•
1
o
S
r
an
•
Tr an s I ate d by S TEVEN R END ALI.,
and ELI
Z ABE
TH e
L
MAN
"History and Memor y is a splendid example of Le Goff's work on the notion "history." Highly readable, consis
tently lucid, and very well-informed, it is a wonderfully thought-provoking assessment, defense, and illustration of historical thinking and historiography." -Gerald Prince, University of Pennsylvania
EUROPEAN PERSPECTIV S A Series in Social Philosophy and Cultural Criticism Lawrence D. Kritzman and Richard Wolin, Editors
Columbia University Press
ISB-N-0-231-07590-1 21 2231 118 $29.50 Our price: $25. 08 �HIST & M/LEGOFF,J •
10/13/92
SBN 0-231-07590-1
/ New Yor/?
("PI'\"$$
Colunlbll Unwenu)' Pre • "Ish Irs"PPfC(lA"on oJ Ihlnanct gl\fn h) 1he
gO\'�mmcnl of t:'rlll� ,hmu�h rn
"
Ii)
Lt \hnlsti\re de!' II Cuhure
Ih(' prepar.t1h.m ur (hI Irlnsl.ttlon.
CONTENTS
(lv\,.i\r, tAv..oh PN:.u .W-JM Q.jvJ
..-,. � Me....... COP\ nght 0 19n, 1979\ 1980, 1981, Einaudi. Prtr� '" 1M Jri*ltln edillon copynght C 1986 Editions Galhmard Pr('i� ,olhC' Frmch tchbOn ropynght ()
C(�n�1 e 1901 Coh.ambl a hismry of 'epeu.,
. 1he
-
�
has
wen
fOlnts: a history of
the modes of conduct, praaiCfs' and n\ II_I_ .S .L utat -" ('at!!' to a .. .. JUl.a m p les 0 f confl ict ua I ' , , modemlZatlOn, I n these countnes, modernization h as usuall y come ' an (m i l i ta ry o r orh e r)' and In " J boli t not by chOl'ce but by invasion y case through n hock administered from the outside. A I mO S t everywher e In . tII� ISIAnlle ' world modernization has ta ken t h e form 0 f W \'VIeSternrzatio n , and tliS I · IIl. 1'l'3111lkened or created a fund ame ntal pro h em' tv! \'Vest or " E: t.) "�It hout entering into t he demils o f th is conflict It ' can he said that h'Is(o.nea y. It ' appears in three forms: in the n inete'enth cen
,I
'
.
I
' II
lIr
tu
, In Ie rnmework of
t loug I r ndll'1dual
'
"
varv ' i n m a ny MI on th e whole up to ' 1t01l .r non 3u, d on Iy a lew sectors o f th e Is l a mic cou n erie ' �C\) noll1il! and t oueII o n ly dIe s urfa ce o f th ei r na ti o na l life. It 11 s hEotn \, lromed 011 l b I V the go\ ern I.Ilg eI'ttes an d certa i n parts of the "bourn ' . � " Ir h3$ � (;oeQi'I'1,;.. , a nonah , m deepened th e g uJ � be[1\ n In. e:1, ,llld Imnxl ' d u"ced a pro ound cultur a l m a la is e , jJo:que. Berqu all USla\ Ion G ru en ell 3u m , am o ng others, have � at)'ted this mabi:e.· For Gru n eba u m moderniza t io n ' IJmlc peoples fo r and natIOns tltt' \' enoal prohlt'm of th e ir id em ir Jacq ue has seen In "('u ues tT1!'m :l. rnb the ru p tu re that •
•
::;e
-
�
"
Berq
'
•
.
"
•
•
i Modem ! e nt)! Anc ( que Anti
39
-
domain: "modem sector"f'traditional sector?' own their in e lor ep C ' C 10lll d , ' IrllstS the Arab world, which a hundred In \S artlSU d an rary lite n , StudYi g "was ignorant 0f paInung, scuIpture, and even literature in the o g a ' d'\cates the contra' n to t hese words," he In , s have give Years dern urne o m e ' th eater, and paradOxically even in ns mus\c, I nove , se , the essay, the 'n ' h agi' tate and to a I dictions certain extent parW hIC t pas a ut ho wit .;an art _ ' proceeds directly 61m-" h tion t excep e ere w ' Id h wor thiS In ure. cult " ' ' f ot n alyze the from the lore tion es d unc ' lty as ern a tive d ctea mo n, l r � � y ctl e dir in or saction between the archaic and tran a or , tion ura cult "ac as ut b ss ce pro 3)' 292-9 (pP, " rted . ' po . im e th ca n be conSidered a kind of laborarory of es m un co an ic fr A The black , nt mode rnizatio n, Whatever the variety of' heritages and orienta, heslta /modern ) ent lem (ana prob in que antI the e mat dom ns we o . , tWO basic b' . , ' nons � � their mdependence is a fact e fi th IS e es th of rst e Th ries, nt u co e es rh ht in by the ug n bro uo lza dern of mo nts me ele the d an e, dat nt e rec of s e d to al te th ed re ap ne ly ad or po d an d, te en m ag fr k, ea w e ar rs ze ni colo e g, Th un ry m yo ve de is mo e th t, or sh in ; ns tio na d an s of the people ( ue e tiq ancient) a very th d an , at an re g is g la l ca ri o st hi e th second is thar heavy burden. l and ideologiica lit d po se po en op ev d an e rs ve di h ug ro th As a result, f ich t wh tha d n i : to es a) sir l de ra ne ge O tw ed rn ce dis be cal founulas ca n p loo l, f , rtia pa ive ect a sel ce cti pra to a, A ric for ble ita su s in the modem i k a specifically African equilib ) e se to b n; tio iza rn de mo holed, empirical, e rnizatio n , d o m d n a n o di ti ua n ee rium betw ff at th s em se it , e ort e bl ra ide ns d co an s se es cc su le ab ni Despite unde f g in vin ft mo o ge sta e th at ins ma re en o a ric Af ck bla n i modernization to g in at sit he t bu vlay its g in op ly gr on t no is ca fri A at cantations, an d th (al ic or et rh d an ism ric pi em of re tu ix m a h ug ro th pt face up to it exce be ay m d an , ay w is th in ce d ro e p to ht rig e ar s an though perhaps Afric .
'
"
'
.
'
e, pl exam r ro , n) tio erniza od m of e od m s ou developing a specific, efficaci S H s ce en ci an um of te itu st ln e th of Amadou Hampate Ba, then director a of ak spe to f is on iti ad tr o k ea sp o "T in Mali, declared in 1 96 ) that of k ea sp f to d an s, ar ye o ns io ill m heritage accumulated by a people over r cu is r ,-e te ha w r fo ia an m a en ev r 'modernism is to speak of a taste o aban ts en es pt re 'ways al em mod ren t. I do not think everything that is om fr s u to n w do ed nd ha s m o olute progres with respect to the cust ua is in m d a l ra o m t n se re p re n generation to generation, \odemism ca n o s rd a w ck a b -e \ o m a r o t in o p r la u ic rt a p a n o ss re l g a ro . ic e p n ti\ or tech •
40
,
/
Anti'1ue (Andent)/Moclern
s, "tra di tion is n ite wr he r, e ov re Mo ot opp int.'" po e ' sam IS osed th 1[, s d I[ " d an a em d em it s, nd s it from to s gre pro ks see it n.'I ' G "'" progresS, 1 a . p 4 5 ( nd f" e . ) him s Dev il the "en from 'It h respect to th e pro W nt ra er ab be ay m bl em o One case that f mOd If s ui Lo d. se discus D um o nt is righ t, . be to ns ai m re n eml'zario the sen .lR IndI'a has so � lar remat.ned un touc hed se ry to his bY th e of rime and notJ.O d e t e h n I respeerive me ri ts e d'Iscuss " op pe ia Ind In s. s gre of pro of the a n. I g I e a slO , on I e ev " ut b so to s, m de mo e sp the ak, com p cientS and aring (or sio ss res gre reg of pro n). "H istory them without any idea s only a repertory of high deeds and models of conduer, of exam ples " ( , :36) situated at a greater or a lesser distance, much as they migh t b:91:5 . cated [0 the right or left, to the north or south, in a world that is not Onen ted by topological values. Moreover, according to Dumont, the conditions of independen ce, far . , from simplifying the way the problem of modernization is raIs ed have made it more complicated: .
Adaptation to the modem world demands a maJ' or effon from I neli ans . Independence has created a misunderstanding, because h aVl' Og obtalR . ed It, ' In d'lans Iind themseIves regarded as equals by other n a n. ons and they have thus been able to imaaine that the ada pta tl'o n h as essen 0' Da . Uy aIready been completed. Their success was establ ish ed ' an d now [hey ha:e 0nJy to rna k'e ml'nor adj'ustments. The opposite wa s true. ; iJ.' . FOr India has succeeded in ridding itself of foreign do mi nati on Wn e . . . a Qcftievutg �A._. ,r! m� ...a,ion. This is doubtless a remarkable C! ,� su�ss, whIch IS due in great pan to tbe geni us of Ga nd h I, ' w h ose poltc.y ca n be summed up, I believe, by th is very forll lu la . (p p. 72-73 ) '
�um
'
If D� m0nt Is correct, there
manlty
that
would thus be an important segment of h u has up to now e scaped [he dy na m ic di alecti c o f t he pa i r
•
anJipJe (ana&rt)/modem .
ModemiJy The term modernity was . COlOed by Baudelaire i n his a rticle "The P i a n ter , O of Modem Li fe," whICh was wnnen aro und 1 860 a n d publi sh ed in 1 86 3. The term gained curre , y in r nc}. pn' arll Iterary an d artistic circles d u ri ng m the second half of the n . ereenth lO cen \r tu ry, a nd w a s larer revived a n d mucb mote widely used after World ar n. Baudelaire and th IS . ne�" does IS nor 0 ffier anv reas the present and on fo r v a lu ing , thus rhe odern othe pleasure we m ; than tha v h , � it is present. "The deri e from t e r epresentati on of the p re s en r he =;; ,"
odun / nL )/M An cie ( e Antiqu
41
' th e beauty it may have, but also from iIS from onl)' sen estial . �comes not beaun'fuI IS panIy eternal but " a Th " e ent s pre . cadem.t' , 0f being h{'\' a qu .: (I.e., the pani san s 0f the antique) d0 not see that it is necessan'1\I ' , morality, h IOn as to es, f: um CI' anS passion?' The bea�. e "th to ed link y rtl . is t alsO Wha ? rnity em. mod mode ly It rt a is p " the t s a e l poetic ar e b p3 ust lm '[ u " M odemity derives frOm 1 . rh e " transItory. In I'" t rna "ete the bistOry, Ies he gt.ves, B audela'lre speaks of femin'1M In d " examp i t e h n Thus e. �mo the dandy, even animals, dogs man, military the of y "stud , rhe of on [asln , ' f h e word "m ode m" in the dirert 0 meaning e h t s pushe He " es. o or h � H I al' ms t hat every period has "irs c e s. ing sett s, tom cus , rs O . 0f behavi . non Int Id ' erest us tn the "antique" s Wh at ou h " . ges tur e ItS , loo k ear'n g: its method?' As for the rest , we general the logic, the itself, art e t h ' IS on y f t he present," and carefully study "every0 me mo ry "th e in h ve to reta of a �e riod e al lif rn te ex e th up es ak m [:ing t hat rniry is thus connected WIth fashIOn, with dandyism, with snob .
"
.
�
\
,
:
'
.
Mode sses tl�a� "fashi� n should be considered a symptom stre laire e Baud bery. . an n hum brai the In r everything up g ove risin l Idea the for e tast of [he ' 'l e life that na[ural accumulates ? revolting there . . and y, crude , eanhl term the g by amon ed the cultural dan enjoy ss succe the nd ta rs e d un can in their Journal ([ 889, p. 90t): e wrot who ers, broth rt ou Gonc the dies, himself to be too much taken in allows Rodin sculptor [he ately, "Ultim l the natura he lacks and taste for re, the modem literatu ioned h old-fas by that Carpeaux had?' In our own time Roland Barthes one of [he cantors of modernity has wrinen of Michelet: "He was who has also championed fashion perhaps the first author of modernity who could only sing what could not be spoken?' Modernity here becomes an attack on limits, an adven ture in m ar gina li ty, as opposed to a confo[mity with the norm, a refuge in authority, a gathering in the center in the manner characteristic of the cult of the antique. Modernity has found its theoretician in the philosopher Henri Le febvre. In his Introduction to Modernity, Lefebvre distinguishes modernity from modernism: "Modernity differs from modernism in the way a con cept that is being formulated in a society differs from social phenomena,
as reflection differs from fact . . . The firsr tendency certitude and ar rogance COlltsponds to Modernism; the second a questioning and reflection that are already critical corresponds to Modernity. These
tendencies are inse parable, and both are aspects of the modem world" (p. 1 0).
43
/
M.ode r"
/l1II1,/Ue (AI/ciefltjl
ard what Is un fin is hed, Sk e tow ing rn tu by tchY, Ir ' o Moderni ty, n ic, t e f th o lf e ha tw t nd ie co nt se h e h rh Cc in nt zc l l u n e r Us r to te neI s X a n ' d 011 ' m ra I og pr 1C t n tli ou y, ict oc ed by flom" th eve 0f po tindustrlal nt icl s I e, t e cnv 1 sp per con flic t bct we rn . I � u longe r in n see e 11 n anli this" way, . ' ' I ' '1ue (Q I Dllng 1e t U reartlC conJu , S t s rsi nct e n. ural 0 0 dcrrt) and modUlI p PP Stt ion rn te u s lc e u in c W e . re b ma nt i ro d n n l a e. ic s s a l c n c twe ou tcome of m od e rn is m . al gic olo ide the is B u t as Modernity all ide d an of t, ub i do itic o l. cr of , sm , ed ish lin , un mo e h t de of rnl ty IS . o" "y a Iso b rea t k ' I ' I Ie p I wlr 1 x c a n a l l a ideo l ogi es an drive fOWllrd creatioll d all th eo• nce to ere ref the on tiq an d nde fou ue ll atio d timl an . ten d 109 rlc�, of toWar d academicism. .
•
.
Going still further, Raymond A ron thinks that the ideal of mo ' dern'Ity . " " " I i�• "PromctI lean am b man, t 1e am b mon to reclaim the o l d Iior mul a a n d become masters and possessors 0f nature through scien ce an d echn ol . ogy" (I 969:l87). But this Stresses only the conq uerin g side o oder. � ni ty, und thus perhnps attributes to modernity what should be attn b . Uted only [0 rnade rn .tsm . I n any case, I t IS a caJi to inqui re, as we WI'11 . do In conclusion, into the am big ui t ies of modernity.
/
'
Domains that fL'Yeal modernism
The olde t forms of the confro ntation between que (al/ciel/t) and mod. trtl were rhe qua rrels of r h e An cie nts an d the Mo de rns'' in orh er Word5 r nt lIon roo k place primarily on t h IS ' conlrO ,I lit er ar y or, more generall : � Y: . cu ltu ral terra m. Up un lll the rece nt battles co nc er ni ng m od er n'I t C' Y I. e ., a t the t Unt 0f t h e twenuerh ce nt ury), literat ure ph ilo so ph y,, th e0I ogy, art, ' and mu�Jc llave been parll'cu IarIy in volv
ami
'
.
�f mt�slc, the .'
re
stru
ese enlms of in qu ir y were even m or e beset by : Ie over modcrll lt . y In
�
sanc
ed in th es e de ba te s (i n th e realm is the ars nova da tin g fro m th e fo ur te en th century, and
lISIC .
A n ti q u iry, th e M id d le A g e s a n d th R e e n a is -
From the end of t he , Middle Ages a general ' vt Slo n w ht ch was ' howeve�, I i m l t,� d t 0 tIIe cIerg\! . . J ,I. nd . w lJe cr ua ls entere d rh e field of . II1C In battle. This was' rc. , I/(Ion. C t'rt3lnl v t h C aJe�'On o modema di d no at r Jl fo t ta ck th e undation of eh rts ' ren dom the . R f C o rl n at lo n o f th e si x te e n th century I not present d'd ' itsdf a a. ,, mod� ' rn " 1n0\' mt'1H ( ra 'ItS relcr r t h er th e reverse w ith ence s to the O l d 11 t to h e e rl the "modern ist" movc a y Church, etc.), a n t n, mel ts e ea rl) t w e nt ie t h century w o u ld .
•
� ���
d
cientj/ Modern I ( An ue ntiq A
r
4J
t had the Chu rch's highest authorities not lem It a effec ted rmi ir s objectives. But the emry of rel tgion had , I e beyond far went at � n e th gnl sl ea conflict marks a broadening of the debate. odern m e/ ntiqu h e O t , d that from the sixteenth , to nouce ntly to the elghn sufficie bee ot n ( t has . . was expenenced , It as debate, by contemporaries thiS ries ntu h ce ' t cen t II Y new domalns. ' T he first of these is hisessenna tWO to nded waS exte ' ance created the concept of the I is well known that th e Renalss ' necessary as a b n'dge betwcen tory, ( II n e I h w two hison Y but ges, . . , MI'ddl e A fu 11, Slgm' ficant: anCient history and tive, posi were that ' , I periods . (orrca ' ovauon, from W h'IC h everything else deIIln true he T ry. mod ern histO " I ' rn e d l1sto ry. o . d , was the idea 0 f a " m rrve ' nce. Here aga'lll the progress ' t hat 0 f sCie s wa alll om d new The second affects only the intellectual elite. It is true that the ce scien ern" f "mod hteenth an d nineteenth centuries were known eig e lat the of s iScoverie s. Bu t Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Dessse ma the by d ize and recogn vince part of the learned world con to able e wer ton, New r late artes and il rem aine d unsu rpassed, Archimedes Virg and o, Plat er, Hom hat e en ptolemy had been overthrown by modern scientists. The British and H tile to in the his ce e, prefa enell f o istory Font this. e notic to were the first ofSciences, 1 666- 1 699, ranked "the renewal of mathematics and
n,
'
,
.
� �
�
if
Academy
the advan ces made by the modern spirit of g amon ost forem s" physic ds. He goes on: "Descartes and which he hims elf was one of the heral ss that this kind of litera such succe with ed labor have men great other
ture has entir ely changed its face?' For Fontenelle, the chief point is that progress in these sciences has affected the huma n spirit as a whole: "Au thority has ceased to have more weight than reason . . . . As these sci
ences have extended their scope their methods have become simpler and easier to use. I n short , math emat ics has not only recently yielded an enormous numb er of truth s of its own kind, but also produced fairly
generally an exactitude of thou ght that is perhaps more valuable than all these truths themselves?'
The revo lutio n in the area of the mod ern dates from the twentieth century. Mo dern ity, con side red u p to that poin t primarily in relation to
"superstructures;' hen ceforth tak es sha pe at all levels in the spheres that seem to twe ntie th- cen tur y me n the mo st important: economics, politiCS, everyday life, mentalities.
As we have se en , it is wi th the in tru sio n of mo de rn ity into the third world that th e ec on om ic cr ite rio n be co me s pr im or dia l. Moreover, in the l an ch me is ity rn de mo of com pi e o f m od ern ec on omy, th e to uc hs to ne
44
/ Ami,!ue (Ancient)/Mo-' "
ern
i But triaIi7.1r s on. s Fo JUSt indus i l y a e e c r e P n tenel le or , Ulfl'On , an d m g sa pro ress rhe of s ce n the e i c ", 0 s h ain U lll a n cen ( 1 , e�s ogr S Pl tlt, th to rhe p� c ed er ei v p ve is abo y e ir n r all e d o as m of a I p rogress , economIC crltenO I' ' t In on a f 0 e produ h t I� t "io rollOll ln " I ' /1 , it ctio a " n that I mentaIny, l fre ' dS O f th e n i n e S th e mIn great he T i , t y t e od ern e nt h c m 0 f sIgn I , Jn esscnt ent ury d A n m o y R ron a "A d a has no rhls, s : ed te gniz eco r Y ,", ug U d a rea I d /In Ste I ura 0 nat " f our llon res lOlW eXp ces ro nl rion r the be thC Illost ·Id a Ie I e C.omt nn d Marx o ll tr ere d an i ncerp r de rn soclery, ' mo of proJ'ccr ort"nr I lOp eta rl On ' ' I ' t sm 0 f capit a 1St econo m nam d y lve rltut cons nr manc y that Sti of rI IC per ll ' J progrc.r, p. uti ons l di.nllw 2991 · Gin o Ger rema In valin roday" ILe.r m anl' R' In 960 1 10 de Jan eiro I lkr:.te n i ed lish pub text a ro ,., n" ' I n nC1'a a rerur . " . rhlng: In economIcs rh e process same the much . says . , 1 .. .... of s. ecu.. O ", J "lln m ' . . . lar/Ultlon mcan� first of all rhe dIfferentia tion of speCIfic economic in.rtitu_ enral rationality as a fu nd amen tal prinCip le 110'" Incorpor:ui ng i n s t ru m of " 10 g " allon 0 f cllan e. nction an d th e i n su ru tt'ona I Iz This I ntellect ual " conception of economic modern ity has led a '
•
'
'
'
"
.
'
"
group of social sClenrim ro inqUIre i nto the problem of the rela tions between rhe Proteqtanr cth ic and economic development, thus exten ding ro con temporo ry non- Western countries the rhe�es that Max Weber and H. II, Tawney had dcfended co n cern i ng the sixteeorh and seventeenth
III Europe (EiRensrndr r 968), These th eses, which / bel ieve to be (.1 Isc, have the merit of raising the probl em of t h e reilitions between religion and mode rn iry on a broader basis rhan that of q u a rrels between exegere\ or theologians. /n t h e ame perspective, mod ern i ty can be ex amined-roday-from the point of view of dem og ra p hy First of all, the d,·mography of the fa m ily: Gino Germani, for exa mple, sees in t h e "sec ul.lnl.arion" of rhe family (di vorce, birth coorrol, ere.) an i m porta nt as pc t of r he prore s of modernizmi on and link s the "modern" fam ily to I neJus[rinliwrion-a lin k denl()n�tl'!lred, he believes, by the case ofJapan. cenruries
.
Hen ri Lefebvre counts the
ilppearance of "the modern woman" among rh� promtnenr traits of modernIty. I I WIth th t ' prrmac of the ec on omic and th is de fin iti on of moderni ty , by oil II.IWO" two n�,\ concepts (( )fne in to play i n th e o p p o si ti o n be t Wt'I'n Untr',I 'f I Ir'un 1;' 1I) ,I nd fill"" ,. 1'" ('I I l l(I. ) . I 'tr ' St, along wirh economics,
th e mlktrm I ,1,,0�1 J r "·d nn t
\V II Ir ff1Jllfl!!J rn
g('n ('r al , b u t w ith tfevtlopment, Qr In ,I mort' re'rrr(t �d "-'It s". Jt'wrt/IIl K to ('n,un lib t'r al ('COn om i5 t ' IV ItIl /!,OWIIt, S ('COlld 1/IfJ(I'fn r, nn IOlll(er upprhl'd to ' " .., rd " dom; " , , � of the �ng towa rhe figure of TSOed .. earli. e est the adulIa' hero and mymical founder of the upe k.in dom,n The hJS, ro adopt Malinowsk becomes, dlus s express nnings wry of begi ion, a chatter" of die tradition. . rolJecrive memory of socalled "primirive" socimes , also IS ' cal, ed rL. ' ca. ' pa I tc:u u , and . , fntD"est pra pro i fessional knOW m � � Dallan" ledge. ' As ItrOl-Gourhan has pomted our, 10 acquiring this "tech meal me m· u soa I ct su "m ' e ur � o e a f � trades I ays ._ft w iro"!;, ,_ I., ury im. porullt role, whedter we are concellled with blacksmiths In Mnea Or .., , L . ' " d asSOCl3Dons 10 Ule nest up to me sevenree .:.L . ,'13, or �l A' UI tra ...., nrh cen. ation of nserv trade ro secrets IS at stak wry. Apprennreship and me e '" ' - L edtnic groups" (1 964/' 6 5·'66). _.1.I 0f w .Le wa 0f we ' aI SCIences ' CiIO Georges odo nas has found among me Mois of central Vletnam the same Comi ' . f IY llO me rime toward mel of ori ve II ew . ' co gms an d myth 'leaI onenuuon 0 . . L. _ ( . past for "pnm mve mem "",oes 19"5:). This atuacrion of the so be ven'tied In aI my" · [he case of proper names. In the Congo, BaJaooler DOles, afier- the dan has given the newborn ch J'Id a first name . ruu",",,,e," he IS ' gwen , mown as a "bi-L.a serone!, more official name, whIc h . displace. the first. This serond name "perpetuates the memory of an ance5Wr, "" 00 is chosen beca use of me veneratio n in which he is held"' In rhe5e societies wirlwut wn.tJn . � there are me mo ry specialists, memory-men "Geneal guaI'dtans of the royal lawbooks, historian, of die coun, rradit"IODlSCS CJf whom Bala n d ler ' says t ha t mey are "die memory of Ihe society" that Ihey are at once the conservarors of "oo,ective" hisrory and f eo ogJca , l h story," to use Nadel's tetIDS (19 :lC7), Bur lhey are so age heads of fam ilie s, bards p ri ests " " acn cordi g Ie i .. " ... aI,GOurhan, w h0 attn'butes to these ligures "i n tradi· tloml the �'ery lmPOrtam role of maintai ni ng th e cohesion of " the group ( 1 �416
ometry and also
table games an d dice. and the alphabet. And he
the god uansfOlmed memory but no doubt ening it more than to developing it: the alpha-
that in doing thi
ntributed
to
wea
is.I
/ Memory The RISe ' q, ,rM.e ", ..
0')t
10 exerci se th ei r m ed ne e Ih of en m g in e mo n e belI "b)' reliev s e s o f "" o o Ih h ls w u o p s I r 'I a e le Ih n I in ' I ss e t , ln u lf so m Uc duce forge h I IS 'd k U e t e h O So to.. 'II se s I , , m W e I y lv l e e I es, , g n n n w an d Ih 'I o trusting 10 n h t , ei t , lt u u o a s y re ns e av h ; g lO u er fo b em m n d re a remed al>" the means of y,' n0 f s b es 0 em ec m pr re I Ie l in r er ,o , < 1 r.a'\ g " rt has t mem o r}'I bu t ratIler b e en s� iv a s to e rv d u su l ll a a f o e g sa as th p e trad'I (l,on gesled thn t this s of , ) 6 7 :4 8 3 0" 1 memo ry (NOlOpOu los 1 9 t ub no is do g e in th th e bl "d ivI"mZatl,On 0f ka ar m re l os m The , melll y og ol th st y f va m o " cence '' remIms O and the elaboration 0f a n a ' Vern ant ge ne . ry tch _rn u nt I135 we II put II, 1 " as \" a ralI"zes h'IS ob Greece se rvali 'e " In dl.H'erent penD an· . ds and cuItures, there is a co nnectl o n betw een . L · techniques of rem emberi ng' that are practiced' th e I' n terna l 0rga nl "lie . latio n . e tem of the self., and the I'm of that (unction, Its place 10 th sys age tha I . I) 5 5: 96 1 ( y" or em m of people ho\"l' made Memory a goddess, M The Greeks of the archaic ao-e 0 nelllo, . ·yne. IIe IS the moth er of rhe nine muses ' whom s h e h a s concel.v ed in . . s spent with Zeus . She rem'IndS men of rhe rhe course of mne mght _ melll_ , pres d es over Iyric poer y.1l Dry of heroes a nd their high deeds and she I r ' a d IV J IS T1Ie poet I. rhus possessed by memory,, rhe aeae " iner of r he pasr, 3 the eer divines rhe future. He is rhe inspired w'I tness 0 f .ien " the an c t . " nllles, 0( th e Il ereic age and beyond that' of [ he age 0 f o n' ginS. ' \�IJlen poetry is identified with memory, this ma kes [h e laner a kind ' of kno,,'ledge and even of wisdom of so'PIua. The poet takes h IS ' pl ace ' . Jmong ( he "m asters of [ruth" I � and at the on.gm s 0 ( Greek poeti.cs the " . poetiC word IS 3 Il\1ng inscription inscrib d on me ory a it is on � marble (J. Svenbre). Ir has been said that fo Horner, , to versify w as to remember. 8\ reveal ' '
,
g,
'
.
'
•
�
;
.
'
eyond. Memory th en appears as a gift resen-ed for 10 1£ . 13 . res, and amamnens. or remml.scence as a n ascetic . IUS l> emor plays a promm enr role in Orphic and •I), ithagoreJn doctli.nes. It IS ' the a n t'I dore lo {' r O b IIvl " on . In the O rph ic underworld the deJd m u t aVOid . n; they m s not the s pnn gs ' 0 ( obl Ivio u t L drin K rhe Wliters of the Lethe, but Ol the contr ry dr ink {ro . m the fo una � tlun of Memo!), "'Itiell a so urce of Immortality . ' Among the D. n't II�rean h'l P ' o o phe rs, these belief; a re ' ."lth a docuine tllt� reIOcamallon . of an d the pat h to perfection hIS tile one (har lead to rhe re b a n of ll p a revio us lives. The adr Ci' eIl!nts of rhe e eas regarded . n ulagora a an m lelllled.iary L m3Ii and Goo ut."C:l U. e he had �lained die memo ry of
and
technique 11 · 'J
.
.
•
'
oj-
_ _
,
'
m�U:L
,
I Memor y f o e Ris e h "" .J
r
10
'"
-
.
'
.......
"
t
,
WP ,
t
ory 1 nat Is Ot/, e
unde
. . Eras mus (1 5 1 2), IS ratt"onc studiI .
"
f1vi.re
.
nor e n thusl' . aSt
on, ail", �
C
'-Ond
ic ab OUt the I'm age
nor deny rhar do I plac lthough es '1'. _l e. g d le w o kn ro normal rraining in \�� cannor leave rhe Middle Ages wirhout mentio ning one rhe . . oretl_ . . I 10 ' the domaln 0f memory, Ram cian who is a.lso very onglna , on Lull. . , . , discussed memory In vanous works, Lull finally com Arrer ha\1ng osed in 1 3 r 6 rhree treatises on memory, De Memon"a, De intellectu, a d De .ulunlate (which are th us based on the August in i an tri n i ty), not to men rion a Likr ad nzemon"am confomandam . Very different from the DOrni ni can Arlts Memon(Ie, Lu ll's Ars memoratiYa is "a m eth d investigation and a method of logical investiga tio n " (Yat es , p. r 8 5) , w h ich is iIlumi� nared by Lull's Li6er septem planetarum . The secret s of th e ars memoranJi �re idden in the seven pl anets . The Ne pl ato n ic i n terp retat i on of Lull Ism In fifreemh-cen rur Florence y (Pic della Mira n d o la) le d readers to s:e a cabalistic astrological an d magical d '
'"
"
"
�
o of
�
Inll.
o
o
octrin e i n
L u ll 's Ars menzora
He was rhus to have a srrong in fl u e n c e in t h e R e n a is s a nce.
en a n d Figured / 8 , 'u l?n . ry·
jI'/.",o
an d F i tt en re d ri gu M W em or of fr S y om es r o t n se re P e th e n . g fr e h rf' e s J I J(eft 1S a a
to
tfle . Onized We stern memory, but slowly. It revolutionue ' d volutt .In Ch'ma, w h ere, even though printina h re (ing re slowly . n a ad pp rn n e e . ., pnnte A D ' rs did not discov centu ry h r nt ni lll o y er movthe e in ed . t n e III remamed content with xylo"'""" i rhu s and , phy ) n hY gra po lJet! (ty e m reI'Ief), up until the ninetee d ' en gra ve s pla te of ble ryp by meanS nth . . I tecIltl1' ques w er e Introduced. Prin ing at llc a h m t r ec in te rn tina (P r hen Wes . , e Impact on eh'Ina, but its effects on ma sS IV a (U Y, ve ha n , re ce' h re10 . e d t d not stra ta te 0 f SOCI' ety, was significant d cult iva the in for ieast at s, e o technical works that m and were printed, and ntific e scie ". y ' 1 marl ' p '( ",as rt the memorization d of knowledge. extende and d e . . lerat e c m L h W. t e est. (hese a ntly erol-Gourhan has dediffere d ene v
nv
G
b
b'-r
.
b
w
1
•
�
'
.
rt
1
c
ap P h s g in Th memory brought about by printing: in n lutio 'bed the reVO scrt printing . . . it was difficult to separate oral of e aranc ppe . . lJP u nn' 1 th e a 0f th e known was buned In oral pracMost miSSion. trans � om w itt n the peak of the known, whose framework re� ueS iq ; techn d n s nce ad was given fixed fOlm in the manAntiquity, since d hange . alne . unc by heart . . . . W·Ith the advent of printing learned be to rder In 0 . t scnp u h Wit an d f ace enormous reader collective memthe was Iy on . . . . . not no could longer aSSimilate In toto, but he he matter ct bje su e hos u dy put in a p o�it i�n to e�pl?i� new works. We then witen s eq . e no nzatlon of mdlvldual memory; the work of xt e essive progr . ness a . h plis S I om ed acc from text the . (19641 Side out tten wri ientarion in a
.
r. e
m
.
.
:; 7r or
65:69-70)
'
ng printi mak.e of elves thems fully felt only in effects the ss, e l e h rt e v Ne when the progress of science and philosophy has ry, centu enth eighte the sms the of ory: hani ctive and mem mec colle ent cont the d e rm o f s n tra The eightee nth century in Europe marks the end of the ancient world in printing as in other techniques . . . . In the course of a few decades, social memory embodies in books all of Antiquity, the history of great peoples, the geography and ethnography of a world that has become definitively round, philoso phy, law, the sciences, the arts, technology
and a literature translated into twenty different languages. The flood tide goes on swelling up to our own day, but without losing a sense of proportion on e can say that no period in history has known a such a
rapid expansion o f the collective me mory. Thus we already fmd in the
11" /lwry.. II ,.r'tt�
.1'
cI F;'l(1ir-eJ
" till
•
1(')I'1l11 11.1 � 1 11,11 ClI n b" liS tJr-� .), :u p, �< "It (\ � , � .. 1111\ �rs_ p revealed. in his Sltcn1dius p ne es P n n h J n ai rt � a , 1 :, ill 1 6 n yo L In \ l (J(XuJ1Ubl. thut hi ma ter Lambett Itactall'
0 'r\.. .
.
,
,
./m' ItS I . I'deo Iogrca I versIo graIits On to a science n of th e pas t a deSi . for the future that does not depend sol ely on the re fu Sl on . of a s CIe . . ntIfi analYSIS 0f past hIs tory and a revol utionary praxis . c e n I ' Igh tened . bY t hat ana IYSIS. . 0ne 0f the tas ks 0 f hI'storical science is to Ii nd a w ay· 'Oth than I'deoI ogy, and one t h at respects th e un fore er seeab le natur . e of th r. lurure to mtmduce the h onzon of th e fu tu re e in to I'tS re tIectl. ons (Erd mann, Sch u I·m). CoDsl·der thIS · observation, ba na l b u t q Iiu II of co . . nse uences: hIstonans who deal w ith an ci en t perio ds kn oW Wh at h appened .f; _J. l1! 'erwaru " ; h Istonans 0f present times do not. C o nt em porary . . hIstory StrictIY spealeing thus di'ffers (and there are al so o th er reas on s r lOr this diffier� nce) firom the hi'story of earlier p eriods. ThIS dependence of the history o f th e p as t o n th e h is ton'a n s present ' �houId Iead u s to take certain preca utions. It is inevitable a n d legitimat :�:0far as the �ast does not c ease to live a n d to m a k e it se lf present. s long duration o f the past m u st not prevent th e h is to ri a n from estab. . I1S h109 a ceream ' dIs ' tance with regard to th e p a st , a reverential distance th� t ls . we . �ecessar� If are to respect it a n d avoid a n a c h r o n is m . In s u m I . th 10k h ISlOry IS IDde ' ed �he sCJence o f th e past, if i t is acknowledged that . this past becom�s an o 1ect o f history through a reco n st it u tion that is q constantly uesllone d. one ca nnot, r lor example, ta lk ab o ut th e Crusades the wa ) peopI e \I'ouId have be fore n ineteenth-ce n ru ry coloniza tion, but we ha ve to ask I f a nd fIrom \y hat po in ts o f view, the term "colonialism " can be app IIe ' to the medieval C r u s a d ers' occupatio n of Palesti ne.6
d
.
'
d gs.
.
•
•
B�
'
This interacti on
d
0f past an d presen t
i w ha t ha s been ca lle d th e sodal
/ es ui ti big A m d n a es ;)C o d ra
1 09
.
io n re la t i in s "I . re t Febv ' n l UC L le . tS s · Thu fl y r asses o cl ist th f en an d h S ve st har o Iy r l . o lca at . em ast st sy y . 110 . h r ea t d he o ns t es tio P s qu h ( I it t ha t th a lif e of to t d . s o at e . e l e l r call in could f�0tf100 o I : is llt one what i t s se that ts nt a ese � c . p he t t as to rehas n m H E e 0 8 o p obsbaw i t ( itS P s, la ric . II r nd p A I t s ,od � the p a f histO ry" ( p. 43 )'ast" ( 1 2). (See the opening f p the o 97 l i o t l c c l ll ll io llll f 1 ze o o� f ll t soCl3 " he SOCI . d o e n h p ea " c h w e hi l c t (h eO 011st (a d Prese l !') ampIes 0 f the process by fleet ,'pa ll feW ex ast!' p ric al . a his f to r he t n o l t nta eSSay, US COIlSlde ines ese B ou v r of p ba re tt le th e d e re at \,et abricates I'tS re c or d tate . us S ustu Aug res f ip Phil K F s �l ing b Y ha rench f the entall ges Du y ctor� V and iv ed e l r st ra t s or i ch c e o d e e ba tt le i a ' s T h II' le s. J1l G 4 , a ) hI S 1� 1 an d IV ' Ir t 1, h th e tto af z te r n O bl lY iv io o r Ju into ( fe ero ll ' s an ri , m hi.stO P he E ch F n ry ce nt t re u h nt en r te e y se v e b he t in ov legendary e en c rg re . su a ye d . 1 o enJ der un ll ag am an e d ed th , J1l 3 Ue la ud were r , y hy U rc on a en t m French hc t f e Au th ' t I . , G ZO U ns oria (een JIIemories 0 hist ( iS o rge bou and I er a b I' I us e a be c hen 'm I w y on h ar y c h ":, e e t f h r 0 ce a n a ce nt alli Mon en efi b jul y th e 91 as (he . Thierry) saW In it se en w as It e be ca us 1 9 1 4 an d 87 1 1 n ee betw n gustl n ai g d a ( " 19 4 te A r f n " s. er a m an le, G th e over ch F re n h e (he Peop t f 0 to ry . VI C " t att\ eb or re a f sc orn g ra l ge ne th rst e of re su lt ' a as "(he fi ry ri SC U b O in t k l ines sai J: 0 '"'
fa
�
.
�
'
:1
0
0
.
0
Bouv Duby 1 97 3 ) ' , nc ra e F ( in ho w y" n sh ow ha to ve r Nacquet his V id al ' e e r Ie P d . " an ux or a L e Ol S ou rg e "b D a ur uy N ieoI , V ic tO r to eu qui nt es o M ro m f , . . 1 8 \0 to 0 S ic St ri ' te ac ar ch froJII 11 \ al p ci n ri p se o h w orated ab el s a w ns . h t e A . t ancIen
. age 0f Im
r pnvate fo t ec sp , re ty er p ro p " r fo t ec sp re n ee b e v a h to d e . pos 'IIere sup e on h IC h' w d m " , an ry st du in d an r bo la ce er m m co f " o g h' \D ' s II ou . , n life, the "R e: ie IS eO rg ou ry b tu en -c th en te ne ni e th of ns tio ta si he e th S d n fi even . e.� Athen s lr I em a er lib em A pi re ? ri ta rian au th o A n re � ? em pi or public quet ac -N al ,d V d x an au or y" (L sl ou ne ta ul m si es is gu takes on all these . Zvi Yaveu., asking himself why Rome had been the hls
1979:207-222).
century, th en ete nin the g of nin gin be the at y an rm Ge for del mo lOrical replied: "because the conflict between Pruss ian lords and peasants arbi trated after Jena ( 1 806) through the ref01Lll ist intervention of the State, without the counsel of Pruss ian statesmen, provided a model that was thought to be found in the history of ancient Rome: B. G. Niebuhr, the
author of the RomaroSche Geschichte that appeared in 1 8 1 1-1 2, was a dose collaborator of the Prussian minister Stein" (Yavetz).
Philippe Joutard has traced the memory of the popular uprising of the Hugue not Camisards in the Cevennes at the beginning of the eigh-
110
History: Paradoxes all d�m 61. gu
/
iti�
graphy a ru . o ri en o tt st ri hi w e th In y ur nr ce teemh . rnt ng P ° ll h ot t C l b O t oli rha lt ap , ath ro c Up an P 0. 184 d Protes around Pea t a n t · t hIS peasan revo ir. B ut w ' t to . ts or fi h orn s sc t bu i ng thi no d ha Ith the h nails pu I n r - ert by Napo I eon T'oes J v U a es ua aste P .... ti ey i",tl.O at ( 1 84 2) of Histou. LJ· toire de ;; , L� prop n prolestanlS by A ml Bost ( 1 8� 2), and MI'Ch eI et 's f7lS � ped, w hich w "'nee ( 186� golden legend of the Camlsards .develo )a as COU nt . ered o p p o IS sI ' tI h o e T n . x p I d n e g ie le id c y li o . th a C drew nou r dark h. . vy a Is h m e e secon d t h f h If a of the nine the political passIOns ? tee nth ce nt frOm n CUry t of the isans moveme part the . conflict nt in ut and the partisa h at . P . n s 0f Or d C amlsar h e s t the red conSIde ancest the latter Ors of a II the de re bels of advance the scouts cenrury, of "the etern al ar nineteemh r; Ih my of d'Is "the lirst precursors of those who demolished the BastJ'/Ie," th e orde[" sors of the Communards and 0f contemporary soeialiSts, th . preCUr. elr "d'Ir WI om w t " I 'rb h ong ey a h ems, eq d were "suppos ed to h descen ave dem the right to commit pillage,. murder, and arson in the narne 0f anded th e fJreeH owev " h anot e. er, 'k er sen to 10 k md ' dom of mem ory wh IC ' h secretes "a luerent hisrory, ]outard has r foun d a positiv d'/I" " e' living Iegen d about th . . . e Camlsards, but one which also functIOns in relation to the/re senr nd a makes the rebe ls of 1702 "the secular and republican" peop e . 0f the end . of LOUIS XIV's reign. Later, th e regi on al ist revival tran r SfOtmed them . IOtO OCCl·tan rebel an ' g the Second World War, th d durm e Firench Re· . ' ance turn ed them lOro maquisards. Slst It is also in relation ro contemporary po sit io ns an d l'deas t hat a po . Iemlc concerning the Middle Ages broke ou t in Italy a fter th e F'Irst !ar. 'V or Id w Sull more recently, th e m ed ie va lis t Ovidio . W. C apI'tam lhas discussed the distance and the proxim it y o f th . e M id dl e Ages In a col ec . . Uon 0f es�ays sl'gmncant/y titled Medioevopossato prossimo (T he Past, the Recent Middle Ages). He writes: The currentness of the Middle Ages consists in th is: knOWing one :a�not act without seeking God where h e is not. . . . The M l'ddl e Ages IS current' Pre 'sely because It' IS. past but past as an element delini , � a tively att ched foreVer to OUr Iz ' tory, an . d w ' h ICh 0bl'Iges us ro take It into ac ount� because It 1.�c1udes a p owerfu l body o f a n s wers that men have given, nd cannot forget, . . d even I'f th ey h ave proven th eir r na equacy.. The onIy way to [forge t th em] wou Id be to abolish history. •
•
O
....
.
'
e
'
"
5,
7
c
.
•
IS
( 1979:276)
Thus, historiograph . y appears as a seTles of new readings full of losses and resu rgences " ' of memory ga ps a nd aggiornam en t i " [updatmg ' sl can also affe ct the historian's
ara p ry: o / is H
J())Ces a
(l11t1 Ambiguities /
III
ds, wor they and epts can conc u serio of sly nism o chr Th us ir is that relying on examples drawn work.
n a a e ghl'[h f hi.S u d, cl1rO o y Ir etween b ry histo a U Bl' ean q p o r u cl1e E d
1 4 5 0 and 1 650, and using Aa� ".".�glish a"n Y" " class " etc., J. H. Hexrer has demanded a massive ' art . 2 P 6 9 r 1 a y ( l b u a s c v ) o l a ic r a ch o t is h JIls SU ' 0f (JO...., o i n S r and past een betw p t Ie'.. orOus revi on esen relan the his t in w g s o d d g Bl' rI GCo\ li rI w � n�an's re flection o n his work: the past is an as pect hlstO · he t f It h t ar to appe e ys alwa t historian mus it . 0bj ect 0 so and , t sen n pre al e h � "' netion 0f. t . tly o n his own work or, in other words, aims at a ,u ctS JOtelhgen or , d t an sen pre t e pas n i en t we h bet on s ati fle T rel 8 . e hi r · O ory h . I aspect 0f the erad' . hiSt w f 0 . y . nna h monal esse an p e cas o any S IS I n phI'lo ory hist f 0 . ' 0 I' Story. e rs U 1 h vlry disCO ecti J b' f 0 0 l1l .
.
•
.
prob/e
o ti la u n ip n e a th m d n a ity v ti ec bj o : er w o p d n a e dg le w o /Vz s! a t the a/ . . I n no Jec 0 f the s pro ma y on t no is st pa the , � ger .dl g to Heideg Accor � pr oje cti on of the most Imagnary parr of his
•
'
the t bu ast h p e t IOto nt se pre t hat he has chosen, a re tu fu e th of st pa e th o int n tio 'ec ro e h P t t, presen . t j ht to e is re rig yn ec Ve ul Pa . ory ist e-h sir de ed revers r y r o st . i h fiction I y erects nmeteenth" on r 'd ge H eg el t tha say to d . pOl.Ot 0f view, an . thiS ' I h ' h'l a to p I osophy" ap m y gr no h' to t Is 1s na tio na a l ct u e ll e t century anti in ' . . i ". a h h dd e In s: lc en w lst nm y op er ov s ap h ' r pe he t isn ( 68: 2 ) Bu t
�
-
-
dl9 s , 1i ke ot g 404 .
s awakened a little too late"? First of ha he l, ow s va' ner Mi n O st int at tw lea s po to thi urn ret ll I sha d an are re the e all becaus ap t s. e firs Th ian tor t of his tha and ry mo me e tiv lec col of h a t t hi�tories: sti con it tic. But onis chr ed, and ana orm def hic, myt lly ntia esse as pears tutes th e lived reality of the never-completed relation between present and past. It is desirable that historical information (lavished on us by profession al historians, popularized in schools, and one could hope by the mass media) correct this false traditional history. History must illuminate memory and help it rectify its errors. But is the historian himself immune to an illness that proceeds, if not from the past, at least from the present, or perhaps from an unconscious image of a dreamt-of future?
A preliminary distinction must be drawn between
objectivity and
int
The his us. artia nscio "Imp unco lity is is tivity ; objec erate delib . tonan does not have the right to pursue a demonstration despite con trary evi de nce, to defend a cause no matter what it is. He must establish
n •
/ History: Paradoxes andA
",6'gr.,; ' , �
/ /2
�
w at he believes to be th e tru or th tru e th th , B ' and show , Ut It is ve, to abstract from objecn his ideas Sible (or him ro be abOU t 1' 1ll ""-.. llal e_ ' question 0 f gaugmg the a is i it mp n whe o norably rtance gf o ev nd ' n, a fu 8 t ) t co 1 1 em 0: 9 , 2 enIs B ut We m their causal relations an U St 0 d ' nt, the pro bl em of o ffi cle su re we n bjectIVlty he r this distinction f WOul d no "a famous crux" which has it, put has Carr H as E , ' QUs� m� t � 9 ink 1 � fl 0 , Let us first examtne the 'Impact 0 f t he social environ me n t 0n the h ' rorian's ideas and met h0'ds , Wc0 Iiigang Momm sen has P°t'n te d OU IS . t I pressure: " socIa ) IS 1 The self- image three compon ents 0f th' , of the ' SOci or to which he belo , group interpreted by the hlstonan, al n gs Or IS be o '
" (G
-
�
"
' 0 f t h e cau ses of soc h l. " n s conception den ,,2) Th e h'Isrona ia l ch e, 3) T chan es socia he perspe�ives o( futur� � ;-rhich the histO rian thi p roba ble or possible, and which onent hIS historic al interpretation" But it is not possible entirely to avoid "presentism" t he efomung ' ' e th on mterpretation present the of of influence the past alt h ough O ne can limit its pernicious impact on objectivity. First of a an I, s�all return ro this important point because there i s a group of spe a who are trained to examine and judge what their coll eagu es Cl ltsls pr�duce, "Thucydides is not a colleague," Nicole Loraux has wisel , Y saId " In u, tory, aJt houg h 1£ s howmg ' seem s to us a docu ment ' that h'IS flZS possessing , , " ' every mark 0f seno ' us h Iston cal dIsco urse, i s not a document ' the m modem sense of the word, but rather a text an anc ien t text , Wh'ICh IS ' ' " first 0f all a d'Iscourse Situated wit hin the dom ain of rheton'c" ' B ut I shall show later that as Nicole Loraux is wel l aware every d o c ument IS ' a �onument � r a text, and it is never "p ure," tha t is, never purely objec tive, It remams that the appearance of his to ry is ac co m pa nie d by that of a world of profeSSionals who criticize th e wor k o f ot he r historians, , en a pamter says about an ot he r pa in te r's pic tu re : "t hi s is badly Pamted," or a wn'ter says abou t the work of an ot he r w rit er' "th is is badly , wntten ," everyone kn ows that th is onl y m ea ns : "I do n't lik e th is," whe� a hIstorian criticizes the work of a "co ll eagu e " he may certai n l y ' be mIstaken and his J'u dgme nr may re II ect In ' , par t h i s pe rs o n al taste, but , , h'IS cnuclsm IS bas " ed at I east to a degree o n sci en tifi c" criteria, From the dawn 0f h'IStor y Ihe h is rona ' n IS " J U dged by the ya rd st i ck of truth. Rightly or wcon I . H erodo[us w as l on g con sidered a "liar" ano 1986: 12
!
:��
8 (19 7 d :23), ll d
�
Bur
_
; )iI
(Momigli-
h s Hwones, de vot s e a good de al of � energy 10 artacki ng a "coIIeagu e, T i m a e u s ,
�
/ 1 1.3 bigu ities Am an d MI - " D aradoXe5 f/islO'.I ' , ' sron' cal works and historical h l saId, has sen m om M and n standable verili.able�' g This inunder y ga el f cti v l e ' ' bJ ''o Vi u ' rs e t n " 'I 'JUdgment 0f others, and pri'S e th e h r u ro th a d 'tute , g IS su fl e n ' co "", ' three d Iscerns crnena for vern ommse 'Jodf'b' , ecrivitY M s, n ri a o St 1 h' b r o J he t f 0 th pertinent sources been used an d has the most lerS , Ihal o e e a ken into consideration? b) To what extent have roaflly fl', a) !-l v , ta n o e ' e U b umaI 'Integratton of all the �_ \.,' , op an ed v hie I'6Cl1 resea (V ac S t n e I d � i lorical JU gm � xpli cit or underlying explanatory e A e th re ) s c h a, d ' a l e s al ntradictory? ( p, 33) ' One could Ihe ' le his[o rtC nonco and , [ b n e er h I O S c S u5 b nD o r nt me the on ree ag r t of ad f bro pa o o lity ' ibi g oss r J eIs ri he p t ut t " roou ' [er a pa rt of any historical r nt rta t po c im f n a er o e h lu va [he n fi d ot ce g o c S � rnt proof o f the "scientific" character of history and the alist Sr- " rt ma ry p h e " ecttvl' ty, [ IS ) 0 b l a c k ri to s i h f wo r 0 e On p, Scott's hst st C, ali urn jo t ea gr c e th ry sto hi 0u y to pl a firSt 1 p we r, e v we h ' quote d b'J E H, Carr, p, " ( ee r 0 f IS n o Ol pl f, o I ed, sac r " are ' .L _L ' S act "F . , "" e remain W\UIIn 'f w IS wat I fi t rs e Th s, nt e il l'l m m co m O tw d d a st ",u e is less vast in history n opinio w 'fi histo rv of range the , 4)• J' c en u so f 0 d r), l t y a e or r e st eu hi l at am s s l fi sCl di l al e sh (1 Ih r ssl' onals believe ol e r p n nO e ar ey an th th ed cr sa ss le n te of Ihan e ar s ct fa is t n e nun o Ond seC ed ni ot de be nn s he ca ct fa d he lis T ab st l-e el w e m so if E n ve d t se o p ti p ys ly u m ch on hi , w 31 14 in s e ak st e th at h deat 's rc A f o an J exa P e" ' for the essential basis not ) is itself fact , "' ( doubt to care d forme Sln ml ' e h fiers or t en , and t
IS
'
.
:O
, ,
'
� � :
, "vity in history, Historical facts are made and no gIV, of obJecti emence to bs su re pu to d ce du re be ot nn ca ' ectivirv ) ob J l ' a , on c hlst •
facts, ' ' r und '10 ,o e b n ca t f I ac ' ca n to h f \s 0 n io ct ru st n Discussions of the co , on lm Sa p, , le ap m r ex fo , ee y g (s lo do o h et l m ca ri to is h on e tis ea tr y er ev ly on te ci l al sh l , c,) et V, rt Pa i, sk ol o T J, , 24 1, p pp, 46-48; E, H , Carr; pp on ce an Fr de ge le ol C e th at e ur ct l le ra gu Lucien Febvre's famous inau e th by d te ea cr ng hi et m so o, N n? ve gi ng hi et December 1 3, 19 33 : "Som e th th wi d, ate ric fab d an ed nt ve in g historian, how many times? So m ethin la g in cit ex d an e at lic de h ug ro th s, help of hypotheses and conjecture er sw an to k, ea sp to so is, It it. t uc tr bor, , , , To elaborate a fact is to cons 7p, (p aU" at ng thi no is ere th , ion a question, And if there is no quest
9)' Historical facts only exist within a history-problem,
is y or st hi in ity iv ct je ob at th ng yi Here are two m or e wimesses testif not a matter of pure su bm iss io n to facts, First, Max Weber: "Any attempt to understand (historical) reality without subjective hypotheses will end in nothi ng but a ju m bl e of existential judgments on countless isolated
1 14
/
History: PalY1"oxes an" A
"" o)C d a par
mhig" "
ro u s I Y d i s cu s s es th e ni et o m u h r ar C , H n eenth 1 , E 0 s," " t r even ' hIU� -Ce : , ,u 's h Ism s f lact , 0 " n ,e ns oria Ilist Pos. 1[1 , 'VI'.t iv in e provide nce wou I d l d a [h d e v e li e b ta ke car Ranke piously f re o e ca k th o ro facts he if T of.1he ry o st hi • ' h f o e I b g " , I n , ni mea eral n ' I a d y la close r I Is[o l affini f 0 l view n h y I t Wi ry enrur h rh-e e eeo teen •. . I was r e ' liS h T age of i oee nce n {; . . , ' J01fl! ''8 10, ' of d a doe[ rine of Eden . . . naked a n e d r a G e th Unas h a llled r r_ in ians. walked b e I v e ln o , w n n l e k t n I w e e S i n nnd e x ' In S . ry ro is h f o d o er the g ie nrod p d a te y ro re h 0 p d w n ' to s ' n d a n p Isto h" IS � a e w n se S o e [h d n a ; ll II Fa h a " ly , in tr I ng va Yi hI· e d er m an Y s , lf.-consel P e cory are s ' l I I f 0 oUs l y losophy like coI ony, to recrea te the Garde n of E t d ' S u n 1 den in I members 0f a hel r 4) J-r r ! l 6 ( [ 9 gnrden suburb. It,,,,,
'
,
��
,
,
:OSIlllio IO e'Ore ,
'
re th a n h o n e st y o n th e o m o n e ir u q re f t he hi lor• Impartiality � s n a t. a h re t f th I o m s e m ir e u req y it iv ct je b I S a St o e il h w ian, ake in orizes conscious a n d unc o nscIOU auth ' S ma it if e, gam er pow nipula. the tive in tere sts h i Story lik I c e ll o d c n a l a u id iv d in s e rv e a I Sci· tions, if it se ' n a ri to gages in a bu ses of h' is n e h e h T . rm o n s it s a th u tr IStor cnces, takes y n, a isa ia rt ic pa a lit f po l se n m hi or es m a l ackey of co be he en wh Th only er, in History and b a . F G . K r, e d ie h c S . h (T er Supplepoli tical pow clares, "H is tory is th e m t ange us de ry le Va ul Pa n he W . 8) ro ?S me nt, [ 97 ed . . . . H IStory p lo s e a v t h e c , e d ll te in e th f o y tr is m e ch s e th t ' ju tifies Produc n't teach a nyc hmg for ' it es , do ng ki ea sp ly ct ri St . ts an w e It whatever on , le s o f everyth ing" ( pp. 63- 64) p tr am ex s er u o d an g in th y er ev contains . an i h o m es st hu ry Wit . h SClent ' ' k er comrus lfiC' . ot herwlse very ac ut e t h m t IliS . . 'st or ic al work . hI of e nc III' lOry and s hows hiS Ignora ' t ec rr n is co e he P w yn h e Writes: Ve l au ic, ist tim op tle lit a is he if en Ev
�:�
'
eo�,
,
'
ot 10 see that historical knowledge is subtended by the norm of truth . g abo ut it, o r about science i n general. To rhm any d tan e und 10 no s � � � Identify hlstotlcal science with the nati ona l memories from which it p �ceeded 'S to confuse the essence of a thin g with i ts orig in; it is to . . ish fall 10 distingU chemistry from alchemy, astronomy fro m astrol ogy. . : " From the very first day . . . histor ians' histor y is defined i n
oPPosltlon �o the socl3l function of historical memories and bases it, ' ' self on an Ideal of truth and on an interest that IS p u re CUriOSity.
( 1 968:424).
. ' An ambitious goal , ob)ect ' t\. h I tory t little, th ro ugh t he ceaseIes re\'1 tOns
�
low ly con strucred little by . 0f h tSt ' Onca I work, the laborious successive recrificat'Ions, an'd r IIe accu m u I a rr' o n 0f pa rtia l tru ths . Perhaps �
es uiti big m A d fl a
/
I
,5
toward history of ress prog w slo : this rj d o / fi ne s i . l If st a ue q se O It nabl ts se e I goal . It con S method is that it fuses �lIent now know e we that and the f aas, s� ve cal · · goa lSIon nt h l of h . JSt y Ith or � · wat " . L h data ave een b "real IS nOt given the · h falsely ._LIIS esuw n a me f to o historical fa Cts. events O r of nce limiting conseq ue hisror y to the sin The second I gu . a r and individuals particula of rly th at of IS to riv. I·1ege the role . great P . . n, me " n Carr has shown how, '� the 'v w,es e rn tra dJ[J . c. Ii. � this ten dency to the Greeks, who attributed theIr mos t a n CIen t epi cs an d . rh elr firs I . s I om ua . . d (H er, L md lvl t tica l ycurgus, an d Solo to hypothe d a",s n), an newed in the Renaissance WI.th th e vogue 0 f PI ut arch He ds ""as . reo Ii . again in what he calls, following Isa iah Berlin, "the bad theory of hiStory" (I. Berlin, " Historical Inevita bility" 1 95 ( Carr, Society and the Individual ( 1 96 1 ), ch. 2 . Th is · Ii. concep tion, · h Ie /j · ct r rru na tely co n " Pra ically disappeared m SCl en lJ. c h JStory, un ,o t Jnues be retailed by tOO many populanzers an d by th e me dia especial/ publishers. I disringuish this popular expl anat ion of histo ry by refer by to individuals from biogra phy, wh ich in sp ite of its mi sta ke s and m e ocrities is one of the major historical genres, an d ha s produced histo . riographical masterpieces such as Ernst Kantorowicz 's Fredericlr. the Sec. ond (1 927). Carr is correct to rem in d us of H eg el 's co m m en t on great men: "Historical individuals are th os e w ho have so ug ht an d aCCOm plished not something imagined or pr es um ed , bu t so m et hi ng right and necessary, and who have understood, be ca us e th ey h ave received its rev elation within themselves, what is necessary an d re al ly belongs to the possibilities of the time" (Hegel 1 822-30 : 1 2 I ). A s Michel de Certeau has pointed out (L'icniure de /7zisloir,e p. 99), th e sp ec ia lity o f history is indeed the pam'cu!ar, but the particular, as G. R. E lt o n h as sh o w n in The Practice of History, is different rro m the in di vi du al , an d "t he particular specifies both historica l attention a n d h is to ri c a l re se a rc h , n o t becau it se is an object of thought, bur on the contrary beca u s e it i s th e limit ofwhat can be tlwughl!' The rhird misleadmg consequence th a t h a s b e e n d r a w n fro m the role of the particular in history is the r ed uction o r t h e la tt e r t o a n a n a t ive or Story. As Roland Barthes has remin d e d u s , A u g u s t in T h ie rry was one of the defenders appa rentIy one 0 r I h e most n ai v e o n es . u " the Virt o f th is belief m es of hisloric al narra l ive: " I t h a s be e n s a id [ h a t t h e goal of th e
o b sOCIal d efe oOkL '
.
.
�
.
goes back
: It once .
.
.
.
,;gJOhn �h has to
� ��
JA':e.5
. parari' tory · ptJ
. .es I iguw d Amb
1 17
that, but 1 ut w ab o k no not v 1 0 d e· o pr to t e of abl o ca p n mo st on e th e t of, pro ' f . 0 euJI . ki d n c st o s t re least nusth e ke s the be ev o th at ne e h t t n i e s cal ong t tim histOri of ng s lo a fonu a t ralO cer gg)'p , , mIagis life") by denying itself a n d by 'ltIVity providing e trai ""ere tern l "th",1lf lessons (see Landfiester). N ne Y as eXpress d I� history more clearly than MOnt e I "tt �r ' s a igne : "the PI� forehand, They are pleasant all,j a n d easy . . C , man in rigLlas f�t of whom I seek, appears m them mOre ali to ve an place the diversity and truth d entlr 'e � his inner q ua � ed li ies 10 detail, the variety ge he ways he is PUt I Oth er threaten h'm ' ."39 t e aCcid I� In this COntext I ,S not surpn that smg that MO ntaigne in history "his man " is Plutarch, ud whom we than a historian. On the other hand, history then the law, and this a ll iance c ulminates in the work of
o
sense of
tor;Cct l At.
of the Past,
fo of r a h ' uma ' l the tel ?'S l] and n ,a (t h e a t 0o h " eacl al ' d ' e""rn t h a h istonansll]bi&\loUs o t ' ll]e general the "t e , kn ob ' l of th · a n In " t an of t ' together and hthe ll]ass "nd . , ents , t sh o l consider moredeclare that makes an allla� nmoraliSt e c "' th i t e �ois Bau doUln, h P ' wh0 stu dIe r o t ' d Wit e st . h th e great Juns a nt ' . D F t ra none IUstontle univ=ae n m o u li n D. h " eius juris p rudent ia conjunctione (1561)� goal of this alliance is t �1tt . unite the rea � nd the ? the ideal, CUStoms � ity. Baudoum. . ag:ees WIth an d mo theoret cla � s �h o � � r r� � m , no . history, but h,s VISIO of a � "CO f h IS tory remams u t ; ll]p let e" li lt a n a n (Kelle y 1 970 I should like to dis ,
"
,
et
u
cum
:
,
cuss here the reaction s, in the Sixtee and at the beginning o nth centur f t h e sevenreenrh c e n y rury, important phenomena of t h a t period the dis c overy the I shall mention two ex a mples, o n e concernin g the colonized Other concerning the c olonizers. In a pioneerin g book, La Vision des vain. cas, athan Wa chtel h a s st udied the reactions o f t he Indian memory the Spanish conques to t of Per u . Wachtel firs t reminds u s that the did nOt aJfect a SOcie conquest ty without h is tory: " O n e s h o u ld n o t imagin this is produced by e that a n evil genius; in h is to ry, every evenr is prod a field that is alre uced in ady constituted, co mposed o f in s t it u tions , CUstoms, practices, meanings, and multiple traces, which both resist and purcha se to huma n a actio n" (197 1 :3 ). 00 The result of the conquest seems to be a loss of Idenrity on the part of the Indian s The . death of the Gods and of the Inca, along With the destruction of the me Incas "a collect idols, constitute for ive trau ma" a very impo rtant notion which should take its in history, place amo ng the princi pal forms o f contin uity: the great historical dis even rs (revol utio ns, conq uests , enced as "collective defeats) are experi trau mas." The vanq UIshed react to thIS destrucrura-
).
to one of the mOSt of New WOrld. peoples, the
olfer
M l G . "c 1'IS 10
, Fl
/ ty . li a ent
1 47
tion, crur rU a rest " ed danc 1M a is . this ecl\' ine n prove o ' have q j/il1 'J IS n praX c o f s m 0 r fo ina 0 m e conc er k emar th r o ant the rnakes an import rationality of his a of S Ii k I e a r l, P spe mati t ,,;pa· } 6). ca mathe e e w de �" ' n t e m h c1al ,p (1(1 a..I" ,0 e w t some a th to ' Ip l eet , ub s e w er tory hIs as , e h t 0 s up d e 'etl make Cl that O s S etor a a O ' r on 0 on. gl'nal, d' 'net area that fo t the blna tl \1is' d , ' bu f the event outl'lne anrit,les that 'IS, a coherence, tOr'!' a('/ a oeee9I . es whose e 0 anisms and r�gulaby ed the ISPWachteI to de ne in sUI'yc' ra Ch e l p a p : p " a y o H r ",h is t a n d tio e r e cep uerors and the conqu Shed people expe�ence . q q U n a n v C l e th f 'l the e mple h 0 exa , final ro 1 r � u e e r � e v q ;' � H n , 309)' ow o e ( I" fo th : it u t� to ; � n s t n c o tio Ie na p 0 alie d I0 d P uishe an vanq y It 'Istory appears.. (ht e" on as aPmeans of rejection. d h it i f tr a o g a y, in 'nstead 0f a histor hus a form of reS1.Srance to the cthonat es lves, I d's slow history isAtnd paradoxica\ly, "to the dear",.eeries up tU c e n e th d s e o s . ' ave cr . ib le o s s ' an t the of e e n time, we :, n say that evephen � l; the end" ( : 3.1 �' kind of P m d a triu ee our ow way n S ln n ta itio I c e r I trad , a d , ' an In h a as of one h o n s, tSam e n ¢i s d o a le n s I m o ld a o : ts o f . tw e th g a fl Phe historian ften, even if it cames a' lon ical constructl, 0n' a reaction to d . o r s r t 0 an th 1 e h o , nt h tory e ece t his nt pa t .It 'lS a relative Y r d usuaUy both at once, on , S 'n dista itlC � o, cultural traU�a, an finds again .In "popula J' cultUre, I anI d s e u o on ti h a pol � : n ta c h s te w o , h e l to ry t hi s se s , w pp o sl f ti-history msofar as it o hand, thiS an s o roup kind nt fact a history promoted by the dOin.tna ogf the coU. ectl0n Les Grands Voy4, lively h a study of the iCOnographY family between 1 �90 and 16, d ab lishe Througished d '\lustrated bY the Bry that ,""e est ' I sterners V ons p' re I r ages, publ e they th e d ch ' � n e � h d e fi to a s r � � i ro o r c d Bu a c c dette Berna . ory and the ritual sY�oA an so�gety t�e; had discovbetween hlstd m· erpreted the lnd\anl mericProtesettant ' deas and values resented an pro: ct d their Europ�an and f the lnd.lan\s. 1n,th1' s way the ered. They boltcl.. s�ctUres of the I�ages od the European� and particinto the sym rence� between the lndlans anp eared to the Z fa�mily at a cultural dilference�, linary customs a' np is rejected by od ' Buchularly. dilfe ent :: ��e sign that the lndla certam mom .,.:.
", st e u
f e Pc da e fo se ",h , d r''''achtel o e � AI ro tl W pe S,. V' y· t !It y li 1 < pl a o im o t tI· o P "," ' al t3 S o "c \1 e rl ll .M va\! ".eSe ' com •
.
.
I WS
inism, deterlll al'llct r h
if
'
logic or f f
.
rtS a 01 c is often � ves in tUrn w o O \lo s o li t'lu recOOS I ThiS con ) of ss � 'us o sci Iy
querr�r iS he I
0
'"
n
St! 1
contempo�n
p
tlO°a .,·rationaI' I s a il cUnn h e t ro he t ishe
in
event"
istory·
1
,
to I
\
I
.
40
'48 / /f.' ory , TIS/ '
, er s eenc/ u s'l b i S r O� IS that "the s '�tQli of recombin a non (a comDinat � �l c t uctu res r a e (y In w t h e c hi r:) h th e ad a n d events and thus , huma n I n itiat ' , IVe In ' s play by mean gen era l e t lan to Of a of a dJa ' Iecnc be tw een struct Ih us the Eu r peans of the d ' " R ; " ' ta�tl "Il}.�, nt dure of He , p ''' ,"d m' k ( , oVer , "� ' ' th e ' p, J I In dia ns ' Into '" oo""m , themselves, I h us diverse histon'o ra ' "' 'Ch, th, nte me rs giV e e t , V n rts I n rh e dir e ecri0 o a ls s a n c h ' ' , � Istory rem ''"' h ,,hiY d, " f, "' i pe n de t social an d po J'''� . ndep " ' I m ""m ' n 0n e�d'n " " In this cas f, t e he d p ro <e F a . m h e , ni c twelft,h ' ul to t e a u rtee nrh ' dy thOse°llt,f�a�tI cen tur'e s, O historical rod ucrion had o t the P been a sel' ' P h, neur O g a t ial r onl' m on arc proteges 0f the grear men, i g G I , hica l ke eoHirey t 0f S ' of Mon mo Iltdieu: Malmsbur' J> v Wh 0 dedIc ur h and ' ared rh e lr th, ' w ork s to R 'Wdlia o be monks of S am rt o I ' t- Dem' s workin f G Ou of lit for , ce g the grearer J ster, Firanee who prorected h ' ry of Fi g o th e k ' the t elr abbey, roissan Wr ' , ItIng f,O P l !ngs of nault an d the , queen o f E r hi i P ngla n d, er a l" or, of Ii ' i final/y, n rh e urban notary-ehro 01 c/er. 4 1 ai_ ' 01'1' I leu th e From then on, In , th e urban m I'l leu ' th e hisro rian IS , AalIle DourfI a m em e r 0' eoISle ' " m power, s u c h as L 0 eonardo Bruni "" r " h, Florence firo m 1 4 3 7 to "," ' , 14 4 4 , or h i h o "" 0, " g ' o,l, ffi m ov f Machiavell i th g 'm " m ' ' ,), " " of h ore ' '' ] Ore"" " ' '''tt ""''' hi, ' WO" ' .. " " ,'" el "'y , "r " ..d," , '" , "'" assador " " re ' " d """ d ' h e , IT," "d " , Leo X " AI pe ' , '" o ," and T "� k of , D" ' ' " . 1" , at one ca n best trac e t h e m on archy 's effort t0 domes tlcate history notably in the s e enteen th centu ry, wh en the v of Cathol ic o hodox defenden rt y an d the su or ers " ' " of t " royal b ,I "" ,m , d as J Ibernm sm " �� . " ' , "", the historical c " " n " ,m ,f 'h h , , ' , , , f h ' "'remh centu ry and f he ,,, , ' ' ( reig H IV " f ,",), H ' " ' h " ' 97'" , 8 80) , This _ "PP ' ,.," " ,,, ,f . " h, ffi o nt pp o( o cial histo ria n s IirO ' " m the ro .;e Revoluti ' ' " ,"" on ' ( the ex ression' " p to)';)1 h'ISto ria n " , ' ' used (or the fi IS nng to AJam h " "" i f,,· C anJer " . ' , ro e I ar the c" " m V 1 " ,, Ch,,, , an hon or rathe r th I t IS a t th a r ti m ,, ' p"; t ' lOn , Th'e fi rst true ro I ' g-e p h tt " Pi,,,,, ,P,s aI, nam i a h stor o , y ed to rhis ffi r. 0 ce In I 4 Istoriogra h er IS , nom th en 0n, rhe H an a pologI,st, H p e Occu ie p , moreove r, o n l" a m o dest ,
; ;'
h
�
"he lfirto'lc' al J\i
:;:;
�;:
apta ' "'ark
'�:',,,,::-',':'... ""
;
'. �
,
l
•
'
'
b
�
F""� �
f
��
�f ;"
,f e k� re, h cu S th t obs ,pd ly or ive f critieJ1'Ph ' lat ngly iS re stro th \ d ers \ h ne 0SOp I �IP" ai ' d Ph m ffi , 1 led ' fai lacob , ,he , ." all a 0 ce re by ' 77 forth 6 1 set e ' It in ' g om his Oll oOs,erl')'less th t f re e of the g for n e nt a am , reSide h P r everth gr c he t o to to pr 774 � e t 1 r th Tn, o 22, d t , ff .. n gus a 000 f Au 's e e "'" o , ffic n ' e , r " " tte 0 lbo" clp le A " a e 1977 h 0 B. In , ssier j. (Fo ' O u her grap CO, Ze orio Morea ,,,. of P'o�''' hist of ffice o p e th o m ed C " ."deS ' n abolish the as Coor utiO way same voI the hat jte ew som h e ical in p soph t, en Philo nm fre ory, te hist ligh ard En tow ' sur les e e th Es tud f atti ' sal o ' US the nt uO 10 l I y p big n s mai ( m ' e a " an talr The I h O f v ad ' whic f e 0 , sance, h 0 d cas an ' 1 740, e th ' In In d lly e ceiv con �I ' RellalS ,and espe cia as d w ,h' h , lC " ' h ''' w "' ' , ns, ,n" ' r t lO w " 69) histo y ['esprit des (lll ,, " espe d ' and ho I y I" osit ub curi p e " of w" ning " rrtoell "''0 ade bro Bu, " ,"" le ) , b , " p. dera " , '" nsi """ Pol co ond "a d y t h,,, tor e his (E sens n'" f rhe o ,p' nt l of t a men ",,' (!le elop ' ,h dev ' of the , ed "' bit , • p,,,",,, inhi ,,,,u',u es soph ,", philo M " f the ",l, o UO m = s , nali ory ,h' hist ' o s ati .'"' case both "the r " n," In ' ? " does n bo aire " a " Volt is , 1 O he r es "... d ee is n I ''-' •• � "'-II fr' e5S o , :iu , 5ecr 5),ed b on Ill. lory. I'r , �c ) d ijn d Lrnational r.eeI ' this Il , In i I h31 in g 171! /(lI ;" do" froli r sp ires " C>!. published f h und � .... o er Ih 1900 10 ' 9 1 2 e I d ' I i o n lrec , he t .", eve 0 f he F' On JOn .. I . , f \ v. I I rst dI al LaVISSe a s sio-n r "'.. ed lO r ed Orld W, ' Ucation in h I tory: ...It .) hi S fro rorical ed ill tion £', l Is � PI'() the gIOrio �� nd IO 'ed us duty and u e rstood \ ill ��. f o , , OU r an , Iht' druids C ' tors th harles M el S eG : Po at itie :� lro\' de BO I /Oll n ola d in ]e ls em r, Ul f R n o oan of rc, onceV J \l.:n rhos , ij Ux, G ts loPed in Ie \ " -e " :r' gend" " If the Od... a\l'm \lith h f Ou o m sch oolboy " mem Ory f 1 the livin'" t as , P e U o O r natl s not kn0\\' thar o I Our ance tors on fo h ave S I nob e c u es I'I' he h 0, dOes I , ' "", , e/fo much h� ,,'� '" : ..;''':: e the f unit bri t ofrh,e chaos f ;: I.::;' o h� ' '' o , n 00 ;0 ,. '' made us /i "' s rhe h, ,� n :'� eCOme a ciriz S mb ued W ho 10\,es h is Ra ' ith hIS , th , e g rea c h er will ha (see 'ora 6 ) ve W line, have not ,vet emphasized tIlat up until th e � en nal elemem nm ' eteen th in the fo1111an,o,n ent C of a His tory hist oncal ' ' ' not an 0bjeC[ an me ty nt al ' i of ed ucatJ On, Ari is I ' , Stotle h d ,Clt'nce , TIIe moo " ;.. l d , ' leval ,. " uniYersit" did , 'tt o the be taught ( ee '"' P" ; amo , m ng s G ruOOm." J, '; " the , ubjecr 1 e JeSUit 0 ,,, S and th e O ; �", i , p , rato rians a , �he'r schools g ve ir a (see de Dainvil/ ) RevolUtion that e . B ut it is t gl\'eS the im h e Fi e th
' , Thu ea t 'I lind ent t '''id.... hu Y n uen Ce �� � ",·eat c a.slc, "ijr l a E 0 rn e a r, liere �: lavis;etlt. I� the making th fa :r s I an d � e � a A all t rhe heroes d "; 0 �' , 00" /1 00,: �;:' s � ba li ttle blo:� h e � � d l :�� are :� sacr law thijl d U t' asted his t' les
:l {
'
'
•
"
as
I
,
' ::"' : 0" ", . ; :
,:':m
; n: o
ury :
:
I
s
'" p w s, and it is the ad , the pnman. ' -�" " , econda r). a n d un ' i "" ., ca t, on at " i b ' "� that els m the ninet < th dit- I � d the as " � ofar ' . m ins ... ,f e trU ' m hly ,,,, it is rim ,, nd, """' t I I fi co Se o r l. 0 ' nta "," ,,"" g d me Ifl ' 0' , y da 0 b ," n d ' fu ,,," 'w s j, " " m", l" " e a r n ' m ' .... 0' e 01 r , " I" ,.h, ' , ",, b" h" '" ,� '" ., .d " " , _ by who tt '" " ' '''' Q oO' ,,,, , , h; . .. hi" , ",hi ;,," ' ,;. 'h , ' ' ''''' " "' of noW " k p" " ",ci� o ' r d ''''y fu" , on ,h " .., o wh m'" d do; " y he '" ng ,,. h, aini ",, whi, abst "" ,'" in �p � eed i, hc succ , not yi" do d"l e " the judg n "' l e E . Of e g nera l : lit· Rome Iy righ.t . '" . of f. "'a s ba In
Fi
pher, and who pIayed a ' l oucault. Ii · e 1t seem s t0 me . . that a H Ca classical clv,jization of Gree rr is i h SI O ry ce ' an Herodorus as the r.ather h d . sto r , cIassical antiqwry y h a d '" were .. On < " th ��" i h ld�:: h oJ as with the ;:: t S h �7 , a lo .. I A e ydld · c OO nd O [ p''''''' I, ",:::'::. ore the ev leved th:t nOt ncerned ",t.he tj�l. em hin slgmficant w�s likely to ha s which would be d a h nd �t. ad th�t re Gr: : o a and the Prin�p clOsely th.e(1S9U/lj/lj 3-8). � nOth'nPal g e C!ntecontaetia) th:�prece ; e h ven t i: a ts of :7 ln p des ce [he C t )" H he the t 0/ 't e k ory Thucydides ( t e !S e dia c h Y J � _ 4 00 n nn . e -c' k po 4 I n 6� B ' �' ) a "Wro � re a h ISto o �'Qn Qr � (ths.. War from its beglnmng in 4 po' sirivisr se rring fonh rh3 tor. abo �r 4 "BeY thfinthe Aelop. o e . k acts In Or HIS philosophy IS rh us inc sty/ired, an ' "
," 46
"
r
.
"-
r I.
Itself grea[ rn [he
nt PO t i O ed t O O t U " s rhar his or k wil/ b e ca us e " it will b e valid , same, ' and c isi q ar Ure re only al t rh e e v nts � : ? S he in so th ose wh i h .n th G re . e fU l tur man character. w .lI be s e n the y I ' : vl f J imilar or :n io?ous." T � . nue o t e hu. [0 be jmm obil � erernal, or ra rher ir IS� ilkely h s hIStory is suPplro of a single m o del of change. ThIS' model to be [h e eternal'\ se b l . en t 5, stine e man it
,
..
}\Ig truck
f.c:1 n "
t·,c}1be
o o o ��-e\lers of P n IIIIiO geogrtlP [lll �stor)' t eb fore
�
�:
�
Jdjma �
:r twO turY assical of
Muqqaddima ::
.
�
,
(MuqqaJdim�) m :U Muqqa a
�0
�
�,.,
;
s
ek;
,
�
:a
� �
i
�
)
0 ,
;�
�
co rs a diffe " as He k , wor him !l\S to ... , s ent ter s mat pre at dun h \ w na5 Kha e , ar n d n d Ib tio an lana ntS eve exp ' f tS 0 d an ng aki nge spe the s to , " gi'\'e es (,lImrah). Cha , l mse rarv e h t t n t co limi the who n o .an son, du O hist � \ilo ha\ n p m K fro 'the Th des m. u th� d ng ' tn re laini refo the he ,ties �>V'ithout e P at t es elte d an b nts eve causes of
:
\
"
:
'
/58 / H.' 1.rto
ry..
Pniit .a �o
phy (h&ma) of h'Istory. " He h Phie.r as been see . OfIt· seems to me that he is rathe n r a a u hicl o Oni w J\nt o, Vk o ", ," el,s of u /f Sor n ,h' a,'o es of ,re; ' g eor g p' G by ' fi� ed ,h' p elo , 0 dev 0 � " "' V,' was .. f o o ... I which "'o "" , B,d," ,ky" qu" ' �' ' T"" '''' fi N h' by , nd 'red fro '",p nd fi f"g.� o > hicl w, w '' V'' o� i ol.< "In a , t &v hou ",,, w wit ""'" "" > 'oci or), B do t his "," of of E ,). hy 6 U (,, sop V , . hilo 0 . ; p a ob" d k Go ,,' G/omh ton or e , U:,L. ) e pla sCl g eist S or e l ca al e, I _U'" p sic ori peo phy e h st a ft a l et it h m spir e. vagu ot e a" . n ("th maIn l e !1 re fe opl ey a h t pe as ut a ' . ..j� ISt , b al, ) " leage I du nvi iS ame di !-l es, . fund In tim a n has e a th he n of t;' I tivis rela pateO d "the spi rit a r no list nihi ( a O r l he ef " neit a p is ory. ."' ,he Ist he ' h' ) f ,,6, h 0 . llg ion m ept O " , bl h 0 nc 0 lt co , A al ro'd, hisn 886, o d man a Ger . r ,""Ir 7, tury (' y cen Ire nthall "" etee t nin ,"' ly the main of s L P O oS i lJ p : Ory"
/ ry" off{isW
173
ized mphas e must be it gh ou phialth re" W, "pu ie e wer v ""ho 'i'S tl. l "Ii O tory ab his Co» f h o C ",.ok ers I e � ar Oph S h � s ilo �,' 1 h oh. is t that a h ory hISt Ut . t 10< � abo ng ki thm n og1 ,, ce ori n hist va and 1 ory ffllIior ad hist een etw C ",.,.5 a b p, on t cti c in s t)JJ e dis o rre5 . the t t h to', Ii' � ,.r.!g' ' h Ies P so Jo h ,p
r e pJthUS� e o ut bs , "a ce o r 9Sflote otl C t a ic r ' o S oh o ' : l "" h 'W ..�:"'f" 'e phllOSOP Yh hW O " g n i ' d , hIS, tCS m e l pO cerl,ry ,0 , I m P Y l e S h , or ht e ���e eg oaeSl,ISh ,he ate .. mO>'
'
'
,
'
'
"
,0'-
'
ology
.
.
), -108 1.:73 (19
"
,doui/i< In
'.76 / ' LT 7lS, tO ry .. Pi 'll'OSO'P' , '1 '
GramsC/an interpretati, er on of hiStor Oj'It."' Spite of the dangers ical to')mater, of the various Ia l'ISIl] r k ' negated by h IS IS in ds ' conception of 'etls a s ' , of sci h I hi Stor za tl' ence as S two senses of the ; n word being co U PerStC nfl ated_ ' I expression and instr Uctllra l ��t i a S o be 'll Pli::- i� ument of the 'l I _ , S COll] group in h'Istory IS , pushed to Its es � ' cuI mln o P " atlon: o we r, , r flated, thus IOll/lJn 'fh e tgan i•• "' an d th e " _ r ' ' etu ., rn h of ' t 8 e (Uooo,"" 97 7� -93; Nora I 984 1 :2 10-2 8)' •..,. Arnaldo Mo�Igl ' !ano ha s em ph as iz d 'h 'h, " ' gr " at" h is ' . � ta ' '· 1 = Greco-Roman anti o "y ' d "l , us ly ve or prefe ' ' WI'h ; • ! q ' "Y An � � d d �" 'h ' rem p� '. w; er Herodotus, Thu , " O l of 'h, ;'" ?, ,;: ' " ponnesian ;', . OOo"mporn ry , • O h o • P d o ffi h ' y al 'c isto� h I' Itl A en, o p m and t " rea tions I a g evolu y eeo nd of story kings a hi " a 0 nt, f me ove o �pd nam l expla in n y A y, ry 'IStOr o o h eaun ist 1 bl h la ,,0 a , A tory , ' d , his 'IStOry, tS p n tic v f e h sta a gmatlc a e do Ol or ve, n 0 " U d , escnp an d e, ' ativ o"ly f mat ions, narr IY ure ' r p :223 a o ) ot 1978 n ff 0 G e tl'3"s , slory, and L in t he d s e uot am progr (q h, S y" ItlOU or mb" a ist ess h f l o 0 t ry tal r O o t more ram and t a prog more or ' is which 'ip larsh 1" sh h' service of th scho for n t h cer e soug con nS t a tutlO mstl had \n nt th eme I for e new a IS ' , orl' an hence IS ry h' histo t ' d eties, an Soci ses ned pri hlst Lear r and nte s e emie US Acad ro of e tury cen num is th In en, fy gott 's ch ' for atl Fren not the re le 10 s examp tS we my jec as se sub choo ied shall all 1 s, my" d tion acade an titu "little ins of The vel , tres le s-Let e BeHe On th its and and s bers, tion mem crip four Ins only of ded inclu t firs Academy rip at insc 663 1 and in ls rt meda olbe for C OS by mott write to n: King. founded aria Sunutilit the ely of pur glory s the wa tuate on perpe d missi woul ous, h nom whic auto nts me me beca onu it and m for forty, to ed tio ns it rais 1717 was as ip early bersh as mem and its 17 16, e in nam In 170 1, nt and prese y, its eolog with arch d ry, ptize histo reba to ted devo It was rs pape es of anc n Ordonn catio des publi ceuil lar R£ regu the of n began ratio prepa the rtOOk unde linguistics, and I:art hand one ce, the on cite shan des Rois de Fran 1 , tools the rian's on histo and , the in 1750 shed On the level of publi first ists ar Maur l roya the h the whic of dates, 1 720 les and veri fi er 1 7 de 1 7 t abou of n een essio betw expr ent vistic archi t other the establishm bes the are s s Pari ation in regul ary se libr (who l roya Turin in the of chives og catal the of ng printi the the period), and shan 1 ry, histo of ce servi from 17 39 to 17B' the in ity of activ arian arly libr schol me g beca sentin who , As repre 1 (72) (b, ri of ato vist Mur archi nio A.nto and n vico aria Ludo libr n the mentio , 1 694 en in n etwe Mila 'B , in 1750 ary in Libr n died osia ho w the Ambr and , d 1 700 ede in prec dena Mo been in had Este h whic of /ia, the Duke d'Ita ali Ann the shed publi he 1 749, and 1 744
stffd
"t ,j;�e��ors; ' lc m o "ot
h
:
"
,
.
'96 / LT. " lS to
by the Anti'lUliates litauae Medii ':Y 4, . ' "C d?",'. He Lel bnirz, a m ong o le Wa thers 75 � of no < ou lig,"re "d . , "" , .. lif ' '" ia " liti' po Ii" ind , '" " h" " .. w .. " , in ol ", p'" P ci "'" ."" "" n � ly , m ,o i A n " " ,t i 00 " ng Ii;,;rona , ,, n P"'" s, , , oo _ n oa "" ", F y, dG !" ' "" lir " , ,. " .al " .. in "" 1\ , li ' li g n £ io ", .. , do cl" no , ' in i, hi , '' '' ' . � " � . '' '" hi 0 0 on "", mes . "" ,,", oh ,,,, ", '" i, on
00"",,,,,
•
,.,....,fo>
), oby T y wph
-
•
H r
," i� n i i' < ""I",
, /7" , nt Y, In ' rhe , , m ell l.s,0')t Mal'lOsm I ..,est, I'n c/ ' lItl th t W .,.o � , 'n any Case h a Im " e I ' deal of vu/ga at scientific vaI e "'Vl O d r Co gy Ma l'XiS ue lith 'Ch Ore f m f as b I f as lIt ab l hio , A lith e to d n an d a � , y th O p,o ..
On ly li OUt t at th eCtual to ha ve ta IIO� �o 'k n e te trO ken the lIto a n tl ' Mal'Xis rn -OUt th rislI) de, th 1\>i1h or ished, t Pse eme of , h as I e p, �o i u l 'l'a tlon , ce d o -hi St �I �ilre Sin a s Mand /ity a r O sm h as b ' s its Ory tha ctedi nventieth ce een th e b,�nn t se ' onIy C nrury parr e O h , has If ellis what hap fr e o r m e / n th t the pens in Ig at of °ilt. o Max W, h t of th ren eWal of II' e dIs ' a ue eber., I ry of his hISt ' oricaI t IS ill)p tOry i� ctl'on w pra ctice aga ins t Ma ith in th nds b ut o a )t to OU tside WeSt (beg St tha t certain l'J(j t 11 '1l a he it)- oi u pro ems s O O n al)d th e ll) ' ry at are ca e ag only On the r e e the s p lIt O/l)e it ba a l a sis of Ma f it o h , r h e hIStorian s h ichel la' I)O ndsm , In h M is t o t ria� c ave tn d t rh e an be a o �cail o sh ow th est a c the "new ; f 1r at Ma , erta h isto , lated sm co ul nell' histo ry, b u,t also that � ; Jl) nllrnber rv d n ry th roug O M t OnIy a ' '''s m b� f ga h Its m �"s On od ' teres t hISt ' ory, an e t g a I) , a l e of th d its mte in Struct g IVl - rest in e th ures, ' s fa thers T. th e area lerre fvlla I[ concep of th ' of tech nl' r and G uy ti IS On of q ues an Bois h a passpby ' a tat ve expres Way of a ce d mate " 'll sed ri rt ' "
;
�
�
�
�
�
m
lS'.Otre and E tluzolo '
-I and 1 97 5b
s, and e rene colJeq , IVal
e in reveal a es � te t nu mber of ' s des Pari s x pub ire lish f Italian IM Or ed a few open a 1J(J St ness, " y JUrion of rh ea historians r s ago by IS ' research n h as shoWn th a l ' cenain A Work n0rt{on � , e vit al'Ityfl JI'ke AIam ' a 'OrT'1l'e rnant fi. n d G the eva· e ue s ts rr ne'il' and p ea u despite irs � Le o werfiu e a ' .; lin x ggeracions J Mancis c rh u COUn ' , t he e ste h , t IS l g . The histOr c mes itcle-know ' xi nce of i al prOd n in e a HUngary, uct �St. W io n of E what m ith '
'
,
,
;:
ere m ay er manY (:See be a fje w of rhe ne G uerrea u / 98 great his con'ans 1\;' hi Cory 0J, 1' o th f e;ou h th th e past CUn,osiry as the anc o g eir inter with ' es t rs est " I n ' , th -0'" u to ' e se
esLgnated
St
r�.,J
n , an d G ' 0 verslty ene/on, M ' , 'Me m UIZ OntesqU/eu, O[ If i a USt add t /mea . h e na m ge I'mpreSSIve in e of rhe its diD utch his ' ro nan Joh ann ,
,
Huizinga
201 / day To r y Histo . tory" f/is Ages (Haarlem, n dle the of Mid ing a W e Th r rpiece, l. se mas e ' ' tive psych0 Iogy mto h'IStOry,
collec ,0 "" ), 945 and r y i d( , 9)1 brought sens ibil n Febvre's foundation in 1 929 of the journal 9 Lucie d 1 rc Bloch�� so� known si ce � e ���� ire d'his ruwie s A � a � ed m red ide nS IS ! co the b ) h ns arw Civilis , ites Soci s, rs mie c , Econo es (fi les ;t al as A(IIIa e neW history,78 The ideas of the journal inspired tbe o f th e cerri6ca� D 1947 by Lucien Febvre (d. 1 956; Bloch, a member of the
� 19�5
,
on I da[J the Geuoans in 1 944) of an institution n by shot fou was ce, , , tan , eSIs R
of research 10 the human and 10 teach the 9 French to and ch ar rese 1 0 devoted , nomic and social sciences) of the (eco ion Sect h Sixt s, the c , CIen , e I s a OCl en Sciences Sociales. Such an institudes Etu es � Ham des ue , iq Prat Ecole by Victor Duruy when the Ecole was founded ned isio env n d bee n 75 nt, me ish Io abl ich is in est 9 1 wh Th , zed i,ali ter ma er nev � I it had but In en Sciences Sociales, and in which des Etu es Ham des le Eco became the , place alongside geography, economiCS, sooolent emin an had h' lOry ° anthro pology, psychology, linguistics, and semiology, ensured the
��
"
IS d of the ideas that were at the origin of the abroa and e Franc in sion � d
"AnnaIes," These ideas can be summarized as (l) the critique of historical fact and event-oriented history, in particular political history; (2) the quest
for collaboration with other social sciences (the sociologist Emile Durk
heim, the SOciologist/anthropologist Marcel Mauss, and the economist
Franc;ois Simiand
who had published in 1903 in the
Revue de synrhese
lzistorique (a pioneering journal in the new history, under the direction of Henri Berr, 1863-1 954) an article titled "Methode historique et science
sociale;' denouncing the "political;' "individual;' and "chronological"
"idols" the
Annales);
Annales
program inspired
all shaped the outlook of the
(3) the replacement of history-as-nallaove by history-as
problem; and (4) anention to the present,
Femand Braude! ( \ 902-1 985) was the author of a revolutionary "the-
S'IS" on La lrleauenanee '''l rmomtl! sho ' ; C � ) l.f t 196 toUe, 7 hisro�� a � and bet n sooologyU,(among other we n exa mpI es, rhe s � OCl 'Ii.oumine declaring in n disir olo re g st d'histoi p, �74: i A l a In "1 , d o not rask of sociolo� firom the h separate is tory o f a soc l e ry ") the ' a privilege has been esrablI hed berwee L , d rel atio S n cu S tory a n d n n t h ro pol ogy, 0 � " he anth ra_ PoIogJ rs side this �s proposed by E , ' E vans-Pritc �� "
"
:
arr,
� 'Q
'()
,
a
' cerra In ,
'
(I
(0
'
Lr,
e ce
co
S
e
,"
(l
qlS,o
'
,
J
' J
� .
'
cs
•
hard J>v
is
__
.
'
.
.
;
� �:;;"i"
tury,
"'°4 / Ii:i Ls
tory..
. This new disC1'plme II Ls lo,,. r. re thus . presents a b ., 1;, history in the Spirit. of the r by Roy Preis werk . al etho "h a � n o d D 0· ,.ndter, . ,,7' f'Ori U! n on ' ,_ , 1 d an e a ' . o A ssy . n f 'l isa r io '" . n criptlons , Krng ls p o f er tA. na dl ' s An a l ) e nd t S>,.n b , roya g s' in La "'" W. {( e 'b Cbicago 19 '� lruclarifWl 6hoY . L r' S> e d du _p _ Ul ( ach V s d an n Sen Weidner, , J. "v B u ge nnals o,r E. and .' r r, e "" he A n s M el s "'. 0 B >. ill, . J ' .0 "he\Ing . 1-uc"e . I 6S . ' w " "..,
on l, giovane of l) ado rni, Che vi S'ate a canta an,." /). re in questo loco, Spendere lieramenre i VOSto gioO ..... li, Che giovinea• passa a poco a Lorenzo iJ POco . . . Magnifico, (Bar;, ' 9 ' 3'4· J. Piage" wi,h J. '9' �), 2:20 1 . C/. Bringuier, C,nver.rQllO'U lib ,8.. , 5 · P. Abrams, "The Sense of 'he Past and 'he <Paris, Present ( 1972 ), no. 5 5, pp. 0 . s , 8-3 2• ngln ofS� �oIo " '9'17), p, gy) AC4 t lJltq
�
/
Op
kra
'
IY�Ii
XVllI'
•
" bus
J.
,tIP,
p;
f
£ttIit'D/�
' ,�:": D. fab� ne, en eti D \1
E. �v rnlsre, � 74 See allO r.6uIalr� a'a rns ' b . ".. F.. Hanog, '-r " h . .. � _ J ' LI, ' Om tVlLinol7Uq
Hls nc:a ' . l Pa sr," His
22 1
��I�wythe," "
.7·
f· Callol, A . tVta' T 6. j. p,aw,, heory ( 4 /� . £ 'Tk '977), e 'hJ7 (London, 4 0/';' torr � Sa � sUp. 19 72 p DrutUem.£lIrOp{!QJz Q,&,op ( aris 7. C. Falco P , '962). stVtl4 ,." ' • m tn " O . Debbm" Etso tA. M mana r epubb!ica..A . � -1g., 0/ 9· See es ial/y9''' '" tk ed.' 41M D. Junke and C. Bl pec r and P.. R . . (Ausrin ' 96 ) ""''''' (Naples ake. e'smger, ' f . • '94'). C. 10. .I, Le tax Wrbt-r. ff. , pp. 1 20-2 � 9; J. A. quOted Passm W. '.lom' . Qmnte/� Alfliti l( e {U Ore; n, p. 20. " V. K. D,bble,m.,se (3d. ed. F o ur and J7, , , 9 5 8J, Toype5 of ' p. ...,.,. )4:)0)-2, Inference '77' Ii r om Docu ' 12, W D ments ro Even,s " -k rJ. ray, L.z",s and � "Ca" a1 "-JC , /f1S1( plana/io . ,, ,: II '" ton nol ), P 1 n an U t 0 'Y d I). P. maginaliv R " (London I e eena rme " H rona ' 9 1 7) see 11 7:2$ 1. ,nr," U ; e S' H. B del mundo I O ry ee, tUtd Thea y Rem ' o del ' ry (1 '4. I hav-• . 96 Dios " s:C 3), J. dI C1Jsse , ,¥, ' l d eI elVh !zeah'!fica CTII/qu/' of a T (197 l!re (Le rhe Idea 5)' ColT 1 97B fprogr ICII pm ess. H�re , vol. 10) the gres,. / �halJ rebi h, only tri'umph olTer a ' 1, and C,l/e, lI few rem u k. ar S On It) oJ. technolog_ . C. Lich uq I < c:lt.m 7' n u �. (I'. ' � thelm ans 1 UHmO Tl it: ' 9 7B"/, pp. viii ( o g 'r e ll< ff. aph · H M ' toncal ' 7. W. C R . and Dia un an eer , /ClI Materia/ism," in 1 9Bo), 2:4 fO-ft). lB. J Lecu lT � , ;n qu ' 9B,), 3]: ere !ur Ie. hrr a '02 - 12. Olh�r o (London l! 'StolTe '9. Le om : 1 970), p. 10. . de r QI7 !zu Fra nce'" /Q no. 23 . 'I1fIJ�, sp CIa/ I� B (Apn./ Ut of t. ., A H "",\,U� D Iln7L� rr ranf ' e (Oe au rober ' 972), .
.
n .}. �.' �liquel, U . censen, is r C! t ", .\. '\' 3 6)' 9 1 . ,..rl (PanS> e Hllt" e annals, � On th cher, DiL .6. See G. Hols
II/STORY
_
�.
/
Dram" uzn Shnh'pau aruI GnJc in ts1D1Y H of �
J)o>sten Les e', uqu fo
" .�
•
1M �er, Dri
ry c rI IO IS n
37· C. Bali, !iano o./fert' a
(t 950), \ 2 : 1 75 -2 82 .
La storiografia genovese 6no al secolo
Raifaello Morg"en (Rome, t974). "
StorUo
flak"" per if Mdio Evo
XV;
5IUdi sui Medioevo ens
38. G. Martini, "La spirilO cinadino e Ie origini dena storiografia communale lombarda;' Nuuva ElMs'a Stoma (t 970), 54:1-2 2.
;
39· Montaigne, " 7- t9 ·
£Sais, II,
10, "Des Livres," texts in j. Ehrard and G. Palmade, pp.
40. B. Bucher, La sauvage awe SetrlS peruIarus (Paris, 1 977), pp. 227-28.
"n
notaio-cronista e Ie cronache cittadine in Italia," In Alii JeI
primo congresso intemar'onale de/In Societa ItalUma di Stona JeI DirUto (Florence, 1966), pp. 293-309· la chute 42. Guiwt, Cours d'Histov. Mod.ernc Hisrou. U, civilisation en Europe l'Empire romaUl Jusqu � U, Rivolution Franfaise, 1 828, 7me Le�on, quoted by Ehrard 4 1 . G. Arnaldi,
L 'fIutolre
de
and Palmade, p. 2 1 1 .
I
de
depuu
43. Lener to J. Weydemayer, March \, 1 8 5 2, quoted by Ehrard and Palmade,
p. 1 9·
222
/ Endn ates · . Hls: corJ
44. de Tocqueville, .0. la Dimoaan'e en Amin 'n�, I 8 , 36-39' L' n, , · 6 .I\eVQlUllon, I 8 5 'AIJ� 45. Keith Hancock, quoted by Banaclough, His«> . ~ •� 46. J. de RomiJIy, Thucydide et l'impirUJlisme a 1P":4i, ans, 1 9 17); ch"{ Thucydide (Paris, 19 56). " 47· A. Taleb, Lettrer "'prison, Fresfles, 10 dlcembre, 195 AIg .... . .. er, ed� 1 966. i ir Gesclliclulidre &cIuwissenschcif;'( 8 48. Savigny, ui"cIviffi 5 , 1 :1. Geschichte. der germanisclz 49. Ranke, 8'1; rp� '9 50. A study on VICO to Le Devernr Soaal, 1896. 1 7, p. � 0/Study in His«>ry. Johns Ho 5 I . H. B. Adams, kins UnI. P versIty ies in HistOry and Polrllcal SCIence ( 1 884), no. 2. S "'
•
f4 Jaridg I, 1- 1 j.
role
Parisl'bisro1Je des
une d ' HL..roiIe '""919 .-\.
1 -1. Paris�; 1� Gene;e. .. E. c.. · Annales..
des n31
� .:..;...
'''
•.
� ,.. .' � � � � . ,
;U5
\J�e.
� -
U:-"
b � , -ols". Ji, "wtm,!0Vw
6. �
.-4'" l7. i "' , deu1 Je de m " ural / '-: m. "'5"' a � P , opi, ' Ren-i _ H ..
.
•
J. '9 '16.
Le
, -
���
•
.
.
•
.
.
.
C P..n..
�I,
arisP joun-
•
Sodhi· Paris.
irnoin M '987' G. Srungart'amer, national Ver/rolIu4" · ",da.rng nd1 seilO du • . Hi.rtotis- p, eOoUt p sa ",un et nt '" e iJ n eln 1 e p. 19 l • I'ev ode: meth de me e bl miJjbul.. O n pro uc/tnU mnbrw b '" tk rt< p. 1 'f"'" ,-21 . Part.s. A_ r>-> y-".;moire: I ", tk 3 1 < , }_we .
"'P.
Fe/.
�:.;;
�iJils �Jfl1)� �t
.. "'" pp mwor. 1985. 1\.... rf. seldo Dus (jo. p. Zu chaftuwisstrtS d fI. GescJUdt Ju irt . TJ,mritrt I\o�' S: an 1980 th. ssels, 1976. usstni __
part5-]
d H- s d ed., Bru . . .. ,. pu;.I., Xl, .... 2 a cririque'" HiswOl .... . .. •� """," L .". . .... nationah- Paris. c. wttsciena a File 5). 1916. 97 is, 1 e-Par g178 sano ( �"
. q69 a;' i> �
::::::;
Le
t4 i"j/W.
inirak, g ?6. tiquL 7 ; ;: de 1 q06-1 1 . [ours tk Iinguis viriti- Essm G� HiswOl �ure, ais, poloo du 70' , F.
rrad.
tk '" . j wi /' ob j a sur
Hisrory in n, actio 19 cal politi io 1 • s 197 usnes Cons, nscio Pari co wnaJ .. orical is � of hist . 17 (H suppl role he 4, .T )(VII, 1978 , Th JUswry of ed . e
",lle,
, Vovelle
.
I
16-43'
t
'
. no/en
74
e
r
'
8 L
.
0
'
"
em �
II"
,
'f'L
.III
un
t
.
.
. eTC nc
.
I-�
spaten
.
It .
'
et
It
a
o
.
e
et
mort
et •
1
rnrnenlaire.
.r O J
:ry
"
'
'
.
in
.
t
I'
J
La
o
8
,
.'t>. . .
",
_
'
.1
. e)
'
.
.
L
3
I
dM
er
•
.
.
I
ten
-
if
UI
�
'
8 2.
'
.
,
� ,. Ip. 1 98', os , Ie, .
,
",lmo,,",
asJl s lS
. I
,
8: 4�3-� 4'
•
ass
97 ' q ·l .""I·t'o· ll ' se
\
tTl.
