Homer in the Twentieth Century: Between World Literature and the Western Canon (Classical Presences)

)xx .

'

-

' > xk Xx. ) .

-

-

-

-

-

-

' ' '

x ,''s 'x s

s-s x xx

, s , , s o) s

X

,

'

'SS/

.

', o ,s

-4 .0 4 ).s s ,s

C L A S S IC A L P R E S E N C E S G en eralE dttors

Lorna H ardw ick

Jam es 1.Porter

C L A SSIC A L P R E SE N C E S

T h e texts, ld eas, lm ages, an d m aterlal culture of an clen t G reece an d R om e h ave alw ays b een cru clal to attem p ts to ap p rop rlate th e p ast ln ord er to au th en tlcate th e p resen t. T h ey u n d erlle th e m ap p ln g of ch an ge an d th e assertlon an d ch allen gln g of valu es an d ld en tltles, old an d n ew .C lasslcal P resen ces b rln gs th e latest sch olarsh lp to b ear on th e con texts, th eory, an d p ractlce of su ch u se, an d ab u se, of th e classlcal p ast.

'

o m er ln th e Tw en tieth C en tu ry B etw een JV//'/l L iteratu re and the W csfcrrl C anotl

E dited by B A R B A R A G R A Z IO S I

an d E M IL Y G R E E N W O O D

O X TO RD L N IV lbl' t b 1 l '%r la R lar: b

U N IV E R S IT Y P R E S S

G reat C larendon street O xford oxz 601. O xford U nlverslty Press ls a departm ent of the U nlverslty of O xford lt furthers the U nlverslty s ob/ectlve of excellence ln research scholarsh lp and educatlon by publlshlng w orldm de ln O xford N ew York A uckland C ape Tow n D ar es ' Salaam H ong K ong K arachl K uala Lum pur M adrld M elbourne M exlco C lty N alrobl N ew D elh l Sh an ghal Talpel Toron to W 1th offices ln A rgentln a A u strla B rr ll C hlle C zech R ep ubllc Fran ce G reece

G uatenaala H ungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal slngapore South K orea Sm tzerland T h allan d T u rk ey U kraln e V letnam

O xford ls a reglstered trade m ark of O xford U nlverslty P ress ln the U K and ln certaln other countrles Publlshed ln the U nlted States by O xford U nlverslty Press Inc N ew York C hO xford U nlverslty Press 2007 T he m oral rlgh ss of the au thor h ave been asserted

D atabase rlghtO xford U nlverslty Press (m aker) Flrst p ubllsh ed 2007 A 11 rlghts reserved N o part of thls publlcatlon m ay be reproduced stored ln a retrleval system or tran sm ltted ln any form or by any m ean s w lthout the prlor perm lsslon ln w rltlng of O xford U nlverslty Press or as expressly perm ltted by law or under term s agreed w lth the approprlate reprographlcs rlghts organlzatlon Enqulrles concernlng reproductlon outslde the scope of the above should be sent to the R lghts D epartm ent O xford U nlverslty Press at the address above You m ust n ot clrcttlate thls b ook ln any oth er b ln dlng or cover an d you m u st lm pose the sam e con dltlon on any acqulrer B rltlsh Llb rary C atalogu ln g ln P ubllcatlon D ata D ata avallable Llb rary of C on gress C ataloglng ln P ubllcatlo n D ata D ata avallable

Typeset by SP1 Publlsh er Servlces Pond lcherry lnd la p rln ted ln G reat B rltaln on acld free paper by B lddles Ltd K lng s Lynn N orfolk ISB N 9 78 0 19 929826 6 1 .3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

T(? Paul C artledge and P at E asterhng

A ckn ow ledgem en ts

T u ls book h as 1ts orlgln s ln a con feren ce h eld m D urh am from 20 to

23 July 2004.W e are gratefulto severallnstltutlon s for thelr hnan clal supp ort: th e B rltlsh A cadem y: th e Soclety for th e P rom otlon of H ellen lc Stu d les, th e D ep artm en t of C lasslcs an d A n clen t H lstory

(D urham U nlverslty), and the School of Classlcs (U nlverslty of St A ndrew s). Several lndlvlduals helped us w lth com m ents and practlcal h elp : w e are partlcularly grateful to P at E asterllnp E dlth

H all,Johannes H aubold,Jon H esk D avld H unt,G reg W oolf,H edw lg H aubold ,V lctorla M addocks, an d E sth er M cG llvray. H llat'y O 'Sh ea of O xford U nlverslty P ress expressed an lnterest ln th e prolect even

before the conference had taken place: h er p atlen ce an d supp ort h elped us see the book through to lts com pletlon . A t th e tlm e of th e con feren ce w e b en ef ted from th e gen ero u s ld eas an d crltlclsm of

th e p artlclp an ts: alth ough w e cann ot n am e th em

ln dlvldually, w e

w ould llke to record th elr con trlbutlon . A t a later stage, th e p rolect

benef ted from the searchlng com m ents of the Serles E dltors an d the an onym ous reader for O xford U nlverslty P ress. R anla K n obl h elp ed u s to edlt th e volum e an d com plle th e ln dex w lth great en ergy an d good h um our: h er con trlbutlon w as extrem ely valuable. A shley C lem ents h elp ed w lth th e lllustratlon s. V eron lca lon s an d V lrgln la M asardo saved us from m any errors an d lnfellcltles. W e happlly

acknow ledge h ow m uch w e ow e to th e contrlbutors to thls volum e; thelr lndlvldual chap ters h ave prom pted us to thlnk harder and furth er ab out th e plurallty of H om erlc receptlon s ln th e tw entleth cen tury; w h lle th elr com m ltm ent an d supp ort h ave m ade w orkln g on th ls volu m e an enloyable exp erlen ce.W e w ou ld also llke to th an k

Johannes H aubold and D avld M lln e for thelr support and en couragem en t th rou gh ou t th ls p rolect, esp eclally d u rln g th e edltln g p h ase.

W e dedlcate thls book to Paul C artledge an d Pat E asterllng: they sup en used o ur P IA.D . dlssertatlon s w h en w e w ere grad u ate stu d en ts

A cknow ledgem en ts

vll

ln C am brldge an d ,even w h lle w e w ere grap p lln g w lth sp eclf c asp ects of arch alc an d classlcal G reece,en co u raged u s to lo ok b eyon d E urop e

an d an tlqulty ln search of p osslble future dlalogu es. B G an d F, G D urham an d B allater, M ay 20 0 6

C on ten ts

f-lsrof Illustrattons Ltstof Contrtbutors

x xl l

Introd uctlon B A RBA RA G Rytzlo sl an d E M ILV G Rslw w oo o

P A R T 1. P L A C IN G H O M E R IN T H E T W E N T IE T H C E N T U R Y

1. H om er after P ar1'y:Tradltlon , R eceptlon ,and the 27

T lm eless T ext

Jol-lAx x l!s H wusot.o 2. Sln gln g across th e F aultlln es: C ultural Sh lfts ln Tw en tleth -c entury R eceptlon s of H om er

47

L o ltx A H au o w lcx

P A R T II . S C H O L A R S H IP A N D F IC T IO N

3. H om er am ong the lrlsh :Yeats, Sp lge: T hom son , and P arry

75

R tc l-lw tto M A R T tN

4. H om er an d Joyce:T h e C ase of N auslcaa

92

S'rlpl-lsx M lx rrA

5. H om er ln A lbanla:O ral E plc and th e G eograph y of L lterature

l20

B A R SA RA G ltA zlo sl P A R T III . D IS T A N C E A N D F O R M

6. L ogu e's Tele-v lston : R ead lng H om er from a D lstan ce E M ILV G uEEx w o o o

145

C on ten ts

7. Som e A sslm llatlon s of th e H om en c Slm lle ln L ater Tw en tleth -c en tury Poett'y

lx

177

O LIV ER T A PLIN

8. Kl-lom ecom lngs w lthout H om e':R epresentatlons

of (Postlcolonlal nostos (H om ecom lng) ln the Lyrlc of A im e C esaire an d D erek W alcott

19 1

G R EG SO N D ytv zs

9. T h eo A ngelop oulos ln th e U n d erw orld

2 l0

F R A N CO ISE L llrro u s l-o x

P A R T IV . P O L IT IC S A N D IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

l0. H om er ln the G reek C lvllW ar (1946-1949)

231

D -w zo R zcx s

11. N aked an d O B rotherj W /yérrérA rt T litltl? T h e P olltlcs an d P oetlcs of E p lc C ln em a

245

SlM o w G O LD I-IILL

12. A n A m erlcan H om er for th e Tw entleth C en tury

268

SE'I'I-I L . SC I-IEIN

B lbllograp hy

286

Indexes

313

Listof Illustrations l l R om are Bearden,Roots O dyssey (1976),w lth klnd p erm lsslon of th e R om are B earden Foun datlon

68

6 l M lrella lklcclardl, ph otograph of a K enyan w arrlor lm age u sed as th e cover lllu stratlon for C L ogu e Patroclem

(Scorplon Press, 1969)

l55

Every effort has b een m ade to galn p erm lsslon from th e ow n er of th e lm age

11 1 M lke Lelgh,N aked Johnny holdlng a book (H om er, The O dyssey Penguln),w lth klnd perm lsslon of Fllm Four

250

ll 2 M lke Lelgh, N aked Johnny addresslng Loulse,w lth kln d p erm lsslon of Fllm Fou r

254

11 3 M tke L etgh , N aked th e restattrant,w tth km d perm tsston of Fllm Four

255

ll 4 C oen B rothers, O B rother, W ' /lcrc A rt Thouh op enlng qu otatlon ,w lth kln d p erm lsslon of U n lversal Stu dlos ll 5

262

C o en B roth ers, O B rother, W ' /lcrc A rt Th t?1/?, B 1g D an Teagu e

ln a ru ral settlnp w lth km d p erm lsslon of U nlversal Stu dlos

265

Listof Contributors G regson D avis ls P rofessor of C lassics and C om p aratlve Llterature at D uke U nlverslty, w h ere h e ls th e A ndrew W . M ellon D lstlngulsh ed P rofessor ln th e H um an ltles an d D ean of H um anltles. H ls m aln research focl are L atln llterature of th e L ate R ep ubllc an d con tem -

porary C arlbbean poetry (francophone and anglophone).A m ong hls

m alor publlcatlons are Polyhym nîa'The Rhetonc of H oratkan f-yrrc D lscourse (B erkeley, 1984) and A km e C esakre (C am brldge, 1997).H e ls currently w rltlng a m on ograph on V lrgllns E clogues. Sim on G oldh ill ls P rofessor of G reek at C am brldge U n lverslty. H e

h as publlshed w ldely on G reek llterature and on th e relatlon b etw een G reek culture an d m odern culture. H ls m ost recent books are W ' JIt?

N eeds Greek? Cultural Contests ;rl the H vtory of H ellenksm (Cam brldge,2002); The Temple of Jerusalem (London,2005),and Love, Sex and Tragedy'f-ft/w the A naent Jlbr/t;lShapes our faivts (Chlcago, 2005).H ls nextbook ls fft/w to Stage G reek Tragedy Today (Chlcago). B arb ara G raziosi ls Sen lor L ecturer ln C lasslcs at D urh am U nlverslty.

She ls the author of Inventkng H om er'The Flr/y Receptkon of Fpitr (C am brldge,2002) and of shorter studles on early G reek llterature

and culture.She hasw rltten H om er'The Resonance of Fpitr(London, 2005) together w lth Johannes H aubold, and ls currently w orklng w lth h lm on an ed ltlon an d com m entary of Ihad 6 for th e C am brldge

G reek and Latln C lasslcs. E m ily G reenw ood ls L ecturer m

G reek at th e U n lverslty of St

Andrew s.She lsthe author of Thucydkdes J/CJ the Shapkng of bhstory (London,2006) and varlous artlcles on the receptlon of C lasslcs ln th e C arlbbean .She ls co-edltor,w lth Llz lrw ln,of R eadtng H erodotus'

Studkes ;rl the f-txt?; of Book 5 (Cam brldge,2007) and ls currently w rltlng a book entltled Afro-Greeks' D talogues between C' fzrllpk tfrf L tterature and C lasskcs.

L orn a H ardw ick teach es at th e O p en U n lverslty w h ere sh e ls P rofes-

sor of C lasslcal Studles an d D lrector of the R eceptlon of C lasslcal

xu

Lkstof Contnbutors

T exts R esearch P rolect. H er p ubllcatlon s ln th at lield ln clu d e Trans-

latkng J'kbrls Translatkng Cultures (London,2000),N pw Surveys irlthe C lasskcs'Receptkon Studkes (C am brldge,2003),and artlcles on G reek dram a an d ep lc ln p o stcolon lal con texts.Sh e ls cu rren tly w orkln g on a m on ograp h on th e relatlon sh lp s b etw een m o d ern rew rltln gs of an clen t d ram a an d p o etry an d b ro ad er cultural sh lfts.

Johann es H aubold ls Leverhulm e Lecturer ln G reek Llterature at D urh am U n lverslty. H ls p ubllcatlon s ln clude H om er's P eop le' Fp itr

Poetry and Soa alForm atw n (C am brldge,2000),asw ellas artlcles on H om es H eslod , H erod otu s, Iub an lu s, N ear E astern E p lc, an d th e m o d ern recep tlon of th e classlcal p ast.H e ls co -au th or,togeth er w lth

Barbara Grazlosl,of H om er'The Resonance of Fpitr(London,2005) an d ls curren tly w orkln g w lth h er on a com m en tary of Ihad 6. Fran çoise L etou b lon ls P rofessor of G reek L lteratu re an d L ln gu lstlcs

at the U nlverslte Stendhal (G renoble).She ls the author of 11allakt parekl a la rlt/if (Parls 1985), and of Les Dpt/x com m uns du rom an' stereotypesgrecs d'aventure etd'am our (Lelden,1993).She has edlted H om m age a M klm an Parry (A m sterdam ,1997),and publlshed several stu dles on H om erlc p oetry an d lts recep tlon . Sh e ls p artlcularly ln terested ln th e w ork of T h eo A n gelop o ulo s an d h as w rltten several

artlcles on hls lilm s ln collab oratlon w lth C arolln e E ades an d Sylvle R ollet.

R ichard R M artin holds the A nth ony and lsabelle R aubltsch ek C halr of C lasslcs at Stanford U nlverslty. R ecent p ubllcatlon s h ave focu sed on ep lc p oetry, H eslo d , an d Solon .H e ls E n lsh ln g a h lstory of G reek

llterature an d w orkln g on tw o oth er books: R hap sokdka, on G reek

hexam eter tradltlons,and M ythologkzkng Perjorm ance,on Greek lyrlc p o etry an d m u slc. H ls m o st recen t w ork on lrlsh llterature ls KU p -

staged: lrlsh D ram a ln lrlsh' (forthcom lnp Prlnceton U nlverslty Llbrary Chronlcle). Step h en M in ta ls Sen lor L ectu rer ln E n gllsh ln th e D ep artm en t of E n gllsh an d R elated L lteratu re at th e U n lverslty of Y ork .H ls research fo cu ses on com p aratlve llteratu re.H e ls th e au th or of L ove P oetry irl

Skxteenth-century France (M anchester, 1977); Petrarch and Petrar-

tr/liyrrl(M anchester,1980);GabrwlGaraa M arquez'W nterofcolom Jpifl(London,1987);Agukrre'The Re-creatkon of a Skxteenth-century

Lkstof Contnbutors

xlll

Journey across South A m enca (London, 1993); and O n a Voweless Shore'Byron irlG reece (N ew York,1998).H e ls currently w orklng on a p olltlcal blograp hy of B yron .

D avid R icks teach es ln th e D ep artm ent of Byzantln e an d M odern G reek Stu dles an d th e C om p aratlve L lterature P rogram m e at K ln g's

College London.H e ls the author of The Shade of H om er (relssued, Cam brldge,2004)and ofthe chapter Kl-lom e/ ln The Oxford H kstory of Lkterary Translatkon irlEnghsh,1v.1790-1900 (O xford,2006).H e h as also w rltten on th e w ork of m any m o d ern G reek p o ets, am on g th em C .P. C avafy. Seth Sch ein is P rofessor of C om p arative L iteratu re at th e U n iversity of C allforn la, D avls. H e w orks m aln ly on H om erlc ep lc, A ttlc tragedy, an d th e recep tlon of classlcal llterature, an d h as recen tly p ubllsh ed several essays on Sop h o clesn P hkloctetes an d a tran slatlon

of that play (N ew buryport, 2003). H ls current prolects lnclude a com m en tary on P hkloctetes an d a tran slatlon of A eschylu s' O resteka. O liver T ap lin ls a P rofessor of C lasslcs an d T u torlal Fellow at M ag-

dalen C ollege,O xford.H e has recently com pleted a book (w lth 125 plates) called Pots and Plays Interactzons betw een Tragedy and G reek

v' flyérPakntkng of the Fourth Century Bc, w hlch w lll be publlshed by G etty M u seu m

P u bllcatlon s ln 2007. H e ls attem p tln g a verse

tran slatlon of th e p lays of Sop h o cles.

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c# .

blank

lntrod u ction B arbara G raziosi and E m ily G reenw ood

fEveryon e w h o n ow read s and w rltes ln th e W est, of w h atever raclal b ackgroun d , sex or ldeologlcal cam p , ls stlll a son or daugh ter of H om e/ :thls ls h ow H arold B loom attem p ted to capture th e place of H om er ln 1975, as p at't of hls lllustratlon of th e anxlety of ln fluen ce

ln A M ap of M iyrptzfhrlp lBloom ns statem entrepresents a w ellestabllsh ed w ay of th lnkln g ab out th e place of H om er ln tw entleth cen tury culture. H ow ever, lt seem s to u s th at thls vlslon of H om er as th e fountalnh ead of all W estern llterature, gran d as lt ls, actually u n d erp lays H om er's role ln tw en tleth -cen tu ry culture ln at least tw o

resp ects. T h e first and m ost obvlou s problem ls th e restrlctlon of

H om er's lnfluence to fthe W estl how ever concelved: even a superé clal survey of H om erlc tran slatlon s p ubllsh ed ln th e tw entleth cen tury sh ow s th at H om er w as deem ed relevan t to readers of, to quote but a few , U ltram lan , A rablc, C h lnese, E sp eranto, A lb an lan , T urklsh , and K orean .z To b e sure: ln som e cases H om er w as tran slated preclsely as th e def nlng auth or of W estern llterature; yet th e close en gagem en t w lth H om erlc eplc on th e p art of readers an d w rlters from m any corn ers of th e w orld ch allenged an d redeE n ed th e vety con cept of W estern llterature.W e m ay th lnk of th e w ays ln w hlch D erek W alcottns O m eros w eaves conn ectlon s betw een St Lu cla an d th e an clen t M edlterran ean , of h ow O dysseu s n avlgates th e

l B loom 1975 33, see also B loom 1973 2 For a fu11 11st of translatlons of H om er publlsh ed m th e tw entleth cen tury see You n g 2003

(

2

B arbara G m zics; and F rrli/y G reenw ood

p o etry of th e Syrlan p oet A d on ls, or of lsm all K ad are's com p arlson s b etw een A lb an lan an d H o m erlc ep lc.3 T h e secon d p roblem w lth B lo om 's vlslon lles w lth th e gen ealoglcal

m odel th at lt con stru cts: H om er ls prlm arlly vlew ed as an an cestor w lth m any son s an d d augh ters.'l Y et on e cru clal con trlb u tlon of H om erlc sch olarsh lp ln th e tw en tleth cen tury w as th e ln slsten ce th at H om erlc p o etry co uld b e fru ltfully com p ared to ep lc tradltlon s

from

dlfferent tlm es an d places: for exam ple, m odern Serbla an d

A lbanla, m edleval Japan : an d the an clent N ear E ast.5 C om paratlve ap p ro ach es to ep lc h ave sh aken n o tlon s of a gen ealogy or h lerarchy b etw een dlfferen t ep lc tradltlon s an d h ave d em on strated th at ep lc

ls n elth er dead n or fun dam en tally W estern . T h ese approach es h ave

been extrem ely lnfluentlal ln the academ lc study of H om er (no con tem p orary classlclst can lgn ore th elr lm p act on th e u n d erstan d -

lng of early G reek eplc),butthelr lnfluence ls even greater than that: th ey h ave ch allen ged tradltlon aln otlon s ofw h at llterature ls an d h ow lt ls d on e.6 T h e rou tes th at H om er travelled ln th e tw en tleth cen tury o u tm an oeuvred th e gran d n arratlves of llterary cn tlclsm . ln p lace of B loom ns O edlp al m o d el of llterary lillatlon , th e stu dy of H om erlc

recep tlon s ln th e tw entleth century n eeds a m ore dlffu se an d h etero -

gen eous m odel.A s C harles Pollard h as argued ln a dlfferent context, m odels of llterary ln fluen ce th at lsolate w rlters by geograp hy or K

race or th at op p ose w rlters ln O edlp al struggles are slm p ly n ot m u ltl-faceted en ou gh to d escrlb e th e tran scu ltu ral relatlon sh lp s b etw een w rlters ln th e tw en tleth

cen tury.n; P ollard 's statem en t

: For D erek W alcotfs engagem ent w lth H om er, see the essays ln D avls 1997: , H ardw lck 2000 C hs 6 an d 7,M artynlttk 2005,M elas 2005,as w ellas C hs 1,2,7,and

8 ln thls volum e O dysseus features ln Adonls's Songs of M thyar the D am ascene (Aghant M thyar alD tm ashqt, lg6ll- French translatlon ln A donls 1982 K adare's com p arlson s b etw een G reek an d A lb an lan ep lc are esp eclally pro m ln en t ln K ad are 1997, see also C h 5 ln thls vo lu m e

4 C om pare R obert Fow ler 2004 8 Q1n talktng about H om er,how ever,w e do w ell to rem em b er h ow very h eterogeneou s and n u m erou s are th ose w h o w lsh to clalm h 1m as

partofthelr herltage,and to brlng as m any ofthese helrs lnto the conversatlon asw e can 7 5 A recen t exam ple o f th ls ap pro ach can b e fou n d ln Foley 2002,w h o offers a ftt11

blb llo grap hy of earller stud les See also th e collectlon of essays edlted by B elsslnger, Tylu s, an d W o ffo rd 1999 6 See C h 5 7 P ollard 2004 22 P ollard 's stu dy exam m es seem m gly u nlikely relatio nsh ip s, tran scu ltu ral, an d tran shlsto rlcal b o rrow ln gs b etw een E u rop ean m o dern lsm an d w h at h e term s Qd lscrepan t cosm op olltan m od ern lsm s' See p 14

Introductkon

3

certaln ly ap p lles to th e dlverslty o f H om erlc recep tlon s ln th e last

cen tury, w h ere com plex tran scultural relatlon shlp s w ere com bln ed w lth tran sh lstorlcal on es.8 T h ls b ook exam ln es th e p lace of H om er ln th e last cen tury by

focuslng on som e fun dam en tal lssues w hlch sh ap ed b oth creatlve an d sch olarly ap p ro ach es to H om erlc ep lc b u t w h lch h ave, so

far, largely escap ed cn tlcal en qulzy. O ur th esls ls th at shlfts ln th e academ lc study of H om erlc eplc w ere p art of a m u ch broader re-p o sltlon ln g of H om er ln th e cu ltu ral lan d scap e of th e tw en tleth cen tu ry.For over tw o m lllen n la H om er h ad b een th e d ef n ln g auth or

of th e W estern hterary can on :Kto be llke H om er' generally lm plled a p osltlve valu e Ju dgem en t, so th at h ls p o etry llterally b ecam e th e K

m easurlng rodl kanön ln G reek, agaln st w hlch the value of later p oetry w as m easured . T h ls ls on e reason w hy th e suggestlon th at H om erlc ep lc w as slm llar to m any, often oral, ep lc tradltlon s from

aroun d th e w orld proved to be exploslve. T h e an alogy betw een H om erlc ep lc an d , for exam p le, ep lc trad ltlon s ln th e an clen t N ear E ast or m o d ern A frlca w as p art of a larger sh lft aw ay from n arrow n otlon s of th e W estern llterary can on an d tow ard s a bro ad er con -

ceptlon of w orld llterature.T h e term W elthteraturw as first coln ed by G oeth e an d w as p art of h ls con cep tlon of h ow th e stu dy of llteratu re

w ould look ln th e future;hls term ls used today to ln clu de any w ork w h lch Kclrcu lates ou t ln to a bro ad er w orld b eyon d lts lln gulstlc an d

culturalp olnt of orlglntg For sch olars of w orld llterature,orallty ls an lm p ortan t lssu e. ln h ls recen t volu m e D ebatkng J'kb rlt;l L kteratu re, for exam p le, C h rlstop h er P ren d ergast ob serves: Kln classlcal an tlqu lty ...

un derstan dln gs ofw rltlng an d readlng w ere h eavlly ln fluen ced by th e oral.O n th e stan dard d efinltlon s,orallty falls outsld e th e scop e of th e

KKllterar/n.But,then,thls perforce excludes not only w hat has been b ut w h at con tln u es to b e th e m o st w ld esp read form of verb al art ln

th e w orld .nlo It ls our con ten tlon th at tw entleth -cen tury p erceptlon s

of H om er w ere sh ap ed by a shlft of focus from

the W estern

8 See D avls on D erek W alcotfs recyclln g of H om erlc arch etyp es, p 208 Qsu ch a vlew p oln t carrles lm p llclt tran sh lstorlcal, as w ell as tran scu ltu ral ram lficatlon s ' 9 D am rosch 2003 6 10 P ren d ergast 2004 p x

4

B arbara G m zitm and F rrlily G reenw ood

llterary can on to w orld llterature; b ut w e also belleve th at H om erlc p oetry w as cru clal ln brln glng about th at shlft. T h e collectlon as a w h ole sh ow s h ow

acad em lc an d creatlve

approaches to H om er lntersected, lnfluenced, and m lsun derstood on e another. lt explores how scholars attem pted to w ork out th e relatlon sh lp b etw een H om erlc p o etry an d oth er ep lcs from

m any

tlm es and places, an d sh ow s h ow n ovellsts, poets, playw rlghts, an d é lm -m akers establlsh ed a con n ectlon w lth H om en c eplc w hlle slm ultan eo u sly aë rm ln g th elr d lstan ce from lt.11 A t th e h eart of our lnvestlgatlon ls a ten slon b etw een app arently

con tradlctory approach es to H om er ln tw en tleth -cen tury culture.O n th e on e h an d , th e H om erlc p oem s w ere accepted as th e E rst great llterat'y w orks m a gen ealogy th at ln clud ed such auth ors as A p ollo n lus, V lrgll, L ucan , D an te, Tasso, Sp en ser, an d M llton . O n th e oth er h and ,H om erlc eplc ln creaslngly cam e to b e vlew ed as on e ex am p le of oral/tradltlon al p oett'y am ong m any oth ers, orlgln atln g from

th e

m ost dlverse tlm es an d places.lz In thls w ay, H om er w as slm ultan eou sly vlew ed as th e m ost central auth or ofth e W estern llterary can on an d seen as sh arln g fun dam en tal slm llarltles w lth a vast range of p oem s th at w ere often deem ed n elth er llterary n or W estern . W e could p erh ap s p ut lt llk e th ls: lf H om erlc ep lc w ere a C D : lt w ould b e foun d both ln th e classlcal an d ln th e w orld m u slc sectlon s.W lthln th e f eld of classlcal sch olarshlp, thls sltuatlon 1ed to a h eated d ebate over th e correct m terp retation of th e H om erlc p oem s.T h e alm of th ls

collectlon,how ever,ls not to trace the genesls of an academ lc quarrel; rath er, w e w lsh to explore the tenslon s an d connectlon s betw een d lfferent con ceptlon s of H om er:and to lnvestlgate h ow th ese ten slon s 11 Settls (J004) m akes a dlstlnctlon betw een llnear hlstorles of classlcal art and llteratu re,an d th e recent ten den cy to Juxtapose classlcal an d oth er elem en ts of w orld ctllture w ltho ut posltln g a clear teleolop r, or h lstory of developm ent

12 See Ford 1997 396 (see also p 120) CTo callthe Iltad and the O dyssey Qoeplcs'' to day can evoke tw o qulte dlfferent sets of com p arab le w ozks T h e û rst group ln g

w ould put H om er at the head of a W estern tradltlon of llterary eplc that runs from A po llon lu s of R ho des th rough V lrp l,on to the R enalssan ce an d beyo nd T h e seco nd , w lth equ alJu stlce,w ou ld vlew H om erlc p oetry as on e lnstan ce of a type o f trad ltlonal oraln arratlve to be foun d the w orld over,m clud lng cu ltures far o utslde th e ln flu ence of th e W est Fo r all th elr d lvergence,these tw o classes of ''ep lc''are no t u nrelated th e tradltlo nal o ral art em bodled ln H o m er w as, after ally w hat A rlstotle too k as h1s exem plar w h en he lald th e groun dw ork for the theory of W estern eplc ln the P oettcs' C f also B elssln ger, Tylusy and W o ffo rd 1999 l- 3

In trod uctlon

5

p en raded n ot on ly academ lc dlsco urse l3 b ut also creatlve rew orkln gs of H om erlc ep lc ln p o etry p rose llctlon , th eatre, an d film ,

,

.

A n exploratlon of th ls ktnd m u st n ecessarlly confront som e ch allenglng lssu es of m eth odology In p artlcular, th e con cep ts of recep tlon an d tradltlon, w hlch are typ lcally used to dlscuss th e place ofH o m er in th e t'w en tleth centu ry n eed careful scrutlny.ln th e 1930s .

,

,

M llm an P arry argu ed th at th e H om erlc p oem s w ere essentlally dlffer -

en t from

th e w orks of A p ollonlus or V lrgll an d rath er resem bled th e eplcs p erform ed by llllterate b ards ln an area w h lch ls n ow dlvlded ,

b etw een Serbla, B osn la H erzegovln a an d K osovo/a l'l H ls com p aratlve w ork revolutlonlzed th e academ lc study of H om er but th e .

,

p ercep tlon of H om erlc ep lc as a text th at w as orlp n ally n ot a çtex tn

d eE ned th e place of H om er w ell b eyon d academ lc clrcles A rtlsts asslm llated H om erlc ep lc ln to m any n on -can on lcal tradltlon s ro oted .

ln oralp erform an ce:n otpust th e ep lcs of th e B alkan s b ut for exam p le, ,

(lrlsh) G aellc folk song, and the spontaneous lnventlveness of the B lues.15 T h e ackn ow led gem ent th at H om erlc ep lc w as o rlgln ally: an oral tex tn h as en co uraged tw en tleth -cen tury recep tlon s to cro ss :

K

dlfferent gen res an d m edla ln th elr rew orklng of H om er T h ese asslm llatlons n ot only contrlb uted to destab lllzm g an d reallgnlng .

th e W estern llterary can on , but also com pllcated th e n otlon of eplc as a llterazy genre. H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tury th en , ls a go od startln g p oln t for th lnkln g ab out eplc an d lts gen erlc tran sm utatlon s for lnvestlgatln g ch allen ges to an d redeE m tlon s of, canon lcal lltera,

,

,

ture, an d for reflectln g on th e p olltlcs of readlng H om er .

T h e essays collected h ere stem

from

a conferen ce h eld ln

D urham from 20 to 23 July 2004.A ll contrlbutors took p art m th e conferen ce an d thls book grow s dlrectly out of th e p ap ers an d d lscu sslon s w e h ad th en V olum es of con feren ce p roceedlngs often .

13 Fo r exam p ley m the last decad e,tw o sep arate C oAnp ïm son s fo f'lolvn cr have b een p ubllsh ed The N ew C om p an lon to H om etï edlted by 1 M orrls an d B P ow ell ln 1997 focu ses alm ost exclu sively on th e tech nlcal m tn cacles of o ral/t : rad ltlonal po etry an d o zl H o m erlc so clety B y co n trast T hc C fz///lvrll gr C om pan ton to H om er, edlted by R ob ert F ow ler ln 2004, ad op ts a self co n sclou sly llterary app roach aces th e , an d pl ,

.

H om erlc poem s atthe beglnnlng ofa canon ofgreatm asterpleces (m ostly w rltten ln Engllsh) The tenslon betw een the tw o Com pantonscan be gleaned from Pow ell2005 14 See Parry 197 1,4v1th C h l ln th e p resen t volu m e 15 O n th e tradltlo n s o f th e B alkan s see ln th ls volu m e G razlo sl C h 5, on G aellc folk so n g see M artln , C h 3 th e B lues ls d lscu ssed by H ardw lck ln C h 2 ,

,

6

B arbara G rflzitly; and F rrlily G reenw ood

ru n th e rlsk of b elng selectlve, or one-slded . T h at rlsk seem s esp eclally threatenln g for thls volum e, sln ce lt tackles a p oten tlally ln finlte top lc: th e receptlon of H om er ln th e tw en tleth century. L eavln g asld e th e rlch cultu ral and lln gu lstlc dlverslty of H om erlc recep tlon s ln any glven cen tury, even w lthln a slngle lan guage an d cultural tradltlon lt ls lm p osslble to w rlte a total,truly representatlve

receptlon hlstory of H om er (w hlch w ould lnclude the notlon of H om er as a culturallcon,as w ellas the eplcs them selves).A lthough surveys are p o sslble, an d catalogu es or arch lves of p u bllcatlon an d p erfo rm an ce are a valu able reso u rce fo r recep tlo n stu d les, accum u latln g an lnven toty of recep tlon s w lll n ot result ln a sum -total or com m on d en om ln ator of recep tlon s. C o n sequ en tly, th e p resen t collectlon d o es n ot alm to p rovld e an

en cyclop aedlc survey of th e place of H om er ln tw en tleth -century culture. In recen t years, som e dlscu sslon s of th e receptlon of H om er h ave b een crltlclzed for tellln g a n arrow ly W estern , or

even A n glocen trlc story; w hlle oth ers h ave been b erated for tellln g n o stot'y at a11.16 W e look at H om er ln a w lde range of places an d questlon hls W estern ld entlty, but th e story w e tell ls stlll hlghly selectlve. ln term s of m edla, w e d o n ot system atlcally dlscu ss th e lm p act of H om er on tw en tleth -cen tury m u slc, n or d o w e ad dress

th e rew orkln g of H om erlc th em es an d

m otlfs ln

tw entleth -

cen tury art alth ough th e w ork of R om are B earden ls dlscu ssed ln

C hapter 2). The m alorlty of the chapters concern them selves w lth lictlon , p o etry, an d , ln tw o cases, lilm . H ere, to o, th e alm ls n ot to

provlde an lnven tory of dlfferen t rew orklngs but rath er to offer a selectlon of exam ples th at sh ed llght on th e cen tral con cern s of th e collectlon . W e d o n ot tackle h ead -on th e everyd ay recep tlon of H om er ln p op ular culture. A s w e w rlte our Introdu ctlon , H om er ls belng rew rltten ln Fan tasy Flctlon p ubllsh ed through llve Journ als on th e W orld W ld e W eb .17 T h ese w rltln gs are h ard to assess as acts of recep tlon . Slm llarly, H om er Slm p son ls n ot ln clu d ed ln th ls

16 R u th erfo rd 2006 Jind s th e hlsto ry of recep tlon o u tlln ed ln R obert Fow ler 2004 Qfirm ly A n glocen trlc', cf also Pow ell 2005 B lan chl 2005 crltlclzes N lcosla 2003 fo r fallln g to o ffer any coh eren t vlew of H o m erlc receptlon 17 See M cE ld u ff 2006 l90

Introductkon

7

volum e: hls n am e h as m ore to d o w lth th e genteel fashlon for assum ln g G raeco -ltom an n am es ln ante-bellum A m erlca th an w lth any dlrect en gagem en t w lth H om erlc ep lc.A s th e n arrator ln D erek W alcottns O m eros says w h en h e ls confronted w lth th e m odern G reek n am e for H om er, Kl-lom er an d V lrg are N ew E nglan d farm ersll8 Som e key lssues ralsed by H om er Slm p son an d th e W orld W ld e W eb are, h ow ever, dlscu ssed ln th e collectlon : d lfferen t typ es of cu ltural llteracy, th e exclu slven ess of th e W estern llterary can on , th e

artlstlc an d lnterpretatlve p osslbllltles op en ed up by tw entleth -

century technologles, and the pltfalls of recognlzlng (or lnventlng) allu slon s. W e tak e serlou sly th e p osltlon of soclologlsts an d reader-resp on se crltlcs w h o deny th at th ere are prlvlleged receptlon s or th at th ere ls a h lerarchy of au dlen ce resp on ses.lg w e also see th e valu e of grap h s, m ap s, an d trees, as advo cated by M orettl,zo even lf ln th ls volu m e w e seek to dlscu ss som e cru clal lssu es ln th e recep tlon of H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tu ty by relyln g on a n arrom

an d ln som e w ays u n rep -

resen tatlve, set of exam p les.O ur focu s ls n ot ln ten d ed to con stru ct a

stralghtfotw ard hlerarchy betw een w h at w e ln clud e an d w h at w e do n ot. B ecau se w e w lsh to exp lore th e con n ectlon s b etw een creatlve an d acad em lc resp on ses to H om er, w e p rlvllege dlrect en gagem en ts

w lth th e H om erlc eplcs over th e m ore varled m anlfestatlon s of H om er as a cultural lcon .Som e stu dles of recep tlon lnvolve sch olars

assessln g th e cultural value of creatlve rew orkln gs of classlcal llteratu re: by con trast, w e w lsh to sh ow th at sch olarsh lp ls ltself p art of recep tlon an d en gaged ln a w ld er cu ltu ral dlalogu e.zl T h e essays ln th ls volum e lllu strate th at H om er h as travelled a

clrcultou s route ln th e tw entleth century. M any of th e tw entleth -

century Ktexts' (broadly construed) that are typlcally studled as ln stan ces of H om erlc recep tlon are th em selves rlch sources for

18 O m eros 11111 (14) 19 Janet Stalger 1989 359,Creadlngs and vlew lngs that do not conform to verslons recogn lzed b y th e academ y are n o less ''real'' or any less lm portant w lth ln a hlsto ry of audlence con sum ptlon of llterary and film lc fictlon an d n on fictlon' 20 M o rettl 200 5

21 See M artln dale 199 1 46 Co ur cu rrent ln terpretatlon s of anclen t texts,w heth er o r n ot w e are aw are of lt are,ln com p lex w ays,con stru cted by the ch aln o f recep tlo n s throu gh w hlch th elr con tln ued readablllty over the cen turles has b een effected 7

8

B arbara G rfyzit?a and F rrli/y G reenw ood

oth er recep tlons of H om er. For exam ple, the artlst R om are B earden u sed H om er as a referen ce p olnt ln hls O dyssey kst/ifér, an d w e th en fin d D erek W alcott explaln ln g th e app eal of H om er through w h at B eard en m ean s to h lm .22 Furth erm ore, w e th en lin d acad em lc p ub -

llcatlons uslng W alcott to explaln H om er.23 W alcott, Joyce, and Seferls are all sources of m eanlngful lnterference ln the tw entleth cen tury receptlon of H om erlc ep lc. D ep en dlng on th e dlsclplln ary

orlentatlon of the reader, an d on w hat s/he has read, alluslon s to

Joyce m lght lead us to H om er os conversely, alluslon s to H om er m lght lead us to Joyce. ln the clnem atography of A ngelopoulos, dlscussed ln thls volum e by Fran çolse L etoublon , an d ln th e m odern G reek texts dlscu ssed by D avld R lcks, Seferls em erges as a key tw en tleth -cen tu ry ln terp reter of H om er. ln fact, lt seem s en tlrely ap p rop rlate, ln th e con text of th e recep tlon of H om er ln m o d ern G reece after 1950, to sp eak of Kseferlsn H om e/ an d- ln th e early

decades of the twentleth century- of Kcavaf/s H om e/. ln such con dltlon s, to look for the H om erlc Ksource' ls actually to look for th e source from w hlch kn ow ledge of H om er ls draw n .A n d yet:ln th e m ldst of th ese lm p ortan t m edlatlng con texts,th e auth orlty of H om er

as auth or fun ctlon perslsts. A s C harles M artln dale has argued, KW e do n ot m erely lnterpret H om er by th e llgh t of our taste, sln ce th e H om erlc p o em s h ave th em selves con trlb u ted to th e tran sform atlo n of th at taste.724 T h ere are n o easy lln ear:ch ron ologlcaln arratlves to b e

told h ere. T h e artlstlc an d llterary context of th e tw en tleth century,

w hlch w e m lght use to explaln tren ds ln H om erlc scholarshlp,ls ltself lm pllcated ln and lnform ed by that sch olarshlp .Several of the chap ters explore thls ln teractlon , reveallng h ow w rlters su ch as Yeats,

R ltsos, K adare, an d Logue take cues from H om erlc scholarshlp . G lven th e sp eclé c focu s of thls volum e,lt m ay be u sefulfor readers to b ear ln m ln d oth er recen t p ub llcatlon s th at dlscu ss th e recep tlon

of H om er ln th e tw entleth century.P. H .Young, T he P n nted H om er

(2003),endeavours to 11st allknow n edltlons and translatlons of the Ihad an d th e O dyssey from

an tlqulty to th e year 2000. G . Steln er,

22 w alcott 1997 23 For exam ple, W alcotfs O m eros sets the fram e and fttrnlsh es k ey m etaph ors

for C arol D ougherty's study of the 'ethn ographlc lm aglnatlon' of the O dyssey

(D ougherty 2001) 24 M artlndale 199 1 62, 1993 6

Introd uch on

9

H om er irl Englksh (1996), as w ell as S. U nderw ood, Enghsh

Translatlons of H om er from George Chapm an to Chnstopher Logue (1998/) can be used to lnvestlgate,m ore speclfcally,the lm pact of translatlons of H om er ln the Engllsh-speaklng w orld.Boltanl (1994) traces th e é gure of O dysseus ln th e W estern llterary tradltlon . T h e

collectlon edlted by S.N lcosla, Ulksse neItempo'Ia m etafora irl / rllffl (2003) com prlses over thlrty dlsparate essays on the receptlon of the O dyssey ln th e last three m lllen nla an d ls p artlcularly valuable on n eglected auth ors w rltln g ln ltallan and Sp anlsh .A recen t lssu e of th e M agazkne t ifftrrfpirér d evotes a sub stan tlal sectlon sp eclf cally to th e

recep tlon of th e O dyssey ln th e tw entleth century.25 A n oth er collec-

tlon of slx essays edlted by A ndreas Luther (O dyssee-Rezeptkonen, Frankfurt, 2005) offers an eclectlc lnslght lnto the receptlon of the O dysseyl lt dlscusses th e use of typ e-scen es from

th e O dyssey ln

R om an vlllas, th e questlon of an E gyptlan receptlon of th e O dyssey th e E gure of Telem ach u s ln chlldren's llterature, an d th e O dyssey as a

flashpolnt for the tran slatlon of m oral norm s and confh cts ln film lc

adaptatlon s of eplc.J.P.H oloka h as recently edlted,translated, an d com m ented on Slm on e W ellns fam ous essay on the 1had.16 O ther stu dles explolt th e flexlble m edlum of electron lc on lln e databases, w hlch allow for a llvlng archlve th at can be con tln u ally supplem en ted ln resp on se to th e varlety of receptlon s en coun tered ln th e w orld . T hls route ls exem pllf ed by th e excellen t database m alntaln ed by th e

O pen U nlverslty, w h lch docum ents tw entleth -cen tury receptlons of H o m erlc p o etry, an d o f oth er texts an d lm ages of A n clen t G reece.27

A n oth er em plrlcalroute ls suggested by a research prolect carrled out by N aolse M acsw eeney ln 2004:ln w hlch she analysed the responses of vlsltors to an exhlbltlon at th e B rltlsh M u seum entltled K'l-roy

R etoldl w hlch w as tlm ed to colnclde w lth the release of the m ovle Trcy.28 T h ls sam p lln g of llve con su m ers of H om erlc recep tlon , as

opposed to im plled or Kldealn audlences, lllustrates the p otentlal for 25 M agaztne L ttteratre, January 2004,lssue 327 26 See W ell,2003 27 T h e ftt11tltle of th e d atab ase ls Q'I'h e R eceptlon of th e Text and lm ages ofA n clent G reece in late Tw en tleth C entury D ram a and Po etry u'l E n gllsh D atabase' http //

w wu,2 open ac A /classlcalstudles/G reee lays (last accessed A prll2006) 28 N aolse M acsw eeney presented the fin dlngs of her survey at the A G M of the So clety fo r th e P rom o tlo n of H ellen lc Stu dles at th e ln stltu te o f C lasslcal Stu d les ln

London (1l June 2005)

(

10

B arbara G m zitly; and F rrlily G reenw ood

a dlalogu e across dlfferent audlen ces, ln w hlch assum ptlon s can b e ch allen ged an d revlsed .29 Even th ls brlef survey ofrecen t stu dles suggests th at th e recep tlon of H om er allow s for m any dlfferen t ap p roach es.3o C onversely, th e

varlety of app roach es com pllcates th e questlon of w h at an act of recep tlon m lght be. O n e lssu e th at n eeds to be con sldered ls th e p erm eab le relatlon sh lp b etw een recep tlon stu d les an d stu dles of

allu slon an d lntertextu allty; an oth er ls th e qu estlon of h ow th e dlscou rse of recep tlon dlffers from

th e w ell-establlsh ed stu dy of th e

classlcal tradltlon . ln b oth cases, an lm p ortan t dlstln ctlon seem s to b e th at recep tlon stu d les cro ss p o etlcs w lth p olltlcs,forcln g acad em lc com m u n ltles to foregro un d th e qu estlon of w h o sees th e allu slon s,or

ln w h ose lnterests th e ldea of a classlcal tradltlon ls b eln g w lelded .3l A n oth er sou rce of com p lexlty ls th at th e very term ln ology of recep tlon ls frelgh ted w lth p roblem atlc accen ts an d assum p tlon s. ln th ls volu m e ln dlvld u al con trlbutors exp lore dlfferen t m od els of recep tlon an d em p loy a bro ad sp ectrum of term ln ology to d escrlb e th e p ro cess.W h at m any of th ese m o d els of recep tlon h ave ln com m on

ls th e m otlf of rep etltlon .T hls m otlf ls w rltten ln to receptlon by m any of th e term s th at are u sed m ost frequen tly to descrlb e th e process

at w ork: rew rlte, rew ork revlse, retell, recover, recycle, revlvlfy, ren oun ce, react, resp on d .A lth ough th ese verbs are u sed actlvely for th e m o st p art, th e om n lp resen ce of th e Kren p refix suggests lteratlon , rep etltlon , an d secon d arln ess.

N otw lth stan dln g thls gen eral p oln t, th e term s u sed h ave dlfferen t accen ts.P ostcolon lal sch olars h ave w earled of Krevlslonn as a descrlp tlon of th e w ays ln w h lch can on lcal texts h ave b een u sed an d relm agln ed by w rlters w orkln g ln p o st-colon les, on th e gro u n d s th at th ls assu m es kn ow ledge of w h at h as gon e b efore ln ord er to recogn lze or d etect th e p resen ce of a revlslon .32 T h e lm p llcatlon th at a classlc, 29 See C arey 2005 167- 8,w h o- ln th e trad ltlon of P lerre B ou rd leu- advo cates a tu rn ln arts research aw ay from th e Ju dgem en ts of crltlcs tow ard s em p lrlcal,h lstorlcal

stud les of aud len ces and read ershlp s 30 R A rm stro n g an d C D u e are cu rren tly ed ltln g a volu m e b ased on a con feren ce entltled H om ertzon C oncep tualIn terrogattons CrlH om ertc Studtes,w hlch took place at th e C en ter for H ellen lc Stu d les ln W ash ln gton ,D C ,ln 2005 T h e volu m e w 1llm ake an ln terestlng contrlbu tlon to the study of H om erlc recep tlon 31 See G oldh lll, C h ll 32 M arx 200 4 92

Introd uctkon

11

can on lcal w ork of llterature un d erlles a n ew w ork an d th at lt ls ln tegral to th e ln terp retatlon of th ls w ork p erp etu ates w h at H om l B h abh a h as d escrlb ed as Kth e u n equ al an d u n even forces of cu ltu ral rep resen tatlon t33 H ow ever,w h lle Krevlslon nm lgh t seem to p rom ote a

hlerarchy ofknow ledge that ls founded on a grand archlve of (W estern) culture, paradoxlcally lt also underm lnes thls archlve by challen gln g an d op p o sln g can on lcal w orks. T h e revlslon ln qu estlon ls n ot so m u ch a slm p le rew rltln p b u t a Kw rltln g b acknas form u lated by p ostcolon lal th eory.34 R evlslon lm p lles lo okln g agaln an d E n dln g w h at on e sees as ln ad equ ate.lt carrles ln lts w ak e a h ost of atten d an t

verbs, all w lth undertones of relectlon: rew rlte, rew ork and retell. T h e p ro cess at w ork ls akln to recyclln p w h ere H om erlc p o etry an d th e ep lc cycle are scram bled to create a n ew an d un fam lllar w ork w lth recogn lzable m aterlal.35 A lon gsld e revlslon an d recyclln g, revlvlf catlon ls a term som etlm es u sed of classlcal recep tlon s ln th e p resen t d ay

th at ls

brln gln g

th e p ast b ack to llfe.36 If tragedy w as a d eb ate w lth a H om erlc p ast th at w as stlll allve ln A th en s ln th e fifth cen tury sc,37 w e m lgh t w on d er w h en th ls p ast exp lres: ln R ep u bllcan R om e, ln B yzan tlum , ln R en alssan ce Floren ce, ln V lctorlan B rltaln , ln p o st-w ar G reece, ln 1960s P arls, to d ay, tom orrow ? A lth o ugh th e term

Krevlvllicatlon n

% B h ab h a 1994 27 1, d lscu ssed ln G lkan dl 2004 94 34 T he p h rase Qthe em p lre w rltes b ack '- w h lch b ecam e a slogan fo r sub altern an d p ostcolo n lal stu d les- orlgln ated ln th e tltle of an artlcle by Salm an R u shd le Q'I'h e

Em plre W rltes Back w lth a Vengeancel The Ttm es, 3 July 1982 C f also A shcroft, G rlflith s, an d T lflin 1989 35 Fo r the lm age of ap prop rlatln g W estern can on lcal llteratu re by d lsm an tlln g an d

recycllng 1t,see M arx 2004 89 A tw ood'srecentnovelThePeneloptad (2005)lsa good exam p le o f th e p ro cess Sh e focallzes h er sto ry throu gh P en elop e an d fixates o n O dysseu 's h an gln g of tw elve of th elr m ald s, su ggestln g that Ql-lom er's O dyssey ls n o t th e o n ly verslon o f th e story T h e story as to ld ln th e O dyssey d oesn 't h old w ater'

(pp xtv-xw l H er readlng runs parallelto academ lc scholarshlp,w hlch has long seen troub lln g, su p pressed fem ale p lo ts ln H om er, cf K atz 199 1, Felson R u b ln 1994, an d O 'G orm an 2006 O n A tw ood 's con testatlo n o f H o m er ln an earller n ovel, T he

H andm atd's Tale (1987),cf H ardw lck 2000 122-3 (p 63 below ) 36 See e g Z alko an d L eon ard 2006 2 Cln stead of creatln g n ew gen ealogles, m any fem ln lsts h ave ch osen to revlvlfy an clen t n arratlves to arm con tem po rary stru ggles' T he m etaph or of revlvlficatlo n u n d erlles a forth com ln g volu m e of essays, ed lted by Step hen H arrlson an d p rovlslon ally en tltled Qlwlvln g P resen ces' T h e volu m e ls b ased o n a con feren ce h eld ln O xfbrd ln Sep tem ber 2005 57 See V ern an t an d W d al N aqu et 1988 33 on the Qd eb ate w lth a p ast th at ls stlll allve' at th e heart of G reek tragedy

12

l flrlpflrfl G rflzlclsl (IJIJ F rrllly G rccrlw clt?l

m lgh t be used loosely of any receptlon ,lt m akes an lm pllclt clalm th at th e p ast,or an elem en t of th e p ast,ls stlll allve.M yth lcalplots are often brough t back to llfe so th at th ey m lght be confron ted an d revlsed . T hls ls seen p artlcularly clearly w lth fem lnlst recep tlon s ofth e classlcs, ln w hlch m etam orph osls ls a com m on trop e.38 In keep ln g w lth O vld, p ast represen tatlon s p erslst an d survlve th e tran sform atlon lnto a n ew form . H ow ever, th e brlngln g b ack to llfe of classlcal llteratu re ln m odern form s creates lastln g ln terferen ce ln term s of h ow w e con celve of thls very llterature. Fllm , for exam ple, h as tran sform ed th e w ay ln w hlch m odern readers envlsage an clent eplc: by n ow , th e n otlon th at Kl-lom er ls cln em atlc' h as becom e a stan dard trop e of sch olarsh lp .3g T h e con cept of classlcal receptlon ls sh ap ed by th e shlftlng relatlon shlp betw een classlcs an d m odern m ed1a.40 D lfferen t n otlon s of tem p orallty also sh ap e th e p rocess of receptlon

an d n eed to b e tackled rlght at th e start of th e present volum e.W e h ave already argued th at com paratlve approaches ch allenge llnear hlston es of llterature. M ore gen erally, lt seem s th at current approach es to H om er dlffer radlcally ln th elr treatm en t of tlm e. Som e academ lc studles dlsplay a hlston clst blas,w hlch ls lm p atlent w lth the supp osed lm plauslbllltles,ln accuracles,an d an achronlsm s of oth er acts of recep tlon . ln fact,hlston clst readlngs also lead to cn tlclsm of, an d dlssatlsfactlon w lth ,th e H om erlc eplcsth em selves,sln ce th ey too fallth e test of hlstorlcal accuracy. From the poln t of vlew of th e earllest H om erlc audlen ces, th e H om erlc eplcs w ere already set ln a dlstant p ast that could be know n on ly w lth th e help of the M use.41V arlou s oth er m eans, apartfrom dlrect dlalogue w lth the M u ses,can be u sed to brlng th e past

lnto the present:a focus on (contlngent) colncldence,z iz the elllpsls of tlm e,43 an d a rellan ce on th e p resen t ten se.For exam ple,ln h ls on goln g

verslon s of H om e/ s Ihads C hrlstoph er L ogu e u ses the vlvld present ten se an d secon d-p erson addresses,w hlle at the sam e tlm e m edlatln g

's see R ow en a F ow ler 2006 39 Saun ders 1999 363, G reenw oo d, p l63 below

40 See G reenw oo d ,p p 154-6,an d G oldh ill,pp 259-6 1,267 41 See G razlo sl an d H aub old 2005 ch 2 42 O n co ln cld en ce, see e g R ow en a Fow ler's d escrlp tlon o f the rem o dellln g of

classëcal m yth tn Joe Shapcotfs Qm ad cow 'persona ln term s of Qa happy colncldence

ln classlcalm yth and toplcalscandal'(2006 386) 4: See D avls, p 20 8

Introd uctkon

13

th e dlstan ce betw een p ast an d present through m ultlple hlstorlcal contexts ln clu dlng th e N apoleonlc W ars, the W orld W ars, an d th e C old W ar.44 In Ellzabeth C ook's A chklles, the present ten se ls used exten slvely, as seen ln h er retellln g of P rlam ns su pp llcatlon of A chllles

ln B ook 24 of th e Ihad:KB ut Prlam ls ttred an d craves a bed.A chllles'

guard goes 1. 1/.45 H ere too,how ever,the use of the present tense ls fram ed by m edlatln g contexts, rem ln dlng the reader th at th e current tale h as travelled a long and com pllcated ltlnerary to reach u s as m od ern readers: a sup p lem en t called Kltelay' focallzes C ook's retellln g

of A chlllesn story through K eats's readlng of C h apm anns H om er.46 R esearch ln to H om erlc ep lc an d lts receptlon n eeds to p ay closer atten tlon to th e tem p oralltles envlsaged ln th e tellln gs an d retellln gs. Som e of th e m ost lnterestln g aven u es for research m ay start w lth th e qu estlon

of h ow

read ers ln

d lfferent h lstorlcal p erlod s m ake

con n ectlon s acro ss tlm e w h en th ey read .47 O n e vet'y recen t rew orkln g of H om erlc ep lc p o sltlon s ltself ln

relatlon to M odern lsm 's reuse of th e p ast to m ake sen se of th e ch aos of th e presen t. D avld Farr ln trodu ces hls lirst volum e of p lays, w hlch are all based on storles from

th e can on of W estern

llterature w lth the explanatlon that,Kgthese playsl are allrew orklngs of exlstlng storles, from th e an clent w orld of H om er to th e begln n ln gs of M o d ern lsm . l h ave b ecom e ln creasln gly ln terested ln

ad dresslng the turb ulen ce of our w orld through looklng at archetyp al storles ln a n ew

w ayt48 Far/ s statem en t allu d es to T . S. E llot's

form ulatlon of m yth as Ka w ay of con trolllng, of orderln p of glvln g a sh ap e an d slgnlf can ce to th e lm m en se p an oram a of futlllty an d an archy w h lch ls con tem p orary h lstory7.49 M o d ern lsm asserts a 44 O n L ogu e's m an lpu latlon Of ten se and h lstorlclty, see fttrth er G reenw ood , P P 16 8- 7 1

45 C ook 200 1 48 46 Fo r an excellent d lscu sslo n of C ook's poetlc novel, an d th e slgnlfican ce of the

Qlkelaï'attheend,seeZalko 2006 See also Hardwlck 2004 347,who com m entson C ook s n arratlve m ethod and her avoldan ce of anach ronlsm 47 O n thls lssu e, see Z alko 2006 T h e p rob lem ls also d lscu ssed ln C h s l an d 2 of the present volum e 48 Farr 2005 p v11 T he o ther sto rles th at Farr rew orks are D ostoevsky's C rtm e and P untshm en t,T he N atlvlty of C hr1st,an d D lcken s's G reat Exp ecta ttons 49 E llo t 19754 l77 O n M od ernlsm 's preoccup atlon w lth m yth as a w ay of

com prehendlng hlstory (T S Ellot's Qm ythlcal m ethod'), see Zalko 2004 314-15, an d R ow en a Fow ler 2006 382 See also M artin m th ys vo lu m e, p 76 , :! 5

14

B arbara G rfkzitls; and F rrlify G reenw ood

dyn am lc relatlon shlp ln w hlch a dlstant p ast én ds m ean lng through con tact w lth th e presen t,w hlle th e present- too close for com fort-

ls glven m eanm g th rough storles from the past.By now ,M odern lsm ls ltself outm oded,an d often evokes th e kln d s of cultural ch auvlnlsm

assoclated w lth the Kc lasslcal Tradltlonn. Yet lt seem s to u s that the m ovem ent also h ad an un d en lable stak e ln tw orld llterature: ln

th e broadest sen se of th e term .50 O n th e on e h an d, M odernlsm fed ln to p ostcolon lal llterature- leadln g to w h at C h arles Pollard h as called a Kdlscrep an t cosm op olltan m odern lsm n;on th e oth es lt represen ted a ch allen ge to th e tradltlon al valu es o f E urop ean culture.sl

T hls broadenlng out m ay som etlm es have taken the form of p rlm ltlvlsm an d exotlclsm , but lt lntroduced tw o-w ay connectlon s betw een cultures th at raclal m yth s h ad ln slsted on sep aratlnp or h ad con iin ed to a h lerarchy.T h e place of H om er ln th e tw entleth century m u st, w e b elleve, be un derstood as p art of thls gradu al eroslon of E u rop ens cu ltu ral lsolatlon .

T he presentvolum e explores th e conn ectlons and ten slon sb etw een dlfferen t p ercep tlon s of H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tury, an d sh ow s h ow H om erlc p o etry h as p layed a cen tral role ln th e evolutlon of

con cepts su ch as tradltlon ,receptlon ,llterature,orallty,an d eplc.P art

l of ln thls volum e,fplaclng H om er ln the Tw entleth C enturyl offers an m trodu ction to these concepts and provldes a theoretlcal fram ew ork for the rest of th e collectlon . P art ll, Ksch olarshlp and

Flctlonl lnvestlgates the connectlons betw een academ lc and creatlve readlngs, an d explores th e w ays ln w h lch b oth contrlb uted to radlcal

redefnltlons ofllterature.Part111,tD lstance and G enrells speclfcally con cern ed w lth th e p roblem s of readln g H om er from a dlstan ce an d

lnvestlgates the w ays ln w hlch such problem s affect ch olces of form

and genre.Flnally, Part IM 'Polltlcs and Interpretatlonl lnvestlgates the polltlcal and soclologlcal lm pllcatlons of readlng H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tu ry. A s th e qu otatlon from B lo om w lth w h lch w e b egan sh ow s,H om er

h as often b een seen as th e an cestor of a llterary tradltlon th at

50 O n the concept of Qw orld llteraturel see Prendergast 2004 51 Pollard 2004 15 O n the provocatlve overturnlng of tradltlonalvalues ln Jam es Joyce's U lysses,see M lnta,p l19

Introd uctkon

15

grew an d exp an d ed con tln u o u sly, llke a fam lly tree M etaph ors of tradltlon often evoke th e organ lc an d ln exorable grow th of n ature .

,

b ut m ore vlolen t an d p urp oseful m etaph ors are also p osslble:

H om e/s poetry can be Kyanked out of lts hldey-holel as M lchael L on gley p uts lt,an d radlcally Juxtap osed w lth experlences con sldered forelgn to 1t.52 T h e essays ln thls volum e explore w h at ls at stake ln p osltln g con tln u ltles an d rup tures. C on trlbu tors lnvestlgate h ow n ovellsts, sch olars, p oets, playw rlghts an d E lm -m akers p osltlon ,

th em selves ln relatlon to H om er h ow read ers read an d d o n ot read allu slon s, an d h ow ln stltutlon al con texts affect th e place of H om erlc ,

ep lc ln tw en tleth -cen tu ty culture. T h e collectlon

as a w h ole, ls ln ten ded n ot on ly for classlclsts b ut also for stu den ts of com p aratlve ,

llterature, p ostcolonlal stu dles, an d cultural hlstory lts m aln alm ls to offer a theoretlcal fram ew ork w lthln w hlch to sltuate H om er ln .

tw entleth -century culture,to p rovlde a gulde to th e slgm f can t blbllograp hy, an d to stlm ulate research ln to m any areas th at d eserve an d

w ould rew ard furth er lnvestlgatlon

.

P A R T 1. P L A C IN G H O M E R IN T H E T W E N T IE T H C E N T U R Y

T hls lirst sectlon addresses a problem

th at vexes m any receptlon

stu dles of classlcal auth ors. lt ls certaln ly tru e to say that m th e course of th e tw entleth cen tury,H om erlc p oetry ln creasln gly becam e ,

p art of w orld llterature, an d th at th ls p ro cess ch allen ged an d

redef n ed th e conf n es of th e W estern can on T h e qu estlon ls w h at w e sh ould m ake of thls fact. C lasslclsts ourselves ln cluded, often .

,

m ake th e rev1slon lst clalm th at th e G reek an d R om an w ork s ln th e W estern can on w ere alw ays un can on lcalan d cou n tercultural ln deed, .

ln the second halfofthe tw entleth century (speclfcally ln the 1980s), sch olars ln all dlsclplln es w ere turn ln g to th e p aradox th at th e w orks ln th e can on are n ecessarlly cou n tercan on lcal lf w h at ls m ean t by th e Kcan onn ls th e ldea of a n orm atlve tradltlon of great texts ,

.

52 M Longley,el-lom er's O ctopus'ln The G hostO rchtd (1995) See H ardw lck,p 56 below

16

B arbara G rfkz/tls; and Frrlily G rccnw tlt)cl

A s D om lnlck L ac apra h as w rltten : K'fh e m ore ch allengln g an d : at

tlm es,dlscon certlng text seem s to rew rlte th e genre or to take part m a contm ual foundln g an d alterlng of expectatlon s. T he apparen t p aradox ls that texts halled as p erfectlons of a genre or a dlscurslve p ractlce m ay also test an d contest 1ts llm lts.753 T h e dan ger h ere ls a repllcatlon , w lth subtle dlfferen ces, of p reclsely the ktnd of cultural ch auvlnlsm th at cn tlcs of can onlcal llterature alm ed to contest. lf evety n ew culture th at com es lnto contact w lth a can on lcalw ork an d reads lt ln un can on lcalw ays ls foun d to b e ech oln g w h at w as already th ere,th en th e w ork m qu estion becom es lnvested w lth quasl-lm pen al status.In thls w ay,receptlon studles,for all th at th ey are ln tend ed to free up read ers to read texts on th elr ow n term s,ln fact run th e rlsk of conf rm lng w h at th e m ost con servatlve of classlclsts h ave alw ays clalm ed: that H om eric p oetry is an in exhaustlble source ofln splratlon an d ln slght.T he é rst tw o essays ln th e collectlon tackle thls p oten tlal p arad ox of receptlon stu dles from dlfferent, but com plem en taty an gles.

Johannes H aubold begm s w lth an lnvestlgatlon of the w ork of M llm an P arry an d suggests th at h ls approach to H om erlc ep lc

radlcally questloned dom ln ant n otlon s of orlgln allty, authorshlp, an d llterary h lstot'y.H e lnvestlgates som e un resolved ten slon s w lth ln

Parryns w ork and show s how th ose ten slon s dom lnated subsequent ap proach es to H om er ln th e tw entleth cen tury. O n th e on e h and , H om erlc eplc w as th ough t to belon g to th e w orld of tradltlon al

poetry (a type of poetry w hlch w as concelved as çtlm elessl ln m ore than one sense); on the other, H om er w as placed Erm ly w lthln a lln ear h lstory of W estern llterature.H aub old suggests th at n otlon s of tradltlon an d recep tlon n eed to be lnvestlgated ln relatlon to on e an oth er.M odels of tradltlon allty are n ow begln nln g to accom m odate m any ph en om en a w lu ch Parry assoclated excluslvely w lth th e great

auth ors of the W estern llterary can on ,such as A pollonlus an d V lrgll. lnn ovatlon , selectlvlty, an d careful negotlatlons w lth other texts are also m anlfest ln tradltlon al p oetry. C onversely, P arry's n otlon s of tradltlonal p oetry can b e u sed to ch allen ge llnear con ceptlon s of llterary h lstory,so th at H om erlc ep lc ls n ot seen slm p ly as th e so urce

for later acts of receptlon . T hls suggestlon ls lm p ortan t for th e

,: L ac ap ra l9 ss 140- 1

Introd uctkon

17

ln terp retatlon of m any tw en tleth -cen tu ty au th ors, n ot least D erek

W alcott, an d ls taken up m th e secon d ch ap ter. L orn a H ardw lck qu estlon s lln ear m odels of receptlon by reflectln g on creatlve en gagem en ts w lth H om erlc p o etty ln th e tw en tleth

cen tury.M any of th e m ost successful creatlve adaptatlon s of H om er h ave been preoccupled w lth th e qu estlon of roots. T h us, w hlle classlclsts ln E urop e an d A m erlca are n ow llkely to dlstan ce th em selves from gen ealoglcal an d blologlcal m odels of llterary hlstory ln th elr p ubllsh ed sch olarsh lp , creatlve acts of receptlon h ave kept th e lssu e of gen ealogy on th e agen da.54 A galn st th e m odel of H om er as a n atlon less, stateless, an d colourless bard , w orks such as D erek

W alcotfs O m eros (1990), or The O dyssey'A Stage Versw n (1993) ralsed th e questlon of th e Kcolou/ of H om er even w h lle th ey w rested H om erlc ep lc aw ay from an exclu slvely E urop ean tradltlon .H ardw lck d lscu sses th e th em e of ro ots an d ro otlessn ess ln several tw en tleth cen tu ry w ork s an d argu es th at th ey suggest com plex m o d els of recep tlon th at d efy exlstln g n otlon s of th e bro ad cultu ral slgn lf can ce

of H om er, and m ove aw ay from the danger of eternal regresstlon) ln receptlon studles.A ccordlng to H ardw lck the practlce ofrecelvlng H om erlc eplc ln th e tw en tleth century ls ah ead of th e th eory. T hls ln slgh t ls reln forced by m an y o th er con trlb u tors, w h o suggest th at

th e m od el of Kreceptlonn ls n ot en tlrely adequate to exp laln th e com pllcated , crlss-crosslng dlalogu es b etw een H om erlc eplc and tw entleth -century culture.

P A R T II. S C H O L A R S H IP A N D F IC T IO N

T h e secon d

sectlon

lnvestlgates th e con n ectlon s an d

ten slon s

b etw een app roach es to H om er ln sch olarshlp an d ln E ctlon . A galn , questlon s of lnfluen ce an d orlgln allty qulckly em erge. A t th e m ost b aslc level: on e m ay ask w h eth er sch olars lnfluen ced w rlters or vlce versa; b ut, ln reallty, p attern s of ln teractlon w ere far m ore com p lex. 54 See Sald 1991 16-24, and ch 5 (CO n Repetltlon') for dlscusslon of fillatlon, affiltatton ,and genealo p calm odels m ltterary crtttctsm O n the p otenttally dtstu rb m g overton es of genealoglcal and b lologlcal m od els ln genre th eory, see th e excellen t

dlscusslon by Barchlesl (2001)

18

B arbara G rflzftu f and l'rf7l/y G reenw ood

A 11 th e ch apters ln thls sectlon sh ow th at th ere are n o easy, lln ear n arratlves to be told h ere. T h e artlstlc and llterary contexts of th e tw entleth century,w h lch w e m lght u se to Kexp lalnntren ds ln H om erlc sch olarshlp, w ere th em selves lm pllcated ln , an d ln form ed by, thls sch olarsh lp . R lch ard M artln's essay tells an altern atlve stot'y about H om er

am ong th e In sh by focuslng not on Jam es Joyce,but on the dram atlst John M lllm gton Synge and the scholar G eorge D erw ent T hom son .lt ls a story th at offers a com p elllng vlew of h ow H om er w as recelved, represen ted , an d rem ad e ln th e early tw entleth century an d sh ed s llght on som e p ow erful altern atlve ap proach es to H om erlc p oetry to

the fam ous m ythlc m ethod of poyce an d other m odernlst w rlters. M artln argu es th at Syn ge's an d T h om son's con sclou sn ess of H om er w as sh ap ed by th elr exten d ed vlslts to th e A ran Islan ds an d th e B lasket lslan ds resp ectlvely. H ow ever, h e also argu es th at H om erlc p oetry affected th elr d escrlptlon s of contem p orary lrlsh p eople llvln g on th ose lslan d s. B y dlscusslng h ow an clen t G reece w as lm p orted ln to m od ern lreland , an d h ow ln turn lreland w as exp orted lnto H om erlc eplc, M artln offers a n uan ced plcture of th e conn ectlon s an d dlfferen ces betw een plap vn gh t an d sch olar. ln M artln's essay, H om er rem aln s h ldden - even supp ressedb ehln d referen ces to Kold ; cu stom s an d p oem s, so th at hls presen ce on th e lrlsh lslan d s em erges ln p art from a reflectlon on tlm e an d

tlm elessness. ln Jam es Joyce's U lysses, there ls no such retlcence about H om erlc preceden ts: th e n ovel ls expllcltly con structed as a rew ork ln g of O dyssean eplsod es;yet lt too establlsh es a com pllcated relatlon shlp w lth th e H om erlc p ast. ln C h apter 4, Steph en M ln ta Juxtap oses th e en co un ter b etw een O dysseus an d N au slcaa ln th e O dyssey w lth th at b etw een L eop old B loom an d G erty M acdow ell ln U lysses. H e em ph aslzes th e sexual an d llngulstlc am blgultles of 170th texts an d contrasts th em w lth sanltlzed readlngs of th e O dyssey su ch as a V lctorlan p oem

by M ortlm er C ollln s, w h ere O dysseu s an d

N auslcaa are presen ted as slm ple p aradlgm s of w lsdom an d ch astlty.

loyce's know ledge of th e O dyssey d epends on nln eteenth -century verslon s, an d th ese are rep eatedly evoked ln th e n ovel: th e op enln g p aragraph s of th e N auslcaa eplsode, for exam p le, read llke a bad

V lcton an n ovel m tent on subllm atlng sexual deslre. Joyce's U lysses exp oses th e m oral blln d -sp ots ln prlor receptlon s of th e O dyssey

Introductkon

19

and lnitlates the rehabllltatlon of O dysseu's subtle character (his artlstlc hom ecom lnp as lt w ere) ln tw entleth-century receptlons. T he result,for us,ls that Joycens readlng of H om er n o longer seem s radlcal: th e sex u al an d lln gulstlc am blgu ltles of O dyssey 6 are so

w ldely recognlzed ln curren t scholarshlp that Joycens readlng seem s closer to H om er th an th e V lctorlan verslon s on w hlch h e relled . T h e last ch apter ln th ls sectlon also explores aë n ltles across tlm e an d sp ace,th ls tlm e by lo okln g at th e en co un ter b etw een th e sch olar A lb ert L ord , P arryns m o st ln flu en tlal collab orator, an d th e A lb an lan n ovellst an d p o et lsm all K ad are.B arb ara G razlo sl traces som e of th e

w ays ln w hlch th e w ork of P arry an d L ord ln sp lred K adare's n ovel D osla H through 1ts dlfferen t A lban lan , Fren ch , an d E ngllsh ln carn atlon s. lt tnvestlgates so m e w llfu l m lsu n d erstan d ln gs b etw een

scholar and w rlter (m ostly about the lm pact of Serblan eplc on the study of H om er), and suggests that K adare perform ed a careful b alan clng act through hls engagem en t w lth th e w ork of P arry an d L ord . O n th e on e h an d, h e used lt to byp ass m ost of th e hlstory of W estern llteratu re, th u s p o sltln g a dlrect con n ectlon b etw een A lb a-

nlan an d H om erlc eplc.O n the othes that very conn ectlon w as then u sed to ln scrlb e K ad are's ow n w ork w lth ln m aln stream

E u rop ean

llteratu re. K ad arens p osltlon resem bles th at of several sch olars w h o

h ave draw n on th e w ork of P arry an d L ord an d argu ed for th e exlsten ce of ep lc p o etry ln several p arts of th e w orld , p artlcularly

sub-saharan A frlca. The so-called A frlcan eplc controversyl llke K adare's D osla f-t qu estlon s and redefn es th e n otlon of llterature by su ggestln g con n ectlon s an d an alogles acro ss tlm e an d sp ace.

P A R T lll . D IS T A N C E A N D G E N R E

C ontrastlng def nltlon s of eplc as a genre h ave con stantly shlfted th e p lace of H om er ln th e cultural lan dscap e of th e tw entleth cen tury.55 A s often , th e acad em lc d ebate relates to bro ad er m ovem en ts ln th e

55 c f Ford 1997,quoted ln n l2,Foley 2004,M artln 2005,an d C hs l an d 5 ln the p resent volum e For a general dlscu sslon o f gen re ln classlcal scho larsh lp see B rau n d 200 1

20

B arbara G m zitly; and F rrlily G reenw ood

recep tlon of H om er. T h e essays ln th ls sectlon sh ow h ow w rlters, p oets an d E lm -m akers h ave w orked closely w lth som e def nln g features of eplc and m lxed th em w lth oth er form s an d gen res: ln ord er to m easure th elr dlstan ce from H om er. ln C h ap ter 6, E m lly G reenw o od exp lores th e lssu es lnvolved ln

readlng H om er from a dlstan ce by focu slng on C hrlstoph er L ogu e's on goln g ad ap tatlon s of th e Ihad, w h lch draw on m o d ern tech n olo -

gles, contem p orary cultu ral references: and th e full tradltlon of E n gllsh llterature ln ord er to m ed late th e forelgn n ess of H om er for

m odern readers. ln keepln g w lth th e focu s on th e dlalogue b etw een E ctlon an d sch olarsh lp ln p revlou s essays, G reenw ood argu es th at, for all lts dlstan ce from H om er, L ogu e's J'Uflr M uskc conveys m any of th e dlstln ctlve features of H om erlc eplc ln equlvalen t term s, an d reflects m any of th e sh lfts th at took place ln H om erlc sch olarsh lp ln th e N en tleth cen tury. T h e relatlon shlp w lth sch olarshlp ls, h ow -

ever, n ot alw ays harm onlous. Judgem ents about Logue's H om er ln academ lc crltlclsm ten d to crltlclze th e falth fuln ess of L ogu e's adap tatlon s, dem on stratlng E llzabeth Sh een ns observatlon th at Kfidellty crltlclsm ls p erh ap s m ost approprlately seen as a rh etorlc of p ossess 1o n 7 56 .

G reenw ood's dlscu sslon suggests th e p oten tlal for tw o -w ay

readlngs th at hlghllgh t th e H om erlc ln L ogue an d th e L ogu e ln H o m er, ln so far as C h rlstop h er L ogu ens W f 'lr M tfsfc h as b egu n to

feed b ack ln to th e receptlon an d ln terpretatlon of H om er.

O llver Taplln tackles the toplc of dlstance and (dlslslm llarlty by look lng sp ecliically at th e lm p act of H om erlc slm lles on th e p oetry of M lch ael L on gley, C h rlstop h er L ogu e, an d D erek W alcott.Slm lles are am on g th e m ost m em orab le featu res of H om erlc ep lc:T ap lln argu es

th at th elr expresslve force derlves as m uch from th elr dlsslm llarlty to th e m aln n arratlve as from

th e p arallels th ey suggest. L ogue an d

L on gley explolt thls asp ect of th e H om erlc slm lle ln ord er to express th elr dlfferen ce from , as w ell as th elr aë n lty w lth , H om er. T h e H om erlc slm lle ls th u s used to m ap th e dlstan ce betw een H om erlc ep lc and tw entleth -cen tury p oetry. T h e n ext tw o ch apters lllustrate h ow an oth er def n ln g feature of eplc p oetry, th e katabasks or descent lnto th e un detw old, ls u sed to explore th e relatlon sh lp betw een tw entleth -centu ry exp erlen ce 56 Sh een 2000 3, see p l50 below w lth n 15

Introd uctkon

21

an d H om erlc p oetry. ln C h apter 8 G regson D avls dlscusses th e ad aptatlon of th e m otlf of katabasks ln A lm e C esalre's C ahw r d 'un

rcfptfrfltfpaysrlflffll(1939/47)and ln a shortpoem by D erek W alcott, Kl-lom ecom lng:A nse La R aye' (1969).57 H e lnvestlgates w hat lt m ay m ean to return h om e ln a p ostcolonlal con text an d sh ow s h ow th at

return ls conf gured slm ultan eously as a hom ecom lng and an lnfern al Journ ey. ln th e p oem s, th e m otlf of katabasv also hlnts at th e ten slon betw een llvlng tradltlons an d th e cultural deadw elght of p ast clvlllzatlon s, ralsln g th e qu estlon of w h eth er H om er llves, or ls

a gh ostly presen ce. D avls sh ow s h ow C esalre an d W alcott m oblllze som e fun dam en tal conven tlon s ln th e tradltlon of E urop ean ep lc, ln cludlng the ldea of th e W estns cultural possesslon of H om er,w hlle

at th e sam e tlm e explorlng w h at an Keplc of th e dlsp ossessedn m lght lo ok llke.58 ln C h ap ter 9, Fran çolse L eto u blon lo ok s at th e th em e of katabasts

ln tw o recent E lm s by A n gelop oulos.ln U lysses'G flzc th e p rotagonlst, a G reek -A m en can lilm dlrector kn ow n on ly by h ls ln ltlalA .,w an ts to

track dow n three film

reels sh ot by th e M an akls broth ers at th e

b eglnnln g of th e tw entleth century. Sln ce the orlglns of film , th e

lirst Kgazel are to be found ln the B alkans,the dlrector travels from G reece through w ar-torn Yugoslavla, In order to fin d the key to hls

ow n past (and future).ln the course ofhlsJourney,dlfferent vlslons of th e p ast clash an d converge, su ggestln g a com p lex n etw ork of

repetltlon s, m em orles, docum en tazy evldence an d, ultlm ately, an lm p resslon of clrcularlty. L eto ub lon go es on to sh ow h ow E tern kty

JrIJ O ne D ay rew ork s m any elem en ts of katabasks already presen t ln U lysses'G aze an d, bulldlng on p revlou s w ork sh e p ubllsh ed togeth er w lth C . E ad es an d S. R ollet, argu es th at A n gelop o ulo s d o es n ot slm p ly ap p ro ach H o m er th ro u gh th e W estern llterary trad ltlo n ,b u t

also develop s a lilm lc ldlom of rep eated typ lcal scen es an d form ulas w hlch closely resem bles th e tradltlon al langu age of H om er. T h e argu m ent h ere ls n ot th at A n gelop oulosns w ork ls sh ap ed by H om erlc stu dles of form ulas an d typ e scen es, b ut rath er th at h e reads H om er llke sch olars ln terested ln th e tradltlon al p o etry of th e B alkan s.

57 A firstverslon of Cesalre's Cahterw as publlshed ln the Journal Volontes (Par1s) ln 1939, the poem s w ere first pub llshed ln bo ok form ln N ew York ln 1947 58 T he ph rase ls taken from the tltle of H am n er 1997

22

B arbara G rflzit?s and F rrlily G reenw ood

T h e essay sh ow s h ow A n gelop oulos's katabasks deties lln ear n otlon s of tlm e an d h lstory.

P A R T lV . P O L IT IC S A N D IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

R eadlng H om er from

a dlstan ce lnvolves careful self-p osltlonlng.

W e saw ln Part lll h ow th e form s an d conventlons of tradltlon al ep lc w ere used to m ap th e dlstan ce betw een H om er an d tw entleth cen tury exp en en ce as deplcted by n ovellsts, p oets, and lilm -m akers. T hls process of self-posltlonlng ln relatlon to H om er also h as lm p ortant p olltlcal: cultu ral: an d soclologlcal lm p llcatlon s, w h lch are th e focus of our last sectlon . C h ap ter 10 looks at th e recep tlon of H om er durln g th e G reek C lvllW ar of 1946-9 an d sh ow s h ow th at con fh ct preven ted stralghtforw ard asslm llatlon s of H om erlc p oetry.

Chapter 11 dlscusses the culturalpolltlcs of recognlzlng (or lnventlng) alluslons to H om er ln two late tw entleth -century Elm s:N aked an d O B rothez J'kr/lprérA rt T hou? Fln ally, C h apter 12 sh ow s h ow an an alysls of ln stltutlon al con texts can sh ed llgh t on th e recep tlon of H o m er.

Slm llarly to the last ch apter ln Part 111, the érst essay ln P art IV dlscusses th e problem s of n egotlatm g on p n s ln a m odern G reek context;h ow ever, m th ls case,th e lnvestlgatlon focu ses on an earller p erlod of con fh ct: 1946- 9. D avld R lcks sh ow s h ow p oets dlstan ced

them selves from H om er,or approach ed H om erfrom a dlstan ce,ln th e context of th e G reek C lvll W ar. :1 learned m y H om er ln A lbanlan clalm ed Z lsslm os L orenzatos,w h lle,ln th e late 1950s,A rlsA lexan drou w arn ed readers about th e dan gers of tran slatln g H om er ln to th e p resent d ay.T h e lssu e:h ere:ls w h eth er on e can escap e th e rep etltlon s of hlstory,an d of th e llteraty tradltlon .P oets slgn al th elr acts of rep etltlon an d at th e sam e tlm e express a yearnlng for dlfferen ce- tb at

thlngs w lll som ehow be dlfferent (as ln R ltzosns Repetktw ns, also dlscussed ln thls chapter), and that the dlstance travelled from H om er m ay actually m ean som ethln g. T h e n ext essay tackles th e problem of dlfferen ce from

perspectlve: that of lilm

an oth er

au dlen ces vlew lng O B rotherj J'krk rp A rt

Thouî(2000) by the C oen Brothers,and M lke Lelgh's N aketl(1993).

Introd uctkon

23

Slm on G oldh lllasks w h eth er H om eric allusion s m atter,and to w h om . C lasslclsts are lm pllcated ln con fh ctln g cultural p olltlcs ln term s of th e w ay m w h lch th ey grade alluslon s.To glve a sp eclE c exam ple:w h at m akes W alcottns *O -m cr-os'59 a classler p un th an L elghns Kl-lom oph o -

bicn (H om erphoblcl?6o The very dlsclpllne of Kclasslcs' has lts ow n com plex relatlon shlp w lth lssues of class: th e n am e of th e dlsclplln e d erlves ultlm ately from th e L atln adlectlve clflssfctfs w h lch orlglnally referred to som eon e from

th e h lgh est of th e live R om an classes.6l

G oldh lll exam ln es th e lm pllclt cultural p olltlcs of th ese E lm lc recep tlon s of th e O dyssey as w ell as th e p ow erful m ythlcal structures th at H o m erlc ep lc co ntln u es to assert over artlstlc rep resentatlo n s of m o d ern exp erlen ce. T he E nal ch apter: by Seth Sch elm offers an expllclt dlscusslon of a

qu estlon th at reverberates through out thls volum e:h ow lnstltutlon al contexts affect th e readlng of H om er.ln partlcular, Scheln focuses on th e p olltlcs of teachlng H om er ln KG reat B ooks' courses at N orth A m erlcan um versltles. A lthou gh th e oth er chapters ln thls volum e

dlscuss free (and loose), creatlve tw entleth-centuty receptlons, they fin d ln them slgnlf cant dlalogu es w lth H om erlc eplc th at reflect an d elucldate ten slon s ln th e p oem snvalue system s an d p oetlcs.C onversely an d p aradoxlcally, Sch elnns stu dy of th e acad em lc receptlon of H om er as lnstltutlon allzed ln KG reat B ooks' courses exp oses a fashlon for on e-dlm en slon al approaches h am p ered by an overt presentlst fram lng. H ls essay questlon s n arratlves of W estern ldentlty an d culturalprogress an d sh ow s how the H om erlc p oem s w ere som etlm es m ade to volce th ose n arratlves on N orth A m erlcan cam p uses. T aken togeth er,th e essays ln th e last sectlon lnvlte u s to lo cate th e h lstorlcal, cultural, an d ln stltutlon al con texts th at h ave sh ap ed our ow n receptlon of H om er.M any of th e contrlbutors ln thls collectlon are classlclsts an d all w ork as acad em lcs ln th e U n lted K ln gd om ,

Fran ce,or th e U n lted States;som e h ave exp erlen ced th e dlff cultles of n egotlatln g dlvergent cultural h erltages ln th elr ow n llves. T h ese

59 Q uoted by H aubold at p 45 For dlscusslons of thls etym ologlcal pun, see D ou gh erty 1997 336, and M elas 2005 158-61 60 See G oldh lll, p 249 C f also P orter 20044 324 on th e place of H om er ln th e cu ltu re w ars of an tlqu lty an d m o dern lty

61 See Sch eln 1999 288 for dlscusslon

24

B arbara G rfyzitm and F rrli/y G reenw ood

clrcum stan ces m form th e story of H om en c receptlon th at w e tell ln th ls b ook .

A t the beglnnlng of the tw enty-érst century,H om erns future looks ln creaslngly com plex an d cosm opolltan : the M artlnlcan n ove1lst P atrlck C h am olseau h as em b arked on a Fran cop h on e C reole verslon

of th e O Jysscy;62 w h lle th e C anadlan w rlter M argaret A tw ood h asJu st

publlshed a m edltatlon on the O dyssey volced by Penelope (2005). Tow ard s th e en d of A tw ood's n ovel, P en elop e reflects on th e w orld ln h ablted by th e reader from th e p ersp ectlve of h er p osltlon ln th e

undetw orld, m uslng on all the dlfferent form s that O dysseus takes w h en h e ls Kreb orn n ln to th e w orld ab ove.P en elop e ls sup p osedly th e

on e ch aracter w h o refuses to drlnk th e w aters of L eth e an d to forget ab out th e p ast.T h ls con celt fun ctlon s as a com m en tary on A tw oo d 's

ow n lm pllcatlon ln th e reblrth of H om er-o dysseu s: as the author b ehln d P en elop ens accoun t,A tw ood strateglcally Kforgetsnelem en ts of H om er ln order to spln h er ow n story.63 T h ere are good H om erlc precedents for th ls kln d of m an oeuvre:already ln th e O dyssey H elen an d M en elaus rem em ber to forget ln order to rew rlte the future.64 W e hope th at thls volum e w lll help read ers to navlgate th e llterary,

cultural,and polltlcallssues ralsed by rem em berlng (and forgettlng) H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tury.

62 W e ow e th ls lnform atlon to L orn a M lln e,a C h am o lseau exp ert at th e U n lverslty o f St A nd rew s 6:5 Fo r a related co ncelt,see 'W alcotfs O m eros w here th e narrator, ln conversatlon

w lth O m eros,clalm s never to have read h1s Qbook'(W alcott 1990 I-vl111 (283) CCC1

never read 1t7' Il sald Qolçotallthe way through 77 Qo-l'he gods and the dem lgods aren'tm uch use to us''$QoForgetthe godsr''O m erosgrowled>Qoand read the rest''' 64 O dyssey 4 2 19- 89

P art 1

P lacin g H om er in th e Tw entieth C entu ry

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c# .

blank

1 H om er after P arry ' .Tradition ,R ecep tion ,an d th e T im eless text Iohannes H aubold

T hls ch apter explores som e of th e w ays ln w hlch tw en tleth -century

classlcal scholars read and studled H om er. M y startlng polnt ls the w ork of M llm an P arry ln th e 1920s an d 1930s: h ls essays m ade a

lastlng contrlbutlon to H om erlc scholarshlp an d had a w lde lnflu en ce ln sh ap ln g tw en tleth -cen tury p ercep tlon s of H om en l M y m aln

con cern w lll be w lth P art'y an d h ls receptlon am on g classlclsts, but

the lssues he ralsed have lm pllcatlons w ell beyon d the n arrow con fin es of classlcs as a dlsclpllne. Part'y ch allenged fam lllar n otlon s of w h at con stltutes a text:h ow m eanlng enters lnto texts,and h ow texts relate to oth er texts across tlm e an d sp ace.Even th e m ost sup erE clal glan ce suggests th at w e cann ot dlvorce hlm an d hls su ccessors from w lder m ovem ents ln tw en tleth -century cultural an d llterary h lstory: for exam ple, th e tltle of T . S. E llot's essay f'Fradltlon an d th e In dlvl-

dual Talent' (1920) could easlly be used to sum m arlze the central concerns raised by Parryns w ork .2 H e en gaged ln a system atlc stu dy of oral eplc p oetry ln order to w ork out, am ong oth er th ln gs, h ow

lndlvldual perform an ces and perform ers related to th e w lder eplc tradltlon w lth ln w hlch th ey op erated .P arry's dlscusslon of H om erlc I am gratefttlto the E dltors,and to those w ho to ok p art ln the con ference on H om er ln the tw en tleth cen turp for thelr h elpful suggestlon s l T he lastln g ln flu ence o f Parry's w o rk ls even m ore rem arkab le lfw e conslder th at

he dled at the age of 33 H 1s essays w ere collected posthum ously and (w here necessary) translated from the French by h1s son Parry 1971 2 E llot 19754

28

Johannes H aubold

ep lc also p oln ts ah ead to th e p o stm o d ern ch allen ges of crltlcs llk e

M lchel Foucault an d Jacques D ern da sln ce,llke th em ,h e called lnto q u estlon som e fun d am en tal attrlb u tes of th e llteraty w ork : th e p os-

slblllty of an ln dlvldual style, th e con cept of auth orshlp, th e very ablllty of w ords to convey m ean ln g. Fln ally, by com p arlng H om erlc w lth Y ugoslav ep lc, P arry an tlclp ated p ostcolon lal m odels of ln tertextuallty as a com pllcated w eb th at sp an s dlverse cultures,m odes of

com m unlcatlon (e.g. the oral and the w rltten w ord), geographles, an d tem p oralltles.3 lf l focus on developm ents w lthln classlcs h ere, th ls ls n ot to d eny th e lm p ortan ce of th o se b ro ad er lssu es. O n th e

con trary, m y alm ls to prep are th e groun d for oth er p ap ers ln th e collectlon w hlch look at th e w lder con text of H om en c recep tlon ln th e tw en tleth century. M y essay focu ses on an asp ect of P arryns w ork w hlch h as n ot yet recelved w ld esp read atten tlon b u t w h lch ls of p artlcular ln terest for a

cultural hlstory of H om er ln th e tw en tleth century :h ls vlew of h ow texts relate to oth er texts; an d th e lm pllcatlon s thls vlew h as for readlng th e w ork of oth er sch olars an d of creatlve w rlters. l suggest th at P arryns n otlon s of th e tradltlon al text n ot on ly affect h ow w e vlew sp eclf c acts of receptlon , su ch as W alcottns com plex evocatlon of a C arlbbean H om er, but m ore gen erally sh ed llght on H om erlc recep tlon ln th e tw entleth century as a process of con stant an d often radlcal textu al an d cultu ral reallgn m en t. Tw entleth -cen tu ry H o m erlc sch olarsh lp h as b equ eath ed u s a curl-

ou s dlch otom y.O n th e on e h an d,H om erlc eplc ls vlew ed as th e lirst ln a lon g gen ealogy of great texts ln th e W estern llterary tradltlon , a gen ealogy w h lch ln clu d es, for ex am p le, V lrgll, D an te, an d M llton .

O n the other,Parr/sw ork on Yugoslav eplc hasopened thew ay to a w ld e ran ge of co m p aratlve stu d les of ep lc p oem s p erform ed arou n d th e w orld .4

C om p aratlve stu dles som etlm es focus on eplcs th at exlst ln w rltten

form (llke the H om erlc poem s them selves) but lnslst that thelr lan gu age ls sh ap ed by m any acts of com p o sltlon an d recom p o sltlon

3 C f th e In trod u ctlo n to th ls volu m e, p p 10- 14, an d H ardw lck ln C h 2

4 See Ford 1997 396 A n em ph asls on the W estern llterary can on can be p ercelved , for exam ple,ln G rlflin 1980 an d R ob ert Fow ler 2004,com p aratlve app roach es to eplc are evld en t ln Lo rd 1960 an d 1995, Foley 2002 an d 20059, M artln 1989 an d 2005

H om erafterParry

29

ln p erform an ce. ln ord er to avold th e m lsleadln g category of Koral ep lc' for p o em s th at are som etlm es w rltten d ow n , sch olars p refer to d escrlb e th em

as Ktrad ltlon alt Y et th at term to o can b e m lsleadln g.

Thls ls how John Foley (1999) attem pts to clarlfy lts use ln H om er's Trad ktkonalA rt:

Thls concept gsc 'tradltlon'l has suffered from m uch m lsunderstandlng ln th e p ast, so 1et m e b e as sp eclfic as posslble ab out 1ts lnten ded u sage ln thls b ook In allu dlng to 'tradltlon'I do n ot refer to th e kln d of ab stractlon th at

w e gllm pse ln term s llke 'llterary tradltlonl ln w hlch m uch of the netw ork of contln ulty ls con stru cted by crltlcs organ lzlng ln dlvldu al texts from an

ou tslder's p ersp ectlve, often w lth th e h elp

of hlstorlcal con text,

docu m en tary evlden ce of ln flu en ce or ln tertextu allts an d th e llke N or do I p olnt tow ard a m on ollthlc m ass, a b aslcally ln ert lnh erltan ce th at on e gen eratlon tran sm lts to th e n ext m th ou t m u ch , lf ans m odlficatlon , thls n otlon of tradltlon as a keep sake or an tlqu e h as b een m u ch crltlclzed, an d w lth Ju stlficatlon N elth er ab stractlon n or m 011011th , th e p oetlc tradltlon u n der exam ln atlon ln thls volum e ls first an d forem ost a language- a sp eclallzed an d hlghly ldlom atlc langu age to b e sure,w lth a focu sed purp ose an d a p artlcu lar content an d con text,b ut n on eth eless a langu age A s su ch , a tradltlon ls alw ays evolvlng w lthln certaln ru les or bou n darles, alw ays provln g a som ew h at dlfferent 'thln g' from on e p erform an ce to an oth er an d from on e p ractltlon er to an oth er 5

T h o se w h o see H om er as b elon gln g to th e classlcal tradltlon an d th o se w h o con sld er h ls p o etry tradltlon al ln Foley's sen se d o n ot alw ays talk to on e an oth er.ln d eed ,so dlfferen t are th elr con cern s th at th ey som etlm es ap p ear to u se th e sam e term s w h lle sp eakln g tw o w h olly dlfferen t lan gu ages: w h lle read ers of H om er as tradltlon al p oetry talk ab o ut form ulalc p attern s, orallty, an d recom p osltlon ln -p erform an ce, th o se w h o stu dy H om er w lth ln th e con text of th e E u rop ean llterary tradltlon are m ore ln terested ln lm ltatlon , ap p ro p rlatlon , an d th e p olltlcs of can on form atlon . ln term s of ln stltu tlon al aë llatlon , too, th e tw o

ap p ro ach es p oln t ln

dlfferen t

dlrectlons.'W hereas the student of H om e/s Ktradltlonal art' (Foley's phrase) gravltates tow ards com paratlve llngulstlcs,6 the study of folklore; an d even cogn ltlve sclen ce,8 th o se ln terested ln H om e/ s

5 Foley 1999 p x11 6 N ap r 1974, 1979, 1990, B akker 1997 7 M ltchell an d N agy 2000 pp xtx-u l 8 B akker 1997, M ln ch ln 200 1

(

30

Johannes H aubold

p lace ln th e W estern llteraty can on ap p ear m ore ln terested ln llterary th eory,g tran slatlon ,lo an d recep tlon stu dles.ll T h ere are obvlo u s p oln ts of con tact b etw een th e tw o cam p s, b ut th e rlft ls real:w ltn ess

th e tw o com p etln g C om p ankons to H om er th at h ave app eared over th e p ast ten years. O n e of th em , th e N pw C om p ankon to H om er p ubllsh ed by B rlll, looks at H om erlc eplc as w h at Foley w ould call tradltlon al p oetry,w hlle T he C am bn dge C om p ankon to H om er expllcltly allgn s ltself w lth th e stu dy of llteratu re an d 1ts recep tlon .tz T h ere are m any factors th at con trlb ute to th e curren t sltu atlon , ln clu dln g gen erlc on es su ch as th e ln creasln g sp eclallzatlon of research ln th e

H um anltles. B ut sh lfts ln th e n ature of academ lc research cann ot b e h eld resp on slble for all asp ects of thls dlsagreem ent over th e kln d of

com pany H om er keeps (A pollonlus,V lrgll, or the Yugoslav bards) an d h en ce w h at kln d of C om p anw n hls p oetry deserves. H ere l w ould llke to slngle out on e p oln t th at seem s to m e of p artlcular ln terest ln th e con text of th e presen t collectlon :th e uses of th e term s Ktradltlon n an d Krecep tlon n. B roadly sp eakln p lt seem s th at tw o sh lfts are cu rren tly u n d er w ay. A n arrow fo cu s on oral ep lc ls ln creasln gly b eln g rep laced by an ln terest ln trad ltlon al p oetry

m ore broadly defin ed .l3 M eanw hlle,m on ollthlc vlew s of th e classlcal tradltlon as em b o dled by th e great auth ors of th e W estern llterary

can on are belng replaced by an ln terest ln th e receptlon of classlcal llterature w ell beyon d th e conf n es of llterature or th e W est.14 W h at rem aln s to b e w orked o u t ls th e relatlon sh lp b etw een th ese em ergln g

dlscourses of tradltlon an d receptlon . A t lirst slght, th ere ls llttle evld en ce of ln teractlon or com m un lcatlon : on ce agaln , th e tw o

recen t C om p ankons to H om er lllustrate th e p oln t. T h e C am bn dge

Com pankon to H om er devotes one substantlal sectlon (com prlslng 9 P u ccl 1987: Lyn n G eorge 1988: P erad otto 1990: G old h lll 199 1

10 M ason 1972, Stelner an d D ykm an 1996 and 2004, H ardw lck 2000 11 H ardw lck 2003, R ob ert Fow ler 2004 12 M o rrls an d P ow ell 1997 an d R ob ert Fow ler 2004 See th e ln tro d u ctlon ,p 5 w lth n

l3

13 Foley 1999 1) xtl,quoted at p 29 For allthat M llm an Parry started from an ln terest ln H om er's tradltlon al style b efore m ovlng on to the com paratlve study of o ral ep lc,h 1s lm m ed late su ccessors w ere partlcu larly con cern ed w lth o rallty C u rren t H om erlc scholarshlp adop ts m ore flextble n otlon s of tradltlon w hlch straddle th e dlvlde b etw een oral an d w rltten texts,see Fo ley 1999, Scodel 2002 14 C f In trod u ctlon , p p l- 2

H om erafterParry

31

elghtchapters) to t'l-he Receptlons ofH om ertisBy contrast,TheN pw C om pankon to H om er publlshed by B rlll an d edlted by 1.M orrls and B . Pow ell, offers n o few er th an five ch ap ters on asp ects of H om er's

tradltlonallanguage,as w ellas John Foley's m ore w lde-ranglng essay entltled Ko ral Tradltlon an d 1ts Im pllcatlon stl6 A t a very gen eral level, tradltlon an d receptlon both have to do w lth h ow w e con cep tuallze th e relatlon sh lp betw een texts over tlm e, th ough of course the tw o term s m ean dlfferent thln gs: w h ereas

Ktradltlonn em phaslzes w hat ls handed dow n (Latln tradere),reception starts from w hat ls recelved (Latln rctupcrc).A s l have already p oln ted out, tradltlon and receptlon also have dlfferent tralectorles ln th e h lstory ln acad em lc sch olarsh lp . A lth ou gh receptlon studles dlstan ce them selves from n arrow definltlon s of llterature, thelr em ph asls ls stlll on creatlve resp on ses to can on lcal w ork s of llterature.i; C onversely, w hlle an lnterest ln the tradltlon al language of eplc ls obvlously relevant to the stu dy of llterature,th e concept of tradltlon n ow seem s to be of partlcular lnterest to students of hum an culture an d soclety.l8 W lthln th e field of classlcs, tradltlon an d tradltlonally are m ost lnslstently dlscussed by H om erlsts. W h at seem s to be at stake ln the dlfferent dlscourses of tradltlon an d receptlon ls not m erely th e relatlon sh lp betw een texts: but also th e n ature an d status w e attrlbute to th ose texts. Tw en tleth -cen tury

H om erlc sch olarshlp , l argu e,developed 1ts ow n dlscourses of tradltlon an d recep tlon p reclsely ln th e con text of sh lftln p an d often confllctlnp p erceptlon s of H om erlc eplc as a text.T h e seeds of th ls d evelopm ent w ere already sow n In th e w ork of M llm an P arry, an d

l th erefore b egln by conslderlng h ow and w hy h e developed hls ldea of a trad ltlon al text agaln st a very dlfferen t m od el of creatlve recep -

tlon . l th en con slder som e of th e w ays ln w hlch P arry's approach d evelop ed ln th e course of th e cen tuty an d w hy lt proved to be 170th ln flu en tlal an d con tested .

1, R o bert Fow ler 20t)4 p art 5

16 SeeH orrockson Ql-lom er'sD lalect'(193-217),Russo on Q'rhellorm ula'(238-60), Edw ards on 'H om erlc Style and ''O ralPoetlcs''7 (261-83),Bakker on C'I'he Study of H om ertc D tscourse'(284-304),Kahane on Qo uantlfp ng Eplc'(326.-42) 17 e g M achor and G old steln 200 1,H ard w lck 2003 id See e g H obsbaw m and R anger 1983,and the host of publlcatlons on lnven tcd tradltlo ns that have appeared slnce

32

Johannes H aubold

M y story, th en , starts w lth M llm an P arty an d hls dlstln ctlon b etw een tradltlon al an d u n tradltlon al typ es of p o etry. P arryns w orks are easlly accesslble, so 1 can be br1ef.19 Tradltlon al po etry, for P arry, w as d ef n ed by certaln ln n ate p rop ertles w h lch can n ot b e red u ced to ln d lvld u al ch olce, or to h lstorlcal or cultu ral clrcum stan ce. So:

H om erlc p oetty ls tradltlon al n ot becau se lt exp resses th e genlu s of

a partlcular people or because lt w as h eld ln great and en durlng esteem through tlm e; rath er, lt ls tradltlon al becau se lt em p loys a

tradltlonalstyle.Form ulalc phrases such as bkob-'O jtptzov/ç (Kbrllllant O dysseus') or ' rroA/zzttç t ' iioq no bvaowLb- (tm uch-sufferlng brllllant O dysseusn) sen re as bulldlng blocks w hlch enable the bard to tell hls story com p eten tly but w lth out p erform lng an act of llterary creatlon . P arry fam ou sly con trasted h ls ln terp retatlon of H om er's tradltlon al style w lth w h at h e saw

as th e un tradltlon al style of

A pollonlus an d V lrgll. A t a supel clal level, those poets can seem rather slm llar to H om er yet, un llke H om er: they use language ln con sclou s an d creatlve resp on se to earller m odels, above all H om er h lm self. P arry rep eatedly rem arked on th e orlgln allty of A p ollon lu s ln p artlcu lar. A p ollon lu s, for h lm , created See M yrlck 1993 for general background and for detalled study of Togatl T' rm , the m ed ëeval Irlsh verslon of D ares,D e exa dto Trotae hv torta 4 Text ln M eyer 1958, tran slatlon ln M eyer l886 C f M yrlck 1993 78-9 w lth fu rth er b lbllography

76

R w hard M artkn

For students of the tw entleth centu ty the stoty of H om er am ong th e lrlsh lnvarlably has centred on a slngle book, publlshed on the auth o/ s fortleth blrth day ln 1922,sp ortln g a cover b edecked w lth th e

blue an d w hlte of the G reek flag.Yet Joyce's U lysses ls only part of the story; an oth er lrlsh n arratlve can b e told aroun d th e m argln of th at rem arkable p allm p sest,b u t on ly p artlally as a glo ss on lt.A n arratlve

ln lts ow n rlgh t,lt offers a com p etln g vlew of h ow H om er ln th e early tw entleth century w as recelved , represented , and rem ad e, com ple-

m entlng th e m ore fam ous Km ythlcal m ethodn of Joyce, Seferls, and oth er H lgh M oderm st resh ap ers of th e H om erlc h erltage.s T h e cen tral ch aracters are a p erlp atetlc lrlsh w rlter an d a qu arter-lrlsh

Engllsh don . T h e lirst m an Joyce hlm self knew an d ln U lysses fo un d occaslon to p arod y h ls style. T h e oth er w on a sch olarsh lp to

K ln g's C ollege, C am brldge, ln th e year th at U lysses w as p ubllsh ed : w antlng to stu dy lrlsh th ere, h e h ad to settle for hls secon d ch olce,

C lasslcs.T here are plenty of slgnlé can t contrasts betw een th ese tw o

m en- the dram atlst John M llllngton Synge an d the scholar G eorge D erw ent T hom son . T he curlous resem blan ce th at brlngs th em to gether ls the w ay ln w hlch thelr con sclousn ess of H om er and the h erolc tradltlon w as declslvely sh ap ed by th elr exten ded vlslts to

sm all lslan ds off the w est coast of lreland. T he resp on ses of these tw o E gu res h ave a m ore th an local slgn lf can ce,for th ey en cap su late,

resp ectlvely,tw o m odes of h an dlln g th e H om erlc m odel,m odes th at ap p eared through out th e tw entleth cen tury an d are stlllw lth u s m ore gen erally tod ay.W e m lgh t call th em Klm p orf an d Kexp ort'.

M y tltle m entlons Yeats, w ho of course deserves (and has got) w hole books devoted to hls C lasslcal reson ances.6 B ut 1 shall do th at great m an th e dlsservlce of usln g hlm h ere only as an em blem an d an ecd ote. A s an em blem , let hlm

stan d for th e lirst m od e

Ju st m entlon ed, th e lm p ort. T h lnk of such verses ln T he G reen

H elm et and O ther Poem s (1910) as A W om an H om er Sung'or fN o Second Troylthe latter celebratlng a beauty Knotn aturalln an age llke

thls Ibelng hlgh and solltary and m ost sternt Os from the sam e 5 T he m ethod w as first ldentlfied by Ellot ln an essay on Joyce ln 1923,reprlnted ln E llot 19754 175-8 For an extended analysls of the m ethod ln the w ork of Seferls, see K eeley 1983 68- 84 6 See e g A rk tn s 1990

H om er am ong the frs /l

77

collectlon, Kpeacel w lth 1ts openlng lam ent A h, that Tlm e could

touch a form lthat could show what H om e/s age tbred to be a h erons w aget? W h at H om er rep resen ts for Y eats ls a lo st ep o ch , a

greater age w hen herolc m en and w om en (and,by lm pllcatlon,thelr devoted cllent bards) held sw ay.There are strong undercurrents of n ostalgla for th e arlstocratlc p ast of hls ow n A n glo -lrlsh ascen d ancy class.B u t p rlm arlly th ls v lslo n sees ln th e p resent-d ay lro n A ge rellcs

of a m ore dlstant G old.Joyce,w ho had no such class fantasles,w ould

turn thls to an advantage and lronlze (so to speak) hls sltuatloneven suggestlng th at th e H om erlc h ero w as at h eart b aslcally a B loom , an d th e age of O dysseu s m ade of baser m etal th an w e w ould llke to lm agln e.8 For Y eats, h ow ever, th e G olden A ge stlll ten uously exlsted, llke th ose gh osts h e w as alw ays trylng to ralse at h ls sean ces. lt served to en oble th ose few contem p orarles an d represen tatlve typ es w h om h e con sld ered w orthy. T h e KW om an H om er Sun g' becam e lm m ortal becau se Yeats, th e latter-day bard, san g h er as w ell.H elen ,M au d G onn e,A ch llles,R ob ert G regory- th e featu res are h ard to dlstln gulsh ln th e C eltlc twullt h aze.R om an tlc bardolatry, O sslanlc dream s, n oble savagery, an d p easan t w lsd om - th e w h ole syn drom e,elegan tly com pressed ,em erges ln th e m ln d of early Yeats.g

T he poet km p orts- ïje takes H om er to lreland an d bestow s hlm llke a blessln g on th e select fem h ls frlen d s an d h eroes. N ow , w h eth er Yeats taugh t Syn ge thls m ode, or th e oth er w ay rou n d :ls stlll an op en questlon . It h as been argu ed, by B ush rul, th at lt w as Synge w h o brought Yeats to greater aw aren ess of th e folk as th e ldeal audlen ce of th e slm ple an d un corrupted .lo A n d D eborah

7 C lted from Yeats 1983 89-92 Yeats seem s aw are th at h1s rom an tlc H om erlzln g ls old fashloned ln th e early tw en tleth centu ry C f h1s w ry rem ark ln the 1905 preface

to Synge's The J. ' k' c//of theSatnts,reprlnted m Yeats 1924 375 C1fH om erw ere allveto d ay,he w ou ld only reslst,after a d ellberate struggle,th e tem p tatlon to fin d h 1s subyect n ot ln H elen's beau ty,that every m an has d eslred ,no r ln the w lsd om and end ttrance o f O dysseu s,that h as been th e deslre of every w om an that h as com e ln to th e w orld ,

but ln w hat som ebody w ould descrlbe, perhaps, a. s Qothe lnevltable contest'l arlslng o ut o f econ om lc causes, betw een the coun try places an d sm all tow ns on the one h an d, an d, up on th e other, th e great clty of Troy,representlng on e k n ow s not w h at Qoten den cy to cen trallzatlon '''

8 See M lnta,C h 4 on Joyce's provocatlve adm lratlon for O dyssetfs flaw s 9 A p rob m g analysls of th e m txtu re of m flu en ces is B oyd 19 87,see also Flem m g 199 5 55- 75

10 B u shru l 1972

78

R w hard M artkn

Flem ln g th ln ks th at Syn ge hlm self b ecam e for Yeats an lm age of th at very ldeal- tA m an w h o does n ot exlst, a m an w h o ls but a dream lll

A ccordlng to Yeats, how ever, w lthout h1s ow n lnfluen ce lohn M lll1n gton Syn ge w ould n ever h ave fou n d h ls tru e sublect.A s Yeats later

recalled,he had m et Synge ln a student hostelln the Latln Q uarter of P arls ln D ecem b er of 1896.Syn ge w as 25,Y eats slx years old er.tl sald KKG lve u p P arls,you w lll n ever create anyth ln g by readln g R acln e, an d

A rth ur Sym on s w ll1 alw ays be a better crltlc of Fren ch llterature. G o to th e A ran lslan ds. L lve th ere as lf you w ere on e of th e p eople them selves, express a llfe that h as never found expresslon .'n712 W e are m eant to lm agln e a d lrect tralectoty from th e m asterns

com m and to the creatlon of The J'UPP of the Saknts, Playboy of the J'kr ésrérrrl J'O /-JJ, and R kders to the Sea. Yet w e m lght w on der w h eth er Yeatsns brllllan t talen t for self-fash lonlng h as n ot obscured som e of the w lndlngs of th e story h ere. T h lngs are m ore com pllcated, an d H om er, lt can b e argued ,has an lm portant role. It h as been ln suë clently appreclated because lt w as n ever op enly declared , and that: l suggest,w as by deslgn .Synge, one m u st rem em b er,w as th e op p o slte of Y eats w h en lt cam e to d ram at-

lzlng th e self.l: P erh ap s h e later foun d lt conven len t to go along w lth Y eatsns m yth ologlzln g. A t any rate, th ere are lnd lcatlons th at Synge

w as prepared before m eetlng Yeats to plunge Into the llfe of slm pler folk,and yet dld n ot do so untll a year and a h alf after th e alleged llfech an gln g d lrectlve.ln 1896, Syn ge's m oth er rem arked ln a letter th at

Johnnle w ent to Parls Kto study soclallsm n- n ot qulte the effete aesthete that Yeats conlures up .14 A lso, som e m onth s before h e m et Yeats, Synge h ad becom e acq ualn ted ln P arls w lth an oth er Irlshm an w h o w ould b e h ls llfelon g frlen d .Steph en M aclçen n a,a year youn ger th an Synge, w as an arden t n atlon allst.ls A s w lth Synge, hls m alor w ork lay a decade or so ah ead of hlm :th e great E n gllsh tran slatlon of

the E nneads of Plotlnus, a translatlon that w ould ln turn feed the om nlvorous Yeats ln h ls n eo -14 aton lst ph ase. M ore lm m edlately

11 Flem ln g 1995 8, exten d ln g an Ob servatlon by D eclan K lb erd 12 Y eats 1924 370

13 Qsynge w as a great m ystery solltary,detached:over educatedyw atchfttl; ln the w ord s of Tolb ln 2002 59 14 Saddlem yer 1983 7 15 yo r b rlef b lo graphs see lb ld 57 n l

H om er am ong the frs /y

79

relevan t, M acK en n a ln 1897 b ecam e a m od el for h ow on e p uts ln to actlon a sch olarly love.H ls p asslon for all th ln gs G reek led h lm th at

year to Joln an lntern atlon al brlgad e E ghtln g for H ellenlc dem ocracy agaln st th e Turks. ln th e survlvln g letters betw een th e p alr, n elth er Syn ge n or M acK en n a elab orates on th e m otlves for th ls rath er B yron esqu e m ove. Yet h ls clo sest frlen d ns en ergetlc ex am p le can h ardly h ave b een lo st on th e w rlter w h o stayed b eh ln d ln P arls.

T h e secon d slgnlh can t event, ln m y reckonln p w as academ lc: Syn ge on 18 Febru ary 1898, en rolled ln a cou rse at th e Sorb on n e

taught by the lnfluentlal C eltlclst H enrl D 'A rbols de Jubalnvllle

(1827-1910).16 The course, w hlch w as w rltten up for publlcatlon th e n ext year, w as entltled K'l'h e clvlllzatlon of lrelan d com p ared w lth th at of H om er'. T h e p ubllsh ed verslon sh ow s a typlcally th orough an d sym p ath etlc m ln d w orklng through th e evlden ce of ln do E u rop ean p arallels,m aterlalcultu re,an d verb alart.17 Syn ge's n otes for th e co urse survlve ln th e archlves of h ls alm a m ater, Trln lty C ollege, D u blln .T h e m an u scrlp t sh elf 11st ln dlcates th at h e later u sed th e sam e

notebook to record hls lm presslons of Gllbert M urrayns H kstory of G reek f-ifpm ft/ra l8 T h ls sld e of Syng e- th e C lasslclst- h as u su ally

b een suppressed by th e n atlvlst con cern to w rap up lrlsh auth ors ln

the green flag (rather than G reek w hlte-and-blue).Butseveralsources attest to h ls ablllty at G reek ;lt w as ln th e fam lly, h ls m atern al gran d -

father h avlng been a tran slator of Josephus.lg A n d Flon a M aclntosh h as draw n attentlon to Syn gens college G reek stu dles,as w ell as to th e m any p arallels betw een hls dram as an d G reek tragedy.zo

16 Ibld p x.xl K lb erd 1979 32-7 traces Syn ge's ln terest ln Com paratlve m yth o logy an d lln gu lstlcs to thls cou rse an d read ln g o f the sch olar's w orks Syn ge later

revlew ed translatlons of h1s Irtsh M ythologtcal Cycle (Speaker, 2 A prll 1904) and

Cuchulltn of M utrthem ne (Speaker,7 June 1902) Skelton 1971 48 17 A rbols de Jubalnvllle l899

18 M S 4378,Trlnlty College D ublln,contalns the notes see Synye 1971 40-1 19 G reen e an d Steph ens 1989 4 R obert Tralll,th e fath er of Syn ge's m oth er,dled ln 1847 of fam ln e fever S Syn ge 193 1 l38 n otes that the future playw rlght k new G reek w ellan d n ever falled an exam ln lt T h e Trln lty C ollege en tran ce exam b o oks show h e d 1d w ellln the G reek vw flfor h1s m ld su m m er m atrlcu latlon ln l888 see Syn ge 1959 35

20 See M aclntosh 1995 3 n 12 for the evldence ln Synge's notebooks (esp h1s references to readlng H om er ln 1892-3) and passtm for parallels betw een Synge's d ram as an d G reek tragedles For Syn ge's P layboy as an lnverted verslo n of O edtp us the K tng see fttrther C on ach er 1969

80

R w hard M artkn ln sh ort, Syn ge,w lth a u n lverslty kn ow led ge of H om er an d of th e

lrlsh lan gu age,w ou ld h ave b een w ell p rlm ed to ap p reclate A rb ols d e

Jubalnvlllens teachlng.zl Itls perhaps not accldentalthat ltw as exactly w h en h ls H om er class en d ed , ln sp rln g 1898, th at Syn ge to ok th e m om en to u s step of vlsltln g th e A ran lslan d s off th e coast of G alw ay for th e first tlm e.O ver th e co urse of th e n ext fou r years,h e w ou ld go on to sp en d a total of fo u r an d a h alf m on th s th ere,m o stly on th e less d evelop ed m ld dle lslan d , ln lsh m aan .H e sum m ed u p th e exp erlen ce

ln hls prose w ork T he A ran Islands, to w hlch l turn now . O ne footn ote before that, though : A rbols D e Jubalnvllle, w lth w hom Syn ge w ould go on to study O ld lrlsh ln 1902, w ould h ave been

acqualnted w lth (and probably taught)A ntolne M elllet (1866-1936), w h o recelved h ls d octorate from n lce accld en tal sym m etty

th e Sorb on n e ln

1897. ln a

M elllet, w h o w ould b ecom e th e leadln g

ln d o -E u rop ean lst of h ls gen eratlon , som e tw en ty years later advlsed a yo un g A m erlcan ,w h om h e m et ln P arls, to lm m erse h lm self ln th e son g tradltlon s of Y ugo slavla, as a test for h ls n ew ly m ln ted th esls ab ou t th e trad ltlon aln atu re of H om erlc p oetry.22 It w o uld b e fan clfu l to lm agln e th at M elllet h ad Synge ln m ln d w h en h e coun selled th e yo un g M llm an P arry. B u t l am

sure b oth A n glo -lrlsh m an

an d W elsh -A m erlcan w ou ld b e d ellgh ted lf th ey co u ld h ave seen a later gen eratlon of lrlsh sch olars, ln clu dln g K evln O 'N olan an d G eorge H uxley, ap p ly th e results of P arryns E eldw ork to lrlsh h erolc n arratlv e s.z3

Syn gens b o ok on th e A ran lslan d s,vlew ed ln on e w ay,ls an ln ten slve exerclse ln N ln eteen th -cen tury n ovellstlc reallsm .A n oth er m lgh t see lt as p ostm o d ern eth n ograp hy, w lth th e su blect exp llcltly em b ed d ed ln th e ob servatlon s.Syn ge h lm self sen d s slgn als b oth th ese w ays- h e obvlo u sly h as th e n otlon of collectln g folk tales w h en h e arrlves, an d m ak es o ccaslon al dlgresslon s ab o ut ln d o -E u rop ean tale-typ es.zzl Y et th e b o oks h e bro u gh t w lth h lm

w ere by th e lo cal c0101. 11-1st

P lerre L ôtl, Flaub ert, a llfe of M aup assan t, an d D an te G abrlel

21 In 1892,alongslde H om er,he read the Chtldren offs/rand D tarm utd and Granta ln lrlsh G reen e an d Step h en s 1989 30 22 Fo r M elllet's ln flu en ce on P arry, see L am b erterle 1997 23 O 'N olan 1968 an d 1969, H u xley 1969 19 1- 6 24 G reen e an d Step h en s 1989 84, 9 1- 3

H om er am ong the frs /l

81

R ossettl.25 M y suggestlon ls for a thlrd vlem a m otlve ofw hlch Synge w as p erh ap s on ly h alf-con sclous:hls A ran book ls a p ralse-p oem ln p rose,h erolzlng th e m en an d w om en ofA ran ,through an lm pllclt but con stan t com p arlson w lth th e w orld of H om erlc ep lc. Syn ge's su r-

n am e supp osedly com m em orated a slxteen th -centuty an cesto/ s vocal ablllty; through hls m ln or ep lc of A ran , Syn ge grow s ln to th e role an d b ecom es th e oral b ard , a sln ger.

A close readln g of each H om er-tlnged eplsode ln th e book w ould take som e tlm e.L et m e p oln t to th e m ore slgn lf can t.Flrst,th ere ls th e

m eetlng w lth th e old m an w h o w ould be hls lrlsh teach er for aw hlle on lnlshm ore- a blln d m an , full of storles, w h o h ad on ce kn ow n th e fath er of O scar W llde. KA s w e talked,n w rltes Syn ge, Kh e sat h uddled togeth er over th e fire,sh aklng an d blln d ,yeth ls face w as lnd escrlb ably p llan t, llghtln g up w lth an ecstasy of h um our w h en h e told m e anythlng th at h ad a p olnt of w lt or m allce, an d grow ln g som bre an d d esolate agaln w h en h e sp oke of rellglon or th e falrles.726 T h e falrles,lt tu rn ed o ut, h ad stolen on e of th e m an ns ch lldren years ago . Syn gens

en counter w lth h ls blln d gulde ls hls en tryw ay lnto an archalc w orld . A few days later,h e says,Kas th e old m an talked contln u ally ofth e falrles an d th e w om en th ey h ave taken , lt seem ed th at th ere w as a p osslble lln k b etw een th e w lld m yth ology th at ls accepted on th e lslan d an d th e stran ge b eau ty of th e w om en .727 Syn ge w as alw ays su scep tlb le to th e

fem lnln e; h e seem s h ere ready to belleve ln h alf-dlvln e fem ales, lrlsh nym ph s, an d by exten slon ,nym ph olep sy.H e seem s, also, at th e very start of hls vlslts to h ave looked on th e face of a local H om er. W h en h e m oved on to th e sm aller ln lshm aan , ln search of m ore p n m ltlve atm o sp h ere, Syn ge fo u n d h lm self ln a w orld w h ere even

tlm e w as dlfferen t.A galn ,h e does n ot m en tlon H om er,b ut th e detall h e n otlces are preclsely of th e sort th at w ould occur to on e w h o h ad

read of the Koxen-looslng hourl or slm llar H om erlc expresslons.O n lnlshm aan , th e w ln d con trolled th e reckon lng of tlm e, cau slng p eople to op en south -facln g d oors, at certaln p erlod s, w h lch th en m ad e th elr d oor-p o st ln to sun dlals.28 I w on d er,also,w h eth er Syn ge&s

25 Ib ld

89 an d skelto n 197 1 25

26 syn ge 1992 6 27 Ib ld 10 28 Ib ld 22

82

R w hard M artkn

ln ten se ob servatlon of th e fun eral lam en ts of A ran w om en , th e

caokneadh, w ould h ave been so d etalled h ad h e n ot been prep ared

by slm llar scenes m H om er (e.g.Ihad 24.719-75).KEach old w om am as sh e to ok h er turn ln th e leadln g recltatlve, seem ed p o ssessed for th e m om en t w lth a p rofo un d ecstasy of grlef,sw ayln g to an d fro,an d

b en dln g h er foreh ead to th e ston e before h es w hlle sh e called out to th e dead w lth a p erp etually recurrln g ch an t of sobs,nh e w rltes.T hls keen lng h e ln terprets as a breakthrough of th e lslan dersn lnn er con sclou sn ess: K'l-h ey are u su ally sllent, b ut ln th e presen ce of death all outw ard sh ow of ln dlfferen ce or p atlen ce ls forgotten , an d th ey sh rlek w lth p ltlable desp alr before th e h orror of th e fate to w h lch th ey are all doom ed .729 T h e attltud e ls lm pllcltly vlew ed as preC hrlstlan , even h erolc. A slm llar com bln atlon of sllen ce follow ed by a p asslon ate o u tbu rst o ccu rs w h en som e d ays later a ten an t ls evlcted ,w lth th e collu slon of a traltoro u s yo un g m an w h o h ad tu rn ed

p ollce ln form er. A fter lt w as over, th e m anns m oth es stan dln g on a rock n ear th e b o at sllp , sh ook h er fist an d b egan w h at Syn ge calls Ka

é erce rh ap sody ln G aellct Sh e Kgave an account of hls llfe, coloured w lth a vln dlctlve fury l can n ot rep ro d u ce. A s sh e w en t on th e excltem en t b ecam e so ln ten se l th ou gh t th e m an w ou ld b e ston ed b efore h e co uld get b ack to h ls cottage.n3o It ls n ot h ard to see h ow

th ese Km agnlf cen t w ords an d gesturesn w ould be tran sferred w h ole ln to Synge's dram as; less obvlous, p erh ap s, ls th e m y thlc tem p late,

fatally curslng m others llke that of M eleager ln the Ihad (9.566-71). O n ce agaln , lt ls n ever stated ; It Is a m atter of focallzatlon , of w hy som e scen es en ter Syn gens cam era w h lle oth ers fall to ap p ear. T h e cam era ls m ore th an a m etap h os by th e w ay, for th ls style: Syn ge m ad e th e lirst p h otograp h s ever on th e lslan d s,as w ell as ln tro d u cln g

to th e A ran p eople, so lt seem s, th at arkhë kakön, th e first alarm clo ck . T h ere are oth er vlgn ettes th at on e w h o h as read th e Ihad an d O dyssey w lll p au se over: th e m an ln ln lsh eer, th e u gllest Syn ge h ad

seen, w ho turns out to be the w lttlest at repartee (a Thersltes?);

29 G reene and Steph en s 1989 3 l, on co m m o n trop es and behefs m lrtsh and G reek lam en t, an clent an d m odern , see M artln 2003 O n th e lam en t tradltlon an d Syn ge's later u se of h 1s A ran exp erlen ce of lt ln h 1s d ram as, see B o u rke 2000 30 Syn ge 1992 46-7

H om er am ong the frs /l

83

prophetlc dream s and apparltlons before death (the dream of A gam em non; the death of Patroclus, om ens ln the O dysseyî); the suprem e catastrophenof any outrage to the fam lly hearth (the xenka them e, O dysseus ln Phaeacla?). Synge notes the contlnual danger K

from w ln d an d w ave th at m akes lt Klm p osslble for clum sy fo olh ardy or tlm ld m enn to llve on A ran an d agaln n otlces th at each m an of ,

A ran ls a skllled E sh erm an , can m an age a curragh, can farm , burn kelp, m ake sh oes, cradles, coflin s, an d b ulld an d th atch a h ou se- a d evelopm en t,h e says,th at glves th e p eople m uch of th elr ln telllgen ce

and charm .3l W ere w e to translate thls lntelllgence lnto G reek m Ltks w ould surely be th e w ord for lt,an d O dysseus lts em blem - h e seem s n ever far from Syn gens m ln d .32

T he rlsk, of course, ls that w e assum e too m uch w as on hls m ln d

.

A n d som eon e m lght oblect th at Syn ge's fallure to m entlon H om er m ean s h e w as notreally u sln g ep lc as a fram e at all H e d o es m en tlon .

H om er several tlm es ln h ls varlous essays an d revlew s, so th ere ls

evldence he took A rbols de JubalnvllleRs parallels to heart B ut th e .

sllen ce ls ltself slgn lf can t as a w ay of h an dlln g th e H om erlc Klm p orf .

For to m ake expllclt any an alogles w ould dam age Syn ge's p rolect ln several w ays. Flrst, h e clearly requlres th at th e tradltlon s h e cltes be

anonym ous, the volce of the folk com lng stralght from the soll. T h us, even w h en h e sp en ds tlm e w rltln g dow n a dozen p ages of on e old m anns songs, Synge falls to glve us a fact h e surely m ust h ave ellclted ,th e m an ns n am e To n am e H om er w ould b e n ot on ly to .

sound too hlgh-class (and hls self-presentatlon ls never that of the scholar). Besldes, lt w ould also m ake G reek poetry less of a folk art, less an onym o us. In addltlon , w e m ust take ln to account th e ten se envlronm en t ln w hlch Synge w as w rltlng: on th e on e h an d ,

th ere h ad already b een rldlculo u s exaggeratlon s m ad e ab o ut th e

slm llarlty of G reek to G aelby p eople llke th e am ateur 1lngulst A tkln s

w ho clalm ed G reek and Latln w ere but dlalects of C eltlc,an d Stan d -

1sh O nGrady,w ho ln 1881 ln h1s H lstory of Ireland asserted:&) A n gelop oulos first read H om erns w orks at school, as m o st G reeks

stlll do today, although n ow largely through m odern G reek translatlon s.H e told u s ln lntervlew th at h e d1d n ot llke H om er at th at tlm e, b ut th at later on h e reallzed h ow m u ch G reek culture ow es to th e H om erlc eplcs, esp eclally th e O dyssey.s T h e first p art of hls career

(from The ReconstructlonlA naparastassk ln 1970 to The H unters/l Jf' yrlig/l; ln 1977) w as m ostly lnfluenced by the O resteka; references to the O dyssey first becam e obvlous ln hls 1984 film

vt 'lyugér to

Cythera.ln A ngelopoulosns w ork antlqulty never appears as a dlrect source, for h e constantly tran sform s anclent them es ln to m odern on es, often com blnlng th em w lth contem porary polltlcal references: ln J'byflgp to C ythera, for exam ple, th e O dyssey ls a filter th rough w hlch A ngelop oulos vlew s th e return of a form er com m un lst to hls h om elan d after a 30-year exlle ln th e U SSR .4 A ngelopoulos thus ad opts a very dlfferen t stan ce tow ards an tlqulty from th at of oth er G reek film -m akers such as C acoyanm s.s H e ts deeply lntlu en ced by

m odern w rlters w h o h ave th em selves rew rltten the O dyssey ln th elr

ow n w ork:D ante,Joyce,Ellot, Seferls, and, arguably, Proust- w ho, 2 E ades and Letoublon 19994, 19999, and 1999:, E ades, Letoublon , and R ollet

(2002),Letoublon and Eadesln D em opoulos(2003) Seealso Letoublon (forthcom lng) 3 T he ln tervlew s w lth A ngelopoulos w ere conducted durlng the perlod 1994-2003 (n several d tfferen t lo catto n s

4 For a slm llar use ofthe O dyssey cf Qpenelope's D espalr'(1968)by Yannls Rltsos, dlscussed by R lcksy pp 243- 4

5 A nttgone (1961) and Elektra (1962),starrlng lrene Papas,are the m ost fam ous exam ples of C acoyannls7s adaptatlons of anclent G reek tragedy See Solom on 201)1 260- 7

2 12

F rançokse L etou blon

ln Rem em brance of Thkngs Past, offers a beautlful rew rltlng of the H om erlc N ekuka, very far from B lochns p ath etlc H om erlsm s.6 O th er film lc ad aptatlon s also n eed to be con sldered : th e N ekuka ls an lm p ortant th em e ln th e w ork of oth er film -m akers as w ell as th at of A ngelop oulos.; lt seem s th at, ln A n gelop oulosns n arratlves, th e th em e of Kth e vlslt

to th e und erw orld'first em erged w hen h e turn ed to H om er,after h1s

ç'l-raglc'perlod w here he resorted m ostly to A eschylean references (as ln,for exam ple, The Travelhng Players (1974/5),a film w hlch establlshed hls reputatlon ln Europe).A s stated earller,references to the O dyssey an d the N ekuka seem to have first appeared ln J'r tlyflgér to

Cythera (ln the form of a few subtle alluslonsl.8 They becam e m ore frequent and expllclt ln U lysses'G aze (1995) and Eternkty and a D ay (1998). Flnally, the figure of O rpheus, w ho ls also lm portant for A n gelop oulos's con ceptlon of th e un derw orld ,ls dlscreetly evoked ln

hls m ost recent t'ilm , The W eepkng M eadow (2004).9 Let u s begln w lth th e elem ents of O dysseusnvlslt to the un den vorld w hlch seem essentlalto A ngelopoulos's lnterpretatlon of the m yth :lo @ T he dep arture polnt ls the countty of the C lm m erlan s, çw h o n ever

see the sunlll a country subm erged ln fog and perm anent darkness. * A ccess to the W orld of Shadow s ls provlded by a n etw ork of rlvers, ln a d am p atm osph ere,located ln the w est w here the sun dlsappears every even ln g .lz

6 O n Proust's N ekuta, see Letoublon and Fralsse 1997 G regson D avls dlscusses

the dlstlnctlve form taken by the Journey to the underw orld (katabasts) ln the C arlbb ean trad ltlon and argues that lt ls lnform ed by n eo A frlcan cosm ology, as w ell as N ear E astern ep lc C h 8 ab ove

7 Eades 2002 231.-45 H oltsm ark (2001) focuses on w esterns,thrëllers,sclence fk tlon m ovles and film s on the V letnam W ar 170th authors d eal ln partlcu lar w lth C op po la's A p ocalypse N pw 8 O n the N ekuta ln kbyfl.g' c to Cythera, see R ollet 2003 esp 65- 8,and 142- 55 9 In thls t'ilm ,the protagonlst's father hears hls son play the accordlon and says to

hlm self 'thls young m an could m ove the trees w lth h1s m uslcl w hlch can be con sld ered an ob vlo us alluslon to O rph eu s T h e acco rd 1on 1st ls d eterm ln ed to retrleve h1s beloved several clu es suggest th at h1s qu est ls p artly cast as a vlslt to

the underw orld 10 M any of these elem ents are also part of the O rphlc D escent and R eturn See Strau ss 1971 and B runel 1974 11 B oltanl 1994 l3,Qper um bram ad um bras' 12 Ib ld

14

T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nflcrw tlrlfl

2 13

* T h e u nd etw orld ls lnh ablted by w an derln g souls, of sp ectral app earan ce, w h o n eed to dn n k blood ln ord er to com m un lcate w lth th elr vlsltor. @ Sp eclfic en coun ters take place w lth ln dlvldu al dead ch aracters

(O dysseusnm other A ntlclela;the seer Tlreslas;O dysseus'contem p orarles w h o dled ln th e Trolan W ar: A chllles an d A gam em n on ; m yth lcal ch aracters w h o are beln g p unlsh ed for th elr p aradlgm atlc

cn m es:Tltyus,Tantalus,Slsyphus). @ O dysseu sn en counters h ave a stron g em otlon al lm p act: h e trles to h ug hls m oth er three tlm es, exp erlen ces th e lm p osslblllty of a true contact w lth th e souls of th e d ead, an d recelves from A ntlclela an oral çexplanatlon' of w h at death ls.H ls en coun ter w lth A ch llles also tu rn s ln to a lesson ln m etap hyslcs.l3

T h ese essen tlal elem en ts are com bln ed w lth elem ents taken from th e m yth of O rph eu s: th e latter ls attested ln later G reek an d L atln llterature, but could be as o1d as th e H om erlc eplcs. W h atever lts

date,ln A ngelopoulos's w ork as ln m any other artlstsl O dysseusnand O rph eu s'Journ eys to th e un derw orld ten d to m erge.D escent ln to a d ark place, und erground rlvers, and w and erln g souls are elem en ts com m on to 170th . Yet th e m yth of O rph eu s, ln lts m ost develop ed form

as attested ln O vld's M etam orp hoses, also ln cludes elem en ts

absen t from th e O dyssey:

@ The posslblllty of a Ksecond chancel represented by the return to llfe of th e dead w om an O rph eu s h as com e to rescu e. @ T h e fatal gaze w h lch sen ds h er back to death . @ T h e return of a m ournln g O rph eus. @ N atu re as a p artlclp an t ln h ls m o u rn ln g, an d as a sou rce of em otlon al sup p ort.

@ The furlous M aenads (and the Klnventlon' of hom osexuallty by O rpheus- accordlng to the O vldlan verslon). @ T h e dlsm em berlng an d b eh eadln g of th e h ero. @ T h e descen t of hls h ead dow n th e H ebrus rlver. @ O rp h eusn son p w h lch tran scen ds h ls ow n death .

13 See G erm atn 19 54 33 1- 70 O n O dysseus'encou nter w tth A ch tlles,see G erm aln 1954 343-6 G erm aln also acknow ledges a parallel w lth G tlgam esh

2 14

F rançolse L etoublon

Several of th ese elem ents can be foun d ln T h eo A ngelop o ulosns film s

either as expllclt alluslons (ln U lysses,G aze and Eternzty and a D ay) or at a d eep er level, ln th e con cep tlon of th e story itself.t't In U lysses'G f/ztr: a film -m aker kn ow n slm ply as A . com es b ack to hls n atlve tow n of Florlna, after h avln g p ursued a career ln th e U nlted States. O n lu s retu rn , h e starts a search for three fllm reels sh ot by th e M an ak ls broth ers ln th e B alk an s at th e b eglnn lng of th e tw entleth cen tury. O n hls q uest, h e h as to travel th rough m any cou n trles, u sln g varlou s m ean s of tran sp o rt: taxl, traln , b oat. H e

d ecld es to travel to Saralevo after gath erlng som e u seful lnform atlon ln B elgrade,w h ere an o1d fn end , a Jo urn a11st, d escrlb es Y ugoslavla to hlm as a country full of rlvers.ls H e th en m eets a peasan t w om an w h o offers to take h im to a place near Saralevo by boat. She sh ow s h lm

th e ltln erary sh e h as ch osen by draw lng a m ap on a dlrty

w ln d ow , an d m en tlon s th at th ey w l11 travel up th e E vros n ver: ln th e m yth , lt ls on thls very rlver that O rph eusn h ead floated, un tll lt

reached the A egean sea and the lsland ofLesbos (sym bollcally glvlng blrth to lyn c p oetzy th e art favoured by th e tw o m ost fam ous p oets

ofthe lsland,A lcaeus and Sappho).The w om an,dressed ln black has A .b oard h er boat by m ght, an d n avlgates by stan dln g at the p rom w lth out row ln g: sh e can b e read as an lm age of 170th C h aro and M olra, an d also of th e P h aeaclan s, w h ose sh lp s sall by th em selves w lth out the help of oars or ru dder. Later ln th e t-ilm , th ls ch aracter w lll turn ln to a N au slcaa w ash m g h er laun dry, an d also a C lrce/ C alyp so lonp n g for carn al un lon . In Saralevo,A .ls told th at th e fog w hlch som etlm es en gulfs th e clty ls a relief for th e p eop le llvlng there,becau se lt p revents sn lp ers from alm m g at th em . D urlng a w elcom e foggy day, A . an d h 1s friend lvo L evl atten d varlo us celebratlon s, m ostly art events: a con cert of

classlcal m uslc and a perform ance of R om eo JAIJ l' ulw t by am ateurs, w h o p lay lt ln th elr ow n lan gu age.A .rep eats Sh akesp eare's w ords ln a 1ow volce, as lf h e w ere h um m ln g a fam lllar m elody.H e h ap p en s to

attend the scene w here R om eo trles to leave pullet on tlm e,after both

14 E ad es and L etoublon 1999 c 15 B efore th e co un try ceased to extst, ld eallzed descrip tïon s of Y u go slavta often

em phaslzed 1ts naturalbeautles (m cludkng kts rw ers),here they m ark the underw orld ln a w ar torn cotm try For an kdealtzed d escrtptton o f Yu go slav geographs see

Grazlosl'scom m entson The Song OJM I/AIIIJ. JIParry pp 136-7 above

T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld

215

lovers h ave b een w arn ed by th e son g of a b lrd , a n o ctu rn al n lgh tln -

gale accordlng to her,an early lark ln hls descrlptlon .Fln ally,lt ls stlll m th e fog th at h e com es across an outdoor ballw h ere h e m eets L evlns d aughter, dan ces w lth h es an d prom lses to com e back an d take h er

aw ay from a tow n sh e cann ot stan d any longer.A .falls to un derstan d

th e om en of Sh ak espeare's blrds: th e m odern lullet w lll b e kllled, togeth er w lth h er w h ole fam lly, ln th e fog- a fog w hlch can n ot

lm palr the m achlne gun s of a m otorlzed p atrol. A fter seto ng foot ln Saralevo,A .n eeds a gulde ln order to fin d 1vo L evl:the keep er ofthe M an akls reels:l6 h e m eets a chlld w ho know s Levl

and hls lalr- hem lght be hls grandson- an d follow s hlm to a sort of shelter for the hom eless,w here the old Levl usually gets hls food.T he chlld sh ares several features w lth the H om erlc N auslcaa, w ho leads O dysseu s to h er fath e/ s palace.Later on , th e boy asks A . to help hlm carty p alls of drlnk lng w ater,a rare treat ln a clty at w ar.ln llght of th e

O dyssey w e reallze that thls preclous w ater, for w hlch hum an belngs constantly rlsk thelr llves,ls atthe sam e tlm e the food and drlnk offered by N auslcaa to th e stran ded hero and the blood offered by O dysseus to the thlrsty shadow s of the undetw orld .T he w hole t'ilm ls, ln a sense, cast as an lnfern al Journ ey, but the m ost com plex references to the N ekuka are perhaps to be found ln tw o sequ en ces:th e descent lnto L evfs

dark hldden archlve,and the encounter w lth A .7s m other.Flrst,let us look at th e lnfern al archlve: ln order to m eet L evl, A . m ust reach hls

klngdom , th e old film archlves, w hlch h ave b een devastated by w ar, but stlll serve as a shelter and a house. O ne can access the place throu gh a gaplng hole ln the w all; th ere are a few seats left ln the screen lng room , but som e oth er room s seem lntact, as for ln stan ce L evfs office. lt ls m ostly w hen Levl drags A . outslde to celebrate the arrlval of the fog that the film

archlves app ear as som e sort of

und erground cave on e can exlt by follow lng a p ath tow ards an ever lncreaslng brlghtness.T hls ls the passage through w hlch O dysseus and

O rpheus entered and left the undetw orld. A t the sam e tlm e, Levfs place w as on ce th e slte of prolected lm ages, a Platon lc cave w hlch ls now deserted by th e shadow theatre, but lnhablted by sun uvlng

16 Ivo Levl gu ldlng A through Saralevo could be a rem lnder of C lrce leadlng O dysseu s to H ades and T îresias,as w ell as of V ïrp l gm dïng D ante du rm g h :s vtstt to th e O ther W orld ln the D tvtn e C om edy

2 16

F rançotse L etoublon

shadow s.l7 O n the w alls of the film archlves,a few m ovle posters attest

to the persistence of lm ages,as an lronlc rem lnder otl but also as a h om age to,th e artlstlc tradltlon of th e seventh art.t8 It ls ln thls place th at L evl w l11 succeed ln bn np n g b ack to llfe th e th ree film

reels shot by the M an akls broth ers. H e uses a sp eclal

form ula ln order to p rocess th e film

th e develop m ent of th e reels

evokes th e O dyssean bath through w hlch th e n urse E uty clela recogn lzes O dysseus. B efore goln g o ut ln th e fop L evl and A . are sh ow n togeth er lau gh ln g and relolclng at the slght of the lm ages th ey h ave unvelled .Ivo L evlth u s b ecom es th e ln carnatlon of th e beloved n urse

w ho recognlzes O dysseus thanks to hls cunnlng (he ls the one w ho requ ested to be glven a h osp ltallty bath by a very o1d w om an ,

know lng perfectly w ell that Penelope w ould select Euryclela) and w h om h e asks to stay sllent ab out h ls ldentlty. B ut A ngelop oulosns ch aracter Is also close to th e sooth sayer T lreslas b ecause h e h as th e ab lllty to tu rn lnvlslble lm ages lnto vlslble on es.19 A s E m lly G reenw ood su ggested to m e, th e film

arch lves could

stan d as a sym b ol of tw o dlfferent m od els for th e recep tlon of antlqulty: on th e on e h an d, th e statlc: frozen rem n an t of th e p ast,

w h lch can be revlew ed ,but not revlslted and:on the other hand,the con tln uln g, evolvln g rew rltlng of th e p ast ln th e p resent.zo T h e 17 In the lntroductlon to ClasstcalM yth and C ttlture ln the O nem a,W lnkler (2001 11-14) uses Cornford and Przyluskl to suggest an lnterestlng parallelbetw een the clnem a and P lato's cave Q'rhat th e shadow y ex lsten ce of actors o n th e screen ls a close p arallel to the exlsten ce of th e p eople ln P lato's C ave w h ose sh ad ow s app ear on 1ts w allbecom es clear ln th e follow ln g d escrlptaon b y L ulglP lran dello,on e of th e first m odern autho rs to address th ls asp ect of cln em a ' 18 O n e could suggest th at f lm arch lves h ave th e sam e fttnctlon ln a m ed la orlen ted cultu re as H om er do es ln m od ern llterature th ey are th e rep osltorles of lm ages and ston es,told or w rltten ln th e Saralevo film arch lves,th ere are also b ooks

on shelves,nextto the posters,butthe tltlesofthebooks (and ofthe t'ilm posters) are n ot sh ow n ln anoth er scene, A

and a frlend drlnk ln th e m ld dle of a street m

B elgrade to the w om en they once loved ln Parlsyto Jazz m uslcm ns and poets (Charlte M lngus, Tsltsanls C avafy), to a strange polltlcal trm lty (Che G uevara, M ay 68, Santorlnl),and finally to film m akers (M urnau ,D reyer,W elles,Eïsenstem ) 19 Sylvle R ollet observed thatLevlls played by Erland Josephson ,better know n for h 1s parts ln B ergm an's t'ilm s th ls m ay end ow h is ch aracter m A ngelopou lo s's film w lth an aura of sllen ce,m ystery,knvkskb khty an d m etap hystcs

29 ln Vpyfzgc to Cyfhcrsocopkes of ancïent statues (Caryattds from the Acropolts), m ade ln plastlc or stu cco ,are carrïed tn th e h ortzo ntal po sttto n by techntctans w h o p rep are a set for th e sh ootkn g of a pertod fllm T h ts ts the seqtten ce du rtng w hlch the m am ch aracter,A lexand ro s,first sees h (s fatherAs shad ow

T heo A ngelop oulos J?; the U nderw orld

2 l7

O dyssey th u s ch anges ln accordan ce w lth th e p olltlcal an d hlstorlcal lan d scape:ln thls chan gln g vlew of th e textns receptlon ,D an te exlled from Floren ce can see h lm self as a m od ern O dysseus as w ell as a B loom w alklng th rough D ublln from on e p ub to an oth er untll,lyln g n ext to h1s unfalthfulM olly,h e eventu ally dream s of another po sslble Journ ey. ls th e Krealn H om er a p reserved , statlc H om er, as close as p osslble to th e Korlgln aln as w e can m an age? O r ls h e th e ch angln g H om er of th e presen t day w h o reflects th e ch an glng, shlftln g lan d scap e of E urop e ln U lysses' G tzzp? lt ls p osslble th at A n gelop oulosns m odelof H om erlc receptlon lles som ew h ere betw een th ese tw o p oles, an d th at m ean lng ls to be foun d ln th e ten slon betw een a frozen , statlc,lost p ast, an d a p ast th at n on eth eless contln ues to be used an d reson ate ln th e p resen t. T h e ten slon b etw een th ese tw o con ceptlon s of th e p ast can b e

p ercelved also ln th e en coun ter w lth th e m oth es w hlch ls artlculated ln tw o step s. Flrst, d urlng h ls Journ ey,h .'s m em ory ls trlggered by a

stop ln a traln statlon.(The sequence evokesRem em brance of Thkngs fk yf- w hlch ls on e ofA ngelop oulosns favourlte w orks of llterature,as

he told us ln an lntervlew ).The follow lng scene show sA .seated next to hls m oth er ln a traln h eaded for C on stan ta,w hlch ls both th e clty of hls chlldh ood an d th e M an akls broth ers' h om etow n .T h e protagon lstns m oth er ls a very elegan t an d beautlful lady. Sh e ls p ortrayed later on d urlng a long-sequen ce sh ot w hlch descrlbes a serles of three successlve N ew Yea/ s Eves celebrated by a G reek bourgeols fam lly

llvlng ln exlle ln the Pontos (the Black Sea, Pontos érttzzirltls the Khospltable sean of antlqulty).Thls sequence portrays the lncreaslng trouble faced by thls fam lly :th e m llltla ln terrupts th e celebratlon s to arrest an un cle an d th e fath es th en to selze th elr prop erty, ln p artlcular th e plan o w hlch h ad been used for fam lly en tertaln m ent. T h e m ost rem arkable asp ect of th e sequ en ce ls th e fact th at th e

m other (played by M ala M orgenstern- w ho also plays the other key w om en ln the film ,that ls, all the w om en A .loves) never changes, n ever gets old .Sh e looks th e sam e ln th e traln ,d urlng th e lm agln ary en counter provoked by th e m on oton ous p ace of th e Journ ey an d th e travelle/ s daydream s, as sh e does ln th e first N ew Yea/ s Eve scen e, th en th e second , and fin ally th e th lrd , w h lch all b elong to th e p rotagonlstns m em oty . A s for A ., h e keep s hls contem p orary look through out,th at ofa m an ln h ls slxtles,a film -m aker of G reek orlgln ,

2 18

F rançokse L etoublon

w h o ls A m erlcam zed an d alm ost alw ays sp eaks E n gllsh- as on e w ould exp ect from

H arvey K eltel, w h o p lays th e p art. A . travels

from th e clvllw ar ln Saralevo m th e 1990s to fam ily llfe ln C onstanta ln th e 1950s: th e settln g an d costu m es place ln dlvldual scen es ln a

hlstorlcal sequen ce, but events an d m em ory are also slm ultaneous. T h us A . takes hls fathe/ s place to dan ce w lth h1s m oth er- w ho ls alw ays sm lllng,but seem s ab sent or dlstant,ln splte of h er affectlon ate attentlon tow ards lum .2t T here ls a notable exceptlon to these m lxed tem poralltles, how ever:d urlng on e of th e N ew Yea/ s celebratlon s,a ph otograph er takes a tradltlon al fam lly p ortralt.zz In th at con text, A . app ears as a teen ager of th at tlm e,a b lt stlff ln h ls form alw eas am on g h ls glgglln g

teen age couslns an d th e other relatlves w ho take thelr places ln front of the cam era.lt seem s that the exceptlon can be explalned preclsely by th e use of ph otography : w e cann ot represen t ourselves ln o ur

m em ory as others saw us (except for sm all detalls,such as clothes); n or can w e exp erlen ce exterlor ch anges ln our b odles ln th e sam e w ay

as oth ers see them .A . sees h lm self danclng w lth hls m other durlng on e of the N ew Yea/ s Eves ln C onstanta as he percelves hlm self today, durlng hls Journ ey through the B alkan s.Yet the m em ory of a photograph taken dun n g on e N ew Yearns Eve forces hlm to recall th e physlcal app earan ce of h ls relatlves, an d to see hlm self ln th e w ay h e w as p ercelved by oth ers. T h e cam era p rovldes a supp osedly oblectlve an d h lstorlcal vlew ln g. In th ose overlap pln g p ersp ectlves, th e m ost lm p ortan t even t rem aln s th e en co un ter w lth th e m oth er: A . sees h er as sh e w as th en : n ot an old w om an or th e youn g glrl h e

h as n ever kn ow n , but a m ature an d rem arkable beauty: carefully m ade-up and dressed .H e speaks to h er,but she hardly says anythlng: sh e ls n ot ultlm ately hls m oth er, but a sh adow th at h e cann ot h ug an d w lth w h om h e cann ot com m un lcate. 21 T hou gh h e does not refer to any film by A n gelopoulos,l fou nd read m g C avell

(1979) very lnterestlng ln thls context,especlally on the subyect of the relatlonshlp b etw een clnem a and tlm e, th e vlslble and the lnvlslble, clnem a an d ph otography

(23-5), tdeas of orëp n (.37-41): the end of M yths (.60-8), the w orld as m ortal (74-80),and the them es ofexhlbltlon and self reference (118-26) 22 T hls scene m ay ech o th e b ep nnm g of th e film , w h ere a blu e sh ïp ts bem g p hotograp hed by one of the M anakls bro thers B o th scen es renalnd us o f A ngelo poulos's fond ness for old stlll and m ovle cam eras,w h lch he sees as w ltnesses of th e h tstory of cm em a

T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld

2 l9

E ternkty and a D ly agaln evokes the O dyssean N ekuîa by deplctln g an en coun ter w lth th e m oth er an d by reflectm g on m em oto p h otography,

and physlcalchange.T h e protagonlst ls aw rlter kn ow n only by hls first

nam e,Alexandros (a m an ln h1s slxtles, rem im scent of 170th A . ln U lysses'G aze and A ngelopouloshlm self).H e ls dlagnosed w lth cancer and,before checklng lnto the hospltat pays a vlslt to hls m other,w ho llves ln a retlrem ent hom e and probably h as A lzhelm e/ s dlsease.T he vlslt ls fram ed by A lexandros's m em orles,w here hls m other features togeth er w lth h 1s deceased w lfe A n na: 170th w om en app ear to h lm as they looked w hen A lexandrosns daughter w as born ,that ls,thlrty years before the tlm e ln w hlch the m aln n arratlve ls set.A lexan drosns m other seem s to b e llvlng w lth th e young couple w h o h ave Ju st h ad a b aby, w h ereas A nn ans parents only com e to vlslt for a celebratlon ,prob ably

the babyns ch rlstenlng.A lexandrosns m other ls sllghtly older than A .'s m other ln U lysses'G aze but she too ls beautlful;she w ears dark clothes w hlch m ay lndlcate thatshe ls a m dow ,butsh e lsn ot dressed ln black as old G reek w om en u sed to d o at th at tlm e. Sh e ls sh ow n rockln g th e

baby ln h er cradle under the protectlve roof ofaw hlte gazebo faclng the sea,ln front of a beautlfulbourgeols house located on an lsolated part ofthe seaslde near Thessalonlkl.W e are told atthe beglnntlzg ofthe film th atA lexan dros and h1s fam lly reslded there w hen he w as a chlld;n ow h e llves by h lm self ln a com fortable b ut ordlnat'y apartm ent ln dow n tow n T hessalon lkt,surrou nded by th e sou nds of the nelghbourh ood. ln the sequen ce set thlrty years prevlou sly, A lexan drosns m other w ears an elegant large-n m m ed straw hat, w lth a black rlbbon . Later on, durlng A lexandrosns vlslt to th e retlrem ent h om e, th e lnterlor of h ls m oth erns room ls brletly sh ow n :lt looks qm te ordm aty but,on a chest of draw ers, there ls a photograph of A lexan dros's m other taken som e thlrty years ago an d,n ext to lt,the hat she w as w earlng th en :tw o

rem n ants of a dlstant past, apparently forgotten by a11 except A lexan dros.23 T h e old lady ls seated w h en h e arrlves: sh e d oes n ot seem to h ear w hat h e says, even to recogm ze hlm . H e h elp s h er lle dow n , or

rather puts her to bed, as she contlnu es her m on ologue, dem andlng her sllvetw are, and appearlng m ore gen erally obsessed w lth oblects

(w hlch ls a characten stlc ofA lzhelm e/s dlsease,butls also an lm portantthem e ln the film l.H e gestures affectlonately tow ards her,but she 23 Those tw o detalls m lght com e from Prot1st,see Letoublon (forthcom lng)

220

F rançokse L etoublon

does not respond;he slts nextto her on her bed and beglns:hlm seltl a q u asl-ln ten or m on ologu e exp ressed ln a low volce. A lexan dros's m on ologue ls, ln lm p ortan t w ays, dlsengaged from

th e extgen cles of dlrect com m um catlon . H ls w ord s evoke typlcal scen es ln A n gelop oulos's film s,w h ere p oem s em erge from m om ents of lsolatlon an d sllen ce.In U lysses'G aze,for exam ple:a R llke p oem ls presented tw lce ln th e orlgln al G erm an :zzl th e t'irst tlm e,A .h as fallen asleep from exh au stlon , and lvo L evl, alon e b ut stlll aw ake, recltes out loud th e p oem recorded on a tap e-record er;later on ,A .,thls tlm e alon e too,tu rn s on th e tap e recorder an d brln gs to llfe th e volces of

Levl an d the Poet, as lf th ey h ad both com e back from th e W orld of the D ead, th anks to a m aglcal technology. l have already dlscussed h .'s recttatlon of Sh akesp eare ln U lysses' G aze E terntty fk/é# a D ay also ln cludes a poem by Solom os, an oth er G reek artlst ln exlle,w h o com es back h om e,but h as to learn hls ow n G reek lan guage:a youn g

w om an addresses hlm as Kpoet, llght-shadow ed m anl probably an allu slon to Soph oclesn A ntlgone and P ln d ar.Som etlm es,A n gelop ou los ln cludes p oem s h e h as w rltten hlm self, as at th e en d of U lysses' G azelth e closlng p oem com bln es varlous scen es of recogm tlon taken from

th e O dyssey and expresses a certaln trust, ln th e m ld st of

desp alr, ln th e future of a couple sep arated by death . A galn , ln E ternkty and a D ay, a trlple readlng of A n n a's letter sup erlm p oses th e volces of A lexan dro s, A nn a as h e rem em b ers h er, an d th elr daugh ter.ln th ose cruclal scen es, T h eo A ngelop oulos en tru sts som e

ofh1s characters (alw ays posltlve figures:though not alw ays protagon1sts),25 w lth a poetlc m om ent w hen thelr volces seem to com e 24 The poem Qlch lebe m eln Leben ln w achsenden R lngen' (1 Llve m y Llfe ln G row m g C lrcles)w as publlshed tw lce by R alner M arla R llke,firstln D te G ebete (The Prayers), then ln the first part of Stundenbuch (Book of H ours) See addltlonal references ln Ead es and L etoublon 1999 / 647-56 25 I am th lnk tng of th e taxl dn ver ln U lysses' G aze w ho, after a toast w lth A , corltem plates the vlew from a h lgh pass ln th e m oun talns ln northern G reece, and refers to hls co untry as beln g 'to o old ' In som e cases,th e poetlc volce ls collectlve for exam ple,so m e yo un g w ln dow clean ers from A lb anla perform a funeral rlte for on e of thelr frlends, Sellm ,w ho has been k llled ln an accld en t ln T h essalonlk l T h elr w ord s seem glfted w lth so m e sort of m aglc, w hlch provld es th e d ead youngster w lth add ltlo nal m o m en ts o f llfe by the callln g of h1s nam e and th e farew ell n tual T hls poem /so ngy altho ttgh perform ed ln a dreadful park ln g lo t, elevates th e yotm g m an's fu neralto the levelo f the so lenan rltuals perform ed by A rab n om ad s ln th e d esert, or H o m ertc hero es tn the ll'ad

T heo A ngelop oulos Jrl the U nderw orld

22 1

from elsew h ere, or n ot to address any p artlcular audlen ce. lt ls as lf th e p oetlc volce w as tlm eless, an d an en d ln ltself.26 A lexan dros's m on ologue em ph aslzes th at on e can en coun ter hls or h er ow n m oth er an d feel as lf sh e w ere stlll allve, w h ereas sh e ls actually d ead, as attested by th e fact th at com m un lcatlon ls n o lon ger p osslble. T h e en counter d escrlb ed ln E ternkty and a D ay ls clearly m odelled on th e O dyssey but even m ore dram atlc:A n tlclelans sh adow seem s to h ear an d un derstan d w h at O dysseu s tells h er, an d O dysseus can h ear w h at sh e says ab out dead p eoplens flesh . U lysses' G aze an d E ternkty and a D ay both contaln scen es th at are ch aracterlstlc of a nekuka, an d both can be ln terp reted as Journ eys to th e un detw orld an d th e p ast. ln U lysses' G aze, h .'s return to G reece an d th e B alkan s h as an exp llclt m otlvatlon : th e search for th e Kfirst gazen sym bollzed by th e M an akls broth ersn film

on dally llfe ln a

G reek vlllage at th e begln nln g of th e tw entleth cen tury. B lack-an d w hlte footage of th e M an akls docum en tary ls actu ally sh ow n , at least three tlm es, at th e b eglnn ln g of U lysses' G aze. T h e sequ en ce alm ost lm p erceptlbly m oves from black an d w hlte to colour as on e of th e M an akls b roth ers, h ls h ead covered by th e black c10th of h ls old cam era,tak es a ph otograph of a sh lp w lth blue salls glldln g alon g th e h orlzon .27 Yet A .'s seach for p rlm ltlve lm ages an d for h ls ow n p ast ls

accom p am ed by th e quest for a soul-m ate,a lost E urydlce.ln Florln a,

A .leavesa screenlng ofa prevlousfilm ofhls (the film lsnever show n

to us,butthe soundtrack ofAngelopoulosns TheSuspended Step of the Stork (1991) can be heard ln the background, as A .w alks behlnd sp ectators h oldln g black um brellas- a slgn ature vlsu al form ula ln

A ngelopoulosns film ography).A s he leaves,A .ls m et by a dem onstratlon of fun dam entallsts led by a cross an d gold cap es, w alkln g tow ard s th e film vlew ers. A galn , th e scen e ls autoblograp hlcal: lt evokes A ngelop oulosns trouble w lth th e blsh op of Florln a durln g th e sh ootln g of hls ow n film , U lysses' G aze. A . th en sees a w om an un der an um brella,w h om h e app ears to recogn lze.H e trles to attract

26 A n gelop ou los's use of th e p oetlc volces could b e related to K an t's d efinltlon of

Beauty ln A rt,or Jakobson's poetlc functlon of language 27 T hls ls a qu otatlon from M agrltte's paln tlng The Sed ucer th ere ls n o su ch th ln g as a first gaze, sln ce th e ob lect seen by th e ph o tograph er ls already an artefact T h e sequence also suggests th at lm ages can be deadls sln ce the p hotograph er slu m p s dead on th e seat b ehln d h1m at th e very m om en t h e trlggers h 1s cam era

222

F rançozse L etou blon

h er attentlon ,b ut sh e does not turn aroun d, and th e dem on strators separate her from hlm .E urydlce runs aw ay from O rph eus w h o w lll, from then on , try to find her ln her varlou s ln carn atlon s em bodled

by th e sam e actress: th e passer-by m

Florlna, the curator of the

Skople film archlves, th e p easant w h o takes hlm up th e Evros rlver In h er boat, 1vo L evlns daugh ter, an d even , as w e m en tlon ed earller, the m em ory of hls ow n m other. T h ls search for an en coun ter w lth th e loved on e could account for the film 's ep lgraph,a quotatlon from P lato's A la blades w h lch ls- lm pllcltly- reln terpreted ln th e llght of lts use by Seferls: probably A ngelopoulosns favoun te G reek p oet.28 W hen A .hears the sound of the m achlne gun s used by the snlpers agaln st th e L evl fam lly dun ng th elr p eacefu lw alk alon g the rlves and w h en h e fin ds th em dead ln th e snow , lt ls h ls ow n death that h e expen ences. H e had recen tly dan ced w lth L evl's daughter an d Jok ed about the d ay w hen he w ould com e an d take h er aw ay from

th e

w arrm g city; n ow h e t'in ds hlm self alon e, ln the cave/film archlves,

w atchlng th e lm ages develop ed by L evl.W h en th ey had screened the M anakls film

togeth er th ey h ad laugh ed and Joked hke cluldren,

w hereas the solltary prolectlon n ow only ralses tears. O n ce agaln , as film view ers,w e are robbed of the lm ages, slnce w e can only see

th elr reflectlon ln h . 's eyes.A .cann ot see hlm self reftected m the eyes of th e beloved;rath er, th e docum en tary lm ages ln hls eye force us to

rejkcton the em phem eralcharacter oflove,and on the nature ofA .% gaze as he vlew s th e orlglnal gaze of the M anakls brothers. ln E ternkty JFIJ a lIlfw th e Journ ey to the underw orld ls llkew lse cast slm ultan o usly as an lnvestlgatlon of th e p ast and an antlclp atlon of the m aln characterns death .A lexan dros spen ds on e day w anderlng

through T h essalonlkl before bem g adm ltted lnto th e h ospltal w here

28 lf Eterm ty (t11J (z D ay ts a trtbute to Solom os (Esteve 1998 177-87), Seferls's p recu rso r and the atttho r of a poem dedlcated to freedom w hlch has becom e the

G reek N attonal A nthem : lt ls Seferls hlm self to w hom Ulysses'Gaze pays holzzare through the quotatlon from Plato atthe very beglnnlng ofthe :11' 11 (the use ofSefcrls's verslfk atlon and o f the m o dern G reek accen tual system ten d to colafirm thls ln ter

pretatlon) 'a'aùsvzy (clrsczàAcùyvcoowaoaçatTz' /zs lclç Svx' qv laùw.'iJo czrzctpr tztnd,lfthe sotfllsaboutto know ltselfkltm ustgaze lnto the soul)ln ' A rgonautsltbe fourth poel' n 114 M ythlstorem a,Seferls used the sam e qtzotatlon (accoznpanled by a note referrllag to Plato's A lclbtades 133b)ybtzt also added the follow lng verses 'The

enem y alnd the forelgner lW e saw h1m ln them lrrorAl return to thlslntertextatthe end of th e chap ter,pp 226-7

T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld

223

h e w lll dle.ln a sen se,h e ls already a sh ad ow :som e ch aracters stlll see h lm , w h ereas for oth ers h e ls already dead . H ls old m ald O uran la averts h er gaze to hlde h er tears,an d an sw ers hls farew ell w lth a few trlvlal w ords: about h avln g prep ared th e dogRs dln n er. D urlng hls w alk on th e pler alon g th e w h arf ln T h essalom kl,h e com es across hls d octor w h o does n ot even dare ask h ow h e feels an d p olltely sh orten s th e conversatlon . A lexan dros th en goes to h ls d augh te/ s place ln ord er to leave h ls d og w lth h er an d glve h er a letter w rltten by hls w lfe, A nn a, durln g h appy tlm es, or th e retrosp ectlve llluslon of h appy tlm es. ln actu al fact, at th at tlm e A nn a h ad called hlm

a

ttraltorn an d h ad lm plored hIm to glve h er only on e day, as a sup plem ent to th e etern lty m entlon ed ln th e film tltle.29 A lexan dros's d aughter refuses to keep th e d og ln h er luxuty ap artm ent, full of p reclous and fraglle oblects. A lexan drosns son -ln -law com es out of th e sh ow er ln hls b athrob e an d p ays even less atten tlon to A lexan drosns last vlslt: n elth er asks hlm th e reason for hls un exp ected call, an d h e ln cldentally learn s from th em th at th ey h ave sold th e beautlful seaslde h om e of hls youth , w h ere all th e lum ln ou s seqtlen ces ln th e film

take place. B ut th e m ost su staln ed referen ce to A lexandrosns

d eath ls p rovlded by hls dog- a figure th at m u st be read agaln st th e O dyssey an d A ngelop oulos's earller film s. ln J/byflgér to Cythera, th e protagonlst, an old p artlsan w h o em lgrated to th e U SSR after th e C lvll W ar, return s to hls h om e after thlrty years.W h en h e arrlves n ear hls old h ouse, h e ls m et by a dog expllcltly n am ed A rgos.ln A ngelop oulos's film s,th e d og ls alw ays an

O dyssean figure,butln Eternkty and a D ay the (unnam ed) dog turns out to b e an lnverse lm age of A rgos. ln th e O dyssey th e dog dles at th e very m om en t hls m aster return s: th e scen e ls th e on ly sp on tan eou s recogn ltlon ln th e w h ole eplc; all oth er ch aracters- E uryclela, Telem ach u s, E um aeu s, P en elop e, L aertes, an d so on- n eed extern al p roof of O dysseu sn ld en tlty b efore th ey recognlze h lm . ln E ternkty and a D ay ch aracters fall to recogn lze th e p llght of th e dog an d hls m aster.A lexan dros can n ot leave th e dog w lth hls daugh ter an d,as h e cann ot entrust anybody else w lth hlm an d can n ot take hlm to th e

29 A reference to Shakespeare QForever,and one day' tz1s l' br/Ltke fr,1V 1) See further Eades and Letoublon 19994 265 Letoublon (forthcom lng) dlscusses a posslble allu slon to the first scene ln Shakespeare's L ove's L abour's L ost

224

F rançolse L etou blon

h osp ltal, h e goes to see h ls m ald : O uran la, w h o ls celebratln g th e

w eddln g of a son or daughter,w lth allth e p om p th at can be brought to thls cerem ony ln a very p oor soclal envlrtm m en t.A lexan dros an d

hls dog dlsturb th e celebratlon, but O uranla accepts her em ploye/ s d og and h e leaves, obvlou sly relleved .T h e m verslon of the O lysscy 's m otlf Is clear: the dog w l11 survlve w laereas A lexandros w 1ll dle. A n en gagem ent w lth A n gelop ou losns earller film ography Is essen -

tlal ln order to un derstan d oth er echoes of the N ekuza them e ln E ternfty K//CJ a D ay O n e aspect of th e film l h ave n ot yet dlscussed- but w hlch ls m fact central- ls the relatlon shlp betw een A lex andros and an A lb anlan chlld .T h elr m eetlng ls cast ln llterary term s:yust as th e poet Solom os b ough t G reek w ords from th e p eople he m et durlng the W ar of Llberatlon ,A lexandros: a fam ous con tem -

porat'y w rlter (hls fam e em erges from the w ords of an adm lrer he happens to m eetdurlng h1sJourney),buys w ords from an Albanlan ch lld w ho speaks an archalc G reek dlalect full of savoury w ords.Th e N ekuza th em e resonates in a sequence w here A lexandros follow s som e young crlm ln als to th e clan d estm e locatlon w h ere th ey sell ch lldren to rlch forelgn ers, w h o select th em

as ln a superm arket;

th e place looks hke a m odern lnferno on earth . A lexan dros proceeds to b uy th e ch lld h e h as already rescu ed ln th e streets of T h essalon lkt, an d drlves h 1m to th e A lb an lan b ord er, ln ord er to send h1m back hom e. Yet, after w ltnesslng a strange scen e at th e b order,h e tak es th e ch lld b ack to T h essalon lkl:w e see fences, search tow ers w lth arm ed guard s, and m otlonless m en are clln gm g to th e border fen ces at varlou s helghts. It ls n ot clear w h eth er th ey are d ead or allve. ln vlsu al term s, th e scen e evokes

the last shot ln The Suspended Step of the Stork w here telephone w orkers dressed ln yellow ralnw ear cllng to telep hon e poles ln a slm llarly foggy lan dscap e. T h e m en on top of th e p oles are all lden tlcal an d stran gely allgn ed ln som e kln d of avlary geom etry, w hlch p erhaps refers to the tltle.M ore om ln ously, th e blrd -m en ln E ternîty J/CJ a D ay seem trapp ed, electrocuted at th e very m om ent th ey trled to cross th e bord er.A lexan dros drlves th e ch lld b ack to the hospltable clty of T hessalonlkl:after taklng hlm to the w orld of th e D ead, h e brlngs hlm b ack to llfe, as a n ew varlatlon on the O rph eus m yth .

T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld

225

ln th e can onlcal ep lcs of th e W estern tradltlon , h eroes are allow ed

only on e Journey to th e undetw orld.3o O dysseus, A eneas, H erakles, O rph eu s, D ante, an d th elr m odern reln carn atlon s com e back from th e D ead only on ce: th elr status as h eroes ls relnforced by th elr adven ture, an d for each on e of th em lt ls a un lque exp erlen ce. T h elr Journ ey to th e un derw orld u sed to be con sldered an O dyssean

lnn ovatlon . O dysseus' exp erlen ce could th en be ln terpreted as a sym b ol of th e m odern lty of th e O dyssean m odel ln relatlon to earller ep lc tradltlon s. N ow w e know th at th e G klgam esh ep lc ln cludes a Journ ey to th e un derw orld .T h e stot'y predates th e O dyssey by alm ost on e th ousan d years an d could lm ply th e exlsten ce of an ln do -E uro p ean an d N ear E astern m yth .3l T h ls un lque feature of an clent eplcs p arad oxlcally seem s to m ultl-

p1y w lthln A ngelopoulos's ow n film s and from

on e film

to the

oth er- at least in th e m ost recent p erlod of h ls w ork , w h ere O dysseu sn Jo urn ey to th e un d erw orld an d H om e/ s sh ad ow coln cld e. In U lysses'G aze,before reach lng Saralevo and lts cave full of tm ages,th e film -m aker vlslts th e form er curator of th e B elgrade film archlves, ln ord er to ask hlm about th e w h ereabouts of th e M an aklsn lost reels. T h e curator llves ln a retlrem ent h om e w lth oth er eld erly p eople,an d th e favourlte p astlm e of thls com m unlty of souls w h o are su sp en ded b etw een thls an d th e O th er w orld, ls to w atch lm ages on a televlslon screen . T h e Saralevo film archlves are th erefore foresh adow ed, ln a rath er d erlslve m an n er, by a retlrem ent h om e ln B elgrad e.L ater on ,

ln Saralevo ltseltl A . w ltnesses a horn fp ng scene w here, dun ng a snlp er attack , th e lnh ab ltan ts of a h ou se located at a street corn er leave th elr h om e, a11 dlsh evelled an d dlstraugh t: th ey seem to be ln m ates ln a p sych latrlc w ard,or an old p eoplens h om e.32 For vlew ers

w ho are alert to the overall coherence of A ngelopoulosns w ork the retlrem ent h om e w h ere A lexander's m oth er llves ln E ternkty flnfl fl 30 See G lrce's w ord s at O dyssey 12 2 l-2

31 A ccordlng to Sam uel K ram er (K ram er 1957),the Babylonlan eplc Gtlgam esh b orrow ed several elem en ts o f 1ts sto rs ln clud ln g the D escent to the U nd erw orld, fro m an old er Su m ertan poem See also, D av ts,p p 193-4 above :2 For som e tlm e,A n gelop ou los has been plan nlng a film w here the actlon takes p lace ln a hom e for the bllnd ,du rln g the n lght of 3 1 D ecem b er 1999 T h e thresh old of th e year, th e centu ry an d th e m îllen nm m are lm k ed m A ngelop ou lo s's perso nal lm agln ary to th e them e of the Jou rn ey to h ell sym bollzed by d ark ness, blln dness, m ad n ess an d agelng

226

F raniov e L etoublon

D ay ls a rem lnder of both the retlrem ent hom e ln B elgrade, w here the form er curator of the film archlves ln th e form er capltal of Y ugoslavla llves,an d th e Saralevo retlrem ent h om e w h ose occup ants are exp elled lnto a clty w h ere danger ls perm an ent an d w here the

m ost vuln erable are left totally pow erless. T h e th em e of th e Journey to th e undetw orld ls therefore llnked to the presen ce ln th e Kreal'w orld of sh adow s com lng from beyond,and to the spectrallm pact of lm ages ln T h eo A ngelopoulos's ow n cln em a. A s w e argued ln an earller study,ln Jzrtpylilgérto Cythera too th e descent to the klngdom of the dead an d the ablllty to see the shadow s of th e dead ln the realw orld are tw o sldes of th e sam e adventure.33 T h e film archlve becom es a cave, th e retlrem ent h om e a sh adow th eatre.

T he referen ce to Plato ln the dedlcatlon for U lysses'G aze seem s to refer to Seferlsns p oem tltled A rgon auts,w hlch quotes P latons A la bkades but also ad ds a lln e w hlch changes the overall m eanlng of th e quotatlon :K'l'h e enem y an d the forelgn er,w e saw hlm ln the m lrron' P lato's m yth of the cave ls a reflectlon on the relatlonshlp b etw een reallty and appearance,the need to know on eself through th e representatlon of th e self ln th e m lrror, or rather ln the eye of the O ther. Seferls radlcally ch anges th ls ld ea by lntroduclng th e concept of selfh orror:th e self ls seen ln th e m lrror as a xenos ln th e an clent m eanln g of the term , w hlch w as am blguous and d eslgnated b oth a forelgn er

(and potentlalenem y) and a guest.34 A ngelopoulos provldes usw lth a new readlng of the O dyssey through Seferls (as w ell as through other poets,notably Ellot and Rllke).35 In the llterary w orks analysed by D avld R lcks ln thls volum e,s6 a dlstln ct feature of th e descrlptlon

of post-w ar G reece ls the recurrent presence of shadow s an d gh osts. T hls could be the con sequen ce of th e Second W orld W ar an d lts

33 E ades, Letoublo n yand R ollet 2002 177-97 Sylvle R ollefs Ph D th esls focused on A ngelopoulos's kbyflgc to Cythera a revlsed verslon h as b een publlshed as R ollet 20 0 3

34 See B envenlste 1969 87- 10 1,an d Letoublon 2004 468- 506 35 E llot's verse 'M y end ls m y beglnn lng' ls quoted by A ln the film , and by A ngelopoulos ln lntervlew O n R llke's poem , see p 220 above,w lth n 24 Ellot and R llke seem to express alm ost th e sam e ld ea llfe ls no t a stralgh t llne b ut a clrcle,so th e Journ ey from Flon na to Saralevo ls not to be consldered as a serles of new experlences for A In deed ,n o m atter w here he goes,he alw ays m eets the sam e w om an ,the w om an h e has n ever ceased to love an d to search for ln all places 56 See C h 10 below

T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld

ll7

afterm ath, clvll w ar an d dlctatorshlp : m em orles of h ard tlm es are h aun tln g th e collectlve lm agln ary through th e presen ce of gh osts an d sh ad ow s ln texts an d lm ages w h lch are con stan tly reflectln g an d

resh ap ln g on e an oth en 3;

57 T hls them e m ay be llnked to th e film m aker's p erson al h lstory an d,lnd eed ,the hlstory of a w hole gen eratlo n of G reeks as h 1s father d1d n ot lm naed lately return hom e from w ar,A ngelop ou los and h1s m other w ere su m m oned to com e and lden tlfy h 1m ln a room w here dead b odles had been exposed T hey could n ot find hlm ,b u t, som e tlm e later,on a d ay w h en yo un g A n gelop ulos w as plap n g ln th e street,h e h eard th e volce of h1s fath er callln g h 1m from arou nd th e b lock the volce o f a gho st

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c# .

blank

P art IV

P olitics an d In terp retation

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c# .

blank

10 H om er in the G reek C ivil

ar (1946-1949)

D avid R icks

I learn ed m y H om er ln A lb an la

u p ln th e M etsovo m oun taln s m antled ln flr-trees an d w rapp ed ln a bltter w ln d from T hrace w hlle ln th e dlstan ce th e can n on ech oed w lth a sou n d llke torrents ln m ld-w ln ter hurllng th em selves agaln st th elr n arrow -slded gorges a sh eph erd stopp ed to llsten'T he dlstant sh eph erd trem bllng h ears th e soun d'as,th ou san ds of years ago, h e stood an d heard lt 1

ln th ese lln es by th e G reek p oet and cultural crltlc Z lsslm os L oren -

zatos (1915-2004), personal experlence and llterary experlence are yoked togeth er Just as H om er h ad yoked togeth er p eace an d w ar ln

the slm lle quoted (Ihad 4.452 ff.); and though the passage refers to th e A lb am an cam p aign of 1940- 1 rath er th an to th e lntern ecln e w ar

w hlch w ould be w aged ln th e sam e reglon , an d beyon d, later ln th e

decade, the verses m ay be seen to ush er ln a new p erlod of G reek w rltersnen gagem en t w lth th e H om erlc p oem s.z T h e royalroad of th ls en gagem ent: ln lnd ep en d ent G reecens m alor p o ets b efore 1940, an d l ln A rp rrlou 1979 23 1, first p ubllcatlon 1955 A l1 tran slatlon s are m y ow n

2 L orenzatos also of cou rse p lays w lth a paradox w hy w o uld a G reek- the p rlvlleged h elr to H o m er, as lt m lgh t seem - n eed to Qlearn h 1s H o m er' ln A lb an la, a rugged place w lth a b arbarou s ton gue? L orenzatos's father pro du ced a H om erlc d lctlonary the son 's llnes are n ot a reproach , b ut do contaln a clear sen se th at llteratu re ls exp erlenced throu gh th e fttrrow s that llfe plough s o n on e's back T he Iltad's referen ce to th e h ard w ln ters of D o d on a, w lth 1ts u nw ashed ln hab ltan ts

232

D avkd R itr/cs

ln p artlcular ln th e w ork of C . P. C avafy, A n gelos Slkellan o s, an d G eorge Seferls,h as b een th e su blect of d etailed treatm en t ln m y b ook

The Shade of H om er (Rlcks 1989).The alm ofthe present chapter ls to ln troduce som e m aln lln es of th e story as lt develop ed d un ng w h at h as been called a T hlrty Years W ar, 1944- 74.N ot surprlslngly, G reek w rlters contln ued to resort to H om er, b ut n ow ln resp on se to th e grlevo u s con d ltlon s of fratrlcld al strlfe an d a su b seq u en t Kc old C lvll W arn.T h e ran ge of llterary resp on ses to th e C lvll W ar h as b een w ld e, b oth artlstlcally an d p olltlcally, an d o ur case stu dy of H om erlc

approprlatlon s m ay best be han dled by glan clng ln turn at four em b lem atlc figures: Lycaon , H ector, E lp en or, an d P en elop e.3 F lrst,

h ow ever, a p oem from 1959 w hlch shln es an un forglvln g llght on th e

questlon,w hat sort of G reek llterary respon se to H om er ls llclt at a11

ln the post-clvllW ar years (A lexandrou 1991:113): M edltatlon s of Flavlu s M arcu s

O f course you m ay tran slate verses of H om er T hls ls an occup atlon legltlm ate, som etlm es of profit, at any rate lt h elp s you p ass ln th e eyes of som e

for a m an of letters and- n ot w tth out a certam n ote of con descertstonfor a con n olsseu r of p oetrs grosso m odo a p oet

Tran slate w lth zeal, alb elt w lth care O n e thlng alon e ls to b e avolded T ake care n ot to tran slate ln to you r llfe th e dem ean our an d th e p asslon s of th e h eroes h ow ever m u ch th ey seem to b e you r ow n h ow ever certaln you m ay b e th at you cou ld h ave fallen b efore the w alls of T roy

R em em b er your b ellef your kn ow ledge your convlctlon th at ultlm ately on en terln g th e clty y ou

w ould h ave foun d sm oke an d ash es

ln n atlon allst dlsco urse, culm ln atln g ln th e h eady b u t traglcally

short-llved excltem ent over G reece's rep ulse of ltallan forces ln the sleeplng on the ground (l6 234-5) m ay also be latenthere W ellaw are ofthe llterary p osslb llltles o f b rln gln g H om er an d A lb an la to gether ls o f co u rse Ism all K adare,

d lscussed by B arbara G razlosl ln C h 5 of thls volum e

3 Cf Gregson D avls'sdlscusslon ln the presentvolum e tjnp 207-8 above)ofD erek W alcott's co n cep tlon o f H om er as a so urce of Qlcon s' an d 'em blem s'

H om er irlthe G reek C ivi!J'kbr (1946-1949)

233

w lnter of 1940-1,H om erlc echoes ofthe m ost superficlalklnd (Ko ne om en ls best,to defend the fatherlandn)had been com m onplace,and th e even ts cam e to b e kn ow n , d eservedly b ut lnlu d lclo u sly, as Kth e

A lbanlan eplct A rls A lexandrou (1922-78) partlcularly dlsavow ed su ch rh etorlc b ecau se of th e b elllcose p en -n am e h e h ad sad d led h lm self w lth as a youn g 5ta.11111st;an d as a P etersb u rg-b orn tran slator of th e R u sslan classlcs h e w as p aln fu lly con sclo u s of th e d elu slon s of gran d eu r w h lch w alkln g am on g m lgh ty llterary p rotagon lsts can ln d u ce. So h ere, w lth a d ty n ess of a Z blgn lew H erb ert- b ut m o st

relevantly, of course, w lth an echo of Cavaffs treatm ent of hls eplc poet m anque Phernazes ln the poem Ktlarlusn (K avafis 1978: ll.18-19).--hls speaker w arns hlm selfagalnst approprlatlng H om erlc m an n erlsm s ln llteratu re, let alon e llfe.A lexan drouns p oem - p erh ap s

uncon sclou sly--evokes th e Ktran slatlonn exerclses from

G reek pre-

scrlbed by such R om an authors as C lcero (D e oratore 1.155), Pllny the Younger (Letters7.9),or Q ulntlllan as a m eansofacqulrlng culture an d rh etorlcal faclllty. B ut h ere a h orror of b elatedn ess stan ds o ut,

accentuated by the fact that here a (m odern) G reek poet adopts the p erson a of a R om an- w h o ln turn lm ap n es h lm selfln to b eln g a G reek . T /liyA chllles, thv O dysseu s fin d th elr con qu ered Troy to b e ash es ln th e m outh , as th e typ ograph lcally staggered an d em otlon ally stu m bllng last lln es suggest.H ere th e m ost ln n ocu ou s an d belletrlstlc rew n tln g of

H om er proves ln sep arable from th e rellvlng of a m ore recent past. A dlsslden t auth or, th en , long ln tern ed by th e R lgh t, too lon g cold sh ou ldered by th e L eft w rltes ln th e sh ad om n ot on ly ofth e G reek C lvll W ar bu t also of th e lnvaslon of H u n gaty three years p revlou sly- th e latest act ln a p rotracted p an -E u rop ean clvll w ar. N o on e h ad kllled H om eri'l b u t h e co uld , ln llteraty term s, be don e to death- an d for reason s w hlch com p el our atten tlon to th e p olltlcal con text. lf ad op tln g certaln p erson as, even ln th e vlcarlo u s m an n er of th e m an of letters, w as a m ark of false con sclo u sn ess, th en to w h lch H om erlc figu res m lgh t reco u rse b e h ad d urln g or after a clvll w ar, lf th e ch arge KW h atns H ecu b a to h lm ?nw as to b e avold ed ? O n e u n h erolc figure brlefly en d ow ed w lth an exem p lary statu s w h lch n ever qu lte d evelop ed m ore w ld ely w as Lycaon . T h e you n g p oet w h o ad op ted

4 c f H an son an d H eath 1998

234

D avkd R ic/cs

hlm , ln th e op enln g p oem

of hls t-irst book ln 1945, w as T . D .

Frangopoulos (1921-95), then m uch under the shadow of Seferls (Frangopoulos 1975:11-12): W e H ave Taken R oot

W e h ave taken root ln th ls lan d b ecau se a h eart fu ll of plan e leaves alw ays seeks a flttln g sky b ecau se th e earth ls w arm w lth ou r b loo d an d each m em ory of ou r sow ln g b estow ed on lt w e h ave taken root ln th ls lan d b ecau se th e m ou n taln -top s call u s

w lth ou t th reats to th e untrod den h elgh ts fu11 of early sprlng an d late sum m er, a11w e w anted w as a b 1t of lan d an d a llttle seaw ater an d our h eart w e kept fu11 of plan e leaves an d Ju st en ou gh flre to b u rn ou r d ead an d th e dream s w hlch n o

lon ger b u d even lf ou r roots grow bloo dy w lth th e drlp drlp o f exp erlen ce

w e h ave taken root ln thls lan d b ecau se lt w as h ere w e 1ay w lth th e vlrgln w e m ad e ou r m oth er an d w h o w as n ever o u rs agaln

b ecau se lt w as h ere w e lald to rest our llttle broth er Lycaon un der th e d aw n of th e cypresses un d er th e daw n of a b attle w lth th e lnfm lte w hlch started to seem as lf

lt w ould n ever fln lsh w lthout a desertlon un d er th e alm ond b ough on th e plaln of M arathon w e h ave taken root ln thls land becau se our feet w ere of clay an d our h eart of clay an d ou r h alr of

clay m ade by the eternal rhyth m of th e stars how ever w ell u p I am ln m yth ology I can't rem em b er th e n am e of E rechtheu s w ho spran g serp entln e and lnd estru ctlble from th e sam e du sty clay w hlch holds our llttle b roth er Lycaon w e hold thls earth u nder our p easant nalls from P an orm os to N au cratls

to C olchls and feel th ls earth un ltln g us soll an d seaw ater a feath er's w elgh t ln th e stru ggle for som eth m g m ore than a m dre tom orrow or a slm ple d eslre for d escend ants

earth and w ater seaw ater w hlch m ake thls land our hom e our sout L ycao n

W e flgh t on

T he p oem ls callom verb ose,an d a llttle confu slng;but th at som eon e w h o becam e a p rom ln ent w rlter ch ose to begln hls w ork w lth çour llttle broth er Lycaon'sh ow s th at figure's p otentlalln a tlm e of p ltlless w ar.T h e poem ls, on th e on e h an d ,an outgrow th of Seferlsns attem pt

H om er irlthe G reek C ivi!J'kbr (1946-1949)

235

to envlsage a futu re for A styan ax ln th e p o em th at b ears h ls n am e from 1935,w lth a n um b er of oth er p o sslbly u n con sclo u s ech oes of th e old er p o et- lu st as th ere are ln Fran gop ou lo sns m any oth er allu slon s to th e Trolan W ar.5 B ut lt w ou ld b e falr to say th at th ere are also

resonances from the Lycaon eplsode ln the Ihad (21.34-135).W hat m akes Lycaon an exem p lary figu re for Fran gop o u lo s's p u rp o ses?

(Q ulte dlfferent purposes,lt m ay be sald,from A rnoldns use of the eplsode asa touchstone (1907:246)- m uch closer,perhaps,to R obert Low ellnsdeclslon to open hls 1961 collectlon Im ktatw ns(2003:197-8) w lth K'l'he K llllng of Lycaont) There ls clearly the elaborate level of detall ln hls death, the dw elllng (Ihad 21.122-7) on hls corpse's p hyslcal ab sorp tlon ln a n atu re red ln t0 0th an d claw ; b ut w e m ay also see ln Lycaon a furth er reson an ce: h e ls th e m ost elab orately d escrlb ed H om erlc case of a h ostage. O n e of th e m o st rep reh en slble features of th e arm ed con fron tatlon b etw een G reeks d urln g an d after th e A xls O ccup atlon ,w h lch h elp ed to draw th e co un tty ln exorably ln to w h at h ad to b e called clvllw ar,w as h o stage-takln g.6 I d o n ot th lnk lt ls over-readln g to see Fran gop ou losns Lycaon ln thls llght,esp eclally sln ce

hls death appearsJust after the capture ofthe tw elve young m en (Ihad 21.27) w ho are to be sacnficed for Patroclus.Reference to Lycaon ln 1945 ls a rem ln der th at w e are ln a w orld of repn sals:Lycaon p ath etlcally p leads th at h e ls on ly H ecto/ s h alf-broth er,an d th e ep lsod e ls th e

epltom e ofpltllessness:asLowellnsAchlllescrles:Kyou m ustdle,Iand dle an d dle an d dle.n Lycaon , th en , m ay fitly stan d for th e m ore or less ln n o cen t an d en tlrely b em u sed vlctlm s of ln tern ecln e con th ct; b ut h ls lon g sp eech

(21.74-96) begglng for hls llfe seeks slm ply to tug at A chlllesnfellow feelln p rath er th an artlculatln g a vlew ab o ut th e conven tlon s of w ar ltself.ln th e Ihad,lt ls Lycaon 's h alf-broth er H ector- as of co urse lt ls A ch llles- to w h om lt ls glven to artlcu late th e m ean ln g of h erolsm . W e h ave n oted A rls A lexan dro u's cau tlon ary ap p roach h ere; b ut to 5 Seferls 1982 64, o ther obvlo u s echo es ln clu d e th e p lan e leaf from Q'I'h e K ln g o f

A slne'(185-7),dlscusslon ln Rlcks 1989 158-71 ln h1s earller w orks,Frangopoulos tu rn s agaln an d agaln to th e Trolan W ar e g ln th e sequ en ce QE p llo gu e to Troy'

(Frangopoulos 1975 153-60) 6 P erson al experlence of thls ln 1944 by the shlpow ner an d Su rreal1st A n dreas

Em blrlcos (1901-75) ellclted from hlm ,fully tw o decades later,the pow erfttlpoem , Q'I'he Road'(Em blrlcos 1980 15-18),though the alluslonsln the poem are to the W ar o f In dep en den ce an d th e D llessl M u rd ers of 1870 rath er than to H om er

236

D avkd R it:/cs

ascrlb e, n ot to on eself, b u t to an oth er, th e q u alltles of a H ector m lgh t n ot n ecessarlly ru n th e sam e d an gers. In fact, ln a n ovel ab ou t th e C lvll W ar w lth th e glarln gly H om erlc tltle Tekchom achka, first p ub llsh ed ln 1954, Fran gop ou los attem p ts p reclsely to en d ow a vlctlm of vlolen ce ln early 1944 w lth th e lln eam en ts of a H ector. T h e n ovel,for all lts sh ortcom ln gs, ls of n ote as on e of th e earllest

fictlonalresponses to the ClvllW ar (M ackrldge 1988),and lts rather h eav y-h an d ed u se of H ector m akes a foll to th e subtler rew orkln gs of H om erlc m aterlal to w h lch w e sh all atten d later ln th ls ch ap ter. T h e n ovel also m akes clear th at l h ave n ot llllcltly con n ected th e figu re of Lycaon ln Fran gop ou los's 1945 p o em w lth th e C lvll W ar. T h e G reek C lvll W ar ls conven tlon ally d ated 1946- 9; b ut as Fran gop o u lo s

bltterly em phaslzes (1977: 141), there w as, from 1943, durlng the O ccup atlon , a d egree of arm ed

con th ct b etw een

C om m un lst-

dlrected grou p s an d oth er G reeks w h lch co uld n ot u n reason ab ly b e h eld to m ark th e clvll w a/ s ln cep tlon .; T h e n ovel ls so llgh tly fictlon allzed , d esp lte th e cu stom ary dlsclalm ers, th at lt rep resen ts th e auth orns attem p t to en d ow a real figure, K ltsos M altezo s-M akrlyan n ls, w lth H om erlc con tou rsth o ugh th e w ays ln w h lch lt d o es so are, from

a n arratologlcal

polnt of vlem dlsappolntlngly unenterprlslng. (C ontrast the dellclous elaboraten ess, ln th e w ake of Joyce, but qulte dlfferently han dled , of K osm as P olltlsns 1938 n ovel E row a, w lth lts su staln ed an d lron lc llladlc p arallels: a grou p of ad olescen ts p o ssesses an d llves

out H om erlc qualltles lost w lth thelr loss of sexual lnnocence.l8 It ls lndlcatlve that the tltle Tekchom achka (repeated ln the tltle of chapter 12), rather than referrlng to Ihad 12 speclfically (as ln the conventlonal later tltle of that book) and the ram part bullt by the A ch aean s,relates rath er to th e role of H ector as lt culm ln ates ln B o ok 22 an d th e p u rsu lt ro u n d th e w alls of Troy.T h e ex1sten tlallst p resen tatlon of H ector, m oreover, an d som e verb al h ln ts, su ggest th at th e

fight seen from the w alls lsm ost dlrectly lndebted to Cavaf/s poem 7 See W ood h ou se n d T h ls classlc stu dy,w h atever 1ts gap s an d b lases, evokes th e p rob lem s w lth a vlvld n ess an d u n flln ch ln g reallsm w hlch sh ow a d eep ln tern allzln g of T hu cydld es by a recen t C lasslcs grad u ate h u rled ln to th e tu rb u len ce of m o dern G reek ev e n ts

8 P olltls 1982 A b rlef sam p le, w lth a p arody o f Iltad 237s fttn eral gam es, ls to b e fou n d ln R lcks 2003 235- 9

H om er irlthe G reek C ivi!W f 'lr (1946-1949)

l37

K'l-rolans'(Kavafis 1978:1.26)w here an unnam ed H ecto/spredlcam ent stan ds for th e h um an con dltlon of lrresolutlon .T h e bookns h ero ls a w ell b orn b ut m oth erless an d lon ely A th en s U n lverslty stu d en t w h o

takes th e lead ln a rlght-w ln g organlzatlon on cam p u s an d ls sh ot d ead by an oth er p rom lsln g stud ent from th e L eft. Slgn lfican tly, th e h ero ls descen d ed from G en eral M akrlyan nls,w h ose m em olrs of th e G reek R evolutlon w ere lnvested by Seferls w lth H om erlc gravlty ln an

essay later translated by Frangopoulos (Seferls 1966:25-65).Early ln the novel, K ltsos M akrlyannls (and thls ls one of tw o prom lnent novels ln w hlch he appears; see M ackrldge 1988) ls presented as a H ecto r:

For ln slde h1m th ere w as alw ays a llvln p large-as-llfe H ector, th at hu m an

H ector,fu11of optlm lsm ,noblllts darlng gthlsw ord from Cavaf/s poem l, m anlln ess, w h o w as yet destln ed to kn ow on ly blttern ess, the deep est dlslllu slonm ent, th e m ost degradln g defeat A n d yet he b ore thls, for a11 th at h e kn ew 1t,h e cou ld b ear th e kn ow ledge th at h1s attem pts w ere ln valn , h e cotlld b ear b etrayal,h e cou ld do b attle w lth h1s fate,for a11 th at h e kn ew lt

H e w as a hum an , a11 too hu m an H ector, an d lf h e h ad en em les, an d lf

ln th e en d th ey kllled hlm , th at h app en ed b ecau se m ost p eople couldn't dlscern h1s n lhlllstlc m an lln ess, an d th e rest b ecau se lt w as preclsely th at

m anllness they couldn't forglve (Frangopoulos 1977 36-7) Follow ln g an eplc battle ln th e student refectory th e h erons fate ls sealed, an d lf thls H ector ls sublect to th e m orale-threatenlng atten tlon s of w om en lt app ears h ere ln th e rath er dlsagreeable form of a glrlfrlen d w h o lnterferes w lth hls dutles an d p erh ap s betrays hlm

(Frangopoulos 1977: 169-72, 193-5).A s he approaches hls destlny, th e eyes of all are set on hlm , th e on e w h o kn ow s th at all of th e p olltlcal organlzatlon s,R lght an d L eft, are rotten ,b ut w h o m u st take a stan d agaln st th e gro up ln th e ascen d an t, E A M , th e left-w ln g

N atlon al Llberatlon Fron t. T h e an alysls of th e h erons predlcam en t m ay b e som ew h at lab oured , but th e w h ole cllm ate sh ow s h ow n aturally such a real-llfe figure could be lnvested w lth th e garb of H ecto r:

U p on th e w alls,everyon e w as n ow w atchlng h1m

For u s th e w ar had ceased

to exlst all th at du st, a11 th at fatlgu e, a11 th at agons w as h1s It w as h e by w h om w e w ere llb erated of a11 th at,w e kn ew th at, an d for th at very reason

w e w ere unable to resolve gc avatsy agalnl to help h1m In the beglnnlng,he

238

D avkd .R cC./cs

couldn't b elteve tt,h e th ou ght som e door w ould op en to hlm ,th at lt w as out

of th e questlon that h e couldn't op en som e door hlm self, b e lt w lth h1s fln gern alls L ater h e grasp ed th at un relen tlngls m ercllessly the w all w as h ere W hy ln th at case dldn't h e stop for th em to n all h lm ? W hy d1d h e seek to flee llke a hunted an lm al? O utslde EA M , or ln EA M , on the w estern or th e eastern slde of th e w alls of Tros w as th e sam e desp alr, th e sam e

terror,the sam e 111luck there w as no w ay out,how ever narrom no doubt or h op e ln th e sllghtest W hy d1d you set to run aroun d th e w alls,H ector? W hy

d1d you go to th e Scam and er gate and b eat at lt ln a frenzs and th e Illum gate an d b eat at lt ln a frenzs an d th e Slm ols gate an d b eat at lt ln a

frenzy? W hy d1d you go to R A N , to E SA S, to P arth enlou, w h en you kn ew th at at your heels w as your A chllles, ln escapable an d w lth a th ou san d

m ouths,Treachery herself? (1977 197)

lt ls not bellttllng the hum an tragedy (or the apposlteness of the w all eplsode to a sltuatlon ln w hlch b ourgeols cen tral A th en s foun d

ltselfrlnged by arm ed and bearded lnsurgents)to find the sym bollsm p on d ero u s:lf a n lh lllsm of H om erlc p roven an ce w ere to b e exp lolted ,

A chlllesngreat sp eech of Ihad 9.308-429 w ould p rovld e a m u ch rlch er S e a rn .

Ko ur llttle brother Lycaonl then: m ade a prom lslng but fleetlng ap p earan ce; w hlle H ector w as p erh ap s lll-ch osen for th e C lvll W ar p erlod .B ut am on g H om erlc figures ln p ost-w ar G reek w rltln g prlde of place goes to th at of E lp en or, w hlch Seferls h ad suggestlvely establlsh ed ln hls ow n ln ter-w ar œ uvre an d ln hls lon g p oem kl-hrush'

ln 1947 (1982:217-29).ln the openlng poem of Takls Slnopoulos's first collectlon W atershed (1951) Elpenor, ln a poem bearlng hls n am e, assu m es p rogram m atlc slgn lfican ce. T h e p oem w as w rltten

ln 1944, and the poet (1917-81) testlfied (Plerls 1988: 249) to lts gen esls ln a m ldd ay vlslon of a young p oet w h o h ad been tortured an d kllled by th e G erm an s ln P atras tw o years b efore.g T h ls vlslon ,

Sln op oulos ackn ow ledged,set lts seal on th e greater p art of hls w ork.

H ere ls the poem (Slnopoulos 1976: 11-12),w hlch m arks hls first en counter w lth th e sh ade of E lp en or: 9 It ls a strlk tn g featu re o f th e p oem s fro m th ls p erlod that th ey sh ow u s sh ad es

from (or evoktng) H om er,never the shade of H om er (see H unter 2004 on anclent m odels ofH om er asfather),asthelr m odern father D lonyslos Solom oshad done tltlcks l989) Thlsform sa.n lm portantpolntofconnectton w lth thew lderlssue ofgeneal ' op rand H om er ratsed ln the lntroductton to thlsvolum e (pp 7-8)

H om er ;?7 the G reek C ivi!W f 'fr (1946-1949)

239

E lp en or

E lp enor, Jlt?w J/J you get here H O M ER

L an dscap e of death P etrlfied sea black cypresses th e low sh ore ravaged b y th e salt and llght th e h ollow rocks th e un relen tlng sun above an d n ot a rlpple of w ater or w ln g of blrd only a b oun dless u nw rlnlded vlscou s sllence It w as on e of th e escort w h o en countered h1m n ot th e oldest L ook, th at m u st b e E lp en or Sw lftly w e turn ed our eyes O dd w e rem em bered n ow m em ory h ad dn ed up hke a rw er m sum m er lt w as ln deed E lp en or am ong th e b lack cyp resses

bllnded by th e sun an d by h1s m edltatlon s scrabbllng ln the san d w lth h1s chopped-off flngers A n d th en 1 called out to h1m ln a Joyful volce E lp en or E lp en or w hat brm gs you to thls coun try? You m et your en d dark lron deep b etw een your rlb s

last w lnter and w e saw the congealed blood on your llps as your h eart drled ou t n ext to th e b oat ln th e yard Togeth er w lth a broken oar w e bu rled you at th e shorelln e to h ear th e m u rm ur of th e w m d th e gurgle of the sea H ow do you n ow com e to b e so allve? W h at brlngs you to thls coun try

blln ded by blttern ess an d by you r m edltatlon s? H e d1d n ot turn to look A n d so I called on ce m ore trem bllng to th e core Elp en or,w h o h ad a b1t of h areskln h un g round your n eck as an am ulet Elp en or n ow lost ln th e boun dless p aragraph s of hlstory I sum m on you an d ltke a cave m y ch est retu rn s the ech o h ow d1d you get here frlen d of yore h ow w ere you able to overtake th e deep black shlp w hlch brln gs u s h ere as w and erlng corpses und er th e sun m ake som e reply lf lt b e your h eart's deslre to com e w lth u s m ake som e reply

H e d1d n ot turn to look H e n ever h eard Sllence resu m ed 1ts grlp T h e hgh t w lth 1ts ceaseless dlggln g h ollow ed out th e groun d

T he sea the cypresses the shore al1 petrlfied ln a deathly m otlonlessn ess A n d only th at E lp en or for w hom w e had been searchlng w lth su ch dedlcatlon am ong o1d m an u scrlp ts

oppressed by th e blttern ess of h1s etern al lon ehn ess

240

D avîd R fcks the sun falllng on th e gap s ln h1s m edltatlon s blm dly scrabbllng ln the sand w lth h1s ch opped-off fngers started to flee llke a vlslon an d slow ly dlsapp ear m to the em p ty unw lnged echo-less blue ether

Leavlng aslde the (dlspensable) H om erlc eplgraph, the poem ls ln debted- ten sely so- to Seferls, an d m ost of a11 to K'fh e K lng of

A slne' (Kfor w hom w e have been searchlngn echoes the final lm es of the older m anns poem , Seferls 1982: 185-7); but there is also a

conversatlon wlth Cavaf/sKcaesanonlwhere the doom ed prlncellng ap p ears to th e n arrato/ s vlslon the m ore vlvldly becau se Kln hlstory

only a few lines are to be found about youn (K avafis 1978:1.69-70, w lth R lcks 1989: l14-18).lt ls clear from the eplgraph to another poem , K'l-hat Phlllpl Kl7or he ls no longer endow ed w lth flesh and bonel both that Slnopoulosns grasp of the H om erlc orlglnal ls tenu-

ous (he m lsquotes O dyssq 11.219 at 1976:27) and thathe pow erfully lnvests hls Elpen or figure w lth th e gulse of th e D ead B roth er of th e

fam ous ballad- l have argued elsew here (R lcks 2003) that thls reven ant, w h o returns from th e underw orld to fulfil hls vow to hls m oth er, ls a figure w h o h aun ts th e entlre n atlon al llterature ln a w ay th at n o an clen t figure does.A furth er varlatlon on th e H om erlc

Elpenor ls w orth m entlonlng:th at hls fallure at thls Juncture to turn to hear echoes A lax's turnlng aw ay from O dysseu s w lth unforglvlng

prlde ln the underw orld (O dyssey 11.563-4).lt ls thls,and not only the esp eclally vlolent death of Slnopoulos's E lpenos th at len ds hlm such dark contours. Elpen or, that lnslstent, unpropltlated ghost, reapp ears m anoth er

poem of the sam e collectlon, çW ake for Elpenor' (N ekrodefptkos p fï ton F/pirltlrff) (Slnopoulos 1976: 23-6). Falllng asleep over a sage book (lm pllcltly: the O dyssey; m uch as Low ellns persona d1d over the A enefd In a poem from the sam e year (2003: 91-3)- a poem w hlch sets off m em orles of a C lvll W ar m uch further back ln the

past),the narrator finds a crow d of m ute figures floodlng hls slttm g room

an d refuslng to be chased aw ay by threats; fteelng to th e

b edroom , he fin ds a llght breeze blow lng th e sh ades m th ere too. H ere ls th e p oem ns d en ou em ent: T h en terror loosed rrly kn ees an d m em ory stlrrln g deep ln m y exlsten ce drew to th e surface

ltke a dtver from th e d eep som e an clent

H om er ;?0 the G reek Cw llJikr (1946-1949)

241

forgotten prom lse to m y dead fn en d E lp en or

A nd suddenly llke a tm y llght ln a deep dark gallery approachln g ever larger so ln m y troubled m ln d h1s llken ess w as enlarged an d uprtght b efore m e ltvely of eye th ere stood Elp enor H ls gaze w as On l'n e sw eet, u n w averln g

l-lls llp s m oved an d closed up on ce m ore an d I th ou ght 1 h eard approachm g m y h earlng h1s m uted m urm urlng volce Frlen d you h ave lon g forgot m e N o w ake for th e dead on e n or a year's m ln d h ave you ever vow ed E lp en or B ltter m y d eath contlnues an d bltterer stlll an d blacker stlll torm ents m e as tlm e goes on R edeem m e frlen d I h eard an d rem orse stood uprlght llke a storm clotld

before m e an d m y eyes grew d1m of a sudden w lth dark tears llke a rw er sw ollen ln autum n w lth abu n dan t raln s A n d w h en th e tears h ad ru n dry an d 1 w lp ed m y eyeh ds w tth m y palm an d llfled m y eyes to see E lp en or I could see n othln g A nd th e b edroom an d slttm g room h ad su ddenly em ptled ou t T hrough th e op en w ln dow s a h ot w ln d w as blow ln g T h e llght p ow dered an d deathly ln 1ts dulln ess poured everyw h ere an d th e orderly brlgh t w hlte ln h1s tunlc u tterly ln substan tlal w as p aln stakm gly arran gln g th e m aglc h erb s

neatly ln lln es on th e top sh elf

T he openlng lln es of thls sectlon are m arkedly H om erlc ln thelr p hraseologp w lth out belng rem ote from n orm al exp erlen ce or rlsk ln g any rlng of m ock -ep lc.to T h e last are a rem in der of Sln op oulosns

professlon as a doctor attached to the n atlonal forces ln the C lvll W ar: th e exp erlen ce haunted hlm an d glves dlstln ctlve contours to h ls un derw orld- lf th ere ls a m oly w h lch can set ln tram th e Journ ey

to the underw orld (O dyssey 10.305):lt can never avallto brlng back the shades or dlsp el th em from th e m ln d. T h e on e thlng w hlch can ach leve th e latter ls w eeplng ofH om erlc coplousness and ln deed w lth

a H om erlc slm lle (A gam em non at lhad 9.13-15).ln fact,the w hole 10 E sp eclally lf w e detect a sub m erged m em ory of the k tlllng of C eb rlones, w h o p lun ges from h 1s charlot fllke a dlver' at Iltad 16 742

242

D avkd R it:/cs

ep lsod e brln gs to m ln d , n ot so m u ch th e fleetln g b u t ever-reson an t en cou n ter w lth E lp en or ln th e O dyssey as th e ap p earan ce of P atro clu sn gh o st to A ch llles ln Ihad 23.62- 107, Kth en cam e th e sh ad e of

poorPatroclus,(llkehlm ln a11thlngs,ln helghtand ln hlstineeyes,( and ln hls volcen (65-6).K'Ybu sleep,but you have been forgetful of m e,A chlllesl Patroclus rem onstrates w lth hls frlend.A n em brace ls fru strated , an d w lth lt th e p o sslblllty of h avln g th elr fill of grlef, an d P atroclu snso ul dlsap p ears llk e vap ou r. lt co uld b e argu ed , accordln gly, th at E lp en o/ s n am e ls m lslead ln gly attach ed to th e gh ost, an d th at KW ake for P atro clu sn w ou ld fu rn lsh a m ore fittln g tltle. T h at th ls ls n ot th e case reflectlon w lll

qulckly show . (A nd w e m ay dlscount a fear of uslng w hat has hlstorlcally b een en dow ed w lth a h om oerotlc h ue, recen tly ln C ava-

ffsK'l'he H orsesofAchlllesn;see Rlcks 1989:91-7.)Forw here there ls a P atroclus th ere m u st be an A chllles, an d n o n arrator w ould w lsely ad op t th at p erson a, as A lexan drouns p oem w lth w h lch w e b egan so

eloquently w arned. (For that m attes Seferls, also w rltlng ln 1951 (1982:245), speclfically ruled out the use of Patroclus ln an age of total w ar w lth the phrase, Kand plty ls dead as Patroclusl) There ls llttle doubt that Elpenor ln post-w ar G reek llterature (lncludlng dram a) has had staylng pow er preclsely because of hls lack of character;an d p erh ap s for h ls op eratln g as a sym b ol of th e m lscarrp n g of tradltlon ,a case of a figure w h o d o es n ot b en efit from - b ut w h o also escap es th e tram m els of- a gran d n arratlve. E lp en or rem aln s w lth Sln op o u los rlgh t th ro ugh h ls œ uvre, as

the late G .P.Savldls show ed ln an eloquent essay (1991).The m ost elab orate, b ut som ew h at dlffu se, ap p earan ces are ln som e C an to s

publlsh ed ln 1953,w here a debt to Poun d ls clear an d on e to Joyce

acknow ledged rather pedantlcally ln endnotes (Slnopoulos 1976: 83-4). lt w as m any years later that Slnopoulos cam e to establlsh a d eep en ed en co u n ter w lth th e sp lrlt rath er th an th e letter of th e H om erlc neky ka, an d h e dld so th rou gh a dlscreet b ut p ow erfully

orlglnalrevlvalofH om erlc C atalogue form (a C atalogue ofW om en as w ell as of otherw lse unknow n soldlers) ln N ekrodekpnos (com pleted 1970),w hlch I have dlscussed elsew here.ll 11 R lcks 2004, cf T h eo A n gelop ou lo s's u n d erw orld , as d lscu ssed by Fran çolse L etoub lon ln C h 9 of the p resen t volu m e

H om er irlthe G reek C ivi!W f 'lr (1946-1949)

243

T h e G reek C lvll W ar en ded w lth som e 120,000 dead . A m on g th e m any form s ln w h lch th ey w ere m o u rn ed or lnvoked , allu slon to th e

H om erlc p oem s h as a sm all but central p lace. B ut th ere w ere also m any survlvors w h o return ed h om e, often after p erlo d s of exlle or

ln tern m ent, an d lt seem s to m e qulte ten able to read th at celebrated

poem Kpenelopens D espal/ (1968) by Yannls Rltsos (1909-90), as a post-l-lom erlc postscrlpt to the C lvllW ar (R ltsos 1989:69): It w asn't th at sh e h adn't recognlzed h1m by th e flrellght,lt w asn't th e b eggar's rags, th e dlsgulse- oh n o, th e m arks w ere clear en ough th e scar on h1s kn ee, th e m anly vlgour,th e cun nlng of h1s eye Startled, slum p ed agaln st th e w all, sh e sou ght som e Ju stlflcatlon , Ju st a llttle b argaln ln g tlm e, n ot to h ave to rep ls n ot to h ave to glve h erself aw ay W as lt th en for h1m sh e'd squ an dered tw en ty years tw en ty years of w altlng an d dream s, for thls w retch ed ch aracter, thls blood-sp attered w hlteb eard? Sh e sank sp eechless ln to a ch am looked slow ly roun d at th e slaugh tered sultors on th e floor, as lf lookln g at al1 h er deslres dead A n d 'W elcom e b ack' sh e sald, h earln g her volce allen , dlstant In a corn er,h er loom filled th e cellln g w lth b arred sh adow s, an d a11 th e blrds sh e h ad w oven ln brlght red thread on green follage, su ddenls on thls nlght of retu rn , tu rn ed grey an d b lack flp ng low on the level h orlzon of h er fln al p erseveran ce

T h e p oem , p art of R ep etktkons, clearly takes O dyssey 23.85 ff. as lts ln n ocu ou s-lookln g cu e.O n th e on e h an d,th e serles tltle seem s to lay em p h asls o n h ow h lsto ry rep eats ltself:h en ce R ltso s's p reoccup atlo n

w lth an clent m yth ologlcal an d hlstorlcal exem p la as oracles to con sult.A t th e sam e tlm e,Kltep etltlon s'ls also a cap tatw benevolenh ae for a p oet osten slbly dlsclalm ln g orlgln allty.C ertaln ly,ln un ravelllng th e questlon of tradltlon an d th e ln dlvldu al talen t h ere,th ere ls m u ch to

ponder, w lth W allace Stevensns K'l'he W orld as M edltatlon' (1997: 441-2) as the m ost lntngulng com parlson.ln the case of Rltsos,w e are bro ught lnto an en cou nter w lth a subtle rew orklng an d dlsorlen tatlon of O dyssean m aterlal,th e m ore p aln ful as lt ls ln th e th lrd ,n ot

th e first,p erson .B loodthlrsty old E uryclela th ought P en elop e w ould h ave re/olced ln th e slgh t of O dysseu s covered ln blo od an d gore llke

a llon (23.47-8): here, lt repels her. Prlvate and publlc space are m erged as P en elop e's lo om

fin d s ltself ln th e h all- or, to p ut lt

an oth er w ay, th e m anh ood prop er to th e h all fin ds ltself ln h er

244

D avkd R itr/cs

b edroom , p olsed for a secon d act of d efloratlon .M ore radlcally, th e sp ace ln w h lch h u sb an d an d w lfe m eet ls on e w h lch h as n ot,as ln th e

H om erlc verslon , been clean sed, h ow ever callously, of th e sultorsn

rem alns (22.448-9).A nd for present purposes let us not fallto note th e p lace an d date app en ded to th e p oem : Kl-eros 2 1.G .681 ln tern ed u n d er th e C olon elsn reglm e, R ltso s n ot on ly, as often , su bverts th elr

ldeology of Kl-lellen o -c hrlstlann fam lly values but also- m ore boldly, l thln k- lm agln es hlm self lnto th e p osltlon of th e w lfe w h o w elcom es b ack a rlgh teo u s exlle w lth blo od on h ls h an d s. H ere th e

blood -sp attered h ero of O dyssey 23 takes on som e of th e ch aracterlstlcs of th e p olltlcal detaln ee of th e 1940s an d after,an d R ltsos sh ow s an aw aren ess of th e p aln of th e C lvllW ar w hlch ls often ellded ln hls w ork .12

R ltsos's acute eye an d som etlm es relen tless ch eerfuln ess foun d m any m ore p osltlve th ln gs to draw on , from

th e O dyssey rath er

m ore than the Ihad (Rlcks 1992).Yet the clvllw ar and lts protracted afterm ath seem ed to call forth a p artlcular vexed resourcefuln ess from

p o ets ln th elr relatlon to H om er, m u ch as th e lrlsh p o et

M lch ael L on gley h as p ro d u ced verslon s from th e latter p art of th e

O dyssey steep ed ln th e ldlom of th e Troubles- an d p aln fully con sclou s of th e p oetns P h em lus-llke p osltlon .l3 lt ls n ot p erh ap s surprlsln g th at, ln th elr recourse to H om er, G reeks w rltln g after th e h orrors of th e 1940s drew so m u ch on th e darker slde of th e eplcs.ln seekln g ln th e w ake of clvll w ar to en ter th e rep ubllc of letters p resld ed over by H om er, G reek w rlters dld ln d eed fin d sm oke an d

ash es- but l h op e lt w lll be agreed th at th ey foun d m ore th an th at.

12 T hat beau tlful po em R om tostnt can Justly b e accu sed o f thls For the type of p oem ou t o f R ltsos's m tlteu w h lch fo regrou n d s th e retu rn of th e p olltlcal exlle ln an

unm ythologlzed w ay see Rlcks (1996) A n extended but dlffttse and abstractvarlant on the them e ls th e lon g poem from 1963 Qo dyssey B ook 25'by Tasos Lelvad ltls 199 1 348-60,w h lch b ears as 1ts eplgrap h the last seven llnes o f the O dyssey T hls deserves m en tlo n as a rare m odern attem pt to b ulld on the prob lem atlc part of the O dyssey

follow lng A rlstarchus' telos (23 296),but nothlng m uch ls m ade of the questlon of clvll w ar as lt arlses ln th e an clen t text N o r, for that m atter, ln th e llteratu re m ore

w ldels has anythlng been m ade ofthe posslbllltles ofthe H om erlc am bush (lochos), especlally as recalled b)rN estor,as analogtte to guerrllla w ar 13 See O lëver Taph n's contrëbu tëo n m C h 7 of the p resent volu m e

11 N aked an d O B rother,

ere A rt T hou ?

T h e P olitics an d Po etics of Ep ic C in em a sim on G oldhill

T hls ch apter com p ares an d contrasts tw o film s, 170th of w hlch are

deeply engaged w lth H om e/ s O dyssey. T h e tw o film s are th e C oen B roth ersn O B rother, VkrJlcrc A rf T houp an d M lke L elghns N aked.T h ere are, of course, m any film s w hlch quote from or ad apt or reuse the O dyssey b ut th ls stark , rh etorlcal Juxtap osltlon h as th e b en eE t of

reveallng tw o p artlcular sets of questlons,w hlch have a w lde lm pllcatlon for the study of the receptlon of H om er ln m odern m edla. T h e tirst lssu e ls w lth th e gen erlc resources of th e O dyssey. lt ls stn kln g th at ln an clen t h terature th e O tlyssey feeds ln to both tragedy

an d com edy, 170th lnto later eplc and into the low er tradltlons of reallsm . Even a scen e as app arently h orrlfic as th e C yclop s ep lsod e

can becom e com edy, as Eurlpld esn satyr play, th e Cyclops, m ost lm m edlately dem on strates.T hls ls m atched by m y tw o film s,w here on e ls as brutal an d dlë cult to w atch as any m odern film , th e oth er a successful m aln stream com edy.T h e flJfIJ or th e A CJICJJ does n ot h ave

qulte such a blfurcated receptlon,I thlnk how ever laughable Troy ls

(and w hatever burlesques w ere produced ln V lctorlan Brltalnl.i W h at ls lt about th e O dyssey th at allow s su ch m ultlp le readlngs?

A n d w hat dlfferences does su ch a hlstoty of recep tlon m ake for the p osslblllty of u sln g th e O dyssey ln m odern w rltlng an d E lm -m akln g?

1 T here ls a go od treatm en t of V lcto rlan B u rlesqu e ln H all an d M acln tosh 2005 3 50 - 90

246

Skm on G old hkll

T h e secon d set of qu estlon s ls ab o ut th e ln terface b etw een th e lon g classlcal tradltlon an d th e m od ern au d len ce. l h ave ch o sen to

exam lne tw o lilm s w here lntertextuallty ls broad an d fragm ented. N elther retells the O dyssey ln any stralghtfotw ard sense. T he sh ow s th at h ave trled to d o a stralgh t verslon of th e O dyssey su ch as th e

A ndrel K onchalovsky verslon for A m erlcan TV (1997),have largely been regarded as artlstlc and lntellectual fallures by both m aln stream

revlew ers an d acad em lcs. T h e m ost su ccessful verslon s- ln

the theatre ln the m alnz- have slm ply relected any attem pt at cap tu rln g a p rlstln e H om er- a strategy also brllllan tly em b odled ln th e

llteraty sph ere by D erek W alcotfs O m eros and Jam es Joycens U lysses, say. T h ls lead s to at least tw o ln terrelated an d p ressln g lssu es: lirst, h ow m u ch H om er ls beln g cu ed an d by w h at cues? Secon d , h ow

m uch H om er ls beln g recelved an d by w hom ,lf w e are ln deed to use the m odelof receptlon? T hls chapter em phaslzes th at these Elm s m ay h elp u s- or requlre us- to rethln k th e baslc m odel of receptlon , d ep en d en t as lt all to o often ls on ld eas of tran sm lsslon , accep tan ce, an d u n lform recogn ltlon . l w lllb egln ,llk e th e G reat D lonysla,w lth th e tragedy an d m ove on

to the com edy.N aked w as released ln 1993,and stars D avld T h ew llss

as Johnny, an allenated an d vlolently dlsaffected young m an, w ho w anders the streets of Lon don . lt ls w ldely recognlzed as a m asterp lece of lilm -m akln p an d a p ln n acle of M lk e L elgh's soclal vlslon .

Lelgh w on B est D lrector at C ann es, an d D avld T h ew llss best actos for th ls w ork .

lt w as som ethlng of a surprlse,how ever, to m e at least,that w hen the film cam e out, n ot on e of the publlshed revlew s of N aked m en tlon ed H om er. lt ls tru e th at as a classlclst l am m ore llk ely to b e surprlsed by su ch an om lsslon th an som e oth er contem p orary m ovle-go ers. B ut th ls w ld ely dlscu ssed film to ok L elglfs w ork aw ay

from the dom estlc satlre for w h lch he ls best know n, from A bkgakl's P arty ln th e 1970: to Secrets flnfl L kes ln th e 1990s,an d n ot only d1d lt w ln m alor aw ard s at C an n es, b u t w as also w ld ely p ercelved to b e

l-elghns gran dest an d m ost sym bollcally ch arged- an d vlolen tprolect.A n d ln su ch cases revlew ers are rarely slow to parade a blt of

2 Such as D erek W alcotfs O dyssey staged by the R oyal Shakespeare C om pany ln L on do n ln 1993

The fbnfltz and Poetws of Fprc O nem a

247

classlcalkn ow ledge.lt ls even m ore surp n sln g th at,w lth furth er tlm e an d dlstance for reflectlon, th e stan dard academ lc dlscusslon s of th e é lm from th e field of lilm stu dles h ave rem aln ed resolutely sllent on th e O dyssey s

M y surprlse stem s Erst and slm ply enough from the plot ltseltl w h lch ls red olen t of H om e/ s ep lc.T h e cen tral ch aracter of th e lilm ,

w h o travels through a serles of en coun ters ln th e w lld w orld of th e

urban landscape of Lon don, ls never nam ed beyon d Klohnnyn- th e

Engllsh for andra,Km anl first w ord of the O dyssef - anà he actually d oes say %hN5

h

Nx

x

x

-x -- --

x

-

-

k

x

%s

%*v u

Xc

o lx 4w

)

%: .u%tx .

x

Xx

%-= '

x

% %

x

%

'x

1 .

1%Y?'-iâ'x 4

A. y

% N : % V . .

v

*

s vœ X x .

N< x

x. a.

.z x

NNNX

s%

*.v.N

xxxW

m x

x

skt 'h

4' GNwxs N.

'x x h x

Fig.11.3 M lke Lelgh,N aked the restaurant (W 1th klnd perm lsslon ofFllm Four )

256

Skm on G old hkll

T he m ealcontlnues w lth Jerem y pulllng apart a sm allblrd,cooked very rare, an d eatln g greedlly. M w s ss u ss A re you rlch ?

Tsa swfv Llfe ls for enyop ng LH e doesn'tlook ather) M w s ss u ss W h at ab ou t fam lls h ave you any broth ers or slsters? JB R B M V I try n ot to rem em b er

M x s ss u ss You're sexu ally frustrated, aren't you?

Llerem y looks ather and p ggles unpleasantlyj W h at's fun ny? rs R E M z A re yo u a fem ln 1st? M w sss u ss N o

JB R B M V D o you llke fuckm g? M w s ss u ss D o you llke w an kln g? JB R B M V N ot on m y ow n , n o

Löhe Dtl/fs fzwfzy H 3seyesstay on heras he ncksh3sshckyhngers1 T h e lm age of relatlon shlp s ln th ese Juxtap osed scen es ls typlcally

brutal an d unpleasant.Johnny uses hls C lrce to hurt hls Penelopean d Sophle's request to p ut on Johnnyns coat ls also a pow er-play agaln st Loulse;Jerem y alm s atvlolent fn anclalan d soclaldom lnan ce of th e m asseuse- th ough h e w lll en d up raplng th e w altress w h o

poured the ch am p agn e after she com es back to hls flat. For hlm , w om en are exchangeable oblects of lust an d hum lllation .T h e parallels betw een the tw o trlangles ralse th us un com fortable questlons ab out m ale sexuallty, fear, an d an ger- an d also ab out fem ale com pllclty an d vlctlm age.W here H om er w ork s all too h ard to separate O dysseus from the sultors,Lelgh allow s thelr slm llarltles to em erge.l3 Johnnyns glbe about Kcareer glrlnech oes Jerem yns A re you a Fem lnlst?' For allth e obvlous dlfferences betw een the glltzy sham of Jerem y and

the squalour of Johnny, one constant ls m ale rage and vlolence tow ard s w om en- an d th e strategles of com p llclty th at p revent th e

w om en escaplng from lt. T he con sum p tlon of Jerem y- the bloody m ealan d hls brutallzatlon of w om en- epltom lzes th e sultorsnm lsu se of fo od an d b od les, an d ,for m e at least,h ls od dly u n pleasan t lau gh ,

llke a m an vom ltlnp recalls th at strange phrase ln the O dyssey of th e

1: For the consclous parallels betw een Jerem m en ts ln M ovsh ovltz 2000 '

68- 9

and Johnny see Lelgh's ow n com

O n H o m er s separatlon o f O dysseu s an d th e

p eop le'see H aub o ld 2000, esp 100- 44

The Jb/ifitz and Jbérlfc. sof l' pfc O nem a

257

sultorsn reactlon to T h eoclym en u s; proph ecy of d oom : ta b lzarre

rlctus dlstorted thelr facesl os m ore llterally, Kthey laughed w lth othered Jaw sl gnathm oksk ffpt?frit?si, as Kthey ate blood-deéled m eaf

(O J.20.347-8).lt ls the pullofthe O dyssey's narratlve m odelw hlch brlngs Jerem y an d Johnny togeth er. lt ls not really explaln ed w hy Jerem y arrlves at th e flat to have vlolent sex w lth Sophie,but the logic ofth e eplc m odel dem ands thatJerem y/sultors and Johnny/o dysseus should m eet.14 T he sam e eplc m odel defn es th e lrony of thelr n on -

vlolent lnteractlon (after allthe lnter-gender vlolence of thls film ).15 In th ls an tl-o dyssean ap ocalyp tlc, th e sultors llve on ,an d th e h ero ls stlll w an derln g ln beggarns cloth es, b eaten an d brulsed, at th e en d of

the lilm .T hls sam e n arratlve thrust underglrds Johnnyns and Loulse's recon clllatlon- an d Johnny's departure. A n d lt constructs th e descent lnto th e clty as a search for kn ow ledge.A lth ou gh th ere are scen es

w hlch do n ot easlly lit lnto any O dyssean story, the film rep eatedly d evelops lts norm atlve pow er through lts vlolent rereadlng of the stru cture of ep lc n arratlve.

T hls ls far m ore than a narratologlcal or Kllteran / gam e. W hat ls m o st relevan t an d p ow erfu l ls n ot a p utatlve, sch em atlc m ap p ln g of

th e lilm on to th e O dyssey b ut th e lilm ns broad lntertextu allty w lth ep lc n arratlve, lts recon stru ctlon of th e w h ole slgn lfp n g system . lt ls th e v ery categorles of H om erlc ep lc th at are b em g fully an d sign lf can tly lnverted . O n e co uld look at alm o st any asp ect of ep lc valu e

an d see h ow lt h as been turn ed ln slde out ln thls film :h om e; return ; n ature/culture; th e god s; m orallty; tlm e;fam elw ealth ; th e b ody.F or th e p urp oses of thls ch ap ter, 1 w l11 sketch yust on e vezy brlefly.W h en

asked lf he has any brothers or slsters, Jerem y replles, Kl try n ot to rem em ber'.T h at ls th e closest w e get to a fam lly stru cture ln thls film .

Johnny says hls m um ls dead,an d then m akes an obscene Joke about

her.(Johnny goes on to relect sex w lth an older alcoholic w om an by tauntlng her sad deslre w lth K'Ybu look llke m y m othert)Even Loulse, w hen she says Kl w ant to go hom el lm m edlately adds Kl don't m ean 14 Jerem y, under the nam e of Sebastlan, seem s to have arranged for the nurse, Sandra,to h ave ren ted thls flat,and m ay be the landlord or land lord's agent W hy he ls vlsltln g at th ls tlm e ls u n clear 15 It ls lron lc, esp eclally ln vlew o f som e of th e less reflectlve crltlclsm s of th e film

for m lsogyny,that Jerem y only leaves w hen threatened finally by Loulse w lth a knlfe and a threat to castrate h 1m

258

Sîm on G oldhkll

w lth m y m u m

an d dadn. T h ere are only erased , dead , or denled

parents. C hlldren? lerem y taunts Loulse: &D o you w ant chlldren? l h ate th em . ' L oulse and Sophle h ave both h ad abortlon s.Even Bloom ln U lysses, for all h 1s falled relatlon sh ip w ith M olly, E n ds Step hen D edalu s.ln N aked,n o fam lly relatton shlp s are p osslble.T he O dyssey's p resen ce ln th ls E lm rem ln ds u s rep eatedly of how lts n orm atlve p rolectlon of fam lly an d h ou seh old llfe ls ruthlessly destroyed ln L elgh's vlslon of th e m odern clty.T h ere ls n ot a trace of th e redem p -

tlve fam lly canng thatls so lm portantto the pathos ofLlfe z Sweet, Secrets and L les, or even J/pr/ D rake. M oreover, w e h ave seen h ow each relatlon shlp b etw een ln dlvld uals ls m arked by vlolen ce, m lsun derstan d4n g, h atred and m lstrust.Every act of sexual contact ln th ls film features vlolen ce; every suggestlon of som eth lng b etter ls lm m edlately p un ctured .W h en asked to d eiin e an ldealrelatlon sh lp ,L oulse com es up w lth n o m ore th an : Ksom eon e w h o stlll talks to you after younve b onked . n So m u ch for th e O dyssean ldeal of rlclrllclp rlrtlstfrlc:

the llke-m lndedness betw een a m an and w lfe whlch ls joy to thelr frlends and a paln to those that hate them ; (O J 6.183-5)- an ldeal em bodled ln th e m om ent w h en O dysseus an d P en elop e return to th elr bed at th e centre of th e h ouse, an d w h ere, Kafter enloyln g th elr pleasurable love-m akln p

relolced

ln

ston es, sp eakun g to

on e

anothernto l 23.300-1). T h e sam e sort of an alysls co uld be provlded for each asp ect of th e O dyssey's m oral vlslon of th e w orld and soclety.T h e h om e ls n o m ore th an tem p orary ren ted accom m od atlon, or a w h olly lost p ast; w ealth ls only a slgn of corruptlon ;th e god s rem aln resolutely absent; an d th e p assage of tlm e brlngs n o m ore th an an exp ectatlon of contm u m g desp am L elgh uses h ls ep lc fram e to explore a p lctu re of th e w orld ln decay, a p lcture of th e p olls as slte of vlolen ce an d dlsorder an d lon ely m com preh en slon . H ls p olltlcal vlslon ls of th e collap se of soclety lnto a serles of ln dlvld uals clashlng ln aggresslon or w lth draw ln g ln to desp alr. It ls an lm m en sely bltter an d forceful attack on th e soclal lm pllcatlon s of th e ldeology of In dlvfd uallsm w hlch dom ln ated E ngllsh p olltlcs of th e T h atch erlte era, an d w h lch also un derlles m uch of th e gen tler soclal satlre of L elghns verslon s of bourgeols culture. M an a W yke h as utlllzed th e term Keplc cln em a'for th e w ay dlfferent lslm lc cultures, esp eclally p ost-w ar H ollyw ood and p re-w ar ltalian

(

The fbnficy and Poetws of FpitrO nem a

259

p rod uctlon s: ad opt th e p ow er of th e classlcal ep lc to app roach th e

ldeology of em plre an d the value of culture.l6 Sh e focuses on lilm s set ln th e classlcalp ast- l prlH u s for ex am p le.W h atw e see w lth N aked ks

a qulte dlfferent use of the resources of classlcal eplc. A fter Joycens U lysses,th e O dyssey h as becom e th e m odern lst eplc m odel p ar excellen ce.L elgh takes th e p ow er of ep lc to con stru ct a n orm atlve p lctu re

of the w orld- but portrays a w orld w hose vet'y values an d structures stan d agaln st th at ep lc gran d vlslon .T h e lm m en se an ger w lth w h lch

thls film ls E lled ls th e en ergy p roduced by th e ten slon b etw een th e ep lc stru cturln g w lth lts sym bollcs an d th e vlolen t,p etty ln teractlon s w h lch ln h ab lt lt an d E n ally d estroy lt.

M y f rst concluslon ,th en ,ls th at a lilm such as N aked ls extrem ely ln structlve for thln kln g about h ow classlcal eplc fin ds a m odern

adaptatlon w hlch ls nelther Brechtlan eplc theatre (desplte lts polltlcalrage),nor the Keplc clnem anofBen H uT nor the D lsneyfed falrytale of H ercules, nor th e trlvlal reflectlons on Em plre that glve Troy th e b arest sh een of p olltlcal lm p act. lt ls h ere, l suggest,th at Kclasslcs an d film n cou rses co uld fin d p artlcularly p ow erful an d ln terestln g

cases:w h at do th ese very dlfferent en gagem en ts w lth th e classlcalp ast tell u s ab o ut m o d ern ltyns lnvestm en t ln th e p ast for lts p resen tatlon

(or avoldance) of contem porary polltlcs? W hat do these dlfferent takes on th e resources of ep lc,ln dlvdu ally an d togeth er,tell us ab out th e n orm atlve p ull of n arratlve ltselg O f th e p lace of n arratlve m o d els ln soclety an d lts p lctu rln g to ltself of lts p resen t an d p ast? C an even th e p ow er of N aked escap e lts com p llclty w lth th e old n arratlve p attern s of h om ecom ln g an d adven tu re?

ln deed, the vet'y phraslng of these qu estlon s ln thls w ay op en s a fu rth er cru clal an d ln terrelated lln e of en qulry. B en H ur an d W ykens oth er exam p les of th e d eplctlon of th e an clen t w orld clalm to slgn lfy as

h erolc and polltlcal n arratlves for m odern audlen ces ln w ays that she

has show n w ell:they becom e allbls for explon ng the polltlcs ofEm plre, m llltan sm , and th e place of th e m od ern n atlon state ln h lstoty Slm l-

larly,w orks as dlverse as Joycens novel U lysses,W alcottns poem O m eros an d A n gelop oulosns film U lysses'G aze exp llcltly p roclalm th elr affin lty to th e H om erlc n arratlves to en gage ln a p olltlcs of n atlon an d culture. ln deed, A n gelop ou lo s can u se H om er- rep eatedly, as H orton h as

16 W yke 1997,see also Joshel,M alam ud ,and M cG ulre 2001,and W lnkler 2001

260

Skm on G oldhkll

sh ow ed , and as h e h lm self d eclaresl7- to explore m od ern G reece's relatlon to lts p ast,w hlch can thu s speak dlrectly about m ythlc m odels an d th e con stru ctlon of th e presen t,an d th u s u se G reece to con stru ct a m ore gen eralm essage.B ut L elgh's kndkrectallu slvlty p rovokes ln a m ost

develop ed w ay the qu estlon of h ow - at w h at levels an d w lth w hat strategles- classlcalp aradlgm s can enter a m odern dlscurslve sp ace.A s

Classlcs changes (as an academ lc field and as a culturalvalue),so too does the lnterface b etw een classlcs an d the m odern m edla.lt ls n ot clear

how m uch H om er ls (to be) seen ln N aked,or w hether any partlcular audlen cens m ore or less lnform ed readlng sh ould be prlvlleged. T h ese d lë cultles,w h lch are centralln som e form to any d lscu sslon of allu slon or lntertextuallty, h ere b ecom e p art of a w lder p olltlcs of m ean m p of

th e qu estlon of w here m eanlng ls produ ced. A n d of how classlcal p aradlgm s are tran sm ltted ln m od ern cultural form s an d w lth w h at p ow er or ln flu en ce. O r: w h at lnvestm en ts are w e to h ave ln su ch

classlcal p aradlgm s, or ln h elplng oth ers see the m odelllng by w h lch storles are told? D oes lt m atter that cn tlcs or an audlen ce are unable or u nw lllln g to see th e H om erlc structu rlng ln N aked î

To explore th ese qu estlon s, l started m y ow n llttle odyssey,w hlch , as w lth O dysseu s, n ever really got h om e. l sp oke lirst to an asslstan t

prod ucer of th e film , w h o w as am azed th at l th ough t th at th e film h ad anythlng to d o w lth th e O dyssey.R ath er depressed, l th en asked th e produ cer, Slm on C h ann lng-W llllam s, lf lt w as b ased on th e O dyssey w h o rep lled , KO f co urse. W h y else h old u p th e b o ok?n l

th en h ad a rath er lacon lc corresp on den ce w lth th e dlrector M lke L elgh ,w h o agreed th at th e lilm w as dellberately eplc,but th at he h ad n o on e eplc ln m ln d, an d th at l sh ould glve up any h op e of Kw rltln g a P IA.D .on lf.ln prlnt,L elgh h as b een equ ally d lsm lsslve of attem pts to tle d ow n dlrect ln flu en ces of su ch a sort,an d rep eatedly ln slsts on th e

film 's com m ltm en t to reallsm . T h e lntellectual gam es of allu slon , as L elgh seem s to see lt,m ay dlstract from th e film ns raw reallsm ,th ough lt ls h ard to see h ow th e film ns soclal vlslon could w ork w lth out a stron g sen se of th e p ast.A ny argu m en t ab o ut auth orlal ln ten tlon ls

furth er com pllcated by L elghns w ell-kn ow n reh earsal techn lques, w hlch lnvolve exten slve lm provlsatlon by th e actors. T h e room w lth lts G reek d ecoratlon s w as p u t togeth er also by th e d eslgn er,

17 H o rto n 199 7

Thefbnfitz and Poetkcsof F./uc Cknem a

261

A llson C hltty. lt w ould seem th at dlfferent E gures lnvolved ln th e E lm

h ave qulte dlfferen t un derstan dln gs of lts Km ean ln gn. So too

dlfferent audlen ces, from

the C lasslcs p rofessor to lilm

cn tlc to

gen eral p u bllc h av e dlfferent readm gs of th ese d lfferen t ln ten tlo n al

stru ctures. O n th e on e h an d, thls sh ould glve u s som e p au se for th e w ay m eanln g often gets talked ab out w lth regard to, say, an clen t dram a;b ut on th e oth er h an d, an d m ore lm p ortantly for m y curren t argum entns p urp oses, lt em p haslzes n eatly the lssue of th e lnterp lay

betw een taclt exp resslon , lnherlted m lsrecognltlons, and expllclt llterary w ork ln h ow w e m lgh t talk about th e role of C lasslcs ln

m odern artlstlc productlon s. R eceptlon m ust b e too blunt a term for thls com plex an d m ultldlrectlon al dynam lc. ln th e argum ents over the role of C lasslcs ln th e currlculum ,a film llke N aked, ln sh ort, can ralse central qu estlon s about th e un sllen ce-

able relatlon s betw een C lasslcs an d con tem porary culture,and ques-

tlons about the role of the crltlc ln (determ lnlng) such a process. L elgh's horrlfic and angry vlew of m odernlty ls w rltten- film edthrough a lost p ast: lts p olem lc con stltutes a u se and ab u se of eplc,

an d lt engages each vlew er at the lnterface of polltlcs and narratlve, th e very provln ce of eplc.Even lf I-elgh hlm selfw lsh es to dlstance hls Elm from a llterary tradltion in the nam e of a real sufferlng,w e stlll h ave to recogn lze th e p ow er of tradltlon al n arratlve form s to stru c-

ture th at sufferlng,to m ak e lt vlslble and com preh en slble:to h ave an

ldeologlcal bearlng on the film ns m eanlng.A s such, l suggest th at lt offers a w ay of th lnklng about eplc- w 1th lts ldeology of contlnulty, ln h erltan ce,an d v lolen ce- ln an d fo r m o d ern lty.

It w ould be hard to lm agln e a film m ore dlfferent ln ton e from

N aked than O h B rother,W ' /yérrérA rtThtlt/?(2000),a charm lng rom antlc ro ad com edy w lth an adm lxtu re of m aglc an d rellglon ; an d

G eorge C loon ey. B ut thls film too u ses th e bluntest of lntertextu al cues to m ark lts relatlon to H om e/ s ep lc. lts op enln g sequ en ce p uts on screen an E n gllsh quotatlon of th e first three hn es of th e O dyssey

to th e background m u slc of th e chaln gang,w h ere th e actlon starts

(see Flg. 11.4).(N aked delayed the expllclt reference to the O dyssey an d th us ch anges th e stru cture of alluslon , w lth a d em and for

rereadlng and rethlnklng.) The C oen Brothers fam ously clalm ed to h ave read only a cartoon verslon of th e O dyssey - oç even n ot to h ave

262

S km on G old hkll

Fig. ll.4 C oen B roth ers, O B rother, W ' /lcrc A rt Thou l openlng quotatlon

(W 1th km d perm lsslon ofU nlversalStudlos ) read lt at all.So w hy do th ey ln slst,from th e lirst sh ot of th e lilm , on telllng u s to read lt through th e O dyssey î

lt ls not Just a booklsh Joke (as lt w ere).The references are clear en ough an d ln m any cases cruclal to th e plottln g of the m ovle.T he h ero has th e n lcely d actyllc n am e of U lysses Everett M cG lll, an d h e bran dlsh es hls nam e w lth all th e flourlsh of th e H om erlc an noun cem en t ezm ' O J N-SPN.F L aertlades. T h e n am e U lysses ls fam lllar en ough

ln the U SA (Ku lysses S.G ranf),but lt m akesthe connectlon w lth the h ero of th e O dyssey ln th e m ost dlrect m an n er.U lysses ls m arrled ,of

course,to Penny (played by H olly H unter).H ls m arrlage ls threaten ed an d hls p atrlm ony at rlsk by a South ern gentlem an called V ern on T .W aldrlp .'W h en w e é rst m eet th ls ch aracter, each tlm e h e

ls m entloned,M cG lll's young daughter lntones Kl-le's a sultorl ln case w e don't get lt.U lysses M cG llltravels w lth som e falrly foollsh crew ,m a desp erate race to get h om e ln tlm e. O n his w ay, he m eets m o st

obvlously the Sirens and the Cyclops w ho threaten to delay hlm (at

The fbnfitz and Poetkcs of Fp trO nem a

263

least).There are w hat appear to be m ore casual references too:the tw o p olltlclan s,for exam ple, h ave th e first n am es H om er an d M en elau s.A n d th ere are also sw eet p asslng Jokes on th e p atrlarch al drlve of th e O dyssey su ch as th e fact th at U lysses h as seven daughters ln stead of on e son ,or th e fact th at th e Sultor ls a m u ch better fighter th an h e ls.Kl am th e p ater fam lllas,n ln slsts M cG lll forlorn ly. M ost enloyably, P en ny ls qulte h appy to rem arry,ln slsts to th e chlldren th at U lysses ls

dead (Khltby a tralnn),and,even w hen U lyssesreturns,dlsm lsses hlm as a drlfter.W h en U lysses M cG lll,ech oln g A gam em n on ln th e O dyssey

tellshlscom panlon,Knever trusta w om ann(Ka deceltful,two-faced shew olfl a çlylng lnconstant succubusn),the reversal of the paradlgm of th e p asslve an d ever falthful P en elop e h as been th oroughly undon e. T h e lon g scen es w lth the K lu K lux K lan or w lth the baby-faced ban dlt are m uch less easy to fit lnto a slm ple O dyssean n arratlve,though easy to see as p art ofth e film ns travelthrough th e deep South ,and ,ab ove all, through th e p ostm odern love of fragm en ts of film lc tradltlon w hlch

m ake up the Km em orylasltw ere,ofthe pastln and aspopular culture. T h e ech oes of prevlous film are as m uch a part of thls lilm ns engagem ent w lth th e past as lts hlstorlc settln g. A n d h ere ls m y p oln t.T h e lilm dem ands ln tertextu al readln g an d flaunts lts ln slsten ce on film lc h lstoty W hy ls lt called O h B rotherj J'kr/zérrérA rt T /m t/?? It ls because of a P reston Sturges lilm of 194 1 called Sulhvan's Travels.ln th ls hlghly self-con sclous an d self-reflexlve film ,

set ln the D epresslon, a film dlrector,John Sulllvan,w ho has alw ays su ccessfu lly m ad e th e flufliest of rom an tlc com edles, d ecld es th at h e w an ts to m ake a film

of grltty so clal reallsm , an d con sequ en tly h e

dresses up as a tram p- m uch to th e ann oyan ce of h ls produ cersan d w lth a dlm e ln hls pocket sets o ut on the road . W h at follow s ls a com edy, of cottrse, as th e dlrector dlscovers m u ch m ore th an h e h ad ln ten ded, largely through h ls fluffy rom an tlc en counters w lth V eronlca L ake. W h at the d ow ntrodden n eed , the tilm decld es w lth n ot a w h olly M arxlst p olltlcal slan t, ls laughter. T h e tltle of th e film th at Sulllvan th e dlrector h ad ln ten ded to m ake, but does n ot, ls KO h B roth er W h ere A rt T h o u ?n

So th e C oen B roth ersn com edy film , set ln th e D epresslon , allu des kn ow ln gly to a film ln w hlch a dlrector w an ts to m ake a serlous film ab ou t th e D ep resslon bu t can n ot escap e fro m h 1s ow n gen re. l take

264

Skm on G oldhkll

th at to b e a com m ent ab out gen re, an d th e C oen s' sen se of th elr ow n com edlc verslon of th e D epresslon , and th elr ow n lronlc n od b ack w ards to th ose screw ball com edles of 1940s H ollyw ood . A n d th ere are plen ty of su ch referen ces to th ls film lc tradltlon ln th e E lm ,from

the m uslc to the baby-face bank robber,w ho ls (to keep the D epresslon them e golng) cllnlcally depressed. l su sp ect, h ow ever, th at only a really sen ou s E lm

buff w ould

lm m edlately appreclate the tltle of O B rother, J'krk rc A rt T hou? B ut w h o ls th e Joke alm ed at? T hls proved to b e a h ugely p op ular lilm , w lth a vet'y b ro ad au d len ce.W h at ls fascln atln g to m e ls th at ln th ls

com edy, n o less th an ln L elghns ep lc, th ere ls a gam e w lth spllt au dlen ces: fragm en ted com preh en slon .l8 tl-lave you got lt yet?n becom es th e key q u estlo n of th ls co m edy of alluslo n .T h ls ls th e op p o slte of th e com pllclty of can n ed laughter.lt dem an ds a hyp er-kn ow lngn ess an d an ln evltable exclu slvlty. T hls ls on e reason w hy th e C oen B roth ers get cu lt status,th e ultlm ate accolad e of excluslvlty,b ut lt ls fascln atln g

to see su ch ellte ln slder com edy ln a m ass-m arket film . A com edy ls n ot a d etectlve story,b ut p erh ap s U m b erto E co's T he

N am e of theRose (or even D an Brow nns TheD a J/irltu Code)m lghtbe lnstructlve here. The N am e of the Rose w as a huge popular success desplte th e stan dard p ubllshlng w lsd om th at A rlstotle an d m edleval th eology w ould allen ate a p op ular au dlen ce. So p erh ap s an audlen ce can all p leasurably sh are th e sen se of a code of referen ce beyon d ln dlvldu alsecure com preh en slon .ln th e d etectlve story,of course,an au dlen ce m u st revel ln th e process of d ecodln g.ln a com edy,w lth lts dlfferent dyn am lcs of n arratlve pleasure,th e recogn ltlon th at th ere ls

a further hldden Joke to be enloyed m ay n on etheless prove to be p art of a film 's cach et. L et us look at h ow thls com edy ofexcluslve alluslon w orks w lth th e

prlm ary text of H om er.L et m e start w lth a sln gle Joke,b efore w e look at a scen e.W hlle travelllnp U lysses Everett M cG lll records a son g for a blln d m uslc produ cer,keen to collect told -tlm e m uslcl O dysseus, as a m aster of son g an d of th e recordln g of kleos p erform ln g for a blln d con troller of th e clrculatlon of son g, ls a w on d erful verslon of w h at

18 T hls ls n ot a p rodu ct Just of m od ern lty, tho ugh lt ls a partlcu larly beloved strategy of the pastlch e an d fragm entatlon of 20th an d 2 1st century art an d llteratu re R u th Scod el, for on e,w ould see th ls already ln H o m er Scod el 2002

The fblfffcscrlt;lPoetwsJJFJUC O nem a

265

h asb ecom e th e arch etyp al m od ern lst con cern w lth O dyssean p oetlcs, th at Kold -tlm e m uslctlg ln th e E lm , th ls son g becom es a great h lt: w hlch U lysses gets to p erform ln fron t of hls w lfe,am ong oth ers, at a

polltlcalrally.(1t also becam e a realhlt for the m uslclans.) Everyone ls tran sfixed by th e son p as everyon e ln H om er ls tran sh xed b y O dysseusn tales of h ls troubles. T h e song ls called Kl am a m an of con stan t sorrow t A ll H om erlsts w l11 ln stan tly recogn lze thls tltle as

m ala d 'triF?îip tp/l/-çltprytp-s one ofthose phrases O dysseus uses alm ost as

a m arker of hls ldentlty w hen ln dlsgulse before Penelope (19.118). W h at oth er p op song w ould O dysseus sln g th an Kl am

a m an of

con stan t sorrow '? B ut thls ls a Joke on ly for th at m ost exclu slve audlen ce, th e professlon al H om erlst. H ow

dlfferen t ls thls Joke

from th e lilm b uff's Joke of th e tltle? T h e w lder scop e of a scen e ch an ges th e dyn am lcs of alluslon ,as w e can see from th e C yclop s eplsode, on e of th e broadest com edlc m om en ts ln th e E lm . T h e C yclop s, a on e-eyed blble salesm an , called

B lg D an Teague, played by John G oodm an, lures U lysses and h ls

com panlon,D elm ar,lnto a deserted rural ldyll (see Flg.11.5).D an Teague h as seen U lysses bran dlsh a w ad of bank n otes, an d assum es

&' Xsl x%' P

- t? -

-

tt-

x -

, >.'

-

x yxv * -% -

: N*

. h . h x- 4

-

-

lt ,

v>

% k ) sxs N

y ' xxsx xx

-

-

ls kxtu ' > ' k ttwx

x

*

xx

h

At . x,)x 'x Ls ' lt à xk xlo.v q .j

x xx t xxx A . : . x x: t

x

%v

x

h -kx'k' jb

'kx'x

N

*%

't

x

X x'x

à 4. q

. 'N

x

G'Xxxs

x

':))

.. %. .

.

' '

' '

.

':'

5.

, .

y,.

''xx

A XX'X '.k x

4

..

. --,.

xx

xs x


Kcom plexn> Klnterw ovenn> Klntrlcaten1 he w as evoktng ln part lts n arratlve techn lque of flashback and lnset story, ln part lts love of dlsgulse, m anlpulatlon , an d trlckery, ln part the textns van atlon s of

tone and dlrectlon (Poetws xxuv 1459b). It ls not by chance that L elghns N aked,llke poycens U lysses,for a11th e bleakn ess an d aggresslon of1ts vlslon ,ls also very funny.T h e O dyssey ls p artlcularly b ew ltch lng told -tlm e m uslc' for th e confh ctlng and confllcted volces of th e m odern lst artw ork . By allow m g us to see thls fragm ented , dlffuse, and m ultlple w ork of alluslon w lthln the p oetlcs an d polltlcs of eplc reson an ce, N aked and O B rother W /lprp A rt T /yt?t/a, for a11 thelr m anlfest dlfferences, together provlde a p aradlgm atlc m odel, I w ould suggest, of how H om er enters the lm age w orld of the tw en tleth century.

12 A n A m erican H om er for th e

Tw entieth C entu ry Seth L . Schein

T h ere p rob ably h ave b een m ore read ers of th e Illad an d O dyssey ln un d ergrad uate h um anltles and great b ook s courses ln th e U n lted States sln ce th e 1920s th an ln th e 500+ years sln ce th e E rst p rlnted ed ltlon s of th e H om erlc ep lcs- m ore,p erh ap s,th an sln ce th e tlm e of th e A lexan drlan edltors. O ver 100,000 stu dents take su ch courses an n ually, and th e slgn liican ce of th ese cou rses as a n ew m stltutional an d soclal context ln w h lch to read H om erlc p oetry ls p erh ap s th e m aln factor ln th e A m erlcan recep tlon ofH om er du rm g th e tw entleth

(and now the tw enty-Erst) centurles.tThe only rlvallsln the realm of popularculture,w here Elm sand TV Kspecialsnloosely based on (parts of) the Iltad and O dyssey attract even larger audtences (e.g. U lysses, Contem pt,O Brother,J'krhcrcA rfThtlzf?,Troy,the O dysseyj,and other E lm s seem to assum e som e degree of fam lllarlty w lth or m terest ln H om erlc ep lc, for exam ple T he f' ftfrrlflrl Stazn, w h ere a p rofessor ls sh ow n dlscussm g th e JDfIJ w lth u ndergradu ates.z T hese p op u lar recep tlons, h ow ever, d o n ot lnvolve the sam e km d of engagem ent w lth th e ep lcs th em selves as do the h um an ltles an d great books cou rses th at are th e sublect of thls chapter. l w ould llke to thank Em lly G reenw ood for d etalled co m m en ts and crltlclsm th at lm proved thls essay I also am grateful to C aesar A d am s, P enelop e A d am s, B arb ara G razlosl,N ancy Felso n ,an d E m lly W llson for th elr en cou ragem en t an d su ggestlon s l A noth er l50 ,000-200,000 studentsperyear read allo rparts ofthe Ihad,the O dyssey or bo th eplcs ln h lgh schoolo r college courses ln M lrtholop ror C lasslcalLlterature

2 O n the polltlcs ofclasslcalreceptlons ln film ,see G oldhlll (Ch ll above)

An Am erwan H om erfor the20th Century

269

T he great books courses l have ln m lnd are usually taught not only by classlclsts b ut by ln structors from varlou s hu m anltles dlsclp lln es as a hlstorlcalsequen ce of texts read ln tran slatlon ,reflectln g th e rlsen or Kp rogressn of W estern clvlllzatlon . A t th e sam e tlm e, even the oldest of these texts,w hlch ten d to be the Ihad an d O dyssey are K

consldered to em body fundam ental an d p erslstent values, n ot on ly of W estern clvlllzatlon but som etlm es of h um an clvlllzatlon gen erally. G reat b ooks courses are usu ally h oused ln stltutlon ally

outslde of C lasslcs an d other llterature departm ents, an d th ey are relatlvely un con straln ed by dlsclp lln ary kn ow ledge or d evelop m ents ln sp eclallzed sch olarsh lp- a dlstln ctlvely A m erlcan arran gem en t.

ln Fren ch , G erm an , ltallan , and B rltlsh unlversltles an d sch ools, th ere tradltlon ally h ave b een n o su ch courses, an d H om er an d oth er

classlcal authors have been taught by classlclsts un der th e ausplces of C lasslcs d ep artm en ts or facu ltles.3 ln thls ch apter l lirst trace th e backgroun d an d hlstoty of th e great

books courses,ln an effort to sltuate the readlng of th e H om erlc eplcs ln th e U n lted States durln g th e tw en tleth cen tury ln a broad hlstorlcal context. T hen l con slder brlefly th e rem arkable num ber of translatlons these courses have ellclted, especlally slnce the Secon d W orld W ar. Fln ally, l attem p t to sh ow h ow readln g H om er ln tran slatlon ln these courses, often ln snlppets an d usually ln llght of such

supposed natlonal values as Krugged lndlvlduallsm l has affected th e w ay ln w hlch the Ihad and O dyssey have been ln terpreted an d un derstood by tw en tleth -cen tury A m erlcan readers. T h ere w ere th ree m aln cau ses of th e developm en t of great b ooks

courses ln th e 1920s and 1930s:lirst,th e d eslre to reslst th e G erm an un lverslty m odel, w lth lts sp eclallzatlon an d professlon al em ph asls, th at h ad becom e dom ln an t ln th e U n lted States ln th e tin al qu arter of th e n ln eteen th centuryi4 secon d, th e quest ln th e late nln eteenth an d early tw entleth centurles to replace 170th a Ksterlle classlclsm sym bol-

lzed by ...gG reek andlLatln entrance requlrem entgsl15 and a m alor p artof the undergraduate currlculum w lth m ore vltalofferlngs ln th e Kh um anltlesni6 thlrd, the changlng ch aracter of the student body: 1 5 Cf Stray (1998) for the qtute dlfferent hlstory of classlcal cttrrlcttla ln Brltlsh u n tversftëes and sch ools: 1830- 1960 4 L evln e 1996 4 5- 7, W ln terer 2002 153-.6 , 174- 8

5 B ell 1966 13

6 'W lnterer 2002 l 18- 32

270

Seth Schekn

especlally at ellte ln stltutlons,as the chlldren of C athollc and Jew lsh lm m lgran ts from so uth ern an d eastern E urop e grew m ore n u m ero u s an d b egan to d om ln ate ln tellectu ally.; U n tll th e early n ln eteen th cen turs th e Ihad an d O dyssey h ad b een

read ln A m erlcan colleges ln G reek ln selectlons chosen m alnly for th e exam p les th ey p rovld ed of gram m ar an d syn tax, th e stu dy of

w hlch w as con sld ered to traln th e m ln d ln d eslrable w ays. T h e ln flu en tlal Yale U n lverslty rep ort of 1828 d efen d ed th e tradltlon al classlcal currlculu m

agaln st p rop o sals for ch an ge th at em p h aslzed

th e lm p ortan ce of sclen tlf c kn ow ledge an d th e ch arge th at a classlcal ed u catlon dld n ot ad equ ately serve th e n eed s of th e p eop le: fam lllarlty w lth the G reek an d R om an w rlters ls esp eclally adapted to form th e taste an d to dlsclplln e th e m ln d, b oth ln th ou ght an d dlctlon , to th e rellsh of w h at ls elevated, ch aste, an d slm ple

Every facu lty of th e m ln d ls

em ployed, n ot only th e m em ors Ju dgm ent, an d reasonlng p ow ers, but th e taste an d fan cy are occupled an d lm proved 8

B y th e 1820s an d 1830s, h ow ever, a n ew gen eratlon of classlcal lan gu age p rofessors h ad already b egu n to ch an ge th e w ay ln w h lch

G reek and Latln, especlally G reek w ere taught and the reasons for w h lch G reek au th ors w ere stu dled . T h ese w ere th e lirst sch olars to

brln g th e valu es of G erm an sch olarshlp to th e U nlted States an d to ln corp orate m o d ern h lstorlclsm ln to th e cu rrlcu lum .Su ch E gu res as E dw ard E verett an d C urtls C onw ay Felton , at H arvard , an d C h arles A n th on , at C olum bla, p ro d u ced n um erou s ed ltlon s of G reek auth ors, lexlcon s, an d gram m ars b ased clo sely on G erm an m o d els,to b e u sed as u n d ergrad u ate textb ooks.g U n d er th e ln flu en ce

of Johann Joachlm W lnkelm ann an d A ugust W llhelm von Schlegel, ln p artlcu lar, th ey also ln fu sed th elr w n tln gs an d teach ln g w lth aesth etlc ap p reclatlon s of G reek llteratu re an d art. U n llke W ln kelm an n , h ow ever, w h o saw G reek art, esp eclally classlcal G reek scu lp tu re, as exp ressln g tlm eless, tran scen d en t, an d un lversal b eauty th at cou ld b e kn ow n , enloyed, an d vlrtu ally w orsh lp p ed , th e A m erlcan

7 B ell 1996 3, 19-2 1, 25, G lazer 1988 271- 2, Sh lls 1988 228- 9, Levln e 1996 57- 6 0 , l3 3- 9

8 D ay an d K ln gsley l829 328- 30, cf Steven son 1988 16 1-2 9 Everett 1826, Felton 1833, A nth o n 1838

An Am erwan H om erforf/lfr20th Century

271

H ellenlsts tn ed to sltuate w orks of G reek llterature and art ln thelr hlstorlcal an d soclal contexts.lo From th e 1830s on , m ost stu den ts read H om er ln Felton's edltlon of selected books of th e Ihad,th e text of w hlch w as based on th at of Frledrlch A ugust W olf ll Felton stated ln h ls lntrod uctlon th at h e w lshed to Klead the young student to read the poem ,n ot ln the spm t of a school-boy connlng a lesson to be fKconstruednn an d KK arsednn but ln dellghtful con sclou sn ess th at h e ls em ploylng hls m ln d up on

on e of the noblest m onum ents of th e genlus of m ant H e w ent on, h ow ever,to say th at h e h op ed to Kprom otenln hls stu dents Ka h ablt of

analytlcal cn tlclsm ltz and ln a revlsed edltlon,l: lnfluenced by the

lirst volum e of G rotens H kstory of G révtz,l' l Felton devoted m ore attentlon to the H om erlc Q uestlon and the effort to place H om er ln a hlstorlcal context, on the groun ds th at studylng H om er hlstorlcally h elp ed stu d en ts to un d erstan d th e p o em s as llterature.To asslst

students ln cultlvatlng th elr llterary sen slbllltles, Felton lnclu ded ln h ls edltlon m any of Flaxm anns lllustratlon s,w hlch ,he argued,though m odern , represented the splrlt of the H om erlc age an d sh ow ed artlstlcally w hat H om er's language revealed llterarlly. T he study of art and llterature togeth er, he clalm ed: w ould help stu dents to un derstan d H om er Kln a llberal w aytls ln th e last h alf of th e nln eteenth century, th e tradltlon al un d er-

graduate llb eral arts colleges, ln w hlch Felton7s approach to H om er an d G reek llterature gen erally h ad flourlsh ed, w ere tran sform ed by the rlse ln lm portan ce of the sclen ces and soclal sclen ces. T hls tran sform atlon p robably orlgm ated ln th e ever-expan dlng lnd ustrlallzatlon of th e age an d lts con com ltan t utllltarlan lsm an d sclentlsm .

lt w as catalysed from 1876 on by the foundlng and lncreaslng lm portan ce of graduate sch ools, w lth speclahzed doctoral program m es m odelled on an d lm bued w lth th e scholarly values of G erm an un lversltles, ln clu dlng th e lm p ortan ce of research rath er than p eda-

gogy as the chlef goal of the unlverslty. (The lirst such doctoral program m e w as ln C lasslcs at the new ly founded Johns H opklns

U nlverslty (1876),w lth BasllA .G lldersleeve as Professor of G reek.)

10 W ln terer 2002 52- 7

11 Felton 1833 an d 1848

12 F elton 1833 pp 111-1v, quoted by W ln terer 2002 88-9 13 Felton 1848 14 G ro te 1846-9 15 Felton 1833 p v11

272

Seth Schetn

T he organlzatlon of know ledge lnto auton om ous dlsclpllnes, organ lzed along professlon al lln es,w as com plem ented by a new system of m alors an d electlve cou rses alm ed at p rod u cln g sp eclallsts even at th e

undergraduate leve1.16 ln resp on se to th ese d evelop m en ts, ln th e fin al q u arter of th e n ln eteen th cen tury, th e Kh u m an ltlesn cam e ln to b eln g as a slgn lf can t

ln tellectu al dom aln w lthln th e m odern A m erlcan college. T h ese th um anltlesn w ere n o longer th e tradltlon al stud ka Jlt/rrlfprTiffkfs ,w lth th elr em ph asls on th e G reek an d L atln langu ages an d llteratures.

R ather, ln the context of college currlcula, the Khum anltlesn cam e to m ean Kth e elevatln p h ollstlc study of llterature, m u slc, an d arttli T hey w ere dlstlngulshed from

studles ln the sclen ces and soclal

sclences by a categorlcal refusal of econ om lc an d soclal utlllty; ln stead,th e h um am tles em ph aslzed kn ow ledge for th e sake of kn ow ledge an d learnln g as a p ath to lnw ard reflectlon an d self-cultlvatlon . B y th e turn of th e cen tuty th e academ lc study of th e h um anltles,

especlally of C lasslcs and even m ore esp eclally of H om er, Sophocles, an d P lato n ow read ln tran slatlon , w as an lm p ortan t p art of th ls p rocess of self-cu ltlvatlon , w h lch cam e to b e seen as an an tld ote for sclen tlsm an d m od ern lty.l8

T he rlse of the h um anltles w lthln th e academ y w as parallel to slm llar d evelop m en ts ln A m erlcan so clety gen erally. For exam p le, ç

on e of th e great d em o cratlc m ovem en ts of th e n ln eteen th cen turyn

w as th e develop m ent of th e Kp arlo/ as a stan dard feature of th e m lddle-class A m erlcan h om e. T h e p arlor w as Ka testam en t of

the fam llyns refnem ent gandl proof that they understood how to be p ollten; Klts furnlshlngs stood for repose, pollsh, econom lcally u seless kn ow ledge, b eauty, an d d ecoratlve actlvltyn an d alm ost

alw ays ln cluded Ka book-case Elled w lth w ell selected and w ell b oun d volum esn reflectln g th e fam llyns Km ental culturetlg It ls n o

accldent that Thom as Bullinch, ln The x4gérof Fable'or, Stones of Godsand H eroes(1855),frequently republlshed asPart 1 ofBu# twh's M y thology an d stlll ln p rln t, referred to h ls w ork as Kn ot ...a

study but a relaxatlon from studyl Ka C lasslcal D lctlonary for the

16 Levln e 1996 46- 7, W ln terer 2002 l52- 7, l75- 8, B ell 1966 16- 18

17 W lnterer 2002 ll7

18 Ibld

19 B ushm an 1992 273,251,264,280

ll8- 19

A /CA m erwan H om erforthe20th Ck/yft/ry

273

p arlor...th at m 11 lm part a kn ow ledge of an lm p ortan t braxn ch of ed ucatlonn to Kth e read er of elth er sexn w h o h ad n ot studled th e classlcal lan guages.zo In effect,B ulf n ch alm ed to dem ocratlze m yth ology by op en lng up lts m ysterles to w orkln g-class p eop le an d p ersons of both sexes w ho dld not attend secondary schools or colleges w h ere G reek an d L atln w ere studled .zl H 1s effort to m ake classlcal m yth ology avallable to readers w h o w ould prevlously n ot h ave h ad access to lt b oth p arallels th e developm en t of th e Kp arlo/ as an archltectu ral an d social phen om enon ,an d an tlclp ates the gen eral ed ucatlon an d great books courses of th e tw entleth century. T h e second m aln reason for th e n se of great books courses w as n ot so m uch acad em lc as ldeologlcal.T h e earllest su ch course orlgln ated at C olum bla U n lverslty durlng th e FlrstW orld W ar as a Kw ar lssu es'or t

w a r a lm

an d the ldea spread to m any oth er un dergradu ate

s n c o u r se ,

ln stltutlon s. T h ls course w as actually m ore h lstorlcal an d p olltlcal th an llterary, m ore a clvlllzatlon th an a h um anltles offerlng. lt w as sp on sored by th e Stu den t A rm y Tralnln g C orp s, an offsh oot of th e federal governm entns C om m lttee on E d ucatlon an d Sp eclal Tralnln p an d lt alm ed to explaln to sold lers an d to th e gen eralp op ulatlon b oth th e un derlylng an d th e lm m edlate cau ses of th e w ar.22 T h e çw ar lssu es' or çw ar alm sn course reflected th e W llson lan n otlon of a struggle b etw een en llghtenm en t an d barbarlsm , dem ocracy an d autocracy, ln w hlch th e U nlted States, B rltam , and Fran ce w ere on on e sld e an d G erm any on th e oth er, w lth th e future of clvlllzatlon ltself

hanglng ln the balance.ln The Openkng of the A m encan M CFIJ,Leo L evln e quotes from

a represen tatlve lecture by P rofessor E dw ard

R . Turn er: Kth e E n gllsh , m ore th an any oth er p eop le ln th e w orld, except th e Fren ch an d ourselves ...h ave th e h um anltarlan splrlt, a d eslre for falr play an d to do w h at ls rlgh t, to h elp p eople w h o are w eaker th an th em selves, n ot to take advan tage of w eaker p eop le, ln oth er w ords to do to oth ers as th ey w ould be d on e byl T h e G erm an s, on th e oth er h andy Kcarry on w ar as th ey h ave ln Fran ce an d B elglum b ecause th e G erm an p eople do n ot h ave th e h um an ltarlan splrlt of falr p lay, w hlch th e E n gllsh , A m erlcan s, an d Fren ch do h ave'.23 T h e

20 B ulfin ch 1979 p p v1,vll,vlll 21 C leary 1993 22 H eck el 19 19, B ell 1966 14- 15, L evtne 1996 54- 7 2:5 L evln e 1996 55

274

Seth Schezn

valu es of th e clvlllzatlon for w h lch th e A m en can s, E n gllsh , an d

Fren ch supp osedly w ere E ghtln g w ere traced back to th e G reeks, th o ugh th ere w as an effort to avold th e G erm an N ew H um an lsm , w lth w h lch th e stu dy of G reek llterature, esp eclally of th e H om erlc ep lcs,w as asso clated .zzl

A t th e en d of th e w ar, C olum bla renam ed 1ts course Kc on tem p oraty C lvlllzatlon' an d added a KG en eral H on orsn course develop ed by

John Ersklne that began w lth the Ihad and O dyssey and w as prlm arlly llteraty T h ese coursescontln ued to serve p atrlotlc purp oses,presentln g W estern clvlllzatlon ,esp eclally th e clvlllzatlon of th e U n ited States and

w estern Europe,as ln effect the telos of w orld hlstoty or at least of all

w orld hlstory that counted. (N elther C ontem poraty Clvlllzatlon nor G eneralH onorsm cluded any readlng from an A slan orA frlcan cultttre.) T h ey blen ded th ese patrlotlc p urp oses w lth the un dergradu ate collegens goal of com batlng th e electlve system , w hlch C olum blans Presldent, N lcholas M u rray B utler: o n ce lts ard ent su pp orter, n ow accused of

destroylng Kthat com m on body of know ledge and sym pathy w hlch h eld m en togeth er ln sym p ath etlc understandlngn.T h ey also alm ed to sh ap e th e currlculum ln resp on se to w h atw as,even by 1920,an ln creas-

lngly dlverse student pop ulatlon .zs T hls Kdlverse student pop ulatlon' ls the thlrd m aln reason for the developm ent of th e great books courses.T h ere w as a p ercelved n eed to em ploy a revam p ed con ceptlon of th e Kclasslcaln ln th e effort to acculturate th e n ew m ultltu des of students, m any th e chlldren of

C athollc an d Jew lsh lm m lgrants from southern an d eastern Europe: w h o ow ln g to th elr 1ow

statu s an d exclu slon from

Kh u m an lstlc'

ed ucatlon ln th e coun trles from w h lch th ey h ad em lgrated, could n ot be exp ected to b e fam lllar w lth tradltlon s an d valu es th at classlcal llterature h ad hlstorlcally tran sm ltted . T h e alm , th o ugh , w as n ot slm ply to lntrodu ce n ew kln ds of students to texts, values, an d tradltlon s w lth w h lch th ey w ere unfam lllas b ut to m ak e th ese stu dents sufflclen tly W estern an d acculturated to take th elr place ln at least th e low est levelof th e soclalellte,th e m lddle class,to w hlch th elr college ed u catlon s w ere b ou n d to adm lt th em . O n e resu lt w as th at

classlcal culture ln creasln gly cam e to b e seen by th e stu dents th em selves as a com m odlty, th e con sum ptlon an d con splcuou s dlsplay of

21 G rub er 1975 2 14- 19 , 238- 42

25 L ev ln e 1996 58, l84 n 6

zirlA m erwan H om erfor the20th Century

l75

w h lch co u ld p rom ote th elr upw ard so clal m oblllty. T h e p ow er an d

fun ctlon of classlcal culture, as tran sm ltted ln great books courses, are an alogous to th e role of classlcal currlcula ln soclal stratlh catlon ln G erm any, Fran ce, an d esp eclally B rltaln ln th e nln eteenth an d tw en tleth cen turles.z6 lt ls n o accldent that th e developm ent m th e 1920s an d 1930s of great books cou rses, featu rln g classlcal llteratu re an d alm ost alw ays

beglnnln g w lth th e Ihad or O dyssey w as con tem p oran eous w lth th e rlse of an other ln stltutlon alm ed at aw akem np and th en satlsfp n p a deslre for the classlcs an d for books gen erally as a m arker of m lddleclass culture an d soclal status.l refer to the Ksetsn of classlcs sold to the gen eral p ubllc an d to th e book clubs that sprang up ln th e 1920s an d 1930s, w lth the B ook-of-th e-M onth C lub an d the R eaders' G ulld

leadlng the w ay. A s Janlce R adw ay has polnted out, the classlcs w ere classlcs b ecau se th elr legltlm acy an d ,as lt w ere,th elr ed u catlon al

an d m oral u se value had been establlshed by accepted edu catlon al an d rellglous authorltles. T hey galn ed addltlon al Ksym bollc w elghf n ot only from th etr conn ectlon w lth th ese sam e auth orltles, but b ecause th ey Kcam e to be assoclated con ceptually w lth the sort of people w h o could afford to buy th em n an d to atten d the colleges w here they w ere read .27 T h ls Ksort of people'used th e classlcs ln th elr h om es vlrtually as a com pon en t of lnten or decoratlon ,to dem on strate to them selves and

others thelr status asw elleducated,econom lcally w elloff and soclally w ell placed . T h ey dlsplayed th em ln attractlve, unlform ly b ound sets th at could be sh elved con splcu ously ln a place of h on our ln th elr llvlng room s,28 llke B ulf n ch's Kc lasslcal D lctlon ary for th e p arlo/. T he prototype of such sets w as th e H arvard C lasslcs, th e fam ous Klivefoot sh elfn of books first sold by H an rard U nlverslty ln 1909, w lth a gen eral lntrodu ctlon by H arvard's P resldent, C h arles W . E llot, on e of

the countrfs leadlng culturalcntlcs.Early advertlsem entsfor thls set em ph aslzed n ot o n ly th e ed u catlon al bu t th e econ om lc advan tages

of readlng the classlcs for even Efteen m ln utes a day: KD o you kn ow h ow m uch m ore you could do an d earn lf you gave yourself a real ch an ce? ...Yo u can get from

these KKl-lazv ard C lasslcsn th e culture,

th e kn ow ledge of m en an d llfe, an d the broad vlew p olnt th at can

26 Stray 1998 30-45

27 R adw ay 1997 l63

28 Ibld

147- 5 1

276

Seth Schekn

alon e w ln for you an ou tstan dln g an d solld su ccess7.29 T h e actu al con ten t of thls Kkn ow ledgen an d Kbroad vlew p oln f th at could lead to

upw ard m oblllty w ere n ot speclfied but taken for granted,ln the sam e w ay lt w as taken for granted ln great b o oks cou rses th at on e sh o uld

read the Ilkad an d O dyssey through the len ses of con tem p oraty A m en can valu es.ln b oth cases,th e classlcs w ere m ass-m arketed as fetlshlzed

com m odltles w hose lnherent pow es m ystlque,or Kaural to use W alter B enlam lnns term ,could h elp readers fulfil thelr m ost ardent ln dlvldu al an d soclal d eslres.3o M any b o ok club s,ln clu dln g th e B ook -of-th e-M on th C lu b an d th e

R eaders' G ulld , w ere less ln terested ln m arketlng th e classlcs, w h lch after all w ere finlte ln n um ber, esp eclally w h en sold ln sets, th an ln arou sln g an d satlsfp n g a d eslre ln th elr su b scrlb ers for n ew b o oks,of

w hlch th ere w as a p oten tlally en dless qu antlty. N everth eless, a surprlsln g n um b er of b ook club s dld em ph aslze th e classlcs, ln cludln g th e top of th e lln e H erltage B o ok C lu b an d th e som ew h at less sh ow y

W alter J.Black C lasslcs Book C lub and C arleton Book C lub (to both of w h lch m y ow n p aren ts su b scrlb ed an d w h ose b o oks th ey dlsp layed

on our sh elves as a m arker of th elr h ard -w on status as m em bers of

the first college-educated,m lddle-class generatlon ln thelr fam llles). T hese books w ere certalnly lnten ded for dlsplay at least as m uch as for read ln g. T h ey often w ere gllt-edged , w lth gold to oled leath er b oard s an d gllt letterln g on th e sp ln e, th o u gh som etlm es th ere w as

a bu dget verslon ln c10th ; th e b ooks of th e H erltage B ook C lub also cam e ln dlstln ctlve sllp cases. T h e Ihad an d O dyssey w ere alw ays am on g th e earllest offerln gs of

th ese classlcally on en ted book clubs. T hey also w ere featured ln M ortlm er A dle/ s an d R ob ert M . H u tch ln s's G reat B o ok s of th e

W estern W orld (w hlch lncluded 443 lndlvldualw orks by 74 authors ln 54 large, double-colum ned volum es). Thls canonlcal set w as p ubllsh ed by th e E tw yclop aedka l riffprlrlitw an d sold door-to-door, llke th e en cyclop aedla, alon g w lth A dle/ s Syntop kcon, an ln dex an d gu lde to th e m aln ph llosoph lcal and m oral ldeas ln th e G reat B ooks.3l lt ls n o accldent th at thls collectlon w as a by-produ ct of

29 Ibld

146, cltln g A m ertcan M agaztn e, Feb ru ary 1926 l95

:0 B enlam ln 1969 22 1- 3, 245 n 5, R adw ay 1997 166, 376 n 42 :1 A d ler 1952

zirlAm erwan H om erjor the20th Century

l77

th e ln stltutlon of great books cou rses by H utch ln s, A dler, an d R lch ard M cK eon at th e U n lverslty of C hlcago an d by Strlngfellow

B arr and Scott B uchanan at St Johns C ollege,A nnap olls,tn 1937co urses th at w ere based on C olum blans G en eralH on ors course.T h ese courses,llke th e Kl-lu m anltles X course ln stltuted at C olu m bla also ln 1937, w ere year-lon g gen eral ed ucatlon co urses requlred of a11 f rst-

year students.(At St Johns a canonlcalset ofgreatbooks:ofW estern classlcs, w as, an d stlll 1s, p rescrlbed for all stu den ts for all four

years.32) These general educatlon courses w ere w ldely copled and, llke th e H arvard C lasslcs an d th e sets of books sold by classlcally orlented book clubs: th ey app ealed to th e m lddle-class deslre for culture 170th for Its ow n sake an d for th e sake of th e status to w hlch lt contrlb uted an d testlE ed . Perh ap s th ls ls w hy at C olum bla, H um an ltles A cam e to b e kn ow n as Llterature H um anltles, abbrevlated Llt. H u m .an d th u s su ggestln g O xford U n lversltyns L kterae H um an kores.ss

T h e tran slatlon s of th e Ihad an d O dyssey offered by th ese book clubs,p erh ap s becau se th ey requlred n o p erm lsslon fees,w ere alm ost lnvarlably th e A n drew L ang, W alter L eaf, an d E rn est M yers or th e Sam u el B utler Ihad an d th e A n drew L an g an d Sam uel H . B utch er, th e Sam uel B utler, or th e G eorge H . P alm er O dyssey. R an dom H ou se's M od ern Llbrary,n ot actually a book club but a b udget-prlced serles of llteraty an d p hllosop h lcal classlcs alm ed at a w orklng- an d m lddle-class audlen ce, w as exceptlon al because lt ln cluded n ot only th e L an p L eaf, an d M yers Ihad an d L ang an d B utch er O dyssey avallable ln ln dlvldual volum es an d ln on e M odern Llbraty KG lan t' w lth an ln trodu ctlon by G llbert H lgh et,but also th e verse tran slatlon s by th e South C arollnlan p oet an d classlclst E n nls R ees. ln th e U nlted States ln th e tw entleth cen tury, th e prod uctlon of n ew tran slatlon s of H om er w as largely a by-produ ct of th e contln u ln g p op ularlty of great b ooks cou rses ln un d ergrad u ate colleges, elth er as requ lred com p on en ts of gen eral ed u catlon cu rrlcula or as

a com m on m ean s by w hlch stud ents could satlsfy Kdlstrlbutlonn or Kbreadthn requlrem en ts ln ten ded to gu arantee th at even lf th ey sp eclallzed ln areas outslde th e h um anltles, th ey w ould h ave som e exp osuren to th e so -called Km asterplecesn of W estern llterature, cul-

K

ture,an d th ough t.A s l h ave sald,p robably m ore p eople h ave read th e

:52 B ell 1966 14- 15, 26- 7, L evln e 1996 47- 53

:H W llson 2005

278

Seth Schekn

TDJJ an d O dyssey ln th ese courses over th e p ast slxty or seventy years th an ln th e precedln g five centurles, and the suë clently w ldespread ad optlon of a p artlcular tran slatlon as a textb ook can be resp on slble

for sales of m any thousan ds of coples per year. Sm ce the end of th e Secon d W orld W as n o few er th an elght n ew tran slatlon s of th e Ihad an d th lrteen of th e O dyssey h ave b een p ubllsh ed ln th e U n lted States, m o st o f th em con celved , com m lsslon ed, an d m ark eted at least p artly

w lth sales to undergraduate readers ln m ln d. T h ese tran slatlon s ln clude verslon s of both p oem s by E nnls R ees,R lchm ond Lattlm ore, R obert Fltzgerald, R obert Fagles, an d Stan ley L om bardo, an d verslon s of th e O dyssey alone by A lan M andelb aum , A lbert C ook, R odn ey M errlll, an d E dw ard M cc rorle. T h e lntrod uctlon s to th ese tran slatlon s an d th e n otes, glo ssarles, an d ln d exes are ad dressed p rlm arlly to stu d en t read ers. Sln ce th e p ub llcatlon ln 1976 of M al-

colm W lllcockns C om p ankon to th e tran slatlon of R lchm on d L attlm ore,34 lt ls n ot un u su al for oth er tran slatlon s to be accom p anled by

slm llar stu dent alds, as w ell as by Kcourse n otesn or Kstudy guld es; ln ten ded to h elp studen ts p ass exam ln atlon s an d w rlte p ap ers on th e

poem s (w lthout necessarlly readlng them ). Som e of these translatlon s,such as th ose of Fltzgerald an d Fagles,h ave also been m arketed to n on -acad em lc gen eral read ers ln trad e edltlon s, bu t l su sp ect th at, at least from

a p ub lish erns v iew p oln t, th ey w ere m eant ln th e E rst

p lace for un d ergrad u ates. lt ls strlklng th at alm ost all th e A m erlcan tran slatlon s of th e

H om erlc eplcs h ave b een ln verse, w h lle m ost B rltlsh verslon s

sln ce the V lctorlan perlod, ln cludlng those of L ang et a1., B utler, P alm es W llllam

R o u se, E m lle R leu , W alter Sh ew n n p an d M artln

H am m ond,have been ln prose.T hls m ay have som ethlng to do w lth the fact th at the m alorlty of B rltlsh tran slatlon s are alm ed m alnly at non-academ lc general readers:w hose fam lllarlty w lth the novel m ay h ave been th ough t to m ake a prose tran slatlon of th e Ihad or O dyssey m ore accesslble an d satlsfp n g th an on e ln verse. O n th e oth er h an d, m o st A m erlcan tran slatlon s sln ce th e Secon d W orld W ar h av e b een

ln ten ded prlm an ly for studen ts ln h um anltles and great books courses, w here eplc as a genre ls clearly dlstlngulshed from

the

n ovel,of w hlch prose ls a m alor delin ln g ch aracterlstlc.Furth erm ore,

:4 w lllcock 1976

A n A m erwan H om erfor the20th Century

l79

ln th e U nlted States, p oetry ln an d of ltself ls a slgn of h lgh culture an d h elp s to con fer th e status th at great bo ok s co urses alm

to

P rovld e. W h en th e Ihad an d O dyssey are read ln great books courses, th ey

u su ally are de-contextu allzed an d de-hlstorlclzed .Except w h en classlcal sch olars teach th ese co urses- an d n ot alw ays th en- th ere ls

llttle or n o attem pt to un d erstan d th e p oem s as produ cts of a lon g oral tradltlon or to sltu ate th em

ln a late elghth -, early seventh -

century hlstorlcal and cultural context. ln stead, th ey are taugh t ln relatlon to oth er b o ok s ln th e co u rses, as lf th ey p o ssessed , ln com m on w lth th ese texts, tlm eless llterary an d eth lcal qu alltles th at m ake th em

exam p les an d exp resslon s of th e en d urln g valu es of

W estern cultu re an d clvlllzatlon . T h e elem en t of th e p o em s m o st

dlstorted by such de-contextu allzlng ls th e O lym plan gods, w h o are rarely con sldered ln llght of a Kcosm lc hlstoryn recoverable from th e p oem s of H om er an d H eslod , ln clu dln g th e H om erw H ym ns an d th e fragm ents of th e ep lc cycle.35 A s a result, relatlon s betw een dlvlnlty an d h um an lty ln th e Ihad an d O dyssey ten d to b e lnterpreted an achronlstlcally, for exam ple ln term s of fate an d free w lll, an d th e actu al conn ectlon s betw een dlvlnlty, fate, n ature, an d p oetlc n arratlve are ob scured .

A s John G ulllory says, KB y suppresslng th e con text of a cultural

w ork's productlon and consum ptlonl the great books course creates

Kthe llluslon that ga1 culture ...ls transm ltted slm ply by contactw lth th e w orks th em selvest36 A n H om erlc ep lc,h ow ever,as taugh tln th ese courses, does n ot prlm arlly express ça culture ofW estern clvlllzatlonn or even w h at m lght b e con sld ered Kl-lom erlc valu esn. R ath er, lt ex p resses th e culture an d valu es o f th e ed u catlon al ln stltutlon s th at offer th e course- ln stltutlons th at, llke slm llar ln stltutlons at least sln ce an clen t R om e, h ave en d ow ed certaln w ork s w lth can on lcal

statu s an d th elr readers w lth soclal p ow er by ln clu dlng th em

In

th elr currlcula.3; T h e stud ents w h o, throu gh th e n ln eteen th century, read H om er ln G reek garn ered a p artlcular kln d of cultural capltal, w hlch w as on e m arker of upp er-class status. N ow ad ays th e great b ooks courses, w h ere th e readlng ls don e ln tran slatlon , p rovld e a

:5 G razlosl an d H aub old 2005 35-93 57 Ib ld 51

36 G u lllory 1994 43

280

Seth Schekn

w atered -dow n verslon of su ch cultural capltalfor a far larger n um b er of m ld dle-class an d w ould -be m lddle-class readers. lt ls n ot su rp rlsln g, glven th e orlgln s of great b o oks co urses as

courses ln KW ar A lm sn or KW ar lssuesl that, even w hlle they express th e culture of th e edu catlon al ln stltutlon s ln w hlch th ey are offered, th ey also h ave b een tau gh t ln w ays th at h elp to con stru ct or reln force

a n atlon al culture an d n atlon al ldeology. ln p art thls m ode of ln terp retatlon sp rln gs from

th e assu m p tlon th at th e U n lted States

ln the tw entleth century w as, as lt w ere, the goal tow ard w hlch W estern h lstory h ad b een ten dln g . G lven th ls assu m p tlon lt m akes ,

sense that A m erlcan core values, esp eclally those havlng to do w lth ln dlvldu al rlghts an d freedom s, sh ould be ld entlf ed w lth or pro Jected onto th e values ln th e books taken to be th e fcoren of W estern

culture. T herefore, ln readlng an d teachlng these w orks ln great b ooks or Kcoren courses, stu dents an d teach ers all too often lin d th em selves dlscoverln g an d aë rm ln g su p p o sed n atlon al valu es an d

th e actlon s th at follow from th em . For exam ple,there ls frequ en tly a ten den cy,w hen teachlng the Ihad, to see th e ln dlvldu alw arn or vs.th e com m un lty or soclety as th e m aln th em e ofth e p oem an d to pn vllege the ln dlvldu alover th e com m unlty or soclety. T hls ls a p rolectlon of th e Krugged ln dlvlduallsm n that ls

supposed to be a dlstlnctlvely A m erlcan value (though the focus of W estern llberalculture generally hasalw aysbeen on the lndlvldual).In any case,th e p n vllegln g of th e ln dlvld u aldlstorts th e H om erlc eplcs,ln

w hlch the values and actlon s of th e ln dlvldu al h eroes are n ot only, or n ot so m u ch ,ln opposltlon to those of th e com m unlty as they are the

com m unltyns values and actlons taken to an extrem e. ln oth er w ords, lndlvldualherolc values are soclalvalues.Even w hen A chllles ln B ook 9 of th e Ihad calls som e of th em ln to qu estlon an d ln so d olng seem s to

stand agam stthe Kcom m um tynor Ksocletf ofthe Greek arm y,he does so because, as the w arn or h ero p ar excellen ce: h e p aradoxlcally takes

soclalan d com m unalvalu es m ore serlou sly than do others ln the arm y, an d ln th at w ay h e ls m ore, n ot less, so clal. To p u t lt ln G reek term s,

A chllles ls characterlzed as m uch by phklotës (Kfnendshlpl Ksoclal solldarlty') as by m ënks (Kw rathn), and lt ls slm pllstlc to vlew hlm onedlm enslon ally as an ln dlvldual h atefully opp osed to th e com m unlty.

R ather,hls h atred ofA gam em non and lnten se solldarlty w lth Patroclus are both expresslons of hls p hklotës m anque. N evertheless, especlally

An Am erwan H om erfor the20th Century

281

becau se ln great books courses, len gthy w orlts llke the Ihad are often read only ln selectlon s the em phasls ls frequently placed on A chlllesn lndlvldual em otlon s and actlon s ln B ooks - 1: % and 24,w lth the result th at the com m unlty to w hlch he belongs ls relatlvely n eglected. T h e ldeolop cal an d ln stltutlon al assum p tlon s of great b ook s courses lnvlte th ls k lnd of slm pllf catlon , as th ey lnvlte th e Ktlm elessn approach of w hlch l sp oke earller.ln b oth cases stu dents are lnvited or taught to read w ith com placency groun ded m th e assum ptlon that the poem and lts values are transparently fam lllar and recognlzably contem porary. T he problem ls esp eclally acute, because m any teachers of great books courses are n ot classlclsts an d én d lt dlë cult to hlston clze thelr treatm ent of H om erlc eplc. If an em ph asls on con tem p oran elty an d on th e ln dlvldu alleads to on e lo n d of lnstltutlon al slm pllficatlon and m lsunderstan dlng of H om erlc eplc, an oth er, qulte dlfferent w ay of slm pllfp ng an d m lsun derstandlng th e Ilkad and O dyssey ln great books courses sprm gs from th e desire of m any ln structors, esp eclally non -classlclsts from m odern llterature departm ents: for a slngle, progresslve n arratlve that w ll1 unlfy the course an d h elp lt m ake sen se to them selves and th elr students. T h ey yearn for a story of successlve shlfts ln th em es,

values,and narratlve m odes,for exam ple,from H om er (honour and sham e) to V lrp l (em plre and colonlzatlon) to D ante (Chn stlanlty) to the novel (m odernlty, econom lcs, soclal stratlhcatlon). Erlch A uerb ach's M km esls and M lkh all B altlm n's KEp lc an d N over are favourlte sources for su ch un lfp ng narratlves. A s a result, generatlons of students have been told , w rprlgly, that ln H om erlc eplc

Knothlng ls left ln darkness or unexternallzedl there ls no narratlve p erspectlve or depth,and a11phen om ena take place ln fa brlghtly an d unlform ly lllum lnatedn foreground, an Kexcluslve presen tni38 or that th e eplc, ln con trast to th e n ovel, ls too un sophlstlcated a genre to

Klncorporate extrallterary heteroglosslal to be Kcrltlcal and self-

cntlcall to expose the dlchotom y between Qm anyts) ...surface and h ls center, b etw een h ls p otentlal and h ls realltyt3g T h e urge for a h lstorlcal n arratlve ln w h lch to sltu ate th e varlou s texts m a great

books course, lncludlng th e JIJfIJ and O lysséy can generate Just as slm p llstlc a m lsun derstan dln g of H om erlc p oetry as a presum ptlon :58 A uerbach 1957 2, 3, 5

. 39 B akhtln 1981 7, 10, 34- 5

'

è

282

Seth Schezn

of th e su p p o sed ly tlm eless qu alltles of th e p o em s or an em p h asls on th e ln dlvld u al.

T h e Ihad an d O dyssey llke alm ost every b ook read ln a typlcal great b o ok s co urse, ln th elr ow n tlm e called ln to q u estlon , or p rob lem atlzed ,th e ln stltutlon s an d valu es of th e cu ltures th ey rep resen ted an d th o se ln w h lch th ey w ere created , w h eth er to su bvert or, ln th e

en d,to reaë rm an d reln force th em .W h en ,h ow ever,th ese w orks are ab sorb ed ln to a tradltlon an d establlsh ed as p art of a can on ,th ey lo se th elr crltlcal edge,ln p art b ecau se th elr valu e n ow seem s self-evld en t. ln th e U n lted States, at least ln great b o ok s co urses ln w h lch th ey are u su ally read ln on ly a w eek or tw o, th e H om erlc ep lcs are typ lcally tran sform ed ln to d ocu m en ts at th e b egln n ln g of a p rogress tow ard

(and Justlfcatlon of) Kournow n supposed W estern values and selves, esp eclally w h en , as all too often h app en s, th ey are stu dled as p art of a serles of texts ln relatlon to on e an oth er,w lth ln suë clen t atten tlon to th e so clal, cu ltu ral, an d h lstorlcal con texts ln w h lch th ey w ere p rod u ced . T h u s, at th e m o st slm p le-m ln d ed level, stu d en ts m ay b e

lnvlted to vlew A chllles ln the Ihad as Ksellishl unpatrlotlc, and th erefore ln th e w ron g, w lth out con slderln g w h at self shn ess or p atrlotlsm

m lgh t an d m lgh t n ot m ean ln th e w orld of th e p oem ,

or w h eth er th e ep lc rep resen ts or lm p lles dlfferen t n otlon s of rlgh t an d w ron g from th e stu d en tsn ow n , or w h eth er rlgh t an d w ron g are even relevan t categorles of an alysls an d ln terp retatlon . T h e O dyssey as tau gh t ln great b ooks cou rses can b e su blect to slm llar ld eologlcal or self-servln g ln terp retatlon s. For exam p le,

O dysseusn destru ctlon of th e Sultors ls seen as ln dlcatln g n ot only h ls ow n ln dlvldu alp row ess but also a con ceptlon of soclalJu stlce th at allow s so m asslve an assau lt by a h erolc ln dlvld u al on a com m un lty, w h en lt ls d on e ln d efen ce of th e h erons ow n p rop erty- th at ls, h ls w lfe, h ls h om e, h ls h erd s, an d h ls kln gd om . lt ls n ot to o far-fetch ed

to say th at th e O dyssey as taught ln th e typ lcal great books or W estern h u m an ltles cou rse, ls th e earllest extan t w ork ln sup p ort of p rlvate p rop erty as an ln stltu tlon an d of h erolsm as ln tlm ately b ou n d u p w lth th e d efen ce of th ls ln stltutlon .'lo In th ls read ln g, P en elop e's loyalt'y to O dysseu s an d resou rcefu l p reservatlon of h 1s p rop erty an d T elem ach u s' ln h erltan ce, alon g w lth Telem ach u sn ow n

40 H

I'o rter 1962 15- 16

grow ln g

A n A m erwan H om erfor the20th Century

283

aw aren ess w lthln th e p oem of th e n eed to defen d h1s rlght to thls

ln herltan ce, are further expresslons of the prln clple of prlvate prop erty.ln a great books course,B ook 24 ls an approprlate endln g of the p oem m aln ly becau se lt ls n ecessary to establlsh th at th e gods really d o en d orse O dysseu sn un preced en ted d ef an ce of com m un al n orm s ln th e ln terest of a h lgh er Ju stlce th at allow s h lm to get aw ay w lth klllln g 108 Sultors, alth ough , as h e tells Telem ach u s at 23.117-22, u su ally w h en som eon e kllls even a slngle m an , h e m ust go lnto ex1le.41 lt w ould be p osslble to lnterpret O dysseus' slayln g of th e Sultors d lfferen tly, for exam p le, by foregro u n dln g A th en a as an ln strum en t

ofZ eus (asln the O resteka),w ho helps O dysseusto take vengeance ln ord er to establlsh a n ew kln d of Ju stlce. ln a great books course,

h ow ever, such a readlng, w hlch subordlnates the lndlvldual to the p urp oses of dlvlnlty,w ould b e p uttln g th e cart b efore th e h orse.T h e p oem ls never m ore A m erlcan ldeologlcally th an w hen O dysseus ln fllcts on th e Sultors fron tler Ju stlce an d sh ow s by su ccessfuldefen ce of h ls prlvate ln terests th at h e h as god on h ls sld e. ln an essay lirst p ubllsh ed ln 1956, rep rln ted several tlm es, an d frequ en tly draw n on

by teach ers of great books courses, G eorge D lm ock elucldates th e

m eanlng of O dysseusn nam e by com parlng hlm to Ka character ln

agn A m erlcanl w estern m ovlen w ho says, Klust call m e Trouble: strangerl ldentlfp ng hlm self as Ka hostlle type w ho m akes trouble for oth er p eople, an d so presum ably for h lm self alsot42 Slm llarly: H ow ard Porter,ln an ln trodu ctlon to a 1962 p ap erback reprlnt of th e G eorge H . P alm er tran slatlon , com p ares th e lonlan soclety repre-

sented ln the poem to that of the KW lld W estl presum ably w lth O dysseus as the Kfastest gunl and says of H om er: K'l'he experlence of h ls ow n p eople w orked on hlm - as th e frontler on th e A m erlcan w rlters of th e nln eteenth centuryt43

ln GreatBooks'M y Adventureswif/lH om erjRousseau,W btl/ f,and otherIndestructzble J'krrlfpryof the J'kr éryférrrlJVP/-ll,D avld D enby quotes C olum bla Professor Edw ard Tayler as asklng the students (both m ale and fem ale) ln hls sectlon of the Llterature H um anltles course,Y ou are all Telem ach u s, aren't you7?44 D en by's book ls a p aean to great

41 Ib ld 4:5 H

18

42 D lm o ck 1956 57, cf 67-8, 70

Po rter 1962 l7, 19

44 D enby 1996 76

284

Seth Schekn

b ooks courses as featurlng w orks w h ose pow er supp osedly exlsts

an d m akes ltself feltln depen dent of any ldeology or lnterpretatlon .Yet

D enby hlm self proudly asserts that Kgtlhe great thlng about W estern cultu re ls th at any A m erlcann- and h ere h e actu ally ls sp eak m g

of A frlcan -A m en cansl- Kcan stand on lt, or on som e sm all part of lt. ln thls countty w e take w hat w e w ant an d m lx lt w lth our ow n com p osltlonn' ts A s typ lcally tau ght, great b ooks courses are 170th dem ocratlc an d

un dem ocratlc: they are free from the con straln ts and know ledge of

any partlcular dlsclpllne and reflect an ldeology of Kllberal educatlonl of kn ow ledge and culture that are op en and accesslble to all; at th e sam e tlm e, th ey take for gran ted, as p re-texts, tradltlon al A m erlcan

m yths and (supposed)W estern values,and ln thlsw ay they are hlghly con straln ed an d llllberal.46 G reat books courses tran sform the H om -

erlc eplcs (and other requlred texts) from w orks that ln thelr ow n hlstorlcal and cultural contexts had problem atlzed tradltlon al lnstltutlon s an d values, lnto Km asterplecesn that, as part of a tradltlon , a11 too easlly lose thetr edge an d becom e slm pllstlcally aë rm atlve expresslon s of Kou/ KW esternn cultural h erltage. A ll too often , thls

transform atlon m ystlf es the role of th e educatlon al lnstltutlon , ln

w hlch a glven course lstaught (and often requlred),ln the productlon an d con su m ptlon of cultural capltal an d en co urages stu d en ts to read com placen tly an d un crltlcally. G reat b ooks co urses con tln u e to flo un sh ln A m erlcan colleges an d

unlversltles.A t C olum bla,w h ere lt all started,th e C olum bla U nlverslty R eglster, th e off clal volce of th e unlverslty, on th e seven ty-f fth an n lversary of th e G en eral H on ors course referred to 1ts great books

courses as lts Kslgnature, lts lntellectual coat of arm s7.47 A G oogle search for çgreat b ook s co ursesn yleld ed 5,280,000 results, ln clud ln g

th e G reat B ooks Foun datlon , th e electronlc Journ al Teachkng G reat B ooks an d th e Top 100 B ooks C lub .T h ere ls also an A ssoclatlon for

C ore Texts and C ourses, w hlch , llke acad em lc dlsclplln ary assoclatlon s, h olds an n ual m eetlngs w lth a p rogram m e sp read over several days an d ls dedlcated to th e p edagogy of th e great books.

4, D en by 1996 462 46 I ow e thls lnslght an d w ordln g to E m lly G reenw ood 47 C olu m b la U n lverslty 1994

ArlAm erwan H om erfor the20th Century

285

G lven th e contlnu lng p op ularlty an d p revalen ce of great b ooks co urses ln A m erlcan un dergrad uate ed ucatlon , w h at can be don e to lm prove th e teach ln g of th e H om erlc eplcs? O n e an sw er ls th at teach ers sh ould take th e tlm e, even w h en th ere are only a few classes

ln w hlch to Kcove/ the Iltad or O dyssey to help studen ts un derstan d h lstorlcally h ow an d w hy lt and th e oth er texts ln th e course b ecam e

great bookst T h ls m lght productlvely lnvolve a dlscusslon of A ulus G elllusn w ell-kn ow n approprlatlon of th e socloecon om lc term clas-

K

yitrt/y for th e km d of w rlter w h ose w ork sh ould b e read by young m en b eln g groom ed to get ah ead ln ïbfe- classw us adskduusque flngt/i. s

scrkptos Fltp/J proletarlus (Ksom e classlcat landow nlng w rlter, not a proletarlan onel N octesA tttcae 19.8.15).lt also w ould touch on the subsequent hlstory of the w ords Kclasslcn and çclasslcaln ln relatlon to educatlon al ln stltutlon s.'l8 A hlstorlcally lnform ed dlscusslon of th e

w ords tclassn and çculture: along th e llnes sketch ed by R aym ond W llllam s ln K eyw ords, also w ould be productlve.'lg Even brlef con slderatlon of the m eanlngs and h lston es of these w ords m lght h elp stud en ts to read w lth h lstorlcal aw aren ess and crltlcal en gagem ent.

Fln ally, an em phasls on the confhctln g values an d dlscourses w lthln th e Iltad an d O dyssey w ould h elp both teachers and students to reslst th e slm pllstlc, on e-dlm enslon al lnterpretatlons often fostered by great b ooks courses, an d to en gage w lth th e com p lex, ch allengln g p oem s w h ose m eanln gs are n ot slm ply p ven but hlston cally con tln gent an d con structed , th e p oem s th at ln dlfferent w ays b elon g to m any cu ltu ral h erltages.

48 Sch em 1999 288-91

49 R W llh am s 1953 60-9 ,87-93

B ibliog rap hy A DLER,M J (1952) The Great Ideas -4 Syntoptcon of Great Books of the W estern W brld C hlcago E n cyclop aedla B rltan nlca

A ooxls (AII Ahm ad Saldl (1982) Chants de M thyar le D am ascene, trans A W ade M ln kow skl ln collab oratlon w lth th e au th or P arls A rfuyen

A tmxztxoRou,A (1991) Pottm ata (1941-1974) A thens Y psllon A tmxlou,M (2000)fG eorge Thom son The G reek D lm enslonlln Cethuradh an Bhlascaotd (4),ed M N 1 Chellleachalr D ublln Colscelm A xcstzopoutzos,T (1995) O dysseus'G aze, Screenplay A thens Kastanlotls (1998) Eterm ty tl?1l flD ay,Screenplay Athens K astantotts

A xrl-lox,C (1838). ,4 Gram m arofthe Greek Langtlage,forthe Uiz ofschools and C olleges N ew York H arp er

A xTox,R (1616) The Plnlosophers Satyrs London Roger Jackson A Rsols oy,JusAlxvlLLy,, H d' (1899) La c/v///m r/t??l des Celtes et celle de l'ep op ee hom en que P arls A Fon tem olng

A RcyRlou, A (1979) I c///n//a ponst N ct?rcr//ft?/ pontes tou m esopolem ou A th en s Sokolls

A Rxlxs,B (1990) Butlders of M y Soul Greek and Rom an Them es /?l Fc/rs Savage, M d

B arn es and N oble

A Rxot,o,M (1907) Essays Ltterary and Cr/r/c// London D ent Everym an A sucRoyT,B ,G G RIFFITHS,and H T IFFIN (eds) (1989) The f/zl/l/rc W n tes B ack Theory Iz?/J P rach ce /p P ost-colontal L tterature L on don an d N ew Yol'k R outledge

A TCI-IITY, K , R H OGART, and D Plklcs (eds) (1987) Cnhcal Essays on Ijbm er B oston G K H all

A' rxlxs,T I)y,C ouRcv (1892) The Keltor G ael ff/sE thnography,G eography and P htlology L on don Flsh er U nw ln

A TTRIDGF,,D (ed ) (2004J) Jam es Joyce's U lysses -4 Casebook O xford and N ew York O xford U m verslty P ress -

-

(ed ) (2004ô) The Cam bndge Com panw n to Jam es p ycc, 2nd edn

C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

A' rw ooo,M (1987) The H andm atd's Tale London V lrago (2005) The Peneloptad Edlnburgh C anongate

-

-

A IJERBACI-I, E (1957) M tm ens The Representahon of Reahty /?l W estern h terature, trans W R Trask N ew York D oubleday glhrst publ by Prlnceton U nlverslty Press ln 1953 1

B kbhograp hy

BAKHTIN, M

287

(1981) 'Eplc and N ovel' ln The fhllt?p c Im agtnahon Four

Essays, ed M

H o1qu1st,tran s C E m erson an d M

H o1qu1st A u stln an d

L on don U n lverslty of Texas P ress 3-40

BAKKy,R,E J (1997) Poetry /?lSpeech O rahty and H om encD tscourse Ithaca, N Y, an d L on don C orn ell U m verslty P ress -

(2005) Potnhng atthe Past From Form ula to Perform ance y?lH om enc

-

Poehcs C am brldge, M ass , an d L on don H alv ard U n lverslty P ress -

and A KAHANE (eds) (1997) W ntten Vb/ccs, Spoken s/gns Perform -

-

p/ c Text C am b rl dge, M ass , an d L ond on H aran ce, Tr/rh r/t?n, an d the f .

vard U m verslty P ress

BARCHIESI,A (2001) f'I'he Crosslngl ln H arn son (2001),137-41 (2002) Revlew ofRupke (2001) BM CR 2002 06 26 BARNARD,J (2001) fK eats's Lettersl ln W olfson (2001), 120-34 -

-

BATF,,W J (ed ) (1964) Keats A Collectton of Cr/r/c//Essays Englew ood C llffs,N J Prentlce-l-lall

By,yt' rox,R (ed ) (1988) The Greek N ovelyko 1-1985 London Croom H elm By,oly,x' r, C (2004) fpasslon and W ar Readlng Sontag,V lola, Forche and O thersl Salm agundt, 141/2 243-62

Bslsslxcsno M ,J Tvt,us and S W oyyoRo (eds) (1999) Eptc Trfztt/r/t?ns and

the Contemporary W t '?r/l The Poehcs of Com m untty Berkeley Unlverslty of C allforn la P ress

BEJA,M ,and D N oRRls (eds) (1996) Joyce /?l the ff/l/trrn/r??l M etropohs C olu m b tls O h lo State U n lverslty P ress

BELL,D (1966) The Reform tng of GeneralEducahon The Colum bta College Exp en ence y?l 3ts N ahonal scrr/n.g N ew York C olu m bla U n lverslty P ress

BELL,H (1946) flkobln ErnestW llllam Flow er 1881-19461.P.BA 32 353-79

By,xoy,po T (ed ) (1988) The Ukw crs/ry and the C/ry from M edtevalO r/p ns to the P resent O xford an d N ew Y ork O xford U nlverslty P ress

BENJAM IN,W

(1969) f'I'he W ork of A rt ln the A ge of M echanlcal Repro-

ductlonl ln Illum m ahons, trans H arry Zohn (orlg ln Zektschnft fur Sozm lforschung,1,1936) N ew York Schocken Books 217-51 BExxy,T,A (1994) Keats,N arrahve and v't/gtàcnfz The Posthum ous f-//c of W r '/r/ng C am brldge C am b rldge U n lverslty P ress

Byw vsx lsr ryo E (1969) Le vocabulatre des //lsr/rl/r/t?ns tndo-europeennes, l econom w ,p aren te, soa ete P arls E dltlon s de M lnu lt

BERNAL,M

(1987-91) Black A thena,l vols N ew Brunsw lck Rutgers U n1-

v erslty P ress -

-

(2001)Black A thena W ' r/rcsBack M arhn BernalRespondsto /l/sC nhcs

D u rh am

D u ke U m verslty P ress

BHABHA,H K (1994) The Locahon of Culture London and N ew York R outledge

288

B kbhograp hy

Blytxcl-ll,A (2005) Revlew of N lcosla (2003),JH S l25 200

Blymuvcx, D P (1978) H ero and C/l/cf Eptc h terature of the Bayanga B erk eley U n lverslty of C allfornla P ress

BlRo, C (1972) A spects of Prosody ln A fn can Eplc' ln B Kachru and H Stahlke (eds),CurrentIssues y?lStyhshcs Edm onton,A lberta Llngulstlcs R esearch

Blsuop,P (ed ) (2004)N tetzsche and zhnhqutty N ew York and W oodbrldge C am den H ou se

Bt,ytxcuo' r,M (1990) f'franslatlngltrans R Sleburth,Sulthr,26 82-6 Bt,ooxf,A (1973) The Anxtety of Injluence O xford and N ew York O xford U n lverslty P ress -

(1975).?4M ap ofhhsreadtng O xford and N ew York O xford Unlverslty

-

P ress

BolTAxl, P (1994) The Shadow of U lysses Ftgures of a M yr/t trans A W eston O xford an d N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

BoRcyzs,J L (1999) i'T'he H om erlc V erslons'(orlg publ ln Spanlsh as T as verslones hom erlcaslln La Prensa,8 M ay 1932),ln J L Borges, The Total h brary N on-h ch on 1922- 198%

ed

E

W elnb erger, tran s E

A llen ,

S J Levlne,an d E W elnberger London Penguln, 69-74

BouRxyo A (2000) flfeenlng as Theatre J M Synge and the Irlsh Lam ent Tradltlonl m G rene (2000),67-79 Bow auv C M (1952) H erotc Poetry London M acm lllan Bovo,T (1987) A ssum lng a Feathered M antle Form s ofPoetlc Successlon ln Ireland from M yth to the Early Yeatsl D lss Prlnceton U nlverslty

BRAM I, J (ed ) (forthcom lng) Lecteurs de Proust ;7lz X xem e necle Parls M tn ard

BRytuxo,S M (2001)fG enre Introductlonlln S J H arrlson (2001),137-41 BREARTON,F (1997) fffW alklng forw ards lnto the past'' an lntervlew w lth M lchael Longleyl lnsh srl/l/cs A cv/cw,l8,sprlng 35-9 -

-

-

-

(1998/9) fsnow Poetl Thum bscrew,12,w lnter 18-24 (2000) The G reat J'kbr m frs/lPoetry W 'B Fcrzrs to M tchaelLongley O xford an d N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

(2006) R eadm g M tchaelLongley Tarset Bloodaxe Books BRooxfl,W (1739) fpart of the Tenth Book of the Illad of H om er In the Stlle ofM lltonlln Poem s on SeveralO ccanons (2nd edn ) London H enry

-

-

L ln to t

BRow x,T (2003) fM ahon and Longley Place and Placelessnessl ln C am pbell (2003), 133-48 BRow xlxG,R (1987) fG eorge D erw entThom son (1903-1987) In M em orlam l M odern G reek srl/rhcs Yearbook 3 169-76

BRuxst,,P (1974) L'evocahon des m orts et la descente aux Enfers H om ere, V irp lc, D an te, C laud el P an s SE D E S

B zbhograp hy -

289

(2002) fLe pays des Clm m erlensl ln H urst and Letoublon (2002),

-

169- 90

Bucuytx,M (2004) Thef-//wl/rsof H erotsm H om erand theEthtcsofReadtng A n n A rb or U n lverslty of M lch lgan P ress

Buost,xfAxx, F , and P M ICHELAKIS (eds) (2001) H om er, Tragedy and

Beyond Essays y?v H onour of Pat Easterhng London Soclety for the P rom otlon of H ellenlc Stu dles

Buocsx, F (2004) fc onversatlons w lth Joyce' (1934),ln Attrldge (2004J), 2 5 7- 6 6

BIJFFIERF,, F (1956, 1973) Les ?lvyr/lcs d'H om ere et Ia pensee grecque Parls B elles L ettres

But,ylxcu,T (1979) Bulfinch'sM ythology N ew York AvenelBooks Buxov',A (ed ) (1999) Selected Essays of W i/st??l H am s The Unhnlshed Genens of the Im agtnahon London Routledge BIJRT,S (2003) fG lvlng Straw berrlesto a D og Revlew ofA llD ay Perm anent .

RCJ ', Poetry A trv/cw , 93/2 http p/w w w p oetrysoclety org u lt/revlew /prg3-

z/burthtm (last accessed A prll2006)

BusuxfAx,R (1992)TheRehnem entofAm enca Persons,H ouses,C/r/cs N ew York K n opf

BusuRul,S B (1972)fsynge and Yeatslln ld (ed ) Sunshm e and theM oon's D ehgltt -4 C en tenary

Tn bu te to /:/2?2 M tlhngton sywgc .

1871- 1909

G errards C ross Sm yth e 189-203

BIJTLER, S (1967) The A uthoress of the O dyssey (2nd edn) Chlcago and London U nlverslty of Chlcago Press (A reprlnt of the 1922 London edltlon,w lth a new lntroductlon by D avld G rene O rlglnally 1897 ) BuxTox,R (2004) fslm llesl ln Robert Fow ler (2004), 139-55 CAERw YN W ILLIAM S, J, and P FoRo (1992) The fr/s/l Ltterary Tradlhon C ardlff U nlverslty of W ales P ress

CAlRxs,D L (ed ) (2001) Oxford Readtngs J?t H om er's P/JJ O xford and N ew York O xford U n lverslty P ress

CAM PBELL, M

(ed ) (2003) The Cam bndge Com panton to Contem porary

frs // Poetry C am brldge C am bn dge U nlverslty P ress

CARABOTT,P ,and T D Sylxws (eds)(2004) The Greek C/v//W kr A ldershot A sh gate

C ARSY,J (2005) W ' Jlr?r G ood are the v'trrs?London Faber and Faber

CARNEY,R ,and L Q UART (2000) The F///' rls of Adi/fc Letgh Em bracm g the Wt '?r/l C am brldge C am b rldge U n lverslty P ress

Cytvy,,T (1990) Recognttw ns -4 Study /?lPoetlcs O xford Clarendon Press

CAvsLL,S (1979) The J'kbr/fï W cwcr/ Rejlecttons on the O ntology of F//?' rl Enlarged edn C am brlge,M ass H arvard U ntverslty Press (1stedn,1971) C ESAIRF,,A (1956) Lettre a M aunce Thorez Parls Presence A frlcalne

290

B zbhograp hy

C ESAIRF,,A (1994) Cahter J'tf' n tetour (ztfpays natal, ed D M axtm tn and G

C arp en tler P arls P resen ce A frlcaln e

Cuytow lcx, H

M

and N

K Clu ow lcx (1932-40) The Growth of

h terature C am brldge C am b rldge U nlverslty P ress

C HANTRAINF,,P (1999)D tcttonnatre etym ologlque de la languegrecque Parls ' K lm cksteck

C HAPM AN, G (2000) Chapm an's H om er The O dyssey ed A N lcoll Prlnceton and O xford Prlnceton U nlverslty Press (orlg 1956,C hapm an's O dyssey firstpubllshed 1614-15)

CLARKF,,B K (1982) The Em ergence of the fr/s/lPeasantPlay at the A bbey T hctzfrc A n n A rb or U M I R esearch P ress

C LEARV,S M (1993) fclasslcalM ytholop rln A m erlcan Llfe and Llterature to 18551 http p/w w w fivecolleges edu/m cleary/cm alhtm l(last accessed 21 January 2006) C ot,y,,T (1991)f1n response to N evlo Zorzettl,ffpoetry and anclentclty the case ofRom ey'' CJ 86 (1991) 311-291 CJ 86,377-82 C olum bla U nlverslty (1994) fcore Currlculum 's 75th annlversaryl ln Colum bta Uk/vcrs/ry Rep ster,20/10 (18 N ovem ber 1994),at http p/w w w colu m b la edu/cu /record/archlves/volzo/volzo lsslo/recol'dzo lo 13 htm l -

(lastaccessed 23 January 2006) C oxAculw D J (1969) fsom e Profane Vam atlons on a Trap c Them el P hoem x, 23 33- 8

C oox,E (2001) A chtlles London M ethuen

Coltxsltv',D (1941) The H /lJc?1Ireland -4 Study of Gaehc M unster /?l the E tghteen th C entury D ublln M

C ovsxy,v,M

H

G 111

(1996) The W t)rll A ccordtng to M tke Jwclg/l London H arper-

C ollln s

D AHLM ANN,H (1950) fzur U berlleferung uber d1e ffaltrom lschen Tafellleder'''7 A bh v't/f J'fss M atnz l7, l 191- 1202

D AM Roscu,D (2003) W /l/r ts W t '?r/l LtterattlreîPrlnceton Prlnceton U nlv erslty P ress

D ytvlo,A P (2006) The D ance of the M uses Choral Theory and A naent G reek P oeh cs O xford O xford U n lverslty P ress

D ytvls,G (1984) N on-khaous Cwcle Twcnry Poem s of v't//' rlc Cesawe,translatlon w lth ann otatlon s Stanford, C allf Stanford U nlverslty P ress -

-

(19974) A tm e Cesatre (C am brldge Studles ln A fn can and Carlbbean

-

Llterature) C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty Press (19975)fffW 1th no H om erlc Shadow '' The D lsavow alofEplc ln D erek

-

W alcott's O m eros',ln D avls (1997d ,321-33 -

-

(ed ) (1997c) The Poehcs of D erek W kk/rr Intertextual Perspectw es

(= The K % l/rh A tlanttc Q uarterly 96/2, sprlng) D urham , N C D uke U n w erslty P ress

B kbhograp hy -

29 1

(forthcom lng)'Refram lng the H om erlc Im agesofO dysseusln theA rt

-

of D erek W alcott and R om are Beardenl ln H ardw lck and Stray

(forthcom lng) D AY,J and J L K INGSLF,Y (1829) fo rlglnalPapersln Relatlon to a C ourse of

LlberalEducatlonlAm encan Journalof sc/cnccs and ztrrs 15 297-351 D EA LM BIDA,H (ed )(1990) Cn hcalEssaysonlohn Keats Boston G K H all D sxfopout,os,M (ed ) (2003) CIN EM YTH O LO G Y Greek M yths /?l W t '?/'/l C tnem a A th en s H ellem c M ln lstry of C u lture

D sxsv,D (1996) GreatBooks M yA dventuresw /r/lH om er,Rousseatl,Jibtl(/j and other Indestruchble W nters of the W estern W t '?r/l N ew York Slm on an d Schu ster

D sTly,xxy,, M

and J-P V ERNANT (1991) Cunnm g Intelhgence C?l G reek

C l//rl/rc and Soctety trans J Lloyd C hlcago U ntverslty of C htcago Press

D B V ET,T (2005) fparry ln Parls Structurallsm ,H lstoncalLlngulstlcs,and the O ralTheoryl C' .?t 24 257-84

D lxfocx,Jr ,G E (1956) f'I'he N am e ofO dysseusl H udson Acv/cw,9 52-70

(= H om er -4 Collechon of C' r/r/cr?/Essays,ed G Stelner and R Fagles, En glew ood C llffs P ren tlce-l-lall, 1962, 106-2 1 = E ssays on the O dyssey Selecttd M odern C'r/r/cs /' rl,ed C h arles H Taylor B loom lngton U n lverslty

of Indlana Press,1963,54-72) D ot,skst,,L (1995) fstructurallsm of the Prague Schooll ln Selden (1995), 3 3- 5 7

D oucuERl''s C (1997) fl-lom er afler O m eros Readtng a H /o /?zcr/c Tcxrl ln D avls (1997c),335-57 -

(2001) TheRaftof Odyssetls TheEthnograplncIm ap natton ofH om er's

-

O dyssey O xford an d N ew Y ork O xford U n lverslty P ress -

and L K uRxy,(eds) (2003) The Cultures w /r/l/?lA naentGreek Culture

-

C am b rldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

D uRytx,L and G FuRxlss (eds) (1999) Bam ba Suso and Banna Kanute Sunlata L ond on P engu ln

Eytoy,s, C (2002) flrevocatlon des Enfers m ythe et clnem al ln H urst and Letoublon (2002),231-45 and F Lllroust,ox (19994) fFrom Fllm -A nalysls to O ral-Form ulalc

-

-

Theory The C ase ofthe Yellow O llsklnsl ln Falkner,Felson,and K onstan

(1999),301-16 (19995) fl-es rltuels d'hospltallte ou le Tem ps retrouve d'A ngelopoulosl ln M ontandon (1999),251-65 (1999c) fLe regard d'O rphee chez Theo A ngelopoulosl Revue de h tterature Com paree,7514 (Le m ythe d'O rphee au X IX ' etau X x' c stecle)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

64 7- 5 6

292

B zbhograp hy

Eytoss,C , F LETOIJBLON and S R OLLF,T (2002)fperes etfils le royaum e des om bres chez A ngelopoulosl ln G agnebln (2002),177-97 Eco,U (2003) M ouse or A/r? Translahon as N egotm hon London W eldenfeld & N lcolson

Eow ytRos,M W

(1991) The .P/JJ -4 Com m entary Volum e F'boolçs 17-20

C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

ELIOT,T S (19754) Selected Prose of T S f//t?r,ed F Kerm ode N ew York H arcourt B race Jovanovlch

(19755) f'fradltlon and the O rlgm alTalentlln Ellot (19754),37-44 El-sly,,R (2005) fsubtle D lssent ofa Balkan Bardl TLS 24 June 2005,14-15 ExfslRlcos,A (1980) O ktana Athens Ikaros Exft,vx-loxss,C ,L H ytRow lcx,and J PuRxls (eds) (1992) H om er Read-

-

-

yn

gs and Im ages L on don D u ckw orth ,

Esr rsvy,, M (1998) CA la frontlere de la m ort, le tem ps du souvenm L'Eterm te et un lour', Etudes anem atographtques, 48 (Theo A ngelopoulos) 177-87 ETM AN, A (forthcom lng) f'rranslatlon at the Intersectlon of Tradltlons The A rab Receptlon of the Classlcsl ln H ardw lck and Stray (forthcom lng)

EVERETT,E (1826) Greek Gram m arfor the Use of Schools,from the Germ an OJJO IC. P ltjtrrnlln. n Boston Cum m lngs FAGI-ES,R (1962) fEpllogue H om er and the W rltersl m Stelner and Fagles (1962),160-72 (trans ) (1990) H om er The .P/JJ N ew York V lktng (trans ) (1996) H om er The O dyssey N ew York V lklng FALKNER,T M ,N FEt,sox and D K oxsl'ytx (eds) (1999) Contextualm ng

-

-

-

-

Clasncs Ideology, Perform ance, D talogue Essays /?l H onor of John .

J Peradotto L anh am ,M d

R ow m an & Llttlefield

FARR,D (2005) Plays 1 London Faber FARRELL, J (1997) fW alcott's O m eros the Classlcal Eplc ln a Postm odern W orldl ln D avls (1997c),247-74 FAVy,, E (1991) C olw crstzzlo' nl co' n lftzltzrc, trans F Bruno Parm a U go G u an da E dltore

FF,FN EY, D C (2005) flkevlew A rtlcle The Beglnnlngs of a Llterature ln Latlnl JR . $ 95,226-40

Fst,sox-lkuBlx, N

(1994) Regardtng Penelope From Character to Poehcs

P rln ceton P rln ceton U n lv erslty P ress

Fst,Tox,C C (1833) TheI//JJ ofH om er,from the Textof W b/f W ' /r/lEnghsh N otes and F laxm an's Illustrahve D estgns B oston H llllard an d G ray -

-

(l848) The J//JJ of H om er,from the Tcxrof J'kb//- W ir/lEnghsh N otes,

rev edn B oston Jam es M unroe

B kbhograp hy

293

Flxxy,cytx, R (1970) O ral h terature /?l Afnca O xford and N ew York O xford U m verstty Press

FITZGERAI-D,R (transl) (1974) H om er The I//I?J G arden Clty,N Y A nchor P ress

(1987) fO n Translatlng H om er' gAbrldgem ent of postscrlpt to 1963 edn of Fltzgerald translatlon of The O dyssey 1 ln A tchlty, H ogart, and

-

-

Prlce (1987),37-50 (transl) (1998) H om er The O dyssey (orlg 1961) N ew York Farrar,

-

-

Strau s an d G trou x

Fl-slscl-lxfytx,S (1990) Tense;??:J N arrahm ty From M edtevalPerform ance to M odern F /cr/t??v A u stln U n lverslty of Texas P ress

FI-BM ING, D (1995) l?t m an w /lt? does not en st' The frs/v Peasant /?l the

W brk of W 'B Fc/rs and . J M syrlgc Ann Arbor U nlverslty ofM lchlgan P ress

FOGI-F,,R H (1964) fsynaesthetlc Im agery ln Keatslln Bate (1964),41-50 Fotmv, H P (1987) flkeverse Slm lles and Sex-roles ln the O dyssey', ln Peradotto and Sulllvan (1987),59-78

FoLy,v,J M (ed ) (1981) O ralTradthonalLtterature . A FestschnF for. A//Jc?'/' B ates L ord C olum bu s, O hlo Slavlca -

(ed ) (1985) O ral-Form ulatc Theory and Research A n Introduchon and

-

A nnotated .B/l///t?grfz/l/py N ew York G arlan d -

(ed ) (1987) ComparahveResearch on O ralTrfztàr/tlns -4 M em onalfor

-

M tlm an P arry C olu m b u s, O h lo Slavlca -

(19974) f'fradltlonal 51gns and H om erlc A rts'ln Bakker and Kahane

-

(1997),56-82 (19975) fo ral Tradltlon and 1ts Im pllcatlons', ln M orrls and Pow ell

-

-

-

-

(1997),146-73 (1999) H om er's Trfzfhflo' ntzl A rt U m verstty Park U m verstty of

P en n sylvan la P ress -

(2002) ff()w to Read an O ralPoem U rbana and Chlcago U nlverslty of

-

Illln ols P ress -

-

-

-

-

-

(2004) fEplc as G enrel ln R obert Fow ler (2004),171-86 (20054) A nalogues M odern O ralEplcsl ln Foley (20055),196-212 (ed ) (2005ô)-4 Com pam on to A na entf//c M alden,M d,and O xford

B astl B lackw ell

FoRo,A (1997) fEplc as G enrel ln M orrls and Pow ell (1997),396-414 -

-

(2002) The O r/p /ls of Cr/r/c/s?' rl h terary Culture and Poehc Theory /?v C lasn cal G reece P rln ceton P rln ceton U n lverslty P ress

Fow l-y,R,A (ed ) (1998) M llton,Paradtse f-tsr,2nd edn London Longm an Fow l-y,R, R OBERT (ed ) (2004) The Cam bndge Com panton to H om er C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

294

B îbhograp hy

Fow l-sR,R ow BxA (2006)fffThlsTartFable'' D aphne and Apollo ln M odern W om en's Poetryl ln Z aJko and Leonard (2006),381-98 FpAxcopounos,T D (1975) Ta . pt?pvlfzr;l 1945-1956 A thens ElllnlklPollsl D logen ls

(1977) Telchom achta Athens D logenls FRANKEL,H (1997) ûEssence and N ature m the H om erlc Slm lleslm W n ght and V Jones (1997), 103-23 (Taken from H Frankel D $e Jloplcrlsc/lc' n

-

-

G letchntsse,G ottlngen,1921)

G AGXBBIX,M (ed )(2002)L'om bre de Ihm age D e lafalstjkatton tzl'tnjigurabk Seyssel C ham p V allon

G wlxsFoRo,P (2001) t ognltlon and Type-scenes,the aotdos at W orkl ln Budelm ann and M lchd akls (2001),3-21 (2003)T orm alA nalyslsofRecognltlon scenesln the O dysseyl1H S 23

-

-

4 1- 5 9

G ztxcutv, K (2004) f'fem porahty and Postcolom al Cn tlque', ln Lazarus

(2004),162-79 G xxrz,T (1993) Early G reek M yth -4 G utde to Ltterary and a'trr/st/c Sources B altlm ore and L ondon Joh ns H opklns U nlverslty P ress

G ARVIF,, A F (1994) H om er O dyssey W -W 11 C am brldge C am bn dge U n lverslty P ress

G sooss, A G (1998) fl-lom er m Translatlonl m M cAuslan and W alcott (1998),186-98

GBRMAIX,G (1954) Genese de l'Odyssee Le fantasttque et le sacre Parls Presses ttrttver%ttatres de Fran ce

G lBsox,A (2002) Joyce's Revenge H tstory,fb//r/cs and A esthehcs /?l U lysses O xford an d N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

G loolxcs,R ,and E SHEF,N (eds) (2000) The C lasnc N ovel Frtp/w Page to Screen M an ch ester M an ch ester U n lverslty P ress

G lxAxol, 6 (2004) T oststructurallsm

and Postcolonlal D lscoursel ln

Lazarus (2004),97-119 G TLDENPIARO,1 (2003) flkevlew of Suerbaum (2002)) BM CR 2003 09 39 G lz-pr y,P (1993) The Black A tlanhc London V erso -

(2004) After frz/p/re M elancholy or Conlz/vzfa! Culture London and

-

N ew Y ork R ou tledge

G l.Azlp,N (1988) fFacm g Three W ays C lty and U m verstty m N ew York

sm ceW orld W ar 11) m Bender (1988),267-89 G oyy,B (ed ) (2005) C /flssfcs and Ctldo/utzdts?zl London D uckw orth G olm ultm,S (1991) The Poet's vb/cc Essays on Poehcs and Greek Llterature C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress -

-

(2002) W /lt?N eeds GreekîContestsln the CulturalIh story of H ellentsm

C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

B îbhograp hy

295

G ot,l'z,A (2005) fo dyssee-lkezeptlonen lm Fllm - M orallsche N orm en und Konfhkte ln Epos und A daptlonl ln A Luther (2005), 109-24

G Rytzlosl, B , and J H Ausot,o (2005) H om er The Resonance of f.p/tr L on don D u ckw orth

G REENF,,D and E STEPHENS (1989) J M

Synge 1871-190% rev edn N ew

York N ew Y ork U n lverslty P ress

G lu sxw ooo,E (2004)fclasslcsand theA tlantlc Trlangle C arlbbean Read-

lngs ofGreece and Rom e v1a Afrlcal Forum of M odern Language . $rl/J/cs, 40/4 365- 76

(2005) fffW e speak Latm ln Trlnldad'' U ses of the Classlcs ln Carlbbean Llteraturelln G off (2005),65-91 G RENF,,N (ed ) (2000) Interpretm g 5),./1. g: fssaysfrom the Synge Sum m er

-

-

School 1991-2000 D ublln Lllllpu t P ress

G REGORY',Lytoy A P (1972) 0 r/rInsh Theatre .A ChapterofA utobtography (orlg 1913) G errards Cross C olln Sm ythe

G RIFFIN,J (1980)H om eron fzf: and D eath O xford and N ew York O xford U n lv erslty P ress -

(1987) H om er The O dyssey C am brldge and N ew York Cam bn dge

-

U n lv erslty P ress

G RIFFITI-I,M (1983),fpersonallty ln H eslodl C.?t 2 37-65 G RIIY ITHS, G (1991) fW llson H arrls and C arlbbean Crltlclsm l ln M aesJellnek (1991),61-9

G ROTF,, G (1846-9) -4 Ihstory of Greece, I Legendary G reece London J M urray

G RIJBER,C S (1975) M ars and M tnerva W t '?r/l J'O r I and the Uses of the Ih gher L earm ng /?z A m en ca B aton R ou ge L ou lslan a State U n lverslty P ress

G uTLLOR' r,J (1994) CulturalCapttal Chlcago U nlverslty of Chlcago Press

G IJM PERT,M (2001) Grafhng H elen The A bduchon of the ClasstcalPast M adtson U m verstty of W lscon sm P ress

H ABINEK,T (1998) The T't?//r/cs of f-/r/?l h terature W ' r/r/ng, Idenhty, and f /wlp/rc tn A na en t R om e P rln ceton P rln ceton U n lverslty P ress .

-

-

(2005) T/lc W ()r/l of Rtlpltz' n Song Frt)' f'n Rttualtted Speech to k stlcttzd O rlcr B altlm ore and London John s H opklns U nlverslty Press

H yklxsw oRrl-z,B J (1991) TheIdea ofEptc Berkeley Unlverslty ofCahform a P ress

H ALL E M

(1996) f1s there a Polls m A rlstotle's Poetlcs?', ln Sllk (1996),

295- 30 9

H AI-I-,E and F M wclxTosl.l (2005) Greek Tragedy and the Ar/r/s/l Theatre O xford an d N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

296

B kbhograp hy

H ALL,E , F M ytclxTosl.l and A W RIGLF,Y (eds) (2004) D tonysus s/ncc 69 Greek Tragedy atthefk w' n of the TJIIA'J M illczutfl'n O xford and N ew York O xford U nlverslty Press

H ALLIw ELL,S (1989) fA rlstotle's Poetlcs',ln Kennedy (1989), 149-83 (1998)A nstotle's Poehcs Chlcago and London U nlverslty of Chlcago

-

-

P ress an d D u ckw orth

H ALPERIN,D ,J J W INKLF,R and F ZEITLIN (eds) (1990) Before Sexuahty The Constructw n of Ert?r/c Expenence /?ltheA naentGreek W t '?r/l Prlnceton P rln ceto n U n lverslty P ress

H AM M ER,D (2002) The .P/JJ as Tb//r/cs N orm an U nlverslty of O ldahom a P ress

H Axfxfoxo,M

(trans ) (1987) H om er, The .D/JJ Penguln London

H AM NER, R D (1997) Eptc of the D tspossessed D erek J'O kt?rr's O m eros C olu m bla U n lverslty of M lssou rl P ress

H Axsox,A E (1990) f'I'he M edlcalW rlter'sW om enlln H alperln,W lnkler, and Zettltn (1990),309-38

H Axsox,V D and J H EATI-I (1998) W ht? Ktlled H om erî The D em tse of ClasncalEducahon and the Recovery of Greek JV8SJt??' n N ew York Free P ress

H ARow lcx,L (1992) fc onvergence and D lvergence ln Readlng H om er'ln Em lyn-lones,H ardw lck,and Purlus (1992),227-48 (1997) flkeceptlon as Slm lle The Poetlcs of Reversal ln H om er and -

-

D erek W alcottl Inttrnahonal Journal of the Clasncal Tr/tàr/t?n, 3/3 32 6- 38 -

(2000) Translahng J'kbrls, Translahng Cultures London D uckw orth (2001) f'W ho O w ns the Plays? lssues ln the Translatlon and Perform -

-

-

-

ance of G reek D ram a on the M odern Stagel Ewene,37 23-39 -

(2002) fclasslcal Texts ln Post-coltm lal Llteratures Consolatlon,

-

R edress an d N ew B eglnn ln gs ln th e W ork of Seam u s H ean ey an d D erek

W alcottlInternahonalJournalof the ClasstcalTrfzrhr/t?/t 9/2 236-56 -

-

(2003) Recephon srl/l/ts G reece and Rom e N ew Surveys ln the

C lasslcs n o 33 O xford an d N ew York O xford U m verslty P ress

(2004) fffshards and SuckersRR C ontem porary Receptlons of H om erl ln Robert Fow ler (2004),344-62 (2006)fffM urm urstn the C athedral'' The Im pactofTranslatlonsfrom

-

-

-

-

G reek Poetry an d D ram a on M odern W ork ln E n gllsh by M lch aelL ongley

and Seam usH eaneyl Yearbook offpg//s/lStudtes London M odern H um an ltles R esearch A ssoclatlon , 204- 15 -

-

and C STRAY (eds) (forthcom lng) The Blackw ell Com panton to C lasstcalR ecep ttons O xford B lackw ell

B kbhograp hy

H ARRIS, W

l97

(1996) fprofiles of M yth and the N ew W orldl ln Zach and

G oodw fn (1996),77-86 -

(2003) The M ask of the Beggar London Faber

-

H ARRlsox, S J (ed ) (2001) Texts, Ideas, (Z/JJ the Classtcs Scholarshtp, Theory,and C lasstcalL tterature O xford an d N ew York O xford U n lverslty P ress

H Axsox,V D and J H BATH (1998) W hp Ktlled H om erî The D em tse of Clasncalflf/cfzr/tm and r/?c Recovery of G reek W ' SJt?/?: N ew York Free P ress

H ytgsono, J (2000) l' Iom erk People Eptc Poetry J/JJ noa al Form atton C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

(2002) fG reek Eplc A N ear Eastern G enre?' ,PCPS 48 1-19 H AZLITT, W (1818) Lectures on the Enghsh Poets London Taylor and

-

-

H essey

H EALY,D (1995) flntervlew w lth M lchaelLongleyl Southern Acv/cw,31/3 55 7- 6 1

H ECKEI., A K (1919) f'I'he W ar A lm s C ourse ln the C ollegesl H tstoncal O utlook, 10 20-22

H y, ltltxsrrm x SM ITI-I,B (1983) fc ontm gencles ofValue',CrtttcalJ' rlqtary,10, 1- 3 5 -

(1988) Conttngenctes of V' fzltfc Cam bmdge,M ass H arvard Um verslty

-

P ress

H yr By,cx,A ,S W FST,S and J B H Alxsw oR' ru (eds) (1988) a4 Com m entary on fft?/w crk O dyssey 1 O xford an d N ew York O xford U n lverslty P ress -

-

-

-

-

-

(eds) (1990)z1.Com m entary t??JH om er's O dyssey 11 O xford

an d N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

H lxos,. $ (1998)A lluston and Intertext Dywtzp?/c. çofApproprtatton /r/Rom an Poetry C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

H OBSBAw M , E and T RANGER (eds) (1983) The f/> c/lr/t?r/ of Tradthon C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

H OLTSM ARK, E B (2001) f'I'he K atabasls Them e ln M odern C lnem al ln

W lnlder (2001),23-50 H ORSFALt,,N N (1994) f'f'he Prehlstory ofLatln Poetry Som e Problem s of M ethodl R FIC l22 50-75 -

-

(2003) The Culture of the .Rt?/?0c??2Plebs,revlsed edn Londcm D uck-

w orth

I-loRTox,A (1997) The . F'////0. çof F/ket?A ngelopoulos .?? t Ctnem a of Contem p lah on P rm ceton P rln ceton U nlverslty P ress

I-IOw ART'H, H (1958) The fn#? W i'îters, 1880-1940 N ew York H 111 and W an g

298

B kbhograp hy

H IJLL,V (1961)A m ra Cholulm ChlllelZettschnftfurcelhschep////t?/t?p G 28 24 2- 5 1

H uxTER,R (2004) fl-lom er and G reek Llteraturel ln R obert Fow ler (2004), 2 35- 5 3

H uRs' r, A and F LETOIJBLON (eds) (2002) La m ythologw et l'O dyssee H om m age a G abn el G erm am

G en eva D roz

H uxtmv',G L (1969) Greek f//cPoetry from Eum elos to Panyassts London Fab er

Isy,R,W (1978) TheA ctofReadtng a4 Theory ofA esthehcResponse Baltlm ore and London John s H opkln s U nlverslty Press

h uss, H

R (1982) Tbw/rls an A esthehc of Recephon M lnneapolls

U n w erslty of M ln n esota P ress

Jouxsox,J W

(1980) fYes,V lrglnla,There ls an Eplc m A fn ca', .P.A l 2/3

30 8- 2 6

Josl-llu S , M

M ALAM IJD and D M CG IJIRB, Jr (eds) (2001) Im pen al

P rolech ons A na en t R om e /?l M odern Pop ular C't//r/zrc B altlm ore an d

London Johns H opkm s U nlverslty Press

Jovcl,J (1929) U lysse,trans A M orel,2 vols Pam s G alllm ard -

(1957-66) Letters of Jam es p ycc, 3 vols Volum e 1, ed S Gllbert

-

London Faber (1957) C orrespondence from 1901 to 1940 Volum e 11, ed m chard Ellm ann,London Faber (1966) C orrespondence from 1900 to 1920 Volum e 111,ed R Ellm ann,London Faber (1966) C orresponden ce & om 1920 to 194 1

(1986) U lysscs -'t Cn tscal II' D.J Synoptsc fllflol1, ed I-l W G abler, W Steppe and C M elchlor (orlg 1984),3 vols N ew York and London

-

-

G arlan d -

(1993) U lysscs(1922),ed Jen Johnson O xford and N ew York O xford

-

U n lv erslty P ress

(2004) U lysse,trans J A ubert Parls G alllm ard K ADARy,,I (1990) Broken Aprll,translator unknow n London SaqlBooks (1991) Le m onstre,trans J Vrlonl Parls edltlons Fayard (1993-2004) Vepralx uvres Parls edltlons Fayard

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

(1994) .Allllz' nl;l' n Spnng T/4cA' lltzfo' m y of Tyrtz' noy,trans E Capouya

-

L on don Saql B ooks -

(1997) The F//c on ft trans D Bellos London H anullPress

-

-

-

(2000), T/1C GcozrtzlOJ f/1c D CIIJ Aroly trans D Coltm an Londort

H an rlll P ress -

-

(2003) Spnng Flow ers, s/lr/rl.g Frost,trans D Bellos London H arvlll P ress

Kykxot,,J (2001) f'I'he Polltlcs of Keats's Early Poetryl ln W blfson (2001), 1- 19

B kbhograp hy

K ATZ, M

299

(1991) Penelope's Renow n Az . fcfzn/p.g and Indeterm tnacy /?l the

O dyssey P rln ceton P rln ceton U nlverslty P ress

K AvAylsyK P g= C P C avafy'l (1978) Pottm ata,l vols ,ed G P Savldls A th en s Ikaros

K EBI-F,,J (1912) Keble's Lectures on Poetry 1832-1841,trans E K Francls, 2 vols O xford C larend on P ress

K F,F,I-F,Y,E (1983),M odern Greek Poetry kb/cc and M yth Prlnceton Prlnceton U n lv erslty P ress

K ENOAI-L,T (1994/5) flntervlew w lth Chrlstopher Loguel Thum bscrew, l 15-23 http p/w w w p oetrm agazln es org uk m agazln e/record asp?ld= 5237

(last accessed A prll2006)

K y,xxy,o'v', G A (ed ) (1989) Cam bndge Ihstory of Ltterary Cnt/c/sé/t 1 C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

K y,xxy,RoH (1987) Ulysses,rev edn Baltlm ore and London JohnsH opklns U n lv erslty P ress

K IBSRD,D (1979),Synge and the fr/s/lLanguage London M acm lllan (2000),Insh Classtcs London G ranta K lxc,H (1998) Ihppocrates' W om en Readtng the Fem ale Body /?lA na ent -

-

G reece L on don R outledge

K lRx,G (1985) The .P/JJ -4 Com m entary, / Books 1-4 C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

KNAPPERT,J (1967) f'I'he Eplc ln AfrlcalJournalof the Folklore fnsr/rl/rc,4 17 1- 90

K RAM ER,S N (1957) L'htstolre com m ence a Sum er Parls A rthaud K uclcu,G (2001) fKeats and Engllsh Poetryl ln W olfson (2001), 186-202 LACAPRA, D (1985) Ihstory de' Cn hasm Ithacay N Y C ornell U nlverslty P ress

LAM B,C (1905) TheA dventuresof Ulysses,ed W H D Rouse (orlg 1808) L on don an d G lasgow

B lackle

LAM BERTERIF,,C oy,(1997)fM llm an Parry etA ntolne M ellletlm Letoublon (1997) 9-22 LAM BERTON,R (1997) fl-lom er ln A ntlqultyl ln M orrls and Pow ell(1997), 33- 54

LATTIM ORF,, R (trans ) (1951) H om er The f//;7J Chlcago U nlverslty of C hlcago P ress

(trans ) (1991) H om er The O dyssey N ew York H arperperennlal Lytw ,J D (1990)ffflhty They C an'tSee Them selves'' A ssesslng the fçsublect''

-

-

ofPornography ln ffN auslcaa'''7Jam esJoyce Q uarterly 1711 219-39

Lytw Rsxcy,,K (1981) The Odyssey of Style /?l Ulysses Prlnceton Prlnceton U n lverslty P ress

300

B kbhograp hy

Lwzytkus,N (ed ) (2004) The Cam bndge Com panw n to Postcolonm lLtterary srl/l/cs C am b rldge C am b rldge U m verslty P ress

Lylcxls,B (1996/7) X eadlng Bodles,Readlng N elves ffN auslcaa''and the D tscourse of C ensorshlpl Jam es Joyce Q uarterly 34/1-2 65-85 Lsyxow lrz,M and G M ACLEAN RocEp.s (eds) (1996) Black A thena Acv/stted C h ap el H 111 U n lverslty of N orth C arolln a P ress

LBIGH,M (1995) N aked and O ther Screenplays London Faber LslvAolrls,T (1991) Ponst,1 A thens Kedros Lvo,F (1913) G csc/ucllfc der rpznlschc' n J-lfcrfzftfr Berlm W etdm ann (repr D arm stadt, 1967 W lssenschafthche Buchgesellschaft)

Lsr rousl-ox,F (ed )(1997)H om m agea M tlm an Parry Lestyleform ulatre de l'epop ee hom en que et la theon e de l'oraltte p oettque A m sterdam -

(2004) fG rece archalquel ln M ontandon (2004) 468-506 (forthcom m g) LLleterntte et un lour et 1es Qûlnterm lttences du ccrur''

-

-

G leben

-

une Recherche du re/pp. ç perdu dans l'œ uvre d'A ngelopoulosl ln Bram l

(forthcom m g) and L FRytlssE (1997) fproust etla D escente aux Enfers les souvenlrs

-

-

sym bollqu es de la N ekuta d'H om ere dans la R echerche du tem ps pcrll, .

R evue de l'/l/srtu rc h tteratre, 97 1056- 1085

Lsvlx,R J (1981) T he Fem ale O rgasm A Current Appralsall Journalof P sychosom ah c R esearch, 25/2 119- 33

I-svlxs,1, W (1996) The Openlng oftheAm encan AIi//J Canons, Culture, an d H istory B o ston B eacon P ress

Lsvlxsox,M (1988) Keats's fv/fc of A llegory The O np ?lof a Style O xford B asll B lackw ell

Llvy,l-s's G (2006) isclence Flctlon and Cyber M yths or, D o Cyborgs D ream of D olly the Fheep?l ln Zalko and Leonard (2006),275-94 Locluy,,C (1962) Pfltr/dcftz itlt)k X W of H om er's Iltad adapted by Cllr/stt?p her L ogue L on don Scorp lon P ress,rep r 1969 -

(1967) Pax London R app & C arroll (1988) J'kbr M unc London Faber (1996) Selected Poem s London Faber (1999) Pnnce Charm tng a4 M em otr London Faber

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

(2001/)Logue' sH om er W arM umc A nahccountofBooks1-4 and 16-19 of H om er'sJ//IZJ London Faber (20015)A udtologue A Seven CD Set ofRecordlngs 1958-98 by Chrls-

top h er L ogu e U n kn ow n p ub llc llb rary U P L 70 l -

-

(2003) A ll D ay Perm anent Red The F/rsr Scenes of H om er's II//J

R ew n tten Part O ??c Lon don Faber

(2005) C olJ Ctzlls W tzr M tfslc Coutlutfcl London Faber LOM BAROO,S (trans ) (1997) H om er The Ilm d Indlanapolls H ackett

-

-

B kbhograp hy

30 1

(trans ) (2000) H om er The O dyssey lndlanapolls H ackett LoxcltxEv',M (1972) A n Exploded W cw London G ollancz (1991) G orse F/rcs London Jonathan C ape (1995) The G host O rchtd London Jonathan C ape (1998) Selected Poem s London Jonathan C ape (2000J) f'I'he H orsesl ln TLS 21 January and Longley (2000ô),29 (2000ô) The W c '/r/lcr m Japan London Jonathan C ape (2004) Snow W / 'rcr London Jonathan C ape (2006) Collected Poem s London Jonathan C ape

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

LoRo,A B (1960) The k s/ngcr of Tales Cam brldge,M ass H alvard U nlverslty P ress -

-

(1995) The g nger Resum es the Tale lthaca,N X and London C ornell

U n lv erslty P ress -

-

(2000) The Sm ger of Tales, 2nd edn, ed S M ltchell and G N agy C am b rldge H alv ard U nlverslty P ress

Low y,,N (2000) The ClasncalPlot;??:J the Invenhon of W estern N /rm r/v'c C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty P ress

Low stm,R (2003) Collected Poem s,ed Frank Bldart London Faber Lucy,,J V (1969) fl-lom erlc Q ualltlesln the Llfe and Llterature ofthe G reat Blasket Islandl G + R 16 151-68

LIJTI-IBR,A (ed ) (2005) O dyssee-llezeptw nen Frankf-urt Verlag A ntlke LYNN-G EORGF,,M (1988) Epos J4brl,N arrahve and the I//JJ Baslngstoke M acm lllan

M ACHOR,J,and G ot,osr ry,lx,P (eds) (2001) Recephon Studws From h terary T heory to C ultural srl/rhcs L on don R ou tledge

M CA TEER, M

(2002) Standtsh O 'G rady, .z' f, and l'cfzrs Ihstory, Tb//r/cs,

C ulture D ubltn Irtsh A cadem tc Press

M cA ust,ytx, I , and P W ALCOTT (eds) (1998) H om er G reece and R om e Stu dles, 4 O xford an d N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

M cD oxytt,o,P (2000)fl-apsed Classlcs H om er,O vld and M lchaelLongley's Poetryl ln Peacock and D evlne (2000),35-50 M CELDIJFF, S (2006) fFractured U nderstandlngs Tow ards a H lstory of C lasslcal R eceptlon am ong N on -E llte G rou p s'ln M artln dale an d T hom as

(180-91) M cG ulxxsss,F (1996) Plays 1 London Faber M ytclxTosu,F (1995) D ym g A cts D eath /?lA naentGreek and M odern fr/s/l Tragtc D ram a N ew Y ork St M artln 's

M AcxRlocy,, P (1988) f'lkstlm ony and Flctlon ln G reek N arratlve Prose 1944-19671 ln Beaton (1988),90-102 M ytct,soo, C W (1983) Collected Essays, ed O Taplln O xford and N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

302

B kbhograp hy

M ytcl-soo, C W (2001) fl-lom er on Poetry and the Poetry of H om erl ln Calrns (2001),294-310 (Reprlnted from M acleod 1983 ) M wy,s-ly,t,lxy,Iq H (ed ) (1991) W tlson H arns The Uncom prom tnng Im ap n atw n A u stralla D an garo o P ress

M wxll-lus,M (1675) The Sphere of M arcusAz. f/n/l/l/s trans E Sherburne Lon don N ath an ael B rooke

M ARIOTTI, S (1986) h m o A ndrom co e la traduztone Jrrsr/tu U rblno Q uattroventl

M ARTIN,R P (1989) TheLanguageofH eroes Speech and Perform ancey?lthe J//JJ Ith aca, N Y, an d L on don C orn ell U nlverslty P ress -

-

-

-

(1997)fslm llesand Perform ancelln Bakkerand K hane (1997),138-66 (2003) flfeens from the Absent Chorus Troy to U lster', W estern Folkb rc, 62 l19- 42

(2005) fEplc as G enrel m Foley (2005Y ,9-19 M ARTINOAI-F,,C (1991) flkedeem m g the Text The Valtdtty ofC om partsons of Classlcaland PostclasslcalLlterature (A V 1ew from BrltalnllA non,3rd -

-

serles l/3 45- 75

(1993) Redeem sng the Text Latln Poetry and the H erm eneuhcs of R ecep h on C am b rldge C am brldge U n lverslty P ress -

-

and R F TI-IOMAS (eds) (2006) Clasncs and the Uses of Recephon

O xford B lackw ell

M ARTINEZ-D IJERAS Espslo, J L and J M

PBREZ-FERNANOF,Z (2001)

Approachesto thePoehcsofD erek J'kbkt?rr Lew lston Edwln M ellen Press M ARTYNIIJK, 1 (2005) fplap ng w lth Europe D erek W alcott's Retelllng of H om er's O dyssejq Callaloo,28/1 188-99

M ARX,J (2004) fpostcolonlalLlterature and the W estern Llterary C anonlln Lazarus (2004),83-96 M Asox ,H A (1972) To H om er through Pope A n Introduchon to H om er's J//JJ and P op e's Translah on L on don C h atto an d W ln du s

M AST, G , and M

C ouy,x (eds) (1985) Ftlm Theory and Cr/r/cs?' rl

Introductory A cfzfh ngs,3rd edn O xford an d N ew York O xford U n lverslty P ress

M ytxw Bl-t,,M (2004)fchrlstopher Logue's J'kbrAdks/clRan tan,24/1 32-50 M sLAs,N (2005) fForgettable Vacatlons and M etaphor ln Rulns W alcott's O m eros' , C allaloo, 28/1 147- 68

M SYER, K (ed ) (1886) M trugud Ui/?. x m atcc fz/rrs, The fr/s/l O dyssey L on d on , D

N u tt

M syslk,R (ed )(1958),M erugud r7///-A:M ' /Z/CLelrhs D ublln D ublln Instltute for A dvanced Stu dles

M lcl-lymytxls,P (2004)fG reek Tragedy ln Clnem a Theatre,Polltlcs,H lstoryl ln H all,M aclntosh,and W rlgley (2004),199-217

B kbhograp hy

303

M lxculx,E (2001)H om erand the ResourcesofM em ory Som eApphcahons of Cbgn/r/vc Theory to the f//;?J and the O dyssey O xford and N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

M ITCHELL,S and N AGY,G (2000) Introductlon to the 2nd edn ofA Lord,

The s/ng' cr of Tales Cam brldge, M ass H arvard U nlverslty Press, pp V II- X M X

M oM lcLlAxo,A (1957) fperlzonlus, N lebuhr and the Character of Early R om an Tradltlon',IR S 47, 104- 14

M oxTytxoox, A

(ed ) (1999) M ythes et representahons de l'hospttahte

C lerm ont-Ferran d P resses u nlversltalres B lalse P ascal -

(ed ) (2004) Le l/vrc de l'hospttahte A ccueslde l'etranger dans l'/l/srt?/rc

-

et les cultures P arls B ayard

M ORETTI,F (2001-3) 11rom anzo 5 vols Turnln Elnaudl -

(2005) Graphs, M aps, Trees A bstract M odels for a h terary Theory

-

Lon don and N ew York V erso

M oRRls, I and B Pow st,l- (eds) (1997) The N cw Com panw n to H om er Lelden E J Brlll

M ORTIM F,R C ol-l-lxs, E J (1869) .,4 Letter to the A/g/lr H on Benlam tn fhsr/c//, M P London John C am den H otten

M os' r,G W (2003) fffv lolets ln Cruclbles'' Translatlnp Traduclng,Transm utlngl T.AT'/l.A l33 381-90 -

-

and S Spy,xcy, (eds) (2004) Re-presenhng W rp / Speaal Issue /?l H onour of M tchael C .J Putnam Plsa Istltutl Edltorlall e Pollgraficl

In tern azlon all

M ovsuovlTz,H (2000) M tke fz/g/lIntervww s Jackson U nlverslty ofM 1sslsslp p l P ress

M utmlx, K (2003) Jam es Joyce, Sexuahty and . % c/;7/ Punty Cam brldge C am brldge U n lverslty P ress

M ul-oxozl,M M (2002) The Afncan f. p/c Controversy Ihstoncal, Phtlosop htcal and A esthehc Persp ech ves on f p/c Poetry and Perform ance D ar es .

Salaam

M kukl n a N yota P ubllsh ers

M IJRRAY, A T (trans ) (1998) H om er The O dyssey revlsed G eorge E D lm ock (orlg 1919),2 vols C am brldge,M ass ,and London H alvard U n lverslty P ress

M vRlcx, L (1993) From the D e fxc/tàt? Trotae ffsrt?r/;l to the Togatl Trt?/

h terary-culturalsynr/lcs/s tn a M edw valfr/s/lA daptatton of D ares' Troy Tale H eldelberg C W lnter

N AGY,G (1974) Com parahve Studtes /?l Greek and fnti//c M etre C am brldge, M ass H arvard U n lverslty P ress -

-

(1979) TheBestof theA chaeans Conceptsof the H ero /?lArchatc Greek

Poetry B altlm ore and London Johns H opkln s U nlverslty Press

304

B lbhograp hy

N AGY, G (1990) Ptndar's H om er The f-yr/c Possesston of an f//c Past B altlm ore an d London Johns H opku ns U nlverslty Press -

(19964),Poetry asPerform ance H om erand Beyond Cam brldge Cam -

-

brldge U nlverslty P ress -

-

-

-

(19965) H om enc Q ueshons Austln U nlverslty ofTexas Press

(2002)Plato'sRhapsody and H om er'sArfl/s/c ThePoehcsof thePanathenfz/c Fesh val y?l C lasn cal A thens W ashln gton , D C

C enter for H ellenlc

Stu dles, dlstrlb uted by H alv ard U m verslty P ress

(2003) H om enc Responses Austln U nlverslty ofTexas Press N ytxxlxl, S (2003) A nalogta e polan ta /?l nm thtudm e Paragom ///;7J/c2 e

-

-

tafhss/lc/a confronto Am sterdam H akkert N sw y,'s V (1995) flfeats,H lstory,and the Poetsl m Roe (1995),165-93 N lcoslA, S (ed ) (2003) Uhsse nel tempo la m etafora f/v/ n/r;l Venlce M arslllo

N oRRls, M

(1988) fM odernlsm , M yth, and D eslre ln ffN auslcaa'''> Jam es

Joyce Q uarterly 26/1 37-50

O cuoA,P (1993) floyce's ffN auslcaa'' The Paradox of A dvertlslng N arclsslsm l Jam es Joyce Q uarterly 30/31 783-93

O 'G ORM AN,E (2006)A W om an'sH lstory ofW arfarelln Zalko and Leonard (2006),189-207 O lxAs,F J (1978) H erotc Eptc and Saga A n Introduchon and H andbook to the J'kb r/l's G reat Folk fp cs B loom lngton In dlan a U n lverslty P ress

O xpsw l-lo, I (1979) The f.p/c tn .?A/hc;7 Tt?wrl/'ls a Poehcs of the O ral Perform ance N ew York Colum bla Unlverslty Press (1980) fA n A nthropo1og1st Looks at Eplcl .R.AI 2/4 429-48 O 'LEARY,M (1997) flkevlew of J'kbr M unc by C hrlstopher Loguel Chtcago

-

-

R cv/cw , 43/4 152- 6

O Lulxc,S (1980)fseolrseM acTom als-G eorge D erw entThom sonlJournal

of the Kerry Archaeolop caland ff/srtm c/!Soaety 13 149-72 -

(2000) fG eorge Thom sonl ln C elhc srl/tàcs tn Europe and O therEssays

-

D ublln G eography P ubllcatlon s, pp 161-73, orlg publlsh ed ln C lasn cs

Ireland,3 (1996), 141-62 O 'N OLAN,K (1968)fH om erandthelrlshH el'oTale',Studtabh berm ca,8 7-20 (1969) fl-lom er and Irlsh H erolc N arratlvel C Q 19 1-19

-

-

O 'RloRoAx,M (1990) The GaehcM //:J and the Collapseof the Gaehc W t '?r/l C ork C ork U n lverslty P ress

O 'SuLLlvAx,M (1933) Twenty Fc/rs,?t Grow m g trans G D Thom son and M

Llew elyn D avles of Ftche .B//;??1 ag Fas N ew York V lklng

PALM ER, R B (ed ) (1989) The C/nc/zrlfzr/c Text M ethods J?:J Approaches G eorgla State Llterary Stu dles, 3 N ew York A M S Press

B kbhograp hy

305

Pytltxy,s,A (1997) fffl-lterature and Instrum ents for Abortlon'' ffN auslcaa'' and the Lkttle R cvlcw Tm al',Jam es Joyce Q uarterly 34/3 283-301

PARRV;M (ed )(1971) TheM akm g ofH om enc W rsc O xford and N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

Psytcocx,A J and K D y,vlxy,(eds) (2000) The Poetry of M tchaelLongley G errards C ross C olln Sm yth e

PERADOTTO,J (1990) M an /?l the M tddle Vb/cc N am e and N arrahon /?l the O dyssey P rln ceton P rln ceton U n lverslty P ress

(19974) fl-lom er,Parry and the M eanlng of Tradltlonl ln Letoublon (1997),23-32 (19975) fM odern Theoretlcal A pproaches to H om erl ln M orrls and Pow ell(1997),380-95 and J P Sutt,lvytx (eds) (1987) W om en /?l the A naent W t 'lr/l The

-

-

-

-

-

-

A rethusa P ap ers A lb any SU N Y Serles ln C lasslcal Stu dles

Py,Ry,z-Fy,RxAxoy,z, J M (2001) fTerza .R//' rlG the Sea and H lstory ln O m eros', ln M artlnez-D uefias Espelo and Perez-Fernandez (2001), 53- 80

Pult,t,lps,C R (1991)fpoetry before theA nclentClty Zorzettland the C ase of R om el CJ 86,382-9

Pult,t,lps,J (1678)M arontdes,or,W rp !Travesty (a burlesque ofBooks5 and 6 ofthe .Acn& ll London O badlah Blagrave Ply,Rls,M (1988) O choros /f;7/o chronos tou T//a Sm opoulou A thens Erm ls Polur rls,K (1982) Erotca,ed Peter M ackrldge A thens Erm ls POLLARD,C W (2004) N cw W t '?r/l M oderntsm s T . $ Ehot, D erek W / 'ktlrr, and K am au B rathw atte C h arlottesvllle an d L on don U nlverslty of V 1rgln la P ress

PopyoA (19674) TheI//JJ ofllbm er,ed M aynard M ack,2 vols London and N ew H aven M ethuen and YaleU nlversltypress (Flrstpubllshed 1715-20 ) -

(19675) TheO dyssey offftl/zrlc?ied M aynard M ack 2 vols London and

-

N ew H aven M ethuen and Yale U nlverslty Press (Flrstpubllshed 1725-6 ) PoRxfytxx,P (2006) f'I'he A rab ffculturalAw akenlng'' (N ahda) 1870-1950, and the C lasslcalTradltlonl IJC T 13 l 3-20

PORTER,D H (1972) fv lolent Juxtaposltlon ln the Slm lles of the Ihad l CJ 68 l 1- 2 1

PORTER, H

(1962) flntroductlon' to H om er The O dyssey trans G H

P alm er, ed H

P orter N ew York B antam B ooks, 1-20

PORTER, J I (2004J) fl-lom er The H lstory of an Ideal ln Robert Fow ler (2004),324-43 (2004ô) fN letzsche, H om er and the Classlcal Tradltlonl ln Blshop (2004),7-26 Pow st,to B (2005) flkevlew of Fow ler (2004)1 BM CR 2005 04 29

-

-

306

B lblkograp hy

PRFN OERGAST,C (ed ) (2004) D ebatm g J4br/l h terature London and N ew York V erso

PRITCHARD,J B (ed ) (1958) TheA naentN cfz/'East .,4n A nthology of Texts an d P tctures P rm ceton P rln ceton U n lverslty P ress

Puccl, P (1987) O dysseus Polytropos Intertextual Readtngs /?l the O dyssey and the J//JJ Ithaca,N X and London C ornell U nlverslty Press

PIJLLM AN,P (1995) N orthern Ltghts London Scholastlc PuRxls,J (1992) fReadlng H om er Todayl ln C Em lyn-lones,L H ardw lck

and J Purkls (1992),1-18

RAow A' tr, J A (1997) ., 4 Feelm g for Books The Book-of-the-M onth C/us, h terary Taste, and M tddle C lass D en re C h ap el H 111 U nlverslty of N orth C aroltn a P ress

Ry,oFIy,LD,J (1975) N ature and Culture /?lthe . P/JJ The Tragedy of H ector C h lcago U n lverslty of C h lcago P ress

R EICHEL, M

and A R yw cytxos (eds) (2002) Epea Pteroenta Be trage zur

H om erforschung Festschrlfl fur W olfgang Kullm an zum 75 G eburtstag Stu ttg art Steln er

R y,lo, C (2001) flntroductlon Logue's H om er, H om er's Loguel ln Logue (2001f8 ,pp xl-xlll R EINHARDT,K (1979) Sophocles,trans H H alvey and D H arvey (orlg ln G erm an ,1933) O xford Blackw ell R lczu lkosols 5 (1990) The H om enc N arrator N ashvllle Vanderbllt U n1v erstty P ress

Rlcxs,D (1989) The Shade of H om er Cam brldge Cam brldge Unlverslty Press (repr 2004) (1992) flkltsos-o m lros enas polltlkos dlalogosl D odom , 11 (1992),

-

-

4 9- 65 -

(1996) f'I'he Poet as W ltness Tltos Patrlklos and the Legacy of the

-

G reek ClvllW arl K am pos Cam bn dge Papers /?lM odern G reek,4 81-103 -

(2003) M odern Greek W r/r/ng A n A nthology /?l Engltsh Translahon

-

L on don P eter O w en

(2004) f'I'he Shadow of the G reek Cw ll W al'ln the poetry of Talus Slnopoulosl ln C arabott and Sfikas (2004),223-37 R lsu,E V (trans ) (1966) (orlg 1950) The Iltad H arm ondsw orth Pengutn R lTsos,G (1989) Ponm ata,x Athens Kedros (ed ) (1995) Keats and Ihstory C am brldge C am brldge U nlverslty

-

-

-

-

P ress

Roy,,N (1997)John Keatsand the Culture ofLhssent O xford and N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

R olsxfytx,H (1987) fpenelope's Indlgnatlonl T-APJI.A l17 59-68 R OLI-ET,S (2003) lzbywgc a Cythere La poehque de la m em otre d'A ngelopoulos P arls L'H arm attan

B kbhograp hy

307

R ow sl-t,,C H (1988) flnscrlptlon at the Clty of Brass' A n Intervlew w lth R om are B earden , C allaloo, 36, su m m er 428-46

Rupxy,,J (ed ) (2001) s,W?lGottern L/KJ M enschen erzahlen Form konstanzen p/ / f Stu t tgart Fran z Stel n er V erl ag und F unkh onsw andel vorm oderner f .

R IJTHBRFORD,R (2006) fN ote and Q ueryl TLS, 10 February 26-7

SADDI-SM YSR,A (ed ) (1983) The Collected LettersofJohn Adi////g rt??cSynge, 1 1871-1907 O xford an d N ew Y ork O xford U nlverslty P ress

SAlo,E (1991) The J4br/l, the Tcxr and the C'nr/c London V lntage (first publlshed by H an rard U nlverslty Press ln 1983) Sytuxoy,Rs,K B (1999) f'I'he W ounds ln Ilm d 13-161 CQ 49 345-63 Sytvlols,G P (1991) M etam orfosets tou f/p//lt?rfz,2nd edn Athens Erm ls Scl-lBlx, S (1984) The M ortal H ero A n Introductw n to H om er's J//JJ B erk eley and L os A ngeles U n lverslty of C allforn la P ress

(1999)fculturalStudles and Classlcs C ontrasts and O pportunltleslln Falkner,Felson,and Konstan (1999),285-99 (2002) ç'I'he H orses ofA chllles ln Book 17 ofthe Ihadj ln Relcheland

-

-

-

-

Rengakos (2002), 193-206 Scl-lot,ss,R (1985) fN arratlon and N arratlvlty ln Fllm l ln M ast and Cohen (1985),390-403 Scoost,,R (2002) h stem ng to H om er D 'rll/r/t??t N arrattve and A udtence A nn A rb or U nlverslty of M lchlgan P ress

SBAFORD,R (1997) fG eorge Thom son and A nclent G reecel C lasstcsIreland, 4 12 1- 33

SEFBRIS,G (1966) O n the G reek srylc,trans R W arner and T Frangopoulos B oston L lttle, B row n -

(1967) Collected Poem s 1924-1955, trans and ed E Keeley and

-

P Sherrard P rln ceton Prln ceton U nlverslty P ress

(1982) Pottm ata Athens Ikaros SBI-DEN,R (ed ) (1995) The Cam brtdge H istory of Ltterary C'nr/as?'n Cam -

-

-

brldge C am brldge U nlverslty Press

Ssx, A

(2005) The A rgum entahve Indm n W r '/r/ngs on Indm n ff/srt?ry,

C ulture and Idenh ty Lon don A llen L an e

Ssxx,F (1984)Joyce'sD lslocuhons Essayson Readtng as Translatton,ed John PaulR lqu elm e B altlm ore and London Johns H opkln s U nlverslty P ress

SsTrls,S (2004) 11futuro JJ Cclasstco'Turln Elnaudl SI-IAY, J (1994) A chtlles /?l V etnam Com bat Tr/t/pu and the Undotng of C haracter N ew York A th en eu m -

-

(2002) O dysseus /?1Am enca Com bat Traum a and the Trm ls of H om ecom tng N ew York Scrlb n er

SH EFN ,E (2000) Introductlon,ln G lddlngs and Sheen (2000),1-13 Sllll-s,E (1988) ç'I'he U nlverslts the Clty,and the W orld Chlcago and the U nlverslty of Chlcagol ln Bender (1988),210-30

'

è

308

B kbhograp hy

SlcxsR,P (1999) fffA lone ln the H ldlng Tw lllght'' Bloom 's Clnem atlc G aze ln ffN auslcaa'''7Jam es Joyce Q uarterly 3614 825-51

Slcxy,p., P (2003) fu nvelllng D eslre Pleasure, Pow er and M asquerade ln Joyce's ffN auslcaa''Eplsode'7Joyce . $rl/J/cs A nnual, l4,sum m er 92- 131

SILx,M S (ed ) (1996) Tragedy and the Tr/p c,O xford O xford U nlverslty P ress

Slxopout,os,T (1976) Syllop .A7A thens Erm ls

Sxst,rox,R (1971) The W r '/r/np ofJ M slz/lgc lndlanapolls Bobbs-M errlll Sot,oxfox,J (2001) The A naent W t '?r/l m the C/nc/zrlfz,rev and expanded edn N ew H aven Yale U nlverslty P ress

Soxfsxu, S (1981) f'I'he Em ergence of Tw o Sets of Styllstlc N orm s ln the Early Llterary Translatlon lnto M odern A rablc Prosel Poettcs Tt?l/y, 2/4 19 3- 20 0

Sopuoct,y,s (1996) Fragm ents, ed H Lloyd-lones Cam brldge, M ass and Lon don H arvard U nlverslty P ress

STAIGER,J (1989) flkeceptlon Studles the D eath of the Readerl ln Palm er (1989),353-68

STALLw ORTHY,J (ed )(1985) ThePoem sof W ilfred O wcn London H ogarth P ress

STANFORD,W B (1954) The Ulysses Them e -4 Study /?ltheA daptabthty of a Trfzfïlrltl' n fzlH ero O xford B lackw ell -

(1968) The U lysses Them e,2nd edn A nn A rbor U nlverslty ofM lchl-

-

gan P ress -

-

-

-

(1976) Ireland and the Clasncal Tr/tà r/t??l D ublln A llen Flggls

and J V Lucs (1974) The Q uestfor Ulysses London Phaldon

S' rsyytxovlc K ARytoklc,V (1988), Srpske narodne plesm e vols 4-7 of Sabrana dela Vrl//f;l K ardh ca B elgrade P rosveta

STEINER,G (2002) fsound and Llght The Pow er of a N ew H om erl TLS 15 Feb ru ary 5- 6

-

-

-

-

(2004)fl-lom erm Engltsh Translattonlm llobertFow ler(2004),363-75 and A D YKM AN (eds) (1996) H om er /?lEnghsh London Penguln

and R FAGLF,S (eds) (1962) H om er -4 Collechon of Cr/r/tr/!Essays

Englew ood C llffs,N J Prentlce-l-lall

S' rsvsxs, W

(1997) Collected Poetry and Prose, ed F Kerm ode and

J R lchardson N ew York Llbrary of A m erlca

S' rsvsxsox,L L (1988) fpreparlng for Publlc Llfe The C olleglate Students at N ew York U nlverslts 1832-18811 ln Bender (1988), 150-77 S' roxss,W (1899) f'I'he Bodlelan A m ra Cholulm b Chlllel Revue Cc/r/gl/c, 20 3 1- 5 5, 132- 8 3, 24 8- 89, 40 0- 37

S' rRytuss,W A (1971) D escent and Return The O rphtc Them e ln M odern h tera ture P rln ceto n P rln ceton U n lv erslty P ress

B kbhograp hy

309

STRAY,C (1998) Classtcs Transform ed Schools, Uhw crs/r/cs,and st?c/cry tn E ngland, 1830- 1960 O xford C larend on P ress

SIJBRBAIJM , W

(2002) (ed ) H andbuch der Latetntschen h teratur der

Anhke,, D 3e A rchatsche Ltteratur v' t??v den A nfangen !?/s Sullas Tod 1Xc vorlzterartsche Pertode und J2c Z est vtpn J#p b$s 78 v C hr M u m ch C H B eck

Svw GF,,J M (1959) John Adi///ngrt??l Synge 1871-1909 -4 Catalogue of an fx/l/ô/r/t??vheld atTr/n/ry CollegeLtbrary D t/ô//?lon theO ccaston of the50th Anm versary of /l/sD eath D ublln D olm en Press (1971) The SyngeM anuscnpts/?7the h brary of Tr/n/ry College D ublm 4 Catalogue Prepared on the O ccaston of the syngc Centenary fx/l/ô/r/t??v

-

-

-

D ublln D olm en P ress -

(1992), The A ran Islands, ed T R oblnson (orlg 1907) Penguln

-

L on don

Svw cy,,S (1931)Letters to M y D aughter M em onesofJohn Adi///ngrt??lSynge D ublln Talb ot

TytcoRy,, R (1987) fBroken Songl ln ld Selected Poem s, trans W llllam R adlce L on don P enguln

TAKHA,Y (2004) A l-A hram W c 'c/f/y,Culture,'A post M lllenlalIlm d' http // w eeldy ahram org eg/2004/693/cu5 htm (last accessed June 2004) Tytplux,O (1991) fD erek W alcott's O m eros and D erek W alcott's H om erl ln A n on l 2 13- 2 6

TATIJM,J (2003) TheM ourner'sSong J'kbrand Rem em brancefrom theJ//JJ to m etnam

C hlcago an d L on don U nlverslty of C hlcago P ress

Tuoxfsox,G D (1940)AeschylusandA thens -4 Study /?lthest?c/;7!Orw nsof D ram a 2n d edn 1945,repr 1972 N ew York H askell H ou se -

-

-

-

(1945) M arxtsm and Poetry London Law rence and W lshart (1949) Studtes /?l A naent Greek Soaety The Prehtstonc A egean 2nd

edn 1954 L on don L aw ren ce an d W lsh art

(1988) Island H t?/évc The BlasketH erttage D lngle Brandon Tolslx,C (2002) Lady G regory's Toothbrush M adlson U nlverslty of W 1scon sln P ress

U xosRw ooo,S (19984) Enghsh Translators of H om er From George Chapm an to C hn stop her Logue P lym outh N orth cote H ou se

(19985)fl-larrlson'sA eschylusand Logue'sH om erlD lalogos,5 76-100 V AT-TAT,J -C (2002) fN ekulalm odernlstes Les nouvelles technologles de la descente aux enfersl ln V lon-D ury (2% 2),305-14 V ARCL, L and W ILLETTS, R F (1963) Geras Studtes Presented to

-

-

George Thom son on the O ccanon of /?/s 60th bzrthday Prague Charles U n lv erslty

3 10

B kbhograp hy

V BRXAXT,J-P and P V IOAC-N AQIJF,T (1988) M yth and Tragedy y?vA naent G reece,trans J Lloyd N ew York Z tm e B ooks

V lox-D ulm J (ed ) (2002) Le ?/c/: dans le tnythe Llm oges PressesU nw ersltalres de Llm oges

W ALcoT,P (1992) fo dysseus and the A rt of Lp ngl ln Em lyn-lones,H ardw tck,and Purkts (1992),48-62 W ALCOT'' I; D (1984) Collected p(?cp?. ç 1948-1984 N ew York Farrar,straus and G lroux -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

(1990) O m eros N ew York Farrar,Straus and G lrotm London Faber (1993) The O dyssey -4 Stage Verston London Faber (1997) flketlectlorts on O m eroslm D avts (l997c),229-46 (1998) lkr/lrzr the Fw'///g' /lrSays London Faber

W SIL,S (2003) The Ilm d or the Poetn of Force h CrltlcalEdltlon,ed and tran s J P H oloka Frankfurt an d N ew York Peter Lang

W yrlxsTyrlx,P (1996) fFor G erty H ad her D ream s thatN o-one Knew ofl ln Bela and N orm s (1996),115-21 W ss' r,M L (1997) The EastFace ofH ehcon lkf tsrzts/rzt/trElem ents #/Greek Poetry and M yth O xford and N ew Y ork O xford U nlverslty P ress

W lcxy,,J (2004)floyce and C onsum er Culturelln A ttrldge (2004b),234-53 W lrrcocx,14 M (1976).,4 Companzon to the .J///J Based on the Translatlon

of Rtchm ond Latttm ore Chlcago U m verslty ofChlcago Press W ILLIAM S, M

and A R IACH (1991) X eadlng W llson H arrlsl ln M aes-

Jellnek (1991),51-60

W ILLIAM S,R (1983)Keywords -4 Vocabulary ofCultureand st?c/cry,rev edn, O xford and N ew York O xford U nlverslty Prtss

W ILLs, G (2003) flntrodud lonl ln C Logue, W /r M tfslc A' n A cctltf' nf of Books 1-4 and 16-19 of H om er's f//;?1 Chlcago Unlverslty of Chlcago P ress, p p xl-xlx

W lt,sox,E (2005) fForever tn Fptl TM , 13 M ay W INKLSR,M W (ed ) (2001) C lasstcalhlkth and Culture tn the (Ji/zt?/zztz,2nd edn O xford and N ew Y ork O xford U nlverslty P ress

W INTBRER,C (2002) The Culture of C'l/ss/c/s?' n A naentGreece and Rom e /?l

Am ertcan Intellectual fu/' c, 1780-1910 Baltlm ore and London Johns H opkm s U m verstty P ress

W oLF,F A (1985) Prolegom ena to N t////c/; 179% trans and ed A G rafton, G W

M ost,J E G Z etzel P rlnceton P rlnceton U nlverslty P ress

W ot,Fsox,S J (ed ) (2001) The Cam bndge Com pam on to Keats C am brldge C am bn dge U m verslty P ress

W ooouousy,,C M (11d g19481)Appde ofLhscord London H utchm sort W oooRlxc, C (1990) fO n Lookm g lnto Keats's Voyagesl ln de A lm elda

(1990),15-22

B kbhograp hy

3 11

W RIGHT,G M and P V Joxy,s (eds) (1997) H om er G erm an Scholarshtp ln Translahon O xford an d N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

W v'KE, M

(1997) Prolechng the Past A nctent Rom e, Ctnem a and I' h story

N ew York an d L on don R outledge

Y BATS,W B (1924) Essays London M acm tllan (1983) The Poem s -4 N cw Edthon, ed R J Flnneran N ew York -

-

M acm lllan

Youxc,P H (2003) The Pnnted H om er Jefferson M cFarland & C o ZACI-I,W and K L G ooow lx (eds) (1996)N ahonahsm vs Internahonaltsm (Interlnahonal fh/wlcrls/t?rs of Ltterature /?: Enghsh Tublngen Stauffenb erg V erlag

ZAJKO,V (2004) fl-lom er and U lyssesl ln R obert Fow ler (2004),311-23 (2006) fffW ho are w e w hen w e read?'' K eats, K leln, Clxous, and Ehzabeth C ook's A chtlles',ln Zayko and Leonard (2006),45-66 and M Ly,oxytRo (eds) (2006) Laughm g w /r/lM edusa ClasncalM yth

-

-

-

-

and Fcpv/ns r T hought O xford an d N ew York 0 xf - ord U nlverslty P ress

ZEITLIN,F I (1996) fFlgurlng Fldellty ln H om er's O dysseyj ln ld ,Playtng the O ther G ender and st?c/cry tn C lasn cal G reek h terature C hlcago an d L on don U n lverslty of C hlcago P ress 19- 52

Z ORZETTI,N (1991)fpoetry and theA nclentClty The C ase ofR om el (:186, 3 11- 2 9

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c# .

blank

Index of H om ericpassages .

P/JJ l 3 1l

2 1 34- 135 95

l 590- 4

l4 9

l 57 1- 600

l4 9

235

2 1 74- 96

2 35

2 1 122- 7

2 35

2 2 139- 5 6

57

2 4 5 9- 68

l79

2 2 158- 6 6

l78

2 4 84- 92

l54

2 3 6 1- 10 7

24 2

3 l80

l72

23 85 ff

3 20 0

95

2 4 7 19- 7 5

3 20 2

96

3 220

95 l72

4 452 ff

23 l

5 30 2- 5

l4 6 n

5 76 7- 72

6 35 6

3

l4 6 n 3

l04

59

8 55 3- 65

l l

247

l3

166, 267

l 23

l00 n

2 93

96

2 l06

l72

8 30 6- 8

82

O dyssey

3 4 14- 17

6 l2 l ff

242

l89

13

96

5 35

98

6 31

l0 7 n 2 8

6 33

102- 3

9 13- 15

24 l

6 56

l0 7

9 18 5- 9

l70

6 66

102 , l0 7

6 92

l0 3

9 30 8- 42 9 9 56 6- 7 1

ll 269- 72

238 82

6 l0 l

l74 n l04

l 12

6 l02 ff

l12

12 298 ff

l04 ff

6 l09

16 2 1- 45

l53

6 l15 ff l07 n 30, l15

16 2 34- 5

2 32 n 2

6 l2 9

l0 7 n 2 8

16 6 3 3- 7

164- 5

6 l3 6

l0 6 n

24

6 l5 5

l0 7 n

28

16 74 2

24 l n

16 788 ff

10

l07

l58

6 18 1- 5

l05

17 4 2 3- 4 5

60

6 18 3- 5

2 58

17 4 4 2- 5 5

l5 7 n

37

6 l8 6

l 12

18 3 72- 9

l57 n 37

6 20 3

l0 l

18 5 9 1- 2

l79

6 20 4

99

6 20 5

l0 0

6 2 l8

l0 7 n

19 4 0 8- 17 21 27

235

l5 7 n 3 7

30

314

Index of H om encpassages

6 244- 5

106, l13

12 59 ff

98

6 273 ff

l05

12 525

96 n 8

6 3 l3

l 13

13 l80

l0 0

6 32 4

l0 7 n 30

13 l87

99

13 2 93

96

15 4 l5

l00 n

7 39

l00 n

7 75

l 13

14

8 457 ff

l02

16 227- 8

8 4 6 1- 2

l 16

19 l 18

8 4 6 1- 8

25 l

19 3 95- 6

l 18

2 0 34 7- 8

2 57

8 4 8 9- 9 1

l68 n 84

l00

2 65

8 52 l ff

93

23 47- 8

243

9 19-20

96

23 85 ff

243

9 42 2- 3

96

2 3 l 17- 2 2

10 30 5

24 l

2 3 12 1- 2

11 2 l9

2 40

2 3 2 96

11 5 63- 4 12 2 1- 2

2 40 22 5 n

30

14

2 83 l 18

93, 24 4 n

2 3 4 4 8- 9

2 24

2 3 30 0- 1

258

12

G eneralIndex A chllle (character ln W alcott's O' Jrncros) 66,186,194-5 A chllles 92,152-3,160,168-9,213,

U lysses'G aze 212,214-22, 225-7,259,lfilm archtves 1n) 215-7,225-6

233, 235, 238, 242, 28J

Voyage to Cy thera 2 11, 22 3, 22 6

A dler,M ortlm er 276-7 syllfop lco' n 276

A nten or 95 A n ttd eta 213, 221

A donls tsyrlan poet) 2 n 3 A eneas 195,203,225

A nton,Charles 270 aphrön (gr ) 95

A enetd, see V lrgll

A pollodoru s 118

A eschylus, O restesa 283

A p ollontu s of R h odes 4, 5, 30,

aesth etlc Ju dgem en t, see hterary valu e

. 32, 37, 38 A rablc 47- 8

A ethtop ts 92

A ran lslan ds 80-6,91

A fn ca 125-31,155,194-5

A rbots de Jubam vllle,H enrl 79,

A gam em n o n 83, 168, 174 , 2 13, 24 1,

263,280

80 , 83

A rgos (O dysseus's dog) 75,223

A lb anla 121, 132-42, 224, 231

A rlstarchu s 106

A lexan drou , A rts 232- 3, 242

A rlstotle

fM edltatlons of Flavlu s M arcu s' 232- 3

A rlstotehanlsm

50

P oettcs 13 1, 267

A lexlou,M argaret 87

A rn old ,M atth ew 35-6

allu ston 10, 260 A n dron lcu s, Llvlu s 122-4 A ngelop oulos 2 10-27, 259- 60

A styan ax 58,235 A tw ood, M argaret 24, 63 A u erb ach, E rlch 28l

L ttrntty and a D ay 211,212,

auth orshlp 30-40 , 89

2 14 , 2 19- 2 7

The H unters 2 1l

B akhtln , M lkhall 281

The R tconstruchon 2 1 l

B akker, Egb ert 70- 1

The Suspended Step of the

Barchtest,Alessandro l24

Stork 22 1,224

B arth es, R olan d 248

The Travelhng P layers 2 l2

B earden , R om are 8, 44-5, 67- 9

The W eep m g M eadow 2l2

B ellos, D avld 134-5

typlcal scen es m

B h abh a,H om l ll

21 l

3 16

G eneral Index

B lebuyck ,D anlel P l26

C hrlstlanlty 66, see also C ath ollclsm

Bllly Blue (character ln W alcott's

Clcero 233

T he O dyssey ..4 Stage

V' t?rs/tpn) 62

cln em a 146, 154- 7, 162- 3, 182,

210-27,245-67,268,see also

B lan ch ot,M aurlce l46

W estern m ovles

B lasket Islan ds 85- 7

C lrce 2 14, 252, 256

B loom ,H arold 1-2, l4,40

C ivil W ar, G reek 226-7, 231-44,

th e B lu es 5, 62

Sp an lsh 60, see also th e

B oltanl,P lero 9,2 l0

Troubles,Yugoslavla

B ow ra, S1r M au rlce 126, l28

class 23, 285

B recht, B ertold 259

classlclsm

B row n ,D an 264

84,274-5,285,s:e also

class

B u lfin ch , T hom as 272- 3, 275

th e classlcal tradltlon l0, 122,

B u rt, Steph en l55 B u tch er, Sam u el H

157, 246 C lasslcs 26 1, 267, 269

277

B u tler,N lch olas M u rray 274

C loon ey,G eorge 26l

B u tler, Sam u el 277,278

C oen B roth ers 245,261-7 O B rother, W hcrc A rt T /l()l/? 245,

C acoyannls,M lch ael 2 1l

261-7,268

C alyp so 2 14, 252

cogn ltlve sclen ce 29

can on ,W estern 3, 15- 16, 30, 35,

C ollln s, M ortlm er l8, l08

43- 5, 124, 125, 207- 9

C arn b ean p oetry 45, 65, 191-209

colon lallsm , 199, see also

p ostcolonlallsm

C ath ollclsm , l10- 11, l40

C olum bla U nlverslty 270, 273, 274,

C avafy; C on stan tln e P 236- 7

277, 284 com m u n lsm , see m axlsm , so clallsm

8, 232- 3,

fc aesarlon ' 240

com p aratlve eplc 2,28- 9,43,125- 3 1

fD arlus' 233 f'I'he H orses ofA chllles' 242

C ook A lbert 278 C ook Ellzabeth 13

f'frolan s' 236- 7

C yclop s 17 1, 262, 265, 266, see also

C ave, T eren ce 52

P olyp h em u s

C esalre, A lm e 19 1- 20 9

C ahw r 191-2, 195-6, 198-9, 200- 4 , 20 6, 20 9

D ante 4,28, 94, 177, 193, 198-200, 2 10- 1 1, 22 5

D tscourse on C t?/t??2,;?!s ??: l99

D em odocu s 99- 100, l68

Letter to M aun ce T horez l99

D enby,D avld 283

Sp trales 191, 198-9

D errlda,Jacqu es 28

C h am olseau ,P atrlck 24

D ldo 203

C h ap m an , G eorge 13, 107, 157- 8,

D lm ock , G eorge 283

165-8

D lom edes l04

G eneral f/lfv x

3 17

dolos (gr) 96,97

R tzgerald,Robert 102,

D ough erty, C arol l67

156- 7, 278 Flem m p D eb orah 78

E ades, C arolln e 210,2 1l

Flow er, R obln 86

E co,U m berto 264

Foley,John M lles 29,38,43, l47

Ellot, C h arles W 275 E h ot, G eorge 108 E llot,T hom as Stearn s 13- 14,27,

Ford,A ndrew l20 form ulas 2 l,29,32, 33, 90, 211, see also oral p oetry

197, 2 11, 226

Forster,E dw ard M

87

E llts, H avelock 1l6 E lp en or 232, 238-42

Fou cau lt,M lch el 28 Fow ler,R ob ert 5 n 13, 30- 1, 123

E plc

Frangop ou los, T h eophllos D

A frlcan eplc 125-31

A rlstotle's defm ltlon of eplc 126- 7, l3l com p aratlve stu dles of eplc 28-9

234-5, 236-8

Tetcllom achta 236- 8 fW e H ave T aken R oot' 234-5 fun eral lam ent 82

En gllsh eplc 149

epos (gr ) l30

G alnsford,Peter 56-7

G reek an d R om an eplc 12 1-5,l30

G alllel, G allleo 180- 1

N ear E astern eplc 171, 193-4, 204, 225

G alllp oll l6l G an ue,A F 4 1-2

E tm an ,A h m ed 47-8 Eum aeu s 223

G elllus,A u ltls 285 gen der p olltlcs l12- 17, 173,243-4,

E urlpld es 173

249-58, see also fam lly

Euryclela 63, 216, 223, 243

valu es,fem ln lsm

E urydlce 22l

G lldersleeve,B asll A

Eu stathlu s l06

G tlgatnesh, see N ear E astern eplc

Everett,E dw ard 270

G llroy,Paul 51

Fagles,R obert 96, 100,102, l11,l56

G latlcu s l04 gods, an clent 24 n 63, 149, 160,

fam lly valu es 2 17-2 1, 257- 8,

282-3

27l

171-2, 204,283

G oethe,Johann W olfgang von 3

Fantasy Flctlon 6, 175

G oodm an,John 265

Farr, D avld 13- 14 Farrell,Joseph 45 fem lnlsm 63, see also gender

G orglas 173 G orgythlon l88 G orky In stltute of W orld

p olltlcs

Llterature l32

Felton , C urtls C onw ay 270,27l

O 'G rady,Stan dlsh 83

Flnn egan ,R u th 125- 8

G rote, G eorge 27l

Flrst W rorld W ar 53-5,59-61, 161,

G ulllory,John 279

186, 188,273-4

G u m p ert, M atth ew

l73

318

G cnérrfll Index

H alhw ell, Steph en 50

H am m on d ,M artm

T he O

169,278

.

#@c/(z/of theD ream

Palace 140

H ardm ck ,L orn a 32, 15l H arrls,W llson 66-7,69-70

l rokc' n A prll l33 C llro' nlclc 1, n sfo?1e l33

H arvard U nlverslty 270,275

The Gepcrlzlofthe D crltï

l-lalv ard C lasslcs 275-7 H ean ep Seam u s l87 H ector 58, 178,232,238

A rm y l33 T he M onster 133 katabasls, see U n derw orld

H elen 95-6, 172-3

K eats,Joh n 13, 157-8, 165-8,169

H erltage B ook C lub 276

K eble,John 1O8

H errnsteln 5m 1th,Barbara 123-4 H esfod 36,279 H eubeck,A lfred 42-3

kleos / klea (gr ) 130,161,252,264 Ktm chalovsky,A ndrel (The O dyssey TV adaptatlon) 246

H tgh et, G llbert 277

K ubrlck, stanley l57

H tn ds, Step hen 49 H tstortctsm

12

L ac ap ra, D om ln lck 16

H om ecom m g 49 , 53, 6 1,

191-209,252

L am b , C h arles 107- 8

Lang,A ndrew 277, 278

H om ersc H ym n s l79

L an g ,Frttz 154- 5

H om er Slm p son 6-7

L atm

H opkln s,G erald M anley 88

Lattlm ore,R lchm ond 95,278

The H um an 5,1://1(dlrected by R obertB enton) 268

Leaf,W alter 277 Lelgh,M lke 22-3,245-61,267

H un ter,H olly 2 62

H utchlns,RobertM

270- 3

A btgatl's Party 246

276,277

Lfe fsswccr 258 N aked 2 45- 61, 2 66-7

ln tertextu allty 10, 246, 260

Secrets antl L les 246, 2 58

Irelan d 18-9, 50, 53-61, 75- 91,

W r/ D rake J58

see also Joyce,Longleyk the T rou bles Isocrates l73

Leo,Frledrlch 122, 125 lln gulstlcs 29 llterary valu e 40, 88, 122- 4

L ogu e, C hrlstoph er 12- 1. 3, 145- 76

Johns H opkm s U ntverstty 271

A IlD ay Perm anentR ed 160, 162,

Joyce,Jam es 8,45,47,76-7,93-4,

169-70, 171-2, 183

97- 119,210- 11,217,242,

an achrom sm tn 148,168,171,l82

246 , 259 , 267

A tfllo/tlgtfc 159 cm em atli techm qu es m

K ad are,lsm all 2, 121, 132-42 Th t .F//: on H 121, 132-9, 141-2

Sp n ng F low ers, qsp r/p.jrF rost 134

182-3 C old C /lls 161, 170- 1 G BH

182

K m gs 151

146,

G eneralIndex

319

Patrocleta 151, 153, 154, 160, l8l

M arxlsm

86, 89, 9l, 199-200, 233

P ax 15 1, 182

M axw ell, M ary 152- 3

Prm ce C htzrl-nl' ng l52

M cc rorte,E dw ard 278

slm lles ln 146, 181-4

M cK eon , R lch ard 277

J'Q r M ustc 145-76, 181-4

m ëdea pukna (gr) 96

Lom bardo,Stanley 157,278

M edledovlc,A vdo 40, 123

L ongley, M lchael 15, 53-61,

M elllet,A n toln e 80

186-90,244

M elanth o 63-4

A Poppy' 59-60, 187- 8

M eleager 82

A n Exp loded v kcw 53,57

M enelau s 174,263

f'I'he C am p Ftres' 189

m ëm s (gr ) 280

fc easeflre' l87

M errlll,R odn ey 278

T uryclela' 56-7

m etam orph osls 12

Gorse F/rcs l87 fl-lom er's O ctopus' l5,56

M etropohs (dlrected by Frlz Lang) 154-5

s' now W tzfcr 57,l87

M tlton ,John 4,28,94,149-50,177,

The G host O rchld 58, l89 f'I'h e H elm et' 58

180, l93 M ln ch ln ,E llzab eth 163-5

f'T'h e H orses' 60

M ltch ell, Steph en 40

The W eather />7Japan 188

M oderm sm

f'W ar an d P eace' 57, 187

M orettl,Fran co 7, l3l

W oun ds' 53-4

M orrls, 1an 5 n 13, 30- 1

13,76,267

L ord,A lb ert 39- 45, l5, 132-41 L oren zatos, Z tsstm os 231

M ost, G len n W l22 M ulokozl,M ubyam bu so 127-8, l30

L ô ttl, P lerre 80

M urrayk G llb ert 79

L ow e,N lck 153, 163

m yth lcal m eth od 70,76

L ow ell, R ob ert 235, 240

M yers, E rn est 277

Ly caon 2 32- 8

Lynn -G eorge, M tch ael 34 lyrlc p oetry 55, 187, 190

N agy, G regory 38,40,88 N au slcaa 64, 98, 100- 17, 248, 25 1

L u can 4

N ear E astern ep lc 35 , 17 1, 193- 4 ,

Lu ce, John V

87

Lu th er,A n dreas 9

204,225 negn tude 206- 7, 209, see also race

N ekum (gr ),see U nderw orld M ach aon 174

N estor 173

M acln tosh , Flon a 79

N letzsch e, Frledrlch 49

M acllenna,Stephen 78-9

nostos (gr ),see hom ecom lng

M ahafh; John Pentland 84 M akrlyan nls, G en eral 237

O dysseu s 93- 107, 111-16, 118- 19,

M an delb aum ,A lan 278

233, 247, 251, 256- 8, 264- 6,

M artln dale, C h arles 8

282,283

320

G eneral Index

O kp ew h o, Isld ore 128-130

p ostcolonlallsm

11 ,

oral p o etry 3- 4, 33-7, 48, 90- 1 on p n ahty 17, 30-7

2 8, 5 1,

19 1-2 09

p ost

O

traum atlc stress dlsorder 64 Poun d E zra 242 -

rp h eus 2 12- 15,224,225

,

O ttom an em plre 14O

Pow elt Barry 5 n 13 ,

O vld 213

P rlam

30- 1

92 96 ,

O w en ,W llfred 54, 59

Proust M arcel 2 10- 12 ,

p acllism

P ullm an , P h lllp 177 P ren dergast C hrlstoph er 3, l3l

148, see also w ar

,

P alm er, G eorge H

2 77-8 283

P ygm ah on 67

,

A n th em for D oom ed Youth ' 59

Parls (Tro?an prlnce) l73

Q ulntlllan 233

P arly M llm an 5 I6, 2 7-.-46, 89- 9 1, ,

12 1- 3, 12 5, 13 1-2 ,134 - 9 , 141 P atrod us 83, 153, 181,235 , 242 , 2 80

race I7 see also negn tude

P en elop e 24, 62-4, 75, 96 98,2 16,

receptlon 6- 7 9- 10 , 15- 16,.30- 3 1,

,

R adw aykJanlce 275 ,

,

22 3, 243- 4, 2 52 2 5 6, 2 58,

33 , 42>44 -6,24 6,2 59, 2 6 1 2 67 ,

,

2 63, 2 65, 2 82

Peradotttw John 95, 171

.

recognltlon 52 3, 55- 7, 6 1, 75, -

penpeto a (gr ) 52,61,64

223 ,

P haeacla, th e P h aeaclan s 98- 101 ,

l 11, 251

246

R eesy E n n ls 2 77- 8

R eld C hn stoph er 150- 1, 159 ,

Phlloctet: (character ln W alcott's

Relnhardt K arl l18

O m eros) 1S5 phtlotës (gr ) 280

repetltlon l0 90 revlslon 10

photography 161 2 18- 19

revlvlficatlon 1 1 12

Plcasso (G uerntca) 60

RleuyEm lle V 60

,

,

y

-

,

Pln dar 3. % 38,220

249, 2 78

R llke R am er M arla 220, 226 ,

P lato 159, 2 72

R ltso s

Yannls (T enelopeRs D espalr') 243 4

,

A lctbtades 222,226 1on 159

m yth of th e cave 226

-

R o sen b erg Isaac 54 , 59 , R ou se Jv llllam 278 ,

P llny the Younger 233

R upke

lorg 124, 130

,

P lu tarch 106- 7

Polltls,Kosm as (Etm ca) 236

Saralevo 214-16 ,

22 5- 6

P ollard, C h arles 2- 3 14

Sarp edon 164

polutnëtts (gr ) 95 polutvopos (gr ) 95

Schlegel A u gu st W llh elm von 270 Scholes R ob ert 159

P olyph em us 96, see also C yclop s

Secon d W orld W ar 147

,

,

,

-

P op e, A lexan der 106- 7

170 ,

P orter,H ow ard 283

22 6, 2 32- 3,

238 2 7 8 :

8,

G eneral . J/J/V .X seferls,G eorge 8,76, 119,2 11,222, 226,232,234-5,237-8, 240,242,

f'rhe K m g of A sm e' 24Q fT hrush' 238

32 1

P h jloctetes 1 18 Sp en ser, E dm und 4 Stefan ovlc K aradllc, V uk

137 n 62 Stem er, G eorge 8-9, 156, l66

Serb la, see Y ugoslavla

Steslch oru s l73

seven Seas (character m W alcott's

stevens,W allace 243

O m eros) 186 shakespeare,W llllam 167, 169, 214-15,220 Shay,Jonathan l47

sturges Preston 263 O 'Sulllvan,M aun ce (M uln s O sulleabhaln) 86,91 sultors (O dysseyj 253,256-7,283

Sheen ,Eh zab eth 150 Sh ew m np W alter 278

Sunlata 126- 7 Synge,John M lllm gton 76-85, 117

Slck er,P h lh p 116 slkeh an os,A ngelos 232

T agore,R ab ln dranath 48

slm lle l77- 90

T an talu s 2 13

reverse slm lle 6 1

Tassth Torqu ato 4, 177

eptc stm tles 177-81 hon stm tles 104

Tatum ,Jam es 147-8 Tayler, Edw ard 283

w orld of th e H om en c

Telem achu s 75, 223, 282- 3

slm lles 179-80

slm llarlty and dlsslm lllarlty

Tennyson ,A lfred l18, l77

textu al f-undam entallsm

ln 178-9, 181, 184-5,

T h atch er, M argaret 258

188, l90

T h ew hss, D avld 246

slm lles ln C hrlstopher L ogu e 181-4

m M tch ael L on gley 186-90 ln D el-ek W alcott,see W alcott, D erek

49

T hom as,E dw ard 54 T h om son , G eorge D erw en t 76,

85- 9 l tlm e an d ttm elessn ess 12- 13, 34-46, 6 1-7 1

sln op oulos T akls 235-42

T lreslas 213,2l6

fE lp en or' 238-40 fW ake for Elp en or' 240-2 Slren s 262, 266

T ltyus 213 tradltlon al poetry 29-30, 42 tran slatlon s 1, 30y 35- 6, 4 7- 8, 5S,

Slsyphu s 2l3 soclah sm 78

95, 10U, 102, 106, 146, 150- 8, 272, 277-9, see also

Solom os 220, 224

entm es un der m dtvtdu al

som m e,B attle of th e 55

tran slatol-s

Song ofhhlm an Parry see Vo?lèlc,

Troubles,The (N orthern

M llovan Sophocles 272 A nttgone 220

Ireland) 55,61 Troy (dlrected by W olfgang Petersen) 9,245,259,268

322

G eneralIndex

Tu rn er, E dw ard R

273

typ e scen es 2 l,2 1 1, see also form u las, oral poetry recognltlon scen es 56- 7

W ar, O dysseu s as w ar dodger, 94 W ell, Slm on e 9, 147 W eln steln ,P hlllp l13 W est, M artln L

l93.-4

U nd erw orld 66, 192-206,

W estern can on , see can on ,W estern

2 10- 27, 242

W estern clvlllzatlon 269, 274, 279

U n derw ood, Slm eon 154, 164

W estern cultu re l1, 280,284 W estern hterature 1, l5, 30,

V lco, G lam b attlsta 33 n 25 V letn am W ar l47

40- 1, 43 W estern m ovles 170, 283, see also

V lrp l 4, 5, 28, 30, 94, 122- 3, 193, 195, 197,203,2 10 ,281,fv lrg'

cln em a W estern valu es 269,282 ,284

as a N ew England farm er 7

A enetd 94, 123, 195, 198, 245 V ollélc,M llovan 136-4 1

The Song of .Az . 9 /?' rl;7/:Parry 136- 9, l4 l

W lcke,Jennlfer l14

W llcock M alcolm 278 W llde, O scar 84 W llllam s,R aym on d 285

W lnkelm ann,Johann Joachlm 2 70

W olf, Frledrlch A ugu st 33, 271

W alcott,D erek 1,7, 8, l7,28y44- 5, 52, 61-8, 7l, 85, 191-3, 204- 8,246,259 fl-lom ecom lng A n se L a R aye' 191, 204-6 O tn eros 1, 7, l7, 2 3, 44- 5, 66- 8, 177, 184- 6, 19 1- 2, 194- 5,

206- 7, 245, 259 T he O dyssey .?t Stage F a's/t??l 6 l- 6

w orld llterature 3-4, 12 l W orld W ar 1, see Flrst W orld W ar W orld W ar I1,see Second W orld W ar W orld W ld e W eb 6 W yke,M arla 258- 9 Y ale U n lverslty R ep ort 270 Y eats,W llllam B u tler 76- 8, 85- 6

slm lles ln 185- 6

Younp P hlllp H

TheM use of Ihstory 65

Yugoslavla 136-41,214-16,

The Sea at D aup htn 85

8

225- 6

w ar 57, 188- 9, 280, see also C lvll

W ar,FlrstW orld W ar, Second W orld W ar,V lem am

2001 .A Space O dyssey (dlrected by Stanley Kubrtck) l57