Historical Dictionary of Thailand (Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East)

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HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF ASIA, OCEANIA, AND THE MIDDLE EAST Edited by Jon Woronoff Asia 1. Vietnam, by William J. Duiker. 1989. Out of print. See No. 27. 2. Bangladesh, 2nd ed., by Craig Baxter and Syedur Rahman. 1996. Out of print. See No. 48. 3. Pakistan, by Shahid Javed Burki. 1991. Out of print. See No. 33. 4. Jordan, by Peter Gubser. 1991 5. Afghanistan, by Ludwig W. Adamec. 1991. Out of print. See No. 47. 6. Laos, by Martin Stuart-Fox and Mary Kooyman. 1992. Out of print. See No. 35. 7. Singapore, by K. Mulliner and Lian The-Mulliner. 1991 8. Israel, by Bernard Reich. 1992 9. Indonesia, by Robert Cribb. 1992. Out of print. See No. 51. 10. Hong Kong and Macau, by Elfed Vaughan Roberts, Sum Ngai Ling, and Peter Bradshaw. 1992 11. Korea, by Andrew C. Nahm. 1993. Out of print. See No. 52. 12. Taiwan, by John F. Copper. 1993. Out of print. See No. 34. 13. Malaysia, by Amarjit Kaur. 1993. Out of print. See No. 36. 14. Saudi Arabia, by J. E. Peterson. 1993. Out of print. See No. 45. 15. Myanmar, by Jan Becka. 1995 16. Iran, by John H. Lorentz. 1995 17. Yemen, by Robert D. Burrowes. 1995 18. Thailand, by May Kyi Win and Harold Smith. 1995. Out of print. See No. 55. 19. Mongolia, by Alan J. K. Sanders. 1996. Out of print. See No. 42. 20. India, by Surjit Mansingh. 1996 21. Gulf Arab States, by Malcolm C. Peck. 1996 22. Syria, by David Commins. 1996. Out of print. See No. 50. 23. Palestine, by Nafez Y. Nazzal and Laila A. Nazzal. 1997 24. Philippines, by Artemio R. Guillermo and May Kyi Win. 1997. Out of print. See No. 54. Oceania 1. Australia, by James C. Docherty. 1992. Out of print. See No. 32. 2. Polynesia, by Robert D. Craig. 1993. Out of print. See No. 39.

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3. Guam and Micronesia, by William Wuerch and Dirk Ballendorf. 1994 4. Papua New Guinea, by Ann Turner. 1994. Out of print. See No. 37. 5. New Zealand, by Keith Jackson and Alan McRobie. 1996 New Combined Series 25. Brunei Darussalam, by D. S. Ranjit Singh and Jatswan S. Sidhu. 1997 26. Sri Lanka, by S. W. R. de A. Samarasinghe and Vidyamali Samarasinghe. 1998 27. Vietnam, 2nd ed., by William J. Duiker. 1998 28. People’s Republic of China: 1949–1997, by Lawrence R. Sullivan, with the assistance of Nancy Hearst. 1998 29. Afghanistan, 2nd ed., by Ludwig W. Adamec. 1997. Out of print. See No. 47. 30. Lebanon, by As’ad AbuKhalil. 1998 31. Azerbaijan, by Tadeusz Swietochowski and Brian C. Collins. 1999 32. Australia, 2nd ed., by James C. Docherty. 1999 33. Pakistan, 2nd ed., by Shahid Javed Burki. 1999 34. Taiwan (Republic of China), 2nd ed., by John F. Copper. 2000 35. Laos, 2nd ed., by Martin Stuart-Fox. 2001 36. Malaysia, 2nd ed., by Amarjit Kaur. 2001 37. Papua New Guinea, 2nd ed., by Ann Turner. 2001 38. Tajikistan, by Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzedeh. 2002 39. Polynesia, 2nd ed., by Robert D. Craig. 2002 40. North Korea, by Ilpyong J. Kim. 2003 41. Armenia, by Rouben Paul Adalian. 2002 42. Mongolia, 2nd ed., by Alan J. K. Sanders. 2003 43. Cambodia, by Justin Corfield and Laura Summers. 2003 44. Iraq, by Edmund A. Ghareeb with the assistance of Beth K. Dougherty. 2004 45. Saudi Arabia, 2nd ed., by J. E. Peterson. 2003 46. Nepal, by Nanda R. Shrestha and Keshav Bhattarai. 2003 47. Afghanistan, 3rd ed., by Ludwig W. Adamec. 2003 48. Bangladesh, 3rd ed., by Craig Baxter and Syedur Rahman. 2003 49. Kyrgyzstan, by Rafis Abazov. 2004

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50. Syria, 2nd ed., by David Commins. 2004 51. Indonesia, 2nd ed., by Robert Cribb and Audrey Kahin. 2004 52. Republic of Korea, 2nd ed., by Andrew C. Nahm and James E. Hoare. 2004 53. Turkmenistan, by Rafis Abazov. 2005 54. Philippines, 2nd ed., by Artemio Guillermo. 2005 55. Thailand, 2nd ed., by Harold E. Smith, Gayla S. Nieminen, and May Kyi Win. 2005.

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Historical Dictionary of Thailand Second Edition Harold E. Smith Gayla S. Nieminen May Kyi Win

Historical Dictionaries of Asia, No. 55

The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Oxford 2005

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SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.scarecrowpress.com PO Box 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright © 2005 by Harold E. Smith, Gayla S. Nieminen, and May Kyi Win All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Smith, Harold E. (Harold Eugene), 1916– Historical dictionary of Thailand / Harold E. Smith, Gayla S. Nieminen, May Kyi Win.— 2nd ed. p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East ; no. 55) May’s name appears first on the earlier edition. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8108-5396-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Thailand—History—Dictionaries. I. Nieminen, Gayla S., 1947– II. May Kyi Win. III. Title. IV. Historical dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East ; 55. DS571.S578 2005 959.3'003—dc22 2005009804

∞ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America.

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Contents

Editor’s Foreword

ix

Preface

xi

Acknowledgments

xiii

Acronyms

xv

Maps

xviii

List of Provinces

xxi

Chronology

xxiii

Introduction

1

THE DICTIONARY

19

Appendixes A Kings of Ayuthaya, Thonburi, and Siam/Thailand

287

B Kings of Sukhothai

289

C Kings of Lan Na and Chiang Mai

291

D Population of Thailand by Province and Region

293

E Population of Thailand, 1910–2000

297

F Population of Larger Cities, 2000 Census

299

G Economically Active Population

301

H Principal Agricultural Crops

303

I

305

Thailand’s Economic Indicators

J Gross Domestic Product by Industrial Origin vii

307

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K Parties and Seats in House of Representatives, Elections of 1992–2001

309

L Elections Since 1933

311

M A Chronology of Coups d’Etat in Modern Thailand

313

N Prime Ministers, 1932–2005

315

Bibliography

317

About the Authors

373

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Editor’s Foreword

Thailand, in many ways, is similar to most other countries in Southeast Asia. After a spurt of rapid growth, followed by an economic crisis, it is back on track with a considerably more advanced economy than previously. Its educational system has been substantially upgraded, although certain aspects remain poor, and its governance is more democratic than ever, despite some glaring issues. Although much remains to be done, its achievements are considerable. Part of this can probably be traced to those aspects where Thailand differs from the others. Most notably, it was the only country to avoid colonization and thus has a stronger sense of nationhood and deeper cultural roots. It is also nearer to China, Indochina, and Burma, once a serious disadvantage, now a plus as those countries also seek to modernize. Thailand, with its similarities and uniqueness, its advantages and drawbacks, presents a varied picture that is often hard to grasp. Yet, the authors of the Historical Dictionary of Thailand have managed to describe an amazing number of aspects: history and politics, economy and society, and religion and culture. They have also focused on many of the leading personalities, whether politicians or military men, educators or writers, and monks or kings. To this can be added major cities and provinces, political parties and international organizations, and ethnic groups and grassroots movements. Together with a handy chronology and a selective, but quite comprehensive bibliography, this is an extremely helpful introduction to an extremely interesting country. This second edition of the Historical Dictionary of Thailand builds upon the first. Harold E. Smith, who coauthored the first edition, and wrote the predecessor Historical and Cultural Dictionary of Thailand, is the lead author this time. He knows Thailand well, having twice been a visiting professor at Thai universities, and having traveled widely there. He also lectured and wrote extensively about Thailand before becoming ix

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EDITOR’S FOREWORD

professor emeritus of sociology at Northern Illinois University. This time he was aided by Gayla S. Nieminen, who studied the Thai language in Bangkok and has also visited periodically, and who is presently researching educational agencies. Most unfortunately, the other coauthor of the first edition, May Kyi Win, has since passed away but her contribution remains. A longtime observer, she was the curator of the Donn V. Hart Southeast Asia Collection of Founders Memorial Library at Northern Illinois University. This book is in a sense a tribute to her and to a country she loved. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

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Preface

Interest in Thailand by Westerners and others grew rapidly after World War II. Today, Thailand continues its longtime role as a leader in Southeast Asian affairs. With its export-oriented economy, it has a significant role in international trade. During the colonial period and later when communism threatened, Thailand remained a stable and independent nation. In this volume, we have attempted to provide some glimpses of Thailand’s long history since the 13th century. Biographical sketches include those of former kings and the present king, who have been revered leaders of the kingdom, and of the military and civilian leaders who have been prominent since 1932. Many significant events are briefly chronicled in a focus on domestic affairs of this important nation in Southeast Asia. The impact on Thailand of neighboring countries and Western nations including France, Great Britain, and the United States is also treated. The pattern of discussion is to name the country followed by the phrase “relations with.” Family names in Thailand began to be used after 1916, but the pattern of referring to one another by first name continues. Thai biographical entries in the book are alphabetized by first name, while all other biographies are alphabetized in the Western manner by surname. The dictionary section of this book is organized so that entries are arranged alphabetically. A topic can be explored further by using the numerous cross-reference words in most entries, which are indicated by boldface type. Additional information is provided at the end of each entry under see also and a list of related entries. The name “Thailand” became official in 1939. Since the late 18th century, the nation had been called “Siam.” An alternative name for the country, historically, was the name of the capital city, e.g., Ayutthaya, the name of the country (kingdom) for more than 400 years. In English, xi

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the word “Thai” is used to refer to people who speak a particular language that is part of the Tai-language family. We have tried to avoid confusion between “Thai” and “Tai” by including with the word “Tai” the word language. For instance, one of the Tai-language words that appears frequently is “wat,” which in translation is “Buddhist temple compound.” No precise standard exists for the romanization of the Tai-language script. In this work, the authors have employed what we considered a generally used romanization of Tai words and expressions. We have been guided by romanization of Tai words utilized by the Thai government and by Thai writers who have used English in their publications. In this book, most Tai-language words appear beside the English equivalent. A Chronology of Events in Thailand appears before the dictionary section. This can be a handy reference or a kind of time framework for those who wish to explore specific time periods of Thai history. A series of maps showing the provinces of Thailand in each of the six regions begins on page viiii. This is followed on the next page by a listing of the provinces by region. This key to the location of provinces corresponds to the listing in appendix D. Harold E. Smith and Gayla S. Nieminen Northern Illinois University DeKalb, Illinois, U.S.A.

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Acknowledgments

Our focus on Thai studies began in early 1964 through an opportunity to teach and conduct research at a university in Thailand. Absorption in the Thai experience was expanded in early 1965 by an offer to continue a second year. A decade later brought another opportunity for universityconnected teaching and continuation of studies of the Thai family and the modern Thai medical profession. Financial support was from the Educational (Fulbright) Foundation of Thailand. As the senior author developed a specialty in the sociology of Thailand, he learned much from American colleagues and Thai university faculty. Among the Thais were Snit Smukarn, Paitoon Cruago, Suphat Sotthitada, Chamrieng Bhavichitra, Chalermsri Dhamabutra, Prasert Bhandachat, Narong and Ruthjaporn Prachadetsuwat, Chaiwat Roongrungsee, Noppadol and Nisada Wedchayanon, and Buskorn Prugsapongse. Among the American colleagues were M. Ladd Thomas, Ronald Provencher, John Hartman, Grant A. Olson, and Constance Wilson. There are many scholars of Thai studies whose writings have been of great importance to us. Among those who have contributed to our thinking and writing about Thailand are Pasuk Phongpaichit, Chris Baker, Amara Pongsapich, Titaya Suvanajata, Medhi Krongkaew, Veerapong Saenjan, Anek Laothamathas, Utis Kaothien, David K. Wyatt, Chris Dixon, Ira M. Robinson, Mary Beth Mills, John Girling, Clark D. Neher, Daniel Arghiros, Ruth McVey, Penny Van Esterik, John Funston, Barbara L. Lepoer, and Robert B. Albritton. Thanks are due also to Gregory Green, Linda Groat, Chalermsri Olson, Kevin and Margot Sondgeroth, and to Northern Illinois University Library’s Southeast Asia Collection. The support of Rhea V. Smith, the senior author’s wife, is much appreciated. This book is dedicated to her.

xiii

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Acronyms

ADB AID AIT APEC ASEAN ASEAN-CCI ASPAC BAAC BIBF BMA BMR BOI BOT CPT ECAFE EGAT ESCAP ETA ETO EU FAO FDA FTI GDP IBRD IFCT ILO

Asian Development Bank Agency for International Development Asian Institution of Technology Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN Chamber of Commerce and Industry Asian and Pacific Council Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives Bangkok International Banking Facility Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Bangkok Metropolitan Region Board of Investment Bank of Thailand Communist Party of Thailand Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East Electric Generating Authority of Thailand Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Expressway and Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand Express Transportation Organization of Thailand European Union Food and Agriculture Organization Food and Drug Association Federation of Thai Industries Gross Domestic Product International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) Industrial Finance Corporation of Thailand International Labor Organization xv

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IMF ISEAS ITU JPPCC JSS MC MCOT ML MOA MOE MOF MOFA MOI MOPH MR MUA NATO NEC NEDB NESDB NGO NIDA NSO OUP PAO PAT PROP RFD RTG SAO SEACEN SEAMEO SEATO SET

International Monetary Fund Institute of Southeast Asian Studies International Telecommunications Union Joint Public and Private Sector Consultative Committee Journal of the Siam Society Mom Chao (royal title) Mass Communication Organization of Thailand Mom Luang (royal title) Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Education Ministry of Finance or Marketing Organization of Farmers Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of Industry or Ministry of the Interior Ministry of Public Health Mom Rajawongse (royal title) Ministry of University Affairs North Atlantic Treaty Organization National Education Council National Economic Development Board National Economic and Social Development Board Non-Governmental Organization National Institute of Development Administration National Statistical Office Oxford University Press Provincial Administrative Organization Petroleum Authority of Thailand or Port Authority of Thailand Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCO) Royal Forestry Department Royal Thai Government Subdistrict Administrative Organization Southeast Asian Central Bank Group Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Southeast Asian Treaty Organization Stock Exchange of Thailand

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SLORC SUPPORT TAC TAT TBA TCC TISTR TOEFL TOT TPI UN UNEP UNESCO UNICEF UPU USAID USOM VOPT WHO WTO

• xvii

State Law and Order Restoration Council (of Burma) Supplementary Occupations and Related Techniques Foundation Thailand Airways International Corporation Tourist Authority of Thailand Thai Bankers Association Thai Chamber of Commerce Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research Teaching of English as a Foreign Language Telephone Organization of Thailand or Tourist Organization of Thailand Thai Petrochemical Industry United Nations United Nations Environmental Program United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund Universal Postal Union United States Agency for International Development United States Operations Mission Voice of the People of Thailand World Health Organization World Trade Organization

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Southeast Asia.

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Map 1.

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Northeastern Thailand.

Northwestern Thailand.

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Map 5.

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Central Thailand.

Southern Thailand.

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Provinces of Thailand within Region

Bangkok Metropolitan Region: Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Nakhon Pathom Pathum Thani

Samut Prakan Nontha Buri Samut Sakhon

Central Region: Ang Thong Chai Nat Phra Nakhon–Si Ayutthaya

Sara Buri Sing Buri

Eastern Region: Chanthaburi Chachoengsao Chon Buri Nakon Nayak

Prachin Buri Rayong Sa Kaeo Trat

Western Region: Kanchana Buri Prachuap Khiri Khan Phetchaburi

Ratcha Buri Samut Songkhram Suphan Buri

Northern Region: Chiang Mai Chiang Rai Kamphaeng Phet Lampang Lamphun Mae Hong Son

Phichit Phitsanulok Phetchabun Phrae Sakhothai Tak xxi

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PROVINCES OF THAILAND WITHIN REGION

Nakhon Sawan Nan Phayao Northeastern Region: Amnat Charoen Bua Lam Phu Buri Ram Chaiyaphum Kalasin Khon Kaen Loei Maha Sarakham Mukdahan Nakhon Phanom Southern Region: Chumphon Krabi Nakhon Si Thammarat Narathiwat Pattani Phangnga Phatthalung

Uttaradit Uthai Thani

Nakhon Ratchasima Nong Khai Roi Et Sakhon Nakhon Si Sa Ket Surin Udon Thani Ubon Ratchathani Yasothon

Phuket Ranong Satun Songkhla Surat Thani Trang Yala

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Chronology

Prehistory to 800 CE 40,000–3000 BCE The early ancestors of Southeast Asian (SEA) peoples lived in permanent sites. Around 10,000 BCE, ethnic groups of SEA peoples were becoming differentiated. They had domestic animals. Rice was cultivated. Outrigger canoes were used. From 5,000 BCE, metallurgy practices used bronze and copper. Prehistoric settlements existed at Ban Chiang and other sites. From 3,000 BCE, iron work was used. 2000 BCE–800 CE A distinctive civilization was shared by SEA peoples present in northern SEA and south China. Gradually, Tai-language speakers migrated south and west.

Early Kingdoms and Polities 800–1350 CE 800–1200 Dvaravati, a Mon civilization, occupied what now is central and western Thailand. In the 11th century, Mon centers fell under domination of the Khmer kingdom of Angkor. In the 12th century, Chiang Saen, Phayao, Nakhon Si Thammarat, and other small polities of Tai-language speakers were established with their own chieftains, typically as vassals. ca 1240 First independent polity of Tai-language speakers, Sukhothai, established by Sri Indraditya after the defeat of the Khmer garrison. 1259–1296 The beginnings of the Lan Na kingdom established by Mangrai in Chiang Saen. Gradually, he expanded the kingdom taking over adjacent polities with temporary capitals at Chiang Rai and Fang; his big prize was capturing the Mon kingdom of Haripunjaya, another xxiii

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temporary capital. He established a new permanent capital at Chiang Mai in 1296. 1279–1300 King Ramkhamhaeng built the Sukhothai Kingdom into a great power. A stone inscription of his was the first known written use of the Tai-language alphabet. High-quality glazed ceramics were produced commercially at Sukhothai and nearby towns. 1317–1355 For four decades, the Lan Na kingdom was a vassal state of the Mongols.

Ayutthaya and Other Kingdoms, 1350–1569 1351–1547 The city state Ayutthaya was founded by U Thong (Ramathibodi), its first king. He soon asserted suzerainty over smaller states in the area. The Sukhothai kingdom, after a failed war, succumbed in 1438 and became a part of the Ayutthaya kingdom. In both Ayutthaya and Lan Na royal power was built on personal relationships between ruler and ruled. What this pattern lacked was control of manpower, a fatal weakness against attacks by Burmese armies. For two centuries, the Ayutthaya kingdom was ruled by 18 kings of two dynasties. Trailok was famous for innovations in civil and military administration. Portuguese officials from Malacca opened the first European embassy in Ayutthaya for trade expansion in 1511. 1355–1526 An age of restoration of the politically strong Lan Na Kingdom. Six famous kings were among its rulers in this period. There was cultural development from Ceylonese Buddhism. The Pali Chronicle, Jinakalamali, was completed. 1526–1776 The Lan Na Kingdom declined under weak kings and became a vassal of Burma. For two centuries, Lan Na, under Burmese domination, was used as a military base for attacks against Ayutthaya and Lan Xang. 1548–1569 Chakraphat, King of Ayutthaya, successfully defended his kingdom from Burmese attacks. The forces of the next king, Suryamahin, were defeated by the Burmese armies. Ayutthaya was occupied by the Burmese and plundered in 1569.

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Empire of Ayutthaya, 1569–1767 1569–1584 For 15 years, the Ayutthaya kingdom was under Burmese suzerainty and Maha Thammaracha, son-in-law of Chakraphat, was the vassal king. Prior to this, in 1567, King Chakaraphat, sent his grandson, Naresuan, as hostage to the Burmese capital. During the kingdom’s weakness, Cambodian forces captured the eastern territory and removed the population. 1584–1592 The independent state of Ayutthaya was restored after the armies led by Naresuan defeated the Burmese. Naresuan became king. A Burmese invasion was repulsed in a Nong Sarai battle when Naresuan killed the Burmese crown prince. He became famous for this victory. 1600s Siam (or Sayam) became the accepted name among Westerners for the Ayutthaya kingdom. Asian and European traders and Christian missionaries brought changes to Siam’s art, sculpture, and architecture. Dutch traders, who arrived in Ayutthaya, established a trading company. The British East India Company opened trading posts in Ayutthaya, Chiang Mai, and Pattani. 1629–1656 Prasat Thong reigned as king of the Ayutthaya kingdom. A Japanese embassy was opened in the kingdom in 1634. 1656–1688 A period of preeminence of the Ayutthaya kingdom due to its large territory, and extensive trade, under the reign of King Narai. A French ambassador and Catholic missionaries arrived, sent by Louis XIV, King of France. The French East India Company began operations in Ayutthaya. King Narai signed a Treaty of Alliance with France in 1686 and French garrisons were established in the kingdom capital and at Mergui. 1688–1758 Phetracha became king and arranged the ouster of foreign troops. Some missionaries were imprisoned temporarily. King Borommakot reigned for 25 years with success. He strengthened Buddhism and governmental administration. 1767 Three Burmese armies overcame the defenses of the Ayutthaya kingdom. The city of a million persons was destroyed and burned. Population and plunder moved to Burma.

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Bangkok Empire, 1767–1932 1767–1782 A resurgent Siamese kingdom was established by Taksin who became king and reigned from his capital at Thonburi. Rival kings and chiefs on the northeast and south became vassals. A Siamese army led by Thong Duong and his brother Bunma conquered Vientiane and brought back to Siam the two sacred images, Emerald Buddha and Phrabang Buddha. Lan Na became a vassal of Siam in 1775 after the defeat of the Burmese garrison with Taksin’s help. 1782–1808 General Thong Duong (later called Rama I) became the Siamese king and initiated the Chakri dynasty. He built a new capital for the kingdom at Bangkok. Rama I organized much construction and directed the completion of a definitive text, Tipitaka, of the Buddhist scriptures. The attempted invasions of five Burmese armies were defeated by the Siamese. Rama I also arranged the Three Seals Law Code, a reformulation of previous laws from the Ayutthaya period. Two Burmese attempted invasions of Lan Na were defeated with aid from the Siamese. Vassal King Kavila was confirmed as ruler of the entire northern area (former Lan Na) by Rama I. Ramakian, a Siamese version of the famous Hindu epic, Ramayana, was translated and set to verse. 1809–1824 Siam was ruled by Rama II (Loetla), who was known for his literary works. 1824–1851 Siamese King Rama III (Nangklao) stabilized the nation by overcoming rebellions in the east and south. He strengthened Buddhism. The 1826 Burney treaty with Great Britain was signed. Siam was powerful and prosperous with trade and added vassal states and territories. 1833–1944 Both Baptist and Presbyterian missions were founded in Siam. An American, Dan Bradley, M.D., the first medical doctor, arrived and began practicing medicine. Bradley led in creating the first Tai-language newspaper to be published in Siam. The first school with instruction in both English and the Tai language was opened by American missionaries. 1851–1868 King Mongkut became king. A scholar of European languages and a variety of disciplines, he established friendly relations with European states. He saw the necessity of possible sacrifices to pre-

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serve Siam’s independence due to confrontations of colonizing powers. He began the process of modernizing Siam’s government and employed European advisors. The unofficial name ‘Siam’ instead of Bangkok Kingdom became official in 1856 with its use in a treaty with Great Britain. The Bowring Treaty of Commerce and Friendship was followed with similar treaties made with the United States and nine other Western nations. Mongkut led in founding The Royal Gazette. It was the first periodical in the Tai language. 1868–1888 Chulalongkorn was king for 42 years. He promoted education and opened a Siamese school in the Royal Palace. A government school for common people was established in Bangkok. The Department of Education was set up. Bangkok city obtained its first library. King Chulalongkorn established relations with other nations. Siamese embassies were established in Europe, the United States, Russia, and Japan. 1888–1907 Territorial concessions were made four times to France, a colonial power, in a long period of hostilities. France obtained northeast Laos, the entire east bank of the Mekong. Siam recognized the French protectorate in Cambodia, ceded to France Sayaburi and a part of Champassak, and ceded the Cambodian provinces of Battambang, Siem Reap, and Sisophon. Negotiations were extremely difficult but Chulalongkorn and his advisors enabled Siam to keep its independence. 1892–1908 King Chulalongkorn was instrumental in modernizing the Siamese government. The Belgian, Rolin-Jacquemyns, was employed as an advisor. Siamese administrative improvements resulted in an AngloFrench agreement that recognized the Kingdom of Siam. Siam’s first railroad was completed between Bangkok and Ayutthaya. The Sangha Law of Buddhism was decreed by King Chulalongkorn. 1910–1925 Vajiravudh was king of Siam for 15 years. He promoted Siamese nationalism and ordered the people to adopt surnames. His interest in writing and poetry was accompanied by wide circulation of imported novels and films. Chulalongkorn University was founded. It offered programs in medicine, civil service, and engineering. Compulsory education to the fourth grade was proclaimed. In 1918, Vajiravudh sent to Europe a military force to aid the Allies in World War I. The gesture helped later to negotiate new treaties with Western nations.

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These treaties provided Siam with trade tariff autonomy an end to existing extraterritoriality. The metric system of weights and measures was adopted. 1925–1935 Prajadhipok was king of Siam for 10 years in a period when the absolute monarchy was quite unpopular. He dealt effectively with the disarray in government finances and the impact of the worldwide depression. He attempted to introduce a constitution.

ERA OF MILITARY GOVERNMENTS, 1932–1988 1932 The Siamese monarchy changed to a constitutional one in a bloodless coup led by civilian activists and military officers. In August, former general Manoprakornnitithada became the first prime minister of Siam. 1933 Former general Phahonyothin was prime minister of Siam for five years. Lan Na ceased as a vassal and became seven northern provinces with appointed governors. October: A bloody rebellion to restore the monarchy, led by Prince Bowaradet, failed. November: the first Siamese national election for the House of Representatives (parliament) occurred in which both men and women had the right to vote. 1935–1937 King Prajadhipok, the constitutional monarch, abdicated the throne and was succeeded by King Ananda Mahidol. Previously, Prajadhipok had negotiations underway with European nations in which Siam regained the sovereignty it had lost in previous treaties. 1938–1939 Former general Phibun Songkhram became prime minister. He dismissed the parliament and assumed absolute power with support of the army. The prime minister decreed the name “Thailand” in place of the former Siam in 1939. The Western calendar was adopted. 1941–1944 The Japanese military occupied Thailand. Japan assisted Thailand to regain its former territories west of the Mekong River from France and assisted in the return to Thailand of the territories lost to Great Britain. Thailand declared war on Great Britain and the United States. The U.S. was not officially notified by the Thai Ambassador. January 1944: The Bank of Thailand (BOT) was set up as a government central bank. Kasetsart and Silpakorn became new state universi-

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ties. Thailand suffered wartime shortages, price inflation, bombings, lack of imports, and inability to export. 1944–1945 Prime Minister Phibun resigned when it appeared Japan would lose the war. During the next four years, five civilian prime ministers served for short terms. Pridi Phanomyong, the Regent, repudiated all agreements previously made with the Japanese. An Anglo-Thai peace treaty restored to Great Britain the Malay and Shan region territories. 1946 Prince Bhumibol Adulyadej became king after the death of Ananda Mahidol. 1947 Thailand returned to France the Mekong territories acquired with Japanese assistance. November: Army and police units harassed “leftist” students and politicians. Thailand joined the United Nations and signed a treaty of friendship with the People’s Republic of China. 1948–1949 Phibun in a coup returned as prime minister. He imposed restrictions on the Chinese. Some Thai-Malay leaders were arrested and Malay language schools and organizations were closed. In 1949, Pridi was forced into exile after a failed coup against Phibun. 1950 Coronation ceremonies for King Bhumibol Adulyadej were staged. 1950–1952 The beginning of United States economic and military assistance to Thailand of millions of US dollars. The armed rebellion against Prime Minister Phibun failed but caused over 300 casualties. A National Scheme of Education was proclaimed; private as well as public schools were encouraged. Thammasat University, founded in 1934, was enlarged to include two schools also founded previously, namely, the University of Moral and Political Science and the Law School. 1954 The College of Education, Prasarnmit, was created with seven branch campuses. The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was established with headquarters in Bangkok. 1955–1957 Commercial television broadcasting commenced. United Nations regional headquarters for several agencies were located in Bangkok. King Bhumibol made a 22-day visit to the northeast provinces to promote societal unity. Prince Wan served as president of

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the United Nations General Assembly. The 25th century of Thai Buddhism was celebrated. 1959–1963 Sarit Thanarat became prime minister after a coup; he governed with martial law and economic development was emphasized. Thai Airways International was established as a state enterprise. Compulsory education was extended from four to seven years. Secondary schools and universities were authorized. United States military intelligence centers were opened in Bangkok and at two places in the northeast. 1963–1973 Thanom Kittikachorn became prime minister. He emphasized economic development to combat rural discontent and insurgency. Chiang Mai University opened, the first of 12 state universities established outside of Bangkok. A long period of insurgency and economic unrest existed in the northeast, northern, and southern areas. 1965–1967 The United States waged air warfare against North Vietnam from bases it had constructed in Thailand. The U.S. also used Bangkok and other cities as rest and rehabilitation centers for military forces. The Thai Air force, Navy, and Army joined the U. S. war operations. New government facilities opened were the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives and the National Institute of Development Administration for advanced higher education. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was organized with headquarters in Bangkok. The Minerals Act authorized state ownership and control of all minerals. 1969–1971 Private colleges were authorized to grant degrees. Ramkamhaeng University opened, where an examination was not required for admission. 1973–1974 A student-led uprising seeking democracy in the government led to violence and intervention by King Bhumibol. Prime Minister Thanom and two associates went into exile. This was followed by a four-year period of civilian prime ministers. The Securities Exchange for stock market control was established. The 15-year ban on China trade was lifted with normalized relations the next year. 1975 Thousands of Laotian refugees flooded into Thailand following the Pathet Lao communist takeover of the Lao government. U.S. military forces were evacuated from Thailand.

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1976–1978 Police and a right-wing mob attacked unarmed students at Thammasat University causing many deaths and injuries. As a result, thousands fled to the countryside. Following a coup against the previous prime minister, Kriangsak Chomanan became prime minister for three years. An Investment Promotion Act was enacted to attract investment capital. Chiang Mai airport was authorized for international traffic. 1979–1980 The Thai and Laos prime ministers conferred about Laotian refugees. A Thai Labor Court was established to cope with increased industrialization. Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia provoked a flood of refugees from that country. With the discovery of natural gas in the Gulf of Thailand, the Eastern Seaboard Project was initiated at Laem Chabang. 1980–1982 Former general Prem Tinsulanonda became prime minister. Following the declaration of an amnesty, some 3,000 former students and activists returned from the countryside. Many Cambodian refugees were expelled or helped to migrate abroad. 1987–1988 King Bhumibol’s 60th birthday was widely celebrated. Another event celebrated King Bhumibol as having the longest reign in 1988. A series of meetings between Thai and Burmese officials were held to improve relations. The three-month border conflict at Ban Rom Klao between Thai and Laotian Army units ended in a cease fire. A four-year economic boom was fueled by the inflow of huge amounts of foreign investment capital.

Toward Democratic Government 1988–1989 Former general Chatchai Choonavan became the first elected prime minister of Thailand. This event was seen as a democratic advance. Thailand became a place of refuge for oppressed Burmese who desired democracy, after the military coup in Rangoon. The United States pressured Thailand to enforce copyright laws. Thailand and Laos repatriated some 80,000 Laotian refugees. Thai industrial output rose to a new high. Thailand promoted improved relations with Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Burma in order to increase trade. The Malaysian Communist Party was persuaded by Thai and Malaysian officials to abandon the armed struggle.

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1990 February: Seaport workers staged a four-day strike. July: Thailand’s first major social security law was enacted. August: The typhoon that struck southern Thailand caused 450 deaths and extensive property damage. More Burmese refugees came but aid was denied. Ten thousand illegal workers were evacuated by Thailand at the request of the Singapore government. 1991 A minimum daily wage of 115 baht (US$4.60) was established in Bangkok and vicinity, and in Phuket. In a move to restore a military government, General Sundara Kongsompong, in a coup removed Prime Minister Chatchai and dissolved the National Assembly. Anand Panyarachun was named interim prime minister. 1992 April: One year after the coup, General Suchinda Kraprayoon became the prime minister. Within two months, a 500,000 strong prodemocracy protest arose on Bangkok streets opposing Suchinda. To bring order following the military action, which killed or wounded hundreds, King Bhumibol intervened and the crisis eased. Suchinda resigned and Anand returned as prime minister. He obtained approval of measures that curbed the power of the armed forces. May: Cambodian refugee camps were closed after a massive repatriation program. September: In an election, a coalition of pro-democracy political parties won, and Chuan Leekpai became prime minister. November: A Quality of Life Improvement Fund was created with 1.3 million baht (US$325,000) initially. 1993 March: The parliament approved the appointment of women as district officers. May: A doll factory fire killed 138 workers and injured 488 others. June: Millions of dollars from the United States to aid Thai military training was resumed. July: King Bhumibol Adulyadej gave four million baht (US$160,000) to the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration for urban improvements. August–September: Central and northeast Thailand experienced a drought. Thousands of Burmese refugees were allowed to have work permits. This was renewed a year later. October: The Vietnamese prime minister, on a state visit, requested naturalization for the 40,000 ethnic Vietnamese in Thailand. 1994 February–March: Thailand endured the most critical drought in 30 years. Thailand’s first communication satellite began operation. The government established the Bangkok International Banking Facil-

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ity (BIBF) to facilitate foreign investment. April: The “Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge” over the Mekong River opened. King Bhumibol visited the Laotian government in Vientiane. July: The Bangkok government opened a waste water treatment plant. September: A new rural health program began using satellite communications for improved medical services in rural areas. November: The annual export of goods exceeded one trillion baht (US$40 billion). 1995 January: The Mekong River Commission was established jointly by Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam with the goal of promoting development. April: With Chuan Leekpai as prime minister, amendments to the constitution included reduction in the size of the Senate, the voting age lowered to 18, and equality for women. May: The Bangkok Post newspaper was elected to the United Nations Environment Global 500 Roll of Honor. July: In the parliamentary election, the Chat Thai Party won the most seats and Banharn Silpa-Archa became prime minister. August: Because of frequent Burmese incursions into Thailand in their attempts to control Karen rebels, border crossings at the Thai-Burmese border were closed for a time. They were reopened the following year. 1996 The four years of instability and civil war in Cambodia had impacts on Thailand. Some members of the Thai Army were alleged to have provided aid to Khmer Rouge forces in violation of Thai government policy and there were incursions by Cambodian troops into Thailand. January: A Joint Thai–Cambodia Committee to handle problems was set up. A high-priced proposed military purchase caused serious instability among the Thai government’s five coalition partners. March: The new Senate was the first to be appointed by a democratically elected prime minister. June: Bhichit Rattakul won the election to the governorship of Bangkok. September: Banharn’s coalition weakened and he resigned. November: Parliamentary elections were held amid allegations of violence and vote buying. The New Aspiration Party won the most seats with Chavalit Yongchaiyudh, party leader, becoming prime minister. 1997 January: A 15,000-strong farmer protest group was camped near the prime minister’s office in Bangkok. When a fund was created to cope with the farmers’ economic demands, the group dispersed after having stayed four months. February: Malaysia and Thailand established the

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Kolok River as the border between the two countries. March: A Centralized Government Pension Fund was established. Exports of Thai manufactured goods did not increase over the past year. May–June: The Thai currency, the baht, was attacked by speculators who expected it to decline in value. The Bank of Thailand used huge sums of foreign exchange reserves to protect the baht’s value. July 2: There began a very large drop in the value of the baht as it was allowed to float in the international currency market. August: An economic crisis was apparent. Through the International Money Fund (IMF), a loan of 67.1 billion (US$) was secured. It came with IMF supervision to reorganize the structure of Thai financial institutions. A total of 100 finance companies were ordered to suspend operations due to lack of capital and nonpayment of outstanding loans. Of these, 56 were ordered closed. September: A significantly changed national constitution was approved by the parliament and by the prime minister. December: After widespread public pressure, Chavalit resigned and Chuan Leekpai became prime minister, 1998 January: A new state-owned commercial bank was created to manage the assets of the closed finance companies. February: Due to the economic crisis, financial aid to Laos, Burma, Cambodia, and Vietnam was reduced and the Thai administration indicated it planned to forcibly repatriate thousands of illegal Burmese refugees. July: The new Thai Rak Thai Political Party was organized with Thaksin Shinawatra its leader. October: Thailand began emerging from the 1997 economic crisis due to a solid growth in Gross Domestic Product from the export of manufactured goods. Tran Duc Luong, president of Vietnam, arrived for an official state visit. 1999 March: Prime Minister General Than Shwe of Burma and Prime Minister General Sisavat Keoboundphan of Laos made official visits. Thailand contributed 1,500 military personnel to the multinational peace-keeping force in East Timor. A Constitutional Court was created with supreme judicial power to rule on a wide range of matters. August: A new National Education Act extended compulsory education to high school completion. November: New banking services were begun in Satun province and plans announced to do the same for other provinces with large Muslim communities. December: The first elevated rail transit system began operation. Eighty percent of Thai export earnings were generated by manufacturing, with textiles, garments, electronics, and electrical goods being the chief manufactured products.

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2000 January: Burmese rebels took control of a hospital in Ratchaburi. Negotiations resulted in the release of all hostages and the rebels were flown to the border empty-handed. The Bank of Thailand reported that unpaid loans in the financial system totaled 2,073 trillion baht (US$46 trillion) or 38.5 percent of all loans. March: The Nation newspaper reported that borrowers representing nearly one-quarter of all outstanding loans held by financial institutions had failed to reach an outof-court settlement. They were expected to apply for bankruptcy. June: Many legislative representatives pressured Prime Minister Chuan Leekpai to dissolve the House of Representatives and call a new election. Chuan announced that such action would be delayed until October pending the completion of needed reforms in the structure of financial institutions. August 1: Thailand’s first ever democratically elected Senate of 200 members was inaugurated. Elections initially held in March with 1,500 candidates required four additional election rounds due to certain “elected” members who were disqualified by the Election Commission. October: Her Majesty Queen Sirikit made a historic state visit to China. November: It was announced that warning pictures will be placed on cigarette packets to emphasize the health threats of smoking. 2001 January: Using the plan required in the new 1997 constitution, elections for the 500-member House of Representatives were held. The Thai Rak Thai Party secured 248 seats, easily forming a governing coalition with the Seritham Party. Party leader Thaksin Shinawatra became prime minister. Further rounds of elections were necessary in 62 constituencies when “elected” members were disqualified for fraud by the Election Commission. Observers indicated the election was the most corrupt ever in Thai history. March: A Thai Airways airplane was destroyed at the Bangkok airport just before Prime Minister Thaksin was to board. There was speculation about a possible assassination attempt. April: Two bomb attacks in the Muslim area of south Thailand were linked to a Muslim separatist organization. Prime Minister Thaksin made an official state visit to Malaysia. Officials of both governments conferred amicably on border demarcation and a gas pipeline connecting the two countries. June: Prime Minister Thaksin, on a state visit, conferred in Rangoon (Yangon) with Burmese officials. It was not possible to reach agreement on how to overcome problems in their bilateral relations. October: A low-cost health care plan was introduced for the nation’s poorest people. Questions remain concerning its funding and administration. December: Prime Minister Thaksin made a

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state visit to the United States. In his meeting with U.S. President George W. Bush, fighting terrorism was one topic of discussion. Bush praised the Thai government for its support. 2002 January: The government announced a one trillion baht (US$25 billion) budget for the upcoming fiscal year with 1.7 percent deficit spending as an economic stimulus. The New Aspiration Party merged with the Thai Rak Thai Party. February: Prime Minister Thaksin made a state visit to India where he conferred with officials regarding cooperation in trade and in outer space exploration. March: At a meeting in Bangkok, Kim Young Nam representing North Korea and Surakiat Sathirathai representing Thailand signed agreements on financial investments, culture, and exchange of information. A total of 384 instructors and professors from 22 universities published an open letter requesting that Prime Minister Thaksin publicly promise that he will protect and promote both freedom of speech and expression. September: Major reform of government ministries and the civil service occurred. Six new deputy prime ministers were named, resulting in a total of 20 ministries. More than 200 offices and departments were transferred. October: The Council on Rice Trade Cooperation was established in Bangkok. Its goal is setting a floor for export rice prices as agreed upon by the five major producers, China, India, Vietnam, Thailand, and Pakistan. The council will hold regular meetings and oversee 80 percent of Asian total rice production of 25 million tons. Prime Minister Thaksin and the commanders of the Royal Thai defense forces made a state visit to Russia, where meetings with Russian officials focused on defense matters. Lopburi farmer Ireen Tatong received an award as one of five outstanding Asian-Pacific farmers from the United Nations on World Food Day. December: The Council of Ministers of Thailand and Malaysia met jointly in Hat Yai. 2003 January 29: An angry Cambodian mob damaged the Thai embassy building in Phnom Phen and attacked Thai businesses there. Within two weeks, normal relations had been largely restored. February 1: A nationwide campaign to arrest and bring to justice drug dealers was begun. In a few weeks, large numbers of dealers were killed by other dealers and crime bosses, or while resisting arrest by police. Public concern was expressed at what was perceived as overreaction by authorities. April 24: Reports indicated an economic decline in Thailand.

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Tourism was down 35 percent due to effects of the SARS virus. May 6: The press in Thailand was downgraded to “partly free” by the distinguished agency Freedom House. May 11: In a study conducted in the three southern provinces of Yala, Pattani, and Narathiwat, the Thailand Research Fund found that the major concerns of the Muslim population were economic difficulties, desire for free education, replacement of Thai officials with Muslim ones, and better security through reduction of criminal influence and power. May 14: In world economic competitiveness, Thailand was ranked 10th in 2003, up from 13th the previous year. June 6: By action of the Constitutional Court, Thai married women were allowed to retain their unmarried name, adopt their husband’s name, or change back if previously married. July 27: Prime Minister Thaksin and his Malaysian counterpart, Mahathir Muhammed, signed agreements in Langkawi, Malaysia, to boost bilateral trade. August 1: Thailand completed prepayment of the IMF-arranged loan in 1997. 2004 January 2: The United States designated Thailand a major nonNATO ally, giving the kingdom greater access to foreign aid, defense assistance, and the purchase of defense equipment. January 6: Due to violence there, martial law was declared in the south Thailand provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat. Several policemen and government officials had been killed and 20 local schools set on fire. Within weeks, 1,000 other schools were closed causing many teachers to flee to Malaysia. January: A bird flu epidemic struck parts of Thailand after it first appeared in Kanchanaburi province. March 15: The Thaksin Shinawatra administration announced plans to privatize two state enterprises, Electric Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) and Mass Communication Organization of Thailand (MCOT); the announcement was met by strong opposition from the employees and labor unions. This resulted in a delay in listing the properties for sale. March 18: Unrest and severe violence continued in the four southernmost provinces, Narathiwat, Pattani, Songkhla, and Yala with 38 buildings set on fire, mostly schools. The national government increased the Armed Forces personnel there. April 10: Following a safety-awareness campaign by public officials, deaths from traffic accidents during the five-day Songkran holiday declined, compared to 2003. The more than 10,000 annual traffic deaths in Thailand make this the second highest cause of death in the kingdom. April 12: The Atlas of Thailand, the first of its

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kind, was published in Bangkok after five years of research by scholars from Thailand and France. April 14: Prateep Ungsongtham won both the World’s Children Award and the Global Friends Award. For 35 years, Prateep has devoted time and experience to give vulnerable children the chance to go to school. April 27: In the southern provinces of Yala, Pattani, and Songkhla, an attack on police bases and village and district offices by mostly teenage militants resulted in the death of 112, including five security personnel. May 1: The Malaysian government indicated that refugees from the violence of Thailand’s southern provinces will be accepted in Malaysia. Suspected insurgents, numbering 108, were killed in three separate clashes with Thai police and armed forces troops, an action that shocked the Thai people. Within days, the head of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights requested that the Thai government investigate the tragedy. Suits filed in court by lawyers for families of persons killed have been reported. May 4: In their observance of World Press Freedom Day, the Reporters Without Borders organization indicated that Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra tried forcefully to silence voices critical of his administration’s policies. In this effort he was aided by the Thai Royal Army, which owns media broadcasting facilities. May 7: Diplomats from 12 Muslim countries made a two-day visit to the province and city of Pattani in order to better understand the nature of the conflict and controversy there. May 27: Laos announced a ban on the showing of Thai television programs and videos in public places. The ban seeks to prevent the domination in Laos of Thai culture. June 1: It was announced that Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra would make an official visit to China in mid-June to attend the third annual Discussions on Asian Cooperation. June 7: The Commissioner of Higher Education, Voradej Chandaraisorn, was at the center of a controversy regarding the handling of university entrance examinations. July 16: The 15th International Conference on HIV/AIDS was held in Bangkok with attendance of more than 20,000. In his closing remarks, the conference chair challenged community leaders, scientists, non-governmental organizations, and others to urge political leaders and governmental officials to live up to their commitments to fight HIV/AIDS. August 3:. Prayong Ronnarong of Nakhon Si Thammarat province won a Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership. He was cited for his outstanding work helping rubber farmers to achieve self reliance. August 5: The 2004 Thai Hu-

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man Rights Commission report cited a drastic decline of civil liberties in Thailand. The report asserted there has been collusion between government and business interests at the expense of civil liberties. August 16–29: With its numerous medals, Thailand ranked 24th in the 2004 Olympics staged in Athens, Greece. Udomporn Palsak won the 53-kilogram weight-lifting gold medal, the first ever for a Thai female Olympics athlete. Pavina Thongsuk won the gold medal in the 75-kilogram competition. Manus Boonjumnong won a gold medal in the light welterweight competition. September: Thailand government officials initiated a plan to control the spread of the Bird Flu Virus that had already caused 30 human deaths in several Southeast Asian countries, including Thailand. October 12: The 2004 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meeting in Bangkok created a network to combat the illegal marketing of endangered wildlife in Southeast Asian countries, which had become a serious major problem. 25 October: During a Thai government crackdown on demonstrators in Tak Bai district of Narathiwat province, south Thailand, six demonstrators were killed and 78 other demonstrators perished by suffocation while being transported in tarpaulin-covered trucks. Many concerned Thai citizens strongly advised the government authorities to cope with the unrest in south Thailand through diplomacy instead of military force. November 15: The Bangkok NATION newspaper reported that Thaksin Shinawatra, prime minister and leader of the Thai Rak Thai political party, had given each of its candidates for the upcoming parliamentary election a million baht ($25,000) for use in the election campaign. December 23: More than 200 schools in the three southernmost Thai provinces were reported to have closed indefinitely due to ongoing violence. December 26: A tsunami originating off the coast of Northern Sumatra caused significant damage and loss of life in Thailand’s six provinces bordering the Andaman Sea.

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A relatively prosperous nation, the kingdom of Thailand is located in the heart of Southeast Asia. It has abundant natural resources and a society whose relatively well-educated people reflect a mix of modern and traditional culture. Three elements are basic to societal integration, namely: a high regard for their present monarch; Buddhism, the predominant Thai religion; and self-esteem based on a strong economy and the nation’s ability historically to maintain independence when neighboring states were colonized by Great Britain and France. Thailand’s strategic location made the country a valuable ally of the United States in the Indochina war. It also offers a fascinating example of an economically undeveloped society that acquires capitalism and a market economy, and adapts to globalization. Thailand’s national capital, Bangkok, is also a world capital with headquarters of several United Nations and other international agencies. Thailand has a parliamentary government with the king as head of state.

LAND AND PEOPLE Geography The area of Thailand is slightly smaller than that of France and consists of 513,000 square kilometers (approximately 200,000 square miles). The country has good soils and a monsoon climate. Thailand’s suitability for wet-rice agriculture attracted settlers prior to and during the nation’s early history. Thailand’s border countries include Burma on the west, Laos on the northeast, Cambodia on the southeast, and Malaysia on the extreme south. Much of the eastern border is the Mekong River. Most boundaries are the result of treaties required of Thailand and it neighbors by Britain and France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 1

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Topography and water drainage divide Thailand into four natural regions. The Southern Region consists chiefly of a long peninsula called the Isthmus of Kra, which is shared with Burma on the west. There is a short coastline on the Indian Ocean and a long coastline on the Gulf of Thailand/Pacific Ocean. Trade routes across the peninsula contributed to the early development of this region. The terrain is chiefly rolling and mountainous and large rivers are absent. Natural resources include forestry products and tin mining. There are also fisheries, coconut plantations, and rubber production. Tourism is also active. The Northern Region has low mountains with a north-south orientation that are part of the Himalayas. In both the river valleys and the broad plain farther south, wet-rice agriculture prevails. Its several rivers come together in the southern part of the region to create the headwaters of the Chao Phraya River, which is an important resource for transportation and irrigation. The Northeast (Isan) Region is mostly a plateau with rolling low hills and small lakes and has only fair soils. While there are monsoon rains with flooding, the region experiences a long dry season. The red porous soils do not retain moisture very well with a limiting impact on crop production. The Central Region is an area with normally sufficient rainfall and alluvial soils so that it is the chief part of Thailand where rice is produced for both domestic consumption and export. The Chao Phraya River, which drains south into the Gulf of Thailand, along with a complex network of canals and two lesser rivers, sustains an agricultural economy and provides waterways for moving people and goods. The region includes Bangkok, the nation’s capital, which is the center of a large metropolitan area and an extensive economic trading system. Climate Thailand has a humid tropical climate. Monsoons are an important weather factor. In the summer, warm humid air arrives from the southwest with much rainfall. In November through January, cool dry air arrives from the northeast. Normal rainfall amounts to 230 to 250 centimeters (90 to 100 inches) annually. The Northern, Northeast, and Central Regions of the country have a tropical savanna climate with

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marked wet and dry seasons and rainfall that amounts to about one half of that in the southern region. Natural Resources Thailand is fortunate to have extensive fertile land, which has been and continues to be utilized for the production of rice and other crops. Large annual exports of rice have given Thailand the name “rice bowl of Asia.” A large agricultural population is a source of cheap labor for urban manufacturing and other Thai industry. Thousands of low-skilled Thai are employed abroad. In earlier centuries, this huge manpower resource made the state the dominant military power in Southeast Asia. Fish are a basic part of the diet of agricultural villagers. The annual catch, including the part marketed, is estimated at more than three million tons. Forests have in the past been a very prominent natural resource for villagers. For the central government, historically, forests provided valuable exports chiefly to China and included elephant tusks, spices, gems, precious metals, and other items. From the mid- to late-1980s, forests meant a place for thousands of farm families to carve out a farm. Since less than 25 percent of the kingdom’s total land remains in forests, further removal of trees is now illegal. Population National censuses have been taken in the nation at 10-year intervals for the past nine decades. The population of Thailand in the year 2000 was 60,606,947 by national census count. The nation’s annual growth rate between 1990 and 2000 was 1.05 percent, which is a significant decline from the annual two percent and larger growth rates of previous decades. Census figures also revealed considerable variation in growth rates among the four regions. The provinces near Bangkok, the national capital, were among the fastest-growing areas. Language (Tai) The word Tai refers to both a language family and to persons who speak one or more of the Tai-language dialects. A particular Tai dialect,

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Siamese, was the native tongue of a majority of the occupants of the Central Region of Thailand. They gained power there in 1351 and a Tai kingdom was established. Siamese gradually became more widely used, especially in government administration. When compulsory education was instituted in the early 20th century, Siamese was more widely adopted and gradually replaced other dialects. Today, the national language is called Thai.

HISTORY Early History The origins of the nation of Thailand are shrouded in prehistory. Findings of archaeologists indicate that there were human settlements in Southeast Asia (SEA) as early as 6,000 years ago. Writers of prehistory have indicated the likely migrations for centuries of several ethnic peoples into lightly settled SEA from what today is south China. These included the Mon, the Khmer, and the Tai. When the earlier SEA kingdom of Funan’s power declined, Mon peoples established kingdoms there. Visiting missionaries in the eighth century brought Buddhism, which the Mon Dvaravati kingdom adopted. Sanskrit place-names in today’s Thailand reflect other enduring Indian influences including art and literature of the Mon. In the 10th century, Dvaravati and its diverse peoples was conquered by and incorporated into a Khmer empire centered on Angkor (Cambodia today). During the seventh to the 13th centuries, several Tai-speaking tribal groups emerged. Present-day Thai inhabitants are descended from the mix of the early peoples who settled in SEA including the Mon, the Khmer, inhabitants who preceded these migrations, and others. Meanwhile, on the narrow southern peninsula that constitutes the western border of the Gulf of Thailand, the city-state Tambralinga (Nakhon Si Thammarat today) was settled by Indian immigrants early in the first century C.E. They obtained control of the trade routes between India and Indochina across the isthmus. Theravada Buddhism, introduced there by the Mon, was adopted. After a successful conquest, the states of the isthmus were incorporated into a Tai kingdom in the 13th century.

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Early Kingdoms Sukhothai (ca 1240–1438)

By the 13th century there were numerous principalities with Tai chiefs throughout the central and southern areas of Southeast Asia. Culturally and politically, these Tai leaders assimilated ideas of organization, administration, and political power from the previous empires of the region that had largely weakened and declined. As a result of successful military conflict with forces of the Angkor empire, a small kingdom named Sukhothai emerged in the central part of SEA. Sri Indraditya and his son Ban Muang were the first kings (reigned ca 1240–1279). Another son, Ramkhamhaeng (reigned 1279–1298), the third king, was reputed to be very successful in battle. During his 19-year reign, the Sukhothai kingdom grew to a large size and included principalities that were sometimes fought over with other Tai kingdoms. Ramkhamhaeng’s reign is remembered as one of the first in which the Siamese language in written form appeared. He provided a written record of much of his reign and is credited with the design of the Tai alphabet. Lan Na (1259–1774)

The pattern of conquest and control among small principalities on the Southeast Asian mainland in the 13th century and in later times is illustrated in the life and work of Mangrai (reigned 1259–1317), a Tai prince who founded the Lan Na Kingdom. Some five centuries later the state he developed became a part of Thailand. After becoming ruler of Chiang Saen in 1259, he was able to extend his rule over neighboring principalities including Haripunchai, a large Mon kingdom. Mangrai also founded a number of cities to which he brought farm and crafts families from the vassal principalities. The Northern Region of Thailand today corresponds chiefly to the territory of Lan Na. The language and culture of the people there retain much of its earlier character. An Early Tai Golden Age: Ayutthaya (1351–1767) Ayutthaya was a famous and powerful kingdom of the Tai-speaking people. Its capital city (Ayutthaya) was situated on the Chao Phraya

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River in what today is central Thailand. The kingdom was founded in 1351 by U Tong, descendant of a wealthy merchant in Lopburi who married into a royal family. U Thong reigned with the name Ramathibodi I and established the Buddhist religion within his realm. He also compiled a law code and tried to unify a kingdom that included partially independent principalities and tributary provinces owing allegiance to the king. Within one hundred years, Ayutthaya was the strongest power in Southeast Asia. From the Angkor kingdom, concepts of the role of the monarch were adopted. These included notions of the king as having universal power and being lord of the land. Agriculture, especially wet-rice agriculture, flourished. Any surplus was sold abroad, and Ayutthaya became a center of economic activity. Contacts with Western nations in the 16th and 17th centuries focused chiefly on trade. A major threat to the security of Ayutthaya was the rising power of Burma in the 16th to 18th centuries. In a two-year invasion, Burmese forces captured Ayutthaya in 1767. The inhabitants and treasures were moved to Burma; the city was destroyed and left in ruins. During the more than 400 years of its existence, the kingdom had a succession of 33 rulers. Some of the more famous kings were Ramathibodi I, Borommatrailokanat, Chakraphat, Naresuan, and Narai. (See also kingship, monarchy.) The Bangkok Era and Siam: The Rattanakosin Era King Taksin reigned (1768–1782) in a capital at Thonburi. During this 15-year period he overcame rivals and made secure the entire territory of the former kingdom of Ayutthaya. He was supported by Chinese merchants who aided with needed supplies. His army also assisted in freeing Lan Na from Burmese control, and made it a vassal state. Thong Duang, one of two Tai-speaking army generals who were key to these military successes, ascended the Thai throne after Taksin was deposed. He reigned as Yot Fa, but was designated Rama I by a descendant. He chose Bangkok as capital of the kingdom. This book uses the term Bangkok Era for this period; it is called Rattanakosin. King Rama I (reigned 1782–1809) demonstrated a variety of strengths including that of military leader, effective administrator, and creator of language arts. He also restored the Buddhist religion and con-

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structed many new monasteries. To make manpower more available for the four-month service in the kingdom, Rama I initiated a system in which all freemen were tattooed with a label. To promote national unity in the kingdom, Rama I revived previous state ceremonies that reflected respect for the king, Buddhism, and loyalty to the state. He initiated the Chakri dynasty, which continues in Thailand today. King Rama III (1824–1851) also ascended the throne in a peaceful manner, a pattern that continued through the Chakri dynasty. Coping with Western interests in Southeast Asia became an important concern of the kingdom during his reign. The treaty signed in 1826 with Great Britain dealt with national boundaries and trade. This began a constructive pattern for future kingdom relations with the West. The agreement resulted in a considerable increase in trade. The many Western ships arriving annually at Bangkok brought increased contacts with the West. Major difficulties overcome by King Rama III concerned vassal states on the eastern border and in the peninsula region. Mongkut became King Rama IV (1851–1868) of the Chakri dynasty after 27 years as a Buddhist monk. While in the monastery, he found expression for his brilliant mind and great curiosity. He learned foreign languages, read extensively, and gained knowledge of Western societies. Mongkut handled negotiations with visiting diplomats from European nations effectively, compromising when necessary to preserve the kingdom’s independence from the grasp of colonialism. It was in the Burney treaty of 1856 that the name Siam began to be used instead of Bangkok Kingdom. Chulalongkorn, Rama V (reigned 1868–1910), is the only former king of Siam whose memory is honored in a celebration that occurs annually (on October 23). When well into his reign in the mid-1880s, Chulalongkorn launched a two-pronged plan of government reform with increased royal power. With the death of Suriyawong (Chuang Bunnag), who was regent and a powerful adviser, the king was able to take back power held by the Bunnag family. The accomplishment of his goals was gradual but complete by the early 20th century, when a new governmental administration was established throughout the kingdom. In addition, a national army was created for which there was male conscription. A series of taxes on the lucrative domestic and export trade of Siam, which were enacted in the 1880s, resulted in substantial enhancement of royal government revenues, but spelled the end of the tributary system

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and related powers of local lords and chieftains. In the face of threats of colonization by Great Britain and France, King Chulalongkorn succeeded in maintaining the independence of the kingdom. However, this came at a huge cost to Siam. Treaties reveal the large losses of territory granted to the colonies of these two European powers. Vajiravudh or Rama VI (reigned 1910–1925), created a quasi-military organization, the Wild Tigers, which gave him a personal following and helped increase a sense of Siamese nationalism. King Vajiravudh saw personal identity and national defense as aspects of the Siamese kingdom worth fighting for. In 1921 he led the enactment of a law instituting compulsory education in the primary grades. Desired new treaties with European and other foreign powers were negotiated in the mid1920s with the aid of an American foreign advisor, Francis Sayre. The onerous inequalities imposed previously by these foreign powers were removed. Prajadipok, Rama VII (reigned 1925–1935), came to the throne when the monarchy was in low esteem. Political activities in Bangkok were on the rise. Young men with advanced degrees from the West were openly discussing political topics including criticism of monarchical rule. A peaceful revolution in 1932 by military personnel and civilian leaders changed the Siamese monarchy from an absolute to a constitutional one. Prajadipok abdicated in 1935. Bhumibol Adulyadej, Rama IX (reign began in 1946), became king at the death of his brother, Ananda, the previous king. During the first four years of his reign, he completed studies in Switzerland. Returning to Siam, he was crowned king in 1950. Through his efforts, the monarchy of the kingdom has a very high status. King Bhumibol is held in high esteem by the Thai people. Constitutional Era Military Ascendance

A coup d’etat in 1932, led by civilians and army officers, changed the Siamese monarchy from an absolute to a limited one. The promoters of this significant event had been educated in Europe where they had studied of democratic institutions. During the period 1932–1988 the prevailing pattern was government by military officer cliques led by an army general. Cohesion within the army as an organization and its pre-

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mier role as guardian of the nation contributed to its ascendancy. A constitution and a national assembly were two elements begun by the 1932 coup promoters that were continued in most successive national governments. The two regimes of Phibun Songkhram (1938–1944) and (1948–1957) left their mark on Thai history. His dismissal of the parliament in 1938 signaled the return of absolute power, this time by the army. Measures introduced by the Phibun regime included increased government control of the economy and society at the expense of the Chinese who were dominant in business activities. In 1939 Phibun arranged the change in the country’s name from Siam to Thailand. During the 1941–1944 Japanese occupation of Thailand in World War II, the West considered Phibun a Japanese ally. His regime ended in 1944 when it appeared that Japan was losing the war. Phibun’s second term as prime minister (1948–1957) began with a coup and absolute army control after a four-year period of civilian regimes. In the late 1940s and in the 1950s, as Thailand faced a threat of communism, Phibun forged a military alliance with the United States that brought the kingdom military assistance. In exchange, Thailand permitted the United States to establish bases there for air war against North Vietnam. Military and other U.S. aid to Thailand during the 1950s and 1960s totaled about US$2 billion. Phibun initiated a pattern of shared power with the administrative bureaucracy that facilitated control of the kingdom. Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat was next in seizing power and became prime minister in 1958. Sarit established agencies with capable technicians to implement economic development plans. His regime was followed by that of general Thanom Kittakachorn when Sarit died in 1963. Both were authoritarian administrators, and dissent was suppressed. Radio and television were used to rationalize and strengthen military dominance. For at least the past three decades, Thailand had been undergoing marked change. The Thanom government was confronted by rapid population growth, gradual industrialization, better educated youth, an emerging middle class, insurgency in the countryside, and the spread of Western democratic ideals. A student uprising in 1973, which was joined by residents and the city police of Bangkok, ended the Thanom regime. King Bhumibol Adulyadej led in restoring order and appointed a new prime minister. Businessmen in Bangkok city

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welcomed this fall of military power and actively participated in a return of parliamentary rule. Parliament was restored in 1974, but three subsequent short-lived democratic governments (1973–1976) were ended by an army coup in 1976. The regimes of General Kriangsak Chomanan (1977–1980) and General Prem Tinsulanonda (1980–1988) responded somewhat to the pressure in Thai society for democratic institutions. Members of the parliament cooperated with Prem in securing desired legislation, another step toward Thai democracy. Competent technocrats and members of the parliament were included in his Council of Ministers. The many refugees flooding in from Laos and Cambodia were problems faced by Prem. Toward Democracy

The short regime of Chatchai Choonavan (1988–1991) as prime minister was unique in two respects. First, his administration was fully elected. His appointed cabinet consisted mostly of businessmen members of parliament instead of mainly military officers or bureaucrats. Second, it revealed the growing influence of provincial businessmen politicians and economic development in the provinces. Later, provincial politicians became national party leaders. Their power developed through patronage politics. To a large extent, this change reflected globalization of the Thai economy and its rapid growth. New cuts in the military budget reflected the weakened military role in Thai politics. A move to restore military control was led by General Suchinda Kraprayoon in 1991 and he became prime minister. Suchinda’s ascendency was opposed in massive street demonstrations with leaders from the growing middle class. In the ensuing riot, army troops killed or injured numerous persons. The king again played a crucial role in ending the crisis. During 1991–2001, there were seven different Thai national governments. Three of these came to power through the rural electorate that voted for the candidate who paid the most. Two regimes were deposed by pressure from Bangkok business interests and middle-class activists who brought charges of regime corruption and lack of leadership to deal with serious national problems. Urgent needs during this period included decentralization of the government, urban traffic congestion, farmer protests, and the severe economic crisis of 1997–1998.

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There were two regimes in which Chuan Leekpai was the prime minister (1992–1995 and 1997–2001). Both followed elections in which 12 or more political parties participated. In the second, businessmen held the important ministries, since Chuan and his party had reorganized to include both Bangkok business interests and provincial concerns. In 1957, his administration attempted to implement the financial and political reform measures that accompanied the economic recovery loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. Amendments to the constitution were passed by the parliament, which lowered the voting age from 20 to 18, affirmed the equality of women, and prohibited members of the cabinet and National Assembly from holding monopolistic concessions with government or state bodies. Chuan’s administrations were confronted by demonstrating farmer groups numbering in the thousands. From a semipermanent encampment near the government administrative offices, they militated effectively and obtained policy changes regarding the rights and financial needs of farmers. The new constitution enacted by parliament in August 1997 embodied significant political reforms. It was the crowning achievement of an effort by a broad spectrum of reform groups. Three new commissions were created, one each for fair and clean elections, a constitutional court, and to counter corruption. Together with subsequent legislation, passage of this constitution has made Thailand a more open and democratic society. A decade of change that preceded the adoption of the 1997 constitution was marked by wide participation of new social groupings in public affairs with ongoing discussions about political and constitutional reform. The Thai media provided assistance to the urban activists seeking public support in favor of political reform. Elections for the National Assembly were held in 2000 and 2001, the first to be organized and monitored by the election commission. The 2000 Senate election seated 200 members, while the House of Representatives election in 2001 seated 500 members. The January 2001 election for the House of Representatives brought a new prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra, head of the Thai Rak Thai Party. He attracted the votes of numerous rural residents. Thaksin barely survived when he was tried in the constitutional court for allegedly misreporting his total financial assets as is required of elected officials. His rise to power was aided by his image as a successful businessman even though he used bribes to obtain business concessions from politicians in government.

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His election also demonstrates the increased role of business in the Thai political power structure.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT For the first 500 years of its long history, Thailand’s economy was based chiefly on wet-rice agriculture. The great majority of the population were agricultural villagers who were largely self-sufficient in food and other necessities. In these early years, rice and other home grown foods were extracted by the king from the rice growers, which along with high value forest products were essential staples for the monarch, his support staff, and the royal armies. In addition, these products were traded by the royal court for weapons and wealth, providing the king with status and political control. Since the late 1500s, the Royal Thai leadership has utilized trade as a foundation for economic growth. In the early 1800s, China’s demand for forest products collapsed while at the same time areas in Asia that had been colonized became new markets for rice export. Rice production was increased in the alluvial plain of the Central Region and the river valleys in the North Region, beginning Thai commercial rice agriculture. Trade contacts with negotiators from the West in the 1850s marked Thailand’s early entry into global export markets. In 1850, most of Thailand was forested land and the kingdom’s population was less than five million. The following century saw a continuing deforestation and the creation of farm settlements. The opening and cultivation of new rice lands eventually had the effect of a 25-fold increase in the production of rice. Other commercial farm products increased also. While rice became the main engine of wealth accumulation in the first half of the 1900s, by the 1970s, nearly 70 percent of Thai farmers were commercial producers. Beginning in 1955, the government set up a rice monopoly that bought the farmers’ rice for export sale. The price paid to rice producers was 15 to 35 percent below the export price. This was a type of tax revenue obtained from producers of surplus rice that the national government used to finance infrastructure projects for urban industrial development. This tax mechanism represented a transfer of wealth from the producers of surplus rice to the urban economy until it was ended in 1986.

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In the late 1950s, Thai government leaders began to promote economic growth in the private sector to replace the previous state enterprise approach. Five-year economic plans were developed by economists and political leaders, the first of which was published in 1961. As a result, industrialization advanced in Thailand and major urban banks were influential in allocating credit toward economic growth. Technocrats became influential in economic policy making in the 1980s. Together with key business leaders and bankers, they moved Thailand toward an export-oriented economy. Multinational firms in Thailand, especially Japanese, changed their focus from labor-intensive products and resource-based industries to technology-based products such as auto parts, computer parts, and electronic goods. By 1986, Thailand’s export economy had eclipsed the previous one that was predominantly agrarian. Sino–Thai businessmen were crucial to growth in the economy. A spectacular economic boom developed in Thailand with four main elements. First, expanding existing firms and many new ones produced goods and services sold to richer countries. Labor for urban industry was adequately supplied by migrants from up-country farms. Second, Thai firms found a niche in globalized business, drawing on and adapting their experience in the home market, and applied that expertise abroad. Third, new sources of capital led to expansion by both Bangkok and provincial businessmen who invested in infrastructure and services that facilitated development. Fourth, economic growth fed excess investment in real estate and financial services in Bangkok and vicinity. In addition, consumer goods production expanded in response to the growing incomes of the population. As in earlier times, the huge expansion of industry, population, wealth, financial services, retail services, political power, and amenities has been concentrated in Bangkok and adjacent provinces. When compared to the smaller growth in the provinces, an extreme imbalance is revealed. While an economic slowdown was evident by 1994, the Thai government failed to respond. Three factors stand out. Government expenses exceeded income, the Thai currency (the baht) became over-valued from its tie to the U. S. dollar, and large amounts of foreign money entered the kingdom without well-managed investment. In 1997, a severe economic crisis struck Thailand. Finance companies, banks, and corporations suffered large losses from which many did not recover. The IMF quickly

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arranged loans and supervised adjustments in economic policy. A recovery period began in 1999, which continues. Manufactured exports have returned to the mid-1990s level, but annual growth is slower. Other impacts of the economic crisis include major foreign ownership of banks, financial assets, export industries, and retail companies. Further, the Thai economy is more open than before; the earlier dominant role of local capitalism has been replaced to a large extent by multinational capitalism.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Rural Society

For centuries, the agricultural village has been the center of social life for the people of Thailand. While urban society has been growing for the past century, the village as a social center remains. The village defines one’s identity and each member feels a loyalty to it. Festivals, entertainment, educational and religious activities take place at the village Buddhist temple grounds, a sort of community center. Celebrations of Buddhist religious holidays and ceremonies when young men enter the Buddhist monkhood continue to be occasions for social interaction. Nevertheless, Thai agricultural villages have changed. They no longer have the sameness of earlier centuries. In addition to farming, there may be other economic activities there such as brick making, etc. While villagers formerly cooperated in the planting and harvesting of rice and in many other ways, such cooperative events have declined considerably. Villagers have also begun to participate in the political campaigns of local office seekers. The movement of many young men and women out of villages in the past 25 years to work in the cities and send home remittances to their families has aided in improving the standard of living. In addition to providing aid to parents, migrating to the city is seen by young people, especially women, as a way to become upto-date or modern (thansamy). The rural kin group continues to have meaning for its members. Most of those who go to the city return to the village later to settle down, or return temporarily to help with planting and harvesting of rice. That the thousands of Thai agricultural villages can serve as a place of security was demonstrated in 1997–1998 at the time when Thailand experienced a severe economic crisis. Between one

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and two million of the unemployed workers in urban industry returned to their home villages. Urban Society

The official 2000 Census of Population indicated that the urban population has shown significant growth since 1990, while the very large rural population has declined slightly. Of the kingdom’s 76 provinces, five had an urban population that was more than one half of the provincial total and in another five the urban part was at least one third of the total. Beyond that, 14 provinces contained at least one large city of 50,000 or more. Rapid economic growth in the 1985–1994 period brought higher living standards. It also created a consumer culture among middle-income Thais. With high salaries and easy credit, many Thais bought a car and a home in the suburbs. As more white-collar workers attained middle class status, they became more active in politics. Thailand is still male-dominated, but women have made gains. They outnumber men in government civil service and in the teaching profession. Women are active in nearly all professions and urban careers. However, in corporate settings, they have less opportunity for advancement. Television emerged in the 1980s as a main broker of a new Thai culture. Widespread TV viewing of Thai-produced dramas has become a nightly occurrence. The dramas emphasize both popular Thai novels and Thailand’s position as an important part of the world. Other urban traits projected in the dramas include prosperity, modernity, individualism, and globalism, which together constitute a unique perspective of the Thai identity. An interesting contrast in world views was reported by Thai social scientists Pasuk Phongpachit and Chris Baker. They pointed to a rural Thai world view that embraces ideas of “other-oriented” social relationships, a profound religious faith and spiritual life, an inner harmony, and feelings of contentment with life. The urban Thai view is “self-oriented,” chiefly focused on individual happiness, material comforts, seeking pleasure and recognition, and neglectful of religious values. Education

In the premodern period when Thailand was a rural society, almost the only education available was to study at the village Buddhist temple.

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There, boys and young men who were interested could learn to read, work with numbers, and study the Buddhist scriptures. Beginning in the 20th century, the Thai national government has pursued a vigorous program of educational development. By midcentury, elementary schools had been established in the kingdom’s agricultural villages as well as in all towns and cities and completion of six grades was compulsory for all children. Today, compulsory attendance is required for preschoolers, as well as those at primary, lower, and upper secondary levels, to complete 12 grades. Higher education and its availability has been expanding since the late 19th century. The emphasis initially was on training for medicine, law and agriculture, and for the civil service. Today, the numerous Thai colleges and universities offer the whole range of academic studies found in Western countries. In addition to bachelors’ degree programs, masters’ and doctoral degree programs are offered in many fields. Significant research is conducted at many universities, government agencies, and private organizations. Social Problems

Thailand faces a variety of social problems including prostitution, drug and alcohol abuse, crime, corruption, increased divorce, mental health needs, justice shortcomings, and environmental pollution and degradation. Social and income inequities have increased. Between 1981 and 1994, the average income of the top 10 percent of the kingdom’s households tripled, while the incomes of the lowest 10 percent hardly changed at all. In manufacturing, many migrant female workers are exploited with very low pay and poor or unsafe working conditions.

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK Among the beneficial impacts of the 1997–1998 Thai economic crisis was a noticeable trend for working-class people to be innovative in selfemployment and become entrepreneurial. This has been apparent in the production, processing, and marketing of new foods. In the middle class, adjustments and coping strategies include an increase in mutual assistance between individuals and families, sharing of information, and building social relationships. The growth of consumer associations

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is an example. In both the working and middle classes, patterns of consumption reflect budgeting and use of more products from Thailand and fewer imported Western goods. The Economy

While the Thai economy has become more open, the current focus of a limited number of exports produced and marketed globally by Thai branches of multinational corporations will most likely continue. However, strong influences will persist in advocating local Thai-owned capitalism and resisting the transfer of economic power to international corporations or dominant countries. To some extent this transfer has already occurred and was tied to International Monetary Fund pressures for policy reforms in government finance, law, and social programs. The continued production of rice and other food crops in Thailand, while widely taken for granted, is an absolutely basic essential in order to provide food for the Thai population. While enhanced irrigation facilities for rice growing and intensive farming techniques to improve yields are urgent, dynamism in agriculture will probably come, as in the past, from the responsiveness and adaptability of Thai farmers rather than from government programs. Technology

Thailand’s weakness in technology became apparent in the 1994 economic slowdown, which revealed the great need for upgrading technological capabilities in Thai commodity production and marketing. Thailand has the capacity to generate or acquire new technology and is responding to this challenge. The response to the technology training gap in the kingdom’s educational system has begun in the Ministry of Education, which is upgrading both the instruction of and emphasis on technology. Universities with engineering programs as well as vocational schools can be expected to respond to this challenge. Politics and Civil Society

The use of elections to create new governments is a remarkable achievement after nearly 60 years of new governments occurring by military coup. When governments obtain legitimacy by succeeding in

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an election there is a distinct gain in societal stability. The long movement toward democracy in the Thai body politic has achieved a degree of success since 1992. The 1997 Constitution was a significant accomplishment in this regard, giving a powerful boost to the opening of politics to new ideas and middle-class activism. Thailand is in a critical period in which it faces an array of competing interests regarding the nature of the social and political changes needed and the means to bring them about. The growing activism in Thai civil society bodes well for further democratic advance. A warning for the future, however, was expressed by King Bhumibol Adulyadej in December 2001. In his address to top government officials and other Thai leaders, he asserted that Thailand was in a major decline and faced possible catastrophe. He cautioned that when government officials use one set of ethical standards for their own behavior and a different set of standards for others, they lose the moral authority essential to successful leadership.

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The Dictionary

–A– ABBOT (CHAO AWAT). The head monk of a Buddist temple compound (wat). His appointment is made at a higher level of the Buddhist monkhood (sangha), of which he is a part. He has administrative, custodial, clerical, and possibly disciplinary tasks. He selects subordinates, supervises instruction, and is responsible for the functioning of the temple in accordance with approved procedures. Buddhism and temple activities have a major role in village life. Thus, the abbot is often a key community leader in village affairs such as road repair, water improvement, and agricultural development. Abbots are appointed largely on the basis of their seniority and popularity with laymen and other Buddhist monks. Abbots are also found in higher levels of the Buddhist monkhood, and serve as religious administrators of a district, province, or region. These positions correspond with levels of governmental units. ACHARN. The title or name for a person employed as a teacher, who holds a bachelor’s or advanced degree. According to Thai tradition, teachers are regarded with deference, courtesy, and respect. The title may be used similarly for those who possess recognized talent or knowledge or those who engage in public service, which is greatly respected and admired. For example, those Buddhist monks who are unusually knowledgeable are often addressed as acharn. ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM OF THE GOVERNMENT. King Chulalongkorn, who reigned from 1868 to 1910 during the Bangkok Era, extensively reformed the government of Siam (renamed Thailand in 1939). The changes that were instituted greatly strengthened the power of the royal court. 19

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The reform began with changes in the way the king acquired revenue. New tax policies were implemented affecting agricultural producers and rice merchants, changes were made in the handling of revenues from tax farmers, a land tax was created, and taxes were imposed on local and export commercial trade. Along with these changes, the handling of revenues was consolidated within the palace Finance Office, removing it from other agencies. Concurrently, sources of revenue for Bangkok chieftains and rulers, as well as those “up country,” were weakened when slavery was ended and corvee was abandoned. With adequate revenue assured, King Chulalongkorn saw to the adoption of a hierarchal system of government and a new legal/judicial system. Two prominent purposes were to achieve administrative control of the huge rural population and to move villagers toward an awareness of their Thai citizenship and respect for the monarchy. Another reform created a national army for which there was male conscription. Prominent in the administrative reform process was the work of Prince Damrong, a brother of the king, who headed the new Ministry of the Interior. He arranged for several adjacent provinces to be assigned to a unit called a “circle.” Each circle was controlled by a resident commissioner who had authority over tax collection, expenditures, administration of the courts, and other matters. Each province was then headed by a governor. Within each province there were districts, communes, and villages. Each province and district was headed by an appointed civil service officer (bureaucrat). This centralized pattern of governmental administration continued to 2002. Currently, attempts are underway to have units of government elect their heads. This has occurred for villages for a long time but only recently for communes. Elections for district and provincial heads is being planned. For capable people to staff the new positions created by the administrative reform, Chulalongkorn looked to the 35 offspring of his father, King Mongkut. Brothers or half-brothers were appointed heads of most of the new ministries. Brothers or other relatives were appointed to the upper positions in administration at the capital and in provincial posts. Within the new army, the top ranks were again chiefly royal family members or persons from closely allied aristo-

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cratic families or those who had ties to royalty by marriage. These early appointments were the beginnings of a body of civil service bureaucrats who as servants of the king were in a sense the nation’s government. Once the new administrative pattern of government was established in the Central Region, the same reforms were extended to more distant parts of the kingdom. The building of railroads into the Northeast Region by 1933 and the installation of a telegraph service facilitated control by the central government. Similarly, the new administrative system of government was established over both the Northern Region and the Southern Region. Introduction of the reforms was sometimes resisted and required compromise. Minor rebellions in three areas occurred in 1902, where the former chieftains and rural people expressed grievances and strongly opposed the changes in governance. The reformed government administration was recognized by both the French and British, who now concluded new treaties with Siam. In the latter half of Chulalongkorn’s reign, control of all of the levels of governmental organization came into the king’s hand through his power to make appointments. In this new hierarchy, the king achieved absolute power, similar to that of Rama I. Further reforms of governance occurred in the 1930s, in the 1970s, and in the 1990s. See also DEMOCRATIC AND DECENTRALIZATION; KALAHOM; MAHATTHAI; REVOLUTION OF 1932; STUDENT UPRISING OF 1973. AGRICULTURE. More than one-half of the population of Thailand is engaged in farming. The expansion of agriculture in recent decades, which accompanied a major increase in export demand, especially for rice, and a large Thai population growth, has sharply slowed since 1985 due chiefly to falling world prices and a shortage of land for new farm settlements. Farms are generally small and chiefly range in size from three to seven hectares (7 to 19 acres). The main types of agriculture are cash crops and livestock both of which are produced for domestic consumption and for export. The principal cash crops include rice, cassava, sugar cane, maize, fruits, vegetables, and rubber. Most farmers own some land but rent additional land. However, in the cash crop areas of the Central Region, tenancy is a prevailing pattern.

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Rice production primarily for subsistence and minor export characterized Thai agricultural production prior to the 20th century. Since 1900, rice production has gradually increased and until 1985 was the main export commodity of Thailand. More land is in rice production than land in all other crops combined. Fertilizer and double cropping are in use chiefly in the commercial rice growing areas of the lower Central Region and in the river valleys of the Northern Region. Since the large expansion of Thai urban industry in the mid-1980s to mid-1990s, exports of manufactured goods have exceeded those of agriculture. The proportion that agricultural and livestock products contribute to Gross Domestic Product has declined to between 10 and 15 percent. The contribution of agriculture to the development of Thai industry and manufacturing has been significant. Exports of rice from the 1950s to 1980s were instrumental in earning foreign exchange while farm taxes kept rice costs low. An excess of farm labor in the 1980s contributed many workers for urban industry. The abovementioned expansion of urban industry and manufacturing together with rapid urban population growth has led to increased urban and industrial use of land and forests in former agricultural areas. Opposition to this apparent exploitation of agricultural resources has resulted in numerous farmer protests and occasional severe conflicts. A September 15, 1999, report in the Nation, a Thai newspaper, indicated that three-fourths of Thai farmers were in debt an average of 64,000 baht (US$1500). Farmer indebtedness is of long standing and is associated with many farmers losing ownership of their farms and becoming tenants. In a new program initiated by the government of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra in April 2001, more than a million farmers were able to get a three-year suspension of their loan interest payments. In a second program, farmers without debt could obtain loans with no interest for the first year. According to an August 27, 2003, report in the same newspaper, overall farmer debt has increased significantly, indicating a need for a societal program to help farmers obtain relief from debt burdens, to secure training in new skills and become more competitive. Perhaps such an agriculture economic development effort will make a contribution to farmer poverty reduction. See also AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY; ECONOMY; FORESTRY; LAND TENURE AND TENANCY; TRADE; and APPENDIX G.

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AGRICULTURE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

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AGRICULTURE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. More than onehalf of the Thai population depends on agriculture for a livelihood. Agriculture is of basic importance to the Thai people as a source of food and fiber for an increasing population. Rice, which is a basic staple for all Thais, is also a necessary subsistence crop for almost all farmers. However, much of agriculture has been unprofitable and there is widespread poverty in farming communities, especially in the Northeast Region and the Southern Region. Causes of this include low crop prices, soils of marginal fertility, and dependence on cropping areas where rainfall is uncertain. As a result, a growing number of village residents seek or already have part-time or full-time jobs in urban areas for income supplement. For the past two decades, agribusiness has developed with government assistance and has grown approximately 7 percent annually. It is a prominent feature of agriculture in Thailand and has enhanced agricultural exports. In agribusiness, farm producers, processing and marketing firms, and Thai government agencies work together to get agricultural exports to market after a value-added process. Principally, agribusiness has produced and processed food products, such as frozen chicken, frozen shrimp, tapioca, sugar, and canned vegetables. Many other foods have been involved also and the activity is found in all regions of the country. Nonfood items include rubberbased products and wood furniture. However, it appears that the corporations involved have benefited more from the agribusiness initiatives than have the farm producers. Thai governments generally have been indifferent to or neglectful of the unmet economic needs of the farm population. In the mid-20th century, however, the national government did establish Kasetsart University, which focuses on agriculture. Similarly, the government instituted an extension service that disseminates information about new crop varieties and new farming techniques. There is a limited amount of farm credit available through the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives. In fact, such programs were designed without farmer participation and have suffered from low funding. There have been suggestions for production of high value-added commodities such as fragrant rice, specific fruits and herbs, and organic farming. Getting the Thai national government involved in a broad focus for agricultural economic development has been recommended by

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economists. Needed elements that could be included are extensive irrigation and application of new technology and other relevant programs, all developed with broad farmer participation. For this to happen would require considerable attitudinal changes on the part of government officials and probably has a small chance of taking place. As in the past, dynamism in agriculture will probably come from the responsiveness and adaptability of the farmers themselves, rather than from weak and largely ineffective government programs. AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY. Compared to traditional rice farming in small paddies using transplants, rice agriculture in the Central Region has been largely mechanized. Tractors have replaced water buffalo for power to till the soil. Mechanical pumps have replaced the manual pumps to move water. Government irrigation dams and distribution systems are in operation for hundreds of thousands of hectares (1 to 3 million acres), especially in the lower Central Region. Rice farmers are using high-yield varieties with early maturation, permitting double cropping. Fertilizers and herbicides are in use as well. All of these techniques are also widely used in rice farming in the Northern Region. Market gardeners on land near Bangkok and other large cities are producing a variety of vegetables and fruits and use appropriate technology. Agribusiness operations in Thailand have been increasing, up-to-date technology has been introduced. See also AGRICULTURE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES. Several alcoholic beverages native to Thailand are brewed completely or largely from rice. One of these is a whiskey generally called mekong. Hlao khao is a rice wine that varies in strength according to when and where it is produced. It is very popular with the working classes. Singha beer commands at least 80 percent of the Thai beer market and is well known abroad. Those who can afford the high price drink imported liquors. ALMS ROUNDS (BINTHABAT). The early morning walk of Buddhist monks. In this way, the people have an opportunity to give the monks food in a bowl carried for this purpose and the monks depend on gifts of food and clothing for their physical needs. Merit is con-

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ferred on the donor by the monk’s acceptance of the alms. In order for the monks to spend the main part of their time studying the Buddhist scriptures, they are not permitted to work for compensation. AMBHORN (JAYAPANI) MEESOOK, KHUNYING (1920– ). Daughter of Luang Tong and Tamtong Jayapani Archvicharsarn, she was born in Bangkok. Khunying Ambhorn is the first Thai woman to receive a Ph.D. degree in comparative education from Harvard University. She held several senior posts in the Thai Ministry of Education and has contributed professionally in many areas of social development. In 1985, she received an honorary Ph.D. degree in social administration from Thammasat University. In 1992, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) awarded her the Certificate of Merit in recognition of her exceptional services to the needy and the underprivileged. She also received several decorations from King Bhumibol Adulyadej. AMPHA BHADRANAWIK (1921– ). The first woman ambassador of Thailand. She joined the Foreign Ministry in 1944. She began her career as third secretary of the royal Thai Embassy in Washington, D.C. In 1967, she became first secretary of the Royal Thai Embassy in Bonn and rose to the post of consul and chargé d’affaires. In 1977, she was appointed ambassador to Sri Lanka. During her tenure in Colombo, she was elected president of the Colombo Plan Council for Technical Cooperation in South and Southeast Asia. AMPHOE. See DISTRICT. ANAND PANYARACHUN (1932– ). Widely known in Thailand for his work as a foreign affairs officer, business executive, interim prime minister, and advocate of a strong democratic government. Anand was educated in Thailand and England. He served in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1955–1978, during nine years of which he served simultaneously as ambassador to the United Nations, the United States, and Canada. After being falsely accused of communist sympathies, Anand left the foreign affairs ministry in 1979 and took up posts with large corporations. Starting as a director for the Saha Union and its related companies, he became its chairman in 1991. For

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his advocacy of free trade there, he became president of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Chamber of Commerce and Industry 1982–1984. He also held leadership posts in the Association of and the Federation of Thai Industries. Among the voices advocating a changed Thai political structure and a stronger democracy, Anand was influential. His becoming interim prime minister in 1991 and again in 1992 was a recognition of his leadership abilities. In the second of these two terms, he and others secured legislative changes that reduced the role of the Thai armed forces in politics. In 1997, he was the logical person to chair the committee that drafted the new Constitution. This important document initiating change in the Thai government was adopted in 1997. Anand has served as chair or trustee of three national institutes, those dealing with research, environment, and technology. In addition, he is in demand to provide leadership for a number of Thai civic and special interest organizations. ANAT ARBHABHIRAMA (1938– ). Educator and engineering researcher. Anat earned a civil engineering degree at Chulalongkorn University and a Ph.D. in civil engineering in the United States. Anat has been a teacher, researcher, and occasional administrator at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) in Bangkok since 1966. He advanced to the rank of professor at the AIT in 1975. Water resources engineering has been Anat’s principal research interest. He has also served for short periods in the cabinets of two prime ministers and on a number of governmental committees dealing with water resources. He was honored as “Outstanding Researcher of the Year” in 1987. He has published numerous articles and papers on water resources and hydraulics. ANCIENT CITY. The name of a huge outdoor museum at Bang Po that depicts Thailand’s history and life-style of the past. The approximately 75 structures required more than 10 years to build at a cost of over 200 million baht (US$10 million). The 90-hectares (215 acres) site is located 30 kilometers (19 miles) south of Bangkok. The structures at the Ancient City are not only a tourist attraction, they are also a visual reminder to the Thai people of the glory and splendor of the history of their country. Construction of the Ancient City was supervised by Lek Wiripun.

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ANGKOR. An ancient kingdom and its capital, which is more generally called the Khmer Kingdom. Extensive monumental remains of that kingdom are in what is now Cambodia near the city of Siem Reap. The most famous of these monuments is Angkor Wat. In the 13th century, when Angkor was a great city, the Khmer Kingdom controlled the territories of present-day Thailand, Laos, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula. In wars with the Siamese Kingdom of Ayutthaya in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Khmer gave up part of their western territory and moved their capital east to Phnom Penh. The city of Angkor was abandoned and became lost in the jungle. It was rediscovered by a French archaeologist in 1861. ANGKOR WAT. The most famous and extensive of the Khmer temple monuments located near Siem Reap in western Cambodia. It was built in the 12th century by the Khmer King Suryavarman II who ruled from 1113 to 1150. It served as a temple in which he was worshiped as the god Vishnu during his life, and where at his death he was entombed and embodied as Vishnu. The Angkor Wat shrine was for Suryavarman II a Hindu shrine and a microcosm in stone of Khmer cosmology. The central temple represented Mount Meru, the pivot of the world where the gods lived. This Khmer cosmology was of Hindu origin as was the cosmology of Siam and other Southeast Asian kingdoms of the time. ANIMISM, THAI. Animistic beliefs are convictions of truth based on emotional response to the universe without differentiation between persons and things. The Thai peoples, who were animists prior to becoming Buddhists, have retained these beliefs. In rural areas, and for some city residents, they are an important part of the religious practice that includes propitiation of a variety of spirits. See also PHI CULT. ANUMAN RAJADHON (1888–1969). One of Thailand’s greatest writers who also had a distinguished career in government service. His writings under the pen name “Sathira Koses” were widely acclaimed; his interests included history, ethnology, philology, and archaeology. He authored numerous scholarly publications. Awarded the honorary degree of doctor of literature by Chulalongkorn University, he served on the faculty of Chulalongkorn University in the

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ARCHITECTURE

Fine Arts Department, where he was director-general. He also served in the National Culture Institute and was chairman of the Royal Institute. ARCHITECTURE. Examples of traditional Thai architecture are readily found in any Buddhist temple compound (wat) and at royal palaces, where religious and royal buildings, rectangular in pattern, are constructed in wood. The accentuated sloping roofs were covered with glazed tile in color. The superimposed layers or steplike progression of these roofs are probably the result of additions to the main portion of the building, or protection from sun and rain. At both ends of the ridge of each roof of the religious or royal buildings there is a horn-like finial, called cho fa, which somewhat resembles a swan’s tail. It appears that the cho fa is a modification of the horned mask that can be seen at the end of the roof line of buildings found in Indonesia and parts of the Pacific, where this feature is used for magical or animistic purposes. Reinforced concrete structures and architectural styles adapted from the West came into wide use in the 20th century, especially in urban areas. High-rise buildings, e.g., hotels and condominiums, dominate the landscape of Bangkok and are prominent in other cities. Efforts to harmonize traditional Thai and modern Western architecture are continuing. See also BOT; CHEDI; MONDOP; PRANG; STUPA; WIHAN. ARMED FORCES. An army such as those of the first three Chakkri kings of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, who had armies of 70,000, did not exist when Chulalongkorn became king in 1868. The then small force of 2,000 was expanded by Chulalongkorn to 5,000. It was effective in asserting control of the kingdom’s rulers over the Laos border regions and quelling widespread small rebellions against the newly established central government administration. When France threatened Thailand in 1893, the Chulalongkorn regime suffered a humiliating defeat; French gunboats arrived in Bangkok city and the king’s attempt to raise an army of 180,000 failed. In the period 1905 to 1910, King Chulalongkorn used conscription to create a standing army of 20,000 and a navy of 5,000. In addition, there were ample reserves for both. In the 1920s and 1930s, both

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civilian and army personnel were sent to study at European universities. The 1932 revolt group that changed the monarchy in Thailand (Siam at that time) to a constitutional one included both army officers and civilian activists. Within a few years, the army gained control and installed a government controlled by the military. To begin its military operation in Indo-China, the United States initially sought to reinforce Thailand against Communism. Strengthening the Thai armed forces began in 1945. What was a small, underequipped Royal Thai Air Force in 1950 was greatly rebuilt, acquiring United States aid for increased manpower, fighter-bombers, and reconnaissance airplanes. Overall, the Thai armed forces received much money, weapons, training, and even political support for the military governments of Pibun, Sarit, and Thanom from the U.S. Financial support was at least US$100 million annually for four crucial years and approximately one-half that annually for the remainder of the mid-1950 to mid-1970 period. As a result, the Royal Thai Army’s staff functions were expanded. This eventually led to competing army factions and too many generals. At the turn of the 21st century, the Thai army depends on conscription and numbers about 190,000 personnel. Other defense forces include a very large Volunteer Corps, strengthened Border Police, and many paramilitary provincial police. The Royal Thai Navy is equipped with one carrier and operates a number of Harrier aircraft and helicopters. In addition, it has 15 frigates. Manpower is approximately 68,000 including marines and a naval air wing of approximately 1,500 personnel. The Royal Thai Force has 162 combat aircraft; personnel number about 48,000. It has an airbase in Bangkok city and four other bases. Joint Thai–United States armed forces maneuvers are conducted annually. A recent defense budget, 2002–2003, was 78,600 million baht (approximately US$2 billion). See also MILITARY ASSISTANCE; MILITARY OFFICERS. ASALHA BUCHA. See BUDDHIST MONKHOOD DAY. ASIAN AND PACIFIC COUNCIL (ASPAC). A group of nations during the 1960s that cooperated in mutual assistance to safeguard their independence from the communist threat and to develop their respective economies. Thailand was a member, along with Australia,

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ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN).

Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Korea, South Vietnam, the Philippines, and Taiwan. ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN). An organization formed in 1967 consisting initially of Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore. Later, Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam became members. Thailand was active in the founding of this association, which is intended to promote cooperation in the fields of food production, commerce, and industry, civil aviation, tourism, communications, meteorology, shipping, etc. Important progress has been made by ASEAN in the political goal of maintaining neutrality relative to the domestic affairs of member countries. ASEAN continues to have a central role in Thailand’s foreign policy. Thailand’s success in the export of petrochemicals, vehicles and vehicle parts, electronics, and other technological related products can be attributed in part to membership in the ASEAN Free Trade Area where the maximum tariffs are 5 percent. ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS FREE TRADE AREA (ASEAN/AFTA). This cooperative structure was created in January 1992 by ASEAN leaders. It has had the goal of lowering tariffs between members to a range between 5 percent and zero by 2008. ASTROLOGY. Harmony desired between the individual and the cosmos is sought through the use of astrology in Thai society. The day and hour of many important occasions, such as house warmings, marriages, and cremations, are seldom set without consulting an astrologer or a Buddhist monk who will make lunar calculations to ensure an auspicious date. Lucky and unlucky dates vary according to the year, month, and birthday of each person. In November, March, and July, Tuesday is considered an unlucky day on which to start an important undertaking. Certain specific dates, such as the 13th, 14th, and 15th of every lunar month, are lucky or auspicious. Most religious ceremonies are held on the 8th and 15th days of the waxing moon. While belief in astrology is declining, elements of it persist. See also COSMOLOGY.

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AVIATION, CIVIL. Thailand is a crossroad for international air cargoes and passenger travel. About 100 international airlines use the facilities of Don Muang International Airport in Bangkok until the new airport, Suvarnabhumi, is completed in 2005. It is planned for the new airport to take over all air traffic eventually. In addition to Bangkok, airports in Thailand that are of international standard are at Chiang Mai, Hat Yai, Phuket, and Surat Thani. Air service operations, construction, and maintenance are supervised by the Ministry of Transport. Administrative arms of the Ministry are the Airport Authority of Thailand and the Department of Aviation. Thailand’s principal airline is Thailand Airways International Public Co. Ltd. It provides scheduled passenger and cargo services from Bangkok to more than 50 cities in Australia, Europe, North America, and Asia. It also provides domestic services to 30 cities in Thailand. It has been or is scheduled to become partially privatized. Four privately owned airlines are also operating. Air Andaman and Bangkok Airways provide regional, scheduled passenger and charter services. Two airlines, PB Air and Phuket, provide scheduled domestic passenger services. In the region, there is service to Kunming, Rangoon, Penang, Vientianne, Ho Chi Minh City, and Hanoi. Some of the latter flights originate in Chiang Mai or Surat Thani. AYUTTHAYA (AYUDHAYA), KINGDOM OF (1351–1767). An important Tai-speaking kingdom located in what is today central Thailand. In 1350, U Thong emerged as a leader of the area’s Tai-speaking peoples who were vassals to the empire of Angkor. Using his power base in the existing political centers of Lopburi and Suphan Buri, he defeated the forces of Angkor and established a kingdom center at Ayutthaya on an island in the Chao Phraya River, ruling as Ramathibodi I (reigned 1351–1369). Ayutthaya was successful in establishing control over adjacent as well as remote small states and principalities. The Buddhist religion was established during the reign of Ramathibodi. Ayutthaya’s King Borommatrailokanat (Trailok) (reigned 1448– 1488) is remembered for initiating an efficient government administration. Trailok divided the kingdom bureaucracy into the kalahom for military affairs and the mahatthai for civil affairs, a pattern that with minor modifications was continued into the late 19th century. In the

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16th century, Ayutthaya used its vassal states on the peninsula to profit from the growing international trade. Religious monuments and Buddha images were created. Ayutthaya’s western neighbor, Burma (Myanmar), when it was strong militarily, threatened the kingdom’s survival. During the reign of Chakraphat (1548–1569), Ayutthaya faced Burmese army attacks in 1549 and 1564, the first of which was clearly defeated. Facing a stronger army in 1564, Chakraphat acquiesed and gave up his grandson as a hostage. An attack by a much larger Burmese army in 1569 resulted in the capture and sacking of Ayutthaya. Plunder and thousands of inhabitants were taken to Burma; Ayutthaya became a vassal state. Naresuan, the grandson hostage, returned home five years later, having learned much about the Burmese royal court. He successfully led the defense against Burmese attacks in 1585, 1586, 1587, and 1593. During his reign (1590–1605), Ayutthaya, after 20 years of weakness, regained both military strength and independence from Burma. From growing trade within Asia and with the Dutch, Ayutthaya again developed into a powerful economic and military city state. Nareusan demonstrated a vision of the role of Ayutthaya both in relation to other Tai-speaking peoples and to the wider Asian world. To improve his power, the king began, in the early 1600s, to employ foreigners with commercial abilities to take charge of foreign trade. This pattern of building the kingdom’s wealth through trade became a means for better royal control of the kingdom. Important among these employed foreigners were members of the Singhaseni, Siphen, and Bunnag families. Over time, descendants in these families rose to power and influence in high positions in the government of the kingdom. Narai ascended the throne (reigned 1656–1688) following another royal succession conflict. He developed a strong relationship with France and an exchange of missions took place. During Narai’s reign, foreign trade was greatly increased. With the central government’s attention to trade, failure to build a manpower reserve contributed to Ayutthaya’s weak military defenses in 1766 against the attack of several Burmese armies during the reign of Surayamarin (1766–1767). In early 1767, Ayutthaya was again captured, plundered, and burned. Inhabitants and much treasure were taken to Burma, the tragic end to a thriving city state. It had been

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ruled by 33 kings during the 438 years of its existence. Ayutthaya is seen as a Golden Age in Thai history. For many decades, the kingdom handled both a variety of governmental functions and the many provinces and vassal states it encompassed. Fortunately for Thailand, this catastrophic event was a redeemable loss. The underlying strengths of this group of Tai-language speakers, their culture, religion, and talents would make a recovery happen. See also KINGSHIP; MONARCHY; TAKSIN; and APPENDIX A.

–B– BAHT. The monetary unit of the Thai currency is the baht, which is divided into 100 satang. Notes in circulation are 10, 20, 100, and 500 baht denominations. The exchange rate in 2004 was approximately US$1  40 baht. BALANCE OF PAYMENTS. In recent years, the excess of annual merchandise imports over exports has varied between US$2 billion and $7 billion. During the same period, the value of services exported and other transfers annually has exceeded service imports varying from 10 percent to 33 percent. Thus, a small positive balance of payments has been maintained. Thai international reserves have been chiefly in foreign exchange and has grown substantially in the past five years. See also TRADE. BAMBOO. Various species of bamboo are found in Thailand. The plant may be low and climbing or, more commonly, tall and treelike. The stalks are round, jointed, and hollow. In many places, bamboo is used as wood for construction, furniture, utensils, fiber, fuel, paper, and innumerable small articles. Bamboo sprouts are eaten as a vegetable, and the grain of some species is also utilized for food. BAN. The traditional name for a grouping of families and individuals, their adjacent places of residence in a given locality and a ritual community centered on a Buddhist temple compound (wat) or other religious structure, which contains a shrine dedicated to venerated spirits. Mutual cooperation in religious practices enhances

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the villagers sense of belonging to a moral as well as a social community. In central Thailand, instead of ban, the term bang is sometimes used. For example, Bang Kla is the name of a small municipality just east of Bangkok on the Bang Pakong River. Bang Kla was previously a village, whose growth in population changed its status to municipality. But the word ban also means house. To overcome this ambiguity, the central government uses the term muban to refer to a so-called village administrative unit. However, the muban does not necessarily coincide with the village as a ritual community. For each muban a headman is typically elected. His role in village life is defined in terms of government concerns rather than according to village interests. Above the muban is the tambon. BAN CHIANG. Name of a village and archaeological complex in northeastern Thailand where there have been prehistoric finds of great importance. There is evidence of rice production, forging of bronze implements, and a distinctive pottery dating back as early as 3000 BCE. If the dating of these finds is fully confirmed, the Khorat Plateau could be the first rice producing area in Asia. In addition, the discovery of bronze production at Ban Chiang challenges the previous traditional view that the invention of bronze occurred only once and that was supposedly in the Middle East about 2800 BCE. BAN KEO. An important archaeological site in Kanchana Buri Province. Signs of prehistoric dwellings were sighted by Mr. Van Heekeren, a Dutch prisoner of World War II, who was forced to work on the Kwai River Railway. In 1961, a Thai-Danish expedition conducted systematic research here. Skeletons, fine pottery, animal bones, and various objects dating from 2000 BCE (Neolithic period) indicated that the settlement belonged to the Lung Shan civilization originating in north China. BAN KON YANG. A large village of Karen hill people in Lamphun Province. This mountain group is one of the most advanced. The dress of both men and women, their craft products, and the design and decoration of their houses attract many tourists.

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BAN MEO. A village and community development center in Phitsanulok Province that was established to encourage the settlement of the Meo hill tribes. BANGKOK. The capital of Thailand. The Thai people refer to their capital city as Krung Thep (City of Angels), which has for them a more appropriate meaning than the name generally used by nonThais. The name Bangkok does have a Thai origin. Ban or bang is the traditional Thai name for what in English is a village or town. The particular ban or bang that has the name Bangkok originally had clumps of wild olive and wild plum trees that were called “kok.” Putting these two parts together gives the name Bangkok (village of wild plums). Bangkok became the capital in 1782 when King Rama I moved his court there from Thonburi across the river. Thonburi had been the capital for 14 years during the reign of King Taksin, after the fall of Ayutthaya. After nearly 200 years of growth and development, Bangkok became considerably enlarged in 1971 when it and the adjacent province of Thonburi were combined into one city administration. The expression Bangkok Metropolis is widely used for this huge urban center with a population of 6,355,144 in the 2000 Census. Officially, the center has the name Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. For a short name, it is simply Bangkok. See also KINGDOM NAMES. BANGKOK BANK. See CHIN SOPHONPANICH AND THE BANGKOK BANK. BANGKOK ERA (RATTANAKOSIN ERA) 1782–1932. The history of the Bangkok Era is usually classified in two parts, the premodern and the modern. In the premodern period, from 1782–1851, historical events, and societal and cultural development reflected a continuation of the kingdom’s earlier history. The original Ayutthayan territory that existed before the 1767 catastrophic military loss when it was captured by the Burmese armies was recovered by Taksin, who defeated and drove out the Burmese. Taksin named himself king

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(reigned 1767–1782) at Thonburi, his new capital. He also defeated the Burmese in the northern kingdom of Lan Na, after which he made it a vassal state. Taksin was succeeded by King Rama I (reigned 1782–1809) who was a capable military leader and a person of noble background. He reigned from his capital of Bangkok, across the Chao Phraya River from Thonburi. Rama I expanded the territory of the new Bangkok kingdom and restored much of the cultural heritage of Ayutthaya. Rama I was the first king in what became the Chakri dynasty, a line of monarchs who reigned from their kingdom capital at Bangkok. The modern period of the Bangkok Era began in the reign of King Mongkut (1851–1868). He saw the necessity of political, legal, and economic reforms in order to have full relations with Western countries. This view resulted from his extensive studies and contacts with Westerners in the kingdom. The name Siam for the Bangkok kingdom was first used by Mongkut in a 1855 treaty. Reforms proceeded during the reign of his son and successor, King Chulalongkorn, who noted a serious threat to Siam as Great Britain and France were colonizing Siam’s neighbors. Devawongse Varopakar, a half-brother of Chulalongkorn, led negotiations with Great Britain and France that ended major security threats to the kingdom. Large territories were relinquished to Britain and France in exchange for Siam’s continued independence. Legal, financial, and governmental reforms were also accomplished by Chulalongkorn, who employed foreign advisers for technical advice and expertise. This was an aid to further assure Western powers that Siam was developing financial, legal, and justice systems comparable with those of Europe. Supported by King Chulalongkorn in the early 1900s, capable students from Siam (later Thailand) were educated in Europe where they were exposed to democratic ideas. In the reign of King Prajadipok (1925–1935), freedom of discussion was widespread and opposition to the absolute power of the monarchy was openly expressed. In June 1932, a coup by civil servants and some officers in the armed forces backed by army units forced the king to accept the status of a constitutional monarch. This marked the beginning of Siam’s Constitutional Era (see Introduction). Siam’s first permanent constitution was promulgated later in 1932.

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BANGKOK METROPOLITAN ADMINISTRATION (BMA). The name of a special unit of government created in 1971, which combines the city of Bangkok and the Province of Thonburi, which is located on the opposite (west) bank of the Chao Phraya River from Bangkok. It is also called the Bangkok Metropolis. This large unit had a population in excess of 6 million in the year 2000. Since 1975, the city metropolitan government includes a governor, four deputy governors, and a 41-person assembly, all elected by popular vote. It is important to distinguish the BMA from the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR), a name used by urban planners to refer to the BMA together with the five provinces that surround it. In some ways, the BMR is itself a “Thailand” that is largely dominant over the rest of the country. See also BANGKOK; BANGKOK: SPATIAL STRUCTURE AND DOMINANCE. BANGKOK: SPATIAL STRUCTURE AND DOMINANCE. Bangkok is Thailand’s largest city and its capital. This former village became prominent in 1782 when it was chosen by king Rama I as the site of the kingdom’s capital. Since that date, its growth and importance has made it predominant among all Thai urban centers. Deep seaports, a modern international airport, and other location factors have given the city a status as the nation’s major focus for exports and imports in external trade. The railroad and national highway systems operate from their centers in Bangkok. Today, the city and its vicinity is the center of a preponderance of the nation’s industry and manufacturing. This and the very extensive financial and commercial activities, tourist attractions, numerous foreign embassies and several agencies of the United Nations make Bangkok a world capital. Other factors have contributed to the city’s dominant role in Thailand’s economy. One is the many thousands of Chinese immigrants who have played a critical role in the nation’s commercial businesses. By any measure, Bangkok grew steadily in the 1970s and rapidly since the 1980s when production of commodities for export began. Social scientists refer to Bangkok as a “primate city.” In Thailand, this means the city has the offices of and a dominant role in the national government. It and adjacent provinces predominate in the amount of urban population and in the size of the labor force. Bangkok is the largest urban center for shopping, medical care, social services, entertainment, and access to

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advanced educational facilities. It is the location of the kingdom’s press, broadcasting and communications, and book publishing. Population growth that accompanied Thailand’s economic development occurred chiefly in Bangkok and its vicinity. According to the decennial census, the 1970 Bangkok population of 3.2 million doubled to 6.4 million by 2000. However, the city’s growth in the 1990–2000 decade was approximately 8 percent, the same as for Thailand as a whole. In addition, adjacent areas were growing more rapidly in this same period as a result of industrial development that brought in huge numbers of workers. For example, the population of the adjacent province of Pathum Thani by the year 2000 was 20 times its 1990 population. Spatially, this growth came from new industries and other facilities locating along the highways leading out of Bangkok. The population growth of Bangkok and vicinity was well underway in 1970. By 1980, the population of Bangkok combined with its five adjacent provinces had increased by 46 percent. At the same time, growth, and development was occurring rapidly in the seven provinces just beyond the previously identified five provinces. For these 12 provinces together with Bangkok, the population had doubled by 2000 compared to its 1970 numbers. Industrial and economic development in Thailand occurred through private initiative and without the benefit of central planning. There was minimal guidance by the Board of Investment (BOI). Since the Thai government has had a “laissez faire” attitude toward urban economic development, the result in Bangkok and vicinity was a serious lack of planning for water, waste management, and connecting roads. Other problems accompanied this rapid growth. These include limited provision for mass transit, which together with a shortage of road networks has led to enormous traffic congestion in the city and on commuter routes. The lack of drainage and sewage disposal has resulted in pollution and flooding. There has also been considerable subsidence of land and buildings due to extensive use of ground water. See also BANGKOK; BANGKOK METROPOLITAN ADMINISTRATION; URBANIZATION. BANHARN SILPA-ARCHA (1932– ). Thailand’s 21st prime minister, after the Chat Thai political party that he led won the most seats in the July 1995 election. He served for approximately six months.

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Banharn was one of the consummate deal makers in Thai politics. A native of the central province of Supan Buri, he made a fortune in the construction business. He entered politics in 1974 and won a seat in parliament in 1976. In 1991, he served as interior minister in a national administration. His term as prime minister reflected, more than others, the need for reform of Thai politics. For example, some members of his Council of Ministers (Cabinet) were accused of buying votes during their election to the House of Representatives, spending huge sums that they were able to recoup later from the national government budget while serving as ministers. They were also accused of using their power as ministers to aid their personal businesses. Banharn and at least three of his ministers were alleged to have engaged in flagrant corruption scandals such as land grabbing, profits from illegal logging, and from construction contracts not put up for bids while in public office. Banharn also illustrates the concept of Chao Pho or Big Man that for a long time has been important in provincial politics. Banharn remained highly popular in his home town province of Supan Buri for building roads, schools, hospitals, and other services that he was able to secure as a cabinet minister. BANK OF THAILAND (BOT). With its main offices in Bangkok, the Bank of Thailand, established in 1942, is the kingdom’s central bank. It has authority and responsibility for monetary control. Serving as fiscal agent for the national government, the BOT is involved in the formulation of policies regarding the raising and spending of public monies. By monitoring the money supply, it seeks to adjust money growth rate to assure a healthy economy without inflation. In its emphasis on monetary policy, the goal is financial and monetary stability. In addition, the BOT deals with international monetary organizations such as the World Bank. It also manages public debt, maintains foreign exchange controls, and supervises commercial banking. Branches of the BOT are located in Hat Yai, Khon Kaen, and Lampang. See also FINANCIAL SYSTEM. BANKING. In 2003, there were twelve Thai commercial banks with headquarters in Bangkok. Using deposits reported in 2002 as a measure of size, eight of these banks had deposits ranging from US$10 billion to US$30 billion of which the Bangkok Bank was by far the

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largest. The other four had deposits ranging from US$1 billion to US$9 billion. In general, these banks have numerous branches in Thailand. The four largest ones also have branch banks overseas. These are the Bangkok Bank, the Bank of Ayutthaya, Kasikorn Bank Public Company (formerly Thai Farmers Bank), and the governmentowned Krung Thai Bank. Four additional government-owned development banks with special functions include the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, the Government Housing Bank, the Small- and Medium-Size Development Bank, and the Export-Import Bank. There is also the Government Savings Bank with many branches throughout the kingdom. Fifteen foreign-owned banks have branches in Bangkok. The Thai economic crisis of 1997–1998 was devastating to the Thai banking sector. Of the banks in existence at that time, six smaller ones were unable to survive and were either sold or closed. Another three banks were acquired by foreign firms. Three of the larger banks named above were able to survive by obtaining foreign investment capital that was limited to 49 percent of ownership. The fourth, the government-owned Krung Thai Bank, was rescued by a government agency. See also FINANCIAL SYSTEM. BANYAN TREE. An East Indian fig tree, whose branches send out adventitious roots to the ground, sometimes causing the tree to spread out over a wide area. In Thailand, as in the rest of Southeast Asia, the banyan tree is considered sacred and it is the usual abode of spirits. A well known grove of banyan trees is located near Pimai. BAYINNAUNG. King of Burma (1551–1581) who led the Burmese conquest of Siam in 1569. That Bayinnaung was a strong monarch is indicated by his success in unifying, through military conquest, the former city-states of Pegu, Arakan, and Ava in Burma together with the former Mon Kingdom and Shan States. Following his military success in the north, his suzerainty was extended over the Lan Na Kingdom. From all of these territories, Bayinnaung was able to assemble a huge army for an invasion of central Siam. In 1568, he led an assault against the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. It ended in the defeat of the Siamese forces under the weak King Mahin and the capture of and sacking of Ayutthaya, the capital, in 1569. Mahathammaracha,

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who as governor of Phitsanulok had assisted the king in Burma in his campaigns, was installed as the vassal king of Thailand. In 1574, Bayinnaung was successful also in capturing Vientiane, the Kingdom of Lan Xang. See also NARESUAN. BETEL (MAAG). A masticatory made from slices of betel palm seeds usually spread on a betel pepper leaf together with other flavorings, particularly lime paste. Betel, a mild narcotic, is chewed widely throughout Asia and Oceania, especially by older women. Chewing betel has been extremely popular from the Sukhothai period to the 19th century. Habitual chewing results in red-stained lips, darkened teeth, distorted jaws, and frequent ejections of red spittle by the betel chewer. Chewers claim that it alleviates hunger, cures stomach problems, and preserves the teeth. The habit was officially banned in Thailand in 1945. BHIKKHU. See BUDDHIST MONK. BHUMIBOL ADULYADEJ (1927– ). Present king of Thailand (1946– ). A grandson of King Chulalongkorn, he was born in Massachusetts, where his father, Prince Mahidol of Songkhla (1884–1929), was studying medicine at Harvard. He became king upon the death of Ananda Mahidol, his older brother, in 1946. He continued his studies in Switzerland and was crowned king in an official ceremony in May 1950. A week earlier, he married Mom Rajawongse Sirikit. She was officially named queen on the day of the coronation. The principal residence of the royal family is at Chitra La Da Palace in Bangkok. The royal couple have four children. Their only son is Crown Prince Vajiralongkorn. They have three daughters, Princess Ubolratana, Crown Princess Siridhorn, and Princess Chulabhorn. To advise him in his official duties the king looks to the Privy Council and for day-to-day affairs he relies on His Majesty’s Private Secretariat and on the Office of the Royal Household. The king does not have authority to issue decrees or to veto actions of the Thai National Assembly. However, he does occasionally have indirect influence since all matters of governmental administration are done in the name of the king. Similarly, all draft laws are submitted to the king

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before promulgation. Among his other duties are presiding at state ceremonies and formal functions. He dispatches and receives envoys to and from friendly nations. He gives official recognition to all university graduates and graduates of military academies. He also invests all officers of the armed forces who attain the rank of general or its equivalent. There is almost universal appreciation and respect for King Bhumibol. He, Queen Sirikit, and others of the royal family have a reputation for their concern for the well-being of the kingdom’s inhabitants, especially the farmers and their families, victims of natural disasters, poor people, and policemen or soldiers injured while performing their regular duties. King Bhumibol has pioneered in contacts with the Thai population in the provinces and he has demonstrated his concern to better the lives of the rural and urban poor. These contacts are facilitated by the royal family’s use of official residences in five upcountry provinces. The king has initiated more than 2,000 development projects relative to plants, animals, and water control in widely scattered places in Thailand. It is in these areas that he is best known to the people of the kingdom. The king is also known for his encouragement of political development in widely acclaimed speeches on public occasions. In a sense, he has redefined the role of kingship in Thailand. The king has also played an important role in times of crisis and political instability. During the October 14, 1973, student uprising, the king met with both student and government leaders and participated in securing new government leadership. Later, his concern and action to resolve conflict in the 1976, 1981, and 1992 crises had an impact on the outcome. Regard for the monarchy had declined by the close of the reign of King Prajadhipok (Rama VII). Under Bhumibol, the present king, the Thai monarch has again become a source of national pride, a symbol of national unity, and a central pillar of the nation. King Bhumibol is viewed as a unifying leader. His efforts to make members of the Thai Malay and hill tribes and other ethnic groups feel they are part of the kingdom and that they are important to the well-being of Thailand have had significant results. Among the king’s hobbies and skills are his achievements in music. He plays the piano and at least five other musical instruments.

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He has composed songs and other musical compositions that are widely played and sung in Thailand. On the 42nd anniversary of the king’s coronation, he received the title of King Bhumibol Adulyadej the Great at a ceremony conducted by the prime minister. This honor was bestowed previously on Rama I and Chulalongkorn (Rama V). BILAUKTAUNG RANGE. A mountain range 500 to 1,500 meters (1,600 to 4,900 feet) high along the boundary between southwestern Thailand and southeastern lower Burma. BINTHABAT. See ALMS ROUNDS. BODHISATTVA. One destined to become Buddha; a person who has achieved enlightenment but defers achieving nirvana in order to help others achieve it. BOONSITHI CHOKWATANA (1927– ). He became the leader of the Saha Group conglomerate after the retirement of his father Thiam, who started in business in 1932. Beginning in consumer trade items, Thiam expanded his business of trading in metal goods, glass, and steel. He started the Lion Corporation in Thailand to make detergents and soap; as time passed, the company began trading in imported cosmetics that later were successfully produced in Thailand. Boonsithi was employed in Japan for six years, where he learned the Japanese language and culture, leading to further business connections when he returned to Thailand. Boonsithi was chosen over his siblings by his father for the business’s top position. The name ‘Saha’ is short for Saha Pathanapibul, the name of the main company of the conglomerate. It is often called the Saha Group, recognizing the numerous constituent companies involved. The conglomerate has tens of thousands of employees and operates in many countries. BOONSONG LEKAGUL (1907–1992). Widely known as “Mr. Conservation,” Dr. Boonsong is credited with the establishment of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. After graduation from Chulalongkorn University with a degree in medicine, he began medical practice in Bangkok with a group of medical specialists that he led in organizing. While enjoying trips into the jungle to hunt wild animals,

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he became aware of a serious need to protect wildlife and the environment. Following his crusading efforts, legislation that he advocated was enacted and Khao Yai National Park was created in 1962. Since then, more than 60 additional national parks and at least 40 wildlife sanctuaries have been established in Thailand. Another important accomplishment was the protection of forests in Kachanaburi province and stopping the construction of a hydroelectric dam there. Later, the United Nations Educational, Social, Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declared two wildlife refuges there as World Heritage Sites. BORDERS, NATIONAL. Thailand has a perimeter of approximately 4,500 kilometers (2,800 miles) that borders on four countries. It also has 2,000 kilometers (1,250 miles) of coast line on the Gulf of Thailand (Gulf of Siam), the Andaman Sea, and the Strait of Malacca. The longest borders are with Burma on the west and north, and Laos in the northeast. Thailand also shares borders with Cambodia on the southeast and with Malaysia in the south. The nation’s boundaries are not well marked except for a short stretch of the western border with Burma, marked by the Salween River, and about 900 kilometers (560 miles) of the northeastern border with Laos, defined by the Mekong River. Boundary lines are generally respected by the population although certain mountain groups along the border in northern Thailand and the Lao people along the Mekong River in the Northeast Region pay little attention to bordercrossing formalities. BOROMMAKOT. King of Ayutthaya (reigned 1733–1758). Borommakot came to the throne after a successful battle with the sons of the previous king. The Kingdom of Ayutthaya was strong and prosperous during most of his 25-year reign. As king, he increased the number of departments handling governmental affairs, thus reducing the chances that any one department head would have enough power to seize the throne. Borommakot won acclaim for his support of Buddhism, better control over territories that today are part of Cambodia, and renewed cooperative relations with Burma. However, Burma, under a new king, invaded the Kingdom of Ayutthaya five years after Borommakot’s death.

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BOROMMATRAILOKANAT. King of Ayutthaya (reigned 1431– 1488), also known as Trailok. He was an important monarch in the history of his nation. At the time he assumed the throne, Ayutthaya had expanded the kingdom’s territories considerably, which called for improvement in administration. Trailok fashioned new laws that delineated a very complex hierarchical society and specified the place and position of every individual. They also divided the governmental administration into the civil or mahatthai and the military or kalahom. Under each were various subdivisions. For each unit, functions were specified so that all persons in the nation were attached to a department for compulsory labor service. Government officials in Trailok’s reign received no salary. To provide an income for them and to regulate the system of land tenure, he instituted the sakdi na, which established a system for all able-bodied men to provide labor for each unit of government. These laws of Trailok, while modified, guided the nation’s government officials for nearly four centuries. War with King Tilokaracha of Lan Na occupied Trailok throughout his reign. BOT (UBOSOT). The most important building in the temple compound (wat). In this building, situated within a consecrated area, the monks assemble for ordination and other religious rites as well as for disciplinary affairs specific to the Buddhist monastic order. See also BUDDHISM; BUDDHIST MONK. BOWARADET REBELLION. In October 1933, one year after the Revolution of 1932, which ended the absolute monarchy in Thailand, a counter-revolution began, led by General Prince Bowaradet and some retired Thai army officers, who sought to restore the power of the monarchy. Military forces led by General Prince Bowaradet advanced on Bangkok from the north, but they were defeated by other forces led by Captain Phibun Songkhram. The rebellion was one of the most violent events in modern Thai history. The defeat of the Bowaradet rebellion brought a consolidation of power by those who promoted the Revolution of 1932. BOWRING TREATY AND SIR JOHN BOWRING (1792–1872). Bowring, a British author, editor, and statesman, while governor of

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Hong Kong, was appointed envoy to Siam. He negotiated with King Mongkut a Treaty of Friendship and Commerce executed by Great Britain and Thailand in April 1855, which contained terms very favorable to Britain. For the first time, Thailand granted major extraterritorial privileges to a foreign power. British subjects were exempted from the jurisdiction of Siamese authorities and were also given privileges of trade, residence, property ownership, and travel. In addition, British subjects living in Thailand were not required to pay certain taxes. The Bowring Treaty was the forerunner of similar treaties concluded with 12 other Western nations within the following 15 years. BRAHMANISM. The name for certain Indian religio-cultural patterns adopted by Thai kings in the Ayutthaya period. Brahmanic influences on the Thai monarchy resulted in large part from the capture of Khmer prisoners of war, including artisans and high officials. The concept of the king as deva raja or god-king was adopted in the 15th century by kings of Ayutthaya. While the idea apparently came from the Khmer, it was already widespread in Southeast Asia at that time. The deva raja concept made the Thai king an object of a cult conducted by royal Brahmans, who became officials in the king’s retinue. During the Bangkok period (since 1782), the concept declined in favor of other kingship concepts. Other Brahmanic religious patterns found in Thai culture include ghosts, spirits, and gods of various ranks. BRIDGE ON THE RIVER KWAI. The notorious railway bridge in Kanchanaburi Province, which was built as a link between Bangkok and Burma by the forced labor of Allied prisoners and foreign slaves during World War II. The work was harshly supervised by the Japanese military forces that had taken over Thailand. Thousands of prisoners and slaves who died in the effort are interred in Kanchanaburi War Cemetery on the outskirts of Kanchanaburi City. The story of this event has been depicted in both literature and film. BUDDHA. The name attached to Siddhartha Gautama, a native of southern Nepal (ca 563–483 BCE), and leader of a movement that founded Buddhism. Following a period of asceticism, penance, and

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meditation in the Indian jungle, Gautama stated that he had found peace in the truth of life’s unreality and in the necessity of causing the cessation of the desire to live. Gautama asserted that he became Buddha, the Enlightened One. For 45 years he taught and preached as he traveled and developed an order of monks among his followers. BUDDHA GAYA. The place where the Buddha received enlightenment, located in Bihar, India. There is a temple and the bo tree under which Buddha is said to have received enlightenment. BUDDHA IMAGES. Numbering in the millions, images of the Buddha appear in all sizes throughout Thailand as objects of veneration and worship in homes, Buddhist temple compounds (wat), schools, offices, and numerous other places. They are borne in processions, used as talismans and pendants. They are made of bronze or other metal amalgams and occasionally of stone. Small images may be of gold, silver, brass, crystal, or glass. During the reign of King Rama III, it was decided that 40 different postures of the Buddha could be recognized. Images have been cast of each of these postures and are now kept in the museum room of Wat Phra Keo. Generally, the “enlightenment” posture is reflected in Buddha images. In this posture, the Buddha sits cross-legged with the left hand open on the lap and the right hand resting on the right knee with fingers turned downward. The best-known large golden image of the Buddha is one dating from the Sukhothai period enshrined at Wat Traimit in Bangkok. It weighs approximately five metric tons. See also SCULPTURE, RELIGIOUS. BUDDHADASA BHIKKU (1906–1993). A widely admired and respected theologian. The Suan Mokh Meditation Center near Chaiya in Surat Thani Province of southern Thailand was developed under his leadership. The Center grew to 50 or more monks in residence. Buddhadasa has been a critic of those Thai Buddhists who use religion for personal and worldly benefit. For example, the Buddhist emphasis is on “merit making” or preoccupation with the externals of religious rituals and ceremonies in order to better oneself in the world. Buddhadasa taught that the foregoing was not only useless, but led one away from genuine religious practice. These criticisms have resulted in making him a controversial figure.

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Buddhadasa has offered a comprehensive and influential interpretation of Theravada Buddhism for today’s devotees. The originality of his thought system has been seen as stemming from a profound understanding of Buddhist concepts. Buddhadasa’s teachings have been collected and published in almost 50 volumes that include his lectures as well as his written work. Only a few of these writings have been translated into English; one that became available in 1971 is Toward the Truth. BUDDHISM. A major world religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who after a period as an ascetic declared that he had achieved enlightenment and that he was Buddha. He died in 483 BCE. The year of his enlightenment, 543 BCE, was the official beginning of the Buddhist Era (BE). There are two main divisions of Buddhist teaching and thought. Thai Buddhism exemplifies the school called Hinayana or Theravada. Its scriptures are the Pali Canon sometimes called the Narrow Way of Salvation or The Way of the Elders. Nirvana is possible only for the few who withdraw and devote themselves wholly to religious matters. The existence of a god or an individual soul is denied. Theravada Buddhism is also followed in Burma, Laos, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka. A second school—Mahayana Buddhism—uses the Sanskrit interpretation of Buddha’s teachings, and is sometimes called the Broad Way of Salvation. It holds that all laymen as well as ascetics have an equal chance of gaining nirvana and that there are pure souls in paradise and numerous successions of Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism is followed in China, Japan, Nepal, Korea, Vietnam, and by many Chinese in Thailand. Propagation of Buddhism depends on a monastic system. In Thailand this is the Buddhist monkhood called sangha in which traditionally all men are to spend at least one rainy season retreat in studying the scriptures and living the life of an ascetic. The Thai government cooperates with the Buddhist monkhood providing financial assistance, protection, and concessions to traveling monks, and promotes monastic education and aids in Buddhist teaching in the Thai schools. The literature and mural art of Thailand have drawn heavily on various tales from the life of Buddha. Laymen are also active in the propagation of Buddhism through the Buddhist Association and the Young Buddhist Association.

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Some of the ways that Thai Buddhism has departed from Gautama Buddha’s teaching include (1) Regard for the Buddha as God or a messenger of God, which implies a belief in God or that Buddha was a god who still lives. The offering of prayers to Buddha reflect such attitudes—all of which are a repudiation of the Buddhist catechism. (2) The widespread retention in Thai religion of spirit worship and animism as evidenced in spirit shrines everywhere, and clerical sprinkling of holy or lustral water. (3) Almost universal emphasis on fun-loving and pleasure-seeking activities by the Thai people who value that which makes them happy or sanuk. This is the opposite of Gautama Buddha’s injunction to extirpate all longing for happiness. (4) The recent efforts in Thailand to develop a sense of nationality and political individuality. In fact, the nation’s leaders are looking to Buddhism and the Buddhist monkhood as allies in developing the country’s resources, in improving living standards and the well-being of the Thai people. But these are things from which Gautama Buddha taught people to free themselves. Buddhism is the predominant religion in Thailand. It is reported that 95 percent of the population profess to be Buddhists. See also DHARMA; ETHICS OF THAI BUDDHISM; KARMA; MERIT-DEMERIT; PRECEPTS; THREE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES; THREE GEMS; WHEEL OF THE LAW; WOMEN AND BUDDHISM. BUDDHISM AND POLITICS. While there is a huge contrast in the values of Buddhism and politics, there has been a pronounced movement transforming many traditional monks into political monks, as pointed out by a prominent Buddhist leader, Somboon Suksaramran. This transformation can be seen as part of wider sociopolitical changes both domestic and international. The interests of political rulers and of the sangha, the national organization of Buddhist monks, have much in common. The sangha’s willingness to cooperate helps to morally legitimize the government, while in response, the government guarantees the monks a monopoly as religious leaders. An in-depth look at Buddhism and politics reveals that both rightwing and left-wing political monks have been active. See also WOMEN AND BUDDHISM. BUDDHIST ALL SAINTS DAY (MAKHA BUCHA). Buddhist All Saints Day commemorates the miracles that occurred just prior to the

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death of the Buddha. At that time Buddha gave an assembly of 1,250 disciples the many rules (patimokkha), which Buddhist monks are expected to follow. Celebration of this event, which is also a national holiday, occurs on the day of the full moon in the third lunar month. Merit-making activities include releasing caged birds, burning incense, and an evening procession around the chapel (bot) in the Buddhist temple compound (wat) with devotees carrying lighted candles. The anniversary of the founding of the Thai Buddhist Association is also celebrated on this day. BUDDHIST LENT (KHAO PHANSA OR KHAO VASSA). The threemonth period starting the day after the full moon of the eighth month, when many young Thai males temporarily enter the Buddhist temple compound (wat). During this time, they engage in intensive religious activities and become familiar with the ascetic life of a Buddhist monk. This experience has been regarded traditionally as a desirable part of maturation for men. The first day of Lent is a national holiday and is accompanied by much merit making by the Buddhist laity. Buddhist Lent is also referred to as the “Rainy Season Retreat.” See also END OF LENT CEREMONY. BUDDHIST MONK (BHIKKHU). A man who renounces at least temporarily the ordinary world and accepts an ascetic role of self-denial, discipline, and study of the scriptures of Buddhism. The first step in becoming a monk is the rite of ordination, which typically occurs in June or July prior to Buddhist Lent. Most Thai men who complete the ordination ceremony expect to be monks for the three month period of Buddhist Lent or for a shorter period. Other men see the role of monk as a career and remain for one or several years or for a lifetime. Becoming a Buddhist monk (bhikkhu) or Buddhist novice (nen), is the most meritorious act of renunciation because merit is accumulated not only by the monk or novice but also by his father, mother, sponsor (if any), and others who assist in his ordination ceremony. Traditionally, all Thai males were expected to assume this ascetic role for at least one Rainy Season Retreat. Today, less than half of the Thai males fulfill this religious obligation. In the urban areas of Thailand and in southern Thailand, there is a pattern whereby young men become monks for a short period of time, usually two weeks. In northern Thai-

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land, most become ordained as novices (nen), while elsewhere most new ordainees are monks. Monks and novices learn and recite regularly the rules regulating their behavior (patimokkha). In principle, monks are not parish priests but monastics who live a life of self-denial and discipline, who study the Buddhist scriptures and who are responsible for the property and rites of the Buddhist monkhood. Their duty to the laity is primarily that of imparting knowledge of the dharma or the teaching of Buddhism. The monkhood is also one of the Three Gems to which the laity can go for spiritual betterment. Next to the king, monks are the most honored and respected persons in Thai society. While the monk’s ascetic and monastic roles are emphasized in Buddha’s teachings, his pastoral service role is important also. It is the latter that brings respect, prestige, and continued material support of the laity. The monk is not permitted to work for compensation. Rather, he obtains food from daily alms rounds and food plus other materials from the numerous merit-making ceremonies that occur at the Buddhist temple compound (wat) where he centers his life. At the same time, the laity need the monks in order to receive merit and to live in accordance with the precepts of Buddhism. Both monks and novices play a major role in the religious life as well as the secular life of the community. They help to preserve social stability by their example of patience and serenity. They may give counsel in answer to various inquiries, act as arbiters in personal quarrels, or provide safekeeping for villagers’ savings. Many of the larger temple compounds offer dharma courses and other studies for the monks, who advance in status upon completing their exams successfully. The rank of the monk is indicated on his decorated fan of red or gold cloth. Today, some monks act as moral mentors, psychological counselors, and personal and social advisors. These progressive monks are named “development monks” (phra pattana). They also undertake community work, such as the construction of roads, digging of wells, and running of cooperative programs and day-care centers. They also set up credit unions to encourage saving among villagers, particularly among school-aged children and youth. In addition they give advice on agricultural problems and domestic issues, such as gambling and alcoholism. They play a leading role in the development of community programs in the poorer areas of the country. Laymen show their

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respect for monks by addressing them as phra, or holy one. See also KATHIN; NEO-BUDDHISM. BUDDHIST MONKHOOD (SANGHA). The Thai national order of Buddhist monks, or Buddhist monkhood, which also includes Buddhist novices as junior members. Many join for one or a few years while still others make the sangha their life career. The organizational basis of Thai Buddhism is the sangha whose members have the task of preserving the dharma through study, teaching, and pastoral services to the laity. The member monks and novices are enabled to carry out religious duties and affairs as a result of the material support provided by laymen who, in exchange for their alms, receive merit, which is highly valued. The sangha has a hierarchical structure that closely parallels that of the civil government and maintains supervision and discipline of the members. The supreme patriarch, or head of the sangha, appointed by the king, is assisted by a number of councils composed of high-ranking monks. See also ABBOT. BUDDHIST MONKHOOD DAY (ASALHA BUCHA). Buddhist Monkhood Day commemorates the Buddha’s sermon to his first five disciples. It is celebrated at the full moon of the eighth lunar month. This holy day was established in 1958 by the Buddhist monkhood (sangha) and adds significance to Buddhist Lent, which commences the following day. The celebration includes chants by the monks and a sermon. BUDDHIST NOVICE (NEN). A Thai male under 20 years of age who takes the vows of commitment to a role of self-denial, discipline, and study of the scriptures of Buddhism. Following an ordination ceremony, the novice takes up residence in a Buddhist temple compound (wat). There the novice will be supervised in his activities by the abbot or by a senior Buddhist monk. In northern Thailand most males begin their Buddhist temple compound experiences as novices. After the novice has reached 20 years of age, he can be ordained as a monk. Novices observe 10 precepts in their daily lives. Becoming a novice is similar to becoming a Buddhist monk in that it is a highly meritorious act of self-denial and

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commitment. Merit is accumulated not only by the novice, but also by his parents, his sponsor, and others who assist in his ordination. BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES (TIPITAKA). The three baskets of the law of Theravada Buddhism, written in Pali and arranged in three parts or tipitaka. It consists of the rules and regulations for the conduct of Buddhist monks, discourses, and sermons of the Buddha, and supplementary explanatory treatises. See also BUDDHISM. BUDDHIST TEMPLE COMPOUND (WAT). Buddhist religious center consisting of a small or large complex of buildings. Buddhist monks are typically present, in which case the center could be called a monastery. There are more than 17,000 Buddhist temple compounds in Thailand, and their importance for religious and community activities is very great. Among the buildings in the temple compound, the temple (bot) for the use of the monks is the most important; next is the people’s temple (wihan). These two structures are similar in architectural design. If a temple compound contains a celebrated Buddha image, it will be located in the temple used by the monks. On an altar in the people’s temple, there will be any number of Buddha images. A venerated building is the chedi (stupa) an essential element in religious ceremonies. The temple compound may include one or more sala, which are rest houses of simple construction. They are used for visiting, local meetings, and as places to sleep overnight. The village temple compound is typically the first place in the village to have indoor plumbing, a television set, and various other amenities. Thus, the temple compound is frequently a window on Thai society beyond the village. Temple facilities are often a contribution by wealthy patrons from urban centers whose gifts are a convenient way for the giver to make merit. Many larger temple compounds have a library (ho trai) for housing the books and manuscripts used in Buddhist studies. Nearly all temple compounds have one or more religious monuments. Besides its use for religious services and events, the temple compound is the site for fairs, festivals, marriages, funerals, and other public events. Other functions found within the temple compound include counseling, providing a news center, safe

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keeping of funds, and caring for the aged or sick. Supervision of the temple compound is in the hands of the chief monk or abbot. He is assisted by other monks and lay leaders. Modernization of Thai society and increasing materialism have had impacts on Buddhist temple compounds. First, efforts to beautify the temple compound to attract tourists and the money they bring is associated with a declining interest of monks at the temple in community members. Second, tiling the ground in the area of the chedi (stupa) replaces the sand there and its symbolic meaning. Third, a significant weakening of the bond between the temple and the community may be related to a decline in religious faith. BUNBANGFAI. See ROCKET FESTIVAL. BUNNAG FAMILY. Several immigrants and their descendants who were economic and political leaders in the Siamese royal government. They served from the 1600s well into the 20th century. Two Persians, Shiekh Ahmad and his brother, took Siamese wives. The former was appointed by the king of Siam to be in charge of the agency that dealt with Muslim traders. In time, he rose to head one of the major government ministries. With Ahmad’s commercial skills, the king was better able to exploit the income potential of foreign trade. Sheikh Ahmad’s son and his subsequent descendants, as well as the descendants of Ahmad’s brother, continued in strategic government roles. The Bunnag name was taken in the early 19th century when one of the above descendants, Mahasena (Bunnag), had a mother who was the queen’s sister. He controlled a major government ministry as did his son Dit Bunnag. Dit’s son Suriyawong was a powerful official in Siam from 1851 to 1883, in the reigns of King Mongkut and King Chulalongkorn. Another of Dit’s sons, Kham Bunnag, was also a high government official, a diplomat, and historian. BUPPHA NIMMANHEIMIN (PSEUDONYM DOKMAI SOT). The leading Siamese novelist of the pre-World War II period. Buppha was the author of 11 novels and numerous short stories. A central concern of Buppha was the moral choices that Siamese people face due to the conflict of their traditional values with those of the West.

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This theme was especially prominent in her novel Her Enemy, which appeared in 1929. One critic described Buppha’s novels as containing religious discourses in disguise. BUREAUCRACY. See CIVIL SERVICE. BURMA (MYANMAR), RELATIONS WITH. Historically, the relations between Burma and Thailand involved more conflict than cooperation. During the 16th to 18th centuries, there were both actual and attempted invasions of Thai kingdoms by Burma. In a 1767 war, Burmese armies defeated the Thai defenders, pillaging and burning Ayutthaya, the Thai capital city. Burma and Thailand established diplomatic relations in 1948. Since the Indochina crisis following the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1978, both countries improved their relations for domestic and regional security. The State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), which took control of Burma in 1988 by military coup, was preceded by military governments. This Council has suppressed pro-democracy movements in Burma with widespread arrests and imprisonments. The SLORC also abrogated the election of 1990 that would have established a democratic government. Military offensives against dissident ethnic groups, especially the Karen, have had huge impacts on Thailand, creating political tensions between the two countries. More than 100,000 Burmese refugees and economic immigrants have flowed into Thailand since the SLORC and preceding military governments assumed power. At least 2,500 pro-democracy dissidents were among the refugees. Thailand’s security concerns have been heightened by recent incidents of violence, one of which was a shortlived occupation of the Burmese embassy in Bangkok by armed dissidents. As a result, Thailand has established strict rules pertaining to Burmese refugees. In addition, the United Nations agency providing aid was requested to increase its efforts to find third country resettlement opportunities for the dissidents. At Thailand’s initiative, both bilateral trade and investment has meant increased economic cooperation between Thailand and Burma in recent years. The latter is one of the top Southeast Asia trading partners with Thailand, which purchases natural gas from Burma. With support from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Thailand has sought normal relations

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and expanded trade with Burma with the idea that such a policy promotes understanding and a way to influence the SLORC to moderate its repressive internal policies. In 1993, Thailand and Burma concluded agreements on Trade, Tourism Cooperation, Cultural Affairs, and Exemption of Visas for holders of official passports. Since 1992, Thailand has conducted an annual assistance program for Burma comprising training programs, sending experts, and providing equipment in the areas of agriculture, health, and education. The Burmese government does not have complete control over several ethnic groups that inhabit areas near the Thai border. One of these is the Wa ethnic group, which has its own large private army. The Wa produce large quantities of amphetamines illegally. Thailand, Laos, and China are conduits for the distribution of these drugs. This uncontrolled operation and the hundreds of drug dealers associated represent a major cause of instability both in the border areas and elsewhere in these three countries as well as in Burma. The United States is aiding in efforts to control this drug trade. See also BAYINNAUNG; HSINBYUSHIN; LAN NA; NARESUAN; TAKSIN. BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS. Several business organizations are able to speak for all or a large part of the business sector of Bangkok where the predominant part of the Thai economy is located. There are five major groups. The Board of Trade works with the Ministry of Commerce to set both export quotas and minimum prices. The Board also represents Thai business in international forums. The Thai Chamber of Commerce (TCC), founded in 1923, began to be very active in the 1980s. With 2,000 members including provincial members, the TCC became equal to the Board of Trade in overall influence as a spokesperson for Thai business. The Federation of Thai Industries (FTI), founded in 1987, has 4,800 members and is widely accepted as speaking for industry as a whole. It is widely represented on government commissions and committees. The Mining Industry Council, created in 1983 by national legislation, is regarded as the official representative of all mining-related industries. Its membership consists of individuals or firms. The Joint Standing Committee on Commerce, Industry, and Banking was founded in 1977. It helps member associations reach common positions on key issues and represents them in national and international forums.

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–C– CABINET. See COUNCIL OF MINISTERS. CAMBODIA, RELATIONS WITH. The small Southeast Asian nation of Cambodia, on Thailand’s eastern border, has had a history closely linked to that of Thailand. One of the earliest human settlements in Southeast Asia was located in what today is Cambodia, and the ancient Khmer Kingdom of Angkor was also centered there. For most of the century prior to 1860, portions of what is present-day Cambodia were a part of Siam and the Cambodia of that time was a vassal of Siam paying tribute. When Cambodia became a colony of France in the 1860s, Siam was forced by French military pressure to give up areas it previously claimed. Cambodia has been and continues to be an important trade partner of Thailand, although there were interruptions during periods of political instability and civil war. Internal conflict in Cambodia and the Communist takeover in 1975 caused Thailand to strengthen its eastern military defenses. Thailand faced additional threats associated with the Vietnamese invasion and subjugation of Cambodia in 1979. Both events brought about a massive inflow of refugees to Thailand. During 1980–1982, thousands of refugees from Laos and Cambodia were expelled from Thailand. Factional violence in Cambodia in the late 1980s brought another wave of refugees, which the United Nations helped to care for. In 1988–1990, Thai government officials arranged conferences in an attempt to bring about a peaceful settlement among the Cambodian political factions. Finally, in November 1991, an agreement between Thailand, Cambodia, and the United Nations provided for repatriation of more than 300,000 refugees. In recent years, Thai business ventures in Cambodia have been well received in that country. In addition, the Thai government has carried on a continuing program of economic and educational assistance to Cambodia. An anti-Thai riot occurred in Phnom Penh in January 2003, apparently due in part to internal politics and also to perceived Thai attitudes of superiority. After a three months break, and Cambodian payment to Thailand for property damage, normal diplomatic relations were restored.

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CARAVAN (1974–1976, 1981–1989). An activist instrumental and vocal band of musicians. The members were Surachai Jantimatorn (leader), Wirasak Soonthornsri, Mongkol Utog, and Tongran Tana. The band emerged in 1974, a time of social and political change. Their socially concerned music focused on freedom and societal unfairness. They sang songs urging listeners to be aware of Thai social problems including the neglect of poor people. When in 1976 there were harsh attacks by rightist political groups, the band members fled to the countryside. However, they were reunited after five years and gave a successful “Homecoming” concert in 1982 under the sponsorship of UNICEF. Their music brought wide acclaim and gave support to others in the community who were expressing similar social concerns. Among the songs that inspired their followers were “Man and Water Buffalo” (Khon Kab Kwai), Duen Phen and Thangthom. By the time the band broke up in 1989, they had produced 13 popular albums. After that, when they occasionally came together for an evening concert, they performed to large audiences. CASSAVA. A starchy root crop cultivated mainly in southeastern Thailand and also in parts of the Northeast Region. The tuber roots, when boiled, are eaten as a vegetable. Cassava is used domestically and in foreign countries in the refined forms of flour, meal, tapioca, and tapioca products. Cassava has been important as an export crop since the 1950s and export demand has increased. Total exports recently have been second only to that of Brazil. European countries are a major market. CATHOLICISM. In Thailand, adherents of the Roman Catholic faith together with other Christians represent less than one percent of the population. Catholicism was first introduced in Thailand in 1606 by missionaries from Portugal. The number of Catholic adherents is estimated to be 240,000, which is about 75 percent of all Thai Christians. They are found chiefly in Bangkok and northern Thailand. The Catholic congregations are administered by two archdioceses and eight dioceses. There is an active Catholic Association in Thailand, a number of Catholic-operated hospitals, and more than 100 parochial elementary and/or secondary schools.

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CELADON. See CERAMICS. CENTRAL REGION. The Central Region has long been the heartland of Thailand. It consists of the alluvial plain of the Chao Phraya River, its tributaries, and a surrounding piedmont belt. The relatively flat highly productive area has often been called “the rice bowl of Asia.” The wet-rice agriculture there has provided economic support enabling the Thai state to become a regional power. Historically, the central part of what is Thailand today was the location of the citystates of Sukhothai (1240–1438) and Ayutthaya (1351–1767). The ethnic group of original settlers who established kingdoms in the Central Region were speakers of Siamese, a Tai-language dialect. From their kingdom capital, Bangkok, they gradually asserted control over the peoples of the other three regions using military power on occasion. With fertile soils, flooding from the Chao Phraya, Meklong, and Bang Pakong rivers together with canals, successful agriculture has resulted in a dense population of more than 400 persons per square kilometer. This compares with the approximate 100 persons per square kilometer for the country as a whole. Since the early 20th century, the central Thai language, Siamese, has been taught in the schools and is the official language of Thailand. At the southern edge of the region is located Bangkok, the national capital and its many suburban areas, a highly urbanized metropolitan region. As this metropolis is the nation’s primary focal point of government, trade, transport, industry, and essential services, it is in one sense separate from the Central Region. Other important cities of the region include Ayutthaya, Chon Buri, Lop Buri, Nakhon Sawan, Nakhon Pathom, and Ratcha Buri. The Chao Phraya River is a much used waterway for commerce. It supplements the extensive network of air, land, and rail transportation. There are deep-water ports near Bangkok and the mouth of the river. See also LANGUAGE AND THAI REGIONALISM; Map 4. CERAMICS. Siamese ceramics are characterized in three somewhat interrelated groupings: (1) Pottery in the Lop Buri area that developed between the 11th and 14th centuries. These ceramics exhibit Cambodian influence. (2) Pottery and dishes of fired clay known as the Sukhothai type found at Si Satchanalai, formerly known as

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Sawankhalok, which has been in celebrated ruins since the 15th century. This label describes everything from richly glazed and singlecolored pottery known as Celadon to a variety of hand-painted ceramics. Potters at this site produced an enormous range of ceramics for 14th- and 15th-century export to Indonesia, the Philippines, and elsewhere. The Sukhothai type of ceramics is similar to that made in China previously. (3) Chiang Mai wares that resemble the Sukhothai style and were initially produced by potters forcibly removed from Si Satchanalai in the late 15th century. Their descendants still produce this style with modifications at Chiang Mai. Examples of each of these styles are preserved in either the National Museum in Bangkok, the National Museum in Ayutthaya, or in private collections. Prehistoric evidences of pottery have been discovered in the Ban Chiang area of northeast Thailand. CEREMONIES AND FESTIVALS. Ceremonies and festivals in Thailand can be summed up in three principal categories: religious festivals, which are connected with the practice of Buddhism and are dated by the lunar calendar; national holidays, which follow the Western calendar; and other festivals and events. Three of the latter, which are celebrated throughout the nation, are Songkran in April, Kathin in October, and Loy Kratong in November. Four festivals popular in specific areas are the Chiang Mai Flower Festival in February, the Royal Plowing Ceremony in May, the Rocket Festival also in May or June, and the Surin Elephant Roundup in November. In addition, there are many fairs across the country, some of which include beauty contests and commercial activities. Information and exact dates for ceremonies, festivals, and fairs can be obtained from the Tourist Organization of Thailand (TOT) and the Bangkok Post newspaper. See also TRIPLE ANNIVERSARY. CHAKRAPHAT. King of Ayutthaya (reigned 1548–1569). He spent a large part of his reign in wars with Burma. That kingdom had become unified, first under King Tabinshwehti and later under his brother King Bayinnaung. The armies of Burma were defeated during their first invasion of Ayutthaya. During the second they besieged Ayutthaya and forced Chakraphat to give them four white elephants and his nephew Naresuan. Chakraphat died during the third campaign,

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whereupon his son Mahin became king. Seven months later, in 1569, the Burmese captured Ayutthaya. CHAKRI DYNASTY. The name Chakri designates the hereditary line of kings of Siam since 1782. His majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej is the current monarch and the ninth of this dynasty. The first three Chakri kings have been identified with the name Rama. For subsequent Chakri kings, other names have been used. The founder of the line, Rama I (also Yotfa), who reigned from 1782–1809, was the chief commander of the army (Chakri) prior to his elevation to the royal throne. There was no eligible heir at the time of the previous king’s death. The rebuilding of the kingdom commenced by the previous king, Taksin, was effectively broadened and continued by Rama I following the 1767 fall and destruction of Ayutthaya. Rama II (also Loetla), who was a poet, reigned from 1809–1824 and is known mostly for development of artistic culture and Buddhist renewal. King Rama III (also Nang Klao), who reigned during 1824–1851, expanded the territory of Siam and outdid his predecessors in promoting Buddhism. The fourth Chakri monarch, Mongkut, reigned from 1851–1868 and was well versed in Western civilization and languages when he assumed the throne of Siam. He promoted foreign trade and contacts with the West. Chulalongkorn (reigned 1868–1910) continued the modernization of Siam begun by King Mongkut. He was also a leader in domestic reforms and in devising foreign policies that were crucial in saving Siam from becoming the colony of either France or Great Britain. Vajiravudh (reigned 1910–1925) promoted nationalism and education. With the aid of assistants, he secured improvements in treaties relating to extraterritoriality and tariff autonomy with Western powers. When Prajadhipok (reigned 1925–1935) ascended the throne, Siamese regard for the monarchy was at a low ebb. Prajadhipok agreed under pressure to end the absolute monarchy in Siam in 1932. It was replaced by a constitutional form of government. He abdicated the throne in 1935. Since the events of 1932, the Thai king serves as head of state and as a unifying force in the kingdom, but with no legislative or executive power. Ananda Mahidol (reigned 1935–1946) died mysteriously at the age of 21. However, under the ninth and present king, Bhumibol

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Adulyadej (reigns 1946– ), the prestige and influence of the Thai monarchy has increased. He has restored the throne to a position of high esteem. See also KINGSHIP. CHAKRI MEMORIAL DAY. A national holiday celebrated on April 6 with ceremonies to mark the founding of the Chakri dynasty of kings in 1782 by Rama I. King Bhumibol Adulyadej, who is ninth in succession in the royal line, provides leadership in the activities. He is assisted by the queen, others of the royal family, the prime minister, and other government officials in ceremonies that are held principally in Bangkok. CHALOOD NIMSAMER (1929– ). Famous sculptor, painter, and printmaker. Chalood has been recognized as an heir of Silpa Bhirasri. He studied at Silpakorn University in Thailand as well as art schools in Rome and New York. For his work in several fields of art, Chalood has consistently been considered an integrative artist. His paintings and sculptures have won many prizes in Bangkok and elsewhere. Among his students are several well-known Thai artists. CHAMADEVI, QUEEN. A royal daughter of the King of Lop Buri in the seventh century C.E. She was asked to rule the northern Kingdom of Haripunchai, now Lamphun Province. She was a warrior and defeated the enemy from South India. When peace came, she made Buddhism a state religion and codified a secular body of law for her people, ordered the Buddhist scriptures revised by highly learned Buddhist monks, and built several historic temples. Her statue stands in Lamphun Province. CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE. In the early 20th century, the Chinese Chamber of Commerce represented a wide array of businesses in Bangkok. In the 1980s, however, the Thai Chamber of Commerce (TCC) took a leading role. It included provincial chambers of commerce as members, which grew to 72 by 1986. The TCC, with a staff of more than 70 in the early 1990s, had representatives on at least 56 government committees and subcommittees. Along with the Board of Trade, the TCC is in the forefront as a representative of business interests in both Bangkok and the provinces.

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CHAMLONG SRIMUANG. Army officer, politician, governor, and activist. In Chamlong’s Thai education, he usually had the highest grades in his class. Graduating from the prestigious army officer training program, he began a military career. Again as a result of his high grades, he was able to enroll for studies (at the U.S. Naval Post Graduate School), which he completed. A former active-duty army major general, Chamlong gained prominence as a party leader who was elected governor of the Bangkok Metropolis in 1985. City improvements including cleaner streets and reduced corruption during his administration enabled him to win reelection in 1990 by a landslide vote. Later, he was elected to the House of Representatives as a member of the Palang Dharma party. Chamlong gained considerable notoriety in the 1992 pro-democracy demonstrations in Bangkok city against Prime Minister Suchinda Kraprayoon. He led the popular demonstrations and demands for Suchinda’s resignation. After his arrest, incarceration, and hunger strike, he was freed by action of King Bhumibol. Following the September 1992 national election, Chamlong and his Palang Dharma party became part of the ruling coalition with the Democrat Party and Chuan Leekpai, the new prime minister. Later, Chamlong and his party withdrew from the coalition government in 1995, which resulted in a new national election. At this time, Chamlong turned over the Palang Dharma party leadership to Thaksin Shinawatra. Among the books that Chamlong authored were Three Way Junction, Joining the Force to Fight, and Autobiography. He won awards for his achievements in public administration and public service. See also MILITARY OFFICERS. CHANGWAT. See PROVINCE. CHAO AWAT. See ABBOT. CHAO PHO AND “BIG MEN.” Rural Thailand has a long tradition of informal leaders who provide protection and material aid for their followers in patron-client relationships. In the 1970s an economic and social transformation was underway in the provinces of Thailand. At this time, some of the traditional leaders began to move into entrepreneurial roles. Local Sino–Thai shop owners also began to expand their

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businesses into handling local resources such as surplus crops and their processing, whiskey production and distribution, or logging, or obtaining public works contracts with the national governmental infrastructure programs. Success in one or more businesses was both a source of wealth and a source of power. Some who had a number of enterprises with many employees and a large following were known as “big men.” In general, most “big men” were likely to be respected local businessmen, traditional community leaders, or high-ranking military officers, policemen, and civil service officials. Some of the more powerful, however, were able to advance their interests without regard to existing law. In general, the subgroup of “big men” who were engaged in illegal activities were called “chao pho” or “godfathers,” because they were thought to have an almost divine power protecting them from the authorities. While highly regarded, many Chao Pho were also feared as they sometimes used violence to obtain their ends. Some chao pho and “big men” entered politics to seek elected office locally or even nationally. They saw this as facilitating their business advancement. Much of the basis for the power of these chao pho and “big men” was due to the poverty of villagers. Since wealthy chao pho and “big men” patrons were able to provide for villagers’ needs sooner than governmental officials who often did not respond to requests, at election time the villagers in turn were readily persuaded to vote for their “big men” or chao pho patrons. Later in the 1980s, after joining a national political party, chao pho and “big men” networks aided in the election of national political leaders. With increased power and influence, three provincial “big men” who had become leaders of national political parties were elected prime ministers in the 1990s, namely, Chuan Leekpai, Banharn Silpa-Archa, and Chavalit Yongchaiyudh. This decade brought keen competition between political leaders from the provinces and those from Bangkok, which is expected to continue in the future. More recently, the chao pho have been seeking legitimation through their support of and participation in the larger political parties and by becoming candidates in democratic elections to the parliament. They also have turned to legitimate businesses and away from crime. In addition, some sons and daughters of the chao pho

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with advanced degrees return home to enter high status positions in family enterprises. With different styles and different activities, they seek to overcome the corrupt image of fathers so labeled. See also CORRUPTION; PROVINCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND POLITICS. CHAO PHRAYA (CHAO PHRA). Traditional title given to the holder of the highest rank in the civil government under the now defunct sakdi na system. CHAO PHRAYA RIVER. The principal river of Thailand, located in the midst of the Central Region. It provides water for some 10 million rai (400,000 acres) of agricultural land. It drains southward from headwaters in the mountains of northern Thailand and empties into the Gulf of Thailand where it forms a large delta. The Chao Phraya dwarfs all other Thai rivers and is sometimes referred to simply as “the river.” The smaller Suphan River, located about 75 kilometers (47 miles) west of and parallel to the Chao Phraya, is considered a distributor since the two rivers share headwaters. From the place where three northern rivers join to form the Chao Phraya to the Gulf of Thailand is about 400 kilometers (250 miles). All except the very largest ships are able to go up the Chao Phraya River to the city of Bangkok, which is about 30 kilometers (19 miles) from the river’s mouth. Barges and boats provide year-round transportation over nearly the whole length of the Chao Phraya River. However, technological development in modern Thailand has changed the river. It has gradually lost its significance as a means of transportation. Population growth and a lack of city planning have turned the river into a sewer, receiving polluted water from towns and factories. See also RIVERINE COMMERCE. CHAO THI (PHRA PHUM). A Thai expression meaning Lord of the Land or Place. Traditionally, in central Thailand, the landowner constructed a miniature house, a spirit house, which is then perched on a post at about eye level, near the family dwelling. It is regarded as the shrine and home of the guardian spirit (chao thi). Food offerings are made to the chao thi on the anniversary of his installation in the spirit house, New Year’s day, and other special occasions. The spirit is told

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of projected trips by members of the family, and of births and deaths. Its help is sought during illness and misfortune. The villagers of the Northeastern and Northern Regions do not have chao thi or phra phum shrines in their house compounds, but they typically have a community spirit house where the spirits of the founders of the village are honored annually in the sixth lunar month. See also PHI CULT. CHATCHAI CHOONHAVAN. Politician, prime minister (1988–1991), army general, foreign affairs officer. Chatchai was educated in Thailand and graduated from the Royal Thai Military Academy. In the army, he advanced rapidly to the rank of general. Chatchai retired from the armed forces in 1974 to enter politics and was elected to the House of Representatives in 1975. As a civilian, he served with distinction as deputy foreign minister during the Indochina War. In the 1988 national election, Chatchai served as leader of the Thai National (Chat Thai) party. He became prime minister as leader of a six-party coalition and the first elected prime minister since 1976. During Chatchai’s two-and-a-half years in office, the Thai economy was booming. Politically, there were charges of corruption among high officials in the Chatchai administration and increased attention to the disparity of incomes that disadvantaged the less privileged groups. While Chatchai was a clever tactician and a coalition builder, he did not project strong leadership. Challenges from the military members of the National Assembly came to a head in February 1991 when, in a bloodless coup led by General Suchinda Kraprayoon, Chatchai was removed as prime minister. CHATRI SOPHONPANICH (1934– ). Chatri is a son of Chin Sophonpanich, founder of the Bangkok Bank, and, like his father, he became a distinguished figure in Thai banking. He received his education and banking experience in Hong Kong, London, and Edinburgh, and joined the Bangkok Bank in 1959. Chatri was groomed for bank leadership by his father and advanced rapidly, becoming senior vice-president while his father was president. He became president of Bangkok Bank in 1980. Family leadership of the Bangkok Bank continued following Chatri’s presidency when, in 1994, Chatri’s son Chartsiri became president. Chatri led the effort to double

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bank capital, which reached three billion baht (US$75 million). This was accompanied with expansion of bank branches, installation of new technology, and addition of new business enterprises. In bank operations, Chatri emphasized teamwork of experts employed for specific banking tasks. He and his team were widely recognized for their bank management ability. Bangkok Bank has hundreds of branches in Thailand and many foreign countries. The Bangkok Bank, as did all banks, suffered huge losses from the economic crisis of 1997–1998, during which the Thai economy faced much shrinkage. To survive, the bank and its subsidiaries found it necessary to downsize. Chatri was among those business leaders who, in 1997, pressured the Thai government and its International Monetary Fund program to lower interest rates. Rather than apply to a government agency for the offered loan, Chatri arranged for the Bangkok Bank to raise new private capital. This amounted to 40 billion baht (US$1 billion). However, this meant that the bank became 49 percent owned by international investors. Another impact of the economic crisis was that the Bangkok Bank as well as other large banks were forced to change from the previous pattern of allocating capital for development and extending credit only through relationships with family and friends to a more broadly based consumer banking. CHAT THAI (THAI NATION PARTY). Organized in 1974, the Chat Thai political party was led initially by Police General Pramarn Adireksarn. It was one of the political parties that traditionally has had the backing of the military forces, and it supports conservative candidates for election to the House of Representatives. The Chat Thai party has frequently been successful in having the largest number of seats in the House of Representatives. In the 1983, 1988, and in 1995 elections, with more members than any other party, its leader became prime minister. In the 2001 election, the Chat Thai party obtained 41 seats and ranked third in the House of Representatives behind the Thai Rak Thai and Democrat parties. The party illustrates how power is shared among several key individuals. Faction leaders of the party wield influence over a number of representatives under their patronage. However, the party is able to act in unison on important issues.

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CHATTRA. The nine-tiered royal umbrella. It appears over the royal throne when the king presides at formal ceremonies as head of state, at the opening of the National Assembly, when receiving foreign envoys at the Chakri Throne Hall in the Grand Palace, and for religious ceremonies at the Royal Chapel in Wat Phra Keo. CHEDI (STUPA). A conical monument or tower that is the most venerated religious structure for Thai Buddhists. The building consists of a drumlike base with a large bell-shaped dome topped by a circular colonnade or tapered pinnacle that rests on a square seat. Also called a stupa from the Sanskrit word for mound, it was likely a pre-Buddhist burial mound that in time developed into the pagoda and other structures of religious significance in India and Southeast Asia. Originally, the chedi enshrined relics of the Buddha. Later, it housed relics of holy men or kings and finally has become a religious symbol as the cross is for Christians. It may be referred to as phra chedi to indicate veneration. On certain religious days, villagers perform a ceremony (wien thien) by walking around the chedi carrying a lighted candle. See also BUDDHIST TEMPLE COMPOUND. CHEN DURIYANGA. A prominent musician and music teacher. During the period 1936–1954, he chaired a group of Thai musicians who wrote in musical score numerous traditional songs and melodies. These had previously existed only as oral traditions. Prior to this, Chen was active in aiding the development of Western classical music in Thailand. In the reign of King Vajiravudh he established the royal orchestra, the first of its kind in Siam. In 1934 his orchestra was transferred to and became the nucleus of the new Fine Arts Department of the Ministry of Education. Chen was awarded an honorific title by the king. CHIANG MAI. One of the largest provinces in north Thailand, pop. 1,500,100 (2000 census). The nation’s highest mountains are found here, some of which are more than 1,700 meters (5,600 feet) high. The growing economy has prospered through tourism, diversified agriculture, industry, and cottage industries. In the uplands are found distinctive hill tribes. The logging industry collapsed in 1989, although logs continue to arrive from forests in Burma. A national park

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in Chiang Mai Province has the greatest diversity of tree species found in any world temperate climate. Crude oil is pumped in the province and is processed at the Fang Oil Refinery. Mining operations are producing fluorite, tin, and scheelite. The provincial capital, Chiang Mai City, has a population of 167,000. It is a trade, tourist, and educational center with a permanent colony of Western and Asian expatriates. The city has convenient rail and airline services, both international and domestic. Many Bangkok residents have second homes here to take advantage of the cooler climate. Chiang Mai is famous for its handcrafts such as silverware, umbrellas, cotton, and silk cloth. Several companies provide a wide range of traditional celadon and modern porcelains. See also APPENDIXES C & F. CHIANG MAI FLOWER FESTIVAL. This popular and widely attended fair held annually in February features a beauty pageant, a huge floral float parade, and a variety of entertainments. CHIANG SAEN. An early principality of Thai peoples in what today is northern Thailand with Chiang Saen as its capital. It was also the capital in which Mangrai claimed the kingship of Lan Na in 1259. Prior to this it was relatively independent during the 10th to 12th centuries. The ruins of the old city walls and moat can be observed along with several ancient Buddhist monuments. A small museum displays artifacts of the Chiang Saen art style that influenced the development of Sukhothai art. Chiang Saen is now a district and a district capital in Chiang Rai Province. CHIN SOPHONPANICH AND THE BANGKOK BANK. The startup of a conglomerate is well illustrated by the development of the Bangkok Bank in 1944 and the central role of the Sophonpanich family. At age 34, businessman Chin Sophonpanich (1910–1988), joined a partnership of nine other immigrant Chinese entrepreneurs to open a bank, among other business ventures. Chin’s extensive connections, including friends, family, and other businessmen of Chinese background, were important in attracting depositors and firms desiring commercial loans. The Bangkok Bank, like other banks, accumulated working capital by serving as a depository for family savings, especially from the large agricultural population in the provinces.

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Working closely with two associates, Chin Sophonpanich became president of the Bangkok Bank, a post he held for 31 years. General Prapas Charusathian served the bank as board chairman for 17 years. This fit the Thai–Chinese business pattern prior to the 1990s, to have a high-ranking military officer on the board of directors for political protection of the business. When Chin retired in 1984, the Bangkok Bank was the largest bank in all of Southeast Asia. Chin is remembered as an important banker whose leadership was influential in shaping the Thai commercial banking system. See also CHATRI SOPHONPANICH. CHINA, RELATIONS WITH. There is evidence of relations between China and the ancient Kingdom of Sukhothai. For more than 500 years, Lan Na, Sukhothai, and subsequent kingdoms were nominally vassal states and periodically sent tributary missions to the Chinese emperor. This practice was ended in 1853 by King Mongkut with the support of the United States and other Western powers. When the People’s Republic of China came to power in 1949, Thailand feared a possible southward expansion. In the 1960s, when China provided aid for insurgency to the Communist Party of Thailand, the threat appeared real. However, following Communist takeovers of the governments of Laos and Cambodia in 1975, Thailand sought accommodation with the victors. Diplomatic relations with China were established in July 1975 with the exchange of ambassadors. The Vietnamese invasion and capture of Cambodia in 1978–1979 was opposed by both China and Thailand, which led to improved relations between them. For a time, Thailand was a conduit for Chinese arms sent to the Khmer Rouge and other forces resisting the Vietnamese-installed Cambodian government. A Bangkok–Beijing hot line was created in 1985 to aid in coordinating efforts in the event of a Vietnamese attack on Thailand. Later, in May 1987, with a Vietnamese army division on its border, Thailand obtained an agreement for the purchase of Chinese arms and other military equipment for use when needed. Trade between Thailand and China has a long history. For a number of years, Thailand and China have been major trade and investment partners. One element facilitating this has been the Sino–Thai businessmen, many of whom have invested in business in China. For

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example, the Bangkok Bank has several branch banks in China as well as in other countries. Thai raw product exports to China currently include rice, rubber, tapioca, and tropical fruits. Sino–Thai political leaders in the Thai government have been an important aid in promoting friendly relations between Thailand and China. In addition, China participates with Thailand and other nations in a cooperative program to defend the value of Asian currencies. Since the year 2000, China and Thailand have been cooperating in a plan to combat the flow of drugs, especially amphetamines. The plan includes exchange of information, drug suppression, HIV/AIDS education, and arrangements to rehabilitate drug addicts. CHINESE IN THAILAND. The role of the Chinese as merchants and government officials dates to early times in Siam. King Taksin, who reigned 1768–1782, was the son of a Chinese father. During most of the 19th century and in the 20th to World War II, immigration from rural south China was very heavy. In Bangkok city and the surrounding provinces, the immigration was encouraged by resident Chinese employers to meet their need for wage workers. In historical perspective, there were times when the Thai authorities were concerned about the growing numbers of immigrant Chinese and their wealth. On several occasions, Thai officials acted to suppress them. The prospect that the Chinese might engage in political activity was the main worry, and the Thai authorities pressured the Chinese to continue as merchants and laborers and to accept Thai politics. Also, urban Chinese were required to educate their children in Thai schools and learn the Thai language where they could and, in addition, acquire Thai culture. There were arrests of “trouble makers” and a small number of deportations. Pressures and harassment were usually short-lived. In general the Chinese were well received in Thailand, both those with business enterprise ability and others as industrial workers. For many decades, Chinese immigrants to Thailand were single males. While most of these men returned to China after a few years, those who stayed typically married Thai women. The offspring of these mixed marriages are referred to as Sino–Thai. The second generation in such marriages learned Thai as their first language, which made assimilation easy. After the turn of the century, however, assimilation of

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the Chinese slowed. The new immigration brought in both men and women and mixed marriages became less common. The development of Chinese education and a Chinese-language press soon followed. The Chinese and Sino–Thai built the modern sector of the economy centered in Bangkok. Canals, bridges, railways, government buildings, and small and large commercial buildings provide evidence of their industriousness. In the first half of the 20th century, they built the infrastructure essential to the rice-export economy. A striking evidence of their business success are the large number of conglomerates developed by the Chinese and Sino–Thai. Thailand’s remarkable economic growth in the later part of the 20th century is seen as being largely due to the commercial ability and success of these businessmen of Chinese origin. Today, the Chinese are largely assimilated or are regarded as Sino–Thai. In the latest census, less than one percent of the population of Thailand were citizens of China. The Sino–Thai have a Thai education and Thai surnames. However, many continue to retain some “Chineseness,” through ancestor worship, use of the Chinese language, preservation of Chinese customs, and an orientation to commerce and business success. In the mid-1980s, electoral candidates were no longer required to cover up their Sino–Thai origins. In fact, Chinese roots became an asset for a person’s reputation. Displaying one’s “Chineseness” has become popular in music and drama in urban entertainment. The middle class in Thailand today is largely composed of the Sino–Thai. CHITR BUABUSAYA. A well-known Thai painter, active in Thailand after World War II. His works reflect a Western orientation. CHOEI. A Thai social value meaning to be still or cool, which are vital elements in the Thai reaction to situations of social stress. To have a cool heart is to be uninvolved, not annoyed, and to remain in control of one’s emotional self. The idea of choei marks the posture of a person being at ease and serene in spite of threats, anxiety, or temptation. CHON BURI AND PATTAYA. Chon Buri Province, pop. 1,040,000 in 2000, is just southeast of Bangkok. In the municipal area of more

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than 500,000, Pattaya is the largest city. It is a resort and convention center on the Gulf of Thailand. Its once-popular beaches, however, have been spoiled by pollution. Other resort areas in the province include Bang Saen, Bang Phra, and Loi Island. The local economy is strong, with important fisheries and prosperous agriculture, especially pineapples, cassava, coconuts, and sugar cane. In addition, in the province there is extensive manufacturing, the TORC petroleum refinery and the Royal Thai Naval base. Sichang Island, off the coast, has a port for large ocean-going vessels that are unable to dock in Bangkok. CHOTE PRAEPAN (1907–1956). A writer of novels and short stories whose literary influence in the mid-20th century was enormous. The work that made him famous was the novel Phu Chana Sibthid (“The Man Who Gained Victory in Ten Directions”), a story of love and war set in the Burmese royal court. Consisting of eight books, the novel was extremely popular throughout Thailand; crowds of admirers would wait at the publishing house when a new chapter was about to appear. The novel was made into a movie, a folk opera, and also a radio and television drama. This novel and others of his works were serialized in newspapers, which added to his fame. He also translated the English language novel The Three Kingdoms; his interpretation was praised because of the way he incorporated humor in the translation. Chote was also a columnist and editor for several newspapers and the highest-paid such writer in Thailand at the time. It is said that the expressive and insightful but womanizing main character in the novel Phu Chana Sibthid reflects the personality of Chote himself. Chote was known nationally under the pen name “Yacob.” CHRISTIANITY. In 2004, Christians in Thailand were estimated to number about 300,000. The small number reflects the limited success of Christian evangelism, which has been ongoing in Thailand for nearly 400 years. Christianity was first introduced to Thailand by Portuguese Roman Catholic priests in 1606. Catholics in Thailand represent about 75 percent of all Christians. Protestant missionaries first arrived in Thailand in 1838. Dan B. Bradley, a physician and early Protestant missionary, was an advisor and teacher for Mongkut prior to his becoming king.

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The major impact of Christian missionaries on Thailand has been the transmission of Western ideas and technology. Christian missionaries have founded hospitals, introduced Western medical knowledge, sponsored private elementary and secondary schools, and established universities. Graduates of these schools played important roles as teachers in the new government schools. Another aspect of the Christian missions was the teaching of the English language, which over time began to be valued by Thai officials as a “window on the world.” A number of officials in government, higher education, and business are Christians. The children of the Thai elite are often enrolled in Christian schools. See also CATHOLICISM; PROTESTANTISM; EDUCATION. CHUAN LEEKPAI (1938– ). A political leader and two-time prime minister of Thailand beginning in 1992. Chuan was educated in the primary and secondary schools of Trang Province. He graduated from Thammasat University in 1962 and became a barrister-at-law in 1964. He practiced law in Trang Province and in Bangkok. Chuan was elected a representative from Trang Province to the House of Representatives in 1975 under the Democrat Party and was returned to the House of Representatives in each election since then. He was elected deputy leader of his party in 1976. Chuan held cabinet posts under three previous prime ministers. He became leader of the Democrat Party following the resignation of Bhichai Rattakul in August, 1990. In the December 1992 general election, Chuan’s Democrat Party won the most seats in the National Assembly. A five-party coalition of pro-democracy parties named Chuan prime minister. Chuan included in his Cabinet technocrats Tarrin Nimmanhaeminda and Supachai Panichpakdi whose business experience facilitated growth in the Thai economy. His administration unsuccessfully attempted broad political reforms that later were a part of the new 1997 constitution. The Chuan government’s land reform program resulted in a scandal that, along with other problems, caused Chuan and the Democrat Party to lose the 1995 election. Following the 1997 economic crisis, a realignment of the coalition in the House of Representatives brought Chuan and the Democrats

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back to power. Chuan and his administration led in the transformation of political institutions that regulate the financial system. This took place under pressure from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. During 1998–2000, the Chuan administration was confronted by many large farmer protests regarding land use and farm debt relief. Chuan’s second administration ended when the Democrats lost the 2001 election. See also GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM. CHULABHORN, PRINCESS (1957– ). Princess Chulabhorn is the second daughter of King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit. She is a scientist, having received her bachelor of science degree from Kasetsart University and a doctorate in organic chemistry from Mahidol University. She received the Einstein Gold Medal award in 1986. In 1987, she set up the Chulabhorn Research Institute to promote scientific research in Thailand. She is married to Flight Lieutenant Virayuth Didyasarin, a fighter pilot; they have two children. CHULALONGKORN, RAMA V (1853–1910). King of Siam (reigned 1868–1910). Chulalongkorn was the first son of King Mongkut and became king at age 15. While he was under the regent, Suriyawong, he continued his education and traveled in South Asia where he observed governmental systems. Chulalongkorn’s early attempts at reforms were resisted and delayed by older officials and princes. Chulalongkorn aided in the education of his brothers and labored with them in many aspects of administrative affairs. In this way, he assessed their abilities and could assign them to government posts when older ministers and other officials died or retired. Assisted by his half-brother Devawongse and other reformers, he introduced administrative reform of the government in 1892. This created 12 ministries, functionally defined, in which each head was directly responsible to the king. The new system replaced an earlier one, the mahatthai and the kalahom, in which the ministers had not been accountable to the king. The powerful new Ministry of the Interior was assigned to Prince Damrong, who was effective in getting it established. Similarly, Prince Rabi, the king’s son, modernized the country’s judiciary. Using his power to appoint government officials, combined with the new administrative reform, Chulalongkorn achieved absolute power comparable to that of Rama I.

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Starting in 1873, Chulalongkorn initiated gradual measures to free slaves, and in 1905 slavery was abolished. The long-standing system of sakdi na was also ended. Early in his reign, he initiated changes from tradition such as wearing European-style clothes, abolished prostration before the king, and introduced using chairs instead of pillows on the floor for seating. Chulalongkorn facilitated the development of schools for the children of both officials and nonofficials. Siriraj Hospital was founded in 1887, which two years later started a School of Medicine for the training of doctors. During Chulalongkorn’s reign, Siamese civil and criminal laws were revised to bring them into conformity with Western standards. These law revisions set the stage for new treaties between Siam and France (1904) and between Siam and Great Britain (1909). While Siam was able to retain its national independence, this came at the price of yielding border territories to these two rapacious colonial powers. The American advisor to King Chulalongkorn, Edward Strobel, played a key role in the treaty negotiations. Chulalongkorn traveled to Europe in 1897 and in 1907, making diplomatic overtures to Denmark, Germany, Russia, and other countries. In the traditional polygymous pattern of Siamese kings, Chulalongkorn had many wives and fathered 77 children. About two-thirds of his offspring survived to maturity. Chulalongkorn was said to dislike being king and was known to wander about Bangkok incognito, dressed as a peasant. His many writings include The Royal Ceremonies of the Twelve Months, Far from Home, and 25 volumes of his personal diary. When he died in 1910, Chulalongkorn had been king for 42 years. Many credit the emergence of a modern state in Siam to King Chulalongkorn. CHULALONGKORN MEMORIAL DAY. This national holiday falls on October 23 in honor of King Chulalongkorn (reigned 1858– 1910), the most famous of the Chakri kings. Near an equestrian statue of Chulalongkorn in an open plaza in Bangkok, large floral and other wreaths are assembled and displayed. These are presented in a spirit of friendly competition by school organizations and other groups. The king also places a wreath in an official ceremony at the statue and pays homage to Chulalongkorn at the site where his ashes are

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buried. The occasion is celebrated in district and provincial capitals throughout Thailand. CHULARAJAMONTRI. The official head of the Islamic religion in Thailand. He is appointed by the Thai government and is considered a government official. See also ISLAM. CINEMA. Thailand has more tham 600 cinemas, with a total capacity of 400,000 or more. At least half of the urban population of Thailand is estimated to attend weekly motion pictures, now widely available. However, except for occasional visiting governmental teams with education exhibits, motion pictures are generally not available to the vast rural population of Thailand. While most films in the past were imported from the United States, Thai-produced films have become widely available since 1990. Several cinemas in Bangkok regularly show Chinese-language movies made in Hong Kong and Singapore. Most of these films are dubbed in Teochiu, the dialect spoken by most Chinese in Bangkok. Other foreign films are seldom dubbed, although a commentary may be provided after the film is completed or during an intermission. The showing may also include one or two professional performers who accompany the film and provide translation of selected scenes. Historic Thai films are preserved by the National Film Archives. CIVIL SERVICE / BUREAUCRACY. This important part of the government of Thailand originated in the administrative reform by King Chulalongkorn. The central part of the reforms became official in 1892, at which time qualified officials were needed as governors, district officers, secretaries, and other staff in the offices of each of the 12 ministries of government. The first appointees came chiefly from within the royal families and also from closely related aristocratic families. These early appointments were the beginnings of a continually growing body of civil service bureaucrats with government authority. They looked after tax collection and handled the details of administering the national, provincial, and local government bodies including the security and police. The royal and aristocratic members of the bureaucracy gave it added authority and high status in Thai society. By the 1970s, the bureaucracy had achieved considerable political power particularly in

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the formation of the government policies that it administered. Frequently, the higer levels of the bureaucracy joined with the armed forces in establishing military-bureaucratic governments. As government ministries added functions and new departments, divisions, and sections proliferated and the body of civil service bureaucrats expanded from approximately 12,000 in 1895 to 75,000 in 1920 and to more than one quarter million by the late 20th century. Securing a civil service appointment now requires graduation from a recognized university. Employment in the Thai civil service or military service has traditionally been a major outlet for ambitious and educated young men and women. Since they are considered to be in a prestigious occupation, civil servants are accorded deference and referred to as karachakan translated as “in the king’s service.” Civil servant technocrats are central in national financial affairs and in operating the Bank of Thailand (BOT) and other government banks. Since World War II, especially during the period of rapid economic growth from 1986–1994, private commercial and industrial careers have become attractive, some of which are more prestigious than government careers because of higher incomes and better fringe benefits. A debate has occurred from time to time concerning the need to reform the civil service or bureaucracy. According to the new 1997 constitution, civil servants are prohibited from being members of the National Assembly or Council of Ministers. Thaksin Shinawatra, who became prime minister in 2001, has implemented a plan for reform, which involved establishing five new ministries. Thaksin also asserted that civil servants will work according to policies and strategies prepared by the government, in contrast to the previous patterns in which civil servants shaped the policies themselves. Since 1975, public officials in the civil service system are divided into 11 position classifications (PCs), as follows: PC 11 PC 10 PC 9 PC 8 PC 6–7 PC 3–5 PC 1–2

permanent secretary of a ministry; provincial governor, deputy secretary of a ministry, department head; deputy department head; division head; section head; administrative clerk; clerk.

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CLIMATE. Thailand has a tropical climate. Westerners from a temperate zone find the country hot and humid. On a simplified basis, four seasons may be recognized: the dry season—which is the result of a northeast monsoon from December through February; transitional hot weather and variable winds during March, April, and May; the rainy season produced by the southwest monsoons from May to October; a retreating monsoon, in October and November. The amount of rainfall varies in different parts of Thailand, about 90 percent of which falls in the rainy season. It averages 100 to 150 centimeters (40 to 60 inches) in most of the northern mountains, the Central Region, and in the Khorat Plateau. Precipitation is 230 to 250 centimeters (90 to 100 inches) in the western mountains and most of the peninsula. Thunderstorms, which bring a drop in temperature in the afternoon and early evening, are common between May and October in the northern areas, and between March and November in the southern areas. Toward the end of the dry season, and again at the end of the rainy season, cyclonic storms often come from the South China Sea, with associated flooding. The mean maximum temperature in Bangkok is approximately 32° Celsius (90° F) and the mean minimum temperature there is 26° C (74° F). The hottest season is from March to September, the period of the wet monsoons, and the coolest period is in November and December. Temperatures in north Thailand have greater variation and average 16º Celsius (60° F) in the cooler part of the year. CLOTHING. Western-style clothing has largely replaced the traditional clothing previously worn by the Thai people. Whether employees of the provincial governments, who have civil service rank, wear a standard uniform or Western-type clothing is decided by the provincial governor. Traditional clothing is seldom seen except in remote areas or possibly in ceremonies or on special occasions. For men the traditional garment is the phakhawma, a woven cloth long enough to be a wrapped around and extending from the waist to the knees. For women, the dress is the pasin, a tubular, long skirt wrapped around in a manner similar to a sarong, worn with a blouse. COCKFIGHTING. A favorite pastime and a method of redistributing rural wealth via the practice of betting. A good fighting cock costs up

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to 6,250 baht (US$250) and elicits much pride and affection. The birds are especially bred and trained and are pitted against each other in the arena. Steel spurs are attached to their legs and they frequently fight to the death. Occasionally a bird will try to escape from the arena, in which case the remaining bird is adjudged the winner. Cockfighting is frowned upon by a majority of people because it conflicts with Buddhist beliefs on the subject of cruelty to animals. COCONUTS. The large nut fruits of the coconut palm tree. Coconuts are widely produced for domestic use and for export. To some extent, production is concentrated on plantations in the south. Coconuts supply food, sugar, and wine. The meat yields a fatty oil used for cooking, lighting, and soap making. The husk provides a fiber that can be made into mats and rope. COLOMBO PLAN. The Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic Development in South and Southeast Asia was an international cooperative effort to assist countries of the area to raise their living standards. In 1970, member nations of the plan included Afghanistan, Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), India, Indonesia, Iran, Republic of Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Maldive Islands, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Republic of South Vietnam, Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, United Kingdom, and United States. COMMUNE. See LOCAL GOVERNMENT. COMMUNICATIONS. Availability of telephone communication has been limited in Thailand, but improvements are underway. Most telephone lines are in Bangkok and its vicinity. In other cities, phones are less available and are chiefly in offices of government agencies and in business offices. New line construction had until 1993 been handled solely by the Telephone Organization of Thailand (TOT), a state enterprise. Since then, several private companies have constructed phone lines. The number of lines per 100 population more than doubled in the 1980s and continues to increase, supplemented recently by countless mobile phones. Fiber optic technology is used for cable television, interactive television, and video conferences. The first Thai communications satel-

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lite was launched in December 1993 to provide services for radio distribution, linking telephone switching units, computer networks, and television broadcasting. In 2002, the Communications Authority of Thailand entered a partnership with a private Hong Kong company to provide high-speed Internet connection service via satellite. COMMUNIST PARTY OF THAILAND (CPT). Beginning in the late 1920s, the attraction of the Communist movement in Thailand was based primarily on dissatisfaction within minority ethnic groups because of their lower status politically and economically. Although illegal under Thai law, the CPT became organized in 1942 through a merger of several small, widely scattered groups, led chiefly by ethnic Chinese. The principal areas of clandestine activity were among the Hmong (Meo) in northern Thailand, the Thai-Lao in the northeast, and part of the Thai Muslims in southern areas. There, the Communist Party of Malaya had taken refuge and was strong militarily. In the Northeast Region, it was aided and encouraged by trained cadres from North Vietnam and Laos. By 1967, the insurgency appeared in Chiang Rai and Nan provinces of the Northern Region where the disaffected were chiefly Hmong (Meo), led by Thai and Sino–Thai with material support from China. CPT membership reached a peak after the 1976 Thai Army coup, when a radical right group attacked university students in Bangkok and forced thousands to flee into the jungles. Some became part of the CPT. By the mid-1970s the Thai government had a number of programs underway to counter the CPT insurgencies. Beyond military action, which was costly and sometimes ineffective, the economic, political, and social needs of disaffected minorities were addressed. An amnesty program in the early 1980s brought the surrender of many CPT members. In addition, selective military attacks against guerilla bases were effective, and armed CPT forces had decreased from 12,000 in 1979 to less than 4,000 by 1983. Refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, and their stories of repression and hardships caused by communism, also contributed to a rapid decline of the movement. That the CPT had a significance out of proportion to its numbers was largely associated with Thailand’s having socialist Burma on its western border and three Communist states on its eastern and northern borders: Cambodia,

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Laos, and China. See also MILITARY ASSISTANCE, UNITED STATES; THAI MUSLIMS AND POLITICS. CONGLOMERATES. This term is used to refer to large businesses with many subsidiaries. Many such large Thai firms were developed originally by enterprising Chinese immigrants. After their arrival in Thailand, these men secured whatever labor jobs were available. They were thrifty savers, built seed capital, and eventually opened a trading business, a retail shop, or other small business. Success in a small enterprise led to expansion or to the addition of other businesses. Chinese family business leaders took advantage of existing cooperative relationships among Chinese immigrants. Friends were often invited to take a small part in a new venture. This spread the risk as well as the gain. Growing businesses might take cross-interests in the companies of other Chinese entrepreneurs. A large number of conglomerates developed around, or included, a core bank. This provided access to investment capital. Once the emerging conglomerate had some clout, it obtained licenses, promotional privileges, and government contracts through friends in politics and government. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the 30 or more conglomerates with their hundreds of component companies were basically identical with the Thai urban economy and thus a major factor in the economic boom of 1986–1994. The conglomerates had the advantages of working relationships with local businessmen and assistance derived from government policies. From the late 1980s, conglomerates expanded into such areas as property development, commercial services, and infrastructure, but found it difficult to compete with multinational corporations in export industrialization. The conglomerates were seriously harmed by the Thai economic crisis of 1997–1998. The survival techniques of the larger firms included selling some of their far-flung companies, or in the case of two large banks, new investment capital was raised. While most of the mediumsized conglomerates survived, their importance in the Thai economy was diminished. Many of the smaller firms went out of business. See also BOONSITHI CHOKWATANA; CHATRI SOPHONPANICH; CHIN SOPHONPANICH AND THE BANGKOK BANK; DHANIN CHEARAVANONT; PRAPA VIRIYAPRAPAIKIT; THAKSIN SHINAWATRA.

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CONSTITUTION. The constitution promulgated in 1997 is the 16th such document since 1932, the year when Thailand (then Siam) changed in principle from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one. Some basic concepts have been maintained in most successive constitutions. The first concept is that the monarch is sacred and inviolable in his person. As head of state, he is empowered with the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn. The second concept provides for a bicameral National Assembly, consisting of a Senate, whose members are elected by popular vote, although they cannot belong to a political party, and a House of Representatives, whose members belong to political parties and are also elected by popular vote. The third concept is the provision for an executive branch, which consists of the prime minister and all other ministerial staff that he appoints to assists him in managing the government ministries. Together they constitute the Council of Ministers (Cabinet). The current constitution is quite detailed with twelve chapters. While it has similarities with previous ones, there are also unique features. For example, its design and contents were completed by a 99member special assembly that conducted hearings across the nation for citizen input. It is probably a more democratic charter than any previous one. Another new feature directs the national government to decentralize its power by providing autonomy for local governmental units. The 1997 constitution also spells out the separation of powers among the National Assembly, the executive (Council of Ministers) and Judiciary, and local government. In 1999, the National Assembly passed laws creating a 10-year program to bring about this power transfer and assist the organization of local autonomous units. Other prominent features of this constitution include the creation of an Election Commission to have full charge of elections to the Senate and House of Representatives. Elections previously were conducted by the Ministry of the Interior. Another feature is the new Counter Corruption Commission with powers that did not exist previously. A new Constitutional Court has been created with the power to adjudicate allegations of fraud and corruption by government officials. CORRUPTION. Allegations of corruption were repeatedly asserted in the 1990s by three foreign lending institutions: the World Bank, the

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Asian Development Bank (ADB), and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Accompanying approval of requested loans were requirements that the borrower, Thailand, agree to certain legal, political, and administrative reforms that were intended to control corruption. In a study conducted in 2000 by Pasuk Phongpaichit and colleagues, it was reported that fees or bribe-taking occurred generally in five government agencies in which large amounts of money were involved. The five were the police, vehicle licenses, tax offices, customs offices, and department of lands. How the system operates was well known. Another finding from the same study relates to money politics. Here the focus was on money transfers, which involved politicians seeking or already in public office. Political parties compete to attract the most electable candidate to run for a seat in the National Assembly by offering large payments, which continue after the candidate is elected. Additional payments cover keeping the person in the party and for votes on legislation, for a total in the millions of baht. The sources of these large sums of money are both legal and illegal businessmen, some of whom may be seeking public office and who can pay for opportunities and services. Some illegal businesses are quite lucrative, such as illegal gambling, drugs, prostitution, and trafficking in humans. Illegal businesses of this sort are frequently part of money politics. In addition, civil service staff favors are often for sale. Another type of corruption is the placing of expensive, privately owned residences on public land, such as national parks or forests. Like other developing democracies, Thailand does not have institutions that regulate relations between office holders in agencies of state power or members of the Assembly and businesses seeking access to power. Several groups and the media in Thailand have been strongly advocating measures to control corruption with some results appearing in the 1997 constitution, which included new provisions regarding money transfers, an Election Commission, a Counter Corruption Commission and a constitutional court. How effective the new arrangements will be in controlling corruption remains to be seen. CORVEE. An important means to utilize and manage resources of labor primarily by the royal court in the kingdoms of Ayutthaya. This

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system, along with sakdi na, enabled the king and high status chieftains to obtain labor for the army, for the construction of defense bastions, roads, and government buildings and for other purposes. In the administration of corvee, commoners in the population of the kingdom were identified in three groupings. In the lowest category, commoners were required to provide three months of labor annually to the king or pay a fee. In exchange for permission from the king to use required labor as a patron, chieftains in the regions adjacent to the capital of the kingdom were required in turn to provide a given amount of corvee to the royal court. In another category, commoners did required labor for a patron who in turn assisted them with their needs. In a third grouping, commoners were permitted to make payments of wood or produce instead of service. Over time, the three-month pattern became more difficult to administer and was reduced to one month. Because it eventually failed to provide enough labor, immigrant Chinese were brought in as alternative workers. Little is known about the effectiveness or fairness in the handling of corvee. It was officially abolished in 1905. COSMOLOGY. Traditional Thai beliefs concerning the nature of the cosmos were derived from ancient Indian and Babylonian sources. They explain humanity’s place within the universe and dictate human actions throughout the life course. In Thai cosmology there are innumerable world systems, each with its own sun, moon, earth, continents, and oceans. Central to it all is the legendary Mount Meru, up from which extend the heavens and the hells. Humans inhabit a group of islands in the Great Ocean, which is an outer circle of the cosmic system. The six forms of existence—human, animal, god, demon, ghost, and souls in hell—through which all human beings may at one time or another pass, are only of temporary duration. A change in condition depends on one’s karma. The human is the fundamental acting agent. See also BRAHMANISM. COTTAGE INDUSTRIES. Except for the busy periods of planting and harvesting, most farm families also engage in the production of knives, thatches, cloth, musical instruments, woven baskets for the storage and transport of agricultural products, and other items. These goods are produced in their own homes by family members and

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sometimes by hired labor. Surpluses beyond the needs of each farm family are sold or bartered. See also HANDICRAFTS; SUPPORT. COTTON WEAVING. This industry is very widespread in Thailand and great quantities of woven goods are exported. The traditional hand-woven materials compete with those made by machine. While soft cotton materials are most common, there is also a unique cloth of a linen like texture made in northern Thailand. Another interesting fabric is made from a mixture of Thai silk and cotton. It is washable and extremely long wearing. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS (CABINET). The executive branch of the Thai government, as specified by the constitution. The cabinet consists of the heads (ministers) of each government ministry, such as defense, interior, foreign affairs, finance, and others. It also includes all deputy or assistant ministers and deputy prime ministers. The prime minister is the chief government official. He is typically the leader of the political party that has the most elected members in the House of Representatives. It is his responsibility to create a governing coalition in which are included the members of other political parties sufficient to constitute a working majority in the House of Representatives. Since 1992, prime ministers must be elected members of the House. Following each election the prime minister selects and names his cabinet members. It is expected that some will be chosen from each political party in the coalition. Businessmen who have become active in politics have made up a large part of recent cabinets. Any cabinet member selected who was a member of the House of Representatives must resign from that body upon becoming a minister. This requirement of the constitution results in a separation between cabinet and legislature. However, the cabinet may sponsor desired laws. In addition, all finance bills must have the support of the prime minister. While government power is located in the cabinet, it is not exercised collectively. Power is chiefly a personal matter in the hands of certain very strong ministers. In this regard, three cabinet posts are much sought after: the finance minister, who has responsibility for national fiscal policy; the interior minister, who is in charge of provincial government and its many subordinate branches; and the defense

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minister, with his supervision of the armed forces. Securing a powerful ministerial post reflects a person’s political standing and influence. The Council of Ministers makes all senior appointments and by law has control over all public agencies and thereby most fiscal expenditures, foreign loans, and policies that relate to citizen welfare and national stability. The Council is accountable chiefly to the House of Representatives and must respond to requests for information. A statement to the House of Representatives indicating government policies and an annual assessment of performance are new requirements of the Council of Ministers. A policy of naming an opposition leader to the Cabinet of Ministers has often been followed when such a leader is a respected senior who is viewed as able to serve the government in power, whichever party he is drawn from. See also MILITARY OFFICERS; APPENDIX N. CREMATION. See FUNERAL RITES. CULTURE, NATION BUILDING. While residents of Thailand very largely consider themselves as belonging to the Tai-language peoples, there are a number of ethnic groups with other distinctive cultural patterns. The Thai government has generally seen cultural differences from the viewpoint of the need for unity and national security. The main policy has been to bring all diverse peoples under the authority of the national government. The assertion of this authority has at times encountered difficulties. To this end, a set of national symbols is emphasized. At the center of this set is the Thai monarch who legitimizes the power of the state. Members of its governing administrative staff, civil and military, are known as “servants of the crown.” The legitimacy of the monarch is based on his connection with Buddhism, the national religion. The king demonstrates this relationship through public acts of piety, and he serves as a patron of the Buddhist clergy. These cultural themes are pervasive in the society, but are also reemphasized on national holidays and in other ways. Another means of fostering a sense of the national culture is the inclusion of cultural themes in educational curricula. A strong challenge to the foregoing concept of the national culture has come from the Thai Muslims, especially those in the four southernmost provinces. The Thai Muslims espouse an Islamic-based

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system. Gradually, the Thai government, which is Buddhist, has accepted this cultural variation and has even provided economic and other support to the Thai Muslims. See also KINGSHIP. CURRENCY. The Thai currency unit is the baht. In a much earlier period the unit was called the tical. In historical perspective, during a Thailand economic downturn in the mid-1980s, government leaders devalued the Thai currency unit by nearly 15 percent. This drastic move led to a marked upturn in export industrialization and a stronger economy. Again, more than a decade later, in July 1997, Thai financial leaders found they could no longer maintain a stable baht value and decided to allow the currency unit value to be market-determined. Within a few months, the value of the baht dropped to almost one-half of its previous value. As a result, there was a severe economic crisis lasting two years. Government loans were obtained in a move for recovery, and reforms in financial policies were made. See also FINANCIAL SYSTEM.

–D– DAMRONG RACHANUPHAP, PRINCE (1862–1943). A son of King Mongkut and brother of King Chulalongkorn. Damrong received a traditional education in the royal court. He served in the Ministry of Education, where he prepared what eventually became the standard texts in elementary education throughout Siam. In 1890, he was an envoy to the royal court of Russia and to other European governments. In 1892, he was named minister of the interior, a post he held for 23 years. In this position, he pioneered a reorganization of the territorial administration of Thailand into 71 provinces and their respective subunits. As a historian, Prince Damrong collected and compiled the Thai archives of the Bangkok period. He was a leader in establishing the National Museum and the National Library. Due to his many scholarly treatises on history and archaeology, Prince Damrong is considered the “father of Thai history.” DANCE DRAMA. Two significant forms of Thai dance drama are khon and lakhon or lakhawn. These forms are presented to more-

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sophisticated audiences. Some dance dramas are played by humans, some by puppets. Khon is a masked dance drama that plays scenes from the story Ramakian. Performers wear ornate masks and brilliant costumes. The acting is vigorous, formalized, and inseparable from dancing. Dance steps are defined by the music accompanying it. Narrative verses are usually recited by a narrator or sung by a chorus. Lakhon is a nonmasked performance that presents scenes from varied stories. The costumes are similar to those of khon dancers. Lakhon dance movements are more graceful, sensual, and fluid. In addition, there is more singing and dance compared to khon. Nang yai uses large leather puppets held by male dancers who appear both in front of and behind a screen. The following are dance dramas for the common people: Likay or li-ke is often humorous but can also be serious. Lam or lum is a singing repartee common in festivals. The nail dance or fon lep, seen in festivals, is popular in northern Thailand. The shadow play or nang talung, which is declining in use, is characteristic of southern Thailand and consists of casting shadows of cowhide figures and/or puppets from behind a screen. There is an accompanying orchestra or chorus. DANGREK RANGE. A mountain range oriented chiefly east-west, marking a part of the border between Thailand and Cambodia. DEFORESTATION. See ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS. DEMOCRAT PARTY (PRACHATHIPAT). Formed in 1946 under another name, it was initially a political organization of the aristocracy. It became influential following the 1975 and 1976 elections when its leader, Seni Pramoj, became prime minister both times and formed coalition governments jointly with other parties. The Democrat Party is a national party in the sense that it has a broad organizational network across the nation. In the 1992 elections, the Democrat Party won the largest number of seats, and its leader, Chuan Leekpai, became prime minister in a government coalition with four other parties. The Democrat Party lost in the 1995 election due to a scandal in an attempted land reform program. In 1997, a realignment in the House of Representatives of the existing coalition brought Chuan Leekpai back as prime minister, although he was a member of the opposition party, when his

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leadership was seen as needed in the economic recovery effort. See also ECONOMIC CRISIS. DEMOCRATIC DECENTRALIZATION. A role for farmers and other villagers in decision making about the use of governmental funds for local economic and social development has been an issue since the mid-1970s. At that time, development funds for roads and other local infrastructure were made available at the subdistrict (tambon) level. While this pattern was soon abandoned, the issue remained. A new attempt at democratic decentralization was inaugurated by the National Assembly in 1996. This initiated new Subdistrict Administrative Organizations (SAOs) consisting of two elected members from each village in the subdistrict. SAOs were created nationwide with legal authority to raise and use funds with a high degree of autonomy. They are authorized and empowered to develop the subdistrict economically, socially, and culturally according to priorities that they determine. This reform in local organization was intended to separate decisions about development administration from the governance of the district. The new SAOs have at their disposal considerable funds for development projects. Decentralization of this sort results in a distinct loss of power by the local governing units of the Ministry of the Interior. In order to maintain their control, ministry officials may appoint a district deputy to chair meetings of the SAO and to attempt to control meeting agendas. SAOs may also experience resistance to their autonomy by the government officials of other ministries officed in the district. In addition, there is male prejudice against women that tends to exclude female participation in SAOs. Many SAO members experience, for example, in such areas as keeping complete records and in handling procurement. Placing local development in the hands of elected villagers and removing such actions from the previously appointed subdistrict councils represents a major change in the conduct of local affairs. Preparing SAO elected members for their tasks through training would be of great benefit. In addition, modification in certain laws and regulations would facilitate SAO work and activity. DEVAWONGSE VAROPAKAR (1858–1923). Prince and foreign minister of Siam under two kings. Devawongse was a son of King Mongkut and a half-brother of King Chulalongkorn. He was edu-

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cated in the royal court, which included a British tutor. Early on, Devawongse gained administrative experience in the royal court as a secretary, bodyguard, and auditor. At the age of 20, he became the personal secretary of the king and had some responsibility for foreign affairs. In 1885, he succeeded to the top post in foreign affairs. In this position, he modernized the ministry and had it organized to some extent along Western lines. Devawongse made a thorough study of the organization of selected European governments in 1887 at the request of the king. In consequence, and with his help, King Chulalongkorn reorganized the government into 12 ministries. Devawongse was a strong force in bringing Siam to the world scene as a modern nation and in gaining Siam’s rulers a status equal to that of other world monarchs. With diplomacy and skill, the independence of Siam was maintained at a time when both Great Britain and France were colonizing in Southeast Asia. Due to the expansionist policy of France, Siam was forced to give up territories in the Mekong valley. Devawongse was able to weather this action and led negotiations that ended major security threats to the kingdom. See also VAJIRAVUDH. DHANI NIVAT BIDYALABH BRIDHYAKORN (1885–1974). Popularly known as Prince Dhani, he graduated from Oxford University with honors and served under five kings. Entering the government, Dhani served in the Ministry of the Interior, was a private secretary to King Vajiravudh and the minister of education under King Prajadhipok. In 1904, he founded the Siam Society in which he served as president. He held many other high offices and, in 1946, became regent of Thailand, a post he held until 1950. Later he served as president of the Privy Council. He is the author of numerous scholarly publications chiefly on history. DHANIN CHEARAVANONT (1939– ). Dhanin has been a successful businessman in Thailand, moving up to chairman and CEO of the Charoen Pokphand (CP) Group. This large family-run global business organization was started in the early 1930s by his father Ekchor as a seed distribution enterprise when he emigrated from China. Dhanin’s three brothers, Charan, Montri, and Sumet, also have held top management positions in the CP Group. This corporation has operations in more than 20 countries and involves more than 200 subsidaries. Its

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diversified business activities include agribusiness, seeds, plant protection, real estate, petrochemicals, automotive products, telecommunication equipment, and others. Dhanin’s work has brought him recognition with at least 10 awards and four honorary university degrees. He also has served as an adviser to several offices of the national government and was a senator from 1992–1996. DHARMA. An expression that conveys the sense of the duties of human beings. In the context of Thai Buddhism, dharma generally means religion, especially the teachings of Buddha. In a wider context, dharma also represents much of Brahmanism from which Buddhism evolved. The expression dharma, which is of Sanskrit origin, has the same meaning as dhamma, which is traced to the Pali language. Dhamma is typically the Thai spoken expression, while dharma is used in written communication. See also NEO-BUDDHISM. DHARMA PIDOK (1938– ). A leader in the Thai Buddhist community and abbot of a wat in Nakhorn Pathom province. Among the country’s foremost Buddhist scholars, Phra Dharma is known for his ability to relate Buddhist teachings to everyday concerns. An honors graduate of Mahachula Buddhist University, he promoted new elements in the university curriculum so that student monks would also be trained in community development, enabling them to assume a broader role in village and urban life. In his book, Buddhatham, readers are encouraged to seek wisdom as a way to better understand and cope with problems they encounter. Phra Dharma has asserted that the lack of self-reliance often observed in his countrymen can be traced to overdependence on the patronage system of Thai society. In another context, he explained that it is an error to see the Buddhist concept of karma as a supernatural force that brings fortune or misfortune. Rather karma is a means for understanding the causes of behavior that in turn can help a person to be diligent. In 1994, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) awarded Phra Dharma its Peace Education prize. The honorary doctorates that he has received from 10 or more universities in Thailand and abroad attest to his interest in and knowledge of many disciplines. His books numbering 160 or more, some of which are in the English language, indicate his wide interests,

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which include Buddhism, politics, other social sciences, environmental problems, and technology. Additional recognition came to Phra Dharma when he accepted invitations to serve as a Visiting Lecturer on religion at Harvard University, Swathmore College, and the University of Pennsylvania. DISTRICT (AMPHOE). The name for any one of the six to 12 subunits of a province (changwat), having its own governmental structure. The chief administrative officer is the district officer (nai amphoe). The number of such districts in Thai local government is in excess of 500. A subdistrict (tambon) of a large amphoe is headed by an assistant district officer. DISTRICT OFFICER (NAI AMPHOE). The chief administrative officer of a district (amphoe), which is a subdivision of a province. He is appointed by the minister of the interior and is responsible to the governor of the province. The district officer operates at the lowest level of the central government and is a crucial link between the government and the people. Assisted by from three to 10 officials, the district officer supervises the collection of taxes; issues certificates of birth, marriage, divorce, and death; registers school children, young men for military service, aliens, and water buffalo; and arbitrates land disputes. The district officer also meets regularly with the head men of the communes and villages to inform them of government policies and to guide them in their implementation of these policies. See also DEMOCRATIC DECENTRALIZATION; LOCAL GOVERNMENT. DOKMAI SOT. See BUPPHA NIMMANHEIMIN. DON MUANG. The airport currently serving Bangkok and most of Thailand. Its traffic is very largely international with approximately 100 airline companies conducting passenger and freight operations. Don Muang is also the hub of domestic flights to some 30 nearby and remote cities of “up country” Thailand. In addition, Don Muang airport also provides international service to adjoining countries that have insufficient facilities for very large aircraft. All Thai air traffic will be transferred to the new Bangkok Suvarnabhumi airport when completed in 2005. See also AVIATION, CIVIL.

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DONTRI PUEN MUANG. A native ensemble of instrumental musicians in northern Thailand, consisting of one to four lutes (sueng), one or two spike fiddles (salaw), a bamboo flute (klui), a drum (ponpong), and one or two pairs of small cymbals (chap or ching). Such a group would provide music for ceremonies in private homes. The lutes and flute are also used for solo work. See also MUSICAL ENSEMBLES; MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; PIPHAT ORCHESTRA. DRUMS. These instruments play an essential role in Thai instrumental ensembles. The tapone is a kind of hand timpanum, with drum heads at both ends; the songna, a drum similar in design to the tapone, is slightly longer and thinner. When the songna is used to accompany songs, it is called poeng mang. The klong thad is a thick large drum, both faces of which are used. It resembles somewhat the Western timpanum and thick sticks are used as beaters. See also MUSICAL ENSEMBLES; MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; PIPHAT ORCHESTRA. DURIAN. A popular fruit of the tree Durio zibethinus, which has a hard, prickly rind, pulpy, custardike flesh, and (to many) an offensive odor. Nonthaburi province is famous for this fruit. DVARAVATI. The name of an early civilization of Mon peoples located chiefly in what today is the lower Chao Phraya River valley of Thailand. The best-known sites include Nakhon Pathom, Suphan Buri, Lop Buri, and U Thong. In addition, there is archaeological evidence of many other sites at long distances from these centers, most likely along trade routes to the north, the northeast, and the east. The Mon inhabitants engaged in rice agriculture and practiced Buddhism. Mon remains include religious buildings, statues of Buddha, other sculptures, and numerous votive tablets. In the 10th century, the area occupied by the Mon people was incorporated into the Khmer Kingdom, which had its capital at Angkor.

–E– EASTERN REGION. The Eastern region was identified by the National Statistical Office for purposes of reporting the 2000 census fig-

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ures. It is not an area otherwise recognized as having distinctive geographical and cultural features, as are the Northern, Northeastern, Central, and Southern Regions. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (ESCAP). (Formerly, ECAFE: Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East). One of four world regional commissions established by the United Nations in 1947; it has its headquarters in Bangkok and consists of 48 member nations. ESCAP sponsors research and holds international conferences on economic development, trade promotion, inland transport, flood control, agriculture, etc. Two of ESCAP’s main projects have been of considerable help to Thailand. These are the Asian Highway and the Mekong River development projects. ESCAP has also located its Asian Institute of Economic Planning in Bangkok. ECONOMIC CRISIS. The start of Thailand’s latest economic and social crisis is usually given as July 2, 1997. On that date the Bank of Thailand (BOT) untied the value of the baht from a basket of foreign currencies, primarily the United States dollar, allowing the baht to float and setting the stage for its fall in value. Thailand reached this point after a 10-year period of rapid economic growth and prosperity. Beginning in the mid-1980s, the economy continued to increase rapidly, with growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) averaging at least 8 percent annually. A concomitant inflow of foreign investment led to the creation of new manufactured products for export and increased output of existing ones. Thai entrepreneurs also expanded, with their exports exceeding those of foreign entrepreneurs. During this period, the annual growth rate of exports was more than 20 percent annually. As a part of its policy of supporting economic growth and foreign investment, the national government loosened currency controls from 1990–1993, while highlighting Thailand in the international media as a profitable place for investment. Thai interest rates were high and the baht appeared to be stable. As a result, foreign investment funds flooded into the Thai economy. Scores of finance companies sprang up along with new banks, whose loans funded a boom in real estate development. Huge money flows went into the stock market and corporations.

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By 1996, however, Thailand’s exports were losing market share to competitors and the stock market began to fall. In early 1997, currency speculators made an attack on the baht. The BOT spent months trying to maintain the value of the baht, using up most of the nation’s foreign exchange reserves in the process. When the baht was allowed to float in July 1997, its value dropped immediately to 35 to the US dollar, compared to 25 to the US dollar in 1990, and ultimately fell to almost 60 to the US dollar. As the value of the baht fell, finance companies and banks were severely affected by unpaid loans and many finance companies were closed or merged with others. The Thai government requested assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which responded in August 1997 by arranging loans and specifying conditions under which Thailand was to manage its economy. However, the economic crisis was prolonged and became more severe due to the conditions imposed by the IMF, whose solutions were extremely ill-suited to the Thai situation. The IMF even pushed for changes in the Thai economic structure and would have given a large role to foreign capital. These measures had a deflationary impact that increased the outflow of foreign investment capital. The economy remained in recession until mid-1998, when some recovery could be noted. By 2002 the IMF-incurred debt was repaid. Government domestic debt more than tripled during the crisis. A large part of this resulted from a government takeover of almost a trillion baht (25 million US dollars) in bad loans from private- and state-owned banks. ECONOMY. For centuries, Thailand’s economy was based on agriculture, primarily wet-rice production of the main food item of the population. Surplus rice and forest products were trade items and became of importance to the economy. In the 1940s, the several state-owned enterprises that were established reflected a beginning of industry and services. From the 1960s onward, privately owned commercial and industrial establishments began to expand while in the 1970s Japan began investing in Thailand chiefly in labor-intensive industries. A large growth in the rural farm population from 1950–1980 made cheap labor available for urban based industry. Meanwhile, large accumulations of capital were developed by five banks owned by Sino–Thai families. These and a number of other large Sino–Thai

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corporations have been key players in the impressive growth of the Thai economy. From the mid-1980s, there was a 10-year period of rapid growth in exports of manufactured and other industrial products. For much of this period, the annual growth rates were among the world’s highest. In the early 1990s, a huge inflow of foreign investment capital was associated with a decline in export market competitiveness and an economic slowdown by 1994. Business and government leaders failed to control the very large arrival of foreign money and the events that accompanied it. A severe economic crisis that occurred in 1997–1998 resulted in many business failures, the most serious of these being in the financial system. There was also debt accumulation, unemployment, and widespread hardship. Many corporations as well as the national government were mired in debt. Government expenditures in three areas made for increased indebtedness. One of these was to prop up the financial services. Second, the administration led in providing needed improvements for the rural population and third, nearly 60 percent of the annual budget was required to meet the interest costs of the huge government debt. The Thai economy turned around in 1999 and has been growing since then. A major impact of the crisis on the economy was the replacement of a primarily local capitalism with an export-oriented one. This made the economy dependent on foreign capital and technology-based production. Thailand’s balance of payments was US$4.6 billion in 1999 and US$0.1 billion in 2001. Meanwhile, the trade balance showed an excess of exports over imports of US$15 billion in 1999 and US$6.5 billion on 2001. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) totaled approximately US$128 billion in 2001. The composition of this GDP was manufacturing, 31 percent; other industry, 9 percent; agriculture, forestry, and fishing, 11 percent; and services, 49 percent. The largest contributor in services was travel and tourism together with transport, communications, hotels, recreation, and restaurants. Second was investment income and third, remittances of Thai workers abroad sent to their families in Thailand. During the rapid economic growth period in the 1980s and 1990s, annual GDP growth rates averaged 7 to 8 percent. Since 1999, GDP growth rates have averaged approximately 4 percent annually.

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The Thai labor force was estimated in 2001 at 32 million workers, as reported in the government Labor Force Survey. A three-way breakdown indicates that 45 percent were paid employees; 35 percent were farmers, other self-employed laborers, and small business owners; and another 20 percent were unpaid family labor. By occupation in 2002, the labor force in agriculture was 54 percent, in services, 31 percent, and in industry, 15 percent. It appears that employment/unemployment varies between the “on” and “off” seasons of Thai agriculture. In the “on” season of agricultural harvesting, from August to January, unemployment was estimated in the late 1990s at 1.5 percent of the labor force with another 0.6 percent seasonally inactive. Unemployment rose to 3.8 percent in the “off” season, from February to July, with another 3.9 percent seasonally inactive. People shifting between different types of work in the “off” season number as high as 2.5 million. Major destinations were construction and manufacturing. Those engaged in agriculture, a still-vital part of the Thai economy, not only contribute to GDP, they produce their own food. This has great significance due to the rural population being approximately one-half of the kingdom’s total. To offset low agricultural market prices, many take part-time or full-time employment off the farm. This additional income has enabled villagers to have better homes and a variety of conveniences taken for granted by city dwellers. Based on the 2000 census, the kingdom’s population was estimated at 63 million in 2004. Urbanization and industrialization over the past 50 years has been concentrated in Bangkok and its adjacent region of 11 other provinces. This has resulted in seriously uneven economic development for the kingdom as a whole. One way of combating this is improved education, but, at present, enrollment in secondary schools is at only 30 percent. Additional training has been planned in technology, which so far has been insufficient for a country with an export-oriented economy. See also APPENDIXES G, H, I. EDUCATION. Education as a responsibility of the national government dates from the 1920s and is conducted by the Ministry of Education (MOE). Much development has occurred in the decades since then due in part to Western influence and support. Currently, the school system in Thailand follows a 6-3-3 pattern in which six

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years of primary education and three years of lower secondary are required. This is followed by three years of upper secondary education, a new requirement since 2003. Students in the upper level can choose either a vocational or academic curriculum. In the teaching-learning process, teachers have traditionally been at the center. Recently, the MOE has sought to modify current practice relating to students’ thinking and problem solving to make education more student-centered. A basic goal has been replacing the emphasis on memorization with a process that focuses on the learner, enabling the learner to think, analyze, and benefit from experience and practice. Priority is given widely to the teaching of mathematics, science, and the Thai language. The total school enrollment in 1998 was more than one and onehalf million. English language instruction is begun at the fourth grade. In addition to public education in Thailand there are numerous private schools that require students to pay tuition. Private schools have been encouraged by the national government and there are various sponsors. Some of the earliest private schools were started by Christian mission organizations. In a MOE report for 1998, the proportions of total enrollment in private schools were pre-school, 24 percent; primary school, 13 percent; and secondary school, 6 percent. This very low secondary school enrollment reveals a pressing need in Thai education. Nonformal adult continuing education has been conducted by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Thailand since 1940. Programs aim to create a learning network to offer citizens a variety of opportunities for lifelong continuing education. Throughout the country this includes village reading centers, provincial / district libraries, monasteries that disseminate news and information, public announcement towers in the villages, museums, and mobile libraries. Local communities are encouraged to develop their own plan for continuing education. The strengthening of certain areas in Thai education has been getting attention. A study by a Thai university focused on the students’ TOEFL scores was reported in May 2003. The Thai students ranked eighth among the nine ASEAN countries included in the study, a result that shocked educational leaders and Thais in general. For the period 1990–1998, the MOE enlarged its basic education program for the disabled, the poor, slum dwellers, and other disadvantaged

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persons. This represented a fourfold increase over those served previously, but the majority of those with this need remain to be provided for. A recent MOE report indicated that the Asian Development Bank had provided financial assistance for the disadvantaged, all of which was spent in Bangkok and thus not evenly throughout the country. EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY. It is Ministry of Education (MOE) policy that all children receive preprimary education by age five. During the period 1990–1998, approximately 75 percent of Thai children aged three to five received both schooling and, as part of a health program, child development. At the primary level, approximately 90 percent of children aged six to 11 have had continuous enrollment in school. The chief reason why many children are not in primary school is the lack of access due to the poverty of their parents or their residence in remote areas. EDUCATION, SECONDARY. In 1999, according to a report of the Ministry of Education (MOE), 72.6 percent of children aged 12 to 14 were enrolled in lower secondary schools, which is now required when facilities and staff are available. This represented a 33 percent increase over the comparable enrollment a decade earlier. In 2003, the Thai government declared a new policy, namely that all Thai children must complete 12 years of education. The MOE faces a challenge to build the additional schools and train the teachers needed to implement this. Another long-range goal is to build, equip, and staff a “model” school in each of the nation’s provinces. Secondary schools are almost entirely located in provincial and district capitals. Such a location makes them largely inaccessible to children of the agricultural villages. The total enrollment in secondary schools has been but a fraction of the elementary school enrollment but is expected to greatly increase. Estimates indicate that about 90 percent of the students in upper secondary education have come from urban centers compared to about 10 percent from rural areas. The new 12 years policy hopes to change that. Private schools owned by individuals or by religious organizations are active in the conduct of both primary and secondary education in Thailand. Their total enrollments are small compared to those of government-run schools. Students who attend this upper level can choose either a vocational

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or academic curriculum. Secondary schools in this way accommodate students who wish to enter a university as well as those who plan a vocational career. Those who complete the academic curriculum can enter a university by passing the entrance examination. Technical training is conducted in separate vocational schools. Specialties include building construction, electronics, auto mechanics, welding, information processing, and computing. There are also special schools for particular crafts or trades including tailoring, leather craft, nielloware, telecommunications, and agriculture. See also EDUCATION, HIGHER. EDUCATION, HIGHER. The late 1800s and early 1900s saw the beginnings of higher education in Thailand. A medical school was opened in 1889, a law school in 1897, a civil service school in 1902, and an engineering school in 1913. Chulalongkorn University, founded in Bangkok in 1916, took over the medical and engineering schools and other disciplines. There are some 20 Thai public universities and institutes. In addition, there are more than 25 private colleges and universities, the first of which was Payap University in Chiang Mai. Over time, 36 teacher-training colleges were established to meet the growing demand for teachers in the elementary schools. Several of these colleges have been expanded to become universities. Thammasat University, founded in 1933, took over the Civil Servants School and, like Chulalongkorn, has a broad curriculum. Three additional universities were added in 1943, Kasetsart, Silpakorn, and Mahidol, with an emphasis on agriculture, fine arts, and medical sciences, respectively. Regional universities were established during 1964–1967 at Chiang Mai, Khon Kaen, and Songkhla, in order to expand educational opportunity beyond Bangkok, where higher education is concentrated. These institutions were intended to facilitate economic and social development programs as well. Higher education is also offered in the Police Cadet Academy and the Chulachomklao Military Academy. The Asian Institute of Technology was authorized to locate in Thailand in 1967. It operates on subsidies, grants, and donations secured worldwide and is staffed by a faculty from at least eight different nations. Two Buddhist universities, Mahamakut and Mahachulalongkorn, offer degree programs for Buddhist monks.

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Master’s and doctoral degree programs are offered in a large number of the state universities and at several of the private ones. The National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) was created to offer instruction at the graduate level only. The larger state universities have research institutes that seek funding from their own institutions and from outside sources to carry on research projects. A significant recent development in Thai higher education was the founding in 1971 of Ramkhamhaeng University and in 1979 of Sukhothai Thammathirat University. These are “open” universities without admission standards that serve tens of thousands of students and have expanded educational opportunity especially for adults and for those who fail to gain admission to the conventional universities. Approximately one-third of the faculty members of Thai universities hold a Ph. D. degree. In a small number of institutes, no more than 5 percent of the academic staff hold doctorates. In an effort to increase these numbers, the national government announced in early 2003 an extensive scholarship arrangement so that Thai academic staff can undertake masters and doctoral degree studies at foreign universities. Financial support of this type was suspended six years previously due to the economic crisis of 1997–1998. Both public and private Thai universities, colleges, and institutes are either supervised or administered by the Ministry of University Affairs in the Prime Minister’s Office. Colleges of nursing are overseen by the Ministry of Public Health. See also EDUCATION. EKATOTSAROT. King of Ayutthaya (reigned 1605–1610). He previously ruled with his famous older brother, King Naresuan. Ekatotsarot was concerned more with reorganizing Siamese finances than with military pursuits. During his reign, after contacts were made with the Dutch and Japanese, the first emissaries from Europe arrived in Ayutthaya. The first Thai foreign mission was sent to a European country, the Netherlands, in 1608. ELECTIONS. Since its creation in the 1997 constitution, the Election Commission organizes and implements national elections. This is in contrast to previous elections, which were handled by the Ministry of the Interior, the last of which occurred in 1992 and 1995. Naming the five-member Commission is done by a 10-member selection panel

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set up by the Senate, which includes judges, university rectors, and political party representatives. Legislation by the National Assembly in 1998 and 2000 was intended to facilitate the process of naming an Election Commission. Compulsory voting has achieved high first round election turnouts, 72 percent in the 2000 Senate election and 70 percent in the 2001 election for the House of Representatives. The Election Commission has power to disqualify representatives who receive the most votes if there is evidence of fraud or vote buying. In the 2001 election for the House of Representatives, 66 were disqualified. Four additional election rounds were needed to complete the roster. Many objectives of political and electoral reform were accomplished in the 2000 and 2001 elections. These improvements included the high turnout and the process of counting votes within each constituency, which kept voting secret, preventing ballot stuffing. Further, many of the provincial Chao Pho lost their election bids, giving way to new and younger representatives. Political parties were strengthened and reduced in number. See also APPENDIXES K, L. ELECTRIC POWER. Electricity was first produced by Thai government-owned companies in 1957 and 1958. A large hydroelectric power plant, which supplemented the privately owned power sources in Bangkok and adjacent provinces, began operating in 1964. From the beginning, state-owned enterprises have used lignite, which is available in Thailand, as well as oil and natural gas, to fuel the power plants and gas turbines that produce electricity. At least 20 plants have been in operation. A recent report indicated that about 70 percent of the electric power in Thailand is thermally produced and 30 percent is hydropower. Gradually, electricity has become available to more than 90 percent of the nearly 50,000 agricultural villages in the countryside. The remainder are expected to get electricity within a decade. ELEPHANT GRASS. The grass Imperata cyclindrica, which grows to a height of 80 centimeters (32 inches), has flat, razor-sharp leaves, is impervious to fire, unsuitable for grazing, and impossible to plow without heavy, modern equipment. This secondary growth frequently takes over when swidden fields are abandoned.

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ELEPHANTS. Both a symbol of royalty and an important beast of burden, especially in the past. The elephant is indigenous to the tropical rain forests of Thailand. Their present number is greatly reduced, for they are unable to breed and survive in open forests and marginal slopes. In the past, Thai kings owned thousands of elephants, using them in the fields and the military. Elephants can work well only in the wet season. Economic modernization has decreased the value of working elephants in logging. Mechanical vehicles and roads have lessened the use of elephants for transport as well. The white elephant has been prized by the kings of Thailand as a symbol of kingship and divine protection. Although previously elephants had an important role to play in displaying the riches and grandeur of the Siamese Court, they no longer do so. In 1900, there were 100,000 domestic elephants in Siam. By 1952, the number had dropped to 13,397; and by 1982, there were only 4,739, according to the Ministry of the Interior and less than one-fourth of that today. EMERALD BUDDHA. A historic Buddha image of green jasper or malachite, approximately 60 centimeters in height, which is enshrined in the royal Buddhist temple compound (wat) in Bangkok where it is supervised by the king. The Emerald Buddha was discovered in 1436 in Chiang Rai City and was regarded as a sacred object in two former kingdoms in what is now northern Thailand and Laos. The image was obtained by General Chakri at the time of a successful military campaign that he commanded and brought to the national capital in 1779. Later General Chakri, when he had become Siamese King Rama I, placed the Emerald Buddha in its present location. EMPLOYERS ASSOCIATIONS. More recent than trade associations, employers associations have been organized in response to a 1975 labor relations law. By the late 1990s, there were approximately 15 employers associations whose functions were to handle wage disputes and advise government officials on labor policy. To date they have had little influence on public policy. END OF LENT CEREMONY (OK PHANSA). The end of lent ceremony occurs on the 15th day of the waxing moon in October. The end of the three-month period of Buddhist Lent is widely celebrated with

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morning worship services at the Buddhist temple and special illumination of homes and temples. After the End of Lent ceremony, on a day during the next month, a kathin ceremony is performed. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS. Thailand is an example of a nation where rapid economic development has exploited natural resources and created a number of problems. For example, at the height of the economic boom period in Thailand (1986–1994), Bangkok gained a reputation for serious traffic jams and intense pollution. Further, deforestation by both commercial logging and new farm settlements in former forest land has had serious consequences. Loss of trees in many watersheds has increased flooding and caused soil erosion in areas of crop cultivation. Excessive use of farm pesticides has caused farm family illness and poisoned rivers. A danger area is the Central Plain where there is a threat to urban water supplies including the city of Bangkok. An example of environmental destruction from overly promoted tourism is the Pattaya area on the western shore of the Gulf of Siam. Beaches there are covered with pavement and sewage has ruined the former beauty of the adjacent bays. Industrial development, promoted since 1980 by the national government, operates with few or no environmental controls regarding industrial waste or the health and safety of workers and nearby population centers. There are reports of industrial wastes causing illness and death in Lamphun, Lamphang, Rayong, and several other locations. In the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) area, huge amounts of waste water mostly from city residents, but from factories also, flows into canals and rivers. Daily, thousands of tons of garbage and toxic waste end up the same way. Plans to cope with this huge environmental degradation are in an early stage of development and implementation. A sustainable agriculture undertaking in farming areas as part of community development programs was supported by environmental groups, Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Buddhist leaders. Some success in resisting the damaging development projects of domestic and foreign interests has been achieved. See also ECONOMY; FORESTRY; INDUSTRY. EPIGRAPHY. Ancient inscriptions relative to the history of Thailand are scarce. However, a stone inscription attributed to King

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Ramkamhaeng found in 1833 is perhaps the most famous. It is considered the first writing system devised (in 1283) as a language for Tai-speakers. Ramkamhaeng’s orthographic system has influenced both modern Thai and modern Lao scripts. Other inscriptions record gifts to Buddhist temples or the dedication of Buddha images. One inscription records a border agreement between the King of Lan Xang and the King of Ayutthaya; the agreement was commemorated in 1560 by a (chedi stupa) erected on the common border of the two kingdoms. ETHICS OF THAI BUDDHISM. Guides for social relations, based chiefly on the principle that fate is ruled by the moral law that good behavior causes good results. There are four types of ethically good behavior that bring merit to a person and improve his status in the world. These are metta, karuna, mutthita, and ubekkha. Metta means benevolence or charity. It involves also the love of mankind for the sake of its humanity, and a generalized willingness to be kind and helpful. Metta is the highest virtue, which, in a sense, underlies the other three. Karuna is a passion to help a subordinate in difficulty. It is also expressed by sympathy or pity for those who have had misfortune and the willingness to sacrifice one’s own advantage or happiness for others. Mutthita means sympathy for the joys and sorrows of others. Ubekkha signifies the Thai value of noninvolvement, that is, an attitude of detachment in situations of social stress. When faced with an embarrassing experience, the Thai is very likely to react by not reacting. These ethics are generally manifested in the social behavior of the Thai.

–F– FAMILY PLANNING. A family-planning program initiated in Thailand in the 1960s has been in operation for four decades and has succeeded in a significant reduction in birth rates and population growth rates. In the same period, the fertility rate has dropped from nearly 7 percent to approximately 2 percent in 2000. The total population growth rate between 1990 and 2000 averaged 1.05 percent annually according the Thai Census of Population and Housing for 2000.

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FARANG. The term used by the Thai to refer to all Westerners. It is thought that the term originated in India where the word feringhi was used to refer to the French. The use of the term farang dates from the time the Portuguese arrived in Thailand in the early 16th century. FARMER PROTESTS. As urban industries, commercial services, and tourism began to predominate in the Thai economy in the latter 1980s, agriculture lost its former central role. Changing business and governmental attitudes led to urban exploitation of land, water, and forest resources in the countryside. However, since farmers had traditionally depended on these resources, there developed a growing rural opposition to the new housing projects, golf courses, and resort development. Construction of hydroelectric dams and other countryside inroads encountered strong farmer opposition, particularly when dams flooded farmers’ lands and homes without compensation. Another change that was strongly opposed was reforestation of areas recently cleared and settled with farms. The reforestation resulted in evictions of families from their farms without suitable resettlement. These land and forest acquisitions typically occurred in a context of a weak agricultural economy and growing rural poverty. Farmers began to organize informally to protest what they saw as exploitation of their land and resources. What was initially a few protests grew over time into a very large number, developing strong organizations. By the 1990s, there were several hundred farmer protests annually. The protest groups were more numerous in the Northeast Region, but they occurred in the North and South Regions also. Protests by farmers gradually moved from village gatherings in provincial capitals to the nation’s capital. During the period 1992–1996, several demonstrations led by northeastern farm groups were joined by slum dwellers and low-paid workers from Bangkok. An umbrella organization, the Assembly of the Poor, coalesced around the protest groups. In early 1997, farmers, the poor, and other groups came to the nation’s capital and were joined by those from other regions. Numbering more than ten thousand, the protesters attracted much mass media attention and support. As the demonstration continued over a three-month period, the Assembly of the Poor provided leadership in negotiations with high government officials. A settlement concluded with members of the Council of Ministers promising compensation

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to farmers who had lost their land and homes to dam construction. In addition, farmers were told they would be allowed to keep the farms on land that was previously forest. After the protesters had returned home, however, they waited in vain for the promises to be fulfilled. Another large demonstration in Bangkok, focused on the principal government office, lasted for nine months and ended in April 2000. Promises obtained from the same government officials this time included stopping one dam construction project and a review of seven other dam project proposals. In addition, farm organization representatives were told they would participate with government officials in solving future problems relating to dam construction and to forestry and agricultural land use. The farmer protests reflected a profound weakness in the political and governmental structure of Thailand. None of the 700 members of the National Assembly represents farmers, even though approximately one-half of the Thai population lives in agricultural villages, a situation reflecting the government’s urban and Bangkok business bias. FAUNA. Wild elephants, long a symbol of Thailand, still roam the limestone hills of the northern areas and the woodlands of the peninsula in small numbers. However, these huge animals have been wiped out in most other parts of the country. The single-horned rhinoceros can be found occasionally but apparently is disappearing. The tapir is sometimes seen in the forests along the Malaysian border, and the wild hog and several types of deer are common in the wooded areas. Other forest dwellers are tigers, leopards, panthers, and many smaller predators. The large Himalayan black bear and the smaller Malayan bear are found in the mountains. Gibbons and several varieties of monkeys are widely distributed. Of the numerous kinds of snakes in Thailand, many are poisonous including cobras, coral snakes, kraits, and vipers. Sea snakes and lizards abound; crocodiles and several species of turtles are also present. FESTIVALS. See CEREMONIES AND FESTIVALS. FINANCIAL SYSTEM. Modernization of the nation’s financial system was accelerated by King Chulalongkorn. He employed British

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advisors for this process, the first being E. Rivett Carnac, beginning in 1896. The British advisors urged the kingdom’s royal government to follow a conservative policy and to build up financial reserves. The Bank of Thailand (BOT), an arm of the government, issues currency and exercises overall management of the Thai financial system, among other functions. The Thai capital market is a major part of the financial system. Three primary kinds of banks are central to this market: the Thai commercial banks (many with branches throughout Thailand and abroad), foreign-owned banks, and banks owned by the Thai government. The latter were established to promote economic and social development. Finance companies have been a significant part of the capital market since the early 1960s. Their chief role has been to provide higher risk financing than banks, primarily for consumers, as well as a source of investment capital. Other elements of the Thai capital market includes the more than 2,000 savings cooperatives, life insurance companies, pawnshops, and credit unions. Prominent in the capital market is the Stock Exchange of Thailand, which opened in 1989. The Exchange has provided a market for investment through the buying and selling of shares of Thai business companies and corporations that are on the Exchange list. In 1992, the Securities and Exchange Commission was established by the Thai government to supervise new share issues and the trading in existing shares. Foreign direct investment has been variable in amount and source. It was very limited prior to the mid-1980s, but expanded rapidly during the period 1986–1992. In 1988, 53 percent of government-approved new companies were created through foreign investment, primarily from Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea. By 1993, however, direct foreign investment had declined to 17 percent. Budgeting, as part of the financial system, includes the management decisions both for the very important expenditures of the national government, and for securing essential revenue to make these expenditures possible. In the preparation of the national budget, the principal policy makers are the BOT, the Ministry of Finance, and the Council of Ministers. Government expenditures for the 2002–2003 fiscal year were approximately US$25 billion. This was 4.5 percent more than revenue for that year, which was approximately US$24

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billion. Community and social services, chiefly education, accounted for 42 percent of expenditures. Economic affairs and services, as well as general governmental services, which included public order and safety, each accounted for approximately 20 percent of expenditures. The remainder were miscellaneous and unclassified items. Direct taxes generated one third of total revenue for the year. Of this, 54 percent came from corporate income taxes and 41 percent from personal income taxes. Two-thirds of the year’s revenue was accounted for by indirect taxes, most of which (40 percent) was produced by the valueadded tax. Other indirect revenue, 22 percent, came from a consumption tax, while indirect taxes on international trade added 18 percent. See also BALANCE OF PAYMENTS; BANKING; ECONOMY. FIVE-YEAR PLANS. The national government in 1959, led by Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat, sought to promote economic growth in the private sector. A National Economic Development Board was created to prepare a national planning blueprint. Consisting of economists and high government officials appointed by the prime minister, the National Economic Development Board continues to function, now under the name National Economic and Social and Development Board (NESDB). Since the first Five Year Economic Development Plan in 1961, eight successive Plans have followed at five-year intervals. The First and Second Plans focused on infrastructure such as electric generating plants, multipurpose dams, and road construction. The Third and Fourth Plans continued earlier goals but added social development to the economic plan and broadened the Board to include members with special knowledge and experience in social conditions. New goals included improvement in the areas of income distribution, educational opportunities, and access to health facilities. The Fifth Plan focused on ameliorating the effects of the economic recession of the early 1980s, increasing Thai exports and reducing government deficit expenditures. The Sixth Plan emphasized economic growth as in previous Plans, was multifaceted, and was accompanied by a significant increase in national fiscal reserves. The Seventh Plan came at a time when the Thai economy was experiencing rapid growth. It continued previous Plans plus acceleration of human resource development. The Eighth Plan had a different approach for a time of economic downturn and great social change. It placed

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emphasis on citizen participation in public affairs and made people the center of development. The Ninth Plan continued the emphases of the Eighth Plan and added the goal of recovery from the 1997–1998 economic crisis. All of the foregoing Plans were advisory; implementation of the Plans’ goals depended on the national government, which could act or take no action. FLAG, THAI. The national flag of Thailand consists of five horizontal stripes: red, white, blue, white, and red. The red stripes at both the top and the bottom represent unity of the nation, the white stripes next to the red stand for the purity of religion, and the blue stripe in the center represents the king. FON LEP. See NAIL DANCE. FOOD. Thai food varies in taste from bland to very spicy. For the principal Thai meal in the evening, white rice is served accompanied by two to four vegetables mixed with diced meat in a sauce (curries). A lunch may involve only a noodle soup or a dish of rice with one or two side dishes. Spicy soup (gaeng) with vegetables and/or diced meat is a common lunch. Desserts (khanom) range from cakes to cold or warm dishes of jelly or beans to which coconut milk or a sweet sauce is added. FOREIGN ADVISORS. A tradition of foreign advisors and officials has been one of long standing in Thailand. Already in the 16th century Indian experts in law were called upon to assist in the revision of Thai laws. In the 17th century, a Greek advisor and later a Japanese advisor were employed by King Narai. For administrative and other reforms of the Siamese Kingdom, the services of foreigners were secured on a contract basis. They were chosen by King Chulalongkorn and his successors from nations judged to take a neutral role in any possible disputes with either France or Great Britain. Their contributions consisted essentially of technical advice and expertise, especially in negotiations with Western powers and other foreign governments. In 1892, Chulalongkorn engaged a Belgian general advisor named Gustave Rolin-Jaequemyns who retired in 1899. Robert J. Kirkpatrick was employed from 1894 to 1899 as a legal advisor.

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The second general advisor, Dr. E. H. Strobel, took office in 1903. From that time to 1949, this post was reserved for an American, employed as an advisor in foreign affairs. Most American advisors were Harvard-trained legal experts who had no affiliation with their own government. Strobel was followed in this position by Jens I. Westengard, W. H. Pitkin, Dr. Eldon James, Dr. Francis B. Sayre, Courtney Crocker, Raymond Stevens, R. Dolbeare, and Kenneth S. Patton. Traditionally, in finance, the advisor was British, beginning with E. Rivett-Carnac (1896–1903). Others were W. J. F. Williamson, Sir Edward Cook, and W. M. A. Doll. The British advisors urged the Thai government to follow a cautious policy and build up reserves in the Treasury. R. L. Morant (1887–1893), W. G. Johnson, and E. S. Smith helped to develop Thai education, police, surveying, and railways. Danes were employed in the navy and police, the French in law and public works, the Italians in architecture and construction work, and the Germans in the construction of the northern railway line. Chulalongkorn sent sons, princes, and noblemen, as well as commoners’ sons for further studies in Europe. On their return, they gradually replaced the foreigners and participated actively in the improvement of the public services. See also FOREIGN POLICY. FOREIGN CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, several foreign chambers of commerce were active in Thailand. Of these, the American, the Chinese, and the Japanese were the most significant. Integration of foreign chambers into Thai business operations is secured through membership in the Board of Trade or in the Thai Chamber of Commerce. Each of these is also a conduit for contact with Thai government agencies and officials concerned with public policy. FOREIGN POLICY. Since the late 1980s, Thai foreign policy has been based chiefly on trade and economic concerns. In previous decades when Thailand faced the threat of communism, the United States was the major provider of security. In 1988, Chatchai Choonhavan, prime minister 1988–1991, initiated formal relations with three eastern Southeast Asian neighbors, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, and trade with each country was renewed. Since then, dependence on the U.S. has no longer been considered essential and

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Thailand has been relating to the U.S. more as an equal. In the 1990s, Thailand’s economic growth made the nation a part of the international economy. The economic crisis of 1997–1998 was a factor that helped bring about the new and reform-oriented 1997 constitution. That document in turn helped to establish Thailand as a democratic country and brought a new movement into Thai foreign policy. As Thailand became a more integral part of the international economy, it developed linkages with other nations. These include becoming a partner in the Organization for Security Cooperation in Europe and the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation. Other linkages enhance democratic and humanitarian values. These include joining the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, signing the Anti-Land Mine Treaty, and acceding to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The degree of emphasis in foreign policy on democratic principles and human rights, on the one hand, and a business-driven policy, on the other, varies somewhat from one Thai administration to another. International cooperation through the United Nations has been an important part of Thai foreign policy since Thailand joined that body in 1946. A difficult ongoing problem in Thai foreign policy has been with its neighbor, Burma (Myanmar). Concerns include human rights violations there, the presence of Burmese refugees in Thailand, and the drug trade across the Myanmar–Thai border. On the practical side, however, Thailand and Burma have common trade interests. FORESTRY. The wide variety of hard and softwood forests, especially teak, created a burgeoning timber industry in the past in Thailand. The bulk of production was in the highlands of the north. Tree varieties include teak, tropical evergreens, deciduous trees, and mixed deciduous types. Forest depletion in Thailand has become a serious problem. Since 1973, forests as a percentage of total land area decreased from 43 percent to less than 25 percent. Major causes of this rapid loss of forest cover has been commercial logging, charcoal production, and clearing land for cultivation. In coastal areas of the south, loss of mangroves has occurred from expansion of prawn farms. Hundreds of thousands of Thais and newcomers, who sought land for farming, have made the forests a kind of frontier to be exploited and privatized in the mid-20th century.

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In 1989, logging on public lands was banned and timber exports were prohibited by the government. Except for a few small privately owned areas, all forest land is the property of the Thai state. With these restrictions in place, loggers either poach or set up operations in a neighboring country. Since 1980, the Department of Forestry has been actively engaged in reforestation projects. See also ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS. FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. A central belief and teaching of Buddhism. The truths are life is suffering; suffering is the result of desire; cessation of desire ends life and suffering; and cessation of desire is attained by following the Noble Eightfold Path. FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH. France and the Kingdom of Ayutthaya had a diplomatic and commercial relationship for a short time in the 1680s during the reign of King Narai. An exchange of embassies took place with the arrival of French envoy Deslandes-Bouirreau in 1684; Chevalier de Chaumont was the first French ambassador. Treaties were signed in 1685 and 1687 giving the French freedom of religious instruction, access to free trade, and a monopoly on tin extraction from the island of Phuket. In addition they were given extraterritorial jurisdiction over French doctors, teachers, and other French citizens, and French troops were stationed in Bangkok and Mergui. When Phetracha seized the throne after Narai’s death, he expelled the French soldiers and some French priests and ended French influence and privileges. Two hundred years later in the closing decades of the 19th and first part of the 20th centuries, Siam (the name of the kingdom at that time) experienced extremely difficult relations with France. This was the period of French colonization in Southeast Asia, which started with Vietnam. Unfortunately for Siam, France had in its employ a capable and astute diplomat, Auguste Pavie, who was instrumental in getting Laos and a portion of Cambodia detached from Siam. These areas, previously in a tributary relationship with Siam, became incorporated into French Indochina. In the Franco–Siamese Crisis and Treaty of 1893, Siam was forced to give up all its territories in Laos east of the Mekong River to France. In a second treaty in 1904, Siam ceded to France another two

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Lao provinces west of the Mekong. In return, the French evacuated Chantaburi and eliminated the 25-kilometer protective zone west of the Mekong required previously. In a third treaty, in 1907, Siam ceded three Cambodian provinces to France and obtained in return some minor territorial concessions plus an end to extraterritorial privileges for all Asian–French subjects. With military and naval action and Japanese concurrence, Thailand in 1940–1941 secured the return of certain Lao and Cambodian territories lost to France previously. However, in a 1946 treaty, these shortlived gains were returned to French jurisdiction. In return, France supported Thailand’s application to join the United Nations. Later in the 1940s, all French extraterritorial privileges in Thailand were eliminated. A number of Thai students matriculated in the 1920s and subsequently at French universities. Today, bilateral diplomatic relations are friendly and cooperative. The French have for many years operated a French language and cultural center in Bangkok. For Thailand, France is one of its European trading partners. See also PHAULKON, CONSTANTINE. FRANCO–SIAMESE CRISIS AND TREATY OF 1893. Hostilities between resisting forces of Siam and French army units occurred when the latter were sent to take control of Laos early in 1893. There were hostilities also between Siamese and French forces in the Paknam Incident. These events led to an ultimatum delivered by Auguste Pavie, which the king of Siam was unable to reject. In the treaty, signed in October 1893, Siam ceded all Lao territories east of the Mekong River to France, which was expanding its Indochina colonies. The treaty also created a 25-kilometer demilitarized zone on the west side of the Mekong and permitted France to occupy the port city of Chantaburi to ensure treaty compliance. The Siamese were also required to pay an indemnity to France for the losses it suffered. FREE THAI (SERI THAI) MOVEMENT. In 1942, an anti-Japanese underground movement was initiated by Seni Pramoj, the Thai ambassador to the United States, and by Pridi Phanomyong in Thailand, who was regent for the kingdom. It focused on Thai students who

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had became stranded in the United States and Great Britain during World War II. Some 36 Thai students were trained by the British Army and another 31 were trained by the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in the United States. These young men were secretly returned to Thailand where they joined the local Free Thai group. The Allied war effort was aided by the Free Thai, and their existence reduced the demands that Thailand be treated as an enemy at the end of the war. Contacts by the Free Thai with resistance groups in neighboring countries had a considerable impact on Thailand’s postwar foreign policy. FRUIT PRODUCTION. Thailand has become a leading exporter of tropical fruits and vegetables to Europe, the United States, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and Japan. The mainstay of these exports are dried beans to Japan and India, and canned pineapple and bamboo shoots to the United States, Europe, and Japan. At present, baby corn and asparagus fetch a high price, while lychee, rambutan, mangosteen, and longan are seen to have great future potential. On a smaller scale, papaya, mango, long beans, chili, capsicums, and lemon grass are exported for the Asian and Southeast Asian communities in the West. Besides the country’s commercial fruits, there are many other indigenous fruits and nuts raised for domestic consumption. See also AGRICULTURE; TRADE. FUA HARIBHATAK (1910–1993). Fua was an artist famous for his own creations and for important contributions to the restoration of mural paintings in several ancient cities in Thailand. Fua’s own work won gold medals at the Annual Exhibition of Thai Art in 1949, 1950, and 1957. He also won the Ramon Magsaysay Award in Art in 1983 in recognition of his part in the restoration of traditional Thai art. For 28 years, he was a member of the Faculty of Art at Silpakorn University. Later he worked at the College of Fine Arts. During his training in art, he was a student of Professor Silpa Bhirasri and studied at art institutes in India and Rome. Fua’s interest in Thai art developed first in a visit to old temple murals in ancient North Thailand capitals and later when studying with the Indian artist Nantalal, known for his use of traditional old paint-

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ings as tools of instruction. Fua’s best-known work is the restoration of both the building and its mural paintings at Wat Rakhang’s wooden archive building. This was a huge 12-year project and due to the physical strain involved, he had royal patronage for medical care. For this restoration together with similar art restorations in North Thailand, Fua is seen as a leader in the preservation of early Thai mural art. During the years 1954 to 1973, Fua created more than 100 art masterpieces. He was very popular with art students due to his skill in modern-style art. FUNERALS. Funeral rites are the most elaborate of all life-cycle ceremonies. In a Thai funeral, a wake is the first event and lasts from three to five evenings. Buddhist monks offering chants from Buddhist scripture is part of the ritual ceremony of worship before the Buddha image. The laity also chant set phrases that invite the monks to chant and dedicate merit and the prayers for the deceased. Refreshments are served midway through the ceremony. Then candles are lit before the Buddha image and offerings are presented to the monks. After more prayers comes the bathing ceremony in which friends and relatives pour lustral water over one hand of the departed to transfer merit to him or her. One or more days later, cremation occurs in a crematorium located on the temple grounds. In the morning prior to the cremation, monks are given a feast to make merit for the deceased person. In the afternoon, a large crowd is usually present for a ceremony of chanting, reading from Buddhist scriptures, a sermon and offerings for the monks. The offerings of robes to the monks are presented in front of the coffin by important guests, which frequently include one or more politicians. The latter are present as part of the exchange of merit and patronage. To the sound of rockets or gunfire, the cremation fire is lit typically at four o’clock. Many of those present participate in the cremation by approaching the fire with a flower-shaped piece of paper, which is held between their palms. The cremation of the bodies of prominent or wealthy persons may be deferred for periods of up to a year. This permits a longer period in which to show affection, respect, and performance of religious rites that will benefit the deceased. Books or pamphlets are sometimes specially prepared for the funeral rites and distributed by wealthy persons.

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–G– GARUDA. The national and royal emblem of Thailand. The Garuda is a mythical bird with features of a man. As a symbol, it is incorporated into the labels or emblems of government departments and ministries. It is also displayed by banks when approved by the king in recognition of their public service. GEMS AND JEWELRY. In recent decades, the Thai gem and jewelry industry has grown rapidly. Gems and jewelry combined have been a large earner of foreign exchange. After Italy, Thailand has been a leading exporter of gems and jewelry. Because Thailand has rich sources of sapphires, rubies, garnets, zircon, beryl, quartz, and jadeite, it has become one of the world’s leading centers for the cutting and trading of gemstones. Each year, an estimated 70 percent of the world’s rubies and sapphires come from Thailand. GOLDEN TRIANGLE. The famous opium-producing region of Southeast Asia, which includes the hills of eastern Burma, the highlands of northern Laos, and the ridges of extreme northern Thailand. The civilization of the Golden Triangle dates back to the 13th century when it was a part of the ancient Kingdom of Lan Na. Communities there were able to preserve their culture and traditions for centuries. The areas include Mae Sai, Chiang Khong, Chiang Saen, Doi Mae Salong, and Chiang Rai. While there is considerable production of opium poppies, a very large illegal operation is the production and marketing of amphetamines by the Wa ethnic group in the border area of Burma. The Wa has its own private army. The Burmese government has been unable or unwilling to control this and other ethnic groups near the border with Thailand. Distribution of the amphetamines passes across Thailand, Laos, and the Republic of China. The growers of opium poppies belong to the hill tribes, which live and survive in these higher-elevation sites. While opium poppy production has decreased somewhat in Thailand, the country remains the principal trade route for marketing this crop. Interdiction efforts by Thai officials have been attempted and continue with United States involvement. Major difficulties in interdiction are the remoteness of

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the production sites, corruption of local officials, and the lack of alternative economic opportunities for the producers. GONG AEW. The name for a type of musical group in northern Thailand known as the long-drum ensemble and consisting of a long cannon drum (gong aew), a short thin drum, two oboes, and a pair of cymbals. The gong aew is used at festivals held in the Buddhist temple compounds (wat) of northern Thailand when the traditional dance, the nail dance, is a part of the ceremony. See also DONTRI PUEN MUANG; MUSICAL ENSEMBLES; MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; PIPHAT ORCHESTRA. GONG WONG YAI. A Thai musical instrument consisting of 16 metal resonance pieces, or gongs, arranged on a circular rattan frame. The gongs are graduated in size and are struck with beaters, one hard and one soft. The gong wong yai frequently carries the principal melody and is an essential part of a piphat orchestra. The gong wong lek, another Thai musical instrument, is built similarly to the gong wong yai, only smaller, and is played in the same way. GONGS. Gongs are essential instruments in most orchestras in central Thailand. Three such gongs are the charb lek or small cymbals, the charb yai or large cymbals, and the mong, a gong that is suspended on a tripod and beaten with a stick. A fourth, the ching, is a small pair of thick cymbals that produce either short crisp notes or long ringing sounds. The ching sets the pace for the instrumental or singing group. See also MUSICAL ENSEMBLES; MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; PIPHAT ORCHESTRA. GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM. The absolute monarchy, which had governed Siam for more than six centuries, was changed to a constitutional monarchy by the Revolution of 1932. The more or less authoritarian governments in the following 50 years could be characterized as relatively stable, though controlled by a military-bureaucratic elite. Changes in governmental administrations during that period were typically the result of bloodless coups d’etat, backed by military force. The coups ushered in new administrations headed by a military officer, or occasionally, administrations were headed by a civilian who

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governed to some extent under the control of the military. Four years of democratic governments in the 1970s were ended by a military coup. Following the 1988 election, semidemocratic governments have mostly prevailed beginning with that headed by Prime Minister Chatchai Choonhavan. Democracy attained a stronger basis in the 1992 election, when the Chuan Leekpai administration took office and in subsequent elected administrations. Significant changes designed as governmental reform were part of the 1997 constitution. One new element is the supervision of elections by the Election Commission to bring fraud and vote buying under control. Another aspect is that members of the Council of Ministers can no longer be concurrent members of the House of Representatives. The primary components of Thai governmental systems continue to be the king as head of state; the National Assembly, consisting of two chambers, the House of Representatives and the Senate; the Council of Ministers or Cabinet; the Judiciary; and political parties. The Thai National Assembly operates as a coalition in the House of Representatives. The coalition is a cooperating group of elected representatives from enough parties to achieve a working majority for legislative purposes. The governing coalition is arranged by the leader of the political party that secures the most elected members and by the person who becomes the prime minister. See also LEGISLATION; LOCAL GOVERNMENT; SUBDISTRICT ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION. GOVERNOR (PHUWA-CEO, PHUWARACHAKAN). The chief administrative officer of a province (changwat). He is appointed by the minister of the interior, to whom he is responsible. Since 2003, to strengthen local government, the top administrator has been called Phuwa-CEO. This person can originate from any of the ministries with civil service personnel in the province. There is a competition when a new appointee is needed; prerequisites for appointment include the ability to coordinate staff from the various central government ministries, skill in interpersonal relations, and ability to maximize the use of the development funds allotted. His or her effectiveness is evaluated after six months on the job relative to keeping the position. The Phuwa-CEO is also the spokesman for local citizens to the central government. See also PROVINCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND POLITICS.

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GRAND PALACE. A grouping of royal palaces and associated buildings and courtyards inside an enclosure at the corner of Sanam Chai and Na Phralan roads in Bangkok. Of general interest is the Chakri Throne Hall. Also found here are the Dusit Palace, Amarain Winichai Hall, and Borophinman Palace. The palaces were built over a period of time by the kings of the Chakri dynasty. GREAT BRITAIN (UNITED KINGDOM), RELATIONS WITH. Thailand and the United Kingdom have excellent international relations today. However, there were severe crises in Thai–British relations in the late 19th and early 20th century and again during and after World War II. Great Britain was the first Western government to negotiate a treaty with Siam, in 1826. The Burney Treaty initiated Siam’s political and trade relations with Western nations; it was followed by the Bowring Treaty in 1855, which continued the transformation of the Siamese revenue system begun by the earlier treaty. Among Siam’s concessions in the Bowring Treaty were extraterritorial privileges for British subjects and exempting the British in Siam from certain taxes. When Great Britain annexed what today is Burma and Malaysia, this involved Siam (renamed Thailand in 1939) agreeing to relinquish to the British some Thai-controlled provinces in the northwest and in the southern peninsula, lands that had been held by Siam as vassals. To Siamese officialdom, these losses were great sacrifices. The surrenders of Siamese land were covered by a 1909 treaty, at which time the British also made several concessions. One of the most important of these was to end their extraterritorial privileges and transfer their consular jurisdiction over British subjects in Siam to the Siamese government. This had been a provision forced on Siam by the British Bowring Treaty of 1855. Another item in the 1909 treaty was the exclusive right, granted by Siam to the British government, to finance and supervise the construction of a railroad between Singapore and Bangkok. In 1945, after Japan’s surrender in World War II, the British attempted to punish Thailand, demanding reparations for permitting Japan to use Thailand as a base to invade Malaya and Burma. Pressure by the United States in the negotiations caused Britain to drop these demands. See also BANGKOK ERA; CHULALONGKORN; MONGKUT.

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GREETING. The traditional form used by the Thai in greeting is called the wai. In this pattern, palms and fingers of the hands are placed together, fingers slightly bent toward each other and inward, in front of the chest or higher while the head is bowed. The basic posture has many variations according to the social position of the participants. The inferior (from position or age) offers the salute first and makes certain that the hands are raised high, and the bow is lower than the salute of the superior. The superior grades the salute subtly to the position of the inferior, to the point where the persons of highest respect, the Buddhist monks, refrain from responding to a wai. The casual visitor is wise to be hesitant about using the wai, as there are subtleties involved. When introduced to Westerners, Thai men usually shake hands, as a concession to Western customs.

–H– HAMPE, RUDOLF W. E. An artist born in Berlin in 1906, who arrived in Thailand in 1933. He specialized in landscape painting, but also painted Thai temple scenes and the everyday life of the Thai people. Hampe was also a master of the graphic arts. He is famous for his copies, called “temple rubbings,” of the bas-relief figures and carvings at Thai Buddhist temples. These copies are made on paper or on cloth using paint or crayon. HANDICRAFTS. While not a major item in the national economy, traditional handicrafts are important to the villagers of many areas as a sideline to farming and other occupations. The “cottage or home industries” system implies part-time work. Many villages specialize in a single craft, often with each household of the village devoting attention to only one detail of that craft, e.g., the parasol village near Chiang Mai. Interest in and the making of handicrafts is on the decline and older Thai people speak sadly about the loss of the valuable arts involved. See also CERAMICS; COTTON WEAVING; LACQUERWARE; NIELLOWARE; RATTAN FURNITURE MAKING; SUPPORT; SILK; UMBRELLAS, BAMBOO; WOOD CARVING.

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HARIPUNCHAI. A Buddhist Mon kingdom located near Lamphun from about the early ninth to the 13th centuries. According to a 15thcentury Pali chronicle, Haripunchai was founded by the Mon Princess Chamadevi, who came from Lop Buri, which was then a part of the Mon state of Dvaravati. Haripunchai maintained its independence although the Dvaravati State was largely conquered and absorbed by the Khmer Kingdom, which was centered at Angkor. However, Haripunchai was overthrown in the 14th century by King Mangrai and incorporated into the Lan Na Kingdom. HEALTH AND SANITATION DISTRICT (SUKAPIBAN). Local sanitation or health districts that have a population center and a tax base are counted in the 2000 Census of Population and Housing as municipalities. Governing each sukapiban is a committee chaired by the district officer. Funds available are used for such functions as garbage collection, street paving, providing electricity, slaughterhouse regulation, water, sewage facilities, and health care. HEALTH CARE. During the 1960s, the Thai national government, with assistance from the United States and the United Nations, expanded the provision of free medical treatment, expanded health education activities in schools and rural areas, and built a number of hospitals. By 1995, 89 percent of the population had access to safe water and 96 percent had sanitation. The common diseases were malaria, tuberculosis, and leprosy. Three health indicators in Thailand show a definite improvement over time. Life expectancy, which in 1996 was 70 for males and 75 for females, had increased approximately 25 percent compared to three decades earlier. Infant mortality, which in 1996 was 26.1 per 1,000 live births, dropped 69 percent over what it was three decades earlier, a significant improvement. The maternal mortality rate in 1997 was 10.6 per 100,000 live births. This was a dramatic 97 percent improvement over the 1962 rate. There was also a decreasing trend in the incidence of child malnutrition, vaccine-preventable diseases, malaria, parasitic worms, encephalitis, and rabies. However, serious ongoing health problems include acute diarrhea, dengue fever, acute respiratory infection in children, and HIV/AIDS.

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Adequate health and medical care in Thailand continues to be an important need as in other developing nations in Southeast Asia. While persons of wealth and most of the middle class have access to doctors and other health professionals, most Thai villagers have a much more limited access. The chief reason has been an inability to pay for medical care. Coping with this disadvantage in rural areas involves Agriculture Economic Development to overcome poverty and raise the poorer villagers’ standard of living. In 2001, the Thaksin Shinawatra administration announced that the poorer agricultural villagers could see a doctor for a charge of 30 baht (approximately US$0.75), greatly increasing access to medical care. It already appears that this has had desirable results, but the long-range feasibility of this large government health subsidy remains to be seen. The Thai Ministry of Public Health (MOPH) and other government agencies provide and administer at least one hospital and staff including doctors in every province and in some districts. In addition, the MOPH promotes health education, nutrition, and treatment of common diseases. Health communicators work in villages together with volunteers. There is cooperation with the Ministry of Education, which for some time has included education on family and child care in the curriculum at both the primary and secondary level. In marked contrast to the “top-down” approach of the MOPH, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in the health fields promote ideas of equity and social justice through having local people themselves participate in decisions about the priorities in health care as well as the allocation and management of resources. This implies a large measure of reorganization and decentralization of government power and reflects a “bottom up” approach. See also DEMOCRATIC DECENTRALIZATION. HIGHWAYS. The Department of Highways was organized in 1912. Most roads in Thailand run generally in a north-south direction in keeping with the configuration of the mountains and rivers of the country. From 1981 to 1991, total motor vehicle registrations quadrupled (2 million to 8.5 million), while truck, van, and passenger car registrations doubled. Massive traffic jams and air pollution have become a serious problem in Bangkok. The need for roads has increased extensively in the last decade. The road transportation net-

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work of the country totals 169,794 kilometers (106,121 miles), consisting of 15,899 kilometers (9,936 miles) of national highways and expressways, 25,895 kilometers (16,184 miles) of provincial roads, and about 128,000 kilometers (80,000 miles) of rural roads. Throughout the country the government has established 175 bus stations for passengers, supporting the expansion of industrial zones. There are also several cargo stations. HILL TRIBES. The term designates ethnic minorities most of whom live in the remote highland areas of the northern and southwestern parts of Thailand. They have their own traditions and customs that are different from the people in the lowlands. Swidden agriculture, the type of shifting cultivation practiced by many of the hill tribes, causes the deforestation and deterioration of highland watersheds. The principal ethnic groups are Karen, Meo (Hmong), Lahu, Lisu, Yao, Akha, Htin, Lua (Lawa), and Khamu. The present hill tribe population is scattered over 21 provinces and 76 districts. In 1988, it was estimated to total 550,000. Among these, the Karen were the largest group with 52 percent and Khamu was the smallest group with about 1 percent. The household is the basic socioeconomic unit charged with the responsibility of providing food, shelter, welfare, health, and education, including religious training and socialization of behavior. On July 6, 1976, the stated policy of the Thai government was to integrate these people into the Thai state and give them full rights to practice their religions and maintain their culture. According to the 1986 survey, 79 percent of the hill tribe population had no education, and about 19 percent had education ranging from primary to university level. Recently, a new program has authorized Thai citizenship for the hill tribes. Administration of this step forward is moving slowly and little more than 10,000 hill tribe individuals have achieved citizenship. HILL TRIBES, DEVELOPMENT. The way of life of hill people was severely affected in the middle of the 1960s when both opium growing and swidden agriculture were declared illegal. A new development program of the Thai government encourages hill tribe farmers to grow agricultural crops other than opium and to use permanent agricultural sites. Since the mid-1960s members of the royal family have become patrons of hill tribes. Members of the royal family

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have made well-publicized visits to tribal communities to open schools, sponsor rice banks, and assist those who have suffered some calamity. Queen Sirikit also encourages them to expand their traditional handicrafts, and sponsors the sale of tribal crafts nationwide and in many markets abroad. See also SUPPORT. HINAYANA BUDDHISM. See BUDDHISM. HIV/AIDS. Since its detection in Thailand in the mid-1980s, the HIV infection has spread rapidly and its prevalence is the highest in Asia. Research on the nature, causes, and progression of HIV/AIDS in Thailand in the early 1990s resulted in the identification of five atrisk population groups likely to be involved in the spread of the disease. The risk groups with the initial highest HIV/AIDS disease rates were intravenous drug users and female sex workers. A small at-risk group was sex workers in male-to-male sex. A fourth group, both atrisk and as potential spreaders of HIV/AIDS, was the large male clientele who secure sex in bars and places of entertainment. A fifth at-risk population was girlfriends or wives who become infected from visiting males or husbands. In response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the Ministry of Public Health (MOPH) has conducted regular surveys since 1989 to determine the prevalence of the disease. These results consistently indicated a somewhat stable rate of 25 to 30 percent prevalence in Thailand in the late 1990s. The highest disease rate, 35 to 40 percent, occurred in four provinces of the Northern Region. Since 1995, the Thai HIV/AIDS rate has declined. A broad-based national education program was established in 1993 that informs people regarding behavior in which there is risk of infection. Mass communication was used in attempts to overcome widespread ignorance and misinformation. In addition, free condoms are supplied to sex workers and their clients. Operators of bars, massage parlors, and entertainment centers are required to enforce condom use. See also HEALTH CARE; PROSTITUTION. HMONG. See MEO. HOLIDAYS, NATIONAL. Five national holidays, celebrated annually, are dated by the Western calendar. Chakri Memorial Day is the

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6th of April, Coronation Day is celebrated on the 5th of May, the Queen’s Birthday occurs on the 12th of August, Chulalongkorn Memorial Day is on the 23rd of October and the King’s Birthday is celebrated on the 5th of December. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. See NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. HOUSEHOLD RITES. Ceremonies at the home of Buddhist laity and in which Buddhist monks are present. The monks sing chants and offer blessings, lustral water, and counsel. They are invited on occasions that mark births, housewarmings, marriages, severe illnesses, and deaths. Gifts of food and other offerings to the monks, which make merit for the givers, are an essential part of these ceremonies. See also FUNERALS. HSINBYUSHIN. King of Burma (reigned 1763–1776), who led invasions of Siam. During his reign, Burmese military power was at its zenith. This occurred in spite of the king’s difficulties with ministers and other high administrative officials. Hsinbyushin continued the plan of his father, Alaunghpaya, to conquer and dominate the Taispeaking peoples east of the Salween River. Initially, during 1763–1765, the Burma army subjugated Lan Na and Lan Xang along with adjacent regions. Then, using a large-scale pincer movement, the Burmese overcame the Thai state of Ayutthaya in early 1767, at that time ruled by the weak King Suriyamarin. The capital city, Ayutthaya, was captured, plundered, and left desolate, while thousands were taken captive to Burma. During the period 1765–1769, the Burmese under Hsinbyushin and his successor were also at war with China.

–I– IMAM. Islamic priest and leader of the religious congregation. See also ISLAM; THAI MUSLIMS AND ASSIMILATION. IN KHONG. A famous painter of the mid-19th century whose wall paintings at the Temple of the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok represents episodes from the history of the former capital of Ayutthaya.

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INDIANS IN THAILAND. One of the smaller minorities, Indians are immigrants or descendants of immigrants, chiefly from Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) or the west coast of India. They may be either Hindus, Sikhs, or Muslims and are located mainly in urban centers, especially Bangkok and vicinity. Indians engage in a variety of occupations but mainly in textiles, jewelry, metal products, and food stores. INDUSTRY. The development of industry in Thailand began in the 1960s through the effort of the Thai government, supported by Sino–Thai businessmen located chiefly in Bangkok. An impetus for industrial growth also came from general awareness that agriculture, which for so long was the mainstay of the economy in Thailand, was not growing appreciably. Another factor was the withdrawal of the military and economic support of the United States at the end of the war in Vietnam. Accelerating after 1985, industrialization occurred in nearly all sections of the economy, although it has been concentrated in Bangkok and the Bangkok region. Government policies regarding trade and industry that favored the manufacturing sector have been an important aid to its growth and to the large increase in exports. On the other hand, a large part of that aid to the industry has been derived from taxes on agricultural exports. Industrial growth has also been supported by such factors as government provision of essential infrastructure, the shift to export led manufacturing and the availability of hundreds of thousands of former farm workers to take jobs in urban centers. The large agricultural population was a source of cheap urban labor, an element that attracted foreign direct investment from Japan, Korea, and the United States to manufacture in Thailand products in demand in international markets. Rapid industrial growth during the period 1986–1994 resulted in the growth of exports of as much as 20 percent annually. However, industrial growth declined in 1997–1998 during the time of the economic crisis. There has been a gradual recovery since then led by industry exports. See also APPENDIXES G, I, J. INTERNATIONAL RESERVES. In the 1990s, the total international financial reserves of Thailand were significantly in excess of US$20 billion. This represents a continued growth pattern. Even in those

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years when there is a large excess of imports over exports, or negative balance of trade, it is more than offset by foreign investment in Thailand and the huge foreign exchange earnings from tourism. But the reserves fell sharply during the economic crisis, as the government attempted to shore up the value of the baht, and are only now being rebuilt. See also TRADE; APPENDIX I. INVESTMENT PROMOTION. Through its Board of Investment (BOI) the Thai government has an active program to encourage domestic and foreign investment. The major emphasis of the BOI is on expanding industrial exports. Certain categories of investment are eligible for promotional privileges and incentives. Foreign investors in promoted companies can own land, avoid certain taxes, open a business in Thailand, employ foreign nationals, and remit foreign currency abroad. In addition, investors have available a wide range of business services. One of these is a center in Bangkok to aid the promoted companies to obtain required permits, licenses, and visas. Agencies other than the BOI provide other assistance to new investors, including industrial estates and environmental management. Investment promotion favors large firms. Firms investing less than 5 million baht (US$125,000) are not eligible to apply. The cost of application is high and easier for large firms. Also favored are firms that go to the industrial estates in Bangkok and vicinity since certain privileges are provided there. The high degree of governmental centralization in Bangkok acts to retard rural industrial development especially in areas far from Bangkok. Factory permits, passports and license applications, custom clearance, and other services can be obtained only in Bangkok. Getting these services increases the cost of doing business in rural areas. See also FIVE-YEAR PLANS. IRRIGATION. Rice producers in Southeast Asia have traditionally relied on rain and flood water for irrigation. Records of rainfall and water for the Thai Central Region indicate that in one year in three there is insufficient water available for successful wet-rice production. Controlled irrigation began in the Central Region in 1922. Since then the irrigated area in Thailand has been expanded to more than 3.7 million hectares (1.5 million acres). World Bank loans assisted in the construction of some dams and distribution systems. Two of these

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dams, completed in 1964 and 1973, have hydroelectric power generating potential. Responsibility for the development and maintenance of irrigation systems falls principally within the purview of the Royal Irrigation Department, founded in 1904. Small irrigation projects have been completed in wet-rice growing areas of all the regions. Besides bringing new lands into crop production, dams and irrigation systems contribute needed flood control. However, dams usually inundate previously farmed areas with water. Resettlement of families whose farms have been flooded has been difficult due to lack of compensation for land lost and the problems inherent in organizing new settlements and adapting to new soils and new crops. See also AGRICULTURE; FARMER PROTESTS; IRRIGATION SYSTEMS, TRADITIONAL. IRRIGATION SYSTEMS, TRADITIONAL. The land area available for wet-rice cultivation has historically been extended by effectively managing water resources using irrigation. For hundreds of years, agricultural villagers in northern Thailand have cooperatively operated their own irrigation systems. Using stakes of wood, stones, and sand, dams have been constructed in rivers and repaired annually. The tasks involved are divided so that each village has a share in building and maintaining the dams and distribution canals. The communal ownership and maintenance of such water facilities under an elected dam chief was labeled by M. Bruneau “une petite démocratie rurale.” ISAN. See NORTHEAST REGION. ISLAM. Muslims constitute about 4 percent of the Thai population and are concentrated largely in the four southernmost provinces: Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat, and Songkhla. In Narathiwat, the Thai–Muslim constitute at least 75 percent of the population. The Islamic faith, like Buddhism in Thailand, has incorporated beliefs and practices that are not originally a part of the religion. The animistic practices, which seek to control evil spirits and are used in local Islamic ceremonies, are very similar to the animistic practices of Malays in Malaysia. In Thailand, 38 provinces have more than 2,000 mosques, the great majority of which are of the Sunni branch of Islam. Each mosque has an

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imam, its chief figure, the katib or preacher, and the muezzin or bilal, the crier. See also THAI MUSLIMS AND ASSIMILATION; THAI MUSLIMS AND POLITICS.

–J– JAPAN, RELATIONS WITH. Economic ties between Japan and the Kingdom of Ayutthaya existed already in the 17th century and have increased since then. At the turn of the 20th century when each nation had an embassy in the capital of the other, Japan sent legal advisors to Siam and assisted in improving the silk industry there. In the 1930s, the large amount of low-priced Japanese imports angered business leaders in Bangkok. However, at the same time, Japan’s militarism was looked on favorably by Thai military leaders. In the 1940s, the Free Thai (Seri Thai) secret movement promoted opposition to the attempt of Japan to conquer and occupy Southeast Asia. In 1942, many Chinese in Thailand joined this opposition movement. A blight on the bilateral relations of the two nations was the Japanese Military Occupation of Thailand from 1941–1944. However, the frustrations, shortages, and conflicts involved have been gradually forgotten by the Thai. Longer-lasting strains between Thailand and Japan have been the result of a marked trade imbalance. Japan is by far the principal source of imports and second after United States in importance as an export destination. Thailand has increased its export promotion activities and participates as a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in collective trade bargaining with Japan. In the 1960s, Japanese investment in Thailand resulted in jointly owned firms engaged in the production of cars, motorcycles, and automobile parts. Following these successes, large amounts of Japanese investment funds flowed into Thailand, some for joint enterprises and some fully Japanese-owned. When local Sino–Thai businessmen became concerned about Japanese domination of the economy, business and trade associations were formed to combat this. In response, Japan reduced its import duties on Thai products, made loans to the Thai government, and provided financial aid to Thailand. Further, Japanese investments in the 1980s for production of Thai exports were largely

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due to the devaluation of the baht in relation to the yen, which had appreciated in value. Japan provided a large portion of the 1997 International Monetary Fund loan package to assist the kingdom’s recovery from the economic crisis. In 2000, Japan helped again with a loan for the construction of the new Bangkok airport, Suvarnabhumi. Since 2000, the Japanese have cooperated with Thailand to increase the stability of the baht and have made Japanese experience and technology available to small- and medium-sized Thai companies. Support of these initiatives reflects the Japanese view that Thailand can provide regional economic leadership in Southeast Asia while Japan retains its own broader economic role. While the Thai–Japanese bilateral relations are largely economic, the wide range of Japanese consumer goods sold in Thailand has had a cultural influence as well. JAPANESE MILITARY OCCUPATION (1941–1944). In the 1930s, Japan sought to expand its trade and influence in Southeast Asia, with Thailand as one target. Phibun Songkhram, the Thai prime minister from 1938 to 1944, supported the Japanese as a counterweight to the power of Great Britain. Following an ultimatum and a military encounter at several coastal sites, the Thai acquiesced to military occupation by the Japanese in December 1941. Thailand served as a military and supply base for the Japanese, who attempted to construct a railroad link to Burma, part of which was the bridge on the River Kwai. It is remembered as the famous “railway of death,” as the Kanchana Buri War Cemetery attests. As the war turned against Japan, Thai relations with the Japanese occupation worsened. Direct requisitions of goods and labor by the Japanese were largely prevented. While the Thai prime minister issued a declaration of war against the Allies, there was also an effective Free Thai (Seri Thai) Movement working underground against the Japanese. The latter was of considerable help in restoring Thailand’s good relations with the Allies after World War II. JIT PUMISAK (1930–1976). A writer of patriotic songs, varied articles, and books and a controversial advocate of societal change. Jit was a linguist with fluency in English, Thai, French, and Chinese. Recognized as a superior writer while studying at Chulalongkorn

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University, he was selected by fellow students to be editor of the annual university journal. While proceeding with this task he was removed when it was alleged that he was a communist. He completed a bachelor’s degree in arts and taught English at the Theves Suksa school for two years. He continued writing articles, short stories, several books on linguistics, and works of fiction. Religion and the arts were his major interests. Jit was arrested and jailed in 1958 together with others accused of giving support to communism. He was found not guilty and released from jail after six years. In order to continue campaigning with others for freedom and justice, he joined the Communist Party of Thailand (CPT) in the forest of Sakon Nakhon province. There he wrote popular songs of struggle and in his singing them he encouraged the farmers to join the fight against social injustice and oppression by the government. His effort to identify with those in poverty was sincere. His forceful and appealing songs aroused many who joined the CPT. Jit was killed by Thai Army troops in a government crackdown on the CPT in 1976. JOINT PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEES (JPPCCs). The central JPPCC was created by the government in 1981 as an organization to deal with important business and economic problems, and has provided a channel for business interests to present their complaints to the government. The JPPCCs have tackled serious economic problems and have promoted the development of business associations. Problems arising have chiefly focused on reducing red tape and delays for needed approvals, eliminating obstructive laws and rules, and reducing taxation. The achievements of the central JPPCC have led to the organization of a JPPCC in every province in Thailand. JUDICIARY. Constitutional and legislative law provides for three levels of courts and for the independence of judges. There are numerous city and provincial Courts of Original Jurisdiction, the Intermediate Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Court. The latter two courts are located in Bangkok. The Thai judiciary became an autonomous part of government when the 1997 constitution was enacted. It has its own management and budgeting. Previous to 2000, judicial matters

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were supervised by the Ministry of Justice. In the courts of southern Thailand where cases involving Muslims are heard, there are Muslim judges who interpret the Islamic laws and usages. A judicial commission, consisting of the Supreme Court president and 12 other judges, recommends appointments of officials at the three levels of courts, which become effective when approved by the king. There is also a three-tier Administrative Court, which adjudicates disputes between the government and individuals. However, the Thai judicial and legal system has not caught up with rapid societal changes. While cases can be prosecuted, costs and delays cause exceptional difficulties. A typical individual is not likely to gain access to a court. As a result, the police have a major role in handling minor disputes and sometimes larger cases. The Thai legal system is comprised of both traditional and modern elements. Most Thai jurists maintain that Thailand now has the civil law system as the basis for its jurisprudence. Yet, from outward appearance, it seems a common law system prevails fundamentally. The provisions of the Thai laws relating to commercial matters follow generally those of the British legal system. However, tort rules generally follow the German patterns. There are borrowings also from India, China, and Japan. The laws of inheritance and domestic relations are generally based on ancient Thai customs, with some provisions taken from the civil law. The only death penalties in Thai law are for murder and high treason. In criminal cases, two or three judges sit when the penalty can be greater than one year of imprisonment. Cases can be initiated either by the public prosecutor or by the injured person. There is no provision for trial by jury. The judiciary as a whole enjoys a reputation for honesty and competence. Some shortcomings of the Thai judicial handling of criminal justice include trials that drag on without ending while other cases are dropped without explanation. Crimes of the rich and powerful may never be brought forward for official action. A new Constitutional Court was established by the 1997 constitution. Selection of its 15 members is handled by the Senate. Among its broad responsibilities are adjudication regarding official assets declarations by government officials when these are alleged to be inaccurate. Another new factor is the political crime division, which is at-

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tached to the Supreme Court. It handles adjudication of criminal charges of corruption, misconduct, or other unlawful acts by public officials. The changes in the Judiciary reflect the recent movement for legal and political reform. See also ISLAM. JUTE PRODUCTION. A fiber plant, jute is cultivated mainly in the plateau area of northeast Thailand wherever there is sufficient water and loose soil.

–K– KAEN (KHANE). A mouth organ musical instrument that is widely used in northeast Thailand and Laos. This instrument consists of 16 bamboo pipes and a hardwood wind chest inside of which is a small metal reed. KALAHOM. Military branch of the government in the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. Created by King Borommatrailokanat in the mid-15th century, the Kalahom handled military affairs. Its companion agency, the Mahatthai, handled civil affairs. The administrative system was changed in the mid-17th century so that the Kalahom had charge of both military and civil affairs in the southern provinces of the kingdom. Similarly, the Mahatthai handled the affairs of the central and northern provinces. This system of government administration was retained until the end of the 19th century. In 1892, King Chulalongkhorn’s government reform created 12 ministries in which each head was directly responsible to the king, eliminating the Mahatthai and the Kalahom. See also ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM. KAMMA. See KARMA. KAMMAKAN WAT. A committee consisting of the head Buddhist monk, several laymen, and one or more junior monks who organize the practical affairs of a Buddhist temple compound (wat), such as communication between the monks and the laity, management of properties, arrangements for ceremonies, and coordination of alms giving.

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KAMNAN. The leader or headman of a commune (tambon). He is normally chosen by the headmen of the 6–12 villages that make up the commune, from among their own members. He continues to be headman of his own village. He is the principal link between the district, which is the lowest branch of the national government, and the people of the commune he represents. In addition to participation in ceremonial duties, the recording of vital statistics and tax collection, the kamnan supervises law and order and agricultural extension projects in the commune. KAMPHOL VAJARAPOL (1919–1996). A famous newsman, Kamphol was in the newspaper business for 44 years. He was owner and publisher of Thai Rath, the Thai language daily that has had the largest circulation in Thailand for many years. At its height, the paper’s circulation exceeded one million copies a day. Kamphol was also a philanthropist who was deeply concerned with improvement of education in Thailand. The construction of 101 schools chiefly in remote areas, over a 25-year period, with millions of donated baht, is Kamphol’s major legacy. The schools were given to the Thai government to administer along with funds for school libraries, books, students’ uniforms, lunches, and salaries of teachers. He also initiated the Thai Rath Newspaper Fund of several million baht, which supports education, and to which many persons have contributed. Kamphol ran his paper in a highly personalistic manner with a minimum of formal structure. The format of Thai Rath under Kamphol’s ownership reflected the interests of the “man in the street.” Its front page typically presented sensational stories focusing on crime, sex, the uncouth, and the outlandish. Other pages supposedly reflected public opinion and contained political commentaries from a conservative viewpoint. Kamphol and columnists of Thai Rath had extensive contacts with politicians, some of which were lucrative. The financial success of his paper brought Kamphol great wealth as well as enemies. In his travels he had accompanying bodyguards. In response to the paper’s crusades against police misconduct, scandals involving government officials, and other reported misdeeds, the paper occasionally suffered bomb attacks. Kamphol enjoyed sports including the Thai game, takraw, in which he excelled.

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KANCHANA BURI WAR CEMETERY AND MUSEUM. Near Kanchana Buri City, some 125 kilometers (78 miles) west of Bangkok, is the infamous “Bridge on the River Kwai.” The bridge was built by the Japanese during World War II using exploited Allied prisoners of war (POWs) and slave-laborers from countries then occupied by the Japanese Army. In the cemetery are the remains of approximately 16,000 Allied POWs and 50,000 Southeast Asians who died there from lack of medical care, starvation, and torture during bridge construction. The War Museum displays war memorabilia, photographs, personal recollections, and descriptions of tortures perpetrated by the Japanese. The cemetery is maintained by a private British foundation. KARACHAKAN. Any civil servant employed in the Thai government, whether at national, provincial, district, or municipal level. The name can be translated “a servant in the king’s service.” See also CIVIL SERVICE KAREN (KARIANG, YANG). Of the highland or hill peoples, the Karen are probably the largest group and speak a non–Tai language. They are located along the entire western border of Thailand with Burma and share a culture with the Karen population within Burma. The Karen were already present in earlier centuries, when the Mon, the Burmese, the ancestors of the Thai peoples and other ethnic groups were migrating into the area. Currently, the Karen in Thailand number at least 100,000. Different dialects are spoken by different subgroups, but village leaders also communicate in the Thai language. The Karen subsist on upland agriculture, which is in large part swidden. They grow a variety of vegetables and crops as well as poultry, pigs, and livestock. In addition, plants and animals are hunted in the jungle. In religion, the Karen are predominantly animists, although both Buddhism and Christianity are expanding into their communities. Elementary schools are gradually being established by the Thai government. In practice the Karen are largely autonomous since they live in relatively inaccessible areas. See also HILL TRIBES; HILL TRIBE DEVELOPMENT.

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KARMA. The concept from Hinduism and Buddhism that every act, work or thought of a person has some ultimate and associated reward or punishment in this life or the next because of the existence of the law of causation. Hence, all of one’s deeds—verbal, physical, or mental— create one’s karma. It follows that a person is born according to his past karma, which (together with his present karma) will determine his future existence. The word karma, derived from the Sanskrit language, has the same meaning as kamma, an expression of the Pali language. In Thailand, kamma is typically the spoken form and karma the written. See also DHARMA; ETHICS OF THAI BUDDHISM; MERITDEMERIT; PRECEPTS; THREE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES; THREE GEMS; WHEEL OF THE LAW. KATHIN. Colorful and varied ceremonies that occur within one or two weeks following the end of the Buddhist Lent holy days, normally in October. At this time, robes and other essentials are presented to the men who continue permanently in the temple as Buddhist monks. There is usually a parade to mark the occasion in which participants carry their gifts to the presentation ceremony at the Buddhist temple compound (wat). In some cities there are also boat races or other attractions. In Bangkok, the king leads a procession of large and beautifully decorated royal barges on the Chao Phraya River laden with gifts for presentation to the monks at the Temple of Dawn (Wat Arun). KAVILA. Ruler of Chiang Mai (reigned 1775–1813). Kavila was a former local chieftain subservient to the King of Burma. However, he and his army went over to the side of Siam in a 1774 war in which the armies of Burma were defeated. As a result of his continued support of the Siamese, he became the new head of what had formerly been the Lan Na Kingdom, but as a vassal to the Siamese king. Kavila was a capable military leader and held off Burmese attacks until Siamese aid arrived. He moved his capital from Lampang to Chiang Mai in 1781. Kavila was confirmed as ruler of all the northern region by Rama I in 1782. In his efforts to increase the population, Kavila brought in captured peoples through raids into territories in the domain of the Burmese. His descendants continued to rule in Chiang Mai, the capital city, until 1939.

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KHAM BUNNAG. See THIPHAKORAWONG. KHANE. See KAEN. KHAO. See RICE. KHAO PHANSA. See BUDDHIST LENT. KHAO YAI. One of Thailand’s most popular national parks on a site about 200 kilometers (125 miles) northeast of Bangkok. The cooler air of the high elevation, the natural vegetation and wildlife—including numerous species of orchids, elephants, and other protected wildlife— combine to make Khao Yai an attractive resort. The park was opened in 1962. KHLONG. The Thai word for the canals that are everywhere in the lowland areas of the Central Region. The heart of Thailand is an alluvial plain and much of it is less than three meters above sea level. In the agricultural areas of the lowlands, an enormous latticework of canals is tied into the rivers. Khlong are essential both as a source of water and as a means of travel. KHMER. A Khmer–speaking ethnic group found in eastern Thailand and along the entire border region with Cambodia. The Khmers in Thailand have been estimated to number between 185,000 and 400,000 and share the language of the Cambodian people. They occupy areas that, in the 12th century and earlier, were part of a Khmer Kingdom later conquered by the Thai. In their economy, religion, customs, and other cultural features, the Khmer are very similar to the Thai. They are gradually becoming assimilated into Thai society and use of the Thai language is increasing. The Khmer tongue, of an Austro–Asiatic language stock, is widely spoken. See also ANGKOR. KHMER KINGDOM. See ANGKOR. KHON. The masked play in the classical form of Thai dance drama in which the performers in general are male. They wear masks having a

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wide variety of design each indicating the personality of its wearer. The dance drama is built on episodes from the Ramakian, a Thai version of the well-known Indian epic, the Ramayana of the poet Valmiki. Music forms an important part of the dance drama, which is greatly bound by tradition and includes both singing tunes and action tunes. Each action tune is connected with certain dances and actions. The actors respond to each, a walk tune, a marching tune, a weeping tune, a love-making tune, and so on. See also LIKAY. KHON KAEN. A large province of the northeast, pop. 1,750,000 (est.). The provincial capital, Khon Kaen, pop. 145,000 (est.), has experienced impressive growth in the past three decades. To a large extent, this has resulted from government action. Khon Kaen has become a center for government programs of development for the western and central parts of the northeast. Khon Kaen University, opened in 1964, provides higher education in 15 schools or colleges. Several of these offer graduate programs. Other development efforts have focused on construction of dams to provide water for irrigation as well as for electric power. Agriculture is characterized largely as subsistence, although commercial farming is increasing. A television center and transmitting station are also located here. Khon Kaen City is an important center for air and surface transportation. In Gross Domestic Product per capita, Khon Kaen ranks first among the provinces of the northeast. See also NORTHEAST ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. KHORAT. See NAKHON RATCHASIMA. KHORAT PLATEAU. See NORTHEAST REGION. KHRU. Those who teach are addressed with the title khru. This is not limited to a particular profession. Khru is used to show respect to qualified persons in the arts, including those who offer private lessons. KHRUBA SIWICHAI (1878–1939). Famous Buddhist monk. Khruba Siwichai was ordained a Buddhist novice (nen) in his home village temple (wat) at age 18. Three years later he was ordained a Buddhist

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monk (bhikkhu). During his life-long vocation as a monk, Khruba organized villagers and others in the construction or repair of important religious buildings. These include two famous temples that house important relics and another major temple in the city of Chiang Mai. His success in these endeavors reflected his capacity to persuade his followers to donate their labor and wealth for building projects. His efforts occasionally resulted in conflict with secular and religious authorities. However, such events and their outcomes seemed to enhance his reputation among his followers. Khruba is remembered also for the high degree of asceticism that characterized his life-style, and for assisting the laity to attain merit. His concern for fellow Buddhists has been noted by those who knew him. One writer stated: “Khruba saw as useful only actions for the collectivity while doing nothing useful for himself.” Khruba has been acclaimed a saint by his followers. Following his death and cremation, his remains were preserved and distributed. These relics have been accorded divine status by his devoted followers and are believed to have intrinsic power that can be utilized. KHRYANG SAI ORCHESTRA (WONG KHRYANG SAI). Although its name means “string orchestra,” this Thai musical ensemble consists of stringed instruments along with drums, hand-cymbals, and flute. See also DONTRI PUEN MUANG; GONG AEW; MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; PIPHAT ORCHESTRA. KHUANG APHAIWONG (1902–1974). Descended from hereditary rulers of Siam’s former Cambodian dominions, Khuang studied engineering in France. He entered government service in the Telegraph Department of which he later became director-general. He was a cabinet minister under Prime Ministers Phahonyotin and Phibun Songkhram. Khuang was elected a number of times to the Thai National Assembly, where he was a leader, becoming vice-president in both 1943 and 1944. He was prime minister for three short terms between 1944 and 1948. In his first term, he released all political prisoners and restored to the nobility the ranks and titles that had been abolished by the previous prime minister. He became leader of the Democrat Party in 1955, a post he held until his death. Khuang was known for his good humor and incorruptible character.

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KHUN. A polite term used before the name of a person who is addressed or spoken of. Khun is the equivalent of Mr., Miss, or Mrs. The same term is used to address both men and women. KHUNYING. The title khunying is given to married women whose contributions to society are recognized by the royal family. KHWAN. See VITAL ESSENCE. KINGDOM NAMES. For most of its history, the nation presently called Thailand was known by the name of its capital city. The eight centuries of its existence can be divided into four periods of varying length. The beginning of each period found the nation built around a new capital. The earliest was the Kingdom of Sukhothai with nine kings. Next came Ayutthaya with 33 kings. For a short time it was the Kingdom of Thonburi with one king. Fourthly, it was the Bangkok Kingdom, which had its beginning in 1782 and presently has its ninth king. In 1856, in treaties with Western nations, the name Siam was adopted. The last name change came in 1939 when its present name became official. KING, AS HEAD OF STATE. In a formal and ceremonial role, the king is head of state in Thailand. While he approves the selection of the prime minister and the acts of the legislature, he does not have veto power. He is not directly involved, according to the constitution, in decisions about government policy. To the extent that the king has influence, it is indirect; it flows from the respect he enjoys as the embodiment of religion and history. See also BHUMIBOL ADULYADEJ; KINGSHIP; MONARCHY. KING’S BIRTHDAY. On December 5th, the celebrations of the birthday of King Bhumibol Adulyadej and National Day are combined. The latter commemorates the anniversary of the 1932 coup d’etat, which introduced a constitution and a limited monarchy form of government. The king’s birthday is marked by brilliant illuminations of urban buildings at night, decorations of flags, portraits of the king, parades, and parties. Religious aspects include the presentation of food to the Buddhist monks and special services at the Buddhist temple compounds (wat).

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KINGSHIP. His Majesty Bhumibol Adulyadej, king of Thailand since 1946, is the ninth reigning monarch of the house of Chakri. He reigns from a Thai throne that consciously asserts a historical tradition of more than 700 years. The Thai people see their king as the living symbol of the hierarchy of respect that operates throughout Thai society. The king’s court and the national capital represent to the people the highest realization of their cultural values. A previous concept of the king as absolute was changed in the Revolution of 1932, which ushered in a constitutional monarchy in Thailand. However, the traditional royal prestige continues, and the king is respected more than any other national leader or national symbol. The Thai kingship as an ideal conception appears to have incorporated through accretion the following four ideas: phaw khun, chakraphat, deva raja, and phra chao phaen din. Phaw khun is the notion of the king as the father of the people, the leader in war, the wise counselor, and judge in peace. Chakraphat is the idea of the wheel-rolling king or emperor, which is a Hindu–Buddhist concept that came to the Thai from the Mon. The concept of the wheel-rolling monarch maintains that by virtue of his adherence to the principles of the law, the norm and the right, he gains universal power. According to the concept of deva raja from Brahmanism, the king is an earthly incarnation of a Hindu god. As a god, the king is the proper object of a cult to be conducted by officials in the king’s retinue. Such a cult includes a structure of cosmological symbols, which transforms the kingdom into the universe and the king into the lord of the universe. The king as phra chao phaen din is lord of the land. This designation is meant to distinguish the appearance and behavior of the monarch from the point of view of his subjects. In this sense the Thai throne displays qualities of splendor and majesty. Thai kingship is at the same time bound by certain limitations. From the Hindu-Buddhist code of law called the Dharmasattham, the king is bound to preserve the principles of justice, to abide by the kingly virtues, and to uphold the moral precepts. KIRKPATRICK, ROBERT J. The first and most important Belgian legal advisor to a Thai monarch was R. J. Kirkpatrick, who served King Chulalongkorn from 1894 to 1899. He held several government positions and was known for his indefatigable work and for his

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achievements as a judicial commissioner in Bangkok, Ayutthaya, Sara Buri, and Ban Plasoi. Kirkpatrick also served part–time as the general advisor. See also FOREIGN ADVISORS. KIT SANGKHOM. See SOCIAL ACTION PARTY. KITE-FLYING. A favorite pastime in Thailand, enjoyed by persons of all ages. Kites are flown chiefly from February to April, the period during which the southwest monsoon blows strong and steady. Kites are made of bamboo and rice paper in sizes ranging from 13 centimeters to 8 meters and in the shapes of butterflies, fish, hawks, serpents, etc., in many colors. Kite-fighting between the huge, starshaped male kite (chul) and the tiny, diamond-shaped female kite (pakpao) is a big-league sport in which there are established teams, umpires, official rules, and a national championship. KRAISRI NIMMANAHAEMINDA (1912–1992). Scholar, businessman, banker, and government official for finance. Kraisri, one of the best-known Chiang Mai residents at the time of his death, was born in Chiang Mai City. He was educated there, in Bangkok and at Harvard University (M.B.A., 1938). At the latter he became interested in Lan Na culture, which he pursued on his return home. With his brothers and sisters he had a key role in the business activities of the Waroret Market in central Chiang Mai City. In addition, he managed the Industrial Finance Corporation, a state enterprise. He was also a regional director of the Luang Thai Bank, 1946–1955, and of the Bangkok Bank Ltd., 1956–1964. His scholarly work and writings included research on ancient pottery kilns, old Lan Na inscriptions, and many other aspects of early northern Thai culture. Kraisri helped in revitalizing interest in northern Thai wood carving, celadon, textiles, and lacquerware as well. In recognition of his scholarly contributions, he was recognized in 1981 as an “Outstanding Person in the Field of Culture Preservation” by the National Council of the Office of the Prime Minister. In 1982 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Chiang Mai University. KRIANGSAK CHOMANAN (1917–2004). Prime minister, politician, and army commander. Kriangsak was educated in Thailand. He

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graduated from the Chulachomklao Thai Military Academy in 1939 and attended the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College in 1954. He was awarded the honorary degree of doctor of law by the University of Bridgeport, Connecticut, 1979. In the Thai Army, he rose from the rank of lieutenant to that of general in 1973. He commanded troops that fought in the Shan States and in Korea. Following the political instability and the infamous riot against university students on October 6, 1976, Kriangsak, as armed forces supreme commander, and in concert with other army officers, asserted military control over the national government. The junta that he led named Thanin Kraivichien as prime minister. Sensing that Thanin was in a weak position because of his overly repressive regime, Kriangsak took over the government on October 20, 1977, making himself prime minister. In 1978, he sponsored a new national constitution. This was part of a broader effort to promote democracy and reconciliation with those who had rebelled against the regime. A 1979 election established a new National Assembly that, in 1980, rejected Kriangsak in favor of Prem Tinsulanonda for the post of prime minister. Later, Kriangsak was elected to the House of Representatives from Roi Et Province in 1981 and became leader of the Democrat Party. KRUNG THEP. See BANGKOK. KUKRIT PRAMOJ, M. R. (1911–1995). Politician, writer, and social critic. Kukrit studied abroad at Trent College and Queen’s College in the United Kingdom. He was prime minister of Thailand, 1975–1976, after serving as deputy finance minister and leader of the Social Action Party, which he helped to organize. During World War II, his relations with the United States and European countries were friendly. However, after the war, he sought the removal of all foreign troops from Thailand. In 1975 and 1976, the U.S. military forces were withdrawn under Kukrit’s supervision. He was the primary author of the 1974 constitution, the product of a convention that he served as chair. He is well known among other activities as owner and columnist of the newspaper Siam Rath. His work in diverse fields as educator, artist, actor, banker, and dancer met with unusual success. All of this brought him fame as one of Thailand’s

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most colorful personalities. It is debated whether he will be remembered best as a political figure or as a scholar, writer, and social critic. His work Sii Phaeaendin (1954, Four Reigns) was acclaimed as a great literary creation. It is a two-volume novel depicting a panorama of court life. KULAP SAIPRADIT (PSEUDONYM: SI BURAPHA) (1905– 1974). Prominent novelist of the pre-World War II period who began his career as a popular writer of romantic novels in the 1920s. His best-known novels are War of Life and Behind the Paintings, which address issues of social injustice and inequality. He was imprisoned in the 1950s; after his release, he sought asylum in China, where he spent the rest of his life.

–L– LABOR AND LABOR ORGANIZATION. Hired labor in Thailand had its beginnings during the reigns of kings of the Ayutthaya and Bangkok kingdoms in the 18th and early 19th centuries. These rulers looked favorably on or aided Chinese immigration and by the mid1850s, there were as many as 50,000 Chinese in Thailand. A pattern was established in which immigrants from Southeast China arrived seeking jobs and economic opportunity. Wherever new business developed, the work force was Chinese. Rapid industrial growth in the 1980s and 1990s brought large influxes of migrants from local agricultural villages. The decline in opportunities for growth in agriculture generated large numbers of underutilized farm workers and fed a pool to be drawn on for industrial work in the cities. This expanded the urban work force to approximately five million. Demands for improvements in wages and conditions in the late 1800s sometimes sparked strikes. Aggressive response by the authorities using troops caused several riots by workers. With thousands of urban laborers plus low wages and harsh working conditions, labor unions sprang up in Thailand in the 1950s. However, the 1956 Labor Law with its protections was abolished in 1958 under the military government controls. For more than a decade, formal labor organiza-

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tion did not exist. Finally, in 1972, the government executive council legalized labor unions. Nevertheless, labor movements in the 20th century faced obstacles. The rights of workers were only minimally legalized. Broadly organized unions were discouraged or faced efforts by employers and the government to split them. Existing small unions were kept out of politics. State enterprises, which had increased in number, were somewhat paternalistic to workers providing wage increases, improved conditions, and permission to form unions that could negotiate with employers. On the other hand, employers in privately owned firms could ignore what labor law there was and pay workers as little as the market would bear. Multinational and joint venture companies also took a paternalistic approach to management of labor. They reduced the privileges relative to wages and conditions enjoyed by state enterprise workers and supported legal measures to cope with and maintain minimum wages, social security issues, and settlement of disputes. These large firms reached out in an effort to be influential in national politics. For 75 years, labor has held an essential role in and has made substantial contributions to the social and economic growth of the nation. There is evidence today of organized labor with an estimated more than 1,000 labor unions. Many of these are joined together in eight Labor Congresses. Of the millions of urban workers in Thailand, however, only a small percentage are union members. In a study of labor practices in three cities, the degree of unionization was found to be the highest among textile and clothing workers, the next highest for chemical/industrial labor, and the lowest for workers in industries that produce building materials or food. Skilled workers had a higher degree of unionization than unskilled workers. Those preferred as labor leaders were persons who could resolve conflict and deal in a practical way to help the workers. LACQUERWARE. The handicraft of making lacquerware originated in China. Widespread production in Thailand began during the Ayutthaya period (1350–1767). The craft declined thereafter but in recent years has been revived with improved techniques from Japan. The best lacquerware comes from Ban Khoen village near Chiang Mai. A natural varnish, derived from the sap of the sumac tree, is used to coat furniture, decorative panels, book cases, and small or large boxes to contain

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manuscripts or personal items, bowls, dishes, vases, water jars, and cigarette boxes. The base material can be woven split-bamboo, carved teak, papier-mâché, or earthenware. In the late 18th century, the lacquerware makers began to copy narrative scenes from temple murals. Designs are engraved or painted, inlaid with mother-of-pearl, or gilded. Usually black and red are used as the basic tints. LAKHON. See DANCE DRAMA. LAKMUANG. The name of the foundation stone of Bangkok. It is located in the center of the city. When distances from Bangkok to other places are measured, it is done from this stone. The Lakmuang, which is in the form of a lingam, is held in great respect by the city inhabitants. LAM (LUM). In both northeast Thailand and Laos, the Lam is a musical performance in town and village festivals. The Lam is a singing repartee, which is a staged or pretend courtship. It is performed typically by a man and a woman who trade singing insults and jibes. The songs are accompanied by music of the kaen and possibly other instruments. See also DANCE DRAMA; MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. LAN NA. An early historical kingdom in what today is northern Thailand. Speakers of the Tai-language dialects have long been present there, possibly from the fifth century. Gradually, the Tai-language speakers gained ascendancy in the region, mainly due to their success in wet-rice agriculture. They based their settlements in the river valleys where there were fertile soils and abundant water. Local chronicles indicate that there were one or more small kingdoms there in the eighth century as vassals to either Mongolian or Burmese kings. In the 13th century, Mangrai was able by diplomacy and military strength to unite a number of principalities where Tai-language speakers predominated. By 1259, an independent city-state had emerged with Mangrai as king. Later, he established his capital at Chiang Mai; since then the regional kingdom has sometimes been called Chiang Mai after its capital. The kingdom’s population included Mon, Lawa, and several tribal peoples, in addition to Tai-speakers. During his 58-year reign, Man-

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grai and his rule predominated in the north central part of Southeast Asia. The kingdom that he established extended its influence among other states led by Tai princes. While the mountainous terrain made governing difficult, there was a long line of kings who succeeded Mangrai. Lan Na’s power ebbed somewhat under successor rulers. However, it was strengthened by Tilokaracha (reigned 1441–1487). During his reign, Theravada Buddhism of the Sinhalese form prevailed. To the extent that it existed, central control was maintained through the loyalty of relatives and trusted officials who were in charge of subservient principalities. As central control waned, Tai princes who ruled principalities south of Lan Na created their own small kingdoms by absorbing neighboring domains through diplomacy or force of arms. Later, the region succumbed to the armies of Burma and became a vassal kingdom (1558–1774). During the period of Burmese control, the area served the rulers as a base for launching attacks against the Siamese of Ayutthaya. When Burmese control over the population of Lan Na had become oppressive, the people there joined the forces of Siam in defeating their masters of two centuries. However, the years of Burmese rule contributed to the region’s distinctive architecture, handicrafts, cuisine, language, and religion. The Siamese, whose capital had moved to Bangkok, gained control of the Lan Na Kingdom in 1774. Kavila, who had been a chieftain under the Burmese, and his successors ruled Lan Na first in Lamphun and later in Chiang Mai City under the suzerainty of Siam. The several principalities of the region enjoyed considerable autonomy until the reign of King Chulalongkorn. During this time they were able to strengthen Lan Na’s agricultural economy as well as its religious and cultural traditions. Administrative control was gradually increased by Siamese rulers until Lan Na was transformed into a number of provinces with appointed governors. The Northern Region of Thailand today corresponds roughly to the territory of Lan Na. The language and culture of the people there retain much of its earlier character. See also CHIANG SAEN; LAN XANG; APPENDIX C. LAN XANG. Lan Xang was a kingdom with a population of mostly Tai-speakers. It was located in Southeast Asia east of and adjacent to

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two other Tai kingdoms, Lan Na to the north and Ayutthaya to the west and south. Lan Xang has been referred to as a Lao kingdom. It was founded in the 14th century by King Fa Ngum. A large statue of Fa Ngum was unveiled in Vientiane, the Laotian capital, on January 5, 2003. The area encompassed by Lan Xang enlarged or shrank depending on the outcome of wars with the each of the two other Tai kingdoms just mentioned. The three Tai kingdoms were rivals to become the leading power in the region. Lan Xang had kings and kingdoms of note from the 14th to the 17th centuries after which it declined. During the approximately 300 years of its existence, strong kings included Fa Ngum (reigned 1353–1373), Un Huan (reigned 1373–1416), Sainyachakkaphat (reigned 1442–1474), Photisarat (reigned 1530–1547), Setthathirat (reigned 1547–1571) and Surinyarongsa (reigned 1637–1694). Three major components of Lan Xang sometimes appeared as independent city states. These were Luang Prabang in the northern part, Vientiane in the center, and Champassak in the southern part. Sometimes one or more of these states were involved in wars with a stronger power, with the result that they became a vassal to that entity. In this way they came under the control of Siam in the latter part of the 18th century. However, a hundred years later, colonization by France in Southeast Asia changed that status. In a 1893 treaty between Siam and France, control of Lan Xang was ceded by Siam to France. It was given the name Laos. LAND TENURE AND TENANCY. At the beginning of the 20th century, land for farming was readily available. However, four hectares (10 acres) was the maximum that one cultivator could own. At this time, a national pattern of small independent farms characterized Thai agriculture. A widespread pattern by midcentury was that of part owner-part tenant. These were cultivators who owned part of their operation and rented additional land. Fewer than 10 percent of farmers owned no land and were therefore full tenants. An important exception was the existence of large land holdings that had previously been granted to nobles and government officials, primarily in the area around Bangkok. A survey in 1973–1974 indicated that in some districts near Bangkok, about 80 percent of cultivators owned no land and rented their farms.

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In recent decades, many Thai farmers have lost their lands due to heavy debts and the lack of low-cost farm credit. This has led to a rapid increase in the quantity of former farmers who now support themselves by wage labor; their numbers are estimated to be in excess of 500,000. A 1975 Land Reform program was adopted to make additional small farms available through purchases from private owners and then sales to cultivators. Unfortunately, implementation of this government land reform has been limited, and it has been strongly opposed by large landowners. Another way that landless farmers have secured small plots of land is to squat in suitable parts of the national forest. This has been an outlet for thousands of land seekers, but has led to an enormous reduction in the total forest lands of the nation. In several cases, new village groups have been forced to evacuate their new lands, which were previously forest, by government agencies seeking to preserve the forests. A study by the Thailand Development Research Institute (1986) found that the cultivated area in Thailand totals about 152 million rai or 48 percent of the country’s area, suggesting that about half of the country is now permanently owned or occupied by private individuals. LANGUAGE AND THAI REGIONALISM. Since 1939, the language of Thailand has been called Thai. The language is one dialect of a Tai-language family. Tai-speaking peoples are found today chiefly in Thailand. However, Tai-speakers exist also in portions of other nations including Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, and southern China. The language used in Thailand and taught in the schools of the kingdom was initially found only in the Central Region of Thailand where it was known as Siamese and was the language of the majority of inhabitants there. That region, which includes Bangkok, became dominant over all other regions. In the early 20th century that dialect was established as the official standard language of the kingdom. For the most part, inhabitants elsewhere in the nation speak Tai languages other than standard Thai. In Northeastern Thailand, several interrelated Tai dialects are used. These are generally referred to as Lao or Isan by the residents who use them and are very similar to the languages spoken in Laos. In the Northern Region of Thailand,

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inhabitants speak a language they call kham muang, meaning “the language of our principality.” In written form it is called Yuan. The Kham Muang and Lao dialects are closely related to each other. In the Southern Region of Thailand, the dialects spoken, called pak Tai, are considered by their users as distinctive. Scattered throughout Thailand there are pockets of inhabitants who speak yet other dialects of Tai. Among certain minority groups in Thailand, there are other languages in use as well. Chief among these are Teochiu used by many Chinese; Malay used by the Thai Muslims; and Khmer by a small Khmer minority. Standard Thai provides an effective national means of communication in schools, in universities, for printed matter, in governmental affairs, and elsewhere. The origin of the Thai script is not clearly known, but it dates from the reign of King Ramkhamhaeng (reigned 1219–1317), who adapted the Mon and Khmer scripts of that time into what is now Thai. Modifications and loan words have been incorporated since then. The Thai language is tonal, uninflected, and predominantly monosyllabic. Each syllable has an inherent tone that, no less than the consonants and vowels, determines the meaning of the syllable or word. In standard Thai, there are five tones. Grammatical functions are shown by word order. The alphabet consists of 44 consonants and 32 vowels and diphthong forms. Tones are indicated by special tone marks or diacritics in some but not all cases. See also LANGUAGE, MALAY. LANGUAGE, ENGLISH. Since the 1950s, the English language has been taught in the schools and universities of Thailand. As a result, there is a large population of people in business and the professions who are able to write and converse in English, especially in the large urban centers, and particularly Bangkok. Knowledge of a foreign language, especially English, has been seen as facilitating contacts with the West. Many government documents are published in both the Thai and English languages. Among their books and pamphlets, publishers include some that are in English. University instruction in a limited number of graduate and undergraduate courses is in the English language exclusively. These include specific programs in engineering, economics, and business administration. In the 1990s, an English TV program known as Good Morning had a following in

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Bangkok. Programming on several radio stations is conducted in English by Thais. LANGUAGE, MALAY. In general, the Thai Muslims of the extreme southern provinces of Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat, Songkhla, and Satun are ethnically Malay and speak a Malay dialect similar to that of Kelantan in Malaysia. Only a small proportion are able to use the Thai language outside of Satun, where the chief language spoken is Thai. For the Thai Muslims, language enables them to perceive their past and interpret the future and embodies the social history of a people. For this ethnic group, the Malay language is also the language of Islam and the medium used in each local Muslim religious school (pondok). Current government policy allows the Thai Muslims to use either Malay or Thai language to communicate with government officials. See also THAI MUSLIMS AND ASSIMILATION. LAOS, RELATIONS WITH. Laos is a small nation of Tai-languagespeaking peoples located on Thailand’s eastern border. The total population of Laos is less than five million. Its lowland inhabitants are Buddhist wet-rice farmers. They share the Lao language with the much larger population of Thai–Lao (Isan) speakers in the Northeastern Region of Thailand. In the upland areas, especially in northern Laos, other languages prevail. The nation of Laos is the remaining portion of the Kingdom of Lan Xang. In the 18th century it became a vassal of the king of Siam. Some Laotian territories were lost by Siam when France colonized Indochina in the late 19th century. Up to 5,000 Thai Army troops fought in support of the kingdom of Laos during the protracted civil wars there in 1965 to 1974, after which they were withdrawn. Thousands of Laotians fled to Thailand during this time, resulting in large refugee camps. Thai–Lao relations were strained. Formal diplomatic ties between Thailand and Laos had begun in 1950. After a short break due to the civil war, diplomatic ties were renewed in 1979 with the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, which took power in 1975. By the mid-1980s, almost all of the Lao refugees had been repatriated. Thai–Lao border conflicts occurred in 1984 and again in 1987–1988. Border agreements were made in 1991. In 2000, nearly 450 kilometers (270 miles) of the common border

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was marked with posts. More than half of the border is the Mekong River. Thai–Lao relations have been friendly since the 1990s. Mutual trade has increased significantly to the benefit of both countries. There are also many cross-border Thai–Lao family friendships. Since Laos opened its economy to outside capital in 1986, Thai investors have placed more than 126 trillion baht (US$4.2 billion) in Laos. Purchase by Thailand of large amounts of hydroelectric power from Laos has also done much to build friendly relationships. The two countries cooperate in measures against drug trafficking and join in promoting tourism. Thai scholarships are awarded to Laotian students to study in Thailand. See also FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH. LEGISLATION. Since the 2001 election for the House of Representatives, which was held in accordance with new rules in the constitution of 1997, the Council of Ministers (Cabinet) has been largely separated from the legislative process. The House of Representatives holds the principal legislative power. It has the power both to initiate and to enact all legislation. The prime minister clearly has influence on legislation through his role as leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives. New legislation is sent to the Senate for deliberation. When needed, a joint committee is established in an effort to resolve differences. The House of Representatives, with prior approval of the prime minister, can initiate an appropriations bill. The House of Representatives can also call the cabinet to account and requires an initial statement of policy as well as annual reports of achievement. One other power of the House of Representatives is its prerogative to pass a nonconfidence motion. When this occurs, the prime minister and the entire cabinet are dismissed. Legislative acts that pass both houses are presented to the king for approval after which he promulgates them. See also GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM. LIKAY (LI KE). In contrast to the classical art of khon and lakhon, likay is a burlesque with pantomime, comic folk opera, and social satire. As a form of people’s theater, performers interact with the audience, who respond to local references and anecdotes. The likay dialog is spontaneous, witty, and risqué, with emphasis on word play.

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LITERACY. Reports in 1998 by the Ministry of Education indicated a literacy rate of 97.7 percent of the age group 14 to 50, who are able to read and write in the Thai language. Government-sponsored continuing education programs help to maintain literacy. To boost literacy, radio, and television media provide time periods for educational programming. LO THAI. King of the Sukhothai Kingdom (reigned 1298–1346). While he was the son and heir of the great King Ramkhamhaeng, he was not a military leader. He could not retain the vast territories ruled by his father and reigned only over the area near the capital. The classic Sukhothai bronze sculptures were cast during his reign. He is also known for the promotion of Sinhalese Buddhism. LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Thai local government consists of three separate interrelated patterns of authority. The first of these is territorial or provincial administration, which consists of a hierarchy of four levels staffed by officials of the central government. At the top of the hierarchy are 76 provinces (changwat), each of which is administered by a governor. Provinces are subdivided into districts (amphoe) most of which are divided into subdistricts all of which are administered by salaried district officers (nai amphoe) and subdistrict officers. Below the districts and subdistricts are the thousands of communes (tambon) into which villages are grouped for purposes of governance. In a number of cases, in areas of lower population, the tambon and subdistrict are identical. The district and subdistrict are typically the point of contact between the central government and the Thai people. The Ministry of the Interior, through the provincial governor, controls policy and supervises the personnel and finances of all units of local government including officials from other government ministries and departments who have been assigned there. These include officials from agriculture and cooperatives, health, commerce, etc. Recent legislation has the goal of increasing local autonomy. In a second pattern of authority are the traditional village leaders who have local responsibility to serve the interests of villagers and sometimes act cooperatively with other village heads. In each of the more than 50,000 villages a village headman ( phu yai ban) is elected.

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For purposes of government administration, villages are grouped into communes (tambon), which consist of a cluster of approximately 10 villages. Typically, village headmen within the commune choose one of their members to be the leader (kamnan) of the commune. For governance, villages are defined administratively and are not necessarily the same as villages based upon local social interaction, kinship ties, and ethnic background. As a result, village heads, in addition to their personal village role, sometimes act as government employees to pass along instructions and requirements of district officials. The third pattern of authority in local government includes three types of units that have not yet been fully implemented throughout Thailand. The first of these is the Provincial Administrative Organization (PAO). The members of this group are elected, two from each district in the province. The PAO was designed to bring about democratic decentralization in provincial governance. It has nominal power to control budgets and members are a type of formal representation of residents of the province. They are supposed to respond to the needs of the electorate and can initiate appropriate development projects. Because the PAO can focus on infrastructure such as roads, bridges, dams, schools, and government offices, and because development funds are available, PAO membership attracts persons who are in the construction business as election candidates. A second type of unit in this electoral pattern are municipalities (thesaban), in which urban residents may elect their mayor and a municipal governing council consisting of 12 to 24 assemblymen. The latter choose two to four of their fellow members who together with the mayor make up an executive council. Since municipal funds are controlled largely by the governor, such an executive group is anything but autonomous. Furthermore, the pattern for election of mayors and assemblymen has not been widely implemented. A third unit is the Subdistrict Administrative Organization (SAO), which consists of two members elected from each village of the subdistrict or commune. The SAO replaces the formerly appointed commune council, which was controlled by district officials. Creation of the SAO and the PAO was part of a reform movement intended to separate action for local development from actions of governance. See also DEMOCRATIC DECENTRALIZATION; GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM.

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LOP BURI. An old and historic city, which today is the name of both a Thai province and provincial capital. A site of prehistoric settlers, Lop Buri became in the sixth to 10th centuries a major center of the Dvaravati Kingdom called Lavo. In the 10th to 13th centuries, Lop Buri was a military outpost of the Khmer Kingdom of Angkor. During this period, the Lop Buri style of art and architecture emerged as traditional Mon styles were integrated with those of Angkor to produce a distinctive art movement. During the 17th century, King Narai of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya used Lop Buri as an alternative capital. LOTUS SYMBOL. The popular lotus flower grows in ponds, swamps, canals, and roadside ditches. It is treasured by the Thai for its beauty, its many uses, and its symbolism. The numerous synonyms of the lotus are revealed when the flower is used in poetry, e.g., prathum and ubon. These synonyms are often used to name people, Buddhist temple compounds (wat), provinces, districts, and villages. The lotus is also the traditional flower of Buddhism. The lotus represents purity uncontaminated by the mud from which it grows. Buddhism as truth is comparable to the lotus as having inherently the power to rise above ignorance in a chaotic world. Many Buddha images are traditionally placed in a stylized lotus in full bloom. The lotus has also been used widely as an artistic form to express Buddhist thought. LOY KRATONG. A famous and charming festival of lights, which honors both Buddha and ancient water spirits on the night of the full moon in November. Participants make or purchase a small tray or leaf float bearing a lighted candle. Large floats may be constructed by school groups or business firms. At dusk, they gather at the bank of a river or canal and set their kratong afloat amid cheers and fun-making. The vista of an innumerable array of tiny lights on the water is a breathtaking sight. In Chiang Mai and other cities, some residents also decorate their houses for loy kratong. In the minds of young couples, the kratong is a device or means to proceed to their destiny in the life cycle. For others, the kratong is a tribute to the goddess of water, where fresh water originates as well as life’s provisions. The kratong is also a means to counter evil spirits or bad luck.

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LUANG PRABANG. A city in northern Laos that was formerly the royal capital and official residence of the Laotian king. The name Luang Prabang in previous centuries also designated a kingdom whose capital had the same name. Its location on the Mekong River and its proximity to Thailand has led to vassalage to the Thai Kingdom from 1778 until 1893 when France colonized Laos. See also LAOS, RELATIONS WITH; RAMA III. LUE. A Thai ethnic group of possibly 50,000 residing chiefly in the eastern part of northern Thailand. The Lue, who live in the plains, have a tradition of trade with various hill tribes in the region and serve as intermediaries between the hill peoples and the dominant Thai society. The Lue are wet-rice agriculturalists, and glutinous rice is the main crop. Besides rice, the products of domestic animals are important in their diet. LUK SIT WAT. See TEMPLE BOYS.

–M– MAAG. See BETEL. MAE CHI. See NUNS. MAHA. The term maha is a title of a person or place that has the connotation “great.” It is also a title used with the name by a Buddhist monk after he passes a certain high-level examination. MAHATHAMMARACHA. King of Ayutthaya (reigned 1569–1590). As a member of the court under the previous king, Mahathammaracha was leader of a plot that put Chakraphat on the Siamese throne in 1548. He was rewarded with the title maha and marriage to the king’s daughter. In Siam’s struggle with Burma, Mahathammaracha provided aid to the enemy when the Ayutthaya capital was captured in 1569. For this he was made king of Siam under the suzerainty of the Burmese king. He began to restore Siam’s independence, but military action was left to his sons Naresuan and Ekathotsarot who succeeded him.

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MAHATHAMMARACHA I. King of Sukhothai (reigned 1347–1368 or 1374). A great scholar and patron of Buddhism. Mahathammaracha wrote a treatise on Buddhist cosmology that is considered to be one of the oldest specimens of Thai literature. He also wrote Phra Ruang’s Proverbs and the Nophamas Story. He built monasteries, Buddha images, roads, canals, and a brick palace, and founded a school for Buddhist monks on the palace grounds. Mahathammaracha I set the precedent of becoming a Buddhist monk, an example followed by kings of Thailand to the present day. An able statesman and military leader, King Mahathammaracha I expanded the territory of Sukhothai. Recognizing that the Kingdom of Ayutthaya was too powerful to oppose he cultivated diplomatic relations with it. MAHATTHAI. Military organization and agency of civil government in the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. Created in the mid-15th century by King Borommatrailokanat, the Mahatthai initially had charge of all civil government in the kingdom. At this time, military matters were handled by the Kalahom. However, this was changed in the mid-17th century when the Mahatthai was placed in charge of both military and civil affairs in the northern and central provinces of the kingdom. Similarly, the Kalahom office was placed in charge of military and civil affairs in the southern provinces. This pattern of administration was modified to the present system in the late-19th century. See also ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM. MAHORI. A traditional Thai musical ensemble consisting of four instruments: a castanet, a three-stringed violin, a drum, and a lute. See also MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. MAHOUT. An elephant driver and handler. There is usually a lifetime partnership between man and elephant. MAKHA BUCHA. See also BUDDHIST ALL SAINTS DAY. MALAYSIA, RELATIONS WITH. Malaysia is a neighboring state whose northern border on the peninsula coincides with Thailand’s southern border. Before achieving independence in the late 1950s, Malaysia was a British colony. In the Anglo–Siamese Treaty of 1909,

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Thailand gave up to the British the tributary relationship it then had with the four Malay states of Perlis, Kedah, Terengganu, and Kelantan. These are now the four northern states of the Federation of Malaysia. Always trading partners, Malaysia along with Thailand and several others nations formed the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). This has led to continued cooperation between Thai and Malaysian officials in dealing with economic and political affairs of the region. Communist Party insurgency in both countries from the 1950s to the 1970s was a threat to both countries. Cooperative efforts to control insurgency and terrorism has also characterized relations between Thailand and Malaysia. In some respects, however, Thai–Malaysian relations have been chilly and lacking in amicable cooperation. This applies to handling the recent unwanted workers from Bangladesh, how best to secure their mutual border, friendly procedures between Thai and Malaysian lower government officials, and troubles/difficulties over the Thai–Malay. MAN PHURITHATTA (1871–1949). Famous Buddhist monk. Man became a Buddhist novice (nen) at age 15 in his home village in Ubon Province. At age 21 he was ordained a Buddhist monk and began almost immediately a life of renunciation, asceticism, and meditation. Rejecting a permanent residence, he became a wandering monk dwelling mostly in forests. A traveling monk is typically noticeable for the saffron colored tents he uses and carries. Man ate only one meal each day and possessed only essential robes. His example had much appeal to other monks and also gave him a following among the laity in both rural and urban areas. Man was widely regarded as a teacher (acharn) though his instruction was more by example than verbal presentation of the Buddhist dharma. He was known for most of his life as Acharn Man Phurithatta. The accounts of one biographer reflect visions and mystical encounters that Man had during meditation. One of these accounts reveals Man’s capacity for mind-reading, healing, and other supernatural powers. Thus, to this biographer, Man’s life was a supreme example that others can imitate. Evidently, many of his monk-followers did try to practice an ascetic lifestyle of meditation. Man was considered by many of his followers as one of the holiest of men. Man’s

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heritage for his followers was his powerful example of the development of the human mind and spirit as taught by Buddha. He is considered to have achieved enlightenment (nirvana). After his death and cremation, Man’s remains were distributed as relics to which unusual qualities were subsequently attributed. MANGRAI. King of Lan Na (reigned 1259–1317). Born a prince, he succeeded his father as ruler of the small principality of Chiang Saen, which was a vassal of the Mongolian king. He extended his kingdom, then a city-state in what is present-day northern Thailand, through both conquests and strategic alliances. Mangrai’s expanded kingdom, called Lan Na, eventually included the former principalities of Chiang Rai, Luang Prabang, Nan, Haripunchai, and Pagan. Subsequent to each military conquest, Mangrai moved the capital of his kingdom southward, ultimately reaching Lamphun. These were protective moves in a situation of threats from hostile powers. Later, in 1296, when he had become independent and had friendly neighboring rulers, he built a new capital, which he named Chiang Mai. While the elite around Mangrai were chiefly Tai-language speakers, the kingdom also embraced large populations of Mon, Lawa, and other tribal and indigenous peoples. Today’s northern Thai are descendants of this mixed population, and they trace their unique identity, in large part, to the kingdom-building of Mangrai and his successors. MANOPAKORN NITITHADA (1884–1948). The first prime minister of Thailand following the Revolution of 1932 that ended the absolute monarchy. A lawyer educated in Britain, he had been a chief justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals under King Prajadhipok. The promoters of the Revolution saw Manopakorn as the capable person that they needed as a front man during the period when they were consolidating their power. In 1933, after a disagreement with the revolutionary group, he dissolved the National Assembly, lost power, and fled to Penang, where he lived in exile until his death. MANUFACTURING. Already by 1929, more than 150,000 workers were employed in manufacturing. The development of this sector of the Thai economy made a significant advance during the “import

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substitution industrialization” period that was established in the late 1960s. Manufactures were focused on the production of consumer goods for the domestic market. By 1975, there were at least 5,000 mostly small factories with 10 or more workers. Agri-processing included sugar, tapioca, gunny sacks, and animal feeds. Fertilizer was also produced in a joint Thai-Japanese operation. Other basic manufactures included equipment assembly and fabrication plants. The various labor-intensive textile factories together employed more than 50,000 workers in 1979. Other basic manufactures included glass, cement, iron, and steel, and household durables. A constraint on manufacturing growth was the practice of the government to skim profits to obtain revenue. In the early development of Thai manufacturing, Sino–Thai family finance and family control was the norm. Prior to and during Thailand’s recent dramatic economic growth period (1986–1994), the expansion of manufacturing for export was a goal of both government and Thai business. Foreign firms, Japanese, Taiwanese, and American became involved in Thai manufactures of electronics and assembly of computer parts. The IBM disk-drive assembly, operated jointly with a Thai firm, became the largest such factory in the world. Thailand as a third participant had a basic role in electrical assemblies, organized through Singapore. In an integrated circuit production system together with Malaysia, Thailand had the lower-cost, lower-skill-oriented part of production for local and regional markets. In other manufacturing, finished appliances assembled in Thailand were marketed chiefly in the United States and European Union. Also in this rapid economic growth period, there was a marked decline in the labor-intensive manufactures of textiles and garments, which were replaced with electrical and electronics products. The foregoing changes reflected a general diversification and sophistication in the production of manufactured products. While there was some technological upgrading in Thailand firms since the mid1980s, it was limited. Some Thai manufacturing firms increased in size during this period and even doubled the number of employees. However, the sector continues to be dominated by small-scale firms. Another characteristic of Thai manufactures was the significant decline in those based on domestic raw materials. An exception was rubber, which showed a rapid development of latex production. A

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second striking characteristic of Thai manufacturing was its dependence on imported materials, components, and machinery. Following the economic crisis of 1997–1998, the proportion of foreign investment in Thai manufacturing increased somewhat. If Thai firms that were in financial difficulty agreed, foreign investors were allowed by the Bureau of Investment to buy a majority stake. Almost half of such purchases were in the automotive sector. The other deals were chiefly in chemicals, electronics, and light industry. See also ECONOMY; INDUSTRY; APPENDIXES I, J. MASS MEDIA. Mass media can be classified in order of greatest influence as follows: radio, television, newspapers, videotapes, journals and magazines, and films. There are educational broadcasting stations throughout Thailand. The media have a strong impact on Thai society and culture. Noteworthy are videotapes showing aspects of foreign cultures, especially Japanese cartoons, Hong Kong movies, and Chinese films. See also CINEMA; PRESS. MEKLONG. A river in the southwestern part of the Central Region associated with mountains on the Thai–Burmese border. It empties into the Gulf of Thailand at the city of Samut Songkhram. MEKONG. A river about 2,000 kilometers (1,250 miles) in length and the longest in Southeast Asia. It originates in the western Yunan Province of China and flows generally in a southerly direction. It flows through or marks the national boundaries of Burma, Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia. Finally, the Mekong flows through the southern part of Vietnam, where it has formed an enormous delta as it empties into the South China Sea. That portion of the Mekong River that borders on northeastern Thailand is navigable and is an important means of transportation. The Mekong is also, together with its tributaries, an important source of water for irrigation and hydroelectric power. MEO (HMONG OR MONG). A Sino–Tibetan ethno-linguistic group, accounting for approximately 77,000 or 14 percent of the total hill tribe population. The Meo are one of the most widespread

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minority groups. They are scattered throughout the south China provinces, in communities in northern Vietnam and Laos, as well as Thailand, and a few in Burma. Meo settlements are concentrated in 13 northern provinces of Thailand. The Meo are divided into Blue Meo (Hmong Njua), White Meo (Hmong Daw), and Gua Mba Meo (Hmong Gua Mba). The religion of the Meo is a combination of pantheism and shamanism with an emphasis on ancestor-worship. The Chinese influence is obvious in their beliefs and practices. Meo establish their villages at high altitudes usually above 1,500 meters (5,000 feet). Rice and corn are the main subsistence crops; opium is the principal cash crop. See also HILL TRIBES; DEVELOPMENT. MERIT-DEMERIT. An idea central to Buddhism that the good deeds or morally positive actions of a person will accumulate and lead in the future to some valued state of being. Individuals attempt to “make merit” (tham bun) by performing such acts as giving support to members of the Buddhist monkhood, e.g., food, clothing, and other needed items, and by helping parents, relatives, and the needy. Conversely, one’s evil deeds or behavior that contradicts the moral rules of Buddhism can also accumulate and lead to pain or suffering at some future time. Such acts will bring about “demerit” (bap). These religious patterns are an expression of the law of karma, which is incorporated in Thai Buddhism. MIDDLE CLASS. Salaried civil servants, academics, salaried employees of most modern businesses, people in small business, and members of the many professions in urban centers constitute a segment of like-minded persons. Emerging in a significant way since 1950, middleclass numbers have doubled since 1970. Within this class are high status persons who are leaders in commerce, industry, financial services, the civil service, and education and who make Thai society run. Possessing practical and material experience, individual freedom, and an outlook of achievement, the Thai middle class is central to the economy and governmental administration. There is also a middle class tie with the thousands of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and others providing assistance to people who do not benefit

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from so-called economic development or who are discriminated against by powerful officials or wealthy individuals. Middle-class leadership in society is advancing hand-in-hand with Thailand’s economic development. In the meantime, alternative control by the military is receding while also the administrative civil service is losing former power to the private sector. MILITARY. See ARMED FORCES. MILITARY ASSISTANCE, UNITED STATES. For 26 years, from 1950–1975, Thailand received substantial military assistance grants from the United States government. The goal was to strengthen Thailand’s military capability in the face of real and supposed Communist threats in the region. In the 1960s, aid was increased over that of the 1950s to assist the Thai government’s counterinsurgency efforts. Beginning in the 1950s, American military specialists and advisors came to Thailand under the Joint U.S. Military Assistance Group. They sought to help Thailand qualify for military aid and to supervise U.S. field operations in its war with Vietnam. The opportunity to operate from bases in Thailand was an enormous advantage for the American conduct of the war. U.S. forces were permitted to use naval facilities at Sattahip and to use seven air bases from which American aircraft flew combat missions. However, facilities at the bases had initially required construction and modernization, which was done at U.S. expense, amounting to millions of dollars. At its peak, about 45,000 United States air force and army personnel were serving in Thailand with a considerable impact on the Thai economy. Withdrawal of the American forces began in 1969 and was completed by July 1976. Facilities at the seven bases were then turned over to the Thai government. Direct grants for military assistance to Thailand declined after 1975 and were discontinued in 1979. However, in the same year, $4 million worth of arms and military material were sent to Thailand in view of Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia. Additional grants followed periodically. Thai and American military forces staged joint exercises in the 1980s and, in 1986, the two countries agreed to establish a reserve weapons pool.

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MILITARY OFFICERS, THEIR POLITICAL ROLES. Early in the 20th century, efforts were made by Siamese kings to build a professional military establishment. By 1920, the country had a sizable army trained on the European model. The Revolution of 1932, which ushered in a constitutional monarchy, was led by army officers and civilians who had studied abroad. This marked the beginning of the military as a significant force in national life. Financial and other support of the United States for Thailand, from 1950 to 1976, brought modernization, training, equipment, and base construction. Military support for the Thai king, country, and Buddhism resulted in widespread acceptance of military government. Coups d’etat led by military officers were often justified as maintaining peace, order, and security. In the 1960s and 1970s, the armed forces were credited with conducting operations against the Communist Party insurgency. They were also seen as providing security from Indochinese threats. However, in recent decades, senior military officers have used their position to take on business activities and to amass wealth. This has led to civilian allegations of repression, greed, and corruption. The dominance of the military in Thai government affairs has undergone a sea of change in the 1980s. One aspect is the sharp factionalism within the military. In addition, after the 1978 constitution was adopted, military governments had to accept political participation of others, especially the elected members of the House of Representatives. Another aspect was a growing awareness that military coups were not only undemocratic but potentially harmful. To emphasize this change, a number of military officers in retirement entered politics by joining the Thai Nation Party. Chamlong Srimuang, Chatchai Choonavan, and Pramarn Adireksarn are three former officers who resigned their army commissions and ran successfully for high political office. Other military officers, including Phibunsonkhram, Prem Tinsulanonda, Sarit Thanarat, Suchinda Kraprayoon, and Thanom Kittikachorn became prime ministers following a coup d’etat. Since 1992, the prospect of coups d’etat has ended and the military’s influence in government, while present, has markedly declined. See also KRIANGSAK CHOMANAN; PHAHONYOTHIN; APPENDIX M; APPENDIX N.

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MINING. Tin is one of the dominant minerals in Thailand’s mining industry and is a big export earner. Other minerals that generate export earnings include gems, tungsten, fluoride, antimony, zinc, gypsum, lead, barite, columbite-tantalite, oil and gas, lignite, and iron. Large quantities of lignite, which is used for fuel; limestone, which the cement industry uses; and gypsum are mined and processed for use in Thailand. Altogether, more than 40 minerals are produced. The Minerals Act, 1967, as amended, governs onshore and offshore mining activities. MISIEM YIPINTSOI (1906–1988). Famous painter and sculptor. Misiem was born in Thailand to elite Indonesian–Chinese merchant parents and started her art in midlife after an extended trip to Europe. Initially she produced paintings and later created sculpture; her work is considered among Thailand’s most innovative. Misiem was a three-time gold medalist at the kingdom’s National Art Exhibition. Silpakorn University honored her posthumously by establishing a sculpture garden of her work. MOM CHAO. See ROYAL RANKS AND TITLES. MOM LUANG. See ROYAL RANKS AND TITLES. MOM RACHAWONGSE. See ROYAL RANKS AND TITLES. MON. The Mon, also known as Ramaan or Taleen, are to be found in scattered communities in Thailand, in and around the central valley, and in Lower Burma. The Mon are a respected minority with an ancient past. They were exposed to Brahmanism and Theravada Buddhism more than a thousand years before the arrival of the Thai and the Burmese in the area. The Mon language has been very influential on other languages of the mainland, including Karen, Burmese, and Thai. The Mon speak a language related to Khmer and to the languages of a large number of hill tribes throughout Southeast Asia. Mon script was adopted first by Burmans at Pagan in the 12th century, then later by northern Thai at Lamphun/Chiang Mai in the 14th century and subsequently by Lao-speaking groups in the Northeastern Region of Thailand.

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The younger generation is educated in Thai and illiterate in Mon, but a number of older people, mostly men educated in Mon temples, can still read the language. There are several temples where Mon manuscripts are read and sermons preached in Mon. Near Bangkok are Mon villages where Mon customs and language still survive. Most strikingly, Mon houses are completely different from standard rural Thai houses. Physically too, the Mon appear different from the Thai. Their food is similar to Thai food, however. Traditionally, the Mon are rice farmers. MONARCHY. Since the Revolution of 1932, Thailand has had a constitutional monarchy. The former pattern of kings holding absolute power was ended at that time. During the decades of the 1930s and 1940s, the new role of the king in relation to the society and to the government has gradually emerged. The present Thai king, Bhumibol Adulyadej, who ascended the throne in 1946, has brought the Thai monarchy a high level of prestige and respect. From the earliest times and up to 1932, the people of what today is Thailand had been ruled by kings having absolute power. For centuries the kings of Sukhothai, Lan Na, Ayutthaya, and the Bangkok period attained the right to rule through their military successes. In addition, they projected an image of royal paternalism and divine right. Patronage of the Buddhist religion underscored the legitimacy of the king’s status. The power of these kings, as elsewhere in Southeast Asia, extended over as much territory as they could control either militarily or through the loyalty of local chieftains who received protection. In addition, subservient kings of other principalities became vassals and paid tribute. Fluidity characterized the kingdom’s territorial boundaries until the late-19th century. The several dynasties of kings of the Ayutthaya period indicate that typically a usurper gained the throne from the hereditary heir. This instability and lack of orderly succession in the Ayutthaya kingdom continued until the Chakri dynasty took power in 1782. Until Siamese kings were threatened with encroachment by colonizing powers in the mid-19th century, their kingdoms were quite loosely organized, to the dismay of their European advisers. Kings Mongkut (reigned 1851–1868) and Chulalongkorn (reigned 1868–1910) were successful in reorganizing government control along the lines of ad-

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ministration in the West and colonization was avoided. See also FOREIGN ADVISORS; KINGSHIP; TAKSIN; APPENDIX A. MONDOP. A structure in the Buddhist temple compound (wat) that may be plain or have a range of pillars around it. Its superstructure is a curved pyramidal mass formed by many low dome-shaped roofs superimposing each other and having a slender pinnacle as its apex. Buildings of the mondop design are used either for libraries or to house relics. There is a famous mondop at Wat Phra Buddhabhat near the city of Sarap Buri. MONGKUT (Rama IV) (1804–1868). King of Siam (reigned 1851– 1868). By birth, Mongkut was a crown prince and ascended the throne of Siam at age 46. He had joined the Buddhist monkhood at age 20 and remained there until he became king. While he was a Buddhist monk, he acquired fluency in English and many Southeast Asian languages. His studies also included Sanskrit, Pali, and several of the sciences, especially astronomy. As a devout Buddhist, he aided the movement toward a more strict observance of the discipline and teachings of the Buddha. In this way, a more rational response to modern science would be possible. Mongkut’s own reform teachings were found in his sermons and were also published as tracts. As king, Mongkut did much to improve the international standing of Siam. He had extensive correspondence with foreign heads of state, including those of Great Britain, France, the United States and with the Pope. In the 1855 Bowring Treaty with Great Britain, the name Siam replaced the former title Bangkok Kingdom. Mongkut and his advisors recognized the threat of colonization presented by the British and French and gradually met their demands. These included extraterritoriality for the benefit of Europeans in Siam and the removal of barriers to Western trade. A pattern of accommodation was seen as essential in order to maintain the independence of Siam. Aware of the merits of modernization, Mongkut set in motion a number of changes. These included dropping certain ancient customs, establishing new rights for citizens, and publishing an official gazette. The necessity for reform and maintaining national independence were emphasized in the education of his sons. Chulalongkorn,

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the son who succeeded Mongkut as king, actually put these ideas into practice. MONK. See BUDDHIST MONK. MONTRI TRAMOJ (1900–1995). Montri is one of the foremost artists in Thai classical music. He spent his life as a musician, university lecturer in fine arts, composer of more than 200 music pieces and author of music textbooks and many poems. Montri started a career in music when he was able to join the National Performing Arts Department as a percussionist and later, at the age of 24, he entered the royal court band. In these two positions he was able to gain experience with a wide variety of instruments and a range of styles in both music and theater. In 1961, he was named Special Artist in Music, the first to be so honored. Among Montri’s compositions are his well-known slow tempo music pieces, dance pieces, and much-loved historical songs. His set of classical dance songs, which include “Beautiful Moon Night,” “Waxing Moon Night,” and “Full Moon Night,” are well known. The National Day song for use on June 24th celebrations was composed by Montri, the winner in a 1940 lyrics and melody composition. Joining the Fine Arts Department in 1935, Montri was a lecturer and composed many songs used in theatrical productions of the department. His major contribution to Thai classical music was his composition of melodies using the Western system of musical notation. Montri is also remembered for several compositions that were used in the annual ceremonies that “pay respect to one’s teachers” (wai khru). MOVIES. See CINEMA. MUANG. A term with several meanings: as amphoe muang, it designates a district (amphoe) of a province in which a provincial capital is located; as muang thai, it refers to the Thai nation; as muang, it refers to a class of municipalities in which the population of each is at least 10,000. MUBAN. Any population center (village) in rural Thailand with at least five households. Typically, the muban consists of 50 or more households in which the able-bodied workers are engaged predomi-

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nately in farming. To a small extent, there may be craftsmen and merchants in the village as well. The muban is also a unit of governmental administration and for this purpose has a headman ( phu yai ban). There are more than 50,000 muban in Thailand. See also LOCAL GOVERNMENT. MUN. The name of the river in the Khorat Plateau, which flows in a southeastern direction and empties into the Mekong River in the province of Ubon Ratchathani. MUNICIPALITY (THESABAN). Cities with a population of 50,000 or more have been established by law as municipalities. They provide citizens with experience (though limited) in self-government. Urban centers of 10,000 or more can be municipalities also, as are most provincial capitals. Some municipal mayors have been elected while others have been appointed by the provincial governor. The municipal executive committee consists of the mayor and two to four other members who are either elected or appointed. Local taxation does not produce sufficient revenue to meet expenses of municipalities. Reliance on the national government for budget support is accompanied by considerable provincial control over municipal affairs. The city of Bangkok is a special case and is governed by a special administrative unit. One other city, Pattaya, also has its own special administration. See also BANGKOK METROPOLITAN ADMINISTRATION; LOCAL GOVERNMENT; PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION ASSOCIATION; URBANIZATION. MUSICAL ENSEMBLES. Thai classical musical ensembles fall into three major groups, defined by the instruments historically essential to each. It is likely that the oldest ensemble in Thailand is the piphat orchestra, which consists of percussion instruments and the Thai oboe ( pi nai). The khryang sai ensemble is based on strings, with drums, hand-cymbals, and the flute (khluey). The mahori ensemble uses percussion and strings. Two distinctive ensembles native to northern Thailand are the gong aew or longdrum ensemble and the dontri puen muang, which includes lutes, a drum, flutes, stringed instruments, and small cymbals. See also MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

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MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. Made from varied materials, Thai musical instruments are commonly classified by their playing method. These include plucked, bowed, struck, and blown. European and American writers go further and use the four categories: aerophone instruments, which are vibrated by blown air; chordophones, which utilize the vibration of strings; membranophones, in which there is vibration of a membrane or skin; and idiophones or gongs. Idiophones (e.g., gongs) produce concussion melodies. The ranad ek and ranad thum are musical instruments made of numerous gongs. In an orchestra, they are arranged in a circular manner so the performer can strike them with a beater to produce the sounds desired. Another common melodic idiophone is the xylophone, which is an essential instrument in most Thai orchestras. Rhythmic idiophones include cymbals and the ching (hand cymbal). The audible beat of the ching serves as a sort of conductor. It can produce either a ringing sound or a dampened sound. Aerophone instruments, which are vibrated by blown air, are of two major kinds in Thailand: flutes and reeds. The khluei, made of bamboo and played vertically, is the most commonly seen flute. The pi nai is the Thai oboe and is of ancient Thai origin. Regarding chordophones, three types of stringed instruments are common in the Central Region of Thailand. Bowed lutes have either two (the saw u) or three (saw sam sai) strings. The zither or je-khe is a three-stringed plucked instrument with a body that resembles a crocodile. The plucked lute has four strings and is plucked with a piece of animal horn or bone. This four-stringed instrument is more commonly used in Cambodia. Membranophones are drums of numerous types, generally distinguished by the manner of construction. They may have either one or two heads. Body shape can vary also, as can size of the drum. When played, drums may be struck with beaters or with the musicians’ hands. See also GONG WONG YAI; MUSICAL ENSEMBLES. MYANMAR. After the mass protests in 1988, the ruling Council dropped the term “Socialist Republic” and renamed the country “The Union of Burma.” On June 18, 1989, the Council again changed the name in English to “The Union of Myanmar.” The nation is referred

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to as Burma in this dictionary. See also BAYINNAUNG; BURMA, RELATIONS WITH.

–N– NAI. The term nai means literally master. In one use, it refers to the lowest rank in the traditional nobility. Nai is also used as a mark of respect for male employers or any man of superior status. NAI AMPHOE. See DISTRICT OFFICER. NAIL DANCE (FON LEP). A dance that is popular in northern Thailand. It is performed frequently in Chiang Mai, and other cities and towns, during ceremonies and festivals. See also DANCE DRAMA; GONG AEW. NAK THAM. The name given to a person who, as a novice or Buddhist monk, completed an elementary dharma course. Such a course is offered in a dharma school and conducted in certain Buddhist temple compounds (wat) in Thailand. The course is taught by a qualified Buddhist monk. See also BUDDHISM. NAKHON PATHOM SHRINE. The oldest Buddhist shrine and also the largest in Thailand. In design it is a chedi 127 meters (420 feet) in height located in the city of Nakhon Pathom. It was completed in 1860 and encases a previous chedi that was built about 500 CE and that was later remodeled by the Mon. The shrine is also known as Phra Pathom Chedi, which means “The First Chedi.” It is widely believed that Buddhism first came to be established in Thailand at this place. The golden-tiled inverted bowl of the chedi can be seen against the skyline from afar. NAKHON RATCHASIMA (KHORAT). The largest province of the northeast, both in area and in population, 2,575,000 (est.). The provincial capital, Khorat, pop. 205,000 (est.), is the second largest city outside of the Bangkok area and serves as a point of entry to the Northeast Region. It has well-developed communications as well as

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good air and surface transportation facilities. In sum, it is a major military and commercial center. The province has sufficient water resources to sustain its general agriculture and is a silk-producing area. Khorat is a leading Thai province in both crop and livestock production, and also a leader in wholesale and retail trade outside of Bangkok and vicinity. The province has extensive resources of rock salt. The ancient Pimai Stone Palace is found here. NAKHON SI THAMMARAT. A city in southern Thailand and an ancient principality there. Today it is the capital, pop. 120,000 (est.), of a province of the same name. It has a favorable coastal location on the peninsula with an excellent harbor, is the terminus of overland trade routes, and is the rice market for a large fertile agricultural area. For about 10 centuries up to the 13th, Nakhon Si Thammarat was a prominent principality with its own chieftain. As a vassal, it gave tribute at different times to kingdoms based in Indonesia, Pagan in Burma, Angkor. One of these was the Dvaravati Kingdom. In the latter half of this period, Buddhism had a growing influence. Late in the 13th century, Nakhon Si Thammarat, along with neighboring principalities, became allied with the Kingdom of Sukhothai. Besides the Thai peoples, the Nakhon population at that time included Khmer, Mon, and Malay. A century later, the alliance was with the Siamese Kingdom of Ayutthaya, albeit with some autonomy. In the mid-16th century, as trade prospects improved, the Siamese took full control of Nakhon Si Thammarat, and in later years controlled the other principalities of the peninsula as well. In Nakhon Si Thammarat City, there is today a museum that displays many prehistoric artifacts and art works. The traditional shadow plays, more common to Indonesia, are performed during festivals. NANG TALUNG. See also SHADOW PLAY. NAOWARAT PONGPAIBOON (1940– ). Naowarat is a renowned poet whose writings for three decades have challenged the perspectives on Thai society of his countrymen. He is admired in part because of the way his belief in Buddhism and its lessons are reflected in his poetry. He stresses the importance of faith and its relationship

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to honesty and sympathy in social relations. Another focus of his distinctive writing is politics, especially the student pressure for democracy in 1973. Two of his books, Touring the Town on Horseback (1978) and Flute Music (1984), won the Best Book Award at the respective National Book Fairs. In 1983, he received the top Southeast Asia Writing Award for his Mere Movement. NARAI. King of Ayutthaya (reigned 1656–1688). One of Ayutthaya’s most important kings, he had considerable success in expanding contacts with the West and in building commerce. By 1680, Ayutthaya had become a center for foreign trade, which was aided by resident foreigners, especially Japanese, Malay, and Persian, as well as the Dutch and British East India Companies. In order to promote relations with France, Narai named Constantine Phaulkon to the powerful position of minister of finance and foreign affairs in 1685. Two Siamese missions were sent to Paris and three French missions came to Siam, the third including 500 French troops. However, opposition to Phaulkon developed among traders and government officials when he attempted to convert King Narai and his son to Christianity. In addition, there was resistance to stationing French troops in the kingdom. When King Narai died in 1688, Phetracha, who was reared as a foster brother of the king, led a coup that usurped the throne. He became the next king of Ayutthaya. Phaulkon was executed and the French troops were removed. King Narai’s reign saw a revival of Thai literature, with the court becoming a focal point for writers and poets to gather under the king’s patronage. His achievements were such that historians refer to Narai as a great king. NARESUAN. King of Ayutthaya (reigned 1590–1605). Born in 1555, he succeeded his father King Mahathammaracha. He is considered one of the few great kings because he restored Siamese sovereignty after its defeat by the Burmese in 1569. Naresuan became a hostage in the Burmese court when his father assumed the throne of Siam. While there, he observed Burmese military strengths and strategy. On his return, he joined his father in rebuilding the army and the fortifications of Siam. Naresuan’s armies inflicted defeats on the Cambodians and restored security on the eastern borders of the nation.

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In 1584, following a successful battle against the Burmese, Naresuan declared Siam’s independence from Burma. Thailand still commemorates a crucial engagement that took place in 1593, in which King Naresuan single-handedly turned back the army of Burma by engaging their crown prince in a duel on elephant back, and killing him. By 1600, Naresuan’s campaigns against the Burmese had contributed to the breakup of Burma into many warring factions and eliminated it as a threat to Ayutthaya for 175 years. Armies under Naresuan, who was noted for many acts of personal bravery in battle, conquered Cambodia in 1594. During his reign, contacts with the West were continued in the form of a treaty with Spain, signed in 1598, and in the beginning of trade with the Dutch. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. The present constitution, adopted in 1997, maintained the provision of previous constitutions for Thailand to have a bicameral legislature with the king as head of state. Always appointed in assemblies since 1932, the 200 members of the upper chamber, the Senate, were elected for the first time in January 2000. Their term is six years. This significant change is one of the results of the political and social reform movement in Thailand. Senate members’ duties include participation in the legislative process plus establishing and overseeing important new independent agencies. These include Commissions for Counter Corruption, Elections, Human Rights, and the Constitutional Court. Members of the Senate cannot belong to a political party and are not allowed to campaign for election so that they are at least nominally “nonpolitical.” To facilitate its work, the Senate has 16 standing committees. The main governing body is the House of Representatives whose members are elected for four-year terms. The revised organization and powers of the House of Representatives under the new constitution commenced with their election in 2001. The House of Representatives confirms the prime minister, who is typically the leader of the political party that obtained the most seats in the last election. The House of Representatives has sole power to initiate new legislation and has the main power to secure passage of bills. Some legislative issues require joint meetings between the House of Representatives and the Senate such as urgent bills initially rejected by the Senate, treaty ap-

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proval, and amendments to the constitution. Both the House of Representatives and the Senate have powers, although the House of Representatives more so, to insist on accountability of the Council of Ministers. The office of president of the National Assembly is taken by the person selected as president of the House of Representatives. The work of the House of Representatives is in large extent conducted in one or more of its 23 standing committees. See also APPENDIX K. NATIONAL EDUCATION COUNCIL (NEC). Supervision of education in Thailand is highly centralized, since responsibility for education lies largely with the national government. Direction comes chiefly from the Ministry of Education and from the National Educational Council, which is located in the Office of the Prime Minister. The Council coordinates the general plans for education and participates in the allocation of resources. NATIONAL LIBRARY. When the first printing press was brought to Siam in 1835, libraries had already existed in the kingdom for centuries. Buddhist temple libraries were repositories for sacred manuscripts. Ancient Thai books were written on strips of hand-made paper or palm leaf, on which were recorded laws, art, medical formulas, and religious teachings. In 1881, King Chulalongkorn established a library for collecting Siamese and foreign literature. In 1905, the Wachirayan library was established as a National Library within the precincts of the Grand Palace. In 1966, a new National Library, with a capacity of more than 2,000,000 volumes, was opened at Thavasukri on Samsen Road in Bangkok. A depository library, it now holds 1,200,000 volumes and 200,000 manuscripts. According to the printing act, two copies of each publication printed in Thailand are kept in the National Library. Branches of the National Library are now functioning in several provinces. Through the years, the Library has expanded to include records or tapes of lectures, Thai folktales, music, and parliamentary debates. The library also offers many rare materials on microfilm. Other important libraries in Bangkok include those at Chulalongkorn University, Kasetsart University, The Asian Institute of Technology, Thammasat University, and Nakharinwirot University. There are fine libraries at Chiang Mai University, Khon Kaen University, and the

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Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Since 1990, Wat Benchamaborpitr has had a library that houses all the books pertaining to the Buddhist faith, not only in Pali and Thai, but also in Lao, Burmese, Chinese, Japanese, Singhalese, and Sanskrit. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Founded in 1926, the National Museum is located on Na Pra Tat Road in west-central Bangkok and housed in an old palace and two new buildings, which were added in 1966. This outstanding collection of Thailand’s treasures includes historical artifacts, ancient weapons, royal regalia, funeral chariots, illustrated books, marionettes, textiles, jewelry, furniture, ceramics, bronze and stone sculptures, ceremonial equipment, and musical instruments. The historian can find in the library important records and ancient manuscripts, as well as stone inscriptions. Indian and Chinese sculptures and pottery, together with archaeological artifacts that show ancient Khmer and Thai workmanship, are included in the collection. NATURAL RESOURCES. Land well-suited for the production of rice and other agricultural crops has until recently been the base of the Thai national economy. Productive land is still the chief economic support for at least half of the population. Human labor was for centuries a valuable resource to the national authorities. A form of slavery existed in Thailand as in other countries. It was gradually abolished by royal decrees in 1868, 1874, 1905, and 1912. Another pattern for the management of free labor was corvee in which commoners were required to provide a set number of months of labor for the king or for their patron. Corvee was banned by royal decree in 1905. Since Thailand is located within the metalliferous belt of Southeast Asia, it has a wide variety of mineral deposits. Major mineral resources include lignite as a fuel, limestone for cement, gypsum, and fluorite. Other important minerals are zinc ore, lead, iron, tin, and gems. Forests in Thailand were for many centuries an important resource. Rural people depended on wild berries and other forest products, including firewood and fish in inland waters. Hunting and gathering yielded animal protein, herbs, barks, hides, dyes, resins, and metals, also timber and thatch for construction. Forestry products including most of those listed above were very important trade items with

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China prior to the mid-19th century. However, in the past 60 years, the Thai forests have diminished in extent of land area from 70 to 25 percent. Today, there is much support for a policy of preserving the forests. See also PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. NEN. See BUDDHIST NOVICE. NEO-BUDDHISM. The path taken by educated Thais in response to the influence of scientific and philosophical thought from the West. As a result, the Thai urban intelligentsia has developed an orientation based more upon the actions and examples of the Buddha and less upon his teachings. They stress his cooperative and sympathetic nature and his respect and love for people. Neo-Buddhism is strongly social and altruistic. Desire is acceptable when directed toward other social ends. The ancient cosmological theories, animistic beliefs in the supernatural and ghosts, or dependence upon astrology, while not eliminated, are seen as elements of the popular Buddhism of the less-educated Thai, and no longer a sufficient basis for governmental policies nor adequate legitimation of ceremonies and festivals. See also KARMA. NIELLOWARE. Niello is the art of decorating metal with engraved designs, which are filled with an alloy consisting of sulfur combined with silver, copper, or lead. The resultant pattern is coal black. This metalware has been hand-crafted for several centuries at Nakhon Si Thammarat on the peninsula. Vases of pure silver take many shapes: bowls, betel nut boxes, jewelry, picture frames, and trays. Less expensive mass-produced pieces, often composed of silver and brass, are made in Bangkok. See also HANDICRAFTS. NILAWAN PINTONG (1916– ). She founded and edited a Thai magazine that pioneered in promoting women’s rights and greater opportunities for women. Nilawan graduated from Chulalongkorn’s Faculty of Arts in 1937. Her early work experience included editing a children’s magazine and as a civil servant in the Public Relations Department of the Prime Minister’s Office. After a short period as a contributing writer, Nilawan became in 1948 editor of Satri Sarn, a magazine that she handled very successfully. It closed in 1996 when she

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retired. Satri Sarn’s focus on women’s issues plus its high standards brought respect and acclaim to the magazine. Nilawan was the first Thai winner of the prestigious Magsaysay Award for Public Service, in 1961. While an advocate of women’s rights and increased opportunities, Nilawan valued the roles of women as wives, mothers, and homemakers. She felt that significant outside interests would help and contributed to better performance of these roles. She also supported the idea of women working cooperatively in activities that improved the social, political, and economic conditions of women as a whole. Nilawan’s long career with Satri Sarn brought her many awards, including an honorary doctorate of arts at Chulalongkorn University in 1974. NIRVANA. The ultimate end of religious persons according to the teachings of Buddha, attained by release from desire, defilement, and ignorance. Nirvana is the cessation of processes that involve the above characteristics. It is attained by following faithfully the Noble Eightfold Path. He who has attained nirvana is said to be an arahat. See also BUDDHISM; FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS; KARMA. NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH. A central belief and teaching of Thai Buddhism. It is called the “middle way” between the austere ascetic and the sensuous worldling. It consists of right belief, right aspiration or feeling, right speech, right actions, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and memory, and right contemplation and meditation. See also FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. NONG HAN LAKE. A lake in the Northeast Region and the largest lake in Thailand. It is located in and provides water for the entire province of Sakon Nakhon. NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs). Historically, the Buddhist temple compound was a very important NGO in that it was a place of and center for education, local welfare and community activities, as well as a religious center. In recent decades there has been a significant increase in NGOs in Thailand. Thai economic growth, awareness of unmet social needs, and public recog-

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nition of the potential worth of NGOs are among the reasons for this development. Three types of NGOs and nonprofit organizations that developed in the 20th century are foundations, associations, and labor unions and confederations. While close to 3,000 foundations and more than 8,000 NGOs and nonprofit groups had registered with the National Culture Commission by 1990, there were probably an equal number of unregistered ones in each category. Other NGOs are registered with the Department of Internal Trade. The numerous cremation societies throughout Thailand have registered with the Department of Public Welfare. This rapid growth has been accompanied by national NGO networks, umbrella organizations, and other coalitions. Among NGOs, women’s associations are the most numerous. Concerns addressed include women’s status, women in legal practice, equity and fairness in employment, vocational programs for women, and aid to those in need. NGOs have been active in concern for children and youth. They have advocated improvements in the lives of children especially adequate nutrition, controls on child labor, combating child prostitution, and measures to reduce child poverty. Other NGO foci have been the needs of children who are orphans or disabled or who have become street children. There are an estimated 200 health-related NGOs in Thailand. Of these, foundations predominate. Active NGOs in rural areas have been organized by young professionals in medicine, dentistry, and pharmacology. After their training there as interns and serving the required two years, some have set up health-related NGOs with the help of volunteers in the district where they worked. Issue advocacy regarding proper nutrition, antismoking policy, and appropriate use of medical services was advanced by NGOs who were promoting primary health care. Some NGOs have also tackled economic and social development. In place of capital intensive inputs, they promoted diversified farming; instead of one-crop agriculture oriented toward export, they sought to develop local markets. Other NGOs have worked to protect the environment and control industrial wastes. Initially, NGOs were aided by funding from international religious and charitable foundations. After a funding crisis in the mid-1990s, funding continues from international sources, the Thai government, and a new source, corporations in Thailand.

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NONTHA BURI. Though relatively small in geographic area, Nontha Buri Province, pop. 820,000 (est.), in the past was an area of abundant agricultural production. In agriculture, rice, commercial vegetables, and fruits predominate. Today the province is experiencing rapid urbanization. The location of Nontha Buri City, pop. 295,000 (est.), 12 kilometers (8 miles) north of Bangkok makes it a fast growing suburb of the nation’s capital. Commuters have easy access to employment in Bangkok by both land and water transportation. Nontha Buri City is the location of national occupational training centers, hospitals, and the largest prison in Thailand. NORTHEAST REGION. This region is known also as Isan. It is bordered on the east by the Mekong River. Two mountain ranges form borders, the Dangrek on the south and the Petchabun on the west. The region is mostly a plateau with rolling low hills and small lakes. The soils are generally marginal with occasional fertile areas. While there is flooding from monsoon rains, the region annually experiences a long dry season. The red porous soils do not retain moisture well, which limits crop production. Cattle are produced. Rice and other agricultural crops are grown. Small rivers drain into the Mekong. Ponds for the farmers have been constructed in a Rural Development Program to increase water availability. Approximately one third of Thailand’s population resides in the Northeast Region. Large cities there include Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Ubon Ratchathani, and Udorn Thani. Historically, much of the northeast region was at times a part of the Lan Xang Laotian kingdom. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Siamese kingdom established control over the northeast by military conquest. A very large number of the Lan Xang Lao population was forcibly transferred across the Mekong to Siam. This significantly increased the Thai Lao population already there. Integration into the Thai nation since then has been limited. Since the start of the 20th century, a sense of regional identity has developed among the people of the northeast, who refer to themselves as Isan. In the late 19th century, King Chulalongkorn advanced his plan for administrative reform setting up provinces and districts with officials appointed by the king. In the northeast, this replaced the chieftains and lords. However, the national government officials’ failure to

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understand Thai Lao cultural patterns led to errors and inadequate reform measures. Thai Lao demonstrations and resistance were met with heavy-handed treatment by the national government. By the 1930s, the Northeast elite represented an important political force who protested against the centralization of power and wealth by the government in Bangkok. In addition, this group reacted to a perceived treatment of the northeast Thai Lao as inferior to the Siamese of the Central Region. Northeast political leaders who rose to positions of influence argued for a fair share of development funds. Prime Minister Phibun Songkhram quashed these moves by abolishing the parliament and replacing the northeast members in his cabinet. The mysterious assassination of three northeast political leaders in 1948 and a fourth in 1952 was seen as a government response to their dissent. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, many so called “leftist” politicians from the northeast were arrested and imprisoned. In the late 1950s, a prominent Buddhist figure and abbot in Khon Kaen, Phra Phimontham, promoted meditation centers, wider lay participation in religious practice but opposed the government manipulation of the Sangha. Sarit Thanarat, then prime minister, had Phra Phimontham arrested, disrobed, and imprisoned. He was later cleared of all charges, released, and returned to his former position in the Sangha. While the Thai Lao of the Northeast Region have gradually become more identified with the Thai nation, there have been obstacles. Cultural differences, including language between the Siamese and the Thai Lao, is one of these. See also LANGUAGE AND THAI REGIONALISM; Map 2. NORTHEAST ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. The economy of the Northeast Region has long been based on agriculture. However, factories and public services have been developing and continue to do so in the larger cities. The average income of the region is only about two-thirds that of the Northern and Central Regions. As a result, the Northeast Region is a source of unskilled labor for manufacturing and services in Bangkok and other cities. The out-migration of teenagers and young adults chiefly to Bangkok was more than a million persons in the 1980s and increased in the 1990s. The farmer protests related to loss of land, low crop prices, and desired debt relief that have taken place in Thailand since the latter part of the 20th

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century have originated more often in the Northeast Region than in other regions. The construction of new highways in the 1950s and 1960s in the Northeast Region sparked new farm settlements there on lands previously in forests. Strategic roads in the region were built with funds chiefly from the United States prior to the Vietnam War. One of these, the “friendship highway,” connected Bangkok to Nakhon Ratchasima (Khorat), and was later extended to Nong Khai. Another highway connected Khorat with Ubon Ratchathani (Ubon). These new roads opened up additional agricultural lands and improved access to markets. Availability of land and the promise of cash crop sales of maize and cassava resulted in a large-scale farm settlement and population growth. With assistance from the national government, agribusiness developed making contracts with the farmers to grow maize, cassava, sugar cane, tobacco, vegetables, and other crops and to raise poultry. The airfields constructed by the United States in the Northeast Region, such as that at Nong Khai and Ubon, stimulated the growth of urban centers adjacent to these bases. Airfield construction aided in the development of local transportation, manufacturing, and service industries. For its part, the Thai government provided infrastructure including roads, communications systems, financial services, railroads, and the deep water port at Bangkok. NORTHERN REGION. Mountains predominate in the northern half of the Northern Region. The mountains slope down to river valleys and upland areas to a broad open plain. Monsoon summer rains make possible wet-rice agriculture in the valleys. On the borders of the plain and in the hills, swidden farming occurs widely. Several rivers, chiefly the Nan, Ping, Wang, and Yom come together in the southern part of the region to create the headwaters of the Chao Phraya River, Thailand’s major inland waterway. An early Thai kingdom in the Northern Region, Lan Na, dates from 1259. King Mangrai founded and enlarged the kingdom and ruled it for sixty years. During the period 1564 to 1775, the kingdoms there were vassals of Burmese kings. Later it became part of Siam. The region, famous for its teakwood forests prior to and during the 1960s, experienced forest destruction from logging in the 1970s. The cooler temperatures in the winter months in this region enable the production of fruits, vegeta-

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bles, tobacco, and coffee. The high places in the Northern Region are home to a variety of tribal peoples (hill tribes) whose way of life is quite different from that of the people in the lowlands. Large cities of the Northern Region are Chiang Mai, a former capital of the Lan Na kingdom, Nakhon Sawan, Lampang, and Chiang Rai. See also LANGUAGE AND THAI REGIONALISM; Map 2. NOVICE. See BUDDHIST NOVICE. NUNS (MAE CHI). Women who seek training in Buddhism while residing in the temple compound (wat). Because their integration into the Buddhist monkhood is minimal, they are regarded as part of the lay section of society. They shave their heads and wear white robes similar in style to the monks’ habit. Most nuns attach themselves to a particular abbot or meditation teacher. They may learn the plaintive, minor-keyed chants of Buddhism, but there are no vows of silence, poverty or obedience, nor is there in Thailand a Buddhist cloistered order. There are no obstacles in the way of a nun who wishes to return to a householder’s life. Nuns have eight precepts to uphold and may have two meals a day before noon. Traditionally, they have devoted themselves to cleaning, food preparation, gardening, and other activities, which are prohibited to monks. Today, nuns are trained to go into the rural areas of Thailand to teach home economics, nursing skills, meditation, and most important, the dharma. See also WOMEN AND BUDDHISM.

–O– OK PHANSA. See END OF LENT CEREMONY. ORDINATION. The ceremony that takes place when a male makes the vows of commitment to be a Buddhist monk (bhikku) or a Buddhist novice (nen). The ordination ceremony is performed in the bot of the Buddhist temple compound (wat). At least five Buddhist monks are needed to carry out the rites for the person being ordained. The active cooperation of a sponsor, family members, and friends is also essential. Persons ordained as a monk must be at least 20 years of age. Young men and youth who are not yet 20 can be ordained as novices.

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–P– PAGAN. An empire that arose in what today is western Burma. Anoraha was an early king of Pagan in the 11th century. Among his military campaigns, one reached as far east as Lopburi in the Chao Phraya valley. Pagan was a center of Theravada Buddhism, which Anoraha as well as the Mon kingdoms diffused to neighboring countries. The Pagan kings built a huge city filled with pagodas on the Irawaddy River. The kingdom was destroyed in 1287 during an invasion by the Mongols. PAI THIAW. A custom in which young Thai men individually or in small groups leave their home villages, often going to urban areas or elsewhere to obtain wage labor, engage in a trade, and to “have fun.” They usually return after an absence of a few months to a year or so. PAKNAM INCIDENT. An incident in July 1893 at Paknam, the mouth of the Chao Phraya River, when approaching French warships were fired upon by Siamese guards acting in self-defense. The French government seized this as an opportunity and pressured the Siamese to grant France jurisdiction over former territories of Siam east of the Mekong River. Payment of an indemnity by Siam was also compelled. Anticipated British support for the Siamese failed to arrive. PALI. An ancient language used for the writings of the Buddhist scriptures. Spoken Pali is used in all Thai Buddhist religious ceremonies. PANYANANDA BHIKKHU (LUANG POR PANYA) (1911– ). A Buddhist lecturer-monk, abbot, and educator. Panyananda was born and educated in Phatthalung Province. He was ordained as a novice (nen) about 1930 and as a Buddhist monk two years later. In 1938, he began a long association with Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. This led to his study of the Pali language at a temple in Bangkok. He traveled considerably in Thailand and to other countries, including Burma, India, and Malaysia, during and after World War II. In 1954, he visited Europe and North America in support of the “moral rearmament” movement. His goal in all of his travels was to spread Buddhism and raise the morale of Buddhist monks that he contacted.

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Panyananda is best known in Thailand as a lecture-monk (nak thet). He has lectured in many temple compounds (wat) on the Buddhist scriptures, probably more than any other Buddhist monk, providing meaning and understanding of the traditional rituals. He has served as abbot of several temple compounds. At one of these, Wat Cholprathan in Nontha Buri, he was invited to serve as abbot in 1960. Later, he opened there a Pali language school and meditation center. Besides his lectures on Saturdays and Sundays, he conducted a long period of Sunday morning lectures on television. PARAMANUCHIT CHINOROT (1790–1853). Poet, Buddhist philosopher, writer, and supreme patriarch. Paramanuchit was a son of King Rama I and was educated in the royal court. At age 12, he entered the Buddhist monkhood. His writings were both religious and literary. Many of Paramanuchit’s poems are considered to be masterpieces. He developed a command of the arts and disciplines of the Ayutthaya period. Paramanuchit communicated this knowledge to his contemporaries, and this made him a kind of bridge between two periods of Siamese history. He also contributed to the style and refinement of the Siamese language. Paramanuchit also had a complete knowledge of Pali. In this language he wrote three famous works. For his literary contributions, Paramanuchit was honored by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1990. PARLIAMENT. See NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. PASTEUR INSTITUTE (SATAN SAOWAPA). The Pasteur Institute in Bangkok is operated by the Thai Red Cross Society. A main attraction to the public is the snake farm where, on certain days, specialized workers extract venom from snakes, including cobras, king cobras, krait, Russell vipers, and others. This venom is used to prepare antisnakebite vaccine that is then distributed all over Thailand. The vaccine of the Pasteur Institute serves a crucial function in treating Thai villagers bitten by poisonous snakes when they are working in the fields. PATIMOKKHA. That section of the Buddhist scriptures (tipitaka) comprising 227 highly specific rules of conduct that Buddhist monks are expected to follow.

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PATRON–CLIENT RELATIONSHIPS. This concept refers to a special relationship between patrons who possesses resources and possibly political influence and clients who look to their patron for assistance and benefits. In this way, patrons attain power over clients and expect services and loyalty in return. Patron–client relationships have long been a central pattern in Thai society. Historically they have existed between kin. These relationships are functional as they provide an exchange of information and are a major way that resources are allocated. They are also a basic network for the exercise of authority that may be subjected to shifts in patron–client relationships. Patrons, too, may be clients of government officials, politicians or traders; the benefits a patron obtains in the role of client may be used to strengthen relationships with his or her own clients. Traditionally, the hierarchal aspect of such relationships has meant that clients typically think in terms of pleasing their patrons or bosses, and favors are provided or expected. In addition, this superior–inferior character indicates that, at least historically, equality has been untypical and society is vertically integrated. However, this inequality is ameliorated because individual behavior in Thai society often varies from the norm. Even though hierarchy is seen as an obstacle to the development of cooperation among individuals, there has been a limited growth of organizations promoting democracy. Looking to the future, the trend away from the importance of patron–client relationships is likely to continue while participation in formal groups and organizations has been increasing. This trend is stronger in the large urban centers than in rural areas. See also CHAO PHO; NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS. PATTANI. An ancient principality and an important coastal city, located at the eastern end of east–west trade routes that crossed the peninsula on the gulf of south Thailand. As a port city near a rice plain, Pattani made history as a trade center in the sixth and seventh centuries. In the 13th century, the Pattani principality was overcome and absorbed into the Thai–Buddhist principality of Nakhon Si Thammarat, which was adjacent on the north. The population was converted to Islam about the 15th century. Later, on becoming a powerful trade center, Pattani enjoyed a large degree of independence in the 16th to 18th centuries. However, it was

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conquered by the Siamese in 1785 and subsequently was divided into several provinces. The Pattani people waged unsuccessful rebellions against the Siamese government in 1901–1902 and again in 1946–1948. Today, Pattani is a center of Islamic religious scholarship and propagation. Strong opposition to the control of the Thai authorities continues. Part of Prince of Songkhla University was located at Pattani in 1967. Programs of study are offered in science and technology, humanities and social sciences, and education. Both undergraduate and graduate programs are available. The other part of this university is located near Hat Yai in Songkhla Province. PATTAYA. See CHON BURI. PATTERNS OF ROYAL RULE. There were similarities in the nature of royal power and control of territories by Tai-speaking monarchs with that of other polities in Southeast Asia. The most important similarity was the royal authoritarian rule from the city-state capital backed by military power, combined with a claimed cosmological basis for royal power. This pattern of royal rule extended over the main Tai-speaking population and the other peoples within the territory and also over a number of smaller states and principalities. The chieftains and weaker kings of vassal lands were required to pay tribute to the Tai monarch, which included the provision of manpower that the king could use for his army and other purposes. If necessary, loyalty and tribute offerings would be compelled by an army sent from the capital city. Prominent in the pattern of control were the nobles and local lords whose functions gave them semiautonomous power. See also AYUTTHAYA; BANGKOK ERA; KINGSHIP; SUKHOTHAI. PAVIE, AUGUSTE (1848–1925). Colonial civil servant of France who became a vice-consul and served in Laos. Previously he led a 17-year exploration and scientific group in Cambodia. As a diplomat in 1887, he became the leading exponent of French expansion in Laos and Cambodia. He sought to protect these peoples from the alleged imperialism of Siam. In perspective, the conflict was between an Asian kingdom using a vassalage system and the European pattern of diplomacy backed by military force.

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Pavie lobbied his government to put Laos under French control when he was in Bangkok as French consul-general. Some hostile incidents between the French and Siamese occurred in 1893. This led to a French ultimatum delivered to the Siamese king by Pavie and resulted in huge Siamese territorial losses to France. See also FRANCO–SIAMESE CRISIS OF 1893; PAKNAM INCIDENT. THE PENINSULA. The topography of the peninsula region in southern Thailand is mostly rolling to mountainous. There is a small amount of flat land and numerous small streams. The northern part of the peninsula is shared with Burma, with the Bilauktaung Range as the border between the two. Just south of this range is the narrow part of the peninsula, which is called the Isthmus of Kra. Here there is an overland crossing of only 25 kilometers (16 miles). South of the Isthmus, Thailand widens to occupy the full width of the peninsula down to the border with Malaysia. The Gulf of Thailand is to the east of the Peninsula, and the Andaman Sea is on the west. The east coastal plain is from 5 to 35 kilometers (3 to 22 miles) wide, and there are several river valleys and basins that extend far inland. Well to the south is the large inland sea, Thalesap. Soils in the northern part of the peninsula are sandy and generally unproductive; in the southern part, however, soils consist of sand and clay loams, in which rubber and palm trees thrive. The peninsula is also rich in tin deposits. The Thai Muslim population there, to a lesser extent than the Thai and Chinese, engage in tin mining, the production of rubber, and the cultivation of other tropical crops. See Map 5. PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. During the past decade, Thailand has met one-half to two-thirds of its needs for petroleum from local resources and has expanded its oil refining capacity. Dependence on foreign oil sources and the possibility of price fluctuations represent a serious potential problem for Thailand’s balance of payments. Oil reserves have been discovered in several places in Thailand. This includes large quantities of oil shale, the use of which is limited due to high production costs. The development and management of oil production and refining has been undertaken partly by private companies and partly by state-owned enterprises.

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PHAHON YOTHIN (1889–1958). Prime minister (1933–1938), army officer. Phahon was educated in Thailand, Germany, and Denmark. His career in the armed forces was a distinguished one. He was a member of the group that promoted the Revolution of 1932 and served as the second prime minister of Thailand. Phahon came to power following a bloodless coup that he led, assisted by Phibun Songkhram. Important events during his term of office included the unsuccessful Bowaradet rebellion, the first national election of representatives to the House of Representatives in 1933, and the abdication of King Prajadhipok in 1935. Phahon was noted for his modesty, personal integrity, and pleasant personality. PHAULKON, CONSTANTINE (1647–1688). Was a leading official in the government of King Narai. Phaulkon, who was born in Greece, was an adventurer who arrived in the Kingdom of Ayutthaya by way of employment in the British East India Company. He readily mastered Portuguese, Malay, and the Tai language and entered the service of King Narai in 1679 as an interpreter. Phaulkon rose in status and responsibility as his remarkable talents became known. King Narai used him as an advisor and an unofficial “prime minister.” However, Phaulkon’s actions ultimately antagonized the British, as he facilitated the French goals of Christian missions and establishment of military posts in the kingdom. Opposition to Phaulkon resulted in his execution for treason in 1688 after the death of King Narai. At that time, Phetracha led a bloody coup that usurped the throne. See also FOREIGN ADVISORS; FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH. PHETCHABUN RANGE. A mountain range in central Thailand at the extreme eastern edge of the Central Region and the western limit of the Khorat Plateau. PHETRACHA. King of Ayutthaya (reigned 1688–1703). Phetracha had been a general under the previous king, Narai, and a commoner. He usurped the throne, which included arranging the murders of royalty who were next in line after the death of King Narai whose foreign policies he opposed. French soldiers who were stationed in Bangkok and Mergui were expelled by Phetracha along with French priests who had come as missionaries. However, he showed favor to the Dutch,

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who supported him. Constantine Phaulkon, who had served King Narai, was seen by his enemies as too influential. The king had him arrested, charged with treason, and executed. Phetracha was confronted with a series of rebellions during his reign, all of which he successfully put down. See also FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH. PHI CULT. The Thai peoples, who were animists before they became Buddhists, acknowledged the existence of spirits of all kinds. Spirits are associated with natural objects, but also include restless souls of the dead. Such spirits (phi), can have a material existence that may interfere in human affairs. Hence, these spirits are to be propitiated, cajoled, outwitted, and dealt with as persons. Propitiation typically includes the presentation of food and other offerings. Certain spirits are enjoined as moral agents enforcing public norms, the violation of which would result in illness, difficulties, or misfortune. In some hill tribes, religious life centers entirely on such beliefs and forces. The phi cult has a central place in the Thai world. When the Thai peoples became Buddhists, animistic beliefs and the phi cult became more or less incorporated into the Buddhist cosmology. An example of a spirit is the chao thi, the spirit of the place, such as a home or a village settlement. Individual spirit houses in appropriate locations are constructed and used as a place to contact and make offerings to a guardian spirit on ritual occasions. Another spirit central to Thai culture is the Rice Goddess. Offerings and appropriate ceremonies are performed for this spirit on selected occasions related to the production of rice. PHIBUN SONGKHRAM (1897–1964). Prime minister (1938–1944) and (1948–1957). Phibun’s tenure in that office was the longest of any Thai prime minister. Born into a village farm family and a student in temple schools, he graduated from the Royal Military Academy in 1915. Upon his graduation as valedictorian from the Army General Staff College in 1924, he was awarded a prestigious scholarship to study artillery science in France. There he became friends with other Siamese students who ultimately collaborated with him in the Revolution of 1932. Phibun advanced rapidly in the Siamese armed forces, largely due to the respect that he attained as an outstanding student, teacher, and writer on military science.

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In Phibun’s first tenure as prime minister, prominent policies of his regime were militarism, a nationalism that penalized the Chinese, and the recovery of lost territories. Changing the name of the country to Thailand in 1939 reflected a Phibun policy of uniting all Tailanguage peoples, including those in adjacent countries. He also had a goal of transforming Thailand into a modern nation. Phibun required both men and women to wear Western-style clothing. Under great pressure in 1941, Phibun permitted the Japanese military forces to use Thailand as a staging area and a source of supplies for attacks elsewhere. With aid from the Japanese, Thailand temporarily got back some of the territories it had formerly held in Burma, Laos, Cambodia, and Malaysia. However, the Phibun regime was greatly weakened by war expenditures, inflation, and scarcity of essential commodities. These problems and Japan’s war losses increased the political opposition to Phibun and forced him to resign in 1944. Phibun returned as prime minister as a result of a 1947 coup that reasserted military government and displaced the civilian regimes of the previous three years. This time, Phibun’s policies included taking actions against the Communist Party and giving Thailand a central role in the Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO). He also instituted an anti-Chinese campaign and measures suppressing the Thai Muslims in southern Thailand. His pro-Americanism was rewarded in 1950 and thereafter by large annual dollar grants by the United States to Thailand. Phibun now assumed great personal power. For a time he held four ministerial posts in his cabinet while being the commander of three armies. There were unsuccessful coups against Phibun in 1948, 1949, and 1951. However, he lost face and reputation for several actions perceived to be against the monarchy. When Phibun was replaced as prime minister in a 1957 coup d’etat, he went into exile in Japan where he died in 1964. See also MILITARY ASSISTANCE. PHILANTHROPY. In the early history of Thailand, what today is called philanthropy had its beginnings in religion. Buddhist monks in their Buddhist temple compounds cared for ill persons and those in dire need. Education there, while Buddhist connected, was available to males of all ages. The compounds were a gathering place for a variety of activities as well as worship for both genders.

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In the mid-19th century foreign missionaries took the lead in the opening of hospitals and schools, which also provided a locale for communal activities. These new social services were focused primarily on the urban poor, although efforts in rural development for several hill tribes were undertaken as well. Chinese immigrants to Bangkok and other cities organized language-based societies to provide welfare and education for their members. In the early 20th century, a group of upper-class women in cooperation with some members of the royalty set up an agency that over time became known as the Thai Red Cross. The first formally structured philanthropic service in Thailand, it was followed in succeeding decades by a variety of philanthropic organizations. The National Women’s Council, an umbrella organization focused on services for the poor, was organized in 1956. Meanwhile, the threat of the Communist movement in the early 1940s had focused the Thai government’s interest in the growth of philanthropic organizations. Those that reflected Buddhism were promoted, while non-Buddhist institutions were restricted in the interest of security. Agencies for oversight and legal approval of philanthropic groups were created occasionally in the years from 1925 to 1975. Only three types of organizations have been recognized and registered by these agencies. These are foundations, associations, labor unions, and federations. One result of the new legal controls on philanthropies and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) was the development of networks and cooperation among them. The name umbrella organization indicates that several or a large number of such groups have formed an organizational mechanism in order to enhance their intended programs and strengths. Of 19 legally registered umbrella organizations formed between 1943 and 1989, 10 were focused on philanthropy. These organizations also facilitated mutual interaction with government agencies that in recent decades have recognized the important roles that NGOs and philanthropies have in enhancing public welfare. A number of umbrella organizations have received financial support from the national or provincial government for organizing, operations, or both. The names of umbrella organizations are indicative of their focus and function. The National Council of Women in Thailand noted

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above has grown from its relatively modest beginning to more than 120 member associations and continues to focus on the needs of the poor. The member associations of the Council of Children and Youth Development provide food and lodging for orphans and disabled children, scholarships for needy children, and programs for street children and child prostitutes. The National Council of Social Welfare of Thailand dating from 1960 has continuing royal financial support and is a network of many philanthropic organizations addressing social welfare, social problems, and social development. Thai philanthropy umbrella organizations also maintain contacts with similar organizations in other countries. This facilitates and makes joint action more effective. An example is the recent symposium that dealt with the problems of street children and prostitution. See also POH TEK ASSOCIATION. PHRA. The title phra or phraya in the past was a traditional princely title designating that its bearer is a relative of the king or a functional title given to holders of the highest ranks in the civil administration. Today, it is an honorific for monks or persons and certain objects having religious significance. PHRA PHUM. See CHAO THI. PHRAYA. See PHRA. PHUKET. A small island province in extreme south of Thailand, pop. 250,000 (est.), with an area of 550 square kilometers (250 square miles). Phuket is one of the more prosperous and developed of Thailand’s provinces due chiefly to tourism and the production of tin and coconuts. Its resorts are among the most popular of the nation’s beaches. Tin mining, begun in the 14th century, flourishes although surface deposits are waning, and water dredging for tin is increasing. Phuket city, the provincial capital, pop. 65,000 (est.), is 900 kilometers (550 miles) south of Bangkok. There is an excellent international airport, good highways, and the island can be reached by sea. PHUTHAI. A Tai-speaking ethnic group with a distinctive dialect located in the eastern part of northeast Thailand. The Phuthai, numbering more

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than 100,000, are agriculturalists. Their cultural traits resemble those of people of northern Laos and Vietnam, from where they presumably immigrated in the 19th century. PHUWARACHAKAN. See GOVERNOR. PHU YAI. The Thai name for a superior or person of high status. PHU YAI BAN. The Thai village headman, who is normally elected to this post. Formally, the term of office is five years, but a headman tends to remain in office until death or retirement. In a sense he is a middleman in that he represents the village to the government authorities at the district level, while he must also represent the district government to his village constituency. The village headman is supposed to keep records on everything from animal slaughtering to births. He plans ceremonies and festivals and acts as patron in weddings. He is responsible for reporting calamities such as flooding and for obtaining help in emergencies. The headman has the authority to make arrests in cases of theft and other violations. He receives a nominal pay of 75 to 100 baht per month. See also LOCAL GOVERNMENT; MUBAN. PI NAI. An oboe-like musical instrument with a reed and a conical bore with six holes. In the simple music of a piphat ensemble, the pi nai carries the melody. See also PIPHAT ORCHESTRA. PING. A major river in the northern region of Thailand. It flows southward and is a tributary of the Chao Phraya River. PIPHAT ORCHESTRA (WONG PIPHAT OR GONG TENG TING). The Thai percussion orchestra, which consists of three groups of instruments: the pi nai, a woodwind; a melodic percussion section, with xylophones and glockenspiel; and finally the rhythmic percussion section, consisting of drums, cymbals, and the ching. The latter instrument resembles the Western triangle; in the wong piphat its ringing notes control the rhythm of the music. While the number of instruments used may vary, the piphat orchestra is used widely in restaurants, especially those that feature Thai classical dancing. It is

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also heard frequently at large temple festivals and village spirit ceremonies. See also DONTRI PUEN MUANG; GONG AEW; MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. PLANNING. See FIVE-YEAR PLANS. POH TEK ASSOCIATION. A Chinese charity organization based in Bangkok, which conducts or supervises most of the benevolent and charitable work of the Chinese community. It was founded in 1910. It provides hospitalization for the sick, aid to the indigent, and immediate food and shelter for the victims of fires, floods, and other disasters. See also PHILANTHROPY. POLITICAL PARTIES (PHAK KANMUANG). Political parties, while active following World War II, became more significant after legislation in 1983 required that each party have a certain minimal level of membership from each of the nation’s four geographical regions and from at least five provinces per region. These measures have not yet been fully implemented. Political parties typically become active as an election approaches and tend to be organized around charismatic persons of wealth who are frequently successful businessmen interested in policy making. Historically, political party activity in Thailand has lacked stability, with members switching to the party most likely to win the next election. Examples of parties that expanded at these times include the Chat Thai, which grew to 92 in 1995, and the New Aspiration Party, enlarged to 125 in 1996. The Thai Rak Thai Party expanded to an estimated 150 members in 2000. One strong leader with a following switched to Thai Rak Thai in early 2000, his fourth switch in less than 10 years. During the 1980s and 1990s and again in 2001, more than 30 parties presented candidates for election to the House of Representatives. Most of these parties eventually disbanded. Thai Rak Thai, a new political party with a prominent businessman as its leader, had by far the strongest showing in the 2001 election for the House of Representatives, securing at least 45 percent of the body’s 500 seats. Campaign promises played a large part in the victory. The second largest number of seats, 24 percent, went to the Democrat Party, which dates from 1946, and has led elected Thai governments

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for more than a decade. It alone among all parties illustrates qualities desirable in a political party. Others of the top five parties securing 25 or more seats in the 2001 House of Representatives election were Chat Thai, New Aspiration, and Chat Pattana. Goals of the new election laws of 1997, 1998, and 2000 include improved stability and reduction of both factionalism and corruption in political parties. The use of party lists and electing representatives from a single constituency are also new measures to promote larger and fewer parties and to have them be more accountable to the public. The new 1997 constitution requires the government to provide funding to eligible political parties. The money is designed to improve management of the parties and their regional branches, recruitment of new members, and general expenses. In addition the funding aims to encourage public participation and to institutionalize political parties. See also SOCIAL ACTION PARTY; APPENDIX K. POLITICAL ROLES OF BUSINESS OWNERS. In promoting their collective interests, business owners and their associations have been active politically and have contributed much to the economic development of Thailand. Chambers of Commerce have been organized in almost all provinces of the kingdom. Strong trade and other business associations have developed in Bangkok so that political institutions have changed and are no longer controlled by a military-bureaucratic elite. Business lobbies joined with other activists to bring this about. In addition these lobbies not only opposed military dominance, they advocated smaller military budgets and worked with prime ministers in the formulation of policies favorable to capital accumulation. Since the early 1980s, businessmen–politicians, including Chao Pho and “Big Men” from the provinces, have become members of parliament. Some have held posts in the Council of Ministers. In the late 1980s and 1990s provincial businessmen–politicians holding seats in parliament became a dominant majority. At the same time, these provincial businessmen moved up to leadership roles in three major political parties. In successive elections, each of three such leaders became prime ministers: Chuan Leekpai of the Democrat Party, Banharn Silpa-Archa of the Chat Thai Party, and Chavalit Yongchaiyudh of the New Aspiration Party. The powerful roles of provincial businessmen–politicians has led to continuous competition and conflict with Bangkok-based businessmen–politicians. See

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also PROVINCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND POLITICS; BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS. POLLUTION. See ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS. PONG TEUK. An archaeological site in Kanchana Buri Province about 15 kilometers (9 miles) west of Ban Pong village where the railway from Bangkok to Singapore turns south. It is one of the oldest sites in Thailand; diggings in 1926 unearthed a temple and several monuments. A bronze Roman lamp in the Pompeian style decorated with the mask of Silenus indicates that Greek or Roman merchants were establishing contacts between China and the West. A small bronze Buddha statue in the Dvaravati style, probably made in India, was also found here. Both pieces are in the National Museum in Bangkok. POPULATION. The official Population and Housing Census for 2000 reported 60,513,947 as Thailand’s population. Within Southeast Asia, Thailand was the fourth largest country in terms of population. During the 1990 to 2000 decade, the average annual growth rate was 1.05 percent. In the previous decade the annual growth rate had been 2.17 percent. For the decade ending in 1960, the annual growth rate was 3.15 percent, the highest growth rate since national censuses were first taken in 1909. Thus the latest data show a significant decline in Thailand’s population growth rate. At the 1.05 annual rate, the estimated population of Thailand in 2004 would be approximately 63.2 million. With regard to sex ratio, there were 100 females to 97 males in the 2000 census. This ratio has changed since the 1960 count when the males and females were equal in number. The regional breakdown of population distribution indicated that 10.4 percent was located in Bangkok, with a total of 23.3 percent in the Central Region as a whole. The Northeast Region was the largest with 34.2 percent of the population. Five provinces adjacent to Bangkok showed the largest percentage increases. The average size of Thai households in 2000 was 3.9 persons, a decline of 11.4 percent from the 1990 figures. This also indicates an important decline from the 1980 average 5.2 household size. See also APPENDIX D. POTE SARASIN (1906–2000). Thai diplomat and political leader. Pote was educated in Thailand, the United States, and Great Britain

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after which he joined a law firm in Bangkok. He developed a friendship with Prime Minister Phibun Songkhram and was appointed senator in 1947. In 1952, he became ambassador to the United States and to the United Nations. Pote returned to Thailand in 1954 to serve as secretary general of the newly formed Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). He became interim prime minister for three months in 1957 following the coup against Phibun, which brought Sarit Thanarat to power. Later, Pote was minister of development in the Thanom Kittikachorn administration. POVERTY. The period of rapid economic growth in Thailand (1986–1996) was accompanied by a significant reduction in the proportion of people living below the poverty line. The national rate of 27.2 percent in 1990 fell to 11.4 percent in 1996. During the 1997–1998 economic crisis, however, it rose to 12.9 percent. Poverty reduction has been associated with increases in school enrollment and the provision of additional health services. Poverty in Thailand remains predominantly a rural characteristic. Ninety-two percent of the poor are residents of agricultural villages. The slow growth of farm income and the widening gap between the wages of skilled and unskilled workers are major factors. The highest incidence of poverty, at 19 percent, occurred in the rural areas of the Northeast Region. Lower rates of poverty occur in the Central Region (7.7 percent), in the Northern Region (9.0 percent), and in Bangkok (0.6 percent). Disparities between regions has resulted from the concentration of industrial and commercial development in Bangkok and its adjacent provinces, as compared to other regions. PRACHATIPAT. See DEMOCRAT PARTY. PRAJADHIPOK (1893–1941). King of Siam (reigned 1925–1935). Prajadhipok, the youngest son of former King Chulalongkorn, was educated in Bangkok, Great Britain, and France. He ascended the throne on the death of his brother King Vajiravudh. As he felt he lacked preparedness, he appointed other senior princes as his advisors. These advisors played an important role in slowing the growth of public participation in political decisions. For example, on three occasions during his reign, King Prajadhipok proposed a constitution for Thai-

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land, but in each case he was opposed by his advisors. While the financial difficulties then facing Siam were to some extent overcome during his reign, the low public esteem of the monarchy remained. A group of civil and military officials acted to force King Prajadhipok to end the absolute monarchy and agree to a constitutional one. This event has since been referred to as the Revolution of 1932. After several unsuccessful attempts to negotiate increasingly democratic ideas with the new ruling junta, Prajadhipok abdicated the throne in March 1935 to be followed by Ananda Mahidol as the next king. PRAMARN ADIREKSARN (1913– ). Politician and party leader, former army general, and businessman. Pramarn was educated in Thailand, graduated from the Royal Thai Military Academy in 1935, and studied in the United States. In the army, Pramarn advanced to major general. He was in charge of the state-run transportation services, state-run communications systems, and several private industries. Pramarn resigned from the armed forces in 1951 and was elected to the House of Representatives in 1956 from Sara Buri Province. He held ministerial posts in the cabinets of four prime ministers. With Chatchai Choonhavan and Siri Siriyothin, Pramarn founded the Chat Thai (Thai National Party) in 1974 and served as its leader for 12 years. He was, for a time, leader of the opposition in the House of Representatives. See also POLITICAL PARTIES. PRANG. A towerlike masonry structure ending in a blunt pinnacle. The upper portion of a prang resembles a heavy cylinder compared to the tapering spire of the chedi and the prang is usually taller. It may contain a relic chamber in which art objects or ashes of royalty are kept. The design of the prang is said to have originated with the Khmer. PRAPA VIRIYAPRAPAIKIT (1928– ). Prapa is a prominent businesswoman who founded the Sahaviriya Group. This conglomerate handles the largest steel production and distribution operation in Thailand. Prapa’s husband died after just seven years of marriage. Prapa soon became active in her husband’s family’s steel business and worked with family members to enlarge it. Steel production and distribution has been and continues to be the main part of the Sahaviriya Group operation since its beginning in a small steel shop in

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1947. The Sahaviriya Group is now a conglomerate with many constituent companies involved in production of different types of steel and other enterprises. Branches include technology, property, and finance. Joint business operations with partners in Hong Kong and Russia have also been important. An annual turnover of income and expenses of approximately 50 billion baht (US$1,250 billion) has been reported. Prapa has been the main promoter and builder of Sahaviriya. While she has now become less active, she holds the position of Honorary Chairwoman. Among family members involved in the business, Prapa’s brother Vith has been a key person and is one of the top officers in the Sahaviriya Group. PRAPAS CHARUSATHIAN (1912–1997). Prapas was an armed forces officer and government official. He gained prominence for his part in the army’s quelling of a 1949 rebellion, and he served in the cabinet of Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat. After Sarit’s death, Prapas shared top power with Prime Minister Thanom Kittikachorn (1963–1973) as deputy prime minister and commander-in-chief of the army. He also served as chairman of the board of directors of the Bangkok Bank, a post from which he resigned in 1973. Following the student-led uprising of October 1973, which resulted in a new government, both Prapas and Thanom were forced into a brief exile. PRAWASE WASI (1931– ). Prawase is a scholar, physician, and scientist who is part of the Royal Court in Thailand. Though not a member of any political party, he is considered a leader in political and social reform, and his ideas are carefully listened to. Prawase is a prolific writer and the author of at least 140 books and articles. He has advocated decentralization of the Thai political power system, social reform to create a system that better serves the many Thais living in poverty, and also harmony between man and the environment. Prawase bases his ideas on Buddhist rationality and compassion. An outstanding student at Siriraj Medical School, Prawase was awarded a King’s Personal Scholarship, enabling him to do advanced medical study in England. For his research on thalassemia, he won the Outstanding Scientist Award in 1983. Prawase’s recognition as a “model of the dedicated physician whose goal is service” earned him the Ramon Magsaysay award in 1981. Other awards include the Na-

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tional Outstanding Citizen in 1985, Outstanding Researcher in 1988, and World Health Organization Tobacco and Health Award in 1990. PRAYUDH PAYUTTO (1939– ). Buddhist monk, author, and scholar. Prayudh’s early education was chiefly in Buddhist temple schools in his home province of Suphan Buri and in Bangkok. After becoming a novice (nen), Prayudh completed all nine levels of Pali language study. He graduated from Mahachulalongkorn Buddhist University in 1962 and then taught at his alma mater from 1962 to 1974. As part of his teaching role, he aided in curriculum improvement and served as an administrator. His publications include a Dictionary of Buddhism and Buddha-Dhamma. The latter is his masterpiece on Buddhist doctrine and theology. During his 35 years of his teaching, study, and writing he has earned five Buddhist honorary titles, each award being higher than the previous one. Since 1982, Prayudh has been awarded honorary doctorates from five major Thai universities. PRECEPTS. Certain moral injunctions to which Buddhists are expected to conform as closely as possible. The Buddhist layman should refrain from taking life, stealing, speaking falsely, being unchaste, and drinking intoxicating liquors. The first three of the precepts are taught to young children and others are emphasized later in life. When Holy Day services are held, the devout Buddhist laymen and Buddhist nuns observe the above five precepts and also three additional ones: refrain from eating after midday, refrain from wearing cosmetics and bodily ornaments, and refrain from sitting or lying on a high or wide mattress filled with cotton. Buddhist novices observe the above eight precepts and also two additional ones: refrain from dancing, singing, music, and entertainment and refrain from receiving gold or silver. In addition to these 10 precepts the Buddhist monks observe 227 specific rules of conduct. PREM TINSULANONDA (1920– ). Prime minister, army commander, and minister of defense. Prem was educated in Thailand and graduated from the Royal Military Academy in 1941. He attended the U.S. Army Cavalry School and U.S. Army War College. In the Thai Army, Prem rose from the rank of lieutenant to general. He served as

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a cabinet officer under prime minister Kriangsak Chomanan. A number of influential assemblymen and senators who were high army officers joined to bring about Prem’s selection as prime minister in 1980 although he was not an elected representative to the National Assembly. Later, during his long term as prime minister, he resigned from the armed forces and thereafter served as a civilian. The widespread support for Prem and his administration included that of the Thai king, Bhumibol Adulyadej, the person with the highest prestige in the nation. Prem’s standing was demonstrated when he remained in power in spite of coup attempts against him in 1981 and 1985. He weathered elections as well as a crisis of the national currency. Prem’s term of eight-and-a-half years as prime minister was one of the longest in Thai history. It was also a time in which the political system began to move toward more democracy. As a strong leader, he was able to checkmate the military when needed and to maintain a balance between competing elements of the elite. On his 68th birthday, the king awarded Prem a rare honor, the “Ancient Auspicious Order of the Nine Gems” (Nopparat Rajavaraporn). See also MILITARY OFFICERS, THEIR POLITICAL ROLES. PRESS. The press is the oldest of the mass media in Thailand. In 1835, Christian missionaries introduced the first printing press in Thailand. Publishing was confined mostly to the royal court, the foreign missionaries, and businessmen. The Royal Gazette, founded in 1858 by King Mongkut, exists to the present day as the official medium of the Court. Other newspapers and periodicals were published in the mid-19th century. Although prior to World War II few publications lasted for any length of time, the number of publications and the size of readership grew steadily. The mass media are under the supervision of the Public Relations Department in the Office of the Prime Minister. All major daily newspapers are privately owned, but major radio and television stations are controlled by the government and operated as commercial enterprises. In 2002, Bangkok daily newspapers included 14 in the Thai language, two in English, and four in Chinese. In addition, weekly newspapers included six in Thai and two in English. Also in the Thai language, there were four fortnightlies and 10 monthly newspapers. Two monthlies were in English. Eight foreign news agencies were located in Bangkok.

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Newspapers and other periodicals in Thailand today enjoy a freedom that is unequaled in the rest of Southeast Asia, although the private press in Thailand has been subject to censorship from time to time. Censorship was especially strict during World War II, during the period of Sarit Thanarat’s rule (1959–1963), and in the immediate aftermath of the October 6, 1976, coup, although even during these periods, the press was allowed to publish many nonpolitical stories. In the May 1992 coup, however, much of the news was censored in newspapers as well as on television. Thai newspapers exercise self-censorship and have been careful to present a positive coverage of the king, government affairs, internal security matters, and Thailand’s international image. See also KAMPHOL VAJARAPOL. PRIDI PHANOMYONG (1900–1983). Political leader, senior statesman. Pridi, the precocious son of a farmer, completed secondary education, and then law studies by the age of 19. He studied in France, where he interacted with other Siamese students who later became his political colleagues. He had a prominent role in the group of reformers who overthrew the Siamese absolute monarchy in the Revolution of 1932. Pridi was active in politics from 1932 to 1949. He was a strong leader and held positions in several administrations, including the cabinet posts of finance, interior, and justice. He served briefly as prime minister and was regent for the youthful king of Thailand, Ananda Mahidol (1935–1946). Pridi was recognized for outstanding public service and was awarded several of the highest Thai orders and decorations. Four foreign nations, France, Great Britain, Sweden, and the United States, also awarded Pridi high honors. Pridi’s wife, Poonsuk, was honored with the Thai title Than Phuying. Pridi contributed to the national constitution and to the structure of local government. As finance minister, he placed the Thai finance and monetary system on a sound basis. He led in the founding of Thammasat University where he was rector for 18 years. During World War II, when Thailand was aiding Japan, Pridi and Seni Pramoj led a Free Thai underground movement that helped in obtaining lenient peace terms with the Allies after the war. Pridi was discredited by opponents when the young King Ananda Mahidol died mysteriously. Banishment from Siam was the way his enemies used to block his potential power. He was forced

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into permanent exile in 1949 and died in Paris in 1983. Some of his admirers have established the Pridi Phanomyong Institute in Bangkok. PRIVY COUNCIL. The Privy Council is a royally appointed group that assists the king in discharging his formal duties. The members cannot hold any other public office, show partisan loyalty, or belong to a political party. When the throne becomes vacant, the Council acts to appoint a new king. Until the heir ascends the throne, the president of the Privy Council serves as regent and substitutes temporarily for the king. PRO-DEMOCRACY DEMONSTRATION AND MILITARY CRACKDOWN. Widespread protests occurred in Bangkok on May 7 and 8, 1992, demanding that Suchinda Kraprayoon, the acting prime minister, resign because he had not been elected. Up to 100,000 demonstrators marched in Bangkok streets from May 17 to May 20. The demonstrations were initiated by educated middle-class persons and joined by others. Chamlong Srimuang was the principal leader of the movement. Soldiers of the Thai armed forces were ordered to put down the disturbance after fires had been set. In army clashes with unarmed demonstrators, 52 persons were killed and hundreds were injured. King Bhumibol Adulyadej intervened on May 20th and asked Chamlong and Suchinda to settle the dispute peacefully. Prime Minister Suchinda resigned on May 24. The interim prime minister, Anand Panyarachun, demoted a number of military officers for their part in the death of demonstrators. The new coalition government and National Assembly elected to office in September 1992 passed a law requiring prime ministers to be elected. See also CHUAN LEEKPAI. PROSTITUTION. In Thailand, as elsewhere, prostitution has existed for hundreds of years. Becoming engaged in prostitution can be voluntary, by covert enticement, by force or by sale of a young person to a recruiter by her parents in extreme poverty. Thai culture reflects a pattern of children growing up with a strong sense of obligation to their parents. Young males satisfy this obligation by becoming an ordained Buddhist monk (bhikku) for a period of time. But this pattern

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is not available to females who, in recent decades, have been migrating to urban centers to work for at least a few years in order to be able to send financial support to their parents. In this way, a young woman could also build up savings for her own future. A small proportion of these young women become prostitutes, either voluntarily or through trickery by recruiters who come to their villages, promising good jobs in the city. This pattern is found chiefly in the Northern Region and to a lesser extent in the Northeastern Region. Prostitution is not strongly condemned in Thai society. Widespread Thai attitudes support the notion that men, whether single or married, should pay for access to a woman’s body. As elsewhere, most of the money from the customers goes not to the prostitutes, but to the men or women who operate places of entertainment where sex services are available. Historically and traditionally, Thai and Chinese patrons of prostitutes were discreet, and such activities were shielded and private. However, that changed during the Indochina war when large numbers of American soldiers were stationed in Thailand or came to Bangkok for short periods of rest and recuperation. It is now relatively common for women in the sex trade to appear in public when soliciting patrons or with a male customer as a rented “wife.” In a further development, Thai commercial sex has become global, where business syndicates recruit and place sex workers in several countries abroad. Estimates indicate that more than 100,000 Thai prostitutes have traveled to other countries, while two to three times that number are active in Thailand. Foreign media have given prostitution in Thailand much publicity, and advertising by Thai authorities and by hotels and entertainment centers have promoted the concept of sex tourism. Sex services and sex tours have been a prominent feature in advertisements aimed at the United States, Europe, and Japan. The promotion of sex tourism has decreased recently, however, due to protests by Thai women’s groups. Another limiting factor has been a growing concern among Thai authorities regarding possible damage to the image of Thailand abroad. See also HIV/AIDS. PROTESTANTISM. Introduced in Thailand by American Presbyterian missionaries in 1828. Today, nine denominations operate a cooperative mission—The Church of Christ in Thailand—with more than

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PROVINCE (CHANGWAT): ITS ADMINISTRATION

40,000 Thai members in approximately 135 congregations. They are served by ministers, more than half of whom are Thai. Thirteen other Protestant churches individually conduct missionary work in Thailand, having a total of approximately 180 congregations. They are served by some 160 ministers of whom about three-fourths are Thai. The Protestant groups combined operate some 10 hospitals and nearly 50 schools providing elementary and/or secondary education for Thai students. See also CHRISTIANITY. PROVINCE (CHANGWAT): ITS ADMINISTRATION. There are 76 provinces or territorial units that make up Thailand, each serving as a major unit of local government. The chief administrative officer of the province is the governor, who since 2003 has been given CEOlike power. He is popularly referred to as Phuwa-CEO. (Phuwa is short for phuwarachakan, the Thai word for governor.) The new administrative system was instituted by Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawat to more effectively manage the various ministerial and departmental officials assigned to each province. This may include officials from the ministries of agriculture and cooperatives, public health, commerce, labor and social welfare, interior, and education. Specific focuses of the new system include attending to citizen grievances, efficiency in problem solving, developing local communities and improving Thailand by having provinces compete in achieving results. The person selected as Phuwa-CEO may come from any ministry, instead of only interior as before. Provinces are divided into districts, each with a district officer in charge. The city in which the provincial headquarters is located is the provincial capital and has the same name as the province, e.g., Chiang Mai is the capital of Chiang Mai Province, etc. PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION (PAO). See LOCAL GOVERNMENT. PROVINCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND POLITICS. Considerable change in the provinces occurred in the latter half of the 20th century. Early in the century, Thai provincial officials were outsiders placed by the central government. These officials’ behavior reflected their role as the only legitimate power source but created an enormous gap

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between government and populace. Another source of power was the local market place and the businessmen who carried on economic activities. Many were Sino–Thai; their culture set them apart from their customers but they were easier to approach than the officials. While contacts between businessmen and officials were minimal, sometimes the latter desired money beyond their meager salaries, and they struck deals with businessmen when the latter sought licenses and privileges. To further their influence over the local population, officials sometimes secured the help of local leadership, a third source of village power. These were natural leaders or patrons among the citizenry who could assure their followers protection, food, etc. when needed as well as advice and counsel. A very well-known such leader could be elected village headman ( phu yai baan). Outside investment in provincial business increased in the 1950s and 1960s. The national Bank of Thailand (BOT) was initially prominent in this early economic development by providing credit and projecting an image of the road to wealth and a connection to the world of Bangkok through modern capitalism. Small industries and other rural production saw an upsurge with credit available from a branch of the BOT. Money came into the provinces from government-promoted rural development, together with new highways and other infrastructure. Larger provincial cities in the 1970s were growing in size and influence. Many businessmen there achieved success and prominence who were initially rice millers, traders, or miners of limestone for cement making and other resources. Government contracts for roads or public works were lucrative business. However, others achieved prominence and wealth in illegal enterprises such as logging, gambling, drug trafficking, or prostitution. This type of leader was referred to as chao pho, a name given to persons with seeming divine power since they were able to flout the law in their business activities. The next step for the prominent businessman was securing a seat in the national parliament. This augmented his previous political power and an expansion of his economic power. By the late 1980s, 90 percent of the seats in parliament were held by provincial big men. A struggle has ensued between these businessmen and their counterparts in parliament from Bangkok. See also PATRON–CLIENT RELATIONSHIPS.

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PUEY UNGPHAKORN (1916–1999)

PUEY UNGPHAKORN (1916–1999). An economist whose management of financial affairs during a crucial decade left a lasting imprint. Puey was educated in Thailand and Great Britain. During the Japanese Occupation of Thailand, 1941–1944, Puey served as an interpreter and supporter of the Free Thai Movement within Thailand. Resuming his studies with a government scholarship award, Puey completed a doctorate in economics in 1949 at the London School of Economics. Following this Puey served in the Thai Finance Ministry. Later, with colleagues in both the Ministry and the Bank of Thailand (BOT), he made changes in Thailand’s financial system that improved stability in the Thai economy and corrected bank regulations so that the banking system was viewed as sound and enjoyed a higher level of customer trust. After becoming dean of the Faculty of Economics at Thammasat University in 1964, Puey began to focus on poverty and social justice. He arranged for selected graduate student volunteers to live in agricultural villages where they could help their rural countrymen and act as informal teachers. This led to a widened public concern about the plight of the poor but also uncovered numerous injustices committed by local government officials. As a result, Puey became a controversial figure among those in power. For a short period, 1975–1976, Puey served as rector of Thammasat University. In 1976, rightist groups were organized, and with the support of the Thai Army, students at Thammasat were brutally attacked causing many deaths and much bloodshed. Those opposed to Puey and his ideas accused him of being a communist, and for his safety, Puey fled to England with his family. Puey and others in England with similar views formed the Friends of Thai Trust organization in 1977. In succeeding years, he was an important contact and leader in exile concerning abuses of civil rights and censorship of information in Thailand. He died in England in 1999.

–Q– QUEEN’S BIRTHDAY. Queen Sirikit’s birthday is a national holiday and is celebrated on August 12th. She is married to King Bhumibol Adulyadej and is widely admired and respected for her beauty and her dedication to improving the lives of women and children in Thailand.

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–R– RADIO. The Public Relations Department is responsible for Radio Thailand, the official government broadcasting station, which transmits the local and international news. Thailand’s 480 radio stations are under the aegis of the Public Relations Department. Aside from the Ministry of Education and the Radio Thailand broadcasts, radio stations are commercial and rely heavily on advertising revenue. See also MASS MEDIA. RAEK NA. See ROYAL PLOWING CEREMONY. RAILWAYS. The State Railways of Thailand have operated since 1890. They provide passenger and freight services. The construction of the first line was begun in Bangkok in 1892 and reached Nakhon Ratchasima in 1900, covering a distance of 264 kilometers (165 miles). The total network of meter gauge lines is approximately 4,500 kilometers (2,800 miles). The main line, running 3,825 kilometers (2,390 miles), connects 42 provinces and consists of four routes. Railways extend from Bangkok north to Chiang Mai, northeast to Nong Khai and Ubon Ratchatani, east to Prachin Buri/Aranyaprathet, and south to Songkhla and Padang-Besar with links to the Railway of Malaysia. RAIN-MAKING CEREMONIES. Rites aimed at producing rain are frequently conducted in areas that have experienced drought. This can consist of public prayers, a procession carrying an animal or a holy image, or daily worship services. The nature of such ceremonies varies from one locality to another and reveals Brahmanic, Buddhist, or animistic origins. See also ROCKET FESTIVAL. RAINY SEASON RETREAT. See BUDDHIST LENT. RAMA I (YOT FA) (1737–1809). King (reigned 1782–1809) of the Bangkok kingdom, and founder of the Chakri dynasty. Born to a noble family as Thong Duang, he and his younger brother led the armies of King Taksin in a series of military successes against the forces of Burma and two eastern neighboring kingdoms. For his achievements,

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Thong Duang was named chief minister or chakri and general over all kingdom forces by King Taksin. Due to his capable leadership and suitable kin ties, he was chosen king when King Taksin was found unfit to reign and removed from the throne. The name Rama was given to him and later kings by a great grandson, King Vajiravudh. As king, Rama I engaged in a campaign to rebuild and restore the country after its catastrophic defeat in 1767 by the armies of Burma. In a short time, extensive construction was underway. New buildings including a royal palace and impressive Buddhist temples using the Ayutthaya architecture were built in Bangkok, the new capital of his kingdom. New homes for princes and high officials, shops, and other places of business were also added. Under his supervision, the Law Code of 1805–1807 was promulgated, revising earlier laws. He also gave support to and strengthened the Buddhist monastic order and important Buddhist texts were reconstructed, including a new version of the Tipitaka. Another feature of the Rama I royal court at the beginning of the 19th century was its cosmopolitan character in art and literature. Noteworthy was the translation of many classics from Chinese and other Asian languages. The Tai epic Ramakian, based on the Indian epic Ramayana, was composed at this time. Trade with China and other countries was revived. During his reign, five major Burmese attacks were successfully repelled. Rama I eventually ruled a united kingdom that included the Laotian principalities, most of the Malay states and what today is southwest Burma. RAMA III. Eldest son and successor of Rama II (reigned 1824–1851). Early in his reign the Burney treaty was signed with Great Britain, clarifying boundaries with British Burma. In addition trade taxes were reduced to the advantage of British traders, but had minimal effect on the kingdom’s trade. In 1827, the heads of two Laotian vassal states on the kingdom’s eastern border began a rebellion. This failed and also resulted in the capture of both leaders by Bangkok forces, the destruction of Vientiane, the capital of Laos, and the relocation of a large part of the Laotian population to the northeastern part of Bangkok kingdom territory. In response to political and administrative difficulties in the vassal Malay states of the peninsula region, Rama III created several states from the larger one that was rebelling and Malay governors were ap-

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pointed to replace Tai-speaking governors. With these actions, the region became more settled. Instability in Cambodia caused more serious threats to Rama III. The powerful competitor, Vietnam, sought more influence there and war began in 1841. Large-scale military clashes between Bangkok and Vietnamese forces resulted in many deaths and much destruction. Bangkok persisted and in a 1846 treaty with Vietnam, retained its major role there. At the end of the Rama III reign, the Bangkok kingdom was again large, strong, and recognized as the leader in Southeast Asia. RAMAKIAN. A Thai version of the Indian Ramayana epic. RAMATHIBODI I. Founder of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya (reigned 1351–1369). Under the name of U Thong he led the Tai-speaking people of Lop Buri and Suphan Buri to defeat the forces of the Khmer kingdom of Angkor, which had ruled the area for many years. As Ramathibodi, he established a capital at the strategically located trading center of Ayutthaya. Ramathibodi is known for his early attempts to centralize government administration through the appointment of four officers of state, who can be considered forerunners of cabinet ministers. In this system, he pieced together patterns of bureaucracy learned from Angkor. In addition, he developed a system of laws in which he codified earlier Thai patterns. These laws, with some modification, served as the basis of the Siamese legal system until the mid-19th century. The Buddhist religion was established during his reign. RAMAYANA. A great epic of Indian literature generally credited to the writer Valmiki. It is the story of Rama, who with his half brother was the incarnation of the god Vishnu. Though heir to the throne, he and his wife Sita were by guile driven into exile. There Sita was abducted by a demon. He recovered her with the help of the wise monkey king Hanuman and the monkey army. Rama regained the throne, but gossip caused him to put away/exile Sita. However, she proved her virtue and bore Rama twin sons. Portions of the epic are frequently used for drama presentations in Southeast Asia. Scenes from this epic, called Ramakian in Thailand, are presented in dance drama, shadow plays, and puppet shows.

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RAMBHAI BARNI, QUEEN (1911–1984)

RAMBHAI BARNI, QUEEN (1911–1984). Wife of King Prajadhipok of Thailand. After the Revolution of 1932, both the king and queen were self-exiled and lived in Great Britain. After World War II, Rambhai came back to Thailand and settled in Chanthaburi. She was active in promoting Thai handicrafts. RAMKHAMHAENG. King of Sukhothai (reigned 1279–1298). Ramkhamhaeng achieved a large and powerful kingdom by the end of his reign. He was an outstanding warrior, statesman, scholar, and diplomat. His armies conquered much of what today is central and southern Thailand, at the expense of the Khmer Kingdom of Angkor. He also gained dominance over an area that is today the northern part of Laos and Burma. His control was consolidated through diplomatic relations with neighboring kingdoms and principalities. He visited China, then ruled by the Mongols, and accepted vassalage. Ramkhamhaeng’s governing style reflects in part a Chinese pattern in which a small principality was subservient to the overlord of a larger state who in turn was a vassal of yet another stronger state. However, the system had a Tai pattern of informality and personal relationships, namely interaction between commoners and minor chieftains whose ties with the king or his subordinates were primarily personal and kinlike. Ramkhamhaeng’s reign was a period of development for the Thai peoples within his domains. From the Mon, whose civilization preceded the Thai in Southeast Asia, he became a believer in Theravada Buddhism. He invited Buddhist monks to come from Ceylon and later made Buddhism the state religion. He initiated the notion of the king as a paternalistic ruler. He placed a bell outside the palace so that any citizen could ring and gain an audience in order to present the king with a grievance. Ramkhamhaeng’s reign is credited with the creation of the Thai alphabet, adapting it from Mon and Khmer scripts. With minor changes, this is the alphabet used today in Thailand. See also KINGSHIP. RANAD EK. A Thai treble xylophone, consisting of 21 seasoned wooden bars, which are graduated and mounted on a boat-shaped sound box. The bars are tapped with both soft and hard beaters. The ranad thong ek or ranad lek, another treble xylophone, has steel bars

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and is played the same way as the ranad ek. Both instruments are used in the piphat orchestra. See also MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. RANAD THUM (THUM YAI). An alto xylophone with 17 wooden resonance bars. It resembles, and is played the same way as, the ranad ek, but is larger and has deeper tones. The ranad thong thum (also thum lek), another alto xylophone, has 18 steel resonance bars. It resembles, and is played the same way as, the ranad thong ek, but is larger and has deeper tones. See also MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; PIPHAT ORCHESTRA. RATCHASAP. See ROYAL LANGUAGE. RATTAN FURNITURE MAKING. A craft that uses the stems of plants of the genera calamus, a climbing palm. Rattan cane is slender, flexible, tough, and of uniform diameter. It is used both whole and split for wicker work and for wrappings. Products include chairs, stools, couches, and other furniture pieces. See also HANDICRAFTS. RATTANAKOSIN. The Thai name for the Bangkok Era, 1782 to the present. REFUGEES. Throughout its long history, Thailand has given shelter to refugees of various nationalities. Major inflows to Thailand include the Vietnamese nationals who, in 1945, fled the Indochinese War, and the soldiers of the 93rd Chinese Army Division and their families who, in 1949, fled Mainland China. Hundreds of thousands sought refuge in the eastern part of the country after the communist takeovers in Vietnam and Laos in 1975. Responding to Bangkok’s request, the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) set up an office in Thailand in 1977 to provide assistance. Fortunately, it was on hand for the similar upheaval in Cambodia in 1979 followed by another 14 years of civil war there. More than 20 years were needed for resettlement or repatriation of 360,000 Laotians, 160,000 Vietnamese, and 670,000 Cambodians. The most recent refugees were the more than 100,000 Burmese on the western border who fled Burma during the extreme hostile action of the government

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following the huge pro-democracy movement. Thailand seeks to implement a policy of granting only temporary asylum, pending either resettlement in third countries or repatriation. The UNHCR plan for integration of refugees is resisted by Thailand. RELIGION. The religion of 95 percent of Thailand’s population is Buddhism, which was already in existence in parts of the country prior to the arrival of the Tai peoples. In the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati, located in the western Chao Phraya plain during the 6th to 11th centuries, the religion was Buddhism. The 12th century Khmer kingdoms of the Khorat Plateau also practiced Buddhism. In the Sukhothai kingdom, founded in the 13th century, the rulers sent monks to Sri Lanka, who returned with scriptures of conventional Theravada Buddhism. This form of Buddhism then became the established religion. Theravada Buddhism was also adopted by the kings of Ayutthaya and by the rulers of Lan Na and later throughout Siam (renamed Thailand in 1939). Buddhism has a relationship to the Kingdom of Thailand in that the Buddhist monkhood is supported by the king, who is required constitutionally to be a Buddhist. This relationship between Buddhism and the monarchy is considered both a treasure of the government and an indication of its legitimacy. Islam is practiced by four percent of Thailand’s population. Its adherents are chiefly in the four southernmost provinces, but are also found elsewhere. It was brought to the peninsula sometime between the 10th and 15th centuries as part of the maritime trade in that area. Christianity was brought to Thailand in the 16th and 17th centuries by Catholic missionaries from Portugal, Spain, and France. Protestant missionaries began arriving in the early 19th century. In December 2002, there were approximately 290,000 Catholics in Thailand and approximately 100,000 Protestants. The latter are chiefly members of the Baptist church and the Church of Christ. Christians are located mostly in Bangkok, but also in the Northern and Northeast Regions of Thailand. See also BUDDHIST ALL SAINTS DAY; BUDDHIST MONK; BUDDHISM AND POLITICS; BUDDHIST LENT; BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES; BUDDHIST TEMPLE COMPOUND. RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. There are four principal Buddhist religious days. Buddhist All Saints Day (makha bucha) commemorates

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the miracles that occurred just prior to the death of the Buddha. Triple Anniversary Day (visakha bucha) is the most sacred of Buddhist religious days and commemorates the birth, death, and enlightenment of the Buddha. Buddhist Monkhood Day (asalha bucha) commemorates the Buddha’s sermon to his first five disciples. End of Lent Ceremony (ok phansa) occurs on the 15th day of the waxing moon in October. The end of the three months’ period of Buddhist Lent is widely celebrated. After the End of Lent ceremony, on a day during the next month, a kathin ceremony is performed. RESEARCH. In the past two decades, there has been growing interest in research within the Thai government, the private sector, and nongovernmental organizations. The chief impediment to research in Thailand has been financial due to the lack of a tradition for research support from private corporations. Factors promoting interest in Thai research include the experience of Thai students who have completed advanced degrees in universities abroad, the involvement of Thai individuals with foreign scholars who carry on research in Thailand, and the growing availability of research grants from foreign sources. As of August 2000, Thailand had four main private or mostly private research granting agencies, The National Research Council of Thailand, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Thailand Research Fund, and Health Systems Research Institute. Another sector of research activity has been in Thai universities that have one or more affiliated research institutes. REVOLUTION OF 1932. The events of June 1932 marked the end of the absolute monarchy in Thailand and the beginning of the constitutional era. The Revolution of 1932 was precipitated by a bloodless coup d’etat led by a group of civilians and military officers who had the support of a Thai Army unit. Key persons in the coup group, often called the “promoters,” included men educated in European universities (such as Pridi Phanomyong, a brilliant intellectual, Phahonyothin, a disaffected old-line military officer, and Phibun Songkhram, an ambitious young army officer). At the time of the coup, Thailand was in the grip of the worldwide depression and had just reduced its civil service personnel by one-fourth. King Prajadhipok had taken some steps toward a constitution but was opposed

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by others in the royal family and had not pursued such a drastic move effectively. After the Revolution of 1932, the Thai king continued as head of state and the governmental system invested power in a Council of Ministers with military officers typically in control. This changed in 1988 when the National Assembly was elected and the Council of Ministers, without army officers, became the chief governmental power. RICE (KHAO). For centuries, rice has been the dominant crop in the nation’s agriculture and the main food in the Thai diet. Both glutinous and nonglutinous rice in numerous varieties are grown. The former is preferred for home consumption in the Northern and Northeast Regions of Thailand. Nonglutinous rice predominates in the rest of Thailand and is produced for domestic use and for export. In general, farmers grow rice in the valleys near streams that provide the water for wet-rice agriculture. Fields are laid out in a manner that guides the water into them during annual floods. The water flow is also controlled by dams and canals. In recent decades, large-scale irrigation works have been constructed by government agencies, which have done much to enhance rice production. Dry-rice farming is carried on in the upland areas on the margins of the valleys. Sometimes the fields are cleared by the “slash and burn” or swidden method. Upland rice is totally dependent on rainfall for successful growth. In the lowlands, water buffalo, formerly the principal power source for preparation of rice fields, have very largely been replaced with mechanized power devices. Water buffalo use has continued in areas where mechanization is not feasible. Motor vehicles have generally replaced animals for the transport of farm products and other commodities. Rice production by farm families, who reside in small villages, continues today, as in the past, as a basic feature in the structure of Thai society. See also AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY; TRADE. RICE MILLS. Large commercial mills separate rice into five or six grades and mill from 15 to 100 tons per day. Small mills have a three or four ton capacity and simply separate the rice from the husk and bran. The rice bran is the thin layer that surrounds the rice kernel and

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is sold as animal feed. The rice husk is the thick layer that surrounds the bran layer and rice kernel. It is used as fuel to run the large capacity mills and normally has no other commercial value. Labor in this industry has a guaranteed annual wage. The government imposes a rice milling tax. RIVERINE COMMERCE. The agricultural and commercial activities of Thailand, especially of the Central Region, utilize a vast network of inland canals ( khlong) and rivers that exceed 5,000 kilometers (3,125 miles) in length. A variety of river craft, including storeboats, barges, and tour boats, all predominantly motorized, are utilized in this commerce by the entrepreneurs who represent several different ethnic groups. The less heavily capitalized and more common forms of trade, such as movement of agricultural produce, minerals, and construction aggregates are handled by the Thai. The Sino–Thai are prominent in the highly specialized and capital-intensive activities such as rice trade, wholesale and retail trading of consumer goods, luxury items, and marketing of fresh produce. Riverine commerce is greater during April to November, which is also the period of greatest agricultural activity. Competition from trucks operating on a growing network of roads in Thailand has caused a decline in the amount of riverine commerce during recent decades. While transportation by train and truck is faster, it is also costlier than water transportation. See also STOREBOAT MERCHANT. ROCKET FESTIVAL (BUNBANGFAI). This is a widely celebrated festival in the agricultural areas of Northeast Region of Thailand. It is primarily a rain-making ritual addressed to guardian spirits but has overtones regarding the health and general well-being of the villagers. This festival, which occurs on a date between mid-May and mid-June, is climaxed with firing of locally made rockets and may include a procession and a fair at the Buddhist temple compound (wat). There is much gaiety with uninhibited songs, dances, sexual innuendoes, and pantomimes. ROLIN-JAEQUEMYNS, GUSTAVE (1835–1901). Belgian advisor to King Chulalongkorn from 1892 to 1899. He had been a Belgian

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cabinet minister and was trained as a lawyer. He assisted in Thai judicial reform and supported the founding of the law school. During the hostilities of 1893 with France, he energetically advocated reliance on Great Britain. In 1896, he was awarded a high noble rank by the king. See also FOREIGN ADVISORS. ROSE GARDEN. A privately owned picturesque country resort near Nakhon Pathom City, 32 kilometers (20 miles) west of Bangkok. It consists of landscaped flower gardens, tree-lined roads, orchards, and park lands, bordered by the Nakhon Chaisri River. There are tourist attractions including a typical Thai village, a Thai wedding ceremony, village handicrafts, Thai sports and games, folk dancing, sword fighting, and elephants at work. ROYAL LANGUAGE (RATCHASAP). A special language used in conversations with or about Thai royalty and, in different degrees, with lesser persons. The Thai recognize five categories or ranks of spoken rachasap. The highest form is that used in speaking with the king and queen; the second category is used for the crown prince and all those of royal blood down to and including the rank of mom chao; the third is used for all other nobility; the fourth, for the Buddhist monkhood; the fifth consists of all the polite forms of language used among ordinary people. This special language has a history of use in Thailand since the Sukhothai period 700 years ago. See also ROYAL RANKS AND TITLES. ROYAL PLOWING CEREMONY (RAEK NA). The plowing ceremony, an event in Bangkok near the Grand Palace, occurs in early May. It is intended to commence the rice-growing season for the nation’s farmers. It is said to foretell rainfall amounts and ensure good crops. Brahman priests have charge of the rites, which are presided over by the king. The director-general of the Rice Department, who is Lord of the Ceremony, guides a plow drawn by oxen decorated with flowers. He is followed by four women who scatter rice on the ground. The rice seed used was blessed in religious rites the previous evening in a ceremony also conducted by the king. Farmers who attend pick up the scattered grains and mix them with their own rice to enhance its productivity. Farmers take comfort that the omens

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were consulted, the seed blessed, and the season inaugurated with religious rites. ROYAL RANKS AND TITLES. To address the king or persons of royal birth in Thai requires the use of a complicated set of pronouns whereby each term reveals the relevant distinctions of the status of the speaker and the person spoken to. A foreigner, fortunately, may resort to simpler European usage and terminology. The king or queen are addressed as “your majesty.” The child of a king and queen has the rank chao fa and is addressed “your royal highness.” The grandson of a king and queen has the rank mom chao and is addressed “your highness.” Prior to Rama VI, when polygamy was practiced, the child of a king and minor wife had the rank phra ong chao and was addressed “your royal highness.” Since 1910, the Thai royal family has been monogamous. Mom chao is the lowest princely rank, but the offspring of mom chao have a noble rank of mom rajawongse (often shown as the abbreviation M.R.), and their grandchildren have the noble rank mom luang (M.L.). After this fifth generation, there are no further ranks of titles and royal descendants become commoners. See also ROYAL LANGUAGE. RUBBER. Rubber trees were introduced into southern Thailand by the British in 1901. As a result of government regulations, the industry was developed by local landowners whose holdings averaged 12 to 15 rai (five to six acres). Rubber trees are tapped regularly and the liquid is processed into sheets by the owner. After the sheets are cured by smoking, they are sold. Thai rubber has long had a reputation for low quality, due to the continued use of old trees. With government assistance, rubber farmers have nearly completed an extensive replanting program. The new trees have increased the potential for a better-quality product. Rubber continues to be an important export crop. RUSK-THANAT AGREEMENT OF 1962. A foreign affairs protocol in which the United States was committed to the defense of Thailand if the need arose, without prior agreement by other Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) members. The agreement was broadened and used as a basis for American support of the Thai

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government’s action against the Communist Party insurgency in the 1960s and 1970s.

–S– SAFFRON ROBE. The distinctive orange-colored garb worn by Buddhist monks in Thailand. SAISUREE JUTIKUL (1934– ). Educator, social worker, politician. Saisuree was educated in Thailand and in the United States. She served as minister of education in the cabinet of Prime Minister Anand Panyarachun. The daughter of Pornsil and Sudsawat Jutikul, she was born in Bangkok. She received her Ph.D. degree in educational psychology and guidance from Indiana University in 1962. Saisuree has held positions as dean of the Education Faculty, Khonkaen University, 1969–1975 and director of the Long-Term Planning Board for Children’s Development, 1979–1981. She has also received several decorations from the king and honorary doctorates from Khonkaen University and Whitworth College, Spokane, Washington. SAIYASAT. The practice of magic of Hindu origin, used by certain ritual specialists to ward off evil, tell horoscopes, and confer happiness. While most of those who practice saiyasat are Buddhist monks, only a tiny proportion of all monks engage in this magic. However, more acceptance is given to a magical practitioner who is also a Buddhist monk. SAKDI NA. Having a sufficient supply of labor and its management was a central concern in Siamese kingdom governments. Sakdi na, starting with King Borommatrailokanat in 1454, was the basic method of labor allocation and management until it was abandoned in the early 20th century. Royal grants to chieftains throughout the kingdom included privileges and duties of administration, military service, and shares in control of people. To handle the latter, every resident below the king was given a rank measured in units of sakdi na. A higher rank conferred power to use lower-ranked laborers. Farmers, the most numerous segment of the population, had the low-

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est rank. Chieftains had the highest rank and thus the right to command those of lower rank to assist in carrying out their official duties. Chieftains and nobles could also demand rice and other products from the farmers, with a portion going to the royal court. Both sakdi na and corvee were means for the king to obtain rice from the farmers and also the labor needed as servants or soldiers, for road and building construction and other work. SALA. A simply constructed building located at a wat. They often consist only of a floor and a ceiling supported by posts and may be extensively decorated. They are used for visiting, holding local meetings, and as places to sleep overnight. SALWIDHAN NIDHES, LT. GEN. PHRAYA (1892–1977). Salwidhan served the kings of Siam, five in all, for more than 75 years, beginning with King Chulalongkorn and continuing until his death in 1977 with the present king, Bhumibol Adulyadej. In 1909, he was the first of the king’s scholars to study in the United States and the first Siamese to graduate from Harvard University. In 1913, he earned a degree of bachelor of science in engineering and in 1914 a master’s degree in mathematics. Upon his return, he began his work with the Royal Survey Department under the Ministry of Defense. He spent more than six decades lecturing at Chulalongkorn University, at both the Faculty of Sciences and the Faculty of Engineering. He was given the title of Phraya in 1929 and became the director of the Royal Survey Department in 1930. In the same year, he was the last person to obtain the rank of major general before the Revolution of 1932. In 1950, he was appointed lieutenant general and special aide-de-camp to King Bhumibol. SANEH CHAMARIK (1927– ). Educator and writer. Saneh was educated in Thailand at Thammasat University and in Great Britain at Manchester University. He was formerly a member of the Political Science Faculty of Thammasat University and also Thammasat’s vice-rector. Saneh has been prominent in community development in Thailand and is a member of the National Human Rights Commission. He also has been a leader of the Social Science Textbook Project, which produces texts for higher education, was an advisor to the

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former Prime Minister Prem Tinsulanonda, and has received awards for his contributions to Thai education and society. Saneh’s many books and articles deal with such subjects as peace, politics, development, human rights, and education. SANGHA. See BUDDHIST MONKHOOD. SANITARY DISTRICT. A geographic unit with the same boundaries as those of the district capital where such a unit has been established. Governance of the sanitary district is concerned with refuse collection, water and sewage facilities, recreation, and road maintenance. These functions are in the hands of a district sanitation committee chaired by the district officer. Funding, provided by the district administration, is an annual budget item. Nearly 1,000 of the sanitary districts were classified as tambon municipalities in 1999. SANSKRIT. Classical standard language of India. Important religious and literary chronicles have been preserved in the Sanskrit language, including religious texts of Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism. The Tai languages contain many words borrowed or adapted from Sanskrit. SANUK. Activities that are fun or pleasure-oriented, such as games, dancing, music, shows, and travel; also enjoying food and drink with companions or talking, teasing, and joking among friends. The Thai like and respect those who can make them laugh and feel happy. Even in work, the sanuk value operates to give the more interesting occupations higher prestige than jobs that are boring or routine. In Thai culture, the sanuk value is integrated with the emphasis on suffering in Buddhist dogma. The Thai accept this idea only in the sense that suffering is unavoidable in life and death and will occur eventually. They assert that to reduce suffering, however, we should enjoy ourselves as much as we can. SANYA DHARMASAKTI (1907–2002). Jurist, educator, prime minister, and privy councillor. Sanya was educated in Thailand and Great Britain. He studied law in both countries and was admitted to the English bar. In Bangkok, he served as a judge and as chief judge of

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the Court of Appeals. Later he was appointed to the Supreme Court of which he was president during 1963–1967. Sanya became dean of the Faculty of Law, Thammasat University, where he served as university rector, 1972–1974. Sanya was named to the Privy Council in 1968 and became president of the Privy Council in 1975. He was appointed prime minister in 1973 by King Bhumibol Adulyadej, when the previous prime minister was forced into exile in the aftermath of the 1973 Student Uprising. Sanya’s attempt, in 1974, while prime minister, to install a national constitution that reflected democracy was not successful. SAOWABHA PONGSRI, QUEEN (1863–1919). Saowabha was a daughter of King Mongkut and a princess. As wife of King Chulalongkorn, and queen, she became the mother of Kings Vajiravudh and Prajadhipok. During her years as queen she exerted an influence that encouraged countless Thai women from all walks of life to engage in social welfare work, to continue their education, and to study abroad under her sponsorship. Queen Saowabha was a pioneer in bringing modern methods of childbirth to the Thai kingdom. In 1897, she established with her own funds a midwifery school in Thailand, which later became the Siraraj Nursing School. The health center, that she opened in 1919, later became the headquarters of the Thai Red Cross Society. Saowabha was given the title somdej phra by King Chulalongkorn. She was also known as Sipatcharinthra. SARIT THANARAT (1908–1963). Prime minister (1959–1963) and military leader. Sarit was born in Bangkok, the son of a Siamese army linguist. He was a graduate of the Royal Military Academy and gained distinction with the Thai Army in World War II and as a military administrator. In 1945, he commanded a regiment located in the nation’s capital, and his troops played a central role in a 1947 coup that ushered in Phibun Songkhram as prime minister for a second time. Sarit’s troops also suppressed two other rebellions. His career advanced and he became supreme commander of the armed forces and minister of defense. In 1957, Sarit led a coup against Prime Minister Phibun, who stepped down and went into exile. After Sarit obtained medical treatment abroad, he assumed full power as prime minister in 1958 after

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two interim prime ministers that he named. He served until his death in 1963. He abolished the National Assembly and established what he called a “revolutionary government” that was authoritarian. Neither religious, intellectual, nor political dissent was permitted and dissenters were treated harshly. In dealing with the Communist threat, Sarit had the cooperation of the United States. One of his accomplishments was a restoration and redefinition of the monarchy, which he felt was essential for the benefit of society. As a result, the king, Bhumibol Adulyadej, became more active, with the revival of neglected public ceremonies and tours of the provinces. Sarit’s support of the monarchy bolstered his government’s authority. Social and economic development included highway construction, irrigation, rural electrification, new farming techniques and an increase in the Gross Domestic Product. Sarit paid particular attention to the improvement of primary education in the villages. In Bangkok, Sarit emphasized cleanliness, orderliness, and curbing prostitution. For the country, he promoted national security through adding to infrastructure. See also THANOM KITTIKACHORN. SATTAHIP. A modern military port and district center in Chon Buri Province, located southeast of Bangkok. It is the main naval base in Thailand. Much of it is a restricted military zone. SAW. A traditional singing form in northern Thailand, which consists of an impromptu repartee style of song between a man and a woman on any subject, religious, romantic, etc. The singing may be accompanied by several persons, each playing a reed wind instrument (pi). See also DANCE DRAMA. SAYRE, FRANCIS B. (1885–1972). Advisor to and representative of Thai kings, 1923–1932. Sayre was an American professor of law, 1914–1923, United States government official, 1931–1942, and United Nations advisor, 1944–1952. King Vajiravudh engaged Sayre to serve first as treaty negotiator and foreign affairs advisor and later as Siam’s official representative to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. As Siam’s representative from 1924–1925, Sayre concluded treaty negotiations with 10 European nations. This removed extraterritoriality privileges for Europeans that had been im-

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posed on Siam during the mid-19th century. The new treaties also ended trade restrictions on Siam and reestablished tariff autonomy. See also FOREIGN ADVISORS. SCULPTURE, RELIGIOUS. Buddhism has been the dominant influence in sculpture, and the Thai gained wide recognition for their representations of Buddha. Statues of the Buddha produced in the period from the 13th to the 15th centuries are considered to be the finest examples of pure Thai sculpture. The most common Buddha images were of stucco; stone, popular in neighboring countries, was not commonly used. Poses were fairly standard: seated, with legs folded and in a mood of contemplation, reclining, or walking. Because Buddha was sacred, he was usually represented in idealized form. SECOND KING. A title first used in King Borommatrailokanat’s reign (1448–88) and granted by the reigning monarch; the holder was second in status only to the king. The title was seldom used. It involved more substantive duties than did the uparaja appointment but did not necessarily imply that the holder was the heir apparent. King Mongkut in 1851 was the only king of the Chakri dynasty to appoint a second king. SEKSAN PRASERTKUL (1949– ). Social and political activist since his student days. Seksan has participated in movements and organizations focused on improving life for the poor and bringing full democracy to Thailand. He was a leader in the student uprising of October 1973 against the national government. The nearly half million demonstrators and protestors brought to an end the rule of Thanom Kittakachorn, leading to elected governments for a short time. The widespread campaigns for correcting societal ills in Thailand ceased with the return of authoritarian governments in October 1976. Seksan was a member of the Communist Party of Thailand (CPT) for a short time; with many others he accepted the amnesty offered by the government and left the CPT in 1980. Seksan did post-graduate studies in the United States and earned a Ph.D. at Cornell University in 1987. Since then he has taught political science at Thammasat University and has served that faculty as a dean. He has authored many books and scholarly articles.

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SEM PRINGPUANGKAEW (1911– ). Dr. Sem is often referred to by health workers as a “father figure” in health and medical matters due to his lifelong concern for health care development in Thailand. Through Dr. Sem’s efforts, public health services have been greatly broadened and made accessible, especially in rural areas. During his almost five years as Minister or deputy minister of the Thai Ministry of Public Health in the 1970s and 1980s, a significant reorganization gave province and district Public Health units more independence and achieved a more coordinated clinical medical system. During his long experience as a rural doctor, which began in 1935 following his graduation from Siriraj Medical School, Dr. Sem recognized the lack of health services for villagers. As a result, he strove to build the infrastructure for increased medical services. With private funding, he founded the Chiang Rai hospital in 1942. Later he responded to the high death rate of women in childbirth and aided in establishing Ratchawithi Women’s Hospital in Bangkok. He was also a leader in creating Thailand’s first nurses training school. Dr. Sem was cited for initiating progressive management in the public health agency. SENATE. See NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. SENI PRAMOJ, M. R. (1905–1997). A distinguished government official, elected to the House of Representatives several times, who served three short terms as prime minister. In 1975, he was the leader of the Democrat Party (prachatiphat). Long a lawyer by occupation, he has also served in Thailand’s Diplomatic Service. As prime minister, he headed the Thai government for four months in 1945–1946, when Thailand was recovering from World War II. During that war, Seni was ambassador to the United States and was active in the Free Thai Movement, which sought to drive out the Japanese military occupation. When the Japanese pressured Thailand to declare war on the United States, Seni refused to notify the United States government. SERI THAI MOVEMENT. See FREE THAI. SHADOW PLAY (NANG TALUNG). A traditional dance drama. The shadow play or Nang Talung is a form of dance drama performed by

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casting shadows of cowhide figures or puppets on a screen. The figures dance the roles and the story is recounted by a narrator, with an accompanying orchestra and sometimes a chorus. The shadows are cast by manipulating the hide figures between a bright light and the back of a screen of white cloth. Presentations of the shadow-play drama are decreasing. It is occasionally seen in southern Thailand during festivals at the Buddhist temple compound (wat). A similar drama, popular in Java and Bali, is called the Wayang Kulit. SI BURAPHA. See KULAP SAIPRADIT. SI SATCHANALAI. An archaeological site consisting of the ruins of pottery kilns 65 kilometers (41 miles) north of the city of Sukhothai and 11 kilometers (7 miles) south of the town of Si Satchanalai on the Yom River. Ceramics of the Sukhothai type were produced here in the 14th to 15th centuries. SI THEP. An archaeological site (also called Si Deva) 110 kilometers (70 miles) south of Phetchabun City in the district of Wichian Buri, Phetchabun Province. It was excavated in 1935–1936 by Dr. Quaritch Wales. The ruins are of an Indian settlement of the fifth century. During the ninth century, it was an outpost of the Khmer Kingdom, which had its capital at Angkor. SIAM. The nation known today as Thailand was, prior to 1939, called Siam in European languages. In the 13th century, the Chao Phraya valley had the name Siam in a Chinese chronicle of the time. Previous to that, inhabitants of the valley were called Siamese in Pagan and Khmer inscriptions dating from the 11th century. By the 17th century, Siam was generally used as the country’s name among Europeans. However, the Thai have a tradition of calling the nation by the official name of its capital city. Thus, there was the Kingdom of Sukhothai (1238–1378), the Kingdom of Ayutthaya (1350–1767), and the Kingdom of Bangkok–Thonburi (since 1767). Siam became the official name of the nation in 1856, at the time of the Bowring Treaty between Siam and Great Britain. In 1939, the name Phrathed Thai was adopted in place of Phrathed Sayam and its equivalent in English was the name Thailand. The latter name change occurred

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during the government of Prime Minister Phibun Songkhram. Historically, the Thai people have referred to themselves as muang thai. Muang corresponds to “land” and thai signifies “free.” Hence, Thailand means “land of the free.” SIAM SOCIETY. A learned society dealing with all aspects of the arts and sciences in Thailand and neighboring countries. Founded in 1904, the Society publishes the Journal of the Siam Society and other scholarly works on Southeast Asian culture, arts, science, and literature. Since 1910, the king has been the royal patron of the Society, whose membership includes many distinguished Southeast Asian scholars. The new and present home and library of the Society was opened in 1922. The Natural History Society was founded as a section of the Society in 1925. The Natural History Bulletin is published as a separate but companion piece to the Journal of the Siam Society. SIAMESE. Until 1939, the name by which the Thai people of the Chao Phraya River Valley were known. This distinguished them from the Tai-language people of Laos, northern Thailand, northern Vietnam, southwestern China, and northern Burma. The word Siamese is a variant of the word Sayam appearing in ancient Southeast Asian inscriptions. Between 1939 and 1946 and since 1949, the preferred usage has been to employ “Thai” and not “Siamese” to describe the dominant ethnic group of Thailand and “central Thai” to denote the Thai of the Central Region. SILK, THAI. Thai silk is a traditional fabric that has been produced in the Northeast Region for centuries. The silk is now spun in several weights, comes in solid colors, plaids, stripes, checks, brocades, and prints, and is used in clothing and house furnishings. Thai silk is noted for its iridescence and unusual slightly knotty texture due to natural unevenness in the threads. The declining silk industry was revived after World War II by Jim Thompson, who developed new patterns and more permanent dyes, improved production methods, and introduced Thai silk to Westerners. In 1972, a silk weaving project, encouraged and supported by Queen Sirikit, was started in the northeast province of Nakhon Phanom. The industry has expanded to employ hundreds of small home weaving units, producing high quality,

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multicolored shimmering silk. The Northeast Region is still the main center of production. The company that Thompson built is the largest hand-weaving facility in the world. Today, Thai silk is the best known of the country’s handicrafts. SILPA BHIRASRI (1892–1962). Sculptor and a leading art educator. Born in Italy, Professor Silpa Bhirasri (originally Corrado Feroci) secured an education in Italy and gained recognition there for his work in art, especially in sculpture. He came to Thailand in 1923 at the request of King Vajiravudh. Among his early sculptures are those of King Vajiravudh at the Grand Palace and at the entrance to Lumpini Park in Bangkok. In 1933, Professor Silpa Bhirasri was a leader in the organization of the first Thai school of fine arts, which later was expanded into Silpakorn University. While in the Fine Arts Department, he sculpted many significant monuments and also did sculptures of famous Thais. His early students included Cham Khaomeechen, Sawang Songmangmee, and Sithidet Sanghiran. These artists were among the first to produce art that combined both Western and Thai patterns. In 1949, and annually since then, Silpa, his students, and art school graduates have presented national exhibitions of Thai art. As a result, both Thai art and Thai artists have gained international attention. Silpa was honored in 1992 with his picture on a postage stamp. He was a prolific writer, authoring more than 60 books on art subjects. Some consider him the father of Thai modern art. SINGH. A mythical lion, a stone statue of which guards pagodas and Buddhist temples. Singh statues are usually located in pairs at the entrances. SINO–THAI. This term refers to those persons in Thailand who have a mixed Thai and Chinese ancestry. The Sino–Thai have been business leaders and hold a dominant role in the Thai economy and have achieved prominence both in Thailand and abroad for their accomplishments. Political patronage involving a number of Thai government officials played a prominent part in the business growth brought about by the Sino–Thai. However, as the Chinese entrepreneurs gained in wealth, influence, and acceptance, they no longer needed

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the help of the Thai, who had received financial benefits in return. Some Sino–Thai businessmen became active in politics and some served on the Council of Ministers while others have been elected to the National Assembly. The Sino–Thai have adopted Thai surnames, secured a Thai education, and obtained Thai citizenship. Following their education, some have joined family businesses while many others have entered the civil service, where they have advanced to high positions. All this indicates that the so-called “ethnic Chinese” have very largely been culturally assimilated. SIPSONG CHAU TAI. An area of what today is the border region of both northern Vietnam and southeastern China that is supposedly the place of origin of the Tai-speaking peoples. A federation of 12 Tai principalities called Sipsong Chau Tai was located in the mountainous region west of the Black River. This was preceded by an earlier political grouping of Tai-speakers before they became consolidated into a kingdom. The chief town in this region, Dien-Bien-Phu, was built on an earlier site of a Tai town named Muang Theng, which means “city of gods.” The foregoing represents the “South Asian Coastal Regions” theory of the origin of the Tai-speaking peoples. See also LANGUAGE AND THAI REGIONALISM. SIRIDHORN, HER ROYAL HIGHNESS CROWN PRINCESS MAHA CHAKRI (1955– ). Daughter of King Bhumibol and Queen Sirikit of Thailand. In 1979, she obtained a master of arts in Oriental epigraphy from Silpakorn University, a master of arts in Pali and Sanskrit studies from Chulalongkorn University in 1981 and a doctoral degree in educational development from Sri Nakharinwirot University in 1986. Princess Siridhorn assists King Bhumibol in his court functions and serves as his private secretary. She introduces the king at official and religious ceremonies and at charitable events and promotes friendly relations with other countries by receiving foreign dignitaries visiting Thailand and by paying visits to foreign countries upon invitation. Princess Siridhorn accompanies the king and the queen on rural development missions to inspect the various royal projects sponsored in remote villages throughout the country. She founded the Sai Jai Thai Foundation of which she serves as chairman of the board. The Foundation’s objective is to assist and care for the

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soldiers, policemen, and civilians wounded and disabled in the line of duty. In December 1977, after the passage of a constitutional amendment permitting a royal daughter to succeed to the throne, King Bhumibol granted Princess Siridhorn the title of Crown Princess Somdej Phra. Her contribution to Thai culture has led to the national proclamation of her birthday, April 2, as the Thai Cultural Heritage Day, which is celebrated nationwide. Apart from her duties in service to the throne, she participates in academic functions and is president of the Thai Red Cross. Princess Siridhorn plays a number of classical Thai instruments, encourages musical training at all educational levels, and supervises the conservation of classical Thai music. In March 2000, the Chinese Language and Cultural Award was presented to HRH Siridhorn by the government of China in recognition of her command of the Chinese language and literature. SIRIKIT, HER MAJESTY QUEEN (1932– ). Born as Mom Rajawongse Sirikit Kitiyakara, she began her education in the tradition of children of the royal court. Sirikit’s parents then broke with precedent by sending their daughter to the St. Francis Xavier Convent School in Bangkok. She continued her advanced education in Great Britain. She was engaged to Crown Prince Bhumibol on July 19, 1949, and was married on April 28, 1950. On May 5, 1950, King Bhumibol Adulyadej was crowned the ninth monarch of the Chakri dynasty, and Sirikit became Queen Sirikit of Thailand. The queen has devoted her time to family life. The offspring are Princess Ubolratana, born in 1951; Crown Prince Vajiralongkorn, 1952; Crown Princess Maha Chakri Siridhorn, 1955; and Princess Chulabhorn, 1957. On November 1, 1991, Queen Sirikit was awarded the First International Humanitarian Award by the Friends of the Capitol Children’s Museum in Washington, D.C., in recognition of her contributions to humanitarian activities in Thailand, particularly the activities of SUPPORT established in 1976. Also, in 1976, on the birthday of the queen, August 12, Thailand’s Mother’s Day was established. Early in 1992, Queen Sirikit received the first United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization Borobodur Medal in honor of her 60th birthday. This was followed on August 2, 1992,

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by awards from UNICEF in recognition of her dedication to improving the lives of mothers and children in Thailand and from UNIFEM in recognition of her support of Thai women’s contribution to their country. In 1993, the queen received an honorary doctorate from Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., and the Woman of the Year award from Stanford University, in California. In 1995, the queen received the 1995 Charles Lindbergh Award for her educational and humanitarian efforts on behalf of the people in Thailand and other countries. As queen of Thailand, she has acted with dedication and character, which has endeared her to the Thai people. SNOH UNAKUL (1931– ). Dr. Snoh is known for his distinguished career as an economic development planner and policy maker in key Thai government positions. In 1954, he completed higher education in Australia and in 1961, a doctorate in economics in the United States. On his return to Thailand he served in successive national governments in high-level advisory positions with occasional stints in administrative roles. Dr. Snoh participated in the decisions to create the Budget Bureau and the National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB). In the latter agency he served for six years as a planner and then advanced to a 10-year term as secretary-general of the agency. While serving as governor of the Bank of Thailand (BOT) (1975–1979) and also while with the NESDB (1980–1989), Dr. Snoh and others were successful in the encouragement of foreign investment in Thailand. Dr. Snoh was appointed to a variety of agencies and committees that were focused on economic and social development. He was a leader among a group of professionals (technocrats) who sought in the mid-1980s to have export production take the central role in the Thai economy. A second goal of this group was to make investment capital easier to obtain through bank loans and foreign direct investment (FDI). In retirement, Dr. Snoh continues to serve on boards of trustees, advisory boards, and on the board of directors of two corporations. SOAI (KUI). An ethnolinguistic group numbering more than 100,000 located on both sides of Thailand’s border with northern Cambodia.

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The majority of the Soai are in Thailand, and they may speak Tai-Lao or Khmer in addition to their own language. The Soai were probably in the area prior to the coming of the Thai and the Khmer. Their agriculture is very similar to that of the Thai. Some have become skilled in elephant hunting or in iron forging. The Buddhist religion has been widely adopted although animism is also practiced. SOCIAL ACTION PARTY (KIT SANGKHOM). Formed in 1974 the Social Action Party was initially led by Kukrit Pramoj who remained the leader for about 12 years. The ideology and political goals defined in that period have continued. It has also continued to be an active and relevant political party along with only three or four other parties. During its early years and subsequently, the Social Action Party promoted reforms. Its agenda focused on medical assistance to the poor, improvement of wage scales for labor, and needed public housing. Another party program in the early years was the building of infrastructure. This was done by distribution of funds to council representatives of villages for schools, health centers, roads, irrigation works, etc. The program was put on hold by opposition from conservatives, although there have been occasional short-lived attempts in recent decades. The Thaksin Shinawatra administration, in 2002, initiated a similar national program with funds made available to Subdistrict Administrative Organizations for development projects. SOCIAL MOBILITY. Thai society is generally regarded as “open” for those who seek to advance in prestige and status. The main channels used for upward social mobility are the Buddhist monkhood (sangha); the civil service; advanced secular education; and pai thiaw. SOCIAL WELFARE AND POLITICS. For decades there has been an awareness of rural and urban poverty in Thailand. This concern, however, was not translated into action by authoritarian governments due to their focus on other public policy matters. Efforts in the 1970s to cope with political instability associated with the Communist Party of Thailand changed this. Limited programs of economic and social assistance were provided to ethnic minorities in the northern highlands,

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in the Northeast Region and in the extreme south. Any social welfare that was accomplished was mainly a byproduct of efforts to improve state security. In the 1973–1976 period, elected democratic governments prevailed in Thailand. Reform-minded leaders facilitated a fresh availability of credit for farmers and central government funds moved directly to more than 5,000 communes (tambons). This enabled these units of local government to build roads, reservoirs, public buildings, generate electricity, and complete other infrastructure. Another reform measure was the 1975 Labor Relations Act. This permitted labor unions to bargain collectively with employers and medium- to large-sized firms were required to maintain agreements made with labor regarding wages, hours, welfare benefits, and other matters. Land reform legislation was yet another reform measure. It was minimally effective due mainly to limited funding and lack of cooperation by the local bureaucracy. This three-year opening for needed social reform was not sustained due primarily to the weakness and inexperience of political parties. Another factor was the absence of means for student activists, workers, and farmers to participate in the political process. A significant rural development program was instituted in 1982 with leadership by Prime Minister Prem Tinsulanonda. This effort brought improvements in rural health care and rural primary education. There was some advance in nutrition, family planning, and disease prevention through the provision of health education. Political stability existed at this time in the elected House of Representatives. A major social welfare development was the Social Security Act of 1990, which was promoted by the then Prime Minister Chatchai Choonhavan and his administration. Strong support for this came from labor unions, academics, and all political parties. Initially, the coverage included the provision of benefits for maternity, death, sickness, and accident or disability. Additional coverage in 1998 provided benefits for family allowances and old age benefits. Implementation of the Social Security Act depends on contributions from workers, employers, and the national government. Another social welfare advance was a program that greatly increased access to health care for rural people. The promise to bring this about was probably a major factor in the huge electoral victory by

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the Thai Rak Thai political party in January 2001. This made Thaksin Shinawatra, the party leader, the prime minister. The new health care program enables rural residents to secure visits with a doctor for a fee of 30 baht (US$0.65). See also NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS; PHILANTHROPY. SOMMAI HOONTRAKUL (1918–1993). Economist and government financial administrator. After obtaining a bachelor’s degree in economics at a Tokyo university, Sommai served as an influential officer in the Bank of Thailand (BOT) for 27 years. There he managed the BOT’s examination and supervision of banks and other Thai financial institutions. He was also able to largely modernize the BOT. He served as finance minister in the Council of Ministers of three prime ministers during the years 1973–1975 and 1980–1985. In the latter government, that of Prime Minister Prem Tinsulanonda, Sommai dealt with an economic crisis in Thailand characterized by low BOT foreign reserves, high oil prices, fiscal and trade deficits, and a decline in exports. He instituted an austerity program that included tax increases and better collection, a no-growth national budget for two years, and devaluation of the currency. Sommai’s contacts in Japan resulted in capital investment and needed low-cost loans for the Thai economy. Thailand’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate increased rapidly in the 1980s. There were also substantial increases in the nation’s foreign reserves during 1989–1991. This return of prosperity in Thailand is seen as a result of Sommai’s financial administration. SOMPONG SUCHARITKUL (1931– ). Diplomat, specialist in international law. Sompong completed law and other studies in Thailand, Great Britain, France, and the United States. He taught briefly in two law schools in Thailand after which he served his country in several high-level capacities. Entering the Foreign Ministry in 1959, he held positions as secretary to the minister, director-general of economics, and director-general of treaty and legal affairs. In a series of ambassadorial appointments, he served in The Netherlands and Belgium, Japan, France, and Portugal, Italy, and Greece. Sompong represented Thailand in international conferences of the United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and at meetings on trade

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law, international law, and the International Court of Arbitration. His publications include books and articles on international law. SONGKHLA. A large province on southern Thailand’s east coast, pop. 1,097,200 (est.). Urban centers in Songkhla include Songkhla City, the capital, pop. 92,000 (est.), and Hat Yai, pop. 190,000 (est.). Hat Yai is the fifth largest city located outside of the Bangkok area. It is the commercial center and transportation hub for southern Thailand. Its shops and bazaars attract many people from the neighboring country of Malaysia as well as from Thailand. Nearby Hat Yai is the principal campus of the Prince of Songkhla University, which is a regional center of higher education. It offers programs of study in eight different schools or departments. In five of these, programs of postgraduate study are offered as well. Songkhla Province is a leader in commercial fisheries. It also ranks near the top among all provinces in commercial agriculture. Tin, wolfram concentrates, and rubber are other products. SONGKHLA LAKE. A large lake located on the peninsula in Songkhla Province. Songkhla City is located at the point where the lake waters flow into the Gulf of Thailand. SONGKRAN. A major festival in mid-April celebrating the beginning of the New Year according to the Thai lunar calendar. The old Songkran celebration is in part religious. In villages, almost everyone visits the local temple to sprinkle or bathe the Buddha images. Also, senior Buddhist monks and important Buddha images are paraded through the streets in a solemn procession. Often small sand pagodas are constructed in the temple grounds to earn merit, and elaborate offerings of flowers and incense are made. Homes are given a thorough cleaning, and younger members of the family show respect for their elders by pouring water over their hands. Water throwing came first to Chiang Mai from Burma and then spread throughout the country. Silver bowls, sizable buckets, and even water pistols are freely used to ensure that every passerby gets a thorough soaking. Everything is done in a spirit of good fun. A recent change in this festival is the use of gunlike equipment in some parts of the cities for a more aggressive water splash. These devices are available in a variety of sizes.

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Possessors of such equipment are warned that their use is potentially dangerous. See also CEREMONIES AND FESTIVALS. SOR SETABUT (1903–1970). An intellectual whose ability was recognized while in high school, Sor won a prestigious King’s Scholarship and completed an engineering degree at Manchester University in England in 1925. He studied journalism while abroad. He joined the Thai Royal Household Bureau in 1926 at the request of King Prajadhipok. Two years later, he became director-general of the Royal Household Privy Council Department. In 1930, at the direction of the king, he became editor of the Thai Newspaper, an official publication that provided to readers the king’s responses to criticisms of the monarchy that appeared in the press of the day. Sor’s close association with the Royal Court created serious problems for him following the Revolution of 1932 that toppled the Thai absolute monarchy, a movement that he opposed in contemporary newspaper essays. In 1933, Sor was arrested for having cooperated as a journalist with Prince Bowaradet who had led a failed rebellion attempting to restore the monarchy. The 11 years of his imprisonment overlapped with World War II when Thailand was occupied by the Japanese army. Sor and the other political prisoners were released in 1944 when the Japanese occupation ended. During his time in prison, Sor completed an English–Thai and a Thai–English dictionary. After that he also served briefly in a national government ministry and was elected to the House of Representatives of Thailand in January 1946. SOUTHEAST ASIA TREATY ORGANIZATION (SEATO). A collective security arrangement initiated by the United States and formed in September 1954. Other member nations were Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Thailand. If necessary to defend against Communist aggression in Southeast Asia, member nations would act jointly in defense. The SEATO headquarters was in Bangkok. The role of secretary general was handled by a prominent Thai official. Prior to the disbanding of SEATO in 1977, it helped to create the Asian Institute of Technology located in Bangkok. SOUTHEAST ASIAN MINISTERS OF EDUCATION ORGANIZATION (SEAMEO). This regional group of nations is, set up in

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1965, engaged in cooperative research in agriculture, tropical biology, tropical medicine and public health, education in science and mathematics, and language study. Other studies include vocational and technical education, archaeology and fine arts, educational innovation, and technology. Thailand is a member of this group along with nine other Southeast Asian countries: Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Vietnam. SOUTHERN REGION. This region, a narrow peninsula, is unique in climate, terrain, and natural resources. The extensive areas of mountainous tropical rain forests caused isolation of the region in its early history. Access to the peninsula through the Andaman Sea on the west and through the Gulf of Thailand on the east made the region a crossroads from early times. This enabled new religions, a flourishing trade, and a local political system to develop. Theravada Buddhism arrived at Nakhon Si Thammarat and Islam took root at Pattani. On the western side of the peninsula are large areas where rubber and palm oil are produced. Tin mining and processing has been on going for centuries. Rice farming and coconut plantations are prominent on the east side of the peninsula. Numerous islands lie along the western coast; the largest one is the tin-rich island of Phuket. Some of these islands have attractive beaches and tourism has become an important part of the region’s economy. The climate, while tropical, is more uniform throughout the year than in other parts of the nation. The region receives in some places up to 240 inches of rainfall annually. Most of the Southern Region’s towns and cities are along the coast, although the largest, Hat Yai, is well inland. The Southern Region is also the home of the Thai Muslims, a minority of some two million persons. While they are concentrated in the five southernmost provinces, smaller populations reside in another six provinces. SPIRIT HOUSE. See CHAO THI. SRI INDRADITYA. A founder and first king (reigned 1240–1270) of Sukhothai. This new kingdom was located in what today is the northern part of central Thailand. Sri Indraditya together with another local chieftain joined forces and overthrew the ruler of Syam. The lat-

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ter was an administrative center and outpost of the Khmer Kingdom of Angkor. For his bravery and heroism in this victory, Sri Indraditya was called Pra Ruang, which means “Glorious Prince.” SRI NAGARINDRA, SOMDEJ PHRA (1900–1995). Known as the princess mother and the mother of rural medicine in Thailand, she was the wife of Prince Mahidol, mother of King Ananda Mahidol and King Bhumibol Adulyadej. Her given name was Sangwal. Trained as a nurse in the United States, she created one of the largest voluntary medical services, the Voluntary Flying Doctor Foundation, in 1969. It is a network of efficient and dedicated medical and dental care personnel, radio medical clinics, and radio district hospitals operating almost all over the country where such care is inaccessible. After establishing the Flying Doctor Foundation, 20 or more other foundations were placed under her patronage. To promote handicrafts of hill tribes, she set up the Thai Hillcrafts Foundation in 1972. She also inspired the Foundation for Phra Sri Nagarindra Park project, which was initiated in 1981. Its committee is composed of representatives from both the government and private sectors to provide recreational grounds for children, youth, and the general public. In all these activities, she not only provided her own money for support, but also encouraged financial help from friends and well-off people. Always, her devotion to Buddhism was her guide. SRISAVANG PHUAVONG PHATYA (1931– ). Srisavang is known for her crusading work on behalf of women’s development, children’s development, and assistance for disabled children. Srisavang became involved with these issues late in her career with the Department of Technical and Economic Cooperation. Since resigning her government position in 1983 she has provided leadership for several non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and has been an advocate in assisting the underprivileged in presenting their causes. She protested the fact that when villagers demonstrate regarding their grievances, they are branded as troublemakers. She became chair of the national NGO network in 1994 with its focus on promoting cooperation between NGOs and national and provincial governments. Later, she turned over most of her NGO leadership roles to younger persons so that she could serve chiefly as a consultant.

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Besides an honorary degree from Thammasat University in 1987, she has received several awards for her achievements. STATE ENTERPRISES. State-owned enterprises as a factor in the national economy began in 1933 when the Department of Defense set up the Fuel Division to import petroleum. Today there are almost 60 state enterprises, at least half of which are in three government branches, namely, the Ministries of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, Interior, and Transport and Communication. Three motivational factors in the Thai government’s entry into the private economy can be identified. Two interrelated elements were nationalism and modernization. The third was to benefit the public. Relative to nationalism, the Thai wished to acquire for themselves the fruits of economic activity already exploited by the Chinese and foreigners. Early on, state enterprises took up rice milling, commercial banking, shipping, imports, and manufacturing in all of which the Chinese were felt to have a monopoly. The government’s participation in economic affairs had a symbolic effect of stimulating Thai entrepreneurs to engage in business. The state enterprises were useful in strengthening the national infrastructure as well. Other public ownership resulted from the government rescuing troubled finance companies. The Ministry of Finance also held shares in a large number of private firms. In consultation with advisers from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and others, there have been repeated signals for Thailand to convert the state enterprises into private ownership. STOREBOAT MERCHANT. A small-scale entrepreneur engaged in riverine commerce. The boat used is usually small (20 to 40 tons gross) made of hardwood and powered by an outboard motor. The bins, racks, and shelves in the cargo hold of the boat are arranged for the maximum display of the merchandise. Other goods are tied, hung, or piled on the decks and superstructure. The boat also serves as the home of the merchant. The storeboat businessman engages in both wholesaling and retailing, chiefly in consumer staples and various luxury items. In addition, he may act as money-lender, rice broker, middleman, and transport broker. He plies a regular trade circuit or route. Customers

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along the route predict fairly accurately the time of arrival of the storeboat trader. STROBEL, EDWARD HENRY. The first American to be appointed general advisor to the king of Thailand. He held that office from 1902 to 1908. Strobel was instrumental in negotiating Thai–French Treaties in 1904 and in 1907. The latter treaty ended French extraterritoriality in Thailand, which resulted in a significant advance in the national status of Thailand. However, in exchange, Thailand ceded to France territories over which it had previously claimed suzerainty. Strobel also initiated the negotiations leading to a similar Thai–British treaty. Strobel was highly regarded by King Chulalongkorn and others for his achievements in Thai foreign affairs. See also FOREIGN ADVISORS; GREAT BRITAIN, RELATIONS WITH. STUDENT UPRISING OF 1973. An event in October 1973 of 10 days’ duration that involved huge demonstrations in the city of Bangkok against the government headed by Prime Minister Thanom Khittikachorn and Deputy Prime Minister Praphas Charusathian. Both leaders were toppled from power in the turmoil and violence that occurred. King Bhumibol Adulyadej, the reigning monarch of Thailand, who normally remains aloof from politics, provided leadership in the crisis. The principal demands of the students, who were organized largely through the National Student Center of Thailand, were for a new national constitution and parliamentary elections. These demands were eventually met. A new constitution was promulgated in October 1974 and members of the House of Representatives were elected in January 1975. See also SARIT THANARAT. STUPA. See CHEDI. SUBDISTRICT ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION (SAO). In the context of a policy to encourage democracy and decentralize programs of local economic and social development, legislation in 1994 established a pattern for Subdistrict Administrative Organizations (SAOs) throughout Thailand. Those subdistricts that have their own territory outside of sanitary districts and municipalities, and have had annual income of at least 150,000 baht (US$3,750) for three continuous years,

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can have an SAO as an executive body. The members of the SAO are elected, with two representatives coming from each village of the subdistrict. Members make plans and decisions regarding local development projects and have the legal authority to raise and use funds in the subdistrict. They can tax property, public utilities, and commercial activities. They may obtain revenue also from other state agencies and from license fees and are entitled to grants-in-aid from the national government. SAOs are authorized and empowered to develop their subdistrict economically, socially, and culturally according to priorities that they determine. Funds can be committed for a wide range of development projects. The actual operation of the SAOs will probably reflect the influence of active politicians in the province where the SAO is located, especially those in the construction business. Previously since the 1970s, subdistricts had appointed councils whose members participated in decisions about development made by district officials. Those councils have now been replaced by the SAOs. See also DEMOCRATIC DECENTRALIZATION; LOCAL GOVERNMENT. SUCHINDA KRAPRAYOON (1933– ). Army officer and prime minister. Suchinda graduated from the Military Academy where he was president of class number five. By the 1980s, he and other members of his class had attained high positions in the Thai armed forces and were influential in public affairs. In February 1991, Suchinda led a coup against the then Prime Minister Chatchai Choonhavan and his administration. Following a March 1992 election, Suchinda was named prime minister by a coalition of five conservative political parties. Since Suchinda was not an elected representative to the National Assembly, he immediately became the center of a storm of controversy. Mass demonstrations in the streets of Bangkok occurred during May 17–19, 1992. These were led in large part by Chamlong Srimuang who demanded the resignation of Suchinda. Attempts to suppress these actions by the army resulted in hundreds killed or injured. Suchinda resigned his post after King Bhumibol Adulyadej acted to restore law and order. See also MILITARY OFFICERS; APPENDIX M. SUKAPIBAN. See HEALTH AND SANITATION DISTRICT. SUKHOTHAI, KINGDOM OF. Sukhothai was the second major kingdom ruled by Tai-language speakers within the territory of mod-

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ern Thailand and was founded in the 13th century. Contemporaneous with it was the Lan Na Kingdom in what today is northern Thailand. There were also other enclaves of Tai-language speakers in a variety of areas of Southeast Asia. These included the Shan of Burma and the Lao of Lang Xang. At the time Sukhothai was founded, approximately 1240 AD, Sri Intraditya and another local chieftain joined their forces to capture the Angkor Kingdom outpost in Syam. Sri Intraditya became the first king and established a dynasty of eight kings who collectively ruled for almost 100 years. The Sukhothai Kingdom was identified in China sources as siem in the late-13th century. The kingdom initially was small, but under its third king, Ramkhamhaeng, its territory was greatly expanded and its influence became important. The Buddhist religion was adopted and supported by Sukhothai kings. Buddhist monks used the royal throne as a place to preach the dhamma. The art and sculpture that flourished in the Sukhothai Kingdom had a style that is prominent today. The population included, in addition to Tai-speakers, Mon and Khmer peoples. The Tai language was used in administration. To facilitate this, a written Tai script was invented or adapted from the Mon and Khmer scripts. This Tai language, with changes, is in use today in Thailand. The Kingdom of Sukhothai weakened after the death of Ramkhamhaeng. Subsequently, it was absorbed into the Kingdom of Ayutthaya in 1438. See also APPENDIX B. SULAK SIVALAKSA (1933– ). A vigorous and outspoken social critic and independent thinker. Born of well-to-do parents, Sulak was educated in Thailand and in Great Britain. In the latter, he studied law and the humanities. With family financial support, he has made important academic contributions with his numerous books and as founder of the Social Science Review in 1966. Thai scholars found this journal a valuable outlet for their writings about societal problems. Forums for students to discuss current social issues were initiated by Sulak. Among those attending was Seksan Prasertkul who later was an active student leader. He also was an important supporter of the Thai non-governmental organization (NGO) movement; his fundraising in foreign countries was crucial at a time when the movement was under attack in Thailand as “antigovernment.” In addition, Sulak has assisted in setting up a large number of nonprofit organizations that focus on civic improvement.

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Prominent in Sulak’s speeches and writings is his criticism of the military governments in Thailand, which were in power for decades. He has often asserted that actions of the Thai military prevented the development of democracy. His sharp words about the military in a 1984 book that he wrote resulted in his arrest by the military government then in power. After a four-month trial concerning his supposed critical remarks about the Thai royal family, he was freed when the king himself intervened in the case. See also MILITARY OFFICERS. SUPARB YOSSUNDARA, KHUNYING (1920–1974). Suparb graduated from Birmingham University, Great Britain, in 1942. During World War II, Khunying Suparb, as a member of the Free Thai Movement, worked as a translator/announcer on the Thai Program at All India Radio, India. In 1947, she joined the Bank of Thailand and, in May 1966, became a director. She also served as an assistant to the Bank’s governor, covering the fields of international relations and economic policy. In the 1970s, she acted as chairman of the Advisory Committee of the Asian Development Bank study of Southeast Asia. In 1971–1972, she played an important role in the formation of an informal grouping of various central banks in Southeast Asia known as the Southeast Asian Central Bank Group (SEACEN). In 1971, she became an executive director of the World Bank. SUPATRA MASDIT, KHUNYING (1950– ). The daughter of Surin and Suda Masdit, she was born in Nakhon Si Thammarat. She received her M.A. degree in communications from the University of Hawaii. She also received several decorations from the king. She is known as a progressive and has been a member of the Democrat Party from 1984 to the present as well as of several important committees. SUPATRA SINGHOLAKA, KHUNYING (1910–1981). The daughter of Praya Rajmontri and Khunying Boonpa Rajamontri, she was born in Bangkok and received her bachelor of law degree from Thammasat University in 1939. She held many important positions both in her own business enterprise and in the social services and fought for the advancement of the status and rights of Thai women.

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Supatra was the cofounder and first president in 1964 of The Business and Professional Women Association of Bangkok, Thailand, under the Royal Patronage of Queen Sirikit. SUPPORT. The handicraft training school, Supplementary Occupations and Related Techniques Foundation (SUPPORT), was established by Queen Sirikit in 1976. The major training center was established in Chitralada Villa in 1979. In 1993, there were about 500 students learning 21 different crafts including a few that are nearly extinct, such as kram, the art of gold or silver wires inlaid in steel. Today, SUPPORT has expanded to four regional craft training centers involving more than 200 villages nationwide with at least 9,000 artisans employed in various projects. Many villagers work full-time on handicraft production while others are involved only part-time. The Foundation buys and pays high prices for all the craft items that meet its quality standards, and sells them at Chitralada stores in Bangkok, Chiang Mai, other tourist destinations, and abroad. SUPREME PATRIARCH. The head of the Buddhist monkhood (sangha) in Thailand. The supreme patriarch is appointed by the king in consultation with leaders of the monkhood. He presides over the Sangha Supreme Council, which has both legislative and judicial functions. The current supreme patriarch is Somdet Nyanasamvara. SURAPOL SOMBATCHAROEN (1930–1969). A singer and composer who made folk music prominent in Thailand. Surapol’s songs brought Thai rural musical traditions to a wider public. With a sense of humor, his songs and entertainment gave encouragement to the oppressed and hopeless in a way that was much enjoyed by audiences throughout the country. As a composer, Surapol created more than 500 songs, bringing a major change in how folk music was written and presented to audiences and becoming a model for other composers and singers. While Surapol was working for the Thai Air Force, he became a singer in the Air Force Band, where he made the first of his many records and albums. Later he formed his own band, the Surapol Sombatcharoen Country Band, which included dancers. He also initiated a popular radio program. Radio and television shows that continued

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Surapol’s style of music became popular in Bangkok in the 1980s and 1990s. SURIN ELEPHANT ROUNDUP. This tourist attraction is held on the third Saturday in November outside the city of Surin in northeast Thailand. SURIYAWONG (CHUANG BUNNAG) (1808–1883). King’s advisor and government official. Suriyawong was a prominent and influential member of the Bunnag family and served as regent for the boy–king Chulalongkorn. A very able and powerful government official, he served both King Mongkut and King Chulalongkorn as minister governing the southern Siamese provinces. In concert with his father, Dit Bunnag, and his uncle, That Bunnag, Suriyawong brought about Mongkut’s elevation to the throne of Siam in 1851. He played a central role in treaty negotiations with Great Britain and other Western nations. These arrangements were designed to maintain Siam’s independence while promoting trade. Many reforms sought by King Chulalongkorn were opposed and delayed, owing to Suriyawong’s power, until the latter’s death in 1883. Suriyawong was given the semiroyal title somdet by King Mongkut. SURYOTHAI. Queen and wife of King Chakraphat. During an attack by the army of Burma in 1549, she went into battle with her husband, two sons, and a daughter. Seeing that her husband was in danger, she drove her elephant between him and the enemy, and was killed in his place. She is considered a major heroine of Thai history. SUVARNABHUMI (GOLDEN LAND). The new international airport serving Bangkok and Thailand has been under construction since 2000. It is expected to open in early 2006. At that time, the more than 100 international and three domestic airlines will have transferred their operations from the Don Muang international airport, which currently serves Bangkok and Thailand. Suvarnabhumi will have a capacity to accommodate 45 million international and domestic passengers annually. The construction cost is expected to total US$30 billion. The cost of auxiliary facilities such as cargo handling, public utilities, communication facilities, hotels, concessions, etc., is expected to add another US$30 billion. Completion and operation of

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Suvarnabhumi International Airport at Bangkok will provide Thailand with an airport comparable with other large modern world airports and a hub for airlines of adjacent countries. The name of the airport, Suvarnabhumi, was given by King Bhumibol Adulyadej and refers to Thailand together with the other countries of Southeast Asia as a “Golden Land.” SWIDDEN. An abbreviation for swidden farming. It refers to discontinuous cropping of particular fields, which are slash-cleared and burned for one or more years’ crops. After this they are allowed to return to natural vegetation for several years before being used again. Traditionally, over-farming was avoided and former lands would lie fallow and generate new vegetation. In the past decade, many upland areas have become overpopulated and highlanders are not able to move to new fields. One result has been a distinct loss of forests that has caused flooding and serious soil erosion. Many highlanders have, of necessity, turned to other types of agriculture. See also HILL TRIBES.

–T – TAI. See LANGUAGE AND THAI REGIONALISM. TAKRAW. A game in which a light, woven rattan ball about the size of a softball is kicked, kneed, butted, and shouldered. It takes skill to keep the ball moving without letting it touch the hand or fall to the ground. TAKSIN. King of Siam (reigned 1768–1782). Sin (later named Taksin) was born of a Chinese father and a Siamese mother. He was adopted and reared by an aristocratic family that saw to his education. Entering government service, he advanced to governor of the province of Tak. When, in 1767, a disastrous victory by armies of Burma over the Siamese at Ayutthaya seemed imminent, Taksin escaped to eastern Siam with his loyal troops. In early steps to rebuild the country, he chose Thonburi as a national capital. From that base and with support of the Chinese community and others, he obtained food for the needy and supplies for his successful military campaigns. Within a few years, Taksin had overcome his four chief rivals and reestablished Siam as a state to be reckoned with. In subsequent wars

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with Burma and other opponents, Taksin’s army general Chakri (later King Rama I) and his brother General Surasi proved to be successful military commanders in the king’s service. During Taksin’s reign the Kingdom of Lan Na was wrested from control by Burma and made a vassal state of Siam. Toward the end of his reign, Taksin saw himself as a living Buddha. This resulted in controversy and the loss of elite support. He was judged insane and put to death in 1782. TAMBON. An administrative unit, also called a commune, for several (sometimes 10 to 15) adjacent muban. The headman or leader of a tambon is called a kamnan and receives a small monthly salary. TAX FARMERS. In the early 1800s, King Rama I established a new pattern of taxation in order to enhance government revenue. In the new system, tax farmers were given the right to collect a tax on a specific commodity in a specific area. Money collected above what the king required went into the tax farmer’s pocket. While this enlarged royal revenues considerably, it also became a profitable activity for collectors. Tax farmers also invested their own funds in the businesses where they collected tax. Chinese merchants were the most numerous of the tax farmers. Another group were high government officials and independent noblemen. For better control of tax farming in the 1870s, the royal government appropriated tax farming proceeds and increased supervision of tax farmers. The funds thus obtained were invested in a variety of businesses by the royal government through its Privy Purse Bureau. TECHNICAL COLLEGES. Practical training centers in several of the larger cities that offer more advanced instruction than the vocational schools. A certificate of 10 years’ prior education is required for admission. Training is offered in such fields as building trades, auto mechanics, electronics, information technology and computing, printing, photography, tailoring, nutrition, accountancy, and secretarial work. Completion of the three-year course leads to a diploma. See also EDUCATION, SECONDARY. TECHNOLOGY. To strengthen technological capabilities, the Thai government in the 1980s established the Science and Technology

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Board, a cooperative effort of Thailand and the United States to promote science and technology development in Thailand. In addition, three national specialized centers were established to study, monitor, and facilitate the dissemination of technology and information in each of the three industrial sectors, biotechnology, materials technology, and electronics and information technology. TELEVISION PROGRAMMING AND INFLUENCE. Since 1955, Thailand has had television services with a number of channels. The programs include regular newscasts, sports events, and serial dramas. TV sets are in almost all urban homes. The 8:00 p.m. prime time has been focused on locally written and produced serial dramas, which most viewers watch. One focus of these dramas has been personal lives reflecting recent history, for example, a love story from the time of the Japanese occupation. Another genre reflects families becoming rich and their accompanying life changes. A third genre are dramas focused on the changing roles of women, the largest sector of the TV audience. Advertising, a big part of programming, emphasizes the marketing of consumer products. Thai TV projects to its viewers a view of Thailand as a modern, urbanized culture, similar to those of the Western world. Probably 90 percent of agricultural villagers have TV sets and watch the same programs as urban viewers. The urban-oriented programs often contrast the sophistication of urbanites with the “backwardness” of rural dwellers. This reinforces villagers’ awareness of their lower status and subordinate position in Thai society. Mass media images also remind rural residents that their material rewards in life are less than those of their urban counterparts. The desire for more of the consumer commodities seen on TV has motivated many rural youth to find jobs in the city for the income it provides. An equally strong motivation to migrate to the city may be to experience the sophisticated feeling of being modern. See also URBANIZATION; VILLAGES, AGRICULTURAL. TEMPLE. See BUDDHIST TEMPLE COMPOUND. TEMPLE BOYS (LUK SIT WAT). Typically, several boys are affiliated with the Buddhist monks in the Buddhist temple compound (wat), and perform services such as cleaning, running errands, and collecting

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gifts. In return, they may receive food, lodging, instruction, and other advantages. Often such temple boys and novices form a kind of pool from which any monk may secure assistance. In Bangkok, students from distant provinces may assume the role of temple boy in order to have a place to live while pursuing higher education. THAI. See LANGUAGE AND THAI REGIONALISM. THAI BOXING. Two male boxers, flyweight to lightweight, confront each other in a ceremonial combat that originated in the medieval Siamese art of fighting with the feet. A three-piece ensemble provides a rhythmic musical accompaniment to the three stages of action: prefight prayer ritual, ceremonial dance, and fight. Kicking with bare feet, hitting below the belt, and unrestricted use of elbows and knees are allowed. The boxer’s costume consists of boxing gloves and trunks, a charm cord worn around the biceps, and a sacred headband worn during the preliminaries but removed for the main fight. THAI LAO. See NORTHEAST REGION. THAI MALAY. See THAI MUSLIMS. THAI MUSLIMS AND ASSIMILATION. A Malayo–Polynesian ethnolinguistic group, comprising more than two million Muslims, are a large minority within Thai society. They reside for the most part in five provinces on the southern border of Thailand with Malaysia. The religion of the Thai Muslims is Islam, but also includes some Brahmanism and animism. Congregations are organized around a mosque with the imam as clerical leader. There are rites of circumcision, marriage, burial, and others in keeping with Islamic law. Although the Thai government has tried to assimilate its minority Muslim population for more than 100 years, success has been limited. Today, almost all persons of Muslim background are literate in Thai. Yet in the four provinces with the largest Muslim-speaking populations, Narathiwat, Pattani, Songkhla, and Yala, the language of the Muslim home remains a dialect of Malay. In historical perspective, a number of Malay (now Malaysia) provinces were made part of Thailand in the 18th century by military

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conquest, when their kings became vassals of the Thai king. The Thai national government under King Chulalongkorn began in the early 20th century to build a centralized administration with power in the hands of the king. This involved replacing the Muslim provincial ruling aristocracy with Thai administrators who instituted new policies. When the Muslims strongly resisted such controls, they were permitted to remain largely autonomous for decades. However, the late 1930s brought a difference with new measures to assimilate the Thai Muslims. Heavy-handed practices were used by the governments of Prime Minister Phibun Songkhram (1948–1957) and Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat (1959–1963). This included the required teaching of the Thai language in the Muslim religious schools and other policies designed to further assimilation. The Thai Muslims perceived this as a threat to their religion and way of life. Pressure to adopt the centralized Thai public educational system was resisted by the Muslims. Some violence occurred, causing numerous deaths, banditry, arson, and robberies. Several thousand Muslims subsequently fled from Thailand to neighboring Malaysia (then Malaya). By the 1960s, Thai Muslims were operating about 500 indigenous schools that taught Islam and the Malay language rather than Buddhism and Thai. When a moderate Muslim leader sought to negotiate about these measures with the Thai central government, he was arrested and later was found murdered by the police. After this, a new and more radical resistance movement developed in the late 1960s, which joined forces with the local elements of the Communist Party of Thailand (CPT). The Muslims sought the formation of an independent state for the region they occupied, improvement in their level of living, and a revival of Malay culture. Those supporting this and similar movements were called “Muslim separatists.” In the early 1970s, the central Thai government resorted to military force and successfully suppressed the CPT and the separatists. In response to the separatist movement, the Thai government eventually abandoned its previous restrictive policies. In the 1980s, with semidemocratic Thai governments in power, mutual accommodation began to replace hostility and violence. Religious pluralism has been stressed, the building of mosques has been sponsored, and pilgrimages to Mecca have been facilitated. In addition, the government has provided financial support for secular instruction in basic education,

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especially the teaching of both Malay and Thai languages in Muslim schools, which has been an integrating factor. Public schools, however, continue to teach only in the Thai language. A 2002 study by the Thailand Research Fund interviewed a number of Thai Muslim. One of the interviewees, a former separatist leader, indicated that what Muslims want most is government assistance to solve the problems of illicit drugs and poverty. Although stability increased in the 1990s, the area has continued to be volatile, to a certain extent in concert with Islamic movements elsewhere. Flare-ups in serious violence and unrest in Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat provinces in early 2004 resulted in the declaration of martial law and the return of military force in those provinces. Attacks by militants have continued on schools, the police, and Thai officials. The deaths of more than 800 persons mostly Thai Muslims, reflects the heavy-handed response of the Thai authorities. A contrast to this picture is presented by the one-fifth of the Muslim population who live in scattered clusters in some 14 of Thailand’s other provinces. Unlike those in the five southernmost provinces, these Thai Muslims, also called Thai–Islam, are regarded as and consider themselves to be Thai. They may no longer speak Malay and differ very little from other Thai except in religion. Where there are differences in dress, behavior, and patterns of living, these may be ascribed to origin in southern Thailand rather than specifically to Malay ancestry. For the most part, these Muslims have become interspersed with the Thai and occasionally may predominate in some villages. In places with a large proportion of Thai Islam families, the village headman may be Muslim. THAI MUSLIMS AND POLITICS. Studies of the Muslim minority in Thailand indicate that they are predominantly located in 11 provinces of the Southern Region where they number 2.2 million persons according to the 2000 Census of the National Statistical Office of Thailand. Census data also indicate that 80 percent of the Thai Muslims are residents of the five extreme southern provinces: Narathiwat, Pattani, Songkhla, Yala, and Satun, where Muslims make up 68 to 82 percent of the population. Songkhla province is an exception; although it has the third largest number of Muslims after Narathiwat and Pattani, Muslims constitute slightly less than

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25 percent of the total population of the province due to its highly urban character focused on the cities of Hat Yai and Songkhla. The Thai Muslims in Narathiwat, Yala, and Pattini, for whom Malay is the language of home, have religious (Islam) and language backgrounds similar to the Malay people of Western Malaysia. In South Thailand, the other provinces with significant Muslim populations are Krabi, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Trang, Phatthalung, Phangnga, and Phuket where the proportion of Thai Muslims varies from 6 to 35 percent. Only one of these, Krabi, has more than 100,000 Thai Muslims. The religion of all Thai Muslims is Islam, which differentiates them from Thai Buddhists. In provinces other than the three where the Malay language predominates, the Thai language prevails. Research by Robert Albritton on participation in political activities found few differences in extent of political involvement between Muslims and Buddhists in South Thailand. He found Buddhist women were more or less equal to Buddhist men in political interest, knowledge, and effectiveness but that Muslim women were well below their male counterparts on measures of these three factors. Also, while Buddhist women may identify with any political party, Muslim women’s party identifications are largely limited to and similar to that of the Muslim men. It has been observed that in elections for parliament, Thai Muslims typically vote for Thai Muslim candidates regardless of political party. As a result, almost all of the members of parliament from the three Malay-speaking provinces are Thai Muslims. Also in the last decade, Thai Muslims have held high positions in the national government Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Transport, Interior, and Communication. In addition, a Thai Muslim, Wan Mohammed Noor Matha was recently elected to and held the presidency of the Thai parliament for a regular session. See also ISLAM; LANGUAGE, MALAY; THAI MUSLIMS AND ASSIMILATION. THAI PEOPLES. See LANGUAGE AND THAI REGIONALISM; INTRODUCTION. THAI RAK THAI (THAI PATRIOTIC PARTY). Organized in 1998, the Thai Rak Thai political party has wealthy businessman Thaksin

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Shinawatra as leader. His 2001 election campaign rhetoric focused initially on his expertise in economic matters. Later he turned to populism and promises of large payments to agricultural villages for their development, a three-year delay in farmers’ loan repayments, and low-cost health care. The Thai Rak Thai Party’s win of nearly half the seats (248 out of 500) in the 2001 election for the House of Representatives made Thaksin the new prime minister. The party was even more successful in the 2005 election, winning a clear majority (approximately 375 seats). THAI RED CROSS SOCIETY. The Society was established in 1893, when fighting broke out between the French and Thai forces on the eastern border of Siam. Queen Saowabha, the ladies of the palace, and the wives of officials set up a volunteer aid society. It was named Sabha Unalom Daeng (Red Unalom Society). The Siamese Red Cross Society gained full recognition from the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in Geneva in 1920 and joined the League of Red Cross Societies in 1921. The activities of the Thai Red Cross Society are divided into five basic sections: Hospital, Relief, Health, Scientific, and Junior Red Cross. Throughout the past century, the Society has served the people and the country in various ways: by establishing a hospital, a blood bank, an eye-bank for corneal transplants, a nurses’ training school, program for training volunteers, etc. The Society’s laboratories produce vaccines to control smallpox, rabies, and cholera; make serum for snake bites; and conduct medical research. See also PASTEUR INSTITUTE. THAKSIN SHINAWATRA (1949– ). A native of Chiang Mai, Thaksin gained business experience there working with his father and other family members, who were active in silk production and trade. He graduated from Police Cadet School at the top of his class in 1973. With the aid of a Civil Service Commission scholarship, he studied in the United States and earned a Ph.D. in criminology at Sam Houston University in Texas in 1978. While a police officer, he opened a computer-vending business in Bangkok. His extensive kin network and his colleagues in the civil service were aids to business success. After leaving the Police Department in 1988, he started new technology-based enterprises, including a mobile telephone network,

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a paging system, and a pay television service. The first communication satellite in Thailand was underwritten by Thaksin in 1973, followed by his establishing three more satellites. Thaksin also opened business enterprises in four other Southeast Asian countries. A first government concession in 1989 was followed by five more within two years. Through his business expansion, he has created a huge conglomerate and has become one of the richest persons in the kingdom of Thailand. Thaksin turned his attention to national politics in 1994 and organized a new political party. He served in several national administrations, once as foreign minister and twice as appointed deputy prime minister. In 2000, while a member of the National Assembly, he was indicted and charged with failure to publicly report all of his financial assets, which is a requirement of all government officials. In his trial, handled by a panel of 15 judges, Thaksin was acquitted in an 8 to 7 vote. The following year, he was elected prime minister of Thailand as leader of the Thai Rak Thai political party in the national parliamentary election of 2001. In his campaign, Thaksin promised economic benefits to the rural population, which then gave him broad electoral support. By delivering on many of those promises, his party was even more successful in the 2005 parliamentary election, in which the Thai Rak Thai Party won a clear majority of the seats. THAMMAYUTIKA. A very small reform sect within Thai Buddhism. A movement for religious reform initiated by King Mongkut led in 1894 to recognition by the Buddhist monkhood (sangha) of two sects. The Thammayutika sect adheres more strictly to the rules of conduct for Buddhist monks than the Mahanikai sect and places more emphasis on study than on pastoral services performed for the laity. THANG. A rice basket having a capacity of 20 liters and weighing approximately 16 kilograms. It is a traditional Thai unit of measurement. See also WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. THANIN KRAIVICHIEN (1927– ). Jurist and politician. Thanin studied law and other subjects in Bangkok and London. He practiced law and soon began a career as a judge in Thailand. Eventually he

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was appointed to senior judge positions. These were consecutively at the Civil Court, Court of Appeals, and Supreme Court. He was also a senator in the National Assembly in October 1976 when he was chosen to be prime minister. This came about following a coup against the previous Prime Minister Seni Pramoj, which was led by a military junta. Thanin was deposed in October 1977 in a coup led by Kriangsak Chomanan. The coup group contended that there was social unrest due to Thanin’s repressive administration. Thanin wrote numerous publications on history, politics, and legal systems. THANOM KITTIKACHORN (1911–2004). Prime minister, army officer, politician. Thanom graduated from the Royal Military Academy in 1929. A capable and effective career military officer, Thanom advanced to commander of strategic units in Bangkok. In 1955, an appointment to the cabinet of Prime Minister Phibun Songkhram gave him an increased role in politics. In the 1957 coup d’etat led by Sarit Thanarat, Thanom became a “right-hand man” and stand-in prime minister for one year. When Sarit returned from abroad and took over the prime minister position, Thanom became deputy prime minister and minister of defense. Thanom again became prime minister in 1963 after the death of Sarit. In his administration, Thanom was allied with General Praphas Charusathian, the deputy prime minister. During their 10-year rule, they were much involved with the United States and the Vietnam War. They emphasized the promotion of trade, investment, and modernization. Meanwhile, there was an inescapable trend toward democratic political development and public discussion of the nation’s problems. The authoritarianism of the Thanom regime was opposed by students and Bangkok residents who also pressed for a new constitution. Large student-led demonstrations occurred and these culminated in a bloody confrontation on October 14, 1973. Thanom and Praphas were forced into exile. The king, Bhumibol Adulyadej, intervened to prevent chaos. A new civilian prime minister was appointed. When, in 1976, Thanom returned from exile and joined the Buddhist monkhood, student demonstrations led to the 1976 military coup. See also STUDENT UPRISING OF 1973. THESABAN. See MUNICIPALITY.

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THEWADA. The Thai name for gods of various grades who inhabit the heavens above Mount Meru. The Thewada are beings who have risen to their exalted state through accumulated merit. Belief in the thewada is associated with belief in other gods of the Hindu pantheon, such as Siva, Brahma, and Vishnu. See also COSMOLOGY. THIPHAKORAWONG (KHAM BUNNAG) (1813–1870). Government official and scholar. Kham was the son of Dit Bunnag and had aided in King Mongkut’s accession to the throne in 1851. He was appointed by King Mongkut in 1855 to the Phrakhlang, where he served as treasurer and was in charge of trading monopolies and foreign relations. The term Phrakhlang was both the name of an administrative post and the title of the person in charge. Kham earned fame for his use of historiography in writing a two-volume history of the first four Chakri kings. He also wrote a survey of modern science. See also BUNNAG FAMILY. THOMPSON, JAMES H. W. (1906–1967?). Thompson was an American-born entrepreneur who helped develop the modern silk industry of Thailand. In 1946, he became interested in the production of Thai silk and founded the Thai Silk Company Ltd. To the ancient manufacturing process, he introduced modern dyes and new designs and set standards of production. In 1962, in recognition of his contribution to Thailand, the Thai government awarded him the Order of the White Elephant. Increasingly interested in Thai architecture and Southeast Asian art, he built a house in Bangkok that eventually became a leading tourist attraction. While on a holiday with friends in Malaysia, on an Easter weekend in 1967, he disappeared under mysterious circumstances. THONGBAI THONGPAO (1926– ). A human rights activist and attorney. Born in Maha Sarakham in the Northeast Region, Thongbai graduated from Thammasat University with a law degree in 1957. After several years working as a journalist, he was arrested for visiting China with a group of other journalists and imprisoned without trial for eight years. While in prison, he made a commitment to a career where he would be able to give legal assistance to persons disadvantaged by poverty, those receiving unjust treatment, or uninformed of

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their legal rights. Thongbai was awarded the prestigious Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1984, and in 1979, he was named Lawyer of the Year by the Lawyers Association of Thailand. Thongbai received additional significant honors and awards. See also JUDICIARY. THREE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES. Basic to the essential teachings of Buddha are the Three Signs or Fundamental Principles: the impermanence of every individual, the nonreality of a separate self or soul, and sorrow and suffering as inherent in individuality. In light of Buddha’s other teachings, this means that all existence is illusion or continual change and there is no “being” but only eternal becoming. The second principle asserts that there is no connection between the individual who exists one moment and the same individual who exists the next moment. The only link between them is karma, the result of all of an individual’s acts, both good and evil. Thirdly, there is no relief from sorrow and suffering, except through understanding Buddha’s teaching and the extinction of desire by following the monastic role that Buddha exemplified. See also BUDDHISM; BUDDHIST MONK; BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES; PRECEPTS. THREE GEMS. Three elements for which reverence and devotion are expressed at the opening of religious observance: the Buddha, dharma, and sangha. Buddhists believe that with these they can overcome suffering and danger. They are also called the Three Refuges. See also BUDDHISM. THREE REFUGES. See THREE GEMS. THUDONG BHIKKHU. The Buddhist monk who, during the approved season, goes on foot to visit various Buddhist shrines that are scattered throughout the country. THUM YAI. See RANAD THUM. TILOKARACHA (TILOK). King of Lan Na (reigned 1441–1487). Tilok was the son of and successor to King Sam Fang Kaen who ruled Lan Na. History has recorded the frequent military actions in-

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volving Tilok due to his precarious status as king and leader of the Lan Na Kingdom. There were challenges from the king of Ayutthaya, from rivals for the throne, and from the ruler of the state of Nan. However, Tilok was victorious over his adversaries. With a sense of security in 1450, Tilok began to expand the kingdom with limited success. For at least two decades, there were continued but inconclusive wars against the forces of King Borommatrailokanat of Ayutthaya. However, Lan Na was enlarged and strengthened by Tilok. His reign was a high point in Lan Na’s so-called Golden Age (1355– 1558). Tilok is also remembered for his construction of the famous Buddhist temple Maha Chedi Luang. See also APPENDIX C. TIMLAND. The name of an amusement park in rural surroundings where typical aspects of country life and Thai handicrafts have been assembled. The park caters to tourists who have little time to explore Thailand as a whole. Here one can see teams of elephants at work, spinners and weavers of cloths, wood carvers, several Thai-style houses, typical canals, and so on. Timland also organizes cock fights, Thai boxing shows, kite-flying competitions, and classical music and dance performances. TIN. Tin is the leading mineral in Thailand’s mining industry and is a high export earner. As early as the 13th century, tin was available in the country and was used with copper in making bronze images of the Buddha. In the past two decades, the chief tin operation has been in the coastal areas of the peninsula. Phuket has become the main center of tin activities. However, the large number of firms, many of them unregistered, has brought about political controversy and social problems. Attempts by the government to establish order and regulation have been only partly successful. The Minerals Act of 1967, as amended in 1973 and 1979, is the chief legal instrument that governs both onshore and offshore mining activities. TIPITAKA. See BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES. TOURISM. A major source of foreign exchange in the present-day Thai economy. Thailand’s official promotion of tourism began during the reign of King Chulalongkorn when publicity materials were sent

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to the United States. Since 1924, tourism has been promoted by a succession of governmental bodies: the Ministry of Commerce and Transport, Publicity Department, and finally Tourist Organization of Thailand (TOT). Tourism, Thailand’s largest source of foreign exchange from 1981 to 1986, increased by almost 25 percent in 1987 when “Visit Thailand Year” was promoted as part of the 60th birthday celebrations of King Bhumibol Adulyadej. Tourists have continued to flock to Thailand with nearly 11 million arrivals in 2002. Although generally valued as a means of strengthening the Thai economy, tourism has come under strong criticism because it has been closely linked to the growth of prostitution and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). See also HIV/AIDS. TRADE. The export of commodities and products from Thailand to world markets in 2001 has largely recovered from the slump during the 1997–1998 economic crisis. Since then, Thai exports have been increasing by about 3 to 4 percent annually. The rate of increase has been variable both overall and among the numerous products. In 2001, total export returns were US$65 billion, 5 percent greater than import costs. Industrial products were the largest share of produce exported in 2001. The chief items included were office machines, automatic data-processing equipment as well as parts for the same, accessories for office machines and equipment, electrical machinery and apparatus, and telecommunication and sound equipment. The foregoing account for more than 60 percent of all export financial returns. Firms with foreign ownership fared better than Thai–owned companies. The share of agricultural produce including milled rice and a variety of processed foods for export has declined as a percentage of total exports. Cassava, pineapple, rice, and frozen squid had decreased noticeably. The leading causes of these export declines were lower world prices and increased competition from other countries in Southeast Asia. Imports to Thailand, which were down sharply during the economic crisis, still showed in 2001 a modest decline from the amount of imported products in the mid-1990s. To some extent this reflects a voluntary austerity on the part of consumers related to their depressed incomes from what they were in the mid-1990s. It also reflects the underdeveloped level of production in the Thai economy. Imports in

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2001 were valued at about US$62 billion. Imported products, including mineral fuels, lubricants, petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, and chemicals, accounted for about 40 percent of all imports. Machinery and transport equipment amounted to about 30 percent of imports, including machinery for particular industries, office machines and data processing equipment and parts and accessories for office machines, electrical machinery, power-generating machinery, road vehicles and parts, and other transport equipment including aircraft. The other important category, materials for basic manufactures, accounted for about 25 percent of all imports and included the requirements for making textiles and fabrics, iron and steel ingots, universals, plates and sheets, nonferrous metals, and materials for other metal manufactures. Other imports, about 5 percent of the total, were foods, live animals, and crude materials. Most of Thailand’s trading partners are in Asia. Five of the 10 principal trading partners include the United States, Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Japan, although trade with Japan is approximately twice that of the other nine countries combined. However, the United States is the largest destination for Thai exports. See also BALANCE OF PAYMENTS; MANUFACTURING. TRADE ASSOCIATIONS. Organizations focused on trade are very largely dominated by the Sino–Thai descendants of Chinese immigrants who are legally and culturally Thai. Of the more than 175 trade associations in the early 1990s, only about one-fourth are active in influencing public policy. The others serve chiefly as social clubs or are concerned with the welfare of members. The trade associations are of seven principal types. Agricultural export associations deal with exports such as rice, tapioca, and maize. Industry associations, the most active of which seek to improve the technology and managerial capability of members; others focus on public policy formation. Tourist industry associations have successfully lobbied the national government because tourism is the number one foreign exchange earner of Thailand. Financial associations, the most prominent being the Thai Bankers Association, which has as members all of the 16 government-owned banks; it has been both active and influential in public policy making. Insurance associations have worked closely with the Ministry of Commerce in regulating the insurance industry. Domestic trade associations

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are quite numerous, with capable leaders and a focus on public policy and legislative concerns. Service associations have a long history in charitable works and in promoting the welfare of members; the Chinese Construction Association and the Lottery Dealers Association are examples. See also BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS. TRAILOK. See BORROMATRAILOKANAT. TRANSPORTATION. Contrasts in land transportation between the Bangkok urban region and rural areas are marked. In the former, highways, including wide expressways, are widely available, although road travel is typically congested due to population density. The national highways that extend to rural areas generally originate in Bangkok, like spokes of a wheel. As a primary system, these highways extend to all regions of the kingdom. Roads in the provinces form a secondary system for connecting provincial capitals and other cities to the national highways. Both systems were built and are maintained by the national government. Village roads and tracks constitute a tertiary system that, in extreme wet weather, may become impassable. Major road upgrading is needed in both the provinces and in the Bangkok urban region. The new elevated rail system in Bangkok, partially completed, adds to the more than 2400 miles of existing national railway network. The new subway system in Bangkok began operating in early July 2004. It has already accommodated some 180,000 passengers daily and has reduced congestion of auto and bus transportation. Infrastructure for airports and aviation has been a priority in Thailand to assist in tourism promotion. Six cities across the kingdom have airports and facilities for both domestic and international travel. A network of smaller airports in other Thai cities support domestic air service. Thailand’s deep-water seaport in Bangkok, Khlong Toei, has long been the principal place for shipment of goods and people. Khlong Toei, along with the ports of Sattahip and Si Racha, is the chief location for the export of agricultural products. The recently built deepwater port of Laem Chabang on the Gulf of Thailand is a key center for Thai international shipping to and from other Asian cities. Many smaller ports also operate along the western coast of the Gulf of Thailand. Canals and rivers, especially the Chao Phraya River, have an

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important place in the riverine commerce of Thailand. See also GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEM; STOREBOAT MERCHANT. TRIBUTARY SYSTEM. A 15th- to 19th-century governing pattern by which Thai kings and petty lords obtained resources of rice, other foods, and forest products using forced levies on the agricultural population. Produce as well as free labor acquired in this manner contributed to the wealth and power of the king. The tributes from farmers were an obligation for having access to land for farming and were enforced by local lords who, in turn, provided protection against marauders. In addition to food and free labor, the farmers were required to provide cloth and other necessities for the lord. Three months of free labor was provided to the lord or directly to the king. Problems in collecting the tribute during the mid-19th century led to a reduction in forced labor time to one month. Eventually, as increased numbers of forced laborers escaped a task that they resented, the king abolished the labor requirement in 1905. Farm people’s provision of foods and labor was replaced by taxes paid in money. See also CORVEE. TRIPLE ANNIVERSARY (VISAKHA BUCHA). Triple Anniversary Day is the most sacred of Buddhist religious festivals. It commemorates the birth, death, and enlightenment of the Buddha and is a major occasion for merit-making. The event occurs at the full moon of the sixth lunar month. Worshipers walk in procession around the chapel (bot) in the Buddhist temple compound (wat) after which they listen to sermons given by Buddhist monks. See also CEREMONIES AND FESTIVALS. TSUNAMI 2004. Thailand and nearby areas of Southeast and South Asia were struck December 26, 2004, by a tsunami caused by an undersea earthquake measured at 9.0 magnitude, with extensive loss of life and property damage throughout the area. Thailand experienced its most serious impact on the six provinces bordering on the Andaman Sea and nearby islands, such as Phuket and Phi Phi, which are major vacation destinations for Western tourists. The death toll in Thailand was estimated at 6,000, most of whom were washed into the Andaman Sea. More than 8,000 persons were injured. Many of the

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dead and injured were Western tourists. Thousands of rescue workers were quickly mobilized to search for survivors, along with disease surveillance specialists. The United Nations World Food Program (WFP) provided food aid to child tsunami victims and migrant workers’ families in affected provinces, the first time Thailand has received emergency food aid from the WFP. The economic loss was anticipated to be heavy, as some villages were wholly or partly destroyed, tourist revenue dried up, tourist workers lost their jobs, and fisherman lost as many as 3,000 trawlers. TUNG SALENG LUANG NATIONAL PARK. This park is in the Phetchabun Mountain Range midway between Phitsanulok City and the town of Lom Sak in Phetchabun Province. The highway between these two towns runs through the park, which covers 1,280 square kilometers (500 square miles) of wooded mountains. Types of animals found here include deer, wild buffaloes, boars, tigers, panthers, and elephants. The flora and fauna are protected insofar as the authorities are able to patrol such a large area. See also NORTHERN REGION.

–U– UBOLRATANA, PRINCESS (1951– ). The eldest daughter of King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit. After finishing her education in the United States, she relinquished her royal title to marry an American commoner, Peter Jensen, with whom she had three children. She holds a master’s degree in Public Health from the University of California at Los Angeles. After her divorce in the late 1990s, she returned to Thailand where she resumed her title and has taken up sponsorship of a number of charitable and health-oriented causes. In particular, she sponsors research and education programs to combat drug abuse and has supported efforts to create a community college system. UBOSOT. See BOT. UMBRELLAS. Making umbrellas is a handicraft derived either from Burma or from Yunan, a province in southern China, over two centuries ago. Bo Sang village near Chiang Mai specializes in the craft

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of parasol making. Each household in the village concentrates on a single detail of manufacture. One household may split and shape bamboo, while another assembles the bamboo strips into parasol skeletons, and others fasten the paper coverings, or waterproof them with resin oil, or paint on the floral designs. Nowadays, the umbrella coverings are fashioned out of cotton, silk, or sa-paper, which is made from the mulberry tree. UNITED NATIONS, RELATIONS WITH. Thailand’s application for membership in the United Nations (UN) was accepted in 1946 with the support of several nations including the United States and France, and has been a member since then. Cooperation through the UN has been an important part of Thai foreign policy. Thailand is a member of 14 of the UN specialized agencies and regional bodies as follows: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International Development Association (IDA), International Labour Organization (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Telecommunications Union (ITU), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Universal Postal Union (UPU), World Health Organization (WHO), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). Thailand also participates in a number of cooperative associations that consist of nations in the Pacific and Asian regions. A regional office of UNESCO is located in Bangkok. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO). The Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (PROP) is located in Bangkok. PROP was set up as the Regional Office of Education in 1961, but expanded to include culture in 1976, and social and human sciences in 1977. In 1987, the office was further expanded to provide information programs and social services. There are 33 member states of UNESCO in Asia and the Pacific. PROP encourages the development and reform of education at all levels from early childhood to the university, promotes the study of social and human sciences, particularly as they relate to women, fosters human rights and peace, and works toward

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the preservation of the cultural heritage, traditions, and cultural identity among the youth. UNITED STATES, RELATIONS WITH. Prior to 1945, Thai–American relations can be described as “cordial but distant.” In this period, there were missionary activities and Americans advising government officials. The early teaching of English, the creation of schools, and the publishing of newspapers have had a significant impact on development of the nation. Another long-lasting early contribution was in the area of medicine and public health. Beginning in 1945, Thai–American relations became close and were based largely on security ties. The United States aided Thailand in reestablishing friendly relations with Great Britain and in getting Thailand admitted to the United Nations. After 1950, the United States provided much military and financial assistance to Thailand to support anti-Communist activities. In the context of the Cold War, it seemed important to prevent any further Communist takeovers. In the early 1950s, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) provided supplies for arming and training the Thai Police. Improved security at northern and northeastern borders was aided by the CIA. This included recruiting and arming approximately 4,000 Border Patrol Police. There was also much additional aid for the Border Police in the late 1960s. Previously, in the 1960s, Thailand had facilitated the construction of bases in its country for the U.S. war with Vietnam. Concomitant with U.S. use of bases in Thailand for the Vietnam war, aid was provided to build up the Thai air force. By the early 1970s, it had increased manpower and equipment. The latter included fighter bombers and reconnaissance airplanes. Thailand also served as “rest and recuperation” spots for American troops. In a sense, Thailand was, for a time, a bastion of U.S. power in Southeast Asia. In the mid-1970s, Thai–American relations became more cautious. By 1975, a degree of anti-American sentiment had emerged in Thailand. As a result, in 1975, all U.S. troops and equipment were withdrawn from Thailand at the latter’s request. For the next two decades, joint military exercises continued at approximately five-year intervals. More recently, Thai–American relations have broadened to include not only security, but also trade, investment, science, and technology. This reflects Thailand’s placing economic relations above security needs. Moreover, since 2000, Thai–American cooperation in

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drug suppression has increased. Since the events of September 11, 2001, fighting terrorism has been added to previous concerns. One aspect of this has been the broadening of the annual Thai–U.S. security cooperative exercises. In addition, neighboring nations of Thailand have been invited to join in the operations to stem the flow of narcotics from their original sources. In October 2003, the American president granted Non-NATO Ally (NNA) status to Thailand. Some advantages to Thailand of this status include better access to American military equipment and cooperation in military research and development. Primarily, the NNA status recognizes the existing strength of Thai–U.S. relations. A possible disadvantage of this status is that it may be harmful to Thai efforts to maintain a balance among the world powers. Since the 1960s, the United States has continued to contribute to the educational development of many Thai colleges and universities. The United States Agency for International Development has been a principal conduit for this financial aid. There are also many non-governmental cooperative relationships between Thai and U.S. universities. Cooperation more recently also involves emphasis on two sectors, the creation of jobs in rural areas and assistance in science and technology transfer. The American Peace Corps program found Thailand an early participant and this has continued. See also FOREIGN ADVISORS; MILITARY ASSISTANCE. UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (USAID). The agency responsible for channeling American economic development assistance to Thailand after 1962. It superseded the International Cooperation Administration, which had operated as part of the United States Operations Mission (USOM). Technical and financial assistance were directed chiefly at village development in the northeast. In addition, there was some aid to Thai education including buildings, equipment, and books. Thai educators and officials were provided training in the United States and American consultants were brought from U.S. universities. UNITED STATES OPERATIONS MISSION (USOM). The United States agency responsible for channeling financial, military, and technical assistance to Thailand from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s. During the war with Vietnam, roads, airfields, and other infrastructure were

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constructed with USOM’s assistance. USOM’s role in Thailand ended in 1975. UNIVERSITIES. See EDUCATION, HIGHER. UPARAJA. Heir apparent or deputy king. This title was created by King Borommatrailokanat in the 15th century in an attempt to make the operation of royal succession smoother. Appointed by the reigning monarch, he was usually the eldest son of the king’s senior queen or the king’s full brother. The title became defunct after the royal succession act of 1924. The office of uparaja is often confused in Western historical accounts with the much less common title second king. URBANIZATION. The growth of city population and urbanization in Thailand occurred initially in Bangkok, the kingdom’s capital. Since the city’s founding in 1782, it has exercised religious, commercial, and politico-governmental dominance, which has brought about rapid population growth. Bangkok became more urbanized in 1971 when it was combined with Thonburi, its sister city on the opposite side of the Chao Phraya River. This fusion came at a time when financial institutions were increasing as were job opportunities, which attracted migrants from the rural areas. By 1987, 10 percent of the Thai population lived in Bangkok–Thonburi (referred to as simply Bangkok), a city of an estimated five million persons. According to the 2000 Thai census, Bangkok had increased by another 8 percent during the previous decade. What was more significant was the 40 percent population growth between 1990 and 2000 of the five provinces adjacent to Bangkok, Samut Sakhon, Samut Prakhon, Nakhon Pathom, Nontaburi, and Pathum Thani. These five together with Bangkok are frequently referred to as “Bangkok and vicinity.” The urban population of Thailand is concentrated in Bangkok and vicinity, with approximately 8.3 million persons in 2000. This constitutes 44 percent of the urban population throughout the country. Rapid urban growth has occurred also in a tier of seven provinces just beyond Bangkok and vicinity. When these urbanites are included, Bangkok and its 12 closest provinces had 53 percent of the kingdom’s urban population in 2000. Urbanization beyond the Bangkok region has occurred also, although to a lesser extent. Eight provinces reported metropolitan areas

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with populations in excess of 250,000. The largest was Nakhon Ratchasima (Khorat) at 537,883 where the population of the province in 2000 was above 2.5 million. The second largest urban place outside of the Bangkok region was Songkhla, in the Southern Region. It had a metropolitan area population of 407,499 in 2000, where the provincial population was above 1.25 million. The other provinces in that region with metropolitan areas above 250,000 were Surat Thani and Nakhon Si Thammarat. Similar large-sized metropolitan areas in the Northeastern Region, in addition to Khorat, are Udon Thani, Khon Kaen, Ubon Ratchathani, and, in the Northern Region, Chiang Mai. See also BANGKOK, SPATIAL STRUCTURE AND DOMINANCE; APPENDIXES D, E, and F.

–V – VAJIRALONGKORN, CROWN PRINCE (1952– ). Prince Vajiralongkorn is the son of King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit. He completed his primary education in Thailand and continued his secondary education in Great Britain. He was also trained in the Royal Military College, Duntroon, Australia. Upon his return, he took up his duties in the Royal Thai Army. He makes provincial tours and represents King Bhumibol at official functions and ceremonies. As His Majesty’s representative, the crown prince makes state visits to foreign countries. He is married to Princess Somsawali and has six children. VAJIRAVUDH. King of Siam (reigned 1910–1925). The son of King Chulalongkorn, Vajiravudh was educated in Bangkok and in Great Britain at Oxford University and Sandhurst Military Academy. Early in his reign he organized the Wild Tiger Corps, a nationwide paramilitary movement, to build a following. Vajiravudh decreed that all persons have surnames. He started compulsory education and promoted Western hairstyles and dress among Siamese women. Vajiravudh enjoyed literary pursuits and wrote plays and essays. He popularized his ideas about patriotism, the virtue of hard work, and willingness to die for king and country. However, his personal life was felt by many to be undignified, and his expenditure of national funds was extravagant. Thanks to the skill of his foreign minister, Devawongse, treaties with

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European governments, Japan, the United States were renegotiated between 1920 and 1926. These treaties restored Siamese judicial and fiscal autonomy and abolished the extraterritoriality previously granted to those foreign powers. VIETNAM, RELATIONS WITH. For centuries Vietnam was oriented toward China and had little involvement with other states in Southeast Asia. In the latter part of the 17th century, it secured influence in Cambodia, which resulted in conflict with Siam. A Siamese–Vietnamese War in 1841–1846 led to a treaty in which Siam maintained its major role in Cambodia and Vietnam the minor one. North Vietnam adopted a communist government in 1954 and assisted in communist insurgencies elsewhere in Southeast Asia. By 1964, the Thai Government perceived that there was a communist threat to its national security. It responded by sending army, air force, and naval forces to assist the South Vietnamese government in its war with the North. Thailand also became a virtual military base for the United States air war in Vietnam at the same time. By the late 1970s, Thailand and Vietnam were able to normalize their diplomatic relations. However, Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1978, and shortly afterward Vietnamese army units moved across the Thai border. This caused a number of armed clashes between Thai and Vietnamese forces. Finally, in 1990, a Thai trade delegation visited Vietnam to promote trade between the two countries. In May 2000, the Vietnamese prime minister visited Thailand, at which time an agreement was signed allowing citizens of each country easier access to the other country. Improved arrangements for trade were also completed. See also RAMA III; REFUGEES. VILLAGES, AGRICULTURAL (MUBAN). Farmers and their families live in villages that number more than 50,000 across Thailand. Together they constitute more than half of the country’s total population. Villages also include craftsmen, merchants, and those engaged in other services. The agricultural village typically consists of a cluster of 50 or more households set among fruit trees, palms, and rice fields or in linear fashion along a waterway or road. In the alluvial plains, clusters may contain only a few farmsteads. The village is a social basis of identity for its residents. This is strengthened by

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temple membership, the presence of extended families, and being part of a neighborhood or community of people who know and interact with one another. The term village is also used in another way. For purposes of governance, the Thai state delineates villages that are established as a sort of corporate entity to use for collective action. Such a concept of village, which may vary considerably from the village as a basis of social identity, becomes problematic when development projects expect a level of village-wide cooperation that does not exist. The village head, phu yai baan, while an elected position, is drawn between the two differing roles. While village heads are paid by the state, their role in district collective action in development projects provides opportunities for personal gain. For many, this role outweighs their public service role. Since the mid-1990s, the legislation for increased democracy in local development has led to the election of two representatives from each village to serve as members of Subdistrict Administrative Organizations (SAOs). The SAOs have legal status, are separate from district governance, and use funds available for improvement projects. Members of farm families may engage in seasonal wage labor in addition to agriculture. They also carry on various crafts such as carpentry, home weaving, mat fabrication for house walls or floors, and basket making. Some village craftsmen specialize in pottery, metal work, lacquer gilding, inlay, gold or silver smithing, gem cutting, and jewelry making as full-time occupations. Other endeavors include making textiles, cement blocks, furniture, windows, and door frames, and selling cut flowers. There are daily markets in the towns and larger villages where handicrafts, farm produce, and imported items are bought and sold. After the harvest, rice is milled for family use or sold to an itinerant buyer who may also handle the farmers’ other cash crops. Better transportation in Thailand in recent years has improved marketing opportunities for farmers. See also LOCAL GOVERNMENT. VISAKHA BUCHA. See TRIPLE ANNIVERSARY. VITAL ESSENCE (KHWAN). Originally an animistic belief that each person is animated by a vital essence (khwan). Eventually this belief

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was incorporated into the Buddhist cosmology. The vital essence is transmitted to the mother’s womb along with the male sperm. It is nourished by the mother and by rice. Khwan is also interpreted as morale, and something that can be aided or promoted. For example, efforts are made to give military personnel feelings of security. This promotes their vital essence (morale). Company employees have good morale when they receive high pay and excellent fringe benefits. In rural areas, as part of a welcome for visitors, ceremonies that promote vital essence are held.

–W– WACHIRAYAN WAROROT (VAJIRANANA VARORASA) (1860– 1921). Prince Wachirayan was the son of King Mongkut and a younger half-brother of King Chulalongkorn. Inspired by each of these two people he greatly admired, Wachirayan was ordained a Buddhist monk in 1879. As a result of the exemplary work he did in his Pali studies, King Chulalongkorn conferred on him the rank of prince. As deputy patriarch of the Thammayutika order of Buddhism, Wachirayan improved Buddhist education and ecclesiastical organization in significant ways. His strengthening of the intellectual content of Siamese Buddhism is a lasting tribute to his remarkable ability. For the 11 years prior to his death, he was the supreme patriarch of Buddhism in Siam. WAI. See GREETING. WAI KHRU. Each year a day is set aside when students at all levels of education pay respect to their teachers. A ceremony is normally held for each school, either in a Buddhist temple compound (wat) or in a school auditorium, where a Buddha image is positioned on an altar. Buddhist monks, on a raised dais at the front, participate in the ceremony. This may include a chanted prayer, flower arrangements, and the sprinkling of lustral water on those assembled. A student leader from each grade level makes the gift presentation and a speech on respect for teachers.

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WANG. A major river in the northern region of Thailand. It flows southward and is a tributary of the Chao Phraya River. WAT. See BUDDHIST TEMPLE COMPOUND. WAT ARUN. Widely known as the Temple of Dawn, this temple is located on the Chao Phraya River in Thon Buri. It was constructed in the early 19th century and includes one large central tower and four smaller towers forming a quadrangle. Its porcelain ware decorations sparkle in the sun. The towers rest on a series of terraces, seemingly supported by rows of statues of demons and angels. Crowning each of the towers is the trident of the god Siva. Wat Arun is a popular tourist attraction. WAT BENCHAMABOPITR. Commonly known in English as the Marble Temple, this religious center was built in the early 1900s and is located on Si Ayutthaya Street, in Bangkok. It is unique in blending 19th-century architecture with adaptations from earlier periods of Thai architectural history. Except for the roof, it was constructed of marble from Carrara, Italy. Wat Benchamaborpitr is also famous for the marble lions at the entrance, Chinarat Buddha image in its bot, and the more than 50 life-size Buddha images in its gallery. A sacred bo (pipal) tree, a monk’s quarters (kuti), and other buildings are part of the temple complex. WAT HARIPUNCHAI. One of the best-kept Buddhist temple complexes in Thailand, located near Chiang Mai in the city of Lamphun. This city is on the site of the capital of the old Mon principality of Haripunchai and the wat dates from approximately the 11th century, before political control was in Thai hands. It is also famous for its large golden chedi, 51 meters (170 feet) high. Other buildings include a bot, several wihan, a library, and a museum that has no equal in northern Thailand. WAT MAHATHAT. A Buddhist temple in the city of Nakhon Si Thammarat and the second oldest Buddhist shrine in Thailand, after the Nakhon Pathom Shrine. It is impressive for its large central chedi

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surrounded by a score of other chedi of considerable height. Wat Mahathat is famous as the site where, at the time of his reign, King Rama I was able to obtain copies of the Buddhist scriptures following the destruction in 1767 of Ayutthaya, a former Thai capital. WAT PHRA BUDDHABHAT. One of the most famous Buddhist temple compounds in Thailand, located at the city of Sara Buri, 115 kilometers (72 miles) north of Bangkok. A large footprint believed to be that of the Buddha is enshrined in a magnificently constructed mondop. This Buddha symbol is highly venerated and attracts throngs of worshipers from Thailand and other countries. There are many temple bells of various sizes in the courtyard. See also BUDDHA IMAGES. WAT PHRA KEO. A Buddhist temple complex on Sanam Chai Road in Bangkok, which is known as the Thai Royal wat. It has been used solely for ceremonial purposes by the Thai kings of the Chakri dynasty for many years. Wat Phra Keo was founded in 1782 and is a famous Bangkok religious center. The most revered Buddha image in Thailand, the Emerald Buddha, is housed in the bot (royal chapel) of this wat. The doors of the bot are decorated with mother of pearl inlays. Black and gold lacquer work is seen both inside and outside, and murals on the walls of the bot depict scenes from the life of the Buddha. Also in this wat is a royal pantheon, which contains life-size statues of the past monarchs of the Chakri dynasty. Also in Wat Phra Keo is a religious library, numerous other buildings, a chedi, and bronze images. The covered gallery, which runs around the bot courtyard, contains wall paintings that represent episodes from the Ramakian. WAT PHRA SINGH LUANG. An important Buddhist religious center founded in 1345 in the city of Chiang Mai. The chapel (bot) contains one of only three famous Phra Singh Buddha images. The others are at the Thai National Museum in Bangkok and at Wat Mahathat in Nakhon Si Thammarat. The word singh here means a perfect gold alloy for use in casting Buddha images. Wat Phra Singh Luang is the place for regular meetings of the Buddhist monks of the fifth circle of sangha. The abbot here is a sangha administrator, which explains the addition of the word luang to the name of the wat.

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WAT PHRATHAT. One of the leading Buddhist religious centers of Thailand, located on Mount Suthep, near the city of Chiang Mai. Built in the 14th century, the wat has long been famous for the Phrathat Buddha image found here and for a large chedi, 12 meters (40 feet) high, in which a relic of the Buddha is enshrined. The chedi is covered with copper or brass plates overlaid with gold. Murals in the adjoining cloisters depict incidents in the life of the Buddha. The mountain location of the wat affords an excellent view of Chiang Mai valley. WAT PO. This Buddhist religious center, located on Maharaj Road in Bangkok, is the most extensive Buddhist temple complex of its kind in Bangkok (also called Wat Phrachetuphon). It is best known for its colossal reclining Buddha image, 45 meters (150 feet) long and 15 meters (50 feet) high. This posture of the Buddha represents his entrance into nirvana. Other features in this wat are a chapel (bot) with adjoining galleries where nearly 400 Buddha images are displayed. The galleries are also used by out-of-town visitors for overnight accommodations. There are four small wihan and a large display of anatomical drawings, which have value in medical instruction. In addition, there are four great chedi and a school for the instruction of both the laity and Buddhist monkhood (sangha) members. WAT POMAN KUNARAM. A Buddhist temple complex, the largest in Thailand, that serves the ethnic Chinese minority, located on Satha Pradit Road in Bangkok. It was constructed in the 1960s under the leadership of Pra Po Cheng, currently the top leader at this center of Mahayana Buddhism. Mainly Chinese in style, Wat Poman Kunaram reflects a blend of Tibetan and Thai architecture. WAT SRAKET. A Buddhist temple compound in downtown Bangkok, which is famous for having ashes believed to be remains of the Buddha and for being located on a man-made hill or “mount.” It is therefore also called the Wat of the Golden Mount. The Buddha relics were enshrined there in 1899. Wat Sraket also has the Phra Buddha Chinoros, a very large Buddha image in bronze nine meters in height. A festival connected with the worship of the Buddha relics is held at Wat Sraket each November; along with its religious events, it includes a bazaar and entertainment.

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WAT SUTAT. One of the largest of Buddhist temple complexes in Bangkok, it is located at Sikak Sao Ching Cha (the Great Swing Square). It was constructed in the early 1800s. The large wihan of Wat Sutat is surrounded by galleries that display 160 gilt Buddha images. The distinctive brass Buddha image in the wihan is a copy of a Sukhothai period sculpture. The large bot at Wat Sutat contains a huge Phra Trilokachet Buddha image. From an altar it looks down on 80 life-size images of disciples of the Buddha. Murals and paneling depict the life of the Buddha and also Hindu imagery. WAT TRAIMIT. A small Buddhist temple compound near Hua Lampong Railway Station in Bangkok. It is famous for the large golden Buddha image housed there, weighing more than five metric tons. This Buddha image is believed to date from the Sukhothai period of Thai history (ca 1240–1438). WATER BUFFALO. A domestic animal that historically has been a principal source of farm power in Thailand and elsewhere in South and Southeast Asia. The water buffalo has been essential in plowing and preparing the soil for wet-rice production and has been used for transportation. It is not certain why the word buffalo is preceded by the word water, but one can assume that association plays a role. The animal works best in hot weather when it can be allowed to submerge periodically in a pond or river. In recent decades, the buffalo has largely been replaced by tractors where their use is feasible. The demand for water buffaloes has sharply declined. This change has had a significant effect in the northeast, where the farmers have been the chief producers of water buffaloes. See also AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY. WAY OF THE ELDERS. Another name for Hinayana or Theravada Buddhism. This form of Buddhism is considered to be the closest to the original teachings of the Buddha in contrast to the other main form—Mahayana Buddhism. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system became the basic standard when the Law of Weights and Measures was promulgated in Thailand on December 17, 1923. Local terms in common usage were

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standardized in a definite round-number relationship to basic metric terms. For example: 1 pikul (or hap)  60 kilograms (132.3 pounds); 1 kwian  2000 liters (440 gallons); 1 thang  20 liters (4.4 gallons); 1 rai  0.16 hectare (0.4 acre). WELFARE. See SOCIAL WELFARE. WESTENGARD, JENS IVERSEN. The second American to be appointed general advisor to the king of Thailand. He served first as assistant advisor and then as advisor from 1908 to 1915. He was instrumental in negotiating the Anglo–Thai Treaty of 1909. In exchange for four states in the Malay peninsula, Great Britain relinquished its extraterritorial rights over its subjects, both European and Asian, in Thailand. He also led the negotiations between Thailand and Denmark resulting in a similar treaty in 1913. Westengard enjoyed the full confidence of the Thai government, which conferred on him the Order of the White Elephant and other honors. See also FOREIGN ADVISORS. WESTERNERS. A tiny part of the population in Thailand, estimated at between 5,000 and 10,000, are Westerners who have considerable importance because of their diplomatic, missionary, business, and other activities. Most Westerners are concentrated in Bangkok, with smaller numbers in Chiang Mai and other cities. While the size of the Western community is relatively stable, individuals within it are constantly being replaced. Few gain more than a superficial knowledge of Thai culture and most retain the perspective of their country of origin. See also FARANG. WHEEL OF THE LAW. A symbol of Buddhism used by writers and teachers in their expositions on the doctrine of the Buddha. The Wheel was especially important between 300 and 100 BC before the use of Buddha images became acceptable. “Turning the Wheel” is preaching or setting in motion the Law. WICHIT WATHAKAN (1898–1962). Government official, writer, composer of popular songs, historian, and intellectual. Educated in Thailand, Wichit began his government career in the Foreign Ministry

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and served initially in both Thailand and Europe. Later, he became head of the Consular Division. After a transfer to the Protocol Department of the Ministry, he became director-general there. Wichit wrote a well-regarded interpretation of the Revolution of 1932, which resulted in the Thai monarchy becoming a constitutional one, as reflecting Thai nationalism and paralleling similar changes in the aging dynasties of Europe. He also authored a number of books and plays with patriotic themes, and was appointed to the Ministry of Education in 1938 by the then prime minister, Phibun Songkram. Wichit was named foreign minister in 1942 and was sent to Tokyo as ambassador in 1943 during the Japanese military occupation of Thailand. However, Wichit was put in a Japanese jail for two years as a result of false charges. While in prison, he studied several foreign languages and wrote five more books. Returning to Thailand, he continued work in the Foreign Ministry and served as ambassador to India, Switzerland, Austria, and Yugoslavia. Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat invited Wichit to join his government in 1958 where he served until his death. The post as under-secretary of the prime minister’s office was his last. Wichit’s contributions are reflected in his receiving honorary degrees from Thammasat, Kasetsart, and Chulalongkorn Universities. He was also awarded the title “Luang” signifying his loyal service to Thailand. WIHAN. The worship or preaching hall in the Buddhist temple compound (wat). The building is without chairs but may have mats on the floor and a raised dais near the altar for the Buddhist monks who chant the services. WOMEN. Historically, Thai society has been male-dominated and to some extent remains so today. Nevertheless, Thai women have always wielded considerable power, both in the home and outside. In Thailand, women have been fortunate in comparison with their counterparts elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where tradition often gave fathers and husbands authority over female family members. King Mongkut (reigned 1851–1868) abolished the common practice of husbands selling their wives. Women’s status was improved by King Vajiravudh (reigned 1910–1925) when they obtained access to formal education. In 1974, a new constitution stated for the first time

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that men and women have equal rights. Thailand was the first Asian country to provide this. Recent legislation permits women to divorce their husbands, a right previously held only by men and whereby a wife’s divorce application had to be approved by her husband. Moreover, a decision of the constitutional court gave women the right to retain their maiden names after marriage. Thai women gained the right to vote in the Revolution of 1932. However, women did not become active in politics until 1949. Since then, there have always been women candidates for the National Assembly and for other elected and appointed posts in government. In 1992, the first Thai Muslim woman was elected to the House of Representatives and the first woman governor was appointed. While females constitute half of the nation’s population, women are vastly under-represented in top governmental positions. Women constitute less than 10 percent of positions as village heads or subdistrict heads, members of district and municipal councils, or members of the two houses of the National Assembly. Among the barriers to greater participation of women in politics and government is the tradition of male dominance in the political world and the tendency of male public officials to allocate only minor tasks for women to handle. Another is the widespread view of women themselves that the politics of power is the business of men, being corrupt, closed, and dirty. The National Women’s Network and Coalition is a civic organization that coordinates more than 40 women’s organizations, which are campaigning for increased participation of women in politics and government. A record 52 women were elected to Parliament in the February 2005 election. Rural women continue their leading role in rice farming and other agricultural production. The growth of industry in Thailand since 1985 has resulted in the migration of hundreds of thousands of young rural woman to become part of the urban work force in Bangkok and other cities. Often the rural female youth are sent to work in the city after they finish the sixth grade in order to supplement the farm income of their parents. There they work for wages chiefly as domestics or in textile factories. Urban manufacturers find these young rural women a cheap and compliant labor force. During its period of rapid economic growth, from 1986–1994, the Thai economy was dependent on these rural women workers. Generally, such young women plan to return to their home

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village to marry and have a family in the pattern of their mothers. In their factory employment, they confront physical and emotional hardships. In addition, they are torn between returning home to be a “good daughter” and following the urban pattern to become a “modern woman.” In the Thai urban population, at least a few women can be found in almost every profession and career from engineering to politics. Women also participate in a large variety of volunteer activities, which reflect the growing Thai civil society. Many career women are employed in the civil service. Women are often more successful than men in the required examination for government positions. In their work, they have a strong sense of responsibility and fewer disciplinary problems than men. However, compared to their male counterparts in government service, they have fewer opportunities for advancement, though they receive equal pay. Women are also prominent in business as managers in large corporations and in other white-collar positions. Many women are self-employed business owners, for example, in a chain of retail stores, electric power production, and hotel ownership. On the other hand, working-class urban women who are numerous as ordinary laborers are more likely than men to have lower paid jobs and to face employer exploitation. One Western social scientist observed that gender defining characteristics in Thailand are largely the individual’s visible and material features. This includes clothing and how the self is presented in public. However, understanding gender involves attention to how presentations of self are designed, revealed, and perceived by others. The frequent beauty contests sponsored by a Thai national government agency and by a number of Thai provinces reflect an agenda that promotes attractive women as part of Thailand’s identity. This concept is of course highly useful to the Tourist Organization of Thailand. Traditional elements in the culture that to some extent define the role of women include historical polygamy, parentally arranged marriages, and bride wealth payments. The foregoing suggests that there are commodity aspects to both marriage and prostitution in Thailand. In both cases, men are expected to pay for access to a woman’s body. See also PHILANTHROPY. WOMEN AND BUDDHISM. There are rural-urban contrasts in the beliefs, meaning, and role of Buddhism in the lives of Thai men and

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women. The traditional rural religious practice of Buddhism is widely regarded as a patriarchal institution that discriminates against women since the position of Buddhist monk has been available only to men. This is associated with notions of a higher status of masculine asceticism as contrasted with female sensuality. Further, women are viewed as rooted to this world and are the center of household stability. However, rural women take pride in having sons who become novices who enter the monastery for at least a short period. Women also gain merit by supporting novices and monks with alms and donations. In this way they improve their chances for a better next life. Rural men more often than urban make the commitment to pursue Buddhist monkhood. Maintaining this ascetic male role is dependent on the provision of food and other services, a task handled almost entirely by women. In some quarters, Thai women assert that no Buddhist teachings support gender inequality or gender hierarchy. Also the notion that Buddhism in general is essentially egalitarian is not contradicted by Thai Buddhism but is not elaborated either. In a break with tradition, the first Thai ordination of a woman as a Buddhist monk occurred on February 10, 2002, in a Buddhist temple compound (wat) in the city of Nakhon Pathom. She joined another Thai female Buddhist monk who was ordained abroad. These ordinations, so far, have not been officially recognized. However, with the current official equality of men and women in Thailand, lack of recognition has become controversial. It is known that women were ordained during the time of the Buddha and orders of ordained women, bhikkuni, existed in Sri Lanka and Burma. Middle-class women and men in large urban centers follow a different kind of Buddhism. In their religious expression, they seek a spiritual state that is compatible with their life patterns, which value education, robust individual enterprise, and materialism. A widely accepted interpretation of Buddhism asserts that one can improve one’s spiritual state through right living and a mental discipline attained through meditation. This view is attributed to the highly regarded Buddhadasa Bhikku (1906–1993). Numerous meditation centers, new cults, and charismatic monks all became part of a Buddhism aligned with the aspirations of the Thai urban middle class. WOOD CARVING. An ancient Thai handicraft that has experienced a considerable upsurge since the mid-1960s. Details of the Buddhist

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temples and palaces of Thailand have for centuries reflected the great skill of Thai woodcarvers. In recent years, carved bowls, animal figures, and wall plaques as well as designs on lamp bases, have been in great demand. Teak is the most popular wood. WORLD WAR II. Soon after military hostilities began in Europe in 1939, Japan began aggressive military action in Southeast Asia. Bases were established in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. In early December 1941, military forces invaded Thailand with minimal resistance and there began a four-year Japanese Occupation. The objectives were to use Thailand for supplies and as a base to attack Malaya (later Malaysia) and Burma, both colonies of Great Britain. Japan aided Thailand to repossess former Thai provinces in Burma, Laos, Malaya, and Cambodia (which, however were required to be returned to France or Britain in a treaty in 1946). Under Japanese pressure, the Thai prime minister Phibun Songkhram declared war on Britain and the United States. However, Seni Pramoj, the Thai ambassador to the United States, did not deliver the declaration to the United States government. Instead, he and others organized an underground Free Thai Movement. Leaders of this action were Puey Ungphakorn in Britain, Seni Pramoj in the United States, and Pridi Phanomyong in Thailand. Since Phibun was thought by many to be an ally of the Japanese, he was replaced as Thai prime minister when World War II ended. See also BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER KWAI; KANCHANA BURI WAR CEMETERY; JAPAN, RELATIONS WITH.

–Y – YAK. Sculptured art objects representing mythological giants that as large statues stand at the gate of the Buddhist temple compound (wat). They are said to provide protection from evil spirits. YOM. A major river in the northern region of Thailand. It flows southward and is a tributary of the Chao Phraya River. YOUNG BUDDHIST ASSOCIATION. An organization of young Buddhist laymen, founded in 1949, having more than 25 affiliated

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chapters. Its aims include the propagation of the dharma, the inculcation of moral behavior in young people, and social service activities, especially the guidance of their leisure time pursuits and other assistance for young people. While the Buddhist and Young Buddhist Associations are similar in orientation, the latter places more emphasis on social service. It has promoted a number of work camps in which university students assisted farmers in construction of roads, bridges, and reservoirs.

–Z– ZOOS. There are several zoos in Thailand. The biggest, Khao Din Zoo, also known as Dusit Zoo, is situated between the Grand Palace and the National Assembly. This is one of the most popular places in Bangkok for family outings. By tradition, every white elephant found in Thailand belongs to the king and is kept in the zoo. It also houses a collection of birds, giraffes, kangaroos, crocodiles, monkeys, mouse-deer (native to Thailand), and bears. There is another zoo in Chiang Mai, which houses most of the region’s wild animals. In 1983, the queen established a natural zoo, covering an area of 975,000 rai (156,000 hectares), on a large tract of virgin forest and jungle in Phu Kheo.

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Appendix A

Kings of Ayutthya, Thonburi, and Siam/Thailand

KINGS OF AYUTTHAYA Kings

Reign Dates

Ramathibodi I (U Thong) Ramesuan Borommaracha I Thong Chan Ramesuan (2d reign) Ramaracha Intharacha Borommaracha II Borommatrailokanat Borommaracha III/Intharacha II Ramathibodi II Borommaracha IV Ratsada Chairacha Yot Fa Khun Worawongsa Chakkraphat Mahin Mahathammaracha Naresuan the Great Ekathtosarot Si Saowaphak (?) Song Tham Chettha Athittayawong

1351–1369 1369–1370 1370–1388 1388 1388–1395 1395–1409 1409–1424 1424–1448 1448–1488 1488–1491 1491–1529 1529–1533 1533–1534 1534–1547 1547–1548 1548 1548–1569 1569 1569–1590 1590–1605 1605–1610/11 1610–1611? 1610/11–1628 1628–1629 1629 (continued)

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KINGS OF AYUTTHAYA (continued ) Kings

Reign Dates

Prasat Thong Chai Suthammaracha Narai the Great Phra Phetracha Sua Phumintharacha (Thai Sa) Borommakot Chakraphat Suriyamarin

1629–1656 1656 1656 1656–1688 1688–1703 1703–1709 1709–1733 1733–1758 1758–1766 1766–1767

KING OF THONBURI King

Reign Dates

Taksin

1767–1782

KINGS OF SIAM/THAILAND (BANGKOK ERA, CHAKRI DYNASTY) Kings

Reign Dates

Phra Phutthayotfa (Rama I) Phra Phutthaloetla (Rama II) Phra Nangklao (Rama III) Mongkut (Rama IV) Chulalongkorn (Rama V) Vajiravudh (Rama VI) Phrajadhipok (Rama VII) Ananda Mahidol (Rama VIII) Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX)

1782–1809 1809–1824 1824–1851 1851–1868 1868–1910 1910–1925 1925–1935 1935–1946 1946–

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Appendix B

Kings of Sukhothai

Kings

Reign Dates

Sri Indraditya Ban Muang Ramkhamhaeng Lo Thai Ngua Nam Thom Mahathammaracha I (Luthai) Mahathammaracha II Mahathammaracha III (Sai Luthai) Mahathammaracha IV

c. 1240–c. 1270 c. 1270–1279 1279–1298 1298–1346/47 1346/47 1346/47–1368/74 1368/74–1398 1398–1419 1419–1438

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Appendix C

Kings of Lan Na and Chiang Mai

Kings of Lan Na Kings

Reign Dates

Mangrai Chai Songkram Saen Phu Khrua Nam Thuam Saen Phu (second reign) Kham Fu Pha Yu Ku Na Saen Muang Ma Sam Fang Kaen Tilokaracha Yot Chiang Rai Muang Kaeo Ket Chettharat Chai (Sai Kham) Ket Chettharat (second reign) Queen Chiraprapha Setthahirat (of Lan Sang) Queen Ku Mekuti Queen Wisutthithewi (under Burma) Tharawaddy Prince (of Burma) Two sons of Tharawaddy Prince Thadogyaw (of Burma)

1259–1317 1317–1318 1318–1319 1319–1322 1322–1324 1324–1328 1328–1337 1337–1355 1355–1385 1385–1401 1401–1441 1441–1487 1487–1495 1495–1526 1526–1538 1538–1543 1543–1545 1545–1546 1546–1551 1551 1551–1564 1564–1578 1578–1607 1607–1613 1613–1615 (continued)

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Kings of Lan Na (continued ) Kings

Reign Dates

Si Song Muang Phraya Thipphanet Ruler of Phrae Burmese Crown Prince Burmese ruler Nara (Burmese officer) Thep Sing Ong Kham (from Lang Sang) Chan Khi Hut Abhayagamani (Burmese) Mayagamani (Burmese) Revolt in Lan Na

1615–1631 1631–1659 1659–1672 1672–1675 1675–1707 1707–1727 1727 1727–1759 1759–1761 1761–1762 1762–1768 1768–1771 1771–1774

KINGS OF CHIANG MAI Kings

Reign Dates

Kavila (1775–1781 in Lampang) Thammalangka Kham Fan Phutthawong Mahawong Kavilorot Intanon Suriyawong In Kaeo

1781–1813 1813–1821 1821–1825 1825–1846 1846–1854 1856–1870 1871–1897 1901–1911 1911–1939

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Appendix D

Population of Thailand by Province and Enumeration Region (in thousands) 1990

2000

56,304 5,545 8,386 630 575 412 770 321

60,916 6,355 9,693 815 817 678 1,028 466

Central Region: Chai Nat Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Lop Buri Sara Buri Sing Buri Ang Thong

2,778 357 701 721 508 230 261

2,910 360 727 746 575 233 269

Eastern Region: Chanthaburi Chachoengsao Chon Buri Trat Nakon Nayak Prachin Buri Sa Kaeo

3,507 391 552 851 162 222 878

Whole Kingdom Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Bangkok Metropolitan Region* Nakhon Pathom Nontha Buri Pathum Thani Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon

4,061 480 635 1,041 219 241 407 486 (continued) *Includes BMA and the closest five provinces: Nakhon Pathom, Nontha Buri, Pathum Thani, Samut Prakan, Samut Sakhon 293

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POPULATION OF THAILAND BY PROVINCE AND ENUMERATION REGION (IN THOUSANDS) (continued ) 1990

2000

451 3,177 641 411 401 735 191 798

552 3,471 734 450 435 791 204 856

Northern Region: Kamphaeng Phet Chiang Rai Chiang Mai Tak Nakhon Sawan Nan Phayao Phichit Phitsanulok Phetchabun Phrae Mae Hong Son Lampang Lamphun Sakhothai Uttaradit Uthai Thani

10,583 644 1,052 1,367 335 1,040 417 475 551 757 871 483 158 729 410 560 440 295

11,433 674 1,130 1,500 486 1,090 458 503 573 793 966 493 210 782 413 593 464 304

Northeastern Region: Kalasin Khon Kaen Chaiyaphum Nakhon Phanom

16,837 846 1,621 998 623

20,825 921 1,733 1,095 684 (continued)

Rayong Western Region: Kanchana Buri Prachuap Khiri Khan Phetchaburi Ratcha Buri Samut Songkhram Suphan Buri

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APPENDIX D

Nakhon Ratchasima Buri Ram Maha Sarakham Mukdahan Yasothon Roi Et Loei Si Sa Ket Sakhon Nakhon Surin Nong Khai Udon Thani Bua Lam Phu Ubon Ratchathani Amnat Charoen Southern Region: Krabi Chumphon Trang Nakhon Si Thammarat Narathiwat Pattani Phangnga Phatthalung Phuket Yala Ranong Songkhla Satun Surat Thani

• 295

1990

2000

2,376 1,357 879 265 529 1,122 536 560 943 1,221 797 295 482 1,870

2,556 1,493 947 311 561 1,256. 607 593 1,041 1,328 884 304

6,966 276 374 529 1,401 547 515 209 441 166 341 117 1,094 209 747

8087 336 446 595 1,520 662 596 234 498 250 416 161 1,256 248 869

1,691 359

Source: Statistical Yearbook: Thailand. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1994.

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Appendix E

Population of Thailand, 1910–2000 (in thousands)

Year

Total

1910 1920 1930 1942 1950 1960 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 2000

8,087 9,409 11,747 16,066 19,635 26,392 35,550 42,392 46,861 51,796 54,549 60,607

Annual Growth Rate

Sex Ratio

Population Density Per sq. km.

3.1% 3.0% 2.6% 2.65% 2.4% 1.96 1.05%

101.7 100.0 101.5 101.0 100.4 100.4 101.4 101.6 101.3 101.3 98.5 97.0

16 18 23 31 38 51 69 83 92 101 106 118

Sources: Statistical Yearbook: Thailand. Bangkok, National Statistical Office, 1994–98; Census of Population and Housing, 2000.

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Appendix F

Population of Larger Cities, 2000 Census

Bangkok Metropolis* Samut Prakan Nanthaburi Udon Thani Nakhon Ratchasima

6,320,174 378,694 291,307 220,493 204,391

Hat Yai Chon Buri Chiang Mai PhraPadaeng Lampang

185,557 182,641 167,776 166,828 147.812

Pak Kret Si Racha Khon Kaen Nakhon Si Thammarat

141,788 141,334 141,034 118,764

Thanya Buri Surat Thani Rayong Ubon Ratchathani Khlong Luang

113,818 111,276 106,585 106,552 103,282

*Formerly Bangkok and Thonburi Source: Europa World Yearbook, 2003

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Appendix G

Economically Active Population (Millions of persons aged 15 years and over) Type of Employment

1999

2001

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services Construction Trade, finance, insurance, and real estate Transporationt, storage, and communications Restaurants, hotels, and other services Total employed Unemployed Total labor force

13.88 0.64 4.60 0.16 1.40 4.76 1.01 4.79 30.66 2.06 32.72

13.59 0.47 5.68 0.17 1.58 4.49 1.02 5.60 32.17 1.75 33.92

*Excluding the armed forces Sources: IMF. Thailand: Selected Issues and Statistical Appendix (September 2002). Europa World Yearbook, 2003

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Appendix H

Principal Agricultural Crops (1000 metric tons)

Crop Rice (paddy) Maize Cassava (Manioc, Tapioca) Dry Beans Soybeans Coconuts Oil palm fruit Tomatoes Dry onions Other vegetables Watermelons Sugar cane Bananas Oranges Tangerines, manderins, clementines Mangoes Pineapples Other fruits Natural rubber

1999

2001

24,172 4,286 18,507 240 319 1,381 3,512 219 316 1,217 400 53,494 1,720 320 640 1,462 2,372 1,228 2,199

26,954 4,470 18,270 240 294 1,400 3,880 236 270 1,244 400 60,042 1,730 325 650 1,633 1,979 1,229 2,357

Sources: Food and Agricultural Organization; Europa World Yearbook, 2003.

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Appendix I

Thailand’s Economic Indicators

1997

1999

2001

2003

Population (millions) 60.5 Exchange Rate, Baht:US$ 3.4 Consumer Price Index 92.5 Gross Domestic Product at current price (% change) 1/ 2.6 Gross Domestic Product per capita (thousands baht) 76.1 Merchandise Exported (billions of US$) 56.7 Merchandise Imported (billions of US$) 61.3 Balance of Payments (billions of US$) 10.6 International Reserves (billions of US$) 27.0 Total foreign debt (billions of US$) 109.3 Public (domestic) debt (billions of baht) 317 Prime rate of interest (%) 15.3

61.8 37.8 100.3

62.3 44.5 103.5

63.0 41.5 106.1

0.2

4.3

73.0

80.2

(2002) 6.2 (2002) 84.5

56.8

63.1

78.4

47.5

60.6

74.2

4.6

1.3

0.1

34.8

33.0

42.1

95.0

67.5

52.3

1013 8.25–8.5

1337 7.0–7.5

1770 5.5–5.75

Source: Bangkok: Bank of Thailand, 2004 1/ Gross domestic product, 1997, 4,733 billion baht (US $118 bllion)

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Appendix J

Gross Domestic Product by Industrial Origin (in billion baht) Economic Activity

1999

2001*

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Transportation and communication Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels

497 67 1,447 166 377 743

436 126 1,707 149 411 876

Banking, insurance, and real estate services Ownership of dwellings Public administration and defense Other services Total gross domestic product

164 123 294 693 4,362

320 229 678 5,100

*Provisional figures Sources: National Economic and Social Development Board and Asian Development Bank, Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries; Europa World Yearbook, 2003

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Appendix K

Parties and Seats in House of Representatives, Elections of 1992–2001 Number of Seats Mar

Sept

July 1992

Nov 1992

74 79 6 4 0

77 86 8 8 0

92 123 3 2 18

60

53

52

72 41

51 47 7 4 0 0 8 22 0 0

57 23 3 1 0 0 11 20 0 1

Parties Chat Thai Democratic Party Ekkaparb Muan Chon Nam Thai National Development Party [Chat Pattana] New Aspiration Party (NAP) Palang Dharma Prachakorn Thai Rassadorn Party Ruam Thai Samakkhi Tham Seritham Party Social Action Party Thai Rak Thai Other Parties

44 1

60

0 79 0 22 0 0

31 1

Source: http://cdp.binghamton.edu/era/countries/thi.html (continued)

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PARTIES AND SEATS IN HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, ELECTIONS OF 1992–2001 (continued ) Number of Seats

Chat Thai Democratic Party Ekkaparb Muan Chon Nam Thai National Development Party [Chat Pattana] New Aspiration Party (NAP) Palang Dharma Prachakorn Thai Rassadorn Party Ruam Thai Samakkhi Tham Seritham Party Social Action Party Thai Rak Thai Other Parties

Jan 1995

Feb 1996

39 128 8 0 0

41 90 (est.) 0

2001

0

29 125 1 18 0 0 0 4 1 0 1

36 0 18 0 0 0 14 248

0 2

375 (est.)

Source: http://cdp.binghamton.edu/era/countries/thi.html

2005

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Appendix L

Elections Since 1933

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

November 1933 November 1937 November 1938 January 1946 August 1946 January 1948 June 1949 February 1952 December 1957 February 1969 January 1975 April 1976 April 1979 April 1983 July 1986 July 1988 March 1992 September 1992 July 1995 November 1996 January 2001 February 2005

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Appendix M

A Chronology of Coups d’Etat in Modern Thailand 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

April 6, 1782 February 29, 1912 June 24, 1932 June 20, 1933 October 11, 1933 November 8, 1947 October 1, 1948 February 26, 1949 June 29, 1951 November 29, 1951 September 16, 1957 October 20, 1958 November 17, 1971 October 14, 1973 October 6, 1976 March 26, 1977 October 20, 1977 April 1, 1981 September 29, 1985 July 3, 1989 June 11, 1990 February 23, 1991

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Appendix N

Prime Ministers, 1932–2005

Prime Ministers

Term of Office

Phraya Manopakon Nitithada Phraya Phahon Yothin Luang Phibun Songkhram Khuang Aphaiwong Thawi Bunyaket Seni Pramoj Khuang Aphaiwong Pridi Phanomyong Luang Thamrongnawasawat Khuang Aphaiwong Luang Phibun Songkhram Pote Sarasin Thanom Kittikachorn Sarit Thanarat Thanom Kittikachorn Sanya Dharmasakti (Sanya Thammasak) Seni Pramoj Kukrit Pramoj Seni Pramoj Thanin Kraivichien Kriangsak Chomanan Prem Tinsulanonda Chatchai Choonhavan Anand Panyarachun Suchinda Kraprayoon Chuan Leekpai

315

1932–33 1933–38 1938–44 1944–45 1945 1945–46 1946 1946–46 1946–47 1947–48 1948–57 1957 1958 1959–63 1963–73 1973–75 1975 1975–76 1976 1976–77 1977–80 1980–88 1988–91 1991–92 1992 1992–1995 (continued)

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PRIME MINISTERS, 1932–2005 (continued ) Prime Ministers Barnharn Silpa–Archa Chavalit Yongchaiyudh Chuan Leekpai Thaksin Shinawatra

Term of Office 1995–1996 1996–1997 1997–2001 2001–

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Bibliography

INTRODUCTION The field of Thai studies has expanded rapidly in the past five decades so that the amount of material available for compilation now exceeds the ability of one compiler to organize, classify, and rationally select them. The case then is all the stronger for beginning the immediate compilation of more specialized, critical, and selective bibliographies. Source materials concerning Thailand are worldwide. Relevant monographs, articles, and serials available in the United States alone are enormous. This bibliography assumes no prior knowledge of the subject it treats. Its presentation is not designed for specialists or scholars, but for general readers. All the items in the bibliography are written in English and are available in the United States. Dissertations and unpublished papers are not included. The bibliography necessarily contains many entries that cover more than one subject. As is the practice in the dictionary entries, authors in the bibliography are listed alphabetically by surname except for Thais, who are listed by first name. There now exists a wide range of bibliographies on many Thai subjects, strongest in areas of contemporary political, economic, and social development. There are also numerous bibliographies on relatively concrete subject areas, such as agriculture, demography, history, religion, and rural development, but none on psychology and psychiatry. General bibliographies, vital to the beginner in Thai studies, are widely available. The Social Research Institute at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, publishes various annotated bibliographies. Work dated as early as 1879 to 1974, cited in Thailand: An Annotated Bibliography of Bibliographies, by Donn V. Hart (1977), provides some general measurement of previous work for readers interested in Thai studies. The majority of entries are monographic titles. The arrangement of entries is in alphabetical order by author. A recent annotated bibliography, Thailand, by Michael Watts (1986) is classified with 32 subject headings. The annotations also refer to many works not included as main entries, but the names of the authors have been included in the index. Statistical Yearbook: Thailand, by the Thai National Statistical Office, is a good source of statistics on Thailand. For an overview of Thai History, see Chula Chakrabongse’s Lords of Life (1960). In Thailand: A Short History, by David Wyatt (1984), the emphasis is on policies, 317

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politics, and changes at the highest levels of society. Siam and the West, 1500 to 1700, by Kirk Van Der Cruyosse (2002), offers the most complete and the most detailed narrative of Siam’s relations with the West in this 200-year period. The End of the Absolute Monarchy in Siam, by Benjamin A. Batson (1984) offers a crucial phase of modern Thai history. Thailand: Economy and Politics by Pasuk Phongpachit and Chris Baker (1995) is a valuable history from a political and economic perspective. Boom and Bust by the same authors (1998) treats not only the transformation of the Thai economy but also the politics, social changes, and the popular culture. The Thai Economy: Uneven Development and Internationalization by Chris Dixon (1999) provides a concise overview and examines the relationship between different sectors of the economy. Thailand: A Country Study edited by Barbara LePoer, 6th ed. (1989), describes and analyzes history, politics, culture, economy, social and national security systems, and institutions. Institutionalization of Democratic Processes in Thailand: A Three-Pronged Democratic Polity by Pisan Suriyamongkol (1988) sets out different concepts and models used in the interpretation of recent Thai history and analyzes the growth of economic and social development. Money and Power in Provincial Thailand edited by Ruth McVey (2000) is focused on the middle distance between metropolis and countryside. Attention is drawn to the role of local leadership in the transformation of provincial urban centers by capitalist development and the movement into national politics by aggressive local leaders. Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-body of a Nation by Thongchai Winichakul (1994) explores the genius, constitution, and presence of Thai nationhood. The author provides his insights into the dynamics of Thai history in the 19th and 20th centuries. Buddhism, Legitimation and Conflict: The Political Functions of Urban Thai Buddhism by Peter A. Jackson (1989) provides insights into the changing relationships between Buddhism and Politics in contemporary Thailand. Duncan McCargo’s Reforming Thai Politics treats the reform movement, of which the new 1997 constitution is a product. Especially interesting is its discussion of the rise of and roles of civil societies in the reforms accomplished. The Integrative Art of Modern Thailand by Herbert P. Philips (1992) provides a valuable look at the expanding Thai cultural arts. In Peggy Van Esterik’s Materializing Thailand (2000), the author presents a useful analysis of past and present representations of Thai women and their paradoxes. Thai prostitution is also analyzed. Some relevant English-language web sites on Thailand are listed below. Note that most Thai government web sites are in the Thai language only. http://www.nectec.or.th/WWW-VL-Thailand.html World Wide Web Virtual Library, sponsored by the National Electronics and Computer Technology Center (NECTEC) of the Royal Thai Government. Numerous valuable links to news, travel, culture, history. http://www.aasianst.org/ The site of the Association for Asian Studies at the University of Michigan; includes a useful search engine.

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http://www.aasianst.org/wwwse.htm#THAILAND This extensive list of online resources has been compiled since July 1996 by Raymond Lum, for publication in the Asian Studies Newsletter. http://www.asiasource.org/ Covers all of Asia, not just Thailand, but has many helpful links. http://newton.uor.edu/Departments%26Programs/AsianStudies Dept/ An annotated directory of Internet resources, including current hot topics; the site author, Robert Y. Eng, flags sources that are especially content-rich and authoritative. h t t p : / / w w w. a l a . o r g / a l a / a c r l / a c r l p u b s / c r l n e w s / b a c k i s s u e s 2 0 0 3 / february1/southeastasian.htm A comprehensive article prepared by Lisa Klopfer for the Association of College and Research Libraries publication C&RL News, February 2003, linking to numerous online resources for Southeast Asian studies, including some for Thailand. http://www.nso.go.th/eng/ The Thai National Statistical Office, a good source of statistics on Thailand. http://www.prd.iirt.net/index_e.html Thai government Public Relations Department web site, providing news in English about current events with links to streaming news radio in English. http://egov.thaigov.net/english/index.html Describes pilot projects to establish a framework for electronic Government (e-Government) in line with e-ASEAN and e-Thailand’s initiatives. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/thaipol/thaibibl.htm A searchable annotated bibliography of English language materials dealing with Thai politics and government compiled by Michael Nelson, a researcher at the King Prachadipok Institute, Thailand. http://www.bangkokpost.com/ The Bangkok Post, an English-language daily. http://sunsite.au.ac.th/thailand/Thai_Arts/index.html Hosted by Assumption University in Bangkok, gives an introduction to Thai painting, sculpture, music, drama, literature, architecture, and crafts. http://www.chula.ac.th/cuweb_en/ Chulalongkorn University’s English web site. http://www.mahidol.ac.th/ Mahidol University’s English web site with information from the National Identity Office under the Office of the Prime Minister regarding Thai history, economy, politics, and culture. http://www.seasite.niu.edu/ Web site of the Center for Southeast Asian Studies at Northern Illinois University, with interactive learning resources for Southeast Asian languages, literature, and cultures; focus is on Thailand. http://www.asia-discovery.com/Thailand/index.html http://www .thailandpage.com/ http://www.topthaisites.com/ Representative sites that give an overview of Thailand travel, with information on culture, business, shopping. http://www.cdc.gov/travel/seasia.htm U.S. Government health information for travelers to Southeast Asia.

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1. GENERAL A. Bibliographies and Collections Chaveelak Boonyakanchana. Thai Reference Books and Their History. Bangkok: Department of Library Science, Chulalongkorn University, 1981. Compilation of Publications in English on the Chakri Dynasty. Bangkok: Office of His Majesty’s Principal Private Secretary, 1983. Corruption: An Annotated Bibliography. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, Social Research Institute, 1983. Gehan Wijeyewardene and Ann Buller. Bibliography: The First 1,500 Hundred Entries. Canberra, Australia: Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1989. Hart, Donn Vorhis. Thailand: An Annotated Bibliography of Bibliographies. DeKalb, Ill: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, 1977. Ishii, Yoneo. A Selected Thai Bibliography on the Reign of King Chulalongkorn. Osaka, Japan: Thai Section, Osaka University of Foreign Studies, 1972. Lan Na Literature: Catalogue of Secular Titles among the 3,700 Palm-Leaf Manuscripts Borrowed from Wats throughout Northern Thailand and Preserved on Microfilm at the Social Research Institute of Chiang Mai University. Bangkok: Distributed by the Chulalongkorn University Bookstore, 1986. Mabbett, Ian W. Early Thai History: A Select Bibliography. Melbourne, Australia: Monash University, 1978. Migration: An Annotated Bibliography. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, Social Research Institute, 1983. Religious Traditions among Tai Ethnic Groups: Selected Bibliography. Ayutthaya: Ayutthaya Historical Study Centre, 1991. Slum: An Annotated Bibliography. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, Social Research Institute, 1982. Sumitra Sanguandikul and Wattana Yiamyat. Social Values: An Annotated Bibliography. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, 1982. The Thai (Gedney) Collection of the University of Michigan Library: A Union Catalogue. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 1987. Thapa, Gopal B. Land Settlement through the Kaleidoscope: Annotated Bibliography of Asian Experiences. Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology, 1986. Union Catalog of Chulalongkorn University Libraries 1983–1984, 3 vols. Bangkok: Central Library, Centers of Academic Resources, Chulalongkorn University, 1988. Union List of Serials in Thailand, 4th ed. Bangkok: Ministry of University Affairs, 1993. Working Bibliography on Gender and Development in Thailand. North York, Canada: Women in Development Consortium in Thailand and Thai Studies Project, 1988.

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B. Statistics 1980 Population & Housing Census, Whole Kingdom. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1980. 1983 Intercensal Survey of Agriculture, Whole Kingdom. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1984. 1990 Population and Housing Census. 73 v. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1992. 2000 Population and Housing Census. NSO, 2002. Census 1970. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1977. Chiswick, Carmel Ullman. Statistical Data for Thailand: Surveys of Households and Individuals. Chicago: University of Illinois at Chicago, 1987. Data Analysis on Population and Family Health. Bangkok: Sun Pramuan Khaosan Kananamai Khropkhrua, 1990. Data Analysis on Women and Health. Bangkok: Sun Pramuan Khaosan Kananamai Khropkhrua, 1990. Employment and Unemployment. Survey no. 2. Bangkok: Sathaban Sapphayakon Manut, Mahawitthayalai Thammasat, 1990. Laing, John E. Findings on Contraceptive Use Effectiveness from the 1989 Thailand Demographic and Health Survey. Honolulu, Hawaii: East-West Center, 1992. Lepoer, Barbara Leitch, ed. Thailand: A Country Study. Washington D.C.: United States Government represented by the Secretary of the Army. Mineral Statistics of Thailand. Bangkok: Department of Mineral Resources, 1981. The Morbidity and Mortality Differentials: ASEAN Population Programme Phase III, Thailand: A Report on the Secondary Data Analysis. Bangkok: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1985. Report: The Survey of Hill Tribe Population, 1987. Nan Province. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1988. Report: The Survey of Population Change, 1989. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1990. Report of the 1986 Household Socio-Economic Survey, Greater Bangkok Metropolitan Area. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1988. Report on Employment and Unemployment of Migrants to the Bangkok Metropolis, the Vicinity of Bangkok Metropolis and the Regional Urban Growth Centre. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1988. Social Indicators in 10 Years and Social Indicators, 1987. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1989. Statistical Handbook of Thailand. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1990, 1993, 1994. Statistics on Women and Health, Thailand. Bangkok: Kananamai Khropkhrua, Kong Anamai Khropkhrua, 1990. Thailand Economic Information Kit. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute Foundation, 1990.

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Thailand in Figures 1992–1993. Bangkok: Alpha Research, 1993. “The Top 50 Companies Listed in Thailand (table).” Asian Business. 32 (Feb 1996): 28. Uraiwan Kanungsukkasem. Comparative Population and Health Statistics for Thailand: Regional and Provincial Levels. Bangkok: Institute of Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1983.

C. Description and Travel Asian Commentaries: Thailand [Canberra, A.C.T.]: The Department, 1998. Benet, Philippe. Thailand. Lausanne, Switzerland: JPM Publications, 2000. The Business Guide to Thailand. Singapore: Butterworth-Heinemann Asia, 1998. Cooper, Robert George and Nanthapa Cooper. Culture Shock!: Thailand. Portland, Ore: Graphic Arts Center, 2000. Country Review. Thailand. Houston, TX: Commercial Data International, 1998. De Choisy, Abbe. Journal of a Voyage to Siam 1685–1686. New York: Oxford University Press (Oxford in Asia Hardback Reprints Series), 1994. Descriptions of Old Siam. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Eliot, Joshua. Thailand Handbook. Bath: Footprint, 1999. Freeman, Michael. A Guide to Khmer Temples in Thailand & Laos. New York: Weatherhill, 1998. Hoskin, John. Chiang Mai: The Tranquil Valley. Bangkok: Artasia Press, 1989. Invernizzi, Luca. A Golden Souvenir of Bangkok: Ayutthaya. and Pattaya. Bangkok: Asia Books, 1998. Mahaviro, Bhikku. The Thai & I: Successful Living in Thailand. Bangkok: Community Services of Bangkok, 1996. Montgomery, Jock and William Warren. Menam Chao Phraya: River of Life & Legend. Bangkok: Post Books: Chao Phraya River Club, 1994. Moore, Elizabeth H. Ancient Capitals of Thailand. New York: River Books, 1996. Nopporn Wong-Anan, Arnold Wright, and Oliver T. Breakspear. Twentieth Century Impressions of Siam: Its History, People, Commerce, Industries, and Resources. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1994. Raemakers, Jeremy. The Singing Ape: A Journey to the Jungles of Thailand. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1990. Seline, Christopher, ed. The Business Guide to Thailand. Singapore: ButterworthHeinemann Asia, 1998. Terwiel, B. J. Through Travellers’ Eyes: An Approach to Early Nineteenth-Century Thai History. Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1989. The Thai People and Culture. Bangkok: Foreign Office, Public Relations Department, Office of the Prime Minister, 2000. Warren, William. Bangkok. London: Reaktion Books, 2002.

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D. Directories and Organizations Directory of Science and Technology Services in Thailand. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute Foundation, 1990. The Federation of Thai Industries Directory. Bangkok: Business Thailand, 1990. Khon Khaen Guide & Directory. Khon Khaen, Thailand: s.n., 1991. A Survey of Thai Arts and Architectural Attractions: A Manual for Tourist Guides. Bangkok: Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University, 1987.

E. Biographies Batson, Benjamin A. “Phra Sarasas: Rebel with Many Causes.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 27 (Mar. 1996): 150–165. Earle, Janet. “Compassionate Visionary, Prince Mahidol of Songkla.” Sawaddi 44, 2 (1998): 4–11. Hartzell, Jessie MacKinnlon, et al. Mission to Siam: The Memoirs of Jessie MacKinnon Hartzell. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001. Jackson, Peter A. Buddhadasa: A Buddhist Thinker for the Modern World. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1988. Keyes, Charles F., W. J. Klausner and Sulak Sivaraksa. Phya Anuman Rajadhon: A Reminiscence. Bangkok: Satirakases-Nagapradita Foundation, 1973. Kobkua Suwannathat-Pian, Thailand’s Durable Premier: Phibun through Three Decades, 1932–1957. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Kukrit Pramoj, M. R. M. R. Kukrit Pramoj, His Wit and Wisdom: Writings, Speeches and Interviews, compiled by Vilas Manival, edited by Steve Van Beek. Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1983. Pauloski, Cara. “Jim Thompson, a Man of Legends.” Sawaddi 44, 3 (1997): 14–16. Pichai Cheunseksawadi, et al., eds. 50 Thais Who Helped Shape Thailand. Bangkok: Bangkok Post, 1996. ———. Thailand’s 50 Business Leaders. Bangkok: Bangkok Post, 1997. Van Praagh, David. Thailand’s Struggle for Democracy: The Life of M. R. Seni Pramoj. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996. Veena Thoopkrajae and Pusadee Righinondh, eds. 100 Most Influential Artists and Entertainers of the Century. Bangkok: The Nation, 2001. Vichitvong Na Pombhejara. Pridi Banomyong and the Making of Thailand’s Modern History. Bangkok: Printed by Siriyod Printing, 1983. Vinita Sukrasep. The Politics of Pibul: The National Leader, 1932–1944. Thesis (Ph.D.)—American University (Washington, D.C.), 2000.

F. The Monarchy Davis, Reginald. The Royal Family of Thailand. London: Nicholas Publications, 1981.

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50 Years of Reign: Thailand Celebrates the Golden Jubilee of His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej’s Accession to the Throne, 1995–1996. Bangkok: Tourism Authority of Thailand, 1996. Golden Jubilee: The Fiftieth Anniversary Celebrations of His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej’s Accession to the Throne. Bangkok: Government Public Relations Department, Office of the Prime Minister, [1997]. Nash, Michael L. “The Thai Monarchy.” Contemporary Review 269 (Aug. 1996): 66–69. Tasker, Rodney. “Sovereign Guide: King Serves as Bedrock of National Stability.” Far Eastern Economic Review 159 (June 13 1996): 20–21. The Thai Monarchy. Bangkok: Foreign Office, Public Relations Department, Office of the Prime Minister, 2000. Thanin Kraiwichian. His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej, Compassionate Monarch of Thailand. Bangkok: Katavethin Foundation, 1982.

2. HISTORY A. General Chula Chakrabonse, Prince. Lords of Life: A History of the Kings of Thailand. 3rd. rev. ed. Bangkok: D D Books, 1982. Davies, Ben, lsaan: Forgotten Provinces of Thailand. Bahamas: Luna, 1996. Eade, J. C. The Thai Historical Record: A Computer Analysis. Tokyo: The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco, The Toyo Bunko, 1996. Early Accounts of Phetchaburi. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1987. Glover, I. C. and A. Salisbury. “New Analyses of Early Glass from Thailand and Vietnam.” Bead Study Trust Newsletter 30 (1997): 7–14. Gosling, Betty. Sukhothai: Its History, Culture, and Art. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1991. Haseman, John B. The Thai Resistance Movement during the Second World War. DeKalb, Ill: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, 1978. Jones, Robert B. Thai Titles and Ranks, Including a Translation of Traditions of Royal Lineage in Siam by King Chulalongkorn. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1971. Jumsai, M. L. Manich. History of Thailand & Cambodia: From the Days of Angkor to the Present. Bangkok: Chalermnit Press, 1970. Keyes, Charles F. Thailand: Buddhist Kingdom as Modern Nation-State. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1987. Leeuw, A. and David K. Wyatt. Hikayat Patani: The Story of Patani. 2 v. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1970. LePoer, Barbara Leitch, ed. Thailand: A Country Study. 6th ed. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1989.

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Manas Chitakasem and Andrew Turton, eds. Thai Constructions of Knowledge. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1991. Manich Jumsai, M. L. Popular History of Thailand. Bangkok: Chalermnit, 2000. Morris, Rosalind C. In the Place of Origins: Modernity and Its Mediums in Northern Thailand. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2000. Rong Syamananda. A History of Thailand. 7th ed. Bangkok: Thai Watana Panich, 1990. Syukri, Ibrahim. History of the Malay Kingdom of Patani, trans. Conner Bailey and John N. Miksic. Athens: Ohio University, Center for International Studies, 1985. Thailand: Country File. 2 v. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Asian and Pacific Development Center, 1993. Vickery, Michael. “Piltdown 3: Further Discussion of the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription.” Journal of The Siam Society 83, 1–2 (1995): 103–197. Wilson, Constance M. Thailand: A Handbook of Historical Statistics. Boston, Mass.: G. K. Hall, 1983. Wilson, Constance M. and Lucien M. Hanks. The Burma–Thailand Frontier over Sixteen Decades: Three Descriptive Documents. Athens: Ohio University, Center for International Studies, 1985. Wyatt, David K. Studies in Thai History: Collected Articles. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1994. Wyatt, David K. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984. Yanchong, Cheah. “More Thoughts on the Ancient Culture of the Tai People.” The Journal of the Siam Society 84, 1 (1996): 29–48. Yoshihara, Kunio, ed. Japan in Thailand. Kuala Lumpur: Falcon Press, 1990. Yuting, Du and Chen Lufan. “Did Kublai Khan’s Conquest of the Dali Kingdom Give Rise to the Mass Migration of the Thai People to the South?” Journal of the Siam Society 77, 1 (1989): 33–41.

B. Prehistory and Archaeology The Archaeology of Peninsular Siam: Collected Articles from the Journal of the Siam Society, 1905–1983. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1986. Glover, I. C. “The Development of Prehistory in Thailand” Thailand-Rundschau 9, 3 (1996): 100–107. Higham, Charles and Amphan Kijingam. Prehistoric Investigations in Northeastern Thailand. 3 v. Oxford, U.K.: B. A. R., 1984. Historical and Archaeological Sites and Monuments of Southeast Asia: A Compilation. Bangkok: Southeast Asian Ministers of Education, 1986. Kijngam, Amphan. Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in Northeast Thailand: The Result of Site Surveys Undertaken in January and February 1980. Dunedin, New Zealand: Department of Anthropology, University of Otago, 1980.

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Moore, Elizabeth H. Moated Sites in Early North East Thailand. Oxford: B. A. R., 1988. Mudar, Karen M. “How Many Dvaravati Kingdoms? Locational Analysis of First Millennium AD Moated Settlements in Central Thailand.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 18, 1 (1999): 1ff. Prasert Na Nagara and A. B. Griswold. Epigraphic and Historical Studies. Bangkok: Historical Society, 1992. Sashida, Katsuo. “Late Permian to Middle Triassic Radiolarian Faunas from Northern Thailand.” Journal of Paleontology 74, 5 (2000): 789–812. Surin Pookajorn. The Hoabinhian of Mainland Southeast Asia: New Data from the Recent Thai Excavation in the Ban Kao Area. Bangkok: Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University, 1984. Vincent, B. Prehistoric Ceramics of Northeastern Thailand, with Special Reference to Ban Na Di. Oxford: B.A.R., 1988. Welch, David J. and Judith R. McNeill. “Excavations at Ban Tamyae and Non Ban Kham, Phimai Region, Northeast Thailand.” Asian Perspectives 28, 2 (1988–1989): 99–123. White, Joyce C. Ban Chiang: Discovery of a Lost Bronze Age. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania and Smithsonian Institution, 1982. Wilen, Richard N. Excavations at Non Pa Kluay, Northeast Thailand. Oxford: B. A. R., 1989.

C. Historical Period to 1782 Anderson, John. English Intercourse with Siam in the 17th Century. London: Kegan-Paul, 1890. Chakravarti, Adhir K. “International Trade and Towns of Ancient Siam.” The South East Asian Review 20, 1–2 (Jan.–Dec. 1995): 15–30. Charnvit Kasetsiri. The Rise of Ayudhya: A History of Siam in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. Englelhardt, Richard A. and Pamela Rumball Rogers. “The Phuket Project Revisited: The Ethno-Archaeology through Time of Maritime Adapted Communities in Southeast Asia.” Journal of the Siam Society 85, 1 & 2 (1997): 17–33. Forbin, Comte de (Claude) [Mémoires du comte de Forbin. 1731. Selections]. The Siamese Memoirs of Count Claude de Forbin, 1685–1688. Chiang Mai: Silkworm, 1997. Gervaise, Nicolas. The Natural and Political History of the Kingdom of Siam, translated and edited by John Villiers. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1989. Grave, Peter. “Beyond the Mandala: Buddhist Landscapes and Upland-Lowland Interaction in North-West Thailand AD 1200–1650.” World Archaeology 27 (Oct. 1995): 243–265. Higham, Charles. Prehistoric Thailand: From Early Settlement to Sukhothai. Bangkok: River Books, 1998.

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Loubere, Simon de la. A New Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam. 2 v. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1969 Luce, Gordon H. “The Early Syam in Burma’s History.” Journal of the Siam Society 46, 2 (Nov. 1958): 123–214 & 47, 1 (June 1959): 59–101. Mudar, Karen M. “Evidence for Prehistoric Dryland Farming in Mainland Southeast Asia: Results of Regional Survey in Lopburi Province, Thailand (with appendix).” Asian Perspectives 34 (Fall 1995): 157–194. The Ram Khamhaeng Controversy: Collected Papers. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1991. Smith, Ronald Bishop. Siam or the History of the Thais from Earliest Times to 1569 A.D. 2 v. Bethesda, Md.: Decatur Press, 1966. Smithies, Michael. “Seventeenth Century Siam: Its Extent and Urban Centres.” Journal of the Siam Society 83, 1–2 (1995): 63–78. Sunait Chutintaranond. “‘Mandala,’ ‘Segmentary State’ and Politics of Centralization in Medieval Ayudhya.” Journal of the Siam Society 78, 1 (1990): 88–100. Trakulhun, Sven. “The View from the Outside? Nicolas Gervaise, Simon de la Loubère and the Perception of Seventeenth Century Siamese Government and Society.” Journal of the Siam Society 85, 1 & 2 (97): 75–84. Van Der Crugasse, Kirk. Siam and the West, 1500–1700. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2002. Villiers, John. “Portuguese and Spanish Sources for the History of Ayutthaya in the Sixteenth Century.” The Journal of the Siam Society 86, 1 & 2 (1998): 119–130. Wyatt, David K., ed. The Nan Chronicle. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University, Southeast Asia Program Publications (Studies on Southeast Asia; No. 16), 1994.

D 1782–Present Akin Rabibhadana, M. R. The Organization of Thai Society in the Early Bangkok Period 1782–1873. Bangkok: Amarin, 1996. Askew, Marc. Bangkok: Place, Practice and Representation. London: Routledge, 2002. Brailey, Nigel. “Protection or Partition: Ernest Satow and the 1880s Crisis in Britain’s Siam Policy.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 29, 1 (Mar. 1998): 63–85. Brailey, Nigel. Two Views of Siam: On the Eve of the Chakri Reformation. New York: Weatherhill, 1995. Chaiyan Rajchagool. The Rise and Fall of the Absolute Monarchy: Foundations of the Modern Thai State from Feudalism to Peripheral Capitalism. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1994. Chao Phraya Thiphakorawang. The Dynastic Chronicles, Bangkok Era, First Reign. 2 Vols. Translated and edited by Thadeus and Chadin Flood, The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo, 1978.

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3. POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT A. General Amare Tegbaru. Forests, Farmers and the State: Environmentalism and Resistance in Northeastern Thailand. Stockholm, Sweden: Dept of Social Anthropology, Stockholm University, 1998. Thesis (doctoral)—Stockholm University, 1998.

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B. Government and Administration Bowornwathana B. “Thailand—Politics of Reform of The Secretariat of the Prime Minister.” Australian Journal of Public Administration. 55, 4 (Dec. 1996): 55–63. Copyright Act, B.E. 2537 (1994): English Version. Bangkok: Nititham Pub. House, 1995. Hong, Lysa. “The Tax Farming System in the Early Bangkok Period.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 14 (Sep. 1983): 379–399. Jackson, Peter A. Thai Government Cabinets: April, June and September 1992. Canberra: National Thai Studies Center, Australian National University, 1993. Likhit Dhiravegin. Demi Democracy: The Evolution of the Thai Political System. Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1992. McCargo, Duncan, ed. Reforming Thai Politics. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 2000. Neher, Clark D. “Political Development and Political Participation in Thailand.” In Asia, Case Studies in the Social Sciences: A Guide for Teaching, edited by Myron L. Cohen. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1992: 1415–1426. Ramesh, M. “The State and Social Security in Indonesia and Thailand.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 30, 4 (‘00): 534–546. Somsri Siriwaiprapan. The Concept, Practice and Future of Human Resource Development in Thailand as Perceived by Thai Human Resource Practitioners. Thesis (Ed. D.)—George Washington University, 2000. Surin Maisridrod. “Thailand 1992: Repression and Return of Democracy.” In Southeast Asian Affairs 1993. Singapore: ISAS, 1993: 327–349. ———. Thailand’s Two General Elections in 1992: Democracy Sustained. Singapore: ISAS, 1992. Tin Prachyapruit. Thailand’s Elite Civil Servants and Their DevelopmentOrientedness: An Empirical Test of National Data. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Social Research Institute, 1986. Wales, Horace Geoffrey Quaritch. Ancient Siamese Government and Administration. New York: Paragon, 1965. Yeang, Chen-Hsiang. Local Governments and Information Systems in Rural Thailand. Thesis (M.C.P.)—Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Urban Studies and Planning, 1998.

C. Constitution and Law Acts on the Administration of the Buddhist Order of Sangha. Bangkok: Mahamakuta Educational Council, The Buddhist University, 1963. Archer, R. W. Land Subdivision in Thailand: A Translation of the Land Subdivision Regulations and the Guidelines for Relaxing the Regulations. Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology, 1988. Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand; B.E. 2540 (1997). Thailand. [Bangkok?]: National Assembly, 1998.

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D. Armed Forces Chai-Anan Samudavanija and Suchit Bunbongkarn. “Thailand.” In Military-Civilian Relations in South-East Asia, edited by Zakaria Haji Ahmad and Harold Crouch. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1985: 78–156. The Defence of Thailand; 1996. Bangkok: Ministry of Defence: Strategic Research Institute, National Institute of Defence Studies, Supreme Command Headquarters, 1996. Neher, Clark D. “Political Succession in Thailand.” Asian Survey 32 (July 1992): 585–605. ———. Southeast Asia in the New International Era. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1991. Suchit Bunbongkarn. The Military in Thai Politics, 1981–1986. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1987. ———. “Thailand in 1991: Coping with Military Guardianship (Part of a Symposium on: Asia in 1991).” Asian Survey 32 (Feb. 1992): 131–139. Thompson, James Plyler. The Thai Military: An Analysis of Its Role in the Thai Nation. Claremont, Calif.: Thompson, 1974. Win, Kanbawza. Comparative Study of the Two Military Juntas, Thailand and Burma: A Burmese Perspective. 2nd ed. Bangkok: CPDSK, 1994.

E. International Relations 1. General Aldrich, Richard. “A Question of Expediency: Britain, the United States and Thailand, 1941–42.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 19, 2 (1988): 209–244.

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2. With China Anuson Chinvanno. Thailand’s Policies towards China, 1949–54. Oxford: St. Anthony College, 1992. China and Thailand, 1949–1983. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1984. Gill, R. Bates. “China Looks to Thailand: Exporting Arms, Exporting Influence.” Asian Survey 31 (June 1991): 526–539. Sukhumbhand Paribatra, M. R. From Enmity to Alignment: Thailand’s Evolving Relations with China. Bangkok: Institute for Security and International Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1987.

3. With Great Britain Jumsai, M. L. Manich. King Mongkut of Thailand and the British: The Model of a Great Friendship. Bangkok: Chalermnit Press, 1991. Tarling, Nicholas. The Fall of Imperial Britain in South-East Asia. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1993.

4. With Japan International Dimensions of Japanese Financial Development: Implications for Asean and Thailand: Proceedings of an International Conference on Thai–Japan Relations. Bangkok: Faculty of Economics, Chulalongkorn University, 1991. Reynolds, E. Bruce. “Aftermath of Alliance: The Wartime Legacy in Thai–Japanese Relations.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 21 (Mar. 1990): 66–87. ———. Thailand and Japan’s Southern Advance: 1940–1945. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994.

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5. With the United States A Century and a Half of Thai-American Relations. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, 1982. Defense. Logistic Support: Agreement between the United States of America and Thailand Extending the Memorandum of Understanding of October 3, 1985, Effected by Exchange of Notes Signed at Bangkok September 26 and October 3, 1990. Washington, D.C.: Department of State, 1998. Fineman, Daniel. A Special Relationship: The United States and Military Government in Thailand, 1947–1958. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997. Muscat, Robert J. Thailand and the United States: Development, Security, and Foreign Aid. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. Neher, Clark D. and Wiwat Mungkandi, eds. U.S.–Thailand Relations in a New International Era. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California at Berkeley, 1990. Randolph, R. Sean. The United States and Thailand: Alliance Dynamics 1950–1985. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California at Berkeley, 1986. Surachat Bamrungsuk. United States Foreign Policy and Thai Military Rule, 1947–1977. Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1988.

6. With others Funston, John. “Thailand’s Diplomacy on Cambodia: Success of Realpolitik.” Asian Journal of Political Science 6, 1 (Jun. 1998): 53–79. Goscha, Christopher E. Thailand and the Southeast Asian Networks of the Vietnamese Revolution, 1885–1954. Richmond, U.K.: Curzon Press, 1999. Kobkua Suwannathat-Pia. “The 1902 Siamese–Kelantan Treaty: An End to the Traditional Relations.” Journal of the Siam Society 72 (1984): 95–139. ———. Thai–Malay Relations: Traditional Intra-Regional Relations from the Seventeenth to the Early Twentieth Centuries. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1988. Ling, Trevor Onsward. Buddhism, Imperialism and War: Burma and Thailand in Modern History. London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1979.

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F. Insurgency Gawin Chutima. The Rise and Fall of the Communist Party of Thailand (1973–1987). Canterbury, Kent, U.K.: Center of Southeast Asian Studies, University of Kent at Canterbury, 1990. Kanok Wongtrangan. “The Revolutionary Strategy of the Communist Party of Thailand: Change and Persistence.” In Armed Communist Movements in Southeast Asia, edited by Lim Joo-Jock with Vani S. Aldershot. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1984: 131–185. Saiyud Kerdphol. The Struggle for Thailand: Counter-Insurgency, 1965–1985. Bangkok: S. Research Center, 1986. Wedel, Yuangrat. The Thai Radicals and the Communist Party: Interaction of Ideology and Nationalism in the Forest, 1975–1980. Singapore: Maruzen Asia, 1983.

G. Elections Albritton, Robert. “Culture, Region, and Thai Political Diversity.” Asian Studies Review 21, 1 (July 1997): 61–82. Arghiros, Daniel. Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand. Hull, U.K.: University of Hull, Centre for South-East Asian Studies, 1995. Callahan, William A. Imagining Democracy: Reading “The Events of May” in Thailand Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1998. Kiratipon Naewmalee, et aI. Policies of Thai Political Parties in the 1995 General Election. Bangkok: lnstitute of Public Policy Studies, 1995. Thomson C. N. “Electoral Geography of The Sino–Thai in Thailand’s National Elections, 1979–1995.” Professional Geographer 48, 4 (Nov. 1996): 392–404.

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Reynolds, Craig J. Thai Radical Discourse: The Real Face of Thai Feudalism Today (Studies on Southeast Asia), 1994. Rigg, Jonathan. “Tracking the Poor: The Making of Wealth and Poverty in Thailand (1982–1994).” International Journal of Social Economics 25:6/7/8 (1998), 1128–1141. Siamwalla, Ammar, Pakorn Vichyanond, and Yos Vajragupta. Foreign Capital Flows to Thailand: Determinants and Impact. Thailand Development Research Institute, 1999. Thailand; Selected Issues. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2000. Thailand, Statistical Annex. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2000. Warr, Peter G. Is Growth Good for the Poor? Thailand Boost and Bust. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2000. ———. “Myths about Miracles: The Case of Thailand.” Journal of International Trade and Economic Development 9, I (March ‘00): 115–134. ———, ed. The Thai Economy in Transition. New York: Cambridge University Press (Trade & Development Series No.5), 1994. Warr, Peter G. and Bhanupong Nidhiprabha. Thailand’s Economic Miracle: Stable Adjustment and Sustained Growth. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1996. Yoshihara, Kunio. The Nation & Economic Growth: The Philippines & Thailand. New York: Oxford University Press (South-East Asian Social Science Monographs), 1995.

B. Agriculture, Forests, Fishery Adcharaporn Pagdee. Ecological Economic Factors Influencing the Success of Community Forest Management in Thailand. Thesis (M.S.)—Northern Arizona University, 2000. Archer, R. W. Directory of Urban Land Organizations in Thailand, 1990. Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology, 1990. Background Report on the Thai Marine Rehabilitation Plan. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute, 1998. CARE, Mae Chaem Highlands Resource Integration Project: Some Guidelines on Baseline Surveys and Project Monitoring. Chiang Mai: Payap Research and Development Institute, Payap University, 1991. Chong, Jin. Poor Farmers and Development Opportunities in Thailand. Thesis (Honors)—St. Mary’s College of Maryland, 1998. Cohen, Paul T. and Ross E. Pearson. “Communal Irrigation, State, and Capital in the Chiang Mai Valley (Northern Thailand): Twentieth-Century Transformations.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 29, 1 (Mar. 1998): 86–110. Development of Agribusiness and its Impact on Agricultural Production in Southeast Asia. Khon Kaen, Khon Kaen University, 1998.

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Dohrs, Larry S. Commercial Agriculture and Equitable Development in Thailand: Success or Failure? Ann Arbor: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1988. Durrenberger, E. Paul and Nicola Tannenbaum. Analytical Perspectives on Shan Agriculture and Village Economics. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1990. Feeny, David. The Political Economy of Productivity: Thai Agricultural Development, 1880–1975. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1982. Hart, Courtney E. Assessing the Nature and Magnitude of Land Use/land Cover Change in Northeast Thailand. Thesis (M.A.)—University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000. Hirsch, Philip, ed. Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1997. Johnson, Craig. “Common Property, Political Economy, and Local Resource Management: Reflections on ‘Rights-Based’ Fishing in Southern Thailand.” South East Asia Research 8, 1 (March 2000): 31–53. ———. Conflict and Chance in an Open-Access Resource: An Analysis of Thailand’s Coastal Fisheries. Background Report to the Royal Thai Marine Rehabilitation Plan. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute, 1997. Jones, Samantha. “An Actor-Level Analysis of the Constraints on Sustainable Land Management in Northern Thailand: A Study from Chiang Dao District.” South East Asia Research 5, 3 (Nov. 1997): 243–267. Land Policy Study. Bangkok: Development Research Institute Foundation, 1990. Murray, David. Current Forest Land Use Conflicts in Thailand: No Room to Move? Nedlands, Australia: The Indian Ocean Centre for Peace Studies, University of Western Australia, 1992. Nickerson, D., ed. Community-based Fisheries Management in Phangnga Bay, Thailand. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1998. Poffenberger, Mark and Betty McGeau, eds. Community Allies: Forest CoManagement in Thailand. Berkeley, Calif.: Southeast Asia Sustainable Forest Management Network Research Report, 1993. Rice from Our Field. Bangkok: Catholic Council of Thailand for Development, 1990. Rigg, Jonathan and Philip Stott. Forest Tales: Politics, Policy-making and the Environment in Thailand. New York: State University of New York (SUNY), 1998. Sato, Jin. “People in between: Conversion and Conservation of Forest Lands in Thailand.” Development and Change 31, I (Jan. ‘00): 155–177. Seri Phongphit and Robert Bennoun, eds. Turning Point of Thai Farmers. Bangkok: Thai Institute for Rural Development, 1988. Suthad Setboonsarng. The Structure, Conduct and Performance of the Seed Industry in Thailand. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute Foundation, 1991. Tanabe, Shigeharu. Ecology and Practical Technology: Peasant Farming Systems in Thailand. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1994.

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Tansaraviput, Jinna. Thailand Agriculture Restructuring Project. 1998. Research paper (M.A) Williams College, Center for Development Economics, 1998. “Thailand.” In Southeast Asia Rainforests: A Resource Guide & Directory. San Francisco: Rainforest Action Network, 1993: 39–73. Tomosugi, Takashi. Changing Features of a Rice-Growing Village in Central Thailand: A Fixed Point Study from 1967 to 1993. Tokyo: Center for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco, The Toyo Bunko, 1995. Torell, Magnus. Fisheries in Thailand: Geographical Studies about the Utilization of Resources in Semi-Enclosed Seas. Goteborg, Sweden: Kulturgeografiska Institutionen, Goteborgs Universitet, 1984. Vanpen Surarerks. Historical Development and Management of Irrigation System[s] in Northern Thailand. Chiang Mai: Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University, 1986. Whitmore, A. P. “An Analysis of the Economic Values of Novel Cropping Systems in N.E. Thailand and S. Sumatra.” Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 48, 1 (2000): 105–115. Wilson, Constance M. “The Thai Rice Trade and Government Revenues, 1885–1890.” Crossroads 4, 2 (1989): 19–33.

C. Finance and Banking Alba, Pedro. Thailand’s Corporate Financing and Governance Structures. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Finance, Private Sector, and Infrastructure Network, Economic Policy Unit, 1998. Anand Panyarachun. Coping with the Recession in ASEAN: The Case of Thailand. Singapore: Heineman Asia, 1988. Chandler, A. T. and Kowit Somwaiya. “Thailand.” International Financial Law Review Banking Yearbook 1995 (Oct. 1995): 45–49. Chowdhury, A. R. “The Financial Structure and the Demand for Money in Thailand.” Applied Economics 29, 3 (Mar. 1997) 401–409. Economic Review and Bank Operations: Kingdom of Thailand. [Manila]: Asian Development Bank, 1996. Hewison, Kevin. Bankers and Bureaucrats: Capital and the Role of the State in Thailand. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1989. Patchara Tantiprabha. Businesses’ Risk Handling Strategies in the Selection of Financial Service Providers: The Case of Thailand. Thesis (Ph. D.)—New Mexico State University, 1998. Pattawut Buddhari. The Behavior of Non-Financial Firms in Forward Market: Case Study of Firms Listed in the Stocke Exchange of Thailand. Bangkok: Faculty of Economics, Thammasat University, 1998. Suehiro, Akira. Capital Accumulation in Thailand, 1855–1985. Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1989.

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———. “Bangkok Bank: Management Reforms on Thai Commercial Banks.” East Asian Cultural Studies 28 (Mar. 1989): 101–126. Townsend, Robert M. “Financial Systems in Northern Thai Villages.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 110, 4 (Nov. 1995): 1011–1046. World Bank, Thailand Economic Monitor. Bangkok: World Bank Office, Bangkok 2000.

D. Industry and Trade Bell, Peter. “Gender and Economic Development in Thailand.” In Gender and Development in Southeast Asia, edited by Penny and John Van Esterik. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Studies, 1991: 61–82. Bowie, Katherine A. “Unraveling the Myth of the Subsistence Economy: Textile Production in Nineteenth-Century Northern Thailand.” Journal of Asian Studies 51 (Nov. 1992): 797–823. Campbell, Alexandra J. “Using Buyer-Supplier Networks to Increase Innovation Speed: An ExpIatory Study of Thai Textile Exporters.” Asia Pacific Journal of Management 14 (Oct. 1997): 107–122. Cushman, Jennifer W. Family and State: The Formation of a Sino–Thai Tin-Mining Dynasty, 1797–1932, ed. Craig J. Reynolds. South-East Asian historical monograph series. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Friel, Patrick C. “The International Competitiveness of Thailand’s Petrochemical Industry.” Journal of Southeast Asia Business 7, 1 (1991): 1–38. Gordon, Alec. “Production and Distribution of Smallholder’s Economic Surplus: Thailand’s Rubber Sector.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 19, 1 (1989): 3–25. Hillman, John. “The Freerider and the Cartel: Siam and the International Tin Restriction Agreements, 1931–1941.” Modern Asian Studies 24 (May 1990): 297–321. Ichikawa, Nobuko. “Geographic Implications of Foreign Investment in Thailand’s Industrialization.” Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 19, 1 & 2 (1991): 64–81. Juanjai Ajanant, Supote Chunanuntathum, and Sorrayuth Meenaphant. Trade and Industrialization of Thailand. Bangkok: Social Science Association of Thailand, 1986. Karunaratne, Neil Dias. “Macroeconomic Insights on the Liberalised Trading Regime of Thailand.” International Journal of Social Economics 25, 6/7/8 (1998): 1142–1159. Narongchai Akrasanee and Atchana Wattananukit. “Changing Structure and Rising Dynamism in the Thai Economy.” In Southeast Asian Affairs 1990. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1990: 360–382. Park, Daewoo and Hemma A. Krishnan. “Understanding the Strategic Orientation of Thai Executives.” Journal of Asian Business 13, 2 (1997): 59–80.

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Phisit Pakkasem. Leading Issues in Thailand’s Development Transformation, 1960–1990. Bangkok: National Economic and Social Development Board, 1988. Ramsay, Ansil. “The Political Economy of Sugar in Thailand.” Pacific Affairs 60, 2 (1987): 248–270. Rujipa Rungreangsumrit. Dynamic Response Pattern of Trade Balance and Terms of Trade: The J-curve? Thesis (Master of Economics), Faculty of Economics, Thammasat University, 1998. Sckolnick, Lewis B. Thailand: Trade, Licensing & Investing Rules & Regulations. Leverett, Mass.: Rector Press, 1994. Sippanondha Ketudat. The Middle Path for the Future of Thailand: Technology in Harmony with Culture and Environment. Honolulu, Hawaii: Institute of Culture and Communication, 1990. Suchart Prasith-Rathsint. Thailand: A Socio-Economic Profile. New York: Apt Books, 1992. Suntaree Komin. Social Dimensions of Industrialization in Thailand. Bangkok: National Institute of Development Administration, 1989. Supat Suphachalasai. Thailand’s Clothing and Textile Exports. Singapore: ISEAS, 1994. Termsap Taelakul. Manufacturing Industries and Technology Transfer in Thailand. Thesis (Ph. D.)—Florida State University, 2000. Thailand: Natural Resources Profile. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1988. Thailand: The Automotive Industry. London: Foreign and Commonwealth Office and Department of Trade and Industry, 1998. Uphoff, Elisabeth. “Thailand.” In Intellectual Property and US Relations with Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. Ithaca, N.Y.: SEAP, Cornell University, 1991: 37–53. Voravidh Charoenloet. “The Crisis of State Enterprises in Thailand.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 19, 2 (1989): 206–217. Walker, Andrew. The Legend of the Golden Boat: Regulation, Trade and Traders in the Borderlands of Laos. Thailand, China, and Burma. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999. Yu, Chwo-Ming Joseph and Dixie S. Zietlow. “The Determinants of Bilateral Trade among Asia-Pacific Countries.” ASEAN Economic Bulletin 11, 3 (Mar. 1995): 298–305.

E. Development Analysis and Evaluation on Facts Behind Thailand’s Economic Crisis. Thailand. Commission Tasked with Making Recommendations to Improve the Efficiency and Management of Thailand’s Financial System. Bangkok: Nation Multimedia Group, 1998. Angel, Shlomo. “Where Have All the People Gone? Urbanization and CounterUrbanization in Thailand.” Journal of the Siam Society 76 (1988): 245–259.

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Arghiros, Daniel and Joanne Moller. “Thai Rural Enterprise Development Strategies in the 1990s: A Critical Appraisal.” Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 15, 2 (Oct. 2000): 153–183. Belassa, Bela. Industrial Development Strategy in Thailand. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1980. Bello, Walden F. A Siamese Tragedy: Development & Disintegration in Modem Thailand Oakland, Calif.: Food First Books, 1998. Building Thailand’s Competitiveness: The Road to Economic Recovery. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998. Chalongphob Sussangkam. Thailand’s Debt Crisis and Economic Outlook. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute. 1998. Daniere, A. “Growth, Inequality and Poverty in South-East Asia—The Case of Thailand.” Third World Planning Review 18, 4 (Nov. 1996): 373–395. Dixon, Chris. The Thai Economy: Uneven Development and Internationalization. New York: Routledge, 1999. Douglass, Mike. Regional Integration on the Capitalist Periphery: The Central Plains of Thailand. The Hague: Institute of Social Studies, 1984. Everything Begins in the Countryside. Bangkok: Armed Forces Information Office, 1989. Future Challenges for the Economic Recovery of Thailand. Tokyo: Research Institute of Development Assistance, 1998. Girling, John. Interpreting Development: Capitalism, Democracy, and the Middle Class in Thailand. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1996. Hill, Hal. “Towards a Political Economy Explanation of Rapid Growth in ASEAN: A Survey and Analysis.” ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 14, 2 (Nov. 1997): 131–149. Hirsch, P. Development Dilemmas in Rural Thailand. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Hossain, Liaquat. “Fostering Economic Development through Telecommunications in South East Asia: Challenges Facing the Thai Telecommunications Regulators.” Technovation 19, 11 (Nov. 1999): 681–689. Hossain, Liaquat. “Infrastructure Development Planning in SEA: An Analysis of the National Telecommunications Planning Practice in Thailand.” Technovation 20, 5 (May 2000): 275–285. Jomo, K. S. Southeast Asia Misunderstood Miracle: Industrial Policy and Economic Development in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1997. Judd, Laurence C. A Vision to Some: A Case Study of Rural Development Activities by a NGO in Thailand: The Rural Life Department of the Church of Christ in Thailand, 1961–1970. Bangkok: Suriyaban, 1987. Kelleher, Ann. “Questioning the Traditional-Modern Dichotomy: Two Thai Village Case Studies.” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 51 (1992): 273–291.

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Kitahara, Atsushi. The Thai Rural Community Reconsidered: Historical Community Formation and Contemporary Development Movements. Bangkok: Political Economy Centre, Faculty of Economics, Chulalongkorn University, 1996. Krasae Chanawongse. Rural Development Management: Principles, Propositions and Challenges. Khon Kaen, Thailand: Khon Kaen University, 1991. Kusuma Snitwongse. “Thailand and ASEAN: Thirty Years On.” Asian Journal of Political Science 5, 1 (June 1997): 87–101. Lewis, D. R. Impact of Development on the Thai Rural Population. Athens: Ohio University, Center for International Studies, 1995. Lowell, Julia. Financial Crises and Contagion in Emerging Market Countries. Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand, 1998. Luechai Chulasai. Migration and Rural Job Creation Programme: A Northern Thailand Study. Chiang Mai: Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University, 1982. Maule, Andrew. “Some Implications of AFTA for Thailand: A Revealed Comparative Advantage Approach.” ASEAN Economic Bulletin 13, 1 (July 1996): 14–38. Meer, Cornelis Lodewijk Johannes van der. Rural Development in Northern Thailand: An Interpretation and Analysis. Groningen, The Netherlands: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, 1981. Michael, J. G., ed. Uneven Development in Thailand. Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1996. Muscat, Robert, J. The Fifth Tiger: A Study of Thai Development Policy. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994. Parnwell, Michael J. G., ed. Uneven Development in Thailand. Aldershot, U.K.: Avebury Press, 1996. Parnwell, Michael J. G. and Suranart Khamanarong. “Rural Industrialisation and Development Planning in Thailand.” Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 18, 2 (1990): 1–28. Pornkamol Manakit. Thailand’s Economic Development: 1950–1996. Ph.D. diss., Department of Economics, University of Utah, 1998. Raguraman, K. “The Role of Air Transportation in Tourism Development: A Case Study of the Philippines and Thailand.” Transportation Quarterly 49 (Fall 1995): 113–124. Ratana Boonmathya. Contested Concepts of Development in Rural Northeastern Thailand. Ph. D. diss., University of Washington, 1997. Rosenberger, Leif Roderick. “Southeast Asia’s Currency Crisis: A Diagnosis and Prescription.” Contemporary Southeast Asia, 19, 3 (Dec. 1997): 223–251. Ruland, Jurgen. “Municipal Government and Development in Chiang Mai.” In Urban Development in Southeast Asia. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992: 23–106. Siamwalla, Ammar. Can a Developing Democracy Manage Its Macro-Economy: The Case of Thailand. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute, 1998. Small Farmer Development Programme in Thailand: Post-Project Study. Rome: FAO, 1994.

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Somphop Manarangsan. Economic Development of Thailand, 1850–1950: Response to the Challenge of the World Economy. Bangkok: Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1989. Somsakdi Xuto, et al. Strategies and Measures for the Development of Thailand in the 1980’s. Bangkok: Thai University Research Association, 1983. Suchart Prasith-Rathsint, ed. Thailand’s National Development: Social and Economic Background. Bangkok: Thai University Research Association, 1989. A Survey of Perceived Implementation Problems and Proposed Remedies in National Rural Development Planning in Thailand, 1961–1986. Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology, 1986. Tan Kim Song and Lam San Ling. “Economic Outlook: The ASEAN Six.” In Regional Outlook, Southeast Asia 1998–99. Singapore: ISEAS, 1998: 33–50. Thailand Eastern Seaboard Regional Development Study: A Studio Project of the Department of City and Regional Planning, University of California, Berkeley. Berkeley, Calif.: The Department, 1998. Thailand’s Boom and Bust: Collected Papers. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute, 1997. Tran, Van Hoa. Economic Development & Prospects in the Asean: Foreign Investment & Growth in Vietnam, Thailand; Indonesia & Malaysia. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. ———, ed. Economic Development and Prospects in the ASEAN: Foreign Investment and Growth in Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Unger, D. Building Social Capital in Thailand: Fibers, Finance and Infrastructure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Vuthimedhi, Yuwat. Integrated Rural Development, Thailand. New Delhi: Sterling, 1989. Warr, P. G. “The Uruguay Round and the Developing Countries—Thailand and the Philippines.” Developing Economies 35, 2 (Jun. 1997): 142–165. Wisoot Wiseschinda and Orawan Sukasaem. Socio-Economic Impact of the Development of Tourism in Cha-am and Hua-hin. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, Social Research Institute, 1995. Witte, Johanna & Stephan K. Koeberle, eds. Competitivness and Sustainable Economic Recovery in Thailand. Volume II. Bangkok: National Economic and Social Development Board/World Bank Thailand Office, 1998.

F. Labor/Trade Unions Chantana Banpasirichot. The Situation of Child Labour in Thailand: A Comprehensive Report. Bangkok: International Labour Organization, 1998. Nakanishi, T. “Comparative Study of Informal Labor Markets in the Urbanization Process—The Philippines and Thailand.” Developing Economies 34, 4 (Dec. 1996): 470–496.

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Pasuk Phongpaichit, Sungsidh Piriyarangsan, and Nualnoi Treerat. Challenging Social Exclusion: Rights and Livelihood in Thailand. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1996. Sudthichitt Chintayananda, Gary Risser, and Supang Chantavanich. Report on the Monitoring of the Registration of Immigrant Workers from Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos in Thailand. Bangkok: Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1997.

5. SOCIETY A. Population Amra Sunthonthada. Ascertaining the User Perspectives on Community Participation in Family Planning Programmes in Thailand. Bangkok: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1991. Bhassorn Limanonda. Report on a Thai Family and Household Survey. Bangkok: Institute of Population Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1991. Campbell, Burnham O., Andrew Mason, and Ernesto M. Pernia, eds. The Economic Impact of Demographic Change in Thailand, 1980–2015: An Application of the HOMES Household Forecasting Models. Manoa, Hawaii: East-West Center, 1993. Châi Phôthisitâ and Umaporn Pattaravanich. Youth in Contemporary Thailand: Results from the Family and Youth Survey. Nakhon Pathom: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1995. Grabowdky, Volker. “The Thai Census of 1904: Translation and Analysis.” The Journal of the Siam Society 84, 1 (1996): 49–87. Jitapunkul S., et al. “A National Survey of Health-Service Use in Thai Elders.” Age and Aging 28, 1 (1999): 67–72. Kittipong Supornpradit. The Effect of the Population Growth in Thailand. Research paper (M.S.)—Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 2000. Knodel, John E. Thailand’s Reproductive Revolution: Rapid Fertility Decline in a Third-World Setting. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987. Kua Wongboonsin. Population Policy and Programmes in Thailand: 1929–Present. Bangkok: Institute of Population Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1995. Kulthida Lertphongwathana. “Integration of Population, Education and Manpower Policies in Thailand: The Case of the 15–19 Years Age Group.” Asian Profile 18, 1 (1990): 29–49. Lyttleton, Chris. Endangered Relations: Negotiating Sex and AIDS in Thailand. Bangkok: White Lotus, 2000. National Migration Survey of Thailand. Nakon Pathom, Thailand: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1995.

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Nibhon Debavalya. Fertility Transition in Thailand: A Comparative Analysis of Survey Data. Bangkok: National Statistical Office, 1978. Population and Economic Development in Thailand: Some Critical Household Behavioral Relations. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute Foundation, 1991. The Thai Elderly Population: A Review of Literature and Existing Data. Bangkok: Institute of Population Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1985. Thongtip Ratanarat, Khunying. Population Policy Background Paper for the Sixth National Economic and Social Development Plan. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute and Human Resources Institute, Thammasat University, 1987.

B. Ethnic Groups 1. Chinese Bao, Jiemin. “Same Bed, Different Dreams: Intersections of Ethnicity, Gender, and Sexuality Among Middle- and Upper-Class Chinese Immigrants in Bangkok.” Positions 6, 2 (Fall 1998): 475–494. Cushman, Jennifer and Wang Gungwu, eds. Changing Identities of the Southeast Asian Chinese since World War II. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1988. Cushman, Jennifer W. “The Chinese in Thailand.” In The Chinese in the ASEAN States: Bibliographical Essays, edited by Leo Suryadinata. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989: 221–259. Deyo, Frederic C. “Ethnicity and Work Culture in Thailand: A Comparison of Thai and Thai–Chinese White-Collar Workers.” Journal of Asian Studies 34, 4 (Aug. 1975): 995–1015. “The Ethnic Chinese of Thailand (Special Issue).” Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 23, 1 (1995): 1–120. Purcell, Victor. “The Chinese in Siam.” In The Chinese in Southeast Asia. 2nd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1965: 81–165. Reid, Anthony, ed. Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin. 1996. Skinner, G. William. Chinese in Thailand with Supplements on the Chinese Haws and the Kuomintang Chinese. Bangkok: Social Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University, 1983. ———. Chinese Society in Thailand: An Analytical History. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1957. ———. Leadership and Power in the Chinese Community of Thailand. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1958. Tong, Chee Kiong and Kwok Bun Chan, eds. Alternate Identities: The Chinese of Contemporary Thailand. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2001.

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Tong Chee Kiong. Perceptions and Boundaries: Problematics in the Assimilation of the Chinese in Thailand. Singapore: National University of Singapore, 1988.

2. Muslims Albritton, Robert B. ‘‘Political Diversity among Muslims in Thailand.’’ Asian Studies Review 2, 2 (1999) 233–46. Ariff, Mohamed, ed. The Muslim Private Sector in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1991. Burr, Angela. “The Relationship between Muslim Peasant Religion and Urban Religion in Songkhla.” Asian Folklore Studies 43, 1 (1984): 71–83. Chaiwat Satha-Anand. Islam and Violence: A Case Study of Violent Events in the Four Southern Provinces, Thailand, 1976–1981. Tampa, Fla.: USF Monographs in Religion and Public Policy, 1987. Chaveewan Vannaprasert, Perayot Rahimmula, and Manop Jittpoosa. The Traditions Influencing the Social Integration between the Thai Buddhists and the Thai Muslims, trans. Prachitr Mahahing and Khate Ratanajarana. Pattani: Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences and Center for Southern Thailand Studies, Prince of Songkhla University, 1986. Che Man, W. K. Muslim Separatism: The Moros of Southern Philippines and the Malays of Southern Thailand. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990. Diller, A. V. N. “Islam and Southern Thai Ethnic Reference.” South East Asian Review 13, 1–2 (1988): 155–167. Farouk, Omar. “The Historical and Transnational Dimensions of Malay–Muslim Separatism in Southern Thailand.” In Armed Separatism in Southeast Asia, edited by Lim Joo-Jock and Vani S. Aldershot. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1984. Forbes, Andrew D. W., ed. The Muslims of Thailand: v. 1. Historical and Cultural Studies; v. 2. The Politics of the Malay Speaking South. Gaya, India: Centre for South East Asian Studies, 1989. Matheson, Virginia and M. B. Hooker. “Jawi Literature in Patani: The Maintenance of an Islamic Tradition.” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of Royal Asiatic Society 61, 1 (1988): 1–86. Scupin, Raymond. “Interpreting Islamic Movements in Thailand.” Crossroads 3, 2–3 (1987): 78–93. Surin Pitsuwan. Islam and Malay Nationalism: A Case Study of the Malay Muslims of Southern Thailand. Bangkok: Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University, 1985. Thomas, M. Ladd. “Cultural Factors Affecting the Rural Development Interface of Thai Bureaucrats and Thai Muslim Villagers.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 7, 1 (1985): 1–12. Wilson, H. E. “Partisan Imperialists and Islamic Separatism in South Thailand, 1945–49.” Canadian Journal of History 20 (Dec. 1985): 369–391.

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3. Other ethnic groups Albrecht, Gerd and Johannes Moser. “Recent Mani Settlements in Satun Province, Southern Thailand.” The Journal of the Siam Society 86, 1&2 (1998): 161–199. Andersson, Edward F. Plants and People of the Golden Triangle: Ethnobotany of the Hill Tribes of Northern Thailand. Portland, Ore.: Dioscorides Press, 1993. Bibliography on the Ethnic Minorities in Southeast Asia, 1991–1995: Thai–English Volume. Chiang Mai: Center for Ethnic Studies and Development, Social Research Institute, Chiang Mai University, 1996. Cohen, Erik. “International Politics and the Transformation of Folk Crafts—The Hmong (Meo) of Thailand and Laos.” Journal of the Siam Society 77, 1 (1989): 69–82. Condominas, G. From Lawa to Mon, from Saa’ to Thai: Historical and Anthropological Aspects of Southeast Asian Social Spaces,translated by S. Anderson, M. Magannon, and G. Wijeyewadene. Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1990. Dudley, Sandra. “Aspects of Research with Karenni Refugees in Thailand.” Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, (UNESCO), 1999. Gehan Wijeyewardene, ed. Ethnic Groups across National Boundaries in Mainland Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1990. Hayami, Y. “Karen Tradition According to Christ or Buddha—The Implications of Multiple Interpretations for a Minority Ethnic Group in Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27, 2 (Sep. 1996): 334 ff. Hayami, Yoko and Susan M. Darlington. “The Karen of Burma and Thailand.” In Endangered Peoples of Southeast and East Asia: Struggles to Survive and Thrive, by Leslie E. Sponsel, et al. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, Press, 2000. Hayashi, Yukio and Kuang-yüan Yang. Dynamics of Ethnic Cultures Across National Boundaries in Southwestern China and Mainland Southeast Asia: Relations, Societies and Languages. Chiang Mai: Lanna Cultural Center, Rajabhat Institute Chiang Mai; Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies; Kyoto University, 2000. The Hill Tribes of Thailand. Chiang Mai: Tribal Research Institute, 1986. Hutheesing, Otome Klien. Emerging Sexual Inequality among the Lisu in Northern Thailand: The Waning of Dog and Elephant Repute. New York: E.J. Brill, 1990. Kammerer, C. A “Discarding the Basket—The Reinterpretation of Tradition by Akha Christians of Northern Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27, 2 (Sep. 1996): 320 ff. Le Roux, Pierre. “To Be or Not to Be . . . : The Cultural Identity of the Jawi (Thailand).” Asian Folklore Studies 57, 2 (1998): 223–255. McKinnon, John. Hill Tribes Today: Problems in Change. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1989. The Mons: Collected Articles from the Journal of the Siam Society. Bangkok: The Society, 1986.

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The Mon, a People Without a Country. Bangkok: Mon Unity League, 1997. Nai Pan Hla. “The Major Role of the Mons in Southeast Asia.” Journal of the Siam Society 79, 1 (1991): 13–21. Oliver, Susan. “Contemporary Issues Facing Shan Youth and Their Families.” Crossroads, 11, 2 (1997): 99–111. Renard, Ronald D. “Tai Lü Self, House, Village, and Moeng.” Crossroads 5, 1 (1990): 43–58. Sams, Bert F. “Black Tai and Lao Song Dam.” Journal of the Siam Society 76 (1988): 100–120. Schliesinger, Joachim. Ethnic Groups of Thailand: Non-Tai-Speaking Peoples. Bangkok: White Lotus Press, 2000. Scupin, Raymond. “Thailand as a Plural Society: Ethnic Interaction in a Buddhist Kingdom.” Crossroads 2, 3 (1986): 115–140. Soottipong, Rossarin. The Roles of Policy and Community Organisation in Fertility Reduction of the Karen People of Thailand. Canberra: Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, 1998. Tannenbaum, Nicola. “The Heart of the Village: Constituent Structures of Shan Communities.” Crossroads 5, 1 (1990): 23–41. Tapp, Nicholas. Sovereignty and Rebellion: The White Hmong of Northern Thailand. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1989. Toyota, Mika. “Urban Migration and Cross-Border Networks: A Deconstruction of the Akha Identity in Chiang Mai.” Southeast Asian Studies (Kyoto University) 35, 4 (Mar. 1998): 197–223. Van Esterik, Penny. “Ordering the World: Chat of Central Thailand.” Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 24, 1 (1996): 120–130. Walker, Anthony R., ed. The Highland Heritage: Collected Essays on Upland North Thailand. Singapore: Suvarnabhumi Books, 1992. Wong, Deborah. “Mon Music for Thai Deaths: Ethnicity and Status in Thai Urban Funerals.” Asian Folklore Studies 57, 1 (1998): 99–130.

C. Education Duanghathai Katwibun. The Relationships between Thai Girls’ and Boys’ Attitudes and Beliefs about Mathematics and Mathematics Achievement, Future Mathematics Coursework Intentions, and Career Interests. Thesis (M.S.)—Oregon State University, 2000. Education Reform at the Ministry of Education, Thailand. Bangkok: External Relations Division, Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education, 1996. Education in Thailand. Bangkok: Office of the National Education Commission, Office of the Prime Minister, Kingdom of Thailand, 1997. Fry G. and Kempner K. “A Subnational Perspective for Comparative Research— Education and Development in Northeast Brazil and Northeast Thailand.” Comparative Education, 32:3 (Nov. 1996) 333–360.

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Knodel, J. “The Closing of the Gender Gap in Schooling—The Case of Thailand.” Comparative Education 33, 1 (Mar. 1997): 61–86. Knodel, John E. Gender and Schooling in Thailand. New York: The Population Council, 1994. Maenmas Chavalit, Khunying. “Children’s Education by Folklore in Thailand.” SPAFA Joumd 7, 3 (Sep.–Dec.1997): 17–27. Mueller, Charles W., et al. “Teachers’ Ratings of Disruptive Behavior in Five Countries (China, Indonesia, Japan, Thailand, United States).” Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 24 (Dec. 1995). Sobsan Utakrit. “The Technical-Vocational Education and Training System in Thailand.” International Journal of Sociology 29, 1 (1999): 42ff. Thai Higher Education in Brief. Bangkok: Ministry of University Affairs, Thailand, 1998. Thailand: Education. London: DTI Export, 1998. Thailand: Education Achievements, Issues and Policies. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998. Williams, Lindy, Kritaya Archavanitkul, and Napaporn Havanon. “Which Children Will Go to Secondary School? Factors Affecting Parents’ Decisions in Rural Thailand.” Rural Sociology 62 (Summer 1997): 231–261.

D. Buddhism/Religion Anuman Rajadhon, Phraya. Popular Buddhism in Siam and Other Essays on Thai Studies. Bangkok: Thai Inter-Religious Commission for Development, 1986. Bilmes, Jack. “On the Believability of Northern Thai Spirit Mediums.” Journal of the Siam Society 83, 1–2 (1995): 231–238. Brereton, Bonnie Pacala. Thai Tellings of Phra Malai: Texts and Rituals Concerning a Popular Buddhist Saint. Tempe: Program for Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona State University, 1995. Brown, Sidney Pamela. Gifts of Contemplation and Action: Buddhist Nuns in Thailand. Sidney: Pamela Brown, 1997. ———. The Journey of One Buddhist Nun. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001. Byrne, Denis. “Buddhist Stupa and Thai Social Practice.” World Archaeology 27 (Oct. 1995): 266–281. The Chronicle of the Emerald Buddha, trans. Camille Notton. Bangkok: Bangkok Times Press, 1932. Damrong Rajanubhab, Prince. A History of Buddhist Monuments in Siam, trans. S. Sivaraksa. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1962. Darlington, S. M. “The Ordination of a Tree: The Buddhist Ecology Movement in Thailand.” Ethnology 37, 1 (Winter 1998): 1–15. Gehan Wijeyewardene. “The Theravada Compact and the Karen.” Sojourn 2, 1 (Feb. 1987): 31–54.

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Gosling, David L. “The Changing Role of Thailand’s Lay Nuns (Mae Chii).” Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 26, 1 (1998): 121–142. Guelden, Marlane. Thailand into the Spirit World. Singapore: Times Editions, 1995. Hoare, Timothy D. Pulling the Siamese Dragon: Performance as a Theological Agenda for Christian Ritual Praxis. Lantham, Md.: University Press of America, 1997. Hughes, Philip J. Proclamation and Response: A Study of the History of the Christian Faith in Northern Thailand. 2nd ed. Chiang Mai: Payap University Archives, 1989. Huxley, Andrew, ed. Thai Law; Buddhist Law: Essays on the Legal History of Thailand, Laos and Burma. Bangkok: White Orchid Press, 1996. Ishii, Yoneo. Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. Jackson, Peter A. Buddhism, Legitimation, and Conflict: The Political Functions of Urban Thai Buddhism. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1989. ———. “The Enchanting Spirit of Thai Capitalism: The Cult of Luang Phor Khoon and the Post-Modernization of Thai Buddhism.” South East Asia Research 7, 1 (Mar. 1999): 5–60. Kamala Tiyavanich. Forest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997. Kapur-Fic, Alexandra R. Thailand: Buddhism, Society, and Women. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1998. Keyes, Charles F. “Buddhist Economics and Buddhist Fundamentalism in Burma and Thailand.” In Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Politics, Economics and Militance, edited by Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Lando, Richard P. “‘The Spirits Aren’t So Powerful Any More’: Spirit Belief and Irrigation Organization in North Thailand.” Journal of the Siam Society 71 (1983): 121–148. Manich Jumsai, M. L. Understanding Thai Buddhism. Bangkok: Office of the National Culture Commission, 1996. Nandana Cutivongs. Buddha of the Future: An Early Maitreya from Thailand. New York: The Asia Society Galleries, 1994. Olson, Grant A. “Cries Over Spilled Holy Water: ‘Complex’ Responses to a Traditional Thai Religious Practice.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 22 (March 1991): 75–85. Seri Phongphit. Religion in a Changing Society: Buddhism, Reform and the Role of Monks in Community Development in Thailand. Hong Kong: Arena Press, 1988. Sizemore, R. F. and D. K. Swearer, eds. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990. Standen, Marc. Buddha in the Landscape: A Sacred Expression of Thailand. San Francisco: Pomegranate, 1998.

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Suchira Payulpitack. “Changing Provinces of Concern: A Case-Study of the Social Impact of the Buddhadasa Movement.” Sojourn 7, 1 (Feb. 1992): 39–68. Sulak Sivaraksa. “Alternative Development from a Buddhist Perspective.” The Southeast Asian Review 21, 1–2 (Jan.–Dec. 1996): 1–82. ———. Buddhism and Human Rights in Siam. Bangkok: Spirit in Education Movement, 1996. ———. Loyalty Demands Dissent: Autobiography of an Engaged Buddhist. Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax, 1998. ———, ed. The Quest for a Just Society: The Legacy and Challenge of Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. Bangkok: Thai Inter-Religious Commission for Development: Santi Pracha Dhamma Institute, 1994. ———. Understanding a State and Its Minorities from a Religious and Cultural Perspective: The Case of Siam and Burma. Bangkok: Sathaban Santi Prachatham, 1988. Tambiah, Stanley J. The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the Cult of Amulets. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1984. ———. World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Study in Buddhism and Polity in Thailand against a Historical Background. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Tapp, Nicholas. “Hmong Religion.” Asian Folklore Studies 48, 1 (1989): 59–94. Taylor, J. L. “New Buddhist Movements in Thailand: An ‘Individualistic Revolution,’ Reform and Political Dissonance.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 21, 1 (1990): 134–154. ———. Forest Monks and the Nation-State. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993. Tooker, Deborah E. “Putting the Mandala in Its Place: A Practice-Based Approach to the Spatialization of Power on the Southeast Asian ‘Periphery’— The Case of the Akha.” Journal of Asian Studies 55, 2 (May 1996): 323– 358. Wilson, Constance M. “The Holy Man in the History of Thailand and Laos.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 28, 2 (Sept. 1997): 345–364. Wong, Deborah Anne. Sounding the Center: History and Aesthetics in Thai Buddhist Performance. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. Zehner, Edwin. “Reform Symbolism of a Thai Middle-Class Sect: The Growth and Appeal of the Thammakai Movement.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 21, 2 (1990): 402–426. ———. “Thai Protestants and Local Supernaturalism: Changing Configurations.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27 (Sept. 1997): 293–319.

E. Public Health/Medical Issues Bamber, Scott. “Metaphor and Illness Classification in Traditional Thai Medicine.” Asian Folklore Studies 46, 2 (1987): 179–195.

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Bongkotrat Techatraisak and Wilbert M. Gesler. “Traditional Medicine in Bangkok.” Geographical Review 79 (Apr. 1989): 172–182. Farnsworth, Norman R. and Nuntavan Bunyapraphatsara, eds. Thai Medicinal Plants: Recommended for Primary Health Care System. Bangkok: Medicinal Plant Information Center, 1992. Health and population studies based on the 1987 Thailand demographic and health survey. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Institute of Population Studies, 1989. Machida, Seiji. Programme of Action for Occupational Safety and Health in Thailand towards the 21st Century: An Advisory Report. Geneva: Ill., 2000. Oratai Rauyajin, et al. “Socio-Cultural and Behavioural Aspects of Mosquito-Borne Lymphatic Filariasis in Thailand: And a Qualitative Analysis.” Social Science & Medicine 41, 12 (Dec. 1995): 1705–1713. Shawyer, Richard John, et al. “The Role of Clinical Vignettes in Rapid Ethnographic Research: A Folk Taxonomy of Diarrhoea in Thailand.” Social Science & Medicine 42, 1 (Jan. 1996): 111–123. Sombat Topanya. Traditional Thai Massage. Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1990. Terwiel, B. J. “Acceptance and Rejection: The First Inoculation and Vaccination Campaigns in Thailand.” Journal of the Siam Society 76 (1988): 183–201. Thai Index Medicus, 1975–1979. Tokyo: Southeast Asian Medical Information Center, 1988. V. Vatanasapt, et al., eds. Cancer in Thailand, 1988–1991. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1993. Whittaker, Andrea. “Primary Health Services in Rural Thailand: Problems of Translating Policy into Practice.” Asian Studies Review 20, 1 (July 1996): 68–83.

F. Social Change Akin Rabibhadana. Social Inequity: A Source of Conflict in the Future? Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute Foundation, 1993. Allyn, Eric. The Men of Thailand: Thailand’s Culture & Gay Subculture. 6th ed. Oakland, Calif.: Floating Lotus USA, 1997. Barme, Scot. Woman, Man, Bangkok: Love, Sex, and Popular Culture in Thailand. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002. Beck, Akeida. Culture Shock in Thailand and Southeast Asia. Thesis (B.S.)— California Polytechnic State University, 1998. Ean, Tan Joo. “The Effect of Development on the Decline of Universal Marriage in Thailand: 1970–1990.” Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 24, 2 (96). 70–83. Fordham, Graham. “Social Change, Cultural Logic, and the Transformation of Domestic Relations in Rural Northern Thailand.” Journal of the National Research Council of Thailand 27, 2 (July–Dec. 1995): 1–20.

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Jackson, Peter. Male Homosexuality in Thailand: An Interpretation of Contemporary Sources. Elmhurst, N.Y.: Global Academic Publishers, 1989. Jackson, Peter. Dear Uncle Go: Male Homosexuality in Thailand. Bangkok: Bua Luang Books, 1995. Jackson, Peter and Gerard Sullivan, eds. Lady Boys, Tom Boys, Rent Boys: Male and Female Homosexualities in Contemporary Thailand. New York: Haworth Press, 1999. Klausner, William. Thai Culture in Transition: Collected Writings of William J. Klausner. Bangkok: Siam Society, 1998. Manderson, Lenore and Margaret Jolly, eds. Sites of Desire Economies of Pleasure: Sexualities in Asia and the Pacific. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1997. McGee, T.G. and lra M. Robinson, eds. The Mega-Urban Regions of Southeast Asia. Vancouver, British Columbia: The University of British Columbia Press, 1995. Michaud, Jean. “A Portrait of Cultural Resistance: The Confinement of Tourism in a Hmong Village in Thailand.” In Tourism, Ethnicity, and the State in Asian and Pacific Societies, edited by Michel Picard and Robert E. Wood. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1997. Morris, Rosalind C. In the Place of Origins: Modernity and Its Mediums in Northern Thailand. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2000. Sumalee Bumroongsook. Love and Marriage: Mate Selection in Twentieth-Century Central Thailand. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1995. Packard-Winkler, Mary. Knowledge, Sex. and Marriage in Modern Bangkok: Cultural Negotiations in the Time of AIDS. Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Dissertation Services, 1999. Porntipa Atipas. Changing Cultural Codes of Courtship and Marriage in Urban Thailand. Thesis (Ph.D.)—University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1997. Tanabe, Shigeharu and Charles F. Keyes, eds. Cultural Crisis and Social Memory: Modernity and Identity in Thailand and Laos. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002.

G. Women and Gender Issues Bencha Yoddumnern-Attig, et al. Changing Roles and Statuses of Women in Thailand: A Documentary Assessment. Nakhonpathom: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1992. Chai Podhisita, et al. Women’s Work and Family Size in Rural Thailand. Bangkok: Institute of Population Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1990. Coyle, Saowalee and Julia Kwong. “Women’s Work and Social Reproduction in Thailand.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 30, 4 (2000): 492–506. Darunee Tantiwiramanond and Shashi Ranjan Pandey. By Women, for Women: A Study of Women’s Organizations in Thailand. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1991.

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———. “The Status and Role of Thai Women in the Pre-Modern Period: A Historical and Cultural Perspective.” Sojourn 2, 1 (Feb. 1987): 125–149. De Jong, Gordon F., Kerry Richter, and Pimonpan Isarabhakdi. “Gender, Values, and Intentions to Move in Rural Thailand.” International Migration Review 30 (Fall 1996): 748–770. Eberhardt, Nancy, ed. Gender, Power, and the Construction of the Moral Order: Studies from the Thai Periphery. University of Wisconsin-Madison: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1988. Education Media for Young Women in Slum Communities. Bangkok: Women’s Information Centre, Foundation for Women, 1989. Entwisle, Barbara, et al. “Community and Contraceptive Choice in Rural Thailand: A Case Study of Nang Rong.” Demography 33, 1 (Feb. 1996): 1–11. Falkus, Malcolm. “The Development of a Female Wage Labour Force in Thailand.” Asian Studies Review 24, 2 (June ‘00): 175–193. Forward Together: Women’s Education Media. Bangkok: Women’s Information Centre, Foundation for Women, 1990. Gray, Alan. Gender, Sexuality and Reproductive Health in Thailand: Final Report. Nakhon Pathon, Thailand: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1999. Hayarni, Yoko. “Motherhood Redefined: Women’s Choices on Family Rituals and Reproduction in the Peripheries of Thailand.” Sojourn 13, 2 (Oct. 1998): 242–262. Jackson, Peter A. and Nerida M. Cook, ed. Genders and Sexualities in Modern Thailand. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2000. Kanitta M. Meesook. The Economic Role of Thai Women. Bangkok: Department of Economic Research, Bank of Thailand, 1980. Mills, Mary Beth. Thai Women in the Global Labor Force: Consuming Desires. Contested Selves. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1999. Nang Lao Liang Won. Guidelines on Strategies & Responses to the Needs of Burmese Migrant Women in Thailand. Chiang Mai: Asia Pacific Forum on Women, Law and Development, 1999. The National Commission on Women’s Affairs. Bangkok: The Royal Thai Government, Office of the Prime Minister, 1992. Nitaya Ngemprasertsri. “Thai Women’s Executive Roles.” The Kasetsart Journal (Social Science) 17, 1 (Jan.–Jun. 1996): 64–71. Ong, Aihwa and Michael G. Peletz, eds. Bewitching Women, Pious Men: Gender and Body Politics in Southeast Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Our Lives. Our Stories. Bangkok: Foundation for Women, 1995. Phankasem Kanokwan. Women’s Knowledge: Rethinking Gender Relations and Development in Rural Northeast Thailand. Thesis (Ph.D.)—University of Missouri, Columbia, 1998. Report: First National Assembly on Women in Development in the Year of Thai Women 1992. Bangkok: National Commission on Women’s Affairs, Office of the Prime Minister, 1992.

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Richter, Kerry. “Living Separately as a Child-Care Strategy: Implications for Women’s Work and Family in Urban Thailand.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 58 (May 1996): 327–339. Shahand, Assadullah, et al. The Role of Women in Slum Improvement: A Comparative Study of the Squatter Settlements at Klong Toey and Wat Yai Sri Suphan in Bangkok, Thailand. Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology, 1986. Supatra Masdit, Khunying. Politics in Thailand with Special Reference to the Role of Women. Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991. Suteera Thomasan. Profile of Women in Thailand. Bangkok: Gender and Development Research Institute, 1995. Swanson, Herbert R. “A New Generation: Missionary Education and Changes in Women’s Roles in Traditional Northern Thai Society.” Sojourn 3, 2 (Aug. 1988): 187–206. Taneerananon Sirirat and Suwanjinda Piroge. Women’s Roles in the Development of the Farming Systems in Phatthalung Province, Southern Thailand. Canada: International Development Research Center, 1994. Thai Women. Bangkok: National Commission on Women’s Affairs, 1993. Thailand National Commission on Women’s Affairs. Thailand National Women’s Information Center, 2000. http://www.inet.co.th/org/tncwa/index1.html Thomson, Sheila Sukonta. Making a Difference: Women in Local Politics in Thailand. Bangkok: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung: Gender and Development Research Institute, 1997. Thomson, Sutteera. Putting Women’s Concerns on the Political Agenda. Bangkok: Gender and Development Research Institute, 1995. Thomson, Sutteera. Women in Decision-Making Positions: Politics and Administration. Bangkok: Gender and Development Research Institute, 1995. Thomson, Sutteera. Women Reshaping the Society: A Challenge for the Remaining Decade. Bangkok: Gender and Development Research Institute, 1995. Traditional and Changing Thai World View. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1998. Van Esterik, Penny. Materializing Thailand. New York: Berg-Oxford University Press, 2000. Van Esterik, Penny. Women of Southeast Asia. De Kalb, Ill. : Northern Illinois University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1996. Van Esterik, Penny and John, eds. Gender and Development in Southeast Asia. Ottawa: Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Studies, 1991. Van Fleet, Sara. Everyday Dramas: Television and Modern Thai Women. Thesis (Ph. D)—University of Washington, 1998. Van Landingham, Mark, et al. Friends, Wives and Extramarital Sex in Thailand: A Qualitative Study of Peer and Spousal Influence on Thai Male Extramarital Sexual Behavior and Attitudes. Bangkok: Institute of Populations Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1995. Vitit Muntarbhorn, et al. Status of Women, Thailand. Bangkok: UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1990.

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Whittaker, Andrea. Intimate Knowledge: Women and Their Health in North-East Thailand. St. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 2000. Women, Gender Relations and Development in Thai Society. [Chiang Mai]: Women’s Studies Center, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University, 1997. Women’s Legal Position in Thailand. Chiang Mai: Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University, 1991. Women’s Work and Family Size in Rural Thailand. Bangkok: Institute of Population Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1990.

H. Social Problems (drugs, prostitution, AIDS) Aids Risk among Tourists: A Study of Japanese Female Tourists in Thailand. Nakon Pathom: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1995. Barrett, M.E. and M.-P. De Palo. “Community-based Intervention to Reduce Demand for Drugs in Northern Thai Tribal Villages.” Substance Use and Misuse 34, 13 (1999): 1837–1879. Batterink, Cisca, et al. Aids and Pregnancy: Reactions to Problems of HIV-Positive Pregnant Women and Their Children in Chiangmai (Thailand). Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1994. Bencha Yoddumnern-Attig. AIDS in Thailand: A Situational Analysis with Special Reference to Children, Youth and Women. Bangkok: UNICEF, 1992. Bennett, Jody L. Corruption and Prostitution in Thailand: The Effects of Police Corruption for Sex Workers. Thesis (M.A.)—University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 2000. Beyrer, Chris. “The Kingdom of Lanna and the HIV Epidemic.” Journal of the Siam Society 83, 1–2 (1995): 221–230. Bhassorn Limaonda. Understanding Sexual Subcultures for AIDS Prevention: Case Studies in Rural Communities in Sanpatong District, Chiang Mai Province. Bangkok: Institute of Population Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1996. Bishop, Ryan. Night Market Sexual Cultures and the Thai Economic Miracle. New York: Routledge, 1998. Cheurprakobkit, S. “The Drug Situation in Thailand: The Role of Government and the Police.” Drug and Alcohol Review 19, 1 (2000): 17–26. Dinan, Kinsey. Owed Justice: Thai Women Trafficked into Debt Bondage in Japan. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2000. Drug Control: U.S. Supported Efforts in Burma, Pakistan, and Thailand. Washington, D.C.: Report to Congress, 1988. Ford, Nicholas and Suporn Koetsawang. “A Pragmatic Intervention to Promote Condom Use by Female Sex Workers in Thailand.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 77, 11 (1999): 888–894. Fordham, Graham. “Northern Thai Male Culture and the Assessment of HIV Risk: Toward a New Approach with Reader Commentary and Author Response.” Crossroads 12, 1 (1998): 77–104.

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Gohlert, Ernest W. Power and Culture: The Struggle against Poverty in Thailand. Bangkok: White Lotus. 1991. Guest, Philip, and J. E. Tan. Transformation of Marriage Patterns in Thailand. IPSR Publication No. 176. Salaya, Thailand: Institute for Population and Social Research, 1994. Jeffrey, Leslie Ann. Sex and Borders: National Identity and Prostitution Policy in Thailand. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2002. Kempadoo, Kamala and Jo Doezema, eds. Global Sex Workers: Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition. New York: Routledge, 1998. Kobkul Rayanakorn. Special Study on Laws: Relating to Prostitution and Traffic in Women. Bangkok: Foundation for Women, 1995. Lock, Wendy J. et al., “Young Men, Motorcycles, and Alcohol: A Case Study of a Thai Provincial City.” Asian Studies Review 20, 1 (July 1996): 84–98. Lyttleton, Chris. Endangered Relations: Negotiating Sex and AIDS in Thailand. Bangkok: White Lotus Press, 2000. McCamish, Malcolm. “Refocusing HIV/AIDS Interventions in Thailand: The Case for Male Sex Workers and Other Homosexually Active Men.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 2, 2 (Apr.–June 2000): 167–182. Mensendiek, M. “Women, Migration and Prostitution in Thailand.” International Social Work 40, 2 (Apr. 1997): 163 ff. Miranda, Daniel Dante. Prostitution in Thailand. Thesis (B.S.) California Polytechnic State, University, 2000. Odzer, Cleo. Patpong Sisters: An American Woman’s View of the Bangkok Sex World. New York: Blue Moon Books, 1994. Phuying Munnithi. Recommendations to Combat International Traffic in Women. Bangkok: Foundation for Women, 1995. Pramualratanl, Anthony, ed. Assessment of the Potential for Spread and Control of HIV Among Cross-Border Populations Along the Thai–Cambodian Border. Nakhon Pathom: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1995. Sanghea, Jyoti. Poverty, Patriarchy, and Prostitution: A Study of the Sexual Labour of Nepali and Thai Women in the Sex Industry in Asia. Thesis (Ph.D.)—University of California, Berkeley, 1998. Suntaree Komin. Social Problems in Thailand. Bangkok: National Institute for Development Administration, 1989. Suporn Koetsawang. A Self-Esteem and Personal Future-Focussed Intervention Programme to Promote Condom Use by Female Sex Workers in Thailand. Nakhon Pathom: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1997. Svenkerud, Peer J., Arvind Singhal, and Michael J. Papa. “Diffusion of Innovations Theory and Effective Targeting of HIV/AIDS Programmes in Thailand.” Asian Journal of Communication 8, 1 (1998): 1–30. Thailand Country Study towards a Best Practice Guide on Sustainable Action against Child Labour. Bangkok: Amarin, 1998.

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Truong, Thanh-Dam. Sex, Money, and Morality: Prostitution and Tourism in Southeast Asia. London: Zed Books, 1990. Vorasakdi Mahatdhanobol. Chinese Women in the Thai Sex Trade. Bangkok Chinese Studies Center, Asian Research Center for Migration, Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1998. Wantana Limkulpong. AIDS Risk Education among Commercial Sex Worker in Southern Thailand. Thesis (Doctoral)—Yale University, 1998. Wathinee Boonchalaksi and Philip Guest. Prostitution in Thailand. Nakhon Pathon, Thailand: The Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1994. Wolffers, I. “Biomedical and Development Paradigms in AIDS Prevention.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78, 2 (2000): 267.

I. Other Adirex, Paul. The Pirates of Tarutao. New York: Weatherhill, 1995. Amara Pongsapich. “Nongovernmental Organizations in Thailand.” In Emerging Civil Society in the Asia Pacific Community, edited by Tadashi Yammamoto. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1995. ———. “Philanthropy in Thailand.’’ In Emerging Civil Society in the Asia Pacific Community, edited by Tadashi Yammamoto. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1995. Askew, Marc. “Community-Building among the Bangkok Middle Class: Ethnographic Perspectives on Group Identity and Problem-Solving in a Suburban Housing Estate.” South East Asia Research 7, 1 (Mar. 1999): 93–120. ———. Interpreting Bangkok: The Urban Question in Thai Studies. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1994. Baker, Chris. “Thailand’s Assembly of the Poor: Background, Drama, Reaction.” South East Asia Research 8, 1 (March 2000): 5–29. Breazeale, Kennon and Snit Smuckarn. A Culture in Search of Survival: The Phuan of Thailand and Laos. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1988. Cheah Yanchong. “The Ancient Culture of the Tai People.” Journal of the Siam Society 76 (1988): 227–244. Chitakasem, Manas and Andres Turton, eds. Thai Constructions of Knowledge. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1991. Cohen, Erik. Thai Society in Comparative Perspective: Collected Essays. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1991. Dixon, Chris. The Thai Economy: Uneven Development and Internationalization. London: Routledge, 1999. Environmental Self-governance: The Sixth Pacific Environmental Conference, EastWest Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, US-l, 23–25 October 1997. Honolulu, Hawaii: Tokyo: East-West Center; Japan Environment Association. 1998.

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Family, Community, and Modernization in Asian Societies: Japan, Vietnam, and Thailand. Fukuoka: Asian-Pacific Center, 2000. Family Size and Family Well-Being: The Views of Thai Villagers. Bangkok: Institute of Population Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1991. Hayami, Yoko. “Internal and External Discourse of Communality, Tradition and Environment: Minority Claims on Forest in the Northern Hills of Thailand.” Southeast Asian Studies (Kyoto University) 35, 3 (Dec. 1997): 558–579. Kemp, Jeremy H. Community and State in Modern Thailand. Bielefeld, Germany: University of Bielefeld, Faculty of Sociology, 1988. Kingshill, Konrad. Ku Daeng—Thirty Years Later: A Village Study in Northern Thailand 1954–1984. DeKalb: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, 1991. Klausner, William J. Reflections on Thai Culture: Collected Writings of William J. Klausner. 4th ed. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1993. Montesano, Michael John. The Commerce of Trang, 4 1930s–1990s: Thailand’s National Integration in Social-Historical Perspective. Thesis (Ph.D.)—Cornell University, 1998. Mulder, Niels. Inside Thai Society: Interpretations of Everyday Life. 5th ed. Amsterdam: Pepin, 1996. ———. Java–Thailand: A Comparative Perspective. Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1983. ———. Thai Images: The Culture of the Public World. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1997. Ockey, Jim. “Chaopho: Capital Accumulation and Social Welfare in Thailand.” Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 8, 1 (1993): 48–77. Paiboon Suthasupa. “Rural Community Development in Thailand.” Community Development Journal 35, 1 (Jan. 2000): 75–83. Scupin, Raymond. “The Emergence of Anthropology in Thailand: The Role of Suthep Soothornpasuch.” Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 10, 1 (1996): 113–130. Seri Phongphit. Thai Village Life: Culture and Transition in the Northeast. Bangkok: Mooban Press, 1990. Southeast Asian Identities: Culture and the Politics of Representation in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998. Suntaree Komin. Psychology of the Thai People: Values and Behavioral Patterns. Bangkok: Research Center, National Institute of Development Administration, 1990. Tanabe, Shigeharu. The Person in Transformation: Body, Mind and Cultural Appropriation. Chiang Mai: Thai Conference, 1996. Thailand Country Papers. Kuala Lumpur: Asian and Pacific Development Centre, 1997. Traditional and Changing Thai World View. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Social Research Institute, 1985.

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Turton, Andrew, ed. Civility and Savagery: Social Identity in Tai States. Richmond, Surrey, U.K.: Curzon, 2000. Vail, Peter Thomas. Violence and Control: Social and Cultural Dimensions of Boxing in Thailand. Thesis (Ph.D.)—Cornell University, 1998. Withit Mantaphon. Human Rights and Human Development: Thailand Country Study. New York: Human Development Report Office, United Nations Development Programme, 2000. Wisoot Wiseschinda. Social Development in Rural Economies in the Upper Central Region. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Social Research Institute, 1990.

6. CULTURE A. Art and Architecture Aasen, Clarence T. Architecture of Siam: A Cultural History Interpretation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Anek Nawikkamun and David Smythe. A Century of Thai Graphic Design. Bangkok: River Books, 2000. Apinan Poshyananda. Modern Art in Thailand. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Cohen. Erik. The Commercialized Crafts of Thailand: Hill Tribes and Lowland Villages: Collected Articles. Richmond, Surrey, U.K.: Curzon, 2000. Devi, Gauri. Hindu Deities in Thai Art. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, 1996. Dhanit Yupho. Quartzite Buddha Images of the Dvaravati Period. Bangkok: Department of Fine Arts, n.d. Di Crocco, Virginia M. “Ceramic Wares of the Haripunjaya Area.” Journal of the Siam Society 79, 1 (1991): 84–98. Dumarcay, Jacques and Micheal Smithies. Cultural Sites of Burma, Thailand, and Cambodia. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Felten, Wolfgang. Thai and Cambodian Sculpture from the 6th to the 14th Centuries. London: P. Wilson, 1989. Fickle, Dorothy H. Images of the Buddha in Thailand. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1989. Ginsburg, Henry. Thai Manuscript Painting. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1989. Gosling, Betty. A Chronology of Religious Architecture at Sukhothai: Late 13th to early 15th Century. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Association for Social Studies, Inc., 1998. Hanks, Lucien M. and Jane R. “The Gabled Roofs of Thai Temples.” Journal of the Siam Society 76 (1988): 202–216. Hideo, Noguchi. “Historical Cities and Architecture in Thailand.” East Asian Cultural Studies 29 (Mar. 1990): 163–182.

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Ho, Chuimei. “Chinese Temples in Bangkok.” Journal of The Siam Society 83, 1–2 (1995): 25–43. Honda, Hiromu. The Beauty of Fired Clay: Ceramics from Burma, Laos and Thailand. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Kansadaeng Sinlapakam haeng Chatkhrang thi 43 = The 43rd National Exhibition of Art. Bangkok: Silpakorn University, 1997. Khmer Temples in Thailand and Laos. Bangkok: River Books, 1996. Lent, John, “The Uphill Climb of Thai Cartooning.” Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 25, 1 (1997): 93–109. Lutfy, Carol. “Bangkok’s Suan Pakkad Palace: Royal Heirlooms Displayed in Thailand.” Architectural Digest 54 (Nov. 1997): 154+. ———. “Bangkok’s Empire of Silk: Design Director of the Jim Thompson Company in Thailand (Home of G. Pierce).” Architectural Digest 53 (May 1996): 130–137+. Manot Kongkanan. Folk Crafts in Thailand: A Collection and Study of Folk Crafts in Thailand: Wickerwork in Central Provinces. Bangkok: National Committee on Culture, 1996. McQuail, Lisa. Treasures of Two Nations: Thai Royal Gifts to the United States of America. Washington, D.C.: Asian Cultural History Program, Smithsonian Institution, 1997. Naengnoi Panjabhan, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, and Somchai Na Nakhonphanom. The Charm of Lanna Wood Carving. Bangkok: Rerngrom, 1994. No Na Paknam. The Relationship between the Art and History of the Thai People. Bangkok: Office of the National Culture Commission, 1985. Phillips, Herbert P. The Integrative Art of Modern Thailand. Berkeley: Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University of California at Berkeley, 1992. Piriya Krairiksh. Art in Peninsular Thailand Prior to the Fourteenth Century A.D. Bangkok: Department of Fine Arts, 1980. Pitya Bunnag. “Thai Traditional Gabled Doors and Windows.” Journal of The Siam Society 83, 1–2 (1995): 7–24. Ringis, Rita. Elephants of Thailand in Myth, Art, and Reality. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Royal Barges. Bangkok, Thailand Foreign News Division, Government Public Relations Department, Office of the Prime Minister, 1995. Santi Leksukhum. Temples of Gold: Seven Centuries of Thai Buddhist Paintings. New York: George Braziller, 2000. Shaw, J. C. Northern Thai Ceramics. 2nd rev. ed. Chiang Mai: Duangphorn Kemasingki, 1989. Smitthi Siribhadra and Elizabeth Moore. Palaces of the Gods: Khmer Art & Architecture in Thailand. Bangkok: River Books, 1992. Sonthiwan Inthralip. An Outline of the History of Religious Architecture in Thailand. 2nd ed. Bangkok: Sonthiwan Intralib, 1987. ———. Thai Traditional Paintings. Bangkok: Amarin Printing and Publishing, 1994.

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Stratton, Carol. The Art of Sukhothai: Thailand’s Golden Age, from the Mid-Thirteenth to the Mid-Fifteenth Centuries: A Cooperative Study. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. Treasures of Thailand. 4th ed. Bangkok: National Identity Board, 1985. Van Beek, Steve and Luca Invernizzi Tettoni. The Arts of Thailand. Rev. ed. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1991. Woodward, Hiram W. The Sacred Sculpture of Thailand: The Alexander B. Griswold Collection, the Walters Art Gallery. Baltimore, Md.: Walters Art Gallery, 1997.

B. Music, Dance, and Drama Chakrabhand Posayakrit, et al., eds.; photographed by Banchob Maitreechit, Phansakdi Chakkaphak, and Sarthip Thongnakeokegruad. The Vice Regal Puppets. Bangkok: Bangkok Printing House, 1997. Chen Duriyanga, Phra. Siamese Music in Theory and Practice as Compared with That of the West, and a Description of the Piphat Band. Bangkok: Department of Fine Arts, 1948. ———. Thai Music. Bangkok: National Culture Institute, 1956. Dhaninivat Kromamun Bidyalabh Bridhyakorn, H. H. Prince and Dhanit Yupho. The Khon. 3rd ed. Bangkok: Department of Fine Arts, 1962. Dhanit Yupho. Classical Siamese Theatre, trans. P. S. Sasti. Bangkok: Hatha Dhip, 1952. ———. Thai Musical Instruments, trans. from Thai by David Morton. 2nd ed. Bangkok: Karnsasana Press, 1971. Grove, Mary J. “Tarnishing the Golden Era: Aesthetics, Humor, and Politics in Lakhon Chatri Dance-Drama.” In State Power and Culture in Thailand, edited by E. Paul Durrenberger. New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1996. Hemmet, Christine. Nang Talung: The Shadow Theatre of South Thailand. Amsterdam: KIT, Tropenmusem Amsterdam; [Paris]: Musée de l’Homme: Paris, 1996. Ledingham, Daniel David. The Development of Thai Popular Music in the Twentieth Century: Politics, Modernization, and Cultural Changes in Post-1932 Thailand. Thesis (M.A.)—Kent State University, 2000. Mattani Rutnin, ed. The Siamese Theatre: A Collection of Reprints from the Journal of the Siam Society. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1975. Miller, Terry E. and Jarernchai Chonpairot. “A History of Siamese Music Reconstructed from Western Documents, 1505–1932.” Crossroads, Vol. 8, no. 2 (Special Issue) 1994. Morton, David. The Traditional Music of Thailand. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1976. Myers-Moro, Pamela. Thai Music and Musicians in Contemporary Bangkok. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1993.

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Rutnin, Mattani Mojdara. Dance, Drama, and Theatre in Thailand: The Process of Development and Modernization. Tokyo: Center for East Asian Cultural Studies for UNESCO, 1993. Wong, Deborah. “The Evening Overture in Hindu–Buddhist Thai Ritual.” Ethnomusicology 35 (1991): 326–339.

C. Language and Literature Abha Bhamorabutr. Foreign Words Are Pronounced the Same as Thai Words: The Etymological Relationships of Thai and Foreign Words. Bangkok: Distributed by D. K. Today, 1988. Anuman Rajadhon, Phraya. Thai Language. Bangkok: National Culture Institute, 1954. Bauer, Christian. “Notes on Mon Epigraphy.” Journal of the Siam Society 79, 1 (1991): 31–83. Benedict, Paul K. Austro-Thai Language and Culture: With a Glossary of Roots. New Haven, Conn.: HRAF Press, 1975. Bickner, Robert J. An Introduction to the Thai Poem Lilit Phra Law (The Story of King Law). 1991. Brown, Adam. Homophones and Homographs in Thai, and Their Implications. Hamburg, Germany: H. Buske, 1988. Brown, James Marvin. AUA Language Center Thai Course. 3 v. Bangkok: American University Alumni Association Language Center, 1967–69. Chadaporn Thepwong. Characteristics of Transformation in European Tales and Thai Tales. Master of Arts in Arts and Letters, Southern Oregon University, 2000. Compton, Carol J. and John F. Hartmann. Papers on Tai Languages, Linguistics, and Literatures. 1992. Gedney, William J. “Patrons and Practitioners: Chakri Monarchs and Literature.” Crossroads 2, 2 (1985): 1–22. ———. Selected Papers on Comparative Thai Studies. Ann Arbor: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1989. ———. The Yay Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Ann Arbor: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1991. Ginsburg, Henry. Thai Art and Culture: Historic Manuscripts from Western Collections. London: British Library, 2000. Glick, Irving J. and Sao Tern Moeng. Shan for English Speakers: Dialogues, Readings, Grammar Notes, and Vocabulary. Wheaton, Md.: Dunwoody Press, 1991. Haas, Mary R. The Thai System of Writing. Ithaca, N.Y.: Spoken Language Services, 1980. Hartmann. John. “Transmutations in a Multicultural World.” The South East Asian Review 22, 1 & 2, (Jan.–Dec. 1997): 23–47.

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Hudak, Thomas John. William J: Gedney’s the Lue Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Ann Arbor: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1996. ———, ed. William J. Gedney’s Tai Dialect Studies: Glossaries, Texts, and Translation. Ann Arbor: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1997. Lawa–Thai Dictionary. English. Lawa–English Dictionary. Parkville, VIC, Australia: Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, University of Melbourne; [Salaya, Thailand]: Institute of Language, and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol I University at Salaya, Thailand, 1997. Levy-Ward, Annick, et al. “Some Observations on the Map of the Ethnic Groups Speaking Thai Languages.” Journal of the Siam Society 76 (1988): 29–45. Lindell, Kristina, Jan-Öjvind Swahn, and Damrong Tayanin. Folk Tales from Kammu VI: A Teller’s Last Tales. London: NIAS/Curzon, 1997. Lorrain, J. Herbert. Dictionary of the Lushai Language. Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1990. Manich Jumsai, M. L. History of Thai Literature: Including Laos, Shans, Khamti, Ahom, and Yunnan-Nanchao. Bangkok: Chalermnit, 2000. ———. Thai Folktales: A Selection Out of Gems of Thai Literature. Bangkok: Chalermnit, 2000. Manot Tiengladdawong and Mary Lou Robertson. “The Thai Braille Writing System.” Crossroads 3, 1 (1986): 134–153. Matisoff, James A. The Dictionary of Lahu. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Montri Umavijani. The Domain of Thai Literature. Bangkok: Prachandra Printing Press, 1978. ———. Poems from Thailand, 1988–1991. Bangkok: Pradipat Poetry Press, 1991. Nanthaka Pollachai. National Archives of Thailand. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Education, 1997. Nanthana Danwiwat. The Thai Writing System. Hamburg, Germany: Buske, 1987. New Model Thai–English Dictionary, compiled by So Sethaputra. Krung Thep Maha Nakhon [Bangkok]: Thai Watthana Phanit, 1987. Nita Masavisut and Matthew Grose, eds. The S.E.A. Write Anthology of Thai Short Stories and Poems. Chiang Mai: Silkworm, 1998. Olson, Grant A. “Thai Cremation Volumes: A Brief History of a Unique Genre of Literature.” Asian Folklore Studies 51 (1992): 279–294. Page, William. The Nirvana Experiments and Other Tales of Asia. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1995. Pan-Asiatic Linguistics: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Languages and Linguistics, January 8–10, 1996. Bangkok: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University at Salaya, 1996. Phillips, Herbert P. Modern Thai Literature: With an Ethnographic Interpretation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987.

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Smyth, David. “Western Studies of the Thai Language Since the 1940’s.” In South East Asian Languages and Literatures: A Bibliographical Guide to Burmese, Cambodian, Indonesian, Javanese, Malay, Minangkabau, Thai and Vietnamese, ed., E. Ulrich Kratz. London/New York: Tauris, 1996: 88–101, 309–319. Sucharitlak Diphadung. Elementary Thai for Foreigners: Drill Workbook. Nakhon Pathom: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University, 1996. Treasury of Thai Literature: The Modern Period. Bangkok: National Identity Board, 1988. Wenk, Klaus. Thai Literature. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1995. Wenk, Klaus. “Thai Literature as Reflected in Western Reports during the 17th to the 19th Centuries.” The Journal of the Siam Society 86, 1 & 2 (1998): 219–226.

D. Customs and Festivals Anuman Rajadhon, Phraya. Essays on Cultural Thailand. Bangkok: Office of the National Culture Commission, 1990. Ariyanuwat, Phra. Phya Khankhaak, the Toad King: A Translation of an Isan Fertility Myth in Verse, translated by Wajuppa Tossa. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1996. The Chiang Mai Chronicle. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1998. Cummings, Joe. Thai Phrasebook. Oakland, Calif.: Lonely Planet, 1995. Eade, J. C. “Round-Number Reckoning in Thai for the 5000 Years of the Buddha.” The Journal of the Siam Society 86, 1 & 2 (1998): 227–231. Gerini, G. E. The Tonsure Ceremony as Performed in Siam. Bangkok: Bangkok Times, 1895. Gerson, Ruth. Traditional Festivals in Thailand. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Ho, Mingfong. Hush: A Thai Lullaby. New York: Orchard Books, 1996. Macallister, Janet. “Strings of Tradition.” Sawaddi 44, 3 (1997): 18–24. Reichart, Peter A. Betel and Miang: Vanishing Thai Habits. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1996. The Royal Barge Procession. Bangkok: Tourism Authority of Thailand, 1987. Sommai Premchit and Pierre Dore. The Lan Na Twelve-Month Traditions: An Ethno-Historic and Comparative Approach: A Research Report. Chiang Mai: Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University, 1991. Supaporn Vathanaprida. Thai Tales: Folktales of Thailand. Englewood, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1994. Symposium on Environment and Culture with Emphasis on Urban Issues. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1993. Thai Culture, Songkran Festival. Bangkok: Office of the National Culture Commission, 1989.

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Thai Customs and Beliefs. Bangkok: Office of the National Culture Commission, 1988. Wong, Deborah. “Mon Music for Thai Deaths: Ethnicity and Status in Thai Urban Funerals.” Asian Folklore Studies 57, 1 (1998): 99–130. Yee, Kenny. Dos & Don’ts in Thailand. Bangkok: BPS Publication, 1995.

7. SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT A. Geography and Demography Molle, Francois and Thippawan Srijantr. Chao Phraya Delta. Kasetsart University and IRD (ex-ORSTOM), 2000. http://std.cpc.ku.ac.th/delta/deltacp/ home.htm. Thongchai Winichakul. Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-body of a Nation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994.

B. Geology Jha, Madan Kumar and Kiyoshi Koga. “Mole Drainage: Prospective Drainage Solution to Bangkok Clay Soils.” Agricultural Water Management 28 (Nov. 1995): 253–270. Upton, D., C. S. Bristow, and A. J. Hurford. “Denudation in Thailand: An Evaluator of Tertiary Tectonic Models.” Abstracts. vol. 122. International Workshop on Fission-Track Dating. Belgium: University of Ghent, 1996.

C. Flora and Fauna Bøgh, Anders. “Abundance and Growth of Rattans in Khao Chong National Park, Thailand.” Forest Ecology and Management 84 (Aug. 1996): 71–80. A Photographic Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. Sanibel Island, Fla.: Ralph Curtis Books, 1998. Robson, Craig. A Guide to the Birds of Southeast Asia: Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000. Round, Philip D. Field Check-list of Thai Birds. Bangkok: Bird Conservation Society of Thailand, 2000. Schuiternan, Andre and E. F. de Vogel. Orchid Genera of Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Leiden: Nationaa1 Herbarium Nederland, 2000. Wells, David. The Birds of the Thai–Malay Peninsula: Covering Burma and Thailand South of the Eleventh Parallel, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. San Diego, Calif.: Academic, 1998.

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D. Ecology Asia Least-Cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy: ALGAS Thailand. Manila: Asian Development Bank. 1998. Bang Bo Power Project in Thailand: Summary Environmental Impact Assessment. Manila: Asian Development Bank. 1999. Crews-Meyer, Kelley A. Integrated Landscape Characterization via Landscape Ecology and GIScience: A Policy Ecology of Northeast Thailand. Thesis (Ph. D.)— University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000. Duangjai Intarapravich. “Assessing Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Options for the Thai Power Sector.” Ambio 25 (June 1996): 233–239. Harakunarak, Ampai. Cooperation in Marine Affairs: Evidence from the Gulf of Thailand. Thesis (Ph.D.)—University of Delaware, 1998. Hitchcock, Michael (with S. Jay). “Eco-tourism and Environmental Change in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.” In Environmental Challenges in South-East Asia, edited by V.T. King. Copenhagen: NIAS, and Richmond: Cunon, 1998: 305–316. Isager, Lotte. Forest and People in Thai Environmentalist Discourse. Aarhus: Research Center on Forest and People in Thailand, 2000. Piprell, Collin. Thailand’s Coral Reefs: Nature under Threat. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1995. Poulson, Ebbe, et al., ed. Forest in Culture, Culture in Forest: Perspectives from Northern Thailand. Tgele: Research Center on Forest and People in Thailand, 2001. Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Mekong Delta: Sponsored by EC-INCO-Cuu Long Project, the Imperial Golden Triangle, Chiang Rai, Thailand, February 23–27, 1998. International Workshop on the Mekong Delta (Chiang Rai, Thailand, 1998). Rigg, Jonathan, ed. Counting the Costs: Economic Growth and Environmental Change in Thailand. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1995. Williams, M., et al. “Arsenic Contamination in Surface Drainage and Groundwater in Part of the Southeast Asian Tin Belt, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Southern Thailand.” Environmental Geology 27 (Feb. 1996): 16–33.

8. JOURNALS AND NEWSPAPERS A. Thai Journals and Newspapers Bangkok Post. Post Publishing Co., Bangkok Post Building, 136 Na Ranong Road, Off Sunthorn Kosa Road, Klong Toey, Bangkok 10110, Thailand. Business in Thailand. Business (Thailand) Co., 927 Soi Saeng Cham, Rama IX Road, Bangkok 10310, Thailand. Business Review. Nation Publishing Group, 44 Moo 10 Bangna-Trat Road, K.M. 4.5, Bnagna, Phra Kanong, Bangkok 10260, Thailand.

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Journal of the Siam Society. Amarin Printing Group, 65/16 Soi Wat Chaiyapruk, Pinklao-Nakhon Chaisi Road, Taling Chan, Bangkok 10170, Thailand. McCargo, Duncan. Politics and the Press in Thailand: Media Machinations. London and New York: Routledge, 2000. The Nation. Nation Publishing Group. 44 Moo 10, Bangna-Trat Road, K.M. 4.5, Bangna, Phra Khanong, Bangkok 10260, Thailand. Parichart Sthapitanonda Sarobol and Arvind Singhal. “‘Glocalizing’ Media Products: Investigating the Cultural Shareability of the ‘Karate Kits’ EntertainmentEducation Film in Thailand. Media Asia 25, 2 (1998): 170–175. Sawaddi. 33 Rajadamri Rd., Bangkok 10330, Thailand. Thailand Illustrated. Foreign News Division, Government Public Relations Department, 236 Vibhavadi Rangsit Highway, Bangkok 10400, Thailand. Ubonrat Siriyuvasak. “Limited Competition without De-regulating the Media: The Case of the Broadcasting Industry in Thailand.” Asian Journal of Communication, 7, 2 (1997): 57–74.

B. Foreign Journals Asian Studies Review. Asian Studies Association of Australia, Inc. Griffith University, Queensland 4111, Australia. Asian Survey. University of California Press. Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. Asian Wall Street Journal Weekly. P.O. Box 15, Chicopee, MA 01020, USA. Contemporary Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Heng Mui Keng Terrace, Pasir Panjang, Singapore 0511. Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA. Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies, 1, Lane Hall, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. (Follows Journal of Southeast Asia History.) Singapore University Press, Yusof Ishak House, Kent Ridge, Singapore 0511. Khosana. Thailand/Laos/Cambodia Study Group, Association for Asian Studies, Inc., Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA. Pacific Affairs. University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1W5, Canada. Sojourn: Social Issues in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Heng Mui Keng Terrace, Pasir Panjang, Singapore 0511. Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science. Chopmen Publishers, 865 Mountbatten Road #05-28, Katong Shopping Centre, Singapore 1543. Southeast Asian Research in the Research School of Pacific Studies. Australian National University, Canberra.

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Harold E. Smith (Ph.D. Cornell University) is emeritus professor of sociology at Northern Illinois University. His publications include a monograph, a book chapter, and seven articles that deal with Thailand. His research there focused chiefly on the Thai rural family and on the modern medical profession. He authored the Historical and Cultural Dictionary of Thailand (Scarecrow Press, 1976) and was coauthor with May Kyi Win of the Historical Dictionary of Thailand (Scarecrow Press, 1995). He was a Visiting Fulbright Professor of Sociology in Thailand, 1964–1966 and 1975–1976. For the Center for Southeast Asian Studies at Northern Illinois University, he has been an Associate Member and has served as Book Review Editor of the Center journal, Crossroads. He has presented a number of research papers concerning his Thai research at meetings of professional societies in the United States and in three Southeast Asian countries. Gayla S. Nieminen (Ed.D. Northern Illinois University) studied the Thai language in Bangkok and at the University of Washington, where she received a B.A. in Asian Studies/Anthropology. She does research and technical writing for educational agencies at the local, intermediate, and state level. Her publications have been in the areas of learning disabilities and measurement issues in psychological research. May Kyi Win (B.Sc., Dip. Lib. University of Rangoon) served as curator of the Donn V. Hart Southeast Asia Collection at Northern Illinois University for 12 years. She formerly worked as chief of the English Cataloging Department at the University of Rangoon for 16 years. She was coauthor of the Historical Dictionary of Thailand (Scarecrow Press, 1995). Her publications also include an article on

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the “Publishing Industry in Burma” and bibliographies on Burma in CORMOSEA Bulletin (Committee on Research Materials on Southeast Asia), the Bulletin of the Burma Studies Group. She was also the editor of the Bulletin of the Burma Studies Group. Her untimely death occurred in 2002.

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