INDIAN CULTURE IN THE DAYS OF THE BUDDHA BY
A. P. de ZOYSA,
B.A., Ph.]). (l.ond.)
ofGray'8 Inn Ba.r·at·Jaw l"d. F.:I;...
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INDIAN CULTURE IN THE DAYS OF THE BUDDHA BY
A. P. de ZOYSA,
B.A., Ph.]). (l.ond.)
ofGray'8 Inn Ba.r·at·Jaw l"d. F.:I;Q/Hi".. I,. Q,i.nt~1 LIJ"g"uV'" to Ih. U .. i...T4iUu
'1 L"dQn a",1 Comlwidgil
W1TfJ nr:STf:(1"",fMENTS OF
f.l. U. [
1Iin~
.in r, CG. LTD.
NOR RI S RO/d) COLOlHDO
COLOMBO
M. D. GUNASENA & CO., LTD.
M. D. GUNASIONA & CO. LT". 217 NORl!l8 HOAll
COLOMflO
First 1'1Iu1ished
JIlI~.
1\:153
This hcHlk i$ copyright. Nu porlion or extrl\ct of it mllY be repr{)dll~OO in any mllnner without the wriHen COllRcnt of
the Publiahers.
Prinled and PuW~h~d by M. D. Gt.lna~tn(J «Co. Lld., ColomW--R-Ji6J-3/Q4
CONTENTS Chapter
Page
III
1'~;ItSONAI,
1\'
\\'OMKN"
1 3 1l 16
MARRIAGE
24
SOCIAl, OIlDERS
29
MEETINGS AND GATHERINGS
3
ek Edie~ I. Il. Karuna 1.
Uppthha
2. KandarakaBulla
4. U.
Dllamnwpoda A!!halcalhii-Vip,ikhi. Thtrll Giilhd-N8ndll
27
III most IlIlltters of sigllificallce, including marriages, importance attachetl to the auspicioll!l 1ll0lllPlIt for the ceremony. for which the astrologer's nid WllS sought.1 Tlmt faith in astrology was dillnppro\'ed by the Buddha. The married couple oocame the recipients of nIany presents on the occasion of the marriage. The wealthy partmts used to give their daughters property which was called" the perfume·money ". King K08ll.Ia. gave a district to King llimbis3.m as the" perfume-money" of his daugMer at her marriage. Lt was this eustom which evidcntly Ilegcnerated into the prespnt dowry llystelll. The presents received by Visiika at hcr marriage were distributed by her among the poor folk of the city of Sii,vusti. There are other references to wedding preflCllts. "Mitta-Gandhaka. made friendship with the four gaw-keepers, town-wardens, astrologers, 1l0blll8 of the court. cOlllmander.in-chief, viceroy find the king. The king dowllwards sent Idm gifl.s. Mitta also received prescnts Bent by the king, viceroy, etc."2 TakiJlg the bride in procc'lSion to the bridegroom's residence was an event of great mirth alld splendour. The llLusic, the s01lgs of joy, the dancers alld the linc of elephants and carri'ages and the streets crowded with spectators made tho oCCllsion sensationa!. Tbe dissolution of the marriage depended upon the consent. of t.he parties to it. There were no obstacles preventing a man or womall llIarrying again if the marriage WIlS dissolved or if one of the sponses Wll.l! dealt. Buruing of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands or restrictions on widows who wished to marry again were not heard of in Buddhist India. A Chinese travcllcr, writing about marriages in Ta-Tang-Si-Yu-Ki (the Buddhist Ucconls of the Western World, llk. 11) Mid: .. When they marry they rise or fall in position according to their new rela.tionship. They do not allow promiscudus marriages between relations. A woman once married can never take another husband. Besides these, there are othcr clallBCS of many kinds that inter-ma.rry according 1.0 their several cllllingll." Wllll
I.
28
/l'd""'l(l-J"I,,!,,,
CJtAPTER
SIX
SOCIAL
ORDERS
Wrl'lJ TIrE growth of a community its members begin to group themselves into classes or social orders. This takes pll\ce imperCeIJtibly in the beginning. TIle proccss is slow. It is volunt-nry when peollle attach them.<wlvcs to certain trades or occullatioJis and form tbemllClvcs into groups. It is a selective prOOOS8 when people chosen for special work become a class by themselves. With the eillux of time the class distinctiOllS in a community become prominent and when the distinctions begin to be observed with rigidity tendencies to claim special rightB and privileges become noticeable. When religion recognises the superiority or the inferiority of a cl3ss tile evil is done "ud the class sysl;em turus into a caste system. In the days of tile Buddha, Illost Indian kingdoms pOBllCssed four cla98es of people. The roynlty /'Illd the nobility formed the order known 0.8 KBhatr)'a. Kings, governors, vicero)'s and conunanders of armies were generally chosen from this class. 1'he Brahamins have become the cla98 that was engagcd in pursuit of knowledge. They were reputed to be the intellectual class, 80 most of them followed the learned professions. The merchant class was knowll as Vaishya, aml the fourth class of Sudras consisted of manual labourers. The four social orders, therefore, were those of the rulers, of the learned, of the mercllants and of the labourers. In some other countries at that time there were only two social orders. " [n Yona, Kn.mboja, and other adjacent countries there were only two classes~the masters and the servants. There masters could bl)come servallts and the servants could become masters."1 '1'a.Tang-Si-Yu-Ki (the Buddhist records of the Western world) speaks of the four classes as mentioned in the Buddhist scriptures: "With respect to the division of families, there are four c1assificatiOllS. The first is called the Brahman, Illell of pure conduct. They guard themselves in religion, live purely and observe the most correct principles. '1'ho second is called the Kshattriya, the royal caste. For ages they have been the governing class; they apply themselves to 1.
Aualavuna-Sultll
29
virtue nnt! kindlle~~. Tllll third i~ callell tile Vaisya~, the merchant. dll.8R. The fourt.h is called the Sudrn, tho ngricult,urnl c1aSll; they lahour ill ploughing alld tillage." Bk. II. Mege~thelle~' c1a~sificatiOIl was according to tho occupation of the people. "Tho wholo population of India if! divided into sevcn CRstes of whicll 1.1111 lirllt ill fonnell hy the cnllcc!.i\·e "udy of tlllll'hilOflOphers, which ill point of llulllhcr ill inferior to tllo other c1allfl("~' hut in point of dignity pre-emincnt over nil. •, The second ca~to cOIIsist8 of the husbandmen who appear to bo far moro IIllmcrous tllllll the others. Being, moreover, exempted from fighting nnd other public 8ervices they devote tho whole of thoir time t.o tillagfl. "The third cll.st.e consists of tho nell.therdll nllll shephonlll. The fourt.h, Il.rtisnlls, 1111(1 the fifth military. The sixth consists of the ovcrseers and seventh councillors and aSSCMors. "-Fragment 1. Strabo. In early [lldian society the classes were based on oceupatiolls, while thero wns 110 rigid social influence to prevent a person of one cla88 doing the work of another class, for" one of the labour c1aflS could have as a servant a noble or a llralmmill."1 A killg once worketll\8/\ gllrlllI\U-llI11ker, n. cook nud n. mcnialscrvn.nt without being disgraced for doing SO.2 There were instances of BrahamillS who had 1.H~en lIlerchnnts and manual labourers. Also descrving persons had been raiscd to positionll of high honour, irrespective oftbo clMs to which they belonge{L Jivaka, the 80n of an actrell8, became the royal physician and was subsequently made the prime-minister to the killg. 3 A mall from the labouring class WRS raised to be tho lord protoetor of the city. 4 In certain kingdoDls wllen the king died without an heir, the method of selecting the sovereign from the common people shows that there had becn no class barriers, even ill the choice of a person for the throne. When the Buddha appcnred in India, there was a strong feeling of clasS'COllscioIlSIlCSll, for in the Kingdom of l\1adhura. the l3rahamins hall asked for special privileges. The king went to Mahii. Kllccanll, a disciple of the Bmhlha, nud inquired of him about the Brahamin claims to superiority. 'I'he king, being questioned by the sage, confessed that a person of onc class could cmploy one of nnother as servant. Also the king admitted that law ""nsno reslweter of Rny class, for he said: I.
3.
o
Nadura 8ldJa 'l'Aml Olilha. & Somllllllptila Sldla
2. K"nJlilda 4. Chat'
3.
Um'""ygaJiilata
6, T"ui 7,
36
(hilfl,i-SiYllttll
Suima-Jatllka
4.
YiMy-a-Sixth Kandll.kll
6. 8.
V""mmapad.. A!/hakaIM-VilIiilr.hl Kwmblla-J(jlah.
At eel'taiIl festi vllls tile significance or the meaning of the observances canllot easily be tnl(;ed. There wall a feast l where cows were yoked to vehicles with a bull between t.lleJll. 2 At a fcast held in the village of Pilidngama the children celebratillg it wore ornnmeJltal Uref.\8eB and garlands. S Some of these merry-makings took plnce at night. In Benarl'S n festival known 88 the night fe6tival of Kattika was held. The city W!\8 decoratl'd and all the people kept holiday. They put on their best attire on tlte occasion. 4 At these various festivities there was dallcinK, singing and reciting fi and even dramatic performances. t Just as 011 festive days, large crowds assembled together jn ple!Uluregardens and parks of the cities, when peO}l!e listened to oratiolls, debates, sermons, musical contests, or witnessed wrestling and sports. It WIIS a popular intellectunl entertainment to listen to an addreR8 by an able speaker or to a debnw between two well-knowJl sages. "Five l11l11dred Lichavis wern in their Hsscmbly 111111, mct 011 some hU/liness, when tiley wcre illvil.cu to the debate wJlich SacllChnkn. was to llfJ,ve with the Bluhlha ".7 A hriJIiCLnt spt'cch on such an occMion Wn8 termed n 'lion rOllr' alltl the speaker CL" lioll roarer."R 'file procedure ut public mcetings of those days deserves attention. The speaker, being scawd, addre88Cd hig audience. He also acted as the elmirm/l.lI of the meeting. TIle Ilcopll', as t.hey assembled, took their seats by greeting t.he speaker and president. A mceting is thus described in the scripturel!: "The king, Juwing approached and respectfully saluted the fluddha, sat down Ileal' !Iim. Of tile rest, some respectfully !lfIluted him and sat down near him. Some excJlanged greetings amI pleasant words with him and sat down near him. Some bent their clasped hands towards }lim and I!at down near him. Some .I!houted their Ilame and family nune and sat down llelU him. Some silently sat down neM him.'" The speaker did not begin until one of the audience invited llim to speak. Clapping of hanus and shouts of joy were the usual forms of applause at the end of tlle specc1J. The title of a sermon or speech used to he given by the speaker himself at the conclusion of hig speech. Some of the audience expre88Cd their appreciation witb words of praise addre88Cd to the speaker. If the speaker were a t.cacller of a doctrine 1. The feast of Gallga.malli-KilikoYfI 3. /bid 5. 7. 9,
7'/ura·G';I1Id-Vajji-l'uH" CMilll-S"cfld.d:a-8ultl, l'i""ya-1oIah.. V"ggll
2. 4. 6.
8.
I';noya-Mll.b&ngga V Pnpp-krn .Mlab Tllt.lJ_Oa/hli----Ti\laplJtII. 7'htro-Giilh i-Pin'lol" Bhll.tlll! ...ja
'7
cxplniuillg the rigllt Illode of li f(', •. 11(' cum-iur,'.1 hell. rl'r~ (Ieclnred t Ill'm8el\"l.'s his follo\\'en'l. 'I'he following p!lBSage from IJrohmo-J fila Sui/« illustrates this: " When he hnd thus !I'pokeJI, the VellernlJle Amlllda !laid to the Jllesseu One: 'Strn.ngc, Lord, is I.his and wunderful! Ami whnt nRllle IHls this exposition of the truth l' 'Anallda, you may remember I.his exposition as the Net of AdvantnJ!:c, ami ns the Net of'I'ruth, nnd as the Supremo Net, Imu M the Net of Theories; remember it eV6111H1lhe Glorious Victor}' iJl the day of bnttle!' "1 " And when they hau thus sJloken, Ajiita-Sattll, the King, said to thc Blc~~d One: ' Most excellent, Lord, mOllt cxeellent! Just as if a Illllll wcre to set up that which has been thrown dOWll, or were to re\"eRI that which is hidden away, or were to point out tile right rond to hi III who has gOlle !Istray, or were to brillg IL hUll pinto the l!arkneBR 80 that thoSl' who have e}'es could see ext.ernal forms, just even so, Lord, hns thc truth been made knowll to me, ill Inany a figure, by tllC Blessed Ono. And now I betake myself, Lord, to tho Blcssed One as my l"Cfuge, to the Truth, nnd to the Order, May the Blessed One accept me as lL rlisciple, I\S one who, from this day forUI, liS 1001g as lifc cndures, hall Lllkl'l\ hill refuge in them '."2 Megcf'lthenes gives /\11 interesting: reference to meetings in India: "The philosopher~ have tlll'ir bode iu It grove in front of the eity withill/\ moderate-siwd enclosure. They live ill IL simple style, and lie on bells of rushes, or skins. They l\hst.ain from animal food amI sexual plcal\url'lI, IlIllI spend their time in Ii!lt inwrought with gold or with silk, or with woollen carpet.s or skiml 8udl afI those of the panthcr or of the untelnpe. I "Cnvo Canem" was a warning not 1lI11;tlIl1mon in ancient India. Hence the clog was a flLVourite pet.! III a palaco ll. fierce anu savage tiger was kcpt fllstrlled hY:l RIfling dHlirL' AlJwngother auimalll kept as pets, tho most popular werc parrots,4 Jmrtridgc8,/; pigeons, tl alld monkeys. 7 It was cllstomary to nallle houlJell. The resiuellces built for I.he Buddha had names. 8 VrillCc Bodhi's palace W1I8 called" The 1~otu8".' A Brahomin built an aAAcmhly hall at I'iltaliputta wllich wall named after him,l 0 The rich people in those days had as a rule three residences built in different parts of the cOllntry to suit different sens01ls of the yeaL ll The grRmleur of the rich mal\SiOllfl eould not destroy the charms of the poor cottage8. '['he following quotation frolll tbe IJCripturcs illustrates this: "There was a hut beside a hamlet. It wawa pretty, charming cottage with floor and walls well made, surroumled by a llllrk nnd tank, and enclosed by tl path of smooth pearly sund."12 In tOWJlR and villages t.he hOllOOR of the poor were generally COll8tructed with wood. Except in citicR, howe\'er small till,} hOlloo he there was n garden and a compound attaohed to it. Sometimes a wall or usually a fence separated a house and its premises from other houses. In poor homes the g'arden WflIl lltilised to plant fruit, vegetables and flowers. 'fhe compound in front of a house was a bare patch of ground strewn with 8l111d. To allow grass to grow on the compound WIlS a lllark of llcRleot and untitlinell8,
1. 3. li.
7.
9. 11.
"'Mya
KulllL VlIgga V [(ull/a"i Jiitaka Til/imJ6taka UpiiliSutta B6d1li-R6jah"'iira Slllla T1IeraOiiIM-Valla"n
2.
SllfWka J (ifaka
4. 6. 8.
KaludilJw hitaka Lala.lalaka
IQ. 12.
Jtlam1t/1riimaya, elt. Gola",u.l:ht1 S ..fla
T/ttra OntM-HIIIDlluiya Kutika
CUAI''fER
NINJ!:
---------------DAILY HABITS AND CUSTOMS
CUSTOMS CIIANGE Rnd MC liablc to change wiLh c1uLllges in the mentality of the people. In matter!l relatiJlg to private life the tendency is for tho individual to be guided by his vRnity and comfort. 1n cOllformillg to the ostablished standard of 1J10wls he shows 1,110 ildlllence of society upon him. 'fhe morning bath, which WRB a daily Illtbit in ancient India, was often taken bcfore sunrise. Therc wcre bnthiJlg costumcs. 1 "Red bath-balls "2 and bath powders,3 took the place of 80lLp.' Also the body IIsed to be rubbed with fine lime, ointments, chunam and red arsonic. 3 Small wooden slabs or strings of beadll were also IIsed for rubbing the body. 4 The hair was combod with combs or lIJ1loothing instrumente lIhaped like the hood of a suake. There was a pumade made of bees-wax. Applying oil to the head and touclling up the face with paint ""as a .common usage. 4 III Brahmaj(jla Bulla the Dllddha declared the following methods of adorning and beautifying oneself to be vulgar viz. :
"Shampooing, rubbing in lIcented powders, patt.ing the limbs with clubs, use of eye ointments, rougc, eosmct.ics, bracelets, necklaeell, garlallds, head,dresses, diadems, whisks of t.he yak's t.ail white robcs wit.h long fringes al'd ornamented slippers; or carrying about walking sticks, reed eases for drugs, rapiers and sunshades," 'fhe barbers usually did the hairdressing. 6 They ullCd mirrors, but a common substitute for mirrors was a bowl of water. (I We r/lad of the 1IS6 of nail-cutters, nail-polishers, razors and pincers. (I Many kinds of perfumcs, ointments, and scents, which were kept. in boxes of gold, silver, bone, ivory, horn, bamboo, wood and lIhell, were popular toilet requisites. 1 A lIccnted powder was used also to polish bowls and lIucb vessels. 11 Vi....ya-Mahavagga VIIl
I. 3.
BaHlula Bulla
6. 7.
Thua G IUI-tion of things to be considered fortUllRte was given ns the 110SSessiJlg of a kind flnd eomp1\SSiOJ11\te henrt towlInls all beillgS, heiJlg cheerful nnd modest, not despising otherll Rmlllot being 11roud of birth, wisdom. wcalth or c1IU18, ha.vinp: true ami good friends, IIll.ving a wife of eCd, not to hide knowledge frorn IHlpils. to praise thcir good qualities !lolld to provide for their snfety. I Under strict diseipline and personal guidrl.l1ce of a teacher, some pupils eompletcd their education quicker than otbers. As Il. rule the preliminary edUclltioll before a student began to specialise, had to be completed before sixteen years of nge. Prince Siddhilrtlm had received his education before he was sixteen. Another prince completed his education at the age of sixken. 2 A brahsmin of sixteen WRS well verood in the vetlRR. 3 When n youth uf sixteen, versed in the vedas, was rebuked for interrullting the elderR in n conversation witbout wnitiJlg for his turn, one of the elders remarked: "Do not rebuke him. lie comes from good parents, is well-informed, a good 8penkcr Rnd a scholar who is quite able to hold his own in the discussion. ". The return ofa child after his education was looked forward to witlJ delight by his pnrents. "When Janasandha, the SOil of the King of lknares, eame of age and returned from TRkkasila where he had been educated in nil accomplishments, tile Ring gave n general pardoll to all I'risoners."6 The subjects for IItudy val'ied nceorJing to the course followed by Mch pupil. Ancient Indian classics refer to wcll·edueated persons as posscssors or the eighteen accolllplishments. & Also the epithet " master of the sixty-four arts and seiences " is not uncommon. (See AppendiJ(). The general subjects fur study can be gathered from the description of learned Illell of I.hose du)'s : " Brahmaya was versed ill all vedas, he was perfect in the ritual with the glo,.~cs thcr(,ull, in phonology 1l.Ild in etymology, with lJistory as a fifth branch; he knew cJ(egesis and was I.
3. 5.
SifJii/Ovrida 8hlla Aualiiyan" SlI1la J"nawnda J(jlnfw
2. 4. 6.
MaM 81Iat~' J,;tn.b. Canki81lU{I "'aM Vllalftntapiil" .ljj/"iLl
I. }Jr"hm(;yu 8"11,, 3. G"N,,1-,. Af"'J'J"lla"" 8ul/(l 6. C"nH Sull,. 7. 7'lIt'raGatltd-Pind6Ia Ilhiira(hiij", 9. TMri Olilltd-DhlLmma J)illnA J I. 7'lkri G6tM-Nllnduttarii.
2. 4.
6. 8. IQ
12.
O""ak" Mog'J"IIii"" S,lIla Udiill",-~,,"rl... An!lwUartJ !l'it!iy" II-XIV TA!ra GiiJhd-Itahllo T""ri GiilM-SukkA Tlkri Golllo-BhAdd" Kun41111lkClm
69
enjoy a good delJat.e. 1 The intf'rest tnkell by thel'e0l'le in debll(,cs and public llpf'lIking hll.t1ll.lrCll.\1 y made rlwtOl'ic nut! d ialecen a recognised fact, for children IIsOlI to be taught t.o write. "A 1l0hlemalL's son and Il. sernl1\t-girl's lion weT(} born on the same day in the nobleman's house. When tho nobleman's son \\'118 boing taught to write. the llerv/l,nt'ssoll used to go with his master's tablets and so learned at the s,'\lI1e time to write. When he grew up he was employed flII ll. private secretary. He wrote Il. letter to a merchant friond of the noblolllaJl, rooomllvmJing hilllllfllf. 'l.'116 lottor was 8Cfl.led with hiSllllI.tcr's private SCll.I."4 The cmployment. of secrotn ries, scri bes and clerks, shows the common lIse of writillg. Owing to the pressure of work in the residence of the Buddha's disciples lit Jetawma, ll. clerk Wll.S appointed to allot tu oitil,eJlII the various days for accepted invitntiolllJ. 6 The work Hf scribes or clerks was rol1owcd as a profession. The )lBrcnUJ or 8 child in ehoo:>illg all occupation for thoir Ron dirlnot wish to train hilllas "a writer for writing 1','011111 make Ilis lingers sore ".8 I. 3. !i.
72
T!I~"fl
(l!iJ!li-S"hcrn:lnh. Kmtlami .I,ital",. K'Ud,d;.I' f\urr!li Sin1mI'R ."ilak".
2.
Abll"nnt
6.
l'HflRlI
P,,,.,,,.
73
To written or memorised doctrines Wl're g-Ioslles illld eOlJlITl;o, mighty lIllO strong, bite with their iron teet,h those who arc driven hf'l1ce. s The devils were 1I0t confined to t.heir own worlds. Some of them inhabited the eart.h. I\lrl ra, the E\·i lOne, wafl rf'prescnted 3S the mighty l. SPllyNlfo YI_Brahma Suttll 3. AmM'1I' 6. Alpha SIMlliidfl Sulla. 7. (p) Sr>ttjir:aya. (b) K(Jlp~llIlhray". (cl S'"'!lha1h(ly''' (") 'l'rn'p\C w\\ic\\ \1'::\8 ~h)'cl.\
QI\ ~cBt\\'C OCCaB\O\\B \\\\1\ \ltQceBBiO\\B, \'\\ete mu'i\\' \,w\'e been o\:'\:iet instruments. Both mell (Lnt! women had then taken up music as a profession. Therc wore professional conchblowers 4 lInd drummers.5 Music had been a chief 1I0urce of pleasure to the riclt 80 they employed well trained girls to play the vena, lnte, tabor, drum and such instruments at their residellces. e Singing was even OlQrc popular titan thc music of the instruments. Expression of cmotion was not its only use. Songs of praise Illld been sung on spccial occasions 8S coronations and weddiugs, fUllerals and important meetings.
DANCING.
Throughout the ages dancing wall a pOl)ular al·t ill India. '1'rained artists danccd, sang or rccited at pu blic festivals. 7 Javclin dancers and acrobats amuscd the crowds.8 Dancing for private entertailllnent was usually done on sJ1ecinl carpets then known as "carpets for dancing".1I Jt was customary for melL and women to dance together. In the prindpal citio8 at that time there w{:re girls noted for their dancing, singing ami playing Oil the vena. They gavc perforwllllccs for whieh they oharged exorbitant prices. Public attelltion attracted b}' those young womell was somewhat silllilar to that of modern film stars and actrcsses. Ambapali of Vesali was the IIIOSt well known. She was "gifted with the highest heauty of complexion, well versed in dancing, singing and playing 011 the vena ".10 Through her the city of Vcsali is supposed to have become more and more fiourislling. At Rajago.l18 the famous danccr a.nd musicillll was Siilavati, who rivalled Ambapali both in bca.uty and in the practice of her art. Among the actors l. 3.
5. 7. 9.
8.
Sa/rka Paillla Sulla. Gut/ita JiHalm. Bheri~-ada Jatah!. TheTa GatAii-Vfl.jji PlIU.a. Vinaya-Mahii. Vagga. V.
2.
Vina.'1a-Mahli. Vagga. V. Sam1:lwohanwllaJiita1:a. 6. l'inaya-llIahA. Vagga I 8. Dubbaca JiiJ.al;a. 10. I'inaya-Mahi V"gga VIll. 4.
TiiJaputa had 1'0'011 grent renown. He came from an l~ctor'8 family of Rajagahll.. 'I'hrough IliB early trninillg he became very proficient in theatrical jlCrfOflrLnllccs. "His famc WCJlt tllrollghollt the lengtb and brell.Jth of India. I-le wns the leader of fL comllllJlY of actors which cOJlsisted (If 50u women. Wit,h great splendour he tlisplayed his dramatio skill."] The absence of dramatic compo!litions makes it difficult to conceive the nature of tile drunH~ of the times. 'l'IJC few facts blown about it are that at the theatrical performances there were dallcing, music, singing and recitations, that the actors had special costumes and the stage which WRS oarpeted and gorgeously deoorated was ill the centre of the audience. PAINTING AND
SCULPTURF.
In Buddhist India painting and sculpture were developed arts. The refcreneeB to them in the Buddhist soriptures indicate tllat a high standard was reaehed by the ancient artists. Buddhist ruins and archaeological discoveries add lllore evidence to the references in scriptures. Thcre had been a class of artists who copied the hunian figure with care and exactness. Tile art.ist.s' imagination had not failed to conceive and represent the perfect forms of beauty which when generally accepted became the standard of beauty. So we fmd in the scriptures illStnnces wllCre the figures of mcn and women wero compared to stl~tues of perfect form and figure. A young man was described to be "like a golden statuo of exquisite workmansllip".2 King KII8a mado n. draped imnge of a princess wllich resembled her so much that her llurse mistook it to be the very princess.' Also, a Brahamin named Pippali l\lanawaka who later was known as Maha Kassapa, a disciple of the .Buddha, made a gold statue wJlich was the exact image of a lxmutiful maidon} These refcrences suggest that the artists' conceptions of beautiful figures Jmd thcir living counterparts. The Gandhara School of l~rt shows that the ancient Indian sculptors like the Greeks lmd attempted to copy the hUUJan form closely. The resemblance between the two schools is so marked that some art critics believe that one school had influenced the other. 1f in language and philosophy tlte Greeks were influenced by the ancient lnuians it is most probable that the ancient Indian art influenced the ancient Greek art. I. 3.
TMra Giitha-Tilllputtll. KWluJiitaka.
2. Samidd!liJiilaka. 4. Th~ra GiiJhii-Mnhll. KlI&'!apa.
83
Under BlId(lhi~l. Gult,ure !mlir\ll pailltillg, sculpture I\nd architectnre had n.t.tn.il\Cd to 1\ height of excellence which Indian nrtist8 have not 80 fllr beon able tu snfllnSll. Tho remains of BlItldhist art at AjaJ\tn and other ruins roveal tu 801110 extent the progress Illade by tllo artists.
Their work ~holVS !,hem to have been talented mOll with a special train. mg. Art was lIut tlte monopoly of the professional artis!', for it was followed as rH\ accomplishmellt in which even kings delighted t.o excel. King KtIlm '/I statuo of (I princess was admired even by professional
artists. I Some of the 11 rtish had I,heir trnining in the lluddhist centres of learning or in the universities. A ChillCSIl pilgrim recorded that whon he vil!ited the University of NiilmH.la Iif' fouIHl1l. Areat statue of Avolo-kitt:Hvara nrul llll nrtiHt WlIf! paintillA il picl.ure of MetWYII, Blltltlhll. 2
I I
Although lHtists wu!"k fur cellturies it is I'lIl'dy that a mnsterpiecn attracting universal admiration is produced. The accumulated effort of gcneratiolls of progressive work give to the world a great work of exceptional merit. Thon the following generations, 10llt in their admiration of it, keep on imitating the masterpiece. The Greeks, comuinillg ucaut)' and love, produced Venus Rud evcr since the idea has not heen better depicted by tlte subseeMllnt8 Lllemll('h'es. Ancient. \'illagcs were celcbrated (or their hospitality; for it was colIsidered that all teacher'll of religion Dnd learned IIlOIl who cnm(' within the p~inct.s of a village are guests who were to be treated with hOllour and re\·erence. r; Thl.' administration of villages and minor towns were left in the hands of responsible men usually sent (rom the capital city. So we find AnitB-Pindika. ab8enting himself from the eit), in onlor to administer the village entrusUd to his care. A few extracts from the SCri!ltuT08 wiJlseT\'e as brief de8Criptive notes o( 80me prominent towns of Buddbist hJ(ua. VtMli.-" At that time Vcsiili was an opulent, proR~rous town, populoml, crowded with pcople, nhundant with food. There were 7,777 st.oroyed buildings, 7,777 pinnnrled buildingl'l, 7,777 pll'A8urc gardens n1\11 7,777 8 lo~ug ponds. Thero wero niso lh~ dancer allt! musicilln, AmbnpUli, who W1\S beau~ifll', graceful, pkasant, gifted with tile IligJlellt Uci~lIty of complexion, well veTl'm£! in dnJ1Cing, sillging, nnd vena (a lute) I. Ull(ili Sulla. 3. 11 iMCilla Jii.rillUtta.
I'inaya-Mllbi VlIgglI.I.
Terrace. 1 In the city there were squares at which I>wple preached or addressed the crowds. I In a I'romillent part of the city WlUlo the Royal resf...-housc. t There were f"ightecJl monlUlotf"ries round Rijllgaha.· AJeo, the Brahamin villa&>e called SalimUya WlUlo towards the north-east of it." Sal'l.luhi, the capital of the Kingdom of Kosala, was noted for ita prosl)Crity and wealth.. Jt bad been one of the busiest cities. .. BrahaminI' from diverse countries clime to the city on huaincss ",' There were !,owel'll 011 the city gates. s One towcr Wall known as Ambala. Tower. 7 It W/l.8 a city noted for ita palatial building" of five or seven ,storcys. She surpnssed other eities in her grandeur of large halls, residcl\ccs and public buildings, The famous Jetl~wRnn Park Wall in its suburbs. There WMS a market town lIear Jetawana. ll $avatthi had four gates, three of which were named as the Eastern, Northern ami Southern Gatea. The great residence built by Lady Visaki for the Buddha was near the Eastern GaUl.' The nobleman Anathapindika's house in the city had seven storeys and seven gates.' The Ring's palace alld Lady Visiki', mansion were equally magnificent buildillgfl ill thl' city.Benare& ill one of the most. ancient cities of India. It WIl8 the cal,ital of the Kingdom. It WIV! reputed as a scat of leaming from \'ery early timcs. Just I1S the other great cities, BenllrefJ had lll.rge buildings. tanks and pleasure gardens. There were bll.lls of J~o\llll,y at each of tho four gates lllld 0110 in the middlo of the city.1O The lotus tank was looked after by n caretaker,ll The decr park at l"ijlllthnnB was lIoar the city.l! Bonnres was famous for its muslin. ls She had clever craft.slUen in ivory work. u 1t W8.8 customary for lllcrchllllt8 of other towns to bring their merchandise to BCllarc8. u "JII J3enarea when the night-fe8tival of Kattika Will! held the cil}' W88 decorated and all people kept holida}'. They put on their best attire on the OOOIl8ion. l I Ta1:1ro&ila WIl8 the moat famous scat of learning in ancient India. Jh'o.ka wellt to learn under a .. world renowned physician who at that time li\·ed at Takkasila. 17 Rich I'arenill Bellt their children to TakkWlila to be taugllt by the fAmous teaehol'll. T~ri OeifM-Sulr:kIt.. Ctd/ahaJn4C. J(iI.o.ka.
13. Hi.
2. AfaAa Mangolo Jeil(lI«.. •• Soli1w.b:ua JiiWka. A88(lIayana Sul/a, 6. Palayi JiiW!«J. SUlUd:uJ, (,lIl'UI'Ull tmdcrfl, IllHllIltroopers, maSOllS, hlack!:al1ithg, oarpenterll, Jluintcl's, etc., belonged to thosc eighteen guildll.~ At tlnother cit)' a rich lIlall WHs described a:'l hlwing done "~ood scn'ice both to the King and to the Merchautll' guild,"8 Rich IHcrehant.ll of cities had already formed th61.Melvefl into a class that they were designated as "members of merchant families.'·P llUDDIIlST JN1VlA
Althougll the o\'erhmd trnllf1 Wag chiefly confined to distributitlll: goods by cnravans, thero had heen a considern.ble amount of over-sca trade. There arc references to \'oyageflllnd sea. faring ve880[8.'0 l. Thm. GiiIM-Mahik1illl.. 3, SUWIII1I Jii/(lh. 5. ViMya-Mn.hi VRggll. VIII. 7. 9.
130
MUg Su.lla. CUlalJaduma Jiitaka. I'ala!!i Jiilaka.
2. 4.
6. 8. 10.
AMmpadallll Jiilaka. Smogltlla Ill. Villa!lll-MahA Vagg& VB!. I'illllga-Culla VlIgga. VI. DlwmmQpada A!(Iw.l:a.l4li-Vi8iild..
133
n. thnllS.1ntl 111H1 Ih.)~(' l'r(,~"'lIl('