aspect ratio is 1.5, the same as 35 mm film. Dynamic range. Dynamic range is the ratio of signal to noise of an image sensor. Package. The sensor package is often neglected in sensor selection. It is common in smaller sensors for the package cost to be at least half of the total cost of the product. Sensor packages are costly because they are produced in relatively low volumes, have optical quality glass tops, must be dirt free, have low humidity, and require precise die positioning. Image quality. The size of an image file depends in part on the resolution of the image. The higher the resolution, the more pixels there are to store, so the larger the image file becomes. To make large image files smaller and more manageable most cameras store images in a format called JPEG after its developer, the Joint Photographic Experts Group. This file format not

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY only compresses images, but it also allows specifying how much they are compressed. This is a useful feature because there is a trade-off between compression and image quality. Less compression gives better images but cannot store as many images. More compression allows storing more images, but the only problem is that image quality would not be as good. (9) Frame rate. Most digital cameras have automatic exposure controls. There are two delays built into digital cameras that affect the ability to respond to fast action when taking pictures. The first brief delay is between pressing the shutter button and actually capturing the image. This delay, called the refresh rate, occurs because the camera clears the image sensor, sets white balance to correct for color, sets the exposure, and focuses the image. Finally, it fires the flash if it is needed and takes the picture. The second delay, the recycle time, occurs when the captured image is processed and stored. This delay can range from a few seconds to half a minute. Both of these delays affect how quickly a series of photos can be taken one after another, called the frame rate, shot-toshot rate, or click-to-click rate. (10) Clocking and power supply design. This specifies the requirement for a wider variety of power supply voltages and clocks or single power supply voltage and includes clocking.

1.1.11

Force and Load Sensors

Force and load sensors cover electrical sensing devices that are used to measure tension, compression, and shear forces. Tension cells are used for measurement of a straight line force “pulling apart” along a single axis, typically annotated as positive force. Compression tension cells are used for measurement of a straight line force “pushing together” along a single axis, typically annotated as negative force. Shear is induced by tension or compression along offset axes. They are manufactured in many different packages and mounting configurations. In industries, force and load sensors are used for security devices, packaging devices, production automation, etc.

1.1.11.1

Operating Principle

The most common technologies for the operation of force and load sensors are various types of strain gauges. Strain gauges are measuring elements

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that convert force, pressure, tension, etc., into an electrical signal. They are the most universally used measuring devices for electrical measurement of mechanical quantities. A strain gauge is a resistive elastic sensor whose resistance is a function of applied strain (unit deformation). Many types of strain gauges exit, depending on the electrical resistance to strain. These types include piezoresistive or semiconductor, carbonresistive, bonded metallic wire, and foil gauges. The most widely used characteristic that varies in proportion to strain is electrical resistance. In these gauges the electrical resistance varies linearly with strain. The resistance of an electrically conductive material changes with dimensional changes that take place when the conductor is deformed elastically. When such a material is stretched, the conductors become longer and narrower, which causes an increase in resistance. A Wheatstone bridge then converts this change in resistance to an absolute voltage. The resulting value is linearly related to strain by a constant called the gauge factor. Capacitance devices, which depend on geometric features, can be used to measure strain. Changing the plate area or the gap can vary the capacitance. The electrical properties of the materials used to form the capacitor are relatively unimportant, so capacitance strain gauge materials can be chosen to meet the mechanical requirements. This allows the gauges to be more rugged, providing a significant advantage over resistance strain gauges. (1) The strain gauge. Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain is defined as the fractional change in length. While there are several methods of measuring strain, the most common is with a strain gauge, a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the amount of strain in the device. The most widely used gauge, however, is the bonded metallic strain gauge. The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel direction (Fig. 1.24). The cross-sectional area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and Poisson strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached directly to the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred directly to the strain gauge, which responds with a linear change in electrical resistance. Strain gauges are available commercially with nominal resistance values from 30 to 3000 Ω, with 120, 350, and 1000 Ω being the most common values.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Alignment marks

Solder tabs Active grid length Carrier

Figure 1.24 Bonded metallic strain gauge.

It is very important that the strain gauge be properly mounted onto the test specimen so that the strain is accurately transferred from the test specimen, through the adhesive and strain gauge backing, to the foil itself. Manufacturers of strain gauges are the best source of information on proper mounting of strain gauges. (2) Strain gauge measurement. In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger than a few millistrain ε × 10−3. To measure such small changes in resistance, and compensate for the temperature sensitivity, proper selection and use of the bridge, signal conditioning, wiring, and data acquisition components are required for reliable measurements. (a) Bridge completion. Unless you are using a full-bridge strain gauge sensor with four active gauges, you will need to complete the bridge with reference resistors. Therefore, strain gauge signal conditioners typically provide half-bridge completion networks consisting of two high-precision reference resistors. Figure 1.25 diagrams the wiring of a half-bridge strain gauge circuit to a conditioner with completion resistors R1 and R2. The nominal resistance of the completion resistors is less important than how well the two resistors are matched. Ideally, the resistors are well matched and provide a stable reference voltage of VEX/2 to the negative input lead of the measurement channel. For example, the half-bridge

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1: SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL EC+ R1 VEX

+

In+ + –

– R2

RG

In– EC–

RG Strain gauges

Signal conditioner

Figure 1.25 Connection of half-bridge strain gauge circuit.

completion resistors provided on the SCXI-1122 signal conditioning module are 2.5 kΩ resistors, with a ratio tolerance of 0.02%. The high resistance of the completion resistors helps minimize the current drawn from the excitation voltage. (b) Bridge excitation. Strain gauge signal conditioners typically provide a constant voltage source to power the bridge. While there is no standard voltage level that is recognized industry-wide, excitation voltage levels of around 3 and 10 V are common. While a higher excitation voltage generates a proportionately higher output voltage, the higher voltage can also cause larger errors due to self-heating. Again, it is very important that the excitation voltage be very accurate and stable. Alternatively, one can use a less accurate or stable voltage, and accurately measure, or sense, the excitation voltage so the correct strain can be calculated. (c) Excitation sensing. If the strain gauge circuit is located at a distance away from the signal conditioner and excitation source, a possible source of error is voltage drop caused by resistance in the wires connecting the excitation voltage to the bridge. Therefore, some signal conditioners include a feature called remote sensing to compensate for this error. There are two common methods of remote sensing. With feedback remote sensing, you connect extra sense wires to the point where the excitation voltage wires connect to the bridge circuit. The extra sense wires serve to regulate the excitation supply to compensate for lead losses and deliver the needed voltage at the bridge. This scheme is used with the SCXI-1122. An alternative remote sensing scheme uses a separate measurement channel to measure directly the excitation voltage

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY delivered across the bridge. Because the measurement channel leads carry very little current, the lead resistance has negligible effect on the measurement. The measured excitation voltage is then used in the voltage-to-strain conversion to compensate for lead losses. (d) Signal amplification. The output of strain gauges and bridges is relatively small. Therefore, strain gauge signal conditioners usually include amplifiers to boost the signal level to increase measurement resolution and improve signal-to-noise ratios. SCXI signal conditioning modules, for example, include configurable gain amplifiers with gains up to 2000. (e) Bridge balancing, offset nulling. When a bridge is installed, it is very unlikely that the bridge will output exactly 0 V when no strain is applied. Rather, slight variations in resistance among the bridge arms and lead resistance will generate some nonzero initial offset voltage. There are a few different ways that a system can handle this initial offset voltage: (i) Software compensation. The first method compensates for the initial voltage in software. With this method, you take an initial measurement before strain input is applied. This initial voltage is then used in the strain equations listed at the end of this application note. This method is simple, fast, and requires no manual adjustments. The disadvantage of the software compensation method is that the offset of the bridge is not removed. If the offset is large enough, it limits the amplifier gain you can apply to the output voltage, thus limiting the dynamic range of the measurement. (ii) Offset nulling circuit. The second balancing method uses an adjustable resistance, or potentiometer, to physically adjust the output of the bridge to zero. For example, Fig. 1.26 illustrates the offset nulling circuit of the SCXI-1321 terminal block. By varying the position of

R1 + –

VEX

RPOT

R4

–

RNULL R2

VO

+ R3

Figure 1.26 Offset nulling circuit of SCXI-1321 terminal block.

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the potentiometer (RPOT), you can control the level of the bridge output and set the initial output to 0 V. The value of RNULL sets the range that the circuit can balance. On the SCXI-1321, this resistor is socked for easy adjustment of the balancing range. (iii) Buffered offset nulling. The third method, like the software method, does not affect the bridge directly. With buffered nulling, a nulling circuit adds an adjustable DC voltage to the output of the instrumentation amplifier. For example, the SC-2043-SG strain gauge accessory uses this method. The SC-2043-SG includes a useradjustable potentiometer that can add ±50 mV to the output of an instrumentation amplifier that has a fixed gain of 10. Therefore, the nulling range, referred to input, is ±5 mV. (f) Shunt calibration. The normal procedure to verify the output of a strain gauge measurement system relative to some predetermined mechanical input or strain is called shunt calibration. Shunt calibration involves simulating the input of strain by changing the resistance of an arm in the bridge by some known amount. Shunting, or connecting, a large resistor of known value accomplishes this across one arm of the bridge, creating a known drift resistance. The output of the bridge can then be measured and compared to the expected voltage value. The results can then be used to correct span errors in the entire measurement path, or to simply verify general operation to gain confidence in the setup.

1.1.11.2

Basic Types

(1) Force and load sensors. Force and load sensors can be devices of many different types including sensor element or chip, sensor or transducer, instrument or meter, gauge or indicator, and recorder and totalizers. A sensor element or chip denotes a “raw” device such as a strain gauge, or one with no integral signal conditioning or packaging. A sensor or transducer is a more complex device with packaging and/or signal conditioning that is powered and provides an output such a DC voltage, a 4–20 mA current loop, etc. An instrument or meter is a self-contained unit that provides an output such as a display locally at or near the device. Typically it also includes signal processing and/or conditioning. A gauge or indicator is a device that has a (usually analog) display and no electronic output such as a tension gauge. A recorder

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY or totalizer is an instrument that records, totalizes, or tracks force measurement over time. It includes simple data logging capability or advanced features such as mathematical functions, graphing, etc. Features common to force and load sensors include biaxial measurement, triaxial measurement, and temperature compensation. Biaxial load cells can provide load measurements along two, typically orthogonal, axes. Triaxial load cells can provide load measurements along three, typically orthogonal, axes. Temperature compensated load cells provide special circuitry to reduce/eliminate sensing errors due to temperature variations. Other parameters to consider include operating temperature, maximum shock, and maximum vibration. (2) Strain gauges. The most common technology used by force and load sensors is the principle of strain gauges. In a photoelectric strain gauge a beam of light is passed through a variable slit, actuated by the extensometer, and directed to a photoelectric cell. As the gap opening changes, the amount of light reaching the cell varies, causing a varying intensity in the current generated by the cell. Semiconductor or piezoelectric strain gauges are constructed of ferroelectric materials. In ferroelectric materials, such as crystalline quartz, a change in the electronic charge across the faces of the crystal occurs when the material is mechanically stressed. The piezoresistive effect is defined as the change in resistance of a material due to an applied stress, and this term is used commonly in connection with semiconducting materials. Optical strain gauge types include photoelastic, moiré interferometer, and holographic interferometer strain gauges. In a fiber-optic strain gauge, the sensor measures the strain by shifting the light frequency of the light reflected down the fiber from the Bragg grating, which is embedded inside the fiber itself. The gauge pattern refers cumulatively to the shape of the grid, the number and orientation of the grids in a multiple grid (rosette) gauge, the solder tab configuration, and various construction features that are standard for a particular pattern. Arrangement types include uniaxial, dual linear, strip gauges, diaphragm, tee rosette, rectangular rosette, and delta rosette. Specialty applications for strain gauges include crack detection, crack propagation, extensometer, temperature measurement, residual stress, shear modulus gauge, and transducer gauge. The three primary specifications when selecting strain gauges are operating temperature, the stat of the strain (including

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gradient, magnitude, and time dependence), and the stability required by the application. The operating temperature range is the range of ambient temperature where the use of the strain gauge is permitted without permanent changes of the measurement properties. Other important parameters to consider include the active gauge length, the gauge factor, nominal resistance, and strain sensitive material. The gauge length of a strain gauge is the active or strain-sensitive length of the grid. The end loops and solder tabs are considered insensitive to strain because of their relatively large cross-sectional area and low electrical resistance. The strain sensitivity, k, of a strain gauge is the proportionality factor between the relative changes of the resistance. The strain sensitivity is a figure without dimension and is generally called gauge factor. The resistance of a strain gauge is defined as the electrical resistance measured between the two metal ribbons or contact areas intended for the connection of measurement cables. The principal component that determines the operating characteristics of a strain gauge is the strain-sensitive material used in the foil grid.

1.1.11.3 Technical Specifications Important parameters for force and load sensors include the force and load measurement range and the accuracy. The measurement range is the range of required linear output. Most force sensors actually measure the displacement of a structural element to determine force. The force is associated with a deflection as a result of calibration. There are many form factors or packages to choose from: S-beam, pancake, donut or washer, plate or platform, bolt, link, miniature, cantilever, canister, load pin, rod end, and tank weighing. Shear cell type can be shear beam, bending beam, or single point bending beam. Force and load sensors can have one of many output types. These include analog voltage, analog current, analog frequency, switch or alarm, serial, and parallel. (1) Force and load sensor specifications (a) Force to measure (i) Force/load measurement range. The range required of linear output. Search Logic: User may specify either, both, or neither of the “At Least” and “No More Than” values.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Products returned as matches will meet all specified criteria. (ii) Accuracy. The accuracy required of the device. Search Logic: All matching products will have a value less than or equal to the specified value. (b) Force sensor type (i) Tension. Tension cell for measurement of a straight line force “pulling apart” is along a single axis; typically annotated as positive force. (ii) Compression. Tension cell for measurement of a straight line force “pushing together” is along a single axis; typically annotated as negative force. (iii) Shear. Shear is induced by tension or compression along offset axes. Search Logic: All products with ANY of the selected attributes will be returned as matches. Leaving all boxes unchecked will not limit the search criteria for this question; products with all attribute options will be returned as matches. (c) Load cell package. Most force sensors actually measure the displacement of a structural element to determine force. The force is associated with a deflection as a result of calibration. There are many form factors or packages to choose from: S-beam, pancake, donut or washer, plate or platform, bolt, link, miniature, cantilever, canister, load pin, rod end, and tank weighing. Your choices are (i) S-beam. S-beam units are shaped like a squared-off S. Variable resistors (whose resistance is a function of strain induced by the load, e.g., strain gauges or piezoresistive elements) are bonded to the regions of maximum strain and change resistance as a load is applied. These resistance changes are typically measured in a Wheatstone bridge circuit. (ii) Pancake. Pancake cells are similarly instrumented short, low-profile cylinders. They are quite popular and are capable of measuring very small through very large loads. (iii) Donut/washer. Donut cells are like pancake cells but with a through bore or hole. (iv) Plate/platform (v) Bolt. Load sensor with one or two threaded ends for attachment to measured system; measures force along the long axis of the bolt.

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(vi) Link. Sensor for inline measurement of tension or compression. (vii) Miniature. Miniature is a characteristic assigned by the supplier. If the supplier considers the load cell to be miniature, it will be carried in the database as such. (viii) Cantilever. Cantilever units are designed to have the load applied to a cantilever that is typically instrumented at the base. (ix) Canister. Canister cells are instrumented cylinders. They are of considerably higher aspect ratio than pancake cells. (x) Load pin. Load pins are typically instrumented shear elements that undergo a strain when a load is applied. A typical application is an instrumented wrist pin that attaches a hook to a cable on a crane. (xi) Rod end—male. Rod end—male is an instrumented rod with male threads. (xii) Rod end—female. Rod end—female is an instrumented rod with female threads. (xiii) Tank weighing. Tank weighing load cells are specially designed to support tanks. Search Logic: All products with ANY of the selected attributes will be returned as matches. Leaving all boxes unchecked will not limit the search criteria for this question; products with all attribute options will be returned as matches. (d) Sensor output. It includes the type of electrical signal that will be produced. (i) Analog voltage. Output voltage is a simple (usually linear) function of the measurement, including voltage ranges such as 0–10 V, 5 V, and voltage ratios dependent upon excitation, typically expressed as millivolts per volt. (ii) Analog current. Often called a transmitter, a current is imposed on the output circuit proportional to the measurement; typical ranges are 4–20 mA, 0–50 mA, etc. Feedback is used to provide the appropriate current regardless of line noise, impedance, etc. Current outputs are often useful when sending signals over long distances. (iii) Analog frequency. The output signal is encoded via amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (FM), or some other modulation scheme; the signal is analog in nature. (iv) Switch/alarm. Sensor triggers on a sensed force level to close or open a switch, or provide a signal to an alarm or interlock. (v) Serial is a standard serial digital output protocol such as RS232, RS422, RS485, USB, etc. (vi) Parallel is a standard parallel digital output protocol such as IEEE 488, a Centronics or printer port, etc. (vii) Other. Any digital outputs other than the standard serial or parallel signals. Simple TTL logic signals are an example. Search Logic: All products with ANY of the selected attributes will be returned as matches. Leaving all boxes unchecked will not limit the search criteria for this question; products with all attribute options will be returned as matches. (e) Category of devices. You can think of products as belonging to general categories based on what they are designed to do and what you have to do to use them. The “category” criteria attempts to distinguish “unpacked” sensors that might be used as part of a larger sensor from, say, a gauge which can be read just by looking at it. (i) Sensor element/chip denotes a “raw” device such as a strain gauge or one with no integral signal conditioning or packaging. (ii) Sensor/transducer. A more complex device with packaging and/or signal conditioning that is powered and provides an output such a DC voltage, a 4–20 mA current loop, etc. (iii) Instrument/meter is a self-contained unit that provides an output such as a display locally at or near the device. Typically it also includes signal processing and/or conditioning. (iv) Gauge/indicator. A device that has a (usually analog) display and no electronic output such as a tension gauge. (v) Recorder/totalizer is an instrument that records, totalizes, or tracks force measurement over time including simple data logging capability or advanced features such as mathematical functions, graphing, etc. Search Logic: All products with ANY of the selected attributes will be returned as matches. Leaving all boxes unchecked will not limit the search criteria for this

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question; products with all attribute options will be returned as matches. (f) Sensor technology (i) Piezoelectric. For piezoelectric devices, a piezoelectric material is compressed and generates a charge that is conditioned by a charge amplifier. (ii) Strain gauge. For strain gauge devices, strain gauges (strain-sensitive variable resistors) are bonded to parts of the structure that deform when making the measurement. These strain gauges are typically used as elements in a Wheatstone bridge circuit, which is used to make the measurement. Strain gauges typically require an excitation voltage and provide output sensitivity proportional to that excitation. Search Logic: All products with ANY of the selected attributes will be returned as matches. Leaving all boxes unchecked will not limit the search criteria for this question; products with all attribute options will be returned as matches. (g) Features (i) Biaxial measurement. Biaxial load cells can provide load measurements along two, typically orthogonal, axes. Search Logic: “Required” and “Must Not Have” criteria limit returned matches as specified. Products with optional attributes will be returned for either choice. (ii) Triaxial measurement. Triaxial load cells can provide load measurements along three, typically orthogonal, axes. Search Logic: “Required” and “Must Not Have” criteria limit returned matches as specified. Products with optional attributes will be returned for either choice. (iii) Temperature compensation. Temperature compensated load cells provide special circuitry to reduce/eliminate sensing errors due to temperature variations. Search Logic: “Required” and “Must Not Have” criteria limit returned matches as specified. Products with optional attributes will be returned for either choice. (2) Strain gauge specifications (a) Construction (i) Electrical resistance. The resistance of an electrically conductive material changes with dimensional changes that take place when the conductor is deformed elastically. When such a material is stretched, the conductors

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(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

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become longer and narrower, which causes an increase in resistance. A Wheatstone bridge then converts this change in resistance to an absolute voltage. The resulting value is linearly related to strain by a constant called the gauge factor. Capacitance. Capacitance devices, which depend on geometric features, can be used to measure strain. Changing the plate area or the gap can vary the capacitance. The electrical properties of the materials used to form the capacitor are relatively unimportant, so capacitance strain gauge materials can be chosen to meet the mechanical requirements. This allows the gauges to be more rugged, providing a significant advantage over resistance strain gauges. Photoelectric. A beam of light is passed through a variable slit, actuated by the extensometer, and directed to a photoelectric cell. As the gap opening changes, the amount of light reaching the cell varies, causing a varying intensity in the current generated by the cell. Semiconductor (piezoresistive). In ferroelectric materials, such as crystalline quartz, a change in the electronic charge across the faces of the crystal occurs when the material is mechanically stressed. The piezoresistive effect is defined as the change in resistance of a material due to an applied stress, and this term is used commonly in connection with semiconducting materials. The resistivity of a semiconductor is inversely proportional to the product of the electronic charge, the number of charge carriers, and their average mobility. The effect of applied stress is to change both the number and average mobility of the charge carriers. By choosing the correct crystallographic orientation and dopant type, both positive and negative gauge factors may be obtained. Silicon is now almost universally used for the manufacture of semiconductor strain gauges. Optical photoelastic strain gauges. When a photoelastic material is subjected to a load and illuminated with polarized light from the measurement instrumentation (called a reflection polariscope), patterns of color appear which are directly proportional to the stresses

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and strains within the material. The sequence of colors observed as stress increases is black (zero stress), yellow, red, blue, green, etc. The transition lines seen between the red and green bands are known as “fringes.” The stresses in the material increase proportionally as the number of fringes increases. A closely spaced fringe means a steeper stress gradient, and uniform color represents a uniformly stressed area. Hence, the overall stress distribution can easily be studied by observing the numerical order and spacing of the fringes. Furthermore, a quantitative analysis of the direction and magnitude of the strain at any point on the coated surface can be performed with the Polaris reflection and a digital strain indicator. (vi) Moire interferometry strain gauges. Moire interferometry is an optical technique that uses coherent laser light to produce a high contrast, two-beam optical interference pattern. Moire interferometry reveals planar displacement fields on a part’s surface, which is caused by external loading or other source deformation. It responds only to geometric changes of the specimen and is effective for diverse engineering materials. Contour maps of planar deformation fields can be generated from x and y components of displacements. (vii) Holographic interferometry strain gauges. Holographic interferometry allows the evaluation of strain, rotation, bending, and torsion of an object in three dimensions. Since holography is sensitive to the surface effects of an opaque body, extrapolation into the interior of the body is possible in some circumstances. In one or more double-exposure holograms, changes in the object are recorded. From the fringe patterns in the reconstructed image of the object, the interference phase-shifts for different sensitivity vectors are measured. A computer is then used to calculate the strain and other deformations. (viii) Fiber optic. The sensor measures the strain by shifting the light frequency of the light reflected down the fiber from the Bragg grating, which is embedded inside the fiber itself. Since it is possible to put several sensors on the same fiber, the amount of cabling required is reduced significantly compared to other types of strain gauges.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Also, since the signal is optical rather than electronic, it is not affected by electromagnetic interference. (ix) Other. Other is unlisted, specialized, or proprietary strain gauge construction. Search Logic: All products with ANY of the selected attributes will be returned as matches. Leaving all boxes unchecked will not limit the search criteria for this question; products with all attribute options will be returned as matches. (b) Physical specifications (i) Active gauge length (grid length). The gauge length of a strain gauge is the active or strain-sensitive length of the grid. The end loops and solder tabs are considered insensitive to strain because of their relatively large cross-sectional area and low electrical resistance. Search Logic: User may specify either, both, or neither of the “At Least” and “No More Than” values. Products returned as matches will meet all specified criteria. (ii) Number of gauges in gauge pattern. The total number of strain gauges in the gauge pattern. Search Logic: User may specify either, both, or neither of the “At Least” and “No More Than” values. Products returned as matches will meet all specified criteria. (iii) Operating temperature. The operating temperature range is the range of ambient temperature where the use of the strain gauge is permitted without permanent changes of the measurement properties. Search Logic: User may specify either, both, or neither of the limits in a “From–To” range; when both are specified, matching products will cover entire range. Products returned as matches will meet all specified criteria. (iv) Gauge factor. The strain sensitivity, k, of a strain gauge is the proportionality factor between the relative changes of the resistance. The strain sensitivity is a figure without dimension and is generally called gauge factor. Search Logic: All matching products will have a value greater than or equal to the specified value.

1.1.11.4

Calibration

Calibration and temperature compensation of strain gauge–based weight sensors using the precision sensor signal conditioner integrated circuits is

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becoming increasingly popular. Leading automotive suppliers of safety products are increasingly turning to the use of force sensors in their quest to optimize airbag deployment forces appropriate for the mass of the occupant and severity of the deployment situation. A typical weight sensor characterization requires the use of a deadweight test stand (also sometimes called a creep tester) in order to obtain accurate and repeatable sensor loading. Several points must be observed in order to achieve the desired results. (1) fixture orientation for positive and negative force loads on the test stand; (2) sensor and cable orientation; (3) torque of the sensor mounting bolts; (4) weight numbering; (5) shaft-to-weight clearance (when using an automatic weight lift for removing weights from load); (6) preconditioning sensor and fixtures after sensor mounting; (7) monotonic application and removal of weights; (8) golden samples and data tracking.

1.2 Actuators An actuator is simply defined as a device that produces a linear, rotary motion from a source of power under the action of a source of control. The sources of power driving actuators can be from electric, pneumatic, fluid, and piezoelectric, or some others such as our hands. Actuators are accordingly classed into electric actuators, pneumatic actuators, hydraulic actuators, piezoelectric actuators, as well as manual actuators, based on the applied sources of power. Basic actuators are used to move valves or switches to either fully opened or fully closed positions. Actuators for control or position regulating valves or switches are also given a positioning signal to move to any intermediate position with a high degree of accuracy. Although the most common and important use of an actuator is to open and close valves or switches, current actuator designs go far beyond the basic open and close function to implement more and more positioning functions. Therefore, in some instances of industrial control technology, actuators are also termed as positioners. In addition to directly positioning, an actuator can be packaged together with position sensing equipment, torque sensing, motor protection, logic control, digital communication capacity,

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and even PID control to play a role as a position detector or position indicator.

1.2.1

Electric Actuators

Electric actuators, utilizing the simplicity of electrical operation, provide the most reliable means of positioning a valve in a safe condition including fail-safe to close or open, or lock in position on power or system failure. However, electric actuators are not restricted to open or close applications; with the addition of one or more of the available kit options, the requirements for fully fledged control units can often be met. For example, with both weatherproof and flameproof models, the range simplifies process automation by providing true electronic control from process variable to valve and supplies a totally electric system for all environments. The unit can be supplied with the appropriate electronic controls to match any process control system requirement. Electric actuators are actively marketed and considered as replacements for pneumatic actuators. Although pneumatic actuators are still an important method of actuation, more and more often, electric actuators provide a superior solution, especially when high accuracy, high duty cycle, excellent reliability, long life expectancy, and low maintenance are required by extra switches, speed controllers, potentiometers, position transmitters, positioners, and local control station. These options may be added to factory-built units, or supplied in kit form. When supplied as kits all parts are included together with an easy to follow installation sheet.

1.2.1.1

Operating Principle

Architecture for an electric actuator is given in Fig. 1.27, which consists basically of gears, a motor, and switches. In these components, the motor plays a key role. In most applications, the motor is the primary torquegenerating component. Motors are available for a variety of supply voltages, including standard single-phase alternating current, three-phase and DC voltages. In some applications, three-phase current for the asynchronous is generated by means of the power circuit module in the electronic, regardless of the power supply (one- or three phase). Frequency converters and microcontrollers allow different speeds and precise tripping torques to be set (no overtorque). When an electric actuator is running, the phase angle is checked and automatically adjusted so that the rotation is always correct. To prevent heat damage due to excessive current draw in a stalled

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Gears

89

Motor

Hand wheel Switches

Figure 1.27 Basic components for electric actuator (courtesy of Emerson).

condition, or due to overwork, electric actuator motors usually include a thermal overload sensor or switch embedded in the winding of the stator. The sensor or switch is installed in series with the power source, and opens the circuit when the motor is overheated, and then closes the circuit once it has cooled to a safe operating temperature. Electric actuators rely on a gear train (a series of interconnected gears) to enhance the motor torque and to regulate the output speed of the actuator. Some gear styles are inherently self-locking. This is particularly important in the automation of butterfly valves or when an electric actuator is used in modulating control applications. In these situations, seat and disc contact, or fluid velocity, act upon the closure element of the valve and cause a reverse force that can reverse the motor and camshaft. This causes a reenergization of the motor through the limit switch when the cam position is changed. This undesirable cycling will continue to occur unless a motor brake is installed, and usually leads to an overheated motor. Spur gears are sometimes used in rotary electric actuators, but are not selflocking. They require the addition of an electromechanical motor brake for these applications. A few of the self-locking gear styles include the worm and wheel and some configurations of planetary gears. A basic worm gear system operates as follows. A motor applies a force through the primary worm gear to the worm wheel. This, in turn, rotates the secondary worm gear which applies a force to the larger radius of the secondary worm wheel to increase the torque.

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An electric actuator system replacing the traditional hydraulic piston system is given in Fig. 1.28: it is made up of a motor, a reducer, and a ball screw. The motor receives its power from an electrical unit (no longer generated hydraulically) situated in the aircraft’s avionics bay. Electric cables that carry the power to the motor have replaced hydraulic pipes. The control unit is able to directly and individually transmit the braking order to each brake, thus optimizing both braking and the use of each brake in operation. Electric brake technology offers aircraft manufacturers and airline companies significant gains in mass, installation costs (optimized aircraft assembly line integration), and operating costs (maintenance costs).

1.2.1.2

Basic Types

Electric actuators are divided into two different types: rotary and linear. Rotary electric actuators rotate from open to closed using butterfly, ball, and plug valves. With the use of rotary electric actuators, the electromagnetic power from the motor causes the components to rotate, allowing for numerous stops during each stroke. Either a circular shaft or a table can be used as the rotational element. When selecting an electric rotary actuator, important factors to consider include actuator torque and range of motion. The actuator torque refers to the power that causes the rotation, while the Reduction gear Stator Ball screw and nut

Electric motor

Rotor

Figure 1.28 Working principle of an electric actuator system.

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full range of motion can be either nominal, quarter-turn, or multiturn. Linear electric actuators, in contrast, open and close using pinch, globe, diaphragm, gate, or angle valves. Linear electric actuators are often used when tight tolerances are required. These electric actuators use an acme screw assembly or motor-driven ball screw to supply linear motion. Within linear electric actuators, the load is connected to the end of a screw that is belt or gear driven. Important factors to consider when selecting linear electric actuators include the number of turns, actuating force, and the length of the valve stem stroke. (1) Linear electric actuators provide linear motion via a motordriven ball screw or screw assembly. The linear actuator’s load is attached to the end of a screw, or rod, and is unsupported. The screw can be direct, belt, or gear driven. Important performance specifications to consider when searching for linear actuators include stroke, maximum rated load or force, maximum rated speed, continuous power, and system backlash. Stroke is the distance between fully extended and fully retracted rod positions. The maximum rated load or force is not the maximum static load. The maximum rated speed is the maximum actuator linear speed, typically rated at low or no load. Continuous power is sustainable power; it does not include short-term peak power ratings. Backlash is position error due to direction change. Motor choices include DC, DC servo, DC brushless, DC brushless servo, AC, AC servo, and stepper. Input power can be specified for DC, AC, or stepper motors. Drive screw specifications to consider for linear actuators include drive screw type and screw lead. Features include selflocking, limit switches, motor encoder feedback, and linear position feedback. Screw choices include acme screws and ball screws. Acme screws will typically hold loads without power but are usually less efficient than ball screws. They also typically have a shorter life but are more robust to shock loads. If backlash is a concern, it is usually better to select a ball screw. Ball screws exhibit lower friction and therefore higher efficiency than “lead screws.” Screw lead is the distance the rod advances with one revolution of the screw. Other features for linear actuators to consider include holding brakes, integrated overload slip clutch or torque limiters, water-resistant construction, protective boot, and thermal overload protection. Design units can be English or metric. Some manufacturers specify both. Dimensions to consider when specifying linear actuators include retracted length, width, height, and weight. The housing can have flanges, rear

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY clevis, side angle brackets, side lugs, tapped holes, and spherical bearings. Rod ends can be clevis, female eye, female thread, male thread, and spherical bearing. An important environmental parameter to consider is the operating temperature. (2) Rotary electric actuators provide incremental rotational movement of the output shaft. In its most simple form, a rotary actuator consists of a motor with a speed reducer. These AC and DC motors can be fabricated to the exact voltage, frequency, power, and performance specified. The speed reducer is matched with the ratio to the speed, torque, and acceleration required. Life, duty cycle, limit load, and accuracy are considerations that further define the selection of the speed reducer. Hardened, precision spur gears are supported by antifriction bearings as a standard practice in these speed reducers. Compound gear reduction is accomplished in compact, multiple load path configurations, as well as in planetary forms. The specifications for rotary actuator include angular rotation, torque, and speed, as well as control signals and feedback signals, and the environment temperature. Rotary actuators can incorporate a variety of auxiliary components such as brakes, clutches, antibacklash gears, and/or special seals. Redundant schemes involving velocity or torque summing of two or more motors can also be employed. Today the linear motion in actuators is converted to a rotary one in many applications. By delivering the rotary motion directly, some fittings can be saved in the bed. This enables the bed manufacturer to build in a rotary actuator far more elegantly than a linear actuator. The result is a more “pure” design because the actuator is not experienced as a product hanging under the bed, but as a part of the bed. Those rotary electric actuators are used for modulating valves, which are divided based on the range from multiturn to quarterturn. Electrically powered multiturn actuators are one of the most common and dependable configurations of actuators. A single or three-phased electric motor drives a combination of spurs and/or level gears, which in turn drive a stem nut. The stem nut engages the stem of the valve to open or close it, frequently via an acme threaded shaft. Electric multiturn actuators are capable of quickly operating very large valves. To protect the valve, the limit switch turns off the motor at the ends of travel. The torque sensing mechanism of the actuator switches off the electric motor when a safe torque level is exceeded. Position indicating switches are utilized to indicate the open and closed position of the valve.

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Typically a declutching mechanism and hand wheel are included so that the valve can be operated manually should a power failure occur. The main advantage of this type of actuator is that all of the accessories are incorporated in the package and are physically and environmentally protected. It has all the basic and advanced functions incorporated in a compact housing which can be water tight, explosion proof, and in some circumstances, submersible. The primary disadvantage of an electric multiturn actuator is that should a power failure occur, the valve remains in the last position and the fail-safe position cannot be obtained easily unless there is a convenient source of stored electrical energy. Electric quarter-turn actuators are very similar to electric multiturn actuators. The main difference is that the final drive element is usually in one quadrant that puts out a 90° motion. The newer generation of quarter-turn actuators incorporates many of the features found in most sophisticated multiturn actuators, for example, a nonintrusive, infrared, human machine interface for set up, diagnostics, etc. Quarter-turn electric actuators are compact and can be used on smaller valves. They are typically rated to around 1500 foot pounds. An added advantage of smaller quarter-turn actuators is that because of their lower power requirements, they can be fitted with an emergency power source such as a battery to provide fail-safe operation. Thrust actuators can be fitted to valves which require a linear movement. Thrust actuators transform the torque of a multi-turn actuator into an axial thrust by means of an integrated thrust unit. The required (switch-off) actuating force (thrust and traction) can be adjusted continuously and reproducibly. Linear actuators are mainly used to operate globe valves. Thrust units, fitted to the output drive of a multiturn actuator, consist mainly of a threaded spindle, a metric screw bolt to join the valve shaft, and a housing to protect the spindle against environmental influences. The described version is used for “direct mounting” of the actuator to the valve. However, thrust actuators version “fork joint” (indirect mounting) can also operate butterfly valves or dampers, when direct mounting of a part turn actuator is not possible or efficient. The thrust units of the thrust actuators for modulating duty also comply with the high demands of the modulating duty. Also, for these thrust units, high-quality materials and accurate tolerances secure perfect function for many years of operation. The thrust units are operated by modulating actuators.

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1.2.1.3 Technical Specification When selecting an electric actuator the specification including power source, correct type, and size can be found utilizing the following criteria: (1) Power source. When electric power is selected, a three-phase supply depends upon the valve driven by the actuator. It is usually required for large valves; however, small valves can be operated on a single-phase supply. Usually an electric valve actuator can accommodate any of the common voltages. Sometimes a DC supply is available. This is often an emergency back-up power supply. Variations of fluid power are much greater. First there is a variety of fluid media such as compressed air, nitrogen, hydraulic fluid, or natural gas. Then, there are the variations in the available pressures of those media. With a variety of cylinder sizes, most of the variations can be accommodated for a particular valve size. (2) Type of valve. Whenever sizing an actuator for a valve, the type of valve has to be known, so that the correct type of actuator can be selected. There are some valves that need multiturn input, whereas others need quarter-turn. This has a great impact on the type of actuator that is required. When combined with the available power supply, the size and type of actuator quickly come into focus. Generally multiturn fluid power actuators are more expensive than multiturn electric actuators. However, for rising nonrotating stem valves a linear fluid power actuator may be less expensive. A definitive selection cannot be made until the power requirements of the valve are determined. After that decision has been made, the torque requirement of the valve will be the next selection criterion. The next task is to calculate the torque required by the valve. For a quarter-turn valve, the best way of determining the torque required is by obtaining the valve maker’s torque data. Most valve makers have measured the torque required to operate their valves over the range of operating line pressures. They make this information available for customers. The situation is different for multiturn valves. These can be subdivided into several groups: the rising rotating, rising nonrotating, and nonrising rotating valves. In each of these cases the measurement of the stem diameter together with the lead and pitch of the valve stem thread is required in order to size the automation for the valve. This information coupled with the size of the valve and the differential pressure across the valve can be used to calculate torque demand.

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(3) Type and size of the electric actuator. The type and size of the actuator can be determined after the power supply, the type of valve, and the torque demand of that valve have been defined. Once the actuator type has been selected and the torque requirement of the valve has been determined, then the actuator can be sized using one of the actuator manufacturer’s sizing programs or tables. A further consideration in sizing the actuator is the required speed of operation of the valve. As speed has a direct relationship to the power required from the actuator, more horsepower would be needed to operate a valve at a faster speed. The electric motor operators of the three-phase type have a fixed speed of operation. Smaller, quarter-turn actuators utilize DC motors and may have adjustable speed of operation. (4) Predictive maintenance. Motor operators can utilize built-in data loggers coupled with highly accurate torque sensing mechanisms to record data on the valve as it moves through its stroke. The torque profiles can be used to monitor changes in the operating conditions of the valve and to predict when maintenance is required. They can also be used to troubleshoot valves. Forces on a valve can include the following: (1) valve seal or packing friction; (2) valve shaft, bearing friction; (3) valve closure element seat friction; (4) closure element travel friction; (5) hydrodynamic forces on closure elements; (6) stem piston effect; (7) valve stem thread friction. Most of these are present in all types of valves, but in varying degrees of magnitude. For example, closure element travel friction in a butterfly valve is negligible, whereas a nonlubricated plug valve has significant travel friction. Valve actuators are designed to limit their torque to a preset level using a torque switch, usually in a closing direction. An increase in torque above this level will stop the actuator. In the opening direction, the torque switch is frequently bypassed for the initial unseating operation. The resulting torque profile is useful in analyzing the valve condition. Different types of valves have different profiles. For example, a wedge gate valve has significant torque at the opening and closing positions. During the remaining portion of the stroke the torque demand is made up of packing and thread friction on the acme threaded shaft. On seating, the hydrostatic force on the closure element increases the seating friction, and finally the wedging effect of the closure element in the seat causes a rapid increase in torque demand until seating is completed. Changes in torque profile can, therefore, give a good indication of pending problems and can provide valuable information for an effective predictive valve maintenance program.

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1.2.1.4 Application Guides There are many applications where an electric actuator may be considered for the process control. Although electric actuators may be used anywhere a power source (electricity) is available, there are many applications where they are particularly well suited. For instance, in many remote installations, it may be impractical to run an air supply and to maintain it. Air lines that freeze up may clog and render the equipment inoperable or damage more delicate instruments. If only a few actuators are to be installed in an area, electric actuators offer a simple means of automation for these smaller systems. Perhaps one of the most important reasons for the trend toward using electric actuators has been the decreasing cost of using computers as system controllers and the ease and economy with which the actuators can be interfaced to such systems. This trend can be expected to accelerate with the advent of new microprocessors, or smart controllers, based on the versatile, low-cost microprocessor chips. Because of the increased speed and decision- and control-making capability that the computer adds to a process system, there is less need for final control elements, which have high control capability, such as characterized by globe and plug valves. As a result, the simpler and less expensive electric actuators and ball and butterfly valves have become more acceptable and are proving more than adequate for many applications. Probably the most important reason for the widespread use of electric actuators is their control circuit versatility. As an electric device, electric actuators naturally lend themselves for use as an enclosure for a variety of control and feedback devices. Furthermore, the switch and cams may be set and wired for almost any contact development for process and valve control. It is more economical to install and maintain electric valve actuators than pneumatic ones. A pneumatic system includes not only actuators, but also compressors, piping, filters, air lubrication systems, and dryers. However, electric actuators eliminate the need for air, an expensive source of energy, and do not require energy when not in motion. There is no need to be concerned with compressor noise, housing to shield against noise, air venting, or other operating restrictions associated with pneumatic systems. One important advantage of an electric actuator is its ability to manually “jog” the valve position when it is used in filling operations. By installing a feedback potentiometer an operator can monitor the exact position of the actuators and stop it at any point between open and closed with a manual control switch.

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A few examples of the control circuit versatility of electric actuators are three-position control and interposing relay. Three-position control is especially useful for the automation of multiported (three- or four-way) valves. A simple ON/OFF switch powers an interposing relay. This circuit is similar to the type used in energizing single-acting solenoid valves in pneumatic actuator installations. (1) Controls. The great advantage of having an automated valve is that it can be remotely controlled. This means that operators can sit in a control room and control a process without having to physically go to the valve and give it an open or close command, the most basic type of control for an automated valve. The ability to remotely control a valve is easily achieved by running a pair of wires out to the actuator from the control room. Applying power across the wires can energize a coil, initiating motion in an electric or fluid power actuator. Positioning a valve in an intermediate position can be done using this type of control. However, feedback would be needed to verify whether the actuator is at the desired position. A more common method of positioning an actuator is to feed a proportional signal to the actuator, such as 4–20 mA, so that the actuator, using a comparator device, can position itself in direct proportion to the received signal. (2) Modulating control. In some workplaces where an actuator is required to control a level, flow, or pressure in a system, it may be required to move frequently. Modulating or positioning control can be achieved using the same 4–20 mA signal. However, the signal would change as frequently as the process required. If very high rates of modulation are required then special modulating control valve actuators are needed that can accommodate the frequent starts required for such duty. Where there are many actuators on a process, the capital cost of installation can be reduced by utilizing digital communication over a communicating loop that passes from one actuator to another (Fig. 1.29). A digital communication loop can deliver commands and collect actuator status rapidly and cost effectively. There are many types of digital communication such as Foundation Fieldbus, Profibus, DeviceNet, Hart, as well as proprietary communication systems custom designed for valve actuator use such as Pakscan. Digital communication systems have many advantages over and above the saving in capital cost. They are able to collect a lot of data about the condition of the valve, and as such can be used for predictive maintenance programs.

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Figure 1.29 Digital communication systems for remote control of valves (courtesy of Rotork Controls, Inc.).

1.2.1.5

Calibrations

Here, VA-7202 Electric Valve Actuator (Johnson Controls, Inc.) is taken as an example to introduce a method and a process for calibrating electric actuators. (1) Set the stroke jumper to approximate the stroke of the valve. See Fig. 1.30 for jumper location that includes (1) Jumper 8: 5/16 in. or 8 mm; (2) Jumper 10: 3/8 in. or 10 mm; (3) Jumper 13: 1/2 in. or 13 mm; (4) Jumper 19: 3/4 in. or 19 mm. Stroke jumpers Stroke adjustment

Input signal selection

Span value

8 10 13 19

Action selection DA RA

V mA *Supply disconnect

Starting point

Down

Up

1 2 3 4

Fail-safe input signal Down Up LED

* Disconnects power supply to the circuit must be in place for actuator operation.

Figure 1.30 VA-7202 electric actuator (Johnson Controls, Inc.) components.

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(2) Set the direct/reverse action jumper so that the valve stem travels in the desired direction (per changes in control signal) including (1) DA (top jumper) = stroke down on signal increase; (2) RA (bottom jumper) = stroke up on signal increase. (3) Set the input signal selection jumper for voltage input or current (mA) input to match the controller output; see Fig. 1.30. (If the input signal selection jumper is removed, the actuator defaults to voltage input.) However, if mA input is selected, multiply the start and span scales by 2. (4) Set the signal fail position jumper to select default position of fully up or fully down. If the signal is lost at the actuator (open connection), the actuator will default to the predesignated position of full up or full down. However, if mA input is selected, the actuator will default to the low input signal position. (5) Adjust the potentiometers to the nominal values. Set the stroke adjustment to the midpoint as shown in Fig. 1.30. Set the starting point (offset) to the low input signal using the scale printed on the circuit board as a reference. Set the span value to the high input signal minus the offset and then use the scales for reference. (6) Apply voltage specified by application (RA/DA) requirements to drive the actuator to the full up position. If mA input is selected, multiply all values by 2. (7) Slowly turn the starting point potentiometer (shown in Fig. 1.30) CW (clockwise) until the valve stem reaches the end of stroke to ensure that the valve stem is in the full-up position. LED will be on; there should be no gear movement. (8) Slowly turn the starting point potentiometer counterclockwise (CCW); stop when the LED flashes or goes out. If the LED does not flash or go out, verify Dimension “A” gaps. Excessive gap may not allow full-up calibration. The actuator circuit contains a time-out feature. If calibration takes longer than 3–10 min, the LED will go out giving a false satisfied condition. If this occurs, cycle the power to the actuator and readjust the starting point. (9) Apply the input voltage specified by application (RA/DA) requirements to drive the valve stem to the full-down position per chart in Step 6. (10) To ensure that the valve stem is in the full-down position, slowly turn the stroke potentiometer CW until the valve stem reaches the end of stroke. LED will be on, and there should be no gear movement. (11) Slowly turn the stroke potentiometer CCW until the LED goes off.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (12) If the full-down position cannot be reached, return the stroke potentiometer to the nominal position and slowly turn the span potentiometer CCW until full down is reached. Then, repeat Step 11. (13) Adjust voltage to drive the actuator to the full-up position. Verify starting point adjustment. (14) Check for proper operation using the desired minimum and maximum operating voltages. Allow the actuator to operate through several complete cycles. The LED will remain on for 3–10 min after the actuator has completed the operation cycle. (15) Replace the cover and secure with the screws. At this point, the unit is ready for operation.

1.2.2

Pneumatic Actuators

Pneumatics have obtained a variety of applications in manufacturing to control industrial processes, in automotive and aircraft settings to modulate valves, even in medical equipment such as dentistry drills to actuate torque movements, etc. In contrast with other physics like electrics and hydraulics, the operating torque of pneumatics makes possible a compact actuator that is economical to both install and operate. Pneumatic devices are also used where electric motors cannot be used for safety reasons and where no water is supplied, such as mining applications where rock drills are powered by air motors to preclude the need for electric motors deep in the mine where explosive gases may be present. In many cases, it is easier to use a liquid or gas at high pressure rather than electricity to provide power for the actuator. Pneumatic actuators provide a very fast response but little power, whereas hydraulic systems can provide very great forces, but act more slowly. This is partly because gases are compressible and liquids are not. The pneumatic actuators (Fig. 1.31) offer the latest technology; a premium quality ball valve, a quality actuator designed to meet the torque requirements of the valve, and a mounting system which ensures alignment and rigidity.

1.2.2.1

Operating Principle

Industrial pneumatics may be contrasted with hydraulics that use uncompressible liquid media such as oil, or water combined with soluble oil, instead of air. Air is compressible, and therefore it is considered to be a fluid. The pneumatic principles conclude that the pressure formed in compressible liquids can be harnessed to a high potential of power. This gives us new potential for several pneumatic-powered operations and

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H0

H0


D

D

H

H

Air inlet

Air inlet

Air to open

Air to close

Figure 1.31 Components of a spring-type pneumatic actuator (courtesy of Forbes Marshall).

hence creates many new developments. Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Both pneumatic linear and rotary actuators use pressurized air to drive or rotate mechanical components. The flow of pressurized air produces the shift or rotation of moving components via a stem and spring, rack and pinion, cams, direct air or fluid pressure on a chamber or rotary vanes, or other mechanical linkage. A valve actuator is a device mounted on a valve that, in response to a signal, automatically moves the valve to the desired position using an outside power source. Pneumatic valve actuators convert air pressure into motion. (1) Linear pneumatic actuators. A simplified diagram of a pneumatic linear actuator is shown in Fig. 1.32. It operates with a combination of force created by air and spring force. The actuator shifts the positions of a control valve by transmitting its motion through the stem. A rubber diaphragm separates the actuator housing into two air chambers. The left or upper chamber receives a supply of air through an opening in the top of the housing. The right or bottom chamber contains a spring that forces the diaphragm against mechanical stops in the upper chamber. Finally, a local indicator is connected to the stem to indicate the position of the valve.

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Positioner

Stem

Spring Air

Chamber

Figure 1.32 Operation principle of a simplified linear pneumatic actuator.

The position of the valve is controlled by varying supply air pressure in the left or upper chamber, which results in a varying force on the top of the diaphragm. At the beginning, with no supply air, the spring forces the diaphragm upward against the mechanical stops and holds the valve fully open. As supply air pressure is increased from zero, its force on top of the diaphragm begins to overcome the opposing force of the spring. The causes the diaphragm to move rightward or downward and the control valve to close. With increasing supply air pressure, the diaphragm will continue to move rightward or downward and compress the spring until the control valve is fully closed. Conversely, if supply air pressure is decreased, the spring will force the diaphragm leftward or upward and open the control valve. Additionally, if supply pressure is held constant at some value between zero and maximum, the valve will position at an intermediate point. The valve can hence be positioned anywhere between fully open and fully closed in response to changes in supply air pressure. A positioner is a device that regulates the supply air pressure to a pneumatic actuator. It does this by comparing the position demanded by the actuator with the control position of the valve. The requested position is transmitted by a pneumatic or electrical control signal from a controller to the positioner. The controller generates an output signal that represents the requested position. This signal is sent to the positioner. Externally, the positioner consists of an input connection for the control signal, a supply air input connection, a supply air output connection, a supply air vent connection, and a feedback linkage. Internally, it contains an intricate network of electrical transducers, air lines, valves, linkages, and necessary adjustments.

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Other positioners may also provide controls for local valve positioning and gauges to indicate supply air pressure and controller pressure. (2) Rotary pneumatic actuators. Pneumatic rotary actuators may have fixed or adjustable angular strokes and can include such features as mechanical cushioning, closed-loop hydraulic dampening (oil), and magnetic features for reading by a switch. When the compressed air enters the actuator from the first tube nozzle, the air will push the double pistons toward both ends (cylinder end) for straight line movement. The gear on the piston drives the gear on the rotary shaft to rotate counterclockwise, and then the valve can be opened. This time, the air at both ends of the pneumatic actuator will drain with another tube nozzle. Conversely, when the compressed air enters the actuator from the second tube nozzle, the gas will push the double pistons toward the middle for straight line movement. The rack on the piston drives the gear on the rotary shaft to rotate clockwise and then the valve can be closed. This time, the air at the middle of the pneumatic actuator will drain with the first tube nozzle. Above is the standard-type driving principle. According to users’ requirement, the pneumatic actuator can be assembled into the driving principle beyond the standard type, which means opening the valve while rotating the rotary shaft clockwise and closing the valve while rotating the rotary shaft counterclockwise. Figure 1.33(a) is for the double-acting type. For clockwise operation, Port 2 (P2) is open to atmosphere, and air pressure is directed to Port 1 (P1). As the pistons move apart, the pinion rotates clockwise. The linear movement of the pistons is converted to rotary motion by the piston racks and the output pinion gear. For counterclockwise operation, Port 1 is open to atmosphere and air pressure is directed to Port 2. The pressure differential moves the pistons together, rotating the pinion counterclockwise. Figure 1.33(b) is for the spring-return type. For clockwise operation, Port 2 is open to atmosphere and air pressure is directed to Port 1. The air pressure compresses the springs and moves the pistons outward. As the pistons move apart, the pinion rotates clockwise. The linear movement of the pistons is converted to rotary motion by the piston racks and the output pinion gear. For counterclockwise operation, Port 1 is open to atmosphere and air pressure is directed to Port 2. High pressure and/ or spring force moves the pistons inward, rotating the pinion counterclockwise.

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P1 P2 Clockwise operation

P1 P2 Clockwise operation

P1 P2 Counterclockwise operation

P1 P2 Counterclockwise operation

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.33 Operation principle of rotary pneumatic actuators: (a) double acting and (b) spring return.

1.2.2.2


In terms of the actuated movements, pneumatic actuators can be two types: linear and rotary. (1) Pneumatic linear motion specifications: (a) breakaway torque (in. lb) (b) actuation type: spring return or double acting (c) fail safe: no or yes (d) positioner: no or yes; if yes: pneumatic or electropneumatic (e) limit switch: no, two, or four. (2) pneumatic rotary valve specifications: (a) output torque (in. lb) (b) pipe size (specify) (c) product flowing in pipe (specify) (d) temperature (oF) (e) pressure (psig) (f) flow (GPM) (g) valve material (specify) (h) connections (specify).

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In terms of operators, pneumatic actuators can be of four types: (1) Piston-style pneumatic actuators. Piston-type, air-operated valves offer a unique, reliable design providing for a long and dependable life. These valves are more compact than diaphragm valves and are appropriate for applications such as high-flow gas and liquid delivery systems to reactors and mixers and vaporizers. The technical data for the piston-style pneumatic actuators include (a) area of piston (sq. in.) (b) maximum allowable working pressure (psi or bar) (c) allowable piston temperature range (oF) (d) approximate air usage and air cycle ( SCF per 100 psi) (e) tested to 100,000 cycles at 100 psi (6.89 bar) with no leakages or signs of wear or fatigue. (2) Diaphragm-style pneumatic actuators. Diaphragm-type, airoperated valves are an efficient and economical means for “remote ON–OFF” of a wide range of process requirements. Diaphragmtype actuators are designed to provide a dependable alternative to piston-type actuators. The technical data for the diaphragmstyle pneumatic actuators include (a) area of diaphragm (sq. in.) (b) maximum allowable working pressure (psi or bar) (c) allowable diaphragm temperature range (oF) (d) approximate air usage and air cycle ( SCF per 100 psi). (3) Solenoid valve packages. Solenoid valves are used to supply ON–OFF control of air to the valve actuator. They are normally mounted on the valve actuator, but they can be mounted remotely as well. Solenoid valves can be supplied in different voltages and configurations if required. Solenoid manifolds are available and used when a large number of valve actuators require control or contain power to a local area reducing assembly time. Remotemounted solenoids also permit the usage of actuated valves in hazardous sensitive locations. These indices are assigned to solenoid valve packages of actuators: (a) Piston and diaphragm operators: light and heavy-light duty (b) piston and diaphragm operators: medium and heavy duty (c) piston and diaphragm operators: extra heavy duty. (4) Servo pneumatic actuator package. The servo pneumatic actuator has an integral displacement transducer and is designed to operate on standard compressed air available in most factories and laboratories. The package is aimed at engineers building specialpurpose systems including (a) Displacement control. The servo pneumatic actuator can be used in systems configured for displacement control using

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY feedback from the integral displacement transducer and signal conditioning card supplied. (b) Load control. Load control may be implemented by providing a load cell and signal conditioning. (c) Strain control. Strain control may be implemented by providing a clip gauge and signal conditioning.

1.2.2.3 Application Guide and Assemble on Valve (1) Preparation for installation (a) Actuator checks. When the actuator arrives, the actuator checks that determine whether it is mounted on the valve should be carried out: If the actuator arrives already assembled onto the valve, the setting of the mechanical stops and of the electric limit switches (if existing) has already been made by the person who assembled the actuator onto the valve. If the actuator arrives separately from the valve, the settings of the mechanical stops and of the electric limit switches (if existing) must be checked and, if necessary, carried out while assembling the actuator onto the valve. Furthermore, it is often necessary to check that the actuator has not been damaged during transport. If necessary, repair all damages to the paintcoat, etc. Thereafter, it is often required to check that the model, the serial number of the actuator, and the performance data written on the data plate are in accordance with those described on the order acknowledgment, test certificate, and delivery note. Then, check that the fitted accessories comply with those listed in the order acknowledgment and the delivery note. (b) Store checks. The actuators leave the factory in excellent working condition and with an excellent finish (these conditions are guaranteed by an individual inspection certificate); in order to maintain these characteristics until the actuator is installed, it is necessary to observe a few rules and take appropriate measures during the storage period. It should be ensured that plugs are fitted in the air connections and in the cable entries. The plastic plugs which close the inlets do not have a weatherproof function, but are only a means of protection against the entry of foreign matter during transport. If long-term storage is necessary and especially if the storage is out of doors, the plastic protection plugs must be replaced by metal plugs, which guarantee a complete weatherproof protection.

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If the actuators are supplied separately from the valves, they must be placed onto a wooden pallet so as not to damage the coupling flange to the valve. In case of long-term storage, the coupling parts (flange, drive sleeve, insert bush) must be coated with protective oil or grease. If possible, blank off the flange by a protection disk. In case of long-term storage, it is advisable to keep the actuators in a dry place or to provide some means of weather protection. If possible, it is also advisable to periodically operate the actuator with filtered, dehydrated, and lubricated air; after such operations all the threaded connections of the actuator and the valves of the control panel (if present) should be carefully plugged. (2) Installation and start-up (a) Pneumatic connections. Pneumatic connections connect the actuator to the pneumatic feed line with fittings and pipes in accordance with the plant specifications. They must be sized correctly in order to guarantee the necessary air flow for the operation of the actuator, with pressure drops not exceeding the maximum allowable value. The shape of the connecting piping must not cause excessive stress to the inlets of the actuator. The piping must be suitably fastened so as not to cause excessive stress or loosening of threaded connections, if the system undergoes strong vibrations. Every precaution must be taken to ensure that any solid or liquid contaminants which may be present in the pneumatic pipe work to the actuator are removed to avoid possible damage to the unit or loss of performance. The inside of the pipes used for the connections must be well cleaned before use, which includes washing with suitable substances and blowing through them with air or nitrogen. The ends of the tubes must be well debarred and cleaned. Once the connections are completed, operate the actuator and ensure that it functions correctly, that the operation times meet the plant requirements, and that there are no leaks in the pneumatic connections. (b) Electrical connections. Electric connections connect the electrical feed, control, and signal lines to the actuator, by linking them up with the terminal blocks of the electrical components. In order to do this, the housing covers must be removed without damaging the coupling surfaces, the O-rings, or the gaskets. Then, the plugs should be removed from the cable entries. For electrical connections, we can use components (cable

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY glands, cables, hoses, conduits), which meet the requirements and codes applicable to the plant specifications (mechanical protection and/or explosion-proof protection). The cable glands should be screwed tightly into the threaded inlets so as to guarantee weatherproof and explosion-proof protection (when applicable). The connection cables are inserted into the electrical enclosures through the cable glands, and the cable wires are connected to the terminals according to the applicable wiring diagram. If conduits are used, it is advisable to carry out the connection to the electrical enclosures by inserting hoses so as not to cause anomalous stress on the housing cable entries. Replace the plastic plugs of the unused enclosure entries with metal ones to guarantee perfect weatherproof tightness and to comply with the explosion-proof protection codes where applicable. Once the connections are completed, check that the controls and signals work properly. After the installation is complete, it is time for the start-up of the actuator that proceeds as follows: (i) Check that the pressure and quality of the air supply (filtering degree, dehydration) are as prescribed. Check that the feed voltage values of the electrical components (solenoid valve coils, micro switches, pressure switches, etc.) are as prescribed. (ii) Check that the actuator controls work properly (remote control, local control, emergency controls, etc.) (iii) Check that the required remote signals (valve position, air pressure, etc.) are correct. (iv) Check that the setting of the components of the actuator control unit (pressure regulators, pressure switches, flow control valves, etc.) meet the plant requirements. (v) Check that there are no leaks in the pneumatic connections. If necessary, tighten the nuts of the pipe fittings. (vi) Remove all rust and, in accordance with the applicable painting specifications, repair paint coat that has been damaged during transport, storage, or assembly. (3) Mounting the actuator onto the valve. The actuator can be assembled onto the valve flange either by using the actuator housing flanges with threaded holes, or by the interposition of an adaptor flange or a spool piece. The actuator drive sleeve is generally connected to the valve stem by an insert bush or a stem extension. The assembly position of the actuator, with reference to the valve, must comply with the plant requirements (cylinder axis

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parallel or perpendicular to the pipeline axis). To assemble the actuator onto the valve, proceed as follows: (a) Check that the coupling dimensions of the valve flange and stem, or of the relevant extension, meet the actuator coupling dimensions. (b) Bring the valve to the “closed” position. (c) Lubricate the valve stem with oil or grease in order to make the assembly easier. Be careful not to pour any of it onto the flange. (d) Clean the valve flange and remove anything that might prevent a perfect adherence to the actuator flange, especially all traces of grease, since the torque is transmitted by friction. (e) If an insert bush or stem extension for the connection to the valve stem is supplied separately, assemble it onto the valve stem and fasten it by tightening the proper stop dowels. (f) Bring the actuator to the “closed” position. (g) Connect a sling to the support points of the actuator and lift it: make sure the sling is suitable for the actuator weight. When possible, it is easier to assemble the actuator to the valve if the valve stem is in the vertical position. In this case the actuator must be lifted while keeping the flange in the horizontal position. (h) Clean the actuator flange and remove anything that might prevent a perfect adherence to the valve flange, especially all traces of grease. (i) Lower the actuator onto the valve in such a way that the insert bush, assembled on the valve stem, enters the actuator drive sleeve. This coupling must take place without forcing and only with the weight of the actuator. When the insert bush has entered the actuator drive sleeve, check the holes of the valve flange. If they do not meet with the holes of the actuator flange or the stud bolts screwed into them, the actuator drive sleeve must be rotated; feed the actuator cylinder with air at the proper pressure or actuate the manual override, if existing, until coupling is possible. (j) Tighten the nuts of the connecting stud bolts evenly with the torque prescribed in the table. (k) If possible, operate the actuator to check that it moves the valve smoothly. It is important that the mechanical stops of the actuator (and not those of the valve) stop the angular stroke at both extreme valve positions (fully open and fully closed), except when otherwise required by the valve operation

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (e.g., metal-seated butterfly valves). The setting of the open valve position is performed by adjusting the travel stop screw in the left wall of the mechanism housing, or in the end flange of the manual override, if that exists. The setting of the closed valve position is performed by adjusting the travel stop screw in the cylinder end flange. Proceed as follows: (i) Loosen the lock nut. (ii) If the actuator angular stroke is stopped before reaching the end position (fully open or closed), unscrew the stop screw by turning it counterclockwise, until the valve reaches the correct position. When unscrewing the stop screw, keep the lock nut still with a wrench so that the sealing washer does not withdraw together with the screw. (iii) Tighten the lock nut. (iv) If the actuator angular stroke is stopped beyond the end position (fully open or closed), screw the stop screw by turning it clockwise until the valve reaches the correct position. (v) Tighten the lock nut. (4) Maintenance. Before carrying out any maintenance operation, it is necessary to close the pneumatic feed line and exhaust the pressure from the actuator cylinder and from the control unit, to ensure the safety of maintenance staff. (a) Routine maintenance. Most actuators have been designed to work for long periods in the severest conditions with no need for maintenance. It is, however, advisable to periodically check the actuator as follows: (i) Check that the actuator operates the valve correctly and with the required operating times. If the actuator operation is very infrequent, we can carry out a few opening and closing operations with all the existing controls (remote, local, emergency controls, etc.), if this is allowed by the plant conditions. (ii) Check that the signals to the remote control desk are correct. (iii) Check that the air supply pressure value is within the required range. (iv) If there is an air filter on the actuator, bleed the condensed water accumulated in the cup by opening the drain cock. Disassemble the cup periodically and wash it with soap and water; disassemble the filter: if this is made of a sintered cartridge, wash it with nitrate solvent and blow through it with air. If the filter is made of cellulose, it must be replaced when clogged.

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(v) Check that the external components of the actuator are in good condition. (vi) Check all the paint coat of the actuator. If some areas are damaged, repair the paint coat according to the applicable specification. (vii) Check that there are no leaks in the pneumatic connections. If necessary tighten the nuts of the pipe fittings. (b) Special maintenance. If there are air leaks in the pneumatic cylinder or a malfunction in the mechanical components, or in case of scheduled preventative maintenance, the actuator must be disassembled and seals must be replaced with reference to the sectional drawing, adopting the following procedures: (i) disassemble the actuator correctly; (ii) carry out the seal replacement in the actuator; (iii) reassemble the actuator correctly.

1.2.3

Hydraulic Actuators

Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes requiring quick and accurate response, as they do not require a large amount of motive force. However, when a large amount of force is required to operate a valve such as the main steam system valves, hydraulic actuators are normally used. A hydraulic actuator receives pressure energy and converts it to mechanical force and motion. Fluid power systems are manufactured by many organizations for a very wide range of applications, which often embody differing arrangements of components to fulfill a given task. Hydraulic components are manufactured to provide the control functions required for the operation of systems.

1.2.3.1

Operating Principle

(1) Hydraulic cylinders. A cylinder is a hydraulic actuator that is constructed of a piston or plunger that operates in a cylindrical housing by the action of liquid under pressure. Cylinder housing is a tube in which a plunger (piston) operates. In a ram-type cylinder, a ram actuates a load directly. In a piston cylinder, a piston rod is connected to a piston to actuate a load. At the end of a cylinder from which a rod or plunger protrudes is a rod end. Its opposite end is the head end. The hydraulic connections are a head-end port and a rod-end port (fluid supply). (a) Single-acting cylinder. This cylinder has only a head-end port and is operated hydraulically in one direction. When oil

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(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

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is pumped into a port, it pushes on a plunger, thus extending it. To return or retract a cylinder, oil must be released to a reservoir. A plunger returns either because of the weight of a load or from some mechanical force such as a spring. In mobile equipment, a reversing directional valve of a singleacting type controls flow to and from a single-acting cylinder. Double-acting cylinder. This cylinder must have ports at the head and rod ends. Pumping oil into the head end moves a piston to extend a rod while any oil in the rod end is pushed out and returned to a reservoir. To retract a rod, flow is reversed. Oil from a pump goes into the rod end, and the head-end port is connected to allow return flow. The flow direction to and from a double-acting cylinder can be controlled by a double-acting directional valve or by actuating control of a reversible pump. Differential cylinder. In a differential cylinder, the areas where pressure is applied on a piston are not equal. On a head end, a full piston area is available for applying pressure. At a rod end, only an annular area is available for applying pressure. The area of a rod is not a factor, and what space it does take up reduces the volume of oil it will hold. Two general rules about a differential cylinder: with an equal GPM delivery to either end, a cylinder will move faster when retracting because of a reduced volume capacity. With equal pressure at either end, a cylinder can exert more force when extending because of the greater piston area. In fact, if equal pressure is applied to both ports at the same time, a cylinder will extend because of a higher resulting force on a head end. Nondifferential cylinder. This cylinder has a piston rod extending from each end. It has equal thrust and speed either way, provided that pressure and flow are unchanged. A nondifferential cylinder is rarely used on mobile equipment. Ram-type cylinder. A ram-type cylinder is a cylinder in which the cross-sectional area of a piston rod is more than one-half the cross-sectional area of the piston head. In many cylinders of this type, the rod and piston heads have equal areas. A ram-type actuating cylinder is used mainly for push rather than pull functions. Piston-type cylinder. In this cylinder, a cross-sectional area of a piston head is referred to as a piston-type cylinder. A piston-type cylinder is used mainly when the push and pull functions are needed.

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A single-acting, piston-type cylinder uses fluid pressure to apply force in one direction. In some designs, the force of gravity moves a piston in the opposite direction. However, most cylinders of this type apply force in both directions. Fluid pressure provides force in one direction and spring tension provides force in the opposite direction. Most piston-type cylinders are double acting, which means that fluid under pressure can be applied to either side of a piston to provide movement and apply force in a corresponding direction. This cylinder contains one piston and pistonrod assembly and operates from fluid flow in either direction. The two fluid ports, one near each end of a cylinder, alternate as inlet and outlet, depending on the directional-control valve flow direction. This is an unbalanced cylinder, which means that there is a difference in the effective working area on the two sides of a piston. A cylinder is normally installed so that the head end of a piston carries the greater load; that is, a cylinder carries the greater load during a piston-rod extension stroke. (g) Cushioned cylinder. To slow an action and prevent shock at the end of a piston stroke, some actuating cylinders are constructed with a cushioning device at either or both ends of a cylinder. This cushion is usually a metering device built into a cylinder to restrict the flow at an outlet port, thereby slowing down the motion of a piston. (h) Lockout cylinders. A lockout cylinder is used to lock a suspension mechanism of a tracked vehicle when a vehicle functions as a stable platform. A cylinder also serves as a shock absorber when a vehicle is moving. Each lockout cylinder is connected to a road arm by a control lever. When each road wheel moves up, a control lever forces the respective cylinder to compress. Hydraulic fluid is forced around a piston head through restrictor ports causing a cylinder to act as a shock absorber. When hydraulic pressure is applied to an inlet port on each cylinder’s connecting eye, an inner control-valve piston is forced against a spring in each cylinder. This action closes the restrictor ports, blocks the main piston’s motion in each cylinder, and locks the suspension system. (2) Hydraulic motors. Hydraulic motors convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. In industrial hydraulic circuits, pumps and motors are normally combined with a proper valve and pipe to form a hydraulic-powered transmission. A pump, which is mechanically linked to a prime mover, draws fluid from a reservoir

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY and forces it to a motor. A motor, which is mechanically linked to the workload, is actuated by this flow so that motion or torque, or both, are conveyed to the work. (a) Gear-type motors. Both gears are driven gears, but only one is connected to the output shaft. Operation is essentially the reverse of that of a gear pump. Flow from the pump enters chamber A and flows in either direction around the inside surface of the casing, forcing the gears to rotate as indicated. This rotary motion is then available for work at the output shaft. (b) Vane-type motors. Flow from the pump enters the inlet, forces the rotor and vanes to rotate, and passes out through the outlet. Motor rotation causes the output shaft to rotate. Since no centrifugal force exists until the motor begins to rotate, something, usually springs, must be used to initially hold the vanes against the casing contour. However, springs usually are not necessary in vane-type pumps because a drive shaft initially supplies centrifugal force to ensure vane-to-casing contact. Vane motors are balanced hydraulically to prevent a rotor from side-loading a shaft. A shaft is supported by two ball bearings. Torque is developed by a pressure difference as oil from a pump is forced through a motor. On the trailing side open to the inlet port, the vane is subject to full system pressure. The chamber leading the vane is subject to the much lower outlet pressure. The difference in pressure exerts the force on the vane that is, in effect, tangential to the rotor. This pressure difference is effective across vanes. The other vanes are subject to essentially equal force on both sides. Each will develop torque as the rotor turns. The body port is the inlet, and the cover port is the outlet. Reverse the flow and the rotation becomes clockwise; otherwise the rotation is counterclockwise. In a vane-type pump, the vanes are pushed out against a cam ring by centrifugal force when a pump is started up. A design motor uses steel-wire rocker arms to push the vanes against the cam ring. The arms pivot on pins attached to the rotor. The ends of each arm support two vanes that are 90° apart. When the cam ring pushes vane A into its slot, vane B slides out. The reverse also happens. The pressure plate of a motor functions the same as a pump’s. It seals the side of a rotor and ring against internal leakage, and it feeds system pressure under the vanes to hold them out against a ring. This is a simple operation in a pump because a pressure plate is right by a high-pressure port in the cover. (c) Piston-type motors. Although some piston-type motors are controlled by directional-control valves, they are often used in

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combination with variable-displacement pumps. This pump– motor combination (hydraulic transmission) is used to provide a transfer of power between a driving element, such as an electric motor, and a driven element. Piston-type motors can be inline-axis or bent-axis types: (i) Inline-axis piston-type motors. These motors are almost identical to the pumps. They come in built-in, fixed-, and variable-displacement models in several sizes. Torque is developed by a pressure drop through the motor. Pressure exerts a force on the ends of the pistons, which is translated into shaft rotation. Shaft rotation of most models can be reversed anytime by reversing the flow direction. Oil from a pump is forced into the cylinder bores through a motor’s inlet port. Force on the pistons at this point pushes them against a swash plate. They can move only by sliding along a swash plate to a point further away from a cylinder’s barrel, which causes it to rotate. The barrel is then splined to a shaft so that it must turn. The displacement of a motor depends on the angle of the swash plate. At maximum angle, displacement is at its highest because the pistons travel at maximum length. When the angle is reduced, piston travel shortens, reducing displacement. If flow remains constant, a motor runs faster, but torque is decreased. Torque is greatest at maximum displacement because the component of piston force parallel to the swash plate is greatest. (ii) Bent-axis piston-type motors. These motors are almost identical to the pumps. They are available in fixed- and variable-displacement models, in several sizes. Variabledisplacement motors can be controlled mechanically or by pressure compensation. These motors operate similar to inline motors except that the piston thrust is against a drive-shaft flange. A parallel component of thrust causes a flange to turn. Torque is the maximum displacement; speed is at a minimum. This design of piston motor is very heavy and bulky, particularly the variabledisplacement motor. Use of these motors on mobile equipment is limited.

1.2.3.2


Table 1.4 gives the basic types of hydraulic actuators in three columns which are cylinder, valve, and motor, and the valve controlling source in three rows which are electro, servo, and piezoelectric. The motion type for

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Table 1.4 Basic Types of Hydraulic Actuators Types of Valve Controller Electro Servo Piezoelectric

Hydraulic Cylinder Actuators

Hydraulic Valve Actuators

Hydraulic Motor Actuators

Linear Linear Linear

Linear Rotary Linear Rotary Linear Rotary

Rotary Rotary Rotary

each type of hydraulic actuator device is specified in each cell of this table, which indicates that cylinders have linear motion only, valves can have both linear and rotary motions, and motors rotary motion only. An actuator can be linear or rotary. A linear actuator gives force and motion outputs in a straight line. It is more commonly called a cylinder but is also referred to as a ram, reciprocating motor, or linear motor. A rotary actuator produces torque and rotating motion. It is more commonly called a hydraulic motor. (1) Hydraulic cylinders and linear actuators. Hydraulic cylinders are actuation devices that utilize pressurized hydraulic fluid to produce linear motion and force. Hydraulic cylinders are used in a variety of power transfer applications. Hydraulic cylinders can be single action or double action. A single action hydraulic cylinder is pressurized for motion in only one direction. A double action hydraulic cylinder can move along the horizontal (x-axis) plane, the vertical (y-axis) plane, or along any other plane of motion. Operating specifications, configuration or mounting, materials of construction, and features are all important parameters to consider when searching for hydraulic cylinders. Important operating specifications for hydraulic cylinders include the cylinder type, stroke, maximum operating pressure, bore diameter, and rod diameter. Choices for cylinder type include tie-rod, welded, and ram. A tie-rod cylinder is a hydraulic cylinder that uses one or more tie-rods to provide additional stability. Tie-rods are typically installed on the outside diameter of the cylinder housing. In many applications, the cylinder tierod bears the majority of the applied load. A welded cylinder is a smooth hydraulic cylinder that uses a heavy-duty welded cylinder housing to provide stability. A ram cylinder is a type of hydraulic cylinder that acts as a ram. A hydraulic ram is a device in which the cross-sectional area of the piston rod is more than

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one-half the cross-sectional area of the moving component. Hydraulic rams are primarily used to push rather than pull and are most commonly used in high-pressure applications. Stroke is the distance that the piston travels through the cylinder. Hydraulic cylinders can have a variety of stroke lengths, from fractions of an inch to many feet. The maximum operating pressure is the maximum working pressure the cylinder can sustain. The bore diameter refers to the diameter at the cylinder bore. The rod diameter refers to the diameter of the rod or piston used in the cylinder. Choices for cylinder configuration are simple configuration or telescopic configuration. A simple configuration hydraulic cylinder consists of a single cylindrical housing and internal components. A telescopic configuration hydraulic cylinder uses “telescoping” cylindrical housings to extend the length of the cylinder. Telescopic configuration cylinders are used in a variety of applications that require the use of a long cylinder in a space-constrained environment. Choices for mounting method include flange, trunnion, threaded, clevis or eye, and foot. The mount location can be cap, head, or intermediate. Materials of construction include steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. Common features for hydraulic cylinders include integral sensors, double end rod, electrohydraulic cylinders, and adjustable stroke. (2) Hydraulic valves. Hydraulic valve actuators convert a fluid pressure supply into a motion. A valve actuator is a hydraulic actuator mounted on a valve that, in response to a signal, automatically moves the valve to the desired position using an outside power source. The hydraulic actuators in hydraulic valves can be either linear like cylinders or rotary like motors. The hydraulic actuator operates under servo-valve control; this provides regulated hydraulic fluid flow in a closed loop system having upper and lower cushions to protect the actuator from the effects of high speed and high mass loads. Piston movement is monitored via a linear voltage displacement transducer (LVDT), which provides an output voltage proportional to the displacement of the movable core extension to the actuator. The outside power sources used by hydraulic valves are normally in these types: (a) electronics (b) servo (c) piezoelectricity. (3) Hydraulic motors and rotary actuator. Hydraulic motors are powered by pressurized hydraulic fluid and transfer rotational kinetic energy to mechanical devices. Hydraulic motors, when

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY powered by a mechanical source, can rotate in reverse direction and act as a pump. Hydraulic rotary actuators use pressurized fluid to rotate mechanical components. The flow of pressurized hydraulic fluid produces the rotation of moving components via a rack and pinion, cams, direct fluid pressure on rotary vanes, or other mechanical linkage. Hydraulic rotary actuators and pneumatic rotary actuators may have fixed or adjustable angular strokes and can include such features as mechanical cushioning, closed-loop hydraulic dampening (oil), and magnetic features for reading by a switch. Motor type is the most important consideration when searching for hydraulic motors. Choices for motor type include axial piston, radial piston, internal gear, external gear, and vane. An axial piston motor uses an axially mounted piston to generate mechanical energy. High-pressure flow into the motor forces the piston to move in the chamber, generating output torque. A radial piston hydraulic motor uses pistons mounted radially about a central axis to generate energy. An alternate-form radial piston motor uses multiple interconnected pistons, usually in a star pattern, to generate energy. Oil supply enters the piston chambers, moving each individual piston and generating torque. Multiple pistons increase the displacement per revolution through the motor, increasing the output torque. An internal gear motor uses internal gears to produce mechanical energy. Pressurized fluid turns the internal gears, producing output torque. An external gear motor uses externally mounted gears to produce mechanical energy. Pressurized fluid forces the external gears to turn, producing output torque. A vane motor uses a vane to generate mechanical energy. Pressurized fluid strikes the blades in the vane, causing it to rotate and produce output torque. Additional operating specifications to consider for hydraulic motors include operating torque, operating pressure, operating speed, operating temperature, power, maximum fluid flow, maximum fluid viscosity, displacement per revolution, and motor weight. The operating torque is the torque that the motor is capable of delivering. Operating torque depends directly on the pressure of the working fluid delivered to the motor. The operating pressure is the pressure of the working fluid delivered to the hydraulic motor. Working fluid is pressurized by an outside source before it is delivered to the motor. Working pressure affects operating torque, speed, flow, and horsepower of the motor. The operating speed is the speed at which the hydraulic motors’ moving parts rotate. Operating speed is expressed in

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revolutions per minute or similar terms. The operating temperature is the fluid temperature range the motor can accommodate. Minimum and maximum operating temperatures are dependent on the internal component materials of the motor and can vary greatly between products. The power the motor is capable of delivering is dependent on the pressure and flow of the fluid through the motor. The maximum volumetric flow through the motor is expressed in terms of gallons per minute or similar units. The maximum fluid viscosity the motor can accommodate is a measure of the fluid’s resistance to shear, and is measured in centipoises (cP), a common metric unit of dynamic viscosity equal to 0.01 poise or 1 mP. The dynamic viscosity of water at 20°C is about 1 cP (the correct unit is cP, but cPs and cPo are sometimes used). The fluid volume displaced per revolution of the motor is measured in cubic centimeters (cc) per revolution, or similar units. The weight of the motor is measured in pounds or similar units.

1.2.3.3 Application Guide (1) Proactive maintenance for hydraulic cylinders. Damaged hydraulic cylinder rods and wiper seals are an eternal problem for users of hydraulic machinery. Dents and gouges on the surface of hydraulic cylinder rods reduce seal life and give dust and other contaminants an easy path into the hydraulic system. These siltsized particles act like lapping compound, initiating a chain of wear in hydraulic components. The top four causes of hydraulic seal failure in cylinders are the following: (a) Improper installation is a major cause of hydraulic seal failure. The important things to watch during seal installation are (1) cleanliness, (2) protecting the seal from nicks and cuts, and (3) proper lubrication. Other problem areas are over tightening of the seal gland where there is an adjustable gland follower or folding over a seal lip during installation. Installing the seal upside down is a common occurrence, too. The solution to these problems is commonsense and taking reasonable care during assembly. (b) Hydraulic system contamination is another major factor in hydraulic seal failure. It is usually caused by external elements such as dirt, grit, mud, dust, ice, and internal contamination from circulating metal chips, breakdown products of fluid, hoses, or other degradable system components. As most external contamination enters the system during rod

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY retraction, the proper installation of a rod wiper and scraper is the best solution. Proper filtering of system fluid can prevent internal contamination. Contamination is indicated by scored rod and cylinder bore surfaces, excessive seal wear and leakage, and sometimes, tiny pieces of metal imbedded in the seal. (c) Chemical breakdown of the seal material is most often the result of incorrect material selection in the first place, or a change of hydraulic system fluid. Misapplication or use of noncompatible materials can lead to chemical attack by fluid additives, hydrolysis, and oxidation–reduction of seal elements. Chemical breakdown can result in loss of seal lip interface, softening of seal durometer, excessive swelling, or shrinkage. Discoloration of hydraulic seals can also be an indicator of chemical attack. (d) Heat degradation is to be suspected when the failed seal exhibits a hard, brittle appearance and/or shows a breaking away of parts of the seal lip or body. Heat degradation results in loss of sealing lip effectiveness through excessive compression set and/or loss of seal material. Causes of this condition may be use of incorrect seal material, high dynamic friction, excessive lip loading, no heel clearance, and proximity to outside heat source. Correction of heat degradation problems may involve reducing seal lip interference, increasing lubrication, or a change of the seal material. In borderline situations, consider all upper temperature limits to be increased by 50°F in hydraulic cylinder seals at the seal interface due to running friction caused by the sliding action of the lips. In response to this problem, a protective cylinder rod cover called Seal Saver has been developed and patented. Seal Saver is a continuous piece of durable material, which wraps around the cylinder and is closed with Velcro. It is then clamped onto the cylinder body and rod end. This makes installation simple with no disassembly of hydraulic cylinder components required. Seal Saver forms a protective shroud over the cylinder rod as it strokes and prevents build-up of contaminants around the wiper seal that is a common cause of rod scoring, seal damage, and contaminant ingress. Research has shown that the cost to remove contaminants is 10 times the cost of exclusion. This, combined with the benefits of extended hydraulic cylinder rod and seal life, makes Seal Saver a cost-effective, proactive maintenance solution.

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(2) Hydraulic cylinder rods maintenance. As a product group, hydraulic cylinders are almost as common as pumps and motors combined. They are less complicated than other types of hydraulic components and are therefore relatively easy to repair. As a result, many hydraulic equipment owners or their maintenance personnel repair hydraulic cylinders in-house. An important step in the repair process that is often skipped is the checking of rod straightness. Bent rods load the rod seals causing distortion, and ultimately premature failure of the hydraulic cylinder seals. Rod straightness should always be checked when hydraulic cylinders are being resealed or repaired. This is done by placing the rod on rollers and measuring the run-out with a dial gauge. The rod should be as straight as possible, but a run-out of 0.5 mm per linear meter of rod is generally considered acceptable. In most cases, bent rods can be straightened in a press. It is sometimes possible to straighten hydraulic cylinder rods without damaging the hard-chrome plating; however, if the chrome is damaged, the rod must be either rechromed or replaced. Black nitride is a relatively recent alternative to the hard chrome-plated hydraulic cylinder rod. With reports of achieved service life three times that of conventional chrome, longer seal life, and comparable cost, black nitride rods for hydraulic cylinders are an option that all hydraulic equipment users should be aware of. Black nitride is an atmospheric furnace treatment developed and patented in the early 1980s. It combines the high surface hardness and corrosion resistance of nitride with additional corrosion resistance gained by oxidation. The process begins with the cleaning and superpolishing of the material to a surface roughness of 6–10 Ra. The steel bars or tubes are then fixed vertically and lowered into an electrically heated pit furnace. (3) Other maintenances for hydraulic cylinders. Hydraulic cylinders are compact and relatively simple. The key points to watch are the seals and pivots. The following lists service tips in maintaining cylinders: (a) External leakage. If the end caps of a cylinder are leaking, tighten them. If the leaks still do not stop, replace the gasket. If a cylinder leaks around a piston rod, replace the packing. Make sure that a seal lip faces toward the pressure oil. (b) Internal leakage. Leakage past the piston seals inside a cylinder can cause sluggish movement or settling under load. Piston leakage can be caused by worn piston seals or rings or scored cylinder walls. The latter may be caused by dirt and

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(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g) (h)

(i)

(j)

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grit in the oil. When repairing a cylinder, replace all the seals and packing before reassembly. Creeping cylinder. If a cylinder creeps when stopped in middle stroke, check for internal leakage. Another cause could be a worn control valve. Sluggish operation. Air in a cylinder is the most common cause of sluggish action. Internal leakage in a cylinder is another cause. If an action is sluggish when starting up a system, but speeds up when the system is warm, check for oil of too high a viscosity (see the machine’s operating manual). If a cylinder is still sluggish after these checks, test the whole circuit for worn components. Loose mounting. Pivot points and mounts may be loose. The bolts or pins may need to be tightened, or they may be worn out. Too much slop or float in a cylinder’s mountings damages the piston-rod seals. Periodically check all the cylinders for loose mountings. Misalignment. Piston rods must work in-line at all times. If they are side-loaded, the piston rods will be galled and the packing will be damaged, causing leaks. Eventually, the piston rods may be bent or the welds broken. Lack of lubrication. If a piston rod has no lubrication, a rod packing could seize, which would result in an erratic stroke, especially on single-acting cylinders. Abrasives on a piston rod. When a piston rod extends, it can pick up dirt and other material. When it retracts, it carries the grit into a cylinder, damaging a rod seal. For this reason, rod wipers are often used at the rod end of a cylinder to clean the rod as it retracts. Rubber boots are also used over the end of a cylinder in some cases. Piston-rod rusting is another problem. When storing cylinders, the piston rods are always retracted to protect them. Burrs on a piston rod. Exposed piston rods can be damaged by impact with hard objects. If a smooth surface of a rod is marred, a rod seal may be damaged. Clean the burrs on a rod immediately, using crocus cloth. Some rods are chromeplated to resist wear. Replace the seals after restoring a rod surface. Air vents. Single-acting cylinders (except ram types) must have an air vent in the dry side of a cylinder. To prevent dirt from getting in, use different filter devices. Most are selfcleaning, but inspect them periodically to ensure that they operate properly.

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1.2.3.4

123

Calibration

Many applications in modern industrial control require numerous hydraulic actuators that direct the flow of hydraulic fluid between the system components when necessary. For example, a typical antilock brake system in cars can include several hydraulic actuators to control the fluid pressure in the individual components such as a master cylinder and a plurality of wheel cylinders. The memory of an actuator control system includes numerous look-up tables which allow the control system to know what electric signals, such as current values, to apply to the actuators in order to yield specific actuation pressures. Typically, these look-up tables are generic tables that are not tailored to the individual actuators in the fluid system. These generic tables are created to account for worst-case part-to-part variances, manufacturing variances, and system variances. Thus, the tolerances of the values contained in the tables are relatively large and result in less than optimal performance of the actuators. Although very expensive actuators can be used to decrease part-to-part variances, the overall system tolerances remain larger. However, less tolerance can be obtained by individually calibrating less expensive actuators to create customized look-up tables for each actuator. The following introduces two calibration examples for hydraulic actuators: (1) Stroke calibration for actuator valve. The first example is stroke calibration for a hydraulic actuator for valves. Figure 1.34 illustrates the working block for this kind of hydraulic actuator that consists of a piston and spring. The spring, which can be preloaded, trends to keep the piston at the initial position. As pressure applied to the piston develops enough force to overcome the spring preload, the piston moves to the opposition until it reaches its maximum stroke.

A

p

s

Valve

Figure 1.34 The working block of a hydraulic actuator for valve (courtesy of Siemens).

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY To determine the stroke positions 0 and 1 in the valve, calibration is required when the valve and actuator are commissioned for the first time. For this purpose, the actuator must be mechanically connected to the valve and supplied with a standard voltage of electric power. The calibration procedure can be repeated as often as necessary. Normally, there is a slot on the printed circuit boards of many actuators. In most cases, to initiate the calibration procedure, the contacts inside this slot must be shortcircuited by, say, a screwdriver. The calibration thus can proceed automatically: (a) actuator runs to the zero stroke position: valve closes, green LED flashes; (b) actuator then runs to the 100 stroke position; (c) measured values are stored; (d) the calibration procedure is finished, and green LED flashes; (e) the actuator now moves to the position defined by control signal of its controller. (2) Resistance calibration for hydraulic pump. Figure 1.35 is the schematic diagram of a hydraulic actuator for pumping oil.

S 2 1 C1

Pump

C2

3

3 R

4

4 5

Figure 1.35 Schematic diagram of a hydraulic actuator. The pump (1) supplies a steady flow of oil to the supply point of a hydraulic Wheatstone bridge labeled as S. The oil continuously flows through the bridge to the return point labeled as R and is finally returned to the pump station. The four variable flow restrictors in this bridge are contained in a valve unit. In this diagram, 2 indicates a pneumatic valve; 4 gives two bellows; 5 is the actuator plate.

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The goal of the calibration is for all four nozzles to have a nominal flow resistance measured by pascals per second per cubic meter. The test should be done at the nominal pressure and flow rate and with the fluid running from the supply to the return (Fig. 1.35). Before starting calibration, ensure that (1) the resistance of each nozzle is equal; (2) the pressure at the two control ports is the same when the electric drive is 0 A; (3) at 0 A drive, the pressure of the control port is half the pressure drop between the supply and the return; (4) the flow through the two sides of the bridge is the same; (5) the valves must be all the same; (6) for each side of the valve, calibration proceeds independently.

1.2.4

Piezoelectric Actuators

Piezoelectric actuators represent an important new group of actuators for active control of mechanical systems. Although the magnitudes of piezoelectric voltages, movements, or forces are small, and often require amplification (e.g., a typical disc of piezoelectric ceramic will increase or decrease in thickness by only a small fraction of a millimeter), piezoelectric materials have been adapted to an impressive range of applications requiring small amounts of displacement (typically less than a few thousandths of an inch of displacement). Today, modern polycrystalline piezoelectric ceramic is mass produced for applications including underwater transducers, point level sensors, medical products, ultrasonic cleaners, actuators, fish finders, and motors. The piezoelectric effect of the piezoelectric ceramic is used in sensing applications, such as accelerometers, sensors, flow meters, level detectors, and hydrophones as well as in force or displacement sensors. Its inverse piezoelectric effect is used in actuation applications, such as in motors and devices that precisely control positioning, and in generating sonic and ultrasonic signals. Piezoelectric actuators can be used for the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical movement, for accurate positioning down to nanometer levels, for producing ultrasonic energy and sonar signals, and for the conversion of pressure and vibration into electrical energy. Piezoelectric actuators can also be manufactured in a variety of configurations and fabrication techniques. The industry recognizes these devices as monomorphs, bimorphs, stacks, cofired actuators, and flexure elements. Piezoelectric actuators are found in telephones, stereo music systems, and musical instruments such as guitars and drums. The use of piezoelectric actuators is beginning to appear in endoscope lenses used in medical treatment. Piezoelectric actuators are also being used for valves in drilling equipment

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at offshore oil fields. Piezoelectric actuators are also used to control hydraulic valves, act as small-volume pumps or special-purpose motors, and in other applications. The use of piezoelectric actuators is thus steadily growing in advanced fields where conventional actuators are no longer effective. At present, however, this is no more than just a beginning. Piezoelectric actuators that combine a number of superior characteristics will continue to evolve into powerful devices that support our society in the future.

1.2.4.1

Operating Principle

(1) Piezoelectricity. In 1880, Jacques and Pierre Curie discovered an unusual characteristic of certain crystalline minerals: when subjected to a mechanical force, the crystals became electrically polarized. Tension and compression generated voltages of opposite polarity, and in proportion to the applied force. Subsequently, the converse of this relationship was confirmed: if one of these voltage-generating crystals was exposed to an electric field it lengthened or shortened according to the polarity of the field, and in proportion to the strength of the field. These behaviors were called the piezoelectric effect and the inverse piezoelectric effect, respectively. The findings by Jacques and Pierre Curie have been more and more confirmed since then. Many polymers, ceramics, and molecules such as water are permanently polarized; some parts of the molecule are positively charged, whereas other parts of the molecule are negatively charged. This behavior of piezoelectric materials is depicted in Fig. 1.36(a). When the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed mechanical force, a permanently polarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will produce an electric field. This behavior of piezoelectric materials when subject to an imposed force is depicted in Fig. 1.36(b). Furthermore, when an electric field is applied to these materials, the polarized molecules within them will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the material as illustrated in Fig. 1.36(c). Piezoelectricity involves the interaction between the electrical and mechanical behaviors of the material. Static linear relations between two electrical and mechanical variables have approximated this interaction: S = SET + dE, D = dT + eTE,

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1: SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Domain

Dipole

127

Stress

– Voltage +

Electric field

Strains Electric strains

Stress (a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1.36 Behaviors of piezoelectric materials: (a) nonpolarized state when no force and no electricity are applied, (b) polarized state when compression stresses are imposed, and (c) polarized state when electric field is applied after poling.

where S is the strain tensor, T is the stress tensor, E is an electric field vector, D is the electric displacement vector, SE is the elastic compliance matrix when subjected to a constant electric field (the superscript E denotes that the electric field is constant), d is the matrix of piezoelectric constants, and eT is the permittivity measured at constant stress. The piezoelectric effect is, however, very nonlinear in nature. Piezoelectric materials exhibit, for example, a strong hysteresis and drift that is not included in the above model. It should be noted, too, that the dynamics of the material are not described by the two equations above. (2) Piezoelectric actuator. The three basic types of piezoelectric actuators are stacks, linear motors, and benders. (a) Piezoelectric stack actuators. The linear motion produced by the piezoelectric effect has been used for making a stack actuator, which is a multilayer construction: each stack is composed of several piezoelectric layers, as depicted in Fig. 1.37. The required dimensions of the stack can be easily determined from the requirements of the application in question. The height is determined with respect to the desired movement and the cross-sectional area with respect to the desired force. The main problem of stack actuators is the relatively small strain (0, 1–0, 2%) obtained. Using, for example, levers or hydraulic amplifiers can increase the movement. It is noticeable that, in addition to the desired longitudinal movement,

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–

+

Figure 1.37 Structure of a piezoelectric stack.

some lateral movement typically also occurs, which causes the bias of the piezoelectric stack to be away from its straight line. Therefore, a guide has to be used if only longitudinal motion is desired. Figure 1.38 illustrates deviations from straight line accuracy. (b) Linear motors. Since the strain of piezoelectric ceramics is relatively small, displacement amplifiers or hybrid structures are needed. There are many amplification techniques such as levers and hydraulic systems, and piezoelectric motors. In the lever system, amplification is achieved with lever arms that magnify the displacement. The output force of the lever system is significantly smaller than the actuator force. Hydraulic systems generally use a piston for amplification. The principle of the piezohydraulic actuator is illustrated in Fig. 1.39, which develops a hydraulic amplifier based on the use of bellows. This kind of piezohydraulic motor uses a linear piezoelectric actuator to control the liquid input to the fluid chamber which drives the bellows. Piezoelectric motors increase displacement by providing many small steps. There are many different types of linear piezoelectric motors: the main categories are linear stepper motors and ultrasonic motors. The linear steppers include an inchworm motor, a stick and slip actuator, and an impact V

Straightness

H

Flatness

Figure 1.38 Straight line accuracy of piezoelectric stack.

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Fluid chamber

Piezoelectric actuator

Bellows

Figure 1.39 Schematic of piezohydraulic actuator.

drive motor. The ultrasonic motors can be divided into standing wave and traveling wave ultrasonic motors. The operating principles of the inchworm motor, the stick and slip actuator, and the traveling wave ultrasonic motor are described below. (i) Inchworm motors. Inchworm motors are a kind of linear motor in which the linear movement is achieved by using three piezoelectric elements. The operation principle is illustrated in Fig. 1.40. The outer piezoelectric elements work as clamps. The contractions and expansions of the middle element generate the movement of the motor rod. (ii) Stick and slip actuators. The stick and slip actuator is a type of an inertia device that uses inertia of the moving mass. The actuator consists of particular legs and a slider. Each step consists of a slow deformation of the legs and fast jump backward. In slow deformation of the legs, the moving mass follows the legs due to friction (the frictional force is higher than the force caused by the slider inertia). In the sudden jump backward, the slider cannot follow the legs due to its inertia. Figure 1.41 shows the operating principle of stick and slip actuator. (iii) Traveling wave ultrasonic motors. A voltage having two phases drives the traveling wave ultrasonic motor. The voltage is applied to the piezoelectric element at the resonance frequency. The resonance frequency produces a traveling wave. The particles on the surface move along the elliptical trajectories. The motion of the

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY 2 1

3

OFF

Clamp element 1

Extend element 2

Camp element 3

Uncamp element 1

Contract element 2

Camp element 1

Uncamp element 3

Figure 1.40 Operation processes of inchworm motor.

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1: SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Slider

Voltage 2

Leg Stick::1

Time 1

Slip::2

Figure 1.41 Operation principle of the stick and slip actuator.

particles is on the opposite direction of the wave. When a moving body (rotor) is placed in contact with the surface, it moves in the same direction as the particles due to the frictional force produced between the moving body and the elastic body. The ultrasonic piezoelectric motor’s faster response times, higher precision, hard brake with no backlash, high power-to-weight ratio, and smaller packaging envelope more than compensate for the lack of brute horsepower and speed associated with its electromagnetic motor counterparts. (c) Piezoelectric benders. Piezoelectric bending actuators (or piezoelectric cantilevers or piezoelectric bimorphs) bear a close resemblance to bimetallic benders. The application of an electric field across the two layers of the bender results in the expansion of one layer while the other contracts. The net result is a curvature much greater than the length or thickness deformation of the individual layers. With a piezoelectric bender, relatively high displacements can be achieved, but at the cost of force and speed. There are some benders that have only one piezoelectric layer on top of a metal layer, but generally there are two piezoelectric layers and no metal. Two piezoelectric layers make the displacement double in comparison to a single layer version. If the number of piezoelectric layers exceeds two, the bender is referred to as a multilayer. With thinner piezoelectric layers, a smaller voltage is required to produce the same electric field strength, and the benefit of the multilayer benders is, therefore, lower operating voltage. Multilayer benders can be built into one of these two types: a serial or parallel bender. In a serial

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY bender, there are two piezoelectric layers with an antiparallel polarization connected to each other, and two surface electrodes. In this arrangement, one of the electrodes is connected to the ground and the other to the output of a bipolar amplifier. Figure 1.42 gives the schematic of a parallel bender in operation. Parallel benders can be distinguished from serial benders by their three electrodes. In between the two parallel-polarized piezoelectric layers is a middle electrode to which the actual control signal is supplied. The two surface electrodes are connected to the ground and to a fixed voltage. The control voltage is applied to the middle electrode, and it varies between zero and a fixed voltage (Fig. 1.42). The parallel bender can also be connected in such a way that the two surface electrodes are connected to the ground and a bipolar signal is applied to the middle electrode.

1.2.4.2

Basic Types

Piezoelectric devices make use of direct and inverse piezoelectric effects to perform a function. Both these piezoelectric effects are found in the crystal structures of some materials. For example, ceramics acquire a charge when being compressed, twisted or distorted and produced physical displacements when electric voltages are imposed. Several types of devices are available. Some of the most important are listed here: (1) Piezoelectric actuators. Piezoelectric actuators are devices that produce a small displacement with a high force capability when voltage is applied. There are many applications where a piezoelectric actuator may be used, such as ultra-precise positioning and in the generation and handling of high forces or pressures in static or dynamic situations. +Ur

Displacement Electrodes Pr PZT layers

0

Figure 1.42 Schematic of a parallel bender in operation.

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Actuator configuration can vary greatly depending on application. Piezoelectric stack or multilayer actuators are manufactured by stacking up piezoelectric disks or plates, the axis of the stack being the axis of linear motion when a voltage is applied. Tube actuators are monolithic devices that contract laterally and longitudinally when a voltage is applied between the inner and outer electrodes. A disk actuator is a device in the shape of a planar disk. Ring actuators are disk actuators with a center bore, making the actuator axis accessible for optical, mechanical, or electrical purposes. Other less common configurations include block, disk, bender, and bimorph styles. These devices can also be ultrasonic. Ultrasonic actuators are specifically designed to produce strokes of several micrometers at ultrasonic (>20 kHz) frequencies. They are especially useful for controlling vibration, positioning applications, and quick switching. In addition, piezoelectric actuators can be either direct or amplified. The effect of amplification is not only larger displacement, but it can also result in slower response times. The critical specifications for piezoelectric actuators are displacement, force, and operating voltage of the actuator. Other factors to consider are stiffness, resonant frequency, and capacitance. Stiffness is a term used to describe the force needed to achieve a certain deformation of a structure. For piezoelectric actuators, it is the force needed to elongate the device by a certain amount. It is normally specified in terms of newtons per micrometer. Resonance is the frequency at which the actuators respond with maximum output amplitude. The capacitance is a function of the excitation voltage frequency. (2) Piezoelectric motors. Piezoelectric motors use a piezoelectric ceramic element to produce ultrasonic vibrations of an appropriate type in a stator structure. The elliptical movements of the stator are converted into the movement of a slider pressed into frictional contact with the stator. The consequent movement may either be rotational or linear depending on the design of the structure. Linear piezoelectric motors typically offer one degree of freedom, such as in linear stages. However, these devices can be combined to provide more complex positioning factors. Rotating piezoelectric motors are commonly used in submicrometric positioning devices. Large mechanical torque can be achieved by combining several of these rotational units. Piezoelectric motors have a number of potential advantages over conventional electromagnetic motors. They are generally small and compact when compared with their power output, and provide greater force and torque than their dimensions would

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY seem to indicate. In addition to a very positive size to power ratio, piezoelectric motors have high holding torque maintained at zero input power, and they offer low inertia from their rotors, providing rapid start and stop characteristics. Additionally, they are unaffected by electromagnetic fields, which can hamper other motor types. Piezoelectric motors usually do not produce magnetic fields and they are not affected by external magnetic fields either. Because they operate at ultrasonic frequencies, these motors do not produce sound during operation. However, piezoelectric motors do have some disadvantages. These disadvantages include the need for high voltage, highfrequency power sources, and the possibility of wear at the rotor/ stator interface, which tends to shorten their service life. Piezoelectric motors have been in industrial use for years, but have not been popular due to what was perceived as an exorbitant cost of production and use. However, recent advances have significantly reduced the channel cost of this technology for closedloop systems that require high positioning accuracy. With the use of a wide range of controllers and/or position sensors, the list of piezoelectric motor product applications is constantly growing. Some of the common applications for piezoelectric motors include camera focus systems, computer disk drives, material handling, robotics, and semiconductor testing and production systems. (3) Multilayer piezoelectric benders. High efficiency, low-voltage multilayer benders have been developed to meet the growing demand for precise, controllable, and repeatable deflection devices in the millimeter and micrometer range. Multilayer piezoelectric ceramic benders are devices capable of rapid ( A then the output

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is a mark (1 or off) and when A > B then it is counted as a space (0 or on). In general, a mark is +1 VDC for the A line and +4 VDC for the B line. A space is +1 VDC for the B line and +4 VDC for the A line. At the transmitter end the voltage difference should not be less than 1.5 VDC and not exceed 5 VDC. At the receiver end the voltage difference should not be less than 0.2 VDC. The minimum voltage level is –7 VDC and maximum +12 VDC. (3) RS-530. RS-530 (Recommended Standard-530) employs differential signaling on its send, receive, and clocking signals, as well as its control and handshaking signals. The differential signals for RS-530 are labeled as either “A or B.” At both connectors, wire A always connects to A, and B connects to B. The RS-530 transmitter sends a data 0 (or logic ON) by setting the potential on the A signal to 0.3 V (or more) higher than the voltage on the B signal. The transmitter sends a data 1 (or logic OFF) by setting the potential on the B signal to 0.3 V or more than the voltage on the A signal. The voltage offset (from ground reference) is not to exceed 3 V, however, most receivers can handle much more; check the receiver data sheet for exact limits. This approach is relatively immune to noise when the cable is constructed so that the A and B signal wires are a twisted pair. Shielding the cable is generally not required. Data 0 = A > B + 0.3 V; Data 1 = B > A + 0.3 V Example: Data 0: A = 2 V, B = 1 V; Data 1: A = 1 V, B = 2 V. Most receivers can handle both + and – voltages; again check the data sheet on the part used to be sure. If you have the correct receivers it is possible for the older V.35 (+/–5 V) signaling to be wired to RS-530 or V.11. This is how Cisco and others get many different interfaces on their Smart Serial connectors, and you thought it was magic!

3.2.2.7

IEEE-488

Hewlett-Packard originally developed the IEEE-488 bus called the HP-IB to connect and control programmable instruments, and to provide a standard interface for communication between instruments from different sources. The interface quickly gained popularity in the computer industry. Because the interface was so versatile, the IEEE committee renamed it General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB). Almost any instrument can be used with the IEEE-488 specification, because it says nothing about the function of the instrument itself, or about the form of the instrument’s data. Instead, the specification defines a separate component, the interface, which can be added to the instrument.

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The signals passing into the interface from the IEEE-488 bus and from the instrument are defined in the standard. The instrument does not have complete control over the interface. Often the bus controller tells the interface what to do. The active controller performs the bus control functions for all the bus instruments. (1) IEEE-488 standards. The IEEE-488.1 standard greatly simplified the interconnection of programmable instruments by clearly defining mechanical, hardware, and electrical protocol specifications. For the first time, instruments from different manufacturers were connected by a standard cable. This standard does not address data formats, status reporting, message exchange protocol, common configuration commands, or device specific commands. The IEEE-488.2 standard enhances and strengthens the IEEE488.1 standard by specifying data formats, status reporting, error handling, controller functionality, and common instrument commands. It focuses mainly on the software protocol issues and thus maintains compatibility with the hardware-oriented IEEE488.1 standard. IEEE-488.2 systems tend to be more compatible and reliable. The IEEE-488 standard allows up to 15 devices to be interconnected on one bus. Each device is assigned a unique primary address, ranging from 0 to 30, by setting the address switches on the device. A secondary address may also be specified, ranging from 0 to 30. See the device documentation for more information on how to set the device primary and optional secondary address. The IEEE-488 bus specifies a maximum total cable length of 20 m with no more than 20 devices connected to the bus and at least two-thirds of the devices powered on. A maximum separation of 4 m between devices and an average separation of 2 m over the full bus should be followed. Bus extenders and expanders are available to overcome these system limits. The standard IEEE-488 cable has both a plug and receptacle connector on both ends. Special adapters and nonstandard cables are available for special interconnect applications. (2) Interface signals and data lines. At power-up time, the IEEE488 interface that is programmed to be the System Controller becomes the Active Controller in charge. The System Controller has several unique capabilities including the ability to send Interface Clear (IFC) and Remote Enable (REN) commands. IFC clears all device interfaces and returns control to the System Controller. REN allows devices to respond to bus data once they are addressed to listen. The System Controller may optionally

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pass control to another controller, which then becomes Active Controller. There are three types of devices that can be connected to the IEEE-488 bus (listeners, talkers, and controllers). Some devices include more than one of these functions. The standard allows a maximum of 15 devices to be connected on the same bus. A minimum system consists of one controller and one talker or listener device (i.e., an HP 700 with an IEEE-488 interface and a voltmeter). It is possible to have several controllers on the bus but only one may be active at any given time. The Active Controller may pass control to another controller which in turn can pass it back or on to another controller. A listener is a device that can receive data from the bus when instructed by the controller and a talker transmits data on to the bus when instructed. The controller can set up a talker and a group of listeners so that it is possible to send data between groups of devices as well. The IEEE-488 interface system consists of 16 signal lines and 8 ground lines. The 16 signal lines are divided into 3 groups (8 data lines, 3 handshake lines, and 5 interface management lines). The lines DIO1 through DIO8 are used to transfer addresses, control information, and data. The formats for addresses and control bytes are defined by the IEEE 488 standard. Data formats are undefined and may be ASCII (with or without parity) or binary. DIO1 is the Least Significant Bit (note that this will correspond to bit 0 on most computers). (3) Handshake lines and handshaking. The three handshake lines (NRFD, NDAC, DAV) control the transfer of message bytes among the devices and form the method for acknowledging the transfer of data. This handshaking process guarantees that the bytes on the data lines are sent and received without any transmission errors and is one of the unique features of the IEEE488 bus. (a) The NRFD (Not Ready for Data) handshake line is identified by a listener to indicate it is not yet ready for the next data or control byte. Note that the controller will not see NRFD released (i.e., ready for data) until all devices have released it. (b) The NDAC (Not Data Accepted) handshake line is identified by a listener to indicate it has not yet accepted the data or control byte on the data lines. Note that the controller will not see NDAC released (i.e., data accepted) until all devices have released it. (c) The DAV (Data Valid) handshake line is identified by the talker to indicate that a data or control byte has been placed on

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY the data lines and has had the minimum specified stabilizing time. The byte can now be safely accepted by the devices. The handshaking process is outlined as follows. When the controller or a talker wishes to transmit data on the bus, it sets the DAV line high (data not valid), and checks to see that the NRFD and NDAC lines are both low, and then it puts the data on the data lines. When all the devices that can receive the data are ready, each releases its NRFD (not ready for data) line. When the last receiver releases NRFD, and it goes high, the controller or talker takes DAV low indicating that valid data is now on the bus. In response each receiver takes NRFD low again to indicate it is busy and releases NDAC (not data accepted) when it has received the data. When the last receiver has accepted the data, NDAC will go high and the controller or talker can set DAV high again to transmit the next byte of data. Note that if after setting the DAV line high, the controller or talker senses that both NRFD and NDAC are high, an error will occur. Also if any device fails to perform its part of the handshake and releases either NDAC or NRFD, data cannot be transmitted over the bus. Eventually a timeout error will be generated. The speed of the data transfer is controlled by the response of the slowest device on the bus; for this reason it is difficult to estimate data transfer rates on the IEEE-488 bus as they are always device dependent. (4) Interface management lines. The five interface management lines (ATN, EOI, IFC, REN, and SRQ) manage the flow of control and data bytes across the interface. (a) The ATN (Attention) signal is chosen by the controller to indicate that it is placing an address or control byte on the data bus. ATN is released to allow the assigned talker to place status or data on the data bus. The controller regains control by reasserting ATN; this is normally done synchronously with the handshake to avoid confusion between control and data bytes. (b) The EOI (End or Identify) signal has two uses. A talker may assert EOI simultaneously with the last byte of data to indicate end-of-data. The controller may assert EOI along with ATN to initiate a parallel poll. Although many devices do not use parallel poll, all devices should use EOI to end transfers (many currently available ones do not). (c) The IFC (Interface Clear) signal is selected only by the System Controller in order to initialize all device interfaces to a known state. After releasing IFC, the System Controller is the Active Controller.

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(d) The REN (Remote Enable) signal is selection only by the System Controller. Its selection does not place devices into remote control mode; REN only enables a device to go into remote mode when addressed to listen. When in remote mode, a device should ignore its local front panel controls. (e) The SRQ (Service Request) line is like an interrupt: it may be used by any device to request the controller to take some action. The controller must determine which device is calling for the SRQ by conducting a serial poll. The requesting device releases SRQ when it is polled.

3.3 Human–Machine Interface in Industrial Control 3.3.1

Overview

The term “user interface” refers to the methods and devices that are used to accommodate interaction between machines and the human beings who use them. The user interface of a mechanical system, a vehicle, or an industrial installation and so on is often referred to as the human–machine interface. In any industrial control system, the human–machine interface can be used to deliver information from machine to people, which allows people to control, monitor, and record the system through devices such as image, keyboard, Ethernet, screen, video, radio, software, etc. Actually, the human–machine interface can take many forms. Although there are many techniques and methods used in industry, the human–machine interface always accomplishes two fundamental tasks: communicating information from the machine to the user, and communicating information from the user to the machine. Two industrial applications of the human–machine interface are given below to demonstrate its importance in industry and industrial control. However, in view of the fact that the human–machine interface becomes more and more essential in industry, these two examples are far from representing its applications in industry. A robot control is a good example that requires working with the human– machine interface. This robot control is based on human speech and gestures instead of keyboard or joystick control. In turn, the robot can also respond to the human control orders by using speech and gestures. When both the operator and the robot understand the environment and the work objects, they can communicate easier and the work task can be completed collaboratively. In most robots, the human–machine interface is a key

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component in any work cell. The human–machine interface must allow operators to run the equipment and cell in an intuitive manner. It must be configurable to give each level of personnel appropriate access to various layers of functionality. An autonomous service robot operates in the user’s own environment, performing independent tasks to reach user goals. Applications include, for instance, delivery agents in hospitals and factories, and cleaning robots in the home or in supermarkets. The latest robot controllers now are beginning to offer built-in human–machine interface functionality, complete with touch-screen interfaces, status indicators, program selection switches, part counters, and various other functions, which can be seen in Fig. 3.27. Another example in this aspect is the SCADA system in which the human–machine interface is an essential component. In industry, the human–machine interface in SCADA was born out of a need for a userfriendly front-end to a control system containing PLC. While a PLC does provide automated, preprogrammed control over a process, they are usually distributed across a plant, making it difficult to gather data from them manually. Additionally, the PLC information is usually in a crude userunfriendly format. The SCADA of human–machine interface gathers information from the PLCs via some form of network, and combines and formats the information. A sophisticated human–machine interface may also be linked to a database, to provide instant trending, diagnostic data,

Figure 3.27 A touch-screen shot of the human–machine interface for a robot (courtesy of Siemens).

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scheduled maintenance procedures, logistic information, detailed schematics for a particular sensor or machine, and expert-system troubleshooting guides. Since about 1998, many companies, especially all major PLC manufacturers, have offered integrated SCADA and human–machine interface systems for its comprehensive range of facilities for industrial automation and process control. These companies recognized the benefits of using the same reliable monitoring and control software throughout their business, from shop floor through to top management. Many of them used open and nonproprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party SCADA packages with the human–machine interface, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, and technicians to configure the human–machine interface by themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software developer. Figure 3.28 is a diagram including an SCADA system and its control screen in Website.

3.3.2

Human–Machine Interactions

Automated systems have penetrated virtually every area of our private life and our work environments. Development work on technical products is accelerating, and the products themselves are becoming increasingly complex and powerful. Human–machine interaction is already playing a vital role along the entire production process, from planning individual links in the production chain right through to designing the finished product. Innovative technology is made for humans, used and monitored by humans. The optimum form for this interaction depends on whether a technical innovation is reliable in operation, is safe, is accepted by personnel, and, last but not least, is cost-effective. This interplay between technology and user, known as human–machine interaction, is hence at the very heart of industrial automation, automated control, and industrial production.

3.3.2.1 The Models for Human–Machine Interactions Modeling the human–machine interaction is done simply to depict how human and machine interact in a system. The human–machine interaction model illustrates a typical information flow (or process context) between the “human” and “machine” components of a system. Figure 3.29 provides the components involved in each side of the human–machine interaction. The environment side has three components: Machine display component,

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Figure 3.28 A SCADA system and its Website-control screen (Courtesy of Siemens).

Human musculoskeletal component

Human cognitive component

Human sensory component

Machine I/O device component

Machine CPU component

Machine display component

Environment

Interaction

Human

Figure 3.29 The components involved in the human–machine interaction.

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Machine CPU component, and Machine I/O device component. The human side has another three components: Human sensory component, Human cognitive component, and Human musculoskeletal component. In modern control systems, a model is a common architecture for grouping several machine configurations under one label. The set of models in a control system corresponds to a set of unique machine behaviors. The operator interacts with the machine by switching among models manually, or monitoring the automatic switching triggered by the machine. However, our understanding of models and their potential contribution to confusion and error is still far from complete. For example, there is widespread disagreement among user interface designers and researchers about what models are, independent of how they affect users. This blurred vision, found not only in the human–machine interaction domain, impedes our ability to develop methods for representing and evaluating human interaction with control systems. This limitation is magnified in high-risk systems such as automated cockpits, for which there is an urgent need to develop methods that will allow designers to identify, early in the design phase, the potential for error. The errors arising from modeling the human–machine interaction are thus an important issue that cannot be ignored. (1) Definition and construct. The constructs of the human–machine interaction model that will be discussed below are measurable aspects of human interaction with machines. As such, they can be used to form the foundation of a systematic and quantitative analysis. (a) Models’ behaviors. One of the first treatments of models came in the early 1960s from the science of cybernetics, the comparative study of human control systems and complex machines. The first treatments set forth the construct of a machine with different behaviors. The following is a simplified description of the machine behaviors’ construct: A given machine may have several components (e.g., X1, X2, X3). For each component there is a finite set of states. On “Startup,” for example, the machine initializes itself so that the active state of component X1 is “a,” X2 is “f,” and X3 is “k” (see Table 3.8). The vector of states (a, f, k) thus defines the machine’s configuration on “Startup.” Once a built-in test is performed, the machine can move from “Startup” to “Ready.” The transition to “Ready” can be defined so that for component X1, state “a” undergoes a transition and becomes state “b”; for X2 state “f” transitions to “g”, and for X3, “k”

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY changes to “l”. The new configuration (b, g, l) defines the “Ready” model of the machine. Now, there might be a third set of transitions, for example, to “Engaged” (c, h, m), and so on. The set of configurations labeled “Startup,” “Ready” and “Engaged,” if embedded in the same physical unit, corresponds to a machine with three different ways of behaving. A real machine whose behavior can be so represented is defined as a machine with “input.” The input triggers the machine to change its behavior. One source of input to the machine is manual; the user selects the model, for example, by turning a switch, and the corresponding transitions take place. But there can be another type of input: If some other machine selects the model, the input is “automatic.” More precisely, the output of the other machine becomes the input to our machine. For example, a separate machine performs a built-in test and outputs a signal that causes the machine in Table 3.8 to transition from “Standby” to “Ready,” automatically. Here in this book, we first define a model as a machine configuration that corresponds to a unique behavior. This is a very broad definition of the term. Later on, we constrain this definition from our special perspective: user interaction with control systems that employ models. (b) Model’s error and ambiguity. Model errors fall into a class of errors that involve forming and carrying out an intention. That is, when a situation is falsely classified, the resulting action may be one that was intended and appropriate for a perceived or expected situation, but inappropriate for the actual situation. However, there remains an open question as to what kind of situations lead to model error. This issue can be addressed by an example of a word processor. Specifically, we looked at situations in which the user’s input has different interpretations, depending on model. For example, in one

Table 3.8 A Machine with Different Behaviors

Startup Ready Engaged

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word processing application, the keystroke d can be interpreted as either (1) the literal text “d,” or (2) as the command “delete.” The interpretation depends on the word processor’s active model: either Text or Command. Model error can be linked to model ambiguity with interjecting the notion of user expectations. In this view, “model ambiguity” will result in model error only when the user has a false expectation about the result of his or her actions. There are two types of ambiguity: one that leads to model error, and one that does not lead to model error. An example of model ambiguity that does lead to model error is timesharing operating systems in which keystrokes are buffered until a “Return” or “Enter” key is pressed. However, when the buffer gets full, all subsequent keystrokes are ignored accordingly. This feature leads to two possible outcomes; all or only a portion of the keystrokes will be processed. The two outcomes depend on the state of buffer which is either “not full” or “full.” Since the state of the buffer is unknown to the user, false expectations may occur. The user’s action: hitting the “Return” key and seeing only part of what was keyed on the screen is therefore a “model error” because the buffer has already filled up. An example of model ambiguity that does not lead to model error is a common end-of-line algorithm which determines the number of words in a line. An ambiguity is introduced because the criteria for including the last word on the current line, or wrapping to the next line, are known to the user. Nevertheless, as long as the algorithm works reasonably well, the user will not complain because he or she has not formed any expectation about which word will stay on the line or scroll down, and either outcome is usually acceptable. Therefore, model error will not take place, even though model ambiguity does indeed exist. (c) User factors: Task, knowledge, and ability. One important element that constrains user expectations is the task at hand. If discerning between two or more different machine configurations is not part of the user’s task, model error will not occur. Consider, for example, the radiator fan of your car. Do you know what configuration (OFF, ON) it is in? The answer, of course, is no. There is no such indication in most modern cars. The fan mechanism changes its mode automatically depending on the output of the water temperature sensor. Model

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY ambiguity exists because at any point in time, the fan mechanism can change its model or stay in the current model. The configuration of the fan is completely ambiguous to the driver. But does such model ambiguity lead to model error? The answer is obvious; not at all because monitoring the fan configuration is not part of the driver’s task. Therefore, the user’s task is an important determinant of which machine configurations must be tracked by the user and which machine configurations need not be tracked. The second element that is part of the assessment of user expectations is user knowledge about the machine’s behaviors. By this, we mean that the user constructs some mental model of the machine’s “response map.” This mental model allows the user to track the machine’s configuration, and most importantly, to anticipate the next configuration of the machine. Specifically, our user must be able to predict what the new configuration will be following a manually triggered event or an automatically triggered event. The problem of reliably anticipating the next configuration of the machine becomes difficult when the number of transitions between configurations is large. Another factor in user knowledge is the number of conditions that must be evaluated as TRUE, before a transition from one model to another takes place. For example, the automated flight control systems of modern aircraft can execute a fully automatic (hands-off) landing. Several conditions (two engaged autopilots, two navigation receivers tuned to the correct frequency, identical course set, and more) must be TRUE before the aircraft will execute automatic landing. Therefore, in order to reliably anticipate the next model configuration of the machine, the user must have a complete and accurate model of the machine’s behavior, including its configurations, transitions, and associated conditions. This model, however, does not have to be complete in the sense that it describes every configuration and transition of the machine. Instead, as discussed earlier, the details of the user’s model must be merely sufficient for the user’s task, which is a much weaker requirement. The third element in the assessment of user expectations is the user ability to sense the conditions that trigger a transition. Specifically, the user must be able to first sense the events (e.g., a flight director is engaged; aircraft is more than 400 ft above the ground) and then evaluate whether or not the transition to a model (say, a vertical navigation) will take place. These events are usually made known to the user

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through an interface. Nevertheless, there are more than a few control systems in which the interface does not depict the necessary input events. Such interfaces are said to be incorrect. In large and complex control systems, the user may have to integrate information from several displays in order to evaluate whether the transition will take place or not. For example, one of the conditions for a fully automated landing in a two-engine jetliner is that two separate electrical sources must be online, each one supplying its respective autopilot among the two autopilots. This information is external to the automatic flight control system, in the sense that it involves another aircraft system. The user’s job of integrating events, some of which are located in different displays, is not trivial. One important requirement for an efficient design is for the interface to integrate these events and provide the user with a succinct cue. In summary, we have discussed three elements that help to determine whether a given model ambiguity will or will not lead to false expectations. First is the relationship between model ambiguity and the user’s task. If distinguishing between models (e.g., radiator fan is “ON” or “OFF”) is not part of the user’s task, no meaningful errors will occur. Second, in a case where model ambiguity is relevant to the user’s task, we assess the user’s knowledge. If the user has an inaccurate and or incomplete model of the machine’s response map, he or she will not be able to anticipate the next configuration and model confusion will occur. Third, we evaluate the user’s ability to sense input events that trigger transitions. The interface must provide the user with all the necessary input events. If it does not, no accurate and complete model will help; the user may know what to look for but will never find it. As a result, confusion and model error will occur. (2) Classifications and types. A classification of the human–machine interaction models is proposed here to encompass three types of models in automated control systems: (1) “Interface models” that specify the behavior of the interface, (2) “Functional models” that specify the behavior of the various functions of a machine, and (3) “Supervisory models” that specify the level of user and machine involvement in supervising the process. Before we proceed to discuss this classification, we shall briefly describe a modeling language, “State Charts,” that will allow us to represent these models. In Chapter 5 of this book, Finite State Machine Model is given as a natural medium for describing the behavior of a model-based

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY system. A basic fragment of such a description is a state transition which captures the states, conditions or events, and transitions in a system. The State Chart language is a visual formalism for describing states and transitions in a modular fashion by extending the traditional Finite State Machine to include three unique features: “hierarchy,” “concurrency,” and “broadcast.” The “hierarchy” is represented by substates encapsulated within a super state. The “concurrency” is shown by means of two or more independent processes working in parallel. The “broadcast” mechanism allows for coupling of components, in the sense that an event in one end of the network can trigger transitions in another. These features of the State Chart are further explained in the following three examples. (a) Interface models. Figure 3.30 is a modeling structure of an interface model. It has three concurrently active processes (separated by a broken line): speed knob behavior, speed knob indicator, and speed window display. The behavior of the speed knob (middle process) is either “normal” or “pushed-in.” (These two states are depicted, in the State Chart language, by two rounded rectangles.) The initial state of the speed knob is normal (indicated by the small arrow above the state), but when momentarily pushed, the speed knob engages or disengages the Speed Intervene submode of the vertical navigation (VNAV, hereafter) model. The transition between normal and pushed-in is depicted by a solid arrow and the label “push” describes the triggering event. The transition back to normal occurs immediately as the pilot lifts his or her finger (the knob is spring loaded).

Speed knob (behavior) Speed knob (indicator)

Normal

Speed window (display) Closed d1 [disengaging VNAV .or. (in VNAV and b)]

Blank

Push/b d2 [engaging VNAV .or. (in VNAV and b)] Pushed-in

Open

Figure 3.30 An interface model.

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The left-most process shown in Fig. 3.30 is the speed knob indicator. In contrast to many such knobs that have indicators, the Boeing-757 speed knob itself has no indicator and therefore is depicted as a single (blank) state. The right-most process is the speed window display that can be either closed or open. After VNAV is engaged, the speed window display is closed (implying that the source of the speed is from another component, the flight management computer). After VNAV is disengaged, and a semiautomatic model such as vertical speed is active, the speed window display is open, and the pilot can observe the current speed value and enter a new speed value. This logic is depicted in the speed knob indicator process in Fig. 3.30: transition d1 from closed to open is conditioned by the event “disengaging VNAV,” and d2 will take place when the pilot is “engaging VNAV.” When in vertical navigation model, the pilot can engage the Speed Intervene submodel by pushing the speed knob. This event, “push” (which can be seen in speed knob behavior process), triggers event b, which is then broadcast to other processes. Being in VNAV and sensing event b (“in VNAV and b”) is another (.OR.) condition on transition d1 from closed to open. Likewise, it is also the condition on transition d2 that takes us back to closed. To this end, the behavior of the speed knob is circular; the pilot can push the knob to close and push it again to open, ad infinitum. As explained above and seen in Fig. 3.30, there are two sets of conditions on the transitions between close and open. Of all these conditions, one, namely “disengaging VNAV,” is not always directly within the pilot’s control; it sometimes takes place automatically (e.g., during a transition from VNAV to the altitude hold model). Manual reengagement of VNAV will cause the speed parameter in the speed window to be replaced by economy speed computed by the flight management computer. If the speed value in the speed window was a restriction required by the American Transport Council, the aircraft will now accelerate/decelerate to the computed speed and the American Transport Council speed restriction will be ignored! (b) Functional models. When we survey the use of models in devices, an additional type of model emerges: the “functional model” which refers to the active function of the machine that produces a distinct behavior. An automatic gearshift mechanism of a car is one example of a machine with different models, each one defining different behaviors.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY As we move to discussion of functional models and their uses in machines that control a timed process, we encounter the concept of “dynamics.” In dynamic control systems, the configuration and resulting behavior of the machine are a combination of a model and its associated parameter (e.g., speed, time, etc.). Referring back to our car example, the active model is the engaged gear that is Drive, and the associated parameter is the speed that corresponds to the angle of the accelerator pedal (say, 65 miles/h). Both model (Drive) and parameter (65 miles/h) define the configuration of the mechanism. Figure 3.31 depicts the structure of a functional model in the dynamic automated control system of a modern airliner. Two concurrent processes are depicted in this modeling structure: (1) models, and (2) parameter sources. Three models are depicted in the vertical models superstate in Fig. 3.31: vertical navigation, altitude hold, and vertical speed (the default model). All are functional models related to the vertical aspect of flight. The speed parameter can be obtained from two different sources: the flight management computer or the model control panel. The default source of the speed parameter, indicated by the small arrow

Vertical autopilot (models) Speed (parameter) Vertical navigation m2 / rv1 Altitude hold m1

Flight management computer

rv1 Model control panel

Vertical speed

Figure 3.31 A functional model.

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in Fig. 3.31, is the model control panel. As mentioned in the discussion on interface models, engagement of vertical navigation via the model control panel will cause a transition to the flight management computer as the source of speed. This can be seen in Fig. 3.31 where transition m2 will trigger event rv1, which, in turn, triggers an automatic transition (depicted as a broken line) from “model control panel” to “flight management computer.” In many dynamic control mechanisms, some model transitions trigger a parameter source change while others do not. Such independence appears to be a source of confusion to operators. (c) Supervisory models. The third type of model we discuss here is “supervisory models” that sometimes are also referred to as “participatory” or “control” models. Modern automated control mechanisms usually allow the user flexibility in specifying the level of human and machine involvement in controlling the process. That is, the operator may decide to engage a manual model in which he or she is controlling the process; a semiautomatic model in which the operator specifies target values, in real time, and the machine attempts to maintain them; or fully automatic models in which the operator specifies in advance a sequence of target values, that is parameters, and the machine executes these automatically, one after the other. Figure 3.32 is an example of a supervisory model structure that can be found in many control mechanisms, such as the automated flight control system, cruise control of a car, and robots on assembly lines. The modeling structure consists of hierarchical layers of superstates, each with its own set of models. The supervisory models in the Automated Flight Control System are organized hierarchically. Three main levels are described in Fig. 3.32. The highest level of automation is the vertical navigation model (level 3), depicted as a superstate at the top of the models pyramid. Two submodels are encapsulated in the vertical navigation model; VNAV Speed and VNAV Path; each one exhibiting a somewhat different control behavior. One level below (level 2) are two semiautomatic models: vertical speed and altitude hold. One model in the Automated Flight Control System, altitude capture, can only be engaged automatically; no direct manual engagement is possible. This model engages automatically when the aircraft is beginning the level-off maneuver to capture the selected altitude. When the aircraft is

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Automated flight control system models

Semiautomatic models Vertical navigation VNAV speed

VNAV path

3

Vertical speed Altitude hold 2 m3 1

m4 Altitude capture

Figure 3.32 A supervisory model.

several hundred feet from the selected altitude, an automatic transition from any climb model to altitude capture takes place (m3). In this aspect, an example can be that a transition from vertical navigation or vertical speed to altitude capture takes place (m3). Finally, when the aircraft reaches the selected altitude, a transition back from altitude capture to altitude hold model also takes place automatically (m4). In summary, we have illustrated a modeling language, Start Charts, for representing human interaction with control systems, and proposed a classification of three different types of models that are employed in computers, devices, and supervisory control systems. The “Interface models” change display format. The “Functional models” allow for different functions and associated parameters. Last are “Supervisory models” that specify the level of supervision (manual, semiautomatic, and fully automatic) in the human–machine system. The three types of models described here are essentially similar, in that they all define the manner in which a certain component of the machine behaves. The component may be the interface

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only, a function of the machine, or the level of supervision. This commonality brings us back to our general working definition of the term “model,” a machine configuration that corresponds to unique behavior.

3.3.2.2

Systems of Human–Machine Interactions

There are three architectures of human–machine systems that are currently popular in industrial control: (1) adaptive human–machine interface, (2) supervisory human–machine interface, (3) distributed human–machine interface. (1) Adaptive human–machine interface. In a complex control system, human–machine interface is attempted to give users the means to perceive and manipulate easily huge quantities of information under resource constraints such as time, cognitive workload, devices, etc. The intelligence in the human–machine interface makes the control system more flexible and more adaptable. One subset of intelligent user interface is adaptive interfaces. An adaptive interface modifies its behavior according to some defined constraints in order to best satisfy all of them, and varies in the ways and means that are used to achieve adaptation. In human–machine interface of an industrial control, operators, system, and context are continuously changing and are sometimes in contradiction with one another. Thus, this kind of interface can be viewed as the result of a balance between these three components and their changing relative importance and priority. An adaptive interface aims at assisting the operator in acquiring the most salient information in any context, in most appropriate form, and at the most opportune time. In any industrial control systems, two main factors are considered: the system that generates the information stream and the operator to which this stream is presented. The system and the operator share a common goal: to control the process and to solve any problems that may arise. This common objective makes them cooperate although they may both have their own goals. The role of the interface is to integrate these different goals with different levels of importance and the various constraints that come from the task, the environment, or the interface itself in order to produce an information presentation that best harmonizes the set of all these parameters. Specifically, an industrial process control should react consistently, in a timely fashion without disturbing the operator needlessly in his task. However the most salient pieces of information should be presented in the most appropriate way.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The two main adaptation triggers used to modify the human– machine interface could be (a) The process. When the process moves from a normal state to a disturbed state, the streams of information may become denser and more numerous. To avoid any cognitive overload problems, the interface acts thus as a filter that channels the streams of information. To this end, it adapts the presentation of the pieces of information in order to help the operator identify and solve the problem more quickly, more easily, and more efficiently. (b) The operator. An operator is much more difficult and trickier to drive the adaptation on the user state. As a matter of fact, the interface has to infer whether the operator reacts incorrectly and needs help based on his actions. Then, it may decide to adapt itself to highlight the problem and suggest solutions to assist the user. The aim of the adaptation triggered by the process or the operator is to adapt the composition of the streams of information, that is, to adapt the organization and the presentation of the pieces of information on the interface in the best possible way, according to the state of the process and the inferred state of the operator. What is expected is to improve the communication between the system and the user. The means proposed in an adaptive human–machine interface to reach this are the following: (i) Highlight relevant pieces of information. The importance of a piece of information depends on its relevance according to the particular goals and constraints of each of the entities that participates in the communication between the system and the operator. (ii) Optimize space usage. According to the current usage of the resources, it may turn out that it is necessary to reorganize the display space to cope with new constraints and parameters. (iii) Select the best representation. According to the piece of information, its importance, the resources available, and the media currently in usage, the most appropriate media to communicate with the operator should be used. (iv) Timeliness of information. The display of a particular piece of information should be timely regarded the process and the operator. This adaptation should follow the evolution of the process over time, but it should also adapt the timing of the displayed information to the inferred needs of the operator.

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(v) Perspectives. In traditional interfaces, the operator has to decide what, where, when, and how the information should be presented. Thus, an operator can wonder whether he or she needs an adaptive interface to achieve their task or whether it will constitute more a bother than a help to him or her. This raises at least four questions: (1) From the client’s point of view, whether the cost of developing an adaptive human–machine interface is justifiable. (2) From the human–machine interface designer’s point of view, whether this kind of interface is usable and how to evaluate its usability. (3) From the developer’s point of view, what are the best technical solutions to implement an efficient system within the required time? (4) From the operators’ point of view, whether they consider such an adaptive interface as a collaborator or a competitor. (2) Supervisory human–machine interface. Supervisory human– machine interface can be used in such systems and similar ones where there is a considerable distance between the control room and the machine house in a plant. It is from this machine house that the controller such as SCADA or PLC controls the objects which are, for example, pumps, blowers and purification monitors, etc. To provide the data communication, the supervisory software of the human–machine interface is linked with the controllers over a network such as Ethernet, Control Area Network, and so on. The supervisory software is such that only one person is needed at any one time to monitor the whole plant from a single master device. The generated graphics show a clear representation on screen of the current status of any part of the system. A number of alarms are automatically activated directly on screen if parameters deviate from their tight tolerance band. This ensures extremely rapid updating of the control room screen contents. All the calculations for the controllers are calculated by the control software, using constant feedback from sensors throughout the production process. According to many applications, the supervisory human– machine interface is indeed an ideal software package for these cases above. Thanks to its interactive configuration and its setting assistants, supervisory human–machine interface is able to straightforwardly get the system up and running and tested out. Supervisory human–machine interface is an open architecture which offers all the functions and options necessary for data collection and graphical representation of data on the operator screen. The system provides comprehensive logging of all

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY measured values with databases. By accessing this database and by using real-time measurements, a wide variety of reports and trend curves can be viewed on the screen or output to a printer. (3) Distributed human–machine interface. The distributed human– machine interface is a component-based approach. In a system of such an approach, the human–machine interface could directly access any controller component, which also means that each controller exposes the human–machine interface. Since all the system components are location transparent the human–machine interface can bind to a component anywhere, be it in-process, local-process, or remote process. The most likely case is remote binding because it would be assumed that the human–machine interface and the controller would reside on different platforms. In the distributed human–machine interface, the multiple servers are typically used to provide the systems with the flexibility and power of a peer-to-peer architecture. Each controller can have its own human–machine interface server. The assigned server to a controller or a proxy server of a controller is perfect for each controller to manage expansion, frequent system changes, maintenance, and replicated automation lines within or across plants. Instead of a single data server, each controller component provides its own data services through a proxy server. The primary drawback to decentralized components is the uncertainty of real-time controller performance generally resulting from poorly designed proxy agent use, for example, if the human– machine interface samples controller data at too high a frequency. However, the distributed human–machine interface is ideal for SCADA applications. Its distributed peer-to-peer architecture, reusable components, and remote deployment and maintenance capabilities make supporting SCADA applications remarkably efficient. The software’s network services have been optimized for use over slow and intermittent networks, which significantly enhance application deployment and communications.

3.3.2.3

Designs of Human–Machine Interactions

The design for a human–machine interface is important, because the human–machine interface of an application will often make or break this application. Although the functionality that an application provides to users is important, the way in which it provides that functionality is of the same importance. An application that is difficult to use will not be used. So, the value of human–machine interface design should not be underestimated.

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(1) Design principles. The following describes a collection of principles for improving the quality of human–machine interface design. (a) The structure principle. The human–machine interface design should organize the interface purposefully, in meaningful and useful ways based on clear, consistent models that are apparent and recognizable to users, putting related things together and separating unrelated things, differentiating dissimilar things and making similar things resemble one another. The structure principle is concerned with overall interface architecture. (b) The simplicity principle. The human–machine interface design should make simple, common tasks simple to do, communicating clearly and simply in the user’s own language, and providing good shortcuts that are meaningfully related to longer procedures. (c) The visibility principle. The human–machine interface design should keep all needed options and materials for a given task visible without distracting the user with extraneous or redundant information. Good designs do not overwhelm users with too many alternatives or confuse them with unneeded information. (d) The feedback principle. The human–machine interface design should keep users informed of actions or interpretations, changes of state or condition, and errors or exceptions that are relevant and of interest to the user through clear, concise, and unambiguous language familiar to users. (e) The tolerance principle. The human–machine interface design should be flexible and tolerant, reducing the cost of mistakes and misuse by allowing undoing and redoing, while also preventing errors wherever possible by tolerating varied inputs and sequences and by interpreting all reasonable actions. (f) The reuse principle. The human–machine interface design should reuse internal and external components and behaviors, maintaining consistency with purpose rather than merely arbitrary consistency, thus reducing the need for users to rethink and remember. (2) Design process. (a) Phase one. The design process begins with a task analysis in which we identify all the stakeholders, examine existing control or production systems and control and production processes, whether they are paper-based or computerized, and identify ways and means to streamline and improve the control or production process. Tasks at this phase are to

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY conduct background research, interview stakeholders, and observe people conducting tasks. (b) Phase two. Once having an agreed-upon objective and set of functional requirements, the next step should go through a design phase to generate a design that meets all the requirements. The goal of the design process is to develop a coherent, easy to understand software front-to-end that makes sense to the eventual users of the system. The design and review cycle should be iterated until we are satisfied with our design. (c) Phase three. The next phase is implementation and test. We are also developing and implementing any performance support aids as necessary, for example, on-line help, paper manuals, etc. (d) Phase four. Once a functional system is complete, we move into the final phase. What constitutes “success” is that people using our system, whether it be an intelligent tutoring system or online decision aid, are able to see solutions that they could not see before and/or better understand the constraints that are in place. We generally conduct formal experiments, comparing performance using our system with perhaps different features turned on and off to make contributions to the literature on decision support and human– machine interaction. (3) Design evaluation. An important aspect of human–machine interaction is the methodology for evaluation of user interface techniques. Precision and recall measures have been widely used for comparing the ranking results of noninteractive systems, but are less appropriate for assessing interactive systems. The standard evaluations emphasize high recall levels. However, in many interactive settings, users require only a few relevant documents and do not care about high recall to evaluate highly interactive information access systems. Useful metrics beyond precision and recall include: time required to learn the system, time required to achieve goals on benchmark tasks, error rates, and retention of the use of the interface over time. Empirical data involving human users is time consuming to gather and difficult to draw conclusions from. This is due in part to variation in users’ characteristics and motivations, and in part to the broad scope of information access activities. Formal psychological studies usually only uncover narrow conclusions within restricted contexts. For example, quantities such as the length of time it takes for a user to select an item from a fixed

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menu under various conditions have been characterized empirically, but variations in interaction behavior for complex tasks like information access are difficult to account for accurately. A more informal evaluation approach is called a heuristic evaluation in which user interface affordances are assessed in terms of more general properties and without concern about statistically significant results.

3.3.3

Interfaces

For all industrial control systems, a high degree of user friendliness at the interface between human and machine is a decisive prerequisite for being accepted by the general public. Ambient Intelligence applications are characterized by multimodal interfaces as well as by the pro-active behavior of the controller system. Therefore, various interfaces must be sensibly combined with each other, and the interaction with humans must be perfectly adapted to the individual situation of the human. Specific challenges include, among others, the selection of suitable interfaces for specific applications, the dynamic changes of interfaces based on changes in the state of the human such as “experiences gained” or “accident,” as well as the experience-based optimization of such interfaces. Regarding selection, methods are currently being developed that can suggest suitable interfaces based on a comprehensive characterization of the requirements. This methodology is very comprehensive and complex, since the requirements involve human properties such as their desire for information or personal preferences. Further evaluation and optimization of the methodology are absolutely indispensable. This work urgently requires the collaboration of psychologists. With respect to the dynamic changing of interfaces, this must be supported at least by semiautomatic generation. Experience-based patterns may be a suitable approach for this. Concerning the optimization of interfaces, an increase of acceptance through experience-based optimization can be envisioned. Such assistance systems already exist in vehicles, where, for example, the type of acceleration can be adapted to the style of driving of the respective driver.

3.3.3.1

Devices

(1) Operator interface terminals. These human–machine interfaces are operator interface terminals with which users interact in order to control other devices. Some human–machine interfaces include

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY knobs, levers, and controls. Others provide programmable function keys or a full keypad. Devices that include a processor or interface to personal computers are also available. Many human– machine interfaces include alphanumeric or graphic displays. For ease of use, these displays are often backlit or use standard messages. When selecting human–machine interfaces, important considerations include devices supported and devices controlled. Device dimensions, operating temperature, operating humidity, and vibration and shock ratings are other important factors. Many human–machine interfaces include flat panel displays (FPD) that use liquid crystal display (LCD) or gas plasma technologies. In LCD, an electric current passes through a liquid crystal solution that is trapped between two sheets of polarizing material. The crystals align themselves so that light cannot pass, producing an image on the screen. LCD can be monochrome or color. Color displays can use a passive matrix or an active matrix. Passive matrix displays contain a grid of horizontal and vertical wires with an LCD element at each intersection. In active matrix displays, each pixel has a transistor that is switched directly on or off, improving response times. Unlike LCD, gas plasma displays consist of an array of pixels, each of which contains red, blue, and green subpixels. In the plasma state, gas reacts with the subpixels to display the appropriate color. These human–machine interfaces differ in terms of performance specifications and I/O ports. Performance specifications include processor type, random access memory (RAM), and hard drive capacity, and other drive options. I/O interfaces allow connections to peripherals such as mice, keyboards, and modems. Common I/O interfaces include Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, RS-232, RS-422, RS-485, small computer system interface (SCSI), and universal serial bus (USB). Ethernet is a local area network (LAN) protocol that uses a bus or star typology and supports data transfer rates of 10 Mbps. Fast Ethernet is a 100 Mbps specification. RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 are balanced serial interfaces for the transmission of digital data. Small computer systems interface (SCSI) is an intelligent I/O parallel peripheral bus with a standard, device-independent protocol that allows many peripheral devices to be connected to the SCSI port. Universal serial bus (USB) is a four-wire, 12-Mbps serial bus for low-to-medium speed peripheral device connections. These human–machine interfaces are available with a variety of features. For example, some devices are web-enabled or networkable. Others include software drivers, a stylus, and support for a keyboard, mouse, and printer. Devices that provide real-time

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clock support use a special battery and are not connected to the power supply. Power-over-Ethernet (PoE) equipment eliminates the need for separate power supplies altogether. These human–machine interfaces that offer shielding against electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI) are commonly available. Devices that are designed for harsh environments include enclosures that meet standards from the National Electronics Manufacturers’ Association (NEMA). (2) Operator interface monitors. Machine controllers and monitors use electronic numeric control and a monitoring interface for programming and calibrating computerized machinery. This product area includes general-purpose machine controllers, embedded machine controllers, machine monitors, CNC stepper motors, and CNC router controllers. A machine controller is a programmable, automatic, and computer numerically controlled (CNC) device. An embedded machine controller is part of a larger system. A machine monitor is used to collect and display production data from production equipment such as presses. A CNC stepper motor is used to drive a machine tool with power and precision. A CNC router controller is used to cut tool paths. Many other types of machine controllers and monitors are also available. Machine controllers and monitors consist of many different components. A machine controller uses a microprocessor to perform predetermined control and logical operations. Memory is added to the processor in order to record data from the machine. Often, an input device is used to provide menus or options. Some embedded machine controllers provide 16-axis pulse motion control capabilities. Others include antivibration design mechanisms. Machine monitors track a machine’s uptime, downtime, and idle time. They also allow operators to enter a reason for downtime or nonproductive activities. In some cases, a machine monitor can be programmed to require the entry of a reason code after each downtime event. In this way, machine controllers and monitors can be configured to meet the needs of specific machinery and industries. Machine controllers and monitors are used in many different applications. Some machine control products are used to regulate medical equipment such as respirators. Others are used in aerospace, automotive, or military applications. An embedded machine controller can be used in a printing machine, pipe bending equipment, CNC stepper motor, or CNC router controller. Embedded machine controllers are also used in the manufacture of semiconductors and electronic devices. Machine controllers

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY and monitors with integral software are used in industries where reliability, quality, and cost are important considerations. (3) Industrial control pendants. Industrial control pendants are sophisticated, hand-held terminals that are used to control robot or machine movements from point to point, within a determined space. They consist of a hanging control console furnished with joysticks, push buttons, or rotary cam switches. A type of industrial control pendant, teach pendants are the most popular robotics teaching method, and are used widely with all types of robots, in many industries. As the robot moves within this determined space, the various points are recorded into its memory banks, and can be located later on through subsequent playback. There are a number of teach pendant types available, depending on the type of application for which they will be used. If the goal is simply to monitor and control a robotics unit, then a simple control box style is suitable. If additional capabilities such as on the fly programming are required, more sophisticated boxes should be used. Industrial control pendants are equipped with switches, dials, and pushbuttons through which data is relayed to the robotics unit, and additional monitoring systems if necessary. The relationship between industrial control pendants and their subservient unit is generally established via an interconnected cabling system. However, more advanced wireless devices are also available. During use, the operator actuates the switches on manual pendants in a specific order. This, in turn, causes the robot, end effectors, or machine, to move to and from the desired points. As the end effector reaches the desired point, the operator uses the record pushbutton to enter the location into the robot, or robot controller’s memory banks. This is the most common programming method for playback robots. The usage of industrial control pendants is common; however it has a significant disadvantage in that the operator must divert his and her attention away from the movement of the machine during programming in order to locate the appropriate pushbutton to move the robot. The use of a joystick provides a solution to this problem as the movement of the stick in a certain direction propels the robot or machine in that direction. This option is available on more advanced industrial control pendant types. (4) SCADA HMI (human–machine interface) devices. Distributed control systems (DCS) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems are system architectures for process control applications. A distributed control system (DCS) consists of

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a programmable logic controller (PLC) that is networked both to other controllers and to field devices such as sensors, actuators, and terminals. A DCS may also interface to a workstation. A SCADA system is a process control application that collects data from sensors or other devices on a factory floor or in remote locations. The data is then sent to a central computer for management and process control. SCADA systems provide shop floor data collection and may allow manual input via bar codes and keyboards. Both distributed control systems (DCS) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems often include integral software for monitoring and reporting. There are several parts to a supervisory control and data acquisition system or SCADA system. To control SCADA, a SCADA system integrator, SCADA security, and SCADA HMI are required. A SCADA system integrator is used to interface a SCADA system to an external application. SCADA security uses one or more computers at a remote site to monitor and control sensors or shop floor devices. SCADA security includes remote terminal units (RTU), a communications infrastructure, and a central control room where monitoring devices such as workstations are housed. SCADA HMI is a human machine interface that accounts for human factors in engineering design. Distributed control systems (DCS) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems are used in a variety of industries. Distributed control systems or DCS systems are used to control traffic lights and manage chemical processing, pharmaceutical, and power generation facilities. Supervisory control and data acquisition systems or SCADA systems are used in warehouses, petrochemical processing, iron and steel production, food processing, and agricultural applications. Providers of distributed control systems and supervisory control and data acquisition systems are located across the United States and around the world.

3.3.3.2 Tools Operator interface mounts and arms are articulating components used to hold and position industrial computer monitors, keyboards, or other operator interfaces. Operator interface mounts and arms are designed to improve the physical and spatial relationships between machines and the humans that operate them. The science of these relationships, called ergonomics, is the study of human–machine interactions. Ergonomically compatible products are designed to maximize productivity and minimize

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operator fatigue, discomfort, and injury. The goal of using operator interface mounts and arms as part of an ergonomics program is to reduce injuries, illnesses, and musculoskeletal disorders in the workplace. Several of the most common types of ergonomic operator interface mount and arm products include computer accessories (e.g., keyboard drawer, mouse tray, glare screen, wrist rest, and monitor support arm) and workstation accessories (e.g., instrumentation booms, articulating supports, foot rests, chairs, document stands). A monitor support arm is a type of operator interface mount that is designed to support computer screens or monitors in work stations, control centers, and operating theaters. A support arm should combine stability and full adjustability to meet the operator’s needs. A support arm can be a desk, wall, ceiling, or mobile mounting arm. Articulating supports are movable support arms that a user can readjust for the height or location of monitors and equipment in relation to the user’s eyes or hands. Keyboard drawers are used to store unused keyboards. A monitor drawer mounts an LCD and keyboard within a rack frame or enclosure so that a monitor can be folded down and stored when not in use. Instrumentation booms are another type of operator interface mounts and arms. This type of operator interface mount is used to support various types of equipment, including computer or industrial monitors, video equipment, and manufacturing equipment. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has a four-pronged, comprehensive approach to ergonomics, including operator interface mounts and arms, that is designed to quickly and effectively address musculoskeletal disorders in the workplace. The OSHA approach includes industry or task specific guidelines, enforcement actions, outreach and assistance activities, and a national advisory committee.

3.3.3.3

Software

The human–machine interface (HMI) software enables operators to manage industrial and process control machinery via a computer-based graphical user interface (GUI). There are two basic types of HMI software: supervisory level and machine level. The supervisory level is designed for control room environment and used for system control and data acquisition (SCADA), a process control application which collects data from sensors on the shop floor and sends the information to a central computer for processing. The machine level uses embedded, machine-level devices within the production facility itself. Most human–machine interface software is designed for either supervisory level or machine level; however,

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applications that are suitable for both types of HMI are also available. These software applications are more expensive, but can eliminate redundancies and reduce long-term costs. Selecting human–machine interface software requires an analysis of product specifications and features. Important considerations include system architectures, standards and platforms; ease of implementation, administration, and use; performance, scalability, and integration; and total costs and pricing. Some human–machine interface software provides data logging, alarms, security, forecasting, operations planning and control (OPC), and ActiveX technologies. Others support data migration from legacy systems. Communication on multiple networks can support up to four channels. Supported networks include ControlNet and DeviceNet. ControlNet is a real-time, control-layer network that provides high-speed transport of both time-critical I/O data and messaging data. DeviceNet is designed to connect industrial devices such as limit switches, photoelectric cells, valve manifolds, motor starters, drives, and operator displays to programmable logic controllers (PLC) and personal computers (PC). Some human–machine interface software runs on Microsoft Windows CE, a version of the Windows operating system that is designed for hand-held devices. Microsoft and Windows are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. Windows CE allows users to deploy the same human–machine interface software on distributed HMI servers, machinelevel embedded HMI, diskless open-HMI machines, and portable or pocketsized HMI devices.

3.4 Highway Addressable Remote Transducer (HART) Field Communications HART is an acronym for “Highway Addressable Remote Transducer” that represents a two-way digital communication simultaneously with the 4–20 mA analog signaling used by traditional instrumentation equipment in industrial process control. HART was developed in the early 1980s by a company named Rosemount Inc. for the host to perform the management of the field devices in industrial systems. In July 1993, the HART Communication Foundation was established to provide worldwide support for application of this technology. HART Specifications continue to be updated to broaden the range of HART applications. A recent HART development, the Device Description Language (DDL), provides a universal software interface to new and existing devices.

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3.4.1

HART Communication

Most industrial control systems include numerous field system functions. The host controller, therefore, should instantly communicate with all the field instruments and devices while control processes are running for (1) device configuration or reconfiguration, (2) device diagnostics, (3) device troubleshooting, (4) reading the values of additional measurements provided by the device, (5) device health and status, and other requirements. A host in the system can be a Distributed Control System, PLC, and Asset Management System, Safety System, or a hand-held device. By fully using HART communication, industrial control can be benefited in many aspects. Utilizing the full capabilities of HART-enabled devices and systems reduces costs by improving plant operations and increasing efficiency and helps to avoid the high cost of process disruptions and unplanned shutdowns. Properly utilized, the intelligent capabilities of HART-smart devices are a valuable resource for keeping plants operating at maximum efficiency. Real-time HART integration with plant control, safety, and asset management systems unlocks the value of connected devices and extends the capability of systems to detect any problems with the device, its connection to the process, or interference with accurate communication between the device and system. The world’s leading process automation control systems and instrumentation suppliers all support HART Communication in their field device and system products. Most automation system suppliers offer direct HARTenabled I/O and PC-based software applications to leverage the intelligence in HART-smart field devices for continuous device condition monitoring, real-time diagnostics, and multivariable process information.

3.4.1.1

HART networks

(1) Wired HART networks. There are two kinds of wired HART networks available in the industrial control systems. Figure 3.33 displays the architectures of these two wired HART networks; the first (Fig. 3.33(a)) is a point-to-point HART network, and the second (Fig. 3.33(b)) is a multiple-dropped HART network. As shown in Fig. 3.33, wired HART networks include the Host Controller and some field devices that can be transmitters; between the Host and the field devices, this system has an I/O system that can be the system interface with the HART, and a hand-held terminal or hand-held communicator. The type of network with a single Field Instrument that does both HART network functions and analog signaling is probably

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3: SYSTEM INTERFACES FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Analog HART interface

Digital data (2–3 updates per second)

Primary master: control system or other host application

Power supply Transmitter Secondary master (a)

Control system or other host application

Handheld terminal

Input/output (I/O) system

Field devices (b)

Figure 3.33 The architecture of HART networks: (a) the point-to-point HART network and (b) the multiple-dropped HART network. Note: Intrument power is provided by an internal or external power source that is not shown.

the most common type of wired HART network and is called a point-to-point network. In some cases the point-to-point network might have a HART Field Instrument but no permanent HART Master. This might occur, for example, if the user intends primarily analog communication and Field Instrument parameters

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY are set prior to installation. A HART user might also set up this type of network and then later communicate with the Field Instrument using a hand-held communicator (HART Secondary Master). This is a device that clips onto device terminals (or other points in the network) for temporary HART communication with the Field Instrument. A HART Field Instrument is sometimes configured so that it has no analog signal, only HART function. Several such Field Instruments can be connected together (electrically in parallel) on the same network, as in Fig. 3.34. These Field Instruments are said to be multiple-dropped. The Master is able to talk to and configure each one, in turn. When Field Instruments are multidropped there cannot be any analog signaling. The term “current loop” ceases to have any meaning. Multiple-dropped Field Instruments that are powered from the network draw a small, fixed current (usually 4 mA) so that the number of devices can be maximized. A Field Instrument that has been configured to draw a fixed analog current is said to be “parked.” Parking is accomplished by setting the short-form address of the Field Instrument to some number other than 0. A hand-held communicator might also be connected to the network of Fig. 3.34. There are few restrictions on building wired HART networks. The topology may be loosely described as a bus, with drop attachments forming secondary busses as desired, which are illustrated in Fig. 3.35. The whole collection is considered a single network. Except for the intervening lengths of cable, all of the devices are electrically in parallel. The Hand-Held Communicator (HHC) may also be connected virtually anywhere. As a practical matter, however, most of the cable is inaccessible and the HHC has to be connected at the Field Instrument, in junction boxes, or in controllers or marshalling panels. In

Control area

Field area

HART

Master

Current loop (network)

. .

.

Field instrument 1 and 2 and Nth

Figure 3.34 HART network with multiple-dropped field instruments.

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3: SYSTEM INTERFACES FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL F1

F1

Control Field area area Single twisted pair

Secondary bus

F1

F1

Master

Main bus F1 Field instrument

HHC

F1

Figure 3.35 HART network showing free arrangement of devices.

intrinsically safe (IS) installations there will likely be an IS barrier separating the control and field areas. A Field Instrument may be added or removed or wiring changes made while the network is live (powered). This may interrupt an on-going transaction. However, if the network is inadvertently short-circuited, this could reset all devices. The network will recover from the loss of a transaction by retrying a previous communication. If Field Instruments are reset, they will eventually come back to the state they were in prior to the reset. No reprogramming of HART parameters is needed. Digital signaling brings with it a variety of other possible devices and modes of operation. For example, some Field Instruments are HART only and have no analog signaling. Others draw no power from the network. In still other cases the network may not be powered (no DC). There also exist other types of HART networks that depart from the conventional one described here. These are covered in another section. (2) Wireless HART networks. Wireless HART is the first open and interoperable wireless communication standard designed to address the critical needs of the process industry for reliable, robust, and secure wireless communication in real world industrial plant applications. A Wireless HART Network consists of Wireless HART field devices, at least one Wireless HART gateway, and a Wireless HART network manager. These components are connected into

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY a wireless mesh network supporting bidirectional communication from the HART host to field device and back. Figure 3.36 gives the typical Wireless HART network architecture with the principal devices plotted: (a) Network manager. The Network Manager is an application that manages the mesh network and Network Devices. The Network Manager performs the following functions: (1) Forms the mesh network, (2) Allows new devices to connect to the network, (3) Sets the communication schedule of the devices, (4) Establishes the redundant data paths for all communications, (5) Monitors the network. (b) Gateway devices. The gateway device connects the mesh network with a plant automation network, allowing data to flow between the two network devices. The gateway device provides access to the Wireless HART devices by a system or other host application. (c) Network devices. A network device is a node in the mesh network. It can transmit and receive Wireless HART data and perform the basic functions necessary to support network formation and maintenance. Network devices include Plant automation network

n m

Host appllication (e.g., Asset management)

l Gateway

g l

m

Field devices

Network manager e

g

c f

Handheld

Process automation controller Gateway

Existing HART devices a

Adapter

Figure 3.36 Typical wireless HART architecture (courtesy of the HART Communication Foundation).

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field devices, router devices, gateway devices, and mesh hand-held devices. (d) Field devices. The field device may be a process connected instrument, a router, or hand-held device. The Wireless HART network connects these devices together. (e) Router device. A router device is used to improve network coverage (to extend a network) so that it is capable of forwarding messages from other network devices. (f) Process connected instrument. Typically a measuring or positioning device used for process monitoring and control, it is also capable of forwarding messages from other network devices. (g) Adapter. An adapter is a device that allows a HART instrument without wireless capability to be connected to a Wireless HART network. (h) Hand-held support device. Hand-held devices are used in the commissioning, monitoring, and maintenance of network devices; they are portable and operated by the plant personnel. Wireless HART networks can be configured in a number of different topologies to support various application requirements including the following: (a) Star network. Star networks have just one router device that communicates with several end devices. This is one of the simplest network topologies. A star network may be appropriate for small applications. (b) Mesh network. Mesh networks are formed by network devices that are all router devices. Mesh networks provide a robust network with redundant data paths which is able to adapt to changing RF environments. (c) Star mesh network. Star mesh networks are a combination of the star network and mesh network.

3.4.1.2

HART Mechanism

HART communication occurs between two HART-enabled devices, typically a field device and a control or monitoring system. To perform the communication between the host and the field instruments, the analog measurement signal is used to transmit digital information. For this purpose, an additional signal is modulated to the measurement signal using the Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) process. The two frequencies of the additional signal, 1200 and 2200 Hz, represent the bit values 1 and 0. This makes it possible to transfer additional information without affecting the analog measurement signal. As indicated by Fig. 3.37, HART provides

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+0.5 mA HART signal

0 20 mA –0.5 mA 1200 2200 Hz Hz “1” “0”

C

Analog signal

R

C R

R C C

R C = Command R = Response

4 mA

0

1

Time (s)

2

Figure 3.37 HART signaling (digital and analog).

two simultaneous communication channels: the 4–20 mA analog signal and a digital signal. The 4–20 mA signal communicates the primary measured value (in the case of a field instrument) using the 4–20 mA current loop, the fastest and most reliable industry standard. Additional device information is communicated using a digital signal that is superimposed on the analog signal. The digital signal contains information from the device including device status, diagnostics, additional measured or calculated values, etc. Together, the two communication channels provide a complete field communication solution that is easy to use and configure, is low cost and is very robust. The HART signal path from the microprocessor in a sending device to the microprocessor in a receiving device is displayed in Fig. 3.38. Amplifiers, filters, and the network between these two interfaces have been omitted for simplicity in Fig. 3.38. At this level the diagram is the same, regardless of whether a Master or Slave is transmitting. Notice that, if the signal starts out as a current, the FSK is a voltage. But if it starts out a voltage it stays a voltage. The transmitting device begins by turning on its carrier and loading the first byte to be transmitted into its interface circuits. It waits for the byte to be transmitted and then loads the next one. This is repeated until all the

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FSK (current or voltage)

Receiver’s interface (circuits and modem)

Sender’s interface (circuits and modem)

Sender’s microprocessor

Receivers’ microprocessor

Figure 3.38 HART signaling path.

bytes of the message (these messages are always defined as commands that are of predefined format) are exhausted. The transmitter then waits for the last byte to be serialized and finally turns off its carrier. With minor exceptions, the transmitting device does not allow a gap to occur in the serial stream, the start and stop bits are used for synchronization, and the parity bit is part of the HART error detection. The serial character stream is applied to the modulator of the sending modem. The Modulator operates such that a logic 1 applied to the input produces a 1200 Hz periodic signal at the Modulator output. Logic 0 produces 2200 Hz. The type of modulation used is called Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CPFSK). “Continuous Phase” means that there is no discontinuity in the modulator output when the frequency changes. When the sender’s interface output (modulator input) switches from logic 1 to logic 0, the frequency changes from 1200 to 2200 Hz with just a change in slope of the transmitted waveform. A moment’s thought reveals that the phase does not change through this transition. Given the chosen shift frequencies and the bit rate, a transition can occur at any phase. At the receiving end, the demodulator section of a modem in its interface converts FSK back into a serial bit stream at 1200 bps. Each character is converted back into an 8-bit byte and parity is checked. The receiving microprocessor reads the incoming bytes from its interface and checks parity for each one until there are no more or until parsing of the data stream indicates that this is the last byte of the message. The receiving

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processor accepts the incoming message only if its amplitude is high enough to cause carrier detect to be asserted. In some cases, the receiving processor will have to test an I/O line to make this determination. In others, the carrier detect signal gates the receive data so that nothing (no transitions) reaches the receiving interface unless carrier detect is asserted. HART protocol puts most of the responsibility (such as timing and arbitration) into the Masters. This eases the Field Instrument software development and puts the complexity into the device that is more suited to deal with it. A Master typically sends a command and then expects a reply. A Slave waits for a command and then sends a reply. The command and associated reply are called a transaction. There are typically periods of silence (no device is allowed communicating) between transactions. A Slave accesses the network as quickly as possible in response to a Master. Network access by Masters requires arbitration. Masters arbitrate by observing who sent the last transmission (a Slave or the other Master) and by using timers to delay their own transmissions. Thus, a Master allows time for the other Master to start a transmission. The timers constitute dead time when no device is communicating and therefore contribute to “overhead” in HART communication. Each HART field instrument (in normal cases, a field instrument plays a role of Slave) must have a unique address. Each command sent by a Master contains the address of the desired Field Instrument. All Field Instruments examine the command. The one that recognizes its own address sends back a response. This address is incorporated into the command message sent by a Master and is echoed back in the reply by the Slave. Addresses are either 4 bits or 38 bits and are called short and long or “short frame” and “long frame” addresses, respectively. A Slave can also be addressed through its tag (an identifier assigned by the user). Each command or reply is a message that starts with the preamble and is ended with the checksum. The preamble is allowed to vary in length, depending on the requirements in the Slave end. Different Slaves can have different preamble length requirements, so that a Master might need to maintain a table of these values. A Master will use the longest possible preamble when talking to a Slave for the first time. Once the Master reads the Slave’s preamble, it first checks the length requirement (a stored HART parameter), then will subsequently use this new length when talking to that Slave. The checksum at the end of the message is used for error control. It is the exclusive-OR of all of the preceding bytes, starting with the start delimiter. The checksum, along with the parity bit in each character, creates a message matrix having so-called vertical and longitudinal parity. If a message is in error, this usually necessitates a retry.

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One more feature, available in some Field Instruments, is burst mode. A Field Instrument that is burst-mode capable can repeatedly send a HART reply without a repeated command. This is useful in getting the fastest possible updates (about 2–3 times per second) of process variables. If burst mode is to be used, there can be only one bursting Field Instrument on the network. A Field Instrument remembers its mode of operation during power down and returns to this mode on power up. Thus, a Field Instrument that has been parked will remain so through power down. Similarly, a Field Instrument in burst-mode will begin bursting again on power up.

3.4.2

HART System

HART communication in industrial control comprises two folders: HART connection system and HART protocol. This section focuses on the HART system, and the next section will be on the HART protocol. HART system devices work to support the HART protocol by communicating their data over the transmission lines of the 4–20 mA connections. This enables the field devices to be parameterized and initialized in a flexible manner or to read measured and stored data (records). All these tasks require field devices based on microprocessor technology. These devices are frequently called smart devices. For building and maintaining a HART-enabled system, the technical kernel will be choosing the HART-compatible devices, installing the system’s devices, configuring the system’s devices, and calibrating the system’s devices. The key is to make sure that the engineers or designers are requesting or specifying devices or systems that are fully compliant with the HART protocol specification and are tested and registered with the HART Communication Foundation (the HCF). The engineers or designers are required to be assured of these aspects: interoperability with other HART-compatible devices and HART-enabled systems; getting a device that will provide the powerful features of HART technology; specifying a product that will fully integrate into your HART-enabled applications.

3.4.2.1

HART System Devices

The devices constructing a HART connection system have several features that significantly reduce the time required to fully commission a HART-enabled network. When less time is required for commissioning, substantial cost savings are hence achieved. Devices which support the HART protocol are grouped into master (host) and slave (field) devices. Master devices include communicator or hand-held terminals as well as

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PC-based workplaces that stay in a control room. HART slave devices, on the other hand, include sensors, transmitters, and various actuators. The variety ranges from two-wire and four-wire devices to intrinsically safe versions for use in hazardous environments. Field devices and communicators as well as compact hand-held terminals have an integrated FSKmodem, whereas computers or workstations have a serial interface to connect the modem externally. HART communication is often used for such simple point-to-point connections (Fig. 3.33(a)). Nevertheless, many more connection variants are possible. In extended systems, the number of accessible devices can be increased by using a multiplexer. In addition to that, HART enables the networking of devices to suit special applications. Network variants include multiple-dropped (Fig. 3.39), FSK-bus, and networks for split-range operation. (1) HART Communicator. The HART Communicator is the most widely used communicator across the world in industrial control. The HART Communicators are portable devices; their weights have been evenly distributed for comfortable one-handed operation in the field. The result is the universal, user upgradeable, intrinsically safe, rugged and reliable Field Communicator. In HART-enabled systems, the HART Communicators are often

PC host Modem

Multiplexer HART field device

Controller

HART signals

Address 0

4–20 mA

Address 0

Address 0

Figure 3.39 An HART connecting system including the FSK-modem and HART-multiplexer, and HART-buses (courtesy of the SAMSON, Inc.).

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defined by engineers as the Second Master (Fig. 3.33(a)) or Hand-held Terminals (Fig. 3.33(b)). With a memory and a microprocessor or some applicationspecific integrated circuits, the HART Communicator provides a complete solution for configuring and monitoring all HART devices and all Fieldbus devices of an industrial system. It is comprised of three main components plus accessories. These parts consist of the hand-held; the HART interface hardware, and the application software Suite. The Communicator runs on a robust, real-time, operating system. This trio of hardware and software comprises a complete HART field communicator that can be powerful, multifaceted, and portable all in one. The hardware for the HART Communicators primarily includes the HART interface and the pinch connectors. The HART interface is designed to interface to the multiple connectors located on the bottom of the hand-held, allowing communication between the Palm and the HART network. The pinch connectors easily connect to any HART network for instant communication. Most of the HART interface requires no batteries, running solely off the hand-held’s internal power supply. Its compact size and low power consumption makes the interface an ideal solution for portability. The software suite for the HART Communicators includes some distinct applications. Each of these applications is preloaded onto the hand-held and designed for a particular function. The main application of the suite allows communication, monitoring, and configuration of HART-compatible devices. The software is based upon manufacturer device description files (DDL) and thus allows access to all menus and parameters as designed by the manufacturer. This software application allows for the logging of device variable values over time. A wide range of variables can be logged automatically at a user selectable sample time, or manually one by one. These logs can be saved and transferred to a PC for further analysis. This graphing application allows device variables to be trended over time in an easy to view graphical format. Device parameters can be simultaneously graphed in various colors for easy identification. The display makes it easy to read in both bright sunlight and in normal lighting. To make sure all conditions are covered, a multilevel backlight is added, allowing the display to be viewed in those areas of your plant with dim light. The touch sensitive display and large physical navigation buttons provide for efficient use both on the bench and in the field. User upgradeable HART and Fieldbus devices, as well as functional updates to existing devices are introduced continually

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY by device vendors. Keeping up-to-date with the required Device Description (DD) drivers for all the devices in plant can be a real challenge. Nowadays, with the Easy Upgrade option, keeping communicators updated with the most current Device Descriptions (DDs) is an easy job. (2) FSK-Modem. There are often two kinds of modem required in the HART-enabled industrial control networks: USB (Universal Serial Bus) Modem and FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) Modem. These two kinds of modem are all connected with the host PC (Personal Computer) in the HART-enabled networks. This USBModem is just an ordinary PC modem used for computer networks, without special design for HART functions. However, the FSK-Modem should be particularly designed for HART functions. The following will focus on the FSK-Modem. The FSK-modem is designed to provide HART communication capabilities for the implementation of Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) techniques to transfer data. The FSK-modem is also required to conform to the HART network’s physical layer. For this purpose, most FSK-Modems operate at the Bell 202 standard and are made into a chipset containing some integrated circuits. As shown in Fig. 3.37, the FSK is the frequency modulation of a carrier of digital capability. For Simplex or Half Duplex operation, the FSK-modem uses a single carrier in which the communication can only be transmitted in one direction at a time. For Full Duplex, the FSK-modem uses multiple carriers so that data communication can be simultaneous in both directions. The basic block diagram for the FSK-modem chipset is depicted in Fig. 3.40, which illustrates the mechanism of a data modulation and demodulation. This chip is divided into three main parts: receive, transmit, and clock recovery. Both receive

Audio signal input

Low-pass filter

Received digital data

Descrambler

Clock recovery

Recovered clock signal

TX clock Transmitted digital data Scrambler

FIR

Anti-imaging filter

Audio signal output

Figure 3.40 Block diagram of an FSK-modem chipset.

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and transmit blocks are separated and data can be processed in each direction independently. (a) Modulator for transmitting data. The data transmit part in this chipset performs modulation, in which the scrambler is to make a nearly flat spectrum of output signal. The output of the scrambler is connected to a long digital FIR filter. This FIR filter compensates distortion of transmission line and removes sharp edges rising from High-Low or Low-High logic transitions. The FIR filter makes the transmitted signal spectrum narrow to fit bandwidth and compensates the signal for the receiver’s side. The transmit wave’s shapes are stored in an EPROM (an electronic memory, see Chapter 2 of this book). In this way the transmitted waveform is synthesized not only from the present bit’s state, but also the four that preceded it and four to come. Data burnt into EPROM represents filter response for each of 256 combinations. (b) Demodulator for receiving data. At the receiving side, the audio signal going from the discriminator of the transceiver is passed through a low-pass filter to eliminate pertinent higher frequencies, and remove out of band spurious noise and residue. The signal is then limited and detected by sampling at the correct instant. At this point, the detected data, still randomized, are passed through a descrambler, where the original data are recovered and the result goes off to terminal. A descrambler, like a scrambler, is simply to provide the invert function of the scrambler and perforce requires some number of bits to synchronize. (c) Clock recovery. The heart of the receiver is a digital phase locked network (DPLL), which must extract a clock from the received audio stream. It is needed to time the receiver functions, including the all-important data detector. Each waveform has a phase shift of 360/256° from another and is made up of 16 samples. The received audio signal is limited, and a zero crossing detector circuit generates one cycle of 9600 Hz for each zero-crossing (a proto-clock). This is compared with a locally generated clock in a phase detector based on an up/down counter. The counter increments if one clock is early, decrements otherwise. This count then addresses an EPROM mentioned above. In this way, the local clock slips rapidly into phase with that of the incoming data. Local clock signal is derived from the output of EPROM. Output data are converted to sine voltage with maximum amplitude.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Some FSK-modems have one more function block in their chipsets; that is Carrier Detect. The carrier detect function in the FSK-modem is responsible for checking whether or not the modulated or demodulated waves fall in some range of frequencies. The carrier detect output is active low whenever a valid carrier tone between some Hz (inclusive) is detected. Detection occurs when timed transitions remain within the band of these Hz periods for 10 nanoseconds to 1 bit time. Some of the FSK-modem manufacturers use CMOS technologies to make the chipset. The FSK-modem is chipset with pin-out specification. In a HART-enabled network, this FSK-modem should be connected with the host microprocessor or the CPU (Central Processing Unit). Figure 3.41 illustrates how this modem’s pins connect with the CPU in an FSK-modem. (3) HART Multiplexer. In the HART-enabled industrial networks, the HART Multiplexer acts as a gateway between the network management computer and the HART-compatible field devices. Many field devices are distributed over a wide area in industrial process systems, and must be monitored and adapted to the changes in the processing environment. The process system with the HART Multiplexer enables on-line communication between an asset management computer or workstation and those intelligent field devices that support the HART protocol so as to simultaneously fit into the changes in the process system. All actions on the field device are parallel to the transmission of the 4–20 mA

MOD/DEMOD I/O

Carrier detect

CPU

Bandpass filter INRTS OCD

IRXA

HT2012 RX TX

TX data RX data

Waveshape filter

ITXD ORXD

OTXA

1460K OLK

460.8 kHz

M A U

M e d i a n e t w o r k

Figure 3.41 Typical hardware design of an FSK-modem.

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measurement signals and have no influence on the measurement value processing through the process system. Each HART Multiplexer, regardless of whether it is a slave or a master, provides a connection to a specified number of field instruments. Up to thousands of field units can communicate and exchange data with a computer or workstation. Working with a hand-held terminal (HART-communicator) is also possible since the HART protocol accepts two masters (computer and hand-held terminal) in one system. Systems can be easily expanded and the advantages of the HART communications can be exploited. At the present technical level, the system consists of a maximum of 31 HART Multiplexer masters which are linked to the computer with an RS485 interface. Each HART Multiplexer master controls up to 15 HART Multiplexer slaves. At present, the HART Multiplexers are specified as the following three types: (a) HART Multiplexer Master. This is a HART Multiplexer that can operate up to 256 analog field instruments. The built-in slave unit operates the first 16 loops. If more than 16 loops are required, additional slave units can be connected. The slave units are connected to the master with a 14-pin flat cable. The connector for the ribbon cable is found on the same housing side as the connectors for the interface and the power supply. The analog signals are separately linked to a termination board with a 26-pin cable for each unit. Sixteen leads are reserved for the HART signal of the analog measurement circuits. The remaining 10 leads are sent to ground. This unit is designed with removable terminals and can be connected to a Power Rail. (b) HART Multiplexer Slave. This is a HART Multiplexer that can operate up to 16 analog field instruments at the present. In this case, the slave can only be operated with the HART Multiplexer Master and is powered by the master across a 14-pin flat cable connection. Up to 15 slaves can be connected to the master. The slave address is set with a 16 position rotary switch (addresses 1–16). If only one slave is connected to the master, then the slave address should be 1. If multiple slaves are connected, slaves are to be assigned addresses in ascending order. The analog signals are fed into the slave by means of a 26-pin ribbon cable. Sixteen leads are reserved for the HART signal of the analog measurement circuits. The remaining 10 leads are assigned to ground. (c) HART flexible interface. This is a flexible interface board with a HART pick-up connector. This flexible interface

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY board has 16 terminal blocks to connect up to 16 smart field devices. This board can be used for general purpose applications or in conjunction with intrinsic safety barriers for hazardous area applications. The specification of a HART Multiplexer should include these important technical data: (i) HART signal channels (1) Leakage current (µA at some temperature range), (2) Output termination External (measured by Ω), (3) Output voltage (mVpp), (4) Output impedance (measured by Ω, capacitively linked), (5) Input impedance per HART conventions, (6) Input voltage range (mV-Vpp), (7) Input voltage. (ii) Power supply (1) Nominal voltage (VDC), (2) Power consumption (less and equal to some W). (iii) Interface (1) Type is RS-xxx (Some number of wire multidrops), (2) Transmission speed 9600, 19200, 38400 baud, (3) Address selection (32) possible RS-xxx addresses, (4) The transmission speed (unit is “baud”) at the “ON” and “OFF” state for every switch. (iv) Mechanical data (1) Mounting some mm DIN rail or wall mounted, (2) Connection options some-pin ribbon cable for analog; some-pin ribbon cable for master–slave, (3) Removable terminals, maximum some AWG for interface and power supply. (4) HART connecting buses. In industrial process systems, the HART-enabled networks require several kinds of buses for connecting the HART-compatible devices and instruments. A brief description of two of these buses is given below. (a) Bus for split-range operation. In industrial process systems, there are special applications which require that several (usually two) actuators receive the same control signal. A typical example is the split-range operation of control valves. One valve operates in the nominal current range from 4 to 12 mA, while another valve uses the current range from 12 to 20 mA. The split-range operation technique is a solution for this case. In split-range operation, the control valves are connected in series in the current network. When both valves have a HART interface, the HART host device must be

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able to distinguish with which valve it must communicate. To achieve this, the HART protocol revision 6 (anticipated for autumn 1999) and later will be extended by one more network variant. As is the case for multiple-dropped mode, each device is assigned to an address from 1 to 15. The analog 4–20 mA signals preserve its device-specific function, which is, for control valves, the selection of the required travel. (b) FSK-bus. The HART protocol can be extended by the FSK-bus. Similar to a device bus, the FSK-bus can connect approximately 100 HART-compatible devices and address these devices with the technical level at the present. This requires special assembly-type isolating amplifiers (e.g., TET 128). The only reason for the limited number of participants is that each additional participant increases the signal noise. The signal quality is therefore no longer sufficient to properly evaluate the telegram. The HART devices are connected to their analog current signal and the common FSKbus line with the isolating amplifier (Fig. 3.42). From the FSK-bus viewpoint, the isolating amplifiers act as impedance converters. This enables devices with high load to be integrated in the communication network. To address these devices, a special, long form of addressing is used. During the configuration phase, the bus address and the tag number of each device are set with the point-to-point line. During operation, the devices operate with the long addresses. When using the HART command 11 (see the subsection below), the host can also address the device via its tag. In this way, the system configuration can be read and checked during the start-up phase. (5) HART system interface. HART communication between two or more devices can function properly only when all communication participants are able to interpret the HART sine-wave signals correctly. To ensure this, not only must the transmission lines fulfill certain requirements, but the devices in the current network which are not part of the HART communication can impede or even prevent the transmission of the data. The reason is that the inputs and outputs of these devices are specified only for the 4–20 mA technology. Because the input and output resistances change with the signal frequency, such devices are likely to shortcircuit the higher frequency HART signals (1200–2200 Hz). Where a HART communication system is connected with other kinds of communication systems, gateways could be the best interface devices to convert the HART protocol into the

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Host

Safe area

PC

Hazardous area

3780-1 FSK isolating amplifier (Ex-i)

Controller

FSK bus

3780-1

3780-1 • • Up to max. • 100 control loops •

Figure 3.42 The connection architecture of an HART network with the FSK-bus (courtesy of the SAMSON, Inc.).

protocols of the networks to be coupled. In most cases, when complex communications must be performed, Fieldbus systems would be the preferred choice. Even though there is no complex protocol conversion, the HART-enabled system is capable of communicating over long distances. Furthermore, the HART data signals can be transmitted over telephone lines using HART/ CCITT converters, in which the Field devices directly connect to dedicated lines owned by the telephone company, being able to communicate with the centralized host located many kilometers away. However, as already mentioned, within a HART-enabled system, the HART-compatible field devices also require an appropriate communication interface that could be, for example, an integrated FSK-modem or a HART-Multiplexer. As mentioned earlier, the HART signals are imposed on the conventional analog current signal. Whether the devices in the networks are designed in four-wire technique including an

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additional power supply or in two-wire technique, HART communication can be used for both cases. However, it is important to note that the maximum permissible load of a HART device is fixed. The load of a HART device is limited by the HART specification. Another limitation is due to the process controller. The output of the process controller must be able to provide the power for the connected two-wire device. The higher the power consumption of a two-wire device is, the higher its load is. The additional functions of a HARTcommunicating device increase its power consumption, and hence the load, compared to non-HART devices. When retrofitting HART devices into an already existing installation, the process controller must be checked for its ability to provide the power required by the HART-compatible device. The process controller must be able to provide at least the load impedance of the HART device at 20 mA.

3.4.2.2

HART System Installation

The first task before installing a HART-enabled system is checking to verify the HART-compatible devices. Manufacturers have different levels of HART technical implementation in their devices and systems. In fact the capabilities of the HART-compatible devices and HART-enabled system vary widely, which requires when that engineers, when specifying HART technology, consider such factors and parameters as the following: (1) Registered device at the HART Communication Foundation (the HCF). (2) Registered Device-Description at the HART Communication Foundation (the HCF). (3) What is the number of variables this device can measure? (4) Does this device comply with HART specification (in reference of the HCF)? (5) Does the device respond to HART Command 48 (in reference of the HCF’ specifications)? (6) What unique or special features does this device support? (7) What diagnostic features does the device contain? These questions below are for the suppliers of those I/O interface devices: (1) How much HART capability is embedded into the I/O and how smart is it? (2) Can the I/O validate and secure the 4–20 mA signal?

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (3) Is there one HART modem per channel, or is the I/O multiplexed? How fast can it update the HART digital values? (4) In what ways does the system support access to multivariable HART data from multivariable devices? (5) Can you merely “push a button” on the I/O to calibrate the network current or check the range? (6) Does the I/O support multiple-dropped networks? (7) Does the I/O automatically scan and monitor the HARTcompatible field devices or is the scanning only possible using “pass through”?

These questions below should be asked of the control system suppliers: (1) Does your host use a “native” device description or does it require a different file type? (2) Does the system make it easy to use all HART capabilities? (3) How much training is required to learn how to get and use HART data? (4) Review the configuration of a HART-compatible device using the control system. (5) Can the system use secondary digital process variables? (6) Does it understand the HART-compatible device status change? (7) Can the system detect configuration changes? (8) Does the system do notification by exception? (9) How does the system detect changes in configuration and status? (10) How is the HART-compatible device status communicated to the operators? (11) How do you perform tests when there is an error in the device? (12) How open is the system to third party software? Before installation, it is also necessary to enter device tags and other identification and configuration data into each field instrument. After installation, the instrument identification (tag and descriptor) can be verified in the control room using a configuration tool such as hand-held communicator or computer. Some field devices provide information on their physical configuration (e.g., wetted materials). These and other configuration data can also be verified in the control room. The verification process is important for safety. Once a field instrument has been identified and its configuration data confirmed, the analog network integrity can be checked using the network test feature, which is supported by many HART-compatible devices. The network test feature enables the analog signal from a HART transmitter to be fixed at a specific value to verify network integrity and ensure proper

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connection to support devices such as indicators, recorders, and DCS displays. Use the HART protocol network test feature to check analog network integrity and ensure a proper physical connection among all network devices. Additional integrity can be achieved if the analog value is compared to the digital value being reported in a device. For example, someone might have provided an offset to the 4–20 mA analog value that has not been accounted for in the control system. By comparing the digital value of the Primary Variable to the analog value, the network integrity can be verified. There are some ways to integrate HART data and leverage the intelligence in smart field devices. Several simple and cost-effective integration strategies are listed below in order to get more from currently installed HART-compatible devices and instruments (Fig. 3.43). (1) Point-to-point integration. This is the most common way to use HART. The communication capability of HART-compatible devices allows them to be configured and set up for specific applications, reducing costs and saving time in commissioning and maintenance. With connection to the 4–20 mA wires, a device can be integrated from remote locations by connecting anywhere on the current network to obtain device status and diagnostic information. (2) HART-to-analog integration. Signal extractors communicate with HART-compatible devices in real-time (simultaneously) to convert the intelligent information in these devices into 4–20 mA signals for input into an existing analog control system. Add this

Operator’s computer H A R HART system/network controller

T d

HART I/O interface devices

a t a

Filed instruments

Figure 3.43 The dataflow diagram for the integration of the HART data.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY capability one device at a time to get more from the intelligent HART-compatible devices. (3) HART-plus-analog integration. New HART-multiplexer packaging solutions make it easy to communicate with HART-compatible devices by replacing the existing I/O termination panels. The analog control signal continues on to the control system as it does today but the HART data is sent to a device asset management system providing valuable diagnostics information 24/7. Although the control system is not aware of the HART data, this solution provides better access to device diagnostics for asset management improvements. (4) Full HART integration. Upgrading a Field or Remote I/O system provides an integrated path to continuously put HART data directly into your control system. Most new control systems are HART-capable and many suppliers offer software and I/O solutions to make upgrades simple and cost-effective. Continuous communication between the field device and control system enables problems with the devices, its connection to the process, or inaccuracies in the 4–20 mA control signal to be detected automatically so that corrective action can be taken before there is negative impact to the process operation.

3.4.2.3

HART System Configuration

The purpose of the Device Configuration is for accessing its HART Data. There are several methods of accessing the intelligent information in the HART-compatible device on a temporary or a permanent basis. The configuration of a HART-compatible device can be achieved by using the software and hardware tools. To configure a single device on a temporary basis, a universal hand-held configuration tool is needed, with a power supply, a load resister, and a HART-compatible device. Or, configuration can be achieved by using a computer which is capable of running a device configuration application and using a HART-modem. (1) Universal hand-held communicators. HART hand-held communicators are available from major instrumentation suppliers across the world and are supported by the member companies of the HCF. Using Device Description (DD) files, the communicator can fully configure any HART-compatible device for which it has a DD installed. If the communicator does not have the DD for a specific device, it will still communicate and configure the device using the HART Universal and Common Practice commands.

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There are 35–40 standard data items in every registered HARTcompatible device. The data can be accessed by any approved configuration tool such as a communicator. These items do not require the use of a Device Description and typically include the basic functionality for all devices. These are the Universal and Common Practice commands required of every registered HART device. To access the device specific data, a current Device Description is required and provides the communicator with the information it needs to fully access all the device specific capabilities. A HART hand-held communicator, if equipped, can also facilitate record keeping of device configurations. After a device is installed, its configuration data can be stored in memory or on a disk for later archiving or printing. There are many types of hand-held communicators available today; their features and ability should be compared to find those that meet your specific requirements. (2) Computer-based device configuration and management tools. A HART-compatible device can be configured with a desktop or laptop computer (or other portable models) by using a computer-based software application and a HART interface modem (Fig. 3.44). The advantages of using a computer include an improved screen display and support for more Device Descriptions and Device Configurations due to additional computer-based memory storage capacity. Due to the critical nature of device configurations in the plant environment, these

Handheld teminal PC/host application RS232 or USB HART interface

250 Ω resistor

Power supply Field device

Figure 3.44 The connection of a computer with an HART-compatible device for configuration (courtesy of the HCF).

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY computers can also be used as backup storage for data from hand-held communicators. Software applications are available from many suppliers. It is important to review their features to determine ease of use, ability to add or download the Device Descriptions, and general functionality.

3.4.2.4

HART System Calibration

In order to take advantage of the digital capabilities of HART-compatible devices and instruments, especially for precisely reporting the data values of process control, it is essential that these devices and instruments should be calibrated correctly. Like the calibration procedure of other devices, a calibration procedure for HART-compatible devices and instruments consists of a verification test, an adjustment to within acceptable tolerance if necessary, and a final verification test if an adjustment has been made. Furthermore, data from the calibration is collected and used to complete a report of calibration, documenting instrument performance over time. (1) Functional parts of HART devices. For a HART-compatible device, a multiple-point test between input and output does not provide an accurate representation of its operation. Just like a conventional device, the measurement process begins with a technology that converts a physical quantity into an electrical signal. However, the similarity to a conventional device ends here. Instead of a purely mechanical or electrical path between the input and the resulting 4–20 mA output signal, a HARTcompatible device has a microprocessor that manipulates the input data. As shown in Fig. 3.45, there are typically three calculation sections involved, and each of these sections may be individually tested and adjusted in the calibration procedure. Prior to the first box in Fig. 3.45, the microprocessor of this device measures some electrical property that is affected by the process variable of interest. The measured value may be voltage, capacitance, reluctance, inductance, frequency, or some other property. However, before it can be used by the microprocessor, it must be transformed to a digital count by an analog to digital (A/D) converter. In the first box, the microprocessor of this device must rely upon some form of equation or table to relate the raw count value of the electrical measurement to the actual property (PV) of interest such as temperature, pressure, or flow. The principal form of this table is usually established by the manufacturer, but

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3: SYSTEM INTERFACES FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL High and low output trim

mA

PV

Counts Input section

mA

Conversion section PV may be read digitally

D/A counts

Counts

PV

PV

A/D counts

Range and transfer function

mA

High and low sensor trim

Output section

mA may be set and read digitally

Figure 3.45 A functional block diagram of HART-compatible devices.

most HART-compatible devices and instruments include commands to perform field adjustments. This is often referred to as a sensor trim. The output of the first box is a digital representation of the process variable. When engineers read the process variable using a communicator, this is the value that they can see. The second box in Fig. 3.45 is strictly a mathematical conversion from the process variable to the equivalent milliamp representation. The range values of the instrument (related to the zero and span values) are used in conjunction with the transfer function to calculate this value. Although a linear transfer function is the most common, pressure transmitters often have a square-root option. Other special instruments may implement common mathematical transformations or user defined break point tables. The output of the second block is a digital representation of the desired instrument output. When engineers read the network current using a HART-communicator, this is the value that they see. Many HART-compatible instruments support a command which puts the instrument into a fixed output test mode. This overrides the normal output of the second block and substitutes a specified output value. The third box in Fig. 3.45 is the output section where the calculated output value is converted to a count value that can be loaded into a digital to analog converter. This produces the actual analog electrical signal. Once again the microprocessor must rely on some internal calibration factors to get the output correct. Adjusting these factors is often referred to as a current loop trim or 4–20 mA trim. (2) Basic steps of HART calibration. This analysis in (1) above tells us why a proper calibration procedure for a HART-compatible

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY instrument is significantly different from that for a conventional instrument. The specific calibration requirements depend upon the application. If the application uses the digital representation of the process variable for monitoring or control, then the sensor input section (the first box in Fig. 3.45) must be explicitly tested and adjusted. Please note that this reading is completely independent of the milliamp output, and has nothing to do with the zero or span settings. The PV as read with HART communication continues to be accurate even when it is outside the assigned output range. If the current network output is not used (i.e., the instrument is used as a digital only device), then the input section calibration is all that is required. If the application uses the milliamp output, then the output section must be explicitly tested and calibrated. Please note that this calibration is independent of the input section, and again, has nothing to do with the zero and span settings. The same basic multiple point test and adjust technique are employed, but with a new definition for output. To run a test, use a calibrator to measure the applied input, but read the associated output (PV) with a communicator. Error calculations are simpler because there is always a linear relationship between the input and output, and both are recorded in the same engineering units. In general, the desired accuracy for this test will be the manufacturer’s accuracy specification. If the test does not pass, then follow the procedure recommended by the manufacturer for trimming the input section. This may be called a sensor trim and typically involves one or two trim points. Pressure transmitters also often have a zero trim, where the input calculation is adjusted to read exactly zero (not low range). Do not confuse a trim with any form of reranging or any procedure that involves using zero and span buttons. The same basic multiple point test and adjust technique is employed again, but with a new definition for input. To run a test, use a communicator to put the transmitter into a fixed current output mode. The input value for the test is the mA value. The output value is obtained using a calibrator to measure the resulting current. This test also implies a linear relationship between the input and output, and both are recorded in the same engineering units (milliamps). The desired accuracy for this test should also reflect the manufacturer’s accuracy specification. If the test does not pass, then follow the procedure recommended by the manufacturer for trimming the output section. This may be called a 4–20 mA trim, a current loop trim, or a D/A trim. The trim procedure should require two trim points close to or just outside

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of 4 and 20 mA. Do not confuse this with any form of reranging or any procedure that involves using zero and span buttons. After calibrating both the Input and Output sections, a HARTcompatible device or instrument should operate correctly. The middle block in Fig. 3.45 only involves computations. That is why the range, units, and transfer function can be changed without necessarily affecting the calibration. Notice also that even if the instrument has an unusual transfer function, it only operates in the conversion of the input value to a milliamp output value, and therefore is not involved in the testing or calibration of either the input or output sections. (3) Performance verification of HART calibration. If the goal of this calibration is to validate the overall performance of a HARTcompatible device or instrument, it needs just to run a zero and span test like that applied to a conventional instrument. However, passing this test does not definitely indicate that the transmitter is operating correctly, which is due to the following reasons. Many HART-compatible instruments support a parameter called damping. If this is not set to zero, it can have an adverse effect on tests and adjustments. Damping induces a delay between a change in the instrument input and the detection of that change in the digital value for the instrument input reading and the corresponding instrument output value. This damping induced delay may exceed the settling time used in the test or calibration. The settling time is the amount of time the test or calibration waits between setting the input and reading the resulting output. It is advisable to adjust the instrument damping value to zero prior to performing tests or adjustments. After calibration, be sure the damping constant is returned to its required value. There is a common misconception that changing the range of a HART-compatible instrument by using a communicator somehow calibrates the instrument. Remember that a true calibration requires a reference standard, usually in the form of one or more pieces of calibration equipment to provide an input and measure the resulting output. Therefore, since a range change does not reference any external calibration standards, it is really a configuration change, not a calibration. Please note that in the block diagram of HART-compatible devices (Fig. 3.45), changing the range only affects the second box. It has no effect on the digital process variable as read by a communicator. Using only the zero and span adjustments to calibrate a HARTcompatible instrument (the standard practice associated with conventional instruments) often corrupts the internal digital readings. As shown in Fig. 3.45, there is more than one output to consider.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The digital PV and milliamp values read by a communicator are also outputs, just like the analog current network. The proper way to correct a zero drift condition is to use a zero trim. This adjusts the instrument input block so that the digital PV agrees with the calibration standard. If intending to use the digital process values for trending, statistical calculations, or maintenance tracking, then it should disable the external zero and span buttons and avoid using them entirely.

3.4.3

HART Protocol

HART protocol is widely recognized as the industry standard for digitally enhanced 4–20 mA field instrument communication in process control. In industrial process control, the HART protocol provides a uniquely backward compatible solution for filed instrument communication as both 4–20 mA analog and digital signals are transmitted simultaneously on the same wiring.

3.4.3.1

HART Protocol Model

HART communication uses a master–slave protocol which means that a field device as slave speaks only when it is spoken to by a device as master. In every communication, a master device sends a “command” message first; while receiving this command message, the slave device processes it and then sends back a “response” message to that master device (Fig. 3.46). Both the “command” and “response” messages include the HART-data and must be formatted in accordance with the relevant HCF (HART Communication Foundation) specifications.

Master

Slave Command Indication

Request Time out

Response

Response

Confirmation

Figure 3.46 The HART master–slave protocol model.

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The HART protocol can be used in various modes for communicating information to and from smart field instruments and central control or monitoring equipment, which includes analog plus digital signals, and digital only signals. Digital master–slave communication simultaneous with the 4–20 mA analog signals is the most common. This mode, depicted in Fig. 3.46, allows digital information from the slave device to be updated twice per second in the master. The 4–20 mA analog signals are continuous and can still carry the primary variable for control. Please note that when a communication between the master and the slave is engaging, “interrupt” is definitely not allowed. “Burst” is an optional communication mode (Fig. 3.46) which allows a single slave device to continuously broadcast a standard HART response message. This mode frees the master from having to send repeated command requests to get updated process variable information. The same HART response message (PV or other, see Fig. 3.45) is continuously broadcast by the slave until the master instructs the slave to do otherwise. Data update rates of 3–4 per second are typical with “burst” mode communication and will vary with the chosen command. Please note that the “Burst” mode should be used only in single slave device networks. Two masters (primary and secondary) can communicate with slave devices in a HART network. Secondary masters, such as hand-held communicators, can be connected almost anywhere on the network and communicate with field devices without disturbing communication with the primary master. A primary master is typically a PLC, or computer based central control or monitoring system. A typical installation with two masters is shown in Fig. 3.33 and Fig. 3.44. From an installation perspective, the same wiring used for conventional 4–20 mA analog instruments carries the HART communication signals. Allowable cable run lengths will vary with the type of cable and the devices connected, but in general up to 3000 m for a single twisted pair cable with shield and 1500 m for multiple twisted pair cables with a common shield. Unshielded cables can be used for short distances. Intrinsic safety barriers and isolators which pass the HART signals are readily available for use in hazardous areas. The HART protocol also has the capability to connect multiple field devices on the same pair of wires in a multiple-dropped network configuration as shown in Fig. 3.33(b). In multiple-dropped networks, communication is limited to master–slave digital only. The current through each slave device is fixed at a minimum value to power the device (typically 4 mA) and no longer has any meaning relative to the process. The HART protocol utilizes the OSI 7-layer reference model. As is the case for most of the communication systems on the field level, the HART

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protocol implements only the layers 1, 2, and 7 of the OSI model. The layers 3–6 remain empty since their services are either not required or provided by the Application Layer 7 (see Fig. 3.47). The Application Layer defines the commands, responses, data types, and status reporting supported by the protocol. In addition, there are certain conventions in HART (e.g., how to trim the network current) that are also considered part of the Application Layer. While the Command Summary, Common Tables, and Command Response Code Specifications all establish mandatory Application Layer practices (including data types, common definitions of data items, and procedures), the Universal Commands specify the minimum Application Layer content of all HARTcompatible devices.

OSI layer

Function

Application layer

Provides the user with network capable applications

Presentation layer

Converts application data between network and local machine formats Connection management service for applications

Session layer

HART layer Command oriented. Predefined data types and application procedures

Transport layer

Provides network Autosegmented transfer of large datasets, independent, transport reliable stream transport, negotiated message transfer segment sizes.

Network layer

End to end routing of packets. Resolving network addresses

Data Link layer

Establishes data packet structure, framing, error detection, bus arbitration. Mechanical/electrical connection. Transmits raw bit stream

Physical layer

A binary, byteoriented, token passing, master– slave protocol Simultaneous analog and digital signaling, normal 4–20 mA copper wiring. Wired HART

Power-optimized, redundant path, selfhealing wireless mesh network Secure and reliable, time synched TDMA/CSMA, frequency agile with ARQ 2.4 Hz wireless, 802.15.4 based radios, 10 dBm T × power Wireless HART

Figure 3.47 HART protocol implementing the OSI 7-layer model.

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3.4.3.2

HART Protocol Commands

In the communication routines of the application layer of the HART protocol, the master devices and operating programs are based on HART commands to give instructions or send messages plus data to a field device. Once receiving the command message, the field devices immediately process it and then respond by sending back a response message which can contain requested status reports and/or the data of the field device. Table 3.9 provides the classes of the HART commands, and Table 3.10 gives a summary of the HART commands. Figure 3.48 is the standard format of both the HART command and response messages. In accordance with the HART command specification, this format includes the following: (1) First, the preamble, of between 5 and 20 bytes of hex FF (all 1s), helps the receiver to synchronize to the character stream. Table 3.9 HART Commands Classes Universal Commands All devices using the HART protocol must recognize and support the universal commands. Universal commands provide access to information useful in normal operations. For example, read primary variable and units, read manufacturer and device type, read current output and percentage of range, and read sensor serial number and limits

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Command Practice Commands

Device-Specific Commands

Common practice commands provide functions implemented by many, but not necessarily all, HART communication devices. The HART specifications recommend devices to support these commands when applicable. Examples of common practice commands are read a selection of up to four dynamic variables, write damping time constant, write transmitter range, set fixed output current and perform self-test

Device-specific commands represent functions that are unique to each field device. These commands access setup and calibration information as well as information about the construction of the device. Information on device-specific commands is available from device manufacturers or in the Field Device Specification document. Examples of devicespecific commands are read or write sensor type; start, stop, or clear totalizer; read or write alarm relay set point; etc.

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Table 3.10 HART Commands Summary Universal Commands

Command Practice Commands

Device-Specific Commands (Example)

Read manufacturer and device type Read primary variable (PV) and units Read current output and percentage of range Read up to four predefined dynamic variables Read or write 8-character tag, 16-character descriptor, date Read or write 32character message Read device range values, units, and damping time constant Read or write final assembly number Write polling address

Read selection of up to four dynamic variables Write damping time constant Write device range values Calibrate (set zero, set span) Set fixed output current Perform self-test Perform master reset Trim PV zero Write PV unit Trim DAC zero and gain Write transfer function (square root/linear) Write sensor serial number Read or write dynamic variable assignments

Read or write lowflow cut-off Start, stop, or clear totalizer Read or write density calibration factor Choose PV (mass, flow, or density) Read or write materials or construction information Trim sensor calibration PID enable Write PID set point Valve characterization Valve set point Travel limits User units Local display information

PREAMBLE START ADDR COMM BCNT

[STATUS]

[DATA]

CHK

Preamble: 5 to 20 bytes, hex FF Start character: 1 byte Addresses: source and destination, 1 or 5 bytes Command: 1 byte Byte count (of status and data): 1 byte Status: 2 bytes, only in slave response Data: 0 to 25 bytes* Checksum: 1 byte *25 bytes is a recommended maximum data length The maximum number of data bytes is not defined by the protocol specifications.

Figure 3.48 The standard format of the HART protocol command and response frames.

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(2) The start character may have one of several values, indicating the type of message: master to slave, slave to master, or burst message from slave; also the address format: short frame or long frame. (3) The address field includes both the master address (a single bit: 1 for a primary master, 0 for a secondary master) and the slave address. In the short frame format, the slave address is 4 bits containing the “polling address” (0–15). In the long frame format, it is 38 bits containing a “unique identifier” for that particular device. (One bit is also used to indicate if a slave is in burst mode.) (4) The command byte contains the HART command for this message. Universal commands are in the range 0–30; commonpractice commands are in the range 32–126; device-specific commands are in the range from 128 to 253. (5) The byte count byte contains the number of bytes to follow in the status and data bytes. The receiver uses this to know when the message is complete. (There is no special “end of message” character.) (6) The status field (also known as the “response code”) is two bytes, only present in the response message from a slave. It contains information about communication errors in the outgoing message, the status of the received command, and the status of the device itself. (7) The data field may or may not be present, depending on the particular command. A maximum length of 25 bytes is recommended, to keep the overall message duration reasonable. (But some devices have device-specific commands using longer data fields.) See also the HART data field. (8) Finally, the checksum byte contains an “exclusive-OR” or “longitudinal parity” of all previous bytes (from the start character onward). Together with the parity bit attached to each byte, this is used to detect communication errors.

3.4.3.3

HART Protocol Data

(1) HART data. There are several types of data or information that can be communicated from a HART-compatible device. This includes: (a) Device data (b) Supplier data (c) Measurement data (d) Calibration data.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The following is a summary of these data items available for communication between HART-compatible devices and a Host. (a) Process variable values. (i) Primary process variable (analog): 4–20 mA current signals continuously transmitted to host. (ii) Primary process variable (digital): Digital value in engineering units, IEEE floating point, up to 24-bit resolution. (iii) Percent range: Primary process variable expressed as percent of calibrated range. (iv) Loop current: Loop current value in milliamps. (v) Secondary process variable 1: Digital value in engineering units available from multivariable devices. (vi) Secondary process variable 2: Digital value in engineering units available from multivariable devices (vii) Secondary process variable 3: Digital value in engineering units available from multivariable devices (b) Commands from host to device. (i) Set primary variable units (ii) Set upper range (iii) Set lower range (iv) Set damping value (v) Set message (vi) Set tag (vii) Set date (viii) Set descriptor (ix) Perform loop test: Force loop current to specific value (x) Initiate self-test: Start device self-test (xi) Get more status available information. (c) Status and diagnostic alerts. (i) Device malfunction: Indicates device self-diagnostic has detected a problem in device operation. (ii) Configuration changed: Indicates device configuration has been changed. (iii) Cold start: Indicates device has gone through power cycle. (iv) More status available: Indicates additional device status data available. (v) Primary variable analog output fixed: Indicates device in fixed current mode. (vi) Primary variable analog output saturated: Indicates 4–20 mA signal is saturated. (vii) Secondary variable out of limits: Indicates secondary variable value outside the sensor limits.

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(viii) Primary variable out of limits: Indicates primary variable value outside the sensor limits. (d) Device identification. (i) Instrument tag: User defined, up to 8 characters. (ii) Descriptor: User defined, up to 16 characters. (iii) Manufacturer name (code): Code established by HCF and set by manufacturer. (iv) Device type and revision: Set by manufacturer. (v) Device serial number: Set by manufacturer. (vi) Sensor serial number: Set by manufacturer. (e) Calibration information for 4–20 mA transmission of primary process variable. (i) Date: Date of last calibration, set by user. (ii) Upper range value: Primary variable value in engineering units for 20 mA point that is set by user. (iii) Lower range value: Primary variable value in engineering units for 4 mA point that is set by user. (iv) Upper sensor limit: Set by manufacturer. (v) Lower sensor limit: Set by manufacturer. (vi) Sensor minimum span: Set by manufacturer. (vii) PV damping: Primary process variable damping factor, set by user. (viii) Message: Scratch pad message area (32 characters), set by user. (ix) Loop current transfer function: Relationship between primary variable digital value and 4–20 mA current signal. (x) Loop current alarm action: Loop current action on device failure (upscale/downscale). (xi) Write protect status: Device write-protect indicator. (2) DDL device description. The HART commands in the application layer are based on the services of the lower layers and enable an open communication between the master and the field devices. All the HART-compatible devices, no matter their manufacturers, are capable for this openness and intercommunications as long as the field devices operate exclusively with the universal and common-practice commands. In a HART-enabled system, the user does not need more than the simple HART standard notation for the status and fault messages. When the user wants the message to contain further devicerelated information or that special properties of a field device are also used, the common-practice and universal commands are not sufficient. Using and interpreting the data requires that the user know their meaning. However, this knowledge is not available in

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY further extending systems which can integrate new components with additional options. To eliminate the adaptation of the master device’s software whenever an additional status message is included or a new component is installed, the device description language (DDL) was accordingly developed. The DDL is not limited to the HART applications. It was developed and specified for all the Fieldbus, independent of the HART protocol, by the Human–Machine Interface workshop of the International Fieldbus Group (IFG). The developers of the device description language (DDL) aimed at achieving versatile usability. The DDL also finds use in field networks. The required flexibility is ensured insofar as the DDL does not itself determine the number and functions of the device interfaces and their representation in the control stations. The DDL is simply a language, similar to a programming language, which enables the device manufacturers to describe all communication options in an exact and complete manner. The DDL allows the manufacturer to describe (a) attributes and additional information on communication data elements, (b) all operating states of the device, (c) all device commands and parameters, (d) the menu structure, thus providing a clear representation of all operating and functional features of the device. Having the device description of a field device and being able to interpret it, a master device is equipped with all necessary information to make use of the complete performance features of the field device. Device-specific and manufacturer-specific commands can also be executed and the user is provided with a universally applicable and uniform user interface, enabling him or her to clearly represent and perform all device functions. Thanks to this additional information, clear, exact and, hence, safer operation and monitoring of a process is made possible. The master device does not read the device description as readable text in DDL syntax, but as short, binary-coded Device Description data record specially generated by the DDL encoder (or DDL compiler). For devices with sufficient storage capacity, this short form opens up the possibility of storing the device description already in the firmware of the field device. During the parameterization phase, it can be read by the corresponding master device.

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3.4.4 HART Integration 3.4.4.1 Basic Industrial Field Networks There are many different field networks available in industrial control for instrument engineers today. Understanding these networks’ classifications should allow us to choose the right tools for the control applications. Some common industrial communication protocols will be introduced below by focusing on the native applications and placing them in three basic categories: (1) Sensor networks are those protocols initially designed to support discrete I/O. (2) Device networks are those protocols originally focused on process instrumentation. (3) Control networks are those protocols typically used to connect controllers and I/O systems. (1) Sensor networks. Sensor level protocols, with a principal focus on supporting the digital communications for those discrete sensors and actuators. Sensor level protocols tend to have very fast cycle times and, since they are often promoted as an alternative to PLC discrete I/O, the cost of a network node should be relatively low. These protocols listed below are the simplest forms of sensor networks available today. (a) AS-i. AS-i acts as a network-based replacement for a discrete I/O card. Consequently, AS-i offers perhaps the simplest network around consisting of up to 31 slave devices with 248 I/O bits and the following functionality: (1) the master polls each slave, (2) the master message contains four output bits, (3) the slave answers immediately with four input bits, 4) diagnostics are included in each message, (5) a worst-case scan time of less than 5 ms. (b) CAN. The Controller Area Network (CAN) defines only basic, low level signaling and medium access specifications which are both simple and unique. Even though CAN medium access is technically CSMA/CD, this classification can provide simple, highly reliable, prioritized communication between intelligent devices, sensors, and actuators in automotive applications. Of these advantages, reliability is paramount. Network errors while driving a car on a busy interstate highway are unacceptable. Today, CAN is used in a vast number of vehicles and in a variety of other applications.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY As a result: (1) a large number of different chips and vendors support CAN, 2) the total chip volume is huge, 3) the parts cost is small. (c) DeviceNet. DeviceNet is a well-established machine and manufacturing automation network supported by a substantial number of products and vendors in the semiconductor industry. DeviceNet specifies physical (connectors, network terminators, power distribution, and wiring) and application layer operation based on the CAN standard. While all the popular application layer hierarchies are supported (client and server, master and slave, peer-to-peer, publisher and subscriber), in practice most devices support only master– slave operation which results in significantly lower costs. In comparison with the CAN, DeviceNet provides configurable structure to the operation of the network, allowing for the selection of polled, cyclic, or event driven network operation. (d) Interbus. Interbus is a popular industrial network that uses a ring topology in which each slave has an input and an output connector. Interbus is one of the few protocols that are full duplex-data transmitted and received at the same time. Interbus communication is cyclical, efficient, fast, and deterministic (e.g., 4096 digital inputs and outputs scanned in 14 ms). Of the ring topology, Interbus commissioning offers us these advantages: (1) Node addresses are not required because the master can automatically identify the nodes on the network. (2) Slaves provide identification information that allows the master to determine the quantity of the data provided by the slave. (3) Using this data, the master explicitly maps the data to and from the slave into the bit stream as it shifts through the network. Interbus works as a large network-based shift register in which a bus cycle begins with the network master transmitting a bit stream. As the first slave receives the bits, they are echoed passing the data on to the next slave in the ring. This process is simultaneous with the data being shifted from the master to the first slave. In turn, the data from the first slave is then being shifted into the master. (2) Device networks. Device network protocols support process automation that is fundamentally continuous and analog, more complex transmitters, and valve-actuators. Transmitters typically include pressure, level, flow, and temperature. The valve-actuators can include those intelligent controllers, motorized valves, and pneumatic positioners. Three device networks are prevalent in

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the process automation industry: Foundation Fieldbus H1, HART, and PROFIBUS-PA. (a) Foundation Fieldbus H1. In August 1996, the Foundation Fieldbus released its H1 Specifications that focus on “the network is the control system.” Of the fundamental differences from the controller and I/O approach used in traditional systems, Foundation Fieldbus specifies not only a communication network but also control functions. As a result, the purpose of the communications is to pass data to facilitate proper operation of the distributed control application. Its success relies on synchronized cyclical communication and on a well-defined applications layer. In the Foundation Fieldbus H1, communications occur within framed intervals of fixed time duration (a fixed repetition rate) and are divided into two phases and scheduled cyclical data exchange and acyclic (e.g., configuration and diagnostics) communication. The communication is controlled by polling the network and thereby prompting the process data to be placed on the bus. This is done by passing a special token to grant the bus to the appropriate device, resulting in the cyclic data being generated at regular intervals. In the Foundation Fieldbus H1 networks, the application layer defines function blocks, which include analog in, analog out, transducer, and the blocks. The data on the network is the transfer from one function block to another in the network-based control system. The data is complex and includes the digital value, engineering units, and status on the data (to indicate the PID is manual or the measured value is suspect). (b) HART. HART is unique among device networks because it is fundamentally an analog communications protocol. All the other protocols use digital signaling, while HART uses modulated communications because the “HART digital communications” modulate analog signals centered in a frequency band separated from the 4–20 mA signaling. HART enhances smart 4–20 mA field devices by providing two-way communication that is backward compatible with existing installations, which allows HART to support two communications channels simultaneously: a one-way channel carrying a single process value (the 4–20 mA signal) and a bidirectional channel to communicate digital process values, status, and diagnostics. Consequently, the HART protocol can be used in traditional 4–20 mA applications, and allows the benefits of digital communication to be realized in existing plant installations.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY HART is a simple, easy-to-use protocol because of these facts: (1) Two masters are supported using token passing to provide bus arbitration. (2) Allows a field device to publish process data (“burst mode”). (3) Cyclical process data includes floating-point digital value, engineering units, and status. (4) Operating procedures standardized (for current loop reranging, loop test, and transducer calibration). (5) Standardized identification and diagnostics provided. (c) PROFIBUS-PA. PROFIBUS-PA (process automation) was introduced to extend PROFIBUS-DP (decentralized peripherals) in order to support process automation. PROFIBUS-PA, which operates over the same H1 physical layer as Foundation Fieldbus H1, is essentially an LAN for communication with process instruments. PROFIBUS-PA networks are fundamentally master–slave model, so sophisticated bus arbitration is not necessary. PROFIBUS-PA also defines profiles for common process instruments, including both mandatory and optional propertied (data items). When a field device supports a profile some configuration of the device should be possible without being device-specific. (3) Control networks. Control networks are focused on providing a communication backbone that allows integration of controllers, I/O, and subnetworks. Control networks stand at the crossroads between the growing capabilities of industrial networks and the penetration of enterprise networks into the control system. As such, the control networks are able to move huge chunks of heterogeneous data and operate at high data rates. A brief overview of these four control networks is given below; they are ControlNet, Industrial Ethernet, Ethernet/IP, and PROFIBUS-DP. (a) ControlNet. ControlNet was developed as a high performance network suitable for both manufacturing and process automation. ControlNet uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) to control the access to the network, which means a network cycle is assigned a fixed repetition rate. Within the bus cycle, data items are assigned a fixed time division for transmission by the corresponding device. Data objects are placed on ControlNet within a designated time slot and at precise levels. Once the data to be published is identified along with its time slot, any device on the network can be configured to use the data. In the second half of a bus cycle, acyclic communications occur. ControlNet is more efficient than polled or token passing protocols because its data transmission is very deterministic.

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(b) Industrial Ethernet. Many industrial communication protocols specify mechanisms to embed their protocols in Ethernet. Ethernet addresses only the lower layers of communications networks, but does not address the meaning of the data it transports. Even though Ethernet effectively communicates many protocols simultaneously over the same wire, it provides no guarantees that the data can be exchanged between different protocols. In Industrial Ethernet, the protocol being adopted is TCP/ IP and not Ethernet at all. TCP/IP is using two approaches to support the session, presentation, and application layers of the corresponding industrial protocol. First, the industrial protocol is simply encapsulated in the TCP/IP, allowing the shortest development time for defining industrial protocol transportation over TCP/IP. The second approach actually maps the industrial protocol to TCP and UDP services. While this strategy takes more time and effort to develop, it results in a more complete implementation of the industrial protocol on top of the TCP/IP. UDP is a connectionless, unreliable communication service that works well for broadcasts to multiple recipients and fast, low-level signaling. UDP is used by several industrial protocols (for time synchronization). TCP is a connection oriented data stream that can be mapped to the data and I/O functions in some industrial protocols. (c) Ethernet/IP. Ethernet/IP is a mapping of the “Control and Information Protocol (CIP)” used in both ControlNet and DeviceNet to TCP/IP (not Ethernet). While all the basic functionality of ControlNet is supported, the hard real-time determinism that ControlNet offers is not present. CIP is being promoted as a common, object-oriented mechanism for supporting both manufacturing and process automation functions. Ethernet/IP is a good contribution to the growing discussion of Industrial Ethernet. However, Ethernet/IP is a recent development and is basically the application of an existing industrial network’s application layer to the TCP/IP. (d) PROFIBUS-DP. PROFIBUS-DP (Decentralized Peripherals) is a master–slave protocol used primarily to access remote I/O. Each node is polled cyclically updating the status and data associated with the node. Operation is relatively simple and fast. PROFIBUS-DP also supports Fieldbus Message Specification (FMS), which is a more complex protocol for demanding applications that includes support for multiple masters and peer-to-peer communication.

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3.4.4.2


Choosing the Right Field Networks

Before choosing the best suitable network for an industrial control application, it is necessary to review all the open network types available today. By carefully reviewing each of these types of open communication networks, their respective strengths and weaknesses, in particular some important technical factors, ought to be understood. Please note that the specified application will be far more than the technology used. The specific, measurable benefits must drive this selection process. The first factor that should be considered is the cost of each network. The second is the network connectivity in which the bottom line is that you want your data. It is very important to remember that all communications networks cause changes. Although the actual changes can be very difficult to foretell accurately, the effect of these changes must be realistically considered. In some instances, we have to make a decision on choosing between the HART and other types of field networks. Before making such a decision, it is important to understand the differences between the HART and other field networks. For example, if all the choices are constrained between the HART and the Foundation Fieldbus, comparisons of these two types in every category are necessary. Table 3.11 is a list of the differences in elemental technical features between the HART and the Foundation Fieldbus, which should be a help in choosing between the HART and the Foundation Fieldbus.

3.4.4.3

Integrating the HART with Other Field Networks

The integration of the HART network with the Foundation Fieldbus network is taken as an example here to demonstrate the strategies and techniques of integrating HART with other field networks. As mentioned above, one fundamental difference between HART and Fieldbus devices is that with Fieldbus devices, you can implement control strategies inside the field devices themselves; however, even if you can implement the same control strategies with HART devices, the execution of actual control algorithms would go on in the control system computer or PLC. A welldesigned control system will allow an integrated control strategy to use devices independent of communication protocol. HART and Fieldbus devices have the capability of providing a wide range of diagnostics data about the device’s safety. In fact, the diagnostic capabilities of HART and Fieldbus devices are nearly the same. The types of device diagnostics change widely, depending on the type of device. Measurement transmitters will have diagnostics related to the status of the

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3: SYSTEM INTERFACES FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Table 3.11 A Comparison between HART and Foundation Fieldbus Feature Technology acceptance

Power limitation Advances in silicon power consumption same for HART/FF; thus FF will always have capability for more functionality Communication performance Transmitter diagnostics

Advanced diagnostics

HART Well proven as Large Installed base Will continue to be sold as a replacement unit Simple for technicians’ competence 35 mW to 4 mA available for the HART signal Cannot “mirror” Fieldbus, however may provide an 80% solution 100 bits/s Additional burden on host Device only Includes predictive No knowledge of other devices Does not have the processing power

Push or poll

Polled for HART status periodically Status can be missed

Two-way communication to other devices Multiple-dropped

No

Use in safety instrumented systems

Very limited Theory 15 devices: real around 3 slow series loop All devices wired individually

Foundation Fieldbus (FF) Proven as Growing Installed base Training required New investment to occur increasingly in the FF FF minimum power requirement of 8 mA No spec limit; Ultimate FF segment power budget FF devices order of more magnitude than that powering an Event for IS FF H1 communicates at 31250 bits/s Device + other devices

For example, Statistical Process Monitoring and Machinery Health monitoring Events are latched/time stamped in the device Sent by the device There is no chance of missing field problems with FF Yes

True multiple-dropped: physically 32 devices realistically 12−16 Devices 2007 offers the holding back technology (Continued)

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Table 3.11 (Continued) Feature

HART

Control in the field and advanced applications

Does not support the function block model

Multiple variables

In digital mode only It is limited No

Footprint and hardware reduction

Future proof devices—typical upgrade capability In the field

No

Full specifications in the devices

No

Commissioning speed

Hours for individually wired devices

Foundation Fieldbus (FF) Function block model supports interoperable control in the field where blocks can reside in the field device Yes Renders obsolete all separate signal conditioners, isolation amplifier cards, output cards, CPU cards, I/P converters, etc. Ability to download new version of firmware over H1 link None disconnected device from the H1 segment Communicate with this devices conformant with Fieldbus specification Embedded at the factory Travels with the instrument Upload directly to “Smart Instrument” software Reduces commissioning time Reduces time to perform diagnostics The networking capability of FF allows the user to commission a device in 10 s of seconds

transducer and measurement logic in the device. Control devices such as valves will provide a lot of information about the mechanical condition of the device. Both transmitters and valves will provide diagnostic information about the communication electronics in their respective devices.

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Although the diagnostic data provided by HART and Fieldbus is very similar, the way they get to the control system and the way they get to the operator or technician to see it can be quite different. This has to do with the speed and characteristics of the communication technology used by these two protocols. Fieldbus basically uses point-to-point communication technology. This means when a Fieldbus device detects a diagnostics condition it wants to report, it can send an event out on the bus with the related information. The control system picks up the event and immediately displays or annunciates it on the console. HART devices, on the other hand, have to continually undergo polling to see if there is anything to report. Because the polling occurs at 1200 bps with HART, there are limitations on how many devices it can poll for alters in a specific time frame. An operator can poll a small number of critical devices for alters within seconds or a large number of devices within minutes. However, it is possible to implement an effective diagnostic alert system with HART as long as you understand the restrictions on response and device count. Once the operator or maintenance engineer is aware of a problem in a filed device either through an alert or some other means, the actual display of the status information from HART and Fieldbus devices is very similar. Usually, a record of this status event will automatically log into the control system. The logging of HART and Fieldbus device problems should normally look the same on a well-integrated system. The type of portable maintenance tools required in systems of HART and Fieldbus devices is also an important factor for consideration. Portable tools currently fall into two general categories. The first is intrinsically safe hand-held devices. Several are available for HART only devices. A combined HART and Fieldbus intrinsically hand-held device has become available, too. This integrated tool allows the user to configure and diagnose HART and Fieldbus devices while in the field. The laptop computer is the second type of portable tool. However, these types of computers cannot go in hazardous areas of a plant. As far as small hand-held computers go, how practical these will be in a plant environment remains an open question.

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Schneider-Electric (http://www.automation.schneider-electric.com). 2006. Human– Machine Interface. http://www.automation.schneider-electric.com/as-guide/ EN/pdf_files/asg-8-human-machine-interface.pdf. Accessed date: October. SCSI Library (http://www.scsilibrary.com). 2005. SCSI. http://www.scsilibrary .com. Accessed date: May. Semiconductors (http://www.semiconductors.bosch.de). 2005. CAN Specifications. http://www.semiconductors.bosch.de/pdf/can2spec.pdf. Accessed date: July. SIEMENS (http://www.automation.siemens.com). 2005a. Siemens AS-Interface Technologies. http://www.automation.siemens.com/cd/as-interface/html_76/ asisafe.htm. Accessed date: July. SIEMENS (http://www.automation.siemens.com). 2005b. Siemens AS-Interface Products. http://www.automation.siemens.com/infocenter/order_form.aspx? tab=3&nodekey=key_1994569&lang=en. Accessed date: July. SIEMENS (http://www.automation.siemens.com). 2005c. Siemens Profibus: http://www.automation.siemens.com/net/html_76/produkte/020_produkte.htm. Accessed date: July. SIEMENS (http://www.automation.siemens.com). 2005d. Industrial Ethernet Technologies and Products. http://www.automation.siemens.com/net/html_76/ produkte/040_produkte.htm. Accessed date: July. Simons, C. L. and Parmee, L. C. 2006. Human–Machine Interaction Software Design. http://www.ip-cc.org.uk/INTREP-COINT-SIMONS-2006.pdf. Accessed date: October. SMAR International Corporation (http://www.smar.com). 2006. HART Tutorial. http://www.smar.com/PDFs/Catalogues/Hart_Tutorial.pdf. Accessed date: October 2007. Softing (http://www.softing.com). 2005a. FOUNDATION Fieldbus. http://www .softing.com/home/en/industrial-automation/products/foundation-fieldbus/ index.php. Accessed date: July. Softing (http://www.softing.com). 2005b. Profibus. http://www.softing.com/home/ en/industrial-automation/products/profibus-dp/index.php?navanchor= 3010004. Accessed date: July. Tech Soft (http://www.techsoft.de). 2007. IEEEE-488 Tutorial. http://www .techsoft.de/htbasic/tutgpibm.htm?tutgpib.htm. Accessed date: July. Techfest (http://www.techfest.com). 2005. ISA Bus Technology. http://www .techfest.com/hardware/bus/isa.htm. Accessed date: July. Texas Instruments (http://sparc.feri.uni-mb.si). 2005. CAN Introduction. http:// sparc.feri.uni-mb.si/Sistemidaljvodenja/Vaje/pdf/Inroduction%20to%20 CAN.pdf. Accessed date: July. The UK AS-i Expert Alliance (http://www.as-interface.com). 2007a. AS-Interface Technologies. http://www.as-interface.com/asitech.asp. Accessed date: May. The UK AS-i Expert Alliance (http://www.as-interface.com). 2007b. AS-Interface Products. http://www.as-interface.com/asi_literature.asp. Accessed date: May. Vector Germany (http://www.can-solutions.com). 2005. CAN Mechanism. http:// www.can-solutions.com/?gclid=CLWxnai6jIwCFQrlQgodnx3gBg.Accessed date: July. YOKOGAWA (http://www.yokogawa.com). 2007. HART Communicator. http:// www.yokogawa.com/us/mi/MetersandInstruments/us-ykgw-yhcypc.htm. Accessed date: October.

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4

Digital Controllers for Industrial Control

4.1 Industrial Intelligent Controllers 4.1.1

Programmable Logic Control (PLC) Controllers

The development of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) was driven primarily by the requirements of automobile manufacturers who constantly changed their production line control systems to accommodate their new car models. In the past, this required extensive rewiring of banks of relays—a very expensive procedure. In the 1970s, with the emergence of solid-state electronic logic devices, several auto companies challenged control manufacturers to develop a means of changing control logic without the need to rewire the system totally. The PLC evolved from this requirement. The PLCs are designed to be relatively “user-friendly” so that electricians can easily make the transition from all-relay control to electronic systems. They give users the capability of displaying and troubleshooting ladder logic that shows the logic in real time. The logic can be “rewired” (programmed) and tested, without the need to assemble and rewire banks of relays. A PLC is a computer with a single mission. It usually lacks a monitor, a keyboard, and a mouse, as it is programmed normally to operate a machine or a system using but one program. The machine or system user rarely, if ever, interacts directly with the PLC’s program. When it is necessary to either edit or create the PLC program, a personal computer is usually (but not always) connected to it. The information from the PLCs can be accessed by supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems and Human–Machine Interfaces (HMIs), to provide a graphical representation of the status of the plant. Figure 4.1 is a schematic of the PLC’s control network resident in industrial systems.

4.1.1.1

Components and Architectures

PLC is actually an industrial microcontroller system (in more recent years we meet microprocessors instead of microcontrollers) where you have hardware and software specifically adapted to industrial environment. Block schema with typical components that a PLC consists of is found in Fig. 4.2. Special attention needs to be given to input and output, because 429

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY SCADA system

Industrial network (High level)

Other part of factory Industrial network (Middle level)

Local PC

Visual and sound signals Central PLC controller

Local PLC controller

Input sensing devices

Output load devices

Local process control system

Figure 4.1 Schematic of the PLC control network. Screw terminals for input lines PLC controller Input port interface

Power supply Communi cation

PC for programming

Extension interface

Memories CPU Internal buses Output port interface

Screw terminals for output lines

Figure 4.2 Basic elements of a PLC controller.

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most PLC models feature a vast assortment of interchangeable I/O modules that allow for convenient interfacing with virtually any kind of industrial or laboratory equipment. Program unit is usually a computer used for writing a program (often in ladder diagram). (1) Central Processing Unit (CPU). This unit contains the “brains” of the PLC. It is often referred to as a microprocessor or sequencer. The basic instruction set is a high-level program, installed in Read-Only Memory (ROM). The programmed logic is usually stored in Electrically Erasable Permanent Read-Only Memory (EEPROM). The CPU will save everything in memory, even after a power loss. Since it is “electrically erasable,” the logic can be edited or changed as the need arises. The programming device is connected to the CPU whenever the operator needs to monitor, troubleshoot, edit, or program the system, but it is not required during the normal running operations. (2) Memory. System memory (today mostly implemented in FLASH technology) is used by a PLC for a process control system. Aside from this operating system, it also contains a user program translated from a ladder diagram to a binary form. FLASH memory contents can be changed only in a case where the user program is being changed. PLC controllers were used earlier instead of FLASH memory and have had EPROM memory instead of FLASH memory that had to be erased with UV lamp and programmed on programmers. With the use of FLASH technology this process was greatly shortened. Reprogramming a program memory is done through a serial cable in a program for application development. User memory is divided into blocks having special functions. Some parts of a memory are used for storing input and output status. The real status of an input is stored either as “1” or as “0” in a specific memory bit. Each input or output has one corresponding bit in memory. Other parts of the memory are used to store variable contents for variables used in user programs. For example, timer value, or counter value would be stored in this part of the memory. PLC controller memory consists of several areas given in Table 4.1, some of these having predefined functions. (3) Communication board. Every brand of PLC has its own programming hardware. Sometimes it is a small hand-held device, which resembles an oversized calculator with a liquid crystal display (LCD). However, most of the times it is the computerbased programmers. Computer-based programmers typically use a special communication board, installed in an industrial terminal

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Working area

Output area

Input area

Timer/counter area

LR area

AR area

HR area

TR area

SR area

IR area

Data Area

IR 01000–IR 01915 (160 bits) IR 20000–IR 23115 (512 bits) SR23200–SR25515 (384 bits) TR 0–TR 7 (8 bits)

IR 00000–IR 00915 (160 bits)

Bit(s)

HR 00–HR 19 HR0000–HR1915 (20 words) (320 bits) AR 00–AR 15 AR0000–AR1515 (16 words) (256 bits) LR 00–LR 15 LR0000–LR1515 (16 words) (256 bits) TC 000–TC 127 (timer/counter numbers)

IR 010–IR 019 (10 words) IR 200–IR 231 (32 words) SR 232–SR 255 (24 words) –

IR 000–IR 009 (10 words)

Word(s)

Table 4.1 Memory Structure of PLC

Same numbers are used for both timers and counters

1:1 connection with another PC

Temporary storage of ON/OFF states when jump takes place Data storage; these keep their states when power is off Special functions, such as flags and control bits

Working bits that can be used freely in the program. They are commonly used as swap bits Special functions, such as flags and control bits

These bits may be assigned to an external I/O connection. Some of these have direct output on screw terminal (e.g., IR000.00–IR000.05 and IR010.00–IR010.03 with CPM1A model)

Function

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PC setup

Read only

DM 6144–DM 6599 (456 words) DM 6600–DM 6655 (56 words)

DM 0000–DM 0999 and DM 1022–DM 1023 (1002 words) DM 1000–DM 1021 (22 words)

–

–

–

–

Storing various parameters for controlling the PC

Data of DM area may be accessed only in word form. Words keep their contents after the power is off Part of the memory for storing the time and code of error that occurred. When not used for this purpose, they can be used as regular DM words for reading and writing. They cannot be changed from within the program

Notes: 1. IR and LR bits, when not used to their purpose, may be used as working bits. 2. Contents of HR area, LR area, counter, and DM area for reading/writing are stored within backup condenser. On 25C, condenser keeps the memory contents for up to 20 days. 3. When accessing the current value of PV, TC numbers used for data have the form of word. When accessing the Completing flags, they are used as data bits. 4. Data from DM6144 to DM6655 must not be changed from within the program, but can be changed by a peripheral device.

DM area

Error writing

Read/write

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY or personal computer, with the appropriate software program installed. Computer-based programming allows “offline” programming, where the programmers develop their logic, store it on a disk, and then “down-load” the program to the CPU at their convenience. In fact, it allows more than one programmer to develop different modules of the program. Programming can be done directly into the CPU if desired. When connected to the CPU the programmer can test the system, and watch the logic operate as each element is intensified in sequence on a cathode ray tube (CRT) when the system is running. Since a PLC can operate without having the programming device attached, one device can be used to service many separate PLC systems. (4) PLC controller inputs. Intelligence of an automated system depends largely on the ability of a PLC controller to read signals from different types of sensors and input devices. Keys, keyboards, and functional switches are a basis for human versus machine relationship. On the other hand, to detect a working piece, view a mechanism in motion, check pressure, or fluid level you need specific automatic devices such as proximity sensors, marginal switches, photoelectric sensors, level sensors, and so on. Thus, input signals can be logical (ON/OFF) or analog. Smaller PLC controllers usually only have digital input lines while larger ones also accept analog inputs through special units attached to a PLC controller. One of the most frequent analog signals is a current signal of 4–20 mA and millivolt voltage signal generated by various sensors. Sensors are usually used as inputs for PLCs. You can obtain sensors for different purposes. They can sense presence of some parts, measure temperature, pressure, or some other physical dimension, and so on (for instance, inductive sensors can register metal objects). Other devices also can serve as inputs to the PLC controller. Intelligent devices such as robots, video systems, and so forth often are capable of sending signals to PLC controller input modules (robot, for instance, can send a signal to PLC controller input as information when it has finished moving an object from one place to the other.) (5) PLC controller output. An industrial control system is incomplete if it is not connected with some output devices. Some of the most frequently used devices are motors, solenoids, relays, indicators, sound signalization, and so forth. By starting a motor, or a relay, PLC can manage or control a simple system such as a system for sorting products all the way up to complex systems such as a service system for positioning the head of a robotic machine.

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Output can be of analog or digital type. A digital output signal works as a switch; it connects and disconnects lines. Analog output is used to generate the analog signal (for instance, a motor whose speed is controlled by a voltage that corresponds to a desired speed). (6) Extension lines. Every PLC controller has a limited number of input/output lines. If needed, this number can be increased through certain additional modules by system extension through extension lines. Each module can contain extension both of input and output lines. Also, extension modules can have inputs and outputs of a different nature from those on the PLC controller (for instance, in case relay outputs are on a controller, transistor outputs can be on an extension module). PLC has input and output lines through which it is connected to a system it directs. This is a very important part of the story about PLC controllers because it directly influences what can be connected and how it can be connected to controller inputs or outputs. Two terms most frequently mentioned when discussing connections to inputs or outputs are “sinking” and “sourcing.” These two concepts are very important in connecting a PLC correctly with the external environment. The briefest definition of these two concepts would be Sinking = Common GND line (–) Sourcing = Common VCC line (+), The first thing that catches one’s eye is “+” and “–” supply DC supply. Inputs and outputs that are either sinking or sourcing can conduct electricity only in one direction, so they are only supplied with direct current. According to what we have discussed so far, each input or output has its own return line, so 5 inputs would need 10 screw terminals on a PLC controller housing. Instead, we use a system of connecting several inputs to one return line as in the following picture. These common lines are usually marked “COMM” on the PLC controller housing. (7) Power supply. Electrical supply is used in bringing electrical energy to a CPU. Most PLC controllers work either at 24 VDC or 220 VAC. On some PLC controllers, you will find electrical supply as a separate module. Those are usually bigger PLC controllers, while small and medium series already contain the supply module. The user has to determine how much current to take from the I/O module to ensure that the electrical supply provides the appropriate amount of current. Different types of modules use different amounts of electrical current. This electrical supply is usually not used to start external inputs or outputs. The user has to provide separate supplies in

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY starting PLC controller inputs or outputs to ensure so called pure supply for the PLC controller. With pure supply we mean supply where industrial environment cannot affect it damagingly. Some of the smaller PLC controllers supply their inputs with voltage from a small supply source already incorporated into a PLC. The internal logic and communication circuitry usually operates on 5 and 15 V DC power. The power supply provides filtering and isolation of the low voltage power from the AC power line. Power supply assemblies may be separate modules, or in some cases, plug-in modules in the I/O racks. Separate control transformers are often used to isolate inputs and CPU from output devices. The purpose is to isolate this sensitive circuitry from transient disturbances produced by any highly inductive output devices. (8) Timers and counters. Timers and counters are indispensable in PLC programming. Industry has to number its products, determine a needed action in time, and so on. Timing functions are very important, and cycle periods are critical in many processes. There are two types of timers: delay-off and delay-on. First is late with turn off and another runs late in turning on in relation to a signal that activated timers. Example of a delay-off timer would be staircase lighting. Following its activation, it simply turns off after a few minutes. Each timer has a time basis, or more precisely has several time bases. Typical values are 1, 0.1, and 0.01 s. If the programmer has entered 0.1 as time basis and 50 as a number for delay increase, the timer will have a delay of 5 s (50 × 0.1 s = 5 s). Timers also have to have the value SV set in advance. Value set in advance or ahead of time is a number of increments that the timer has to calculate before it changes the output status. Values set in advance can be constants or variables. If a variable is used, the timer will use a real time value of the variable to determine a delay. This enables delays to vary depending on the conditions during function. An example is a system that has produced two different products, each requiring different timing during process itself. Product A requires a period of 10 s, so number 10 would be assigned to the variable. When product B appears, a variable can change value to what is required by product B. Typically, timers have two inputs. First is timer enable, or conditional input (when this input is activated, timer will start counting). The second input is a reset input. This input has to be in OFF status in order for a timer to be active, or the whole function would be repeated over again. Some PLC models require this input to be low for a timer to be active; other makers require

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high status (all of them function in the same way basically). However, if a reset line changes status, the timer erases accumulated value.

4.1.1.2

Control Mechanism

A programmable logic controller is a digital electronic device that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and uses a CPU to implement specific functions such as logic, sequence, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control machines and processes. Figure 4.2 shows a simple schematic of a typical programmable logic controller. When running, the CPU scans the memory continuously from top to bottom, and left to right, checking every input, output, and instruction in sequence. The scan time depends upon the size and complexity of the program, and the number and type of I/O. The scan may be as short as a few milliseconds or less. A few milliseconds per scan would produce tens of scans per second. This short time makes the operation appear as instantaneous, but one must consider the scan sequence when handling critically timed operations and sealing circuits. Complex systems may use interlocked multiple CPUs to minimize total scan time. The parts of the PLC that are quite different from the typical desktop computer are the input and output modules. These modules allow the PLC to communicate with the machine. The inputs may come from limit switches, proximity sensors, temperature sensors, and so on. On the basis of the software program and the combination of inputs, the CPU of the PLC will set the outputs. These outputs may control motor speed and direction, actuate valves, open or close gates, and control all the motions and activities of the machine. (1) System address. The key to getting comfortable with any PLC is to understand the total addressing system. We have to connect our discrete inputs, pushbuttons, limit-switches, and so on, to our controller, interface those points with “electronic ladder diagram” (program), and then bring the results out through another interface to operate motor starters, solenoids, lights, and so forth. Inputs and outputs are wired to interface modules, installed in an I/O rack. Each rack has a two-digit address, each slot has its own address, and each terminal point is numbered. Figure 4.3 shows a PLC product in which all of these addresses are octal. We combine the addresses to form a number that identifies each input and output.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY I/O Rack Rack no. 00

Output module

7 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00

6 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00

5 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00

4 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00

3 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00

2 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00

Input module

I:000/04

17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00

Closed input

Slot numbers

1

17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00

0

Energized output

0:007/15

17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Output image table

Word 0:007 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

Input image table

Word 1:000

1:000 ] [ 04

User’s logic rung

Input, rack 00, slot 0, terminal 04

0:007 ( ) 15 Output, rack 00, slot 7, terminal 15

Figure 4.3 Solution of one line of logic.

Some manufacturers use decimal addresses. Some older systems are based on 8-bit words, rather than 16. There are a number of proprietary programmable controllers applied to special industries, such as elevator controls, or energy management, which may not follow the expected pattern, but they will use either 8- or 16-bit word structures. It is very important to identify the addressing system before you attempt to work on any system that uses a programmable controller, because one must know the purpose of each I/O bit before manipulating them in memory.

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If you know the address of the input or output, you can immediately check the status of its bit by calling up the equivalent address on a cathode ray tube (CRT) screen for most of PLC products. (2) I/O addresses. Figure 4.4 gives an I/O address scheme, which shows us that the I/O modules are closely linked with the Input and Output image tables, respectively. Figure 4.3 shows a very simple line of logic, where a pushbutton is used to turn on a lamp. The pushbutton and lamp “hardwiring” terminates at I/O terminals, and the logic is carried out in software. We have a pushbutton, wired to an input module (I), installed in rack 00, slot 0, and terminal 04. The address becomes I:000/04. An indicating lamp is wired to an output module (O), installed in rack 00, slot 7, and terminal 15. The address becomes O:007/15. Our input address, I:000/04, becomes memory address

Word # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Output image table

I/O group designation

An I/O chassis containing 16-point modules Note: Modules can also be installed like this: I O O I

Input/output designation I O I O I O IO IO IO IO IO

Input image table

Word 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 4.4 I/O addressing scheme.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY I:000/04, and the output address 0:007/15 becomes memory address 0:007/15. In other words, the type of module, the rack address, and the slot position identifies the word address in memory. The terminal number identifies the bit number. (3) Image table addresses. An output image table is reserved in its IR area of the memory (see Table 4.1) as File format, and an input image table is reserved in the same way. A File in memory contains any number of words. Files are separated by type, according to their functions. In the same way, an input image table is also reserved in its IR area of the memory (See Table 4.1) as File format. Figure 4.4 illustrates the respective mapping relationship of the I/O modules to both Output and Input image tables. (4) Scanning. As the scan reads the input image table, it notes the condition of every input, and then scans the logic diagram, updating all references to the inputs. After the logic is updated, the scanner resets the output image table, to activate the required outputs. Figure 4.4 shows some optional I/O arrangements and addressing. In Fig. 4.3, we show how one line of logic would perform when the input at I:000/04 is energized, it immediately sets input image table bit I:000/04 true (ON). The scanner senses this change of state, and makes the element I:000/04 true in our logic diagram. Bit 0:007/15 is turned on by the logic. The scanner sets 0:007/15 true in the output image table, and then updates the output 0:007/15 to turn the lamp on.

4.1.1.3

PLC Programming

Programmable logic controllers use a variety of software programming languages for control. These include sequential function chart (SFC), function block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram (LD), structured text (ST), instruction list (IL), relay ladder logic (RLL), flow chart, C, C++, and Basic. Among these languages, ladder diagram is the most popular. Almost every program for programming a PLC controller possesses various useful options such as: forced switching on and off of the system inputs/outputs (I/O lines), program follow up in real time as well as documenting a diagram. This documenting is necessary to understand and to define failures and malfunctions. The programmer can add remarks, names of input or output devices, and comments that can be useful when finding errors, or with system maintenance. Adding comments and remarks enables any technician (and not just a person who developed the system) to understand a ladder diagram right away. Comments and remarks can even quote

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precisely part numbers if replacements would be needed. This would speed up repair of any problems that come up due to bad parts. The old way was such that a person who developed a system had protection on the program, so nobody aside from this person could understand how it was done. A correctly documented ladder diagram allows any technician to understand thoroughly how the system functions. (1) Relay ladder logic. Ladder logic is the main programming method used for PLCs. As mentioned before, ladder logic has been developed to mimic relay logic. Relays are used to let one power source close a switch for another (often-high current) power source, while keeping them isolated. An example of a relay in a simple control application is shown in Fig. 4.5. In this system, the first relay on the left is used as normally closed and will allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to input A. The second relay is normally open and will not allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to input B. If current is flowing through the first two relays, then current will flow through the coil in the third relay, and close the switch for output C. This circuit would normally be drawn in the ladder logic form. This can be read logically as C will be on if A is off and B is on. 115 VAC wall plug

Relay logic

Input A (Normally closed) A

Input B (Normally open) B

Output C (Normally open) C Ladder logic

Figure 4.5 A simple relay controller.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The example in Fig. 4.5 does not show the entire control system, but only the logic. When we consider a PLC there are inputs, outputs, and the logic. Figure 4.6 shows a more complete representation of the PLC. Here there are two inputs from pushbuttons. We can imagine the inputs as activating 24 VDC relay coils in the PLC. This in turn drives an output relay that switches 115 VAC, which will turn on a light. Note, in actual PLCs inputs are never relays, but outputs are often relays. The ladder logic in the PLC is actually a computer program that the user can enter and change. Note that both of the input pushbuttons are normally open, but the ladder logic inside the PLC has one normally open contact and one normally closed. Do not think that the ladder logic in the PLC needs to match the inputs or outputs. Many beginners will get caught trying to make the ladder logic match the input types. Many relays also have multiple outputs (throws) and this allows an output relay to also be an input simultaneously. The circuit shown in Fig. 4.7(a) is an example of this; it is called a seal in circuit. In this circuit, the current can flow through either branch of the circuit, through the contacts labeled A or B.

Power supply +24 V Push buttons PLC Inputs C

A

B

Ladder logic

Outputs

Light 115 VAC power

Figure 4.6 A PLC illustrated with relays.

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4: DIGITAL CONTROLLERS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL A B

B

X

Normally open

X

Normally closed

Normal output

Normally on output

IIT

X Immediate inputs

One Shot Relay

OSR X

Latch

L

U

IOT (a)

(b)

X

Unlatch

X Immediate Output T (c)

Figure 4.7 Relay Ladder logic representations: (a) a seal-in circuit; (b) Ladder logic inputs; and (c) Ladder logic outputs.

The input B will only be on when the output B is on. If B is off, and A is energized, then B will turn on. If B turns on then the input B will turn on and keep output B on even if input A goes off. After B is turned on the output, B will not turn off. PLC inputs are easily represented in ladder logic. Figure 4.7(b) shows there are three types of inputs. The first two are normally open and closed inputs, discussed previously. Normally open: an active input x will close the contact and allow power to flow. Normally closed: power flows when the input x is not open. The IIT (Immediate InpuT) function allows inputs to be read after the input scan, while the ladder logic is being scanned. This allows ladder logic to examine input values more often than once every cycle. Immediate inputs will take current values, but not those from the previous input scan. In ladder logic, there are multiple types of outputs, but these are not consistently available on all PLCs. Some of the outputs will be externally connected to devices outside the PLC, but it is also possible to use internal memory locations in the PLC. Six types of outputs are shown in Fig. 4.7(c). The first is a normal output; when energized the output will turn on and energize an output. The circle with a diagonal line through is a normally on output. When it is energized, the output will turn off. This type of output is not available on all PLC types. When initially energized, the OSR (one shot relay) instruction will turn on for

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY one scan, but then be off for all scans after, until it is turned off. The L (latch) and U (unlatch) instructions can be used to lock outputs on. When an L output is energized the output will turn on indefinitely, even when the output coil is deenergized. The output can only be turned off using a U output. The last instruction is the IOT (Immediate OutpuT) that will allow outputs to be updated without having to wait for the ladder logic scan to be completed. When power is applied (ON) the output x is activated for the left output, but turned off for the output on the right. An input transition on will cause the output x to go on for one scan (this is also known as a one shot relay). When the L is energized, x will be toggled on, and will stay on until the U coil is energized. This is like a flip-flop and stays set even when the PLC is turned off. In some PLCs, all immediate outputs do not wait for the program scan to end before setting an output. For example, to develop (without looking at the solution) a relay based controller that will allow three switches in a room to control a single light, there are two possible approaches. The first assumes that any one of the switches on will turn on the light, but all three switches must be off for the light to be off. Figure 4.8(a) displays the ladder logic of the first solution. The second solution assumes that each switch can turn the light on or off, regardless of the states of the other switches. This method is more complex and involves thinking through all of the possible combinations of switch positions. You can recognize this problem as an exclusive or problem from Fig. 4.8(b). (2) Programming. An example of ladder logic can be seen in Fig. 4.9. To interpret this diagram, imagine that the power is on the vertical line on the left-hand side; we call this the hot rail. On the Switches

Switch 1

Light

Light Switch 2

Switch 3

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.8 A case study: (a) solution 1 and (b) solution 2.

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4: DIGITAL CONTROLLERS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Neutral

Hot A

B

X

C

D

G

E

F

H

Inputs

Y

Outputs

Figure 4.9 A simple Ladder Logic diagram.

right-hand side is the neutral rail. In this figure there are two rungs, and on each rung there are combinations of inputs (two vertical lines) and outputs (circles). If the inputs are opened or closed in the right combination the power can flow from the hot rail, through the inputs, to power the outputs, and finally to the neutral rail. An input can come from a sensor, switch, or any other type of sensor. An output will be some device outside the PLC that is switched ON or OFF, such as lights or motors. In the top rung the contacts are normally open and normally closed, which means if input A is ON and input B is OFF, then power will flow through the output and activate it. Any other combination of input values will result in the output X being off. The second rung of Fig. 4.9 is more complex; there are actually multiple combinations of inputs that will result in the output Y turning on. On the left-most part of the rung, power could flow through the top if C is OFF and D is ON. Power could also (and simultaneously) flow through the bottom if both E and F are true. This would get power half way across the rung, and then if G or H is true the power will be delivered to output Y. There are other methods for programming PLCs. One of the earliest techniques involved mnemonic instructions. These instructions can be derived directly from the ladder logic diagrams and entered into the PLC through a simple programming terminal. An example of mnemonics is shown in Fig. 4.10. In this example, the instructions are read one line at a time from top to bottom. The first line 00000 has the instruction LDN (input load and not) for input 00001. This will examine the input to the PLC, and if it is OFF it will remember a 1 (or true); if it is ON it will remember a 0 (or false). The next line uses an LD (input load) statement to look at the input. If the input is OFF it remembers a 0; if the input is ON it remembers a 1 (note: this is the

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY 00000 00001 00002 00003 00004 00005 00006 00007 00008

LDN LD AND LD LD AND OR ST END

00001 00002 00003 00004

00107

The mnemonic code is equivalent to the ladder logic below

00001 00002

00107

00003 00004 END

Figure 4.10 A mnemonic program and equivalent Ladder Logic.

reverse of the LD). The AND statement recalls the last two numbers remembered and if they are both true the result is a 1; otherwise the result is a 0. This result now replaces the two numbers that were recalled, and there is only one number remembered. The process is repeated for lines 00003 and 00004, but when these are done there are now three numbers remembered. The oldest number is from the AND; the newer numbers are from the two LD instructions. The AND in line 00005 combines the results from the last LD instructions and now there are two numbers remembered. The OR instruction takes the two numbers now remaining and if either one is a 1 the result is a 1, otherwise the result is a 0. This result replaces the two numbers, and there is now a single number there. The last instruction is the ST (store output) that will look at the last value stored and if it is 1, the output will be turned on; if it is 0 the output will be turned off. The ladder logic program in Fig. 4.10 is equivalent to the mnemonic program. Even if you have programmed a PLC with ladder logic, it will be converted to mnemonic form before being used by the PLC. In the past, mnemonic programming was the most common, but now it is uncommon for users to even see mnemonic programs. Sequential Function Charts have been developed to accommodate the programming of more advanced systems. These are similar to flowcharts, but are much more powerful. The example

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seen in Fig. 4.11 is doing two different things. To read the chart, start at the top where is says start. Below this there is the double horizontal line that says follow both paths. As a result, the PLC will start to follow the branch on the left- and right-hand sides separately and simultaneously. On the left there are two functions; the first one is the power-up function. This function will run until it decides it is done, and the power-down function will come after. On the right-hand side is the flash function; this will run until it is done. These functions look unexplained, but each function, such as power-up will be a small ladder logic program. This method is much different from flowcharts because it does not have to follow a single path through the flowchart. (3) Ladder diagram instructions. Ladder logic input contacts and output coils allow simple logical decisions. Instructions extend basic ladder logic to allow other types of control. Most of the instructions will use PLC memory locations to get values, store values, and track instruction status. Most instructions will normally become active when the input is true. But, some instructions, such as TOF timers, can remain active when the input is off. Other instructions will only operate when the input goes from false to true; this is known as positive edge triggered. Consider a counter that only counts when the input goes from false to true; the length of time the input is true does not change the instruction behavior. A negative edge-triggered instruction would be triggered when the input goes from true to false. Most instructions are not edge-triggered: unless stated, assume instructions are not edge-triggered. Instructions may be divided into several basic groups according to their operation. Each of these instruction groups is introduced with a brief description in Table 4.2. Start

Power up Flash Multiple path execution flow Power down

End

Figure 4.11 A sequential function chart.

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Table 4.2 Ladder Diagram Instructions Group Sequence Input Instructions

Instruction LOAD LOAD NOT AND AND NOT OR OR NOT AND LOAD OR LOAD

Sequence Output Instructions

OUTPUT OUT NOT SET RESET KEEP DIFFERENTIATE UP DIFFERENTIATE DOWN

Sequence Control Instructions

NO OPERATION END INTERLOCK

Function Connects an NO condition to the left bus bar Connects an NC condition to the left bus bar Connects an NO condition in series with the previous condition Connects an NC condition in series with the previous condition Connects an NO condition in parallel with the previous condition Connects an NC condition in parallel with the previous condition Connects two instruction blocks in series Connects two instruction blocks in parallel Outputs the result of logic to a bit Reverses and outputs the result of logic to a bit Force sets (ON) a bit Force resets (OFF) a bit Maintains the status of the designated bit Turns ON a bit for one cycle when the execution condition goes from OFF to ON Turns ON a bit for one cycle when the execution condition goes from ON to OFF — Required at the end of the program It the execution condition for IL(02) is OFF, all outputs are turned OFF and all timer PVs reset between IL(02) and the next ILC(03) (Continued)

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4: DIGITAL CONTROLLERS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Table 4.2 Ladder Diagram Instructions (Continued) Group

Instruction INTERLOCK CLEAR JUMP

JUMP END Timer/Counter Instructions

Data Comparison Instructions

TIMER COUNTER REVERSIBLE COUNTER HIGH-SPEED TIMER COMPARE DOUBLE COMPARE BLOCK COMPARE

TABLE COMPARE Data Movement Instructions

MOVE MOVE NOT

BLOCK TRANSFER BLOCK SET DATA EXCHAGE SINGLE WORD DISTRIBUTE

Function ILC(03) indicates the end of an interlock (beginning at IL(02)) If the execution condition for JMP(04) is ON, all instructions between JMP(04) and JME(05) are treated as NOP(OO) JME(05) indicates the end of a jump (beginning at JMP(04)) An ON-delay (decrementing) timer A decrementing counter Increases or decreases PV by one A high-speed, ON-delay (decrementing) timer Compares two four-digit hexadecimal values Compares two eight-digit hexadecimal values Judges whether the value of a word is within 16 ranges (defined by lower and upper limits) Compares the value of a word to 16 consecutive words Copies a constant or the content of a word to a word Copies the complement of a constant or the content of a word to a word. Copies the content of a block of up to 1000 consecutive words to a block of consecutive words Copies the content of a word to a block of consecutive words Exchanges the content of two words Copies the content of a word to a word (whose address is determined by adding an offset to a word address) (Continued)

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Table 4.2 Ladder Diagram Instructions (Continued) Group

Instruction DATA COLLECT

MOVE BIT

MOVE DIGIT

Shift Instructions

SHIFT REGISTER

WORD SHIFT

ASYNCHRONOUS SHIFT REGISTER

ARITHMETIC SHIFT LEFT ARITHMETIC SHIFT RIGHT ROTATE LEFT

ROTATE RIGHT

ONE DIGIT SHIFT LEFT

Function Copies the content of a word (whose address is determined by adding an offset to a word address) to a word Copies the specified bit from one word to the specified bit of a word Copies the specified digits (4-bit units) from a word to the specified digits of a word Copies the specified bit (0 or 1) into the rightmost bit of a shift register and shifts the other bits one bit to the left Creates a multiple-word shift register that shifts data to the left in one-word units Creates a shift register that exchanges the contents of adjacent words when one is zero and the other is not Shifts a 0 into bit 00 of the specified word and shifts the other bits one bit to the left Shifts a 0 into bit 15 of the specified word and shifts the other bits one bit to the right Moves the content of CY into bit 00 of the specified word, shifts the other bits one bit to the left, and moves bit 15 to CY Moves the content of CY into bit 15 of the specified word, shifts the other bits one bit to the left, and moves bit 00 to CY Shifts a 0 into the rightmost digit (4-bit unit) of the shift register and shifts the other digits one digit to the left (Continued)

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Instruction

Function

ONE DIGIT SHIFT RIGHT

Shifts a 0 into the rightmost digit (4-bit unit) of the shift register and shifts the other digits one digit to the right Creates a single- or multipleword shift register that can shift data to the left or right Increments the BCD content of the specified word by 1 Decrements the BCD content of the specified word by 1 Adds the content of a word (or a constant) Subtracts the contents of a word (or constant) and CY from the content of a word (or constant) Multiplies the content of two words (or contents) Divides the contents of a word (or constant) by the content of a word (or constant) Adds the contents of two words (or constants) and CY Subtracts the content of a word (or constant) and CY from the content of the word (or constant) Multiplies the contents of two words (or constants) Divides the content of a word (or constant) by the content of a word and obtains the result and remainder Add the 8-digit BCD contents of two pairs of words (or constants) and CY Subtracts the 8-digit BCD contents of a pair of words (or constants) and CY from the 80-digit BCD contents of a pair of words (or constants)

REVERSIBLE SHIFT REGISTER Increment/ Decrement Instructions

INCREMENT

BCD/Binary Calculation Instructions

BCD ADD

DECREMENT

BCD SUBTRACT

BDC MULTIPLY BCD DIVIDE

BINARY ADD BINARY SUBTRACT BINARY MULTIPLY BINARY DIVIDE

DOUBLE BCD ADD DOUBLE BCD SUBTRACT

(Continued)

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Instruction DOUBLE BCD MULITPLY DOUBLE BCD DIVIDE

Data Conversion Instructions

BCD TO BINARY BINARY TO BCD 4 to 16 DECODER

16 to 4 DECODER

ASCII CODE CONVERT Logic Instructions

COMPLEMENT

LOGICAL AND

LOGICAL OR EXCLUSIVE OR

EXCLUSIVE NOR

Special Calculation

BIT COUNTER

Function Multiplies the 8-digit BCD contents of two pairs of words (or constants) Divides the 8-digit BCD contents of a pair of words (or constants) by the 8-digit BCD contents of a pair of words (or constants) Converts 4-digit BCD data to 4-digit binary data Converts 4-digit binary data to 4 digit BCD data Takes the hexadecimal value of the specified digit(s) in a word and turns ON the corresponding bit in a word(s) Identifies the highest ON bit in the specified word(s) and moves the hexadecimal value(s) corresponding to its location to the specified digit(s) in a word Converts the designated digit(s) of a word into the equivalent 8-bit ASCII code Turns OFF all ON bits and turns ON all OFF bits in the specified word Logically ANDs the corresponding bits of two word (or constants) Logically ORs the corresponding bits of two word (or constants) Exclusively ORs the corresponding bits of two words (or constants) Exclusively NORs the corresponding bits of two words (or constants) Counts the total number of bits that are ON in the specified block (Continued)

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Instruction

Subroutine Instructions

SUBROUTINE ENTER SUBROUTINE ENTRY SUBROUTINE RETURN MACRO

Interrupt Control Instructions

INTERVAL TIMER

Step Instructions

STEP DEFINE

INTERRUPT CONTROL

STEP START Peripheral Device Control Instructions

BCD TO BINARY BINARY TO BCD 4 to 16 DECODER

16 to 4 DECODER

ASCII CODE CONVERT

Function Executes a subroutine in the main program Marks the beginning of a subroutine program Marks the end of a subroutine program Calls and executes the specified subroutine, substituting the specified input and output words for the input and output words in the subroutine Controls interval timers used to perform scheduled interrupts Performs interrupts control, such as masking and unmasking the interrupt bits for I/O interrupts Defines the start of a new step and resets the previous step when used with a control bit. Defines the end of step execution when used without a control bit Starts the execution of the step when used with a control bit Converts 4-digit BCD data to 4-digit binary data Converts 4-digit binary data to 4-digit BCD data Takes the hexadecimal value of the specified digit(s) in a word and turns ON the corresponding bit in a word(s) Identifies the highest ON bit in the specified word(s) and moves the hexadecimal value(s) corresponding to its location to the specified digit(s) in a word Converts the designated digit(s) of a word into the equivalent 8-bit ASCII code (Continued)

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Instruction

I/O Units Instructions

Display Instructions

High Speed Counter Control Instructions

7-SEGMENT DECODER I/O REFRESH MESSAGE

MODE CONTROL

PV READ COMPARE TABLE LOAD

Damage Diagnosis Instructions

FAILURE ALARM

SEVERE FAILURE ALARM

Special System Instructions

4.1.1.4

SET CARRY CLEAR CARRY

Function Converts the designated digit(s) of a word into an 8-bit, 7-segment display code Refreshes the specified I/O word Reads up to 8 words of ASCII code (16 characters) from memory and displays the message on the programming console or other peripheral device Starts and stops counter operation, compares and changes counter PVs, and stops pulse output Reads counter PVs and status data Compares counter PVs and generates a direct table or starts operation Generates a nonfatal error when executed. The Error/Alarm indicator flashes and the CPU continues operating Generates a fatal error when executed. The Error/Alarm indicator lights and the CPU stops operating Sets Carry Flag 25504 to 1 Sets Carry Flag 25504 to 0

Basic Types and Important Data

Programmable logic controllers I/O channel specifications include total number of points, number of inputs and outputs, ability to expand, and maximum number of channels. Number of points is the sum of the inputs and the outputs. PLC may be specified by any possible combination of these values. Expandable units may be stacked or linked together to increase total control capacity. Maximum number of channels refer to the maximum total number of input and output channels in an expanded system. PLC system specifications to be considered include scan time, number of instructions, data memory, and program memory. Scan time is

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the time required by the PLC to check the states of its inputs and outputs. Instructions are standard operations (such as mathematical functions) available to PLC software. Data memory is the capacity for data storage. Program memory is the capacity for control software storage. Available inputs for programmable logic controllers include DC, AC, analog, thermocouple, RTD, frequency or pulse, transistor, and interrupt inputs. Outputs for PLC include DC, AC, relay, analog, frequency or pulse, transistor, and triac. Programming options for PLC include front panel, hand held, and computer. Programmable logic controllers can also be specified with a number of computer interface options, network specifications, and features. PLC power options, mounting options, and environmental operating conditions are all also important to be considered. PLCs are usually available in these three general types: (1) Embedded. The embedded controllers expand their field bus terminals and transform them into a modular PLC. All embedded controllers support the same communication standards such as Ethernet TCP/IP. The industrial PCs and compact operating units belonging to PLC product spectrum are also identical for all controllers. (2) PC-based. This type of PLCs is of slide-in card for the PC that extends every PC or IPC and transforms it into a fully fledged PLC. In the PC, the slide-in card needs only one PCI bus slot and runs fully independently of the operating system. PC system crashes leave the machine control completely cold. (3) Compact. The compact PLC controller unites the functions of an operating unit and a PLC. To some extent, the compact controller already features integrated digital and analog inputs and outputs. Further field bus terminals in the compact PLCs can be connected via an electrically isolated interface such as CANopen.

4.1.1.5

Installation and Maintenance

(1) Control design considerations (a) Systematic design for process control. First, you need to select an instrument or a system that you wish to control. An automated system can be a machine or a process and can also be called a process control system. The function of a process control system is constantly watched by input devices (sensors) that give signals to a PLC controller. In response to this, the PLC controller sends a signal to external output devices (operative instruments) that actually control how the

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY system functions in an assigned manner (for simplification it is recommended that you draw a block diagram of operations’ flow). Second, you need to specify all input and output instruments that will be connected to a PLC controller. Following identification of all input and output instruments, corresponding designations are assigned to input and output lines of a PLC controller. Allotment of these designations is, in fact, an allocation of inputs and outputs on a PLC controller that corresponds to inputs and outputs of a system being designed. Third, make a ladder diagram for a program by following the sequence of operations that was determined in the first step, and then programming the completed ladder logic diagrams. Finally, the program is entered into the PLC controller memory. When programming is finished, checkups are done for any existing errors in a program code (using functions for diagnostics) and, if possible, an entire operation is simulated. Before this system is started, you need to check once again whether all input and output instruments are connected to correct inputs or outputs. By bringing supply in, the system starts working. (b) Memory considerations. The two main factors to consider when choosing memory are the type and the amount. An application may require two types of memory: nonvolatile memory and volatile memory with a battery backup. A nonvolatile memory, such as EPROM, can provide a reliable, permanent storage medium once the program has been created and debugged. If the application will require on-line changes, then it should probably be stored in read/write memory supported by a battery. Some controllers offer both of these options, which can be used individually or in conjunction with each other. The amount of memory required for a given application is a function of the total number of inputs and outputs to be controlled and the complexity of the control program. The complexity refers to the amount and type of arithmetic and data manipulation functions that the PLC will perform. For each of their products, manufacturers have a rule-of-thumb formula that helps to approximate the memory requirement. This formula involves multiplying the total number of I/O by a constant (usually a number between 3 and 8). If the program involves arithmetic or data manipulation, this memory approximation should be increased by 25–50%.

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(c) Software considerations. During system implementation, the user must program the PLC. Because the programming is so important, the user should be aware of the software capabilities of the product they choose. Generally, the software capability of a system is tailored to handle the control hardware that is available with the controller. However, some applications require special software functions that are beyond the control of the hardware components. For instance, an application may involve special control or data acquisition functions that require complex numerical calculations and data-handling manipulations. The instruction set selected will determine the ease with which these software tasks can be implemented. It will also directly affect the time required to implement and execute the control program. (d) Peripherals. The programming device is the key peripheral in a PLC system. It is of primary importance because it must provide all of the capabilities necessary to accurately and easily enter the control program into the system. The two most common types of programming devices are handheld units and personal computers. Handheld units, which are small and of low cost, are typically used to program relatively small control programs in small PLCs. The amount of information that can be displayed on a handheld unit is normally a single program element or, in some cases, a single program rung. Personal computers provide a better way to program a system if the control program is large. Many PLC manufacturers provide software that allows their PLCs to be programmed using a standard PC. However, expansion boards or special interfacing cables may be required to link the personal computer with the programmable controller. In addition to the programming device, a system may require other types of peripherals such as line printers or color displayers at certain control stations to provide an interface between the controller and the operator. If a PC is used as a graphic interface to a PLC system, both systems must have compatible DDE (dynamic data exchange) drivers to properly interface with peripherals. Peripheral requirements should be evaluated along with the CPU, since the CPU will determine the type and number of peripherals that can be interfaced to the system. The CPU also influences the method of interfacing, as well as the distance that peripherals can be placed from the PLC. (2) Installation, wiring, and precautions. Input/output installation is perhaps the biggest and most critical job when installing a

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY programmable controller system. To minimize errors and simplify installation, the user should follow predefined guidelines. All of the people involved in installing the controller should receive these I/O system installation guidelines, which should have been prepared during the design phase. A complete set of documents with precise information regarding I/O placement and connections will ensure that the system is organized properly. Furthermore, these documents should be constantly updated during every stage of the installation. The following considerations will facilitate an orderly installation. (a) I/O module installation. Placement and installation of the I/O modules is simply a matter of inserting the correct modules in their proper locations. This procedure involves verifying the type of module (115 VAC output, 115 VDC input, etc.) and the slot address as defined by the I/O address assignment document. Each terminal in the module is then wired to the field devices that have been assigned to that address. The user should remove power to the modules (or rack) before installing and wiring any module. (b) Wiring considerations. (i) Wire size. Each I/O terminal can accept one or more conductors of a particular wire size. The user should check that the wire is of the correct gauge and that it is of the proper size to handle the maximum possible current. (ii) Wire and terminal labeling. Each field wire and its termination point should be labeled using a reliable labeling method. Wires should be labeled with shrinktubing or tape, while tape or stick-on labels should identify each terminal block. Color coding of similar signal characteristics (e.g., AC: red, DC: blue, common: white, etc.) can be used in addition to wire labeling. Typical labeling nomenclature includes wire numbers, device names or numbers, and the input or output address assignment. Good wire and terminal identification simplifies maintenance and troubleshooting. (iii) Wire bundling. Wire bundling is a technique commonly used to simplify the connections to each I/O module. In this method, the wires that will be connected to a single module are bundled, generally using a tie wrap, and then routed through the duct with other bundles of wire with the same signal characteristics. Input, power, and output bundles carrying the same type of signals should be kept in separate ducts, when possible, to avoid interference.

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(c) PLC start-up and checking procedures. Prior to applying power to the system, the user should make several final inspections of the hardware components and interconnections. These inspections will undoubtedly require extra time. However, this invested time will almost always reduce total start-up time, especially for large systems with many input/output devices. The following checklist pertains to prestartup procedures: (i) Visually inspect the system to ensure that all PLC hardware components are present. Verify correct model numbers for each component. (ii) Inspect all CPU components and I/O modules to ensure that they are installed in the correct slot locations and placed securely in position. (iii) Check that the incoming power is correctly wired to the power supply (and transformer) and that the system power is properly routed and connected to each I/O rack. (iv) Verify that the I/O communication cables linking the processor to the individual I/O racks correspond to the I/O rack address assignment. (v) Verify that all I/O wiring connections at the controller end are in place and securely terminated. Use the I/O address assignment document to verify that each wire is terminated at the correct point. (vi) Check that the output wiring connections are in place and properly terminated at the field device end. (vii) Ensure that the system memory has been cleared of previously stored control programs. If the control program is stored in EPROM, remove the chips temporarily. (3) Troubleshooting the PLC system. (a) Diagnostic indicators. LED status indicators can provide much information about field devices, wiring, and I/O modules. Most input/output modules have at least a single indicator; input modules normally have a power indicator, while output modules normally have a logic indicator. For an input module, a lit power LED indicates that the input device is activated and that its signal is present at the module. This indicator alone cannot isolate malfunctions to the module, so some manufacturers provide an additional diagnostic indicator, a logic indicator. An ON logic LED indicates that the input signal has been recognized by the logic section of the input circuit. If the logic and power indicators do not match, then the module is unable to transfer the incoming signal to the processor correctly. This indicates a module malfunction.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY An output module’s logic indicator works similar to an input module’s logic indicator. When it is ON, the logic LED indicates that the module’s logic circuitry has recognized a command from the processor to turn ON. In addition to the logic indicator, some output modules incorporate either a blown fuse indicator or a power indicator or both. A blown fuse indicator shows the status of the protective fuse in the output circuit, while a power indicator shows that power is being applied to the load. Similar to the power and logic indicators in an input module, if both LEDs are not ON simultaneously, the output module is malfunctioning. LED indicators greatly assist the troubleshooting process. With power and logic indicators, the user can immediately pinpoint a malfunctioning module or circuit. LED indicators, however, cannot diagnose all possible problems; instead, they serve as preliminary signs of system malfunctions. (b) Troubleshooting PLC inputs. If the field device connected to an input module seems to not turn ON, a problem may exist somewhere between the L1 connection and the terminal connection to the module. An input module’s status indicators can provide information about the field device, the module, and the field device’s wiring to the module that will help pinpoint the problem. The first step in diagnosing the problem is to place the PLC in standby mode, so that it is not activating the output. This allows the field device to be manually activated (e.g., a limit switch can be manually closed). When the field device is activated, the module’s power status indicator should turn ON, indicating that power continuity exists. If the indicator is ON, then wiring is not the cause of the problem. The next step is to evaluate the PLC’s reading of the input module. This can be accomplished using the PLC’s test mode, which reads the inputs and executes the program, but it does not activate the outputs. In this mode, the PLC’s display should either show a 1 in the image table bit corresponding to the activated field device or the contact’s reference instruction should become highlighted when the device provides continuity. If the PLC is reading the device correctly, then the problem is not located in the input module. If it does not read the device correctly, then the module could be faulty. The logic side of the module may not be operating correctly, or its optical isolator may be blown. Moreover, one of the module’s interfacing channels could be faulty. In this case, the module must be replaced. If the module does not read the

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field device’s signal, then further tests are required. Bad wiring, a faulty field device, a faulty module, or an improper voltage between the field device and the module could be causing the problem. First, close the field device and measure the voltage to the input module. The meter should display the voltage of the signal (e.g., 120 V AC). If the proper voltage is present, the input module is faulty because it is not recognizing the signal. If the measured voltage is 10–15% below the proper signal voltage, then the problem lies in the source voltage to the field device. If no voltage is present, then either the wiring or the field device is the cause of the problem. Check the wiring connection to the module to ensure that the wire is secured at the terminal or terminal blocks. To further pinpoint the problem, check that voltage is present at the field device. With the device activated, measure the voltage across the device using a voltmeter. If no voltage is present on the load side of the device (the side that connects to the module), then the input device is faulty. If there is power, then the problem lies in the wiring from the input device to the module. In this case, the wiring must be traced to find the problem. (c) Troubleshooting PLC outputs. PLC output interfaces also contain status indicators that provide useful troubleshooting information. Similar to the troubleshooting of PLC inputs, the first step in troubleshooting outputs is to isolate the problem to the module, the field device, or the wiring. At the output module, ensure that the source power for switching the output is at the correct level. Also, examine the output module to see if it has a blown fuse. If it does have a blown fuse, check the fuse’s rated value. Furthermore, check the output device’s current requirements to determine if the device is pulling too much current. If the output module receives the command to turn ON from the processor yet the module’s output status does not turn ON accordingly, then the output module is faulty. If the indicator turns ON but the field device does not energize, check for voltage at the output terminal to ensure that the switching device is operational. If no voltage is present, then the module should be replaced. If voltage is present, then the problem lies in the wiring or the field device. At this point, make sure that the field wiring to the module’s terminal or to the terminal block has a good connection and that no wires are broken. After checking the module, check that the field device is working properly. Measure the voltage coming to the field

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY device while the output module is ON, making sure that the return line is well connected to the device. If there is power and yet the device does not respond, then the field device is faulty. Another method for checking the field device is to test it without using the output module. Remove the output wiring and connect the field device directly to the power source. If the field device does not respond, then it is faulty. If the field device responds, then the problem lies in the wiring between the device and the output module. Check the wiring, looking for broken wires along the wire path. (d) Troubleshooting the CPU. PLCs also provide diagnostic indicators that show the status of the PLC and the CPU. Such indicators include power OK, memory OK, and communications OK conditions. First, check that the PLC is receiving enough power from the transformer to supply all the loads. If the PLC is still not working, check for voltage supply drop in the control circuit or for blown fuses. If the PLC does not come up even with proper power, then the problem lies in the CPU. The diagnostic indicators on the front of the CPU will show a fault in either memory or communications. If one of these indicators is lit, the CPU may need to be replaced.

4.1.2

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Controllers

CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to the computer control of machine tools for manufacturing complex parts repeatedly. Many types of tools can have a CNC variant: lathes, milling machines, drills, grinding wheels, and so on. In an industrial production environment, all of these machines may be combined into one station to allow the continuous creation of a part involving several operations. CNC controllers are devices that control machines and processes. They range in capability from simple point-to-point linear control to highly complex algorithms that involve multiple axes of control. CNC controllers can be used to control various types of machine shop equipment. These include horizontal mills, vertical mills, lathes and turning centers, grinders, electro discharge machines (EDM), welding machines, and inspection machines. The number of axes controlled by CNC controllers can range anywhere from one to five, with some CNC controllers configured to control greater than six axes. Mounting types for CNC controllers include board, standalone, desktop, pendant, pedestal, and rack mount. Some units may have integral displays, touch screen displays, and keypads for controlling and programming.

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The first benefit offered by all forms of CNC machine tools is improved automation. The operator intervention related to producing work pieces can be reduced or eliminated. Many CNC machines can run unattended during their entire machining cycle, freeing the operator to do other tasks. This gives the CNC user several side benefits including reduced operator fatigue, fewer mistakes caused by human error, and consistent and predictable machining time for each work piece. Since the machine will be running under program control, the skill level required of the CNC operator (related to basic machining practice) is also reduced as compared to a machinist producing work pieces with conventional machine tools. The second major benefit of CNC technology is consistent and accurate work pieces. Today’s CNC machines boast almost unbelievable accuracy and repeatability specifications. This means that once a program is verified, two, ten, or one thousand identical work pieces can be easily produced with precision and consistency. A third benefit offered by most forms of CNC machine tools is flexibility. Since these machines are run from programs, running a different work piece is almost as easy as loading a different program. Once a program has been verified and executed for one production run, it can be easily recalled the next time the work piece is to be run. This leads to yet another benefit, fast changeover. Since these machines are very easy to set up and run, and since programs can be easily loaded, they allow very short setup time. This is imperative with today’s just-in-time production requirements.

4.1.2.1


(1) CNC system architectures. A computer numerical control (CNC) system consists of three basic components: CNC software that is a program of instructions, a machine control unit, and processing equipment, also called machine tool. The general relationship among these three components is illustrated in Fig. 4.12. (a) CNC software. Both the controller and the computer in CNC systems operate by means of software. There are three types of software programs required in either of them: operating

Software program

Machine control unit Processing equipment

Figure 4.12 Elementary components of a CNC system.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY system software, machine interface software, and application software. The principal function of the operating system is to generate and handle the correspondent control signals to drive the machine tool axes. The machine tool interface software is used to operate the communication link between the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and the machine tool axes to accomplish the control functions. Finally, in the application software, the program of instructions is the detailed step-by-step commands that direct the actions of the processing equipment. In machine tool applications, this program of instructions is called part programming. In part programming, the individual commands refer to positions of a cutting tool relative to the worktable on which the work part is fixtured. Additional instructions are usually included such as spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool selection, and other functions. The program is coded in a suitable medium for submission to the machine control unit, called a controller. (b) Machine control unit. In today’s CNC technology, the machine control unit (MCU) consists of some kinds of computers with related control hardware that store and sequentially execute the program of instructions by converting each command into mechanical actions of the processing equipment. The general configuration of the MCU in a CNC system is illustrated in Fig. 4.13. A MCU generally consists of the following components or subsystems: CPU; memory; I/O interfaces; controls of machine tool axes and spindle speed; sequence control for other machine tool functions. These subsystems are interconnected inside the MCU by means of an internal bus, as indicated in Fig. 4.13. Among these components or subsystems of a machine control unit given in Fig. 4.13, CPU, memory and I/O interfaces are described in Chapters Two and Three. In hardware,

Memory

CPU

I/O interfaces Internal buses

Machine tool control

Sequence controls

Figure 4.13 Subsystem blocks of MCU in CNC system.

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the MCU has two subsystems; machine tool controls and sequence controls are distinguished from normal computers such as personal computers (PC). The subsystem of machine tool controls is hardware components that control the position and velocity (feed late) of each machine axis as well as the rotational speed of the machine tool spindle. The control signals generated by MCU must be converted to a form and power level suited to the particular position control systems used to drive the machine axes. The positioning system can be classified as open-loop or closed-loop, and different hardware components are required in each case. Depending on the type of machine tool, the spindle is used to drive either the work piece or a rotating cutter. Turning exemplifies the first case, whereas milling and drilling exemplify the second. Spindle speed is a programmed parameter for most CNC machine tools. Spindle speed control components in the MCU usually consist of a drive control circuit and a feedback sensor interface. The particular hardware components depend on the type of spindle drive. In addition to control of table position, feed rate, and spindle speed, several additional functions are accomplished under part program control. These auxiliary functions are generally ON/OFF (binary) actuations, interlocks, and discrete numerical data. (c) Machine tool/processing equipment. The processing equipment accomplishes the processing steps to transform the starting work piece into a complete part. Its operation is directed by the MPU, which in turn is driven by instructions contained in the part program. In most CNC systems, the processing equipment consists of the worktable and spindle as well as the motors and controls to drive them. (d) Auxiliary and peripheral devices. Most CNC systems also contain some auxiliary devices as well as those devices called peripherals. Some of the important auxiliary devices may include (1) Field Buses, (2) Servo amplifiers, and (3) Power supply devices, and so on. Peripherals may include (1) Keyboards, (2) Graphic display interface such as monitors, (3) Printers, and (4) Disk drivers and tape readers. The microprocessor selected is bus oriented, and the peripherals can be connected to the bus via interface modules. (2) Computers and CNC controllers. Computers, especially PC, are more and more being used in factories to implement process control, which is the same in the CNC systems. Two

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY basic configurations between computers and CNC controllers are the following: (a) The PC is used as a separate front-end interface for displaying the control process to operators or entering and encoding software programs into the CNC controllers. In this case, both the PC and the controller are interconnected by means of respective I/O interface modules; mostly with R232 or R485 interfaces. (b) The PC contains the motion control chips (or board) and the other hardware required to operate the machine tool. In this case, the CNC control chip fits into a standard slot of the PC, and the selected PC will require additional interface cards and programming. In either configuration, the advantages of using a PC for CNC are its flexibility to execute a variety of user software in addition to and concurrently with controlling the machine tool operation. The user software might include programs for shop-floor control, statistical process control, solid modeling, cutting tool management, and other computer-aided manufacturing software. Other benefits include improved ease of use compared with conventional CNC and ease of networking the PC computers. Possible disadvantages include (1) lost time to retrofit the PC for CNC, particularly when installing the CNC motion controls inside the PC, and (2) current limitations in applications require complex fiveaxis control of the machine tool for these applications, whereas traditional CNC is still more efficient. It should be mentioned that advances in the technology of PC-based CNC are likely to reduce these disadvantages over time.

4.1.2.2

Control Mechanism

CNC is the process of “feeding” a set of sequenced instructions of the program into a specially designed programmable CNC controller and then using the controller to direct the motions of a machine tool such as a milling machine, lathe, or flame cutter. The program directs the cutter to follow a predetermined path at a specific spindle speed and feed rate that will result in the production of the desired geometric shape in a work piece. CNC controllers have several choices for operation. These include polar coordinate command, cutter compensation, linear and circular interpolation, stored pitch error, helical interpolation, canned cycles, rigid tapping, and autoscaling. Polar coordinate command is a numerical control system in which all the coordinates are referred to a certain pole. The position is

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defined by the polar radius and polar angle. Cutter compensation is the distance you want the CNC control to offset for the tool radius away from the programmed path. Linear and circular interpolation is the programmed path of the machine, which appears to be straight or curved, but is actually a series of very small steps along that path. Machine precision can be remarkably improved through such features as stored pitch error compensation, which corrects for lead screw pitch error and other mechanical positioning errors. Helical interpolation is a technique used to make large diameter holes in work pieces. It allows for high metal removal rates with a minimum of tool wear. There are machine routines like drilling, deep drilling, reaming, tapping, boring, and so forth that involve a series of machine operations but are specified by a single G-code with appropriate parameters. Rigid tapping is a CNC tapping feature where the tap is fed into the work piece at the precise rate needed for a perfect tapped hole. It also needs to retract at the same precise rate; otherwise it will shave the hole and create an out of spec tapped hole. Autoscaling translates the parameters of the CNC program to fit the work piece. Many other kinds of manufacturing equipments and manufacturing processes are controlled by other types of programmable CNC controllers. For example, a heat-treating furnace can be equipped with such a controller that will monitor temperature and the furnace’s atmospheric oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon and make automatic changes to maintain these parameters within very narrow limits. (1) CNC coordinate system. To program the CNC processing equipment, a standard axis system must be defined by which the position of the workhead relative to workpart can be specified. There are two axis systems used in CNC, one for flat and prismatic workparts and the other for rotational parts. Both axis systems are based on the Cartesian coordinate system. The axis system for flat and prismatic parts consists of three linear axes (x, y, z) in the Cartesian coordinate system, plus three rotational axes (a, b, c), as shown in Fig. 4.14. In most machine tool applications, the x- and y-axes are used to move and position the worktable to which the part is attached, and the z-axis is used to control the vertical position of the cutting tool. Such a positioning scheme is adequate for simple numerical control applications such as drilling and punching of flat sheet metal. Programming of these machine tools consists of little more than specifying a sequence of x–y coordinates. The a-, b-, and c-rotational axes specify angular positions about the x-, y- and z-axes, respectively. To distinguish positive from negative angles, the right-hand rule

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY +z +c +y

+z

+b +x +x +a Workpart Worktable (a)

(b)

Figure 4.14 Coordinate systems used in numerical control: (a) for flat and prismatic work and (b) for rotational work.

is used. The rotational axes can be used for one or both of the following: (1) orientation of the workpart to present different surfaces for machining or (2) orientation of the tool or workhead at some angle relative to the part. These additional axes permit machining or complex workpart geometries. Machine tools with rotational axis capability generally have either four or five axes: three linear axes plus one or two rotational axes. Most CNC systems do not require all six axes. The coordinate axes for a rotational numerical control system are illustrated in Fig. 4.14(b). These systems are associated with numerical control lathes and turning centers. Although the work rotates, this is not one of the controlled axes on most of these turning machines. Consequently, the y-axis is not used. The path of a cutting tool relative to the rotating workpiece is defined in x–z plane, where the x-axis is the radial location of the tool, and the z-axis is parallel to the axis of rotation of the part. The part programmer must decide where the origin of the coordinate axis system should be located, which is usually based on programming convenience. After this origin is located, the zero position is communicated to the machine tool operator to move the cutting tool under manual control to some target point on the worktable, where the tool can be easily and accurately positioned. (2) Motion control—the heart of CNC. The most basic function of any CNC controller is automatic, precise, and consistent motion control. All forms of CNC equipment have two or more directions of motion, called axes. These axes can be precisely and automatically positioned along their lengths of travel. The two most

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common axis types as given before are linear (driven along a straight path) and rotary (driven along a circular path). Instead of causing motion by manually turning cranks and handwheels as is required on conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow motion to be actuated by servomotors under control of the CNC, and guided by the part program. Generally speaking, the motion type (rapid, linear, and circular), the axes to move, the amount of motion, and the motion rate (feed rate) are programmable with almost all CNC machine tools. Figure 4.15 shows the makeup of a linear axis of a CNC controller. In this case, a CNC command executed within the control (commonly through a program) tells the drive motor to rotate a precise number of times. The rotation of the drive motor in turn rotates the ball screw. And the ball screw drives the linear axis. A feedback device at the opposite end of the ball screw allows the control to confirm that the commanded number of rotations has taken place. Although a rather crude analogy, the same basic linear motion can be found on a common table vise. By rotating the vise crank, a lead-screw is therefore rotated, which, in turn, drives the movable jaw on the vise. In comparison, a linear axis on a CNC machine tool is extremely precise. The number of revolutions of the axis drive motor precisely controls the amount of linear motion along the axis. Spindle

Drive motor

Worktable

Slide movement

Feedback device

Drive motor signal Feedback signal •••••••••••• MCU

Figure 4.15 A CNC machine takes the commanded position from the CNC program. The drive motor is rotated a corresponding amount, which in turn drives the ball screw, causing linear motion of the axis. A feedback device confirms that the proper amount of ball screw revolutions has occurred.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY All discussions to this point assume that the absolute mode of programming is used. In the absolute mode, the end points for all motions will be specified from the program zero point. However, there is another way of specifying end points for axis motion, which is the incremental mode. In the incremental mode, end points for motions are specified from the tool’s current position, not from program zero. Although the CNC controller must be told the location of the program zero point by one means or another, how this is done varies dramatically from one CNC controller to another. An older method is to assign program zero in the program. With this method, the programmer tells the control how far it is from the program zero point to the starting position of the machine. A newer and better way to assign program zero is through some form of offset. Machining center control manufacturers commonly call offsets used to assign program zero fixture offsets. Turning center manufacturers commonly call offsets used to assign program zero for each tool geometry offsets. While a CNC controller may have more motion types existing in industrial applications, the three most common types are available in almost all forms of CNC equipment: (a) Rapid motion or positioning. This motion type is used to command motion at the machine’s fastest possible rate. It is used to minimize nonproductive time during the machining cycle. Common uses for rapid motion include positioning the tool to and from cutting positions, moving to clear clamps and other obstructions, and in general, any noncutting motion during the program. (b) Straight line motion. This motion type allows the programmer to command perfectly straight line. This motion type also allows the programmer to specify the motion rate (feed rate) to be used during the movement. Straight line motion can be used any time a straight cutting movement is required, including when drilling, turning a straight diameter, face or taper, and when milling straight surfaces. The method by which feed-rate is programmed varies from one machine type to the next. Generally speaking, machining centers only allow the feed rate to be specific in per-minute format (inches or millimeters per minute). Turning centers also allow feed rate to be specified in per-revolution format (inches or millimeters per revolution). (c) Circular motion. This motion type causes the machine to make movements in the form of a circular path. This motion type is used to generate radii during machining. All feed-rate

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related points for straight-line motion still apply to the circular motion. (3) Interpolation. For the control to move along a perfectly straight line to get to the programmed end point, it must perfectly synchronize the X- and Y-axis movements as given in Fig. 4.16. Also, if machining is to occur during the motion, a motion rate (feed rate) must also be specified. This requires linear interpolation. Linear interpolation is accomplished by means of the linear interpolation commands in which the control will precisely and automatically calculate a series of very tiny single axis departures, keeping the tool as close to the programmed linear path as possible. The CNC machine tools appear that the machine is forming a perfectly straight-line motion. Figure 4.16(a) shows what the CNC control is actually doing during linear interpolation. In similar fashion, many applications for CNC machine tools require that the machine be able to form circular motions. Applications for circular motions include forming radii on turned work pieces between faces and turns, and milling radii on contours on machining centers. This kind of motion requires circular interpolation. With linear interpolation, the control will do its best to generate as close to a circular path as possible. Figure 4.16(b) shows what happens during circular interpolation. Depending on the application, other interpolation types are required on turning centers that have live tooling. For turning centers that can rotate tools (like end mills) in the turret and have a c-axis to rotate the work piece held in the chuck, polar coordinate interpolation can be used to mill contours around the periphery of the work piece. Polar coordinate interpolation +Y Desired motion direction

+X

+Y +X (a)

(b)

Figure 4.16 (a) Interpolation for actual motion generated with linear interpolation. (b) This drawing shows what happens during circular interpolation.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY allows the programmer to “flatten out” the rotary axis, treating it as a linear axis for the purpose of making motion commands. (4) Compensation. All types of CNC machine tools require compensation. Though applied for different reasons on different machine types, all forms of compensation are for unpredictable conditions related to tooling. In many applications, the CNC user will be faced with several situations when it will be impossible to predict exactly the result of certain tooling related problems. So one or another form of compensation has to be used. (a) Tool length compensation. This machining center compensation type allows the programmer to forget about each tool’s length as the program is written. Instead of having to know the exact length of each tool and tediously calculating Z-axis positions based on the tool’s length, the programmer simply enters tool length compensation on each tool’s first Z-axis approach movement to the work piece. At the machine during setup, the operator will input the tool length compensation value for each tool in the corresponding offset. This, of course, means the tool must first be measured. If tool length compensation is used wisely, the tool can be measured offline (in a tool length measurement gauge) to minimize setup time. Figure 4.17 shows one popular method of determining the tool length compensation value. With this method, the value is simply the length of the tool. Spindle

Location key Tool length

Figure 4.17 With tool length compensation, the tool’s length compensation value is stored separate from the program. Many CNC controls allow the length of the tool to be used as the offset value.

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(b) Cutter radius compensation. Just as tool length compensation allows the machining center programmer to forget about the tool’s length, so does cutter radius compensation allow the programmer to forget about the cutter’s radius as contours are programmed. It may be obvious that cutter radius compensation is only used for milling cutters and only when milling on the periphery of the cutter. A programmer would never consider using cutter radius compensation for a drill, tap, reamer, or other hole-machining tool. Without cutter radius compensation, machining center programmers must program the centerline path of all milling cutters. When programming centerline path, the programmer must know the precise diameter of the milling cutter and calculate program movements accordingly. This can be difficult enough with simple motions, but when contours become complicated, it can be very difficult to calculate centerline path. With cutter radius compensation, the programmer can program the coordinates of the work surface, not the tool’s centerline path. This eliminates the need for many calculations. It is worth mentioning that we are now talking about manual programming. If you have a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) system, it can probably generate centerline path just as easily as work surface path. (c) Dimensional tool offsets. This compensation type applies only to turning centers. When setting up tools, it is not feasible to expect that each tool will be perfectly in position. It is likely that some minor positioning problems will exist. And even if all tools could be perfectly positioned, as any single-point turning or boring tool begins cutting, it will begin to wear. As a turning or boring tool wears, it will directly affect the size of the work piece being machined. For these reasons, and to allow easy sizing of turned work pieces, dimensional tool offsets are required (also simply called tool offsets). Dimensional tool offsets are installed as part of a four-digit T word. The first two digits indicate the tool station number and the second two digits indicate the offset number to be installed. When a tool offset is installed, the control actually shifts the entire coordinate system by the amount of the offset. It will be as if the operator could actually move the tool in the turret by the amount of the offset. Each dimensional offset has two values, one for X and one for Z. The operator will have control of what the tool does in both axes as the work piece is being machined.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (d) Other types of compensation. The compensation types shown to this point have been for machining centers and turning centers. But all forms of CNC equipment have some form of compensation to allow for unpredictable situations. Here are some other brief examples. CNC wire EDM machines have two kinds of compensation. One, called wire offset, works in a very similar way to cutter radius compensation to keep the wire centerline away from the work surface by the wire radius plus the overturn amount. It is also used to help make trim (finishing) passes using the same coordinates. Laser cutting machines also have a feature like cutter radius compensation to keep the radius of the laser beam away from the surface being machined. CNC press breaks have a form of compensation for bend allowances based on the work piece material and thickness. Generally speaking, if the CNC user is faced with any unpredictable situations during programming, it is likely that the CNC control manufacturer has come up with a form of compensation to deal with the problem.

4.1.2.3

CNC Part Programming

CNC part programming consists of designing and documenting the sequence of processing steps to be performed on a CNC machine. It is crucial that a manual CNC programmer be able to visualize the machining operations that are to be performed during the execution of the program. Then, in step-by-step order, the programmer will give a set of commands that makes the machine behave accordingly. The CNC programmer must be able to visualize the movements the CNC machine will be making before a program can be successfully developed. Without this visualization ability, the programmer will not be able to develop the movements in the program correctly. This is one reason why machinists make the best CNC programmers. An experienced machinist should be able to easily visualize any machining operation taking place. (1) CNC program formats. The program format is the arrangement of the data that make up the program. Commands are fed to the controller in units called blocks or statements. A block is one complete CNC instruction which is made up of one or more commands such as axis commands or feed rate commands. The format of command information within each block is very important. There are five block formats used in CNC programming: (a) Fixed sequential format. Fixed sequential format requires that specific command data items be organized together in a

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(b) (c) (d)

(e)

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definite order to form a complete statement or block of information. Every block must have exactly the same number of characters (words). The significance of each character depends on where it is located in the block. Fixed sequential format with TAB ignored. This is the same as the fixed sequential format except that TAB codes are used to separate the characters for easier reading by humans. Tab sequential format. This is the same as the preceding format except that characters with the same value as in the preceding block can be omitted in the sequence. Word address format. This format uses a letter prefix to identify the type of word that is a single alpha character. See Table 4.3 for definition of prefix. This features an address for each data element to permit the controller to assign data to their correct register in whatever order they are received. Almost all current CNC controllers use a word address format for programming. Word address format with TAB separation and variable word order. This is the same as the last format, except that characters are separated by TABs, and the characters in the block can be listed in any order. Although the word address format allows variations in the order, the words in a block are usually given in the following order: (i) Sequence number (N-word) (ii) Preparatory word (G-word, see Table 4.4 for definition of G-word)

Table 4.3 Common Word Prefixes Used in Word Address Format Address Word A, B, C F G I, J, K J K M N R S T X, Y, Z

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Function Rotation about the X-, Y-, Z-axis, respectively Feed rate commands Preparatory commands Circular interpolation X-, Y-, Z-axis offset, respectively Circular interpolation Y-axis offset Circular interpolation Z-axis offset Miscellaneous commands Sequence number Arc radius Spindle speed Tool number X-, Y-, Z-axis data, respectively

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Table 4.4 G-Code Commands G-Codes for movement G00 It sets the controller for rapid travel mode axis motion used for point-to-point motion. Two-axis X and Y moves may occur simultaneously at the same velocity, resulting in a nonlinear dogleg cutter path. With axis priority, three-axis rapid travel moves will move the Z-axis before the X- and Y- if the Z-axis cutter motion is in the negative positive direction; otherwise the Z- axis will move last G01 It sets the controller for linear motion at the programmed feed rate. The controller will coordinate (interpolate) the axis motion of two-axis moves to yield a straight-line cutter path at any angle. A feed rate must be in effect. If no feed rate has been specified before entering the axis destination commands, the feed rate may default to zero inches per minute, which will require a time of infinity to complete the cut G02 It sets the controller for motion along an arc path at programmed feed rate in the clockwise direction. The controller coordinates the X- and Y axes (circular interpolation) to produce an arc path G03 It is the same as G02, but the direction is counterclockwise. G00, G01, G02, and G03 will each cancel any other of the four that might be active G04 It is used for dwell on some makes of CNC controllers. It acts much like the M00 miscellaneous command in that it interrupts execution of the program. Unlike the M00 command, G04 can be an indefinite dwell or it can be a timed dwell if a time span is specified G-Codes for offsetting the cutter’s center G40 It deactivates both G41 and G42, eliminating the offsets G41 It is used for cutter-offset compensation where the cutter is on the left side of the work piece looking in the direction of motion. It permits the cutter to be offset an amount the programmer specifies to compensate for the amount a cutter is undersize or oversize G42 It is the same as G41 except that the cutter is on the right side looking in the direction of motion. G41 and G42 can be used to permit the size of a milling cutter to be ignored (or set for zero diameter) when writing CNC programs. Milling cut statements can then be written directly in terms of work piece geometry dimensions. Cutting tool centerline offsets required to compensate for the cutter radius can be accommodated for the entire program by including a few G41 and/or G42 statements at appropriate places in the program (Continued)

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Table 4.4 G-Code Commands (Continued) G-Codes for setting measurement data units G70 It sets the controller to accept inch units G71 It sets the controller to accept millimeter units G-Codes for calling (executing) canned cycles G78 It is used by some models of CNC controllers for a canned cycle for milling rectangular pockets. It cancels itself upon completion of the cycle G79 It is used by some models of N/C controllers for a canned cycle for milling circular pockets. It cancels itself upon completion of the cycle G80 It deactivates (cancels) any of the G80-series canned Z-axis cycles. Each of these canned cycles is modal. Once put in effect, a hole will be drilled, bored, or tapped each time the spindle is moved to a new location. Eventually the spindle will be moved to a location where no hole is desired. Cancelling the canned cycle terminates its action G81 It is a canned cycle for drilling holes in a single drill stroke without pecking. Its motion is feed down (into the hole) and rapid up (out of the hole). A Z-depth must be included G82 It is a canned cycle for counterboring or countersinking holes. Its action is similar to G81, except that it has a timed dwell at the bottom of the Z-stroke. A Z-depth must be included G83 It is a canned cycle for peck drilling. Peck drilling should be used whenever the hole depth exceeds three times the drill’s diameter. Its purpose is to prevent chips from packing in the drill’s flutes, resulting in drill breakage. Its action is to drill in at feed rate a small distance (called the peck increment) and then retract at rapid travel. Then the drill advances at rapid travel (“rapids” in machine tool terminology) back down to its previous depth, feeds in another peck increment, and rapids back out again. Then it rapids back in, feeds in another peck increment, etc., until the final Z-depth is achieved. A total Z-depth dimension and peck increment must be included G84 It is a canned cycle for tapping. Its use is restricted to CNC machines that have a programmable variable-speed spindle with reversible direction of rotation. It coordinates the spindle’s rotary motion to the Z-axis motion for feeding the tap into and out of the hole without binding and breaking off the tap. It can also be used with some nonprogrammable spindle machines if a tapping attachment is also used to back the tap out G85 It is a canned cycle for boring holes with a single-point boring tool. Its action is similar to G81, except that it feeds in and feeds out. A Z-depth must be included (Continued)

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Table 4.4 G-Code Commands (Continued) G86

G87

G89

It is also a canned cycle for boring holes with a single-point boring tool. Its action is similar to G81, except that it stops and waits at the bottom of the Z-stroke. Then the cutter rapids out when the operator depresses the START button. It is used to permit the operator to back off the boring tool so it does not score the bore upon withdrawal. A Z-depth must be included It is a chip breaker canned drill cycle, similar to the G83 canned cycle for peck drilling. Its purpose is to break long, stringy chips. Its action is to drill in at feed rate a small distance, back out a distance of 0.010 in. to break the chip, then continue drilling another peck increment, back off 0.010 in., drill another peck increment, etc., until the final Z-depth is achieved. A total Z-depth dimension and peck increment must be included It is another canned cycle for boring holes with a single-point boring tool. Its action is similar to G82, except that it feeds out rather than rapids out. It is designed for boring to a shoulder. A Z-depth must be included

G-Codes for setting position frame of reference G90 It sets the controller for positioning in terms of absolute coordinate location relative to the origin G91 It sets the controller for incremental positioning relative to the current cutting tool point location G92 It resets the X-, Y-, and/or Z-axis registers to any number the programmer specifies. In effect it shifts the location of the origin. It is very useful for programming bolt circle hole locations and contour profiling by simplifying trigonometric calculations G-Codes for modifying operational characteristics G99 It is a no modal deceleration override command used on certain Bridgeport CNC mills to permit a cutting tool to move directly— without decelerating, stopping, and accelerating—from a linear or circular path in one block to a circular or linear path in the following block, provided the paths are tangent or require no sudden change of direction and the feed rates are approximately the same

(iii) Coordinates (X-, Y-, Z-words for linear axes; A-, B-, C-axes for rotational axes) (iv) Feed rate (F-word) (v) Spindle speed (S-word) (vi) Tool selection (T-word)

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(vii) Miscellaneous word (M-word, see Table 4.5 for definition of M-word) (viii) End-of-block (EOB symbol). (2) Programming methodologies. Part programming can be accomplished using a variety of procedures ranging from highly manual to highly automated methods. The methods are (1) manual part programming, (2) computer-assisted part programming, and (3) conversational programming. Table 4.5 M-Code Commands Miscellaneous commands M00 It is a code that interrupts the execution of the program. The CNC machine stops and stays stopped until the operator depresses the START/CONTINUE button. It provides the operator with the opportunity to clear away chips from a pocket, reposition a clamp, or check a measurement M01 It is a code for a conditional—or optional—program stop. It is similar to M00 but is ignored by the controller unless a control panel switch has been activated. It provides a means to stop the execution of the program at specific points in the program if conditions warrant the operator to actuate the switch M02 It is a code that tells the controller that the end of the program has been reached. It may also cause the tape or the memory to rewind in preparation for making the next part. Some controllers use a different code (M30) to rewind the tape M03 It is a code to start the spindle rotation in the clockwise (forward) direction M04 It is a code to start the spindle rotation in the counterclockwise (reverse) direction M05 It is a code to stop the spindle rotation M06 It is a code to initiate the execution of an automatic or manual tool change. It accesses the tool length offset (TLO) register to offset the Z-axis counter to correspond to the end of the cutting tool, regardless of its length M07 It turns on the coolant (spray mist) M08 It turns on the coolant (flood) M09 It turns off the coolant M10 & M11 They are used to actuate clamps M25 It retracts the quill on some vertical spindle N/C mills M30 It rewinds the tape on some N/C machines. Others use M02 to perform this function

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY In manual part programming, the programmer prepares the CNC code using the low-level machine language previously described. The program is either written by hand on a form from which a punched tape or other storage media is subsequently coded, or it is entered directly into a computer equipped with some CNC part programming software, which writes the program onto the storage media. In any case, the manual part programming is a block-by-block listing of the machining instructions for the given job, formatted for a particular machine tool. Manual part programming can be used for both point-to-point and contouring jobs. It is most suited to point-to-point machining operations such as drilling. It can also be used for simple contouring jobs, such as milling and turning when only two axes are involved. However, for complex three-dimensional machining operations, there is an advantage in using computer-assisted part programming. Computer-assisted part programming systems allow CNC programming to be accomplished at a much higher level than manual part programming and are becoming very popular. With a computer-assisted part programming system, the programmer will have a computer to help with the preparation of the CNC program. The computer will actually generate the G-code level program much like a CNC program created by manual means. Once finished, the program will be transferred directly to the CNC machine tool. While these systems vary dramatically from one system to the next, there are three basic steps that remain remarkably similar among most of them. First, the programmer must give some general information. Second, work piece geometry must be defined and trimmed to match the work piece shape. Third, the machining operations must be defined. Information required of the programmer in the first step includes documentation information like part name, part number, date, and program file name. The programmer may also be required to set up the graphic display size for scaling purposes. The work piece material and rough stock shape may also be required. In the second step, the programmer will describe the shape of the work piece by using a series of geometry definition methods. With graphic computer-assisted part programming systems, the programmer will generally be shown each geometric element as it is described. The programmer will have the ability to select from a series of definition methods, choosing the one that makes it the easiest to define the work piece shape. Once geometry is defined, most of these systems require that the geometry be trimmed to match the

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actual shape of the work piece to be machined. Lines that run off the screen in both directions must be trimmed to form line segments. Circles must be trimmed to form radii. In the third step, the programmer tells the computer-assisted system how the work piece is to be machined. During the third step, usually a tool path or animation will be shown, giving the programmer a very good idea of what will happen as the program is run at the machine tool. This ability to visualize a program before it gets to the machine tool is a major advantage of graphic computer-assisted systems. At the completion of all operations, the programmer can command that the G-code level CNC program be created. With conversational programming, the program is created at the CNC machine. Generally speaking, the conversational program is created using graphic and menu-driven functions. The programmer will be able to visually check whether various inputs are correct as the program is created. When finished, most conversational controls will even show the programmer a tool path plot of what will happen during the machining cycle. Conversational controls vary substantially from one manufacturer to the next. In most cases, they can essentially be thought of as a single-purpose computer-assisted system, and thus do provide a convenient means to generate part programs for a single machine. Be forewarned, though, that some of these controls, particularly older models, can only be programmed conversationally at the machine, which means you cannot utilize other means such as offline programming with a computer-assisted system. However, most newer models can operate either in a conversational mode or accept externally generated G-code programs. There has been quite a controversy brewing over the wisdom of employing conversational controls. Some companies use them exclusively and swear by their use. Others consider them wasteful. Everyone involved with CNC seems to have a very strong opinion (pro or con) about them. Generally speaking, conversational controls can dramatically reduce the time it takes the operator to prepare the program as compared to manual part programming. (3) CNC part programming languages. (a) G-Code commands and M-commands require some elaboration. G-Code commands are called preparatory commands. They consist of two numerical digits following the “G” prefix in the word address format. Table 4.4 explains all the G-Code commands. M-Code commands are used to specify miscellaneous or auxiliary functions that are available

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY on the machine tool. M-Code commands are explained in Table 4.5. (b) Automatically programmed tools (APT). APT is a universal computer assisted programming system for multiaxis contouring programming. The original CNC programming system, developed for aerospace, was first used in building and manufacturing military equipment. The APT code is one of the most widely used software tools for complex numerically controlled machining. APT is a “problem oriented” language that was developed for the explicit purpose of aiding the CNC machine tools. Machinetool instructions and geometry definitions are written in the APT language to constitute a “part program.” The APT part program is processed by the APT software to produce a cutter location file. User supplied post processors to convert the cutter location data into a form suitable for a particular CNC machine tool may then process this file. The APT system software is organized into two separate programs: the load complex and the APT processor. The load complex handles the table initiation phase and is usually only run when changes to the APT processor capabilities are made. The APT processor consists of four components: the translator, the execution complex, the subroutine library, and the cutter location editor. The translator examines each APT statement in the part program for recognizable structure and generates a new statement, or series of statements, in an intermediate language. The execution complex processes all of the definition, motion, and a related statement to generate cutter location coordinates. The subroutine library contains routines defining the algorithms required to process the sequenced list of intermediate language commands generated by the translator. The cutter location editor reprocesses the cutter location coordinates according to user-supplied commands to generate a final cutter location file. The APT language is a statement oriented, sequence dependent language. With the exception of such programming techniques as looping and macros, statements in an APT program are executed in a strict first-to-last sequence. To provide programming capability for the broadest possible range of parts and machine tools, APT input (and output) is generalized, as represented by 3-dimensional geometry and tools, and is arbitrarily uniform, as represented by the moving tool concept and output data in absolute coordinates.

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4.1.2.4

CNC Controller Specifications

Table 4.6 CNC Controller Specifications Applications Horizontal Mills

Other

A horizontal milling machine has the cutting tool oriented in the horizontal direction A vertical milling machine has the cutting tool oriented in the vertical direction Lathes and turning centers are terms sometimes used interchangeably. A lathe has a cutting tool and a rotating work piece. The CNC program controls the position of the cutting tool along the way guide Grinders are used in work piece finishing operations. CNC grinders automatically grind surfaces to a precision finish Electro discharge machining (EDM) is a method in which voltage is applied through a dielectric medium between the tool electrode and the work piece, using electro discharge generated when the electrode and work piece are positioned close to each other Automated welding machines include TIG, MIG, and other capabilities Inspection machines inspect products for a particular attribute, e.g., color, size, mass, and reject items, which fall outside preset values. They are sometimes integrated on other CNC controlled machines Other unlisted, specialized, or proprietary applications

Number of axes 1 2 3 4 5 6+

The controller controls one axis The controller controls two axes The controller controls three axes The controller controls four axes The controller controls five axes The controller controls six or more axes

Vertical Mills Lathes and Turning Centers

Grinders

Electro Discharge Machine (EDM)

Welding Inspection

Configuration Board Stand Alone

A computer board that has the ability to act as a CNC controller Standalone cabinets are separate from the machine and contain all the controlling electronics of the machine (Continued)

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Table 4.6 CNC Controller Specifications (Continued) Desk Top Pendant Pedestal Rack Mount

A desktop controller allows the operator to control the machine from a separate, nearby office A pendant controller hangs from an arm attached to the machine Pedestal controllers sit on top of an arm attached to the machine A rack-mounted controller has tabs to mount the controller components on vertical rails inside a standard rack

Industrial communications Most factories have a common communications protocol. This allows for easier intercell or machine communications ARCNet ARCNet is an embedded networking technology well suited for real-time control applications in both the industrial and commercial marketplaces CANBus Controller Area Network—CANBus is a high-speed serial data network engineered to exist in harsh electrical environments ControlNET Real-time control-layer network that provides highspeed (up to 5 Mbps) transport of message data and I/O data. Especially good for peer-to-peer systems. Specifications that are set by ControlNet International (the association of ControlNet users) Data Highway The Data Highway Plus network is a local area Plus network designed to support remote programming for factory floor applications DeviceNet Utilizing CAN protocol, DeviceNet is a network designed to connect industrial devices such as limit switches, photoelectric cells, valve manifolds, motor starters, drives, and operator displays to PLCs and PCs Ethernet— A local area network (LAN) protocol developed by 10/100 Base –T Xerox Corporation in cooperation with DEC and Intel in 1976. Ethernet uses a bus or star topology and supports data transfer rates of 10 Mbps. The Ethernet specification served as the basis for the IEEE 802.3 standard, which specifies the physical and lower software layers. Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD access method to handle simultaneous demands. It is one of the most widely implemented LAN standards (Continued)

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Table 4.6 CNC Controller Specifications (Continued) Parallel

PROFIBUS

SERCOS

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Serial (RS232, RS422, RS485) Web Enabled Other Language Bitmap

Conversational

DXF File

The IEEE 1284 parallel interface standard is the prevalent standard for connecting a computer to a printer or certain other devices over a parallel (e8ight bits of data at a time) physical and electrical interface. The IEEE-1284 standard also allows for bidirectional communications PROFIBUS is a family of industrial communications protocols widely used in Europe for manufacturing and process applications. PROFIBUS focuses on multivendor interchange ability and interoperability of devices SERCOS—SErial Real-time COmmunications System—is an open controller-to-intelligent digital drive interface specification, designed for high speed serial communication of standardized closed-loop data in real time over a noise-immune, fiber optic cable Universal Serial Bus. The 12 megabit serial bus designed to replace virtually all low-to-medium speed peripheral device connections to personal computers, including keyboards, mice, modems, printers, joysticks, audio functions, monitor controls, etc. Heavily supported by hundreds of vendors and Microsoft. Almost all personal computer systems built in 1997 and on will use USB ports Recommended Standard interfaces approved by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) for connecting serial devices The controller has an interface to the World Wide Web and can communicate with computers or controllers Other unlisted, specialized, or proprietary communications A bit map (often spelled “bitmap”) defines a display space and the color for each pixel or “bit” in the display space Conversational language is a higher level, easy to learn programming tool. It performs the same functions as the standard G-Code commands Drawing eXchange Format (DXF) file that was created as a standard to freely exchange two- and three-dimensional drawings between different CAD programs. It basically represents a shape as a wire frame mesh of x,y,z coordinates (Continued)

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Table 4.6 CNC Controller Specifications (Continued) G/M-Codes

Hewlett Packard Graphics Language (HPGL) Ladder Logic

Other Operation Polar Coordinate Command Cutter Compensation Linear/Circular Interpolation Stored Pitch Error

Helical Interpolation Canned Cycles

Rigid Tapping

G-Code is the programming language for Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) machine tools that can be downloaded to the controller to operate the machine.M-Code is the standard machine tool codes that are normally used to switch on the spindle, coolant, or auxiliary devices HPGL was originally created to send two-dimensional drawing information to pen plotters, but has since become a good standard for the exchange of two-dimensional drawing information between CAD programs A programming language used to program programmable logic controllers (PLC). This graphical language closely resembles electrical relay logic diagrams Other unlisted, specialized, or proprietary languages A numerical control system in which all the coordinates are referred to a certain pole. The position is defined by the polar radius and polar angle Cutter compensation is the distance you want the CNC control to offset for the tool radius away from the programmed path Linear and circular interpolation is the programmed path of the machine, which appears to be straight or curved, but is actually a series of very small steps along that path Machine precision can be remarkably improved through such features as stored pitch error compensation, which corrects for lead screw pitch error and other mechanical positioning errors Helical interpolation is a technique used to make large diameter holes in work pieces. It allows for high metal removal rates with a minimum of tool wear There are machine routines like drilling, deep drilling, reaming, tapping, boring, etc., that involve a series of machine operations but are specified by a single G-code with appropriate parameters Rigid tapping is a CNC tapping feature where the tap is fed into the work piece at the precise rate needed for a perfect tapped hole. It also needs to retract at the same precise rate otherwise it will shave the hole and create an out of spec tapped hole (Continued)

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Table 4.6 CNC Controller Specifications (Continued) Autoscaling Other Features Alarm/Event Monitoring

Behind Tape Reader

Diskette/Floppy Storage Tape Storage

Zip Disk Storage Multiprogram Storage Self Diagnostics

Simultaneous Control Tape Reader

Teach Mode

Other

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Autoscaling translates the parameters of the CNC program to fit the work piece Other unlisted, specialized, or proprietary operations Event monitoring is incorporated into machines to help avoid or reduce the incidence of costly down time. Monitoring could be collision avoidance that breaks tools or dies or other kinds of machine damaging incidents Behind Tape Readers (BTRs) allow the program to be loaded from a computer into the machines memory without having to go through the tape reader. In older machines this is common because it is the only way to access the machines memory A standard 3½ in. diameter floppy disk The machine program is stored on a tape. The tape can either be the conventional paper style or more current magnetic style Zip disk storage is a compact, high capacity form of removable storage Many machine controllers allow for multiple part programs to be stored internally. This allows for faster set up and turnaround times The controller has the ability to run a program and determine if there is a machine fault or error in the part being worked on Simultaneous control allows for the independent control of multiple axes at the same time A device attached to a machine controller that reads paper or magnetic tapes. These tapes contain the program information used to make parts Teach mode allows the machine operator to move each axis to the desired position to “teach” the machine how to make the part Other unlisted, specialized, or proprietary features or options

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4.1.3 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Controllers Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a system of hardware components and software application programs used for process control and to transfer data in real time from remote locations to control equipment and conditions. SCADA systems are at the heart of the modern industrial enterprise with applications in power plants, telecommunications, transportation, and water and waste control, and so on. SCADA hardware gathers and feeds data into a computer that has SCADA software installed. The computer then processes this data according to customer specifications and displays it on customized screens. These systems allow operators to control equipment from a central location and provide warnings (graphically on screens and with audible alarms) when conditions become hazardous.

4.1.3.1


(1) SCADA system architectures. SCADA systems have evolved in parallel with the growth and sophistication of modern computer technology. Most of the SCADA systems are of these two topologies: Monolithic SCADA systems, and Distributed SCADA systems. (a) Monolithic SCADA systems. When SCADA systems were first developed, the concept of computer in general centered on “mainframe” systems. Networks were generally nonexistent, and each centralized system stood alone. As a result, SCADA systems were standalone systems with virtually no connectivity to other systems. This kind of SCADA network is implemented to communicate with remote terminal units (RTUs) only in the field. The communication protocols in use on SCADA networks are developed by vendors of RTU equipment and often proprietary. In addition, these protocols are generally very “lean,” supporting virtually no functionality beyond that required for scanning and controlling points within the remote device. Also, it is generally not feasible to intermingle other types of data traffic with RTU communications on the network. Connectivity to the SCADA master station itself is very limited. Connections to the master typically are at the bus level via a proprietary adapter or controller plugged into the CPU backplane.

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Redundancy in this kind of system is accomplished by the use of two identically equipped mainframe systems, a primary and a backup, connected at the bus level. The standby system’s primary function is to monitor the primary and take over in the event of a detected failure. This type of standby operation means that little or no processing is done on the standby system. Figure 4.18 shows a typical architecture of the monolithic SCADA systems. (b) Distributed SCADA systems. Distributed SCADA systems take advantage of developments and improvement in system miniaturization and Local Area Networking (LAN) technology to distribute the processing across multiple systems. Multiple stations, each with a specific function, are connected to a LAN and share information with each other in real-time. Some of these distributed stations serve as communications processors, primarily communicating with field devices such as RTUs. Some serve as operator interfaces, providing the human–machine interface (HMI) for system operators. Still others serve as calculation processors or database servers. The distribution of an individual SCADA system functions across multiple systems providing more processing power for the system as a whole than would have been available in a single processor. The networks that connected these individual systems are generally based on LAN protocols and were not capable of reaching beyond the limits of the local environment.

Client

SCADA network highway

Ethernet/ modem

MTU RTU

RTU

PLC

Figure 4.18 Monolithic SCADA system architectures.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Some of the LAN protocols are of a proprietary nature, where the vendor creates its own network protocol or version thereof rather than pulling an existing one off the shelf. This allows a vendor to optimize its LAN protocol for realtime traffic, but it limits (or effectively eliminates) the connection of networks from other vendors to the SCADA LAN. Figure 4.19 depicts typical distributed SCADA architecture. Distribution of system functionality across networkconnected systems serves not only to increase processing power, but also to improve the redundancy and reliability of the system as a whole. Rather than the simple primary and standby failover scheme that is utilized in monolithic SCADA systems, the distributed architecture often kept all stations on the LAN in an online state all of the time. For example, if an HMI station were to fail, another HMI station could be used to operate the system, without waiting for failover from the primary system to the secondary. The Wide Area Network (WAN) used to communicate with devices in the field is largely unchanged by the development of LAN connectivity between local stations at the SCADA master. These external communications networks are still limited to RTU protocols and were not available for other types of network traffic. The WAN protocols such as the Internet Protocol (IP) are used for communication between the master station and communications equipment. This allows the portion of the master station that is responsible for communications with the field devices to be separated from the master station “proper” across a WAN. Vendors are now producing RTUs that can communicate with the master station using an Ethernet connection, as depicted by Fig. 4.19. (2) SCADA software architecture. As the name indicates, SCADA is not a full control system, but rather focuses on the supervisory level. As such, it is a purely software package that is positioned on top of hardware to which it is interfaced, in general via Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), or other commercial hardware modules like RTUs. SCADA systems used to run on DOS, VMS, and UNIX; in recent years all SCADA vendors have moved to NT and some also to Linux. The software generically is multitasking and is based upon a real-time database located in one or more servers. Servers are responsible for data acquisition and handling (e.g., polling controllers, alarm checking, calculations, logging and archiving) on a set of parameters, typically those they are connected to.

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PDA

Client web browser

491

Client web browser

Internet or intranet or LAN

IP enabled meters & instruments

SCADA node Serial

SCADA node

Local network

SCADA node

Controllers & instruments

PLC

PLC

PLC

D

PLC PLC Micro controllers

Figure 4.19 Distributed SCADA system architectures.

However, it is possible to have dedicated servers for particular tasks, for instance, historian, and data-logger, alarm handler. Figure 4.20 shows a SCADA software architecture that is generic for most of the SCADA products. (a) Communications. (i) Internal communication. Server-client and server-server communication is, in general, on a publish-subscribe and event-driven basis and uses a TCP/IP protocol or Microsoft NT protocol; for example, a client application subscribes to a parameter that is owned by a particular server application and only changes to that parameter are then communicated to the client application. (ii) Access to devices. The data servers poll the controllers at a user defined polling rate. The polling rate may be different for different parameters. The controllers pass the requested parameters to the data servers. Time stamping of the process parameters is typically performed in the controllers and this time-stamp is taken over by the

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY SCADA client

HMI

Alarm and log display

Trending

Active X controls

3rd Party application

Active X container Client/Server protocol; SCADA server

TCP/IP protocol;

Real-Time event and interrupt handler

Recipe database, and recipe manager

Data processing manager

Real-Time database

Data R/W manager

Report generator

SQL

Alarm and log handler Alarm and log database

Archive handler

Archive database

Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) interface

Device driver (I/O interface)

Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE) interface

OLE for process control (OPC)

PLCs

Microsoft NT

RTUs

Field-Buses: Modbus, …

Application program interface

EXCEL

Private applications

Figure 4.20 SCADA software architecture.

data server. If the controller and communication protocol used support unsolicited data transfer, then the products will support this too. The products provide communication drivers for most of the common PLCs and widely used field-buses, for example, Modbus. Of the three Fieldbuses that are recommended, both PROFIBUS and Worldfip are supported but CANbus often is not. Some of the drivers are based on third party products and therefore have additional cost associated with them. A single data server

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can support multiple communications protocols: it can generally support as many such protocols as it has slots for interface cards. (b) Interfacing. (i) Application interfaces. The provision of Process Control (OPC) client functionality is for SCADA to access devices in an open and standard manner. Some SCADA controllers also provide an Open Data Base Connectivity (ODBC) interface to the data in the archive and logs, but not to the configuration database, a library of APIs supporting C, C++, and Visual Basic (VB) to access data in the Real-Time Data Base (RTDB) logs and archive. The API often does not provide access to the SCADA controller’s internal features such as alarm handling, reporting, trending, and so on. The PC products provide support for the Microsoft standards such as Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE) which allows, for example, visualizing data dynamically in an EXCEL spreadsheet, Dynamic Link Library (DLL), and Object Linking and Embedding (OLE). (ii) Database. The configuration data are stored in a database that is logically centralized but physically distributed and that is generally of a proprietary format. For performance reasons, the RTDB resides in the memory of the servers and is also of proprietary format. The archive and logging format is usually also proprietary for performance reasons, but some products do support logging to a Relational Data Base Management System (RDBMS) at a slower rate, either directly or via an ODBC interface. (iii) Scalability. Scalability is understood as the possibility to extend the SCADA based control system by adding more process variables, more specialized servers (e.g., for alarm handling), or more clients. The products achieve scalability by having multiple data servers connected to multiple controllers. Each data server has its own configuration database and RTDB and is responsible for the handling of a subset of the process variables (acquisition, alarm handling, archiving). (iv) Redundancy. The SCADA products often have built in software redundancy at a server level, which is normally transparent to the user. Many of the SCADA products also provide more complete redundancy solutions if required.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (v) Access control. Users are allocated to groups, which have defined read/write access privileges to the process parameters in the system and often also to specific product functionality. (vi) Human–machine interface (HMI). Some of the SCADA products support multiple screens, which can contain combinations of synoptic diagrams and text. They also support the concept of a “generic” graphical object with links to process variables. These objects can be “dragged and dropped” from a library and included into a synoptic diagram. Most of the SCADA products that were evaluated decompose the process in “atomic” parameters (e.g., a power supply current, its maximum value, its ON/OFF status, etc.) to which a Tag-name is associated. The Tag-names used to link graphical objects to devices can be edited as required. These products include a library of standard graphical symbols, many of which would, however, not be applicable to the type of applications encountered in the experimental physics community. Standard windows editing facilities are provided: zooming, resizing, scrolling, and so on. Online configuration and customization of the HMI is possible for users with the appropriate privileges. Links can be created between display pages to navigate from one view to another. (vii) Trending. Almost all SCADA products provide trending facilities and one can summarize the common capabilities as follows: the parameters to be trended in a specific chart can be predefined or defined online; a chart may contain more than eight trended parameters or pens and an unlimited number of charts can be displayed (restricted only by readability); real-time and historical trending are possible, although generally not in the same chart; historical trending is possible for any archived parameter where zooming and scrolling functions are provided; parameter values at the cursor position can be displayed. The trending feature is either provided as a separate module or as a graphical object (ActiveX), which can then be embedded into a synoptic display. XY; other statistical analysis plots are generally not provided.

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(viii) Alarm handling. Alarm handling is based on limit and status checking and performed in the data servers. More complicated expressions (using arithmetic or logical expressions) can be developed by creating derived parameters on which status or limit checking is then performed. The alarms are logically handled centrally; the information only exists in one place and all users see the same status, and multiple alarm priority levels are supported. It is generally possible to group alarms and to handle these as an entity (typically filtering on group or acknowledgement of all alarms in a group). Furthermore, it is possible to suppress alarms either individually or as a complete group. The filtering of alarms seen on the alarm page or when viewing the alarm log is also possible, at least on priority, time, and group. However, relationships between alarms cannot generally be defined in a straightforward manner. E-mails can be generated or predefined actions automatically executed in response to alarm conditions. (ix) Logging/archiving. The terms logging and archiving are often used to describe the same facility. However, logging can be thought of as medium-term storage of data on disk, whereas archiving is long-term storage of data either on disk or on another permanent storage medium. Logging is typically performed on a cyclic basis, which means that once a certain file size, time period, or number of points is reached the data is overwritten. Logging of data can be performed at a set frequency, or only initiated if the value changes or when a specific predefined event occurs. Logged data can be transferred to an archive once the log is full. The logged data is time-stamped and can be filtered when viewed by a user. The logging of user actions is, in general, performed together with either a user ID or station ID. There is often also a VCR facility to play back archived data. (x) Report generation. Using SQL type queries to the archive, RTDB, or logs can produce reports. Although it is sometimes possible to embed EXCEL charts in the report, a “cut and paste” capability is, in general, not provided. Facilities exist to allow automatic generation, printing, and archiving of reports.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (xi) Automation. The majority of the SCADA controller products allow actions to be automatically triggered by events. A scripting language provided by the SCADA products allows these actions to be defined. In general, one can load a particular display, send an Email, and run a user defined application or script and write to the RTDB. The concept of recipes is supported, whereby a particular system configuration can be saved to a file and then reloaded at a later date. Sequencing is also supported whereby, as the name indicates, it is possible to execute a more complex sequence of actions on one or more devices. Sequences may also react to external events. Some of the products do support an expert system but none has the concept of a Finite State Machine (FSM). (3) SCADA system components. A SCADA system normally consists of the following: (1) A central host computer server or servers (sometimes called a SCADA Center, master station, or Master Terminal Unit (MTU); (2) One or more field data interface devices, usually the Remote Terminal Units (RTUs), or Programmed Logic Controllers ( PLCs), which interface to field sensing devices and local control switchboxes and valve actuators; (3) A communications system used to transfer data between field data interface devices and control units and the computers in the SCADA central host. The system can be radio, telephone, cable, satellite, and so on, or any combination of these; (4) A collection of standard and/or customized software systems and these software systems are sometimes called Human Machine Interface (HMI) software or Man Machine Interface (MMI) software, and are used to provide the SCADA central host and operator terminal application, support the communications system, and monitor and control remotely located field data interface devices (a) Master Terminal Unit (MTU). At the heart of the SCADA system is the master terminal unit (MTU). The master terminal unit initiates all communication, gathers data, stores information, sends information to other systems, and interfaces with operators. The major difference between the MTU and RTU is that the MTU initiates virtually all communications between the two. The MTU also communicates with other peripheral devices in the facility like monitors, printers, and other information systems. The primary interface to the operator is the monitor or CRT that portrays a representation of valves,

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pumps, and so on. As incoming data changes, the screen is updated. (b) Remote Terminal Unit (RTU). Remote terminal units gather information from their remote sites, from various input devices, such as valves, pumps, alarms, meters, and so on. Essentially, data is either analog (real numbers), digital (ON/OFF), or pulse data (e.g., counting the revolutions of a meter). Many remote terminal units hold the information gathered in their memory and wait for a request from the MTU to transmit the data. Other more sophisticated remote terminal units have microcomputers and programmable logic controllers (PLC) that can perform direct control over a remote site without the direction of the MTU. The RTU central processing unit (CPU) receives a binary data stream from the protocol that the communication equipment uses. Protocols can be open, like Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) or proprietary. The RTU receives its information because it sees its node address embedded in the protocol. The data is then interpreted, and the CPU directs the appropriate action at the site. (c) Communications equipment. Communication equipment is required for bidirectional communications between an RTU and the MTU. This can be done through public transmission media or atmospheric means. Both Figs 4.18 and 4.19 depict the topology for a SCADA system. Note that it is quite possible that systems employ more than one means to communicate to remote sites. SCADA systems are capable of communicating using a wide variety of media such as fiber optics, dial-up, dedicated voice grade telephone lines, or radio. Recently, some utilities have employed Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). Since the amount of information transmitted is relatively small (less than 50k), voice grade phone lines and radio work well. The topology of a SCADA system is the way a network is physically structured, for example, a ring, bus, or star configuration. It is not possible to define a typical SCADA system topology because it can vary with each system. Some topologies provide redundant operation and others do not. A redundant topology is highly recommended for water treatment plants and other critical control functions. To deploy the topology of a SCADA system, there are many different ways in which SCADA systems can be implemented. Before a SCADA or any other system is rolled out, you need to determine what function the system will perform. The way in

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY which SCADA systems are connected can range from fiber optic cable to the use of satellite systems including the following: (1) twisted-pair metallic cable, (2) coaxial metallic cable, (3) fiber optic cable, (4) power line carrier, (5) satellites, (6) leased telephone lines, (7) very high frequency radio, (8) ultra high frequency radio, (9) microwave radio.

4.1.3.2

SCADA Protocols

In a SCADA system, the RTU accepts commands to operate control points, sets analog output levels, and responds to requests. It provides status, analog, and accumulated data to the SCADA master station. The data representations sent are not identified in any fashion other than by unique addressing. The addressing is designed to correlate with the SCADA master station database. The RTU has no knowledge of which unique parameters it is monitoring in the real world. It simply monitors certain points and stores the information in a local addressing scheme. The SCADA master station is the part of the system that should “know” that the first status point of RTU number, for example, 27 is the status of a certain circuit breaker of a given substation. This represents the predominant SCADA systems and protocols in use in the utility industry today. Each SCADA protocol consists of two message sets or pairs. One set forms the master protocol, containing the valid statements for master station initiation or response, and the other set is the RTU protocol, containing the valid statements an RTU can initiate and respond to. In most but not all cases, these pairs can be considered a poll or request for information or action and a confirming response. The SCADA protocol between MTU and RTU forms a viable model for RTU-to-Intelligent Electronic Device (IED) communications. Currently, in industry, there are several different protocols in use. The most popular are International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) 60870-5 series, specifically IEC 60870-5-101 (commonly referred to as 101), and Distributed Network Protocol version 3 (DNP3). (1) IEC 60870-5-101. IEC 60870-5 specifies a number of frame formats and services that may be provided at different layers. IEC 60870-5 is based on a three-layer Enhanced Performance Architecture (EPA) reference model (see Table 4.7) for efficient implementation within RTUs, meters, relays, and other Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs). In addition, IEC 60870-5 defines basic application functionality for a user layer, which is situated between the Open System Interconnection (OSI) application

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Table 4.7 Enhanced Performance Architecture Application Layer (OSI Layer 7) Link Interface Link Layer (OSI Layer 2) Logic Link Control (LLC) Sublayer Medium Access Control (MAC) Sublayer Physical Interface Physical Layer (OSI Layer 1)

layer and the application program. This user layer adds interoperability for such functions as clock synchronization and file transfers. The following descriptions provide the basic scope of each of the five documents in the base IEC 60870-5 telecontrol transmission protocol specification set. Standard profiles are necessary for uniform application of the IEC 60870-5 standards. A profile is a set of parameters defining the way a device acts. Such profiles have been and are being created. The 101 profile is described in detail following the description of the applicable standards. (a) IEC 60870-5-1 (1990-02) specifies the basic requirements for services to be provided by the data link and physical layers for telecontrol applications. In particular, it specifies standards on coding, formatting, and synchronizing data frames of variable and fixed lengths that meet specified data integrity requirements. (b) IEC-60870-5-2 (1992-04) offers a selection of link transmission procedures using a control field and optional address field; the address field is optional because some point-topoint topologies do not require either source or destination addressing. (c) IEC 60870-5-3 (1992-09) specifies rules for structuring application data units in transmission frames of telecontrol systems. These rules are presented as generic standards that may be used to support a great variety of present and future telecontrol applications. This section of IEC 60870-5 describes the general structure of application data and basic rules to specify application data units without specifying details about information fields and their contents. (d) IEC 60870-5-4 (1993-08) provides rules for defining information data elements and a common set of information elements, particularly digital and analog process variables that are frequently used in telecontrol applications.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (e) IEC 60870-5-5 (1995-06) defines basic application functions that perform standard procedures for telecontrol systems, which are procedures that reside beyond Layer 7 (application layer) of the ISO reference model. These utilize standard services of the application layer. The specifications in IEC 60870-5-5 (1995-06) serve as basic standards for application profiles that are then created in detail for specific telecontrol tasks. Each application profile will use a specific selection of the defined functions. Any basic application functions not found in a standards document but necessary for defining certain telecontrol applications should be specified within the profile. Examples of such telecontrol functions include station initialization, cyclic data transmission, data acquisition by polling, clock synchronization, and station configuration. The Standard 101 Profile provides structures that are also directly applicable to the interface between RTUs and IEDs. It contains all the elements of a protocol necessary to provide an unambiguous profile definition so vendors may create products that interoperate fully. At the physical layer, the Standard 101 Profile additionally allows the selection of International Telecommunication Union—Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) standards that are compatible with Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standards RS-232 and RS-485, and also support fiber optics interfaces. The Standard 101 Profile specifies frame format FT 1.2, chosen from those offered in IEC 60870-5-1 (1990–02) to provide the required data integrity together with the maximum efficiency available for acceptable convenience of implementation. FT 1.2 is basically asynchronous and can be implemented using standard Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitters (UARTs). Formats with both fixed and variable block length are permitted. At the data link layer, the Standard 101 Profile specifies whether an unbalanced (includes multidrop) or balanced (includes point-to-point) transmission mode is used together with which link procedures (and corresponding link function codes) are to be used. Also specified is an unambiguous number (address) for each link. The link transmission procedures selected from IEC 60870-5-2 (1992-04) specify that SEND/NO REPLY, SEND/ CONFIRM, and REQUEST/RESPOND message transactions should be supported as necessary for the functionality of the end device.

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The Standard 101 Profile defines the necessary rules for devices that will operate in the unbalanced (multidrop) and balanced (point-to-point) transmission modes. The Standard 101 Profile defines appropriate Application Service Data Units (ASDUs) from a given general structure in IEC 60870-5-3 (1992-09). The sizes and the contents of individual information fields of ASDUs are specified according to the declaration rules for information elements defined in the document IEC 60870-5-4 (1993–08). Type information defines structure, type, and format for information object(s), and a set has been predefined for a number of information objects. The predefined information elements and type information do not preclude the addition by vendors of new information elements and types that follow the rules defined by IEC 60870-5-4 (1993-08) and the Standard 101 Profile. Information elements in the Standard 101 Profile have been defined for protection equipment, voltage regulators, and metered values to interface these devices as IEDs to the RTU. The Standard 101 Profile utilizes the following basic application functions, defined in IEC 60870-5-5 (1995–06), within the user layer: (i) Station initialization (ii) Cyclic data transmission (iii) General interrogation (iv) Command transmission (v) Data acquisition by polling (vi) Acquisition of events (vii) Parameter loading (viii) File transfer (ix) Clock synchronization (x) Transmission of integrated totals (xi) Test procedure. Finally, the Standard 101 Profile defines parameters that support interoperability among multivendor devices within a system. These parameters are defined in 60870-5-102 and 60870-5-105. The Standard 101 Profile provides a checklist that vendors can use to describe their devices from a protocol perspective. These parameters include baud rate, common address of ASDU field length, link transmission procedure, basic application functions, and so on. Also contained in the checklist is the information that should be contained in the ASDU in both the control and monitor directions. This will assist the SCADA engineers in configuring their particular system.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The Standard 101 Profile application layer specifies the structure of the ASDU, as shown in Table 4.7. The fields indicated as being optional per system will be determined by a system level parameter shared by all devices in the system. For instance, the size of the common address of ASDU is determined by a fixed system parameter, in this case one or two octets (bytes). The Standard 101 Profile also defines two new terms not found in the IEC 60870-5-1 through 60870-5 base documents. The control direction refers to transmission from the controlling station to a controlled station. The monitor direction is the direction of transmission from a controlled station to the controlling station. Table 4.8 shows the structure of ASDUs as defined in the IEC 60870-5-101 specification. (2) DNP3. Protocols define the rules by which devices talk with each other, and DNP3 is a protocol for transmission of data from point A to point B using serial communications. It has been used primarily by utilities like the electric companies, but it operates suitably in other areas. The DNP3 is specifically developed for interdevice communication involving SCADA RTUs, and provides for both RTU-toIED and master-to-RTU/IED. It is based on the three-layer enhanced performance architecture (EPA) model contained in the IEC 60870-5 standards, with some alterations to meet additional requirements of a variety of users in the electric utility industry.

Table 4.8 Structure of Application Service Data Units (ASDUs)

Data Unit Identifier

Type Identification Variable Structure Qualifier Cause of Transmission … Common Address of ASDU …

Information Object 1

Information Object Address … Set of Information Elements Time Tag milliseconds … IV | Res | Time Tag minute

Application Service Data Unit

…

… Information Object n

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DNP3 was developed with the following goals: (a) High data integrity. The DNP3 data link layer uses a variation of the IEC 60870-5-1 (1990–02) frame format FT3. Both data link layer frames and application layer messages may be transmitted using confirmed service. (b) Flexible structure. The DNP3 application layer is objectbased, with a structure that allows a range of implementations while retaining interoperability. (c) Multiple applications. DNP3 can be used in several modes, including polled only; polled report-by-exception; unsolicited report-by-exception (quiescent mode); mixture of modes 1–3. It can also be used with several physical layers, and as a layered protocol is suitable for operation over local and some wide area networks. (d) Minimized overhead. DNP3 was designed for existing wirepair data links with operating bit rates as low as 1200 bit/s and attempts to use a minimum of overhead while retaining flexibility. Selection of a data reporting method, such as report-by-exception, further reduces overhead. (e) Open standard. DNP3 is a nonproprietary, evolving standard controlled by a users group whose members include RTU, IED, and master station vendors, and representatives of the electric utility and system consulting community. A typical organization may have a centralized operations center that monitors the state of all the equipment in each of its substations. In the operations center, a computer stores all of the incoming data and displays the system for the human operators. Substations have many devices that need monitoring (are circuit breakers opened or closed?), current sensors (how much current is flowing?), and voltage transducers (what is the line potential?). That only scratches the surface; a utility is interested in monitoring many parameters, too numerous to discuss here. The operations personnel often need to switch sections of the power grid into or out of service. One or more computers are situated in the substation to collect the data for transmission to the master station in the operations center. The substation computers are also called upon to energize or deenergize the breakers and voltage regulators. DNP3 provides the rules for substation computers and master station computers to communicate data and control commands. DNP3 is a nonproprietary protocol that is available to anyone. Only a nominal fee is charged for documentation, but otherwise it is available worldwide with no restrictions. This means a utility

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY can purchase master station and substation computing equipment from any manufacturer and be assured that they will reliably talk to each other. Vendors compete based on their computer equipment’s features, costs, and quality factors instead of who has the best protocol. Utilities are not stuck with one manufacturer after the initial sale. The substation computer gathers data for transmission to the master such as the following (a) Binary input data that is useful to monitor two-state devices. For example, a circuit breaker is closed or tripped, or a pipeline pressure alarm shows normal or excessive. (b) Analog input data that conveys voltages, currents, power, reservoir water levels, and temperatures. (c) Count input data that reports kilowatt-hours of energy. (d) Files that contain configuration data. The master station issues control commands that take the form of the following: (1) close or trip a circuit breaker, raise or lower a gate, and open or close a valve; (2) analog output values to set a regulated pressure or set a desired voltage level. Other things the computers talk to each other about are synchronizing the time and date, sending historical or logged data, waveform data, and so on. DNP3 was designed to optimize the transmission of data acquisition information and control commands from one computer to another. It is not a general-purpose protocol for transmitting hypertext, multimedia, or huge files. Figure 4.21 shows the client-server relationship and gives a simplified view of the databases and software processes involved. The master or client is on the left side of Fig. 4.21, and the slave or server is on the right side. A series of square blocks at the top of the server depicts its databases and output devices. The various data types are conceptually organized as arrays. An array of binary input values represents states of physical or logical Boolean devices. Values in the analog input array represent input quantities that the server measured or computed. An array of counters represents count values, such as kilowatt hours, that are ever increasing (until they reach a maximum and then roll over to zero and start counting again). Control outputs are organized into an array representing physical or logical on-off, raise-lower, and trip-close points. Last, the array of analog outputs represents physical or logical analog quantities such as those used for set points. The elements of the arrays are labeled 0 through N–1, where N is the number of blocks shown for the respective data type. In DNP3 terminology, the element numbers are called the point

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Binary Analog Counter Control Analog Binary Analog Counter Control Analog input input output output Analog code code input input output output output 8 7 8 6 6 7 5 5 6 6 4 4 4 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 DNP3 user’s code DNP3 user’s code

DNP3 software

DNP3 software

Master (Client)

Slave (Server)

Physical media User request User response

Figure 4.21 DNP3 client–server relationship.

indexes. Indexes are zero-based in DNP3, that is, the lowest element is always identified as zero (some protocols use 1-based indexing). Note that the DNP3 client or master, also has a similar database for the input data types (binary, analog, and counter). The master or client, uses values in its database for the specific purposes of displaying system states, closed-loop control, alarm notification, billing, and so on. An objective of the client is to keep its database updated. It accomplishes this by sending requests to the server (slave) asking it to return the values in the server’s database. This is termed polling. The server responds to the client’s request by transmitting the contents of its database. Arrows are drawn at the bottom of Table 4.7 showing the direction of the requests (toward the server) and the direction of the responses (toward the client). Later we will discuss systems whereby the slaves transmit responses without being asked. The client and the server shown in Fig. 4.21 each have two software layers. The top layer is the DNP3 user layer. In the client, it is the software that interacts between the databases and

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY initiates the requests for the server’s data. In the server, it is the software that fetches the requested data from the server’s database for responding to client requests. It is interesting to note that if no physical separation of the client and server existed, eliminating the DNP3 might be possible by connecting these two upper layers together. However, since physical or possibly logical separation of the client and server exists, DNP3 software is placed at a lower level. The DNP3 user’s code uses the DNP3 software for transmission of requests or responses to the matching DNP3 user’s code at the other end. Data types and software layers will be discussed later. However, it is important to first examine a few typical system architectures where DNP3 is used. Figure 4.22 shows common system DNP3 Client (Master)

DNP3 Client (Master)

One-to-One DNP3 Client (Master)

DNP3 Server (Slave)

DNP3 Server (Slave)

DNP3 Server (Slave)

Multiple-drop DNP3 Client (Master)

DNP3 Server (Slave)

DNP3 Server (Slave)

Client (Master)

Hierarchical DNP3 Client (Master)

DNP3 Server (Slave)

XYZ Client (Master)

XYZ Server (Slave)

XYZ Server (Slave)

DNP3 Client (Master)

DNP3 Server (Slave)

DNP3 Server (Slave)

Data concentrator XYZ Client (Master)

XYZ Server (Slave)

Data concentrator

Figure 4.22 Common DNP3 architectures in use today.

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architectures in use today. At the top is a simple one-on-one system having one master station and one slave. The physical connection between the two is typically a dedicated or dial-up telephone line. The second type of system is known as a multiple-drop design. One master station communicates with multiple slave devices. Conversations are typically between the client and one server at a time. The master requests data from the first slave, then moves onto the next slave for its data, and continually interrogates each slave in a round robin order. The communication medium is a multidropped telephone line, fiber optic cable, or radio. Each slave can hear messages from the master and is only permitted to respond to messages addressed to itself. Slaves may or may not be able to hear each other. In some multiple-drop forms, communications are peer-topeer. A station may operate as a client for gathering information or sending commands to the server in another station. Then, it may change roles to become a server to another station. The middle row in Fig. 4.22 shows a hierarchical type system where the device in the middle is a server to the client at the left and is a client with respect to the server on the right. The middle device is often termed a submaster. Both lines at the bottom of Fig. 4.22 show data concentrator applications and protocol converters. A device may gather data from multiple servers on the right side of the figure and store this data in its database where it is retrievable by a master station client on the left side of the figure. This design is often seen in substations where the data concentrator collects information from local intelligent devices for transmission to the master station. In recent years, several vendors have used Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to transport DNP3 messages in lieu of the media discussed above. Link layer frames, which have not been discussed yet, are embedded into TCP/IP packets. This approach has enabled DNP3 to take advantage of Internet technology and permitted economical data collection and control between widely separated devices. Many communication circuits between the devices are susceptible to noise and signal distortion. The DNP3 software is layered to provide reliable data transmission and to effect an organized approach to the transmission of data and commands. Figure 4.23 shows the DNP3 architecture layers. The link layer has the responsibility of making the physical link reliable. It does this by providing error detection and duplicate frame detection. The link layer sends and receives packets, which

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Binary code 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Analog Counter input input

4 3 2 1 0

Analog output

Binary code 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

3 2 1 0

Analog Counter Control input input input

4 3 2 1 0

3 2 1 0

DNP3 user’s code

DNP3 user’s code

DNP3 application layer

DNP3 application layer

Psuedo transport layer

Psuedo transport layer

DNP3 link layer

DNP3 link layer

Master (Client)

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

3 2 1 0

Slave (Server)

Physical media User request User response

Figure 4.23 DNP3 layers.

in DNP3 terminology are called frames. Sometimes transmission of more than one frame is necessary to transport all of the information from one device to another. A DNP3 frame consists of a header and data section. The header specifies the frame size, which DNP3 station should receive the frame, which DNP3 device sent the frame, and data link control information. The data section is commonly called the payload and contains the data passed down from the layers above. Every frame begins with two sync bytes that help the receivers determine where the frame begins. The length specifies the number of octets in the remainder of the frame, not including Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC) octets. The link control octet is used between sending and receiving link layers to coordinate their activities. A destination address specifies which DNP3 device should process the data, and the source address identifies which DNP3

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device sent the message. Having both destination and source addresses satisfies at least one requirement for peer-to-peer communications, because the receiver knows where to direct its responses. Every DNP3 device must have a unique address within the collection of devices sending and receiving messages to and from each other. Three destination addresses are reserved by DNP3 to denote an all-call message; that is, all DNP3 devices should process the frame. Thirteen addresses are reserved for special needs in the future. The data payload in the link frame contains a pair of CRC octets for every 16 data octets. This provides a high degree of assurance that communication errors can be detected. The maximum number of octets in the data payload is 250, not including CRC octets. (The longest link layer frame is 292 octets if all the CRC and header octets are counted.) One often hears the term “link layer confirmation” when DNP3 is discussed. A feature of DNP3’s link layer is the ability of the transmitter of the frame to request the receiver to confirm that the frame arrived. Using this feature is optional, and it is often not employed. It provides an extra degree of assurance of reliable communications. If a confirmation is not received, the link layer may retry the transmission. Some disadvantages are the extra time required for confirmation messages and waiting for multiple timeouts when retries are configured. It is the responsibility of the transport layer to break long messages into smaller frames sized for the link layer to transmit, or when receiving, to reassemble frames into the longer messages. In DNP3, the transport layer is incorporated into the application layer. The transport layer requires only a single octet within the message to do its work. Therefore, since the link layer can handle only 250 data octets, and one of those is used for the transport function, then each link layer frame can hold as many as 249 application layer octets. Application layer messages are broken into fragments. Fragment size is determined by the size of the receiving device’s buffer. It normally falls between 2048 and 4096 bytes. A message that is larger than one fragment requires multiple fragments. Fragmenting messages is the responsibility of the application layer. Note that an application layer fragment of size 2048 must be broken into nine frames by the transport layer, and a fragment size of 4096 needs 17 frames. Interestingly, it has been learned from experience that communications are sometimes more successful for systems operating in high noise environments if the fragment size is significantly reduced.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The application layer works together with the transport and link layers to enable reliable communications. It provides standardized functions and data formatting with which the user layer above can interact. Before functions, data objects and variations can be discussed, the terms static, events, and classes need to be covered. In DNP3, the term static is used with data and refers to the current value. Thus, static binary input data refers to the present on or off state of a bistate device. Static analog input data contains the value of an analog value at the instant it is transmitted. DNP3 allows a request for some or all of the static data stored in a slave device. DNP3 events are associated with something significant happening. Examples are state changes, values exceeding some threshold, snapshots of varying data, transient data, and newly available information. An event occurs when a binary input changes from an “ON” to an “OFF” state or when an analog value changes by more than its configured deadband limit. DNP3 provides the ability to report events with and without time stamps so that the client can generate a time sequence report. The user layer can direct DNP3 to request events. Usually, a client is updated more rapidly if it mostly polls for events from the server and only occasionally asks for static data as an integrity measure. The reason updates are faster is because the number of events generated between server interrogations is small and, therefore, less data must be returned to the client. DNP3 goes a step further by classifying events into three classes. When DNP3 was conceived, class 1 events were considered as having higher priority than class 2 events, and class 2 were higher than class 3 events. While that scheme can still be configured, some DNP3 users have developed other strategies more favorable to their operation for assigning events into the classes. The user layer can request the application layer to poll for class 1, 2, or 3 events or any combination of them. DNP3 has provisions for representing data in different formats. Examination of analog data formats is helpful to understand the flexibility of DNP3. Static, current value, analog data can be represented by variation numbers as follows: (a) A 32-bit integer value with flag (b) A 16-bit integer value with flag (c) A 32-bit integer value (d) A 16-bit integer value (e) A 32-bit floating point value with flag (f) A 64-bit floating point value with flag.

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The flag referred to is a single octet with bit fields indicating whether the source is online, value contains are start value, communications are lost with the source, the data is forced, and the value is over range. Not all DNP3 devices can transmit or interpret all six variations. DNP3 devices must be able to transmit the simplest variations so that any receiver can interpret the contents. Event analog data can be represented by these variations: (a) A 32-bit integer value with flag (b) A 16-bit integer value with flag (c) A 32-bit integer value with flag and event time (d) A 16-bit integer value with flag and event time (e) A 32-bit floating point value with flag (f) A 64-bit floating point value with flag (g) A 32-bit floating point value with flag and event time (h) A 32-bit floating point value with flag and event time. The flag has the same bit fields as the static variations. It looks like a variation 1 or 2 analog event cannot be differentiated from a variation 1 or 2 static analog value. DNP3 solves this predicament by assigning object numbers. Static analog values are assigned as object 30, and event analog values are assigned as object 32. Static analog values, object 30, can be formatted in one of six variations, and event analog values, object 32, can be formatted in one of eight variations. When a DNP3 server transmits a message containing response data, the message identifies the object number and variation of every value within the message. Object and variation numbers are also assigned for counters, binary inputs, controls, and analog outputs. In fact, all valid data types and formats in DNP3 are identified by object and variation numbers. Defining the allowable objects and variations helps DNP3 ensure interoperability between devices. DNP3’s basic documentation contains a library of valid objects and their variations. The client’s user layer formulates its request for data from the server by telling the application layer what function to perform, like reading, and specifying which objects it wants from the server. The request can specify how many objects it wants or it can specify specific objects or a range of objects from index number X through index number Y. The application layer then passes the request down through the transport layer to the link layer that, in turn, sends the message to the server. The link layer at the server checks the frames for errors and passes them up to the transport layer where the complete message is assembled in the server’s application layer. The application layer then tells the user layer which objects and variations were requested.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Responses work similarly, in that the server’s user layer fetches the desired data and presents it to the application layer that formats the data into objects and variations. Data is then passed downward, across the communication channel and upward to the client’s application layer. Here the data objects are presented to the user layer in a form that is native to the client’s database. One area that has not been covered yet is transmission of unsolicited messages. This is a mode of operating where the server spontaneously transmits a response, possibly containing data, without having received a specific request for the data. Not all servers have this capability, but those that do must be configured to operate in this mode. This mode is useful when the system has many slaves and the master requires notification as soon as possible after a change occurs. Rather than waiting for a master station-polling cycle to get around to it, the slave simply transmits the change. To configure a system for unsolicited messages, a few basics need to be considered. First, spontaneous transmissions should generally occur infrequently, otherwise, too much contention can occur, and controlling media access via master station polling would be better. The second basic issue is that the server should have some way of knowing whether it can transmit without stepping on someone else’s message in progress. DNP3 leaves specification of algorithms to the system implementer. One last area of discussion involves implementation levels. The DNP3 Users Group recognizes that supporting every feature of DNP3 is not necessary for every device. Some devices are limited in memory and speed and do not need specific features, while other devices must have the more advanced features to accomplish their task. DNP3 organizes complexity into three levels. At the lowest level, level 1, only very basic functions must be provided and all others are optional. Level 2 handles more functions, objects, and variations, and level 3 is even more sophisticated. As a result, only certain combinations of request formats and response formats are required. DNP3 is a protocol that fits well into the data acquisition world. It transports data as generic values, has a rich set of functions, and was designed to work in a wide area communications network. The standardized approach and public availability make DNP3 a protocol to be the standard for SCADA applications.

4.1.3.3

Functions and Administrations

(1) SCADA system functions. SCADA systems vary in their complexity from sophisticated networked systems with real-time

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controls linking numerous remote sites equipped with RTUs to several central monitoring systems, to simple alarm feedback systems installed at one or more sites. Online systems can be equipped with control, signal, and alarm systems that notify the operator of abnormal conditions, and some may be tied into feedback loops that can provide real-time control, such as automatically adjusting chemical usage at a treatment plant or activating a back-up pump station. In selecting SCADA systems, important factors to consider include the following. (a) Points number, analog and digital. The SCADA system links all RTU and associated I/O and connection points under a systematic design to meet all of the requirements and monitoring functionality. Therefore, the level of sophistication selected for a particular application is a function of the level of information needed by the operator. Key factors that influence the selection of a SCADA system include the numbers of data points (I/Os and connection points) to be monitored and the method and quantity of data to be archived. For example, one of the most important steps in selecting specific devices and components for a SCADA system is identifying the specific equipment and/or processes that the system will monitor. In building a customized SCADA system, many utilities begin by first preparing a list of assets associated with the particular utility (e.g., pump stations, storage tanks, reservoirs, treatment process, or any other asset to be monitored), and then identifying the operational parameters, water quality parameters, and types of monitoring that are key to that specific operation. Each of the assets would have at least one input into the SCADA system. This input would allow the pertinent information from that asset to be sent to the CPU, and would identify it as coming from that particular asset. Once the information from a particular asset is input into the CPU, the input information would be processed versus internal logic to determine whether outputs were required. Potential outputs would be based on the types of responses that the user chooses to program based on the inputs. For example, there may be output connections that control pumps, lights, alarms, locks, and so on. As described above, a specific input (such as a sensor reporting low chlorine concentration) may be designed to generate a specific output (such as turning on a pump). (b) Data transmission and communication network. Data transmission can be provided via two primary channels: hardwired

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY and wireless. Hardwired systems are physically connected to each other through wires or fiber optic cables. Wireless systems are not physically connected. In these systems, the transmissions take place from the originator to the receiver over radio waves, satellite, or microwave frequencies. Both hardwired and wireless systems can transmit voice and data communications. However, security experts recommend not mixing the two data types on one line or channel, because current technology prioritizes voice information over data transmission, thus interrupting the data flow. Thus, data transfer will not occur until the lines are clear of voice communications. Three important considerations when choosing the appropriate type of transmission system are the speed of transmission, the amount of data that can be transferred, and the cost. For example, the transmission of photographic images of a plant (e.g., surveillance camera data) may require greater data transmission and storage requirements than the transmission of text data (e.g., the ON/OFF status of a pump). Data transmission and speed are related to the available bandwidth for the transmission. This, in turn, is related to the size of the conduit; the larger the conduit, the more bandwidth is available, and thus the faster the transmission or speed. However, the higher the speed is, the higher the costs are. It should be noted that costs would include both upfront capital improvement costs and recurring monthly fees. Another important consideration in choosing a communications network is its security. Specific security concerns regarding data transmission methods include ensuring that the following: the communication method is available (ensuring that the communication method is functioning and free to transmit data), as well as ensuring that the communication is not altered during transmission (ensuring the integrity of the communication), and ensuring that unauthorized parties do not intercept the communication (ensuring the confidentiality of the communication). Specific security aspects of different types of communication technologies, as well as discussions of general security aspects of hardwired versus wireless communications methods would be given in vendors’ Product Guides. As described above, there are wide ranges of specific SCADA options available to a system designer once the system’s needs have been defined. SCADA systems can be set up to communicate using a range of media, including

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telephone lines, radio, Internet, cellular, or satellite interfaces. Whether using hardwired or wireless technology, current SCADA systems can report alarms using prespecified custom voice, pager, fax, or even email communications. If a system uses a portable design, SCADA can use a cellular phone for communication. In addition, an operator can use a laptop computer to access the SCADA system by dial-up means or via the Internet, both of which can be password protected. It should be noted that the topography of the area may be a factor for wireless systems. Any wireless system using a frequency of 900 MHz or more requires a direct line of sight between antennas for data transmission. Hilly terrain requires high antennas that can transmit the signal above interfering topography. This terrain may also require repeater stations to retransmit the signal and keep it strong. These additional requirements add to the capital cost of the system. (c) Control features. The control function of a SCADA system is achieved through use of PLCs. In a PLC-based SCADA system, a full set of standard ladder logic instructions is built into the system, along with counters, timers, and even analog capabilities for performing tasks such as turning ON/OFF pumps and screens, and opening/closing valves, and so on. Certain advanced SCADA systems are capable of communication with PLCs that can implement control programs created using both ladder logic programs and more advanced C-programs. Building both programs into one system allows information to be shared between components, increasing dynamic control of the system. This can be critical depending on system complexity and the needs of a specific application. For example, SCADA may be designed to control a variable speed pumping application that is to operate at its most efficient point on the pump curve at any given flow in the specified range. This operation requires each pump curve to be entered with the system curve. The program superimposes the system curve on the pump curve to determine the most efficient means of operating with one, two, or even three pumps depending on the size and number of pumps in the system. This part of the program is performed using the C program, while the start/stop and speed control is performed in the ladder logic program. Both types of control programs are displayed on the SCADA software. (d) Software and security issues. Selecting the appropriate SCADA system software is very important. Security experts

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY recommend that the software program be capable of performing every task needed to operate and maintain the system. The SCADA software typically runs on IBM PC or compatible computers under Microsoft Windows 95, 98, NT, or 2000 operating systems. Software packages compatible with other operating systems such as UNIX are also available. However, software for these systems would be proprietary and would be more expensive than PC-based systems. These packages would typically be used for SCADA systems at larger facilities. The SCADA software typically provides a graphical user interface (GUI) to program and display all pertinent operational parameters, including, but not limited to, system configuration, polling (“polling” is reading data from, and communicating with, two or more sites individually), datalogging, and alarming. The PLC software includes the ability to build control programs (e.g., using a ladder logic editor or a C program editor). A screen editor is usually included to create dynamic graphical displays capable of showing the value of selected process parameters in real time. Vendors normally have included various security options in their products to deter possible security problems. These include the following: (i) The ability to set up a password system. When the computer password system is properly used, the system is much more difficult to exploit. This system is similar to the system used for a regular desktop computer, and allows the system administrator to set up private passwords for each system user to allow certain predetermined activities or functions. The password system may also allow the administrator to require a regular renewal or change of passwords. (ii) The ability to trace log-ins. This will allow a system administrator or other responsible party to determine who has logged on and used the system, and when they have used it. (iii) Secure data transmission technology. Secure options are available to help ensure that data transmissions are not blocked or intercepted. These include options for radio transmissions, as well as options for the local telephone network. The radio communications are transmitted on a specific frequency and use a standard referred to as “frequency hopping spread spectrum” (FHSS).

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In FHSS, the devices communicate over a sequence of frequencies that is known only to the devices actually communicating. The frequency on which the devices are communicating constantly changes based on a pseudorandom pattern, which is known only by the sender and the receiver. Licensed frequency radios are also widely used. Many utilities use leased lines or frame relay connectivity from the local telephone company to connect. This method provides a secure private circuit between sites. (iv) Automated alarm tracking and monitoring options. Some SCADA systems offer additional alarm pager options that can send an alphanumeric page to the operator on duty when systems or operations alarms are triggered. For example, this type of SCADA software could be configured to send a page when operating parameters are not within a certain prespecified range. (e) General security issues. Because SCADA systems can provide automatic control of a system, system security is an important consideration. The primary security vulnerabilities for SCADA systems are the communication links, the computer software, and power sources for the various system components. Discussions of security considerations for communications and SCADA software were provided above. Protection of power sources for individual system components will be dependent on the power sources used in the system. However, security can be improved by ensuring that there are backup power systems for emergency situations. (2) SCADA system administration. The outline below identifies some of the key SCADA and Automation system administration issues. (a) Define the boundary where the SCADA or automation system stops. The boundary may be clear or, in increasingly more cases, not so clear. Many SCADA systems are infringing on traditional IT turf by using the IT networks and servers as well as traditional IT technologies such as PCs, Windows, and NT, and even PC databases. As a result, it may be hard to say just where the boundary between the IT organization’s responsibilities stops and the organization’s starts concerning administration and maintenance. Some legacy SCADA and Automation systems are not even connected to IT resources such as the IT network. However, in a effort to push SCADA and Automation information out to business and engineering office users (and not just operations)

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY more and more SCADA and Automation systems are using the often in-place IT resource to accomplish this task. (b) Have a system back-up and restore plan. It is crucial to make sure your backup includes a reliable restore. When the time comes to use the backup, you should know it is going to work by testing the restore before you need to use it. Also, know what files and databases need to be included in your backup. Do not forget about your PLC RLL and like critical support files and documents. Often SCADA systems files and databases change on a continual basis. Make a schedule to run the backup and stick to it. With the advent of online backup systems, it is now feasible to do a backup on a live system in many cases. You probably also should keep an offsite backup of your critical files in the event of fire, flood, or theft. (c) Develop a PC/server file management system. Where is that RLL file for the safety system? How about that Excel spreadsheet with the PLC’s I/O listing? Moreover, how do you find the operations users manual for the pump control system? You had better know the answer to where to find those critical files. In addition, you may need to come up with those files when things are in a crisis management mode. The PLC has gone brain dead, lost the RLL program, and the plant is shut down because the PLC is the plant’s safety system. Now just where is that RLL file? In addition, is the documentation for a black start of the plant needed? Again, you had better be prepared because it most definitely can happen. Your file management system should specify file-naming conventions that should help ID the file(s) should they be misplaced. In addition, put it in writing and identify several layers of responsibility in case you are not around when the files are needed. (d) Develop management of change system. Unmanaged change can create havoc with the users and administrators of the SCADA system. Consider employing a Management of Change (MOC) system that has key players sign off and approve changes to the SCADA system. This is especially important with major upgrades, hardware changes, or anything that risks having the system unavailable for an extended time, or changes that could have a detrimental impact on the system. The review process should be efficient and not so restrictive, time consuming, or difficult to employ that people will want to circumvent the MOC process. The key players who sign off on the MOC requests should include your System Administrator.

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(e) Select products that support centralized and/or remote administration. This will allow your Administrator to cover more ground, faster. Remote administration may mean the ability to troubleshoot, diagnose, and remediate problems without actually making a trip to the site where the system is located. SCADA may help you if your Administrator has the ability to try to resolve after hour problems without driving into the site or office during the middle of the night. Moreover, please make it easy to administer by hooking the box or system to your SCADA network.

4.1.4 Proportional-Integration-Derivative (PID) Controllers A PID controller is a standard feedback loop component in industrial control applications. It measures an “output” of a process and controls an “input,” with a goal of maintaining the output at a target value, which is called the “set point.” An example of a PID application is the control of a process temperature, although it can be used to control any measurable variable, which can be affected by manipulating some other process variable. For example, it can be used to control pressure, flow rate, chemical composition, force, speed, or a number of other variables. Automobile cruise control is an example of a PID application area outside of the process industries.

4.1.4.1

PID Control Mechanism

PID can be described as a set of rules with which precise regulation of a closed-loop feedback control system is obtained. Closed-loop feedback control means a method in which a real-time measurement of the process being controlled is constantly fed back to the controlling device, known as the controller, to ensure that the value that is desired is, in fact, being realized. The mission of the controlling device is to make the measured value, usually known as the “process variable,” equal to the desired value, usually known as the “set point.” The very best way of accomplishing this task is with the use of the control algorithm we know as three-mode: Proportional + Integration + Derivative. Figure 4.24 is a schematic of a feedback control loop with a PID controller. The most important of these, Proportional Control, determines the magnitude of the difference between the “set point” and the “process variable,” which is defined as “error.” Then it applies appropriate proportional changes to the “controller output” to eliminate “error.” Many control systems, in

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Proportional algorithm +

Setpoint + −

Error

Integral algorithm

Controller output

Process variable Plant

+ +

Derivative algorithm Controller Feedback variable

Figure 4.24 A schematic of feedback control loop with a PID controller.

fact, will work quite well with only Proportional Control. Integral Control examines the offset of “set point” and the “process variable” over time and corrects it when and if necessary. Derivative Control monitors the rate of change of the “process variable” and consequently makes changes to the “controller output” to accommodate unusual changes. Each of the three control functions is governed by a user-defined parameter. These parameters vary immensely from one control system to another, and, as such, need to be adjusted to optimize the precision of control. The process of determining the values of these parameters is known as PID Tuning. PID Tuning, although considered “black magic” by many, really is, of course, always a well-defined technical process. There are several different methods of PID Tuning available, any of which will tune any system. Certain PID Tuning methods require more equipment than others, but usually result in more accurate results with less effort.

4.1.4.2

PID Controller Implementation

There are several elements within a feedback system as displayed in Fig. 4.24; for discussion purposes, a home heating temperature control system is used as the model in the descriptions below. There is no specific way a PID should be implemented in firmware; the methods described here only touch on a few of the many possibilities. The PID routine is configured in a manner that makes it modular. It is intended to be plugged into an existing piece of firmware, where the PID routine is passed the 8-bit or 16-bit or 32-bit error value that equals the difference of the Desired Plant Response minus the Measured Plant Response. Therefore, the actual error value is calculated outside of the PID routine. If necessary,

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the code could be easily modified to do this calculation within the PID routine. The PID can be configured to receive the error in one of two ways, either as a percentage with a range of 0–100% (8-bit), or a range of 0–4000 (16-bit) or even higher (32-bit). This option is configured by a #define statement at the top of the PID source code with the PID’s variable declarations, if the programming language used is C or C++. The gains for proportional, integral, and derivative all have a range of 0–15. For resolution purposes, the gains are scaled by a factor of 16 with an 8-bit maximum of 255. A general flow showing how the PID routine would be implemented in the main application code is presented in Fig. 4.25. There are two methods considered for handling the signed numbers. The first method is to use signed mathematical routines to handle all of the PID calculations. The second is to use unsigned mathematical routines and maintain a sign bit in a status register. If the latter method was implemented, there are five variables that require a sign bit to be maintained: (1) error, (2) a_error,(3) p_error, (4) d_error, (5) pid_error. All of these sign bits are maintained in the register defined as, for example, pid_stat1 register. Flowcharts for the PID main routine and the PID Interrupt Service Routine functions are shown in Figs 4.26 and 4.27, respectively. The PID

Start Call PID initialize

Interrupt service routine (with PID code) application main …………………….. error

Call PID main

pid_out

Sends PID result to plant ……………………………. End

Figure 4.25 PID firmware implementation.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The error is passed from the main application code to the PID routine, along with the error sign bit in pid_stat1

error

Yes error = 0 ?

PID Action is not required, sequence returns to main application code.

No Calculate proportional term

(Proportional gain) x (error)

Calculate integral term

(Integral gain) x (a_error)

Calculate derivative term

(Derivative gain) x (d_error)

Proportional + integral + derivative

Scale down (proportional + integral + derivative)

Place final PID value in pid_out

pid_out

The final PID result is sent to the main application code, along with its sign located in pid_stat1.

Figure 4.26 Main PID routine flow chart.

main routine is intended to be called from the main application code that updates the error variable, as well as the pid_stat1 error sign bit. Once in the PID main routine, the PID value will be calculated and put into the pid_out variable, with its sign bit in pid_stat1. The value in pid_out is converted by the application code to the correct value so that it can be applied to the plant. The PID Interrupt Service Routine is configured for a high priority interrupt. The instructions within this Interrupt Service Routine can be placed into an existing Interrupt Service Routine, or kept as is and plugged into the application code. The proportional is the simplest term. The error is multiplied by the proportional gain: (error) × (proportional gain). The result is stored in the variable, prop. This value will be used later in the code to calculate the overall value needed to go to the plant. To obtain the integral term, the accumulated error must be retrieved. The accumulated error, a_error, is the sum of past errors. For this reason, the integral is known for looking at a system’s history for correction. The derivative term is calculated in similar fashion to the integral term. Considering that the derivative term is

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4: DIGITAL CONTROLLERS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL High priority interrupt occurred

Has a Timer 1 interrupt occurred?

No

…….

Yes error = 0 ?

Yes

No Context saves mathematical variables(1)

No

Yes error + a_error

Derivative count = 0?

a_error = 0?

No

a_error limit exceeded? Yes Restore a_error limit

Yes

No Restore mathematical variables(1)

d_error = 0? No

Yes

Set d_error _z bit

Return (1) These instructions are options; they are dependant upon how the Interrupt Service Routine is configured.

Figure 4.27 PID interrupt service routine flow chart.

based on the rate at which the system is changing, the derivative routine calculates d_error. This is the difference between the current error and the previous error. The rate at which this calculation takes place is dependant upon the Timer1 overflow. The derivative term can be extremely aggressive when it is acting on the error of the system. An alternative to this is to calculate the derivative term from the output of the system and not the error. The error will be used here. To keep the derivative term from being too aggressive, a derivative counter variable has been installed. This variable allows d_error to be calculated once for an x number of Timer1 overflows (unlike the accumulated error, which is calculated every Timer1 overflow). To get the derivative term, the previous error is subtracted from the current error (d_error = error – p_error). The difference is then multiplied by the derivative gain and this result is placed in the variable, deriv, which is added with the proportional and integral terms.

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4.1.4.3

PID Controller Tuning Rules

There are several rules, sometimes called methods, for the proper tuning of PID controls. Most of the tuning rules or methods require a considerable amount of trial and error as well as a technician endowed with a lot of patience. The following gives three PID tuning methods popularly used in industrial control. (1) Ziegler–Nichols tuning rules. The two most common are the Process Reaction Curve technique and the Closed-Loop Cycling method. These two methods were first formally described in an article by J.G. Ziegler and N.B. Nichols in 1942. Figure 4.28 describes the Process Reaction Curve technique. It should be understood that “optimal tuning,” as defined by J.G. Ziegler and N.B. Nichols, is achieved when the system responds to a perturbation with a 4:1 decay ratio. That is to say that, for example, given an initial perturbation of +40°, the controller’s subsequent response would yield an undershoot of –40° followed by an overshoot of +2.5°. This definition of “optimal tuning” may not suit every application, so the trade-offs must be understood. In the Close-Loop Cycling method, estimate the ultimate gain Ku and ultimate period Tu when a proportional part of the controller is acting alone. Follow these steps: (a) Monitor the temperature response curve in time using an oscilloscope. P Output level

Temperature Line drawn through point of inflection

R

L Time

Figure 4.28 PID control process reaction curve.

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(b) Start with the proportional gain low enough to prevent any oscillation in the response (temperature). Record the offset value for each gain setting. (c) Increase the gain in steps of 2× the previous gain. After each increase, if there is no oscillation, change the set point slightly to trigger any oscillation. (d) Adjust the gain so that the oscillation is sustained, that is, continues at the same amplitude. If the oscillation is increasing, decrease the gain slightly. If it is decreasing, increase the gain slightly. (e) Make note of the gain that causes sustained oscillations and the period of oscillation. These are the ultimate gain Ku and the ultimate period Tu, respectively. (2) Tuning an ON–OFF control system. The first step is the tuning of the proportional band. If the controller contains Integral and Derivative adjustments, tune them to zero before adjusting the proportional band. The proportional band adjustment selects the response speed (sometimes called gain) a proportional controller requires to achieve stability in the system. The proportional band must be wider in degrees than the normal oscillations of the system but not so wide so as to dampen the system response. Start out with the narrowest setting for the proportional band. If there are oscillations, slowly increase the proportional band in small increments allowing the system to settle out for a few minutes after each step adjustment until the point at which the offset droop begins to increase. At this point, the process variable should be in a state of equilibrium at some point under the set point. The next step is to tune the Integral or reset action. If the controller has a manual reset adjustment, simply adjust the reset until the process droop is eliminated. The problem with manual reset adjustments is that once the set point is changed to a value other than the original, the droop will probably return and the reset will once again need to be adjusted. If the control has automatic reset, the reset adjustment adjusts the auto reset time constant (repeats per minute). The initial setting should be at the lowest number of repeats per minute to allow for equilibrium in the system. In other words, adjust the auto reset in small steps, allowing the system to settle after each step, until minor oscillations begin to occur. Then back off on the adjustment to the point at which the oscillations stop and the equilibrium is reestablished. The system will then automatically adjust for offset errors (droop). The last control parameter to adjust is the Rate or Derivative function. It is crucial to remember to always adjust this function last. This is because if the rate

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY adjustment is turned on before the reset adjustment is made, the reset will be pulled out of adjustment when the rate adjustment is turned on. Then the tuning procedure is complete. The function of the rate adjustment is to reduce as much as possible any overshoot. The rate adjustment is a time-based adjustment measured in minutes, which is tuned to work with the overall system response time. The initial rate adjustment should be the minimum number of minutes possible. Increase the adjustment in very small increments. After each adjustment let, it to settle out a few minutes. Then increase the set point a moderate amount. Watch the control action as the set point is reached. If an overshoot occurs, increase the rate adjustment another small amount and repeat the procedure until the overshoot is eliminated. Sometimes the system will become “sluggish” and never reach set point at all. If this occurs, decrease the rate adjustment until the process reaches set point. There may still be a slight overshoot but this is a trade-off situation.

4.1.4.4

PID Control Technical Specifications

PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) control actions allow the process control to maintain set point accurately by adjusting the control outputs. There are no industry-wide standards for PID controllers. However, robust and optimal control of process loops requires PID controllers to have certain abilities and features described here. (1) PID controller specifications. (a) Control units. The PID controller should be a device of no unit. Unit conversions should be done outside the PID algorithm. Engineering units may be available in memory locations within the PID “block” for display or informational purposes. For example, the controller could work on a 0–100% basis or on a 0–1 basis for inputs, outputs, and set points. This makes the controller easier to work with for feed forward, cascade, limits, summers, multipliers, and multivariable situations. (b) Algorithm type. The PID controller algorithm should produce a positional output (not an increment from the last position), and may be of the series or ideal type: (i) Laplace representation of series (interacting) type: m(s)/e(s) = Kc (I + I/Is) (I + Ds) where m is the position of the controller output, e is the deviation of the controlled variable from set point, s is

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the Laplace operator, Kc is the proportional gain of the controller, I is its integral time, and D is its derivative time. (ii) Laplace representation of ideal (noninteracting) type: m(s)/e(s) = Kc (I + I/Is + Ds) (Filters and other details have been omitted from the above transforms for clarity.) (c) Sampling and sample time. The PID controller input signals should be sampled at a frequency of at least 10 Hz, reporting the average value of the signal over the previous sample interval. Using the average value for each sample prevents aliasing. (d) Proportional action or gain. The units of proportional action may be either percent proportional B and P or proportional gain Kc, where Kc = 100/P and P = 100/Kc. Proportional band setting should range from 1 to 10,000. If gain is used, the gain range should be from 0.01 to 100. The proportional action should work on deviation (SP—PV) or controlled variable PV depending on the user selection. The user should also be able to adjust the amount of proportional action applied to the set point SP. Proportioning band is the area around the set point where the controller is actually controlling the process; the output is at some level other than 100% or 0%. Proportioning bands are normally expressed in one of three ways: as a percentage of full scale; as a number of degrees (or other process variable units); gain which equals 100%/proportioning band% (e.g., P = 5%; gain = 20). If the proportioning band is too narrow an oscillation around the set point will result. If the proportioning band is too wide the control will respond in a sluggish manner, take a long time to settle out at set point, and may not respond adequately to upsets. (e) Integral action. The units of integral action should be in minutes per repeat. The integral action must operate on the deviation signal. The Integral time should be adjustable between 0.002 and 1000 min. There should be antireset windup logic so that the output of the integral term does not saturate into a limit when the controller output reaches that limit. The method of antireset windup should incorporate integral feedback. This allows the secondary measurement signal to be fed back to the primary controller in cascade, feed forward, and constraint control systems, maximizing their effectiveness, operability, and robustness. The controller

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY should be capable of operation without integral action, through the application of an adjustable output bias. (f) Derivative action and filter. The units of derivative action should be in minutes. Derivative action should be applied only to the process variable. The derivative time should be adjustable over the range of 0–500 min. When the user enters a value for derivative time, the controller should automatically insert a filter on the PV, whose time constant (if first order) should be the derivative setting divided by a number between 8 and 10. The filter will have the effect of limiting the dynamic gain from derivative action to between 8 and 10 times the controller gain. Changing the value of the controller gain will not change the value of the filter time constant. The preferred derivative filter, however, is second order. If a simple second-order filter is used, then the time constants in the filter should be set equal, and to a value of the derivative setting divided by a number between 16 and 20. This filter has the effect of limiting the dynamic gain from derivative to between 8 and 10 times the controller gain. The preferred second-order filter to use is of the Butterworth type, whose transfer function would be: 1/(I + Ds/Kd + 0.5 (Ds/Kd)2), where Kd is the desired derivative gain of 8–10. (g) Deadtime compensation. Deadtime compensation can be added by inserting a deadtime block in the integral feedback path of the controller. It improves controller performance for any process (not only one that is dominated by deadtime). It constitutes a fourth controller mode, requiring tuning like the other three. However, along with increased performance comes reduced robustness, requiring more precise tuning for all four modes than a PID controller without deadtime compensation. Deadtime should be adjustable over the range of 0–500 min. The deadtime register should contain at least 20 elements. The register should be initialized (all elements set to the value of the input signal) whenever the controller is placed in manual. (h) AutoManual transfer. Transfer between the automatic and manual modes should be bumpless in either direction. In the case, that integral action has not been selected, bumpless transfer from manual to automatic should be achieved by allowing the output bias to approach its set value through a first-order lag. Set point tracking, which forces the SP to equal the PV during manual operation (or before transfer to automatic),

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should be optional, as selected by the user. Output tracking, which forces the output to follow a selected signal whenever the controller is placed in the “track” mode, should be available. (i) Manual reset. Virtually no process requires precisely 50% output on single output controls or 0% output on two output controls. Because of this, many older control designs incorporated an adjustment called manual reset (also called offset on some controls). This adjustment allows the user to redefine the output requirement at the set point. A proportioning control without manual or automatic reset (defined below) will settle out somewhere within the proportioning band but not likely on the set point. Some newer controls are using manual reset (as a digital user programmable value) in conjunction with automatic reset. This allows the user to preprogram the approximate output requirement at the set point to allow for quicker settling at set point. (j) Automatic reset (integral). Corrects for any offset (between set point and process variable) automatically over time by shifting the proportioning band. Reset redefines the output requirements at the set point until the process variable and the set point are equal. Most current controls allow the user to adjust how fast reset attempts to correct for the variable offset. Control manufacturers display the reset value as minutes, minutes/repeat (m/r), or repeats per minute (r/m). This difference is extremely important to note for repeats/ minute is the inverse of minutes or minutes/repeat). The reset time constant must be greater (slower larger number m/r smaller number r/m) than the process responds. If the reset value (in minutes/repeat) is too small a continuous oscillation will result (reset will over respond to any offset causing this oscillation). If the reset value is too long (in minutes/ repeat), the process will take too long to settle out at set point. Automatic reset is disabled any time when the temperature is outside the proportioning band to prevent problems during start-up. (k) Rate (derivative). Rate shifts the proportioning band on a slope change of the process variable. Rate in effect applies the “brakes” in an attempt to prevent overshoot (or undershoot) on process upsets or start-ups. Unlike reset, rate operates anywhere within the range of the instrument. Rate usually has an adjustable time constant and should be set much shorter than reset. The larger the time constant the more effect rate will have. Too large a rate time constant will

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY cause the process to heat too slowly. Too short a rate time constant the control will be slow to respond to upsets. The time constant is the amount of time any effects caused by rate will be in effect when rate is activated due to a slope change. (l) Self-tuning, adaptive tuning, pretuning. Many control manufacturers provide various facilities in their controls that allow the user to tune more easily (adjust) the PID parameters to their process. Given below is a description of these tunings: (i) Tuning on demand with upset. This facility typically determines the PID parameters by inducing an upset in the process. The controls proportioning is shut off (ON–OFF mode), and the control is allowed to oscillate around a set point. This allows the control to measure the response of the process when loading force such as heating or cooling is applied and removed. From this data the control can calculate and load appropriate PID parameters. Some manufacturers perform this procedure at set point while others perform it at other values. Caution must be exercised for substantial swings in the process variable values, which are likely to occur while the control is in this mode. (ii) Adaptive tuning This mode tunes the PID parameters without introducing any upsets. When a control is utilizing this function it is constantly monitoring the process variable for any oscillation around the set point. If there is an oscillation, the control adjusts the PID parameters in an attempt to eliminate them. This type of tuning is ideal for processes where load characteristics change drastically while the process is running. It cannot be used effectively if the process has externally induced upsets for which the control could not possibly tune out. For example, a press where a cold mold is inserted at some cyclic rate could cause the PID parameters to be adjusted to the point where control would be totally unacceptable. Some manufacturers call tuning on demand self tune, auto tune, or pretune. Adaptive tuning is sometimes called self tune, auto tune, or adaptive tune. Since there is no standardization in the naming of these features, questions must be asked to determine how they operate. (m) Nomenclature D = Derivative time e = Error or deviation = SP – PV

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I = Integral time Kc = Proportional gain of the controller = 100/P m = Position of the controller output, P = Proportional band = 100/Kc PID = Proportional, Integral, Derivative PV = Process variable s = Laplace operator SP = Set point Tau = Time constant (2) General PID control types. (a) ON–OFF Controls. ON–OFF control is the most basic form of some process control such as temperature control. (i) Changes output only after temperature crosses the set point. (ii) Should only be used on noncritical applications. The process temperature never stabilizes at the set point due to process inertia. (iii) Also used in alarms and safety circuits. (iv) Most PID controls operate in this mode if the proportioning band is set to “0.” (b) Time proportioning controls. (i) They vary the output by cycling a relay, or logic voltage on and off. (ii) Proportions are achieved by varying the On Time versus Off Time. (iii) Usually include a parameter such as Cycle Time that is the total of the On Time and the Off Time. (c) Linear output controls. (i) They provide a DC voltage or current output related to the required output demand. (ii) They are normally connected to an SCR Power control or other solid-state device. The power-handling device then converts this signal to a relative power output. (d) Closed-loop valve motor controls. (i) These controls are used in conjunction with motor actuators in gas heating applications. The control has two outputs (typically relays): one for clockwise rotation and one for counterclockwise rotation. (ii) Feedback as to motor position is provided by a potentiometer attached to the motor. (e) Open-loop valve motor controls. (i) These controls are used in conjunction with motor actuators in gas heating applications. The control has two

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY outputs (typically relays): one for clockwise rotation and one for counterclockwise rotation. (ii) No feedback as to motor position is provided. The user enters a value for motor travel time in the control. This allows the control to determine how long to operate the motor in either direction. (f) High and low limit controls. (i) Usually used as safety devices on the failure of the primary control device or some other failure in the system. (ii) Once the process variable goes through the limit set point the controllers output switches. The output will not revert to normal until the process variable returns to a safe value and a reset button is pressed. (iii) Most insurance companies require an approved limit devices on certain applications, particularly on gas fired and applications that are left unattended. (iv) For complete safety a separate sensor and contactor is required. On electric applications utilizing power controls, a contactor connected to the incoming power should be used to protect against power control failure.

4.2 Industrial Process Controllers 4.2.1

Batch Controllers

Batch control (or batching control) is used for repeated fill operations leading to the production of finite quantities of material by subjecting quantities of input materials to an ordered set of processing activities over a finite period of time and using one or more pieces of equipment. Batch control systems are engineered to control, measure, and dispense any volume of liquid from drums, plating tanks, and any large storage vessel. They can be used in any industry where batching, chemical packaging, or dilution is required to be accurate and efficient. For example, in the pharmaceutical and consumer products industries, batch control systems provide complete automation of batch processes including the mixing, blending, and reacting of products such as spice blends, dairy products, beverages, and personal care products. Table 4.9 gives some examples of typical applications of the batch control. In the first case, the batch controller is ideal for discrete manufacturing as well as repetitive fill operations. In this example, the batch controller counts bottles that it then groups into six packs. Its control capability can be used to track bottles or six packs. In the second case, for the drum

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4: DIGITAL CONTROLLERS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Table 4.9 Some Examples of Typical Applications of Batch Control Discrete filling and batch counting

Drum filling application utilizing three relay outputs

Pulse input

Flowmeter

Prewarn

Batch

Grand total

Pump

RS-232 or RS-485 I/O to computer

Controlling the mixing of materials

Pulse input

Pump B Flowmeter B

Batch relay

Pulse input

Batch relay

Pump A Flowmeter A

RS-232 or RS-485 I/O to computer

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filling application, the batch controller utilizes its maximum of three relays to control the pump. The Prewarn relay slows down the pump near the preset to avoid overshoot. The batch relay stops the pump at the preset. The controller relay stops the filling operation once a predetermined number of drums have been filled. The third is for multiple-batch controllers that can be used in combination to control the mixing of materials in the proper ratio. Each feed line is equipped with its own pump, flow meter, and Laureate. Controller setup and monitoring of the mixing operation are facilitated by optional serial communications. RS-232 or RS-485 I/O Interface allows a single data line to handle multiple controllers.

4.2.1.1

Batch Control Standards

An ISA standard, widely used for batch control, has been released as an IEC Publicly Available Specification (PAS) in a joint effort between ISA and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The ANSI/ ISA-88 (IEC 61512) batch control standard series is providing significant benefits to users and suppliers of batch control systems worldwide. Although the standard is primarily designed for batch processes, it is also being applied successfully in various manufacturing industries. This is because the structure required for flexible manufacturing mirrors the structure required for many batch processes, even though the underlying process is often continuous or discrete. The ANSI/ISA-88 (IEC 61512) is also the foundational cornerstone for the new ISA-95 standard, which addresses the integration between manufacturing and business systems. The ANSI/ISA-88 (IEC 61512) offers several automation benefits, including reduction of costs, implementation time, and cycle times. It also allows for improved (batch-to-batch) product consistency, improved product and process quality management, and better cost accounting capability. (1) Procedural model descriptions. The procedural model is a multitiered, hierarchical model composed of the following procedural elements: (a) Procedure. A procedure is the strategy used to carry out a process. It is made up of unit procedures. (b) Unit procedure. A unit procedure is a strategy used to carry out process activities and functions within a unit. A unit procedure is made up of one or more operations (e.g., main processing vessel unit procedure, and premix vessel unit procedure).

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(c) Operation. An operation is a procedural element that defines an independent processing activity carried out by one or more phases within a unit (e.g., add raw materials operation, react operation). (d) Phases. A phase is the smallest component of the procedural model in terms of process-specific tasks or functions (e.g., charge surfactant, mix, agitate, temperature control, transfer out). (2) Physical model descriptions. The physical model describes equipment, and is composed of the following pieces: (a) Enterprise. The enterprise is responsible for determining what products will be manufactured, at which sites, and with what processes. The enterprise is an organization that coordinates the operation of one or more sites. These sites may contain areas, process cells, units, equipment modules, and control modules. (b) Site. A site is a component of a batch manufacturing enterprise identified by physical, geographical, or logical segmentation within an enterprise. It may contain areas, process cells, units, equipment modules, and control modules. (c) Area. An area is a component of a batch-manufacturing site that is identified by physical, geographical, or logical segmentation within a site. It may contain process cells, units, equipment modules, and control modules. (d) Process cell. A process cell contains all of the units, equipment modules, and control modules required to make one or more batches. It is a component of an area. (e) Unit. A unit is a grouping of equipment modules, control modules, and other process equipment in which one or more process functions can be conducted on a batch or part of a batch. (f) Equipment module. An equipment module is a functional group of devices that can carry out a finite number of minor processing activities. These activities make up such process functions as temperature control, pressure control, dosing, and mixing. (g) Control module. A control module is the lowest level of equipment in the physical model. It can carry out basic functions such as valve or pump control. It is important to note that the criteria defining the boundaries for the first three levels of the physical model, Enterprise, Site and Area, are outside the scope of batch control and of the ANSI/ ISA-88 (IEC 61512) standard. They are included merely to identify the relationship between the levels affecting batch control

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY and the enterprise. All batch server products provide control from the process cell downwards. (3) Types and structures of recipe. Recipes are the key to producing batches and are built around your unique equipment configuration. Each recipe consists of a set of sequential steps, and each step consists of one or more phases. The phases contain the ingredients and their corresponding percentages or set weights necessary to produce a given product. The phases also contain any run-time parameters required to make a given product, such as mix times and mix speeds. The ANSI/ISA-88 (IEC 61512) Batch Control standard differentiates among four types of recipes: (a) General recipe. A general recipe defines raw materials, relative quantities, and the processing required. General recipes do not include specifics about geography or the equipment required for processing. (b) Site recipe. The site recipe is derived from the general recipe but takes into account the geography of the site (there may be different grades of raw materials in different countries or continents) and the local language. (c) Master recipe. Master recipes are derived from site recipes and are targeted at the process cell. A master recipe is a required recipe level; without it, control recipes cannot be created nor batches produced. A master recipe takes into account its equipment requirements within a given process cell. It includes the following information categories: header, formula, equipment requirements, and procedure. A typical header contains the recipe name, product identification, version number, author, approval for production, and other administrative information. The formula of a master recipe contains raw materials with their respective target amounts, and process parameters such as temperature and pressure. Recipe procedures are built and implemented on equipment (units or classes of units). Equipment requirements provide the information necessary to constrain the choice of equipment when implementing procedures. (d) Control recipe. A control recipe is a batch created from the master recipe. Master recipe may have one or more control recipes on the batch list or in running status.

4.2.1.2

Control Mechanism

(1) Recipe-based batch control. Recipe execution requires performing a set of actions on one or many processing units. These actions

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may range from automated tasks such as downloading set points to controllers to manual tasks such as adding ingredients. The recipes often differ based on the product produced, but may also differ based upon available equipment. To provide the most value to operations, the recipe should combine the execution of process actions with process monitoring. Process monitoring generates events that execute process actions. For example, if the rate-of-change of temperature has exceeded 10°F/min for 2 min, it is appropriate to lower the batch temperature set point. Batch expert has a highly flexible recipe execution system based on the ANSI/ISA-88 (IEC 61512) guideline. The system can incorporate process monitoring and model based control with process actions. In addition, the system is designed to take into account communication or equipment failures that may lead to operations aborting or stopping the recipe. One of the main contributions of the ANSI/ISA-88 (IEC 61512) standard is the introduction of common terminology for batch manufacturing. Two main models comprise the standard: physical model and procedural model. In general terms, the physical model is used to describe equipment, and the procedural model describes recipe process sequencing. To better understand the relationship between these two models and actual equipment control; we must also examine how the ANSI/ISA-88 (IEC 61512) defines recipes. Essentially, a recipe provides a way to describe products and how those products are produced. The standard differentiates between four types of recipes: general, site, master, and control as given above. The most significant contribution the standard makes to batch manufacturing is the separation of recipe procedure and equipment control logic. Recipe procedures reside on a PC, while the programming code running the production equipment resides in the PLC or DCS (distributed control system). Accordingly, recipes can be edited and modified without having to modify the PLC code. When it comes time to making a product, the manufacturing requirements defined by the recipe and its procedure are linked to the required equipment. The batch software provided by most of the vendors is the batch server that handles this linking at the phase level. The recipe phase within the batch server communicates with the equipment phases via a set of protocols residing in the batch server. These protocols are based on a set of rules represented by a state transition diagram (see Fig. 4.29). The phase logic interface (PLI) resides in the PLC or DCS system to enforce the state transition diagram rules and the handshaking protocols.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Control system (PLC or DCS)

Batch server

Reset Recipe procedure In an ordered set of Recipe unit procedure(s) In an ordered set of

Complete Reset

Restarting Start

Idle (Initial state)

Running

Abort

Reset

Hold Pause

Holding

Pausing

Resume

Stop

Paused

Stopping Aborting Transit:

Recipe operation(s)

Stopped Aborted

In an ordered set of Recipe phase(s)

Held

Reset

Phase logic interface (PLI)

Equipment module(s)

Quiescent: Final:

Equipment phase(s)

Control module(s)

Figure 4.29 The recipe phase within the batch server communicates with the equipment phases via a set of protocols residing in the batch server. These protocols are based on a set of rules represented by a state transition diagram.

The standard also includes a “Control Activity Model” that describes the various functions required to manage batch production. These functions, detailed below, have been incorporated into most commercial batch servers as follows: (a) Recipe management functions are responsible for creating, storing, and maintaining recipes. The result of this control activity is a master recipe. (b) Production planning and scheduling includes the decision algorithms used to produce batch production schedules. (c) Production information management functions are responsible for collecting, storing, processing, and reporting production information and, more specifically, batch history. (d) Process management functions include the creation of control recipes from master recipes and the initiation and supervision of batches scheduled for production. Additional process management functions include the allocation of equipment and arbitration of common resources, and the actual collection of batch and equipment event information. (e) Unit supervision refers to the functions associated with executing procedural elements—unit procedures, operations,

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and phases—within a control recipe. Also included are the complete management of unit resources and the collection of batch and unit information. (f) Process control (PLC or DCS) functions encompass the execution of equipment phases and propagation of modes and states to and from any recipe procedural element and equipment or control module. They also cover the execution of I/O control on field devices and data collection from these devices. (2) Batch process steps. Batch processes deal with discrete quantities of raw materials or products. Batch processes allow for more than one type of product to be processed simultaneously, as long as the products are separated by the equipment layout. Batch processes entail movement of discrete product from processing area to processing area. Batch processes have recipes (or processing instructions) associated with each load of raw material to be processed into product. Batch processes have more complex logic associated with processing than is found in continuous processes. Batch processes often include normal steps that can fail, and thus also include special steps to be taken in the event of a failure, which therefore offers the Exception Handling in the batch processes an extreme importance. Each step can be simple or complex in nature, consisting of one or more operations. Generally, once a step is started it must be completed to be successful. It is not uncommon to require some operator approval before leaving one step and starting the next. There is frequently provision for nonnormal exits to be taken because of operator intervention, equipment failure, or the detection of hazardous conditions. Depending on the recipe for the product being processed, a step may be bypassed for some products. The processing operations for each step are generally under recipe control, but may be modified by operator override action. A typical process step is given in Fig. 4.30.

4.2.2

Servo Controllers

Servos are used in many applications all over the world. They are used in many remote control devices, steering mechanisms in cars, wing control in airplanes, and robotic arm control in workshops. They come in all shapes, sizes, and strengths. Servo control is manipulated everywhere with the servo controller. This controller is where all of the information the servos need is provided. Existing commercial partners have developed a number of products aimed at meeting the demands of precision servo applications, with new products currently in the works.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Operator or recipe bypass command

Operator abort command

Operator or recipe hold at completion command

Yes

Previous step

Bypass step

No

Perform step operation

Hold at step completion

No Next step

Yes Fault detected or operator abort Fault exit to pre-defined step

Figure 4.30 A typical batch process step.

4.2.2.1


(1) Servo system. Servo is a term that applies to a function or a task (Fig. 4.31). The function, or task, of a servo can be described as follows: A command signal that is issued from the user interface panel comes into the servo’s “positioning controller” in a servo system. The positioning controller is the device that stores information about various jobs or tasks. It has been programmed to activate the motor or load, that is, change speed or position or both. The signal then passes into the servo control or “amplifier” section. The servo control takes this low power level signal and increases, or amplifies, the power up to appropriate levels to actually result in movement of the servomotor and load. These low power level signals must be amplified: Higher voltage levels are needed to rotate the servomotor at appropriate higher speeds and higher current levels are required to provide torque to move heavier loads. This power is supplied to the servo control (amplifier) from the “power supply,” which simply converts AC power into the required DC level. It also supplies any low level voltage required for operation of integrated circuits. As power is applied onto the servomotor, the load begins to move: speed and position change. As the load moves, so does

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4: DIGITAL CONTROLLERS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL “AC” Power supply “DC” Power Power Low level power

High level

Programmable positioning controller

Servo control (Amplifier)

Power Interface panel

Command signal

Load Feedback

Servo motor

Figure 4.31 The concept of a servo system.

some other “device.” This other “device” either is a tachometer, resolver, or encoder (providing a signal which is “sent back” to the controller). This “feedback” signal is informing the positioning controller whether the motor is doing the proper job. The positioning controller looks at this feedback signal and determines if the load is being moved properly by the servo motor; and, if not, then the controller makes appropriate corrections. Therefore, a servo involves several devices. It is a system of devices for controlling some item (load). The item (load) that is controlled (regulated) can be controlled in any manner, that is, position, direction, speed. The speed or position is controlled in relation to a reference (command signal), as long as the proper feedback device (error detection device) is used. The feedback and command signals are compared, and the corrections made. Thus, the definition of a servo system is that it consists of several devices that control or regulate speed and position of a load. (2) Logic circuits of servo controllers. Radio Controlled (R/C) servos have enjoyed a big comeback in recent years due to their adoption by a new generation of robotics enthusiasts. Driving these versatile servos requires the generation of a potentially large number of stable pulse width modulated (PWM) control signals, which can be a daunting task. A simple solution to this problem is to use a dedicated serial servo controller board, which handles all the details of the multichannel PWM signal generation while being controlled through simple commands issued on a standard serial UART. Here we introduce an array of 32 parallel channels design that combines the brute force of a FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array) and the higher-level

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY intelligence of the MCU (Microprocessor Control Unit) to achieve some impressive specifications. Figure 4.32 gives a block diagram of this type of serial servo controllers’ logic circuits. An array of 32 parallel channels of 16-bit accuracy, 12-bit resolution PWM generation units is implemented inside an FPGA. A MCU is used at the heart of the system. Its external memory bus was put to good use in interfacing with the memory-mapped array of 64 PWM registers (i.e., 32 × 16 bits) inside the FPGA. The many roles of the MCU include initializing the FPGA registers with user-configurable servo startup positions stored in the internal EEPROM. In response to an external interrupt occurring at every PWM cycle, all current servo position values are refreshed in the memory mapped PWM registers of the FPGA. This is done as a simple memory-tomemory transfer (Figs 4.33 and 4.34). (3) Open loop and closed loop. In a servo system, the controller is the device that activates motion by providing a command to do something to start or change speed or position or both. This command is amplified and applied onto the motor. Thus, motion commences (Fig. 4.35). Systems that assume the motion has taken place (or is in the process of taking place) are termed “open loop.” An open loop drive is one in which the signal goes “in one direction only” from the control to the motor. There is no signal returning from the motor or load to inform the control that action or motion has occurred.

+3.3V

+1.8V PWM

Regulators

FPGA Program Memory

RS232/ RS485

CLK

Level shifter

INT FPGA MCU

ADDR/ DAT

.

ALE

.

READ WRITE

Figure 4.32 Overall serial servo controller circuit block diagram.

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4: DIGITAL CONTROLLERS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL clk update_req

16 bit master counter Channel multiplexer

rdn

Address latch

data ale

A0 A1 Address decoder

pwm_en pwm_zero_enable count data_out pwm_out data_in sel1 sel0 wm

pwm0 pwm1 pwm2

PWM module

LE

…… Ctl_register

wm

pwm31

status_led

Figure 4.33 Internal architecture of FPGA for this serial servo controller circuit given in Figure 4.32. Start

Initialize MCU Wait for FPGA init Load settings from EEPROM (limits, speed, base address start position, baud rate)

Serial receive buffer empty ?

Complete Valid packet receive yes ?

Parse byte

Process packet and execute CMD

Transfer computed array of 32 servo positions to FPGA register

Compute servo positions with velocity loop and range limit Is the refresh_fp ga flag high ?

Perform housekeeping

Figure 4.34 MCU firmware flowchart for this serial servo controller circuit given in Figure 4.32.

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Motor

Control

Motor

Control ........ ...... Signal goes in one direction (a)

A Signal returns back (b)

Figure 4.35 (a) Open loop drive and (b) close loop drive.

If a signal is returned to provide information that motion has occurred, then the system is described as having a signal that goes in “two directions”: the command signal goes out (to move the motor), and a signal is returned (the feedback) to the control to inform the control of what has occurred. The information flows back, or returns. The weaknesses of the open loop approach include the following: It is not good for applications with varying loads; it is possible for a stepper motor to lose steps; its energy efficiency level is low; and it has resonance areas that must be avoided. What applications use the closed loop technique? Those that require control over a variety of complex motion profiles use it. These may involve the following: control of either velocity and/or position; high resolution and accuracy; velocity may be either very slow, or very high; and the application may demand high torques in a small package size. Because of additional components such as the feedback device, complexity is considered by some to be a weakness of the closed loop approach. These additional components do add to initial cost (an increase in productivity is typically not considered when investigating cost). Lack of understanding does give the impression to the user of difficulty. In many applications, whether the open loop or closed loop techniques are employed often come down to the basic decision of the user.

4.2.2.2

Control Mechanism

Servo control is the regulation of velocity and position of a motor based on a feedback signal. The most basic servo loop is the velocity loop. The velocity loop produces a torque command to minimize the error between velocity command and velocity feedback. Most servo systems require

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position control in addition to velocity control. The most common way to provide position control is to add a position loop in “cascade” or series with a velocity loop. Sometimes a single PID position loop is used to provide position and velocity control without an explicit velocity loop. Servo loops have to be “tuned” for each application. Tuning is the process of setting servo gains. Higher servo gains provide higher levels of performance, but they also move the system closer to instability. Low-pass filters are commonly used in series with the velocity loop to reduce highfrequency stability problems. Filters must be tuned at the same time the servo loops are tuned. Some drive manufacturers deal with demanding applications by providing advanced control algorithms. The algorithms may be necessary because the mechanics of the system do not allow the use of standard servo loops, or because the performance requirements of the application may not be satisfied with standard servo control loops. Motor control describes the process of producing actual torque in response to the torque command from the servo control loops. For brush motors, motor control is simply the control of current in motor winding because the torque produced by the motor is approximately proportional to the current in the winding. Most industrial servo controllers rely on current loops. Current loops are similar in structure to velocity loops, but they operate at much higher frequencies. A current loop takes a current command (usually just the output of the velocity loop) and compares it to a current feedback signal and generates an output that is essentially a voltage command. If the system needs more torque, the current loop responds by increasing the voltage applied to the motor until the right amount of current is produced. Tuning current loops is complicated. Manufacturers usually tune current loops for a motor, so users do not have to perform this function. One type of semiconductor is the silicon controller rectifier (SCR) which will be connected to the AC line voltage (Fig. 4.36). This type of device is usually employed where large amounts of power must be regulated, motor inductance is relatively high, and accuracy in speed is not critical (such as constant speed devices for fans, blowers, conveyor belts). Power out of the SCR, which is available to run the motor, comes in discrete pulses. At low speeds, a continuous stream of narrow pulses is required to maintain speed. If an increase in speed is desired, the SCR must be turned on to apply large pulses of instant power, and when lower speeds are desired, power is removed and a gradual coasting down in speed occurs. A good example would be when one car is towing a second car. The driver in the first car is the SCR device and the second car, which is being towed, is the motor/ load. As long as the chain is taut, the driver in the first car is in control of

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Available voltage

Narrow pulse

Wide pulse

Variable frequency

Pulses of power to motor Avg. volts Maintain speed

Increase speed (a)

Slow down

T1

T1 = T2

(b)

T2

T1

T2

(c)

Figure 4.36 Servo control types: (a) an SCR control; (b) pulse width determines average voltage; and (c) pulse frequency modulation to determine average voltage.

the second car. However, suppose the first car slows down. There would be slack in the chain and, at that point, the first car is no longer in control (and would not be until he gets into a position where the chain is taut again). So, for the periods of time when the first car must slow down, the driver is not in control. This sequence occurs repeatedly, resulting in a jerky, cogging operation. This type of speed control is adequate for many applications. If smoother speed is desired, an electronic network may be introduced. By inserting a “lag” network, the response of the control is slowed so that a large instant power pulse will not suddenly be applied. Filtering action of the lag network gives the motor a sluggish response to a sudden change in load or speed command changes. This sluggish response is not important in applications with steady loads or extremely large inertia. However, for wide range, high performance systems, in which rapid response is important, it becomes extremely desirable to minimize sluggish reaction since rapid changes to speed commands are desirable. Transistors may also be employed to regulate the amount of power applied onto a motor. With this device, there are several “techniques,” or design methodology, used to turn transistors “on” and “off.” The “technique” or mode of operation may be “linear,” “pulse width modulated” (PWM) or “pulse frequency modulated” (PFM). The “linear” mode uses transistors that are activated, or turned on, all the time supplying the appropriate amount of power required. Transistors act like a water faucet, regulating the appropriate amount of power to drive the motor. If the transistor is turned on halfway, then half of the power goes to the motor. If the transistor is turned fully on, then all of the power

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goes to the motor and it operates harder and faster. Thus, for the linear type of control, power is delivered constantly, not in discrete pulses (like the SCR control), and better speed stability and control is obtained. Another technique is termed pulse width modulation (PWM). With PWM techniques, power is regulated by applying pulses of variable width, that is, by changing or modulating the pulse widths of the power. In comparison with the SCR control (which applies large pulses of power), the PWM technique applies narrow, discrete (when necessary) power pulses. Operation is as follows: With the pulse width small, the average voltage applied onto the motor is low, and the motor’s speed is slow. If the width is wide, the average voltage is higher, and therefore motor speed is higher. This technique has an advantage in that the power loss in the transistor is small, that is, the transistor is either fully “ON” or fully “OFF” and, therefore, the transistor has reduced power dissipation. This approach allows for smaller package sizes. The final technique used to turn transistors “ON” and “OFF” is termed pulse frequency modulation (PFM). The PFM, applying pulses of variable frequency, that is, by changing or modulating the timing of the pulses, regulates the power. The system operates as follows: With very few pulses, the average voltage applied onto the motor is low, and motor speed is slow. With many pulses, the average voltage is increased, and motor speed is higher.

4.2.2.3

Distributed Servo Control

Seemingly, as many ways exist of putting together servo motion systems—motion control systems that combine hardware and software—as there are applications for them. Some motion controllers operate on multiple platforms and buses, with units providing analog output to a conventional amplifier, as well as units that provide current control and direct pulse width modulation (PWM) output for as many as 32 motors simultaneously. There are amplifiers that still require potentiometers to be adjusted for the digital drives’ position, velocity, and current control. A near-limitless mixing and matching of these units it is possible to achieve a satisfactory solution for an application. Advances in hardware continue to make possible motion control products that operate faster and more precisely. New microprocessors and digital signal processors (DSPs) provide the tools necessary to create better features, functionality, and performance for lower cost. These features and functionality enhancements, such as increasing the number of axes on a motion controller or adding position controls to a drive, can be traced back

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to advances in the electronics involved. As dedicated servo and motion control performance has improved, the system-level requirements have increased. Machines that perform servo actions now routinely operate with more advanced software and more complex functions on their host computers. Companies that provide servo or motion systems are differentiating themselves from their competition by the quality of the operating systems they deliver to their customers. Traditional servo systems often consist of a high-power, front-end computer that communicates to a high-power, DSP-based, multiaxis motion controller card interfacing with a number of drives or amplifiers, which often have their own high-end processors on board. In a number of these cases, the levels of communication between the high-end computer and the motion controller can be broken down into three categories: simple point-to-point moves with noncritical trajectories; moves requiring coordination and blending, with trajectory generation being tied to the operation of the machine; and complex moves with trajectories that are critical to the process or machine. Increasingly, a significant case can be made for integrating motion control functionality into one compact module to enable mounting close to the motors, providing a distributed system. By centralizing the communications link to the computer from this controller/amplifier, such a solution significantly reduces the system wiring, thereby reducing cost and improving reliability. By increasing the number of power stages, the unit can drive more than one motor independently, up to the processing power of the DSP. If size reductions are significant enough, the distributed servo controller/amplifier does not have to be placed inside a control panel, thus potentially reducing system costs even further. To implement such a distributed servo controller and amplifier, the unit must meet the basic system requirements: enough processing power to control all aspects of a multiple-axis move, fast enough communications between the computer and the servo controller/amplifier to do the job, a small enough size to satisfy distributed-system requirements, and a reasonable price. (1) Levels of motion complexity. The three basic levels of motion complexity require different features and functions from a distributed servo controller and amplifier. It is possible to envision two types of distributed servo controller and amplifiers for pointto-point moves with noncritical trajectory applications: those for repetitive point-to-point moves with external-event-generated conditions and others for point-to-point destinations that vary

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based on user- or machine-generated events. A typical application for this type of system is a “pick and place” robot. The robot’s purpose can vary from moving silicon wafers between trays to placing parts from an assembly line into packing boxes. The requirements for a distributed servo controller and amplifier involve determining a trajectory based on current location and requiring either a user destination or a preprogrammed destination. Effectively, the only user requirement is to set acceleration, velocity, and jerk parameters (for S-curve), and a series of final points. As a unit, there are minimal communication requirements between host and controller, with simple commands and feedback. Such communication requirements include a resident motion program for path planning; support for I/O functionality; support for terminal interface via RS-232; use without resident editor/ compiler; and stand-alone motion control. A complete motion control application is programmed into the distributed control module for “stand-alone mode” control of three axis applications. This mode is typically used for machines that require simple, repetitive sequences operating from an RS-232 terminal. Communication for the stand-alone mode can be simple and is often not time-critical. Simple point-to-point RS-232 communication is often acceptable for applications requiring few motors. Multidrop RS-485 or RS-1394 is suitable for applications with many axes of motion and motor networks. The requirements for the “blended moves with important trajectory” option involve additional communications to a host computer, as the moves involve more information, and speed and detail of feedback to the host are critical. A typical application for this requirement would be a computerized numerical control system designed to cut accurate, repeatable paths. The trajectory generation and following must be smooth, as there is a permanent record of the cut. The distributed servo control module must be capable of full coordination of multiple axis control. Communication to the host is critical to this application. Latency times between issue of the command and motor reaction time can cause inconsistencies in the motion. In coordinating the motion between multiple motors, there are several possibilities. With a single distributed servo controller and amplifier module using multiple amplifiers, coordination can be achieved on the same controller. For applications requiring coordination between motors connected to different controllers, it is possible to achieve this with a suitable choice of high-bandwidth network.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (2) Trajectory planning. Applications that require complex moves with critical trajectories such as inverse kinematics often include the trajectory planning as part of their own intellectual property. The generation of the trajectory is done on a computer platform and the information is transferred to the motion controller. Typically, significant engineering effort is put into the top-level software provided with the robot. The software precalculates the trajectory and transfers this information to the controller, with the result that a conventional motion controller will be underused. For a distributed servo controller and amplifier, the interface would be to send a series of set points over the network that the controller would then follow, interpolating information for higher resolution. The servo drives are configured for torque, speed, or position control. This solution requires the addition of smart cards in the PC, with Device Net and FireWire solutions as add-on options. This type of configuration supports synchronized motion profile streaming (Profile Streaming Mode) for users who need to specify an arbitrary trajectory. Meanwhile, system integration continues to advance on all fronts. All major value-adding components of motion control systems will soon have to comply with the demands for faster controllers with high-speed multiaxis capabilities supplying commands in multitasking applications.

4.2.2.4

Important Servo Control Devices

(1) Types of motors. Electric motor design is based on the placement of conductors (wires) in a magnetic field. A winding has many conductors, or turns of wire, and the contribution of each individual turn adds to the intensity of the interaction. The force developed from a winding is dependent on the current passing through the winding and the magnetic field strength. If more current is passed through the winding, then more force (torque) is obtained. In effect, two magnetic fields interacting cause movement: the magnetic field from the rotor and the magnetic field from the stators attract each other. This becomes the basis of both AC and DC motor design. (a) AC motors. AC motors are relatively constant speed devices. The speed of an AC motor is determined by the frequency of the voltage applied (and the number of magnetic poles). There are basically two types of AC motors: induction and synchronous. (i) Induction motor. If the induction motor is viewed as a type of transformer, it becomes easy to understand.

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By applying a voltage onto the primary of the transformer winding, a current flow results and induces current in the secondary winding. The primary is the stator assembly, and the secondary is the rotor assembly. One magnetic field is set up in the stator, and a second magnetic field is induced in the rotor. The interaction of these two magnetic fields results in motion. The speed of the magnetic field going around the stator will determine the speed of the rotor. The rotor will try to follow the stator’s magnetic field, but will “slip” when a load is attached. Therefore, induction motors always rotate slower than the stator’s rotating field. Typical construction of an induction motor consists of (1) a stator with laminations and turns of copper wire and (2) a rotor, constructed of steel laminations with large slots on the periphery, stacked together to form a “squirrel cage” rotor. Rotor slots are filled with conductive material (copper or aluminum) and are shortcircuited on themselves by the conductive end pieces. This “one” piece casting usually includes integral fan blades to circulate air for cooling purposes. The standard induction motor is operated at a “constant” speed from standard line frequencies. Recently, with the increasing demand for adjustable speed products, controls have been developed that adjust operating speed of induction motors. Microprocessor drive technology, using methods such as vector or phase angle control (i.e., variable voltage, variable frequency), manipulates the magnitude of the magnetic flux of the fields and thus controls motor speed. By the addition of an appropriate feedback sensor, this becomes a viable consideration for some positioning applications. Controlling the induction motor’s speed and torque becomes complex since motor torque is no longer a simple function of motor current. Motor torque affects the slip frequency, and speed is a function of both stator field frequency and slip frequency. (ii) Synchronous motor. The synchronous motor is basically the same as the induction motor but with slightly different rotor construction. The rotor construction enables this type of motor to rotate at the same speed (in synchronization) as the stator field. There are basically two types of synchronous motors: self excited (as the induction motor) and directly excited (as with permanent magnets).

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The self-excited motor (may be called reluctance synchronous) includes a rotor with notches, or teeth, on the periphery. The number of notches corresponds to the number of poles in the stator. Oftentimes the notches or teeth are termed salient poles. These salient poles create an easy path for the magnetic flux field, thus allowing the rotor to “lock in” and run at the same speed as the rotating field. A directly excited motor (may be called hysteresis synchronous, or AC permanent magnet synchronous) includes a rotor with a cylinder of a permanent magnet alloy. The permanent magnet north and south poles, in effect, are the salient teeth of this design, and therefore prevent slip. In both the self-excited and directly excited types there is a “coupling” angle, that is, the rotor lags a small distance behind the stator field. This angle will increase with load, and if the load is increased beyond the motor’s capability, the rotor will pull out of synchronism. The synchronous motor is generally operated in an “open loop” configuration and within the limitations of the coupling angle (or “pull-out” torque) it will provide absolute constant speed for a given load. Also, note that this category of motor is not self-starting and employs start windings (split-phase, capacitor start), or controls that slowly ramp up frequency and voltage to start rotation. A synchronous motor can be used in a speed control system even though a feedback device must be added. Vector control approaches will work quite adequately with this motor design. However, in general, the rotor is larger than that of an equivalent servomotor and, therefore, may not provide adequate response for incrementing applications. Other disadvantages are the following: While the synchronous motor may start a high inertial load, it may not be able to accelerate the load enough to pull it into synchronism. If this occurs, the synchronous motor operates at low frequency and at very irregular speeds, resulting in audible noise. Also, for a given horsepower, synchronous motors are larger and more expensive than nonsynchronous motors. (b) DC motors. DC motor speeds can easily be varied; therefore they are utilized in applications where speed control, servo control, and/or positioning needs exist. The stator field is

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produced by either a field winding or by permanent magnets. This is a stationary field (as opposed to the AC stator field that is rotating). Passing sets up the second field, the rotor field, and current through a commutator and into the rotor assembly. The rotor field rotates in an effort to align itself with the stator field, but at the appropriate time (due to the commutator) the rotor field is switched. In this method then, the rotor field never catches up to the stator field. Rotational speed (i.e., how fast the rotor turns) is dependent on the strength of the rotor field. In other words, the more voltage on the motor, the faster the rotor will turn. The following will briefly explore the various wound field motors and the permanent magnet (PMDC) motors. (i) Shunt wound motors. With the shunt wound, the rotor and stator (or field windings) are connected in parallel. The field windings can be connected to the same power supply as the rotor, or excited separately. Separate excitation is used to change motor speed (i.e., rotor voltage is varied while stator or field winding is held constant). The parallel connection provides a relatively flat speed-torque curve and good speed regulation over wide load ranges. However, because of demagnetization effects, these motors provide starting torques comparatively lower than other DC winding types. (ii) Series wound motors. In the series wound motor, the two motor fields are connected in series. The result is two strong fields that will produce very high starting torque. The field winding carries the full rotor current. These motors are usually employed where large starting torques are required such as cranes and hoists. Series motors should be avoided in applications where they are likely to load because of the tendency to “run away” under no-load conditions. (iii) Compound wound motor. Compound motors use both a series and a shunt stator field. Many speed torque curves can be created by varying the ratio of series and shunt fields. In general, small compound motors have a strong shunt field and a weak series field to help start the motor. High starting torques are exhibited along with relatively flat speed torque characteristics. In reversing applications, the polarity of both windings must be switched, thus requiring large, complex circuits.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (iv) Stepper motor. Step motors are electromechanical actuators that convert digital inputs to analog motion. This is possible through the motor’s controller electronics. There are various types of step motors such as solenoid activated, variable reluctance, permanent magnet, and synchronous inductor. Independent of stepper type, all are devices that index in fixed angular increments when energized in a programmed manner. Step motors’ normal operation consists of discrete angular motions of uniform magnitude rather than continuous motion. A step motor is particularly well suited to applications where the controller signals appear as pulse trains. One pulse causes the motor to increment one angle of motion. This is repeated for one pulse. Most step motors are used in an open-loop system configuration, which can result in oscillations. To overcome this, either complex circuits or feedback is employed—thus resulting in a closedloop system. Stepper motors are, however, limited to about one horsepower and 2000 rpm, limiting them in many applications. (v) PMDC motor. The predominant motor configuration utilized in demanding incrementing (start-stop) applications is the permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor. This type with appropriate feedback is quite an effective device in closed-loop servo system applications. Since the stator field is generated by permanent magnets, no power is used for field generation. The magnets provide constant field flux at all speeds. Therefore, linear speed torque curves result. This motor type provides relatively high starting, or acceleration torque, is linear and predictable, has a smaller frame and lighter weight compared to other motor types, and provides rapid positioning. (2) Types of feedback devices. Servos use feedback signals for stabilization, speed, and position information. This information may come from a variety of devices such as the analog tachometer, the digital tachometer (optical encoder), or from a resolver. In the following, each of these devices will be defined and the basics explored. (a) Analog tachometers. Tachometers resemble miniature motors. However, the similarity ceases there. In a tachometer, the gauge of wire is quite fine, so the current handling capability

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is small. But the tachometer is not used for a power-delivering device. Instead, the shaft is turned by some mechanical means and a voltage is developed at the terminals (a motor in reverse!). The faster the shaft is turned, the larger the magnitude of voltage developed (i.e., the amplitude of the signal is directly proportional to speed). The output voltage shows a polarity (+ or –) that is dependent on the direction of rotation. Analog, or DC, tachometers, as they are often termed, play an important role in drives because of their ability to provide directional and rotational information. They can be used to provide speed information to a meter (for visual speed readings) or provide velocity feedback (for stabilization purposes). The DC provides the simplest, most direct method of accomplishing this feat. As an example of a drive utilizing an analog tachometer for velocity information, consider a lead screw assembly that must move a load at a constant speed. The motor is required to rotate the lead screw at 3600 rpm. If the tachometer’s output voltage gradient is 2.5 V/Krpm, the voltage read on the tachometer terminals should be: 3.600 Krpm × 2.5 V/Krpm = 9 V If the voltage read is indeed 9 V, then the tachometer (and motor/load) is rotating at 3600 rpm. The servo drive will try to maintain this voltage to ensure the desired speed. Although this example has been simplified, the basic concept of speed regulation via the tachometer is illustrated. Some of the terminologies associated with tachometers that explain the basic characteristics of this device are voltage constant, ripple, and linearity. The following will define each. A tachometer’s voltage constant may also be referred to as voltage gradient, or sensitivity. This represents the output voltage generated from a tachometer when operated at 1000 rpm, that is, V/Krpm. Sometimes converted and expressed in volts per radian per second, that is, V/rad/s. Ripple may be termed voltage ripple or tachometer ripple. Since tachometers are not ideal devices, and when designing and manufacturing tolerances enter into the product, there are deviations from the norm. When the shaft is rotated, a DC signal is produced as well as a small amount of an AC signal that is superimposed on the DC level. In reviewing literature, care must be exercised to determine the definition of ripple since there are three methods of

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY presenting the data: (1) peak-to-peak—the ratio of peak-topeak ripple expressed as a percent of the average DC level, (2) RMS—the ratio of the rms of the AC component expressed as a percent of the average DC level, and (3) peak to average—the ratio of maximum deviation from the average DC value expressed as a percent of the average DC level. Linearity in the ideal tachometer would have a perfect straight line for voltage versus speed. Again, designing and manufacturing tolerances enter the picture and alter this straight line. Thus, linearity is a measure of how far away from perfect this product or design is. The maximum difference of the actual versus theoretical curves is linearity. (b) Digital tachometers. A digital tachometer, often termed an optical encoder or simply encoder, is a mechanical-toelectrical conversion device. The encoder’s shaft is rotated and an output signal results, which is proportional to distance (i.e., angle) the shaft is rotated through. The output signal may be square waves, or sinusoidal waves, or provide an absolute position. Thus, encoders are classified into two basic types: absolute and incremental. (i) Absolute encoder. The absolute encoder provides a specific address for each shaft position throughout 360°. This type of encoder employs either contact (brush) or noncontact schemes of sensing position. The contact scheme incorporates a brush assembly to make direct electrical contact with the electrically conductive paths of the coded disk to read address information. The noncontact scheme utilizes photoelectric detection to sense position of the coded disk. The number of tracks on the coded disk may be increased until the desired resolution or accuracy is achieved. And since position information is directly on the coded disk assembly, the disk has a built-in “memory system” and a power failure will not cause this information to be lost. Therefore, it will not be required to return to a “home” or “start” position on reenergizing power. (ii) Incremental encoder. The incremental encoder provides either pulses or a sinusoidal output signal as it is rotated throughout 360°. Thus, distance data is obtained by counting this information. The disk is manufactured with opaque lines. A light source passes a beam through the transparent segments onto a photosensor that outputs a sinusoidal waveform. Electronic processing can be used to transform this signal into a square pulse train.

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In utilizing this device, the following parameters are important: (1) Line count: This is the number of pulses per revolution. The number of lines is determined by the positional accuracy required in the application. (2) Output signal: The output from the photosensor can be either a sine or square wave signal. (3) Number of channels: Either one or two channel outputs can be provided. The two-channel version provides a signal relationship to obtain motion direction (i.e., clockwise or counterclockwise rotation). In addition, a zero index pulse can be provided to assist in determining the “home” position. A typical application using an incremental encoder is as follows: An input signal loads a counter with positioning information. This represents the position the load must be moved to. As the motor accelerates, the pulses emitted from the incremental (digital) encoder come at an increasing rate until a constant run speed is attained. During the run period, the pulses come at a constant rate that can be directly related to motor speed. The counter, in the meanwhile, is counting the encoder pulses and, at a predetermined location, the motor is commanded to slow down. This is to prevent overshooting the desired position. When the counter is within 1 or 2 pulses of the desired position, the motor is commanded to stop. The load is now in position. (3) Resolvers. Resolvers look similar to small motors—that is, one end has terminal wires, and the other end has a mounting flange and a shaft extension. Internally, a “signal” winding rotor revolves inside a fixed stator. This represents a type of transformer: When one winding is excited with a signal, through transformer action the second winding is excited. As the first winding is moved (the rotor), the output of the second winding changes (the stator). This change is directly proportional to the angle that the rotor has been moved through. As a starting point, the simplest resolver unit contains a single winding on the rotor and two windings on the stator (located 90° apart). A reference signal is applied onto the primary (the rotor), then via transformer action this is coupled to the secondary. The secondary output signal would be a sine wave proportional to the angle (the other winding would be a cosine wave), with one electrical cycle of output voltage produced for each 360° of mechanical rotation. These are fed into the controller. Inside the controller, a resolver to digital (R to D) converter analyzes the signal, producing an output representing the angle

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY that the rotor has moved through, and an output proportional to speed (how fast the rotor is moving). There are various types of resolvers. The type described above would be termed a single speed resolver; that is, the output signal goes through only one sine wave as the rotor goes through 360 mechanical degrees. If the output signal went through four sine waves as the rotor goes through 360 mechanical degrees, it would be called a four-speed resolver. Another version utilizes three windings on the stator—and would be called a synchronizer. The three windings are located 120° apart. The basic type of resolver discussed thus far may also be termed a “resolver transmitter”—one phase input and two phase outputs (i.e., a single winding of the rotor is excited and the stator’s two windings provide position information). Resolver manufacturers may term this a “CX” unit, or “RCS” unit. Another type of resolver is termed “resolver control transformer”: twophase inputs and one phase output (i.e., the two-stator windings are excited and the rotor single winding provides position information). Resolver manufacturers term this type “CT” or “RCT” or “RT.” The third type of resolver is termed a “resolver transmitter”: two-phase inputs and two-phase outputs (i.e., two rotor windings are excited, and position information is derived from the two-stator windings). This may be referred to as a “differential” resolver, or “RD,” or “RC” depending on the manufacturer.

4.2.3

Fuzzy Logic Controllers

Fuzzy systems are showing good promise in consumer products, industrial and commercial systems, and decision support systems. Fuzzy logic is a paradigm for an alternative design methodology that can be applied in developing both linear and nonlinear systems for embedded control. Fuzzy logic can make control engineering easier for many types of tasks. It can also add control where it was previously impractical, as applications such as fuzzy-controlled washing machines have shown. However, fuzzy control need not be a dramatic departure from conventional control techniques such as proportional integral derivative (PID) feedback systems. As this technical brief demonstrates, fuzzy logic can be used to simplify the scheduling of two different controllers. Figure 4.37 lists several fuzzy logic control patterns, which reveal that in most control systems the fuzzy logic controller (FLC) works with the PID to employ close-loop feedback control.

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4: DIGITAL CONTROLLERS FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Desired Error value +

Control output FLC

Process

−

(a)

Desired Error value + −

FLC

+

Control output Process

− PID

(b)

Desired Error value

Control output PID

Process

+

Desired Error value +

−

PID-2

Process

Control output

FLC

FLC (c)

−

Switch PID-1

(d)

Figure 4.37 Fuzzy logic control patterns: (a) classic Fuzzy logic control; (b) FLC and conventional PID as a backup; (c) FLC tuning conventional PID; and (d) FLC in gain scheduling PID.

4.2.3.1

Fuzzy Control Principle

The term “fuzzy” refers to the ability to deal with imprecise or vague inputs. Instead of using complex mathematical equations, fuzzy logic uses linguistic descriptions to define the relationship between the input information and the output action. In engineering systems, fuzzy logic provides a convenient and user-friendly front-end to develop control programs, helping designers to concentrate on the functional objectives, not on the mathematics. Fuzzy control strategies come from experience and experiments rather than from mathematical models and, therefore, linguistic implementations are accomplished much faster. Fuzzy control strategies involve a large number of inputs, most of which are relevant only for some special conditions. Such inputs are activated only when the related condition prevails. In this way, little additional computational overhead is required for adding extra rules. As a result, the rule base structure remains understandable, leading to efficient coding and system documentation. (1) Logical inference. Reasoning makes a connection between cause and effect, or a condition and a consequence. Reasoning can be expressed by a logical inference or by the evaluation of inputs to draw a conclusion. We usually follow rules of inference that have the form: IF cause1 = A and cause2 = B THEN effect = C, where A, B, and C are linguistic variables. For example, IF “room temperature” is Medium THEN “set fan speed to Fast” Medium is a function defining degrees of room temperature, while Fast is a

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY function defining degrees of speed. The intelligence lies in associating those two terms by means of an inference expressed in heuristic IF. . .THEN terms. To convert a linguistic term into a computational framework, one needs to use the fundamentals of set theory. On the statement IF “room temperature” is Medium, we have to ask and check the following question: “Is the room temperature Medium?” A traditional logic, also called Boolean logic, would have two answers: YES and NO. Therefore, the idea of membership of an element x in a set A is a function µA(x) whose value indicates if that element belongs to the set A. Boolean logic would indicate, for example: µA(x) = 1, then the element belongs to set A, or µA(x) = 0, the element does not belong to set A. (2) Fuzzy sets. A fuzzy set is represented by a membership function defined on the universe of discourse. The universe of discourse is the space where the fuzzy variables are defined. The membership function gives the grade, or degree, of membership within the set, of any element of the universe of discourse. The membership function maps the elements of the universe onto numerical values in the interval [0, 1]. A membership function value of zero implies that the corresponding element is definitely not an element of the fuzzy set, while a value of unity means that the element fully belongs to the set. A grade of membership in between corresponds to the fuzzy membership to set. In crisp set theory, if someone is taller than 1.8 m, we can state that such person belongs to the “set of tall people.” However, such sharp change from 1.7999 m of a “short person” to 1.8001 m of a “tall person” is against common sense. Another example could be given as follows: Suppose a highway has a speed limit as 65 miles/h. Those who drive faster than 65 miles/h belongs to the set A whose elements are violators and their membership function has the value of 1. On the other hand, those who drive slower do not belong to set A. Would the sharp transition between membership and nonmembership be realistic? Should there be a traffic summons issued to drivers who are caught at 65.5 miles/h? Or at 65.9 miles/h? Therefore, in practical situations there is always a natural fuzzification when someone analyzes statements and a smooth membership curve usually better describes the grade where an element belongs to a set. (a) Fuzzification. Fuzzification is the process of decomposing a system input and/or output into one or more fuzzy sets. Many types of curves and tables can be used, but triangular or trapezoidal shaped membership functions are the most common because they are easier to represent in embedded controllers.

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Figure 4.38 shows a system of fuzzy sets for an input with trapezoidal and triangular membership functions. Each fuzzy set spans a region of input (or output) value graphed with the membership. Any particular input is interpreted from this fuzzy set, and a degree of membership is interpreted. The membership functions should overlap to allow smooth mapping of the system. The process of fuzzification allows the system inputs and outputs to be expressed in linguistic terms so that rules can be applied in a simple manner to express a complex system. Consider a simplified implementation for an air-conditioning system with a temperature sensor. The temperature might be acquired by a microprocessor that has a fuzzy algorithm to process an output to continuously control the speed of a motor which keeps the room in a “good temperature;,” it also can direct a vent upward or downward as necessary. The figure illustrates the process of fuzzification of the air temperature. There are five fuzzy sets for temperature: COLD, COOL, GOOD, WARM, and HOT. The membership function for fuzzy sets COOL and WARM are trapezoidal, the membership function for GOOD is triangular, and the membership functions for COLD and HOT are half triangular with shoulders indicating the physical limits for such process (staying in a place with a room temperature lower than 8°C or above 32°C would be quite uncomfortable). The way to design such fuzzy sets is a matter of degree and depends solely on the designer’s experience and intuition. The figure shows some nonoverlapping fuzzy sets, which can indicate any nonlinearity in the modeling process. There an input temperature of 18°C would be considered COOL with a degree of 0.75 and would be considered GOOD with a degree of 0.25. To build the rules that will control the air conditioning motor, we could watch how a human expert would adjust the settings to speed up and slow down the motor in accordance with the temperature, Cold

Cool

Good

Warm

Hot

1.0

8°

11°

14°

17°

20°

23°

26°

29°

32°

Figure 4.38 Fuzzy sets defining temperature.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY obtaining the rules empirically. If the room temperature is good, keep the motor speed medium, if it is warm, turn the knob of the speed to fast, and blast the speed if the room is hot. On the other hand, if the temperature is cool, slow down the speed, and stop the motor if it is cold. This is the beauty of fuzzy logic: to turn common sense, linguistic descriptions, into a computer controlled system. Therefore, it is necessary to understand how to use some logical operations to build the rules. Boolean logic operations must be extended in fuzzy logic to manage the notion of partial truth—truth-values between “completely true” and “completely false.” A fuzziness nature of a statement like “X is LOW” might be combined to the fuzziness statement of “Y is HIGH” and a typical logical operation could be given as X is LOW and Y is HIGH. What is the truth-value of this and operation? The logic operations with fuzzy sets are performed with the membership functions. Although there are various other interpretations for fuzzy logic operations, the following definitions are very convenient in embedded control applications: truth(X and Y) = Min(truth(X), truth(Y)) truth(X or Y) = Max(truth(X), truth(Y)) truth(not X) = 1.0—truth(X) (b) Defuzzification. After fuzzy reasoning, we have a linguistic output variable that needs to be translated into a crisp value. The objective is to derive a single crisp numeric value that best represents the inferred fuzzy values of the linguistic output variable. Defuzzification is such an inverse transformation that maps the output from the fuzzy domain back into the crisp domain. Some defuzzification methods tend to produce an integral output considering all the elements of the resulting fuzzy set with the corresponding weights. Other methods take into account just the elements corresponding to the maximum points of the resulting membership functions. The following defuzzification methods are of practical importance: (i) Center-of-Area (C-o-A). The C-o-A method is often referred to as the Center-of-Gravity method because it computes the centroid of the composite area representing the output fuzzy term. (ii) Center-of-Maximum (C-o-M). In the C-o-M method only the peaks of the membership functions are used. The defuzzified crisp compromise value is determined

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by finding the place where the weights are balanced. Thus, the areas of the membership functions play no role and only the maxima (singleton memberships) are used. The crisp output is computed as a weighted mean of the term membership maxima, weighted by the inference results. (iii) Mean-of-Maximum (M-o-M). The M-o-M is used only in some cases where the C-o-M approach does not work. This occurs whenever the maxima of the membership functions are not unique and the question is which one of the equal choices one should take. (3) Fuzzy controllers. A fuzzy logic system has four blocks as shown in Fig. 4.39. Crisp input information from the device is converted into fuzzy values for each input fuzzy set with the fuzzification block. The universe of discourse of the input variables determines the required scaling for correct per-unit operation. The scaling is very important because the fuzzy system can be retrofitted with other devices or ranges of operation by just changing the scaling of the input and output. The decision-making logic determines how the fuzzy logic operations are performed (Sup-Min inference), and together with the knowledge base determines the outputs of each fuzzy IF–THEN rule. Those are combined and converted to crispy values with the defuzzification block. The output crisp value can be calculated by the center of gravity or the weighted average. To process the input to get the output reasoning, there are six steps involved in the creation of a rule based fuzzy system: (a) Identify the inputs and their ranges and name them. (b) Identify the outputs and their ranges and name them. (c) Create the degree of fuzzy membership function for each input and output. (d) Construct the rule base that the system will operate under. (e) Decide how the action will be executed by assigning strengths to the rules. (f) Combine the rules and defuzzify the output.

Knowledge base

Input

Fuzzification

Logic inference

Defuzzification

Output

Figure 4.39 Fuzzy controller block diagram.

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4.2.3.2


Fuzzy Logic Process Controllers

Fuzzy Logic microprocessor based temperature and process controllers are state-of-the-art in design and function, yet have low cost for a variety of design applications. These controllers are ideal for controlling all process parameters, including temperature, flow, pressure, humidity, pH, and connectivity. Fuzzy logic algorithm makes these controllers smart enough to learn processes and make rapid, accurate adjustments. A variety of choices for number of buttons, DIN size, configuration, and options make them versatile enough to match various individual needs. All of these controllers employ patented fuzzy logic algorithms with PID Autotune. These controllers “learn” industrial process, using the PID parameters as a starting point for all decisions made by the controller. This intelligence allows industrial processes to reach its set point in the shortest time possible while virtually eliminating overshoot. The result is that industrial process maintains a steady set point.

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Application Software for Industrial Control

A control system represents a group of electronic, electric, and mechanical equipment and devices that are locally or remotely connected together to monitor and control the target environment. In respect to industrial control systems, the target environment is inevitably associated with hardware devices that are sensors, actuators, and valves. Real-time control system means that the control system must provide the control responses or actions to the stimulus or requests within specific times, which therefore depend not just on what the system does but also on how fast it reacts. In software, each of the stimulus handlers requires a process (or task). Actually, a real-time control system normally consists of these three types of processes: (1) Sensor control processes that collect information from sensors and may buffer information collected in response to a sensor stimulus. (2) Data processor carrying out processing of collected information and computing the system response. (3) Actuator control processes that generate control signals for actuators. Real-time control systems are usually designed in the software as cooperating processes with an executive concurrently controlling these processes. Because of the need to respond to timing demands made by different stimulus, an industrial control system must be in an architecture allowing for fast switching between stimulus handlers. This architecture should include the following three system components given below: (1) Real-time operating systems are specialized operating systems which manage the processes in the real-time systems. They are mainly responsible for process and resource management. Realtime operating systems in programming may be based on a standard kernel that is used unchanged or modified for a particular application. These system modules should be documented in real-time operating systems: (1) Real-time timer that provides information for process scheduling. (2) Interrupt handler that manages aperiodic requests for service. (3) Scheduler that chooses the next process to be run. (4) Resource manager that allocates memory and processor resources. (5) Dispatcher that starts process execution. (2) Monitoring and control systems poll sensors and send control signals to actuators. 569

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (3) Data acquisition systems collect data from sensors for subsequent processing and analysis. Data collection processes and processing processes may have different periods and deadlines; and could be faster than processing. The programming is usually organized according to a producer consumer model by using circular or ring buffers which are the mechanism for smoothing speed differences.

5.1 Boot Code for Microprocessor Unit Chipset 5.1.1

Introduction

To boot up a microprocessor unit is to load an operating system into the microprocessor unit’s main memory or random access memory (RAM). Once the operating system is loaded, it is ready for users to run applications. Sometimes, an instruction is given to “reboot” the operating system. This simply means to reload the operating system. On larger microprocessor units (including mainframes), the equivalent term for “boot” is “initial program load” and for “reboot” is “reinitial program load.” The booting of an operating system works by loading a very small program into the microprocessor set and then giving that program control so that it in turn loads the entire operating system. Booting or loading an operating system is different from installing it, which is generally an initial one-time activity. The installation of operating system stores the operating system source code on hard disk that is ready to be booted (loaded) into random access memory. The microprocessor unit storage is closer to the microprocessor and faster to work with than the hard disk. Typically, when an operating system is installed, it is set up so that when the microprocessor unit is turned on, the system is automatically booted as well. If storage (memory) runs out or the operating system or an application program encounters an error, it may display an error message or the screen may “freeze.” In these events, you may have to reboot the operating system.

5.1.2

Code Structures

Boot code of a microprocessor unit is a complicated program set consisting mainly of BIOS and Kernel; Master Boot Record (MBR); and Boot program.

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5.1.2.1

571

BIOS and Kernel

(1) BIOS. BIOS, in computing, stands for Basic Input and Output System. BIOS refers to the software code run by a controller or a computer when first powered on. The primary function of BIOS is to prepare the machine so other software programs stored on various distributed modules can load, execute, and assume control of the controller or computer. The other main responsibilities of the BIOS include booting the system, and providing the BIOS setup program that allows changing BIOS parameters. When a controller or a personal computer is first turned on, the processor is “raring to go,” but it needs some instructions to execute. However, since the machine has just been turned on, its system memory is empty; there are no programs to run. To make sure that the BIOS program is always available to the processor, even when it is first turned on, it is “hard-wired” into a read-only memory (ROM) chip that is placed on the system’s motherboard. A uniform standard was created between the makers of processors and the makers of BIOS programs, so that the processor would always look in the same place in memory to find the start of the BIOS program. The processor gets its first instructions from this location, and the BIOS program begins executing. The BIOS program then begins the system boot sequence that calls other programs, gets operating system loaded, and the controller or computer up and running. A control system can contain several BIOS firmware chips. The motherboard BIOS typically contains code to access fundamental hardware components such as the keyboard, floppy drives, ATA (IDE) hard disk controllers, USB human interfaces, and storage devices. In addition, plug-in adapter cards such as SCSI, RAID, Network interface cards, and video boards often include their own BIOS, complementing or replacing the system BIOS code for the given component. In some cases, where devices may also be used by add-in adapters, and actually directly integrated on the motherboard, the add-in ROM may also be stored as separate code on the main BIOS flash chip. It may then be possible to upgrade this “add-in” BIOS (sometimes called an “option ROM”) separately from the main BIOS code. (2) Kernel. The kernel is a program that constitutes the central core of an operating system. It has complete control over everything that occurs in the system. The kernel is the first part of the operating system to load into memory during booting, and it remains there for the entire duration of the session because its services are required continuously. Thus, it is important for it to be as small as possible while still providing all the essential services

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY needed by the other parts of the operating system and by the various application programs. Because of its critical nature, the kernel code is usually loaded into a protected area of memory, which prevents it from being overwritten by other, less frequently used parts of the operating system, or by application programs. The kernel performs its tasks, such as executing processes and handling interrupts, in kernel space, whereas everything a user normally does, such as writing text in a text editor or running programs in a GUI (graphical user interface), is done in user space. This separation is made to prevent user data and kernel data from interfering with each other and thereby diminishing performance or causing the system to become unstable (and possibly crashing). The kernel provides basic services for all other parts of the operating system, typically including memory management, process management, file management, and I/O (input/output) management that means the accessing the peripheral devices. These services are requested by other parts of the operating system or by application programs through a specified set of program interfaces referred to as system calls. The contents of a kernel vary considerably according to the operating system, but they typically include the following: (a) A scheduler, which determines how the various processes share the kernel’s processing time (including in what order); (b) A supervisor, which grants use of the controller or computer to each process when it is scheduled; (c) An interrupt handler, which handles all requests from the various hardware devices (such as disk drives and the keyboard) that compete for the kernel’s services; (d) A memory manager, which allocates the system’s address spaces (i.e., locations in memory) among all users of the kernel’s services. (e) Many (but not all) kernels also provide a “Device I/O Supervisor” category of services. These services, if available, provide a uniform framework for organizing and accessing the many hardware device drivers that are typical of an embedded system. The kernel should not be confused with the BIOS. The BIOS is an independent program stored in a chip on the motherboard (the main circuit board of a computer) that is used during the booting process for such tasks as initializing the hardware and loading the kernel into memory. Whereas the BIOS always remains in the computer and is specific to its particular hardware, the kernel can be easily replaced or upgraded by changing or

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upgrading the operating system or, in the case of Linux, by adding a newer kernel or modifying an existing kernel. Kernels can be classified into four broad categories: monolithic kernels, microkernel, hybrid kernels, and exokernel. Each has its own advocates and detractors. When a controller or computer crashes, it actually means the kernel has crashed. If only a single program has crashed but the rest of the system remains in operation, then the kernel itself has not crashed. A crash is the situation in which a program, either a user application or a part of the operating system, stops performing its expected function(s) and responding to other parts of the system. The program might appear to the user to freeze. If such a program is critical to the operation of the kernel, the entire controller or computer could stall or shut down.

5.1.2.2

Master Boot Record (MBR)

When you turn on a controller or computer, the processor attempts to begin processing data. But, since the system memory is empty, the processor does not really have anything to execute, or even begin to know where to look for it. To ensure that the controller or computer will always boot regardless of the BIOS code, both chip and BIOS manufacturers developed their code so that the processor once turned on, always starts executing at the same address, FFFF0h. Similarly, every hard disk must have a consistent “starting point” where key information is stored about the disk, such as the number of partitions and what type they are. There also must be someplace where the BIOS can load the initial boot program that starts the process of loading the operating system. The place where this information is stored is called the master boot record (MBR), also referred to as the master boot sector or even just the boot sector. The MBR is always located at cylinder 0, head 0, and sector 1, the first sector on the disk. This is the consistent starting point that the disk will always use. When a computer starts and the BIOS boots the machine, it will always look at this first sector for instructions and information on how to proceed with the boot process and load the operating system. As illustrated in Fig. 5.1, the master boot record contains the following structures: (1) Master partition table. This small bit of code that is referred to as a table contains a complete description of the partitions that are contained on the hard disk. When the developers designed

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY First 446 bytes: Master boot code area 16 byte partition table entry 16 byte partition table entry 16 byte partition table entry 16 byte partition table entry 2 byte MBR signature (0xAA55)

Figure 5.1 Layout of master boot record.

the size of this master partition table, they left just enough room for the description of four partitions, hence the four partition (four physical partitions) limit. For this reason, and no other, a hard disk may only have four true partitions, also called primary or physical partitions. Any additional partitions must be logical partitions that are linked to (or are part of) one of the primary partitions. One of these partitions is marked as active, indicating that it is the one that the computer should used to continue the boot process. (2) Master boot code. The master boot record is the small bit of computer code that the BIOS loads and executes to start the boot process. This code, when fully executed, transfers control to the boot program stored on the boot (active) partition to load the operating system. The MBR working in the boot process has these details: The bootstrapping firmware contained within the ROM BIOS loads and executes the master boot record. The MBR of a drive usually includes the drive’s partition table, which the controller or computer uses to load and run the boot record of the partition that is marked with the active flag. This design allows the BIOS to load any operating system without knowing exactly where to start inside its partition. Because the MBR is read almost immediately when the computer is started, many computer viruses made in the era before virus scanner software became widespread operated by changing the code within the MBR. Technically, only partitioned media contain a master boot record, while unpartitioned media only have a boot sector as the first sector. In both cases, the BIOS transfers control to the first sector of the disk after reading it into memory. A legacy that MBR contains is partition selection code that loads and runs the boot (first) sector of the selected primary partition. That partition boot sector would contain another boot loader. Newer MBRs, however, can directly load the next stage from an arbitrary location on the hard drive.

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This can pose some problems with dual-booting, as the boot loader whose location is coded into the MBR must be configured to load each operating system. If one operating system must be reinstalled, it may overwrite the MBR such that it will load a different boot loader.

5.1.2.3

Boot Program

Figure 5.2 gives code examples that can be used to boot a CPU and run a program (operating system or an application code) starting at the bottom of the first bank of Flash. This section of the code is copied from RAM into the top of EEPROM. In these code examples, the purpose is to allow easy booting of the CPU without having to preload the Flash banks with boot code. The Flash bank select addressing is indeterminate (messed up) following reset because port G defaults to input. The EEPROM is mapped to the top of the address space. It therefore contains the reset and interrupt vectors. The top 288 bytes of EEPROM are normally protected to minimize the possibility of accidentally making the module unbootable. This code occupies the top 256 bytes of EEPROM, most of which is unused. The interrupt vectors are all forced to the boot program in EEPROM. These would normally point to interrupt service routines somewhere. These code examples in Fig. 5.2 are written in the Motorola AS11 freeware assembler. Code sample are provided as examples only. There is no guarantee that the examples will work in a particular environment when applied.

5.1.3

Boot Sequence

The following are the main steps that a typical boot sequence involves. Of course, this will vary by the manufacturer of your hardware, BIOS, and so on, and especially by what peripherals you have in the control system.

5.1.3.1

Power On

The internal power supply turns on and initializes. The power supply takes some time until it can generate reliable power for the rest of the computer, and having it turn on prematurely could potentially lead to damage. Therefore, the chipset will generate a reset signal to the processor until it receives the Power Good signal from the power supply.

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BOOT ORG 2000H

; first 256 bytes of external RAM

; INITIAL CPU SETUP FOR LOADER LDS #01FFH LDX #1000H

; init stack ; register base address

LDAA #10010001B STAA OPTION,X

; adpu, irqe, dly, cop = 65mS

LDAA #00000101B STAA CSCTL,X LDAA #00000000B STAA CSGADR,X LDAA #00000001B STAA CSGSIZ,X LDAA #00001111B STAA DDRG,X CLR PORTG,X JMP 8000H

; enable program CS for 32K ; RAM starts at address 0000H ; RAM block size is 32K ; bank select bits = outputs ; select 1ST bank ; point to APPLICATION in FLASH

; RESET & INTERRUPT VECTORS ; Make these point to the appropriate service routines within the ; application. ORG 20FFH-29H

; Reset & Interrupt vectors for EEPROM

DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H DWM 0FF00H

; SCI ; D6 SCI (FFD6) ; SPI ; D8 SPI ; PAIE ; DA PULSE ACCUMULATOR I/P EDGE ; PAO ; DC PULSE ACCUMULATOR OVERFLOW ; TOF ; DE TIMER OVERFLOW ; OC5 ; E0 TIMER O/P COMPARE 5 ; OC4 ; E2 TIMER O/P COMPARE 4 ; OC3 ; E4 TIMER O/P COMPARE 3 ; OC2 ; E6 TIMER O/P COMPARE 2 ; OC1 ; E8 TIMER O/P COMPARE 1 ; IC3 ; EA TIMER I/P COMPARE 3 ; IC2 ; EC TIMER I/P COMPARE 2 ; IC1 ; EE TIMER I/P COMPARE 1 ; RTI ; F0 REAL TIME INTERRUPT ; IRQ ; F2 EXTERNAL IRQ ; XIRQ ; F4 EXTERNAL XIRQ ; SCI ; F6 SOFTWARE INTERRUPT (SWI) ; ILLOP ; F8 ILLEGAL OPCODE ; COP ; FA COP OPERATED ; CLM ; FC CLOCK MONITOR OPERATED ; START ; FE RESET

BOOTEND

; end of boot code loaded into EEPROM

Figure 5.2 An example of boot CPU program.

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577

Load BIOS, MBR and Boot Program

When the processor receives the reset signal, the processor will be ready to start executing. When the processor first starts up, there is nothing at all in the memory to execute. Of course, processor makers know this will happen, so they preprogram the processor to always look at the same place in the system BIOS from specific ROM for the start of the BIOS boot program. This is normally location FFFF0h, right at the end of the system memory. They put it there so that the size of the ROM can be changed without creating compatibility problems. Since there are only 16 bytes left from there to the end of conventional memory, this location just contains a “jump” instruction telling the processor where to go to find the real BIOS start-up program.

5.1.3.3

Initiate Hardware Components

The first thing that the BIOS does when it boots the system is to perform what is called the Power-On Self-Test, or POST for short. The POST is a built-in diagnostic program that checks hardware to ensure that everything is present and functioning properly, before the BIOS begins the actual boot that later continues with additional tests (such as the memory test) as the boot process is proceeding. The POST starts with an internal check of CPU and with a check of the boot code by comparing code at various locations against a fixed template. Then, the POST checks the bus, ports, system clock, display adapter memory, RAM, DMA, keyboard, floppy drives, hard drives, and so forth. The CPU sends signals over the system bus to make sure that these devices are functioning. In addition to the POST, the BIOS initialization routines initialize memory refresh and load BIOS routines to memory. BIOS initialization routines will add to the system BIOS routines with routines and data from other BIOS chips on installed controllers. The routine then compares the information it has gathered with the information stored in the setup program. If there are any discrepancies, it halts the boot process and informs the operator. If everything is okay, it will usually be displayed on screen. The POST runs very quickly, and you will normally not even notice that it is happening; unless it finds a problem. During the POST, if any errors are detected, the system may deliver an error code. Error codes, both visual and audible, differ from manufacturer to manufacturer. To interpret the visual (printed) or audible (beeps) error codes, you will need a table of these codes from the manufacturer of the system’s motherboard. If any

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problems are encountered during the POST routine, then you know that it is hardware related. In some cases, you can find and repair problems by searching for poor connections, damaged cables, seized fans, and power problems. Check that adapter cards and RAM are installed in their respective slots properly. In extreme cases, you may have to strip the system down to its motherboard, RAM, video card, power supply, and CPU. By adding the rest of the devices individually and restarting after each one, you can sometimes discover the cause of the problem. The BIOS does more tests on the system, including the memory count-up test. The BIOS will generally display a text error message on the screen if it encounters an error at this point; these error messages and their explanations can be found in this part of the Troubleshooting Expert. The BIOS performs a “system inventory” of sorts, doing more tests to determine what sort of hardware is in the system. The BIOS will display a summary screen about your system’s configuration. Checking this page of data can be helpful in diagnosing setup problems.

5.1.3.4

Initiate Interrupt Vectors

The initialization of the system during POST creates interrupt vectors to the proper interrupt handling routines and sets up registers with parameters. In Fig. 5.2, the Interrupt Vector Table is included in the boot sector program, thus initializing the Interrupt Vectors to set up pointers in memory to access those interrupt handling routines. In addition to the POST, Interrupt Vectors are reinitialized and system timers reinitialized. In other words, the BIOS code initializes the computer system to such a state that the computer system is ready for loading the operating system. Issuing an interrupt does the loading of the operating system.

5.1.3.5 Transfer to Operating System Whenever a PC is turned ON, BIOS takes the control and performs a lot of operations. It checks the Hardware, Ports, and so on and finally it loads the MBR program into memory (RAM). Now, MBR takes control of the booting process. When only one operating system is installed in the system, the functions of MBR are as follows: (1) the boot process starts by executing code of MBR in the first sector of the disk, (2) the MBR looks over the partition table to find the Active Partition, (3) control is passed to that partition’s boot record (PBR) to continue booting, (4) the PBR locates the system-specific boot files, (5) then these boot files continue the process of loading and initializing the rest of the operating system.

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5.2 Real-Time Operating System 5.2.1

Introduction

A Real-time Operating System (RTOS) facilitates the creation of realtime systems, but does not guarantee that they are real-time; this requires correct development of the system level software. Nor does an RTOS necessarily have high throughput; rather, it allows, through specialized scheduling algorithms and deterministic behavior, the guarantee that system deadlines can be met. That is, an RTOS is valued more for how quickly it can respond to an event than for the total amount of work it can do. Key factors in evaluating an RTOS are given below. (1) Kernel. As mentioned in Section 5.1.2, the Kernel is a program that constitutes the central core of an operating system. For details of the Kernel in the RTOS, refer to Section 5.1.2. (2) Multitasking. An integrated RTOS implements cooperative and/ or preemptive (time sliced) multitasking with only a few microseconds task switch time by means of resource variables and mailboxes to handle intertask communication and resource sharing techniques. (3) Dynamic memory allocation. Dynamic memory allocation is the allocation of memory storage for use in a computer program during the runtime of that program. It is a way of distributing ownership of limited memory resources among many pieces of data and code. A dynamically allocated object remains allocated until it is deallocated explicitly, either by the programmer or by a garbage collector; this is notably different from automatic and static memory allocation. It is said that such an object has dynamic lifetime. Fulfilling an allocation request, which involves finding a block of unused memory of a certain size in the heap, is a difficult problem. A wide variety of solutions have been proposed, including (1) free lists, (2) paging, and (3) buddy memory allocation.

5.2.2 Task Controls 5.2.2.1 Multitasking Concepts Any task, or “process,” running on a control system requires certain resources to be able to run. The simplest processes have merely a requirement for some time in the CPU and a bit of system memory, while more complex processes may need extra resources (a serial port, perhaps, or a

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certain file on a hard disk, or a tape drive). The basic concept of multitasking, often called “multi-programming,” is that of allowing the operating system to split the time that each system resource is available into small chunks, and allowing each of the running processes, in turn, to have access to its desired resources. It is true that different processes have different requirements. So, the essence of a multitasking system is in the cleverness of the algorithm that decides what processes get what resources at what time. As processors have become more powerful, so it has become possible to implement increasingly powerful and complex resource allocation algorithms without compromising the speed of the computer itself. Most mainstream computer users probably have a single core single processor inside the case. However, it can still do more than one task at the same time with very little, if any, drops in speed. The processor seems to be processing two sets of code at the same time. A typical single-core single-processor cannot process more than one line of code at any given instant. The processor is quickly switching from one task to the next, creating an illusion that tasks are being processed simultaneously. There are two basic methods that this illusion is created: Cooperative multitasking and preemptive multitasking. (1) Cooperative multitasking. When one task is already occupying the processor, a wait line is formed for other tasks that also need to use the CPU. Each application is programmed such that after a certain amount of cycles, the program would step down and allow other tasks their processor time. However, this cooperation schema is rather outdated in its use and is hampered by its limitations. Programmers were free to decide if and when their application would surrender CPU time. In the perfect world, every program would respect the other programs running alongside it, but unfortunately, this is not the perfect world. Even when program A could be using CPU cycles while program B and program C are waiting in line, there was no way to stop program A unless it voluntarily stepped down. (2) Preemptive multitasking. The inefficiency of cooperative multitasking left the computer industry scrambling for different ideas. A new standard called preemptive multitasking took form. In preemptive multitasking, the system has the power to halt or “preempt” one code from hogging CPU time. After forcing an interrupt, the control is at the hands of the operating system, which can appropriately hand CPU cycle time to another task. Inconvenient interrupt timing is the greatest drawback of preemptive multitasking. But in the end, it is better that all programs see some CPU time rather than having a single program work

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negligibly faster. Preemptive and cooperative multitasking are, as mentioned, “illusion” multitasking. There are processors that can physically address two streams of data simultaneously, and these technologies are dual or multiprocessor, dual or multicore, and simultaneous multithreading. The main problem that multitasking introduces in a system is “deadlock”. Deadlock occurs when two or more processes are unable to continue running because each holds some resources that the other needs. Imagine you have processes A and B and resources X and Y. Each process requires both X and Y to run, but process A is holding onto resource X, and B is holding onto Y. Clearly, neither process can continue until it can grab the missing resources and so the system is said to be in deadlock. Fortunately, there are a number of ways of avoiding this. Option one is to force each process to request all of the resources it is likely to need to run, before it actually begins processing. If all resources are not available, it has to wait and try again later. This works but is inefficient (a process may be allocated a resource but not use it for many seconds or minutes, during which time the resource is unavailable). Alternatively, we could define an ordering for resources such that processes are required to ask for resources in the order stipulated. In our example above, we could say that resources must be requested in alphabetical order. So processes A and B would both have to ask for resource X before asking for Y; we could never reach the situation where process B is holding resource Y, because it would have had to be granted access to resource X first.

5.2.2.2 Task Types A task type is a limited type that mainly depends on the task properties given in Table 5.1. Hence, neither assignment nor the predefined comparison for equality and inequality are defined for objects of task types; moreover, the mode out is not allowed for a formal parameter whose type is a task type. A task object is an object whose type is a task type. The value of a task object designates a task that has the entries of the corresponding task type, whose execution is specified by the corresponding task body. If a task object is the object, or a subcomponent of the object, declared by an object declaration, then the value of the task object is defined by the elaboration of the object declaration. If a task object is the object, or a subcomponent of the object, created by the evaluation of a scheduler, then the value of the task object is defined by the evaluation of the scheduler. For all parameter

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Table 5.1 Some Task Properties Name

Description

TaskID

Specifies a string that identifies the task. This property is always required and must be unique If this task is to be nested under a previously defined task in the tasks panel, this value contains the TaskID of the parent task Specifies the dotted notation name for the resource bundle that should be used to retrieve all translatable strings used for items such as menu labels Specifies the key of the resource to retrieve from the resource bundle specified as ResourceBundle. This property is used as the label under the tasks icon in the Tasks panel. If no resource bundle was specified or if no resource exists in the bundle associated with this key value, this value is used as the icon’s label text. If this property is not specified, the task’s icon is not to be displayed in the Tasks panel Specifies whether the Title property value is a literal or a key in the ResourceBundle (default). To make the Task title a literal value, use LiteralTitle = true. This property should only be used for tasks that are created dynamically from end user input If the task should be accessible by all users regardless of how the permissions are set, set this value to true

ParentTaskID

ResourceBundle

Title

LiteralTitle

TaskUnrestricted

modes, if an actual parameter designates a task, the associated formal parameter designates the same task; the same holds for a subcomponent of an actual parameter and the corresponding subcomponent of the associated formal parameter; finally, the same holds for generic parameters.

5.2.2.3 Task Stack and Heap The process stack or task stack is typically an area of prereserved main storage (system memory) that is used for return addresses, procedure arguments, temporarily saved registers, and locally allocated variables. The processor typically contains a register that points to the top of the stack. This register is called the stack pointer and is implicitly used by machine code instructions that call a procedure, return from a procedure, store a data item on the stack, and fetch a data item from the stack.

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The process heap or task heap is also an area of prereserved main storage (system memory) that a program process can use to store data in some variable amount that would not be known until the program is running. For example, a program may accept different amounts of input from one or more users for processing and then do the processing on all the input data at once. Having a certain amount of heap storage already obtained from the operating system makes it easier for the process to manage storage and is generally faster than asking the operating system for storage every time it is needed. The process manages its allocated heap by requesting a “chunk” of the heap (called a heap block) when needed, returning the blocks when no longer needed, and doing occasional “garbage collecting,” which makes blocks available that are no longer being used and also reorganizes the available space in the heap so that it is not being wasted in small unused pieces. A stack and a heap are similar to each other except that the blocks are taken out of storage in a certain order and returned in the same way. The following are some descriptions for the working procedure of the stack, heap, and frame-stack that are used in the execution of a process or task. (1) Process stack. A stack holds the values used and computed during evaluation of a program. When the machine calls a function, the parameters are pushed on the top of the stack. Actually, the parameters are merged to form a single list datum. If the function requires any local variable, the machine allocates space for their values. When the function returns, the allocated local variables and the arguments stored on the stack are popped; then the value is returned by pushing it onto the stack. Figure 5.3(a) below shows the working procedure of the process stack including before a function is called, during a function call, the arguments having been pushed onto the stack, and after the function has returned, the arguments and local variables having been popped, and the answer pushed onto the stack. Since the stack is a fixed size memory block, a deep function call may cause the “stack overflow” error. (2) Process heap. To reduce the frequency of copying the contents of strings and lists, another data structure, called the heap, is used to hold the contents of temporary strings or lists during the string and list operations. The heap is a large memory block. Memory is allocated within this block. A pointer keeps track of the top of the heap similar to the stack pointer of the stack. The process heap is not affected by the return of the function call. There are normally some “Free-heap” instructions that are automatically inserted by the programmer at the points that it

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Top of heap Stack ptr.

Stack ptr.

Stack ptr.

Stack before

Stack during (a)

Space for f2 Space for f1

Stack ptr.

Stack after

12 11

Stack

Frame

Heap

(b)

Figure 5.3 Process stack, process heap, and process frame-stack: (a) the working procedure of the process stack; (b) a comparison between the working procedures between the process stack, process heap, and the process frame-stack.

thinks safe to free memory. However, if a computation involves long strings, lists, or too deep function called, the machine may not have the chance to free the memory and thus causes the “heap overflow” error. The programmer may have to modify the program to minimize the load of stack and heap to avoid memory overflow errors. For instance, an iterative function has less demand on stack and heap than its recursive equivalent. (3) Process frame-stack. In returning from a function call, the machine has to store the previous machine status, for example, stack pointer (pseudo machine) program counter, number of local variables (since local variables were put on the stack), and so on. A frame-stack is a stack holding this information. When a function is called, the current machine status, a framestack, is pushed on the frame-stack. For example, if f1() calls f2(), the status of stack, heap, and frame-stack is shown in Fig. 5.3(b). The frame-stack keeps track of the stack and heap pointers. A “Free-heap” instruction causes the top-of-heap to return to the bottom pointed to by the top-most frame-stack (e.g., f2). On the other hand, the stack pointer is lowered only if the function returns. A frame-stack is popped when a function returns and the machine status resumes to the previous state. Since the framestack is implemented as a small stack, about 64 entries, the number of level of nested function calls is about 64. This maximum limit is enough for general use, but if a function is nested too deep, the machine will generate a “nested too deep” error.

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5.2.2.4 Task States In any moment of its life a task is characterized by its state. Normally, the following five task states are defined for tasks in RTOS: (1) “Running”. In the running state, the CPU is assigned to the task, so that its instructions can be executed. Only one task can be in this state at any point in time, while all the other states can be adopted simultaneously by several tasks. (2) “Ready”. All functional prerequisites for a transition into the running state exist, and the task only waits for allocation of the processor. The scheduler decides which ready task is executed next. (3) “Waiting”. A task cannot continue execution because it has to wait for at least one event. Only extended tasks can jump into this state (because they are the only ones that can use events). (4) “Suspended”. In the suspended state the task is passive and can be activated. (5) “Terminated”. In this task state, the task allocator deletes the corresponding task object and releases the resources taken by this task. Figure 5.4 is a diagram of a possible design for the transitions between these five task states. Note that basic tasks (also called main or background tasks) have no waiting state: a basic task can only represent a synchronization point at the beginning and at the end of the task. Application parts with internal synchronization points have to be implemented by more than

Suspended

Ready

Running

Waiting

Terminated

Figure 5.4 A possible design for the task states transitions.

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one basic task. An advantage of extended tasks is that they can handle a coherent job in a single task, no matter which synchronization requests are active. Whenever current information for further processing is missing, the extended task switches over into the waiting state. It exits this state whenever corresponding events signal the receipt or the update of the desired data or events. Depending on the conformance class a basic task can be activated once or multiple times. The latter means that activation issued when a task is not in the suspended state will be recorded and then executed when the task finishes the current instance. The termination of a task instance only happens when a task terminates itself (to simplify the RTOS, no explicit task kill primitives are provided).

5.2.2.5 Task Body The execution of the task is defined by the corresponding task body. A task body documents all the executable contents fulfilling all the functions and computations for the corresponding task. Task objects and types can be declared in any declarative part, including task bodies themselves. For any task type, the specification and body must be declared together in the same unit, with the body usually being placed at the end of the declarative part. The simple name at the start of a task body must repeat the task unit identifier. Similarly, if a simple name appears at the end of the task specification or body, it must repeat the task unit identifier. Within a task body, the name of the corresponding task unit can also be used to refer to the task object that designates the task currently executing the body; furthermore, the use of this name as a type mark is not allowed within the task unit itself. The elaboration of a task body has no other effect than to establish that the body can from then on be used for the execution of tasks designated by objects of the corresponding task type. The execution of a task body is invoked by the activation of a task object of the corresponding type. The optional exception handlers at the end of a task body handle exceptions raised during the execution of the sequence of statements of the task body.

5.2.2.6 Task Creation and Termination A task object can be created either as part of the elaboration of an object declaration occurring immediately within some declarative region, or as part of the evaluation of an allocator. All tasks created by the elaboration

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of object declarations of a single declarative region (including subcomponents of the declared objects) are activated together. Similarly, all tasks created by the evaluation of a single allocator are activated together. The execution of a task object has three main active phases: (1) Activation. The elaboration of the declarative part, if any, of the task body (local variables in the body of the task are created and initialized during activation). The activator identifies the task that created and activated the task. (2) Normal execution. In this phase, the execution of the statements is visible within the body of the task. (3) Finalization. The execution of any finalization code associated with any objects in its declarative part. The parent is the task on which a task depends. The following rules apply: If the task has been declared by means of an object declaration, its parent is the task which declared the task object. If the task has been declared by means of an allocator, its parent is the task that has the corresponding access declaration. When a parent creates a new task, the parent’s execution is suspended while it waits for the child to finish activating (either immediately, if the child is created by an allocator, or after the elaboration of the associated declarative part). Once the child has finished its activation, parent and child proceed concurrently. If a task creates another task during its activation, then it must also wait for its child to activate before it can begin execution. The master is the execution of a construct that includes finalization of local objects after it is complete (and after waiting for any local task), but before leaving. Each task depends on one or more masters, as follows: If the task is created by the evaluation of an allocator for a given access type, it depends on each master that includes the elaboration of the declaration of the ultimate ancestor of the given access type. If the task is created by the elaboration of an object declaration, it depends on each master that includes its elaboration. Furthermore, if a task depends on a given master, it is defined as depending on the task that executes the master, and (recursively) on any master of that task. For the finalization of a master, dependent tasks are first awaited. Then each object whose accessibility level is the same as that of the master is finalized if the object was successfully initialized and still exists. Note that any object whose accessibility level is deeper than that of the master would no longer exist; those objects would have been finalized by some inner master. Thus, after leaving a master, the only objects yet to be finalized are those whose accessibility level is not as deep as that of the master.

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5.2.2.7 Task Queue Task queues are the way of deferring work until later in the kernels of the RTOS. A task queue is a simple data structure, see Fig. 5.5 which consists of a singly linked list of “tq_object” data structures each of which contains the address of a task body routine and a pointer to some data. The routine will be called when the element on the task queue is processed, and it will be passed by a pointer to the data. Anything in the kernel, for example, a device driver, can create and use task queues but there are three task queues created and managed by the kernel: (1) Timer. This queue is used to queue work that will be done as soon after the next system clock tick as is possible. At each clock tick this queue is checked to see if it contains any entries and, if it does, the timer queue handler is made active. The timer queue handler is processed, along with all the other handlers, when the scheduler next runs. This queue should not be confused with system timers that are a much more sophisticated mechanism. (2) Immediate. This queue is also processed when the scheduler processes the active handlers by means of their priorities. The immediate handler is not as high in priority as the timer queue handler and so these tasks will be run later. (3) Scheduler. This task queue is processed directly by the scheduler. It is used to support other task queues in the system and, in this case, the task to be run will be a routine that processes a task queue, say, for a device driver or an interface monitor. When task queues are processed, the pointer to the first element in the queue is removed from the queue and replaced with a null pointer. In fact, this removal is an atomic operation that cannot be interrupted. Then each element in the queue has its handling routine called in turn. The elements in the queue are often statically allocated data, however, there is no inherent mechanism for discarding allocated memory. The task queue processing routine simply moves onto the next element in the list. It is the job of the task itself to ensure that it properly cleans up any allocated kernel memory. tq_object next sync *body() *data

tq_object next sync *body() *data

tq_object next sync *body() *data

Figure 5.5 A task queue.

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5.2.2.8 Task Context Switch and Task Scheduler (1) Task context switch. A context switch (also sometimes referred to as a process switch or a task switch) is the switching of the CPU from one process or task to another. Sometimes, a context switch is described as the kernel suspending execution of one process on the CPU and resuming execution of some other process that had previously been executed. Context switching is an essential feature of multitasking operating systems. This illusion of concurrency is achieved by means of context switches that are occurring in rapid succession (tens or hundreds of times per second). These context switches occur as a result of processes voluntarily relinquishing their time in the CPU or as a result of the scheduler making the switch when a process has used up its CPU time slice. A context is the contents of a CPU’s registers and program counter at any point in time. A register is a small amount of very fast memory inside of a CPU (as opposed to the slower RAM main memory outside of the CPU) that is used to speed the execution of computer programs by providing quick access to commonly used values, generally those in the midst of a calculation. A program counter is a specialized register that indicates the position of the CPU in its instruction sequence and holds either the address of the instruction being executed or the address of the next instruction to be executed, depending on the specific system. Context switching can be described in slightly more detail as the kernel performing the following activities with regard to processes (including tasks) on the CPU: (a) In a context switch, the state of the first process must be saved somehow, so that, when the scheduler gets back to the execution of the first process, it can restore this state and continue normally. (b) The state of the process includes all the registers that the process may be using, especially the program counter, plus any other operating system specific data that may be necessary. Often, all the data that is necessary for state is stored in one data structure, called a switchframe or a process control block. (c) Now, to switch processes, the switchframe for the first process must be created and saved. The switchframes are sometimes stored upon a per-process stack in kernel memory (as opposed to the user-mode stack), or there may be some specific operating system defined data structure for this information.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (d) Since the operating system has effectively suspended the execution of the first process, it can now load the switchframe and context of the second process. In doing so, the program counter from the switchframe is loaded, and thus execution can continue in the new process. A context switch can also occur as a result of a hardware interrupt, which is a signal from a hardware device to the kernel that an event has occurred. Intel 80386 and higher CPUs contain hardware support for context switches. Some processors, like the Intel 80386 and higher CPUs, have hardware support for context switches, by making use of a special data segment designated the Task State Segment (TSS). When a task switch occurs (referring to a task gate or explicitly due to an interrupt or exception) the CPU can automatically load the new state from the TSS. With other tasks performed in hardware, one would expect this to be rather fast; however, mainstream operating systems, including Windows, do not use this feature. This is due mainly to two reasons: that hardware context switching does not save all the registers (only general purpose registers, not floating point registers), and associated performance issues. However, most modern operating systems perform software context switching, which can be used on any CPU, rather than hardware context switching in an attempt to obtain improved performance. Software context switching was first implemented in Linux for Intel-compatible processors with the 2.4 kernel. One major advantage claimed for software context switching is that, whereas the hardware mechanism saves almost all of the CPU state, software can be more selective and save only that portion that actually needs to be saved and reloaded. However, there is some question as to how important this really is in increasing the efficiency of context switching. Its advocates also claim that software context switching allows for the possibility of improving the switching code, thereby further enhancing efficiency, and that it permits better control over the validity of the data that is being loaded. (2) Task scheduler. The process or task scheduler is the part of the operating system that responds to the requests by programs and interrupts for processor attention and gives control of the processor to those processes or tasks. A scheduler can also stand alone to act as a centerpiece to a program that requires moderation between many different tasks. In this capacity, each task the program must accomplish is written so that it can be called by the scheduler as necessary. Most embedded programs can be described as having a specific, discrete response to a stimulus or

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time interval. These tasks can be ranked in priority, allowing the scheduler to hand control of the processor to each process in turn. The scheduler itself is a loop that calls one of the other processes each time it executes. Each processor executes the scheduler itself and will select the next task to run from all runnable processes not allocated to a processor. Whether a process needs the attention is stored in an array of flags to indicate this. The simplest way to handle the problem is to give each program a turn. When a process gets its turn, the process can decide when to return control. This method does not support any notion of importance among processes, so it is not as useful as it could be. The more complicated the scheduler or operating system, the more elaborate is the kind of scheduling information that can be maintained. The scheduling information of a process or task can be measured with these metrics: (1) CPU utilization, which is the percentage of time that the CPU is doing useful work (i.e., not idling). 100% is perfect. (2) Wait time, which is the average time a process spends in the run queue. (3) Throughput, which is the number of processes completed/time unit. (4) Response time is the average time elapsed from the time the process is submitted until useful output is obtained. (5) Turnaround time is average time elapsed from when a process is submitted to when it has completed. Typically, utilization and throughput are traded off for better response time. Response time is important for an operating system that aims to be user-friendly. In general, we would like to optimize the average measure. In some cases, minimum and maximum values are optimized, for example, it might be a good idea to minimize the maximum response time. The types of process or task schedulers depend on the adopted algorithms, which can be following: (a) First-Come, First-Served (FCFS). The FCFS scheduler simply executes processes to completion in the order they are submitted. FCFS algorithms can use a queue data structure. Given a group of processes to run, insert them all into the queue and execute them in that order. (b) Round-Robin (RR). RR is a preemptive scheduler, which is designed especially for time-sharing systems. In other words, it does not wait for a process to finish or give up control. In RR, each process is given a time slot to run. If the process does not finish, it will “get back in line” and receive another time slot until it has completed. The implementation of RR can be using a FIFO queue where new jobs are inserted at the tail end.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (c) Shortest-Job-First (SJF). The SJF scheduler is exactly like FCFS except that instead of choosing the job at the front of the queue, it will always choose the shortest job (i.e., the job that takes the least time) available. It uses a sorted list to order the processes from longest to shortest. When adding a new process or task, we need to figure out where in the list to insert it. (d) Priority Scheduling (PS). As mentioned, a priority is associated with each process. This priority can be defined by means of any kinds of meaning, for example, we can think of the shortest job as top priority. This algorithm can be as a special case of PRI. Processes with equal priorities may be scheduled in accordance with FCFS. The following words describe an example for process scheduling: A microprocessor controlling the brake system on a car is running a simple operating system. Currently, there are three processes running with priorities 8, 4, and 1 (with higher numbered priorities being more important). The highest priority process is the antilock braking process that pulses the pressure on the brake. The second highest priority process monitors the pressure on the brake pedal from the driver. Finally, the brake pad maintenance process checks for degradation of the brake pads and has the lowest priority. At first, the brake pedal is not depressed, and the brake pedal monitoring process is executing. Meanwhile, the antilock brake process waits for the brakes to be pressed before meriting attention, and the maintenance program is waiting for the pedal monitoring program to yield to it. After some time, the brake process surrenders control to the scheduler even though the brake has not been pressed. The scheduler then checks the list of processes waiting to be scheduled and sees that Y is still the highest priority process needing attention. The brake pedal monitoring process then executes again. When the brake is pressed, the brake pedal notifies the antilock process that the brake is active. The scheduler updates the list of processes waiting to reflect the fact that the antilock brake process is waiting. When the pedal monitoring process returns control to the scheduler, the scheduler checks the data structure and sees that the antilock process is the highest priority process waiting. The scheduler then calls the antilock brake function. The antilock brake process controls the pressure on the brakes as needed, surrendering control to check the status of the pedal. Because it is finished, it notifies the scheduler by calling a function that it will wait for the brake pedal program to call it again. This function updates the scheduler’s list of processes so that the antilock

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process is no longer shown as waiting. The antilock process then returns control to the scheduler. The scheduler sees that the pedal monitoring process is again at the top of the list, and allows that program to execute. The pedal process updates the status of the brake and notifies the scheduler that more antilock compression is needed. This cycle of antilock pressure and pedal status continues for some time. Eventually the car is put into park, and the pedal and antilock processes are put into the waiting status. The scheduler removes the antilock and pedal programs from the list of waiting processes. The scheduler then sees that only the maintenance program remains in the queue, and it can execute the brake check. The maintenance process determines that it needs to warn the driver. This notifies the scheduler that a new process, a warning process, needs to be created with a priority of 2. The scheduler adds the warning process to its list of processes, ahead of the maintenance process. The maintenance process then notifies the scheduler that the warning process needs to execute and cedes control. The scheduler checks the queue of processes and sees that warning process is the highest priority process waiting for attention because the car is still in park. The scheduler calls the warning function which then blinks a dashboard warning.

5.2.2.9 Task Threads A thread is a single sequential flow of control within a program. Task threads are a way for a program to split a task into two or more simultaneously running subtasks. Multiple threads can be executed in parallel on many control systems. This multithreading generally occurs by time slicing (where a single processor switches between different threads) or by multiprocessing (where threads are executed on separate processors). A single thread also has a beginning, a sequence, and an end. At any given time during the runtime of the thread, there is a single point of execution. However, a thread itself is not a program; it cannot run on its own. Rather, a thread runs within a program. Figure 5.6 shows this relationship. The real excitement surrounding threads is not about a single sequential thread. Rather, it is about the use of multiple threads running at the same time and performing different tasks in a single program. Figure 5.7 shows this multithreading case in a program. Threads are distinguished from traditional multitasking operating system processes in that processes are typically independent, carry considerable state information, have separate address spaces, and interact only through system-provided interprocess communication mechanisms.

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A Program A Thread

Figure 5.6 Single thread running in a single program.

Two threads A Program

Figure 5.7 Two threads running concurrently in a single program.

Multiple threads, on the other hand, typically share the state information of a single process, and share memory and other resources directly. Context switching between threads in the same process is typically faster than context switching between processes. An advantage of a multithreaded program is that it can operate faster on computer systems that have multiple CPUs, CPUs with multiple cores, or across a cluster of machines. This is because the threads of the program naturally lend themselves for truly concurrent execution. In such a case, the programmer needs to be careful to avoid race conditions, and other nonintuitive behaviors. In order for data to be correctly manipulated, threads will often need to rendezvous in time to process the data in the correct order. Threads may also require atomic operations (often implemented using semaphores) to prevent common data from being simultaneously modified, or read while in the process of being modified. Careless use of such primitives can lead to deadlocks.

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Many modern operating systems directly support both time-sliced and multiprocessor threading with a process scheduler. Some implementations are called kernel threads or lightweight processes. Absent that, programs can still implement threading by using timers, signals, or other methods to interrupt their own execution and hence perform a sort of ad hoc timeslicing. These are sometimes called user-space threads. Operating systems generally implement threads in one of two ways: preemptive multithreading, or cooperative multithreading. Preemptive multithreading is generally considered the superior implementation, as it allows the operating system to determine when a context switch should occur. Cooperative multithreading, on the other hand, relies on the threads themselves to relinquish control once they are at a stopping point. This can create problems if a thread is waiting for a resource to become available. The disadvantage to preemptive multithreading is that the system may make a context switch at an inappropriate time, causing priority inversion or other bad effects that may be avoided by cooperative multithreading. Traditional mainstream computing hardware did not have much support for multithreading as switching between threads was generally already quicker than full process context switches. Processors in embedded systems, which have higher requirements for real-time behaviors, might support multithreading by decreasing the thread switch time, perhaps by allocating a dedicated register file for each thread instead of saving/restoring a common register file. In the late 1990s, the idea of executing instructions from multiple threads simultaneously has become known as simultaneous multithreading. This feature was introduced in Intel’s Pentium 4 processor, with the name Hyper-threading.

5.2.3

Input/Output Device Drivers

The I/O subsystem, composed of I/O devices, device controllers, and associated I/O software, is a main component of a computer control system. One of the important tasks of the operating system is to control all of the I/O devices, such as issuing commands concerning data transfer or status polling, catching and processing interrupts, as well as handling different kind of errors. We will show in this section how the operating system manages I/O devices and I/O operations. Device drivers are specific programs, which contain device-dependent codes. Each device driver can handle one device type or one class of closely related devices. For example, some kind of “dumb terminals” can be controlled by a single terminal driver. On the other hand, a dumb

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hardcopy terminal and an intelligent graphics terminal are so different that different drivers must be used. Each device controller has one or more registers used to receive its commands. The device drivers issue these commands, and check that they are carried out properly. Thus, a communication driver is the only part of the operating system that knows how many registers the associated serial controller has, and what they are used for. In general, a device driver has to accept requests from the deviceindependent software above it, and to check that they are carried out correctly. For example, a typical request is to read a block of data from the disk. If the device driver is idle, it starts carrying out the request immediately. However, if it is already busy with another request, it will enter the new request into a queue of pending requests, which will be dealt with as soon as possible. To carry out an I/O request, the device driver must decide which controller operations are required, and in what sequence. It starts issuing corresponding commands by writing them into the controller’s device registers. In many cases, the device driver must wait until the controller does some work, so it blocks itself until the interrupt comes in to unblock it. Sometime, however, the I/O operation finishes without delay, so the driver does not need to block. After the operation has been completed, it must check for errors. Status information is then returned back to its caller. Buffering is also an issue, for both block and character devices. For block devices, the hardware generally insists on reading and writing entire blocks at once, but user processes are free to read and write in arbitrary units. If a user process writes half a block, the operating system will normally keep the data internally until the rest of the data are written, at which time the block can go out to the disk. For character devices, users can write data to the system faster than it can be output, necessitating buffering. A keyboard input can also arrive before it is needed, also requiring buffering. Error handling is done by the drivers. Most errors are highly devicedependent, so only the driver knows what to do, such as retry or ignore, and so on. A typical error is caused by a disk block that has been damaged and cannot be read any more. After the driver has tried to read the block a certain number of times, it gives up and informs the device-independent software about the errors. How the error is treated from here on is a task of the device independent software. If the error occurred while reading a user file, it may be sufficient to report the error back to the caller. However, if it occurred while reading a critical system data structure such as the block containing the bit map showing which blocks are free, the operating system may have no choice but to print an error message and terminate.

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I/O Device Types

All I/O devices are classified as either block or character devices. The block special device causes the I/O to be buffered in large pieces. The character device causes I/O to occur one character (byte) at a time. Some devices, such as disks and tapes, can be both block and character devices, and must have entries for each mode.

5.2.3.2

Driver Content

Every device driver has two important data structures; the device information structure and the static structure. These are used to install the device driver and to share information among the entry point routines. The device information structure is a static file that is passed to the install entry point. The purpose of the information structure is to pass the information required to install a major device into the install entry point where it is used to initialize the static structure. The static structure is used to pass information between the different entry points and is initialized with the information stored in the information structure. The operating system communicates with the driver through its entry point routines.

5.2.3.3

Driver Status

The entry point routines provide an interface between the operating system and the user applications. For example, when a user makes an open system call, the operating system responds by calling the open entry point routine, if it exists. There is a list of defined entry points, but every driver does not need to use all of them. (1) Install. This routine is called once for each major device when it is configured into the system. The install routine is responsible for allocating and initializing data structures and the device hardware, if present. It receives the address of a device information structure that holds the parameters for a major device. The install routine for a character driver should follow this pseudocode. (2) Open. The open entry point performs the initialization for a minor device. Every open system call results in the invocation of the open entry point. The open entry point is not reentrant; therefore, only one user task can be executing this entry point’s code at any time for a particular device. (3) Close. The close entry point is invoked when the last open file descriptor for a particular device file is closed.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (4) Read. The read entry point copies a certain number of bytes from the device into the user’s buffer. (5) Write. The write entry point copies a certain number of bytes from the user’s buffer to the device. (6) Select. The select entry point supports I/O polling or multiplexing. The code for this entry point is complicated and instead of trying to explain it now, the discussion of this code or structure is probably better left until needed. Unless you have a slow device, most likely it will never be needed. (7) Uninstall. The uninstall entry point is called once when the major device is uninstalled from the system. Any dynamically allocated memory or interrupt vectors set in the install entry point should be freed in this entry point. (8) Strategy. The strategy entry point is valid only for block devices. Instead of having a read and write entry point, block device drivers have a strategy entry point routine that handles both reading and writing.

5.2.3.4

Request Contention

Dealing with race conditions is one of the hard aspects of an I/O device driver. The most common way of protecting data from concurrent access is the I/O request contention. The I/O request contention traditionally is operated by means of request queue. The most important function in a block driver is the request function, which performs the low-level operations related to reading and writing data. Each block driver works with at least one I/O request queue. This queue contains, at any given time, all of the I/O operations that the operating system would like to see done on the driver’s devices. The management of this queue is complicated; the performance of the system depends on how it is done. The I/O request queue is a complex data structure that is accessed in many places in the operating system. It is entirely possible that the operating system needs to add more requests to the queue at the same time that the device driver is taking requests off. The queue is thus subject to the usual sort of race conditions, and must be protected accordingly. A variant of this latter case can also occur if the request function returns while an I/O request is still active. Many drivers for real hardware will start an I/O operation, then return; the work is completed in the driver’s interrupt handler. We will look at interrupt-handling methodology in detail later in this chapter; for now it is worth mentioning, however, that the request function can be called while these operations are still in progress.

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Some drivers handle request function reentrancy by maintaining an internal request queue. The request function simply removes any new requests from the I/O request queue and adds them to the internal queue, which is then processed through a combination of task-schedulers and interrupt-handlers. One other detail regarding the behavior of the I/O request queue is relevant for block drivers that are dealing with clustering. It has to do with the queue head: the first request on the queue. For historical compatibility reasons, the operating system (almost) always assumes that a block driver is processing the first entry in the request queue. To avoid corruption resulting from conflicting activity, the operating system will never modify a request once it gets to the head of the queue. No further clustering will happen on that request, and the elevator code will not put other requests in front of it. The queue is designed with physical disk drives in mind. With disks, the amount of time required to transfer a block of data is typically quite small. The amount of time required to position the head (seek) to do that transfer, however, can be very large. Thus, the operating system works to minimize the number and extent of these seeks performed by the device. Two things are done to achieve those goals. One is the clustering of requests to adjacent sectors on the disk. Most modern file systems will attempt to lay out files in consecutive sectors; as a result, requests to adjoining parts of the disk are common. The operating system also applies an “elevator” algorithm to the requests. An elevator in a skyscraper is either going up or down; it will continue to move in those directions until all of its “requests” (people wanting on or off) have been satisfied. In the same way, the operating system tries to keep the disk head moving in the same direction for as long as possible; this approach tends to minimize seek times while ensuring that all requests get satisfied eventually. Requests are not made of random lists of buffers; instead, all of the buffer heads attached to a single request will belong to a series of adjacent blocks on the disk. Thus a request is, in a sense, a single operation referring to a (perhaps long) group of blocks on the disk. This grouping of blocks is called clustering.

5.2.3.5

I/O Operations

(1) Interrupt-driven I/O. In an interrupt driven I/O, the dedicated I/O processors can conduct I/O operations. Whenever a data transfer to or from the managed hardware might be delayed for any reason, the driver writer should implement buffering. Data buffers

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY help to detach data transmission and reception from the write and read system calls, and overall system performance benefits. A good buffering mechanism leads to interrupt-driven I/O, in which an input buffer is filled at interrupt time and is emptied by processes that read the device; an output buffer is filled by processes that write to the device, and is emptied at interrupt time. For interrupt-driven data transfer to happen successfully, the hardware should be able to generate interrupts with the following semantics: (a) For input, the device interrupts the processor when new data has arrived and is ready to be retrieved by the system processor. The actual actions to perform depend on whether the device uses I/O ports, memory mapping, or DMA. (b) For output, the device delivers an interrupt either when it is ready to accept new data or to acknowledge a successful data transfer. Memory-mapped and DMA-capable devices usually generate interrupts to tell the system they are done with the buffer. However, interrupt-driven I/O introduces the problem of synchronizing concurrent access to shared data items and all the issues related to race conditions. This related topic has been discussed in the last subsection. (2) Memory-mapped read and write. Memory-mapped I/O and port I/O are two complementary methods of performing input and output between the CPU and I/O devices. Memory-mapped I/O uses the same bus to address both memory and I/O devices, and the CPU instructions used to read and write to memory are also used in accessing I/O devices. To accommodate the I/O devices, areas of CPU addressable space must be reserved for I/O rather than memory. This does not have to be permanent; for example, the Commodore 64 could bank switch between its I/O devices and regular memory. The I/O devices monitor the CPU’s address bus and respond to any CPU access of their assigned address space, mapping the address to their hardware registers. Port-mapped I/O uses a special class of CPU instructions specifically for performing I/O. This is generally found on Intel microprocessors, specifically the IN and OUT instructions which can read and write a single byte to an I/O device. I/O devices have a separate address space from general memory, either from an extra “I/O” pin on the CPU’s physical interface, or an entire bus dedicated to I/O. (3) Bus-based read and write. In bus-based I/O, the microprocessor has a set of address, data, and control ports corresponding to bus

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lines, and uses the bus to access memory as well as peripherals. The microprocessor has the bus protocol built into its hardware. Alternatively, the bus may be equipped with memory read and write plus input and output command lines. Now, the command line specifies whether the address refers to a memory location or an I/O device. The full range of addresses may be available for both. Again, with 16 address lines, the system may now support both 64K memory locations and 64K I/O addresses. Because the address space for I/O is isolated from that for memory, this is referred to as isolated I/O. Isolated I/O is also known as I/Omapped I/O or standard I/O.

5.2.4 Interrupts 5.2.4.1 Interrupt Handling Handling interrupts is at the heart of a real-time and embedded control system. The actual process of determining a good handling method can be complicated. Numerous actions are occurring simultaneously at a single point, and these actions have to be handled fast and efficiently. This subsection will provide a practical guide to designing an interrupt handler and discuss the various trade-offs between the different methods. The methods covered are (1) nonnested interrupt handler, (2) nested interrupt handler, (3) reentrant nested interrupt handler, and (4) prioritized interrupt handlers. (1) Nonnested interrupt handler. The simplest interrupt handler is a handler that is nonnested. This means that the interrupts are disabled until control is returned back to the interrupted task or process. A nonnested interrupt handler can service a single interrupt at a time. Handlers of this form are not suitable for complex embedded systems that service multiple interrupts with differing priority levels. When the Interrupt Request pin is raised, the microprocessor will disable further interrupts occurring. The microprocessor will then set the controller to point to the correct entry in the vector table and execute that instruction. This instruction will alter the controller to point to the interrupt handler. Once in the interrupt code, the interrupt handler has to first save the context, so that the context can be restored on return. The handler can now identify the interrupt source and call the appropriate Interrupt Service Routine (ISR). After servicing the interrupt the context can be restored and the controller manipulated

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY to point back to the next instruction before the interruption. Figure 5.8 shows the various stages that occur when an interrupt is raised in a system that has implemented a simple nonnest interrupt handler. Each stage is explained in more detail below: (a) External source (e.g., from an interrupt controller) sets the interrupt flag. Processor masks further external interrupts and vectors to the interrupt handler through an entry in the vector table. (b) On entry to the handler, the handler code saves the current context of the nonbanked registers. (c) The handler then identifies the interrupt source and executes the appropriate ISR. (d) ISR services the interrupt. (e) On return from the ISR the handler restores the context. (f) Enables interrupts and return. (2) Nested interrupt handler. A nested interrupt handler allows for another interrupt to occur within the currently called handler. This is achieved by reenabling the interrupts before the handler has fully serviced the current interrupt. For a real-time system this feature increases the complexity of the system. This complexity introduces the possibility of subtle timing issues that can cause a system failure. These subtle problems can be extremely difficult to resolve. The nested interrupt method has to be designed carefully so that these types of problems are avoided. Interrupt (1)

Disable interrupt

(2)

Save context (3)

Interrupt handler

(4) Interrupt service routine (5)

Restore context

Return to task (6)

Enable interrupt

Figure 5.8 Simple nonnested interrupt handler.

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This is achieved by protecting the context restoration from interruption, so that the next interrupt will not fill (overflow) the stack, or corrupt any of the registers. Owing to an increase in complexity, there are many standard problems that can be observed if nested interrupts are supported. One of the main problems is a race condition where a cascade of interrupts occurs. This will cause a continuous interruption of the handler until either the interrupt stack is full (overflowing) or the registers are corrupted. A designer has to balance efficiency with safety. This involves using a defensive coding style that assumes problems will occur. The system should check the stack and protect against register corruption where possible. Figure 5.9 shows a nested interrupt handler. As can been seen from the diagram, the handler is quite a bit more complicated than the simple nonnested interrupt handler described in the last paragraph. How stacks are organized is one of the first decisions a designer has to make when designing a nested interrupt handler. There are two fundamental methods that can be adopted. The first uses a single stack and the second uses multiple stacks. The multiple stack method uses one stack for each interrupt or service routine. Having multiple stacks increases the execution time and complexity of the handler. For a time critical system, these tend to be undesirable characteristics. The nested interrupt handler entry code is identical to the simple non nested interrupt handler, except on exit, the handler tests a flag that is updated by the ISR. The flag indicates whether further processing is required. If further processing is not required then the service routine is complete and the handler can exit. If further processing is required, the handler may take several actions; reenabling interrupts and/or performing a context switch. Reenabling interrupts involves switching out of interrupt request (IRQ) mode. We cannot simply reenable interrupts in IRQ mode as this would lead to the link register being corrupted if an interrupt occurred after a branch with link instruction. This problem will be discussed in more detail in the next paragraph. As a side note, performing a context switch involves flattening (emptying) the IRQ stack, as the handler should not perform a context switch while there is data on the IRQ stack unless the handler can maintain a separate IRQ stack for each task which is, as mentioned previously, undesirable. All registers saved on the IRQ stack must be transferred to the task’s stack. The remaining registers must then be saved on the task stack. This is transferred to a reserved block on the stack called a stack frame.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Interrupt (1) Enter interrupt handler

Disable interrupt (2)

Save context (3)

Return task Complete (4)

Service interrupt

Restore context

Not complete (5)

Prepare stack

(6)

Switch to mode

(7)

Start constructing a frame

Enable interrupt

(8)

(9) (10)

Complete service routine

Finish frame construction Interrupt

Return to task Interrupt Restore context

Figure 5.9 Nested interrupt handler.

(3) Reentrant nested interrupt handler. A reentrant interrupt handler is a method of handling multiple interrupts where interrupts are filtered by priority (Fig. 5.10). This is important since there is a requirement that interrupts with higher priority have a lower latency. This type of filtering cannot be achieved using the conventional nested interrupt handler. The basic difference between a reentrant interrupt handler and a nested interrupt handler is that the interrupts are reenabled early on in the interrupt handler to achieve low interrupt latency. There are a number of issues relating to reenabling the interrupts early, which are described in more detail later in the following paragraphs.

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5: APPLICATION SOFTWARE FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Interrupt (1) Disable interrupt

Enter interrupt handler

(2)

Save partial context

(3)

Change mode

(4)

Reserve stack space and save complete context

(5)

Clear external interrupt

(6)

Enable interrupt

Return to task Service interrupt

(7)

Servicing complete (8)

Restore context

Enable external interrupt (9)

Servicing incomplete Re-save context

(10) Return to task (11) (12)

Restore context

Interrupt Continue servicing interrupt

Figure 5.10 Reentrant interrupt handler.

If interrupts are reenabled in an interrupt mode and the interrupt routine performs a subroutine call instruction (BL), the subroutine return address will be set in a special register. This address would be subsequently destroyed by an interrupt, which would overwrite the return address into this special register. To avoid this, the interrupt routine should swap into SYSTEM mode. The BL instruction can then use another register to store the

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY subroutine address. The interrupts must be disabled at the source by setting a bit in the interrupt controller before reenabling interrupts through the Current Processor Status Register (CPSR). If interrupts are reenabled in the CPSR before processing is complete and the interrupt source is not disabled, an interrupt will be immediately regenerated leading to an infinite interrupt sequence or race condition. Most interrupt controllers have an interrupt mask register that allows you to mask out one or more interrupts leaving the remainder of the interrupts enabled. The interrupt stack is unused since interrupts are serviced in SYSTEM mode (i.e., on the task’s stack). Instead the IRQ stack pointer is used to point to a 12 byte structure that will be used to store some registers temporarily on interrupt entry. It is paramount for a reentrant interrupt handler to operate effectively so the interrupts can be prioritized. If the interrupts are not prioritized the system latency degrades to that of a nested interrupt handler as lower priority interrupts will be able to preempt the servicing of a higher priority interrupt. This can lead to the locking out of higher priority interrupts for the duration of the servicing of a lower priority interrupt. (4) Prioritized interrupt handler. (a) Simple prioritized interrupt handler. The simple and nested interrupt handler services interrupts on a first-come-first-serve basis, whereas a prioritized interrupt handler will associate a priority level with a particular interrupt source. A priority level is used to dictate the order that the interrupts will be serviced. This means that a higher priority interrupt will take precedence over a lower priority interrupt, which is a desirable characteristic in an embedded system. Methods of prioritization can be achieved either in hardware or software. Hardware prioritization means that the handler is simpler to design since the interrupt controller will provide the current highest priority interrupt that requires servicing. These systems require more initialization code at start-up, since the interrupts and associated priority level tables have to be constructed before the system can be switched on. Software prioritization requires an external interrupt controller. This controller has to provide a minimal set of functions that include being able to set and unset masks and read interrupt status and source. For software systems the rest of this subsection will describe a priority interrupt handler, and to help with this a fictional interrupt controller will be used. The interrupt controller takes in multiple interrupt sources and will generate an IRQ and/or FIQ signal

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depending on whether a particular interrupt source is enabled or disabled. The interrupt controller has a register that holds the raw interrupt status (IRQRawStatus). A raw interrupt is an interrupt that has not been masked by a controller. IRQEnable register determines which interrupts are masked from the processor. This register can only be set or cleared using IRQEnableSet and IRQEnableClear. Table 5.2 shows a summary of the register set names and the types of operation (read/write) that can occur with these register. Most interrupt controllers also have a corresponding set of registers for FIQ; some interrupt controllers can also be programmed to select what type of interrupt distinction, as in, select the type of interrupt raised (IRQ/FIQ) from a particular interrupt source. (b) Standard prioritized interrupt handler. A simple priority interrupt handler tests all the interrupts to establish the highest priority. An alternative solution is to branch early when the highest priority interrupt has been identified. The prioritized interrupt handler follows the same entry code as for the simple prioritized interrupt handler. The prioritized interrupt handler has the same start as a simple prioritized handler but intercepts the interrupts with a higher priority earlier. Figure 5.11 gives the part of the algorithm applied to the standard prioritized interrupt handler. (c) Direct prioritized interrupt handler. A direct prioritized interrupt handler branches directly to the interrupt service routine (ISR). Each ISR is responsible for disabling the lower priority interrupts before modifying the CPSR so that interrupts are re-enabled. This type of handler is relatively simple since the masking is done by the service routine. This Table 5.2 Interrupt Controller Registers Register

R/W

IRQRawStatus

r

IRQEnable

r

IRQStatus IRQEnableSet IRQEnableClear

r w w

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Description Represents interrupt sources that are actively HIGH Masks the interrupt sources that generates IRQ/FIQ to the CPU Represents interrupt sources after masking Sets the interrupt enable register Clears the interrupt enable register

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Obtain external interrupt status

(3)

Is a priority 1 interrupt ?

(4)

Is a priority 2 interrupt ?

(5)

Disable lower priority interrupts

(6)

Enable external interrupts

(7)

Enable internal interrupts

Return to task

(8)

Interrupt Service interrupt

Restore context

Figure 5.11 Part of a prioritized interrupt handler.

does cause minimal duplication of code since each service routine is effectively carrying out the same task. (d) Grouped prioritized interrupt handler. Last, the grouped priority interrupt handler is assigned a group priority level to a set of interrupt sources. This is sometimes important when there is a large number of interrupt sources. It tends to reduce the complexity of the handler since it is not necessary to scan through every interrupt to determine the priority level. This may improve the response times.

5.2.4.2

Enable and Disable Interrupts

Interrupt masking allows you to disable the detection of an interruptline assertion, which causes the operating system or kernel to ignore an

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interrupt signal. The signal can be ignored at the microprocessor level or at other levels in the hardware architecture. In some cases, each interrupt source in the system can be masked individually. In other cases, masking an interrupt in a microprocessor register can mask a group of interrupts. An example of this is multiple interrupts. When an interrupt occurs, the microprocessor must globally disable interrupts at the microprocessor level to avoid being interrupted while gathering and saving interrupt state information. Because disabling interrupts globally blocks all other interrupts, mask global interrupts for as short a time as possible in your code. When you determine what has specifically interrupted, you can mask just that interrupt. A maskable interrupt is essentially a hardware interrupt that may be ignored by setting a bit in an interrupt mask register’s (IMR) bit-mask. Similarly, a nonmaskable interrupt is a hardware interrupt that typically does not have a bit-mask associated with it allowing it to be ignored. All of the regular interrupts that we normally use and refer to by number are called maskable interrupts. The processor is able to mask, or temporarily ignore, any interrupt if it needs to, to finish something else that it is doing. In addition, however, there has a nonmaskable interrupt (NMI) that can be used for serious conditions that demand the processor’s immediate attention. The NMI cannot be ignored by the system unless it is shut off specifically. When an NMI signal is received, the processor immediately drops whatever it was doing and attends to it. As you can imagine, this could cause crashes if used improperly. In fact, the NMI signal is normally used only for critical problem situations, such as serious hardware errors. The most common use of NMI is to signal a parity error from the memory subsystem. This error must be dealt with immediately to prevent possible data corruption.

5.2.4.3

Interrupt Vector

As mentioned in Chapter 2, the vector table starts at memory address as 0x00000000. A vector table consists of a set of assembler (or machine) instructions. These instructions cause the controller or computer to jump to a specific location that can handle a specific exception or interrupt. Figure 2.6 shows the vector table and the modes which an Intel microprocessor is placed into when a specific event occurs. A vector uses a special assembler instruction for loading to load the address of the handler. The address of the handler will be called indirectly, whereas a branch instruction will go directly to the handler. When booting a system, quite often, the read-only memory (ROM) is located at 0x00000000. This means that when

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SRAM is remapped to location 0x00000000 the vector table has to be copied to SRAM at its default address prior to the remap. This is normally achieved by the system initialization code. SRAM is normally remapped because it is wider and faster than ROM; also allows vectors to be dynamically updated as requirements change during program execution. Figure 5.12 shows a typical vector table of a real system. The undefined instruction handler is located so that a simple branch is adequate, whereas the other vectors require an indirect address using assembler instructions special for loading. Where the interrupt stack is placed depends on the real-time operating system (RTOS) requirements and the specific hardware being used. The example in Fig. 5.13 shows two possible stack layouts. The first (A) shows the traditional stack layout with the interrupt stack being stored underneath the code segment. The second, layout (B) shows the interrupt stack at the top of the memory above the user stack. One of the main advantages that layout (B) has over layout (A) is that the stack grows into the user stack and thus does not corrupt the vector table. For each mode, a stack has to be set up. This is carried out every time the processor is reset. If the interrupt stack expands into the interrupt vector, the target system will crash, unless some check is placed on the extension of the stack and some means exist to handle that error when it occurs. Before an interrupt can be enabled, the IRQ mode stack has to be set up. This is normally accomplished in the initialization code for the system. It is important that the maximum size of the stack is known, since that size can be reserved for the interrupt stack.

5.2.4.4

Interrupt Service Routines

An interrupt service routine (ISR) is a software routine that hardware invokes in response to an interrupt. ISR examines an interrupt and determines how to handle it. The ISR handles the interrupt, and then returns a

0x00000000: 0x00000004: 0x00000008: 0x0000000c: 0x00000010: 0x00000014: 0x00000018: 0x0000001c:

0xe59ffa38 0xea000502 0xe59ffa38 0xe59ffa38 0xe59ffa38 0xe59ffa38 0xe59ffa38 0xe59ffa38

8... : > .... : 8... : 8... : 8... : 8... : 8... : 8... :

ldr b ldr dr ldr ldr ldr ldr

pc,0x00000a40 0x1414 pc,0x00000a48 pc,0x00000a4c pc,0x00000a50 pc,0x00000a54 pc,0x00000a58 pc,0x00000a5c

Figure 5.12 Shows a typical vector table.

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Interrupt stack User stack User stack Heap Heap Code Code Interrupt stack Interrupt vectors

Interrupt vectors

0x00000000

0x00000000

(a)

(b)

Figure 5.13 Typical stack design layouts.

logical interrupt value. If no further handling is required because the device is disabled or data is buffered, the ISR notifies the kernel with a return value. An ISR must perform very fast to avoid slowing down the operation of the device and the operation of all lower priority ISRs. Although an ISR might move data from a CPU register or a hardware port into a memory buffer, in general it relies on a dedicated interrupt thread, called the interrupt service thread (IST), to do most of the required processing. If additional processing is required, the ISR returns a logical interrupt value to the kernel. It then maps a physical interrupt number to a logical interrupt value. For example, the keyboard might be associated with hardware interrupt 4 on one device and hardware interrupt 15 on another device. The ISR translates the hardware-specific value to the standard value corresponding to the specific device. When an ISR notifies the kernel of a specific logical interrupt value, the kernel examines an internal table to map the logical interrupt value to an event handle. The kernel wakes the IST by signaling the event. An event is a standard synchronization object that serves as an alarm clock to wake up a thread when something interesting happens. The interrupt service thread is a thread that does most of the interrupt processing. The operating system wakes the IST when the operating system has an interrupt to process. Otherwise, the IST is idle. For the

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operating system to wake the IST, the IST must associate an event object with an interrupt identifier. After an interrupt is processed, the IST should wait for the next interrupt signal. This call is usually inside a loop. When the hardware interrupt occurs, the kernel signals the event on behalf of the ISR, and then the IST performs necessary I/O operations in the device to collect the data and process it. When the interrupt processing is completed, the IST should inform the kernel to reenable the hardware interrupt. An interrupt notification is a signal from an IST that notifies the operating system that an event must be processed. For devices that connect to a hardware platform through intermediate hardware, the device driver for that intermediate hardware should pass the interrupt notification to the toplevel device driver. Generally, the intermediate hardware’s device driver has some facility that allows another device driver to register a call-back function, which the intermediate device driver calls when an interrupt occurs. For example, PC Cards connect to hardware platforms through a PC Card slot, which is an intermediate piece of hardware with its own device driver. When a PC Card device sends an interrupt, it is actually the PC Card slot hardware that signals the physical interrupt on the system bus. The device driver for the PC Card slot has an ISR and IST that handle the physical interrupt. They use a function to pass the interrupt to the device driver for the PC Card device. Devices with similar connection methods behave similarly.

5.2.5

Memory Management

Memory management is the process by which a computer control system allocates a limited amount of physical memory among the various processes (or tasks) that need it in a way that optimizes performance. Actually, each process has its own private address space. The address space is initially divided into three logical segments: text, data, and stack. The text segment is read-only and contains the machine instructions of a program. The data and stack segments are both readable and writable. The data segment contains the initialized and noninitialized data portions of a program, whereas the stack segment holds the application’s run-time stack. On most machines, the stack segment is extended automatically by the kernel as the process executes. A process can expand or contract its data segment by making a system call, whereas a process can change the size of its text segment only when the contents of the segment are overlaid with data from the file system, or when debugging takes place. The initial

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contents of the segments of a child process are duplicates of the segments of a parent process. The entire contents of a process address space do not need to be resident for a process to execute. If a process references a part of its address space that is not resident in main memory, the system pages the necessary information into memory. When system resources are scarce, the system uses a two-level approach to maintain available resources. If a modest amount of memory is available, the system will take memory resources away from processes if these resources have not been used recently. Should there be a severe resource shortage, the system will resort to swapping the entire context of a process to secondary storage. The demand paging and swapping done by the system are effectively transparent to processes. A process may, however, advise the system about expected future memory utilization as a performance aid. A common technique for doing the above is virtual memory, which simulates a much larger address space than is actually available, using a reserved disk area for objects that are not in physical memory. The kernel often does allocations of memory that are needed for only the duration of a single system call. In a user process, such short-term memory would be allocated on the run-time stack. Because the kernel has a limited run-time stack, it is not feasible to allocate even moderate-sized blocks of memory on it. Consequently, such memory must be allocated through a more dynamic mechanism. For example, when the system must translate a pathname, it must allocate a 1-kbyte buffer to hold the name. Other blocks of memory must be more persistent than a single system call, and thus could not be allocated on the stack even if there was space. An example is protocol-control blocks that remain throughout the duration of a network connection.

5.2.5.1 Virtual Memory The operating system uses virtual memory to manage the memory requirements of its processes by combining physical memory with secondary memory (swap space) on disk. The swap area is usually located on a local disk drive. Diskless systems use a page server to maintain their swap areas on its local disk. The translation from virtual to physical addresses is implemented by a Memory Management Unit (MMU). This may be either a module of the CPU, or an auxiliary, closely coupled chip. The operating system is responsible for deciding which parts of the program’s simulated main memory are kept in physical memory. The operating system also maintains the translation tables that provide the mappings

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between virtual and physical addresses, for use by the MMU. When a virtual memory exception occurs, the operating system is responsible for allocating an area of physical memory to hold the missing information (and possibly in the process pushing something else out to disk), bringing the relevant information in from the disk, updating the translation tables, and finally resuming execution of the software that incurred the virtual memory exception. Virtual memory is usually (but not necessarily) implemented using paging. In paging, the low order bits of the binary representation of the virtual address are preserved, and used directly as the low order bits of the actual physical address; the high order bits are treated as a key to one or more address translation tables, which provide the high order bits of the actual physical address. For this reason, a range of consecutive addresses in the virtual address space whose size is a power of two will be translated in a corresponding range of consecutive physical addresses. The memory referenced by such a range is called a page. The page size is typically in the range of 512–8192 bytes (with 4k currently being very common), though page sizes of 4 MB or larger may be used for special purposes. (Using the same or a related mechanism, contiguous regions of virtual memory larger than a page are often mappable to contiguous physical memory for purposes other than virtualization, such as setting access and caching control bits.) The operating system stores the address translation tables, the mappings from virtual to physical page numbers, in a data structure known as a page table. For a page that is marked as unavailable (perhaps because it is not present in physical memory, but instead is in the swap area), when the CPU tries to reference a memory location in that page, the MMU responds by raising an exception (commonly called a page fault) with the CPU, which then jumps to a routine in the operating system. If the page is in the swap area, this routine invokes an operation called a page swap, to bring in the required page. The page swap operation involves a series of steps. First it selects a page in memory, for example, a page that has not been recently accessed and (preferably) has not been modified since it was last read from disk or the swap area. If the page has been modified, the process writes the modified page to the swap area. The next step in the process is to read in the information in the needed page (the page corresponding to the virtual address the original program was trying to reference when the exception occurred) from the swap file. When the page has been read in, the tables for translating virtual addresses to physical addresses are updated to reflect the revised contents of the physical memory. Once the page swap completes, it exits,

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and the program is restarted and continues on as if nothing had happened, returning to the point in the program that caused the exception. It is also possible that a virtual page was marked as unavailable because the page was never previously allocated. In such cases, a page of physical memory is allocated and filled with zeros, the page table is modified to describe it, and the program is restarted as above. Figure 5.14 illustrates how a virtual memory of a process might correspond to what exists in physical memory, on swap, and in the file system. The U-area of a process consists of two 4 kB pages (displayed here as U1 and U1) of virtual memory that contain information about the process needed by the system when the process is running. In this example, these pages are shown in physical memory. The data pages, D3 and D4, are shown as being paged out to the swap area on disk. The text page, T4, has also been paged out but it is not written to the swap area as it exists in the file system. Those pages that have not yet been accessed by the process (D5, T2, and T5) do not occupy any resources in physical memory or in the swap area.

Process virtual memory

U-area U1

U2

Physical memory

Disk

U1 D3

Stack S 1 Data

Text

D1

U2

S2 S3 D2

T1 D4

D3

D4

T3

T4

S1

D1

S2

S3

Pages on swap

T3 T1

D2

Page Page not yet accessed

T1 T 2 D5

T3 T4

T5

Program text and data in filesystem

Paged out Page in use by kernel or another process

Figure 5.14 How the virtual memory of a process relates to physical memory and disk.

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5.2.5.2


Dynamic Memory Pool

Memory pools allow dynamic memory allocation comparable to “malloc” or the operator “new” in C++. As those implementations suffer from fragmentation because of variable block sizes, it can be impossible to use them in a real time system due to performance. A more efficient solution is preallocating a number of memory blocks with the same size called the memory pool. The application can allocate, access, and free blocks represented by handles at runtime.

5.2.5.3

Memory Allocation and Deallocation

The inefficient allocation or deallocation of memory can be detrimental to system performance. The presence of wasted memory in a block of allocated memory is called internal fragmentation. This occurs because the size that was requested in that region was smaller than the size of the block of memory that was allocated. The result is a block of unusable memory, which is considered allocated when, in fact, the block of memory is not being used. The reverse situation is called external fragmentation, when blocks of memory are freed, leaving holes in memory that are not contiguous. If these holes are not large, they may not be usable because further requests for memory may call for larger blocks. Both internal and external fragmentation results in unusable memory. Memory allocation and deallocation is a process that has several layers of applications. If one application fails, another operates to attempt to resolve the request. This whole process is called dynamic memory management in the C++ or C programming language. Memory is allocated to applications using an operating subsystem called “malloc.” The “malloc” subsystem controls heap, a region of memory to which memory allocation and deallocation occurs. Another function, the reallocation of memory, also is under the control of “malloc.” In “malloc,” the allocation of memory is performed by two subroutines, “malloc” and “calloc.” Deallocation is performed by the free subroutine, and reallocation is performed by the subroutine known as “realloc.” In deallocation, those memory blocks that have been deallocated are returned to the binary tree at its base. Thus, a binary tree can be envisioned as a sort of river of information, with deallocated memory flowing in at the base and allocated memory flowing out from the tips. Garbage collection is another term associated with deallocation of memory. Garbage collection refers to an automated process that determines what memory a program is no longer using, and the subsequent

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recycling of that memory. The automation of garbage collection relieves the user of time-consuming and error-prone tasks. There are a number of algorithms for the garbage collection process. These operate independently of “malloc.” These two ways are categorized to perform the memory allocation and deallocation. (1) Static memory allocation. Static memory allocation refers to the process of allocating memory at compile-time before the associated program is executed. An application of this technique involves a program module (e.g., function or subroutine) declaring static data locally, such that this data is inaccessible in other modules unless references to it are passed as parameters or returned. A single copy of static data is retained and accessible through many calls to the function in which it is declared. Static memory allocation therefore has the advantage of modularizing data within a program design in the situation where this data must be retained through the runtime of the program. The use of static variables within a class in object-oriented programming enables a single copy of such data to be shared among all the objects of that class. (2) Dynamic memory allocation. In computer science, dynamic memory allocation is the allocation of memory storage for use in a computer program during the runtime of that program. It is a way of distributing ownership of limited memory resources among many pieces of data and code. A dynamically allocated object remains allocated until it is deallocated explicitly, either by the programmer or by a garbage collector; this is notably different from automatic and static memory allocation. It is said that such an object has dynamic lifetime. Fulfilling an allocation request, which involves finding a block of unused memory of a certain size in the heap, is a difficult problem. A wide variety of solutions have been proposed, however, mainly including the following: (a) Free lists. A free list is a data structure used in a scheme for dynamic memory allocation. It operates by connecting unallocated regions of memory together in a linked list, using the first word of each unallocated region as a pointer to the next. It is most suitable for allocating from a memory pool, where all objects have the same size. Free lists make the allocation and deallocation operations very simple. To free a region, we just add it to the free list. To allocate a region, we simply remove a single region from the end of the free list and use it. If the regions are variable-sized,

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY we may have to search for a region of large enough size, which can be expensive. Free lists have the disadvantage, inherited from linked lists, of poor locality of reference and so poor data cache utilization, and they provide no way of consolidating adjacent regions to fulfill allocation requests for large regions. Nevertheless, they are still useful in a variety of simple applications where a full-blown memory allocator is unnecessary or requires too much overhead. (b) Paging. As mentioned earlier, the memory access part of paging is done at the hardware level through page tables, and is handled by the MMU. Physical memory is divided into small blocks called pages (typically 4 kB or less) in size, and each block is assigned a page number. The operating system may keep a list of free pages in its memory, or may choose to probe the memory each time a memory request is made (though most modern operating systems do the former). Whatever the case, when a program makes a request for memory, the operating system allocates a number of pages to the program, and keeps a list of allocated pages for that particular program in memory.

5.2.5.4

Memory Requests Management

Dealing with race conditions is also one of the hard aspects in the managements of the memory requests. To manage the memory requests coming from the system, a scheduler is necessary in the application layer or in kernel, in addition to the MMU as a hardware manager. The most common way of protecting data from concurrent access by the memory request scheduler is the memory request contention. Section 5.2.3.4 of this book provides a detailed discussion in respect to the I/O request contention. The semantics and methodologies for the memory request contention should be the same as the I/O request contention. We suggest referring to Section 5.2.3.4 for this topic.

5.2.6

Event Brokers

An event is a case or a condition that requires the services of the microprocessor to handle in a control system. Events may be caused by an executing program (an internal event) or by an outside agent (an external event). Internal events are triggered by a running program and may result from software errors, such as a protection violation, or from normal execution,

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such as a page fault. External events are created by sources outside the execution of the current program and may include I/O events such as a disk request, timer generated events, or even a message arrival in a messagepassing multiprocessor system. The response of a microprocessor to an event may be precise or imprecise and may be concurrent or sequential. The response to an event is precise if proper handler execution ensures correct program behavior. Precise event handling is guaranteed if the particular instruction that caused the event (the faulting instruction) is identified, and any instructions that need the result of the faulting instruction are not issued until the handler has generated this result. This definition of precise event handling enables us to use multithreading to implement concurrent event handling; the event handler and the faulting program run concurrently in different thread contexts. This is in contrast to sequential event handling in which an event interrupts the faulting program, brings it to a sequentially consistent state, runs the handler to completion, and resumes the faulting program. Concurrent and sequential event handling achieve the same end; all instructions get correct input operands, but do so through different means. In this subsection, the concurrent event handling with multithread architecture will be highlighted because it has several advantages over the sequential event handling.

5.2.6.1

Event Notification Service

An event notification service (ENS) connects providers of information and interested clients. The ENS informs the clients about the occurrence of events from the providers. Events can be, for instance, changes of existing objects or the creation of new objects such as a new measurement coming from a meter in a control system. The service learns about events by means of event messages reporting the events. The event messages are compiled either by the providers (push) or by the service actively observing the providers (pull). Clients define their interest in certain events by means of personal profiles. The profile creation is based on the profile definition language of the service. The information about observed events is filtered according to these profiles, and notifications are sent to the interested clients. Figure 5.15 depicts the data-flow in a high-level architecture of an ENS. Keep in mind that the dataflow is independent of the delivery mode, such as push or pull. The tasks of an event notification service can be subdivided into four steps. First, the observable event (message) types are to

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Single data flow Event description

Event description Event notification service

Provider

Profile Registration

Client

Event data Broadcasts Repeated data flow

Figure 5.15 Data flow of an event notification service.

be determined and advertised to the clients. This advertisement can be implicit, for example, provided by the client interface or due to information the client has about the service. Second, the clients’ profiles have to be defined through a client interface; they are stored within the service. Third, the occurring events have to be observed and filtered by the event notification service. Before creating notifications, the event information is combined to detect composite events. The messages can be buffered to enable more efficient notification (e.g., by merging several messages into one notification). Fourth, the clients have to be notified, immediately or according to a given schedule. In object-oriented programming designs, the following considerations regarding to the ENS can be very helpful: (1) In the programs, the Event and the Event-Data can be written as abstract objects in the operating system code. Each of the concert events can be the instance of the abstract event object. EventData should be linked to an event. Each of these event objects includes its own trigger list. Each node of this trigger list can be a client object to this event. Each client related to the same event should be registered into the trigger list of the corresponding Event. This registration can be performed either dynamically in run-time or initially when the system powers on. Some data structures like Hash-Table can be chosen to keep the diagram of Event-Client in programs. (2) The client object as nodes in the trigger list should include the handlers of the linked event which can be routines, functions, or methods. Once an event occurs while a program is running, the program context should go to the trigger list of this event immediately. Each node of this trigger list is drawn and the corresponding event handlers are run. This is called broadcast semantics.

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(3) In multithreads programming architecture, each of these routines can be implemented by one or more threads. Concurrent event handling requires the synchronization between the handling routines. Although there are some ways to pursue this synchronization, the context switch of tasks or threads in kernel of a microprocessor chip seems essential for this purpose. We also can use the software interrupt to deal with the event handling routines; the occurrence of each event creates a software interrupt that leads the context to the handling routines. When the routines are complete, the context restores to original process. However, for distributed control systems, message communications are the basic method to manage the synchronization between the handling routines in different microprocessor chipsets.

5.2.6.2

Event Trigger

Triggers are operations linked to types and associated with events. When the specified event occurs on an object of the linked type, the trigger operation will be invoked automatically. A trigger specifies the name of the trigger along with the event that will trigger its execution. Four kinds of events may be specified: create, update, delete, and commit. A create event triggers the execution after creation. Update and delete events trigger execution before any changes are made to the actual stored object. A commit event triggers execution before the commit is performed. All triggers and events refer only to that part of the object associated to the type in question. Thus, dressing an object with an additional type will cause a new type part to be created and hence any create triggers associated with the acquired type to be invoked.

5.2.6.3

Event Broadcasts

The event broadcast is responsible for sending an event notification to all client applications that have previously registered into this event. The information passed to the client applications for an event notification includes the notification name and the identifier of the notifying session server. When broadcast semantics is used to signal the occurrence of the events, a useful programming technique is to put the broadcasts in a rule used to wake up applications that need to pay attention to something. It is common for a client that executes handling routines. In that case it will get back an event notification, just like all the other listening sessions. Depending on the application logic, this could result in useless work.

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5.2.6.4


Event Handling Routine

An event handling routine is required to handle a type of event. In the event handling routines, the sources of the events are determined by reading the event flags (or event triggers). The event flags should be reset and one event should be handled at a time. The handling of events continues in this fashion until all event flags are found to be inactive, then the event routine is left. It is recommended to use the trap mechanism for a microprocessor to execute the event handling routine, especially handling an event from hardware level. After an event is handled, it resets the event flag first and then handles the particular event. If a new event from the same source arrives while the flag is not reset yet and the previous event is handled, this new event might be lost when the flag is reset. Thus, the chances of losing events is decreased when the flag is reset immediately. After handling the event, the event flags should be read again, because the microprocessor trap may not exit from the event routine when there are pending events. While a previous event is being handled, a new event may have arrived (of the same type or a different type). By reading the event flags after each handled event, the user or programmer can easily implement an event priority scheme.

5.2.7 Message Queue 5.2.7.1 Message Passing An operating system provides inter-process communication (IPC) to allow processes to exchange information. IPC is useful for creating cooperating processes. The most popular form of IPC involves message passing by which processes communicate with each other by exchanging messages. A process may send information to a channel (or port), from which another process may receive information. The sending and receiving processes can be on the same or different computers connected through a communication medium. One reason for the popularity of message passing is its ability to support client–server interaction. A server is a process that offers a set of services to client processes. These services are invoked in response to messages from the clients and results are returned in messages to the client. We shall be particularly interested in servers that offer operating system services. With such servers, part of the operating system functionality can be transferred from the kernel to utility processes. For instance, file management

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can be handled by a file server, which offers services such as open, read, write, and seek. There are several issues involved in message passing. We discuss some of these below. (1) Reliability and order. Messages sent between computers can fail to arrive or can be garbled because of noise and contention for the communication line. There are techniques to increase the reliability of data transfer. However, these techniques cost both extra space (longer messages to increase redundancy, more code to check the messages) and time. Message passing techniques can be distinguished by the reliability by which they deliver messages. Another issue is whether messages sent to a channel are received in the order in which they are sent. Differential buffering delays and routings in a network environment can place messages out of order. It takes extra effort (in the form of sequence number, and more generally, time stamps) to ensure order. (2) Access. An important issue is how many readers and writers can exchange information at a channel. Different approaches impose various restrictions on the access to channels. A bound channel is the most restrictive: There may be only one reader and writer. At the other extreme, the free channel allows any number of readers and writers. These are suitable for programming the client and server interactions based on a family of servers providing a common service. A common service is associated with a single channel; clients send their service requests to this channel and servers providing the requested service receive service requests from the channel. Unfortunately, implementing free channels can be quite costly if in-order messages are to be supported. The message queue associated with the channel is kept at a site which, in general, is remote to both a sender and a receiver. Thus both sends and receives result in messages being sent to this site. The former put messages in this queue and the latter request messages from it. Between these two extremes are input channels and output channels. An input channel has only one reader but any number of writers. It models the fairly typical many client, one server situation. Input channels are easy to implement since all receivers that designate a channel occur in the same process. Thus, the message queue associated with a channel can be kept with the receiver. Output channels, in contrast, allow any number of readers but only one writer. They are easier to implement than free channels since the message queue can be kept with the sender. However, they are not popular since the one client and many server situations are very unusual.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Several applications can use more than one kind of channel. For instance, a client can enclose a bound channel in a request message to the input report of a file server. This bound channel can represent the opened file, and subsequent read and write requests can be directed to this channel. (3) Synchronous and asynchronous. The send, receive, and reply operations may be synchronous or asynchronous. A synchronous operation blocks a process till the operation completes. An asynchronous operation is nonblocking and only initiates the operation. The caller could discover completion by some other mechanism. Note that both synchronous and asynchronous imply blocking and not blocking but not vice versa, that is, not every blocking operation is synchronous and not every nonblocking operation is asynchronous. For instance, a send that blocks till the receiver machine has received the message is blocking but not synchronous, since the receiver process may not have received it. These definitions of both synchronous and asynchronous operations are similar but not identical to the ones given in your textbooks, which tend to equate synchronous with blocking. Asynchronous message passing allows more parallelism. Since a process does not block, it can do some computation while the message is in transit. In the case of receive, this means a process can express its interest in receiving messages on multiple channels simultaneously. In a synchronous system, such parallelism can be achieved by forking a separate process for each concurrent operation, but this approach incurs the cost of extra process management. Asynchronous message passing introduces several problems. What happens if a message cannot be delivered? The sender may never wait for delivery of the message, and thus never hear about the error. Similarly, a mechanism is needed to notify an asynchronous receiver that a message has arrived. The operation invoker could learn about completion or errors by polling, getting a software interrupt, or by waiting explicitly for completion later using a special synchronous wait call. An asynchronous operation needs to return a call ID if the application needs to be later notified about the operation. At notification time, this ID would be placed in some global location or passed as an argument to a handler or wait call. Another problem related to asynchronous message passing has to do with buffering. If messages sent asynchronously are buffered in a space managed by the operating system, then a process may fill this space by flooding the system with a large number of messages.

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5.2.7.2

Message Queue Types

Message queues allow one or more processes to write messages, which will be read by one or more reading processes. Most operating systems or kernels maintain a list of message queues; a vector keeps the messages, each element of which points to a data structure that fully describes the message queue. When message queues are created, a new data structure is allocated from system memory and inserted into the vector. Figure 5.16 displays a possible design of system message queue. In Fig. 5.16, each “msqid_ds” data structure contains an “ipc_” data structure and pointers to the messages entered onto this queue. In addition, it keeps queue modification times such as the last time that this queue was written to and so on. The “msqid_ds” also contains two wait queues, one for the writers to the queue and one for the readers of the message queue. Each time a process attempts to write a message to the write queue, its effective user and group identifiers are compared with the mode in this queue’s “ipc_” data structure. If the process can write to the queue then the message may be copied from the process’s address space into “a_msg” data structure and put at the end of this message queue. Each message is tagged with an application specific type, agreed between the cooperating processes. However, there may be no room for the message as it is possible that the operating system restricts the number and length of messages that

msg_queue_id ipc msg *msg_last *msg_first

msg *msg_next msg_type *msg_spot msg_stime msg_ts

*msg_next msg_type *msg_spot msg_stime msg_ts

times *wwait *twait msg_qhum msg_ts

msg_ts

message

message

msg_qhum

Figure 5.16 A design for system message queues.

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can be written. In this case, the process will be added to this message queue’s write wait queue and the scheduler will be called to select a new process to run. It will be woken up when one or more messages have been read from this message queue. Reading from the queue is a similar process. Again, the processes access rights to the write queue are checked. A reading process may choose to either get the first message in the queue regardless of its type or select messages with particular types. If no messages match these criteria, the reading process will be added to the message queue’s read wait queue and the scheduler run. When a new message is written to the queue this process will be woken up and run again.

5.2.7.3

Pipes

In the implementations of the IPC, one solution to some of the buffering problems of asynchronous send is to provide an intermediate degree of synchrony between pure synchronous and asynchronous. We can treat the set of message buffers as a “traditional bounded buffer” that blocks the sending process when there are no more buffers available. That is exactly the kind of message passing supported by pipes. Pipes also allow the output of one process to become the input of another. A pipe is like a file opened for reading and writing. Pipes are constructed by the service call pipe, which opens a new pipe and returns two descriptors for it, one for reading and another for writing. Reading a pipe advances the read buffer, and writing it advances the write buffer. The operating system may only wish to buffer a limited amount of data for each pipe, so an attempt to write to a full pipe may block the writer. Similarly, an attempt to read from an empty buffer will block the reader. Though a pipe may have several readers and writers, it is really intended for one reader and writer. Pipes are used to unify both the input and output mechanisms and IPC. Processes expect that they will have two descriptors when they start, one called “standard input” and another called “standard output.” Typically, the first is a descriptor for the terminal open for input, and the second is a similar descriptor for output. However, the command interpreter, which starts most processes, can arrange for these descriptors to be different. If the standard output descriptor happens to be a file descriptor, the output of the process will go to the file, and not to the terminal. Similarly, the command interpreter can arrange for the standard output of one process to be one end of a pipe and for the other end of the pipe to be standard input for a second process. Thus, a listing program can be piped to a sorting program, which in turn directs its output to a file.

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Conceptually, a pipe can be thought of much like a hose-pipe, in that it is a conduit where we pour data in at one end and it flows out at the other. A pipe looks a lot like a file in that it is treated as a sequential data stream. Unlike a file, a pipe has two ends, so when we create a pipe we get two end points back in return. We can write to one end point and read from the other. Also unlike a file, there is no physical storage of data when we close a pipe; anything that was written in one end but not read out from the other end will be lost. We can illustrate the use of pipes as conduits between processes in the diagram given by Fig. 5.17. Here we see two processes that are called parent and child, for reasons that will become apparent shortly. The parent can write to Pipe A. and read from Pipe B. The child can read from Pipe A and write to Pipe B. A pipe can be implemented using two file data structures that both point at the same temporary innode which itself points at a physical page within memory. Figure 5.18 shows that each file data structure contains pointers to different file operation routine vectors: one for writing to the pipe, the other for reading from the pipe. This hides the underlying differences from the generic system calls which read and write to ordinary files. As the writing process writes to the pipe, bytes are copied into the shared data page and when the reading process reads from the pipe, bytes are copied from the shared data page. The operating system must synchronize access to the pipe. It must make sure that the reader and the writer of the pipe are in step and to do this it uses locks, wait queues, and signals. When the writer wants to write to the pipe it uses the standard write library functions. These all pass file descriptors that are indices into the process’s set of file data structures, each one representing an open file, or, as in this case, an open pipe. The operating system call uses the write routine pointed at by the file data structure describing this pipe. That write routine uses information held in the innode representing the pipe to manage the write request. If there is enough room to write all of the bytes into the pipe and, so long as the pipe is not locked by its reader, the operating system locks it for the

Pipe A Parent

Child Pipe B

Figure 5.17 Pipes in IPC.

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Process 1

Process 2

file

file

f_mode

f_mode

f_pos

f_pos

f_flags

f_flags

f_count

f_count

f_owner

f_owner

f_inode

f_inode

f_op

f_op inode

f_version

f_version

Data page

Pipe write operations

Pipe read operations

Figure 5.18 Pipes.

writer and copies the bytes to be written from the process’s address space into the shared data page. If the pipe is locked by the reader or if there is not enough room for the data, then the current process is made to sleep on the pipe in node’s wait queue and the scheduler is called so that another process can run. It is interruptible, so it can receive signals and it will be woken by the reader when there is enough room for the write data or when the pipe is unlocked. When the data has been written, the pipe’s innode is unlocked and any waiting readers sleeping on the wait queue of innode will themselves be woken up. Reading data from the pipe is a very similar process to writing to it. Some operating systems also support named pipes, also known as FIFOs because pipes operate on a first in, first out principle. The first data written into the pipe is the first data read from the pipe. Unlike pipes, FIFOs are not temporary objects; they are entities in the file system and can be created using system command. Processes are free to use a FIFO so long as they have appropriate access rights to it. The way that FIFOs are opened is

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a little different from pipes. A pipe (its two file data structures, its innode, and the shared data page) is created in one go whereas a FIFO already exists and is opened and closed by its users. It must handle readers opening the FIFO before writers open it as well as readers reading before any writers have written to it. That aside, FIFOs are handled almost exactly the same way as pipes and they use the same data structures and operations.

5.2.8

Semaphores

Semaphores are used to control access to shared resources by processes. There are named and unnamed semaphores. Named semaphores provide access to a resource between multiple processes. Unnamed semaphores provide multiple accesses to a resource within a single process or between related processes. Some semaphore functions are specifically designed to perform operations on named or unnamed semaphores. A semaphore is an integer variable taking on the values 0 to a predefined maximum. Each semaphore is associated with a queue for process suspension. The order of process activation from the queue must be fair. Two indivisible or atomic operations are defined for a semaphore: (1) WAIT: decrease the counter by one; if it gets negative, block the process and enter this process’ ID in the waiting processes queue. (2) SIGNAL: increase the semaphore by one; if it is still negative, unblock the first process of the waiting processes queue, removing this process’ ID from the queue itself. In its simplest form, a semaphore is a location in memory whose value can be tested and set by more than one process. The test and set operation is, so far as each process is concerned, uninterruptible or atomic; once started nothing can stop it. The result of the test and set operation is the addition of the current value of the semaphore and the set value, which can be positive or negative. Depending on the result of the test and set operation, one process may have to sleep until the semaphore’s value is changed by another process. Say you had many cooperating processes reading records from and writing records to a single data file. You would want that file access to be strictly coordinated. You could use a semaphore with an initial value of 1 and, around the file operating code, put two semaphore operations, the first to test and decrement the semaphore’s value and the second to test and increment it. The first process to access the file would try to decrement the

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semaphore’s value and it would succeed, the semaphore’s value now being 0. This process can now go ahead and use the data file but if another process wishing to use it now tries to decrement the semaphore’s value, it would fail as the result would be –1. That process will be suspended until the first process has finished with the data file. When the first process has finished with the data file it will increment the semaphore’s value, making it 1 again. Now the waiting process can be woken and this time its attempt to increment the semaphore will succeed. If all of the semaphore operations would have succeeded and the current process does not need to be suspended, the system’s operating system goes ahead and applies the operations to the appropriate members of the semaphore array. Now the operating system must check any waiting or suspended processes that may now apply for their semaphore operations. It looks at each member of the operations pending queue in turn testing to see if the semaphore operations will succeed this time. If they will, then it removes the data structure representing this process from the operations pending list and applies the semaphore operations to the semaphore array. It wakes up the sleeping process making it available to be restarted the next time the scheduler runs. The operating system keeps looking through the pending processes queue from the start until there is a pass where no semaphore operations can be applied and so no more processes can be woken.

5.2.8.1

Semaphore Depth and Priority

Semaphores are global entities and are not associated with any particular process. In this sense, semaphores have no owners making it impossible to track semaphore ownership for any purpose, for example, error recovery. Semaphore protection works only if all the processes using the shared resource cooperate by waiting for the semaphore when it is unavailable and incrementing the semaphore value when relinquishing the resource. Since semaphores lack owners, there is no way to determine whether one of the cooperating processes has become uncooperative. Applications using semaphores must carefully detail cooperative tasks. All of the processes that share a resource must agree on which semaphore controls the resource. There is a problem with semaphores, called “deadlocks” which occur when one process has altered the semaphore’s value as it enters a critical region but then fails to leave the critical region because it crashed or was killed. Some protects can be performed against this by maintaining lists of adjustments to the semaphore arrays. The idea is that when these

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adjustments are applied, the semaphores will be put back to the state that they were in before the process set of semaphore operations was applied. There is another problem defined as “Process priority inversion” that is a form of indefinite postponement which is common in multitasking, preemptive executives with shared resources. Priority inversion occurs when a high priority task requests access to a shared resource which is currently allocated to a low priority task. The high priority task must block until the low priority task releases the resource. This problem is exacerbated when the low priority task is prevented from executing by one or more medium priority tasks. Because the low priority task is not executing, it cannot complete its interaction with the resource and release that resource. The high priority task is effectively prevented from executing by lower priority tasks. Priority inheritance is an algorithm that calls for the lower priority task holding a resource to have its priority increased to that of the highest priority task blocked waiting for that resource. Each time a task blocks attempting to obtain the resource, the task holding the resource may have its priority increased. Some kernels support priority inheritance for local, binary semaphores that use the priority task wait queue blocking discipline. When a task is of higher priority than the task holding the semaphore blocks, the priority of the task holding the semaphore is increased to that of the blocking task. When the task that held the task completely releases the binary semaphore (i.e., not for a nested release), the holder’s priority is restored to the value it had before any higher priority was inherited. The implementation of the priority inheritance algorithm takes into account the scenario in which a task holds more than one binary semaphore. The holding task will execute at the priority of the higher of the highest ceiling priority or at the priority of the highest priority task blocked waiting for any of the semaphores the task holds. Only when the task releases all of the binary semaphores it holds will its priority be restored to the normal value. Priority ceiling is an algorithm that calls for the lower priority task holding a resource to have its priority increased to that of the highest priority task which will ever block waiting for that resource. This algorithm addresses the problem of priority inversion although it avoids the possibility of changing the priority of the task holding the resource multiple times. The priority ceiling algorithm will only change the priority of the task holding the resource a maximum of one time. The ceiling priority is set at creation time and must be the priority of the highest priority task which will ever attempt to acquire that semaphore. Some kernels support priority ceiling for local, binary semaphores that use the priority task wait queue

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blocking discipline. When a task of lower priority than the ceiling priority successfully obtains the semaphore, its priority is raised to the ceiling priority. When the task holding the task completely releases the binary semaphore (i.e., not for a nested release), the holder’s priority is restored to the value it had before any higher priority was put into effect. The need to identify the highest priority task that will attempt to obtain a particular semaphore can be a difficult task in a large, complicated system. Although the priority ceiling algorithm is more efficient than the priority inheritance algorithm with respect to the maximum number of task priority changes that may occur while a task holds a particular semaphore, the priority inheritance algorithm is more forgiving in that it does not require this earlier information. The implementation of the priority ceiling algorithm takes into account the scenario in which a task holds more than one binary semaphore. The holding task will execute at the priority of the higher of the highest ceiling priority or at the priority of the highest priority task blocked waiting for any of the semaphores the task holds. Only when the task releases all of the binary semaphores it holds will its priority be restored to the normal value.

5.2.8.2

Semaphore Acquire, Release and Shutdown

A semaphore can be viewed as a protected variable whose value can be modified only with the methods for creating semaphore, obtaining semaphore, and releasing semaphore. Many kernels support both binary and counting semaphores. A binary semaphore is restricted to values of zero or one, while a counting semaphore can assume any nonnegative integer value. A binary semaphore can be used to control access to a single resource. In particular, it can be used to enforce mutual exclusion for a critical section in user code. In this instance, the semaphore would be created with an initial count of one to indicate that no task is executing the critical section of code. On entry to the critical section, a task must issue the method for obtaining a semaphore to prevent other tasks from entering the critical section. On exit from the critical section, the task must issue the method for releasing the semaphore to allow another task to execute the critical section. A counting semaphore can be used to control access to a pool of two or more resources. For example, access to three printers could be administered by a semaphore created with an initial count of three. When a task requires access to one of the printers, it issues the method for obtaining semaphore to obtain access to a printer. If a printer is not currently available,

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the task can wait for a printer to become available or return immediately. When the task has completed printing, it should issue the method for releasing semaphore to allow other tasks access to the printer. Task synchronization may be achieved by creating a semaphore with an initial count of zero. One task waits for the arrival of another task by issuing a method that obtains semaphore when it reaches a synchronization point. The other task performs a corresponding semaphore release operation when it reaches its synchronization point, thus unblocking the pending task. (1) Creating a semaphore. This method creates a binary or counting semaphore with a user-specified name as well as an initial count. If a binary semaphore is created with a count of zero (0) to indicate that it has been allocated, then the task creating the semaphore is considered the current holder of the semaphore. At create time, the method for ordering waiting tasks in the semaphore’s task wait queue (by FIFO or task priority) is specified. In addition, the priority inheritance or priority ceiling algorithm may be selected for local, binary semaphores that use the priority task wait queue blocking discipline. If the priority ceiling algorithm is selected, then the highest priority of any task that will attempt to obtain this semaphore must be specified. (2) Obtaining semaphore IDs. When a semaphore is created, the kernel generates a unique semaphore ID and assigns it to the created semaphore until it is deleted. The semaphore ID may be obtained by either of the two methods. First, after the semaphore is invocated by means of the semaphore creation method, the semaphore ID is stored in a user provided location. Second, the semaphore’s ID may be obtained later using the semaphore identify method. The semaphore’s ID is used by other semaphore manager methods to access this semaphore. (3) Acquiring a semaphore. The method for requiring a semaphore is used to acquire the specified semaphore. A simplified version of this method can be described as follows: if the semaphore’s count is greater than zero then decrement semaphore’s count or else wait for release of the semaphore and return “successful.” When the semaphore cannot be immediately acquired, one of the following situations applies: By default, the calling task will wait forever to acquire the semaphore. If the task waits to acquire the semaphore, then it is placed in the semaphore’s task wait queue in either FIFO or task priority order. If the task blocked waiting for a binary semaphore using priority inheritance and the task’s priority is greater than that of the task currently holding

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY the semaphore, then the holding task will inherit the priority of the blocking task. All tasks waiting on a semaphore are returned an error code when the semaphore is deleted. When a task successfully obtains a semaphore using priority ceiling and the priority ceiling for this semaphore is greater than that of the holder, then the holder’s priority will be elevated. (4) Releasing a semaphore. The method for releasing semaphore is used to release the specified semaphore. A simplified version of the semaphore release method can be described as follows: if no tasks are waiting on this semaphore then increment the semaphore’s count or else assign the semaphore to a waiting task and return “successful.” If this is the outermost release of a binary semaphore that uses priority inheritance or priority ceiling and the task does not currently hold any other binary semaphores, then the task performing the semaphore release will have its priority restored to its normal value. (5) Deleting a semaphore. The semaphore delete method removes a semaphore from the system and frees its control block. A semaphore can be deleted by any local task that knows the semaphore’s ID. As a result of this directive, all tasks blocked waiting to acquire the semaphore will be readied and returned a status code that indicates that the semaphore was deleted. Any subsequent references to the semaphore’s name and ID are invalid.

5.2.8.3

Condition and Locker

The paragraphs below present a series of basic synchronization problems including serialization and mutual exclusion and show some ways of using semaphores to solve them. (1) Signaling. Possibly the simplest use for a semaphore is signaling, which means that one thread sends a signal to another thread to indicate that something has happened. Signaling makes it possible to guarantee that a section of code in one thread will run before a section of code in another thread; in other words, it solves the serialization problem. Assume that we have a semaphore named “sem” with initial value 0, and that threads A and B have shared access to it as given in Fig. 5.19. The word “statement” represents an arbitrary program statement. To make the example concrete, imagine that “a1” reads a line from a file, and “b1” displays the line on the screen. The semaphore in this program guarantees that thread A has completed

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5: APPLICATION SOFTWARE FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Thread A 1 2

statement sem.signal()

Thread B a1

1 2

sem.wait() statement

b1

Figure 5.19 Signaling by semaphore.

a1 before thread B begins “b1.” Here is how it works: if thread B gets to the wait statement first, it will find the initial value, zero, and it will block. Then when thread A signals, thread B proceeds. Similarly, if thread A gets to the signal first then the value of the semaphore will be incremented, and when thread B gets to the wait, it will proceed immediately. Either way, the order of a1 and b1 is guaranteed. This use of semaphores is the basis of the names signal and wait, and in this case the names are conveniently mnemonic. Unfortunately, we will see other cases where the names are less helpful. Speaking of meaningful names, “sem” is not one. When possible, it is a good idea to give a semaphore a name that indicates what it represents. In this case, a name like a1_Done might be good, where a1_Done = 0 means that a1 has not executed and a1_Done = 1 means it has. (2) Mutex. A second common use for semaphores is to enforce mutual exclusion. We have already seen one use for mutual exclusion: controlling concurrent access to shared variables. The mutex guarantees that only one thread accesses the shared variable at a time. A mutex is like a token that passes from one thread to another, allowing one thread at a time to proceed. For example, in “The Lord of the Flies” a group of children use a conch as a mutex. To speak, you have to hold the conch. As long as only one child holds the conch, only one can speak. Similarly, in order for a thread to access a shared variable, it has to “get” the mutex; when it is done, it “releases” the mutex. Only one thread can hold the mutex at a time. Create a semaphore named mutex that is initialized to 1. A value as “one” means that a thread may precede and may access the shared variable. A value as “zero” means that it has to wait for another thread to release the mutex. A code segment of performing mutex by semaphore is given in Fig. 5.20. Since mutex is initially 1, whichever thread gets to the wait first will be able to proceed immediately. Of course, the act

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Thread A mutex.wait() # critical section count = count + 1 mutex.signal()

Thread B mutex.wait() # critical section count = count + 1 mutex.signal()

Figure 5.20 Mutex by semaphore.

of waiting on the semaphore has the effect of decrementing it, so the second thread to arrive will have to wait until the first signals. In this example, both threads are running the same code. This is sometimes called a symmetric solution. If the threads have to run different code, the solution is asymmetric. Symmetric solutions are often easier to generalize. In this case, the mutex solution can handle any number of concurrent threads without modification. As long as every thread waits before performing an update and signals after, then no two threads will access count concurrently. Often the code that needs to be protected is called the critical section that is critically important to prevent from concurrent access. In the tradition of computer science and mixed metaphors, there are several other ways people sometimes talk about mutexes. In the metaphor we have been using so far, the mutex is a token that is passed from one thread to another. In an alternative metaphor, we think of the critical section as a room, and only one thread is allowed to be in the room at a time. In this metaphor, mutexes are called locks, and a thread is said to lock the mutex before entering and unlock it while exiting. Occasionally, though, people mix the metaphors and talk about “getting” or “releasing” a lock, which does not make much sense. Both metaphors are potentially useful and potentially misleading. As you work on the next problem, try to figure out both ways of thinking and see which one leads you to a solution. (3) Multiplex. Generalize the previous solution so that it allows multiple threads to run in the critical section at the same time, but it enforces an upper limit on the number of concurrent threads. In other words, no more than n threads can run in the critical section at the same time. This pattern is called a multiplex. In real life, the multiplex problem occurs at busy nightclubs where there are a maximum number of people allowed in the building at a time, either to

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maintain fire safety or to create the illusion of exclusivity. At such places a bouncer usually enforces the synchronization constraint by keeping track of the number of people inside and barring arrivals when the room is at capacity. Then, whenever one person leaves another is allowed to enter. Enforcing this constraint with semaphores may sound difficult, but it is almost trivial (Fig. 5.21). To allow multiple threads to run in the critical section, just initialize the mutex to n, which is the maximum number of threads that should be allowed. At any time, the value of the semaphore represents the number of additional threads that may enter. If the value is zero, then the next thread will block until one of the threads inside exits and signals. When all threads have exited the value of the semaphore is restored to n. Since the solution is symmetric, it is conventional to show only one copy of the code, but you should imagine multiple copies of the code running concurrently in multiple threads. What happens if the critical section is occupied and more than one thread arrives? Of course, what we want is for all the arrivals to wait. This solution does exactly that. Each time an arrival joins the queue, the semaphore is decremented, so that the value of the semaphore (negated) represents the number of threads in queue. When a thread leaves, it signals the semaphore, incrementing its value and allowing one of the waiting threads to proceed. Thinking again of metaphors, in this case it is useful to think of the semaphore as a set of tokens (rather than a lock). As each thread invokes wait, it picks up one of the tokens; when it invokes a signal it releases one. Only a thread that holds a token can enter the room. If no tokens are available when a thread arrives, it waits until another thread releases one. In real life, ticket windows sometimes use a system like this. They hand out tokens (sometimes poker chips) to customers in line. Each token allows the holder to buy a ticket. (4) Barrier. Barrier is hinted by presenting the variables used in solution and explaining their roles in Fig. 5.22.

Multiplex solution 1 2 3

multiplex.wait() critical section multiplex.signal()

Figure 5.21 Multiplex by semaphore.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Barrier hint 1 2 3 4

int n # the number of threads int count = 0 Semaphore mutex = 1 Semaphore barrier = 0

Figure 5.22 Barrier by semaphore (1).

Finally, here in Fig. 5.23 is a working barrier. The only change from the signaling is another signal after waiting at the barrier. Now as each thread passes, it signals the semaphore so that the next thread can pass. This pattern, a wait and a signal in rapid succession, occurs often enough that it has a name; it is called a turnstile, because it allows one thread to pass at a time, and it can be locked to bar all threads. In its initial state (zero), the turnstile is locked. The nth thread unlocks it and then all n threads go through.

5.2.9 Timers Most control systems have some electronic timers. These are usually just digital counters that are set to a number by software, and then count down to zero. When they reach zero, they interrupt the controller. Another common form of timer is a number that is compared to a counter. This is somewhat harder to program, but can be used to measure events or control motors (using a digital electronic amplifier to perform pulsewidth modulation). Embedded systems often use a hardware timer to implement a list of Barrier solution 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

mutex.wait() count = count + 1 mutex.signal() if count == n: barrier.signal() barrier.wait() barrier.signal() critical point

Figure 5.23 Barrier by semaphore (2).

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software timers. Basically, the hardware timer is set to expire at the time of the next software timer of a list of software timers. The hardware timer’s interrupt software handles the housekeeping of notifying the rest of the software, finding the next software timer to expire, and resetting the hardware timer to the next software timer’s expiration.

5.2.9.1

Kernel Timers

Whenever you need to schedule an action to happen later, without blocking the current process until that time arrives, kernel timers are the tool for you. These timers are used to schedule execution of a function at a particular time in the future, based on the clock tick, and can be used for a variety of tasks; for example, polling a device by checking its state at regular intervals when the hardware cannot fire interrupts. Other typical uses of kernel timers are turning off the floppy motor or finishing another lengthy shut down operation. Finally, the kernel itself uses the timers in several situations, including the implementation of “schedule timeout.” A kernel timer is a data structure that instructs the kernel to execute a user-defined function with a user-defined argument at a user-defined time. The functions scheduled to run almost certainly do not run while the process that registered them is executing. They are, instead, run asynchronously. When a timer runs, however, the process that scheduled it could be asleep, executing on a different processor, or quite possibly has exited altogether. In fact, kernel timers are run as the result of a “software interrupt.” When running in this sort of atomic context, your code is subject to a number of constraints. Timer functions must be atomic in all the ways, but there are some additional issues brought about by the lack of a process context. Repetition is called for because the rules for atomic contexts must be followed assiduously, or the system will find itself in deep trouble. One other important feature of kernel timers is that a task can reregister itself to run again at a later time. This is possible because each timer list structure is unlinked from the list of active timers before being run and can, therefore, be immediately relinked elsewhere. Although rescheduling the same task over and over might appear to be a pointless operation, it is sometimes useful. For example, it can be used to implement the polling of devices. Therefore, a timer that reregisters itself always runs on the same CPU. An important feature of timers is that they are a potential source of race conditions, even on single-processor systems. This is a direct result of their being asynchronous with other code. Therefore, any data structures

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accessed by the timer function should be protected from concurrent access, either by being atomic types or by using spin locks. The implementation of the timers has been designed to meet the following requirements and assumptions: (1) Timer management must be as lightweight as possible. (2) The design should scale well as the number of active timers increases. (3) Most timers expire within a few seconds or minutes at most, while timers with long delays are pretty rare. (4) A timer should run on the same CPU that registered it. The solution devised by kernel developers is based on a per-CPU data structure. The “Timer list” structure includes a pointer to that data structure in its base field. If base is null, the timer is not scheduled to run; otherwise, the pointer tells which data structure (and, therefore, which CPU) runs it. Whenever kernel code registers a timer, the operation is eventually performed which, in turn, adds the new timer to a double-linked list of timers within a “cascading table” associated with the current CPU. The cascading table works like this: if the timer expires in the next 0–255 jiffies, it is added to one of the 256 lists devoted to short-range timers using the least significant bits of the expired field. If it expires farther in the future (but before 16,384 jiffies), it is added to one of 64 lists based on bits 9–14 of the expired fields. For timers expiring even farther, the same trick is used for bits 15–20, 21–26, and 27–31. Timers with an expire field pointing still farther in the future (something that can happen only on 64-bit platforms) are hashed with a delay value of 0xffffffff, and timers with expires in the past are scheduled to run at the next timer tick. (A timer that is already expired may sometimes be registered in high-load situations, especially if you run a preemptible kernel.). Keep in mind, however, that a kernel timer is far from perfect, as it suffers from other artifacts induced by hardware interrupts, as well as other timers and other asynchronous tasks. While a timer associated with simple digital I/O can be enough for simple tasks like running a stepper motor or other amateur electronics, it is usually not suitable for production systems in industrial environments. For such tasks, you will most likely need to resort to a real-time kernel extension.

5.2.9.2 Watchdog Timers (1) Working mechanism. A watchdog timer is a piece of hardware, often built into a microcontroller that can cause a processor reset when it judges that the system has hung, or is no longer executing the correct sequence of code. The hardware component of a watchdog is a counter that is set to a certain value and then counts

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down towards zero. It is the responsibility of the software to set the count to its original value often enough to ensure that it never reaches zero. If it does reach zero, it is assumed that the software has failed in some manner and the CPU is reset. It is also possible to design the hardware so that a kick that occurs too soon will cause a bite, but to use such a system, very precise knowledge of the timing characteristics of the main loop of your program is required. A properly designed watchdog mechanism should, at the very least, catch events that hang the system. In electrically noisy environments, a power glitch may corrupt the program counter, stack pointer, or data in RAM. The software would crash almost immediately, even if the code is completely bug-free. This is exactly the sort of transient failure that watchdogs will catch. Bugs in software can also cause the system to hang, if they lead to an infinite loop, an accidental jump out of the code area of memory, or a deadlock condition (in multitasking situations). Obviously, it is preferable to fix the root cause, rather than getting the watchdog to pick up the pieces. In a complex embedded system it may not be possible to guarantee that there are no bugs, but by using a watchdog you can guarantee that none of those bugs will hang the system indefinitely. Once your watchdog has bitten, you have to decide what action to take. The hardware will usually assert the processor’s reset line, but other actions are also possible. For example, when the watchdog bites it may directly disable a motor, engage an interlock, or sound an alarm until the software recovers. Such actions are especially important to leave the system in a safe state if, for some reason, the system’s software is unable to run at all (perhaps due to chip death) after the failure. A microcontroller with an internal watchdog will almost always contain a status bit that gets set when a bite occurs. By examining this bit after emerging from a watchdog-induced reset, we can decide whether to continue running, switch to a fail-safe state, and/or display an error message. At the very least, you should count such events, so that a persistently errant application would not be restarted indefinitely. A reasonable approach might be to shut the system down if three watchdog bites occur in one day. If we want the system to recover quickly, the initialization after a watchdog reset should be much shorter than power-on initialization. On the other hand, in some systems it is better to do a full set of self-tests since the root cause of the watchdog timeout might be identified by such a test. In terms of the outside

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY world, the recovery may be instantaneous, and the user may not even know a reset occurred. The recovery time will be the length of the watchdog timeout plus the time it takes the system to reset and perform its initialization. How well the device recovers depends on how much persistent data the device requires, and whether that data is stored regularly and read after the system resets. (2) Sanity checks. Kicking the dog on a regular interval proves that the software is running. It is often a good idea to kick the watchdog only if the system passes some sanity check, as shown in Fig. 5.24. Stack depth, number of buffers allocated, or the status of some mechanical component may be checked before deciding to kick the watchdog. Good design of such checks will help the watchdog to detect more errors. One approach is to clear a number of flags before each loop is started, as shown in Fig. 5.25. Each flag is set at a certain point in the loop. At the bottom of the loop the watchdog is kicked, but first the flags are checked to see that all of the important points in the loop have been visited. The multitasking or the multithreads approach is based on a similar set of sanity flags. For a specific failure, it is often a good idea to try to record the cause (possibly in nonvolatile RAM), since it may be difficult to establish the cause after the reset. If the watchdog bite is due to a bug, then any other information you can record about the state of the system or the currently active task will be valuable when trying to diagnose the problem.

Main loop of code

If sanity checks are OK { Kick the watchdog; } Else { Record failure; }

Figure 5.24 At the end of each execution of the main loop, the watchdog is kicked before starting over.

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Main loop of code; Part One

Flag1 = true;

Main loop of code; Part Two

Flag2 = true;

Main loop of code; Part Three

Flag3 = true;

If all flags are TRUE { Kick thewatchdog; } Else { Record failure; } Clear all flags to FALSE

Figure 5.25 Use three flags to check that certain points within the main loop have been visited.

(3) Timeout interval. Any safety chain is only as good as its weakest link, and if the software policy used to decide when to kick the dog is not good, watchdog hardware can make the system less reliable. One approach is to pick an interval that is several seconds long. This is a robust approach. Some systems require fast recovery, but for others, the only requirement is that the system is not left in a hung state indefinitely. For these more sluggish systems, there is no need to do precise measurements of the worst case time of the program’s main loop to the nearest millisecond. When picking the timeout it needs to consider the greatest amount of damage the device can do between the original failure and the watchdog biting. With a slowly responding system, such

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY as a large thermal mass, it may be acceptable to wait 10 s before resetting. Such a long time can guarantee that there will be no false watchdog resets. While on the subject of timeouts, it is worth pointing out that some watchdog circuits allow the very first timeout to be considerably longer than the timeout used for the rest of the periodic checks. This allows the processor to initialize, without having to worry about the watchdog biting. Although the watchdog can often respond fast enough to halt mechanical systems, it offers little protection for damage that can be done by software alone. Consider an area of nonvolatile RAM that may be overwritten with rubbish data if some loop goes out of control. It is likely that overwrite would occur far faster than a watchdog could detect the fault. For those situations some other protection such as a checksum may be needed. The watchdog is really just one layer of protection, and should form part of a comprehensive safety net. On some microcontrollers, the built-in watchdog has a maximum timeout on the order of a few hundred milliseconds by means of multiplying the time interval in software. Say the hardware provides a 100 ms timeout, but you only want to check the system for sanity every 300 ms. You will have to kick the watchdog at an interval shorter than 100 ms, but it will only do the sanity check every third time the kick function is called. This approach may not be suitable for a single loop design if the main loop could take longer than 100 ms to execute. One possibility is to move the sanity check out to an interrupt. The interrupt would be called every 100 ms, and would then kick the watchdog. On every third interrupt the interrupt function would check a flag that indicates that the main loop is still spinning. This flag is set at the end of the main loop, and cleared by the interrupt as soon as it has read it. If kicking the watchdog from an interrupt, it is vital to have a check on the main loop, such as the one described in the previous paragraph. Otherwise it is possible to get into a situation where the main loop has hung, but the interrupt continues to kick the dog, and the watchdog never gets a chance to reset the system. (4) Self-test. Assume that the watchdog hardware fails in such a way that it never bites. The fault would only be discovered when some failure that normally leads to a reset, instead leads to a hung system. If such a failure was acceptable, you would never have bothered with the watchdog in the first place. Many systems contain a means to disable the watchdog, like a jumper that connects the watchdog output to the reset line. This is

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necessary for some test modes, and for debugging with any tool that can halt the program. If the jumper falls out, or a service engineer who removed the jumper for a test forgets to replace it, the watchdog will be rendered toothless. The simplest way for a device to do a start-up self-test is to allow the watchdog to timeout, causing a processor reset. To avoid looping infinitely in this way, it is necessary to distinguish the power-on case from the watchdog reset case. If the reset was due to a power-on, then perform this test, but if the reset was due to a watchdog bite, then we may already be running the test. By writing a value in RAM that will be preserved through a reset, you can check if the reset was due to a watchdog test or to a real failure. A counter should be incremented while waiting for the reset. After the reset, check the counter to see how long before the timeout, so you are sure that the watchdog bit after the correct interval. If counting the number of watchdog resets to decide if the system should give up trying, then be sure that you do not inadvertently count the watchdog test reset as one of those.

5.2.9.3 Task Timers A task-timer strategy has four objectives in a multitasking or multithreading system: (1) to detect an operating system, (2) to detect an infinite loop in any of the tasks, (3) to detect deadlock involving two or more tasks, (4) to detect if some lower priority tasks are not getting to run because higher priority tasks are hogging the CPU. Typically, not enough timing information is available on the possible paths of any given task to check for a minimum execution time or to set the time limit on a task to be exactly the time taken for the longest path. Therefore, while all infinite loops are detected, an error that causes a loop to execute a number of extra iterations may go undetected by the designed task timer mechanism. A number of other considerations have to be taken into account to make any scheme feasible: (1) The extra code added to the normal tasks (as distinct from a task created for monitoring tasks) must be small, to reduce the likelihood of becoming prone to errors itself. (2) The amount of system resources used, especially CPU cycles, must be reasonable. Most tasks have some minimum period during which they are required to run. A task may run in reaction to a timer that occurs at a regular interval.

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These tasks have a start point through which they pass in each execution loop. These tasks are referred to as regular tasks. Other tasks respond to outside events, the frequency of which cannot be predicted. These tasks are referred to as waiting tasks. Watchdog can be used for a task timer. The watchdog timeout can be chosen to be the maximum time during which all regular tasks have had a chance to run from their start point through one full loop back to their start point again. Each task has a flag that can have two values, ALIVE and UNKNOWN. The flag is later read and written by the monitor. The monitor’s job is to wake up before the watchdog timeout expires and check the status of each flag. If all flags contain the value ALIVE, every task had its turn to execute and the watchdog may be kicked. Some tasks may have executed several loops and set their flag several times to ALIVE, which is acceptable. After kicking the watchdog, the monitor sets all of the flags to UNKNOWN. By the time the monitor task executes again, all of the UNKNOWN flags should have been overwritten with ALIVE.

5.2.9.4 Timer Creation and Expiration An active timer will perform its synchronization action when its expiration time is reached. A timer can be created using the “Timer-Create” call. It is bound to a task and to a clock device that will measure the passage of time for it. The task binding is useful for ownership and proper tear-down of timer resources. If a task is terminated, then the timer resources owned by it are terminated as well. It is also possible to explicitly terminate a timer using the “Timer-Terminate” call. Timers allow synchronization primarily through two interfaces. “TimerSleep” is a synchronous call. The caller specifies a time to wake up and indicates whether that time is relative or absolute. Relative times are less useful for real-time software since program-wide accuracy may be skewed by preemption. For example, a thread which samples data and then sleeps for 5 s may be preempted between sampling and sleeping, causing a steadily increasing skew from the correct time base. Timers that are terminated or cancelled while sleeping return an error to the user. Another interface that can be named as “Timer-Arm” provides an asynchronous interface to timers. Through it the user specifies an expiration time, an optional period, and a port which will receive expiration notification messages. When the expiration time is reached, the kernel sends an asynchronous message containing the current time to this port. This port then carries on stopping the related task that owns this timer. If the timer is specified as

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periodic, then it will rearm itself with the specified period relative to the last expiration time. Last, “Timer-Cancel” call allows the user to cancel the expiration of a pending timer. For periodic timers, the user has the option of canceling only the current expiration, or all forthcoming expirations. These last facilities, periodic timers and partial cancellation, are important because they allow an efficient and correct implementation of periodic computation. This permits a user level implementation of real-time periodic threads.

5.3 Real-Time Application System 5.3.1

Architecture

Software architecture is like building architecture in that it encompasses the purpose, themes, materials, and concept of a structure. A software architect employs extensive knowledge of software theory and appropriate experience to conduct and manage the high-level design of a software product. The software architect develops concepts and plans for software modularity, module interaction methods, user interface dialog style, interface methods with external systems, innovative design features, and highlevel business object operations, logic, and flow. The software architect consults with clients on conceptual issues, managers on broad design issues, software engineers on innovative structural features, and computer programmers on implementation techniques, appearance, and style. Software architecture is a sketchy map of the system. Software architecture describes the coarse grain components (usually describes the computation) of the system. The connectors between these components describe the communication, which is explicit and pictured in a relatively detailed way. In the implementation phase, the coarse components are refined into “actual components”, for example, classes and objects. In the objectoriented field, the connectors are usually implemented as interfaces. The following gives an example of a proposed software system architecture for an Elevator Control System. An elevator at its basic level must only be able to move between floors in the hoist way, open and close the doors at each floor, and ensure passenger safety. The elevator can move slowly in the hoist way, stopping at each floor to admit and release passengers, opening and closing the doors at each floor, ignoring all passenger requests and not providing any passenger feedback, and still be an elevator, albeit a very inefficient one (this is in fact an operating mode used in real elevator systems when passenger request information is unavailable). All other

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functionality in the system; processing passenger requests, providing passenger feedback, and only stopping at desired floors, are enhancements to increase efficiency. The components that provide the minimum functionality are the Door Control, Drive Control, and Safety components (Fig. 5.26(a)). Note that they all have direct connections to the sensors they require for correct operation and do not communicate with each other. The Door Control must know when the Drive is moving and when the car is stopped at a floor to determine when to open the door, so it has access to the relevant sensors. The Drive Control must know when the doors are completely closed and when to stop at a floor. It should also have access to the hoist way limit sensors for internal safety checks. The safety object must be able to detect when and if the drive and door perform any unsafe actions, such as moving when the door is open, opening the door between floors, or moving the car past the hoist way limits. These represent “logical” sensors in the software architecture as they can be either multiple I/O channels to the same physical sensor in the system, or multiple different physical sensors for each software component. This choice represents a cost/reliability trade-off that does not affect the software architecture. The software components will have the same interfaces to the sensors regardless of the physical configuration. The replication of sensors for these critical components would prevent single points of failure that might lead to catastrophic system failures. If any of these components fail in the system, the system must fail safe and no longer be operational. The standard assumption is that these components will “fail silent,” that is, stop sending messages. One of the major challenges to implementing this scheme is how individual components determine other components’ or their own failure. If components fail silent, that can be detected via a timeout, but it is more difficult to determine when a component is broken and is sending incorrect messages and providing misinformation. Another challenge is how to verify that the noncritical components do not violate constraints of the critical core components. This approach is to specify a tight interface in the form of a well-defined data dictionary of all the messages that can be sent between components, and ensure that as long as components adhere to this interface, they will preserve the constraints. Above this base configuration, it can add a real-time network bus for component communication and coordination. Next it can add hall button and car button controllers to manage user input from passengers; the car lantern controllers and car position indicator controller for user feedback; and a dispatcher component to schedule efficiently the elevator car’s

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destinations (Fig. 5.26(b)). With the addition of the real-time network, each additional component need not have a direct connection to each sensor, and control state may be passed between components as “advice” for the critical controllers to increase functionality. An example advisory command would be that the Dispatcher component could notify the Drive controller that the next floor where passengers are waiting for elevator service

Dooropen

Drive

Door control

Drive speed

Driver control

Door closed

Atfloor

Door motor

Doorrevised

Safety Hoistway limit

Emergencybrake

Control

Software component

Sensor

Listen

Actuator

(a) DrS

DC

Drive control

DrS

Door control

DC

AF

DrS

HWL

DO

HWL

AF

Dr

AF

DM

Safety

DCL EB

Dispatcher

Network Bus Car call control Car call Car light

Hall call control

Car position control

Hall call Hall light

Car position indicator

Car latent control

AF

Car latent

(b)

Figure 5.26 (a) Critical components in the proposed elevator software architecture. (b) Complete elevator software architecture.

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is floor 6, and to stop at that floor. If the car is at floor 2, the Drive controller can decide to skip the floors between and go directly to floor 6. The Drive controller still decides when it is safe to leave floor 2, and cannot be commanded to move by the Dispatcher, only receiving advice about where to stop. If the Dispatcher stops sending out advisory commands, the Drive controller can declare the Dispatcher failed and default to its base functionality of stopping at each floor. If any noncritical component fails, it should not interfere with the operation of any critical component or, ideally, none of the other noncritical components.

5.3.2 Input/Output Protocol Controllers 5.3.2.1 Server or Manager In an application software system, the developments of various interfaces are conventional solutions to handle the input (read) from and output (write) to some resources such as memories, disks, keyboards, and tapes. The interfaces performing these I/O functions consist of service processes that are named as client, server, or manager depending upon the definitions of I/O actions in programs. These clients, servers, and managers are working based on the designed I/O protocols, thus being also named as I/O protocol controllers. The semantics of the I/O protocols can be either synchronous or asynchronous. The server keeps listening to client requests. When a client calls for a protocol method, the server creates a new process and a new servant object, and passes the object to the process to handle the request. The server also keeps a record in a hash table for the client’s request–reply set as well as a related data reference that was processed by the servant. All control activities for the client are controlled by the process. The process and object are on the per-client and per-file basis. That is, if the same client requests a different file, then it is treated as a separate set of process and servant, and therefore it occupies a separate place in the hash table maintained by the server. The client uses the information and data in the hash table by providing client name and file name and their combination is a key to access the hash table. When an I/O request is received by the server, it first checks the hash table for existing records. If it exists in the record, then the server just puts the request in a queue, and then may invoke the process if it is sleeping. Another queue may also be needed to hold the result of operation so that when client polls the status or requests data, the server can get the result and reply to the client right away.

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For each process that deals with the I/O, the process receives a request from the server by dequeue the request queue that is passed to process by the server (the same queue also occupies a place in the hash table maintained by the server.). In high-level design, an I/O protocol controller can have the typical methods listed below: (1) Open (); The method opens a file for I/O read or write or both. Return value is the state indicating whether open is successful or not. (2) Close (); The method cancels all on-going I/O, releases all memory used by this file, and closes the file. All data that are not written to disk are lost. The file length and data may not be guaranteed to be as user expected, so usually use other methods to check the status of the file. Return value indicating length of the file after closing. (3) Read (); The method reads data for the whole file. Return value contains an array of control block numbers and whether the read operation is successful or not. (4) Read-Some (); The method reads data the specific data blocks. Return value contains an array of control block numbers whether the read operation is successful or not. (5) Write (); The method writes data to the file by the given name. The data are stored in memory that was read in by former read operations. Return value contains information whether the write operation is successful or not. (6) Write-Some (); The method writes data for the specific data blocks. Return value contains information whether the write operation is successful or not. (7) State (); Check the status of last read or write operations. Return values include all block numbers and the read and write status (done or pending). (8) Cancel (); The method cancels the I/O operation for the given file and control block number. The data for this chunk is unpredictable if read or write is pending or ongoing. But if read and write is done, no action is taken. Return value indicates whether the block was finished read/write and whether cancel is successful.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (9) Delete-Block (); The method deletes the data block holding the chunk of the data and marks the control block as free so that this control block can be used for other read/write operations for the same file.

5.3.2.2

I/O Device Module

The I/O device modules can be classified into two kinds: System call I/O and Stream I/O. The stream I/O method has a very good advantage: it is portable. Another feature that could improve the performance of your applications with this stream I/O is its built-in-buffering feature. One has to focus on error detection and error handling while dealing with input and output in any program. Though your program might work (without any errors), the moment something goes wrong will cause data corruption in your program. The very first step in preventing the data loss from I/O errors is to make sure that we identify such error conditions as they occur. There are several methods that will help us in that direction. Two such methods are: (1) One needs to properly check the return values of open () system call to make sure that the files are really open as we requested (please refer to main open for more details on this system call). (2) By checking the return value of write () system call, we can make sure that a disk did not fill up while you were writing your data. But checking for error conditions after every system call can become very tedious. To make error checking easier for your programs, you can go for some functions that wrap around the actual calls. These functions will do the check for your programs. We can write the functions in such a way that if an error is detected, it can print an appropriate error message automatically. The usual practice is to write such error messages to standard error, but they can also be redirected to any file handle, which will allow us to write the error messages to a specific log file. Usually, when you perform I/O, the function you call waits till the requested action is performed. Sometimes, you may be in a situation where the function needs to return immediately. This method of I/O is known as Nonblocking I/O. In this method, the function call returns immediately irrespective of completion of the requested action. It is important to remember here that Nonblocking I/O is available only with system call I/O. One of the common problems is the contention between two or more processes. There needs to be synchronous when several processes are trying to access a file. The programs call a function provided by the operating system to coordinate their accesses. There are various ways by which

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processes can communicate with each other. Pipes, FIFO, Message queues, Semaphores and Shared memory segments are the different Inter Process Communication (IPC) mechanisms. Pipe can be used as a communication mechanism between two related processes such as parent and child process. In a typical client-server scenario, the sequence of events will be the following: (1) The server process gets an access to a shared segment using a semaphore. (2) The server will then transfer the data to the memory segment. (3) Once the server is done with its work, the semaphore will be released. (4) Then the client gets an access to the shared segment. (5) The client reads from the shared segment.

5.3.3

Process

A process is a running instance of a program, including all the variables and other states. A multitasking operating system may just switch between processes to give the appearance of many processes executing concurrently or simultaneously, though in fact only one process can be executing at any one time per CPU. A single processor may be shared among several processes with some scheduling algorithm being used to determine when to stop work on one process and service a different one. In general, a process will need certain resources such as CPU time, memory, files, I/O devices, and so on, to accomplish its tasks. These resources are allocated to the process when it is created. When a program is loaded as a process it is allocated a section of virtual memory that forms its useable address space. Each process has its own virtual memory space. References to real memory are provided through a process-specific set of address translation maps by the Memory Management Unit (MMU). Once the current process changes, the MMU must load the translation maps for the new process. This is called a context switch. Executable files are stored in a defined format on the memory or disk as process image. Within this process image there are typically at least four elements: (1) Program code. Program code comprises the program instructions to be executed. Program code on a multitasking operating system must be reentrant. This means it can be shared by multiple processes. To be reentrant the code must not modify itself at any time and the data must be stored separately from the instruction text (such that each independent process can maintain its own data space).

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (2) Program data. Program data may be distinguished as initialized variables including external global and static variables, and as uninitialized variables. Program data blocks are not shared between processes by default. (3) Stack. A process will commonly have at least two last-in, firstout (LIFO) stacks; one is a user stack for user mode and the other is a kernel stack for system or kernel mode. (4) Process control block. This block stores the information needed by the operating system to control the process.

5.3.3.1

Process Types

On the basis of the creation mechanism, industrial control systems have processes categorized into two types: event-interactive processes and automatic processes. Event-interactive processes are initialized and controlled through events triggered inside or outside the microprocessor unit that runs these processes. In other words, there has to have been something that occurred to the system to start these processes; they are not started automatically as part of the system functions. These events can be hardware interrupts or software interrupts either generated from devices or from software processes; alternatively they can be user sessions through, for example, screen terminals or user graphic interfaces (GUI). Automatic processes are not connected to an event. These processes are initialized and controlled by means of system functions and routines. Rather, these are tasks that can be queued into a spooler area, where they wait to be executed until the system loads them. Such processes can be executed at a certain date and time.

5.3.3.2

Process Attributes

A process has a series of characteristics such as (1) the process ID, which is a unique identification number used to refer to the process; (2) the parent process ID, which is the identification number of the process that started this process, (3) the priority, which represents the degree of friendliness of this process toward other processes and its recent CPU usage; (4) the stack and heap allocation, which gives the volume of the system memory allocated by kernel or operating system as the stack and heap of this process. Each process is identified with its own Process Control Block that is a data block containing all information associated with this process. These

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are the following: (1) process state, which may be new, ready, running, waiting, or halted; (2) program counter, which indicates the address of the next instruction to be executed for this process; (3) CPU registers, which vary in number and type, depending on the concrete microprocessor architecture; (4) memory management information, which includes base and bounds registers or page table; (5) I/O status information, composed I/O requests, I/O devices allocated to this process, a list of open files and so on; 6) CPU scheduling information, which includes process priority, pointers to scheduling queues, and any other scheduling parameters.

5.3.3.3

Process Status

One of the most important parts of a process is the executing program code. This code is read in from an executable file and executed within the program’s address space. At this point, the kernel is said to be “executing on behalf of the process and is in process context.” When in process, context on exiting the kernel, the process resumes execution in user-space, unless a higher-priority process has become runnable in the interim, in which case the scheduler is invoked to select the higher priority process. The following diagram (Fig. 5.27) shows the state machine used for the Windows NT scheduler plotted by H. Custer. Each process context contains information about the process, including the following: (1) Hardware context includes the following: (1) Program counter, which is the address of the next instruction. (2) Stack pointer, which is the address of the last element on the stack. (3) Processor status word, which contains information about system state, with bits devoted to things like execution modes, interrupt priority levels, overflow bits, carry bits, and so forth. (4) Memory management registers, which provide the mapping of the address translation tables of the process. (5) Floating point unit registers. During a context switch, the hardware context registers are stored in the Process Control Block in the user area. (2) User address space that includes program text, data, user stack, shared memory regions, and so forth. (3) Control information that is user area, process structure, kernel stack, address translation maps. (4) Credentials that includes user and group IDs (real and effective). (5) Environment variables are the strings of the form: variable = value.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Create and initialise object Reinitialise

Place in ready queue Ready

Initialized Set object to signalled state

Terminated Waiting Resources unavailable

Execution completes

Thread waits on an object handle

Resources become available

Select for execution

Preempt Transition

Preempt (or time quantum ends)

Standby

Running Context-switch to it and start its execution (dispatching) Inside Windows NT : H.Custer

Figure 5.27 The state machine used for the Windows NT scheduler plotted by H. Custer.

5.3.3.4

Process and Task

Processes are often called tasks in embedded operating systems. The sense of “process” (or task) is “something that takes up time.” Historically, the terms “task” and “process” were used interchangeably, but the term “task” seems to be dropping from the computer lexicon.

5.3.3.5

Process Creation, Evolution, and Termination

A new process can be created because an existing process makes an exact copy of itself. This child process has the same environment as its parent, only the process ID number is different. This procedure is called “forking.” After the forking process, the address space of the child process is overwritten with the new process data. In an exceptional case, a process might finish while the parent does not wait for the completion of this process. Such an unburied process is called a “zombie” process. When a process ends normally (it is not killed or otherwise unexpectedly interrupted), the program returns its exit status to the parent. This exit

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status is a number returned by the program providing the results of the program’s execution.

5.3.3.6

Synchronization

Concurrent processes in multitasking and/or multiprocessing operating systems must deal with a number of potential problems: (1) Process starvation or indefinite postponement. A low priority process never gets access to the processor due to the higher effective processor access of other processes. The solution is to cause processes to “age” or decline in priority as they use up CPU quanta. (2) Process deadlock. Two or more processes are competing for resources, each blocking the other. (3) Race conditions. The processing result depends on when and how fast two or more processes complete their tasks. The data consistency and race condition problems may be addressed by the implementation of Mutual Exclusion and Synchronization rules between processes, whereas solving the starvation is a responsibility of the scheduler. There are a number of synchronization primitives: (1) Events. A thread may wait for events such as the setting of a flag, integer, signal or presence of an object. Until that event occurs, the thread will be blocked and will be removed from the run queue. (2) Critical sections. These are areas of code that can only be accessed by a single thread at any one time. (3) Mutual exclusions. This is a semantics that ensures that only a single thread has access to a protected variable or code at any one time. (4) Semaphores. These are similar to mutual exclusions but may include counters allowing only a specified number of threads access to a protected variable or code at any one time. (5) Atomic operations. This mechanism ensures that a nondecomposable transaction is completed by a thread before access to the same atomic operation is granted to another thread. The thread may have noninterruptible access to the CPU until the operation is completed. A scheduler (dispatcher) is responsible for the coordination of the running of processes to manage their access to the system resources such that each candidate process gets a fair share of the available process time, with the utilization of the CPU being maximized. The scheduler must ensure

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that processes gain access to the CPU for a time relative to its designated priority and process class and that no process is starved of access to the CPU, no matter if it is the lowest priority task available. A process may choose to voluntarily give up its use of the microprocessor when it must wait, usually for some system resource or for synchronization with another process. Alternatively, the scheduler may preemptively remove the thread or process from the CPU at the expiry of its allocated time quantum. The scheduler chooses the most appropriate process to run next.

5.3.3.7

Mutual Exclusive

Allowing multiple processes access to the same resources in a time slice multiprocessor system can cause many problems. This is due to the need to maintain data consistency, maintain true temporal dependencies, and to ensure that each thread will properly release the resource as required when it has completed its action. Although nonsharable resources require mutual exclusive access, for example, a printer can not be simultaneously shared by several processes; sharable resources do not require mutual exclusive access and thus cannot be involved in a deadlock. Read-only files are a good example for sharable resources. It is quite normal that if several processes try to open a readonly file at the same time, they will get access to that file. In general, we cannot prevent the occurrence of deadlock by denying the mutual exclusive condition. In order that the hold-and-wait condition never holds in the system, we must guarantee that whenever a process requests a resource, it does not hold any other resources. We can also stipulate that each process has to acquire all of its resources before it begins execution. This has a serious disadvantage: the resource utilization may be very low, because many of the resources may be allocated, but unused for a long period of time. Another mechanism allows a process to request resources only if it has none, that is, a process can request some resources and use them. Before it can request any additional resources, however, it must release all the resources it is currently allocated. If a system does not employ deadlock prevention, then a deadlock situation may occur. In this case, the system must provide the following: (1) An algorithm that examines the state of the system to determine whether a deadlock has occurred. (2) An algorithm to recover from deadlock situation. There are several alternatives that help the system to recover from a deadlock

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automatically. One of them is process termination. Two possibilities concerning process termination are considered: (a) Kill all deadlocked processes: this will break the deadlock cycle, but at a great expense, because these processes may have computed for a long period of time, and the results of these partial computations must be discarded. (b) Kill one process at a time until the deadlock cycle is eliminated. The cost for that possibility is relatively high, since after each process is killed a deadlock detection algorithm must be invoked to determine whether any processes are still in deadlock. If a partial termination is possible, that is, killing one process already deadlocked (or some processes) may break down the deadlock state of a set of processes, then we must determine the suitable one. There are many factors to be considered, for example, (1) the priority of the process, (2) the computing duration of the process, (3) the number and resource type which are used by the process, (4) how many processes will need to be terminated and so on. It is clear that none of the alternatives mentioned above alone is appropriate for handling deadlocks in the wide spectrum of resource allocation problems. So they should be used in an optimal combination. One possibility to do this is to classify resources into classes, which are hierarchically ordered, and to apply a suitable approach for handling deadlocks to each class.

5.3.4

Finite State Automata

Finite State Automata, often called Finite State Machine (FSM), responds to events by jumping from state-to-state according to a formal set of rules for the problem at hand. An FSM is often used in real-time systems to control devices such as toaster ovens, elevators, and even nuclear power plants. An FSM is also widely used to parse text according to the rules of a formal grammar. There are many variants of the FSM approach. These pages will describe only the basic principles suitable for hand-coding small FSM in software developments. Larger FSM may require a more formal and disciplined approach, and perhaps specialized tools. An FSM consists of three components: (1) A set of states. At any given time the machine is in a single state. (2) A set of events that the machine recognizes. Typically an event represents some kind of external input, but the FSM may also

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY generate events internally. For example, in lexical analysis, most events correspond to an input character. (3) A mapping from each state-event pair to a corresponding action. An action may be empty; it may include a transition to another state; it may include anything else which the application needs. One of the states is the initial state. If the FSM is not to fall into an infinite loop, there must also be at least one terminating state. For lexical analysis, there will typically be two kinds of terminating states. One kind represents the recognition of a token, and the other represents a syntax error in the input text.

5.3.4.1

Models

An FSM is a model of behavior composed of states, transitions, and actions. Figure 5.28 illustrates an FSM model for a simple door control in which the door has two states: open and close. These two states can be mutually changed into each other depending upon transition conditions resulted from corresponding events. (1) States. One of the key concepts in computer programming is the idea of state that is essentially a snapshot of the measure of various conditions in the system. A state stores information about the past, that is, a state reflects the input changes from the system

1 Opened E: open door

State

Close door

Open door

Transition condition

Transition

Entry action

2 Closed E: close door

Figure 5.28 Finite state machine.

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start to the present moment. In computer science, imperative programming is opposed to declarative programming. Imperative programming is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of a program state and statements that change the program state Most programming languages require a considerable amount of state information to operate properly, information that is generally hidden from the programmer. In fact, the state is often hidden from the computer itself as well, which normally has no idea that this piece of information encodes state, while that is temporary and will soon be discarded. This is a serious problem, as the state information needs to be shared across multiple processors in parallel processing machines. Without knowing which state is important and which is not, most languages force the programmer to add a considerable amount of extra code to indicate which data and parts of the code are important in this respect. (2) Action. An action is a description of an activity in a control system that is to be performed at a given moment, and has influence on something. In some cases, one action can include several subactivities. There are several action types: (1) Entry action that executes the action when entering the state. (2) Exit action that executes the action when exiting the state. (3) Input action that executes the action dependent on present state and input condition. (4) Transition action that executes the action when performing a certain transition. (3) Transition. A transition indicates a change between states and is described by a condition that would need to be fulfilled to enable the transition. An FSM can be represented using a state diagram (or state transition diagram) as an example in Fig. 5.28. Besides this, several state transition table types are used. A state transition table is a table describing the transition function of an FSM. This function governs what state (or states in the case of a nondeterministic FSM ) the FSM will move to, given an input to the machine. Given a state diagram of an FSM, a state transition table can be derived from it and vice versa. State transition tables are typically two-dimensional tables. There are three common forms for arranging them. (a) The most common representation is shown in Table 5.3: the combination of current state (B) and condition (Y) shows the next state (C). The complete action information can be added only using footnotes. An FSM definition including the full action information is possible using state tables.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (b) With the form given in Table 5.4, the vertical (or horizontal) dimension indicates current states, the horizontal (or vertical) dimension indicates events, and the cells (row/column intersections) in the table contain the next state “S” if an event happens (and possibly the action “A” linked to this state transition). (c) With Table 5.5, the vertical (or horizontal) dimension indicates current states, the horizontal (or vertical) dimension indicates next states, and the row/column intersections contain the event “E” which will lead to a particular next state.

Table 5.3 A State Transition Table Current State Condition

State A

State B

State C

– – –

– State C –

– – –

Condition X Condition Y Condition Z

Table 5.4 A State Transition Table Events State S1 S2 … Sm

E1

E2

…

En

– – … Az/Sk

Ay/Sj – … –

… … … …

– Ax/Si … –

Note: S: state; E: event; A: action; … : illegal transition.

Table 5.5 State Transition Table Next Current S1 S2 … Sm

S1

S2

…

Sm

Ay/Ej – … –

– – … Az/Ek

… … … …

– Ax/Ei … –

Note: S: state; E: event; A: action; … : impossible transition.

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An example of a state transition table for a machine M together with the corresponding state diagram is given in Table 5.6. All the possible inputs to the machine are enumerated across the columns of the table. All the possible states are enumerated across the rows. From the state transition table given above, it is easy to see that if the machine is in “S1”(the first row), and the next input is character “1,” the machine will stay in “S1.” If a character “0” arrives, the machine will transition to “S2” as can be seen from the second column. In the diagram this is denoted by the arrow from “S1” to “S2” labeled with a “0.” For a nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA), a new input may cause the machine to be in more than one state, hence its nondeterminism. This is denoted in a state transition table by a pair of curly braces { } with the set of all target states between them. An example is given in Table 5.7. Here, a nondeterministic machine in the state “S1” reading an input of “0” will cause it to be in two states at the same time, the states “S2” and “S3 .” The last column defines the legal transition of states of the special character, e. This special character allows the NFA to move to a different state when given no input. In state “S3,” the NFA may move to “S1” without consuming an input character. The two cases above make the finite automaton described nondeterministic. (4) Mealy FSM model. A Mealy FSM is a finite state machine where the outputs are determined by the current state and the input.

Table 5.6

State Diagram 1

State Transition Table Input State

1

0

S1 S2

S1 S2

S2 S1

1

0

S2

S1 0

Table 5.7 State Transition Table for an NFA Input State

1

0

e

S1 S2 S3

S1 S2 S2

{S2, S3} S1 S1

F F S1

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY This means that the state diagram will include an output signal for each transition edge. For a Mealy FSM model machine, input and output are signified on each edge, each vertex is a state. Figure 5.29 illustrates its state transition diagram. For example, the machine in Fig. 5.29 is a 1-Timed Delay machine and would generate an output string of 0x0x1 … xn–1 for an input string of x0x1 … xn. S0 is the start state. In Fig. 5.29, in going from a state “1” to a state “2” on input “0,” the output might be “1” (its edge would be labeled 0/1). (5) Moore FSM model. A Moore FSM is a finite state automaton where the outputs are determined by the current state alone (and not on the input). The state diagram for a Moore machine will include an output signal for each state. Compare with a Mealy machine, which maps transitions in the machine to outputs. Most electronics are designed as clocked sequential systems. Clocked sequential systems are a restricted form of Moore machine where the state changes only when the global clock signal changes. Typically. the current state is stored in flip-flops, and global clock signal is connected to the “clock” input of the flip-flops. Clocked sequential systems are one way to solve metastability problems. For a Moore FSM machine, output is signified on each state. In practice, vertices are normally represented by circles and, if needed, double circles are used for accept states. Figure 5.30 is an example of Moore FSM controlling an elevator door. (6) UML state diagram. The Unified Modeling Language (UML) state diagram is essentially a state diagram with standardized notation that can describe many things, from computer programs

0/0

1/1 1/0

S1

S2

0/1

1/0

S0

0/0

Figure 5.29 Mealy model FSM.

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1 Opened

command_close

sensor_opened

4 Opening

command_open

E:

2 Closing E:

command_close

command_open

sensor_closed

3 Closed

Figure 5.30 Moore model: Control of an elevator door.

to business processes. The following tools can be used to make up a diagram, which are partially illustrated in Fig. 5.31: (a) Filled circle, denoting START. Not absolutely necessary to use; (b) Hollow circle, denoting STOP. Not absolutely necessary to use; (c) Rectangle, denoting state; (d) Top of the rectangle contains a name of the state. Can contain a horizontal line in the middle, below which the activity is written that is done in that state; (e) Arrow, denoting transition. An expression can be written on top of the line, enclosed in brackets( [.]) denoting that this expression must be true for the transition to take place; (f) Thick horizontal line with either x > 1 lines entering and “1” line leaving or “1” line entering and x > 1 lines leaving. These denote join/fork, respectively.

5.3.4.2

Designs

The simplest way to design an FSM is to draw a picture of it in the form of a transition diagram. Represent each state with a numbered circle. Draw

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY [Start] [Stop] Simulator running

[Pause]

[Unpause]

Simulator paused Do/wait [Data request] Log retrieval [Continue]

Do/output log

Figure 5.31 UML state diagram.

arrows from circle to circle to represent the possible state transitions. Label each arrow with the events which cause the associated state transition. The diagram may also reflect actions other than state transitions. One approach is to label the arrows not only with events but also with actions, at least in an abbreviated form. It is possible to draw a state diagram from the table. A sequence of easy to follow steps is given in the following: (1) Draw the circles to represent the states given. (2) For each of the states, scan across the corresponding row and draw an arrow to the destination state(s). There can be multiple arrows for an input character if the automaton is an NFA. (3) Designate a state as the start state. The start state is given in the formal definition of the automaton. (4) Designate one or more states as accept state. This is also given in the formal definition. It suggests that it had better make sure that (1) There is an initial state, with no arrows leading into it. (2) There is at least one terminal state, with no arrows leading out of it. (3) You have considered all possible events required in your system even those for unexpected cases.

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(4) You have accounted for all the possible error conditions. You may omit them from the diagram to avoid clutter, but do not forget them. (5) Each state has exactly one transition for each possible event, even if the transition is back to the same state. (6) There are no infinite loops. It seems correct for the arrows to form loops, but make sure that all loops will eventually terminate. As long as a loop continues to read characters, it will eventually reach the end, so most diagrams satisfy this condition without much effort. (7) Each transition should make sense.

5.3.4.3

Implementation and Programming

The FSM diagram in Fig. 5.32 is an example for seemingly trivial FSM: This FSM has two states, two inputs, and four different actions and outputs defined, for a total of 16 different items that need to be considered by the software. The simple state machine in Fig. 5.32 can be implemented in code as a switch statement as given in Fig. 5.33. A switch statement, however, is not necessarily the best way to implement an FSM. In particular, the inputs must be constant, and a lot of code might be required to do similar things. We can then write the code as follows (Fig. 5.34): Of course, the output might be dependent on the action as well. But the above shows how jump tables (i.e., arrays of functions) and lookup tables can be used to efficiently implement code that is structured as a finite state machine. As the software designer, you have total control of how states are numbered. Generally, you number them beginning at 0, so that lookup tables are concise. However, if any other kinds of state numbering work, then use them. In cases where software is defined with dozens of states and hundreds of possible inputs, such abbreviated code becomes very easy to work with. 0/b1

0/a1 1/a2

B

A 1/b2

Figure 5.32 A trivial FSM example.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY switch (state) { case A: switch (input) { case 0: do action a1 produce output 1 break; case 1: do action b2 produce output 2 break; } case B: switch (input) { case 0: do action b1 produce output 3 break; case 1: do action a2 produce output 4 break; } }

Figure 5.33 A code segment.

call function generate output

action[state, input](); lookup[state, input];


Each action is then defined as a standalone subroutine, and the task of integrating everything is very simple. On the other hand, with a large number of states or inputs, there might be only a few different states and actions, and rather more complex conditions are used to determine the action. For example, “input 0” might refer to “all alphanumeric characters” while “input 2” is all special characters. Maybe there is a third input, “all nonprintable characters.” In such cases, either large if-then-else statements can replace the use of a switch statement, or the conditions for each input can be encoded as functions. The use of large if-then-else statements does make it much more difficult to modify and debug. However, sometimes it is the best way. But at the very least, always consider the alternate lookup table methods. Suppose we define each box in the state table by a structure (Fig. 5.35): The state table is then defined as follows (Fig. 5.36):

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The MAXINPUTS refers to the number of input columns in the table, not the number of inputs. Thus, if one of the columns is “all alphanumeric characters,” that counts as a single input. The state machine can then be implemented as a single loop within the infinite outer loop (Fig. 5.37): Variations to the above loop can be made as necessary. But the closer the design of the system can correspond to the above basic structure, the easier it will be to implement. New states can then easily be added just by building a module with such as xyzCondition() and xyzAction() functions defined, then adding them to the state table.

typedef

struct { fsmCond condition; /* returns a boolean value */ fsmAction action; /* return value is the output */ int nextstate; } fsm_t;


fsm_t

statetable[MAXSTATES][MAXINPUTS] = { { abcCondition, abcAction, 1 }, { defCondition, defAction, 3 }, etc. }


fsm_t

*fstate; while (1) { /* infinite loop waits for events */ state = nextstate; wait for event; fstate = &statetable[state][i]; for (i=0; i<MAXINPUTS; ++i) { if (fstate->condition(args-if-any)) { output = fstate->action(args-if-any); send output to wherever nextstate = fstate->nextstate; } } }


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6 Data Communications in Distributed Control System 6.1 Distributed Industrial Control System A key property of modern control systems is the intensive crosscommunication and interaction between components and their dynamically changing environment, of which the main features are the following: (1) The systems comprise physically and/or logically distributed components, (2) the components are essentially heterogeneous (different architecture, hardware, networking, operating systems, and software), (3) crosscommunication and cooperation between the components and their environment are key features, (4) the components act in unison to achieve a common goal. A control system that has these features is the distributed control system (DCS). In the DCS, the resources are shared and logic of the system is distributed among its components. Development of distributed systems is a challenging task; the challenges are heterogeneity, openness, scalability, concurrency, transparency, and mobility.

6.1.1

Introduction

Distributed control is based on layered control architectures. The overall control architecture is hierarchical. At the high (decision) layer finite state machines (learning automata), adaptive algorithms or reinforcement learning algorithms are used to generate setpoints. At the low (execution) layer, an embedded continuous-time controller operates. This low-level controller assures convergence to the prescribed setpoints. Communication issues through network protocols and transmission delays should also be taken into account. Distributed systems can be open or closed or in-between. Very open systems like the Internet have no one in control: broad standards of communication are set, which are often extended for particular purposes by different groups of users. In a closed system, the designers have control over the whole lot, though they usually want it to be readily extensible: the different parts of an aircraft control system and a robot control system are examples.

675

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6.1.1.1

Opened Architectures for Distributed Control

The Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) is an emerging open distributed object computing infrastructure being standardized by the Object Management Group (OMG). CORBA automates many common network programming tasks such as object registration, location, and activation; request demultiplexing; framing and error handling; parameter marshalling and demarshalling; and operation dispatching. See the OMG web site for more overview material on CORBA. Figure 6.1 illustrates the primary components in the CORBA ORB architecture. Descriptions of these components are available below. (1) Object. This is a CORBA programming entity that consists of an identity, an interface, and an implementation, which is known as a servant. (2) Servant. This is an implementation programming language entity that defines the operations that support a CORBA IDL interface. Servants can be written in a variety of languages, including C, C++, Java, Smalltalk, and Ada. (3) Client. This is the program entity that invokes an operation on an object implementation. Accessing the services of a remote object

Interface repository

IDL compiler

Implementation repository

in args Client

DII

OBJ REF

IDL stubs

GIOP/IIOP

Operation()

Object (Servant)

Out args + return value

IDL skeleton

DSI Object adapter

ORB interface

ORB CORE

Standard interface

Standard language mapping

ORB-specific interface

Standard protocol

Figure 6.1 CORBA ORB architecture (courtesy of OMG).

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6: DATA COMMUNICATIONS IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

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should be transparent to the caller. Ideally, it should be as simple as calling a method on an object. Object Request Broker (ORB). The ORB provides a mechanism for transparently communicating client requests to target object implementations. The ORB simplifies distributed programming by decoupling the client from the details of the method invocations. This makes client requests appear to be local procedure calls. When a client invokes an operation, the ORB is responsible for finding the object implementation, transparently activating it if necessary, delivering the request to the object, and returning any response to the caller. ORB interface. An ORB is a logical entity that may be implemented in various ways (such as one or more processes or a set of libraries). To decouple applications from implementation details, the CORBA specification defines an abstract interface for an ORB. This interface provides various helper functions such as converting object references to strings and vice versa, and creating argument lists for requests made through the dynamic invocation interface described below. CORBA IDL stubs and skeletons. CORBA IDL stubs and skeletons serve as the “glue” between the client and server applications, respectively, and the ORB. The transformation between CORBA IDL definitions and the target programming language is automated by a CORBA IDL compiler. The use of a compiler reduces the potential for inconsistencies between client stubs and server skeletons and increases opportunities for automated compiler optimizations. Dynamic invocation interface (DII). This interface allows a client to directly access the underlying request mechanisms provided by an ORB. Applications use the DII to dynamically issue requests to objects without requiring IDL interface-specific stubs to be linked in. Unlike IDL stubs (which only allow RPC-style requests), the DII also allows clients to make nonblocking deferred synchronous (separate send and receive operations) and one way (send-only) calls. Dynamic skeleton interface (DSI). This is the server side’s analog to the client side’s DII. The DSI allows an ORB to deliver requests to an object implementation that does not have compiletime knowledge of the type of the object it is implementing. The client making the request has no idea whether the implementation is using the type-specific IDL skeletons or is using the dynamic skeletons. Object adapter. This assists the ORB with delivering requests to the object and with activating the object. More importantly,

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY an object adapter associates object implementations with the ORB. Object adapters can be specialized to provide support for certain object implementation styles (such as OODB object adapters for persistence and library object adapters for nonremote objects).

6.1.1.2

Closed Architectures for Distributed Control

DCS is a very broad term that describes solutions across a large variety of industries. The broad architecture of a solution involves either a direct connection to physical equipment such as switches, pumps, and valves or connection through a secondary system such as a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system. A DCS solution does not require operator intervention for its normal operation, but with the line between SCADA and DCS merging, systems claiming to offer DCS may actually permit operator interaction through a SCADA system. An example of distributed control is that of autonomous robots. Autonomous robots are used in transportation (automated vehicles), in industry, and in the assistance of the elderly and the disabled. The behavior of autonomous robots should be adaptive, reconfigurable, and reflexive. Autonomous robots should operate in unknown environments and should be able to learn from monitoring human control policies. Intelligent (behavior-based) control of autonomous robots implies algorithms that emulate the reaction of humans to several operation scenarios and which improve their performance through task repetition. Distributed industrial control systems categorized in closed architectures have three popular network types: (1) Ethernet network. In 1985, International Standards Organization (ISO) made Ethernet an international standard. It is very common for workstations and PCs shipping today to include an Ethernet interface card for compatibility with both 10 Mbit/s and 100 Mbit/s Ethernet networks. The most popular uses for Ethernet networks today is to conduct program maintenance, send plant-floor data to and from MIS (manufacturing information system) and MES (manufacturing execution system) systems, perform supervisory control, provide connectivity for operator interfaces, and log events and alarms. An Ethernet network is ideal for applications requiring (1) large data transfers, (2) wide access (site to site), (3) no timecritical data exchange. (2) SCADA network. SCADA network is a state-of-the-art control network that meets the demands of real-time, high-throughput

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applications. The SCADA network combines the functionality of an I/O network and supervisory equipment while providing high-speed performance for both functions. Figure 6.2 is an example of the SCADA network. The SCADA network gives you deterministic, repeatable transfers of all mission-critical control data in addition to supporting transfers of nontime-critical data. The patented media-access method used on the SCADA network results in deterministic delivery of time-critical (scheduled) data by assigning it a higher priority than nontime-critical (unscheduled) data. As a result, I/O updates and controller-to-controller interlocking always take precedence over program uploads and downloads and messaging. (3) CAN network. Controller Area Network (CAN) is a low-level network that provides connections between simple industrial devices (such as sensors, actuators, and valves) and higher-level devices (such as PLC controllers and computers). The CAN

Process historical archiver

Engineering & operator worksations

Ethernet TCP/IP

SCADA data server

Field control unit microF CU

AB I/O

Modicon I/O

PLCs, RTUs, or PLC I/O other third-party devices

GE I/O Field devices

Field devices

Field devices

Field devices

Field devices

Figure 6.2 An example for the SCADA network.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY network is a flexible, open network that works with devices from multiple vendors. The CAN network can (1) provide a cost-effective networking solution to simple devices, (2) let you access data in intelligent sensors and actuators from multiple vendors, (3) provide master/ slave and peer-to-peer capabilities (4) offer the producer– consumer services that let you configure devices (5) have control, and collect information over a single network.

6.1.1.3

Similarity to Computer Network

Modern computer systems, using Windows technology and running on distributed networks such as the Internet, have all but taken over every application in the business environment. This evolution is also apparent in other sectors. Traditionally, many aspects of industrial automation were based on systems that needed specialized programming and were built using nonstandard, proprietary hardware. Not only are these traditional programmable logic controllers (PLC) being replaced by computer-based systems, but the additional possibilities that distributed computer networks offer are now being discovered.

6.1.2 Data Communication Model for Distributed Control System Data communications concerns the transmission of digital messages to devices external to the message source. “External” devices are generally thought of as being independently powered circuitry that exists beyond the chassis of a computer, a controller, or other digital message source. To perform the required data communication, industrial control networks use multilayered models handling the message exchanges between components or entities in the networks. In these models, each layer defines a specific type of communication. Bottom layers define how to transmit bits across physical links. Upper layers define how to build network control applications and manage the data communication protocol. Intermediate layers define connectionless and connection-oriented network services. Within each layer, specific types of protocols are available to accomplish a specific task. For example, the lower layers define different link protocols such as Ethernet, token ring, ATM, frame relay, and so on. There are perhaps hundreds of protocols that occupy the different layers of the various network architectures.

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6.1.2.1 Data Communication Models for Open Control Systems (1) OSI reference model. The ISO developed the OSI reference model. The OSI is accepted as a “reference” model. This OSI reference model outlines the levels of networking protocols and the relationship they have with one another. The layered OSI model is pictured in Fig. 6.3. The stacks on the left and right represent two systems that are engaged in an end-to-end communication session. The middle devices are routers that provide Internet work connections between the devices. Each layer in the protocol stack provides a particular function. These functions provide services to the layer just above. In addition, each layer communicates with its peer layer in the system to which it is connected. For example, the transport layer on a server communicates with its peer transport layer on a client. This takes place through the underlying layers and across the network. Peer-layer communication is handled through message exchange between peers. For example, assume the receiver is getting data faster than it can process it. To “slow down” the sender, it needs to send it a message. The transport layer handles

Network architecture based on the OSI model

Exchange unit

Layer 7

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Network

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Network

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Data link

Data link

Data link

Data link

Frame

1

Physical

Physical

Physical

Physical

Bit

Figure 6.3 The architecture of OSI reference model.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY this sort of “throttling.” So the transport layer creates a message for its peer transport layer in the sending system. The message is passed down the protocol stack where it is packaged and sent across the network. The message is then passed up to the protocol stack where it is read by the transport protocol, which then initiates a procedure to throttle back. The main point is that lower layers provide services to upper layers. Applications are the usual source of messages and data that are passed down through the protocol stack, but each protocol layer may also generate its own messages to manage the communication session. One other thing to note is that the lower-layer physical and data link protocols operate across physical point-to-point links while the transport layer protocols operate on end-to-end virtual circuits that are created across the underlying network. Each layer of the OSI model is described here for what it defines. The lowest layer is discussed first, because it represents the physical network components. (a) The physical layer. The physical layer defines the physical characteristics of the interface, such as mechanical components and connectors, electrical aspects such as voltage levels representing binary values, and functional aspects such as setting up, maintaining, and taking down the physical link. Well-known physical layer interfaces for data communication include serial interfaces, parallel interfaces, and the physical specifications for LAN systems such as Ethernet and token ring. Wireless systems have “air” interfaces that define how data is transmitted using radio, microwave, or infrared signals. (b) The data link layer. The data link layer defines the rules for sending and receiving information across a physical connection between two systems. Data links are typically network segments (not Internet works) and point-to-point links. Data is packaged into frames for transport across the underlying physical network. Some reliability functions may be used, such as acknowledgment of received data. In broadcast networks such as Ethernet, a MAC (medium access control) sublayer was added to allow multiple devices to share the same medium. (c) The network layer. This layer provides internetworking services that deliver data across multiple networks. An internetworking addressing scheme assigns each network and each node a unique address. The network layer supports multiple data link connections. In the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, IP is the network layer internetworking protocol. (d) The transport layer. The transport layer provides end-to-end communication services and ensures that data is reliably

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delivered between those end systems. Both end systems establish a connection and engage in a dialog to track the delivery of packets across the Internet work. The protocol also regulates the flow of packets to accommodate slow receivers and ensures that the transmission is not completely halted if a disruption in the link occurs. (e) The session layer. The session layer coordinates the exchange of information between systems by using conversational techniques, or dialogs. Dialogs are not always required, but some applications may require a way of knowing where to restart the transmission of data if a connection is temporarily lost, or may require a periodic dialog to indicate the end of one data set and the start of a new one. (f) The presentation layer. Protocols at this layer are part of the operating system and application the user runs on a workstation. Information is formatted for display or printing in this layer. Codes within the data, such as tabs or special graphics sequences, are interpreted. Data encryption and the translation of other character sets are also handled in this layer. (g) The application layer. Applications access the underlying network services using defined procedures in this layer. The application layer is used to define a range of applications that handle file transfers, terminal sessions, and message exchange (e.g., electronic mail). (2) TCP/IP model. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a connection oriented protocol that provides the flow controls and reliable data delivery services. It is particularly important that these services run in the host computers at either end of a connection, not in the network itself. Therefore, TCP/IP is a protocol for managing end-to-end connections. Since end-toend connections may exist across a series of point-to-point connections, they are often called “virtual circuits.” An illustration of the TCP/IP model is shown in Fig. 6.4. The functions of the layers are described below. (a) Network access layer. This layer is responsible for managing the physical medium such as an Ethernet LAN or a point-topoint line. When transmitting, it accepts IP datagram and transmits frames that are specific to the particular type of network. When receiving, this layer accepts network frames and passes the enclosed datagram to the layer above. Some relevant examples of the protocols in this layer are the following: (i) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). For machines on a given network to communicate, they must know each

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Application layer Transport layer Internet layer Network Access layer (Data Link layer) Physical layer

Figure 6.4 TCP/IP layers.

other’s physical network address that is encoded in the hardware devices on the particular network. To hide the physical details of the network and make the internetworking uniform, however, the hosts are assigned IP addresses. The Address Resolution Protocol maps IP addresses to the addresses used by the particular network, for example, to the Ethernet addresses. (ii) High-level data link control (HDLC). This is an international standard for the transfer of data over both point-to-point and multipoint serial data links. It uses predefined bit patterns to signal the start and end of frames. The receiver searches the incoming bit stream on a bit-by-bit basis for the predefined start and end of frame sequence ( frame delimiting ), which the sender would have inserted appropriately. (iii) Ethernet. This is a popular local area network technology that was standardized by Xerox Corporation, Intel Corporation, and Digital Equipment Corporation. Ethernet is a carrier sense, multiple access/collision detect (CSMA/CD) network. The Ethernet standard also specifies the physical media, signaling technique (Manchester), maximum repeater spacing, maximum network span, frame format, and other parameters. The frame format includes fields for source and destination network addresses, protocol type, data and cyclic redundancy check. An important characteristic of an Ethernet frame is that it is self-identifying. Not only does the frame identify the sender and receiver of the frame, but also which higher level protocol should

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process the frame. This facilitates the use of multiple protocol systems on the same network. The standard is termed “multiple accesses” because all hosts have access to the network (the other hosts). All hosts share a single communication channel, making Ethernet a bus technology. In addition it is a broadcast system because all hosts receive every transmission. Before transmitting, hosts determine whether or not the network is idle. They do this by attempting to sense a carrier wave (listen for frames being transmitted) on the network, hence the term “carrier sense.” If a host, waiting to transmit, senses that no frames are on the network it then transmits its frame. It is possible that two or more hosts sense the network being idle and attempt to send their frames; in such a case, a collision takes place. Such collisions are detected by the transmitting hosts (hence the term “collision detect”) and they will cease transmission. The colliding hosts then wait for a random period of time before attempting to retransmit their frames. Each transmission is limited in duration by the maximum packet size, and there is a required minimum idle time between transmissions. These two factors, “multiple accesses” and “carrier sense,” act to ensure that no pair of communicating hosts can monopolize the network. (iv) Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). This is a protocol that allows TCP/IP and some other protocols to connect over a serial line (e.g., a direct cable connection or between a pair of modems, as in a telephone network). Computers utilizing this protocol are thus able to dial up and become part of the Internet. Effectively, PPP turns a serial port into a logical network port. PPP supports link level error detection to compensate for noisy, error-prone connections. The protocol also allows for header compression as well as other features. (b) Internet layer. The Internet layer is responsible for machineto-machine communication, where a machine may be an ordinary host or a gateway. The packet received from the transport layer for transmission is encapsulated in an Internet Protocol (IP) datagram and the datagram header inserted. The Internet layer then determines whether to deliver the datagram directly or through a gateway, then passes the datagram to the network access layer for transmission.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Incoming datagrams are also handled by the Internet layer. In this case, each datagram is checked for validity, its header information deleted, and it is determined whether the datagram should be processed locally or forwarded. For a locally directed datagram, the Internet layer determines that transport layer protocol should handle the packet. The Internet layer also sends all Internet control message protocol (ICMP) messages as needed and handles all ICMP massages received. (i) Internet Protocol (IP). This protocol defines the basic unit of data transfer and the exact format of all data as it traverses the Internet. It provides an unreliable, connectionless delivery mechanism to the layers above. Not only does the protocol specify data formats, but it also specifies how packets should be processed and how errors should be handled. The basic transfer unit in TCP/IP is the IP datagram. The datagram is a self-contained packet, independent of other packets, and as such, it contains sufficient information to enable it to be routed from the source to the destination host. This is necessary because of the connectionless approach adopted. The IP datagram format as shown in Fig. 6.5 includes, among others, fields for the source and destination IP addresses, and a protocol field. The IP address is a unique 32-bit (or 64-bit) integer that each host on a TCP/ IP network, such as the Internet, is assigned, and that is used in all communication with that host. This address

Bit Order: 1 Version

5

9

Header length Datagram identification

Types of service

Time to live

Protocol

17 20 Total datagram length

32

Flags

Fragment offset Header checksum

Source IP address Destination IP address Options

Padding Data

Figure 6.5 The IP datagram format with a header followed by data.

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assignment is defined in software at the Internet layer and is independent of the physical network address of the host. The protocol field is analogous to the protocol type field in an Ethernet frame in that it specifies which higher level protocol the datagram is meant for. (ii) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). As stated before, the Internet Protocol provides an unreliable, connectionless delivery service. Under normal circumstances, each gateway or host routes and delivers datagrams without coordinating with the sender. It is possible, however, that any of a number of unusual conditions, failures, or error conditions may occur, resulting in a datagram being discarded or lost. In the absence of an error-reporting mechanism, the transmitting host would have no way of determining the cause of the failure of a transmitted datagram to reach the destination host. The ICMP is the mechanism that allows machines on the Internet and TCP/IP internetworking in general to report errors and unexpected circumstances to a transmitting host. Some of the functions of the protocol are the following: Datagram error reporting, congestion control (source quenching), route-change notification, host reachability and status testing, destination unreachability reporting, Performance measurement (transittime estimation), and Subnet addressing excessively long (or circular) route detection. ICMP messages are encapsulated in the data portion of the IP datagram in a similar manner to the way higher level (above the Internet layer) protocol messages are encapsulated. ICMP is an Internet layer protocol, but nonetheless, is a required part of IP, and must be included in every IP implementation. ICMP messages are not directed to application processes, but rather, are handled by the IP software on the hosts. (c) Transport layer. This layer has the responsibility of providing communication between application programs on the source and destination hosts. The transport layer may regulate the flow of information between the source and destination hosts. It may also provide a reliable transport mechanism to the application layer, ensuring that data is passed to the application layer in sequence, unduplicated, and without errors. To achieve this mechanism, the receiving host sends

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY acknowledgments to the sender, for packets received. If packets are lost, the sender is required to retransmit them. When transmitting, the transport layer accepts data from the application programs in the layer above, breaks the data into smaller pieces if needed, places identifying information in the packets, and sends it to the Internet layer. The transport layer is the first end-to-end (or source-todestination) layer. As such, the program on the source system communicates with the program at the destination system. This is in contrast to the lower layers, in which communication is between neighboring systems, and not directly between the source and destination systems. (i) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This protocol provides a reliable, connection-oriented stream delivery service to the layers above. On the sending end, TCP accepts arbitrarily long messages from the layers above and breaks them into pieces not exceeding 64k bytes. Each piece is then sent separately to the lower layers for transmission. Given that the lower layers do not guarantee delivery or proper packet sequencing, TCP must do the following at the receiving end: Guarantee data delivery, provide properly sequenced data, and provide unduplicated data. In addition to this, TCP at both ends manages a session established between the source and destination system. This includes such issues as flow control. TCP allows for multiple application programs (or higher-level protocols) on a given machine to communicate concurrently and directs incoming TCP traffic to the appropriate application programs. To achieve this, TCP incorporates abstract objects called ports that identify the destination application program. Each port is assigned a small integer used to identify it uniquely. The TCP segment format is shown in Fig. 6.6. (ii) User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The user datagram protocol (UDP) provides a datagram form of communication at the transport layer. Unlike TCP, this protocol provides an unreliable, connectionless, stream-oriented service to the higher layers. In addition, session-management functions, such as flow control, are not provided by this protocol. Higher level protocols that use UDP must, therefore, address issues such as flow control and reliability. Application protocols that do not need a connectionoriented transport protocol generally use UDP.

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6: DATA COMMUNICATIONS IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM Bit Order: 1

17

Source port

32 Destination port

Sequence number Acknowledgement number Header length

Reserved

Flags

Window

Checksum

Urgent pointer

Options

Padding Data

Figure 6.6 The TCP segment format with a header followed by data.

UDP also allows multiple higher layer protocols to communicate concurrently and, as such, incorporates the port concept. The UDP datagram format is shown in Fig. 6.7. (d) Application layer. At this level, users invoke application processes that access the network or internetworking. The application then interacts with transport layer protocol(s) to send or to receive the data transmitted by the process. Some common application layer protocols are described below. (i) TELNET. This is a remote terminal protocol. TELNET allows a user at one site to establish a connection to a machine at another site. It then passes keystrokes from the local machine directly to the remote machine as if the user were physically at the remote machine.

Bit order: 1

17

Source port

32 Destination port

Length

Checksum Data

Figure 6.7 The UDP datagram format with a header followed by data.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (ii) File Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP allows authorized users to log into a remote system, identify themselves, and copy files to or from the remote machine. Users can also list remote directories and execute a few simple commands remotely. FTP understands a few basic, popular, file formats and can convert between such. (iii) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). SMTP is the standard specified by the Internet for the exchange of mail. SMTP specifies how the mail-delivery system passes messages across a link from one host to another. It does not specify the interface between the mail system and the user, or how the system presents the user with incoming mail. SMTP also does not specify the details of mail storage or how frequently the system attempts to send messages. (iv) Finger. Finger is a program that returns information about a registered user or users on a computer. It may give information on all the users logged into the system or on a specific user, depending on the arguments supplied by the requesting user and the specific implementation of the protocol.

6.1.2.2 Data Communication Models for Closed-Control Systems Data communication protocols for open systems can be mapped into closed-control systems. In many applications, closed-control systems require simplified layer models for data communication in their networks. One example in this aspect is given in the Table 4.7 that shows an enhanced layer model for a SCADA networks. The model given in Table 4.7 consists of three layers that are correspondent to the OSI layer 1, the OSI layer 2, and the OSI layer 7. Actually, a commonly accepted data communication model for closed-control systems has a similar architecture to that given in Table 4.7, which is of three layers: the first layer on the bottom is the data transmission layer, the second layer in the middle is data link layer, and the third layer at the top is the data communication layer. The following sections in this chapter describe these three layers. Section 6.4 lists all the protocols used in the data transmission layer, Section 6.5 gives the protocols used for the data link layer, and Section 6.6 gives the semantics for the data communication layer: the application layer.

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6.2 Data Communication Basics 6.2.1

Introduction

Data communication basically means that a system A sends data messages to a system B through some electric and electronic channels, and the system B receives and processes the data messages. In data communication, the sender is the message source, the channels are the transmitters, and the receiver is at the destination. The distance between systems A and B may vary from those within a single integrated circuit (IC) chip, to somewhere beyond the local circuitry that constitutes a control system. In distributed industrial control networks, the distances involved for data communication may be enormous, reaching greater than 1 km. The technology for data communications depends upon the transferring distances; long distance data transmission should deal with some substantial problems, such as electric noise and distortion, not significant within IC chips.

6.2.1.1

Data Transfers within an IC Chipset

Data is typically grouped into packets that are 8, 16, 32, 64, or 128 bits long, and passed between temporary holding units called registers that can be parts of a memory or an I/O port of an IC chip. Data within a register is available in parallel because each bit exits the register on a separate conductor. To transfer data from one register to another, the output conductors of one register are switched onto a channel of parallel wires referred to as a bus. The input conductors of another register, which is also connected to the bus, capture the information. Following a data transaction, the content of the source register is reproduced in the destination register. It is important to note that after any digital data transfer, the source and destination registers are equal; the source register is not erased when the data is sent. Bus signals that exit CPU chips and other circuitry are electrically capable of traversing about one foot of a conductor on a printed circuit board, or less if many devices are connected to it. Special buffer circuits may be added to boost the bus signals sufficiently for transmission over several additional centimeters of conductor length, or for distribution to many other chips (such as memory chips). The transmit switches and receive switches shown in Fig. 6.8 are electronic and operate in response to commands from a CPU. It is possible that two or more destination registers will be switched on to receive data from

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY IC chip Destination register

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

IC chip Upto 12 inches

Receive switch

Bus

Transmit switch

Data Bus terminator

Amplifier

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 Source register

Figure 6.8 The mechanism for the data transfer within an IC board (courtesy of IBM).

a single source. However, only one source may transmit data onto the bus at any time. If multiple sources were to attempt transmission simultaneously, an electrical conflict would occur when bits of opposite value are driven onto a single bus conductor. Such a condition is referred to as a bus contention. Not only will a bus contention result in the loss of information, but it also may damage the electronic circuitry. As long as all registers in a system are linked to one central control unit, bus contentions should never occur if the circuit has been designed properly. Note that the data buses within a typical microprocessor are fundamentally half-duplex channels. When the source and destination registers are part of an integrated circuit within a microprocessor chip, for example, they are extremely close (thousandths of an inch). Consequently, the bus signals are at very low power levels, may traverse a distance in very little time, and are not very susceptible to external noise and distortion. This is the ideal environment for digital communications. However, it is not yet possible to integrate all the necessary circuitry on a single chip. When data is sent off-chip to another integrated circuit, the bus signals must be amplified and conductors extended out of the chip through external pins.

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693

Data Transfers over Medium Distances

The data transferring between an IC chip and its peripherals generally needs mechanisms that cannot be situated within the chip itself. A simple technique to tackle this might be by extending the internal buses with a cable to reach the peripheral. However, this would expose all bus transactions to external noise and distortion. To locate a peripheral , within 6 m of the chip, a bus interface circuit is installed, as shown in Fig. 6.9. This bus interface consists of a holding register for peripheral data, timing and formatting circuitry for external data transmission, and signal amplifiers to boost the signal sufficiently for transmission through a cable. When communication with the peripheral is necessary, data is first deposited in the holding register by the CPU. This data will then be reformatted, sent with error-detecting codes, and transmitted at a relatively slow rate by digital hardware in the bus interface circuit. Data sent in this manner may be transmitted in byte-serial format if the cable has eight parallel channels, or in bit-serial format if only a single channel is available. In addition, the signal power is greatly boosted before transmission through the cable. These steps ensure that the data will not be corrupted by noise or distortion during its passage through the cable. In addition, because only data destined for the peripheral is sent, the party-line transactions taking place on the buses are not unnecessarily exposed to noise.

6.2.1.3

Data Transfer over Long Distances

When relatively long distances are involved in reaching a peripheral device, driver circuits are required after the bus interface unit to compensate for the electrical effects of long cables. As illustrated in Fig. 6.10, this is the only change needed if a single peripheral is used.

Microprocessor

System buses

Bus interface circuit

Cable

Peripheral device

Memory Computer

Figure 6.9 The mechanism for medium distance data transfer (courtesy of IBM).

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Microprocessor

System buses

Bus interface circuit

Balanced line driver circuit

Cable

Peripheral device

Memory Computer

Figure 6.10 The mechanism for long distance data transfer (courtesy of IBM).

However, if many peripherals are connected, or if other IC chips are to be linked, a local area network (LAN) is required, and it becomes necessary to drastically change both the electrical drivers and the protocol to send messages through the cable. Because multiple cables are expensive, bit-serial transmission is almost always used when the distance exceeds a distance such as 6 m. In either a simple extension cable or a LAN, a balanced electrical system is used for transmitting digital data through the channel. This type of system involves at least two wires per channel, neither of which is a ground. Note that a common ground return cannot be shared by multiple channels in the same cable as would be possible in an unbalanced system. The basic idea behind a balanced circuit is that a digital signal is sent on two wires simultaneously, one wire expressing a positive voltage image of the signal and the other a negative voltage image. Figure 6.11 illustrates the working principle. When both wires reach the destination, the signals are subtracted by a summing amplifier, producing a signal swing of twice the

Transmitter Differential driver Input signal

Receiver

Noise voltage added to both

Summing amp

Positive signal

+

Negative signal

–

Output signal

Shield Cable

Figure 6.11 A balanced circuit.

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value found on either incoming line. If the cable is exposed to radiate electrical noise, a small voltage of the same polarity is added to both wires in the cable. When the signals are subtracted by the summing amplifier, the noise cancels and the signal emerges from the cable without noise. A great deal of technology has been developed for LAN systems to minimize the amount of cable required and maximize the throughput. The costs of a LAN have been concentrated in the electrical-interface card that would be installed in PCs or peripherals to drive the cable, and in the communications software, not in the cable itself. Thus, the cost and complexity of a LAN are not particularly affected by the distance between stations.

6.2.2

Data Formats

Virtually all electronic ICs, transistors, capacitors, processors, and so on are designed to operate internally with all information encoded in binary numbers. This is because it is relatively simple to construct electronic circuits that generate two distinct voltage levels (i.e., off and on or low and high) to represent zero and one. The reason is that transistors and capacitors, which are the fundamental components of processors (the logic units of computers) and memory, generally have only two distinct states: off and on. Binary refers to any system that uses two alternative states, components, conditions, or conclusions. The binary, or base 2, numbering system uses combinations of just two unique numbers, that is, zero and one, to represent all values, in contrast with the decimal system (base 10), which uses combinations of ten unique numbers, that is, zero through nine. Binary is therefore the basic digital format of the data transmission in telecommunications.

6.2.2.1

Bit

A “bit” is a digit in a binary numbering system and is the most basic unit of information in digital communications systems. The rate of data transfer in computer networks and distributed control systems is referred to as the bit rate or bandwidth, and it is usually measured in terms of some multiple of bits per second, abbreviated bps, such as kilobits, megabits, or gigabits (e.g., billions of bits) per second. This “bit” is also used as a unit to measure the capability of processors such as CPUs that treat data in 32-bit chunks (e.g., processors with 32-bit registers and 32-bit memory addresses), and 64-bit chunks. A bitmap is a method of storing graphics (e.g., images) in which each pixel (e.g., dot that is used to form an image on a display screen) is stored as one or several bits. Graphics are also often described in terms of bit

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depth, which is the number of bits used to represent each pixel. A singlebit pixel is monochrome (e.g., either black or white), a two-bit pixel can represent any of four colors (or black and white and two shades of grey), an eight-bit pixel can represent 256 colors, and 24-bit and 32-bit pixels support highly realistic color that is referred to as true color.

6.2.2.2

Byte

A “byte” is a contiguous sequence of a fixed number of bits that is used as a unit of memory, storage, and instructions execution in computers. Although computers usually provide ways to test and manipulate single bits, they are almost always designed to store data and execute instructions in bytes. The number of bits in a byte varied according to the model of computer and its operating system in the early days of computing. Today, however, a byte virtually always consists of eight bits. Whereas a bit can have only one of two values, an eight-bit byte (also referred to as an octet) can have any of 256 possible values, because there are 256 possible permutations (i.e., combinations of zero and one) for eight successive bits (i.e., 28). Thus, an eight-bit byte can represent any unsigned integer from zero through 255 or any signed integer from –128 to 127. Because bytes represent a very small amount of data, for convenience they are commonly referred to in multiples, particularly kilobytes (represented by the uppercase letters KB or just K), megabytes (represented by the uppercase letters MB or just M), and gigabytes (represented by the uppercase letters GB or just G). A kilobyte is 1024 bytes, although it is often used loosely as a synonym for 1000 bytes. A megabyte is 1,048,576 bytes, but it is frequently used as a synonym for one million bytes. For example, a computer that has a 256 MB main memory can store approximately 256 million bytes (or characters) in memory at one time. A gigabyte is equal to 1024 MB.

6.2.2.3

Character

Characters are used in computers for (1) input, such as through the keyboard or through optical scanning, and output, such as on the screen or on printed pages; (2) writing programs in programming languages; (3) as the basis of some operating systems such as Linux that are largely collections of human-readable character files; and (4) for the storage and transmission of noncharacter data, for example, the transmission of images by FTP in UNIX or email in Windows.

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Issues regarding characters and their use with computers are relatively simple if dealing with a single language, such as English, which has a small number of characters. However, they become quite complex when dealing with internationalization and localization because of the diverse array of writing systems and vast number of characters in use throughout the world. The vast number of characters and the great diversity of writing systems in use around the world present some major challenges for the development of software. This has become an increasingly important issue as a result of the rapid growth in the use of computers in countries that do not use European languages.

6.2.2.4 Word A word is simply a fixed-sized group of bits that are handled together by the machine. The number of bits in a word (the word size or word length) is an important characteristic of a computer architecture. The majority of the registers in the computer are usually word-sized. The typical numeric value manipulated by the computer is probably word sized. The amount of data transferred between the processing part of the computer and the memory system is most often a word. An address used to designate a location in memory often fits in a word. Modern computers usually have a word size of 16, 32, or 64 bits. Many other sizes have been used in the past, including 12, 18, 24, 36, 39, 40, 48, and 60 bits. Depending on how a computer is organized, units of the word size may be used for the following: (1) Integer numbers. Holders for integer numerical values may be available in one or in several different sizes, but one of the sizes available will almost always be the word. The other sizes, if any, are likely to be multiples or fractions of the word size. The smaller sizes are normally used only for efficient use of memory; when loaded into the processor, their values usually go into a larger, word-sized holder. (2) Floating point numbers. Holders for floating point numerical values are typically either a word or a multiple of a word. (3) Addresses. Holders for memory addresses must be of a size capable of expressing the needed range of values, but not be excessively large. Often the size used is that of the word, but it can also be a multiple or fraction of the word size. (4) Registers. Processor registers are designed with a size appropriate for the type of data they hold, such as integers, floating point numbers, or addresses. Many computer architectures use

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY “general purpose” registers that can hold any of several types of data; those registers are sized to allow the largest of any of those types, and typically that size is the word size of the architecture. (5) Memory-processor transfer. When the processor reads from the memory subsystem into a register, or writes a register’s value to memory, the amount of data transferred is often a word. In simple memory subsystems, the word is transferred over the memory data bus, which typically has a width of a word or half word. In memory subsystems that use caches, the word-sized transfer is the one between the processor and the first level of cache; at lower levels of the memory hierarchy larger transfers (which are a multiple of the word size) are normally used. (6) Unit of address resolution. In a given architecture, successive address values designate successive units of memory; this unit is the unit of address resolution. In most computers, the unit is either a character (e.g., a byte) or a word. (A few computers have used bit resolution.) If the unit is a word, then addresses can be smaller. On the other hand, if the unit is a byte, then individual characters can be addressed (i.e., selected during the memory operation). (7) Instructions. Machine instructions are normally fractions or multiples of the architecture’s word size. This is a natural choice since instructions and data usually share the same memory subsystem.

6.2.2.5

Basic Codeword Standards

(1) EBCDIC Standard. Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) is a binary coding scheme developed by IBM Corporation for the operating systems within its larger computers. EBCDIC is a method of assigning binary number values to characters (alphabetic, numeric, and special characters such as punctuation and control characters). EBCDIC is functionally similar to the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) coding scheme that is widely used with smaller computers. However, IBM’s PC and workstation operating systems do not use EBCDIC but the industry-standard ASCII code. Conversion programs permit different operating systems to change a file back and forth between EBCDIC and ASCII. EBCDIC is eight bits, or one byte, wide. Each byte consists of two nibbles, each four bits wide. The first four bits define the class of character, while the second nibble defines the specific character inside that class. For example, setting the first nibble to

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all-ones, 1111, defines the character as a number, and the second nibble defines which number is encoded. In recent years, EBCDIC has been expanded to 16- and 32-bit variants to allow for representation of large, non-Latin character sets. Each EBCDIC variant is known as a codepage, identified by its Coded Character Set Identifier, or CCSID. EBCDIC codepages have been created for a number of major writing scripts, including such complex ones as Chinese, Korean, and Japanese. (2) ASCII Standard and Unicode. ASCII is a single-byte encoding system (i.e., uses one byte to represent each character), and the use of the first seven bits allows it to represent a maximum of 128 characters. ASCII is based on the characters used to write the English language (including both upper and lower case letters). Extended versions (which utilize the eighth bit to provide a maximum of 256 characters) have been developed for use with other character sets. This standard relates binary codes to printable characters and control codes. Total 25% of the ASCII character set represents nonprintable control codes, such as carriage return (CR) and line feed (LF). Most modern character-oriented peripheral equipment abides by the ASCII standard, and thus may be used interchangeably with different computers. Characters sent through a serial interface generally follow the character standard given in Fig. 6.12.

Nonprintable control characters 00 NUL 01 SOH 02 STX 03 ETX 04 EOT 05 ENG 06 ACK 07 BEL 08 BS 09 HT 0A LF 0B VT 0C FF 0D CR 0E SO 0F SI

10 DLE 11 DC1 12 DC2 13 DC3 14 DC4 15 NAK 16 SYN 17 ETB 18 CAN 19 EM 1A SUB 1B ESC 1C FS 1D GS 1E RS 1F VS

Special symbols 20 SP 21 ! 22 " 23 = 24 $ 25 % 26 & 27 ' 28 ( 29 ) 2A * 2B + 2C , 2D _ 2E . 2F /

Numbers, special symbols 30 0 31 1 32 2 33 3 34 4 35 5 36 6 37 7 38 8 39 9 3A : 3B ; 3C < 3D = 3E > 3F ?

Upper-case alphabet 40 @ 41 A 42 B 43 C 44 D 45 E 46 F 47 G 48 H 49 I 4A J 4B K 4C L 4D M 4E N 4F O

50 P 51 Q 52 R 53 S 54 T 55 U 56 V 57 W 58 X 59 Y 5A Z 5B [ 5C \ 5D ] 5E ^ 5F #

Lower-case alphabet 60 . 61 a 62 b 63 c 64 d 65 e 66 f 67 g 68 h 69 i 6A j 6B k 6C l 6D m 6E n 6F o

70 p 71 q 72 r 73 s 74 t 75 u 76 v 77 w 78 x 79 y 7A z 7B { 7C | 7D } 7E ~ 7F DEL

Figure 6.12 ASCII Standard.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Unicode was developed as a means of allowing computers to deal with the full range of characters used by human languages. It has a goal of providing a unique encoding for every character that currently exists or that has ever existed (but not for their variant glyphs). This is accomplished by representing each character with two or more bytes, thus vastly increasing the total number of possible unique character encodings. Unicode version 2.0 (released in 1996) listed 38,885 characters, version 3.0 (released in 2000) listed 49,194, and version 4.0 (released in 2003) lists 96,382. Although Unicode has achieved considerable success, it remains a work in progress.

6.2.3

Electrical Signal Transmission Modes

The modes in this subsection show up in most data communication devices from ICs through modems and other networking equipment. Fullduplex, for example, might not give the best performance when most data is moving in one direction, which is often the case for computer data, so some full-duplex equipment has the option of being operated in a halfduplex mode for optimal communication.

6.2.3.1

Bit-Serial and Bit-Parallel Modes

Hardware based signal processing uses both bit-serial and bit-parallel information exchanges and processing, associated with costly operators with a big logic effort. Figure 6.13 illustrates an example with both a bitserial (left) and a bit-parallel adder (right). In a serial cable, the bits follow one another on one wire (or frequency) and the receiver assembles the “frames” or “packets” as they arrive. In a parallel cable (fast becoming obsolete for the desktop computer environment), there is a separate wire for each bit—the sending unit puts one bit (ON/OFF) on each of the wires and fires a “strobe” signal to let the receiving unit know it is the instant to read the wires. In serial pattern, each individual bit of information travels along its own communications path; the bits flow in a continuous stream along the communications channel. This pattern is analogous to the flow of traffic down a one-lane residential street. On parallel transmission, each signal is sent through its own line, which implicitly defines its significance. A simple ripple carry adder computes the sum si and carry ci for each pair of equal significant bits. In case of a carry in stage i, it is transmitted to the next stage, where si + 1 and ci + 1 have to be recomputed. Therefore the carry ripples through the following adders,

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6: DATA COMMUNICATIONS IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM s0

b

a1

Clock

b1

Sync

Adder

b0

s1 Adder

a

Carry Adder

a0

Clock Sync

bn−1

Adder

an−1

sn−1

Clock

Figure 6.13 Bit-serial and Bit-parallel adder.

which can change the value of their outputs and leads to a long computation time. There are faster but even more complicated algorithms to speed up operation. Bit-serial transmission is typically slower than bit-parallel transmission, because data are sent sequentially in a bit-by-bit fashion.

6.2.3.2 Word-Parallel Mode Parallel data transmission involves the concurrent flow of bits of data through separate communications lines. This pattern resembles the flow of automobile traffic on a multilane highway. Internal transfer of binary data in a computer uses a parallel mode. If the computer uses a 32-bit internal structure, all the 32 bits of data are transferred simultaneously on 32 lane connections. Parallel data transmission is commonly used for interactions between a computer and its printing unit. The printer is usually located close to the computer, because parallel cables need many wires and may not work stably in long distance. Figure 6.14 is a diagram for word-parallel transmission for a word of 11 bits.

6.2.3.3

Simplex Mode

Simplex communication is a mode in which data only flows in one direction as illustrated at the top in Fig. 6.15. Because most modern

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8 information bits 11 total bits

Data packet 8 information bits

S

D

D

D

D

D

D

D

LSB Channel efficiency = 8/11 = 0.73

D

P

T

MSB T

T = 1/baud rate

For 9600 baud, T = 1042

Figure 6.14 Word-parallel mode.

Channel types Transmitter

Receiver Simplex channel

Transmitter Receiver

Receiver Half-duplex channel

Transmitter

Receiver

Transmitter

Transmitter

Receiver Full-duplex channel

Figure 6.15 Types for data transmission directional modes.

communications require a two-way interchange of data and information, this mode of transmission is not as popular as it once was. However, one current usage of simplex communications in business involves certain point-of-sends terminals in which sends data is entered without a corresponding reply. Radio or TV is an example of simplex communication.

6.2.3.4

Half-Duplex Mode

Half-duplex communication means a two-way flow of data between computer terminals. In this directional mode, data travels in two directions, but not simultaneously. Data can only move in one direction when data is not being received from the other direction. This mode is commonly used for linking computers together over telephone lines. This case is illustrated in the middle of Fig. 6.15.

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703

Full-Duplex Mode

The fastest directional mode of communication is full-duplex communication. Here, data is transmitted in both directions simultaneously on the same channel. Thus, this type of communication can be thought of as similar to automobile traffic on a two-lane road. Full-duplex communication is made possible by devices called multiplexers. Full-duplex communication is primarily limited to mainframe computers because of the expensive hardware required to support this directional mode. This case is illustrated on the bottom of Figure 6.15.

6.2.3.6

Multiplexing Mode

Multiplexing is sending multiple signals or streams of information on a carrier at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal and then recovering the separate signals at the receiving end. In analog transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed using frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), in which the carrier bandwidth is divided into subchannels of different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel. In digital transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed using time-division multiplexing (TDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel in alternating time slots. In some optical fiber networks, multiple signals are carried together as separate wavelengths of light in a multiplexed signal using dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM). (1) Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM). FDM is a scheme in which numerous signals are combined for transmission on a single communications line or channel. Each signal is assigned a different frequency (subchannel) within the main channel. A typical analog Internet connection through a twisted pair telephone line requires approximately three kilohertz (3 kHz) of bandwidth for accurate and reliable data transfer. Twisted-pair lines are common in households and small businesses. But major telephone cables, operating between large businesses, government agencies, and municipalities, are capable of much larger bandwidths. Suppose a long-distance cable is available with a bandwidth allotment of three megahertz (3 MHz). This is 3000 kHz, so in theory, it is possible to place 1000 signals, each 3 kHz wide, into the long-distance channel. The circuit that does this is known as a multiplexer. It accepts the input from each individual end user, and generates a signal on a different frequency for each of the

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY inputs. This results in a high-bandwidth, complex signal containing data from all the end users. At the other end of the longdistance cable, the individual signals are separated out by means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users. A two-way communications circuit requires a multiplexer/ demultiplexer at each end of the long-distance, high-bandwidth cable. When FDM is used in a communications network, each input signal is sent and received at maximum speed at all times. This is its chief asset. However, if many signals must be sent along a single long-distance line, the necessary bandwidth is large, and careful engineering is required to ensure that the system will perform properly. In some systems, a different scheme, known as TDM, is used instead. (2) Time-division multiplexing (TDM). Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams in a single signal by separating the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration. Each individual data stream is reassembled at the receiving end based on the timing. The circuit that combines signals at the source (transmitting) end of a communications link is known as a multiplexer. It accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each signal into segments, and assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating, repeating sequence. The composite signal thus contains data from multiple senders. At the other end of the long-distance cable, the individual signals are separated out by means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users. A two-way communications circuit requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end of the long-distance, highbandwidth cable. If many signals must be sent along a single long-distance line, careful engineering is required to ensure that the system will perform properly. An asset of TDM is its flexibility. The scheme allows for variation in the number of signals being sent along the line, and constantly adjusts the time intervals to make optimum use of the available bandwidth. The Internet is a classic example of a communications network in which the volume of traffic can change drastically from hour-to-hour. In some systems, a different scheme, known as FDM, is preferred. (3) Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM). Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a technology that puts data from different sources together on an optical fiber, with each signal carried at the same time on its own separate light

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wavelength. Using DWDM, up to 80 (and theoretically more) separate wavelengths or channels of data can be multiplexed into a light stream transmitted on a single optical fiber. Each channel carries a time division multiplexed (TDM) signal. In a system with each channel carrying 2.5 Gbps (billion bits per second), up to 200 billion bits can be delivered a second by the optical fiber. DWDM is also sometimes called wave division multiplexing (WDM). Since each channel is demultiplexed at the end of the transmission back into the original source, different data formats being transmitted at different data rates can be transmitted together. Specifically, Internet (IP) data, Synchronous Optical Network data (SONET), and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) data can all be traveling at the same time within the optical fiber. DWDM promises to solve the “fiber exhaust” problem and is expected to be the central technology in the all-optical networks of the future.

6.3 Data Transmission Control Circuits and Devices 6.3.1

Introduction

Within a digital computer or digital microcontroller, the data is internally transferred using a parallel format: all the bits of a byte or a memory word are exchanged simultaneously among registers, buses, ASIC, and components. However, for the data to be communicated over a serial channel, computer or controller it must convert the data from parallel to a serial bit stream. Some special hardware units including circuits or devices are therefore required to control the mutual translations between serial and parallel formats. This section lists a group of important hardware units for data transmission control. One important hardware unit for performing this functionality is universal receiver-transmitters that come in three types: universal asynchronous receiver–transmitter (UART), universal synchronous receiver– transmitter (USRT), and universal synchronous/asynchronous receiver– transmitter (USART). Other hardware units for data transmission control are some multiplexers and some modems. All these units may be built into computer or controller or added as part of an I/O interface board, or may consist of a single IC chip. Figure 6.16 is an example for their applications.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CPU

Bus

(Parallel data formats) USART

Serial data formats

Universal serial bus

Figure 6.16 An illustration for the application of the data transmission control circuits.

6.3.2 Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) 6.3.2.1 Applications and Types A UART is the microchip or integrated circuit with coded program that controls a computer (or controller, thereafter) interfaces to its attached serial devices. Specifically, it provides the computer or controller with the RS232 specified data terminal equipment (DTE) interface so that it can “talk” to and exchange data with modems and other serial devices. As part of this interface, the UART also includes the following: (1) Converts the bytes it receives from the computer along parallel circuits into a single-serial bit stream for outbound transmission; (2) On inbound transmission, converts the serial bit stream into the bytes that the computer handles; (3) Adds a parity bit (if it has been selected) on outbound transmissions and checks the parity of incoming bytes (if selected) and discards the parity bit; (4) Adds start and stop delineators on outbound and strips them from inbound transmissions; (5) Handles interrupt from the serial devices with special ports such as keyboard and mouse; (6) May handle other kinds of interrupt and device management that require coordinating the computer’s speed of operation with device speeds. More advanced UART provides some amount of data buffer so that the computer and serial devices data streams remain coordinated. The most recent UART, the 16550, has a 16-byte buffer that can get filled before the

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microprocessor needs to handle the data. The original UART was the 8250. For an internal modem today (2006), it probably includes a 16550 UART. According to modem manufacturer US Robotics, external modems do not include a UART. If you have an older computer, you may want to add an internal 16550 to get the most out of your external modem. Below is a listing of various UART chips. The 16550 chip series is the most commonly used UART. (1) 8250 UART was the original UART and was capable of speeds up to 9600 bps with a 1-byte FIFO. (2) 8250A UART was a revised version of the 8250 with an additional register that allowed software to verify it was an 8250 UART. (3) 16450 UART Slightly faster then earlier UART. (4) 16540 UART capable of speeds up to 9600 bps. (5) 16550 UART has a 16-byte FIFO. (6) 16550A UART had same features as previous 16550 UART with new fixes. (7) 16550AF UART had same features as previous 16550 UART with faster capabilities. (8) 16550AFN UART had same features as previous 16550 UART except was a ceramic chip. (9) 16650 UART has a 32-byte FIFO. (10) 16750 UART has a 64-byte FIFO. (11) 16950 UART has a 128-byte FIFO.

6.3.2.2

Mechanism and Components

As mentioned before, UART is commonly used with RS232 for embedded systems communications. It is useful to communicate between microcontrollers and also with PCs. Many chips provide UART functionality in silicon, and low-cost chips exist to convert UART to RS232 signals. Each UART contains a shift register that is the fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms. By convention, teletypestyle UARTs send a “start” bit, 5–8 data bits, least-significant-bit first, an optional “parity” bit, and then a “stop” bit. The start bit is the opposite polarity of the data-line’s normal state. The stop-bit is the data-line’s normal state, and provides a space before the next character can start. In mechanical teletypes, the “stop” bit was often stretched to two bit times to give the mechanism more time to finish printing a character. A stretched “stop” bit also helps resynchronization. The parity bit can either make the number of bits odd, or even, or it can be omitted. Odd parity is more

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reliable because it ensures that there will always be a data transition, and this permits many UARTs to resynchronize. The word “asynchronuous” indicates that UARTs recover character timing information from the data stream, using designated “start” and “stop” bits to indicate the framing of each character. An asynchronous transmission sends nothing over the interconnection when the transmitting device has nothing to send; but a synchronous interface must send “PAD” characters to maintain synchronism between the receiver and transmitter. The usual filler is the ASCII “SYN” character. This may be done automatically by the transmitting device. The UART usually does not directly generate or receive the voltage levels that are put onto the wires interconnecting different equipment. An interface standard is used, which defines voltage levels and other characteristics of the interconnection. Examples of interface standards are EIA, RS232, RS422, and RS485. Depending on the limits of the communication channel to which the UART is ultimately connected, communication may be “full duplex” (both send and receive at the same time) or “half duplex” (devices take turns transmitting and receiving). Beside traditional wires, the UART is used for communication over other serial channels such as an optical fiber, infrared, wireless Bluetooth in its Serial Port Profile (SPP), and the DC-LIN for power line communication. Speeds for UARTs are in bits per second (bit/s or bps) although often incorrectly called the baud rate. Standard mechanical teletype rates are 45.5, 110, and 150 bit/s. Computers have used from 110 to 230,400 bit/s. Standard speeds are 110, 300, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19,200, 28,800, 38,400, 57,600, and 115,200 bit/s. A UART chip usually contains the following components: (1) Transmit and Receive Buffer, (2) Transmit and Receive Control, (3) Data Bus Buffer, (4) Read and Write Control Logics, and (5) Modem Control.

6.3.3 Universal Synchronous Receiver Transmitter (USRT) USRT is a circuit capable of receiving and sending data without requiring a “start” and/or “stop” bit code, which is unlike the asynchronous procedure as mentioned in the last subsection for the UART. In synchronous transmission, the clock data is recovered separately from the data stream and no start/stop bits are used. This improves the efficiency of transmission on suitable channels; more of the bits sent are data. Both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions for the binary data will be discussed in detail in Section 6.4.

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6.3.4 Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART) USART chip is composed of logic circuits, which are connected by an internal data bus with a microprocessor or a CPU. These logic circuits are (1) read and write control logic circuits, (2) modem control circuits, (3) baud rate generator, (4) transmit buffer and transmit control circuits, and (5) receive buffer and receive control circuits. The CPU communicates with the USART over an 8-bit, or 16-bit, or 32-bit, or 64-bit and so on bidirectional data bus. The USART is programmable, meaning the CPU can control its mode of operation using data bus control and command words. The read/write control logic circuit then controls the operation of the USART as it performs specific asynchronous interfacing. Figure 6.17 is a diagram to display the pins of an USART.

6.3.4.1 Architecture and Components (1) Read/write control. The read/write control logic circuit accepts control signals from the control bus and command or control words from the data bus. The USART is set to an idle state by the RESET signal or control word. When the USART is “IDLE,” a new set of control words is required to program it for the applicable interface. The read/write control logic circuit receives a clock signal (CLK) that is used to generate internal device timing. D0-D7 Data bus (8 bits)

D2

1

28

D1

C/D

D3

2

27

D0

RxD

3

26

VCC

GND

4

25

RD WR CS

RxC

CLK

D4

5

24

DTR

Reset

D5

6

23

RTS

TxC

D6

7

D7

8

TxC

TxD

Control/data Read Write Chip select Clock pulse (TTL) Reset Transmitter clock Transmitter data Receiver clock

22

DSR

21

Reset

9

20

CLK

WR

10

RxRDY TxRDY

19

TxD

DSR

CS

11

18

TxEMPTY

C/D

12

17

CTS

RD

13

16

SYNDET

CTS

RxRDY

14

15

TxRDY

TxEMPTY Transmitter empty +s volt supply VCC

USART

RxC RxD

Receiver data Receiver ready Transmitter ready Data set ready

Data terminal ready DTR SYNDET Sync detect Request to send data RTS

GND

Clear to send data

Ground

Figure 6.17 The pins of an USART chip.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Four control signals are used to govern the read/write operations of the data bus buffer. They are as follows (Fig. 6.17): (a) The CHIP SELECT (CS) signal, when true, enables the USART for reading and writing operations. (b) The WRITE DATA (WD) signal, when true, indicates the microprocessor is placing data or control words on the data bus to the USART. (c) The READ DATA (RD) signal, when true, indicates the microprocessor is ready to receive data or status words from the USART. (d) The CONTROL/DATA (C/D) signal identifies the writeoperation transfer as data or control words, or the readoperation transfer as data or status words. (2) Modem control. The modem control logic circuit generates or receives four control or status signals used to simplify modem interfaces. They are as follows: (a) Data set ready (DSR). A data set ready is sent from the computer to the external device to notify the external device that the computer is ready to transmit data when it is HIGH. (b) Data terminal ready (DTR). A data terminal ready is sent from the external device to the computer to indicate that the external device is ready to receive data when it is HIGH. (c) Request to send (RTS). A request to send is sent from the external device to the computer to indicate that the external device is ready (HIGH) or busy (Low). (d) Clear to send (CTS). A clear to send is sent from the computer to the external device as a reply to the RTS signal. (3) Baud rate generator (BRG). The BRG supports both the asynchronous and synchronous modes of the USART. It is a dedicated 8-bit or more bits baud rate generator. The SPBRG register controls the period of a free running 8-bit timer. In asynchronous mode, bit BRGH (TXSTA) also controls the baud rate. In synchronous mode, bit BRGH is ignored. Table 6.1 shows the

Table 6.1 Baud Rate Formula SYNC 0 1

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BRGH = 0 (Low Speed) (Asynchronous) baud rate = FOSC/(64(X+1)) (Synchronous) baud rate = FOSC/(4(X+1))

BRGH = 1 (High Speed) Baud rate= FOSC/(16(X+1)) NA

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formula for computation of the baud rate for different USART modes which only apply in master mode (internal clock). Given the desired baud rate and the value in the register FOSC, the nearest integer value for the SPBRG register can be calculated using the formula in Table 6.1, where X equals the value in the SPBRG register (0–255). From this, the error in baud rate can be determined. (4) Transmit buffer/transmit control. The transmit control logic converts the data bytes stored in the transmit buffer into an asynchronous bit stream. The transmit control logic inserts the applicable start/stop and parity bits into the stream to provide the programmed protocol. A start bit is used to alert the output device, a printer for instance, to get ready for the actual character (bit). The signal is sent just before the beginning of the actual character coming down the line. A stop bit is sent to indicate the end of transmission. The parity bit is used as a means to detect errors; odd or even parity may be used. Figure 6.18 is the transmit block diagram for a USART chip. (5) Receive buffer/receive control. The receive control logic accepts the input bit stream and strips the protocol signals from the data bits. The data bits are converted into parallel bytes and stored in the receive buffer until transmitted to the microprocessor. Figure 6.19 is the receive block diagram for a USART chip.

8 bits

Data bus

TXREG register

TXIF

MSb LSb 8

LSb …………

0

TK/CK Pin

Pin buffer and control

Interrupt SPEN TXEN

Baud rate CLK TX9D

TX9

TRMT

SPBRG Baud rate generator

Figure 6.18 USART transmit block diagram.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Baud rate CLK CREN

FERR

OERR

SPBRG MSb

Baud rate generator

RSR register

Stop (8) 7

. . .

LSb 1 0

Start

RX/DT Pin buffer and control

SPEN

RX9

Data recovery

RCIF

RX9D

RCREG register FIFO

Interrupt RCIE

8 bits Data bus

Figure 6.19 USART receive block diagram.

6.3.4.2

Mechanism and Modes

The USART can be configured into the following modes: (1) Asynchronous (full duplex), (2) Synchronous—Master (half duplex), and (3) Synchronous—Slave (half duplex). (1) USART asynchronous mode. In this mode, the USART uses standard nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) format (one start bit, eight or nine data bits, and one stop bit). The most common data format is 8 bits (of course there can be more bits than 8). An on-chip dedicated 8-bit baud rate generator can be used to derive standard baud rate frequencies from the oscillator. The USART transmits and receives the LSb first. The USART transmitter and receiver are functionally independent but use the same data format and baud rate. The baud rate generator produces a clock either x16 or x64 of the bit shift rate, depending on the BRGH bit (TXSTA). Parity is not supported by the hardware, but can be implemented in software (stored as the ninth data bit). Asynchronous mode is stopped during SLEEP. Asynchronous mode is selected by clearing the SYNC bit (TXSTA). The USART asynchronous module consists of the following important elements: (1) Baud Rate Generator, (2) Sampling

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Circuit, (3) Asynchronous Transmitter, and (4) Asynchronous Receiver. (a) USART asynchronous transmitter. The USART transmitter block diagram is shown in Fig. 6.18. The heart of the transmitter is (serial) transmit shift register (TSR). The shift register obtains its data from the read/write transmit buffer, TXREG. The TXREG register is loaded with data in software. The TSR register is not loaded until the STOP bit has been transmitted from the previous load. As soon as the STOP bit is transmitted, the TSR is loaded with new data from the TXREG register (if available). Once the TXREG register transfers the data to the TSR register (occurs in one TCY), the TXREG register is empty and the TXIF flag bit is set. This interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing the TXIE enable bit. The TXIF flag bit will be set regardless of the state of the TXIE enable bit and cannot be cleared in software. It will reset only when new data is loaded into the TXREG register. While the TXIF flag bit indicates the status of the TXREG register, the TRMT bit (TXSTA) shows the status of the TSR register. The TRMT status bit is a read-only bit that is set when the TSR register is empty. No interrupt logic is tied to this bit, so the user has to poll this bit to determine if the TSR register is empty. Transmission is enabled by setting the TXEN enable bit (TXSTA). The actual transmission will not occur until the TXREG register has been loaded with data and the baud rate generator (BRG) has produced a shift clock (Fig. 6.18). The transmission can also be started by first loading the TXREG register and then setting the TXEN enable bit. Normally, when transmission is first started, the TSR register is empty, so a transfer to the TXREG register will result in an immediate transfer to TSR resulting in an empty TXREG. A backto-back transfer is thus possible. Steps to follow when setting up an asynchronous transmission: (i) Initialize the SPBRG register for the appropriate baud rate. If a high speed baud rate is desired, set the BRGH bit. (ii) Enable the asynchronous serial port by clearing the SYNC bit and setting the SPEN bit. (iii) If interrupts are desired, then set the TXIE, GIE, and PEIE bits. (iv) If 9-bit transmission is desired, then set the TX9 bit.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (v) Enable the transmission by setting the TXEN bit, which will also set the TXIF bit. (vi) If 9-bit transmission is selected; the ninth bit should be loaded in the TX9D bit. (vii) Load data to the TXREG register (starts transmission). (b) USART asynchronous receiver. The receiver block diagram is shown in Fig. 6.19. The data is received on the RX/DT pin and drives the data recovery block. The data recovery block is actually a high speed shifter operating at x16 times the baud rate, whereas the main receive serial shifter operates at the bit rate or at FOSC. Once asynchronous mode is selected, reception is enabled by setting the CREN bit (RCSTA). The heart of the receiver is (serial) receive shift register (RSR). After sampling the RX/TX pin for the STOP bit, the received data in the RSR is transferred to the RCREG register (if it is empty). If the transfer is complete, the RCIF flag bit is set. The actual interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing the RCIE enable bit. The RCIF flag bit is a read-only bit that is cleared by the hardware. It is cleared when the RCREG register has been read and is empty. The RCREG is a double buffered register, that is, it is a two deep FIFO. It is possible for two bytes of data to be received and transferred to the RCREG FIFO and a third byte to begin shifting to the RSR register. On the detection of the STOP bit of the third byte, if the RCREG register is still full then overrun error bit, OERR (RCSTA), will be set. The word in the RSR will be lost. The RCREG register can be read twice to retrieve the two bytes in the FIFO. The OERR bit has to be cleared in software. This is done by resetting the receive logic (the CREN bit is cleared and then set). If the OERR bit is set, transfers from the RSR register to the RCREG register are inhibited, so it is essential to clear the OERR bit if it is set. Framing error bit, FERR (RCSTA), is set if a stop bit is detected as a low level. The FERR bit and the 9th receive bit are buffered the same way as the receive data. Reading the RCREG will load the RX9D and FERR bits with new values, therefore it is essential for the user to read the RCSTA register before reading the next RCREG register not to lose the old (previous) information in the FERR and RX9D bits. Steps to follow when setting up an asynchronous reception: (i) Initialize the SPBRG register for the appropriate baud rate. If a high-speed baud rate is desired, set bit BRGH.

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(ii) Enable the asynchronous serial port by clearing the SYNC bit, and setting the SPEN bit. (iii) If interrupts are desired, then set the RCIE, GIE, and PEIE bits. (iv) If 9-bit reception is desired, then set the RX9 bit. (v) Enable the reception by setting the CREN bit. (vi) The RCIF flag bit will be set when reception is complete and an interrupt will be generated if the RCIE bit was set. (vii) Read the RCSTA register to get the ninth bit (if enabled) and determine if any error occurred during reception. (viii) Read the 8-bit received data by reading the RCREG register. (ix) If any error occurred, clear the error by clearing the CREN bit. (2) USART synchronous master mode. In Synchronous Master mode, the data is transmitted in a half-duplex manner in which transmission and reception do not occur at the same time. When transmitting data, the reception is inhibited and vice versa. Synchronous mode is entered by setting the SYNC bit (TXSTA). In addition, the SPEN enable bit (RCSTA) is set to configure the TX/CK and RX/DT I/O pins to CK (clock) and DT (data) lines, respectively. The Master mode indicates that the processor transmits the master clock on the CK line. The Master mode is entered by setting the CSRC bit (TXSTA). (a) USART synchronous master transmission. The USART transmitter block diagram is shown in Fig. 6.18. The heart of the transmitter is (serial) transmit shift register (TSR). The shift register obtains its data from the read/write transmit buffer register TXREG. The TXREG register is loaded with data in software. The TSR register is not loaded until the last bit has been transmitted from the previous load. As soon as the last bit is transmitted, the TSR is loaded with new data from the TXREG (if available). Once the TXREG register transfers the data to the TSR register, the TXREG is empty and the TXIF interrupt flag bit is set. The interrupt can be set into enabled/disabled by setting/clearing enable the TXIE bit. The TXIF flag bit will be set regardless of the state of the TXIE enable bit and cannot be cleared in software. It will reset only when new data is loaded into the TXREG register. While the TXIF flag bit indicates the status of the TXREG register, the TRMT bit (TXSTA) shows the status of the TSR

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY register. The TRMT bit is a read-only bit that is set when the TSR is empty. No interrupt logic is tied to this bit, so the user has to poll this bit to determine if the TSR register is empty. The TSR is not mapped in data memory so it is not available to the user. Steps to follow when setting up a synchronous master transmission are (i) Initialize the SPBRG register for the appropriate baud rate. (ii) Enable the synchronous master serial port by setting the SYNC, SPEN, and CSRC bits. (iii) If interrupts are desired, then set the TXIE bit. (iv) If 9-bit transmission is desired, then set the TX9 bit. (v) Enable the transmission by setting the TXEN bit. (vi) If 9-bit transmission is selected, the ninth bit should be loaded in the TX9D bit. (vii) Start transmission by loading data to the TXREG register. (b) USART synchronous master reception. Once synchronous mode is selected, reception is enabled by setting either of the SREN (RCSTA) or CREN (RCSTA) bits. Data is sampled on the RX/DT pin on the falling edge of the clock. If the SREN bit is set, then only a single word is received. If the CREN bit is set, the reception is continuous until the CREN bit is cleared. If both bits are set, then the CREN bit takes precedence. After clocking the last serial data bit, the received data in the receive shift register (RSR) is transferred to the RCREG register (if it is empty). When the transfer is complete, the RCIF interrupt flag bit is set. The actual interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing the RCIE enable bit. The RCIF flag bit is a read-only bit that is cleared by the hardware. In this case, it is cleared when the RCREG register has been read and is empty. The RCREG is a double buffered register, which means that it is a two deep FIFO. It is possible for two bytes of data to be received and transferred to the RCREG FIFO and a third byte to begin shifting into the RSR register. On the clocking of the last bit of the third byte, if the RCREG register is still full then overrun error bit. Steps to follow when setting up a synchronous master reception are (i) Initialize the SPBRG register for the appropriate baud rate. (ii) Enable the synchronous master serial port by setting the SYNC, SPEN, and CSRC bits. (iii) Ensure that the CREN and SREN bits are clear.

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(iv) If interrupts are desired, then set the RCIE bit. (v) If 9-bit reception is desired, then set the RX9 bit. (vi) If a single reception is required, set the SREN bit. For continuous reception set the CREN bit. (vii) The RCIF bit will be set when reception is complete and an interrupt will be generated if the RCIE bit was set. (viii) Read the RCSTA register to get the ninth bit (if enabled) and determine if any error occurred during reception. (ix) Read the 8-bit received data by reading the RCREG register. (x) If any error occurred, clear the error by clearing the CREN bit. (3) USART synchronous slave mode. Synchronous slave mode differs from the synchronous master mode in that the shift clock is supplied externally at the TX/CK pin (instead of being supplied internally in master mode). This allows the device to transfer or receive data while in SLEEP mode. Slave mode is entered by clearing the CSRC bit (TXSTA). (a) USART synchronous slave transmit. The transmit operation of both the synchronous master and slave modes are identical except in the case of the SLEEP mode. If two words are written to the TXREG and then the SLEEP instruction is executed, the following will occur: (1) the first word will immediately transfer to the TSR register and transmit. (2) The second word will remain in TXREG register. (3) The TXIF flag bit will not be set. (4) When the first word has been shifted out of TSR, the TXREG register will transfer the second word to the TSR and the TXIF flag bit will now be set. (5) If the TXIE enable bit is set, the interrupt will wake the chip from SLEEP and if the global interrupt is enabled, the program will branch to the interrupt vector (0004h). Steps to follow when setting up a synchronous slave transmission are the following: (i) Enable the synchronous slave serial port by setting the SYNC and SPEN bits and clearing the CSRC bit. (ii) Clear the CREN and SREN bits. (iii) If interrupts are desired, then set the TXIE enable bit. (iv) If 9-bit transmission is desired, then set the TX9 bit. (v) Enable the transmission by setting the TXEN enable bit. (vi) If 9-bit transmission is selected, the ninth bit should be loaded into the TX9D bit. (vii) Start transmission by loading data to the TXREG register.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (b) USART synchronous slave reception. The receive operation of both the synchronous master and slave modes is identical except in the case of the SLEEP mode. Also, bit SREN is a do not care in slave mode. If receive is enabled, by setting the CREN bit, before the SLEEP instruction, then a word may be received during SLEEP. On completely receiving the word, the RSR register will transfer the data to the RCREG register and if the RCIE enable bit is set, the interrupt generated will wake the chip from SLEEP. If the global interrupt is enabled, the program will branch to the interrupt vector (0004h). Steps to follow when setting up a synchronous slave reception are the following: (i) Enable the synchronous master serial port by setting the SYNC and SPEN bits and clearing the CSRC bit. (ii) If interrupts are desired, then set the RCIE enable bit. (iii) If 9-bit reception is desired, then set the RX9 bit. (iv) To enable reception, set the CREN enable bit. (v) The RCIF bit will be set when reception is complete and an interrupt will be generated, if the RCIE bit was set. (vi) Read the RCSTA register to get the ninth bit (if enabled) and determine if any error occurred during reception. (vii) Read the 8-bit received data by reading the RCREG register. (viii) If any error occurred, clear the error by clearing the CREN bit.

6.3.5

Bit-Oriented Protocol Circuits

Bit-oriented protocol represents a class of data link layer communication protocols that can transmit frames regardless of frame content. Unlike byte-oriented protocols, bit-oriented protocols provide full-duplex operation and are more efficient and reliable. However, the byte-oriented protocols use a specific character from the user character set to delimit frames in data-link communications. Today, the byte-oriented protocol circuits have largely been replaced by bit-oriented protocols. In today’s applications, there are two types of controllers that can perform the bit-oriented protocol: the SDLC controller and the HDLC controller. Figure 6.20 is a block diagram for both SDLC and HDL controllers.

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6: DATA COMMUNICATIONS IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM sfrdatal

Shift register

CRC checker

Flag detection

Bit stripping

Data decoder

719 rxd

sfrdatao Receive

sfraddr

FIFO

sfrwe

Data

Address detection

Receive frame sequencer

Clock recovery

rxc

sfrra SFR

Internal signals

tv re rv

Data

ptv

FIFO

Transmit frame sequencer

txc

Transmit den

pre prv

Shift register

CRC generator

Bit stuffing

Flag insertion

Data encoder

txd

Figure 6.20 A block diagram for SDLC and HDLC controllers.

6.3.5.1

SDLC Controller

Synchronous data link control (SDLC) supposes an IBM protocol for use in systems network architecture (SNA) environment. SDLC is a bitoriented protocol. The SDLC controller supports a variety of link types and topologies. It can be used with point-to-point and multipoint links, bounded and unbounded media, half-duplex and full-duplex transmission facilities, and circuit-switched and packet-switched networks. The SDLC frame appears in Fig. 6.21. As the figure shows, SDLC frames are bounded by a unique flag pattern. The address field always contains the address of the secondary involved in the current communication. Because the primary is either the communication source or destination, there is no need to include the address of the primary: it is already known by all secondaries. The control field uses three different formats, depending on the type of SDLC frame used. The three SDLC frames are described as follows: (1) Information (I) frames. These frames carry upper-layer information and some control information. Send and receive sequence numbers and the poll final (P/F) bit perform flow and error control. The send sequence number refers to the number of the

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Field length, 1 in bytes Flag

1 or 2

1 or 2

Variable

2

1

Address

Control

Data

FCS

Flag

Information frame format Receive sequence number

Poll final

Send sequence number

0

Supervisory frame format Receive sequence number

Poll final

Function code

0 1

Unnumbered frame format Function code

Poll final

Function code

1 1

Figure 6.21 SDLC frame format.

frame to be sent next. The receive sequence number provides the number of the frame to be received next. Both the sender and the receiver maintain send and receive sequence numbers. The primary uses the P/F bit to tell the secondary whether it requires an immediate response. The secondary uses this bit to tell the primary whether the current frame is the last in its current response. (2) Supervisory (S) frames. These frames provide control information. They request and suspend transmission, report on status, and acknowledge the receipt of I frames. They do not have an information field. (3) Unnumbered (U) frames. These frames, as the name suggests, are not sequenced. They are used for control purposes. For example, they are used to initialize secondaries. Depending on the function of the unnumbered frame, its control field is 1 or 2 bytes. Some unnumbered frames have an information field. The frame check sequence (FCS) precedes the ending flag delimiter. The FCS is usually a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) calculation remainder. The CRC calculation is redone in the receiver. If the result differs from the value in the sender’s frame, an error is assumed.

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6.3.5.2

721

HDLC Controller

High-level data link control (HDLC) is an ISO communications protocol used in X.25 packet switching networks. It is a bit-oriented data link control procedure under which all data transfer takes place in frames. Each frame ends with a frame check sequence for error detection. HDLC shares the frame format of SDLC, and HDLC fields provide the same functionality as those in SDLC. Also, like SDLC, HDLC supports synchronous, full-duplex operation. HDLC differs from SDLC in several minor ways. First, HDLC has an option for a 32-bit or more bits checksum. And, unlike SDLC, HDLC does not support the loop or hub go-ahead configurations. The major difference between HDLC and SDLC is that SDLC supports only one transfer mode, while HDLC supports three. The three HDLC transfer modes are as follows: (1) Normal response mode (NRM). This transfer mode is used by SDLC. In this mode, secondaries cannot communicate with a primary until the primary has given permission. (2) Asynchronous response mode (ARM). This transfer mode allows secondaries to initiate communication with a primary without receiving permission. (3) Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM). ABM introduces the combined node. A combined node can act as a primary or a secondary, depending on the situation. All ABM communication is between multiple combined nodes. In ABM environments, any combined station may initiate data transmission without permission from any other station.

6.3.6

Multiplexers

A multiplexer, sometimes simply referred to as “mux,” is a device that selects between a number of input signals. In its simplest form, a multiplexer will have two signal inputs, one control input, and one output. An everyday example of a multiplexer is the source selection control on a home stereo unit. Multiplexers are used in building digital semiconductors such as CPUs and graphics controllers. In these applications, the number of inputs is generally a multiple of 2 (2, 4, 8, 16, etc.), the number of outputs is either 1 or a relatively smaller multiple of 2, and the number of control signals is related to the combined number of inputs and outputs. For example, a 2-input, 1-output multiplexer requires only one control signal to select the

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input, while a 16-input, 4-output multiplexer requires four control signals to select the input and two to select the output. Multiplexers are mainly categorized into these types based on the working mechanisms described in Section 6.2.3. In these types below, the timedivision multiplexer is more complex, and the digital multiplexer is more important in applications. (1) (2) (3) (4)

6.3.6.1

Analog multiplexer Digital multiplexer Time-division multiplexer Fiber optic multiplexer.

Digital Multiplexer

In the designations of digital ICs, the multiplexer is a device that has multiple input streams and only one output stream. It forwards one of the input streams to the output stream based on the values of one or more “selection inputs” or control inputs. For example, a digital multiplexer of two inputs is a simple connection of logic gates whose output is either input I0 or input I1 depending on the value of a third input Sel which selects the input. Its Boolean equation is “Out = (I0 and Sel) or (I1 and not Sel).” The logics of this multiplexser can be expressed as Fig. 6.22, and its truth table is given in Table 6.2. Larger digital multiplexers are also common. Figure 6.23 is a single bit 4-to-1 line digital multiplexer. Its logic is also expressed by the circuit diagram and the truth table in Fig. 6.23. On the other hand, demultiplexers take one data input and a number of selection inputs, and they have several outputs. They forward the data input to one of the outputs, depending on the values of the selection inputs. Demultiplexers are sometimes convenient for designing general purpose logic, because if the demultiplexer’s input is always true, the demultiplexer acts as a decoder. This means that any function of the selection bits can be constructed by logically OR-ing the correct set of outputs. I0

I0

out

out I1

I1 sel

sel

Figure 6.22 A two-input digital multiplexer.

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Table 6.2 A Digit Multiplexer Truth Table I0

I1

Sel

Out

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 (pick B) 0 (pick A) 1 (pick B) 0 (pick A) 0 (pick B) 1 (pick A) 1 (pick B) 1 (pick A)

6.3.6.2 Time Division Multiplexer (TDM) Time division multiplexers (TDM) share transmission time on an information channel among many data sources. Performance specifications for TDM include number of channels, maximum data rate, wavelength range, operating voltage, optical output, electrical output, data transmission type, and data interface. Additional features may also be available. One of the key choices in choosing TDM is the selection of the transfer mode that will be used. Synchronous transfer mode is a communications mode in which data signals are sent at precise intervals that are regulated by a system clock. Additional “start” and “stop” pulses are not required. Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a connection-oriented protocol that uses very short, fixed-length (53 bytes) packets called cells to carry voice, data, and video signals. By using a standard cell size, ATM can use software for data switching. Consequently, ATM can route and switch traffic at higher speeds. An asynchronous and or synchronous time division multiplexer is capable of both asynchronous and synchronous transfer modes. There are three cable choices for TDM. Single-mode optical fiber cable allows only one mode to propagate. The fiber has a very small core diameter of approximately 8 µm. It permits signal transmission at extremely high bandwidths and allows very long transmission distances. Multimode fiber optic cable supports the propagation of multiple modes. Multimode fiber may have a typical core diameter of 50–00 µm with a refractive index that is graded or stepped. It allows the use of inexpensive LED light sources. Connector alignment and coupling is less critical than with single mode fiber. Distances of transmission and transmission bandwidth are also less than with single mode fiber due to dispersion. Single-mode/multimode

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY S1

S0

A sigle bit 4-to-1 line multiplexer 2-to-4 line decoder

I0 I1 F

I2 I3

Truth tabel S1 S0 I3 I2 I1 I0 F 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

S1 S0 I3 I2 I1 I0 F 0 1

0 0 0 0 0

S1 S0 I3 I2 I1 I0 F 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

S1 S0 I3 I2 I1 I0 F 1 1

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

1 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0 0

1 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

Figure 6.23 A single bit 4-to-1 line digital multiplexer.

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time division multiplexers can be used with both single mode and multimode cable types.

6.4 Data Transmission Protocols 6.4.1

Introduction

As has been mentioned, data are normally transmitted between two devices in multiples of a fixed-length unit, typically of 8 bits. For example, when a terminal is communicating with a computer, each typed (keyed) character is normally encoded into an 8-bit binary value and the complete message is then made up of a string (block) of similarly encoded characters. Since each character is transmitted bit serially, the receiving device receives one of two signal levels that vary according to the bit pattern (and hence character string) making up the message. For the receiving device to decode and interpret this bit pattern correctly, it must know (1) the bit rate being used, that is, the time duration of each bit cell, (2) the start and end of each element (character or byte), and (3) the start and end of each complete message block or frame. These three factors are known as bit or clock synchronism, byte or character synchronism, and block or frame synchronism, respectively. Synchronization is almost the traditional approach to data communication. In general, synchronization is accomplished in one of two ways, which rely on whether the transmitter and receiver clocks are synchronized. If the data to be transmitted are made up of a string of characters with random (possibly long) time intervals between each character, then each character is normally transmitted independently and the receiver resynchronizes at the start of each new character received. For this type of communication, asynchronous transmission is normally used. If, however, the data to be transmitted are made up of complete blocks of data each containing, say, multiple bytes or characters, the transmitter and receiver clocks must be in synchronism over long intervals, and hence synchronous transmission is normally used. These two types of transmission will now be considered separately. A more advanced communication protocol is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), which is an open, international standard for the transmission of voice, video, and data signals. Some advantages of ATM include a format that consists of short, fixed cells (53 bytes) that reduce overhead in maintenance of variable-sized data traffic. The versatility of this mode also allows it to simulate and integrate well with legacy technologies, as well

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as offering the ability to guarantee certain service levels, generally referred to as quality of service (QoS) parameters.

6.4.2

Asynchronous Transmission

Asynchronous transmission is primarily used when the data to be transmitted are generated at random intervals. With this type of communication, each character is transmitted at an indeterminate rate, with possibly long random time intervals between each successive typed character. This means that the signal on the transmission line will be in the idle (OFF) state for long time intervals. Therefore, it is necessary in this type of communication for the receiver to be able to resynchronize at the start of each new character received. To accomplish this, each transmitted character or, more generally, item of user data, is encapsulated or framed between an additional start bit and one or more stop bits, as shown in Fig. 6.24. As can be seen from Fig. 6.24, the polarity of the start and stop bits is different. This ensures that there is always a minimum of one transition (1 to 0 to 1) between each successive character, irrespective of the bit sequences in the characters being transmitted. The first l–0 transition after an idle period is then used by the receiving device to determine the start of each new character. In addition, by utilizing a clock whose frequency is N-times higher than the transmitted bit rate frequency (N = 16 is typical), the receiving device can reliably determine the state of each transmitted bit in the character by sampling the received signal approximately at the center of each bit cell period. This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 6.24 and will be discussed further in the following.

6.4.2.1

Bit Synchronization

Asynchronous transmission does not use a clocking mechanism to keep the sending and receiving devices synchronized. Instead, this type of Start bit(s) Line idle

1

Stop bit(s) Line idle

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

lsb

msb

Time

8-bit character Receiver detects Start of new character

Each bit is sampled in its centre

Stop bit(s) ensures a transition for next

Figure 6.24 Asynchronous transmission.

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transmission uses bit synchronization to synchronize the devices for each frame that is transmitted. In bit synchronization, each frame begins with a start bit that enables the receiving device to adjust to the timing of the transmitted signal. Messages are kept short so that the sending and receiving devices do not drift out of synchronization for the duration of the message. Asynchronous transmission is most frequently used to transmit character data and is ideally suited to environments in which characters are transmitted at irregular intervals, such as when users enter character data. On the bit-level (OSI level one), physical layer uses synchronous bit transmission. This enhances the transmitting capacity but also means that a sophisticated method of bit synchronization is required. While bit synchronization in an asynchronous character-oriented transmission is performed on the reception of the start bit available with each character, in a synchronous transmission protocol there is just one start bit available at the beginning of a frame. To enable the receiver to correctly read the messages, continuous resynchronization is required. Phase buffer segments are therefore inserted before and after the nominal sample point within a bit interval. Two types of synchronization are distinguished, which are the hard synchronization at the start of a frame and resynchronization within a frame. After a hard synchronization, the bit time is restarted at the end of the sync segment. Therefore, the edge, which caused the hard synchronization, lies within the sync segment of the restarted bit time. Resynchronization shortens or lengthens the bit time so that the sample point is shifted according to the detected edge.

6.4.2.2

Character Synchronization

The asynchronous format for data transmission is a procedure or protocol in which each character is individually synchronized or framed. The structure of an asynchronous frame consists of four key bit components. (1) A start bit or bits. This component signals that a frame is starting and enables the receiving device to synchronize itself with the message. (2) Data bits. This component consists of a group of seven or eight bits when character data is being transmitted. (3) A parity bit. This component is optionally used as a crude method of detecting transmission errors. (4) A stop bit or bits. This component signals the end of the data frame.

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At the receiver, a clock of the same nominal frequency is constructed and used to clock-in the data to the receive shift register. Only data that are bounded by the correct start and stop bits are accepted. This operation is normally performed by using a UART. The receiver is started by detecting the edge of the first start bit as shown in Fig. 6.25. The reconstructed receive clock is normally generated using a local stable high rate clock, frequently operating at 16 or 32 times the intended data rate. Clock generation proceeds by detecting the edge of the start bit and counting sufficient clock cycles from the high frequency clock to identify the mid position of the start bit. From there the center of the successive bits is located by counting cycles corresponding to the original data speed. Figure 6.25 shows this reconstruction of the clock. (1) Character format. Most communications equipment will require a specific number of bits to be in each data character or byte, depending on the equipment, the protocol, and the type of information that is to be transmitted. Each bit may be set to a binary value of either 1 or 0. A group of 4 bits is referred to as a digit. This group of 4 bits provides 16 different patterns that are referred to as hexadecimal notation. The basic hexadecimal notation allows a single 4-bit digit or symbol to represent 16 different values: 0–15. The relative position of each bit will determine the value that is assigned to the specific bit which, in turn, will determine the value of the digit. The combination of two 4-bit digits will form an 8-bit “character” or “byte” that may be processed and displayed as a symbol. Most of the existing equipment now uses a character or byte that contains 8 bits, consisting of two 4-bit digits that represent a specific symbol, letter, number, or function depending upon the

Half bit period

Bits sampled

Data

Reconstructed clock

Clock at 16X Data rate

Figure 6.25 The transition from the idle state triggers the UART at the receiver to start reception. Reconstruction of the clock by matching of phase to the transmitted data to the local stable high rate clock.

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729

type of translation (Code-Set) used. The digits are referred to as belonging to a column and a row as presented on many code translation charts. The number of data bits per character may be 5, 6, 7, or 8. The most commonly used 8-bit format uses 7 data bits with the 8th bit, referred to as the “parity bit,” reserved for errorchecking purposes. This type of error checking is called “Parity Checking.” One of the most commonly used methods is to transmit the least-significant bit (LSB) first and the parity bit last, following the most-significant bit (MSB) of data. Figure 6.24 also gives a format of asynchronous character. One of the most commonly used transaction or code-sets used with this format is the 7-data-bit ASCII plus 1-parity-bit. Other code sets that may use character parity are BAUDOT and EBCD. (2) Character parity. The parity bit is used to establish the number of bits that are set to the value of 1. Some common character parity algorithms are identified as follows: (a) EVEN. The EVEN parity algorithm specifies that the character must have an EVEN number of 1 bits. Referred to as “7 EVEN” (7-E). (b) ODD. The ODD parity algorithm specifies that the character must have an ODD number of 1 bits. Referred to as “7 ODD” (7-O). (c) SPACE. The SPACE parity algorithm specifies that the parity bit of the character must have a value of 0, the “space” condition. This is referred to as “7 SPACE” (7-S). (d) MARK. The MARK parity algorithm specifies that the parity bit of the character must have a value of 1, the “mark” condition. This is referred to as “7 MARK” (7-M). (e) NONE. Some procedures will use all 8 bits for data or may not provide error checking. Therefore, NONE of the bits is used for parity and all 8 bits are considered to be data. This technique is referred to as “EIGHT NONE” (8-N). Character parity is also referred to as “vertical parity.” The vertical parity error-checking algorithms will report an error if the character does not contain the correct number of 1 bits in the correct positions. This is displayed by a BAR through the parityflawed character. (3) Transmission speeds and timing. Transmission speeds are expressed in the number of bits that are transmitted per unit of time, usually in bits per second (bps). The flow of the number of characters per second is dependent on the number of bits required to form one character.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY The accuracy of the bit times is very critical: all bit times must remain within a narrow range to ensure accurate and error-free communications. The allowable bit-time variation is normally less than 3%. The sending data terminal equipment (DTE) must generate the bit timing using a very precise internal clock, usually crystal controlled, so that all bit times are of equal duration and operate at a constant repetition rate. The receiving DTE must use the same defined normal bittiming clock speed as the sending DTE; these two clocks must be operating at the same or matched speed. The receiving DTE will sense the beginning of the start bit and then sample each succeeding bit near the optimum center of the bit time. The receiving DTE sample timing or STROBE is generated by using another internal clock, usually operating at speeds 16 or 32 times as fast as the normal bit-timing clock. Some common speeds with the corresponding bit times and character rates are listed in Table 6.3.

6.4.2.3

Frame Synchronization

An asynchronous link communicates data has a series of characters of fixed size and format, which is shown in Fig. 6.26. In fact, there need be Table 6.3 Transmit Speeds and Their Timing Speed (bps) 110 150 300 600 1200 2400 3600 4800 9600 19200 48000 56000 64000

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Bit Time 9.09 ms 6.666 ms 3.333 ms 1.666 ms 833 µs 416 µs 278 µs 208 µs 104 µs 52 µs 21 µs 18 µs 16 µs

Character Rate (cps) 10 bit

11 bit

8 bit (SYNC)

11 15 30 60 120 240 360 480 960 1920 4800 5600 6400

10 13.6 27.3 54.5 109.1 218.2 327.3 436.4 872.7 1745.5 4363.6 5090.1 5818.2

14 19 37.5 75 150 300 450 600 1200 2400 6000 7000 8000

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no timing relationship between successive characters (or bytes of data). Individual characters may be separated by any arbitrary idle period. When asynchronous transmission is used to support packet data links (e.g., the Internet), then special characters have to be used (“framing”) to indicate the start and end of each frame transmitted. One character (none as an escape character) is reserved to mark any occurrence of the special characters within the frame. In this way the receiver is able to identify which characters are part of the frame and which are part of the “framing.” Packet communication over asynchronous links is used by some users to get access to a network using a modem. (1) Block mode transmission. Characters may be linked together or stored in a memory buffer and then transmitted in one contiguous string where the stop bit of one character is immediately followed by the start bit of the next character. This contiguous string of characters is referred to as a “transmission block.” The transmission block may use special characters to provide control functions and to act as delimiters to assist in the flowcontrol and error-recovery procedures. These special characters are referred to as control characters and normally provide a standard set of controls and functions. Some equipment and protocols may modify the use and functions of the control characters for unique circumstances. (2) Control characters and functions. There are many characters that are used for specific functions, the control of the flow of data, the control of the associated devices, and error reporting. Table 6.4 is a list of the more commonly used control characters and their standard functions. (3) Transmission block (message). The normal message or transmission block consists of a beginning, the data or text, and an ending. The beginning of a message is indicated by the SOH or the STX characters. The header or text will follow the respective characters. The END of the data or text is indicated by the ETX or the ETB characters. The block mode transmission protocol may provide error detection on each character with the use of character parity, also Char

Char

Char

Char Time

5-8 bits of data

Any idle period

Figure 6.26 Asynchronous transmission of a series of characters.

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Table 6.4 Control Characters Control Character NULL = SOH = STX = ETX = EOT = ENQ = ACK = BEL = BS = HT = LF = VT = FF = CR = SO = SI = DLE = DC1 = DC2 = DC3 = DC4 = NAK = SYN = ETB = CAN = EM = SUB = ESC = FS = GS = RS = US = DEL =

Hex 7—E

Hex 7—O

Hex 8—N

0-0 8-0 8-2 0-3 8-4 0-5 0-6 8-7 8-8 0-9 0-A 8-B 0-C 8-D 8-E 0-F 9-0 1-1 1-2 9-3 1-4 9-5 9-6 1-7 1-8 9-9 9-A 1-B 9-C 1-D 1-E 9-F F-f

1-0 0-1 0-2 8-3 0-4 8-5 8-6 0-7 0-8 8-9 8-A 0-B 8-C 0-D 0-E 9-F 1-0 9-1 9-2 1-3 9-4 1-5 1-6 9-7 9-8 1-9 1-A 9-B 1-C 9-D 9-E 1-F 7-F

0-0 0-1 0-2 0-3 0-4 0-5 0-6 0-7 0-8 0-9 0-A 0-B 0-C 0-D 0-E 0-F 1-0 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-a 1-B 1-C 1-D 1-E 1-F F-F

Description or Function Null or pad character Start of header Start of text End of text Transmission Enquiry Acknowledgment BELl or alarm character Back space character Horizontal tabulation Line feed Vertical tabulation Form feed or top of form Carriage return Shift out Shift in Data link escape Device control 1—Reader on Device control 2—Punch on Device control 3—Reader off Device control 4—Punch off Negative acknowledgment Synchronizing character (SYNC) End of transmission block Cancel End of media Substitute character Escape character File separator Group separator Record separator Unit separator Delete or trailing PAD

referred to as VRC or vertical parity. The block mode may also include the entire message in an error detection procedure that is referred to as a block check or longitudinal redundancy check (LRC) also referred to as the horizontal parity.

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The character parity and block check procedure is designed to ensure that all of the bits that are sent by the transmission device are correctly received by the receiving device. There are several algorithms that may be used that may provide different levels of accuracy or validity. Figure 6.27 gives a format of a message in asynchronous transmission.

6.4.3

Synchronous Transmission

With synchronous transmission, the complete block or frame of data is transmitted as a single bit stream with no delay between each element of 8-, 16-, 32-, or more bits. To enable the receiving device to achieve the various levels of synchronization: the transmitted bit stream is suitably encoded so that the receiver can be kept in bit synchronism; all frames are preceded by one or more reserved bytes or characters to ensure the receiver reliably interprets the received bit stream on the correct byte or character boundaries (byte/character/synchronization); and the contents of each frame is encapsulated between a pair of reserved bytes or characters. The synchronous transmission ensures that the receiver, on receipt of the opening byte or character after an idle period, can determine that a new frame is being transmitted and, on receipt of the closing byte or character, that this signals the end of the frame. During the period between the transmissions of successive frames either idle (sync) bytes or characters are continuously transmitted to allow the receiver to retain bit and byte synchronism, or each frame is preceded by one or more special synchronizing bytes or characters to allow the receiver to regain synchronism. This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 6.28. Although the type of framing (character or block) is often used to discriminate between asynchronous and synchronous transmission, the fundamental difference between the two methods is that with asynchronous transmission the transmitter and receiver clocks are unsynchronized while with synchronous transmission both clocks are synchronized. There are two alternative ways of organizing a synchronous data link: character (or byte) oriented and bit oriented. The essential difference between these two methods is in the way the start and end of a frame is

SOH

HEADER

STX

Text or data message . . . . .

BCC

This portion of transmission is protected by BCC

Figure 6.27 A format of an asynchronous message.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Transmitted frame

1

0

0

0

1

Transmitting

0

0

0 Time

Frame contents Sync bytes or characters

Start of frame Byte or character(s)

End of Sync bytes frame or characters Byte or character(s)

Figure 6.28 Synchronous transmission.

determined. With a bit-oriented system, it is possible for the receiver to detect the end of a frame at any bit instant and not just on an 8-bit (byte) boundary. This implies that a frame may be N bits in length where N is an arbitrary number. Both character oriented and bit oriented will be described here.

6.4.3.1

Bit Synchronization

With synchronous transmission, start and stop bits are not used. Instead, each frame is transmitted as a contiguous stream of binary digits. It is necessary, therefore, to utilize a different clock (bit) synchronization method. One approach, of course, is to have two pairs of lines between the transmitter and receiver, one to carry the transmitted bit stream and the other to carry the associated clock (timing) signal. The receiver could then utilize the latter to clock the incoming bit stream into, say, the receiver register within the USRT. In practice, however, this is very rarely possible, since if a switched telephone network is used, for example, only a single pair of lines is normally available. Two alternative methods are used to overcome this dilemma: (1) either the clocking information (signal) is embedded into the transmitted bit stream and subsequently extracted by the receiver, or (2) the information to be transmitted is encoded in such a way that there are sufficient guaranteed transitions in the transmitted bit stream to synchronize a separate clock held at the receiver. Both of these approaches will now be considered. An alternative approach to encoding the clock in the transmitted bit stream is to utilize a stable clock source at the receiver, which is kept in time synchronism with the incoming bit stream. However, as there are no

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start and stop bits with a synchronous transmission scheme, it is necessary to encode the information in such a way that there are always sufficient bit transitions (1 to 0 or 0 to 1) in the transmitted waveform to enable the receiver clock to be resynchronized at frequent intervals. One approach is to pass the data to be transmitted through a scrambler that has the effect of randomizing the transmitted bit stream and hence removing contiguous strings of 1s or 0s. Alternatively, the data may be encoded in such a way that suitable transitions are always naturally present. The bit pattern to be transmitted is first encoded as shown in Fig. 6.29, the resulting encoded signal being referred to as a nonreturn-to-zeroinverted (NRZI) waveform. With NRZI encoding (also known as differential encoding), the transmission of a binary 1 does not change the signal level (1 or 0), whereas a binary 0 does cause a change. This means that there will always be bit transitions in the incoming signal of an NRZI waveform, providing there are no contiguous streams of binary 1s. On the surface, this may seem no different from the normal NRZ waveform but, as was described previously, if a bit-oriented scheme with zero bit insertion is adopted, an active line will always have a binary 0 in the transmitted bit stream at least every five bit cells. Consequently, the resulting waveform will contain a guaranteed number of transitions, since long strings of 0s cause a transition to every bit cell, and this enables the receiver to adjust its clock so that it is in synchronism with the incoming bit stream. The circuit used to maintain bit synchronism is known as a digital phaselocked loop (DPLL). To utilize a DPLL, a crystal-controlled oscillator (clock source), which can hold its frequency sufficiently constant to require only very small adjustments at irregular intervals, is connected to the DPLL. Typically, the frequency of the clock is 32 times, the bit rate used on the data link and this in turn is used by the DPLL to derive the timing interval between successive samples of the received bit stream. Hence, assuming that the incoming bit stream and the local clock are in synchronism, the state (1 or 0) of the incoming signal on the line will be sampled

Bit stream

1

0

0

1

1

1

0

1

NRZ waveform NRZI waveform

Figure 6.29 NRZI (differential) encoding.

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(clocked) at the center of each bit cell with exactly 32 clock periods between samples. This is shown in Fig. 6.30(a). Now assume that the incoming bit stream and local clock drift are out of synchronism. The adjustment of the sampling instant is carried out in discrete increments as shown in Fig. 6.30(b). If there are no transitions on the line, the DPLL simply generates a sampling pulse every 32 clock periods after the previous one. Whenever a transition (1 to 0 or 0 to 1) is detected, however, the time interval between the previously generated sampling pulse and the next is determined according to the position of the transition relative to where the DPLL thought it should occur. To achieve this, each bit period is divided into four quadrants, shown as A, B, C, and D in the figure. Each quadrant is equal to eight clock periods and if, for example, a transition occurs during quadrant A, this indicates that the last sampling pulse (a) Actual/assumed transitions Received bit stream

Generated sampling (clock) pulser

32 clocks

32 clocks Actual transitions possibilities

(b) Assumed transitions

32 ×CLK

32 clocks Generated sampling (clock) pulses

30 clocks 31 clocks 32 clocks 33 clocks 34 clocks

32−2 31−2 32 32+1 32+2

Quadrants A B C D clock adjustments −2 −1 +1 +2 + –

Figure 6.30 DPLL operation: (a) in phase; (b) clock adjustment rules.

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was in fact too close and hence late. The time period to the next pulse is therefore shortened to 30 clock periods. Similarly, if a transition occurs in quadrant D, this indicates that the previous sampling pulse was too early. The time period to the next pulse is therefore lengthened to 34 clock periods. Transitions in quadrants B and C are clearly nearer to the assumed transition and, hence, the relative adjustments are less (–1 and +1, respectively). Clearly, a transition at the assumed transition will result in the adjustment. In this way, successive adjustments keep the generated sampling pulses close to the center of each bit cell. It can be readily deduced that in the worst case the DPLL will require 12 bit transitions to converge to the nominal bit center of a waveform: four bit periods of coarse adjustments (±2) and eight bit periods of fine adjustments (±1). Hence, when using a DPLL, it is usual before transmitting the first frame on a line, or following an idle period between frames, to transmit a number of characters to provide a minimum of 12 bit transitions. Two characters each composed of all 0s, for example, will provide 16 transitions with NRZI encoding. This ensures that the DPLL will generate sampling pulses at the nominal center of each bit cell by the time the opening flag of a frame is received. It should be stressed, however, that once in synchronism (lock) only minor adjustments will normally take place during the reception of a frame.

6.4.3.2

Character-Oriented Synchronous Transmission

With a character-oriented scheme, each frame to be transmitted is made up of a variable number of 7- or 8-bit characters, which are transmitted as a contiguous string of binary bits with no delay between them. The receiving device, therefore, having achieved clock (bit) synchronism must be able to (1) detect the start and end of each character that is character synchronism, and (2) detect the start and end of each complete frame that is frame synchronism. A number of schemes have been devised to achieve this, the main aim of which is to make the synchronization process independent of the actual contents of a frame. This type of synchronization scheme is said to be transparent to the frame contents or simply data transparent. The most common character-oriented scheme is that used in the binary synchronous control protocol known as Basic Mode. This is used primarily for the transfer of alphanumeric characters between communities of intelligent terminals and a computer. A number of alternative forms of this protocol are in use, and an example of the frame format used in one of these is shown in Fig. 6.31(a). The format selected is the one normally used to transmit a block of data that is an information frame.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (a)

Direction of transmission SYN SYN STX

Character synchronization

ETX

Start-of-frame character

(b)

Frame contents

End-of-frame character

Direction of transmission SYN

SYN

SYN

10000101100001011000 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 STX

Receiver enters hunt mode Receiver out of synchronization (c)

Frame contents

Receiver obtains character synchronization Receiver in synchronization

Direction of transmission Additional DLE inserted SYN SYN DLE STX Start-of-frame sequence

---

DLE DLE Frame contents

---

DLE ETX End-of-frame sequence

Figure 6.31 Character-oriented link: (a) basic frame format; (b) character synchronization; and (c) data transparency.

When using Basic Mode, character synchronism is achieved by the transmitting device sending two or more special synchronizing characters (known as SYN) immediately before each transmitted frame. The receiver, at start-up or after an idle period, then scans (hunts) the received bit stream one bit at a time until it detects the known pattern of the SYN character, which results in the receiver achieving character synchronism, and the subsequent string of binary bits is then treated as a contiguous sequence of 7- or 8-bit characters as defined at set-up time. This is illustrated in Fig. 6.31(b). With the Basic Mode protocol, the SYN character (00010110) is one of the reserved characters from the ISO defined set of character codes. Similarly, the characters used to signal the start and end of each frame are from this set. In the example, the start-of-text (STX) character is used to signal the start-of-a-frame and the end-of-text (ETX) character is used to signal the end-of-a-frame. Thus, as each character in the frame is received, following the STX character, it is compared with the ETX character. If the

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character is not an ETX character, it is simply stored. If it is an ETX character, however, the frame contents are processed. This scheme is satisfactory provided the data (information) transmitted are made up of strings of printable characters entered at a keyboard, for example, since then there is no possibility of an ETX control character being present within the frame contents. Clearly, if the latter did occur, this would cause the receiver to terminate the reception process abnormally. In some applications, however, the contents of frames may not be character strings but rather the binary contents of a file, for example. For this type of application, it is necessary to take additional steps to ensure that the end-of-frame termination character is not present within the frame contents; that is, it must be data transparent. To achieve this with a character-oriented transmission control scheme, a pair of characters is used both to signal the start-of-a-frame and also the end-of-a-frame. This is shown in Fig. 3.8(c). A pair of characters is necessary to achieve data transparency: to avoid the abnormal termination of a frame due to the frame contents containing the end-of-frame character sequence; the transmitter inserts a second data link escape (DLE) character into the transmitted data stream whenever it detects a DLE character in the contents of the frame. This is often referred to as character (or byte) stuffing. The receiver can thus detect the end-of-a-frame by the unique DLE-ETX sequence and, whenever it receives a DLE character followed by a second DLE, it discards the second character. As has been mentioned, with a frame-oriented scheme, transmission errors are normally detected by the use of additional errordetection digits computed from the contents of the frame and transmitted at the end of the frame. To maintain transparency, therefore, the error check characters are transmitted after the closing frame sequence. The different error-detection methods will be expanded on in a later section.

6.4.3.3

Bit-oriented Synchronous Transmission

With a bit-oriented scheme, each transmitted frame may contain an arbitrary number of bits, which is not necessarily a multiple of 8. A typical frame format used with a bit-oriented scheme is shown in Fig. 6.32. As can be seen, the opening and closing flag fields indicating the start and end of the frame are the same (01111110). Thus, to achieve data transparency with this scheme it is necessary to ensure that the flag sequence is not present in the frame contents. This is accomplished by the use of a technique known as zero bit insertion or bit stuffing. As the frame contents are transmitted to line, the transmitter detects whenever there is a sequence of five contiguous binary 1 digits and automatically inserts an

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (a)

Direction of transmission

Idle/flags 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Opening flag (b)

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Idle/flags Frame contents

Closing flag

Direction of transmission 0111111011011001111101101111100 Opening flag

Additional zero bits inserted

1101111110 Closing flag

Frame contents

Figure 6.32 Bit-oriented link: (a) frame format; (b) zero-bit insertion.

additional binary 0. In this way, the flag sequence 01111110 can never be transmitted between the opening and closing flags. Similarly, the receiver, after detecting the opening flag of a frame, monitors the incoming bit stream and, whenever it detects a binary 0 after five contiguous binary ls, removes (deletes) it from the frame contents. As with a byte-oriented scheme, each frame will normally contain additional error-detection digits at the end of the frame, but the inserted and deleted 0s are not included in the error-detection processing.

6.4.4

Data Compression and Decompression

Data compression (including data decompression) is often referred to as a branch of information theory in which the primary objective is to minimize the amount of data to be transmitted. A simple characterization of data compression is that it involves transforming a string of characters in some representation (such as ASCII) into a new string (e.g., of bits), which contains the same information but whose length is as small as possible. Data compression has important application in the areas of data transmission and data storage. Many data processing applications require storage of large volumes of data. At the same time, the proliferation of computer communication networks is resulting in massive transfer of data over communication links. Compressing data to be stored or transmitted reduces storage and communication costs. When the amount of data to be transmitted is reduced, the effect is that of increasing the capacity of the communication channel. Similarly, compressing a file to half of its original size is equivalent to doubling the capacity of the storage medium. It may then become feasible

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to store the data at a higher, thus faster, level of the storage hierarchy and reduce the load on the input/output channels of the computer system. If the specific type of contents is already known before starting data compression, a suitable procedure could be chosen. Any type of contents has an imminent structure offering several opportunities for compression algorithms. The following are some examples of file formats utilized in practical use (1) text data, (2) pictures, (3) audio data, and (4) video data consisting of consecutive pictures.

6.4.4.1

Loss and Lossless Compression and Decompression

Lossless compression is a compression technique that does not lose any data in the compression process. Lossless compression “packs” data into a smaller file size by using a kind of internal shorthand to signify redundant data. If an original file is 1.5 MB, for example, lossless compression can reduce it to about half that size, depending on the type of file being compressed. This makes lossless compression convenient for transferring files across the network, as smaller files transfer faster. Lossless compression is also handy for storing files as they take up less volume. However, a lossy data compression method approaches by another way. With this method, compressing data and then decompressing it may result in it being different from the original, but “close enough” to be useful somehow. These methods are typically referred to as codecs in this context. Lossy methods are most often used for compressing sound, images, or videos. This is in contrast with lossless data compression. Depending on the design of the format, lossy data compression often suffers from generation loss, that is, compressing and decompressing multiple times will do more damage to the data than doing it once. The advantage of lossy methods over lossless methods is that in some cases a lossy method can produce a much smaller compressed file than any known lossless method, while still meeting the requirements of the application.

6.4.4.2

Data Encoding and Decoding

The data encoding is the process of putting a sequence of formatted characters (letters, numbers, punctuation, and certain symbols) into a specialized format for efficient transmission or storage. Nevertheless, the data decoding is the opposite process that converts an encoded format of characters back into the original sequence of characters. Both the data

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encoding and decoding are used in data communications, networking, and storage. The term is especially applicable to radio (wireless) communications systems. In data communications, Manchester encoding (known technically as nonreturn to zero (NRZ) that has been mentioned in previous paragraphs) is a special form of encoding in which the binary digits (bits) represent the transitions between high- and low-logic states. In radio communications, numerous encoding and decoding methods exist, some of which are used only by specialized groups of people (amateur radio operators, for example). The terms encoding and decoding are often used in reference to the processes of analog-to-digital conversion and digital-to-analog conversion. In this sense, these terms can apply to any form of data, including text, images, audio, video, multimedia, computer programs, or signals in sensors, telemetry, and control systems. Encoding should not be confused with encryption, a process in which data is deliberately altered so as to conceal its content. Encryption can be done without changing the particular code that the content is in, and encoding can be done without deliberately concealing the content.

6.4.4.3

Basic Data Compression Algorithms

(1) Shannon–Fano algorithm. At about 1960, Claude E. Shannon (MIT) and Robert M. Fano (Bell Laboratories) had developed a coding procedure to generate a binary code tree. The procedure evaluates the probability of a symbol and assigns code words with a corresponding code length. To create a code tree according to Shannon and Fano, an ordered table is required providing the frequency of any symbol. Each part of the table will be divided into two segments. The algorithm has to ensure that either the upper or the lower part of the segment have nearly the same sum of frequencies. This procedure will be repeated until only single symbols are left. Table 6.5 and Fig. 6.33 give an example of how this coding algorithm is performed. In this example, the original data can be coded with an average length of 2.26 bits. Linear coding of five symbols would require 3 bits per symbol. But, before generating a Shannon–Fano code tree, the table must be known or it must be derived from preceding data. (2) Lempel–Ziv algorithm. A variety of compression methods is based on the fundamental work of Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv. Their original algorithms are generally denoted as LZ77 and

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6: DATA COMMUNICATIONS IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM Table 6.5 Shannon–Fano Algorithm Symbol

Frequency

Code Length

Code

Total Length

A B C D E

24 12 10 8 8

2 2 2 3 3

00 01 10 110 111

48 24 20 24 24

Notes: Total: 62 symbols; SF coded: 140 bits; linear (3 bit/symbol): 186 bits.

ABCDE CDE

AB A

B

DE

C D

E

Figure 6.33 Shannon–Fano algorithm.

LZ78. A variety of derivates were introduced after LZ77 and LZ78: one of them is LZW. (a) LZ77. LZ77 is a dictionary based algorithm that addresses byte sequences from former contents instead of the original data. In general, only one coding scheme exists; all data will be coded in the same form: (1) address to already coded contents, (2) sequence length, and (3) first deviating symbol. If no identical byte sequence is available from former contents, the address 0, the sequence length 0, and the new symbol will be coded. Table 6.6 is an example of LZ77 coding. (b) LZ78. LZ78 is based on a dictionary that will be created dynamically at runtime. Both the encoding and the decoding processes use the same rules to ensure that an identical dictionary is available. This dictionary contains any sequence already used to build the former contents. The compressed data have the general form: (1) Index addressing an entry of the dictionary, and (2) first deviating symbol. Table 6.7 is an example of LZ78 coding. (c) LZW. The LZW compression method is derived from LZ78. It was invented by Terry A. Welch in 1984. LZW is an important part of a variety of data formats. Graphic formats like gif, tif, and postscript use LZW for entropy coding.

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Table 6.6 An Example of LZ77 Coding Target String

Address

Length

Deviating Symbol

Abracadabra a bracadabra ab racadabra abr acadabra abrac adabra abracad abra

0 0 0 3 2 7

0 0 0 1 1 4

‘a’ ‘b’ ‘r’ ‘c’ ‘d’ ‘’

Table 6.7 An Example of LZ78 Coding Target String

Index

New Entry Dictionary

Deviating Symbol

Abracadabra a bracadabra ab racadabra abr acadabra abrac adabra abracad abra abracadab ra

0 0 0 1 1 1 3

1. “a” 2. “b” 3. “r” 4. “ac” 5. ”ad” 6. “ab” 7. “ra”

‘a’ ‘b’ ‘r’ ‘c’ ‘d’ ‘b’ ‘a’

LZW is developing a dictionary that contains any byte sequence already coded. The compressed data exceptionally consist of indices to this dictionary. Before starting, the dictionary is preset with entries for the 256 single byte symbols. Any following entry represents sequences larger than one byte. This algorithm defines mechanisms to create the dictionary and to ensure that it will be identical for both the encoding and decoding process. (3) Arithmetic coding. The aim of the arithmetic coding is to define a method that provides code words with an ideal length. As for every other entropy coder, it is required to know the probability for the appearance of the individual symbols. Arithmetic coding assigns an interval to each symbol, whose size reflects the probability for the appearance of this symbol. The code word of a symbol is an arbitrary rational number belonging to the corresponding interval. The entire set of data is represented by a rational number, which is always placed within the interval of each symbol.

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With data being added, the number of significant digits rises continuously. In arithmetic coding, a message is encoded as a real number in an interval from one to zero. Arithmetic coding typically has a better compression ratio than Huffman coding, as it produces a single symbol rather than several separate codewords. Arithmetic coding is a lossless coding technique. There are a few disadvantages of arithmetic coding. One is that the whole codeword must be received to start decoding the symbols, and if there is a corrupt bit in the codeword, the entire message could become corrupt. Another is that there is a limit to the precision of the number that can be encoded, thus limiting the number of symbols to encode within a codeword. There also exist many patents on arithmetic coding, so the use of some of the algorithms also call on royalty fees. Table 6.8 is the arithmetic coding algorithm, with an example to aid understanding. Start with an interval (0, 1), divided into subintervals of all possible symbols to appear within a message. Make the size of each subinterval proportional to the frequency at which it appears in the message. Table 6.8(1) represents making the size of each subinterval proportional to the frequency at which it appears in the message. Table 6.8(2) describes when encoding a symbol, “zoom” into the current interval, and divide it into subintervals as in step one with the new range, where an example is given: suppose we want to

Table 6.8 An Example of Arithmetic Coding Algorithm (1)

(3)

Symbol

Probability

Interval

Symbol

A B C D

0.2 0.3 0.1 0.4

[0.0, 0.2) [0.2, 0.5) [0.5, 0.6) [0.6, 1.0)

a b c d

(2)

[0.102, 0.1216) [0.1216, 0.151) [0.151, 0.1608) [0.1608, 0.2)

(4)

Symbol a b c d

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New “b” Interval

New “a” Interval [0.0, 0.04) [0.04, 0.1) [0.1, 0.102) [0.102, 0.2)

Symbol

New “d” Interval

a b c d

[0.1608, 0.16864) [0.16864, 0.1804) [0.1804, 0.18432) [0.18432, 0.2)

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY encode “abd.” We “zoom” into the interval corresponding to “a,” and divide up that interval into smaller subintervals as before. We now use this new interval as the basis of the next symbol encoding step. Table 6.8(3) explains how to repeat the process until the maximum precision of the machine is reached, or all symbols are encoded. To encode the next character “b,” we use the “a” interval created before, and zoom into the subinterval “b,” and use that for the next step. This produces the result that is given in Table 6.8(3). And lastly, the final result is given in Table 6.8(4): Transmit some number within the latest interval to send the codeword. The number of symbols encoded will be stated in the protocol of the image format, so any number within [0.1608, 0.2) will be acceptable. To decode the message, a similar algorithm is followed, except that the final number is given, and the symbols are decoded sequentially from that. (4) Run length encoding (RLE). RLE is one of the oldest compression methods. It is characterized by the following properties: (1) simple implementation of each RLE algorithm, (2) compression efficiency restricted to a particular type of contents, and (3) mainly utilized for encoding of monochrome graphic data. The general algorithm behind RLE is very simple. Any sequence of identical symbols will be replaced by a counter identifying the number of repetitions and the particular symbol. For instance, the original contents “aaaa” would be coded as “4a.” The most important format using RLE is Microsoft bitmap (RLE8 and RLE4). (5) Relative encoding. Relative encoding is a transmission technique that attempts to improve efficiency by transmitting the difference between each value and its predecessor, in place of the value itself. Thus the values “15106433003” would be transmitted as “1 + 4 – 4 – 1 + 6 – 2 – 1 + 0 – 3 + 0 + 3.” In effect, the transmitter is predicting that each value is the same as its predecessor and the data transmitted is the difference between the predicted and actual values. Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM) is an example of relative encoding. The signal above can have one of 7 possible values (–3 to +3) and so would require 3 bits per sample. Each sample can also be described by the difference between it and the previous sample. Each sample is the same, one more, or one less than the previous sample. Only two bits are required to express the relationship between the samples. In this way, coding the signal obtains a reduction of one third in the number of bits. (6) Burrows–Wheeler transformation. With Burrows–Wheeler Transformation (BWT), a block of original data will be converted

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into a certain form and will be sorted afterwards. The result is a sequence of ordered data that reflect frequently appearing symbol combinations by repetitions. Table 6.9 is an example displaying the algorithm of the BWT coding. In Table 6.9, both data blocks consist of identical symbols, only varying in their order. The transformed data may be encoded substantially better, for example, by adaptive Huffman or arithmetic coding. The total amount of symbols slightly increases, because additional information is required allowing the reconstruction of the original data. In real application, the number of symbols in a block is very large and the additional expenditure very small. A typical block size amounts to 900 kB. (7) Huffman coding. The algorithm as described by David Huffman assigns every symbol to a leaf node of a binary code tree. These nodes are weighted by the number of occurrences of the corresponding symbol called frequency or cost. The tree structure results from combining the nodes step-bystep until all of them are embedded in a root tree. The algorithm always combines the two nodes providing the lowest frequency in a bottom-up procedure. The new interior nodes get the sum of frequencies of both child nodes. Code tree according to Huffman is illustrated in Fig. 6.34. The branches of the tree represent the binary values 0 and 1 according to the rules for common prefix-free code trees. The path from the root tree to the corresponding leaf node defines the particular code word. (8) Adaptive (dynamic) Huffman coding. Adaptive Huffman coding is an adaptive coding technique based on Huffman coding, building the code as the symbols are being transmitted, having no initial knowledge of source distribution, that allows one-pass encoding and adaptation to changing conditions in data. The benefit of one-pass procedure is that the source can be encoded realtime, though it becomes more sensitive to transmission errors, since just a single loss ruins the whole code. Table 6.9 An example of BWT Coding Convert from Convert into

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Peter·Piper·picked·a·peck·of·pickled·peppers.A·peck·of· pickled·peppers·Peter·Piper·picked. dkkAaddsrrffrrsd··eeiiiieeeeppkllkppppttppPPooppppPPcc cccckk······iipp.·······eeeeeeeerree

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0

1

A 1

0 0 B

1

0 C

D

1 E

Figure 6.34 A Huffman Code tree.

There are a number of implementations of this method; the most notable are FGK (Faller-Gallager-Knuth) and Vitter algorithm. In Vitter algorithm, code is represented as a tree structure in which every node has a corresponding weight and a unique number. Numbers go down, and from right to left. Weights must suffice sibling property, that is what nodes can be listed in order of nonincreasing weight with each node adjacent to its sibling. Thus if A is parent node of B and node C is child of B, then W(A) > W(B) > W(C). The weight is merely the count of symbols transmitted which codes are associated with children of that node. A set of nodes with the same weights make a block. To get the code for every node, in case of a binary tree, we could just traverse all the paths from the root to the node, writing down, for example, “1” if we go to the right and “0” if we go to the left. We then need some general and straightforward method to transmit symbols that are not yet transmitted (NYT). To approach this, a possibility, for example, is transmission of binary numbers for every symbol in the alphabet. Encoder and decoder start with only the root node, which has the maximum number. In the beginning it is our initial NYT node. When we transmit an NYT symbol we have to transmit code for the NYT node, then for its generic code. For every symbol which is already in the tree we only have to transmit code for its leaf node. For every symbol transmitted on both sides, this update procedure must be executed: (Step 1)

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If current symbol is NYT, add two child nodes to NYT node, one a new NYT node the other is a leaf node for our symbol, increase weight for new leaf node and old NYT, go to step 4 or go to symbol’s leaf node.

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If this node does not have the highest number in a block, swap it with the one that has the highest number. Increase weight for current node. If this is not the root node go to parent node, go to step 2, or else end.

6.5 Data-Link Protocols A distributed control network, in particular a controller area network (CAN), requires three layers to perform the data communication: the physical layer for data transmissions, the data-link layer for the data links, and the application layer for the communication protocol and presentation. However, in computer networks (WAN, Internet, etc.) the data-link layer is the second layer of the seven layer OSI model. Although there is this difference, the data-link layer in distributed control plays a similar role as in a computer network. In distributed control, the data-link layer has three primary duties in data communication, which are (1) framing control, (2) flow control, and (3) error control. To carry on these duties, the data-link layer can be structurally divided into two sublayers that are the logic link control (LLC) and media access control (MAC) sublayers. In this section, some important details are provided for all these topics.

6.5.1

Framing Controls

The data-link layer must use the service provided by the physical layer for encoding bits into packets before transmission and then decoding the packets back into bits at the destination. The physical layer deals with transmission of raw bit streams from the source machine to the destination machine. The usual approach is to break the bit stream into discrete frames and compute the checksum for each frame. When the frame arrives at the destination machine, it computes the checksum again if the newly computed checksum is different from the old one in which an error has occurred and the data-link layer takes necessary steps to deal with it. Framing control in the data-link layer actually is the sequence control of the frame transfer between two physically connected entities. There are a number of similar standards for the sequence control protocols. Two of them are comparably important (1) high-level data-link control (HDLC) protocol which was issued by the ISO, and (2) synchronous data-link control (SDLC) protocol that was issued by IBM.

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6.5.1.1

High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)

HDLC is a bit-oriented synchronous data-link layer protocol developed by the ISO. The current standard for HDLC is ISO 13239, which replaces all of those previous standards. HDLC provides both connection oriented and connectionless service. HDLC can be used for point to multipoint connections, but is now used almost exclusively to connect one device to another, using what is known as asynchronous balanced mode. The other modes are normal response mode and asynchronous response mode. (1) HDLC framing. HDLC frames can be transmitted over synchronous or asynchronous links. Those links have no mechanism to mark the beginning or end of a frame, so we have to identify the beginning and end of each frame. This is done by using a frame delimiter, or “flag,” which is a unique sequence of bits that is guaranteed not to be seen inside a frame. This sequence is 01111110, or, in hexadecimal notation, 7E. Each frame begins and ends with a frame delimiter. When no frames are being transmitted on a synchronous link, a frame delimiter is continuously transmitted on the link. This generates a continuous bit pattern: 01111110011111100111111 001111110 . . . This is used by modems to train and synchronize their clocks through phase-locked loops. Actual binary data could easily have a sequence of bits that is the same as the flag sequence. So the data’s bit sequence must be transmitted so that it does not appear to be a frame delimiter. On synchronous links, this is done with bit stuffing. The sending device ensures that any sequence of five contiguous 1-bits is automatically followed by a 0-bit. A simple digital circuit inserts a 0-bit after five 1-bits. The receiving device knows this is being done, and will automatically strip out the extra 0-bits. So if a flag is received, it will have six contiguous 1-bits. The receiving device sees six 1-bits and knows it is a flag; otherwise the sixth bit would have been a 0-bit. Asynchronous links using serial ports or UARTs just send bits in groups of eight. They lack the special bit-stuffing digital circuits. Instead they use “control-octet transparency,” also called “byte stuffing” or “octet stuffing.” The frame boundary octet is 01111110, (7’ in hexadecimal notation). A “control escape octet,” has the bit sequence 01111101, (7D hexadecimal). The escape octet is sent before a data byte with the same value as either an escape or frame octet. Then, the following data has bit 5 inverted. For example, the data sequence 01111110 (7E hexadecimal)

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would be transmitted as 0111110101011110 (7D 5E hexadecimal). Any octet value can be escaped in the same fashion. (2) HDLC structure. The contents of an HDLC frame, including the flag, are given in Table 6.10. It is worth noting that the end flag of one HDLC frame can be (but does not have to be) the beginning (start) flag of the next HDLC frame. The data comes in groups of eight bits. The telephone and teletype systems arranged most long-haul digital transmission media to send bits eight at a time, and HDLC simply adapts that standard to send bulk binary data. Teletypes send 8-bit codes to represent each character. The FCS is the frame check sequence, and is a more sophisticated version of the parity bit. The field contains the result of a binary calculation that uses the bit sequences that make up the Address, Control, and Information fields. The calculation is designed to detect errors in the transmission of the frame including lost bits, flipped bits, extraneous bits, so that the frame can be dropped by the receiver if an error is detected. It is this method of detecting errors that can set an upper bound on the size of the data portion of the frame. Essentially, the longer the length of the data portion of the frame becomes, the harder it is to guarantee that certain types of transmission errors will be found. There are multiple types of frame check sequence, and the most commonly used in this context will be CRC-16 or CRC-CCITT (cyclic redundancy check). The FCS is needed to detect transmission errors. When HDLC was designed, long-haul digital media were designed for telephone systems, which only need a bit error rate of 1 × 10–5 errors per bit. Digital data for computers normally requires a bit error rate better than 1 × 10–12 errors per bit. By checking the FCS, the receiver can discover bad data. If the data is ok, it sends an “acknowledge” packet back to the sender. The sender can then send the next frame. If the receiver sends a “negative acknowledge” or simply drops the bad frame, the sender either receives the negative acknowledge, or runs into its time limit while waiting for the acknowldge. It then retransmits the failed frame. Table 6.10 The Structure of an HDLC Frame Flag

Address

Control

Information

FCS

Optional Flag

8 bits

8 bits

8 or 16 bits

Variable length, 0 or more bits, in multiples of 8

16 bits

8 bits

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Modern optical networks have reliability substantially better than 1 × 10–5 bits per bit, but that simply makes HDLC even more reliable.

6.5.1.2

Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC)

IBM developed the SDLC protocol in the mid-1970s for use in systems network architecture (SNA) environments. SDLC was the first data-link layer protocol based on synchronous, bit-oriented operation. (1) SDLC types and topologies. SDLC supports a variety of link types and topologies. It can be used with point-to-point and multipoint links, bounded and unbounded media, half-duplex and full-duplex transmission facilities, and circuit-switched and packet-switched networks. SDLC identifies two types of network nodes: primary and secondary. Primary nodes control the operation of other stations, called secondary. The primary polls the secondary in a predetermined order and secondary can then transmit if they have outgoing data. The primary also sets up and tears down links and manages the link while it is operational. Secondary nodes are controlled by a primary, which means that secondary can send information to the primary only if the primary grants permission. SDLC primary and secondary can be connected in four basic configurations: (a) Point-to-point: It involves only two nodes, one primary and one secondary. (b) Multipoint: It involves one primary and multiple secondary. (c) Loop: It involves a loop topology, with the primary connected to the first and last secondary. Intermediate secondaries pass messages through one another as they respond to the requests of the primary. (d) Hub go-ahead: It involves an inbound and an outbound channel (medium). The primary uses the outbound channel to communicate with the secondary. The secondary uses the inbound channel to communicate with the primary. The inbound channel is daisy-chained back to the primary through each secondary. (2) SDLC frame format. The SDLC frame is the same as shown in Fig. 6.20. The following descriptions summarize the fields illustrated in Fig. 6.20 for an SDLC frame. (a) Flag. It initiates and terminates error checking. (b) Address. It contains the SDLC address of the secondary station, which indicates whether the frame comes from the

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primary or secondary. This address can contain a specific address, a group address, or a broadcast address. A primary is either a communication source or a destination, which eliminates the need to include the address of the primary. (c) Control. It employs three different formats, depending on the type of SDLC frames are used for (i) Information (I) frame (ii) Supervisory (S) frame (iii) Unnumbered (U) frame (Their descriptions have been given in Section 6.3.5.) (iv) Data (information) (It contains a path information unit (PIU) or exchange identification (XID) information.) (v) Frame check sequence (FCS) (It precedes the ending flag delimiter and is usually a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) calculation remainder. The CRC calculation is redone in the receiver. If the result differs from the value in the original frame, an error is assumed.)

6.5.2

Error Controls

No errors can occur in the ideal transmission medium. However, none of the transmission media is ideal. The signal representing the data is always subject to various error sources. Data communication systems use a variety of techniques to detect and correct errors that occur, usually for any of the following reasons: (1) electrostatic interference from nearby machines or circuits, (2) attenuation of the signal caused by a resistance to current in a cable, (3) distortion due to inductance and capacitance, (4) loss in transmission due to leakages, and (5) impulses from static in the atmosphere. In data communication, these error reasons generate two kinds of errors: (1) Bit errors are errors that corrupt single bits of a transmission, turning a 1 into a 0, and vice versa. These errors are caused by power surges and other interference. (2) Packet errors occur when packets are lost or corrupted. Packet loss can occur during times of network congestion when buffers become full and network devices start discarding packets. Errors and packet loss also occur during network link failures. It has been estimated that an error occurs for every 1 in 200,000 bits in data transmission. In practice, data communications systems are designed so that the transmission errors are within an acceptable rate. Under normal circumstances there are only few errors. However, it is possible that the

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signal conditions can be sometimes so weak that the signal cannot be received at all. It is also possible that sometimes the interference signal is stronger than the signal to be transmitted. Consequently, the data sent during the break is lost. Therefore, the error detection and correction should be able to handle as many errors as possible. However, the applications limit is which error detection and correction schemes are suitable. All applications benefit from the efficiency of the error detection and correction solutions to be used.

6.5.2.1

Error Detection

Error detection is a method that allows some communication errors to be detected. The data is encoded so that the encoded data contains additional redundant information about the data. The data is decoded so that the additional redundant information must match the original information. This allows some errors to be detected. (1) Parity checking. Parity checking is a primitive character-based error detection method. The characters are encoded so that an additional bit is added to each character. The additional bit is to 0 or 1 according to the number of bits set in the character. The resulting number is either even or odd. The extra bit is set according to this result and according to which parity setting, either even or odd, is being used. If even parity is used, the extra bit is always set so that the codeword always contains an even number of bits set. In even parity, the number of bits set in the codeword is always odd. The decoding is done simply by checking the codeword and removing the extra bit. The parity checking will only detect one bit error burst in each codeword. Parity checking has been used in character-based terminals but it is not useful for today’s reliable communications. However, it is being used in memory chips to ensure correct operation. (2) Block check. Block check is a block-based error detection method. The data is divided in blocks in the encoding process. An additional block check is added to each block of data. The check is calculated from the current block. The receiver also performs the same calculation on the block and compares the calculated result with the received result. If these checks are equal, the blocks are likely to be valid. Unfortunately, the problem with all block checks is that the block check is shorter than that of the block. Therefore, there are several different blocks that all have the same checksum. It is possible that the data is corrupted by a random error burst that modifies the block contents so that the

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block check in the corrupted frame also matches the corrupted data. In this case the error is not detected. Even best block checks cannot detect all error bursts but good block checks minimize this probability. However, the reliability increases as the length of the block check increases. (a) Block checksum. Block checksum is a primitive checksum that is the sum of all characters in the block. The result is a character that is equally long as the characters in the block. Therefore, the result is sometimes referred as the block check character (BCC). Unfortunately, even a long BCC may allow relatively simple errors. In other words, it is easy to find different blocks that generate the same block checksum. Calculating checksum is certainly fast and easy but the reliability of the checksum is not adequate for today’s reliable communications. However, due to its speed it is used in some applications that require that the calculation is done by the software. (b) Cyclic redundancy check. The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an intelligent alternative for block checksum. It is calculated by dividing the bit string of the block by a generator polynomial. The value of the CRC is the reminder of the calculation that is one bit shorter than the generator polynomial. This value is also sometimes referred as the frame check sequence (FCS). However, the generator polynomial must be chosen carefully. CRC is a stronger check than the block checksum, and it is being used in today’s reliable communication. Calculating the CRC requires slightly more processing than the checksum. It can be easily implemented by using shift registers and software implementations. The CRC is able to detect all single error bursts up to the number of bits in the CRC and most random errors.

6.5.2.2

Error Correction

Error correction is a method that can be used to recover the corrupted data whenever possible. There are two basic types of error correction, which are forward error correction and backward error correction. (1) Forward error correction. Using forward error correction requires a one-directional channel only. The data is encoded to contain enough additional redundant information to recover from some communication errors. Unfortunately, the forward error correction can recover from errors only when enough information has been successfully received. There is no way to recover from errors

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY when this is not the case. However, the forward error correction operates continuously without any interrupts, and it ensures constant delay on the data transfer that is useful for real-time applications. (a) Hamming single-bit code. Hamming single-bit is a block code in which each block is separate from the others. The input block size can be made as small as necessary. The number of bit errors to be corrected can be specified by adding enough redundant information in the encoding process. The minimum number of bits that differ on all possible codewords is called the Hamming distance. Error bursts shorter than the Hamming distance cannot be detected. Therefore, to detect communications errors, the Hamming distance of the line code must be longer than the length of the error bursts. An N-bit error requires an encoding with a Hamming distance of N + 1 for detection and 2*N + 1 for recovery. (b) Convolutional forward error correction. In block codes, each block is independent of other blocks. On the contrary, in the convolutional forward error correction, the encoded data depends on both the current data and the previous data. The convolutional encoder contains a shift register that is shifted each time a new bit is added. The length of the shift register is called the constraint length and it contains the memory of the encoder. Each new input bit is then encoded with each bit in the shift register by using modulo-2 adders. The decoding is more difficult than the encoding. The data is decoded by using the Viterbi algorithm that tries to find the best solution for the decoding. Of course, all errors cannot be corrected, but the error rate can be decreased. The convolutional error correction has an advantage of using all previous correctly received bits for error correction. (c) Golay forward error correction. Golay codes are block codes that allow short codewords. The perfect Golay code is an encoding that encodes 12 bits into 23 bits, denoted by (23, 12). It allows the correction of three or fewer single bit errors. The extended Golay code contains an additional parity bit which allows up to four errors to be detected. The resulting code is (24, 1, 2) which is also known as half-rate Golay code. The decoding can be performed by using either soft or hard decisions. The soft decisions provide better error correction but require more processing. Golay codes are useful in applications that require low latency and short codeword length. Therefore, Golay codes are used in real-time applications and radio communications.

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(d) Reed–Solomon forward error correction with interleaving. The Reed–Solomon forward error correction with interleaving is a forward error correction scheme that is intended to be used with high-quality video communications. The encoding is performed by filling a two dimensional array of 128*47 octets, that is, 128 octets in each row containing 124 octets of data and 4 octets of redundant check data. The encoding is done by filling the buffer column with 47 octets at a time. After this has been repeated 124 times the buffer is full, and it is encoded by writing each row one at a time. This encoding allows two cells to be corrected or four cells to be reconstructed. Two interleave buffers are required because a single buffer can only be either read or written at a time. The decoder also needs two buffers for the same reason. The encoder writes a row at a time, then performs the possible recovery and reconstruction of defective cells and reads the array column wise. Unfortunately, the encoding and decoding both cause an additional delay on the data transfer that is equal to the transmission time of a single buffer. This type of encoding does not completely repair all errors but it ensures high-quality throughput in real time. (2) Backward error correction. Using backward error correction requires a two-way communication channel. The sender divides the data in blocks and encodes the data with redundant additional information that is used to detect communications errors. The receiver applies error detection and if the receiver detects errors in the incoming blocks it requests the sender to resend the block. This mechanism is also called the automatic repeat request (ARQ). The ARQ can always repair any errors it can detect, but it causes a variable delay on the data transfer. The basic types of ARQ are idle RQ and continuous RQ. The backward error correction is used in many data transfer protocols. In addition, to use data compression, the communications errors must always be corrected. (a) Idle RQ. Idle RQ is a fundamental backward correction scheme used in many protocols. The data is transferred in packets by using error detection. The receiver checks the incoming packets and sends an acknowledgment (ACK) to the sender if the packet was valid. If the sender receives an acknowledgment in the specified time, it sends the next packet to the receiver. Otherwise, the sender must resend the packet. Idle RQ is very simple but it is often too inefficient. It can only send data in one direction at a time. In addition, the delay on the data transfer may result in a situation where only a small fraction of the capacity of the communications link is used.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (b) Continuous RQ. Continuous RQ is an improvement over Idle RQ when there is a delay on the data transfer. It allows several packets to be sent continuously. Therefore, the sender must use packet numbering. The receiver also receives packets continuously and sends an acknowledgment containing a packet number after receiving a valid packet. In case the sender cannot get an acknowledgment, it starts resending packets in either of the two ways. In selective repeat, only each block that was corrupted is resent. Selective repeat is complex, but it is useful when error is common. In go-back-n, once a corrupted block is detected, the transmission continues from the corrupted block and all blocks after the corrupted blocks are discarded. Go-back-n is less effective than selective repeat but it is also very simple and it is almost equally effective if the errors are infrequent.

6.5.3

Flow Controls

Congestion in data transmission occurs on busy networks because senders and receivers are often unmatched in capacity and processing power. A receiver might not be able to process packets at the same speed as the sender. If buffers are full, packets are dropped. To prevent dropped packets that must be retransmitted, flow controls for data transmission are necessary accordingly. With flow controls, end systems and the network must work together to minimize the congestion. A receiver tells the sender how much data to send. It makes the sender wait for some sort of an acknowledgment (ACK) before continuing to send more data. There are two primary methods of flow control: Stop-and-wait, and Sliding Window.

6.5.3.1

Stop-and-Wait

Stop-and-wait is a simple protocol, where the sender has to wait for an acknowledgment of every frame that it sends. It sends a frame, waits for acknowledgment, and then it sends another frame, and again, waits for acknowledgment. For using the stop-and-wait, data frames are transmitted in one direction (simplex protocols) where each frame is individually acknowledged by the receiver with a separate acknowledgment frame. The sequence of performing this protocol is given in the following: (1) The sender transmits one frame, starts a timer and waits for an acknowledgment frame from the receiver before sending further frames.

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(2) A time-out period is used where frames not acknowledged by the receiver are retransmitted automatically by the sender. (3) Frames received damaged by the receiver are not acknowledged and are retransmitted by the sender when the expected acknowledgment is not received and timed out. (4) A one bit sequence number (0 or 1) is used to distinguish between original data frames and duplicate retransmitted frames to be discarded. The disadvantage with this scheme is that it is very slow. For every frame that is sent, there needs to be an acknowledgment, which takes a similar amount of propagation time to get back to the sender. The advantage is simplicity.

6.5.3.2

Sliding Window

In flow control for data transmission, sliding window is a variable duration that allows a sender to transmit a specified number of frames (or packets) before an acknowledgment is received or before a specified event occurs. The idea behind sliding window is not to wait for an acknowledgment for every frame, but to send a few frames and then get an acknowledgment that acknowledges several frames at the same time. It works by having the sender and receiver have a “window” of frames. The sender can send as many frames as would fit into a window. The receiver, on receiving enough frames, will respond with an acknowledgment of all frames up to a certain point in the window. The window then “slides” and the whole thing starts again. The “window” is implemented by a “buffer.” Data received from the network is stored in the buffer, from which the application can read at its own pace. As the application reads data, buffer space is freed up to accept more input from the network. The “window” is the amount of data that can be “read ahead,” the size of the buffer, less the amount of valid data stored in it. Window announcements are used to inform the remote host of the current window size. If the local application cannot process data fast enough, the window size will drop to zero and the remote host will stop sending data. After the local application has processed some of the queued data, the window size rises, and the remote host starts transmitting again. On the other hand, if the local application can process data at the rate it is being transferred, and if the window size is larger than the packet size, then multiple packets can be outstanding in the network, since the sender

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knows that buffer space is available on the receiver to hold all of them. Ideally, a steady-state condition can be reached where a series of packets (in the forward direction) and window announcements (in the reverse direction) are constantly in transit. As each new window announcement is received by the sender, more data packets are transmitted. As the application reads data from the buffer, more window announcements are generated. Keeping a series of data packets in transit ensures the efficient use of network resources.

6.5.3.3

Bus Arbitration

In some distributed control systems, the “bus” in the microprocessor chipset is often used as a special cable to connect several controllers. These distributed control systems probably require the “bus arbitration” for the flow controls in data transmission. The “bus arbitration” is referred to in Section 2.2.4 of this book where its mechanism has been discussed in details.

6.5.4

Sublayers

Data-link layer generally consists of two sublayers the upper of which is called logical link control (LLC) sublayer and the lower, medium access control (MAC) sublayer. Figure 6.35 gives the architecture of data link layer.

6.5.4.1

Logic Link Control (LLC)

Logic link control (LLC) is the IEEE 802.2 LAN protocol that specifies an implementation of the LLC sublayer of the data-link layer. IEEE 802.2 LLC is used in IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE802.5 (Token Ring) LANs. The LLC sublayer is responsible for reliable transfer of frames between two directly connected entities. Functions needed to support this reliable transfer include framing (sequence) control, error control, and flow control. Data link layer

Logic link control (LLC) sublayer (IEEE 802.2 standardied protocols) Medium access control (MAC) sublayer (IEEE 802.3 standardied protocols)

Figure 6.35 The architecture of the data link layer.

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LLC was originated from the HDLC and it uses a subclass of the HDLC specification. LLC defines three types of operation for data communication: (1) Connection oriented. The connection-oriented operation for the LLC layer provides these four services: (1) connection establishment, (2) confirmation and acknowledgment after data has been received (3) error recovery by requesting received bad data to be resent, (4) “Sliding window” that is a method of increasing the rate of data transfer. (2) Connectionless, which is basically sending but no guarantee of receiving. (3) Acknowledgment with connectionless service. The degree to which sequence control, error control, and flow control are provided by the LLC sublayer is determined by whether the link protocol is connection-oriented or connectionless. A connectionless link protocol provides little if any support for these functions. A connection-oriented link might use a “sliding window” technique for these functions, in which frames are individually numbered and acknowledged by their sequence number, with only a few such frames outstanding at any time. The connection-oriented functions of sequence, error, and flow control provide a foundation for services provided by higher layers. As mentioned earlier, not all layer or sublayer functions are explicitly designed or implemented in any given system. Provision of these functions depends on the services required by higher layers. If the connection-oriented functions of the LLC sublayer are not implemented, they must be performed by higher layers, individually or jointly, for reliable end-to-end communication. Connection-oriented LLC protocols are best suited for low quality transmission media where it is more efficient and cost-effective to discover errors and recover from errors as they occur on each hop than to rely on the communicating hosts to perform error recovery functions. An example of a connectionless LLC protocol is frame relay, which defines point-to-point links with switches connecting individual links in a mesh topology. In a frame relay network, end points are connected by a series of links and switches. Because frame relay is defined in terms of the links between frame relay access devices and switches, and between switches themselves, it is an LLC protocol. Connectionless LLC protocols are best suited for high quality transmission media. With high quality transmission media, errors are rarely introduced in the transmission and recovery from errors is most efficiently handled by the communicating

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hosts. In this case, it is better to move the packets quickly from source to destination rather than checking for errors at the data link layer. End-to-end communications may be through shared or dedicated facilities or circuits. Shared facilities involve the use of packet switching technology to carry frames from end-to-end; frames are subdivided as necessary into packets, which share physical and logical channels with packets from various sources to various destinations. Packet switching is almost universally used in data communications because it is more efficient for the burst nature of data traffic. On the other hand, some applications require dedicated facilities from end-to-end because they are isochronous (e.g., voice) or bandwidth-intensive (e.g., large file transfer). This mode of end-to-end circuit dedication is called circuit-switched communication. Because the facilities are dedicated to a single user, this tends to be much more expensive than the packet switched mode of communication. But some applications need it; it is an economic trade-off. Dedicated circuits are a rather extreme form of connection-oriented protocol, requiring the same setup and tear-down phases before and following communication. If the circuit setup and teardown is statically arranged (i.e., out-of-band), it is referred to as a permanent virtual circuit. If the circuit is dynamically set up and torn-down in-band, it is referred to as a switched virtual circuit.

6.5.4.2

Media Access Control (MAC)

The medium access control (MAC) sublayer is closely associated with the physical layer and defines the means by which the physical channel (medium) may be accessed. It coordinates the attempts to seize a shared channel by multiple MAC entities to avoid or reduce the collisions in it. The MAC sublayer commonly provides a limited form of error control, especially for any header information that defines the MAC level destination and higher layer access mechanism. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) is a prime example of a shared medium with a defined MAC sublayer functionality. The shared medium in Ethernet has traditionally consisted of a coaxial cable into which multiple entities were “tapped.” Although this topology still applies conceptually, a hub and spoke medium is now typically used, in which the earlier coaxial cable has been physically collapsed into a hub device. As a contention medium, Ethernet defines how devices sense a channel for its availability, wait when it is busy, seize the channel when it becomes available, and backs-off for a random length of time following a collision with another simultaneously transmitting device. On a shared channel,

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such as Ethernet, only a single entity can transmit at a time or frames will be garbled. Not all shared channels involve contention. A prime example of a shared medium without contention is token ring (IEEE 802.5), in which control of the channel is rotated between the devices sharing the channel in a deterministic round-robin manner. Conceptually, control of the channel is given to the entity currently possessing a “token.” If the device has nothing to transmit, it passes the token to the next device attached to the topological “ring.” IEEE-defined MAC sublayer addresses are six bytes long and permanently assigned to each device, typically called a network interface card. The IEEE administers the assignment of these addresses in blocks to manufacturers to ensure the global uniqueness that the MAC sublayer protocols rely on for “plug on play” network setup. Each manufacturer must ensure individual device identifier uniqueness within their assigned block.

6.6 Data Communication Protocols The higher layers in the control network are primarily designed for the management of the data communication protocols. The application layer in the CAN networks is a typical example in this aspect. The CAN application layer provides objects, protocols, and services for the event driven or requested transmission of CAN messages and for the transmission of larger data blocks between CAN devices. Furthermore, the CAN application layer offers mechanisms for the automatic distribution of CAN identifiers and for the initialization and monitoring of nodes. Models for data communication protocols defined in the higher layers of distributed control systems include these popular ones: Client–Server model, Master–Slave model, Producer–Consumer model, and Remote Procedure Call (RPC).

6.6.1

Client–Server Model

Client–Server describes the relationship between two controller programs in which one program, the client, makes a service request from another program, the server, which fulfills the request. A server process normally listens at a well known address for service requests. That is, the server process remains dormant until a connection is requested by a client to the server address. At such a time the server process “wakes up” and

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services the client, performing whatever appropriate actions the client requests of it, and then replies to the client. Figure 6.36 is a depiction of the client–server model. Although the client–server idea can be used by programs within a single controller, it is a more important idea in a network. In a network, the client–server model provides a convenient way to interconnect programs that are distributed efficiently across different locations. The client–server model has become one of the central ideas of control network. The client–server software architecture is a versatile, message-based and modular infrastructure that is intended to improve usability, flexibility, interoperability, and scalability as compared to centralized, mainframe, time sharing controlling. The following paragraphs first describe two and three-tier client–server architectures, and then describe other two client– server architectures that are linked to the three-tier.

6.6.1.1 Two and Three-Tier Client–Server Two-tier architectures consist of three components distributed in two layers: client (requester of services) and server (provider of services). The three components are (1) User system interface (such as session, text input, dialog, and display management services), (2) Processing management (such as process development, process enactment, process monitoring, and process resource services), (3) Service management (such as data and file services). The twotier design allocates the user system interface exclusively to the client. It places service management on the server and splits the processing management between client and server, creating two layers.

Client 1 Request Server Reply

Client N

Figure 6.36 A depiction of the Client–Server Model.

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A three-tier distributed client–server architecture (as shown in Fig. 6.37) includes a user system interface top tier where user services (such as session, text input, dialog, and display management) reside. The third tier provides service management functionality and is dedicated to data and file services that can be optimized without using any proprietary service management system languages. It should be noted that connectivity between tiers can be dynamically changed depending upon the user’s request for data and services. The middle tier provides process management services (such as process development, process enactment, process monitoring, and process resource) that are shared by multiple applications. The middle tier server (also referred to as the application server) improves performance, flexibility, maintainability, reusability, and scalability by centralizing process logic. Centralized process logic makes administration and change management easier by localizing system functionality so that changes must only be written once and placed on the middle tier server to be available throughout the systems. With other architectural designs, a change to a function (service) would need to be written into every application. In addition, the middle process management tier controls transactions and asynchronous queuing to ensure reliable completion of transactions. The middle tier manages distributed service integrity by the two phase commit process. It provides access to resources based on names instead of locations, and thereby improves scalability and flexibility as system components are added or moved.

6.6.1.2

Message Server

Messaging is another way to implement three-tier architectures. Messages are prioritized and processed asynchronously. Messages consist of headers that contain priority information, and the address and identification number. Three-tier User system interface

Process management

Service management

Figure 6.37 Three-tier distributed Client–Server architecture.

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In database implementation, the message server connects to the relational DBMS and other data sources. The message server architecture focuses on intelligent messages. Messaging systems are good solutions for wireless infrastructures.

6.6.1.3 Application Server The application server architecture allocates the main body of an application to run on a shared host rather than in the user system interface client environment. The application server shares logic, computations, and a data retrieval engine. Advantages are that with less software on the client there is less security to worry about, applications are more scalable, and support and installation costs are less on a single server than maintaining each on a desktop client. The application server design should be used when security, scalability, and cost are major considerations.

6.6.2

Master–Slave Model

In control networking, especially in the CAN networking, master–slave is a powerful design for a communication protocol in which one device or process defined as “master” is used to control one or more other devices or processes defined as “slaves.” Once the master–slave relationship is established, the direction of control is always from the master to the slave(s). Figure 6.38 is a depiction of the master–slave model. In the master–slave protocol model, the master is or runs the controlling process; the slaves then run the processes doing the actual work. Usually,

Master

Slave

Slave

Slave

Slave

Figure 6.38 A depiction of the Master–Slave model.

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slaves are generated as necessary to perform control function and to solve the problem.

6.6.2.1

Master

The master is responsible for dividing the work among the available slaves, to keep each of them busy without using too much communication. If the straightforward detection of the collision among a number N objects is used in a scene, the master’s responsibility is pretty easy. As in Fig. 6.39, we just put all the object-to-object combinations that have to be checked in a queue and wait for slaves to become available. If a slave is available and there is work to be done, the master assigns a job to that slave; otherwise, the slave is put into a waiting queue until a job arrives. In some implementations, the master does more than just assign work. The master is in an excellent position to look globally at the work that has to be done, so it seems natural to have the master perform the collision detection. After having performed this high-level check, only the necessary jobs are created and put into the queue. These jobs consist of the facelevel checks that have to be performed and which will be executed by the slaves.

6.6.2.2

Slave

For slaves, the most important aspect we have to deal with is the job handling. If a job is submitted to a slave it will contain the two starting nodes of the trees. Before starting the collision detection, the slave will have to locate these nodes in its memory space. One possibility is to specify the nodes by the path to follow starting at the root of the tree.

Master listening Slave ready Add slave to queue

Report

New job Add job to queue

Assign an available job to Slave

Figure 6.39 Message handling in the Master–Slave model.

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This would require specifying two values: a bit string containing the “instructions” for the path and an integer containing the number of bits that are valid in the bit string but do not descend too deep in the tree. A faster and maybe a little bit simpler way is to index the trees. Next to the actual tree that approximates the object, it also constructs an index. This index contains two arrays: The first array contains pointers to the actual nodes, and the second array contains offsets, indicating at which offset from the current position the right child of the node corresponding to the current position in the array can be found. This approach obviously requires more memory than the first, but it is certainly faster than the first proposal and seems a bit easier to implement. Also, the extra memory needed can be reduced by eliminating the information about the tree structure contained in the nodes themselves, since this information is now also available (also in constant time) in the index. This reduction has not been performed in the current implementation, so it should be added in the “to do” list. Then, of course, there is also the part that does the actual collision detection. Only the procedure for the tree traversal is different from the sequential version; the rest is identical. The tree traversal has a separate version for parallel execution since functionality has to be added to maintain information about the index. Also, the current search depth has to be checked against the maximum and a “new job” command issued to the master if necessary.

6.6.3

Producer–Consumer Model

The producer–consumer design pattern is based on the master–slave model. The producer–consumer design breaks down the parallel running program processes into two categories, those that produce data and those that consume the data produced.

6.6.3.1

Designs

The producer–consumer pattern is commonly used when acquiring multiple sets of data to be processed in order. Suppose you want to write an application that accepts data while processing them in the order they were received. Because queuing up (producing) this data is much faster than the actual processing (consuming), the producer–consumer design pattern is best suited for this application. The producer–consumer pattern approach to this application would be to queue the data in the producer loop, and have the actual processing done in the consumer loop. This in

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effect will allow the consumer loop to process the data at its own pace, while allowing the producer loop to queue additional data at the same time. The producer–consumer pattern offers the ability to easily handle multiple processes at the same time while iterating at individual rates. What makes this pattern unique is its added benefit of buffered communication between application processes. When there are multiple processes running at different speeds, buffered communication between processes is extremely effective. For example, an application has two processes. The first process performs data acquisition and the second process takes that data and places it on a network. The first process operates at three times the speed as the second process. If the producer–consumer design pattern is used to implement this application, the data acquisition process will act as the producer and the network process the consumer. With a large enough communication queue (buffer), the network process will have access to a large amount of the data that the data acquisition loop acquires. This ability to buffer data will minimize data loss. This design pattern can also be used effectively when analyzing network communication. This type of application would require two processes to operate at the same time and at different speeds. The first process would constantly poll the network line and retrieve packets. The second process would take these packets retrieved by the first process and analyze them. In this example, the first process will act as the producer because it is supplying data to the second process that will act as the consumer. This application would benefit from the use of the producer–consumer design pattern. The parallel producer and consumer loops will handle the retrieval and analysis of data off the network, and the queued communication between the two will allow buffering of the network packets retrieved. This buffering will become very important when network communication gets busy. With buffering, packets can be retrieved and communicated faster than they can be analyzed.

6.6.3.2

Implementations

As with the standard master–slave pattern, the producer–consumer design consists of parallel loops that are broken down into two categories: producers, and consumers. Communication between producer and consumer loops is done by using data queues. Queues are based on the FIFO semantics. In the producer–consumer design pattern; queues can be initialized outside both the producer and consumer loops. Because the producer loop produces data for the consumer

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loop, it will be adding data to the queue (adding data to a queue is called “enqueue”). The consumer loop will be removing data from that queue (removing data from a queue is called “dequeue”). Because queues are FIFO, the data will always be analyzed by the consumer in the same order as they were placed into the queue by the producer. Queues are bound to one particular data type. Therefore, every different data item that is produced in a producer loop needs to be placed into different queues. This could be a problem because of the complication added to the block diagram. Queues can accept data types such as array and cluster. Each data item can placed inside a cluster. This will mask a variety of data types behind the cluster data type. Since the producer–consumer design pattern is not based on synchronization, there is no order of initial execution between the producer and consumer loops. Therefore, initializing one loop before the other begins execution can be a problem. Occurrences can be used to solve these kinds of synchronization problems.

6.6.4

Remote Procedure Call (RPC)

Remote procedure call (RPC) is a protocol that one program can use to request a service from a program located in another controller or computer in a network without having to understand network details. RPC uses the client–server model. The requesting program is a client and the serviceproviding program is the server (Figure 6.40). Similar to a regular or local procedure call, an RPC is a synchronous operation requiring the requesting program to be suspended until the results of the remote procedure are returned. However, the use of lightweight

Application

RPC atub program

T r a n s p o r t

N e t w o r k

N e t w o r k Application specific procedure invocations and returns

T r a n s p o r t

Application or server

RPC atub program

Figure 6.40 Remote procedure calls (RPC).

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processes or threads that share the same address space allows multiple RPC to be performed concurrently. RPC spans the transport layer and the application layer in the open systems interconnection (OSI) model of network communication. RPC makes it easier to develop an application that includes multiple programs distributed in a network. When program statements that use RPC are compiled into an executable program, a stub is included in the compiled code that acts as the representative of the remote procedure code. When the program is run and the procedure call is issued, the stub receives the request and forwards it to a client runtime program in the local computer. The client runtime program has the knowledge of how to address the remote computer and server application and sends the message across the network that requests the remote procedure. Similarly, the server includes a runtime program and stub that interface with the remote procedure itself. Results are returned the same way. There are several RPC models and implementations. A popular model and implementation is the Open Software Foundation’s Distributed Computing Environment (DCE). The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers defines RPC in its ISO Remote Procedure Call Specification, ISO/IEC CD 11578 N6561, ISO/IEC, November 1991.

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7 System Routines in Industrial Control 7.1 Overview To support the parts required to accomplish the desired control functionality, an industrial control system requires some auxiliary software and hardware. Without electrical power, all the industrial control systems are nothing more than plastics, steel, and semiconductors. The plastics, steel, and semiconductors with which an industrial control system is equipped are not ready to work immediately when the power switch is turned on. Once the power switch is turned on, an industrial control system needs to carry on a preparation to build itself up before performing controls, which is defined as Power-on process. On the other hand, if a running control system immediately stops once the power is switched off, its hardware and in particular its software certainly are damaged. This can be easily understood from the common sense that a car is definitely broken after one violently applies the brake when it is running at a high speed. The transition process from a running state to a still state is necessary for the protection of an industrial control system, and is defined as Power-down process. The hardware and, in particular, the software of an industrial control system required to accomplish the Power-on and Power-down processes are called Power-on routines and Power-down routines, respectively. Any industrial control system hosts some devices and microprocessors that are connected to each other in a given topology. The control functions of an industrial control system are realized by means of the cooperation of all the interior devices and microprocessors. Each microprocessor controller in an industrial control system must dynamically detect the existence of all the connected devices, and check the compatibilities between the detected and the designed devices to decide if they can work. For a distributed industrial control system, the main microprocessor-unit must set up the system’s integrity in power on to ensure that the whole system can be coordinated. Those system routines responsible for installing all the devices and configuring the system are called install and configure routines. An industrial control system can also have some other kinds of system routines to assist the system in (1) detecting the components’ faults, 775

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(2) analyzing the errors of the software programs, (3) managing the system power costs, and (4) adjusting the physical attributes of some instruments. All of the system routines given in this book are included in Section 7.4: Diagnostic Routines. Simulation is becoming a very popular method of designing a control system, which can be tested on a simulated, rather than real plant. Also, there are products that enable rapid prototyping, that is, developing the control system using a simulation suite and then downloading it to a target processor of a real-time control system. The simulation routines are given in Section 7.5

7.2 Power-On and Power-Down Routines Power is the rudimentary basis of industrial control. The principal type of power for industrial control is electricity. In an industrial control system, electricity is needed everywhere to support the control operations. Almost every industrial control system has an assembly power supply switch. The control system with the assembly power supply switch starts once this switch is turned on and stops once turned off; either gradually or suddenly. After being switched on, power goes to every part of the system. It requires a period of time to establish the system so that the control functionality can be performed because of the following: (1) The system needs to recognize all the components and devices including their respective attributes and parameters; (2) The different parts of the system need to understand each other for the functions and statuses; (3) The system needs to ensure that it has no mechanical or electronic fault, and no software error. For a control system or control device of at least one microprocessorunit board or chipset, after its power switch is turned on, the procedure immediately starts (1) Each microprocessor-unit board or chipset boots itself independently; (2) Each microprocessor-unit board or chipset, after being successfully booted, communicates with other microprocessor-unit boards or chipsets that are connected with it so as to synchronize each other;

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(3) The main, or mother microprocessor-unit board (if the system has only one microprocessor-unit board or chipset, it is the motherboard of the system) processes the installation and configuration for the system; (4) When the installation and configuration are complete, the control system enters into a suitable mode or state that is ready to undertake control functionality. The boot sequence for a microprocessor-unit board or chipset in Power-on is being given in Section 5.1.3; this section, here, only covers those issues in the Power-on process after all the Microprocessor-Unit boards of the system have been successfully booted. In contrast to the Power-on procedure, Power-down procedure restores the control system from the working state to an idle state before the power is cut off, so as to avoid the possible damage of mechanical parts, electronic hardware, and software. The Power-down procedure needs a period of time in the following cases: (1) Before the power is cut off, all the microprocessor-unit boards or chipsets in the system need to receive the message such as ‘please prepare for power down’ to withdraw from their current process by saving the program data and changing the program mode; (2) All the physical hardware devices in the system should terminate their movements and activities, respectively; (3) The mother microprocessor-unit board or chipset should realize when all the devices complete the preparation for the power down before it sends a command to turn off the power switch. When an industrial control system is running, if the “power will be down” command is applied to it either by pressing its power switch or by sending a message from its human-machine interface; this command should first arrived at one of its microprocessor-unit boards. The control system then starts a Power-down process. The system will not cut off the power until the Power-down process completes. The Power-down process follows these steps below: (1) When receiving the “power will be down” command, the microprocessor-unit board or chipset receiving this command broadcasts this command message to all the connected microprocessor-unit boards with it; (2) Each of these microprocessor-unit boards or chipsets, after receiving this command message, informs those connected microprocessor-unit boards accordingly;

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (3) All the microprocessor-unit boards or chipsets of the system terminate the running processes; stop the activities of the subsidiary physical hardware; save all the system and program data necessary for the next running; change their respective system mode, and so on; (4) When the system completes the preparation of Power-down, it sends command to its power supply control device to turn the power source off the control system.

7.2.1

System Hardware Requirements

Both the Power-on routine and the Power-down routine in an industrial control system work not only with software programs, but also with special electronics hardware and electric devices. Low voltage power supply circuit (LVPSC) is necessary for a control system to perform this functionality. In additional to the low voltage power supply circuits, the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) of the microprocessor-unit boards or chipsets in an industrial control system are also crucial to undertake the Power-on Self Tests (POST).

7.2.1.1

Low Voltage Power Supply Circuit (LVPSC)

The LVPSC is required by an industrial control system for providing electricity of different voltages to different chipsets, boards, and devices; and allows the control system to undertake the Power-on and Power-down routines. Figure 7.1 illustrates a typical LVPSC resident in an assumed distributed control system. From Fig. 7.1, we can learn that low voltage power supply circuits for an industrial control system consist of the following components: (1) System ON/OFF button. This button provides a tool for the user to turn on or turn off the power for the control system. As given in Fig. 7.1, this button is attached to the power state indicator LED. If this button is pressed while the system is off power the electricity immediately flows everywhere in the control system. However, if this button is pressed while the system is working it just starts up the Power-down process that runs for a short time before the control system is off power. (2) LVPS regulator. This is the core of the LVPSC responsible for all the following: (a) Converting Alternating Currents (AC) into Direct Currents (DC);

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Mother MPU Board -POST SCSI

+3.3 V SB

i=i+1 Disk

ON

Switch State

RS422 MPU - 1

MPU Board -POST

System ON/OFF button

I 2C Watch-dog (OR)

Kick watchdog

MPU - 2 RS422 MPU - 3

Power Supply on/off command

Alternate currents

UPS

Mains IN

LVPS 24 V I/lock

3.3 V 5 V 12 V 24 V To printed wires assembly board

Figure 7.1 Block diagram for low voltage power supply circuits (LVPSC) in an assumed distributed industrial control system.

(b) Switching on or switching off the power; (c) Outputting different values of voltages. In a LVPSC, this regulator connects with the power state indicator LED through the watchdog as shown by Fig. 7.1 and its outputs go to the system’s PWAB that provides the power throughout the control system. Figure 7.2 is an assumed simplex linear regulator power circuit. (3) Watchdog timer. This is used for the surveillance of some physical variables loading to the microprocessor-unit board taken as the power controller for the system. The power voltage is one of these physical variables. Watchdog is always on duty while the microprocessor is running. Its counter or timer is set as zero once the voltage value of this board is large or less than some given quantity so that the microprocessor resets or requests power off for this system. Watchdog guarantees the system works with the desired voltages.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY R5

Vin > Q3

Vin >

> Vout

+ R3

Heat sink (AAVID)

C2

R4 Vin

Q2 VOLDET

Vout

R1

ADJ

Q1 C1 + C3

+

R2

Figure 7.2 The circuit of a simplex low voltage power supply (LVPS) device.

(4) ON-power state indicator LED. It works as an interface between the ON/OFF button and the microprocessor to generate an interrupt signal to the microprocessor once the states of this button are changed. (5) UPS device. UPS is a conventional device modulating the exterior power source to allow a control system to work under a safe condition. Main functionality of a UPS device is to maintain the current and the voltage of the exterior electricity. (6) Power supply ON/OFF commands path. An interface ASIC passes the message of the microprocessor to the LVPS in response to the user action applied to the ON/OFF button.

7.2.1.2

Basic Input and Output System (BIOS)

In general, the BIOS is a concept comprised of both hardware and software aspects. Its hardware aspect is the firmware of a microprocessor-unit chipset including the microprocessor-unit, the bus arrays, and the registers sets. Its software aspect is the set of instructions used to boot this microprocessor-unit chipset termed as boot program or boot code. When a control system is first powered on, the BIOS is the first thing executed by the system. The BIOS performs all the tasks that need to be done at the startup, which include the tasks performing the self-tests and the tasks initializing the hardware in an industrial control system. All these tasks are known as the Power-on Self-test (POST) process.

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On most current motherboards of the industrial control systems, the peripheral connecting interface (PCI) bus arrays are popularly used as the main trucks linking their CPU’s internal buses with other types of buses such as ISA, SCSI, RS-series, AGP, and so on, to transact communications between the CPU and the I/O interface devices. The bus systems on motherboards have several bridges that are the schemes of ASIC to undertake these transactions. It is the complex bus arrays that the motherboards and other microprocessor chipsets rely on to perform the POST. The boot programs are typically stored in the EEPROM of a microprocessor chipset, sometimes called Flash. When a control system is first powered on, the motherboard will begin to POST. During this process, the boot programs run the CMOS setup that performs the basic diagnoses on the hardware of chipsets by means of their arrays of the buses and the bridges, and stores the results of the POST into their memories.

7.2.2

System Power-On Process

In the Power-on process, after the booting of each microprocessor unit board or chipset is completed, the synchronization of all the microprocessorunits and devices in an industrial control system is performed. Figure 7.3 is the flow chart of a microprocessor-unit board or chipset to synchronize all the microprocessor-units and devices in the Power-on process. Figure 7.3 gives two stages: (1) Start up of the Operating System (OS) and then carry on the synchronization between the device of this microprocessor-unit and all the devices connecting to it; and (2) Start up of the Application Program to initialize the services, monitors, handlers, interface managers, and so forth. The watchdog timer in a microprocessorunit board or chipset can be used to control the time spent by each step. At the start of a step, for example, to synchronize with one of the connecting devices, the microprocessor through its operating system program resets values to a watchdog timer. When this timer is expired, the microprocessor checks if this step has been completed. If it completes before or as this timer is expired, it carries on the next step; otherwise, it reports error and takes measures to handle this error. An important index for industrial control systems is the time spent in their Power-on processes. It seems acceptable if an industrial control system completes its Power-on process in less than 1 min. If it is longer than 1 min, engineers need to consider updating the microprocessors to fast ones, modifying the boot program or the booting process, and fixing the bugs in the operating system or in the application programs.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Power switch

is turned on

Boot process

Not

Boot completes? Yes Startup operating system program (Initialize tasks, events, memory,)

Initialization completes?

Not

Yes Startup synchronization process (Read the POST results by the boot program for the existence of all the connecting devices.)

Not

The ith connecting device exists? Yes

Synchronizing with the ith connecting device

Has the Ith device been successfully synchronized? Yes

Not i=i+1

Have all the connecting devices been synchronized?

Not Error handling process or service

Yes

Startup application program (Initialize services, monitors, …) Yes

After done application programs initialization, Setup Idle state to prepare loading clients’ control process

Figure 7.3 Flow chart of the Power-on process of a microprocessor unit board or chipset in an industrial control system.

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783

System Power-On Self Tests

The self-test of the system hardware and software in the Power-on stage is a necessary operation for an industrial control system. Without this operation, the system cannot be properly built up to carry on control activities loaded by users. In computer and industrial control technologies, the POST that means the Power-on Self Test is the typical term to describe this operation.

7.2.3.1 When Does the POST Apply? As mentioned in the earlier chapters, the boot process first comes up once an industrial control system is powered on. The POST takes a large percentage of the operations of the boot process so that the POST is the main task during the boot process. However, the engineers working in industrial control often use this term for those hardware and software tests applied after completing the boot process in Power-on. For example, some industrial control systems issue the self-test routines in the diagnostic routines (see the next section for the Diagnostics routines), or issue some hardware tests in the synchronization stage after the boot process completes. Although these tests can perform the same operations as the POST does in boot process, they do not agree with the POST in a strict technical definition.

7.2.3.2 What does the POST do? In most of the industrial control systems, POST does two kinds of job: hardware initialization and self-diagnostics. The following gives the work performed by POST: (1) Initializing and testing the internal buses of a microprocessorunit. As described in Section 2.1.4, the internal bus system of a microprocessor-unit includes three buses that are the Address bus, the Data bus, and the Control bus. Some registers resident in the microprocessor-unit actually control these buses. The initialization of these kinds of buses needs to write into these registers to set up their states and to configure their functionality and physical parameters. Self-tests can be performed during the execution of these writings and will stop if these buses have hardware faults. (2) Initializing and Testing the Internal I/O Ports of a MicroprocessorUnit. As described in Section 2.1.3, there are the input ports and

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY the output ports in a microprocessor-unit. These ports actually are ASIC containing some registers. The initialization of these ports needs two steps: (1) The first step is to read from these ports to detect whether or not they exist, which also performs one of the self-tests; and (2) The second step is to write into these registers to initialize these ASIC. If these ASIC have hardware faults, these writings are stopped after the fault is recorded in some microprocessor-unit registers. (3) Initializing and Testing the Buses of a Microprocessor-Unit Board. As described in Section 2.1, a microprocessor-unit board or chipset should have other bus systems to connect with the peripheral devices. The bus system of a microprocessor-unit board or chipset is complicated in topography consisting of bridges and arbiters that actually are ASIC of some registers. The initialization of this bus system needs to write into these registers to set up these ASIC. Self-tests are performed during the execution of these writings that will be stopped if these ASIC have hardware faults. (4) Initializing and Testing the Peripheral Devices. A microprocessorunit board or chipset may connect with some of the peripheral devices listed in Section 2.2. These peripheral devices are able to communicate with the microprocessor by means of the bus system. The initialization of these peripheral devices needs three steps: (1) The first step is to assign the memory-mapped I/O registers to each of these devices; (2) The second step is to read their controllers to achieve their existences; and (3) The third step is for writing into the registers inside these devices the work and configuration parameters. During these steps, stopping the initializations if these devices do not exist or have hardware faults also performs the self-tests. (5) Initializing and Testing the Memory of Microprocessor-Unit. The memory residing inside a microprocessor-unit is the SDRAM. This work includes two aspects. The first one works out the geometry of the SDRAM bank. The second one tests the SDRAM controller. Its geometry is probed by writing some values into various locations in the SDRAM, then reading back these values and working out where the holes in the memory map are. This work needs to set the microprocessor into protected mode and execute some loops to ensure that every place in the SDRAM has been probed. The SDRAM controller is initialized with the relevant registers inside the microprocessor-unit. Writing the memory banks map into these registers accomplishes this. The memory banks map includes the number of banks, the starting and ending addresses of each bank, and so on.

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(6) Initializing the Interrupt Controller of a Microprocessor-Unit. This is for the microprocessor to generate the Interrupt Vectors Table of all kinds of possible interrupts and their handlers. The following are necessary to build up the Interrupt Vectors Table for a microprocessor: (1) For each possible interrupt and its handler, setting up the stack structure of its descriptor; (2) For each possible interrupt and its handler, setting up the stack structure of its Opcode; and (3) For each possible interrupt, setting up the stack structure that can be used to store the seven last stack frames.

7.2.3.3 Who Does the POST? The boot programs or the BIOS of a microprocessor-unit carry on this POST. In most of the industrial control systems, the boot programs or BIOS are stored in an EEPROM (also called Flash) so that they are editable and adjustable. Engineers are therefore able to update their code to develop the microprocessor-unit and the control system. When a microprocessor-unit is first powered up, the program counter of the microprocessor’s engine is pointed into the beginning of the boot program code in the EEPROM, hence the boot code first runs and the POST first implements. As we know, when the booting process completes, the boot program is immediately moved to the Operating System code of the Application programs.

7.2.4

System Power-Down Process

An industrial control system can be powered down by eliminating the power from throughout this system. There are two ways to implement the power off of an industrial control system: (1) Hard Power-down. It is called “Hard Power off” if the power is immediately eliminated from everywhere in the system without allowing any devices to make preparation once a Power-down request is made. By using this way to power off, the system could be damaged; even both the hardware and the software in the control system could be broken. (2) Soft Power-down. It is called “Soft Power Down” if every device of the system accomplishes a preparation before the power supply is cut off to the system. This could protect an industrial control system from the damage to both its hardware and its software.

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The Soft Power-down is recommended owing to its obvious safety benefits. The Soft Power-down asks for the system to run a preparation process between the time a Power-down request is loaded and when the power supply is cut off to all of the system. The typical Power-down process follows the procedure listed: (1) The users’ request for a Power-down is first signaled to the system either by pressing its System ON/OFF Button (Fig. 7.1) or by clicking such a shut down button in its human-machine interface (which is like the Shut Down pop-up window in the monitor screen of a Personal Computer). This request, as a signal or as an interrupt, first arrives at the microprocessor-unit located at the board or chipset that connects with this System ON/OFF button. This microprocessor-unit board can be called the Power Control MPU Board. As an example, for a control system given in Fig. 7.1, once the System ON/OFF button is pressed while the system is running, an interrupt is applied through the ‘ON’ LED to the microprocessor on the Power Control MPU Board. (2) After the microprocessor of the Power Control MPU Board receives this signal, it normally sends a message like “Powerdown request” to the motherboard of the system to start the Power-down process. The motherboard will coordinate this Power-down process thereafter. For some control systems, when receiving this Power-down request message from Power Control MPU Board, the microprocessor of the motherboard issues such a “Power is shutting down” display as a Pop-up window in the human-machine interfaces to ask users for confirmation. This confirmation needs to be sent to the microprocessor of the motherboard. (3) After the Power-down request is confirmed to the motherboard, all the microprocessor-unit boards and devices of the control system start the preparation for powering down with the different procedures on different boards and devices: (a) Motherboard. The following operations will be implemented by the microprocessor of the motherboard of an industrial control system: (i) Its Operating System, after it receives this signal or interrupt of the Power-down request, initializes the System Power-down manager to coordinate the Powerdown process of the control system; (ii) The System Power-down manager, after it is initialized, sends such a Power-down message to all the connected microprocessor-unit boards and devices, respectively;

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(iii) The Operating System of the motherboard then changes its own system mode from such a mode as Normal Mode into such a mode as Idle Mode. Once its system mode has been changed into the Idle Mode, it reports to the System Power-down manager; (iv) After the System Power-down manager of the motherboard receives the reports from all the microprocessorunit boards and devices including itself for the completion of changing their system modes to the Idle Mode, the System Power-down manager sends such a message as Turn Off Power to the microprocessor of the Power Control MPU Board. (b) Power control MPU board. The following operations will be implemented by the microprocessor of this microprocessorunit board: (i) Its Operating System sends a Power-down request message to all the connected microprocessor-unit boards and devices with it, respectively; (ii) It then changes its own system modes from such a mode as Normal Mode into such a mode as Idle Mode. Once it and all the connected microprocessor-unit boards and devices have done the mode change, it sends to the System Power-down manager to report the completion of its system mode change. (iii) Once receiving such a message as Turn off Power from the motherboard, it sends such as the Power Supply Off command to the Power Supply Control Device that is the LVPS in the system given in Fig. 7.1. (c) The microprocessor-unit boards that are neither the motherboard nor the power control MPU board. On each of these microprocessor-unit boards, the following operations will be implemented by its microprocessor: (i) It sends a Power-down request message to all the connected microprocessor-unit boards and devices with it, respectively; (ii) It then changes its own system modes from such a mode as Normal Mode into such a mode as Idle Mode. Once it and all the connected microprocessor-unit boards and devices having done this mode change, it sends to its own motherboard (may not be the motherboard of the control system) to report the completion of its system mode change. (d) Power supply control device. This device is the LVPS in the system given in Fig. 7.1 and implements only one operation:

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Once receiving the Power Supply off command from the Power Control MPU Board, it cuts the power resource off. Power is totally eliminated from the control system after the power supply control device cuts the power supply off. In the Power-down process of an industrial control system, Change System Mode is the key operation required on each microprocessor-unit board or chipset. The sequence of a microprocessor-unit board to change its system modes from a Normal Mode to an Idle Mode includes these steps: (1) stopping the currently running application processes; (2) saving all the necessary working data of the currently running application processes; (3) saving all the necessary data of all the application processes waiting in the queue; (4) saving all the memories (RAM, DRAM, etc.) contents; (5) saving the reason for this time of Power-down if required; and (6) entering into the Idle Mode and running idle task in the Operating System programs.

7.3 Install and Configure Routines An industrial control system, in particular a distributed control system, consists of one or more controller devices or components to dominate the end equipment. Both the install and configure routines in an industrial control system are software designed to understand the hardware of the system. In this section, we specify the Device Install Routine and the Device Configure Routine for the installation and the configuration of the controller devices or components of an industrial control system. The Device Install Routine is used to work out what devices are hosted and where the devices are located in an industrial control system. The Device Configure Routine is nevertheless used to work out the details of each installed device including the attributes and parameters useful to implement control functionality. Without these two routines, the software of an industrial control system cannot understand and cannot record the controller devices or components, therefore being unable to dominate its hardware and the end equipment. Both the Device Install Routine and the Device Configure Routine are executed in the Power-on process of an industrial control system. Although some aspects of these two routines have been mentioned in the Section 7.2, this section is specially arranged to emphasize their importance in industrial control.

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7.3.1


In industrial control and in computer technology, the controller devices are called “Peripheral Components” (or “Peripheral Devices”). These Peripheral Components are electronically connected in accordance with designed topology to form an industrial control system. The equipment used to make this electronic connection between the peripheral components are various types of Peripheral Components Interconnect (PCI) systems. Both the Install Routine and the Configure Routine must work in these PCI systems. This subsection intends to answer the question how the install and configure are aided with these PCI systems. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), as its name implies, is a standard that describes how to connect the peripheral components of an industrial control system together in a structured and controlled way. The standard describes the way that the system components are electrically connected and the way that they should behave. Figure 7.4 is the logical diagram of an assumed PCI based control system. The PCI buses and PCI-PCI bridges are the medium connecting the system components together; the CPU is connected to PCI bus 0, as is the GUI device. A special PCI device, a PCI-PCI bridge, connects the primary bus to the secondary PCI bus, PCI bus 1. In the jargon of the PCI specification, PCI bus 1 is described as being downstream of the PCI-PCI bridge and PCI bus 0 is upstream of the bridge. Connected to the secondary PCI bus are the SCSI and Ethernet devices for the system. Physically this bridge, secondary PCI bus, and two devices would all be contained on the

CPU

PCI Bus 0 PCI-ISA bridge

PCI-PCI bridge Graphic User Interface (GUI)

Upstream Downstream PCI Bus 1

Super I/O controller SCSI

Ethernet

Figure 7.4 An assumed PCI-based system.

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same combination PCI card. The PCI-ISA bridge in the system supports older, legacy ISA devices and the diagram shows a super I/O controller chip, which could be controlling the floppy disk or the keyboard.

7.3.1.1

PCI Address Spaces

The CPU and all the PCI devices need to access memory that is shared by them. Device drivers to control the PCI devices and to pass information between them by using this memory. Typically, the shared memory contains control and status registers for the device. These registers are used to control the device and to read its status. For example, the PCI SCSI device driver would read its status register to find out if the SCSI device was ready to write a block of information to the SCSI floppy disk. Or it might write to the control register to start the device running after it has been turned on. The CPU’s system memory could be used for this shared memory but if it were, then every time a PCI device accessed memory, the CPU would have to stall, waiting for the PCI device to finish. Access to memory is generally limited to one system component at a time. This would slow the system down. It does not allow the system’s peripheral devices to access main memory in an uncontrolled way. This would be very dangerous; a rogue device could make the system very unstable. Peripheral devices have their own memory spaces. The CPU can access these spaces but access by the devices into the system’s memory is very strictly controlled using DMA (Direct Memory Access) channels. ISA devices have access to two address spaces, ISA I/O (Input/Output) and ISA memory. With most advanced microprocessors, PCI has three: PCI I/O, PCI Memory, and PCI Configuration space. However, some microprocessors, for example, the Alpha AXP processor, do not have natural access to address spaces other than the system address space. It uses support chipsets to access other address spaces such as PCI Configuration space. It uses a sparse address-mapping scheme that steals part of the large virtual address space and maps it to the PCI address spaces.

7.3.1.2

PCI Configuration Headers

Every PCI device in an industrial control system, including the PCI-PCI bridges, has a configuration data structure that is somewhere in the PCI configuration address space. The PCI configuration header allows the system to identify and to control the device. Exactly where the header is in the PCI configuration address space depends on where in the PCI topology

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that device is. For example, a GUI card plugged into one PCI slot on the PC motherboard will have its configuration header at one location, and if it is plugged into another PCI slot then its header will appear in another location in PCI configuration memory. This does not matter, for wherever the PCI devices and bridges are the system will find and configure them, using the status and configuration registers in their configuration headers. Typically, systems are designed so that every PCI slot has its own PCI configuration header in an offset that is related to its slot on the board. So, for example, the first slot on the board might have its PCI configuration at offset 0 and the second slot at offset 256 (all headers are the same length, 256 bytes) and so on. A system specific hardware mechanism is defined so that the PCI configuration code can attempt to examine all possible PCI configuration headers for a given PCI bus and know which devices are present and which devices are absent simply by trying to read one of the fields in the header (usually the Vendor Identification field) and getting some sort of error. This describes one possible error message as returning 0xFFFFFFFF when attempting to read the Vendor Identification and Device Identification fields for an empty PCI slot. Figure 7.5 shows the layout of the 256 bytes of PCI configuration header. It contains the fields as are listed in Table 7.1.

7.3.1.3

PCI I/O and PCI Memory Addresses

The devices to communicate with their device drivers running in the kernel on the CPU use these two address spaces. For example, the DEC chipset 21141 fast Ethernet device maps its internal registers into PCI I/O space. Its device driver then reads and writes those registers to control the device. GUI drivers typically use large amounts of PCI memory space to contain GUI information. Until the PCI system has been set up and the device’s access to these address spaces has been turned on using the Command field in the PCI configuration header, nothing can access them. It should be noted that only the PCI configuration code reads and writes PCI configuration addresses; the device drivers only read and write PCI I/O and PCI memory addresses (this is again left to the device driver’s policies).

7.3.1.4

PCI-ISA Bridges

These bridges support legacy ISA devices by translating PCI I/O and PCI memory space accesses into ISA I/O and ISA memory accesses. A lot

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY 31

16 15

0

Device 1d

Vendor 1d

00h

Status

Command

04h

Class code

08h 10h

Base address registers

24h

Line

Pin

3Ch

Figure 7.5 The PCI configuration header.

of systems now sold contain several ISA bus slots and several PCI bus slots. Over time the need for this backwards compatibility will dwindle and PCI only systems will be sold. Where in the ISA address spaces (I/O and memory) the ISA devices of the system have their registers was fixed in the dim mists of time by the early Intel 8080 based PCs. The PCI specification copes with this by reserving the lower regions of the PCI I/O and PCI memory address spaces for use by the ISA peripherals in the system and using a single PCI-ISA bridge to translate any PCI memory accesses to those regions into ISA accesses.

7.3.1.5

PCI-PCI Bridges

PCI-PCI bridges are special PCI devices that glue the PCI buses of the system together. Simple systems have a single PCI bus but there is an

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Table 7.1 The Fields of the 256-Byte PCI Configuration Header Vendor Identification Device Identification Status Command Class Code

Base Address Registers Interrupt Pin

Interrupt Line

A unique number describing the originator of the PCI device. Digital’s PCI Vendor Identification is 0x1011 and Intel’s is 0x8086 A unique number describing the device itself. For example, Digital’s 21141 fast Ethernet device has a device identification of 0x0009 This field gives the status of the device with the meaning of the bits of this field set by the standard By writing to this field the system controls the device, for example, allowing the device to access PCI I/O memory This identifies the type of device that this is. There are standard classes for every sort of device: GUI, SCSI, and so on. The class code for SCSI is 0x0100 These registers are used to determine and allocate the type, amount, and location of PCI I/O and PCI memory space that the device can use Four of the physical pins on the PCI card carry interrupts from the card to the PCI bus. The standard labels these as A, B, C, and D. The Interrupt Pin field describes which of these pins this PCI device uses. Generally it is hardwired for a particular device. That is, every time the system boots, the device uses the same interrupt pin. This information allows the interrupt handling subsystem to manage interrupts from this device The Interrupt Line field of the device’s PCI configuration header is used to pass an interrupt handle between the PCI initialization code, the device’s driver, and the operating system’s interrupt handling subsystem. The number written there is meaningless to the device driver but it allows the interrupt handler to correctly route an interrupt from the PCI device to the correct device driver’s interrupt handling code within the operating system

electrical limit on the number of PCI devices that a single PCI bus can support. Using PCI-PCI bridges to add more PCI buses allows the system to support many more PCI devices. This is particularly important for a high performance server. (1) PCI-PCI bridges: PCI I/O and PCI memory windows. PCI-PCI bridges only pass a subset of PCI I/O and PCI memory read and write requests downstream. For example, in Fig. 7.4 the PCI-PCI

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY bridge will only pass the reading and written addresses from PCI bus 0 to PCI bus 1 if they are for PCI I/O or PCI memory addresses owned by either the SCSI or Ethernet device; all other PCI I/O and memory addresses are ignored. This stops addresses propagating needlessly throughout the system. To do this, the PCI-PCI bridges must be programmed with a base and limit for PCI I/O and PCI memory space access that they have to pass from their primary bus onto their secondary bus. Once the PCI-PCI bridges in a system have been configured, then so long as the device drivers only access PCI I/O and PCI memory space through these windows, the PCI-PCI bridges are invisible. This is an important feature that makes life easier for Linux PCI device driver writers. (2) PCI-PCI bridges: PCI configuration cycles and PCI bus numbering. So that the CPU’s PCI initialization code can address devices that are not on the main PCI bus, there has to be a mechanism that allows bridges to decide whether or not to pass configuration cycles from their primary interface to their secondary interface. A cycle is just an address as it appears on the PCI bus. The PCI specification defines two formats for the PCI configuration addresses, Type 0 and Type 1; these are shown in Figs. 7.6 and 7.7, respectively. Type 0 PCI configuration cycles do not contain a bus number and these are interpreted by all devices as being for PCI configuration addresses on this PCI bus. Bits 31:11 of the Type 0 configuration cycles are treated as the device select field. One way to design a system is to have each bit select a different device. In this case, bit 11 would select the PCI device in slot 0, bit 12 would select the PCI device in slot 1, and so on. Another way is to write the device’s slot number directly into bits 31:11. Which mechanism is used in a system depends on the system’s PCI memory controller. Type 1 PCI configuration cycles contain a PCI bus number and all PCI devices except the PCI-PCI bridges ignore this type 31

11 10 8 7 2 1 0 Func Register 0 0

Device select

Figure 7.6 Type 0 PCI configuration cycle. 31

24 23 Reserved

16 15 Bus

11 10

Device

Func

8 7

2 1 0

Register 0 1

Figure 7.7 Type 1 PCI configuration cycle.

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of configuration cycle. All of the PCI-PCI bridges seeing Type 1 configuration cycles may choose to pass them to the PCI buses downstream of themselves. Whether the PCI-PCI bridge ignores the Type 1 configuration cycle or passes it onto the downstream PCI bus depends on how the PCI-PCI bridge has been configured. Every PCI-PCI bridge has a primary bus interface number and a secondary bus interface number. The primary bus interface is the one nearest the CPU, and the secondary bus interface is the one furthest away. Each PCI-PCI bridge also has a subordinate bus number and this is the maximum bus number of all the PCI buses that are bridged beyond the secondary bus interface. Alternatively, to put it another way, the subordinate bus number is the highest numbered PCI bus downstream of the PCI-PCI bridge. When the PCI-PCI bridge sees a Type 1 PCI configuration cycle it does one of the following things: (a) Ignores it if the bus number specified is not in between the bridge’s secondary bus number and subordinate bus number (inclusive), (b) Converts it to a Type 0 configuration command if the bus number specified matches the secondary bus number of the bridge, (c) Passes it on to the secondary bus interface unchanged if the bus number specified is greater than the secondary bus number and less than or equal to the subordinate bus number. So, if we want to address Device 1 on bus 3 of the topology we must generate a Type 1 Configuration command from the CPU. Bridge 1 passes this unchanged onto Bus 1. Bridge 2 ignores it, but Bridge 3 converts it into a Type 0 Configuration command and sends it out on Bus 3 where Device 1 responds to it.

7.3.1.6

PCI Initialization

In an industrial control system, the PCI initialization code can be broken into three logic parts: (1) PCI device driver. This pseudodevice driver searches the PCI system starting at Bus 0 and locates all PCI devices and bridges in the system. It builds a linked list of data structures describing the topology of the system. In addition, it numbers all of the bridges that it finds. (2) PCI BIOS. This is the software layer that should provide the various services required for PCI. This is again up to the operating system and it differs from every other operating system. (3) PCI Firmware. System-specific firmware code tidies up the system specific loose ends of PCI initialization.

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7.3.1.7 The PCI Device Driver The PCI device driver is not really a device driver at all but a function of the operating system called at system initialization time. The PCI initialization code must scan all of the PCI buses in the system looking for all PCI devices in the system (including PCI-PCI bridge devices). It uses the PCI BIOS code to find out if every possible slot in the current PCI bus that it is scanning is occupied. If the PCI slot is occupied, it builds a PCI_DEV data structure describing the device and links into the list of known PCI devices. The PCI initialization code starts by scanning PCI Bus 0. It tries to read the Vendor Identification and Device Identification fields for every possible PCI device in every possible PCI slot. When it finds an occupied slot it builds a PCI_DEV data structure describing the device. All of the PCI_ DEV data structures built by the PCI initialization code (including all of the PCI-PCI bridges) are linked into a singly linked list; PCI_DEV. (1) Configuring PCI-PCI bridges—assigning PCI bus numbers. For PCI-PCI bridges to pass PCI I/O, PCI memory, or PCI configuration address space reads and writes across them, they need to know the following: (a) Primary bus number. The bus number immediately upstream of the PCI-PCI Bridge. (b) Secondary bus number. The bus number immediately downstream of the PCI-PCI Bridge. (c) Subordinate bus number. The highest bus number of all of the buses that can be reached downstream of the bridge. (d) PCI I/O and PCI memory windows. The window base and size for PCI I/O address space and PCI memory address space for all addresses downstream of the PCI-PCI bridge. The problem is that at the time when you wish to configure any given PCI-PCI bridge you do not know the subordinate bus number for that bridge. You do not know if there are further PCIPCI bridges downstream and if you did, you would not know what numbers will be assigned to them. The answer is to use a depth recursive algorithm and scan each bus for any PCI-PCI bridges, assigning them the numbers as they are found. As each PCI-PCI bridge is found and its secondary bus numbered, assign it a temporary subordinate number of 0xFF and scan and assign numbers to all PCI-PCI bridges downstream of it. This all seems complicated but the example below makes this process clearer. (2) PCI-PCI bridge numbering: Step 1 (The Linux approach). Taking the topology in Fig. 7.8, the first bridge the scan would find is

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CPU D1

D2

Bus 0

D1

Bridge 1

D2

Primary bus = 0 Secondary bus = 1 Subordinare = 0xFF Bus 1

Bridge 2

Bridge 3

D1

Bus ?

Bridge 4

Bus ?

D1

D2 Bus ?

Figure 7.8 Configuring a PCI system: Step 1.

Bridge 1. The PCI bus downstream of Bridge 1 would be numbered as 1 and Bridge 1 assigned a secondary bus number of 1 and a temporary subordinate bus number of 0xFF. This means that all Type 1 PCI Configuration addresses specifying a PCI bus number of 1 or higher would be passed across Bridge 1 and onto PCI Bus 1. They would be translated into Type 0 Configuration cycles if they have a bus number of 1 but left unable to be translated for all other bus numbers. This is exactly what the PCI initialization code needs to do to go and scan PCI Bus 1. (3) PCI-PCI bridge numbering: Step 2 (The Linux approach). Linux uses a depth algorithm and so the initialization code goes on to scan PCI Bus 1. Here it finds PCI-PCI Bridge 2. There are no further PCI-PCI bridges beyond PCI-PCI Bridge 2, so it is assigned a subordinate bus number of 2 that matches the number assigned to its secondary interface. Figure 7.9 shows how the buses and PCI-PCI bridges are numbered at this point. (4) PCI-PCI bridge numbering: Step 3 (The Linux approach). The PCI initialization code returns to scanning PCI Bus 1 and finds another PCI-PCI bridge, Bridge 3. It is assigned 1 as its primary bus interface number, 3 as its secondary bus interface number,

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CPU D1

D2

Bus 0

D1

Bridge 1

D2

Primary bus = 0 Secondary bus = 1 Subordinare = 0xFF Bus 1

Primary bus = 1 Bridge Secondary bus = 2 2 Subordinare = 2

Bridge 3

D1

Bus ?

Bridge 4

Bus 2

D1

D2 Bus ?


and 0xFF as its subordinate bus number. Figure 7.10 shows how the system is configured now. Type 1 PCI configuration cycles with a bus number of 1, 2, or 3 will be correctly delivered to the appropriate PCI buses. (5) PCI-PCI bridge numbering: Step 4 (The Linux approach). Linux starts scanning PCI Bus 3, downstream of PCI-PCI Bridge 3. PCI Bus 3 has another PCI-PCI bridge (Bridge 4) on it. It is assigned 3 as its primary bus number and 4 as its secondary bus number. It is the last bridge on this branch and so it is assigned a subordinate bus interface number of 4. The initialization code returns to PCI-PCI Bridge 3 and assigns it a subordinate bus number of 4. Finally, the PCI initialization code can assign 4 as the subordinate bus number for PCI-PCI Bridge 1. Figure 7.11 shows the final bus numbers.

7.3.1.8

PCI BIOS Functions

The PCI BIOS functions are a series of standard routines that are common across all platforms. For example, they are the same for both Intel and Alpha AXP based systems. They allow the CPU controlled access to all of

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CPU D1

D2

Bus 0

D1

D2

Bridge 1

Primary bus = 0 Secondary bus = 1 Subordinare = 4 Bus 1


D1


Bus 3

Bridge Primary bus = 3 Secondary bus = 4 4 Subordinare = 4

Bus 2

D1

D2 Bus 4


CPU D2

D1 Bus 0

D1

D2

Primary bus = 0 Bridge Secondary bus = 1 1 Subordinare = 4 Bus 1

D1


Primary bus = 1 Bridge Secondary bus = 2 2 Subordinare = 2 Bus 2

Bus 3 Primary bus = 3 Bridge Secondary bus = 4 4 Subordinare = 4

D1

D2 Bus 4


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the PCI address spaces. Therefore, only Linux kernel code and device drivers may use them.

7.3.1.9

PCI Firmware

The PCI firmware code for Alpha AXP does rather more than that for Intel (which basically does nothing). For Intel based systems the system BIOS, which ran at boot time, has already fully configured the PCI system. For non-Intel based systems further configuration needs to happen: (1) Allocate PCI I/O and PCI memory space to each device, (2) Configure the PCI I/O and PCI memory address windows for each PCI-PCI bridge in the system, (3) Generate Interrupt Line values for the devices; these control the interrupt handling for the device. The following describes how that the code works. (1) Finding out how much PCI I/O and PCI memory space a device needs. Each PCI device found is queried to find out how much PCI I/O and PCI memory address space it requires. To do this, each base address register has all 1’s written to it and then read. The device will return 0’s in the don’t-care address bits, effectively specifying the address space required. There are two basic types of base address register; the first indicates within which address space the device registers must reside, either PCI I/O or PCI memory space. This is indicated by Bit 0 of the register. Figure 7.12 shows the two forms of the base address register for PCI memory and for PCI I/O. To find out just how much of each address space a given base address register is requesting, you write all 1s into the register and then read it back. The device will specify zeros in those don’t care address bits, effectively specifying the address space required. This design implies that all address spaces used are a power of 2 and are naturally aligned. For example when you initialize the DEC Chipset 21142 PCI Fast Ethernet device, it tells you that it needs 0x100 bytes of space of either PCI I/O or PCI memory. The initialization code allocates it space. The moment that it allocates space, the 21142’s control and status registers can be seen at those addresses. (2) Allocating PCI I/O and PCI memory to PCI-PCI bridges and devices. Similar to all memory, the PCI I/O and PCI memory spaces are finite, and to some extent scarce. The PCI firmware

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7: SYSTEM ROUTINES IN INDUSTRIAL CONTROL 4 3 2 1 0

31

0

Base address

Prefetchable

Type

Base address for PCI memory space 31

2 1 0 1

Base address

Reserved Base address for PCI I/O space

Figure 7.12 PCI configuration header: Base address registers.

code for non-Intel systems (and the BIOS code for Intel systems) has to allocate each device the amount of memory that it is requesting in an efficient manner. Both PCI I/O and PCI memory must be allocated to a device in a naturally aligned way. For example, if a device asks for 0xB0 of PCI I/O space, then it must be aligned on an address that is a multiple of 0xB0. In addition to this, the PCI I/O and PCI memory bases for any given bridge must be aligned on 4 k and on 1 MB boundaries, respectively. Given that the address spaces for downstream devices must lie within all of the upstream PCI-PCI bridge’s memory ranges for any given device, it is a somewhat difficult problem to allocate space efficiently. A recursive algorithm can be used to walk through the data structures built by the PCI initialization code. Starting at the root PCI bus the BIOS firmware code: (a) Aligns the current global PCI I/O and memory bases on 4 k and 1 MB boundaries, respectively. (b) For every device on the current bus (in ascending PCI I/O memory needs), it allocates its space in PCI I/O and/or PCI memory. (c) Moves on the global PCI I/O and memory bases by the appropriate amounts. (d) Enables the device’s use of PCI I/O and PCI memory. (e) Allocates space recursively to all of the buses downstream of the current bus. Note that this will change the global PCI I/O and memory bases.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (f) Aligns the current global PCI I/O and memory bases on 4 k and 1 MB boundaries, respectively, and in doing so figures out the size and base of PCI I/O and PCI memory windows required by the current PCI-PCI bridge. (g) Programs the PCI-PCI bridge that links to this bus with its PCI I/O and PCI memory bases and limits. (h) Turns on bridging of PCI I/O and PCI memory accesses in the PCI-PCI bridge. This means that any PCI I/O or PCI Memory addresses seen on the bridge’s primary PCI bus that are within its PCI I/O and PCI memory address windows will be bridged onto its secondary PCI bus.

Taking the PCI system in Fig. 7.4 as our example, the PCI firmware code would set up the system in the following way: (1) Align the PCI bases. PCI I/O is 0x4000 and PCI memory is 0x100000. This allows the PCI-ISA bridges to translate all addresses below these into ISA address cycles, (2) The GUI device. This is asking for 0x200000 of PCI memory and so we allocate it that amount starting at the current PCI memory base of 0x200000 as it has to be naturally aligned to the size requested. The PCI memory base is moved to 0x400000 and the PCI I/O base remains at 0x4000. (3) The PCI-PCI bridge. We now cross the PCI-PCI bridge and allocate PCI memory there; note that we do not need to align the bases as they are already correctly aligned: (4) The Ethernet device. This is asking for 0xB0 bytes of both PCI I/O and PCI memory space. It gets allocated PCI I/O at 0x4000 and PCI memory at 0x400000. The PCI memory base is moved to 0x4000B0 and the PCI I/O base to 0x40B0. (5) The SCSI device. This is asking for 0x1000 PCI memory and so it is allocated it at 0x401000 after it has been naturally aligned. The PCI I/O base is still 0x40B0 and the PCI memory base has been moved to 0x402000. (6) The PCI-PCI bridge’s PCI I/O and memory windows. We now return to the bridge and set its PCI I/O window at between 0x4000 and 0x40B0 and its PCI memory window at between 0x400000 and 0x402000. This means that the PCI-PCI bridge will ignore the PCI memory accesses for the GUI device and pass them on if they are for the Ethernet or SCSI devices.

7.3.2

System Devices Install and Configure Routine

For an industrial control system, the Device Install and the Configure Routine is resident at the respective microprocessor-unit. This means that

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each microprocessor-unit board or chipset must have its Device Install and the Configure Routine to handle those devices directly controlled by this microprocessor. However, even in the same control system, the Device Install and Configure Routine for a microprocessor-unit board or chipset may be different from the Device Install and Configure Routines for other microprocessor-units. The Device Install and Configure Routine for a microprocessor-unit board or chipset takes the following responsibilities of (1) detecting the existence for each device and keeping the detections’ results in some memory in the control system; (2) allocating PCI I/O and PCI Memory Address space to each existing device; (3) initializing three items for each existing device: PCI I/O registers, PCI Memory Address registers, Configuration Header; and (4) initializing the Device Driver in Operating System code for each existing device. The Device Install and Configure Routine for a microprocessor-unit board or chipset is basically realized with its electronic hardware. For an industrial control system working with the PCI mechanism, the PCI initialization code of this board dominates the installation and configuration of the devices resident on a microprocessor-unit board or chipset. The PCI initialization code, as elucidated in detail in Section 7.3.1, includes these three parts: (1) PCI Device Driver code (2) PCI BIOS (3) PCI Firmware. Section 7.3.1 has precisely introduced the procedure and the methodology for the PCI initialization code to install and configure the PCI devices, so this subsection does not repeat these topics. The Device Install and Configure Routine should be executed as a part of the Power-on process. When the Power-on process precedes the PCI initialization, the Device Install and Configure Routine is inclusively executed. However, as mentioned in Section 7.3.1, whether or not the PCI initialization can be complete during the booting depends on whether or not the microprocessor controlling the devices is an Intel processor. For an Intel based system, the system BIOS fully configures the PCI system during the booting. For non-Intel based systems further configuration needs to be performed after the booting.

7.3.3

System Configure Routine

Modern industrial control systems are usually some distributed systems, consisting of more than one microprocessor-unit board or chipset. Each

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microprocessor-unit in a distributed control system has some devices directly connected. Figure 7.1 gives an illustration of this kind of control system that comprises several microprocessor-units, each of them directly connecting with some devices. For a distributed control system, a motherboard is necessary to coordinate the whole system. It is obvious that the Device Install and Configure Routine given in Section 7.3.2 does not gather all the devices in an industrial control system, because each microprocessor-unit board or chipset has its own Device Install and Configure Routine, which is just for installing and configuring the devices connecting with this microprocessor-unit. We therefore need a system routine to understand all the devices in a distributed control system. The System Configure Routine given in this subsection is the routine responsible for the configuration of all devices in a control system, which sets up and stores a record of the configuration data for all the system’s devices. The System Configure Routine resides in the operating system of the motherboard of an industrial control system. It should be emphasized that the System Configure Routine, unlike the Device Install and Configure Routine, is a pure software program and does not use the system’s BIOS and firmware. In a distributed industrial control system, the operating system of a motherboard microprocessor is in charge of this System Configure Routine. This routine can be part of the motherboard’s operating system programs, or part of the motherboard’s application programs. System Configure Routine, although normally being executed during the Power-on process, can be flexibly run at any time. However, this SCR must be run after all the microprocessor-units complete their respective Device Install and Configure Routines during the Power-on process. As given in Fig. 7.3, this routine roughly follows these steps: (1) The motherboard starts to run this routine after it ensures all the microprocessorunits of the system have done their respective Device Install and Configure Routines. (2) Once starting this routine, the motherboard sends a message to the first connected microprocessor-unit to ask for the configure data that contain all the devices connecting with this microprocessor-unit and its children microprocessor-units. (3) The motherboard repeats this step until it exhausts all the connected microprocessor-units and all the system’s devices.

7.4 Diagnostic Routines The necessity for achieving increasing industrial productivity means it is essential to increase the degree of industrial control. To achieve productive

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and economical usages of an industrial control system, operators must be able to rapidly recognize and eliminate causes of faults to minimize operation stoppages. This is only possible with powerful diagnostic routines in this control system. A differentiation is made between two types of diagnostics applied to industrial control: (1) Process diagnostics. The detection and elimination of faults in the production process, that is, outside the control system. These faults could result from the deficiencies in the production process such as a wrong value of a control parameter or some bugs in the processing programs. (2) System diagnostics. Localizing and the elimination of faults in the industrial control system. The control system faults are those hardware component faults generated in its control level (also called master level), its interface level, and its slave level. System diagnostics is of particular significance because it is always required. In this section, Process diagnostics is discussed in Section 7.4.3. System NVM Read and Write Routines and System diagnostics are discussed in Sections 7.4.2 and 7.4.6 with emphasis on the detections and the calibrations of the end devices at slave level because the diagnostics at the Control level (or called as Master level) have been discussed in Sections 7.2.3 and 7.3. The other three subsections of this section, 7.4.1, 7.4.4, and 7.4.5, are the adjunct routines to the diagnostics operations.

7.4.1


Industrial control systems are increasingly based on distributed I/O in conjunction with the interfaces between the controllers and the end devices. In the industrial control system, the gap between the controllers and the end devices can be bridged either by FIELDBUS interface or by ActuatorSensor Interface (AS-I). Figure 3.1 displays that there are two ways for the controllers to perform the control of the end devices in industrial control. (1) In the first way as seen on the left side in Fig. 3.1, the actuatorsensor level is demanded over the slave level to drive the end devices or to measure the statuses of the end devices. Owing to the existence of the actuator-sensor level, the actuator-sensor interface (AS-I) is required as the direct connection between the controller and the actuator-sensor level to load control commands onto the actuator-sensor level.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (2) As in the right column in Fig. 3.1, the actuator-sensor level is not demanded in the second case, so it does not need the AS-I. Control applies to the end devices simply through the FIELDBUS systems that have been discussed in Section 3.2.1.

7.4.2

Device Component Test Routines

Industrial control systems are unable to always perform normal operations, so diagnostic routines are required. The most failure cases of an industrial control system are attributed to some of its components having been out of order. Industrial control systems use the Device Component Test Routines, also called Components Control Routines, to investigate the validity of device components. The validity of device components indicates whether the conditions and statuses of the device components are adequate to accomplish the required functionality in the control system where they are located. For testing the validity of a device component, Components Test Routines investigate these questions: (1) Can this component correctly communicate with its master controllers in mutual directions? (2) Can this component work according to the commands from its master controllers with exact operations? (3) Can this component properly monitor its slave devices in response to its master controllers? It is crucial that before starting a diagnostic routine, an industrial control system should change its system modes into a diagnostic mode in which only one session special for the diagnostic routine is allowable in the control system so that microprocessors are able to execute this routine without interrupts and the diagnostics results are not interfered with. This topic in respect to the change system modes will be the content of the Section 7.4.5. To issue the Device Components Test Routines, the motherboard’s application programs establish a table containing all the device components to be tested in the control system. Each component to be tested with these routines should be identified by an ID code that uniquely identifies the component. The component ID should be defined enough to discriminate any one component from others. In general, Device Component Test Routines, once started, follow the procedure given below: (1) Change the system mode into a diagnostic mode, (2) Start one Device Component Test Routine, (3) Select one component from the system’s Component Table that is able to be tested with this Device Component Test Routine,

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(4) Send the command to the master controller of the selected component to start this component test, (5) Communicate with the master controller of the selected component for the test result and display the results if allowable, (6) Send the command to the master controller of the selected component to stop this component test, (7) Select another component from the system’s Component Table that is able to be tested with the corresponding Device Component Test Routine, and repeat the above steps to test…, (8) Stop this Device Component Test Routine, (9) Change the system mode from the current diagnostic mode back to a normal mode.

7.4.3

System NVM Read and Write Routines

Nonvolatile memory (NVM) is a special physical medium that can reserve the stored magnetic cells without electric power. NVM exists in almost all the industrial control systems to keep some important parameters and working data such as devices’ physical and mechanical attributes, system install, and configuration parameters and programmed timer values, and so on. Industrial control systems take advantage of the NVM to be quickly and precisely established at a Power-on as well as correctly execute software processes. To check and to modify the NVM attributes is one of the important measures for finding out the root reason when a software process crashes. The NVM Read and Write Routines are designed for helping the Process diagnostics. An industrial control system can have more than one NVM, each of them being connected through either PCI bus or internal bus with one microprocessor. Through the bus system, a microprocessor can communicate with the corresponding hardware controller of the respective NVM to accomplish the read or write operation. To issue the NVM Read and Write Routines, the application programs of the microprocessor-unit board linking with the NVM hardware controller establish a list of the NVM elements (called the NVM attributes list) to be tested. A unique ID to be discriminated from others should identify each of the NVM elements in this list. In general, the NVM Read and Write Routines, once starting, follow the procedure given below: (1) Change the system mode into a diagnostic mode, (2) Start either NVM Read Routines or NVM Write Routines,

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (3) Select one NVM element by its ID from the system’s NVM attributes list, (4) Send the command to the hardware controller of the NVM to start this read or write operation, (5) Communicate with the hardware controller of the NVM for the result of reading or writing and display the results if allowable, (6) Send the command to the hardware controller of the NVM to stop this read or write operation, (7) Select another NVM attribute and repeat the above steps to test…, (8) Stop either NVM Read Routines or NVM Write Routines, (9) Change the system mode from the current diagnostic mode back to a normal mode.

7.4.4

Faults/Errors Log Routines

It is inevitable that an industrial control system could partially and occasionally malfunction due to (1) the physical constraints of the electronics hardware, (2) the material deficiencies of machinery systems, (3) the code bugs in software programs, and (4) the incorrect operations by a user or an administrator. All the root reasons resulting in the system’s malfunctions are categorized as faults or errors. When a fault or an error occurs, the control system may lose some services or go down, depending on the scales and degrees of the fault’s impacts. Some industrial control systems create a special system mode, called as degrade mode, to represent the system state and to deal with the malfunction statuses after faults or errors are generated. The degrade mode is included in Section 7.4.5 that gives more about this system mode. During running, a control system may generate faults at any time, which requires special treatment to restore the system. Within a fixed term, the frequencies and the locations of the fault occurrences are the important indications of the system performance. The Fault/Error Log Routine given in this subsection is used to record the frequencies and the locations of the generated faults or errors within a fixed term. The fault records from the Fault/Error Log Routines are the useful references for the system administrator to analyze the system’s performance. Normally, the application programs of an industrial control system keep the record of faults or errors in a NVM or a disk for reservation. Once a fault or an error occurs while a control system is running, a system application program calls this routine to log this error by defined fault ID structure into a NVM or a disk as system fault counter. Each of the logged faults and errors is identified with the defined fault ID structure that

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may contain the series number, platform ID, device ID, time and positions, and so on. The fault counter or fault record can be checked by the System NVM Read Routine and can be modified by the System NVM Write Routine if it is stored in a system NVM. Both the System NVM Read Routines and Write Routine have been discussed in Section 7.4.3. A scenario of a Fault/Error Log Routine is being used as follows: (1) While a control system is running, an error generates; (2) System software programs, based on the impacts of this error on the system services, decide whether or not to let the system enter the degraded mode in which some application services are closed and only other services are being maintained; (3) This routine is called to log the generated error into a NVM or a special disk to be added to the system fault counter; (4) If the control system is in degraded mode, the system administrator should be informed to take some measures to handle this fault/error. (5) After the malfunction resulting from this error is fixed, system application programs may recover the system to get back the lost services. Sometimes this requires restarting the control system.

7.4.5

Change System Mode Routines

In industry, “System” stands for an assemblage including the machinery, hardware, and software that reside in a group of equipment or devices; and “Mode” represents a state or a status of the System in some circumstances. These lead us to devise a term, “System Modes,” to stand for all the modes of a system. The system modes for a microprocessor-unit board or chipset, have been clearly defined in the computer technologies. Therefore, the system modes of an industrial control system having one microprocessor-unit are simply equal to the system modes of the microprocessor-unit board or chipset. However, for a distributed control system having more than one microprocessor-unit, the system mode is hard to define because at any instant the different microprocessor-units may be in different modes. There is an agreement in industrial control that the system modes for a distributed control system are defined in accordance with the system modes of the main microprocessor-unit board (called the motherboard). In any industrial control system there exists an enumerable set of modes that is defined as its System Modes. At any instant, an industrial control

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system must be in one of its system modes. In response to certain events, an industrial control system changes from some mode to another mode.

7.4.5.1

System Modes List

For an industrial control system, its system modes exist in three different levels: (1) the Kernel level, (2) the Operating System level, and (3) the Application System level. Each of the three levels hosts one or more modes, which are associated with each other closely. (1) Kernel level modes. Kernel Level modes are inherent in a microprocessor-unit and are dominated by the firmware of a microprocessor-unit. Every microprocessor-unit has a mode bit in one of the CPU registers for keeping its current Kernel Level mode. There are two modes at this level: (a) Super mode. This mode is the representation that a microprocessor-unit is booting itself (initializing the buses, memories, I/O ports, etc.). This mode is terminated once the microprocessor completes the booting and transfers the control from its firmware into its operating system software. (b) User mode. This mode is set once the microprocessor-unit completes its booting and is kept thereafter unless the control system is powered off. This mode is the representation that control has been submitted to the operating system software. (2) Operating system level modes. On a microprocessor-unit board or chipset, the operating system level modes coexist with the user mode of the kernel level and are kept when the operating system software is taking over the system control. This level has three modes: (a) Normal mode. This mode represents that the current system status is normal, and the main microprocessor-unit of a control system is fully loaded with the application code managed by the multitasking mechanism of the operating system. (b) Idle mode. This is the mode when a control system is idling. In this mode, the main microprocessor-unit is running an idle task cycling a nap loop. However, all the clocks and watchdogs on the main microprocessor-unit board or chipset are still running. The control system can return to normal mode within a few nanoseconds. Cache coherency is maintained in this level of idle. (c) Sleep mode. This mode comes up when the control system is completely idle or nap mode, with only the DRAM state preserved for quick recovery. All the microprocessors in the

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distributed control system are powered off with their state preserved in DRAM. All clocks in the control system are suspended except for its wall clock. (3) Application system level modes. All the application system level modes must coexist with the user mode of the kernel level and all the operating system level modes. These modes are used in the application system software only for the management of the application service processes. This level has four modes: (a) Running mode. In this mode, all microprocessors in the control system are working in the normal mode of the respective operating system and fully loaded with the application processes. It is kept when nothing in the control system is in malfunction so that the control functionality is normally executed. (b) Degrade mode. If some microprocessors or devices are going down, or errors occur in some application system software, the control system comes into partial malfunction. In these cases, the application system software of the main microprocessor-unit (or other working microprocessor) sets itself (and other microprocessor-units’ application system software) into the degrade mode so as to maintain the execution of the available application services process. However, even though the application system level is in degrade mode, the operating systems of main and other microprocessorunits may still be in their normal mode. (c) Diagnostics mode. When diagnostics routines are being executed, a control system normally stops the control functions. This causes microprocessors to enter the idle mode of their respective operating system. To match with the operating system’s idle mode, the relevant application systems enter the diagnostics mode accordingly. (d) Power-save mode. When the main and other microprocessorunits are in sleep mode, their application system programs should be in such a mode as the power save mode. The system will wake once the main microprocessor-unit’s operating system changes from sleep mode to the normal mode. Table 7.2 gives the correspondence between the modes of these three levels.

7.4.5.2

System Modes Transition

System mode transitions are only permitted between the modes on the same level of the same microprocessor-unit. This means that one of the

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Table 7.2 Correspondences between Three Levels of System Modes Kernel level

Operating system level

Application system level

Super mode User mode

Normal mode

Running mode Degrade Mode Diagnostics Mode Power Save Mode

Idle Mode Sleep Mode

kernel level modes only can be changed into another kernel level mode of the same microprocessor-unit; one of the operating system level modes only can be changed into another operating system level mode of the same microprocessor-unit; one of the application system level modes only can be changed into another operating system level mode of the same microprocessor-unit. (1) Between the super mode and the user mode at the kernel level. Once being powered on, any microprocessor-unit in a control system immediately starts booting with the super mode. Once the booting completes, the microprocessor immediately switches the contexts to the operating system and immediately changes the kernel mode from super mode into the user mode. The user mode is then kept until an interrupt occurs when it switches back the super mode. When the service routine of an interrupt is terminated, the microprocessor-unit moves the kernel mode back to user mode from the super mode to resume the previously interrupted application processes. (2) Between the idle mode and the normal mode at the operating system level. If all the tasks or threads are terminated, a microprocessor-unit will go back to an idle task cycling a nap loop. In this case, after several seconds of inactivity, the microprocessor set its operating system mode into idle mode. An industrial control system is in the idle mode if and only if its main microprocessor-unit is in the idle mode. If an interrupt comes to the microprocessor-unit while it is in idle mode at its operating system level, it immediately returns to normal mode thereafter. (3) Between the sleep mode and the normal mode at the operating system level. Some industrial control systems require that if the main microprocessor-unit is in the idle mode over a time limit, this system changes into the sleep mode at its operating system

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level and the power save mode in its application programs. This is coordinated by the main microprocessor of the control system. This sleep mode will be kept until a client call comes or an interrupt loads when the main microprocessor is waking up and the system returns to normal mode in due course. (4) Between the modes at application system level. The transition mechanism between the application system level modes is totally different in different control systems. Different control systems should have different transition designs between these modes at the application system level.

7.4.6

Calibration Routines

Calibration is a vital operation demanded in all industries. This subsection focuses on the calibrations specially used in industrial control.

7.4.6.1

Calibration Fundamentals

The accuracy of all the electronic components used in all industrial control systems drifts over time. The effects from environmental conditions increase this drift, which causes greater errors in control functionality being carried on within control systems. At some point in time, the drift causes the industrial control systems to partially or totally malfunction, even crash. To resolve this drift all the components and devices in an industrial control system must be calibrated at regular intervals as defined by the manufacturer. Industrial control systems require three types of calibration as given below. (1) System calibration. System calibration is designed to quantify and compensate for the total measurement error in industrial control systems. Cable losses, condition changes, and sensor errors may induce measurement error. By applying known inputs to an industrial control system and reviewing the resultant measurements, an error model is developed to represent the error in an industrial control system. This error model could be as simple as a lookup table of input versus output values, or as detailed as a polynomial. Once this error model is developed, it can be applied to all measurements made by the same industrial control system. Computer-based data acquisition and instrumentation hardware is ideal for this type of compensation because, unlike traditional box instruments, with computer-based hardware the

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY software application that defines the measurement functionality is worked out. In this way, the error compensation and control system calibration can be easily created in this application software. (2) External calibration. When an instrument’s time in service reaches its specified calibration interval, it should be returned to the manufacturer, or a suitable metrology laboratory and metrology agency for a calibration service. The instrument’s measurements will be compared to the external standards of known accuracy. If the results of the measurements do not fall within certain specifications, adjustments are made to the measurement circuitry. In general, the act of external calibration includes the following: (1) evaluation of the instrument’s capabilities to determine if it operates within specifications, (2) adjustments to measurement circuitry and onboard signal references if the instrument does not operate within specifications, (3) revivification of the instrument to ensure that it operates within specifications, (4) issuance of a calibration certificate, stating that the instrument measures within specifications when compared to a traceable standard. Routine performance of external calibration ensures the accuracy of the measurements made. (3) Self-calibration. Self-calibration is a method whereby an instrument uses onboard signal references instead of external references to adjust measurement accuracy. During a self-calibration, the instrument measures the onboard references and adjusts its measurement capabilities to account for changes in accuracy owing to environmental effects such as temperature, humidity, light, and color, and so on. Self-calibration does not replace external calibration. In addition to self-calibration, external calibration must be performed to quantify the references so as to use them during self-calibration. The method that self-calibration and external calibration tools work together can be adopted to ensure the measurement accuracy of the instruments. Some relevant agencies’ measurement products contain highly stable signal references to maintain traceability and facilitate the selfcalibration. Through simple software function calls, the instrument can reach to ensure its top measurement performance through self-calibration.

7.4.6.2

Calibration Principles

The goal of calibration is to quantify and to improve the measurement accuracy of the component or instrument used in industrial control. The

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principles of maintaining appropriate calibrations with industrial control systems are the following: (1) Frequency. To ensure the functionality of an industrial control system, some of its components should be adjusted periodically while the system is running. The errors found should be reported to the master controllers of the error components or system’s motherboard for them to execute calibration routines. For example, the scanner of any modern copy machine should be calibrated every 1–5 min, depending on whether the scanner is color or black/white, while the machine is running. The calibration frequency, or time interval confirmation, is a key factor ensuring the performance of an industrial control system. If an industrial control system has some components requiring periodic calibrations while the system is running, its application programs must be designed to schedule the calibration processes accordingly. In addition to the calibrations carried on while the system is running, it should determine the time interval for recalibrating other components when it is at rest. The initial consideration for this kind of time interval includes (1) manufacturers’ recommendations, (2) accuracy sought, and (3) environmental influences. To calculate this time interval appropriately, it should check the documentation of the components for the recommended calibration intervals. (2) Accuracy. The result of any measurement is only an approximate estimate of the “real” value being measured. In truth, the real value can never be perfectly measured. This is because there is always some physical limit to how well we can measure a number of the objects. For example, a heat sterilization temperature may be determined in the laboratory, and then monitored in the manufacturing area. Instruments used in either or both locations may indicate temperature to a small fraction of a degree. If either or both, however, are not correctly calibrated or are subject to drift, there may be failure of the process because of inaccuracy. Precision often brings a false sense of accuracy. “Standards” of physical properties such as temperature, pressure, speed, torque, light strength, and color scales are the key to assurance of accuracy. Two types are important; they are primary standards and secondary or reference standards. “Reference” is a term used in two ways in physical values’ measurement. First, it is used to describe the process of comparing the reading of one instrument with another; most commonly the indication of an instrument being calibrated with the “known” physical value of

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY a primary standard material or measurement meter. Second, it is used as a term describing a measurement meter itself to decide if it is a “master reference” or “secondary reference.” Either way, the term “Reference” refers to the comparison process by which correct calibration is assured. Many systems will average the returned data and report the average as the measurement. To determine the statistical uncertainty, you will need to take the standard deviation of all of the measurements and include this value as part of the overall accuracy of the measurement. In metrology, these accuracies are referred to as Type A and Type B uncertainties. Type A uncertainties are those due to statistical methods. In contrast, Type B uncertainties are systematic (gain, offset, etc.). (3) Traceability. Traceability is the unbroken chain of comparisons between your measurement device and national or international standards. Different legal metrology authorities exist for each country. These bodies follow the guidelines defined by the international metrology body and its associated committees to provide quality measurement standards for their associated country. The National Metrology Institutes (NMI) of each member country of the Convention of the Meter also participates in the Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRA). These international and national metrology organizations serve industries with (1) their calibration services including the standards and code; (2) their calibration tools including hardware and software; and (3) the validation issues of their calibration certificates.

These topics regarding the traceability are beyond the scope of this book, and are not mentioned further here.

7.4.6.3

Calibration Methodologies

In an industrial control system, calibration is the comparison of a physical measurement of a component to a standard of known accuracy. If performing a dynamic calibration when the system is running, the standards being some numbers in many cases are stored in the system’s memories such as NVM. The application programs of the control systems to detect if errors take place may use the result of this comparison between the measurement and the stored standard values. If this time of calibration does not find error, the application program continues to run the control process. For each of those components, which require periodic calibration, the application program already sets up a timer to dominate this periodic

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calibration. When this timer is expired, application programs notify the master controller’ microprocessor to execute this calibration again, and so on. Therefore, the assurance of accuracy of the calibration involves basically two steps: (1) comparison and (2) periodically check.

7.5 Simulation Routines Most control system designs rely on modeling of the system to be controlled. This allows simulation studies to be carried out to determine the best control strategies to implement and also the best system parameters for good industrial control. Simulation studies also allow complex what-if scenarios to be viewed, which may be difficult to do on the real system. However, it must always be borne in mind that any simulation results obtained are only as good as the model of the process. This does not mean that every effort should be made to get the model as realistic as possible, just that it should be sufficiently representative. Creating a model of a dynamic industrial process, whether it is a production or a business or a software process, requires the salient features to be described in a form that can be analyzed. Computer simulation is a fast and flexible tool for generating models, either for current systems where modifications are planned or for completely new systems. Running the simulation predicts the effect of changing system parameters, provides information on the sensitivity of the system, and helps to identify an optimum solution for specific operating conditions. The most important topics addressed at the modeling and simulation for industrial control could include the following: (1) Discrete event simulation is applicable to systems whose state changes abruptly in response to some event in the environment, examples being service facilities such as queues at bank counters and factory production lines. (2) Modeling for real-time systems software is used to define the requirements and high-level software design before the implementation stage is attempted. (3) Continuous time simulation is used to compute the evolution in time of physical variables such as speed, temperature, voltage, and so on. in systems such as robots, chemical reactors, electric motors, and aircraft. (4) Control systems’ rapid prototyping involves moving from the design of a controller to its implementation as a prototype.

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7.5.1 Modeling and Simulation 7.5.1.1 Process Models Any system or process can be described with a model of that system. In terms of control requirements, the model must contain information that enables the prediction of the consequences of changing process operating conditions. Within this context, a model is a physical, mathematical, or other logical representation of a system, process, or phenomenon. Models allow the effects of time and space to be scaled, extraction of properties and hence simplification, to retain only those details relevant to the problem. The use of models, therefore, reduces the need for real experimentation and facilitates the achievement of many different purposes at reduced cost, risk, and time. Depending on the task, different model types will be employed. Process models are categorized as shown in Fig. 7.13. (1) Mathematical models. As specified in Fig. 7.13, mathematical models include all of the following: (a) Mechanistic models. If a process and its characteristics are well defined, a set of differential equations can be used to describe its dynamic behavior. This is known as the development of mechanistic models. The mechanistic model is usually derived from the physics and chemistry governing the Process models

Qualitative models

Mathematical models

Fuzzy logics models

Qualitative transfer functions

Linear models

Transfer functions

Statistical models

Black box models

Mechanistic models

Probabilistic models

Nonlinear models

Lumped parameters

Distributed parameters

Time series

Neural network models

Linear

Correlation models

Nonlinear

Figure 7.13 Classification of the process models.

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process. Depending on the system, the structure of the final model may either be a lumped parameter or a distributed parameter representation. Lumped parameter models are described by ordinary differential equations whereas distributed parameter systems representations require the use of partial differential equations. Nevertheless, a distributed model can be approximated by a series of ordinary differential equations and given simplifying assumptions. Both lumped and distributed parameter models can be further classified into linear or nonlinear descriptions. Usually nonlinear, the differential equations are often liberalized to enable tractable analysis. In many cases, typically due to financial and time constraints, mechanistic model development may not be practically feasible. This is particularly true when knowledge about the process is initially vague or if the process is so complex that the resulting equations cannot be solved. Under such circumstances, empirical or black-box models may be built, using data collected from the plant. (b) Black box models. Black box models are simply the functional relationships between system inputs and system outputs. By implication, black box models are lumped with parameter models. The parameters of these functions do not have any physical significance in terms of equivalence to process parameters such as heat or mass transfer coefficients, reaction kinetics, and so on. This is the disadvantage of black box models compared to mechanistic models. However, if the aim is to merely represent faithfully some trends in process behavior, then the black box modeling approach is just as effective as required. As shown in Fig. 7.13, black box models can be further classified into linear and nonlinear forms. In the linear category, transfer function and time series models predominate. Given the relevant data, a variety of techniques may be used to identify the parameters of linear black box models. The most common techniques used, though, are least-squares based algorithms. Within the nonlinear category, time-series features are found together with neural network based models. The parameters of the functions are still linear and thus facilitate identification using least squares based techniques. The use of neural networks in model building increases in cheap computing power and certain powerful theoretical results.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (2) Qualitative models. There are some cases in which the nature of the process may preclude mathematical description, for example, when the process is operated at distinct operating regions or when physical limits exist. This results in discontinuities that are not amenable to mathematical descriptions. In this case, qualitative models can be formulated. The simplest form of a qualitative model is the rule-based model that makes use of IF–THEN– ELSE constructs to describe process behavior. These rules are elicited from human experts. Alternatively, genetic algorithms and rule induction techniques can be applied to process data to generate these descriptive rules. More sophisticated approaches make use of qualitative physics theory and its variants. These latter methods aim to rectify the disadvantages of purely rulebased models by invoking some form of algebra so that the preciseness of mathematical modeling approaches could be achieved. Of these, qualitative transfer functions appear to be the most suitable for process monitoring and control applications, which retain many of the qualities of quantitative transfer functions that describe the relationship between an input and an output variable, particularly the ability to embody temporal aspects of process behavior. The technique was conceived for applications in the process control domain. Cast within an object framework, a model is built up of smaller subsystems and connected together as in a directed graph. Each node in the graph represents a variable while the arcs that connect the nodes describe the influence or relationship between the nodes. Overall system behavior is derived by traversing the graph, from input sources to output sinks. Fuzzy logics can also be classified to build qualitative models. Fuzzy logic theory contains a set of linguistics that facilitates descriptions of complex and ill-defined systems. Magnitudes of changes are quantized as negative medium, positive large, and so on. Fuzzy models are being used in everyday life without our being aware of their presence, for example, washing machines, autofocus cameras, and so on. (3) Statistical models. Describing processes in statistical terms is another modeling technique. Time-series analysis that has a heavy statistical bias may be considered to fall into this model category. Statistical models do not capture system dynamics. However, in modern control practice, they play an important role particularly in assisting in higher level decision making, process monitoring, data analysis, and obviously, in statistical process control.

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Owing to its widespread and interchangeable use in the development of deterministic as well as stochastic digital control algorithms, the statistical approach is made necessary by the uncertainties surrounding some process systems. This technique has roots in statistical data analysis, information theory, games theory, and the theory of decision systems. Probabilistic models are characterized by the probability density functions of the variables. The most common is the normal distribution that provides information about the likelihood of a variable taking on certain values. Multivariate probability density functions can also be formulated, but interpretation becomes difficult when more than two variables are considered. Correlation models arise by quantifying the degree of similarity between two variables by monitoring their variations. This is again quite a commonly used technique, and is implicit when associations between variables are analyzed using regression techniques.

7.5.1.2

Process Modeling

Modeling has been an essential part of process control since the 1970s. However, it is an important problem that industrial control requires adequately accurate models that are not easy to achieve. As a compromise for this purpose, both data-driven modeling and computational intelligence provide additional modeling alternatives for advanced industrial control applications. These alternatives are illustrated in Fig. 7.14. (1) Phenomenological modeling approach aids in the construction and analysis of models whose ultimate purpose is providing the insights into process performance and understanding of how cooperative phenomena can be manipulated for the accomplishment of the design strategies that promote the intensification of processes. Within the fundamentals of the phenomenological modeling approach that guides the model structuring, the process tasks are decomposed into the relevant phases and physicochemical phenomena involved, identifying the connections and influences among them and evaluating the individual rates. The intensification of rate-limiting phenomena is finally achieved by diverse strategies derived from dealing with the manipulation of driving forces. Empirical models are mostly used for phenomenological modeling to develop a control system. The structure and parameters of empirical models do not necessarily have any physical significance, and, therefore, these models cannot be directly adapted to different production conditions.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Analyses – – –

Demands Quality Operation conditions

Industrial systems Control designs – – –

Understanding Structure Tuning

Phenomenological modeling – – –

Physical Chemical Mathematics

– – –

Data-driven modeling – – –

Identification Parameter estimation Data

Performance evaluation Oscillation Production conditions

Computational intelligence – – –

Expertise Data Adaptation

Figure 7.14 Alternatives of modeling and simulation for advanced control applications.

(2) Data-driven modeling approaches are based on general function estimators of black-box structure, which should capture correctly the dynamics and nonlinearity of the system. The identification procedure, which consists of estimating the parameters of the model, is quite straightforward and easy if appropriate data is available. Essentially, system identification means adjusting parameters within a given model until its output coincides as well as possible with the measured output. Validation is needed to evaluate the performance of the model. The generic data-driven modeling procedure consists of the following three steps. The objective of the first step is to define an optimal plant operation mode by performing a model and control analysis. Basic system information, including the operating window and characteristic disturbances, as well as fundamental knowledge of the control structure, such as degrees of freedom of and interactions between basic control loops, will be obtained. The second step identifies a predictive model using data-driven approaches. A suitable model structure will be proposed based on the extracted process dynamics from operating data, followed by parameter estimation using multivariate statistical techniques. The dynamic partial least squares approach solves the issue of autocorrelation. However, a large number of

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lagged variables are often required that might lead to poorly conditioned data matrices. Subspace model identification approaches are suitable to derive a parsimonious model by projecting original process data onto a lower dimension space that is statistically significant. In case a linear model is not sufficient due to strong nonlinearities, neural networks provide a possible solution. The third step is model validation. Independent operating data sets are used to verify the prediction ability of the derived model. (3) Intelligent methods are based on techniques motivated by biological systems and human intelligence, for instance, natural language, rules, semantic networks, and qualitative models. Most of these techniques were already introduced by conventional expert systems. Computational intelligence can provide additional tools since humans can handle complex tasks including significant uncertainty on the basis of imprecise and qualitative knowledge. Computational intelligence is the study of the design of intelligent agents. An agent is something that acts in an environment—it does something. Agents include worms, dogs, thermostats, airplanes, humans, organizations, and society, and so on. An intelligent agent is a system that acts intelligently: What it does is appropriate for its circumstances and its goal, it is flexible to changing environments and changing goals, it learns from experience, and it makes appropriate choices given perceptual limitations and finite computation. The central goal of computational intelligence is to understand the principles that make intelligent behavior possible, in natural or artificial systems. The main hypothesis is that reasoning is computation. The central engineering goal is to specify methods for the design of useful, intelligent artifacts. Modeling is used also on other levels of advanced control: high-level control is in many cases based on modeling operator actions, and helps to develop the intelligent analyzers and software sensors. The products of modeling are models that are used in adaptive control, and in direct modelbased control. Smart adaptive control systems integrate all these features as given in Fig. 7.15. Adaptive controllers generally contain two extra components compared to the standard controllers. The first is a process monitor, which detects the changes in the process characteristics either by performance measure or by parameter estimator. The second is the adaptation mechanism, which updates the controller parameters. In normal operation, efficient reuse of

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Analyses on production conditions – – –

Intelligent analysers

System adaptation Fault diagnostics and fixes Performance and product quality

Intelligent control

Measurements

Intelligent actuators

Dynamic simulation – –

Controller design Prediction

Figure 7.15 Features of a smart adaptive control system.

controllers developed for different operating conditions is good operating practice, as the adaptation always takes time. An adaptation controller is a controller with adjustable parameters. Traditionally, the online adaptation has been considered a main feature of the adaptive controllers. However, controllers should also be adapted to changing operating conditions in processes where the changes are too fast or too complicated for online adaptation. Therefore, the area of adaptation must be expanded; the adaptation mechanism can be either online or predefined. (1) Online adaptation includes self-tuning, autotuning, and selforganization. For online adaptation, changes in process characteristics can be detected through online identification of the process model, or by assessment of the control response, that is, performance analyses. The choice of performance measures depends on the type of response the control system designer wishes to achieve. Alternative measures include overshoot, rise time, setting time, delay ratio, frequency of oscillations, gain and phase margins, and various error signals. The identification block typically contains some kind of recursive estimation algorithm that aims at the current instant. Figure 7.16 gives the online adaptation with model identification. The model can be a transfer function, a discrete time linear model, a fuzzy model, or a linguistic equation model. Adaptation mechanisms rely on parameter estimations of the process model: gain, dead time, and time constant.

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Design

Controller

825

Identification

Process

Figure 7.16 Online adaptation with model identification.

Classical adaptation schemes do not cope easily with strong and fast changes unless the adaptation rate is made very high. This is not always possible: some a priori knowledge about the dynamic behavior of a plant or factory should be used. One alternative for these cases is a switching control scheme that selects a controller from a finite set of predefined fixed controllers. The multiple model adaptive control is hence classified into modelbased control. Intelligent methods provide additional techniques for online adaptation with traditional techniques. Fuzzy self-organizing controllers give an example of intelligent modeling methodologies. Another example in this aspect is a metarule approach in which parameters of a low-level controller are changed by a metarule supervisory system whose decisions are based on the performance of the low-level controller. Metarule modules consist typically of a fuzzy rule base that describes the actions needed to improve the low-level fuzzy logic controller. (2) Predefined adaptation is becoming more popular as the use of modeling and simulation provides flexible methods. Gain scheduling including fuzzy-gain scheduling and linguistic equation based gain scheduling provides a gradual adaptation technique for a fixed control structure. The predefined adaptation allows using very detailed models; for example, distributed parameter models can be used in tuning of the adaptation models of a solar powered plant. The resulting adaptation models or mechanisms should be able to handle in real-time operation all these special situations without using the detailed simulation models. Predefined actions give adaptations fast enough to remove the need for online identification, or for classical mechanisms based on performance analysis. In these cases, the controller could be called a linguistic equation based on gain scheduling. The adaptation model is generated from the local tuning results, but the directions of interactions are usually consistent with process knowledge.

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7.5.1.3

Control Simulation

A control simulation is defined as the reproduction of a situation with the use of the process models. For complex control projects, simulation of the process is often a necessary measure for validating the process models to develop the most effective control scheme. Many different kinds of process simulations are used in product development today, which in principle are categorized into these two kinds: Comparison and Inverse Model as illustrated in Fig. 7.17. The purpose of modeling and simulating the industrial processes can be to create controllers for the processes. A controller is either a software toolkit or an electronic device. The controllers developed are mostly used for performing so-called model-based control. Model-based control is widely applied to industrial applications. The following paragraphs briefly discuss the various algorithms arisen from the controller designs in modelbased control. (1) Feed-forward control. Feed-forward control can be based on process models. A feed-forward controller has been combined with different feedback controllers; even the ubiquitous threeterm proportional integral-derivative (PID) controllers operate for this purpose. Proportional-integral controller is optimal for a first-order linear process without time delays. Similarly, the PID Model simulation

Outputs from model simulation

Comparison

Inputs Real system process

Outputs from real process

(a) Desired outputs

Inverse of process model

Desired inputs

Real system process

Real process outputs

(b)

Figure 7.17 Classification of process simulations: (a) Comparison and (b) inverse model.

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controller is optimal for a second-order linear process without time delays. The modern approach is to determine the settings of the PID controller based on a model of the process. The settings are chosen so that the controlled responses adhere to user specifications. A typical criterion is that the controlled response should have a quarter decay ratio. Alternatively, it may be desired that the controlled response follows a defined trajectory or that the closed loop has certain stability properties. A more elegant technique is to implement the controller within an adaptive framework. Here the parameters of a linear model are updated regularly to reflect current process characteristics. These parameters are in turn used to calculate the settings of the controller as shown schematically in Fig. 7.18. Theoretically, all model-based controllers can be operated in an adaptive mode. Nevertheless, there are instances when the adaptive mechanism may not be fast enough to capture changes in process characteristics due to system nonlinearities. Under such circumstances, the use of a nonlinear model may be more appropriate for PID controller design. Nonlinear time-series, and neural networks, have been used in this context. A nonlinear PID controller may also be automatically tuned, using an appropriate strategy, by posing the problem as an optimization problem. This may be necessary when the nonlinear dynamics of the plant are time varying. Again, the strategy is to make use of controller settings most appropriate to the current characteristics of the controlled process. (2) Model predictive control. Model predictive control (MPC) is widely adopted in industry as an effective means to deal with large multivariable constrained control problems. The main idea of MPC is to choose the control action by repeatedly solving on line an optimal control problem. This aims at minimizing a performance criterion over a future horizon, possibly subject to

Desired output +

Process output Σ

Controller

–

Calculate controller parameters

Process Model builder

Figure 7.18 Schematic of adaptive controllers.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY constraints on the manipulated inputs and outputs, where the future behavior is computed according to a model of the plant. Issues arise for guaranteeing closed-loop stability, to handle model uncertainty, and to reduce online computations. PID type controllers do not perform well when applied to systems with significant time delays. Model predictive control overcomes the debilitating problems of delayed feedback by using predicted future states of the output for control. Figure 7.19 gives the basic principle of the model-based predictive control. Currently, some commercial controllers have Smith predictors as programmable blocks. There are, however, many other model based control strategies with dead-time compensation properties. If there is no time-delay, these algorithms usually collapse to the PID form. Predictive controllers can also be embedded within an adaptive framework, and a typical adaptive predictive control structure is shown in Fig. 7.20. (3) Physical-model-based control. Control has always been concerned with generic techniques that can be applied across a range of physical domains. The design of adaptive or nonadaptive controllers for linear systems requires a representation of the system to be controlled. For example, observer and state-feedback designs require a state-space representation; polynomial designs require a transfer-function representation. These representations are generic in the sense that they can represent the linear systems drawn from a range of physical domains including: mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, and thermodynamic. However, at the same time, these representations suffer from being abstractions of physical systems: the very process of abstracting the generic r(t) Predicted outputs Manipulated inputs t t +1

t +1 t +2

u(t+k) t +p

t +p +l

Figure 7.19 The basic working principle of model predictive control.

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7: SYSTEM ROUTINES IN INDUSTRIAL CONTROL Desired output

Process output Σ

+

–

Controller

Calculate controller parameters

Predicted output

Process

Model builder

Process output predictor

Figure 7.20 Schematic of adaptive predictive controllers.

features of physical systems means that system-specific physical details are lost. Both the parameters and states of such representations may not be easily related back to the original system parameters. This loss is, perhaps, acceptable at two extremes of knowledge about the system: the system parameters are completely known, or the system parameters are entirely unknown. In the first case, the system can be translated into the representations mentioned above, and the physical system knowledge is translated into, for example, transfer function parameters. In the second case, the system can be deemed to have one of the representations mentioned above and there is no physical system knowledge to be translated. Thus, much of the current body of control achieves a generic coverage of application areas by having a generic representation of the systems to be controlled which are, however, not well suited to partially known systems. This suggests an alternative approach that whilst achieving a generic coverage of application areas, allows the use of particular representations for particular (possibly partially known, possibly nonlinear) systems. Instead of having a generic representation of systems, a generic method, called Meta Modeling, for automatically deriving system-specific representations has been proposed; it provides a clear conceptual division between structure and parameters, as a basis for this. (4) Internal model and robust controls. Internal model control systems are characterized by a control device consisting of the controller and of a simulation model of the process, the internal model. The internal model loop computes the difference between the outputs of the process and of the internal model, as shown in

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Fig. 7.21. This difference represents the effect of disturbances and of a mismatch of the model. Internal model control devices have been shown to have good robustness properties against disturbances and model mismatch in the case of a linear model of the process. Internal model control characteristics are the consequence of the following properties: (a) If the process and the controller are (input–output) stable, and if the internal model is perfect, then the control system is stable. (b) If the process and the controller are stable, if the internal model is perfect, if the controller is the inverse of the internal model, and if there is no disturbance, then perfect control is achieved. (c) If the controller steady-state gain is equal to the inverse of the internal model steady-state gain, and if the control system is stable with this controller, then offset-free control is obtained for constant set points and output disturbances. As a consequence of (c) above, if the controller is made of the inverse of the internal model cascaded with a low-pass filter, and if the control system is stable, then offset-free control is obtained for constant inputs, which are set point and output disturbances. Moreover, the filter introduces robustness against a possible mismatch of the internal model, and, though the gain of the control device without the filter is not infinite as in the continuous-time case, its interest is to smooth out rapidly changing inputs. Robust control involves, first, quantifying the uncertainties or errors in a “nominal” process model, due to nonlinear or time-varying process behavior, for example. If this can be accomplished, we essentially have a description of the process under all possible operating conditions. The next stage involves the design of a Disturbance

Desired output +

Σ

Controller

Process

+

Σ

Process output

+ –

Process model

– Σ

Feedback filter

Figure 7.21 Strategies of internal model control.

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controller that will maintain stability as well as achieve specified performance over this range of operating conditions. A controller with this property is said to be “robust.” A sensitive controller is required to achieve performance objectives. Unfortunately, such a controller will also be sensitive to process uncertainties and hence suffer from stability problems. On the other hand, a controller that is insensitive to process uncertainties will have poorer performance characteristics in that controlled responses will be sluggish. The robust control problem is therefore formulated as a compromise between achieving performance and ensuring stability under assumed process uncertainties. Uncertainty descriptions are at best very conservative, whereon performance objectives will have to be sacrificed. Moreover, the resulting optimization problem is frequently not well posed. Thus, although robustness is a desirable property, and the theoretical developments and analysis tools are quite mature, application is hindered by the use of daunting mathematics and the lack of a suitable solution procedure. Nevertheless, underpinning the design of robust controllers is the so-called “Internal Model” principle. It states that unless the control strategy contains, either explicitly or implicitly, a description of the controlled process, then either the performance or stability criterion, or both, will not be achieved. The corresponding internal model control design procedure encapsulates this philosophy and provides for both perfect control and a mechanism to impart robust properties (see Fig. 7.21).

7.5.2

Methodologies and Technologies

Industrial control can be classified as industrial process control and industrial system control, which divides the modeling and simulation in industrial control into Process Modeling and System Modeling accordingly. Process Modeling is the representation of a process mathematically by application of material properties and physical laws governing geometry, dynamics, heat and fluid flow, and so on. to predict the behavior of the process. For example, finite element analyses are used to represent the application of forces (mechanics, strength of materials) to a defined part (geometry and material properties), and to model a metal forging operation. The result of the analyses is a time-based series of pictures, showing the distribution of stresses and strains, which depict the configuration and state of the part during and after forging. The behavior predicted by process models is compared with the results of actual processes to ensure the models are correct. As differences between theoretical and actual behavior

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are resolved, the basic understanding of the process improves and future process decisions are more informed. The analysis can be used to iterate tooling designs and make processing decisions without incurring the high costs of physical prototyping. System Modeling is for a system typically composed of a number of networks that connect the different nodes of the system, and where the networks are interconnected through gateways. One example of such a system is given by current automotive systems that include a high-speed network (based on the controller area network) for connecting engine, transmission, and brake related nodes; and one network for connecting other “body electronics functions,” from instrument panels to alarms. Often, a separate network is available for diagnostics. A node typically includes sensor and actuator interfaces, a microcontroller, and a communication interface to the broadcast bus. From a control function perspective, the vehicle can be controlled by a hierarchical system, where subfunctions interact with each other and through the vehicle dynamics to provide the desired control performance. The subfunctions are implemented in various nodes of the vehicle, but not always in a top-down fashion, because the development is strongly governed by aspects such as the organizational structure (internal organization, system integrators, and subcontractors). The models and simulation features should form part of a larger toolset that supports the design of control systems to meet the main identified challenges: complexity, multidisciplinary, and dependability. Some of the requirements of the models are as follows: (1) The developed system models should encompass both time- and event-triggered algorithms, as typified by discrete-time control and finite state machines (hybrid systems). (2) The models must represent the basic mechanisms and algorithms that affect the overall system timing behavior. (3) The models should allow cosimulation of functionality, as implemented in a computer system, together with the controlled continuous time processes and the behavior of the computer system. (4) The models should support interdisciplinary design, thus taking into account different supporting methods, modeling views, abstractions and accuracy, as required by control, system, and computer engineers. (5) Preferably, the models should be useful also for a descriptive framework, visualizing different aspects of the system, as well as being useful for other types of analysis such as scheduling analysis.

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In this subsection, the manufacturing process is selected as the representative of process control and the computer control system as the representative of system control to discuss the methodologies and technologies used for the modeling and simulation in industrial control, respectively.

7.5.2.1

Manufacturing Process Modeling and Simulation

In manufacturing processes, modeling and simulation will be the way of doing business to ensure the best balance of all constraints in designing, developing, producing, and supporting products. Cost, time compression, customer demands, and life-cycle responsibility will all be part of an equation balanced by captured knowledge, online analyses, and human decision making. Modeling and simulation tools will support best practice from concept creation through product retirement and disposal, and operations of the tools will be transparent to the user. The modeling and simulation activities in manufacturing process of a manufacturing enterprise can be divided into five functional elements for assessment and planning purposes: (1) Material processing. Material Processing involves all activities associated with the conversion of raw materials and stocks to either finished form or readiness for assembly. The enterprise process modeling and simulation environments provide the integrated functionality to ensure the best material or material product is produced at the lowest cost. The models treat new, reused, and recycled materials to eliminate redundancy. An open, shared industrial knowledge base and model library are required to provide: Ready access to material properties data using standard forms of information representation (scaleable plug, and play models); Means for validating material property models before use in specific product and process applications; a fundamental science-based understanding including validated mathematical models of the response of material properties under the stimuli of a wide range of processes; standard, validated time and cost models and supporting estimating tools for the full range of material processing processes. Material Processing includes four general categories of processes, each of which facilitates the respective modeling and simulation: (a) Material preparation and creation processes such as material synthesis, crystal growing, mixing, alloying, distilling, casting, pressing, blending, reacting, and molding.

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (b) Material treatment processes such as coating, plating, painting, thermal conditioning, such as heating or melting or chilling, and chemical conditioning. (c) Material forming processes for metals, plastics, composites, and other materials, including bending, extruding, folding, rolling, shearing, stamping, and similar processes. (d) Material removal and addition processes such as milling, drilling, routing, turning, cutting, sanding, trimming, etching, sputtering, vapor deposition, solid freeform fabrication, ion implantation, and similar processes. (2) Assemblies, disassembly, and reassembly. This functional element includes all assembly processes associated with joining, fastening, soldering, integration of higher-level packages as required to complete a deliverable product (e.g., electronic packages); it also includes assembly sequencing, error correction and exception handling, disassembly and reassembly that are the maintenance and support issues. Assembly modeling is well developed for rigid bodies and tolerance stack-up in limited applications. Rapidly maturing computer-aided design and manufacturing technologies, coupled with advanced modeling and simulation techniques, offer the potential to totally optimize assembly processes for speed, efficiency, and ease of human interaction. Assembly models will integrate seamlessly with master product models and factory operations models to provide all relevant data to drive and control each step of the design and manufacturing process, including tolerance stack-ups, assembly sequences, ergonomics issues, quality, and production rate to support art-to-part assembly, disassembly, and reassembly. The product assembly model will be a dynamic, living model, adapting in response to changes in requirements and promulgating those changes to all affected elements of the assembly operation including process control, equipment configuration, and product measurement requirements. (3) Qualities, test, and evaluation. This element includes designs for quality, in-process quality, all inspection and certification processes, such as dimensional, environmental, and chemical and physical property evaluation based on requirements and standards, diagnostics as well as troubleshooting. Modeling, simulation, and statistical methods are widely used to establish control models to which processes should conform. Characterization of processes leads to models that define the impact of different process parameters and their variations on product quality. These models are used as a baseline for establishing

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and maintaining in-control processes. In general, the physics behind these techniques (e.g., radiological testing, ultrasonic evaluation, tomography, and tensile testing) should be well understood. However, many of the interactions are treated probabilistically and, even though models of the fundamental interactions exist, in most cases empirical methods are used instead. Although needing to be improved, today the best way to find out whether a part has a flaw is to test samples and analyze the test data. “Models” are used in setting up these experiments, but many times the models reside only in the brains of the experts who support the evaluations. (4) Packaging. This element includes all final packaging processes, such as wrapping, stamping and marking, palletizing, and packing. Modeling and simulation are critical in designing packaging to ensure product protection. Logistic models and part tracking systems help ensure the proper packaging and labeling for correct product disposition. These applications range from the proper wrapping for chemical, food, and paper products to shipping containers that protect military hardware and munitions from accidental detonation. Future process and product modeling and simulation systems will enable packaging designs and processes to be fully integrated in all aspects of the design-to-manufacturing process and will provide needed functionality with minimum cost, and minimum environmental impact, with no nonvalue-added operations. Advanced packaging Modeling and Simulation systems will enable product and process designers to optimize packaging designs and supporting processes for enhanced product value and performance, as well as for protection, preservation, and handling attributes. (5) Remanufacture. It includes all design, manufacture, and support processes that support return and reprocessing of products on completion of original intended use. Manufacturers would reuse, recycle, and remanufacture products and materials to minimize material and energy consumption, and to maximize the total performance of manufacturing operations. Advanced modeling and simulation capabilities will enable manufacturers to explore and to analyze remanufacturing options to optimize the total product realization process and product and process life cycles for efficiency, cost-effectiveness, profitability, and environmental sensitivity. The products are going to be designed from inception for remanufacture and reuse either at the whole product or the

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY component or constituent material level. In some cases, ownership of a product may remain with the vendor (not unlike a lease), and the products may be repeatedly upgraded, maintained, and refurbished to extend their lives and add new capabilities.

7.5.2.2

Computer Control System Modeling and Simulation

Modeling and simulation activities in computer control systems could be benefited if the following technical issues are taken into consideration. (1) Modeling purpose and simulation accuracy. One well-known challenge in modeling is to be able to identify the accuracy required for the given purpose. Consider, for example, the implementation of a data-flow over two processors and a serial network. A huge span of modeling detail is possible, ranging from a simple delay over discrete-event resource management models (e.g., processor and communication scheduling) to low level behavioral models. The mapping of these details between models and real computer networks will change the timing behavior of the functions due to effects such as delays and jitter. Some reflections related to this are as follows: (a) The introduction of “application level effects,” such as delays, jitter, and data loss, into a control design, could be an appropriate abstraction for control engineering purposes. The “mapping” to the actual computer system may be nontrivial. For example, delays and jitter can be caused by various combinations of execution, communication, interference, and blocking. More accurate computer system models will be required to compare alternative designs (architectures), and to provide estimations of the system behavior. In addition, modeling is a sort of prototyping, and as such important in the design process. (b) It is interesting that the underlying model of the computer system could be more or less detailed, given the right abstraction. For example, if a fairly detailed Computer Area Network model has been developed, it could still be used in the context of control system simulation given that it is sufficiently efficient to simulate and that its complexity is masked away. (c) It is obvious that the models of the computer system need to reflect the real system. In early stages, architecture only exists on the “drawing board.” As the design proceeds, more and more details will be available; consequently, the models used for analysis must be updated accordingly.

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(d) To achieve accuracy, a close cooperation between the software and hardware developers is necessary and required at every stage during the system development. (2) Global synchronization and node tasking. Both synchronous and asynchronous systems exist; industrially asynchronous systems predominate but this may change with the introduction of newer safety critical applications such as steer-by-wire in cars, because of the advantages inherent in distributed systems based on a global clock. On a microscope, the communication circuits typically are hard synchronized that is required to be able to receive bits and arbitrate properly. In a system with low-level synchronization, and/or synchronized clocks, the synchronization could fail in different ways. For asynchronous systems, the clock drift could be of interest to incorporate. Given different clocks with different speeds, this will affect all durations within each node. A conventional way of expressing duration is simply by a time value; in this case the values could possibly be scaled during the simulation setup. All the above-mentioned behaviors could be of interest to model and simulate. The most essential characteristic of a distributed computer system is undoubtedly its communication. In early design stages, the distributed and communication aspects are often targeted first; but then node scheduling also becomes interesting and is, therefore, of high relevance. It is very common that many activities coexist on nodes. Also, these activities typically have different timing requirements and may also be safety critical to different degrees. The scheduling on the nodes affects the distributed system by causing local delays that can influence the behavior of the overall system. When developing a distributed control system, somehow the functions and elements thereof need to be allocated to the nodes. This principally means that an implementation independent functional design needs to be enhanced with new “system” functions, which for example (1) perform communication between parts of the control system, now residing on different nodes; (2) perform scheduling of the computer system processors and networks; (3) perform additional error detection and handling to cater for new failure modes (e.g., broken network, temporary node failure, etc.). A node is composed of application activities, system software including a real-time kernel, low-level I/O drivers, and hardware functions including the communication interface. (a) The node task model needs to include the following: (i) A definition of tasks, their triggers, and execution times for “execution units.”

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (ii) A definition of the interactions between tasks in terms of scheduling, intertask communication, and resource sharing. (iii) A definition of the real-time kernel and other system software with respect to execution time, blocking, and so on. Some issues in the further development include what types of inter task communication and synchronization should be supported (e.g., signals, mailboxes, semaphores, …) and whether, and to what extent, there is a need to consider hierarchical and hybrid scheduling (e.g., including both processor’s interrupt and real-time kernel scheduling levels). (b) The functional model used in conventional control design should be reusable within the combined function computer models. This implies that it should be possible to somehow adapt or refine the functional models to incorporate a nodelevel tasking model. (c) Communication models. The types of communication protocols are confined by the area under consideration. Nevertheless, a number of different communication protocols are currently being developed in view of future embedded control systems. Computer Area Network is currently a de facto standard, but there is also an interest in including the following: (i) Time triggered Computer Area Network referring to Computer Area Network systems designed to incorporate clock synchronization suitable for distributed control applications. This rests on the potential of the recent ISO revision of Computer Area Network to easier implement clock synchronization in Computer Area Network and where the retransmissions can be turned off. (ii) Properties reflecting state-of-the-art fault-tolerant protocols such as the Time-Triggered Protocol. Fault-tolerance mechanisms of these protocols, such as membership management and atomic broadcast, then need to be appropriately modeled. It is often the case that parts of the protocols are realized in software, for example, dealing with message fragmentation, certain error detection, and potential retransmissions. Both, the execution of the protocol and the scheduling need to be modeled. The semantics of the communication and in particular of buffers is another important aspect; compare, for example, with overwriting and nonconsuming semantics

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versus different types of buffering. Whether the communication is blocking or not from the point of view of the sender and receiver is also related to the communication semantics. Another issue is which “low-level” features of communication controllers need to be taken into account. Compare, for example, with the associative filtering capability of Computer Area Network controllers, and their internal sorting of message buffers scheduled for transmission (relates back to hierarchical scheduling). (d) Fault models. The use of fault models is essential for the design of dependable systems. The specific models of interest are very application specific. For inclusion in models and simulation, it is of interest to investigate generic fault models and their implementation. There are a number of available studies on fault models dealing with transient and permanent hardware faults, and to some extent also categorizing design faults. As always, there is also the issue of insertion in the form of a fault, an error, or a failure. Consequently, this is a prioritized topic for further work. (3) System development and tool implementation. While developing distributed control systems, it would be advantageous to have a simulation toolbox or library in which the user can build the system based on prebuilt modules to define things such as the network protocols and the scheduling algorithms. With such a tool, the user can focus on the application details instead. Such a tool is possible since components like different types of schedulers and Computer Area Network and standardized across applications are well defined. In the same way a programmer works on a certain level of abstraction, at which the hardware and operating system details are hidden by the compiler, and the simulation tool should give the user a high level of abstraction to develop the application. Such a tool will enforce a boundary between the application and the rest of the system. This will speed up the development process, and gives the developers extra flexibility in developing the application. It is clear that the implementation of the types of hybrid systems we are aiming to model requires a thorough knowledge of the simulation tool. Cosimulation of hybrid systems requires the simulation engine to handle both time-driven and event-triggered parts. The former includes sampled subsystems as well as continuous time subsystems, handled by a numerical integration algorithm that can be based on a fixed or varying step size. The latter may involve state machines and other forms of event-triggered

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY logic. Some aspects that need consideration for tool implementation are as follows: (a) If events are used in the computer system model these must be detected by the simulation engine. How is the event detection mechanism implemented in the simulation tool? (b) At which simulation steps are the actions of a state flow system carried out? (c) How can actions be defined to be atomic (carried out during one simulation step)? (d) How can preemption of simulation be implemented including temporary blocking to model the effects of computer system scheduling?

7.5.3 Simulation Program Organization 7.5.3.1 Simulation Routines for Single Microprocessor Control Systems For a target industrial control system of one microprocessor-unit, only one simulation routine is needed for this system. Although unnecessary, it strongly suggests that the simulation routine programs consist two branches: the operating system programs and the application system programs. This is because the target application software programs normally have these two branches, the operating system programs and the application system programs, so that this way allows engineers to develop the simulation routine programs by using the target application software programs; and to work synchronistically between developing and testing the application software programs. If both the target programs and the simulation programs use the same programming language compiler, engineers can modify the target programs into the simulation program of the same industrial control system. However, if the programming language of the simulation programs is different from the programming language writing the target programs, engineers need to write the whole simulation routine, which definitely is not recommended.

7.5.3.2

Simulation Routines for Distributed Control Systems

Any distributed industrial control system normally consists of more than one microprocessor-unit board or chipset. In principle, one microprocessorunit requires at least one simulation routine in any distributed control system.

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In a distributed control system, the simulation routines for different microprocessor-units are independent from each other. The simulated communications between the microprocessor-units should be the same as those in the target control system. Therefore, the simulation routine for any microprocessor-unit should keep the same interface programs as those of its target control system. In principle, all the simulation routines for a distributed control system should be run in parallel. However, one routine or some routines can be alternatively run at a certain time.

7.5.3.3

Simulation Routine Coding Principles

When coding the simulation programs for an industrial control system, to avoid damaging the computers used for running the simulation routines these principles below should be followed: (1) The simulation programs must be separated from the boot code and firmware of a microprocessor-unit, in particular separated from the bus system and the memories’ controllers; (2) The simulation programs must be separated from the interrupt vector of a microprocessor-unit; (3) The simulation programs must be separated from the task context switch and the task scheduler of a microprocessor-unit’s operating system; (4) The simulation programs must be separated from the I/O device driver and interface low-level code; (5) The simulation programs must be separated from the data transmission control circuits or devices.

7.5.4

Simulators, Toolkits, and Toolboxes

To facilitate the modeling and simulation for industrial control, tens of modeling and simulation tools and simulators have been developed. A brief introduction for five popularly used tools and simulators is given in this subsection, which include: MATLAB, SIMULINK, SIMULINK RealTime Workshop, ModelSim, and Link for ModelSim. For their details, you can refer to the respective manuals provided by vendors.

7.5.4.1

MATLAB

MATLAB is an integrated, technical computing environment that combines numeric computation, advanced graphics and visualization, and

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high-level programming language. MATLAB gives an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar noninteractive language such as C++, C, or FORTRAN. MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In university environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, MATLAB is the tool of choice for high-productivity research, development, and analysis. MATLAB is used in a variety of application areas including signal and image processing, control system design, financial engineering, and medical research. Typical uses provided by MATLAB include Mathematical operations; Numerical computation; Algorithm development; Data acquisition; Modeling, simulation, and prototyping; Data analysis, exploration, and visualization; Scientific and engineering graphics; and Application development including graphical user interface (GUI) building. (1) The MATLAB system. The MATLAB system consists of five main parts: (a) Development environment. This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path. (b) The MATLAB mathematical function library. This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix eigenvalues, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms. (c) The MATLAB language. This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both “programming in the small” to rapidly create quick and dirty throwaway programs, and “programming in the large” to create large and complex application programs. (d) Graphics. MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions

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for two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow you to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your MATLAB applications. (e) The MATLAB external interfaces (API). This is a library that allows you to write C++, C, and Fortran programs that interact with MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files. (2) MATLAB-related toolboxes. MATLAB features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes. Very important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow learning and applying specialized technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation, and many others. Typical MATLAB related toolboxes include the following: (a) MATLAB (b) SIMULINK (c) Extended Symbolic Mathematical Toolbox (d) Fuzzy Logic Toolbox (e) MATLAB Compiler (f) MATLAB C++ Mathematical Library (g) Multiple-Analyses and Synthesis Toolbox (h) Neural Network Toolbox (i) Optimization Toolbox (j) Partial Differential Equation Toolbox (k) Signal Processing Toolbox (l) Spline Toolbox (m) Statistics Toolbox (n) Wavelet Toolbox (o) Communications Blockset (p) Communications Toolbox (q) Control Systems Toolbox (r) DSP Blockset (s) Data Acquisition Toolbox (t) Excel Link (u) Financial Toolbox (v) Fixed-Point Blockset

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (w) (x) (y) (z) (aa) (ab)

7.5.4.2

Image Processing Toolbox MATLAB C/C++ Graphics Library Model Predictive Control System Toolbox Nonlinear Control Design Blockset Robust Control Toolbox System Identification Toolbox.

SIMULINK

SIMULINK is an interactive tool for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamic systems. It integrates seamlessly with MATLAB, providing immediate access to an extensive range of analysis and design tools. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, continuous time and sampled time systems, or hybrid systems. With SIMULINK, simulations are interactive so that parameters can be changed immediately to see what happens in the simulations. SIMULINK allows moving beyond idealized linear models to explore more realistic nonlinear models, and has instant access to all of the analysis tools in MATLAB to take the results and analyze and visualize them. (1) Using SIMULINK for modeling. Model analysis tools include linearization and trimming tools, which can be accessed from the MATLAB command line, plus the many tools in MATLAB and its application toolboxes. And because MATLAB and SIMULINK are integrated, models can be simulated, analyzed, and revised in either environment at any point. For modeling, SIMULINK provides a graphical user interface for building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. With this interface, you can draw the models just as you would with pencil and paper (or as most textbooks depict them). This is much better than those simulation packages that require you to formulate differential equations and difference equations in a language or program. SIMULINK includes a comprehensive block library of sinks, sources, linear and nonlinear components, and connectors. You can also customize and create your own blocks. Blocks represent elementary dynamical systems that SIMULINK knows how to simulate. A block comprises one or more of the following: a set of inputs; a set of states; and a set of outputs. To introduce blocks in your model, choose the block from the library, click on it, and drag it in your model. Double clicking on the block will allow you to change the block parameters. Models are hierarchical, so you can build models using both top-down

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and bottom-up approaches. You can view the system at a high level, and then double-click on blocks to go down through the levels to see increasing levels of model detail. This approach provides insight into how a model is organized and how its parts interact. (2) Using SIMULINK for simulating. After you define a model, you can simulate it, choosing integration methods, either from the SIMULINK menus or by entering commands in MATLAB command window. The menus are particularly convenient for interactive work, while the command-line approach is very useful for running a batch of simulations (e.g., if you want to sweep a parameter across a range of values). Using scopes and other display blocks, you can see the simulation results while the simulation is running. In addition, you can change parameters and immediately see what happens, for “what if” exploration. The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post-processing and visualization. Simulating a dynamic system refers to the process of computing a system’s states and outputs over a span of time, using information provided by the system’s model. SIMULINK simulates a system when you choose Start from the model editor’s Simulation menu, with the system’s model open. Simulation of the system occurs in two phases: model initialization and model execution. (3) Model initialization phase. During the initialization phase, SIMULINK: (a) Evaluates the model’s block parameter expressions to determine their values. (b) Flattens the model hierarchy by replacing virtual subsystems with the blocks that they contain. (c) Sorts the blocks into the order in which they need to be executed during the execution phase. (d) Determines signal attributes, for example, name, data type, numeric type, and dimensionality, not explicitly specified by the model and checks that each block can accept the signals connected to its inputs. (e) Determines the sample times of all blocks in the model whose sample times you did not explicitly specify. (f) Allocates and initializes memory used to store the current values of each block’s states and outputs. (4) Model execution phase. In this model execution phase coming up after initialization phase, SIMULINK successively computes the states and outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish time, using information provided by

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INDUSTRIAL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY the model. The successive time points at which the states and outputs are computed are called time steps. The length of time between steps is called the step size. The step size depends on the type of solver used to compute the system’s continuous states. SIMULINK computes the current value of a block’s continuous states by numerically integrating the derivatives of states. The numerical integration task is performed by a SIMULINK component called solver. SIMULINK allows choosing the solver that it uses to simulate a model. The solvers that SIMULINK provides fall into two classes: fixed-step solvers and variablestep solvers. Fixed-step solvers divide the simulation time span into an integral number of fixed-size intervals called time steps. Then, starting from initial estimates, at each time step, a fixedstep solver computes the value of each of the system’s state variables at the next time step from the variable’s current value and the current value of its derivatives. The accuracy of the estimation depends on the step size, that is, the time between successive time steps. Generally, a smaller step size produces a more accurate simulation but results in a longer execution time because more steps are required to compute a system’s states. A variable-step solver dynamically varies the step size to meet a specified level of precision. Such a solver expands the step size when the state variables are changing slowly (as indicated by the magnitude of the state derivatives) and decreases the step size when the state variables are changing rapidly. A variable step solver can, depending on the application, produce more accurate results without sacrificing execution speed. Selecting parameters from the simulation menu, you can set up the simulation parameters: start time, stop time, and type of solver.

7.5.4.3

SIMULINK Real-Time Workshop

The SIMULINK Real-Time Workshop automatically generates C++ and C code directly from SIMULINK block diagrams. This allows the execution of continuous, discrete-time, and hybrid system models on a wide range of computer platforms. The SIMULINK Real-Time Workshop can be used for: (1) Rapid prototyping. As a rapid prototyping tool, the Real-Time Workshop enables you to implement your designs quickly without lengthy hand coding and debugging. Developing graphical SIMULINK block diagrams and automatically generating C++ and C code can implement control, signal processing, and dynamic system algorithms.

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(2) Embedded real-time control. Once a system has been designed with SIMULINK, code for real-time controllers or digital signal processors can be generated, cross-compiled, linked, and downloaded onto your selected target processor. The Real-Time Workshop supports microprocessor boards, embedded controllers, and a wide variety of custom and commercially available hardware. (3) Real-time simulation. Code can be created and executed for an entire system or specified subsystems for hardware-in-the-loop simulations. Typical applications include training simulators (pilot-in-the-loop), real-time model validation, and testing. (4) Stand-alone simulation. Stand-alone simulations can be run directly on a host machine or transferred to other systems for remote execution. Because time histories are saved in MATLAB as binary or ASCII files, they can be easily loaded into MATLAB for additional analysis or graphic display. In conclusion, Real-Time Workshop provides a comprehensive set of features and capabilities that provides the flexibility to address a broad range of applications: (a) Automatic code generation handles continuous-time, discrete-time, and hybrid systems. (b) Optimized code guarantees fast execution. (c) Control framework Application Program Interface (API) uses customizable Make files to build and download object files to target hardware automatically. (d) Portable code facilitates usage in a wide variety of environments. (e) Concise, readable, and well-commented code provides ease of maintenance. (f) Interactive parameter downloading from SIMULINK to external hardware allows system tuning on the fly. (g) A menu-driven, graphical user interface makes the software easy to use.

7.5.4.4

ModelSim

ModelSim is the industry-leading, Windows-based simulator for VHDL, Verilog, or mixed-language simulation environments. ModelSim offers VHDL, Verilog, or mixed-language simulation. Coupled with the most popular HDL debugging capabilities in the industry, ModelSim is known for delivering high performance, ease-of-use, and outstanding product support. ModelSim delivers the unique combination of native compiled code architecture and outstanding simulation performance. An easy-to-use

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graphical user interface enables the user to quickly identify and debug problems, aided by dynamically updated windows. For example, selecting a design region in the Structure window automatically updates the Source, Signals, Process, and Variables windows. Once a problem is found, you can edit, recompile, and resimulate without leaving the simulator. ModelSim fully supports the VHDL and Verilog language standards. You can simulate behavioral and gate-level code separately or simultaneously. ModelSim also supports all application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) and field programmable gate array (FPGA) libraries, ensuring accurate timing simulations. Major product features are: (1) Source window templates and wizards. Templates and wizards allow you to quickly develop HDL code without having to remember the exact language syntax. All the language constructs are available with a click of a mouse. Easy-to-use wizards step you through creation of more complex HDL blocks. The wizards show you how to create parameterized logic blocks, test bench stimuli, and design objects. The source window templates and wizards benefit both novice and advanced HDL developers with timesaving shortcuts. (2) Project Manager. The Project Manager greatly reduces the time it takes to organize files and libraries. As you compile and simulate, the Project Manager stores the unique settings of each individual project, allowing you to restart the simulator right where you left off. The Project Manager automatically compiles any design and offers Windows-like project-file sorting. Simulation properties allow you to easily resimulate with preconfigured parameters. (3) TCL interface. ModelSim redefined openness in simulation by incorporating the TCL user interface into its HDL simulator. TCL is a simple but powerful scripting language for controlling and extending applications. (4) Signal Spy. From any point in the design, the Signal Spy feature allows you to locate, drive, force, and release signals and signal nets buried deep in a VHDL or mixed-language design hierarchy. This can be done without having to modify any of your design’s existing code. This feature is very useful in test bench design. (5) Platform and standards support. ModelSim PE supports both VHDL and Verilog as well as accelerated, Level-1 compliant VITAL 2000 cell libraries and VITAL memory. ModelSim PE runs on the Windows 98, 2000, NT, and XP platforms.

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849

Link for ModelSim

Link for ModelSim is a cosimulation interface that integrates MATLAB and SIMULINK into the hardware design flow for field programmable gate array (FPGA) and application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) development. It provides a fast bidirectional link between MATLAB and SIMULINK and ModelSim. Link for ModelSim enables direct cosimulation and efficient verification of the ModelSim Real-Time level models from within MATLAB and SIMULINK. The traditional SIMULINK system-level design and simulation environment supports mixed-language simulation of MATLAB, C, C++, and SIMULINK blocks. Link for ModelSim uses client/server architecture to provide the interface between MATLAB and SIMULINK and ModelSim. It interfaces MATLAB with ModelSim and SIMULINK with ModelSim separately and independently. This means that you can use just one of these interfaces or both simultaneously. Using Link for ModelSim, you can set up an efficient environment for cosimulation, component modeling, and analysis and visualization, for various applications, such as (1) developing software test benches in MATLAB or SIMULINK; (2) including larger-scale system models developed and simulated in SIMULINK; (3) generating test vectors to test, debug, and verify your FPGA or ASIC model code against its original MATLAB or SIMULINK specification; (4) providing behavioral modeling capabilities for your FPGA or ASIC simulation in MATLAB and SIMULINK; (5) verifying, analyzing, and visualizing the implementations in MATLAB and SIMULINK.

Bibliography Abensur, David and Tomas, Sebastien. 2006. A Power-On Self-Test. http://focus .ti.com/lit/an/spra838a/spra838a.pdf. Accessed date: April. Apple (http://www.apple.com). 2006. The Boot Process. http://developer.apple .com/documentation/MacOSX/Conceptual/BPSystemStartup/Articles/ BootProcess.html. Accessed date: April. Bequette, B. Wayne. 2003. Process Control. Modelling, Design and Simulation. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Carnegie Mellon University Libraries (http://www.library.cmu.edu). 2006. Control Tutorial for MATLAB and SIMULINK.

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Cisco (http://www.cisco.com). 2006. Install and Configure System Components. http://www.cisco.com/iam/unified/ipcc1/Install_and_Configure_System_ Components.htm. Accessed date: April. DEW (http://www.dewassoc.com). 2001. BIO Power-On Self-Test (POST). http:// www.dewassoc.com/support/bios/bios_poweron_self_test_post.htm . Accessed date: April 2006. GlobalSpec (http://www.globalspec.com). 2006. Control System Module. http:// process-equipment.globalspec.com/Industrial-Directory/control_module. Accessed date: April. Howe, Denis. 2001. Power-On Self-Test (POST). http://www.cacs.louisiana.edu/ ~mgr/404/burks/foldoc/2/92.htm. Accessed date: April 2006. IBM (http://www.ibm.com). 2006. Process Simulations. http://publib.boulder .ibm.com/infocenter/dmndhelp/v6rxmx/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.btools .help.modeler602.doc/doc/concepts/simulation/simulation.html. Accessed date: April. IFE (http://www.ife.no). 2006. Process Simulation. http://www.ife.no/main_ subjects_new/petroleum_research/processimulation?set_language=en&cl=en. Accessed date: April. Lawrence, David. 2006. BIOS (Basic Input Output System). http://www.thedav idlawrenceshow.com/bios_basic_input_output_system_002381.html . Accessed date: April. Maine Technical (http://www.mainetechnical.com). 2003. Calibration. http://www .mainetechnical.com/downloadfiles/Calibration.pdf. Accessed date: April 2006. Micro Process (http://www.microprocess.com). 2006. PCI Bus. http://www .microprocess.com/formation/English%20Training/d8_e.htm. Accessed date: April. Microsoft TechNet (http://technet.microsoft.com). 2006. Power-On Self-Test Process. http://www.microsoft.com/technet/prodtechnol/windows2000serv/ reskit/core/fnbb_str_coli.mspx?mfr=true. Accessed date: April. PC Guide (http://www.pcguide.com). 2006. BIO Power-On Self Test (POST). http://www.pcguide.com/ref/mbsys/bios/bootPOST-c.html. Accessed date: April. Red Hat (http://www.redhat.com). 2006. Hardware Installation and Operating System Configuration. http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/csgfs/browse/ rh-cs-en/ch-hardware.html. Accessed date: April. Rusling, David A. 1996a. The Linux Kernel—Modules. http://tldp.org/LDP/tlk/ modules/modules.html. Accessed date: April 2006. Rusling, David A. 1996b. The Linux Kernel—PCI. http://tldp.org/LDP/tlk/dd/pci .html. Accessed date: April 2006. Russo, Lou and Isermann, Howard P. 1999. SIMULINK Tutorial. http://www.rpi .edu/dept/chem-eng/WWW/faculty/bequette/lou/simtut/simtut_html.html. Accessed date: April 2006. Sigmon, Kermit. 1992. MATLAB Primer. http://www.math.ufl.edu/help/matlabtutorial/. http://www.mines.utah.edu/gg_computer_seminar/matlab/matlab .html. Accessed date: April 2006.

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Teach Target (http://searchwincomputing.techtarget.com). 2006. Device Driver— Installation and Configuration. http://searchwincomputing.techtarget.com/ tip/0,289483,sid68_gci1219303,00.html. Accessed date: April. Willis, Mark J. and Tham, Ming J. 2006a. Process Model. http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ ming/advcontrl/sect2.htm. Accessed date: April. Willis, Mark J. and Tham, Ming J. 2006b. Model-Based Automatic Control. http:// lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/advcontrl/sect3.htm. Accessed date: April.

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Index Page numbers in italics refer to tables and illustrations function, 275 physical characteristics, 275–276 in real-time environment, 277–279 system limits, 276–277 working principle, mechanism, 266–274 data transfer, 269–274 master-slave principle, 267–269 Accelerator accelerator pedal, 362 ISA accelerator, 334–335 Accumulator, pulse accumulator, 576 Actuator A-S (Actuator-sensor) interface, 259–279, See also AS interface diaphragm actuator, 146, 148 disk actuator, 133, 136 electric actuator, 88–100 application guides, 96–98 calibrations, 98–100 operating principle, 88–90 technical specifications, 94–95 types, 90–93 electrohydraulic actuator, 146–147 FLUSH actuator, 191, 206 gear actuator, 141 hydraulic actuator, 111–125 application guides, 119–122 calibrations, 123–125 operating principle, 111–115 types, specifications, 115–119 linear actuator, 91–93, 101, 116–117 manual actuator, 141–142 multilayer actuator, 133 multi-turn actuator, 93 piezoelectric actuator, 125–141 calibrations, 137–141 operating principle, 126–132 technical specifications, 136–137 types, 132–135 piston actuator, 146, 148, 152, 154

A Abstract abstract event object, 620 abstract interface, 677 abstract object, 620, 688 abstract syntax tree, 244 AC (alternative current), 24–25, 88, 148, 778 ACK (acknowledge) frame, 337, 757–758 AGP (accelerated graphic port), 344–345, 781 parallel port, 344–345 API (application process/program interface), 493, 843, 847 ASCII code, 349, 452–454, 699–700, 708, 729, 847 ASCII standard, 698–700 ASDU (application service data units), 501–502, 502 ASIC (Application specify integrated circuit), 13, 240–255, 784, 848–849 designs, 242 functional simulation, 243–244 integrity analyses, 247–248 specifications, 242–243 synthesis, 244–246 verifications, 246–247 field-programmable gate array, 250–255 architecture, 252–254 important data, 251–252 programming, 255 types, 251–252 programmable logic devices, 248–250 AS interface, 259–279 architecture, components, 260 type 1, 261–263 type 2, 263–266 system characteristics, important data, 275–279 function range, master modules, 277

853

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854 Actuator (contd.) pneumatic actuator, 100–111 application guide, 106–11 assemble on valve, 106–111 calibrations, 137–141 operating principle, 100–104 technical specifications, types, 104–106 ring actuator, 133, 136 roller actuator, 40 rotary actuator, 90, 92, 101, 103, 117–119 shaft actuator, 41–42 stack actuator, 127, 136 style actuator, 139 tube actuator, 133, 136 turn actuator, 93 ultrasonic actuator, 133, 136 valve actuator, 95, 101, 105, 146–147 Adapter, 383 add-in-adapter, 571 graphical adapter, 328 host adapter, 336 object adapter, 677–678 PCI adapter, 329 plug-in-adapter, 571 types of, 333 Adaptor, 108, 218, 263 game I/O adapter, 215 Address address cycle, 802 address bit, 206 don’t-care address bits, 800 SA19 (system address bit 19), 330 LA23 (unlatched address bit 23), 330 address bus, 206, 213, 215, 234, 600, 783 14-bit address bus, 187 16-bit address bus, 187 20-bit address bus, 187 24-bit address bus, 188, 328 26-bit address bus, 333 32-bit address bus, 188, 205 address data, 330, 332, 348 address driver, 191 address line, 231, 239, 328–329, 601 LA17 address line, 332 SA0 address line, 332


INDEX address phase, 219, 220–221, 224 single address phase, 219 address register 2-byte address register, 238 base address register, 225, 237, 793, 800, 801 current address register, 237 temporary address register, 237 address signal, 206 address space, 612–613 I/O address space, 214, 225, 333 PCI address space, 790 process’s address space, 625, 628 program’s address space, 655 system’s address space, 572 user address space, 655 Agent, 823 idependent agent, 14 outside agent, 618 PCI-compliant agent, 219 Alarm, 10, 82, 413 alarm handling, 495 automated alarm tracking, 517 failure alarm, 454 severe failure alarm, 454 Algorithm adaptive algorithm, 675 algorithm types, 526–527 asynchronous simulation algorithms, 244 basic data compression algorithm, 742–749 Lempel–Ziv algorithm, 742–744 Shannon–Fano algorithm, 742 derivative algorithm, 520 error-checking algorithm, 729 EVEN parity algorithm, 729 fairness algorithm, 223 fuzzy logical algorithm, 564 integral algorithm, 520 MARK parity algorithm, 729 ODD parity algorithm, 729 proportional algorithm, 520 reinforcement learning algorithm, 675 SPACE parity algorithm, 729 synchronous simulation algorithms, 244 viterbi algorithm, 756 Allocator, 586–587 full-blown memory allocator, 618

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855

INDEX Alpha AXP processor, 790 Ambiguity, 356–357 model ambiguity, 357, 359 Amplifier, FSK isolating amplifier, 396 Analog, 6, 59 24-bit analog input, 135 analog and digital, 513 analog current, 81 analog frequency, 81–82 analog I/P, 147 analog multiplexer, 722 analog sensors, 68 analog slaves, 265 analog tachometers, 554–556 analog voltage, 81 Angle angle valves, 91 ‘coupling’ angle, 552 sonic cone angle, 12, 59 Animation, 481, 843 Antiparallel polarized, 132 Arbitration, 338 arbitration field, 296 bus arbitration, 760 bus system arbitration, 222–223 message wise arbitration, 295 nondestructive bitwise arbitration, 293–294, 294 Array, 504 FPGA (field-programmable gate arrays), 241, 250–255 frame transfer area array, 67 full-frame area array, 67 interline transfer area array, 67 linear array, 67 multiple sonic nozzle array, 180–181 PGA (pin-grid array), 205 PIN-photo-diode arrays, 9 Aspect, 4, 840 communication aspect, 837 aspect ratio, 71 electrical aspect, 682 functional aspect, 682 hard aspect, 598, 618 hardware aspect, 780 security aspect, 514 software aspect, 780


Assemble, assemble on valve, 106–111 Assembly, 834 AS interface slave assembly system, 265 assembly modeling, 834 automation assembly equipment, 22 control valve assembly, 143, 152 electrode assembly, 53 Asynchronous asynchronous algorithm, 244 asynchronous character, 727, 729 asynchronous coupling, 279 asynchronous frame, 727 asynchronous message passing, 624 asynchronous receiver, 624 UARTs (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitters), 500, 706–708 USART asynchronous receiver, 714–715 asynchronous transmission, 343, 708, 713, 726–733 asynchronous transmitter, 713 Autopilot, 359 Autotuning, 824 Axis bent-axis, 115 inline-axis, 115 linear axis, 469 multiaxis, 482, 548, 550 rotary axis, 472 single axis, 72, 80, 471 stack axis, 136 B BIOS basic input/output, 778 interfaces, 216–218 mode 0, 227 techniques, 213–215 PCI BIOS, 795–796, 803 functions, 798–799 system BIOS, 571, 577, 800, 803 Background suppression diffuse sensor with, 49–50 by triangulation, 47 Backlash, 91, 131, 147, 151–152 Bandwidth, 320, 327, 339, 342–344, 514, 703–704

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856 Barrel, 56–57, 59, 115 Barrier, 190, 284, 637–638 barrier by semaphore, 638 barrier solution, 638 intrinsic safety barrier, 394, 407 IS barrier, 381 light barrier, 51 Batch batch control, 532–539 recipe-based, 536–538 standards, 534–536 batch controller, 532–539 batch process steps, 539, 540 batch server, 537–538 Bend bending, 79, 140, 373, 834 mechanical bending, 1 bender multilayer piezoelectric bender, 134 piezoelectric bender, 131–132 Biaxial biaxial load, 78, 83 biaxial measurement, 78, 83 Bimetallic switch, 1–6 Bimorph, 125, 133, 136 Bipolar, 36, 132 Bit-synchronization, 726–727, 734–737 BNC, 137 Bolt, 79, 80, 87, 93, 109, 122, 140 bolt flange, 160 Boot boot code, 780, 785, 841 for microprocessor unit chipset, 570–578 boot record master boot record, 573–575 partition’s boot record, 578 boot program, 575, 577, 780–781, 785 boot sequence, 575–578, 777 Branch, 32, 188, 190, 197, 263, 315, 747, 840 branch predication, 194 improved branch prediction, 200 Bridge, 302, 795 bridge balancing, 76–77 bridge completion, 74–75 bridge excitation, 75


INDEX bridge to H1-HSE coupling, 285 HOST bridge, 344 PCI-ISA bridge, 791–792 PCI-PCI bridge, 789, 792–798, 801–802 Brokers, event brokers, 618–622 Bucket, 64, 70 Buffer, 330, 596, 600, 759 buffered offset nulling, 77 cascade buffer, 231 controller’s sector buffer, 335 data bus buffer, 230, 233, 708, 710 deeper write buffer, 200 read sector buffer, 335 receive buffer, 711 three-state buffer, 216 traditional bounded buffer, 626 write sector buffer, 335 Bus address bus, 206, 213, 215, 234, 600, 783, See also Address, address bus AGP bus, 344–345 APIC bus, 193, 194, 201, 232 bus-arbitration, 760 bus-operation, 219–221 bus-termination, 301 CAN bus, 291–309 data bus, 221, 230, 233, 331, 332, 336, 338, 783 fieldbus, 148, 278, 280–327, 414, 417, 420, 423 FSK-bus, 395–396 interbus, 309–319 ISA bus, 328–332, 792 PCI bus, 794–798, 802 PROFIBUS, 289–291 SCSI bus, 336–338 serial bus, 291–292, 339–342, 485 X-bus, 335 Byte, 696 C C++, 440, 493, 521, 616, 676, 842, 843, 844, 846, 849 CCD, 64, 66–67, 68 CAN (control area network) system CAN bus, 291–309 CAN open, 304–305, 307, 455 CLK, 235, 330, 332, 709

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INDEX CNC (computer numerical control), 462–487 components,architecture, 463–466 control mechanism, 466–474 controller specification, 483–487 part programming, 474–482 CMOS, 196, 392, 781 chipset, 235 comparison of CCD and, 68 image sensors, 64–65, 67–68 CiA, 305, 307 CMR, 30, 38 C-o-M, 562–563 CORBA (common object request broker architecture), 676–677 CPLD, 249–250 CPU (central process unit), 195–196, 227, 229–231, 234, 279, 355, 431, 464, 589–590, 600, 657–658, 709, 790–791 boot CPU program, 576 trableshooting the CPU, 462 CW (clockwise), 99–100, 230–231 CCW (counter clockwise), 99–100 Cache, 201, 810 CLS (cache line size), 225 code cache, 194, 198 data cache, 193, 198 more cache, 199–200 processor cache, 198 unified L2 cache, 193 Calibrator, 9, 138, 404 cash flow calibrator, 180 Camera, 15–17, 19–21, 71–72, 134, 514, 820 Capacitor, 57, 61, 73, 84, 695 Cascade, 230, 526, 545, 603, 830 cascade buffer, 231–233 cascade mode, 240 Ceiling Priority, 631–632 Cell biaxial load cell, 78, 83 canister cell, 81 donut cell, 80 lithium cell, 204 load cell package, 80–81 logic cell, 250–251 macro cell, 250 pancake cell, 80


857 photoelectric cell, 84 process cell, 535 shear cell, 79 tension cell, 72, 80 triaxial load cell, 78, 83 Chain, 70, 119, 138, 141, 174, 240, 546, 816 daisy-chain, 333, 752 safety chain, 643 Channel, 75–76, 134, 237–240, 276, 318, 343, 394, 623–624, 762–763 I/O channel, 331, 454, 741 routing channel, 253 ‘U’ channel, 57 Character, 696–697 character-oriented synchronous transmission, 737–738 physical, 275 synchronization, 727–729 system, 275–277 Checksum, 196, 386, 411, 644, 721, 749 block, 755 Chip chipset boot code for microprocessor unit chipset, 570–578 CMOS chipset, 235 data transfers within an IC chipset, 691–692 direct memory access controller chipset, 235–239 microprocessor unit chipset, 187–224 programmable interrupt controller chipset, 229–232 programmable timer controller chipset, 233–234 Chrominance, 9 Chunk, 418, 580, 583, 651–652, 695 Client, client-server model, 763–766 Cluster, 194, 201, 594, 599, 770 Codeword, basic codeword standards, 698–700 Coding arithmetic coding, 744–746 bit coding, 297, 303 BWT coding, 747, 747 color coding, 458

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858 Coding (contd.) Huffman coding, 745, 747 linear coding, 742 LZ77 coding, 743, 744 LZ78 coding, 743, 744 manchester coding, 283, 317 routine coding, 9 Collection data collection, 327, 367, 375, 507, 539, 570 Garbage collection, 616–617 Composite, 562, 620, 704, 834 Condition, 634–638 stem conditioning, 145–146 Conductor, 28–29, 36, 60, 73, 172, 248, 311, 550, 691–692 Configuration HART system, 400–402 PCI, 790 registers, 224–225 Connection-oriented transmission, 680, 761–762 Connectionless transmission, 680, 688, 761 Constraint, 245, 365–366, 637, 648 Contention, 618, 692, 762–763 request, 598–599 Controller batch controllers, 532–536 CNC controller, 483–487 computer numerical controllers, 462–483 controller area network, 291–308 data acquisition controllers, 488–511 digital controllers, 429–526 direct memory access controller, 235–237 fuzzy logic controllers, 558–563 HDLC controller, 721 industrial intelligent controllers, 429–455 input/output protocol controllers, 650 programmable interrupt controller, 229–232 programmable logic controllers, 429–455 programmable timer controller, 233–234


INDEX proportional-integration-derivative controllers, 519–526 SDLC controller, 719–720 servo controllers, 539–550 Core, 22–24, 166–167, 194, 198, 723 Creep, 2, 4–5, 87, 122 Crisp, 560, 562–563 Crosstalk, 247, 248 Crystal, 10, 30, 38, 67, 78, 84, 126, 132, 372, 431, 833 Cylinder, 80, 109, 111–113, 116–117, 119–122 D DAV (data-valid line), 349–350 DC (direct current), 25–26, 41, 42, 49, 56, 77, 91, 141, 435, 455, 531, 552–554, 778 DCS, 374–375, 537, 539, 675, 678 DHCP (dynamic host configuration protocol), 325 DMA (direct memory access), 226, 235–240, 329–331, 577, 600, 790 DNP3, 502–512 DRAM (dynamic random access memory), 203, 334, 810–811 DVD player, 249 DWDM, 704–705 Data data acquisition, 374–376, 457, 488–519 data communication, 675–771 data compression, 740–742 data flow, 620 data-link, 749–762 data logging, 56, 78, 82, 181, 377 data transmission, 705–723, 725–742 Deadlock cycle, 659 Debug, 208, 212, 247, 456, 612, 645, 668, 842, 846, 847 Deck multiple-deck, 42 single-deck, 41 Decoding, 741–742 Decoupling, 67, 266, 677 Default, 99, 223, 316, 342, 362, 610 Degrade mode, 808, 811, 812 Delineator, 706

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859

INDEX Demultiplexer, 704, 722 Desktop, 401, 437, 462, 516, 700, 766, 842 DeviceNet, 97, 306, 377, 416, 419, 484 Diagnose / Diagnostic, 316, 423, 460, 519, 642, 781, 804–816 Dialog, 647, 683, 764, 765 Dielectric, 8, 53, 57 Diffuse, 12, 17–18, 45–46, 48–50, 58, 241 Dimension, 15, 20–21, 60, 91, 372, 473 Diminish, 18, 248, 289, 572 Diode, 9, 44, 51, 203, 218 Dipole, 126, 127 Discrete, 65, 148, 216, 259, 277, 281, 415, 437, 539, 547, 590, 749, 817 Disable, 208, 406, 601, 608–609, 678, 714, 716 Disc / Disk, 4, 34, 36, 89, 107, 125, 133, 158, 160, 333, 556, 599, 614 Distributed control, 675–690, 840 Disturb / disturbance, 18, 28, 143, 151, 279, 436, 822, 830 Dome, 18 Drift, 4, 25, 28, 77, 406, 727, 736, 813, 815, 837 Driver, 595–599, 796–797 Duplex full-duplex, 703 half-duplex, 702 E EDO (extended data out), 203 EPROM (erasable PROM), 203–204, 251, 316, 391, 456 EE-PROM (electrically erasable PROM), 251, 269, 271, 431, 542, 575, 781, 785 ETB, 731, 732 ETX, 731, 738–739 Edge, 18, 63, 66, 69, 140, 304, 328, 330, 447, 664, 727–728 Eigenvalue, 10 Electromagnetic device, 62, 133, 167, 248, 279, 373 Embedded embedded control, 292, 455, 558, 847 embedded system, 572, 595, 601, 606, 638, 641, 707 Encoder, 91, 237, 263, 414, 556–557, 748, 756–757


Enable, 44, 64, 164, 213, 221, 330, 608–609 Entity, 495, 676–677, 763 Ergonomics, 375–376, 834 Ethernet, 319–327 Event event broker, 618–622 event handling routine, 622 event notification, 619–621 event trigger, 621 Exposure, 60, 64–65, 68, 70, 72, 85 F FCS, 720, 751, 753, 755 FIFO (first input first output) FIFO queue, 591 FIFO semantics, 769 FIQ, 606–607 FPGA (field-programmable gate array), 250–258 FSK bus, 388, 395 FSM (finite state machine), 245, 496, 659–661, 663–664, 667 Ferroelectric material, 78, 84 Ferromagnetic, 10, 22, 24, 30, 32, 36 antiferromagnetic, 37–38 Ferrous, 43, 60, 61 nonferrous, 53, 60, 61 Fiber-optic, 50–51, 62 Field fieldbus, 148, 278, 280–327, 414, 417, 420, 423 field communication, 377–420 field level, 260, 261 field network, 415–420 Finite state automata, 659–669 Firewire, 339–343 Firmware, PCI firmware, 800–802 Flash memory, 204, 431 Float valves, 172–175 Flow valves, 177–181 controls, 758–760 Fluxgate, 33 Force sensor, 79, 80, 87 Foreground receiver, 46 Fork/Forking, 93, 175, 624, 656, 665 Foundation Fieldbus, 280–289

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860 Frame/Framing control, 749–752 Friction, antifriction, 92, 140 Fuzzy logic controllers, 558–564 G G, 445, 475, 575 G-code, 467, 476, 477, 478, 480–481 GB, 187, 340, 344, 696 Gbps, 342, 705 GMR, 34, 36–38 GUI (graphic user interface), 572, 654, 789, 791, 802, 842 Gateway, 261, 382 Gauge foil gauge, 73 strain gauge, 72–73, 74, 75, 78–79, 83, 84–86 tension gauge, 56, 77, 82 Gear, gearwheel, 32 Geophysical, 33 Giant magnetoresistance, 30, 36 Glare screen, 376 Gray gray scale, 65 gray value, 63 Grid, 28, 51, 73, 78–79, 252, 503 Guideline, 51, 140, 164, 289, 376, 458, 816 H HART HART communication, 378–386 HART-compatible device, 387, 389, 394–395, 397–400, 402, 403, 411–412 HART interface, 16, 389, 394, 401 HART multiplexer, 392–394, 400 HART protocol, 406–414 HART system, 387–405 HDL controller, 718 HDLC (high-level data-link control) HDLC controller, 721 HDLC frame, 750, 751 HDLC protocol, 749 HDLC transfer mode, 721 Highway, 377–423


INDEX Half half-bridge, 74, 75 half-duplex, 702 half-circle, 157, 160 Hall hall effect, 28, 29, 35, 60 hall sensor, 29, 30, 35, 36 hall voltage, 28–30, 36 Handshaking, 216, 228, 345, 347, 349, 537 Hardwired, 262, 513–515 Hazardous, 6, 27, 52, 59, 105, 177, 280, 284, 394, 539 Hex (hex decimal), 228, 409 Human-Machine human-machine interaction, 353–370 human-machine interface, 351–376 Humidity, 26, 71, 137, 372, 564, 814 Hybrid system, 832, 839, 844, 846, 847 I IBM, 187, 328, 516, 698, 719, 752 IC (Integrated circuit), 240–241, 252, 691–692, 693, 695 IDE (integrated drive electronics), 333–334 IEC 60870 – (standard), 498–503 IEC 61512 – (standard), 534–537 IEEEIEEE-488, 347–351 IEEE-1394, 343 IEEE 802.2, 760 IEEE-802.3, 760 IEEE-802.5, 760 I/O (Input/Output) I/O interface, 215, 226, 227, 251, 306, 372, 397, 464, 705, 781 I/O port, 226–228 mapped I/O, 213, 215, 600 PCI I/O, 791 peripheral I/O, 226–228 programmable I/O, 216, 226, 250 IGMP (internet group management protocol), 325–327 ISO (international standard organization), 70–71, 282, 291, 300–301, 307–308, 500, 681, 750 ISP (internet service provider), 323

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INDEX ISR (interrupt service routine), 210–213 Intel, 187–188, 191–195, 199–200, 210, 328, 590, 800, 803 Inductive sensor, 434 Initialization, 795–796 Inlet port, 113–115, 167, 171 Inline-axis, 115 Insertion, 178, 735, 839 Instruction, 199, 448–454 Integrator, 375, 832 Interaction, 353–370 Interbus, 309–318 Interconnection, 137, 236, 241, 250, 348, 459, 498, 708, 771 Intermittent network, 368 Interrupt interrupt bit, 453 interrupt controller, 194, 229–232 interrupt handler, 210, 569, 572, 601–608 interrupt line, 207, 218, 226, 230, 793 interrupt operation, 207–212 interrupt routing, 223–224 interrupt vector table, 209–210, 211, 224, 578 J JPEG, 71 Jacket material, 172 Joystick, 351, 374, 485 Jumper, 98–99, 227, 329, 644–645 Junction box, 259, 262, 283, 380 K KG (Kilogram), 36, 38 KHz (Kilo Hertz), 133, 135, 136, 703 KV (Kilo voltage), 134 Kbps (Kilo bit per second), 290, 319, 345 Km (Kilometre), 309, 311, 691 Kernel, 571–572, 639–640 Keyboard, 176, 215, 351, 372, 376, 429, 571, 577, 596, 611, 696, 739, 790 Keypad, 372 Kinetic energy, 117, 178 L LAN (local area network), 319, 372, 418, 484, 489–490, 682, 694–695


861 LED (logic electronic device), 6, 8, 18, 99–100, 459–460 LLC (logic link control), 760–762 LVDT (linear variable differential transformer), 22–23, 25–26, 117 LVPSC (low voltage power supply circuit), 778–780 LZW compression, 743–744 Ladder logic ladder logic diagram, 445, 445 ladder logic form, 441 Latch, 218–220, 251, 329–330, 444 Layout, 225, 242, 247, 539, 574, 610 Leakage, 114, 120–122, 143–144, 394 Limit switch, 38–43 Link for ModelSim, 849 Load sensor, 79, 80 Locker, 634–638 Lockout cylinder, 113 Lookup table, 251–252, 668, 813 Loop closed loop, 103, 117, 135, 146, 465, 505, 519, 524, 531, 542, 544, 827–828 control loop, 281, 310, 519, 520 interbus loop, 313, 314, 316, 317 loop control, 180, 505 loop device, 313 loop-back, 312, 313 open loop, 465, 531–532, 542, 544, 552, 554 process loop, 154 Loose mounting, 122 Loss compression, 741 Lossless compression, 741 M MAC (medium access control), 762–763 MATLAB, 841–844 MB (megabytes), 187–188, 220, 328, 330–336, 614, 696, 741, 801–802 MBR (Master boot record), 573–575 MCU (microprocessor control unit), 464–465, 542, 543 MMU (memory management unit), 613–614, 618, 653 MMX (matrix mathematical extension) MMX instruction, 200–201 MMX technology, 199–201

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862 MPU (microprocessor unit), 465, 786–788 MTU (master terminal unit), 496–498 MHz, 8, 188, 196, 220, 328, 330, 336, 515, 703 MR (Magnetoresistive) AMR (anisotropic MR), 34, 36 CMR (colossal MR), 30, 38 GMR (giant MR), 30, 36–38 Magnetic magnetic control system, 27–38 magnetic field, 54 magnetic level switch, 28, 32 magnetic switch, 27–28, 32 Magnetization, 30–31, 61, 553 demagnetization, 553 Malfunction, 17, 111, 172, 222, 412, 440, 459–460, 808, 811, 813 Manual actuator, 141–142 Master-slaver master-slave model, 766–768 master-slave principle, 267–269 master-slave protocol, 408, 766 Menu-driven, 135, 481, 847 Message message passing, 622–625 message queue, 622–629 Metrology, 5, 180, 181, 814, 816 Microprocessor unit bus system operations, 218–226 chipset, 187–207, 570–579 input/output rationale, 213–218 interrupt operations, 207–213 Microprocessor chipset, 13–14, 16, 223, 621, 760, 781 Miniature, 79–80, 81, 137, 554 Modem DSL modem, 249 FSK-modem, 390–392, 396 HART modem, 398, 400 ModelSim, 847–849 Monolithic kernel, 573 Monolithic SCADA system, 488–489, 489, 490 Motherboard, 16, 227, 333, 571, 277–578, 777, 781, 786–787, 791, 804, 815 Multicast, 293, 321, 325–327 Multichannel, 22, 541


INDEX Multiplexing mode, 703–705 Multiplexer digital, 722–723 time division, 723–725 Multitasking, 579–581 Multithread, 619 Mutual exclusive, 658–659 N NDAC (not-data-accepted line), 349–350 NRFD (not-ready-for-data line), 349–350 NRZ (non-return to zero), 297, 303, 712, 735, 742 NRZI (non-return to zero inverted), 735, 737 Numerical control computer, 462–487 NVM (non-volatile memory), 807–808, 816 O OCR (optical character recognition), 69 OPC (operation planning and control), 291, 377, 493 ORB (object request broker), 676, 677–678 Object-oriented, 419, 617, 620, 842 Open architecture, 367 Operating system, real-time, 579–618 Optical optical beam, 8 optical sensor, 12 Optimal control, 526, 827 P PCI (peripheral component interconnect) PCI BIOS, 795, 798–800 PCI bridge, 792–795 PCI bus, 218–219, 220, 222, 224, 328, 789, 793–797 PCI card, 247, 790, 793 PCI firmware, 795, 800–802 PCI I/O, 791 PCI-ISA bridge, 790, 792 PCI-PCI bridge, 792–795 PCMCIA card, 333 PGA (pin-grid array), 205 PID (proportional-integration-derivative) controllers, 519–532

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INDEX PLC (programmable logic control) controllers, 429–462 POST (power-on self-test), 783, 785 PROFIBUS, 289–291 PROM (programmable read only memory), 203–205 Package, 71 Parallel parallel bender, 131–132, 132 parallel interface, 178, 485, 682 parallel mode bit-parallel mode, 700–701 word-parallel mode, 701 parallel port, 344–345 Parallelism, 189, 244, 624 Parity bit, 385, 411, 706–707, 727, 729 Photoelectric photoelectric device, 44–52 photoelectric sensor, 44–51 photoelectric switch, 44, 52 Phototransistor, 44 Pilot, 144, 162, 167, 169, 361, 847 Pipeline, 109, 142, 189–190, 197, 200, 504 Pneumatic actuator, 97, 101–102, 103, 105 Point-to-point, 259, 289, 379, 399, 685, 752 Polarization, 50, 132 Pole, 466, 486 Prefetcher, 194, 198–199 Process control, 180, 280–281, 406, 455, 493, 539, 654 Processor, 188–189, 194, 482, 569, 571, 577, 602, 655, 657 Protocol CAN protocol, 291, 296–299, 303, 484 data communication protocol, 763–771 data link protocol, 749–763 data transmission protocol, 725–749 HART protocol, 406–414 Proximity proximity sensor, 52, 54, 55, 60–62 proximity switch, 35, 52, 53, 61 Q QoS (quality of service), 321, 327, 726 Quad word, 200, 201 Quantum, 28, 67, 658 Quarter-turn actuator, 93, 95


863 R RAM (random access memory), 203–205, 251, 300, 372, 570, 578 RDRAM (Rambus DRAM), 203, 340 REQ (request), 222–223, 337, 339 RGB (red green blue), 63, 65 ROM (read only memory), 202, 203–205, 225, 251, 431, 571, 577 RPC (remote procedure communication), 770–771 RTC (real-time clock), 235 RTDB (real-time data base), 493, 495, 496 RTU (remote terminal unit), 375, 488, 497 RTL (register transfer level), 243, 245, 255 RVDT (rotational variable differential transformer), 22, 24–26, 24 R/W (read/write), 202, 205, 214, 607 Real-time control, 14, 484, 569 Reed switch, 34–35, 174 Reset pin, 207 Resistance measurement, 79, 125 Resonance frequency, 129, 136 RSRS-232, 345–347 RS-422, 345–347 RS-485, 345–347 RS-530, 345–347 S SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) SCADA controller, 488–519 SCADA network, 488, 519, 678–679, 690 SCADA system, 354, 375, 488–490, 491, 496–498, 512–517, 678 SCSI (small computer system interface), 335–339 SCXI-1122, 75 SCXI-1321, 76, 76, 77 SDLC (synchronous data link control) SDLC controller, 719–720 SDLC frame, 719, 720, 752 SDLC protocol, 749, 752 SIMULINK, 844–846

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864 SQL, 492, 495 Sandwich material, 37 Scheduler, 589–593 Self-test, 409–410, 577, 644–645, 783 Self-actuated, 155–165 Segment, 208–209, 277, 304, 454, 612, 653, 668–669 Semaphore, 629–638 Sensor color sensor, 6, 8–9, 63, 67–68 current sensor, 54, 55 diffuse sensor, 45, 48–49, 58 direction sensor, 27 distance sensor, 10, 11, 12 hall sensor, 29, 30, 35–36 image sensor, 63, 65–67, 69, 71 LVDT sensor, 22, 26 magnetoresistive sensor, 30–32 mechanical sensor, 27, 61 monochrome sensor, 63, 67, 68 photoelectric sensor, 38, 44–45, 47–48, 49–51, 58, 434 position sensor, 52, 134 proximity sensor, 52, 54, 55, 61–62 range sensor, 21 RGB sensor, 63 scan sensor, 63–72 section sensor light, 15–21 ultrasonic sensor, 12, 13 Server, 650–652 Servo controllers, 539–558 Shift register, 251, 312, 450–451, 715–716, 728, 755–756 Simplex, 390, 779, 780 mode, 701–702 Slave, 767–678 master-salve model, 766–768 master-salve principle, 267–269 Sliding window, 759–760 Solenoid valves, 165–172 Spin, 37, 640 Stack, task stack, 582–585 Stepper motor, 91, 128, 373, 544, 554, 640 Stop-and-Wait, 758–759 Stroke, 90, 91, 95, 98–99, 110, 113, 117, 122–124, 156–157


INDEX Switch bimetallic switch, 1–6 context switch, 589–593 electric switch, 44, 52 electromechanical switch, 1 float switch, 173–175 level switch, 28, 32, 173, 175 limit switch, 38–44 magnetic switch, 27–28, 32 physical switch, 41–42 position switch, 41–42 power switch, 205, 775, 776, 777 proximity switch, 35, 52–53, 61 reed switch, 28, 32–33, 34–35, 43 rotary switch, 41–43, 393 torque switch, 95 Supervisory control, 488–519 Synchronization, 657–658 bit synchronization, 726–727, 734–737 character synchronization, 727–730 frame synchronization, 730–733 Synthesis, ASIC, 244–246 T TDM (time division multiplexer), 723–725 TDMA (time division multiplexing access), 408, 418 TCP/IP protocol, 491, 492 Task task allocator, 585 task body, 586 task context switch, 589–593 task control, 579–595 task object, 581, 585–587 task queue, 588–589 task scheduler, 589–593 task stack, 582–585 task state, 585–586 task thread, 593–595 task timer, 645–646 Terminal, 41, 76, 332, 371, 439, 458, 461, 496–497, 595, 710 Thread, 611, 634–637, 657–658 task thread, 593–595 Timer programmable timer controller chipset, 233–235 timer creation, 646–647

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865

INDEX Tool toolbox, 7, 841–849 toolkit, 841–849 toolset, 832 Transformer, 22–27 Transmitter UART (universal asynchronous receiver transmitter), 706–708 USART (universal synchronous receiver transmitter), 708–709 USART (universal synchronous/ asynchronous receiver transmitter), 709–718 Trigger, event trigger, 621 U UART (universal asynchronous receiver transmitter), 706–708 UDP (user datagram protocol), 322, 327, 419, 688–689, 689 UHCI (universal host control interface), 341–342 UML (unified modeling language), 664–665, 666 UNIX (network operating system), 490, 516, 696 UPS device, 780 USB (universal serial bus), 339–344 USART (universal synchronous/ asynchronous receiver transmitter), 709–718 USRT (universal synchronous receiver transmitter), 708–709 Ultrasonic ultrasonic actuator, 133, 136 ultrasonic frequency, 136 ultrasonic motor, 128–129 ultrasonic sensor, 12, 13 Upsteam, 142, 145–146 V VHDL (verilog and hardware description language), 242, 246, 255, 847–848 VITAL memory, 849 VLAN (virtual LAN), 322–324, 326 VLSI circuit, 248 VNAV (vertical navigation model), 360–361, 363


VPN (virtual private network), 322 Valve ball valve, 100, 144, 159, 165, 166 check valve, 155–161 control valve, 142–155 directional valve, 112, 155 float valve, 172–177 flow valve, 177–181 pneumatic valve, 101, 124 relief valve, 161–165 rotary valve, 104, 146, 151, 154–155 solenoid valve, 165–172 Vector vector of state, 355 vector table, 209–210, 211, 578, 609–610, 610 Virtual memory, 613–616 Visual Basic, 493 W Watchdog watchdog mechanism, 641 watchdog timeout, 641, 642, 646 watchdog timer, 640–645 Waveform, 138, 233, 385, 391, 504, 556, 735, 737 Wheatstone wheatstone bridge circuit, 80, 83 wheatstone resistor bridge, 34 Window command window, 10, 13 sliding window, 759–760 Wired, 96, 262, 294, 306, 378–381, 571 Wireless, 135, 374, 381–383, 514–515, 682, 708, 742, 766 Word code word, 742, 744, 747 command word, 230, 709 control word, 230–231, 234, 237, 709–710 Word-parallel mode, 701, 702 X XYZ, 8, 506 XYZ client, 506 XYZ server, 506

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Industrial Control Technology: A Handbook for Engineers and Researchers

Simulation of Industrial Processes for Control Engineers

Simulation of Industrial Processes for Control Engineers

Advanced Industrial Control Technology

Dredging: A Handbook for Engineers

Drives and Control for Industrial Automation (Advances in Industrial Control)

Cutting tool technology: industrial handbook

Handbook of Industrial Membrane Technology

Handbook of Industrial Membrane Technology

Control and Mechatronics (The Industrial Electronics Handbook)

Engineers Handbook of Industrial Microwave Heating

Air Pollution Control Technology Handbook

Handbook of Chemical Technology and Pollution Control