History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century (The Joint Committee on Eastern Europe Publication Series, No. 12)

HISTORY OF THE BALKANS TWENTIETH CENTURY VOLUME 2

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HISTORY OF THE BALKANS Twentieth Century VOLUME 2

BARBARA JELAVICH

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www. Cambridge. org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521254489 © Cambridge University Press 1983 Full term copyright is claimed. Thereafter all portions of this work covered by this copyright will be in public domain. The work was developed under a contract with the U.S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. However, the content does not necessarily reflect the position of that Agency, and no official endorsement of these materials should be inferred. First published 1983 Reprinted 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994 (twice), 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999 A catalogue recordfor this publication is available from the British Library ISBN-13 978-0-521-27459-3 paperback ISBN-10 0-521-27459-1 paperback Transferred to digital printing 2006

Contents

List of maps

Preface

page viii

ix

Introduction

i

PART I. WAR AND NATIONAL CONSOLIDATION, 1887-1941 Chapter i. The Balkan national monarchies Economic developments Romania Serbia Montenegro Bulgaria Greece The "Europeanization" of Balkan life

13 15 23 28 34 37 40 45

Chapter 2. The Dual Monarchy: Austria-Hungary from 1867 to 1914 T h e national p r o b l e m in Austria Bosnia-Hercegovina The Kingdom of Hungary Conclusion: Austria-Hungary under the Ausgleich

51 53 59 63 77

Chapter 3. The end of Ottoman rule in Europe: the Albanian and Macedonian questions The Ottoman Empire The Albanian national movement Macedonia The Balkan Wars, 1912,1913 Albanian independence The Ottoman legacy

79 79 84 89 95 100 104

Contents

Chapter 4. World War I Sarajevo The war The peace settlements The fall of the Ottoman Empire: the Turkish Republic Conclusion Chapter 5. The first postwar decade Immediate postwar problems Problems of national organization and internal development The Great Depression Traditional peasant life Conclusion Chapter 6. Balkan authoritarian regimes: the outbreak of World War II The rise of Soviet and German influence The establishment of the Balkan authoritarian regimes Inter-Balkan relations The Axis advance: the conquest of Albania The outbreak of the war: the period of Balkan neutrality Conclusion

106 106 114 121 126

133 134 134 143 184 185 191

192 192

199 212 213 221

238

PART I I . WORLD WAR II AND THE POSTWAR DEVELOPMENTS

Chapter 7. The Balkan states in World War II The military background Balkan participation in the war The inter-Allied negotiations on the Balkans The establishment of the Communist regimes Partisan warfare

247 247 250 284 287 298

Chapter 8. The immediate postwar readjustments: the Greek civil war and the Yugoslav—Soviet conflict The Allied coalition breaks The Greek civil war, 1946-1949 The Yugoslav developments The repercussions in the Soviet bloc Albania changes direction T h e Cold War

301 301 306 314 329 331 333

vi

Contents Chapter 9. The Communist governments, 1950-1980 Internal developments Foreign policy Contrasting Communist regimes: Bulgaria, Romania, Albania The Yugoslav variant Conclusion

336 336 352 364

384 404

Chapter 10. The Greek alternative Economic problems: American intervention Papagos and Karamanlis: Greek governments to 1963 The Cyprus dispute Social and economic changes The Papandreou era The military dictatorship Karamanlis restored Andreas Papandreou: the elections of October 1981 Conclusion

406 406 408

Conclusion

439

Bibliography

447

Index

461

Vll

4i3 416 418 426

433 436

437

Preface

of this Balkan history covered the main events of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The emphasis was on the national movements leading to the formation of the modern states and the organization of the first independent or autonomous governments. Although the final stages were not completed until after World War I, the major steps toward a national organization and a definition of future goals were taken by the end of the nineteenth century by all of the nationalities except the Albanians. The main issues in the twentieth century were thus to be the completion of territorial unification and internal economic and political development. Problems of great-power interference and rivalry among the nations continued from the previous period. This volume commences with an introduction designed for those readers whose primary interests lie in the present century, although it is hoped that this factual review of the preceding centuries will also be of interest to those who desire a summary and an overview of the previous volume. The material selected is that which is necessary as a background for the next chapters.

T

HE FIRST VOLUME

This volume, as well as its predecessor, was prepared as part of a program organized in 1972 by the Joint Committee on Eastern Europe of the American Council of Learned Societies and the Social Science Research Council to provide histories of Eastern Europe. Professor Peter F. Sugar of the University of Washington was the chairman of the special committee that prepared the original proposal; Professor Michael B. Petrovich of the University of Wisconsin became chairman of the supervising committee and was responsible for the subsequent organization. This Balkan history has received generous funding from the Office of Education, including grants that allowed the author the free time necessary to complete the writing and funds to assist in the preparation of the volumes for publication. Dr. Gordon B. Turner, Vice-President of ACLS until 1980, and his successor, Dr. Jason H. Parker, contributed valuable suggestions and assistance. The author is also greatly indebted to Julia A. Petrov of the Office of Education for her advice and support. As stated in the original project, this book is designed as an introduction ix

Preface to Balkan history; it assumes no prior knowledge. Major European events and political, philosophical, and economic theories necessary to the narrative are also covered. Because of the complexity of the developments being treated, some subjects are touched on in more than one section. Since this area has played such a major role in world affairs, attention is directed not only to internal Balkan events, but also to the great international conflicts in this turbulent century. This book thus covers both Balkan developments and the place of the peninsula in twentieth-century history. The multiplicity of languages and the varieties of spelling that have been used in the past provide certain difficulties for the historian of the area. In this book the attempt has been made to adopt in the spelling of personal and geographic names the form that is most commonly used and that will be most familiar to the reader. Standard systems of transliteration have been used for Greek and Bulgarian; Serbian words and names appear in their Latin spelling. Complete consistency has not been possible. In addition, names of rulers and Ottoman statesmen and many first names have been anglicized. Dating also provides some problems, since the Balkan people used three separate calendars until after World War I. The Muslims dated events from the Hegira in A.D. 622. The Orthodox used the Julian, or Old Style, calendar, whereas the Catholics and Protestants adopted the Gregorian, or New Style. In the nineteenth century the Julian calendar ran twelve days behind the Gregorian; in the twentieth century this number increased to thirteen. All dates in this book are in the New Style. The difference in dating produces difficulties principally when a particular day or month is associated with an event. For example, the Serbian Constitution of 1888 was actually passed in January 1889. When such complications arise, they are explained in the text. For the most part, the footnotes have been limited to identifications of the sources of quotations and of some of the statistical information. The capitalization and spelling of quotations from old sources have been changed to conform to the style of the text. The bibliography is designed to provide the reader with a list of books on various aspects of Balkan history. Books in languages other than English and all articles are excluded, although, of course, these have been used extensively in the preparation of the book. The author is greatly indebted to her friends and colleagues, specialists in the field, who kindly consented to read the manuscript. Their expert comments and criticisms greatly assisted in the preparation of thefinalversion of the book. All or a major section of the two volumes was read by Professors Richard V Burks, Wayne State University; Dimitrje Djordjevic, University of California, Santa Barbara; Rufus Fears, Indiana University; John V A. Fine, Jr., University of Michigan; Keith Hitchins, University of Illinois; Halil Inalcik, University of Chicago; John R. Lampe, University of Maryland; Thomas A. Meininger, York University; John A. Petropulos, Amherst College; Michael B. Petrovich, University of Wisconsin; Dennison I. Rusinow, American Universities Field Staff; Traian Stoianovich, Rutgers University;

Preface and Peter R Sugar, University of Washington. In addition, this work is in fact the product of the collaboration of the author with her husband, Charles Jelavich, who contributed not only suggestions and criticisms, but also the results of his own research. The author would like to thank Debbie Chase, who typed the final draft, and Janis Bolster, whose excellent editorial reading and valuable suggestions added much to the manuscript in its final stages of preparation. She also compiled the index. The maps were prepared by William Jaber.

XI

Introduction

A L T H O U G H T H I S VOLUME OF BALKAN HISTORY commences forl\ mally at the beginning of the twentieth century, the reader should be