Historical Dictionary of Postwar German Literature

HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF

Postwar German L I T E R AT U R E

WILLIAM GRANGE

Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts Jon Woronoff, Series Editor 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

Science Fiction Literature, by Brian Stableford, 2004. Hong Kong Cinema, by Lisa Odham Stokes, 2007. American Radio Soap Operas, by Jim Cox, 2005. Japanese Traditional Theatre, by Samuel L. Leiter, 2006. Fantasy Literature, by Brian Stableford, 2005. Australian and New Zealand Cinema, by Albert Moran and Errol Vieth, 2006. African-American Television, by Kathleen Fearn-Banks, 2006. Lesbian Literature, by Meredith Miller, 2006. Scandinavian Literature and Theater, by Jan Sjåvik, 2006. British Radio, by Seán Street, 2006. German Theater, by William Grange, 2006. African American Cinema, by S. Torriano Berry and Venise Berry, 2006. Sacred Music, by Joseph P. Swain, 2006. Russian Theater, by Laurence Senelick, 2007. French Cinema, by Dayna Oscherwitz and MaryEllen Higgins, 2007. Postmodernist Literature and Theater, by Fran Mason, 2007. Irish Cinema, by Roderick Flynn and Pat Brereton, 2007. Australian Radio and Television, by Albert Moran and Chris Keating, 2007. Polish Cinema, by Marek Haltof, 2007. Old Time Radio, by Robert C. Reinehr and Jon D. Swartz, 2008. Renaissance Art, by Lilian H. Zirpolo, 2008. Broadway Musical, by William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird, 2008. American Theater: Modernism, by James Fisher and Felicia Hardison Londré, 2008. German Cinema, by Robert C. Reimer and Carol J. Reimer, 2008. Horror Cinema, by Peter Hutchings, 2008. Westerns in Cinema, by Paul Varner, 2008. Chinese Theater, by Tan Ye, 2008. Italian Cinema, by Gino Moliterno, 2008.

29. 30. 31. 32.

Architecture, by Allison Lee Palmer, 2008. Russian and Soviet Cinema, by Peter Rollberg, 2008. African American Theater, by Anthony D. Hill, 2009. Postwar German Literature, by William Grange, 2009.

Historical Dictionary of Postwar German Literature William Grange

Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts, No. 32

The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Plymouth, UK 2009

SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.scarecrowpress.com Estover Road Plymouth PL6 7PY United Kingdom Copyright © 2009 by William Grange All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Grange, William, 1947– Historical dictionary of postwar German literature / William Grange. p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of literature and the arts ; no. 32) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-8108-5965-4 (alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-6314-9 (ebook) 1. German literature–20th century–Bio-bibliography. 2. Authors, German–20th century–Biography–Dictionaries. 3. Austrian literature–20th century–Biobibliography. 4. Authors, Austrian–20th century–Biography–Dictionaries. 5. Swiss literature (German)–20th century–Bio-bibliography. 6. Authors, Swiss–20th century–Biography–Dictionaries. I. Title. PT401.G68 2009 830.9'00914–dc22 [B] 2009004614

⬁ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America.

für meinen Doktorvater Prof. Dr. Marvin Carlson . . . ich bin nicht wert, daß ich ihm die Riemen seiner Schuhe löse . . .

Contents

Editor’s Foreword Jon Woronoff

ix

Acknowledgments

xi

Reader’s Note

xiii

Acronyms and Abbreviations

xvii

Chronology

xix

Introduction

xlvii

THE DICTIONARY

1

Bibliography

251

About the Author

297

vii

Editor’s Foreword

This volume is devoted to one of the most intriguing bodies of modern literature—that produced in the German language, whether from Germany, Austria, or Switzerland or from writers using German in other countries. Given the differing locales, it is not surprising to find considerable variations in contents, especially since Germany previously consisted of two antagonistic states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. Their respective literatures were almost diametrically opposed (at least in theory). But there are other less expected variations, with some authors strongly criticizing the shameful past and others trying to come to terms with it, while more recent authors divide among those (perhaps the majority) unable to come to terms with an opulent, consumerist present and others (here and there) who agree that the present situation is certainly better than the past and not worse than elsewhere. This means the literature has a split personality, which is hardly surprising given the trauma of the past century. If anything, it has split considerably more than just two ways. That is probably a flaw, if you will, but it has resulted in a surprisingly rich harvest of literature that is laid out in this book. Writing this Historical Dictionary of Postwar German Literature was thus a more intricate and difficult task than producing a work on other national literatures. It had to cover an extensive period of time: from 1945 through the many hectic but also fruitful years to the present. It also had to describe differing contexts in different parts of the Germanspeaking world at different times. The introduction of this volume does so with admirable cogency. The dictionary section then focuses on the leading authors of the period, with big names such as Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass but also with many lesser known ones who are hardly familiar—but deserve to be better known—abroad. Some of their books have achieved considerable international recognition and therefore ix

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EDITOR’S FOREWORD

merit entries in this dictionary, as do several works less well known internationally but with significant impact at home. Inevitably, there are entries on the four major locations where this literature was produced and also some of the main themes, trends, and schools. There is enough interest in postwar German literature to merit further study or reading for the pure pleasure (and sometimes pain) of it. The bibliography is sufficiently extensive to point readers in the right direction. This volume was written by William Grange, who has already produced another volume in this series, the Historical Dictionary of German Theater. Although some aspects of theater are included in this volume as well, here he devotes his experience and skill mainly to presenting other forms of literature, including poetry, in which he is equally interested. Dr. Grange is the Hixson-Lied professor in the Johnny Carson School of Theatre and Film at the University of Nebraska, and to judge by his rankings, he is one of the more popular professors. He has also studied and then lectured widely at other American universities and abroad. During his career, he has done research in Göttingen, Berlin, Heidelberg, Vienna, and other parts of German-speaking Europe, and he spent a considerable period there while working on this volume. The results are once again impressive, and he has acquitted himself well of the rather daunting challenge of making sense of one of the most complex bodies of modern literature. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

Acknowledgments

So geh nun hin und schreib es vor ihnen nieder auf eine Tafel und zeichne es in ein Buch, daß es bleibe für immer und ewig. —Isaiah 30:8

It is usually difficult to determine with any certainty where the impetus lies for writing a book like this, but in this case it is fairly easy to identify: Heinrich Böll. I encountered Böll’s novel Ansichten eines Clowns (The Clown) in a college seminar, and the impression it made was both deep and lasting. Subsequent encounters with Böll’s short stories, radio dramas, poetry, and later novels were a consistent literary blandishment. So were Böll’s deeply held yet paradoxical Christian convictions. Those convictions were borne of the unspeakable horrors he had witnessed as a common foot soldier in World War II—a “grunt,” as we so picturesquely say in American English. Böll’s experiences in World War II and its aftermath compelled him to write, an experience of compulsion he shared with an earlier generation of German foot soldiers in World War I. They likewise felt called to bear witness, and they often did so prophetically. There was something of an Old Testament prophet in Heinrich Böll too. He called his readers to account, as all great writers do. In the lecture he gave when he received the Nobel Prize for Literature, however, Böll compared writing not with prophecy but with making Brötchen, the breakfast rolls most Germans need to bolster themselves when greeting the new day. Certain ingredients are indispensable to both writer and baker, said Böll, but there is a certain mystical, indescribable ingredient that is equally indispensable to both writing and baking. He did not know exactly what it was, but there was something holy about it. Was it God? Poetry? Irony? He could not say. Whatever it was, it was in his writing, and it has stayed with me since that initial

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

reading of The Clown. I must acknowledge a debt to him in posthumous gratitude. Few books of this scope can approach completion without the help of several living individuals, however, and foremost among them are editors and colleagues. To Jon Woronoff, editor of the Scarecrow Press series of which this volume is a part, go my heartiest thanks. He continues to astonish me with his wide range of both knowledge and interests, coupled with his remarkable eye for accuracy. He is also very patient with authors like me, who often seem to make the same orthographic mistakes with disheartening frequency. My colleagues in the Johnny Carson School of Theatre and Film, both faculty and staff, at the University of Nebraska have been likewise forbearing and kind during the process of writing this book, and I greatly appreciate them. To my colleague Harris Smith I owe singular debts of gratitude for his support and superb advice. Bettina Hartas Geary of Wylam, Northumberland, provided several pointers in writing this book; she and Tony Geary have been constantly generous in their thoughts and ideas. Dr. Jürgen Ohlhoff and Ulrike Münkel-Ohlhoff in Berlin continue to inspire me with their wide range of literary interests and assistance. I should be remiss if I did not also thank Patrick Curran, chaplain of Vienna and archdeacon of the Church of England, for his welcome counsel while researching this book in Austria. I am also fortunate to be surrounded by an energetic and curious student body in the Johnny Carson School at the University of Nebraska, and few of the students I am fortunate to teach know how much they mean to me. This occasion is a good one to acknowledge my gratitude to them as well. And no book I write can ever acknowledge sufficient gratitude to Willa, who has remained my staunch and steadfast defender.

Reader’s Note

The dictionary section that forms the core of this volume contains numerous entries for people, literary terms, names of places, titles of books, organizations, and other important topics related to postwar German literature. In the entries for individuals, the name—listed surname first—is followed by the individual’s dates and principal activity in the exercise of his or her profession within postwar German literature. For example: BACHMANN, INGEBORG (1926–1973). Poet, novelist, short-fiction writer. If the individual used a pseudonym, the original name will usually follow in parentheses, as in: LIND, JAKOV (Heinz Landwirth, 1927–2007). Novelist, prose stylist. Entries for book titles appear in bold italics, alphabetized by the first substantive word. The German title is followed if necessary by the English translation in parentheses, usually the year in which the book was published, and the name of the author. Note that all novel titles should be in italic when they appear in their original German form, but they are not italic if they have not yet been translated into an English version. If the title’s translation into English is well known, it too will appear in bold italics as part of the entry header. For example: KIRSCHEN DER FREIHEIT, DIE (The Cherries of Freedom, 1952). Novel by Alfred Andersch.

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READER’S NOTE

If the translation is not well known, it will not appear in bold; for example: NIEMBSCH, ODER DER STILLSTAND (Niembsch, or the Stalemate, 1964). Novel by Peter Härtling. If the title in German is the same or nearly the same as in English, it appears without parentheses; for example: LUST (1989). Novel by Elfriede Jelinek. Names of people or places, literary terms, titles of books, organizations, and other topics that have their own entries in the dictionary are cross-referenced when they appear in another entry. The item will appear in bold print on its initial mention. This approach allows the reader to find additional related information in items that have associations with one another. For example the name Heinrich Böll appears in bold within the GROUP 47 (GRUPPE 47) entry because Böll’s membership in that organization was significant. It also appears within the TRÜMMERLITERATUR entry because Böll was initially an advocate of Trümmerliteratur, known as “literature in the ruins.” The use of FRG (Federal Republic of Germany), GDR (German Democratic Republic), AU (Austria), and CH (Confoederatio Helvetica, the official name for Switzerland) appears after the dates of several authors, identifying the country of their works’ principal origination as West Germany, East Germany, Austria, or German-speaking Switzerland. For example: ANDERSCH, ALFRED (1914–1980) FRG. Novelist, essayist. APITZ, BRUNO (1900–1979) GDR. Novelist. ARTMANN, HANS CARL (1921–2000) AU. Poet and translator. BURGER, HERMANN (1942–1989) CH. Novelist, poet. Some authors began their careers in one country and continued them in another, and in such cases more than one designation will appear. In other cases, no designation appears because their careers exceeded traditional definitions of political boundary.

READER’S NOTE

• xv

This dictionary attempts to avoid the overuse of abbreviations and acronyms, insofar as that is feasible. Translations of German phrases, usages, and titles—particularly those unfamiliar to most English-speaking readers—follow parenthetically the phrase, usage, or title in question. All translations, unless otherwise noted, are the author’s. More familiar terms are usually left to stand alone.

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AU BRD CDU DDR FPÖ FRG GDR Gestapo

KPD NATO NSDAP

PEN RAF SDS SED SPD SPÖ

Federal Republic of Austria (Bundesrepublik Österreich) Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal Republic of Germany, or FRG) Christdemokratische Union (Christian Democratic Union) Deutsche Demokratische Republik (German Democratic Republic, or GDR) Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs (Austrian Freedom Party, or FPÖ) Federal Republic of Germany German Democratic Republic Short for Geheime Staatspolizei, meaning Secret State Police of the National Socialist regime from 1933 to 1945 Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (German Communist Party) North Atlantic Treaty Organization Nationalsozialistischer Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers’ Party), abbreviated as “Nazi” Poets, Essayists, and Novelists Rote Armee Fraktion (Red Army Faction) Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund (Socialist League of German Students) Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity Party of Germany) Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (Social Democratic Party of Germany) Sozialistische Partei Österreichs (Austrian Socialist Party) xvii

xviii •

SS

Stasi UN

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Schutzstaffel (Protective Cohort), often referred to as Waffen-SS, meaning Protective Cohort with Heavy Weapons Short for Staatssicherheit, as in Ministerium für Staatssicherheit, the East German secret police United Nations

Chronology

1945 Johannes R. Becher, Walter Ulbricht, Wilhelm Pieck, and other members of the German Communist Party arrive in Soviet-occupied sectors outside Berlin in late April to begin organizing what they hope will be a “new” Germany. Military units of the German Reich surrender to Allied forces on 8 May. Becher was instrumental in organizing the Kulturbund zur demokratischen Erneuerung Deutschlands (Cultural League for the Democratic Renewal of Germany), signaling the importance of literature and cultural activity in the reconstruction process. British and American troops occupy their sectors in West Berlin on 3 July; French occupy their sectors on 12 August. Ernst Wiechert publishes his Rede an die deutsche Jugend 1945 (Speech to German Youth of 1945), a humanitarian plea for fortitude, kindness, patience, and forgiveness. 1946 Wolfgang Borchert makes his publishing debut with a collection of poetry titled Laterne, Nacht und Sterne (Lanterns, Night, and Stars). Alfred Andersch and Hans-Werner Richter are repatriated to Germany and begin publishing their literary magazine Der Ruf (begun as a prisoner-of-war camps project in Illinois and Louisiana), which is subsequently banned by American occupation authorities. Wolfgang Hildesheimer works with the British as a translator at the Nuremberg trials, and other authors begin publishing accounts of their experiences in concentration camps, such as Luise Rinser’s Gefängnistagebuch (A Woman’s Prison Journal) and Wiechert’s “report” on Buchenwald titled Der Totenwald (The Forest of the Dead). Carl Zuckmayer’s drama about German fighter pilots Des Teufels General (The Devil’s General) premieres in Zurich but is banned for performance in occupied Germany. Two plays by Max Frisch also premiere in Zurich: Nun singen Sie wieder (Now They’re Singing Again) and Santa Cruz. Eugen Kogon

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publishes the first clinical examination of concentration camps, titled Der SS-Staat (The Theory and Practice of Hell). 1947 Thomas Mann’s monumental novel Doktor Faustus, which many critics consider a blistering indictment of German culture as a whole, is published. Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer publish their treatise Dialektik der Aufklärung (Dialectic of Enlightenment), a theoretical demolition of the entire Enlightenment project in Western culture; Mann had consulted with Adorno in 1944–1945 during the completion of Faustus when both men lived in California. Wolfgang Borchert’s drama Draussen vor der Tür (The Outsider) premieres on radio and later on stage in Hamburg. Hans-Erich Nossack’s novel Nekyia: Bericht eines Überlebenden (Nekiya: A Survivor’s Report) also features Hamburg—the city’s destruction, that is. Nelly Sachs’ volume of poetry In den Wohnungen des Todes (In the Dwelling Places of Death) is published in East Berlin. Group 47 forms, with the initial intention of encouraging German writers to emulate Ernest Hemingway. 1948 Das heilige Experiment (The Holy Experiment) by Fritz Hochwälder premieres in Vienna, while Bertolt Brecht’s Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti (Mr. Puntila and His Servant Matti) premieres in Zurich. Brecht arrives in Berlin in time to witness the full effects of a Soviet blockade of all land and water entry points into the city. Western Allies initiate the Berlin Airlift, supplying West Berlin sectors with 1,500 tons of foodstuffs, fuel, and domestic supplies every day. Ilse Aichinger’s novel Die grössere Hoffnung (Herod’s Children) and Luise Rinser’s novella Jan Lobel aus Warschau (Jan Lobel of Warsaw) are published. Fragments of diaries by Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels are published, edited by Louis Paul Lochner. 1949 The Soviet Union calls off its blockade of Berlin in May; its relations with the former Allies continue to deteriorate rapidly, and two separate German republics form. Konrad Adenauer, leader of the Christian Democratic Party, is elected first chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany; Walter Ulbricht heads the ruling Socialist Unity Party in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). Als der Krieg zu Ende war (When the War Was Over) by Max Frisch premieres in Zurich. Anna Seghers’ novel Die Toten bleiben jung (The Dead Stay Young) and Nelly Sachs’ collection Sternverdunkelung (Eclipse of the Stars) are published; other

CHRONOLOGY

• xxi

writers known from their prewar work, such as Gottfried Benn, Ernst Jünger, and Hans Henny Jahnn, see their new works published. 1950 The German Democratic Republic (GDR) organizes its state secret police ministry known as the Ministerium für Staatssicherheit (Ministry for State Security), or Stasi. The ministry becomes so powerful that few writers—and indeed, few GDR citizens—are exempt as targets of its activity. Another powerful GDR ministry, the Ministerium für Volksbildung (Ministry for Popular Education) forbids playing of American popular music in public. GDR leader Ulbricht orders demolition of the Berlin City Palace, former residence of Prussian kings and German emperors. The first feature-length color film produced in the Federal Republic, Das Schwarzwaldmädel (The Girl of the Black Forest), opens in July. Dozens of American films made in the 1930s and 1940s (but banned during the Hitler dictatorship) appear in West German cinemas, attracting large crowds. Walter Jens publishes Nein: die Welt der Angeklagten (No: The World of the Accused), an indictment of judicial systems, such as the one emerging in the German Democratic Republic, that condone secret police activity, anonymous denunciations, and show trials. 1951 In East Berlin, Ulbricht dedicates the Stalin Memorial; in Vienna, Heimito von Doderer publishes his novel Die Strudelhofstiege (The Strudelhof Steps), a panoramic evocation of the Hapsburg Empire’s decline and decay. In Switzerland, Graf Öderland by Frisch premieres. In West Germany, novels by new authors begin to appear, including Wo warst Du, Adam? (Where Wert Thou, Adam?) by Heinrich Böll, Es waren Habichte in der Luft (There Were Hawks in the Air) by Siegfried Lenz, and Sie fielen aus Gottes Hand (They Fell from God’s Hands) by Hans Werner Richter. All are active members of Group 47 (Richter was one of the group’s founders), and Böll wins the Group 47 Prize for his novel. The first book of Mickey Mouse cartoons in German is published, and the premiere of Die Sünderin (The Fallen Woman) features the first nude scene in German postwar film history, creating a sensation at the film’s Frankfurt am Main premiere. 1952 Böll makes a speech at the rebuilt Cologne train station defining and defending Trümmerliteratur, or “literature in the ruins,” meaning literature created in the ruins of bombed-out German cities. The Group

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47 Prize is awarded to Ilse Aichinger. Die Kirschen der Freiheit (The Cherries of Freedom, 1952) by Andersch, Der letzte Rittmeister (The Last Captain of Horse) by Werner Bergengruen, and Lieblose Legenden (Unsympathetic Legends) by Hildesheimer are published. The East German Writers’ Union is formed, Anna Seghers is named its chairman; without the union’s sanction, writers in the GDR find publication extremely problematic, if not impossible. Albert Schweitzer is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 1953 Eugen Gomringer founds the Austrian literary journal Spirale (Spirals); Viennese poet Hans Carl Artmann lays the groundwork for the informal Wiener Gruppe (Vienna Group) of poets and writers with his manifesto “An Eight-Point Proclamation of the Poetic Act,” proclaiming the birth of an Austrian phenomenon known as Konkrete Poesie (concrete poetry). New novels by Herbert Asmodi (Jenseits vom Paradies, The Other Side of Paradise), Heinrich Böll (Und sagte kein einziges Wort, translated as Acquainted with the Night), Wolfgang Koeppen (Das Treibhaus, The Hothouse), and Siegfried Lenz (Duell im Schatten, Duel in the Shadows) are published. On 17 June, a workers’ uprising against the rulers of the German Democratic Republic results in violent suppression with the assistance of Soviet tanks and artillery; over 20,000 Soviet soldiers battle with unarmed civilians, killing 363 people in two days. Later, scores of “agitators” are tried, convicted, and executed. Over 300,000 GDR citizens immigrate to West Germany in the following weeks. Johannes R. Becher travels to Moscow to accept the Stalin Peace Prize, and the city of Chemnitz is renamed “Karl Marx Stadt.” 1954 Thomas Mann’s comic masterpiece Die Bekenntnisse des Hochstaplers Felix Krull (Felix Krull, Confidence Man) is published. The Federal Republic announces that henceforth the date of 17 June will be celebrated as a national Tag der deutschen Einheit (Day of German Unity) in honor of those slain the previous year during the workers’ uprising. The “de-Nazification” process is declared officially completed in Federal Republic. Novels Der Wettbewerb (The Competition) by Carl Amery, Die Rittmeisterin (The Captain’s Muse) by Bergengruen, Haus ohne Hüter (Tomorrow and Yesterday) by Böll, and Der Tod in Rom (Death in Rome) by Wolfgang Koeppen are published. The German-language premiere of Brecht’s Der kaukasische Kreidekreis

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(The Caucasian Chalk Circle) by the Berliner Ensemble at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm is held in East Berlin; the world premiere of the play had taken place 5 May in Minnesota. 1955 The Pariser Verträge (Paris Agreements) set forth the removal of all occupation troops from West Germany and its entry into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The first 100 volunteers for the new Bundeswehr (Federal Armed Forces) are sworn in, as West German armament begins; vigorous opposition is voiced in both the Bundestag (Parliament) and in various newspapers. Zuckmayer’s drama Das kalte Licht (The Cold Light) about the nuclear spy Klaus Fuchs premieres in Hamburg. Novels Eine Sache wie die Liebe (A Thing Like Love) by Hans Bender, Das Brot der frühen Jahre (The Bread of Those Early Years) by Böll, Ein Flugzeug über dem Haus (An Airplane over the House) by Martin Walser, and Spätestens in November (November at the Latest) by Nossack, along with a volume of poetry, Von Schwelle zu Schwelle (From Threshold to Threshold), by Paul Celan, are published. 1956 Walter Ulbricht declares that “Stalin is not a classic Marxist,” thereby inaugurating the “de-Stalinization” protocols of East Germany in the wake of disclosures by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. The regime voices its unequivocal support for Soviet suppression of the Hungarian uprising, led by Prime Minister Imre Nagy, who advocates a multiparty system of government for Hungary. In Switzerland, Der Besuch der alten Dame (The Visit) by Friedrich Dürrenmatt premieres; in Austria, von Doderer’s novel Die Dämonen (The Demons) and Ingeborg Bachmann’s poetry collection Die Anrufung des grossen Bärs (Invocation to the Great Bear) are published. In West Germany, a dramatic adaptation of The Diary of Anne Frank premieres in Berlin. 1957 Homo Faber by Frisch, Sansibar (Zanzibar) by Andersch, Wölfe und Taube (Wolves and Pigeons) by Bender, Böse schöne Welt (Evil Beautiful World) by Herbert Eisenreich, Ehen in Philippsburg (The Gadarene Club) by Walser, a collection of dialogues titled Zu keiner Stunde (No Specific Time) by Aichinger, and a volume of poetry titled Verteidigung der Wölfe (In Defense of Wolves) by Hans Magnus Enzensberger are published; perhaps the biggest seller of all publications in this year is the economic treatise Wohlstand für alle (Prosperity for Everybody) by the Federal Republic’s Economics

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Minister Ludwig Erhard. Konrad Adenauer is elected to a second term as the Federal Republic’s chancellor. Social Democrat Willy Brandt is elected mayor of West Berlin. 1958 Günter Grass reads portions of his novel Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) before members of Group 47, who award him their annual prize even before the rest of the book is completed. Riots break out at the conclusion of a concert in Berlin by the American band Bill Haley and the Comets; Elvis Presley arrives in West Germany to begin serving in the 3rd Armored Division as a tank crewman based in Friedberg, near Augsburg. Hundreds of Presley fans greet his arrival at the RheinMain Air Force Base, which East German officials denounce as a provocation; they also cite the popularity of the hula hoop, along with rock and roll music, as proof of cultural decadence in West Germany. Soviet troops execute Hungarian Prime Minister Imre Nagy. Nackt unter Wölfen (Naked among Wolves) by Bruno Apitz and Als Vaters Bart noch rot war (When Father’s Beard Was Still Red) by Wolfdietrich Schnurre are published. 1959 Publication of three important novels mark the maturation of German postwar literature: Grass’ Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum), Böll’s Billard um halb zehn (Billiards at 9:30), and Uwe Johnson’s Mutmassungen über Jakob (Speculations about Jakob). The Bitterfeld Conference in East Germany launches an official policy of encouraging writers to embrace “proletarian culture” with the phrase Greif zur Feder, Kumpel! Die sozialistische Nationalkultur braucht Dich! (Grab Your Pen, Buddy! The Socialist National Culture Needs You!); the policy becomes known as the Bitterfelder Weg (Bitterfeld Path). In Switzerland, voters reject universal suffrage; only eligible males will continue to vote in local and national elections; Dürrenmatt’s Der Besuch der alten Dame premieres on Broadway under the title The Visit and becomes a massive hit. Peter Rühmkorf’s first poetry volume, Irdisches Vergnügen (Earthly Pleasures), is published, as is Friedrich Achleitner’s first volume of concrete poetry in Austria. Nelly Sachs’ poetry volume titled Flucht und Verwandlung (Flight and Transformation) wins wide praise and readership. 1960 Dieter Noll’s semifictional autobiography Die Abenteuer des Werner Holt (Werner Holt’s Adventures) becomes a best-seller in East

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Germany because the regime orders copies of it placed in all schools, university and local libraries, hospitals, train stations, and factory lunch rooms. Novels Die Rote (The Red-haired Woman) by Andersch and Halbzeit (Half Time) by Walser are published; Elias Canetti’s Masse und Macht (Crowds and Power) becomes a best-seller when it is praised by the new book editor of the weekly newspaper Die Zeit, Marcel ReichRanicki. In Hamburg, a British pop music group calling itself “The Beatles” makes its first appearance outside England. 1961 East German authorities order construction of an “anti-Fascist wall” through East Berlin, closing off transit points for GDR citizens into West Berlin and to West Germany, and cut off telephone and mail connections with the Federal Republic. Brigitte Reimann, following the “Bitterfeld Path,” publishes Ankunft im Alltag (Arrival in the Everyday), inaugurating a style of writing that becomes known as Ankunftsliteratur (arrival literature), a “coming-of-age” fiction style in the GDR. Anna Seghers’ Das Licht auf dem Galgen (The Light on the Gallows), Christa Wolf’s Moskauer Novelle (Moscow Novella), and the poetry volume Sarmatische Zeit (The Land of Sarmatia) by Johannes Bobrowski also appear. In the Federal Republic, Bender’s Das wiegende Haus (The Swaying House), Jean Améry’s collection of essays Im Banne des Jazz (Under the Spell of Jazz), and the novel Katz und Maus (Cat and Mouse) by Grass are published. In Switzerland, Frisch’s Andorra premieres at the Zurich Schauspielhaus. 1962 Eine Seele aus Holz (Soul of Wood), a collection of stories by Jakov Lind, creates enormous interest among readers and critics in West Germany, convincing many that he is the next Günter Grass—even though Lind is actually older than Grass. Other books of note this year include Ein Mann mit Familie (A Man with a Family) by Dieter Lattmann, Schwierigkeiten beim Hauserbauen (Difficulties in Building Houses) by Reinhard Lettau, Eiche und Angora (The Rabbit Race) by Walser, and Dialog mit den Unsichtbaren (Dialogue with the Unseen) by Wolfgang Weyrauch. Frisch’s Andorra makes its West German premiere in several theaters simultaneously, Dürrenmatt’s Die Physiker (The Physicists) premieres in Zurich, and Johannes Bobrowski’s volume of poetry Schattenland Ströme (Shadowland Streams) confirms him as one of the GDR’s better poets.

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1963 Premiere of Rolf Hochhuth’s Der Stellvertreter (The Deputy) at the West Berlin Freie Volksbühne ignites a storm of protest, resulting from the play’s assertion that the Vatican stood knowingly by as the National Socialist regime pursued its policy of genocide against Europe’s Jews. American President John F. Kennedy visits West Berlin and proclaims, Ich bin ein Berliner; the phrase is grammatically incorrect, but West Berliners swoon for Kennedy and are devastated when he is assassinated five months later. Konrad Adenauer resigns as chancellor of the Federal Republic, succeeded by Economics Minister Erhard (likewise of the Christian Democratic Party). Trials in Frankfurt am Main of 21 former wardens and guards at Auschwitz begin. The second part of Noll’s Werner Holt novel is published in the GDR, along with Christa Wolf’s Der geteilte Himmel (Divided Heaven) and Günter de Bruyn’s Der Hohlweg (The Sunken Path). In West Germany, Böll’s Ansichten eines Clowns is hailed as his best fiction to date. Other books of note in West Germany include Hundejahre (Dog Years) by Grass and Landschaft in Beton (Landscape in Concrete) by Jakov Lind. Elias Canetti’s Die Blendung (Auto-da-Fé), republished after its initial appearance in 1935, becomes a best-seller. In Austria, Thomas Bernhard’s Frost is published. 1964 The Federal Republic celebrates the geometric expansion of its national economy by noting the admission of a million guest workers into the country, mostly from Spain, Italy, Portugal, and Greece. The German Democratic Republic abandons its Bitterfeld Path policy in fostering proletarian literature, noting that it did not live up to expectations. Johannes Bobrowski’s Levins Mühle (Levin’s Mill), published in East Berlin, garners praise as an outstanding novel by critics on both sides of the East–West divide. Peter Härtling’s Niembsch becomes a best-seller in West Germany. Die Verfolgung und Ermordung Jean Paul Marats, dargestellt durch die Schauspielgruppe des Hospizes zu Charenton unter Anleitung des Herrn de Sade (The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum at Charenton under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade) by Peter Weiss premieres in West Berlin, as does Heiner Kipphardt’s In der Sache J. Robert Oppenheimer (In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer). 1965 The official newspaper of the ruling Socialist Unity Party in East Germany, Neues Deutschland, editorially denounces a volume of

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poetry by Wolf Biermann, recently published in West Germany. The editorial warns all writers in the GDR about departing too far from the “official party line” in their writing. Bender’s novel Die Wölfe kommen zurück (The Wolves Are Coming Back), and Eisenreich’s collection of short fiction Sozusagen Liebesgeschichten (So-called Love Stories) are published. The Auschwitz trials conclude, rendering mild sentences to those accused of committing atrocities in the Auschwitz and Birkenau camps. American jazz legend Louis Armstrong and his sidemen tour East Germany to great fanfare, while fans of the British pop group The Rolling Stones create disturbances after the group’s concert in West Berlin, clashing with police and completely demolishing the outdoor theater where the concert had taken place. 1966 Austrian literature captures unwonted international attention with the publication of Peter Handke’s novel Die Hornissen (The Hornets) and the premiere of his play Publikumsbeschimpfung (Insulting the Audience) in Frankfurt am Main. In West Berlin, Die Plebejer proben den Aufstand (The Plebians Rehearse the Uprising) by Grass premieres; it treats the 1953 workers’ revolt against the government of the GDR and depicts Brecht as a villain. In East Berlin, the film Spur der Steine (The Trace of Stones) premieres, featuring an unflattering portrayal of a Communist Party functionary. Authorities confiscate all copies of the film and refuse to allow any future exhibitions of the film. Important books published this year in the Federal Republic are Jenseits von Schuld und Sühne (Beyond Guilt and Atonement) by Jean Améry, Schubert by Härtling, Das Einhorn (The Unicorn) by Walser, and Ein schöner Tag (A Beautiful Day) by Dieter Wellershoff. Poet Nelly Sachs is named co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature. 1967 Group 47 holds its final meeting in Princeton, New Jersey, where Peter Handke castigates the membership for maintaining aesthetic and political criteria that are long out of date. Efraim by Andersch, the novel Verstörung (Gargoyles) by Bernhard, Die Freunde meiner Frau (My Wife’s Friends) by Eisenreich, and Tandelkeller (Bunker of Utopia) by Hans-Jürgen Fröhlich are published. The nonfiction analysis of collective behavior Die Unfähigkeit zu Trauern (The Inability to Mourn) by Alexander and Margarete Mitscherlich becomes a best-seller. A thesis of the book is that the refusal of postwar West

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German governments to discuss postwar border arrangements, forced upon the Germans by the victorious Allies, is a sign that West Germans remain in a collective state of denial. 1968 Günter de Bruyn’s novel Buridans Esel (Buridan’s Ass) and Wolf’s Nachdenken über Christa T. (The Quest for Christa T.) are published in East Germany, as are Urs Jaeggi’s Ein Mann geht vorbei (A Man Passes By) and Adolf Muschg’s collection of short stories titled Fremdkörper (Foreign Bodies) in Switzerland, while Gisela Elsner’s Der Nachwuchs (The Offspring) and Lenz’ Deutschstunde (The German Lesson) appear in West Germany. Student protests intensify on dozens of university campuses throughout West Germany, many with violent outcomes when police arrive to restore order. Most students protest American involvement in Vietnam, but few publicly object to the Soviet Union’s invasion of Czechoslovakia or question reports that East German troops participated. The West German Bundestag is called into special session to discuss the situation on university campuses. 1969 Jurek Becker’s novel Jakob der Lügner is published in West Germany; censors in Becker’s native East Germany had rejected it because it did not conform to standards of socialist realism. East German authorities criticize Wolf’s popular novel Nachdenken über Christa T. (The Quest for Christa T.); it, like Becker’s work, emphasizes “individualism” too strongly. Leader of the Social Democratic Party Willy Brandt is elected West German chancellor. Walter Kempowski’s first novel Im Block: Ein Haftbericht (In the Cell Block: A Prison Report) is published. 1970 Chancellor Brandt reverses two decades of West German policy and meets with East German Chairman of Council of Ministers Willi Stoph in the East German city of Erfurt. Brandt’s Ostpolitik is predicated on official recognition of existing conditions between the two German republics, along with postwar border arrangements with neighboring countries. Actress and singer Hildegard Knef’s autobiography Der geschenkte Gaul (The Gift Horse) becomes a best-seller; novels such as Gabriele Wohmann’s Ernste Absicht (Serious Intent), Gisela Elsner’s Das Berührungsverbot (No Touching Allowed), and Irmtraud Morgner’s Gauklerlegende (Legends of a Conjuror) do not sell as well but are praised by many critics. The most widely praised and best-selling

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fiction of this year is Handke’s novella Die Angst des Tormanns beim Elfmeter (The Goalie’s Anxiety at the Penalty Kick). 1971 Publication of Böll’s novel Gruppenbild mit Dame (Group Portrait with Lady) attracts international attention; critics also praise Kempowski’s Tadellöser und Wolff and Bachmann’s Malina, which many consider her finest effort in prose. Handke’s Der Ritt über den Bodensee (The Ride across Lake Constance) premieres, mystifying critics and audiences. Dürrenmatt’s political thriller Der Sturz (The Overthrow) is published. Real-life political terror increases with bombing attacks by the Red Army Faction (RAF); authorities arrest several members of the militant group, popularly known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang, suspected of planning bank robberies, arson, and abductions. Chancellor Brandt is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts at lessening East–West tensions, as GDR authorities confirm the recent placement of 2 million land mines along the East German border, along with 48,000 miles of barbed wire (the border spans 858 miles). 1972 Several writers living in the GDR publish works of note: Stefan Heym, Der König David Bericht (The King David Report); Hermann Kant, Das Impressum (The Masthead); and Morgner, Die wundersamen Reisen Gustavs des Weltfahrers (The Wonderful Journeys of Gustav the World Traveler). Ulrich Plenzdorf’s Die neuen Leiden des jungen W. (The New Sufferings of Young W.) is published in the East German journal Sinn und Form; it is considered too controversial for public performance. Chancellor Brandt urges the West German public to assist authorities in arresting terrorists still at large; in Heidelberg, an RAF bomb kills three American servicemen. Böll urges constraint in hunting down terrorists and becomes subject to widespread denunciation, even after he is awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. In Munich, Palestinian terrorists abduct and murder Israeli athletes participating in the Olympics. Angelika Mechtel’s novel Friss Vogel (Sink or Swim) treats Arab terrorism, based on her father’s abduction and murder in Beirut. Willy Brandt is reelected chancellor. 1973 Kempowski’s first “man-on-the street” volume Haben Sie Hitler gesehen? Deutsche Antworten (Did You Ever See Hitler? Germans Answer the Question) is published and becomes a best-seller. Dieter Kühn’s fictionalized biography Die Präsidentin (Mme. President) about

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a notorious French bank swindler in the 1930s becomes likewise popular. Other novels of note this year include Becker’s Die Irreführung der Behörden (The Deception of the Authorities), Christoph Meckel’s Bockshorn (The Hunt), Martin Walser’s Der Sturz (The Putsch), Eisenreich’s Missverständnisse (Misunderstandings), and Peter Schneider’s Lenz. Schneider’s novel is one of the first to treat the disillusionment of students who had participated in the 1968 uprisings at West German universities. Both the Federal Republic and the Democratic Republic are admitted to the United Nations, and Chancellor Brandt becomes the first German leader to speak before the UN’s General Assembly. 1974 Böll shelters novelist Alexander Solzhenitsyn at his home in Bonn, after Soviet Union authorities strip Solzhenitsyn of his citizenship and deport him. Böll’s Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum (The Lost Honor of Katharina Blum) is published, as are Winterspelt by Andersch, Eine Frau (A Woman) by Härtling, and Heisser Sommer (Hot Summer) by Uwe Timm. In the GDR, Morgner’s Leben und Abenteuer der Trobadora Beatriz nach Zeugnissen ihrer Spielfrau Laura (The Life and Adventures of Troubadour Beatrice, as Chronicled by Her Minstrel Laura) creates a sensation among the GDR’s budding feminist movement. In the wake of revelations that a GDR spy named Günter Guillaume had served as one of Chancellor Brandt’s closest advisors, Brandt resigns and Helmut Schmidt, also of the Social Democratic Party, becomes chancellor. 1975 Weiss’ monumental three-volume, 1,000-page novel titled Die Ästhetik des Widerstands (The Aesthetics of Resistance) is published. Botho Strauss’ Bekannte Gesichter, gemischte Gefühle (Familiar Faces, Mixed Feelings) premieres to widespread critical attention. Günter Guillaume is sentenced to a lengthy prison term after conviction on espionage charges. Leaders of the Baader-Meinhof Gang, namely Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof, go on trial in Stammheim, near Stuttgart. 1976 Three noteworthy books by GDR authors are published: Kindheitsmuster (A Model Childhood) by Wolf, Der Boxer (The Boxer) by Becker, and Die wunderbaren Jahre (The Wonderful Years) by Reiner Kunze. All three created problems for the authors, resulting in the departure from the GDR by the latter two. Their cases get less public at-

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tention than that of Wolf Biermann, whose successful singing tour of West Germany prompt GDR officials to strip him of his citizenship. Films based on two Böll novels premiere: Ansichten eines Clowns (The Clown) starring Helmut Griem and Gruppenbild mit Dame (Group Portrait with Lady) starring Romy Schneider. Hermann Burger’s debut novel Schilten is published in Switzerland. Andersch publishes a poem in a Frankfurt newspaper comparing the West German treatment of terrorists with Nazi treatment of dissidents, prompting a storm of protest. Bundestag passes vigorous antiterrorist legislation, and RAF leader Ulrike Meinhof commits suicide in her cell. Helmut Schmidt is reelected chancellor of West Germany. 1977 Group 47 officially disbands. Bienek completes the second novel of his “Gleiwitz cycle,” titled Septemberlicht (September Light); Grass’ Der Butt (The Flounder) is published, as are Mechtel’s Wir sind arm, wir sind reich (We Are Poor, We Are Rich) and Wellershoff’s Die Schönheit des Schimpanzen (The Beauty of the Chimpanzee). In Austria, the first volume of Wilhelm Genazino’s “Abschaffel Trilogy,” titled Wilhelm Abschaffel, appears. In Switzerland, E. Y. Meyer’s Die Rückfahrt (The Return Journey) is published. Terrorist attacks continue, resulting in the murders of prominent bankers and industrialists. Suspicions begin to mount in West German media reports that the GDR is providing shelter, arms, and financing for terrorists in West Germany. 1978 Books of note published this year: Siegfried Lenz’ Heimatmuseum (The Heritage), Walser’s novella Ein fliehendes Pferd (A Runaway Horse), Becker’s Schlaflose Tage (Sleepless Days), Genazino’s Die Vernichtung der Sorgen (The Annihilation of Troubles), Hochhuth’s Eine Liebe in Deutschland (A German Love Story), Jaeggi’s Brandeis, and Jürgen Theobaldy’s first novel, titled Sonntags Kino (Sunday at the Movies). 1979 Two significant film premieres: Die Ehe der Maria Braun (The Marriage of Maria Braun, directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder and starring Hanna Schygulla); and Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum, based on the Grass novel and directed by Volker Schlöndorff). Fassbinder plans his film as the first of a trilogy that reproaches the Federal Republic. Critics and audiences praise the films, which go on to win international acclaim. Böll’s Fürsorgliche Belagerung (The Safety Net),

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Michael Ende’s Die unendliche Geschichte (The Never-ending Story), Frisch’s Der Mensch erscheint im Holozän (The Man in the Holocene), Grass’ Das Treffen in Telgte (The Meeting at Telgte), Wolf’s Kein Ort. Nirgends (No Place on Earth), Genazino’s completion of the “Abschaffel Trilogy” titled Falsche Jahre (Phony Years), and Kempowski’s second “man-in-the-street” book of interviews about the Third Reich, Haben Sie davon gewusst? Deutsche Antworten (What Did You Know? Germans Answer the Question), are published. Two East German families make a spectacular escape from the GDR in a hot-air balloon and land safely in the Federal Republic. West German television broadcasts the American miniseries Holocaust, unleashing a new wave of discussions, breast-beating, and soul-searching in media outlets, schools, and churches about the deportation and extermination policies of the Hitler regime. 1980 Premiere of Hochhuth’s Juristen (Jurists, about Nazi-era judges who continued to function in West German courts long after 1945) is held in several West German theaters simultaneously. In West Berlin, Strauss’ Gross und Klein (Big and Small); in East Berlin, Heiner Müller’s semihistorical drama Der Auftrag (The Mission); in Vienna, Elfriede Jelinek’s scenario Was geschah, nachdem Nora ihren Mann verlassen hatte (What Happened after Nora Left Her Husband) are premiered as well. Jelinek also publishes a novel, Die Ausgesperrten (Wonderful, Wonderful Times). In Switzerland, Gertrud Leutenegger’s novel Lebewohl. Gute Reise (So Long, Bon Voyage) is published. The American television series Dallas sets a record for the number of West German viewers—though some critics claim the series is a communist conspiracy to give the United States a negative image in Germany. Helmut Schmidt is reelected chancellor of West Germany. 1981 Canetti is awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Lenz’ Der Verlust (The Damage), Richter’s Die Stunde der falschen Triumphe (The Hour of False Triumph), Schnurre’s Ein Unglücksfall (A Case of Misfortune), Christoph Hein’s Lasalle fragt Herrn Herbert nach Sonja (Lasalle Questions Mr. Herbert about Sonia), Delius’ Ein Held der inneren Sicherheit (A Hero of Internal Security), Ulla Hahn’s Herz über Kopf (Heart over Head, a poetry volume), and Hildesheimer’s Marbot: eine Biographie (a biographical parody) are published; in Switzerland, Mushg’s Literatur als Therapie? (Literature as Therapy?) is published

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as well. Four important films premiere: Mephisto, based on Klaus Mann’s “novel of a career” about his lover, actor Gustaf Gründgens (directed by István Szabó and starring Klaus Maria Brandauer); Die Fälschung (Circle of Deceit), based on the novel by Nicolas Born, directed by Volker Schlöndorff; Lola, directed by Fassbinder; and the most expensive film made in the Federal Republic since 1945, titled Das Boot (The Boat), based on a novel by Lothar-Günther Buchheim and directed by Wolfgang Petersen). 1982 Frisch’s Blaubart (Bluebeard), Bernhard’s Wittgensteins Neffe (Wittgenstein’s Nephew) and Beton (Concrete), Schneider’s Der Mauerspringer (The Wall Jumper), Irina Liebmann’s debut novel Berliner Mietshaus (Berlin Tenement), Hein’s Der fremde Freund (The Distant Lover), and Romanian-German Herta Müller’s collection of stories Niederungen (Nadirs) are published. Fassbinder’s film Die Sehnsucht der Veronika Voss (The Yearning of Veronika Voss) completes his “German trilogy,” while Die weisse Rose (The White Rose) chronicles the resistance movement against the Hitler dictatorship by students at the University of Munich and their subsequent beheading. Lutheran Bishop Werner Krusche publicly asserts the independence of peace movements in East Germany, proclaiming the right of Christians to protest oppression wherever it may be found and rejecting official state attempts to silence him and other bishops. Leader of the Christian Democratic Union Helmut Kohl is elected new chancellor of West Germany. 1983 Important publications in GDR are Kassandra by Wolf and Amanda, ein Hexenroman (Amanda, a Witches’ Novel) by Morgner; in Switzerland, Die künstliche Mutter (The Artificial Mother) by Burger; in Austria, Der Untergeher (The Loser) by Bernhard and Die Klavierspielerin (The Piano Teacher) by Jelinek; and in the Federal Republic, Das Windrad (The Windmill) by Härtling, Das Bett (The Bed) by Martin Mosebach, Innerfern (Innerfar) by Gerhard Köpf, and Tagebuch eines Melancholikers (Diary of a Melancholy Man) by Hartmut Lange. The premiere of the drama Bruder Eichmann (Brother Eichmann) by Hochhuth is held in Munich. German television broadcasts a two-part production of Geschwister Oppermann (The Oppermanns), based on a novel by Lion Feuchtwanger about the fate of a Jewish family after the Nazi takeover. The West German Ministry of Justice announces that records of the infamous Volksgerichtshof (Peoples’ Court) have been

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lost. The Peoples’ Court had “special jurisdiction” over political activities, labor disputes, and “defeatist attitudes.” Stern magazine claims it has discovered and will publish several volumes of what appear to be diaries written by Adolf Hitler. A month after the announcement, the man who wrote the diaries and sold them to Stern, Konrad Kujau, is arrested for fraud. 1984 German television broadcasts the 11-part miniseries Heimat (Homeland), depicting everyday life in a small village called Schabach between the years 1919 and 1982; the series avoids major political statements and concentrates on family relationships in what critics termed “Proust-like detail.” Götz Aly’s Die Restlose Erfassung (The Nazi Census) examines similar quotidian realities of German life, though restricted to the 12 years of the Third Reich. Other important publications: Heym’s Schwarzenberg, the fictional account of what might have happened in the village of Schwarzenberg, not unlike the village of Schabach in Heimat. Günter de Bruyn’s Neue Herrlichkeit (New Splendor) takes its name from a residence where East German writers and intellectuals gather. Delius’ Adenauerplatz (Adenauer Square) is set in a fictional urban venue where historical forces collide with each other; Jelinek’s scenario Burgtheater is named for the revered playhouse where the Viennese have celebrated their actors and actresses for two centuries—though Jelinek holds them up to ridicule and condemnation. Muschg’s Das Licht und der Schlüssel (The Light and the Key) is the fictional biography of a vampire who finds himself in Amsterdam. 1985 Patrick Süskind’s crime novel Das Parfum: die Geschichte eines Mörders (Perfume: The Story of a Murderer, 1985) is published and becomes a runaway international best-seller, ultimately translated into over 30 different languages. The West German Bundestag passes legislation that makes “Holocaust denial” (termed Auchwitz-Lüge, or “Auschwitz falsehoods”) a federal crime. American President Ronald Reagan and Chancellor Kohl lay memorial wreaths at the BergenBelsen concentration camp and later visit a military cemetery in Bitburg. The Bitburg visit prompts international outcries, since some members of Waffen-SS (Protective Squadrons with Heavy Weapons, devoted

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to Hitler personally and to National Socialist racial ideology) are buried there. Konrad Kujau receives a four-and-a-half-year prison sentence for creating supposed diaries of Hitler and selling them to Stern magazine. 1986 Günter Grass’ Die Rättin (The Rat) and Jurek Becker’s Bronsteins Kinder (Bronstein’s Children) are published. Katje Lange-Müller’s volume of short stories titled Wehleid-wie im Leben (Self-pity, as in Life) is published in the GDR and earns praise among critics in the Western media. The Historikerstreit (Historians’ Dispute) begins with essays published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung by historians Ernst Nolte and Michael Stürmer. Nolte’s “Die Vergangenheit, die nicht vergehen will” (The Past That Will Not Go Away) kindles vociferous national debate. Stürmer’s article, titled “Geschichte im geschichtslosen Land” (History in a Country without History) likewise argues that the time has come for German historians to stop viewing the entirety of German history through the lens of Nazism. Philosopher and sociologist Jürgen Habermas attacks any attempt to “normalize” Hitler; doing so is tantamount to reviving nationalism among Germans. History compelled Germans, he says, to abjure nationalism and to cultivate what he terms “constitutional patriotism,” declaring an allegiance to the principles of the German constitution but not to any German “fatherland.” If Germans are “guilt-ridden,” it is a good thing, since guilt keeps nationalism in abeyance. 1987 Chancellor Kohl openly denounces the German Democratic Republic as a regime that holds writers and intellectuals as political prisoners in jails and concentration camps. American President Reagan visits Berlin and demands that new Soviet leader Gorbachev “tear down this wall.” Leaders of the GDR accept payoffs from West German government in ever-increasing amounts, allowing more East Germans to leave and settle in West Germany. Wim Wenders’ film Der Himmel über Berlin (titled Wings of Desire in English) premieres and becomes a popular hit throughout Western Europe and the United States; a screenplay by Handke features American actor Peter Falk. In the film, angels played by Bruno Ganz and Otto Sander are able to ignore borders between East and West Berlin. Walser’s novel Dorle und Wolf, published this year, posits the distinct possibility of overcoming German divisions in the love shared between the title characters.

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1988 East German party chief Honnecker rejects suggestions he follow Soviet leader Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring); a formal rejection of the Gorbachev reforms becomes GDR official government policy, though other Warsaw Pact nations are beginning to liberalize travel restrictions to the West. In Vienna, Bernhard’s drama Heldenplatz (Heroes’ Square) sets off protests at the premiere in Vienna’s Burgtheater, though the published version of the play becomes a best-seller. W. G. Sebald’s collection of prose poetry Nach der Natur: ein Elementargedicht (After Nature), Walser’s novel Jagd (The Hunt), and Robert Menasse’s debut novel Sinnliche Gewissenheit (Sensual Certainty) are published; the television premiere of Das literarische Quartett (The Literary Quartet) is hosted by Marcel ReichRanicki. 1989 Political events overshadow all others in this year, the most precipitous in German history since the end of World War II. East German leader Honnecker declares that the Berlin Wall will last another 50, even 100 years “if conditions require it.” Soviet leader Gorbachev receives tumultuous welcome in the West German capital of Bonn, stating the Berlin Wall “can disappear when the conditions that brought it into being do likewise.” Hungary opens its borders to the West, allowing thousands of East Germans to travel through and cross unimpeded into West Germany. On the 40th anniversary of the GDR’s founding in October, thousands of East Germans in numerous cities demonstrate in protest against the GDR leadership. In early November, Erich Honnecker resigns; Egon Krenz replaces him and agrees to discuss changes in the GDR—but insists that no departures from the socialist way of life will be allowed. On 4 November, over 500,000 demonstrators in East Berlin demand an end to collectivist, noncompetitive state leadership; featured speakers include writers Christa Wolf, Stefan Heym, and Christoph Hein. On 6 November, 400,000 in Leipzig demonstrate with cries of “Wir sind das Volk!” (We Are the People!). On 7 November, the entire GDR government resigns. On 9 November at 6:57 p.m., East German border guards begin to allow unrestricted passage through East Berlin checkpoints into West Berlin. Approximately 600,000 East Germans pour into West Berlin, and by midnight West Berliners join with them in demolishing portions of the Berlin Wall. By 12 November, approximately three million East Germans have left the GDR. On 17 No-

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vember, a new GDR government forms with the goal of creating “a new socialist society.” On 28 November, West German Chancellor Kohl sets forth a 10-point program before the Bundestag for the reunification of Germany; continued existence of the GDR remains in serious doubt. 1990 Thousands storm the offices of the Ministry for State Security (Stasi) and partially destroy its offices in search of confidential personnel files on themselves. Erich Honnecker is arrested; investigations reveal close connections between the East German government and terrorist attacks in West Germany during the previous two decades. Demolition of all barriers between East and West Germany leaves partial sections as memorials to those killed while attempting to exit the GDR. A trusteeship is created to privatize formerly state-owned enterprises in East Germany. Analysts conclude that about 2,800 armed guards crossed the border from 1961 to 1989. Deckname “Lyrik” (Code Name “Lyric”) by Reiner Kunze, a “documentation” of official criminal acts perpetrated by the Stasi against him and other writers, is published. Christa Wolf’s Was bleibt (What Remains) sparks controversy, since it is a fictional account of a writer’s surveillance by the Stasi—and Wolf was herself shown to be a volunteer for the Stasi. Maxim Biller’s volume of short stories Wenn ich einmal reich und tot bin (If I Were Rich and Dead) wins praise as an example of German “post–Fall of the Wall humor.” Sten Nadolny’s Selim oder die Gabe der Rede (Salim, or the Gift of Speech) is published. Officials of the Federal Republic and the Democratic Republic sign a Treaty of Unification on 3 October. The German Democratic Republic is no more, and 3 October is declared a national holiday as Tag der deutschen Einheit (Day of German Unity). On 2 December, the first free elections in a unified Germany since 1932 give Chancellor Kohl’s Christian Democratic Union enough votes to govern in coalition with the Free Democrats. The Party of Democratic Socialism, successor to the former ruling party of the GDR, wins 6 percent of all votes and is awarded seats in the new unified Bundestag. 1991 Several former members of the GDR leadership are arrested; soldiers accused of killing would-be escapees over the Berlin Wall go on trial. Border guards killed approximately 780 people trying to escape East Germany between 1961 and 1989. Former GDR leader Erich Honnecker is allowed temporary asylum in a Moscow hospital. Significant publications this year include novels Die Verteidigung der Kindheit

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(The Defense of Childhood) by Walser, Ein Mann im Haus (A Man in the House) by Hahn, Stille Zeile Sechs (Silent Close Number 6) by Monika Maron, Abelards Liebe (Abelard’s Love) by Rinser, Selige Zeiten, brüchige Welt (Wings of Stone) by Menasse, Maxim Biller’s collection of essays Die Tempojahre (The Tempo Years), and Delius’ novella Die Birnen von Ribbeck (The Pears of Lord Ribbeck). 1992 Numerous trials of former GDR officials begin, while other trials result in mild sentences for border guards. Some proceedings against officials, such as those of former GDR Prime Minister Willi Stoph, are called off because the accused is too ill. The Russian government orders former GDR leader Honnecker out of the Chilean embassy in Moscow and turns him over to German custody. Numerous attacks against asylum seekers are initiated by former East German citizens, who claim they are entitled to government allowances and compensation before non-Germans are considered. Publication of Becker’s novel Amanda herzlos (Heartless Amanda), Strittmatter’s Der Laden (The Shop), Schneider’s Paarungen (Couplings), Heiner Müller’s autobiography Krieg ohne Schlacht (War without Battle), Sebald’s Die Ausgewanderten (The Emigrants), Günter Grass’ Unkenrufe—Zeit der Versöhnung (The Call of the Toad—A Time for Reconciliation), and Menasse’s volume of essays on Austrian identity Das Land ohne Eigenschaften (The Country without Qualities). 1993 Dramatist Botho Strauss reignites a debate thought settled during the Historikerstreit (Historians’ Dispute) in the 1980s with an essay, “Anschwellender Bockgesang” (Impending Tragedy) in Der Spiegel. Strauss argues that the utopian fantasies of the “68er” generation of student protestors have done lasting damage to German culture and society as a whole. Ernst Nolte, another participant in the Historians’ Dispute, makes related arguments with the publication of his memoir Streitpunkte (Points of Dispute). Wolfgang Hilbig’s novel “Ich” (Me) is published, as are two novellas of note: Süskind’s Die Geschichte von Herrn Sommer (The Story of Mr. Sommer) and Timm’s Die Entdeckung der Currywurst (The Discovery of the Curry Wurst). Peter Turrini’s comedy Grillparzer im Pornoladen (Grillparzer in the Porno Shop) premieres. Hochhuth’s tragicomedy Wessis in Weimar (“Wessi” is the term for a “West German”) has two premieres; Hochhuth objects to the version premiered in Berlin and claims the one in Hamburg more to his lik-

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ing. Former GDR leader Honnecker is released from prison and allowed to join his wife and daughter in Chile. Former attorney for RAF terrorists Klaus Croissant is convicted of working as an agent of the GDR and sentenced to 18 months in prison. 1994 A touring photographic exhibition is sponsored by the Hamburg Institute for Social Research and its founder, tobacco heir Jan Philipp Reemtsma, stirs national controversy; the exhibition is titled “Vernichtungskrieg: Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944” (War of Extermination: Criminality of the German Armed Forces 1941–1944). Götz Aly’s study Beiträge zur Nationalsozialistichen Gesundheits- und Sozialpolitik (Cleansing the Fatherland: Nazi Medicine and Racial Hygiene) becomes a best-seller. Peter von Becker’s novel Die andere Zeit, Delius’ Der Sonntag, an dem ich Weltmeister wurde (The Sunday I Became World Champion), Köpf’s Der Weg nach Eden (The Way to Eden), and Nadolny’s Ein Gott der Frechheit (A God of Impertinence) are published. Mechtel’s remarkable fictionalized biography of the “Mother Who Gave Birth to German Theater,” Caroline Neuber, is titled Die Prinzipalin (The Theater Directress), and one of the first treatments in fiction of East German life immediately prior to the collapse of the GDR, Liebmann’s In Berlin, is published. The last regiment of Russian occupying troops leaves Germany, almost 50 years after their arrival. Helmut Kohl is reelected chancellor. 1995 World leaders travel to Germany throughout the year for the 50th anniversary celebrations of the end of World War II, with special attention paid to the liberation of extermination camps in Poland. For the first time, German leaders are invited to participate in the celebrations and services of commemoration. Günter Grass is widely criticized for his novel Ein weites Feld (Too Far Afield) because it questioned the advisability of German unification. Former GDR writer Volker Braun does likewise in his collection Der Wendehals (The Turncoat), ironically using the term Wende (which had become a popular term for the GDR’s collapse and German unification) in his title. Wellershoff’s memoir Der Ernstfall (A Serious Case) uses his own body as a metaphor for German collapse, near-death, and renewal. Three debut novels become best-sellers: Bernhard Schlink’s Der Vorleser (The Reader), Thomas Brussig’s Helden wie wir (Heroes Like Us), and Marcel Beyer’s Flughunde (The Karnau Tapes). German

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troops are dispatched to former Yugoslavia to assist other NATO contingents battling Serbian units in Bosnia. The film Das Versprechen (The Promise), about a family’s repeated attempts to escape the GDR, premieres, directed by Margarethe von Trotta, dialogue by Peter Schneider. 1996 Handke joins the resurrected dispute about the role of National Socialism and the Hitler dictatorship in contemporary German history with the publication of his Eine winterliche Reise . . . Gerechtigkeit für Serbien (A Winter Journey . . . Justice for Serbia). He later acts as a witness for the defense in the Hague tribunal that accuses Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic of crimes against humanity. American author Daniel Jonah Goldhagen contributes to the dispute with a tour to promote his book Hitler’s Willing Executioners (translated into German as Hitlers willige Vollstrecker), appearing in several public forums and media outlets. The book’s reception is mixed; some voice praise while others condemn it as an exercise in pronouncing collective guilt. Menasse’s satire Hysterien und andere historische Irrtümer (Hysteria and Other Historical Errors) is published. 1997 Delius’ Amerikahaus und der Tanz um die Frauen (America House and the Dance to Get Women), a novel about the “68er” generation of student protestors and their sexual escapades (which often took precedence, according to the novel, over their political activities), is published; Daniel Kehlmann’s Beerholms Vorstellung (Beerholm’s Performance, a fictional biography) and Mechtel’s Cold Turkey, a depiction of drug use among young people in a recently unified Berlin, are also published. The photo exhibition “War of Extermination: Criminality of the German Armed Forces 1941–1944” opens in Munich to vociferous protest, with protestors and supporters clashing in the street facing the exhibition hall where the exhibition is set up. Two of the largest banks in Switzerland—UBS and Credit Suisse—join with smaller Swiss banks to establish the “Volcker Commission,” headed by former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker. The commission will examine all Swiss banking records from 1933 to 1945 in an effort to find and identify all accounts established by foreigners in those years who may have been victims of Nazi persecution. A Berlin court finds the last leader of the GDR, Egon Krenz, guilty of issuing “shoot-to-kill orders” and sentences him to a six-and-a-half-year prison term. He denies the

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existence of any shoot-to-kill orders, claiming they would have been against East German law. 1998 Novelist and dramatist Martin Walser joins the dispute about the enduring guilt from the Hitler years passed on to subsequent generations of Germans when he announces at an award ceremony honoring him that the constant media drumbeat about the German past does nothing but provoke resistance. Plaintiffs in the United States include German finance institutions Dresdner Bank and Deutsche Bank along with numerous Swiss banks in accusations of collusion with the Nazi regime in denuding European Jews of their finances. Memorials in Berlin’s Bernauer Strasse are erected to commemorate the criminality of the GDR regime and its systematic murder of East Germans attempting to escape over the Berlin Wall. Construction begins of the Daimler-Benz center in the new Potsdamer Platz (Potsdam Square), a former “dead zone” behind the wall in former East Berlin that had been lined with automatic machine gun emplacements, land mines, barbed wire, and guard towers. Controversy surrounds the opening of a retrospective exhibition of the life and work of Leni Riefenstahl (1902–2003), known as “Hitler’s filmmaker.” Leader of the Social Democratic Party Gerhard Schröder is elected chancellor of Germany. 1999 Günter Grass is awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Elections in the Austrian state of Carinthia give right-wing nationalists of the Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs (Austrian Freedom Party, or FPÖ) and the party’s leader Jörg Haider national prominence. Several Austrian writers, particularly Elfriede Jelinek, condemn Haider and the FPÖ. German citizens and brothers Karlheinz and Walter Bernhard LaGrand are executed in an Arizona gas chamber for murder, after German government clemency appeals for both men were denied. A touring photographic exhibition “War of Extermination: Criminality of the German Armed Forces 1941–1944” is halted after disclosures of faulty research and improper use of some photos are revealed, and accusations of military atrocities were largely unfounded. Two films, both based on novels by Thomas Brussig, premiere: Sonnenallee (Sun Alley, directed by Leander Haussmann) and Helden wie wir (Heroes Like Us, directed by Sebastian Peterson); both deal with the collapse of the GDR and open on the 10th anniversary of the breeching of the Berlin Wall. Schneider’s novel Eduards Heimkehr (Eduard’s Homecoming),

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Kehlmann’s Mahlers Zeit (Mahler’s Time), Sebald’s collection of essays Luftkrieg und Literatur (improbably titled On the Natural History of Destruction in English), and Menasse’s satire Dummheit ist machbar (Stupidity Is Possible) are published. Three significant memoirs are published: Grass’ Mein Jahrhundert (My Century), Maron’s Pawels Briefe (Pawel’s Letters), and Reich-Ranicki’s Mein Leben (A Life). 2000 President of Germany Johannes Rau addresses the Israeli Parliament in German and apologizes for the extermination policies of the Hitler dictatorship, carried out in the name of the German people. A gilded cupola and cross that are to sit atop the rebuilt Frauenkirche (Church of Our Lady) in Dresden arrive in Germany to mark the 55th anniversary of Dresden’s destruction by British and American bombers. British citizens had collected over $770,000 in tithes and offerings to construct the cupola and cross, presented by the Duke of Kent to the Lutheran Bishop of Dresden. Thousands of Austrians demonstrate in Vienna against the formation of a new government that includes Austrian Freedom Party leader Jörg Haider. Almost in response to such developments, Menasse’s Erklär mir Österreich (Explain Austria to Me) is published. Significant publications in Germany include Marcel Beyer’s Spione (Spies), Biller’s Die Tochter (The Daughter), Elsner’s Die Unberührbare (No Place to Go), and Mosebach’s Eine lange Nacht (A Long Night). 2001 The German government approves a law establishing the Jewish Museum of Berlin Foundation and the Foundation for Memory, Responsibility, and Security. The former will provide federal support for the soon-to-open Jewish Museum, chronicling the two-millennium experience of Jews in Germany. The latter foundation will offer restitution to former concentration camp inmates, forced laborers, and victims of National Socialist expropriation of Jewish properties. A reorganized and more accurately researched version of the “War of Extermination: Criminality of the German Armed Forces 1941–1944” photo exhibition opens in Berlin. Sebald’s Austerlitz, Zoran Drvenkar’s children’s novel Der einzige Vogel, der die Kälte nicht fürchtet (The Only Bird Who Did Not Fear the Cold), Menasse’s Die Vertreibung aus der Hölle (Driven Out of Hell), Wellershoff’s treatise Der verstörte Eros (Distracted Eros), and Turrini’s drama Ich liebe dieses Land (I Love This Country)

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are published. The Austrian government initiates a policy of payments to Jewish victims of National Socialist expropriation of property after 1938. 2002 The German government pledges long-term assignment of German combat-support units in Afghanistan; the German Defense Ministry confirms that German elite combat brigades have been supporting American troops in Afghanistan for weeks. The Bundestag agrees in a bipartisan resolution that the Berlin City Palace, ordered destroyed by the GDR officials in 1950, should be rebuilt. Zuckmayer’s collected essays on numerous figures in German life during the mid-20th century are posthumously published under the title Geheimreport (Secret Report). They were submitted to the Office of Strategic Services in Washington, D.C., and used in “de-Nazification” hearings in the late 1940s. Liebmann’s Stille Mitte von Berlin: Eine Recherche rund um den Hackeschen Markt (Berlin’s Quiet Center: Research around the Hackescher Market) documents with several photographs the impact of German unification on Berlin’s Hackescher Market, a complex of courtyards that entrepreneurs revived with galleries, apartments, and trendy shops. Jürgen Trimborn’s biography Riefenstahl: eine deutsche Karriere (Leni Riefenstahl: A Life) maintains that “Hitler’s filmmaker” was primarily a careerist, which explains her proximity to Hitler. Careerism motivated many Germans to work with the Nazi regime and in retrospect, the desire to see her as merely a careerist represents the intense desire of many Germans in the 21st century to attain “normality.” 2003 Hans-Christoph Buch’s Wie Karl May traf Adolf Hitler und andere wahre geschichten (How Karl May Met Adolf Hitler and Other True Stories), Hahn’s Unschärfe Bilder (Blurry Pictures), Nadolny’s Ullsteinroman (Ullstein Novel), Aly’s nonfiction analysis Rasse und Klasse (Race and Class), Lange-Müller’s collection of “stories and miniatures,” Timm’s memoir Am Beispiel meines Bruders (My Brother’s Example), Bodo Hell’s volume of poetry Tracht: Pflicht (The Duty to Wear Traditional Costume), and Jelinek’s scenario Bambiland (Bambi Land) are published. Chancellor Schröder and chairman of the Central Council of Jews in Germany Paul Spiegel sign a state treaty specifying the federal government’s obligation to provide the council $3 million annually. The funds are earmarked to maintain the German-Jewish cultural legacy and

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assist in settling Jews from the former Soviet Union in Germany. The film Good-Bye Lenin (its title in both German and English), directed by Wolfgang Becker, premieres. 2004 Elfriede Jelinek is awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Important publications this year include Delius’ Mein Jahr als Mörder (My Year as a Murderer), Thomas Glavinic’s Wie man leben soll (How You Should Live), Leutenegger’s Pomona, Wolf’s memoir Ein Tag im Jahr (One Day in the Year), and Wulf Kirsten’s volume of poetry Erdlebenbilder (Portraits of Life on Earth). Gerhard Schröder becomes first German chancellor invited to participate in festivities and commemorations celebrating the D-Day invasion of Europe in 1944. He also is present during the similar 60th anniversary celebrations of the Warsaw uprising. Fire severely damages the Herzogin Anna Amalia Bibliothek (Duchess Anna Amalia Library) in Weimar, destroying thousands of irreplaceable books and priceless manuscripts. 2005 Aly’s Hitlers Volksstaat: Raub, Rassenkrieg und nationaler Sozialismus (Hitler’s Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State), published this year, contributes to controversial considerations of “historicizing” the Hitler dictatorship by claiming that National Socialism was indeed socialism, providing popular impetus to official policies of expropriation. Arno Geiger’s novel Es geht uns gut (We’re Doing Well), Friederike Mayröcker’s memoir Und ich schüttelte einen Liebling (And I Shook a Sweetheart), Thomas Lehr’s 42, Christoph Nussbaumeder’s drama Mit dem Gurkenflieger in die Südsee (Headed South aboard the Cucumber Flyer), and Genazino’s Die Liebesblödigkeit (The Stupidity of Love) are published. The RheinMain U.S. Air Force Base near Frankfurt am Main closes after six decades of operation. Angela Merkel, leader of the Christian Democratic Party and who grew up in the GDR, becomes the first female chancellor of Germany, heading a coalition government with the Social Democrats. Joseph Ratzinger, former Archbishop of Munich, is elected to the Roman Catholic papacy (the first German pope in nearly 500 years). 2006 Günter Grass in his autobiography Beim Häuten der Zwiebel (Peeling the Onion) states that in the waning years of World War II he had not been drafted (as he had often stated) but had volunteered as a

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member of the Waffen-SS, whom the Allies considered suicide squadrons by virtue of their personal devotion to Adolf Hitler’s person. Grass’ admission is controversial, since he had frequently condemned those who in their youth had acted in similar fashion. Handke praises former Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic in a eulogy at Milosevic’s funeral; Milosevic died in custody of the International Criminal Court in The Hague, Netherlands, where he was on trial for crimes against humanity. Publications include dramatist Franz Xaver Kroetz’ volume of short fiction Blut und Bier (Blood and Beer), Lattmann’s memoir Einigkeit der Einzelgänger (Loners United), Florian Illies’ travel book Ortgespräch (Local Conversation), and two novels: the novel Die Arbeit der Nacht (Night Work) by Glavinic and Die Heimkehr (The Homecoming) by Schlink. Das Leben der Anderen (The Lives of Others), a film written and directed by Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck, premieres to comprehensive acclaim through Europe and the Americas; its depiction of how members of the GDR Stasi imposed themselves on the smallest aspect of peoples’ lives in East Germany is, in the view of critics, both horrifying and accurate. 2007 The first German-made film comedy about Hitler, titled Mein Führer: die wirklich wahrste Wahrheit über Adolf Hitler (Mein Führer: The Truly Truest Truth about Adolf Hitler) and directed by Dani Levy, premieres. The German Finance Ministry awards subsidies worth $6.5 million to United Artists, producers of a film with American actor Tom Cruise titled Valkyrie, which treats the attempt to assassinate Hitler in 1944. The amount exceeds the total cost of most German movies. Officials later ban shooting the film at German military sites because of Cruise’s adherence to Scientology, which the German government officially considers a dangerous cult. Archivists discover first written proof that East German authorities had told border guards to kill anyone trying to escape to West Germany, including women and children. Berlin municipal officials rename Strasse 13 in the Marzahn district “FrankZappa-Strasse.” The two-week “Berlin in Lights Festival” opens in New York, beginning with a concert series by Max Raabe and his Palast Orchestra at Carnegie Hall. Comic novel Liebe Heute (Love Today) by Biller, Tod in Habana (Death in Havana) by Buch, Das bin doch ich (That’s Certainly Me) by Glavinic, Menasse’s Don Juan de la Mancha, and Wolfgang Herrndorf’s collection of humorous fiction titled Diesseits

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des Van-Allen-Gürtels (This Side of the Van Allen Belt) are published. Also noteworthy are Lange-Müller’s Böse Schafe (Angry Sheep), Julia Franck’s Die Mittagsfrau (Noontime Woman), Sabine Gruber’s Über Nacht (Overnight), Mosebach’s religious treatise Häresie der Formlosigkeit (The Heresy of Formlessness), Handke’s scenario Spuren der Verirrten (Traces of Those Who Have Gotten Lost), and the AmericanAustrian Ann Cotten’s poetry volume Fremdwörterbuchsonette (Sonnets from Dictionaries of Borrowed Words). 2008 Ceremonies throughout Germany to note the 75th anniversary of Hitler’s appointment as chancellor on 30 January 1933 are held; plans are announced to erect monuments to gypsies, homosexuals, and Jehovah’s Witnesses, who were persecuted under the Hitler dictatorship. The German Defense Ministry agrees to increase the number of German combat soldiers in Afghanistan to 4,500. U.S. presidential candidate Barack Obama visits Berlin and addresses a campaign rally at the Siegessäule (Victory Column) before an estimated crowd of 200,000 people. Aly’s historical analysis of the 1968 student protest generation Unser Kampf (Our Struggle), Enzensberger’s biography Hammerstein oder der Eigensinn (Hammerstein and Obstinacy), Mayröcker’s collection of letters to imagined correspondents Paloma, and British-German Charlotte Roche’s humorous meditation on female genitalia Feuchtgebiete (Moist Areas) are published.

Introduction

I The image of the German language, German literature, and most of Germany itself in ruins at the conclusion of World War II is paradoxically both accurate and distorted. Stunde Null (zero hour), a convenient phrase to describe the situation in 1945, had a brief vogue in the Western zones of occupation. There, nearly all bridges, roads, railways, sewers, potable water lines, and electrical transmission facilities were devastated. The phrase “zero hour,” however, inferred the faint hope that a clean break with the past might actually be possible—and perhaps fully advisable. National Socialism had abused the German language with neologisms (Führer, Gauleiter, Blitzkrieg, and Endlösung are among the most distasteful examples, though there were scores of others) that evoked revulsion in the ears of millions around the world. Numerous well-meaning critics, historians, and writers seriously wondered if German could ever regain its status as a language worthy of study, capable of literary expression, or simply speaking—even by Germans. Theodor W. Adorno famously surmised that attempting to create literature in German in the aftermath of the extermination camps would be a new form of barbarism. Many people agreed with him, and even those who did not agree with him may have allowed that German needed a new start if “German literature” were to have a future. Several books with the phrase Stunde Null in the title have appeared over the years since the 1945 German military capitulation, an event that to many eye witnesses must have seemed like an occasion ripe for the Germans to start anew.1 If a complete break with history was not possible, then at least a new beginning for German literature seemed prudent. A rupture with the past, sometimes described in German as a Kahlschlag (clean break), in the immediate postwar years seemed to be one of many necessary steps xlvii

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Germans needed to take if they were ever to atone for their innumerable and unspeakable sins during the Hitler dictatorship. For others, merely breaking with the past was not only culturally improvident, it was also impractical. What were German writers to do—become Vladimir Nabokovs and start writing in English? No less a figure than Thomas Mann, winner of the 1929 Nobel Prize for Literature, felt that the German language remained a potent instrument of literary aspiration and expression, regardless of the damage National Socialism had visited upon it. The German language remained furthermore free, Mann stated, regardless of where it was spoken—in the Western zones of occupation, in the Eastern zone of a growing Soviet-organized tyranny, in occupied Austria, or in German-speaking Switzerland.2 Hitler and the Nazis had damaged the German language—but they had not crippled it for future generations. Even before the conclusion of hostilities, German soldiers in American custody as prisoners of war were active in using a new kind of German to neutralize (or at least dilute) the effects of Nazi propaganda on the minds of fellow soldiers. By 1947, with the formation of an organization called Gruppe 47 (Group 47), exertions toward a new direction for German literature were underway. Membership in Group 47 originally included many former enlisted men from the ranks, whose goals consisted of what their critics later came to regard as a “permanent theodicy.” For the first members of Group 47, the enterprise of German literature in the wake of the Hitler dictatorship, its war of aggression, and the mass murder of millions took the form of a moral dilemma. They endorsed the writing of “morally and politically committed novels and stories whose function [lay] in a very specific form of secular moral uplift.”3 Many of its leading members had been former communists, a fact that initially gave the group a utopian viewpoint. Their influence was substantial, but perhaps most influential of all was a tiny emolument awarded to the writer whom members considered most promising; they voted by placing a secret ballot in a battered old cigar box. The winner received $250, a considerable sum then. That amount could buy an enormous amount of food in West Germany, allowing a writer to concentrate on his or her work for an appreciable amount of time. Heinrich Böll was one of the first to win the Group 47 Prize (in 1951), and in 1953 the group cited the Austrian poet Ingeborg Bachmann for her poetry, particularly “Die gestundete Zeit,” a stunning work

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in verse about the moral price to be paid for the crimes of National Socialism. The 1950s were remarkable for the Federal Republic in many ways, not the least of which was the Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle) that actually began in 1948 with the Allied decision to extend Marshall Plan aid to the Western zones of occupation, the currency reforms of the same year, and paradoxically the Soviet blockade of land routes from the Western zones to the Western sectors of Berlin. The blockade was intended to drive Allied forces from the city entirely—but the result was a strengthened solidarity among the Allies, who in 1949 agreed to a merger of their zones, making the eventual creation of the Federal Republic a historical certainty. Literary criticism of the new republic, its policies, its goals, and its politicians began almost as soon as it was formed. Heinrich Böll, Martin Walser, Alfred Andersch (one of the acknowledged founders of Group 47), Hans-Erich Nossack, and Wolfgang Koeppen wrote novels, radio plays, and short stories about homecoming soldiers, refugees, orphans, and displaced persons who found themselves bewildered in the midst of rubble and the physical changes they encountered, and also by certain continuities from the Third Reich they perceived. Writers were skeptical of the new Federal Republic, and some were deeply critical; but they exercised the freedom to voice their criticism guaranteed them in the new republic’s constitution, called the Grundgesetz or “basic law.” Many noticed that former active National Socialists were showing up as judges in West German courtrooms, in the boardrooms of many newly thriving West German corporations, and in the classrooms of West German universities. All had been officially “de-Nazified,” but their presence rankled, largely because the de-Nazification process was haphazard and often impossible to implement. Removal of swastikas, images, and slogans from public images was relatively easy. Allied occupation forces had jailed thousands of former National Socialist officials or forbidden them work in anything but menial jobs. By mid-1946, over 500 special civilian courts had been set up to try hundreds of thousands of cases, but as tensions between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union grew, the emphasis in the West shifted from capturing and trying evildoers to teaching Germans how to embrace democracy. By the mid-1950s, when Germans were prepared to rearm in the defense of their budding democracy, many writers took vociferous exception to the

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establishment of a new West German army and the country’s membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. They also objected to the dominance of American pop culture, American democratic values, and the way other things American were being forced on them as Germans. And finally, most were very reluctant to discuss the reality of extermination camps in Poland; most were interested in Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to grips with the past) but that process had its limits. There was a “moral deficit” (as it came to be known) that prevented many writers from grappling with the enormity of what had transpired at Auschwitz-Birkenau, Maidanek, Mauthausen, or Sobibor. There had been books about the camps immediately after the war. Eugen Kogon’s Der SS-Staat (translated as The Theory and Practice of Hell: The German Concentration Camps and the System behind Them) had appeared in 1946, Luise Rinser’s prison diary Gefängnistagebuch (Prison Book) and Ernst Wiechert’s “report” titled Der Totenwald (The Forest of the Dead) likewise. Even before the war ended, Anna Seghers’ Das siebte Kreuz (The Seventh Cross) had been published (though in English, and it became the basis of a 1944 Hollywood film), arguably the first book to depict the harsh realities of a concentration camp. By the end of the 1950s, a remarkable body of fiction, drama, and poetry had nevertheless emerged, and in 1959 there appeared what proved to be the most remarkable novel of the decade, Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) by Günter Grass. It was remarkable for several reasons, not the least of which was its astonishing international appeal. Few novels since the war have approximated The Tin Drum’s international sales and number of translations. It accelerated the process of coming to grips with the past because it openly confronted the mercurial quality of memory while rattling several disturbing skeletons in the German closet. It also revived the Schelmenroman (picaresque novel) tradition in German literature while lending momentum to a budding interest in what came to be known as “metafiction” in literary studies.4 But 1959 also saw the publication of one of the most important novels by an author living in the German Democratic Republic (GDR): Mutmassungen über Jakob (Speculations about Jakob) by Uwe Johnson. The book was published in the West, and Johnson moved to West Berlin; it earned fulsome praise at the time of its publication, giving rise to hopes that maybe conditions for writing fiction were not so bad in East Germany as many feared. A clearer indication of how bad things actually were

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was the Bitterfeld Conference in 1959, held in the town of Bitterfeld, about 60 miles north of Leipzig. There, the “Bitterfeld Path” was carved out in the hope of bringing writers, intellectuals, and proletarians together, calling a new kind of literature into existence. The Bitterfeld Path remained a GDR landmark in official policy toward writers for years, but the path proved to be a dead end. By 1961, it led directly to the Berlin Wall. The construction of the Berlin Wall (which the East German regime officially termed the Antifaschistischer Schutzwall (Antifascist Security Wall) had differing impacts on the imaginations of writers on both sides of it for years to come. An obscure troubadour and poet named Wolf Biermann wrote songs for an amateur theatrical troupe that criticized the Wall’s construction, pitting him against the regime for the next 15 years until he was finally stripped of his citizenship. Other East German writers accepted the fact that they were cut off from the West not only by the Wall but also by watchtowers, barbed wire, bunkers, machine gun emplacements, booby traps, minefields, and trip wires. Günter Grass looked upon the Wall not so much with anger or even protest but with a relativist shrug that said, in effect, “We have walls in the West, too. They’re just not so obvious.” Grass was not too different from many writers in the West during the 1960s whose ire remained focused on the shortcomings of their own government and its failure, they felt, to hunt down former Nazis. Several writers excoriated the Federal Republic for not working to create a society where National Socialism could never again take root. One of the most successful novels of the 1960s was Heinrich Böll’s Ansichten eines Clowns (The Clown), a work of fiction which to many seemed a summation of the disquiet felt among many German writers in 1963, when The Clown was published. Over the novel hangs a cloud of recrimination, castigating Germany’s new and undeserved material well-being, what seems to be the pervasive presence of de-Nazified ex-Nazis, and most of all, guilt. The idea of “collective guilt,” which held all Germans responsible for the Hitler dictatorship and its crimes against humanity, had actually begun as an official policy of the Allies toward the German population in 1945. It was abandoned as Cold War tensions stiffened, but the idea that West Germans were not doing enough penance or becoming worthy of atonement remained well into the decade. The power of collective guilt made its most explosive appearance in the student unrest of the later 1960s,

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as a generation of young Germans began trying to hold their elders accountable for what had happened a generation earlier. Soon after the student unrest, several novels appeared, sometimes called Vaterromäne (novels about fathers) that many critics felt had begun a new direction for West German literature, a direction many called a Tendenzwende (turnaround in outlook). That new direction was actually a realization that calls for rebellion against the Federal Republic were pointless—almost as pointless as many of the protests themselves. As Christian Friedrich Delius, Götz Aly, and Peter Schneider effectively demonstrated in their work, “student protests” were often nothing more than anarchic gatherings in which privileged youth shouted Marxist jargon at bemused bystanders. Schneider’s Lenz was fairly representative of novels featuring disillusionment among former student activists. Such novels, along with volumes of poetry through the 1970s, were part of a trend toward what was called “new subjectivity.” Nicolas Born’s novel Die erbabgewandte Seite der Geschichte (The Other Side of the Story) featured the exemplary use of everyday domesticity, described in intricate detail, as a salient point of the book’s narrative. Born’s collection of lyric poetry titled Das Auge des Entdeckers (The Eye of the Discoverer) is a parallel example of a disillusioned writer turning deeply inward. The best novel of the 1970s did not turn inward but reflected the author’s deeply held misgivings about the Federal Republic: Heinrich Böll’s Gruppenbild mit Dame (Group Portrait with Lady) was a veiled protest about the headlong reconstruction of the Federal Republic, which at times seemed oblivious to the “redestruction” that reconstruction was producing.

II In the Soviet-occupied zone, morality in literature was no less a topic of concern, but that concern arose largely because state support of writers was an accepted premise. The Communist Party members whom the Soviet Politburo had dispatched to Berlin in late April and early May of 1945 enjoyed a substantial advantage in postwar claims to morality by virtue of their claim to a monopoly on ethical comportment and civil courage while they had been in exile. They also claimed they were

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unique in their resistance to Adolf Hitler. The moral capital such claims provided, however, the communists soon squandered, rendering writers by 1948 (the year of the Berlin Blockade) essentially rudderless in a sea of socialist realism. The Eastern zone of occupation (which became the German Democratic Republic in 1949) formed a Marxist state modeled on Soviet precedents. At first, the German communists (led by poet Johannes R. Becher) who set up the GDR envisioned a utopian “peasant and workers’ state on German soil.” The already established Kulturbund zur demokratischen Erneuerung Deutschlands (Cultural League for the Democratic Renewal of Germany) was especially active from 1946 to 1949 in the business of inviting exiled German writers with established reputations to the Eastern zone in the hope of refurbishing the “humanistic tradition” of German literature. Anna Seghers, Arnold Zweig, Willi Bredel, Bertolt Brecht, Ricarda Huch, and many others less well known accepted invitations. In some early instances, hopes for a renewal of German literature bore fruit: the newly established state publisher Aufbau produced Theodor Plievier’s stunning novel Stalingrad in 1946 and Seghers’ Die Toten bleiben jung (The Dead Stay Young) in 1949. Aufbau also published Stephan Hermlin’s poetry, including his 1948 volume, Auch ich bin Amerika: Dichtungen amerikanischer Neger (I’m America, Too: Poetry of American Negroes), along with Franz Fühmann’s monumental epic poem Die Fahrt nach Stalingrad (The Journey to Stalingrad). If a writer wanted to survive as a writer in East Germany, however, he or she in most cases had to forego experimentation and concentrate on accessible narrative combined with traditional structure. Even attempts to create an East German form of what was becoming known in West Germany as Trümmerliteratur (literature in the ruins) found disfavor, despite the fact that Trümmerliteratur was realistic and manifested a deep social consciousness. The problem, for the East German regime at least, is that “class consciousness” trumped social consciousness. Optimistic depictions of Marxism’s inevitable triumph not only over fascism but also over the entire creature of finance capital took precedence.5 Trümmerliteratur was furthermore problematic in the East because as a literary genre it emanated from what was by 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany. The establishment of rival German republics had a profound effect on German literature, although many maintained to the bitter end of the GDR’s dissolution in 1989 that there was only

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one “true” German literature, one that was oblivious to arbitrary political boundaries. Political boundaries had formed nonetheless, and they were soon to become national boundaries within what had been Germany proper. In early 1946, the reconstituted German Communist Party merged with portions of the Social Democratic Party to form the Socialist Unity Party (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands, SED). That organization became the ruling establishment of the Eastern zone, claiming for itself the mantle of “sole authority” to guarantee what it termed the aforementioned historically documented humanistic tradition of German literature. East German cultural elites were strongly influenced by the Hungarian literary theorist György Lukács in the late 1940s and early 1950s, who convinced them that literature must have a clear, unambiguous perspective if it were to fulfill its historical role in a truly Marxist state. “Historical”—at least, the Marxist definition of it—was a favorite preoccupation of the party leadership in the GDR. Many of the men and women who formed the Socialist Unity Party endorsed Lukács’ conception of socialist realism as an official, state-authorized literary credo. It gave the party leadership a dispensational tissue of validity in the way it wanted to run a Marxist state. Party leaders found in socialist realism an agreeable formula for a “poesy of consciousness” that legitimated literature’s role in the onward and inevitable march of progress. By 1951, the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party promulgated an official condemnation of what it termed “formalism” (best understood as an overweening desire to experiment with literary form). Party leader Walter Ulbricht stated that formalism threatened the “humanistic” nature of all literary efforts in “the new life of a democratic and progressive Germany.”6 Bertolt Brecht was one of the first writers to fall victim to the new policy. His libretto for the 1951 opera Das Verhör des Lukullus (The Trial of Lucullus) was accused of “backsliding into doubt and weakness which the playwright should long ago have overcome.”7 Two shattering events later in the 1950s, however, made the debate about formalism seem small and nearly inconsequential by comparison; both events had a debilitating effect on literature in the German Democratic Republic. The first was an uprising by workers on 17 June 1953 in East Berlin that spread to other East German cities. Protestors burned party offices, demanded fair and free elections, and sought the release

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of imprisoned political prisoners. Soviet army tanks and East German troops quickly put an end to the “disturbances,” which the party leadership ascribed to “foreign agents of the West.” In 1956, the East German regime voiced unequivocal support for the Soviet Union’s violent suppression of the Hungarian revolution; by that time, it was clear to most observers that the German Democratic Republic had become a repressive regime in the hands of a criminal oligarchy, cementing its hold on power by means of a secret police force and the enforcement of lockstep obedience to party decrees. The regime was interested primarily in prolonging its hold on power as long as possible, supported by fellow “socialist states” within what had become the Soviet bloc. Any doubts about the GDR’s status as a totalitarian police state evaporated with the construction of the “protective wall” in August of 1961. SED party chief Walter Ulbricht had proclaimed only two months earlier that “nobody has any intention of building a wall around the German Democratic Republic,” but in the early morning hours of 13 August construction began anyway, along with the closure of all entry points to West Berlin, the suspension of all telephone links to the West, and the general embargo of information from the East. Paradoxically, the pace of “de-Stalinization” picked up in East Germany during 1961, as Stalin Allee became Karl-Marx Allee in Berlin, and Stalinstadt on the German-Polish border became Eisenhüttenstadt. Christa Wolf made her publishing debut in the year the Wall went up, with Moskauer Novelle (Mosow Novella); through the 1960s and 1970s, she continued to publish several works of fiction, becoming one of East Germany’s most well-known authors. She also gained a reputation in the West as a kind of skeptic about the GDR and its treatment of writers—though she could never openly differ with what had become the “official” policy toward writers in East Germany. They were “engineers of the human soul,” as Joseph Stalin had so picturesquely and accurately phrased it.8 The crisis of the “Wolf Biermann affair” in 1976 created problems for almost everybody, especially for those GDR writers who signed petitions in support of Biermann or who modestly suggested ways of improving the GDR’s treatment of writers. The German Democratic Republic had initiated a policy of stripping writers of their citizenship, as was the case with Biermann. It was a curious practice in view of the West German constitution’s provision of instant citizenship, a passport, and several other benefits to almost anyone making a permanent exit

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from the peasants’ and workers’ paradise. Biermann considered himself a German patriot in the Marxist sense, with a firm conviction that social progress was possible and that the German Democratic Republic could lead the way to that promised land of justice, equality, and peace. He, along with many others, was stunned to find himself excluded from that promised land. So was Rainer Kunze, who in 1976 published his Die wunderbaren Jahre (The Wonderful Years) in West Germany and soon found himself booted out of the GDR Writers’ Union. By the end of the 1970s, Stefan Heym’s novel about the GDR titled Collin appeared as an unequivocal indictment of the system under which all GDR citizens, not just writers and intellectuals, labored. Among Biermann’s sympathizers, however, Heym had the distinction of having a law passed by the GDR government directed specifically and personally against him. It banned any future exposés of the GDR, its justice system, or its model of governance. An indication of how rigid the GDR and its system of maintaining control over its writers had become by the late 1970s is the ascent of Hermann Kant to head the Schriftstellerverband (Writers’ Union) after the departure of the revered Anna Seghers. Kant was fully aware of the regime’s intent to dictate the direction East German literature would take and realized there was nothing he could do—even if he wanted to—to change the situation. His 1977 novel Der Aufenthalt (The Detention) had convinced many that his was a legitimate talent and that he could lead by example. Yet Kant was mired deeply in an allegiance to socialist realism, while the “formalist” work of GDR writers like Heiner Müller continued to grow in popularity and receive acclaim among critics in the West. Müller, in fact, became so popular and began to earn so much Western hard currency that the Writers’ Union refusal to readmit him as a member became irrelevant. The paradoxical twist to the Müller case was Müller’s continued allegiance to the GDR, despite its treatment of him.9 Other East German writers were not so persuaded, and once they made good their exit to the West the results were devastating. A good example is Kunze, whose work was essentially an indictment of the GDR’s grandiose vision of itself. Throughout the 1980s, talented writers in the GDR continued to push against the constraints of officially proclaimed aesthetic standards, and the results were sometimes remarkable.

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Among the most intriguing literary efforts in the 1980s was fiction that manifested a departure from the socialist realism template. In 1982 Irina Liebmann’s Berliner Mietshaus (Berlin Tenement) depicted a lessthan-utopian vision of the GDR, just as Christa Wolf had already made earlier departures from the Bitterfeld Path. Wolf’s novel Kassandra of 1983 was considered by many Western feminist critics to be her finest work because she reconfigures the title character from Priam’s daughter and Agamemnon’s would-be concubine at the conclusion of the Trojan War into a crucial figure who marks a utopian departure from patriarchal hegemony. Irmtraud Morgner’s Amanda, ein Hexenroman (Amanda: A Witches’ Novel) of the same year became known as an example of “socialist magical realism.” Christoph Hein and Günter de Bruyn also made noteworthy departures—and in the process somehow managed to avoid the most rigorous of interventions from the state secret police, colloquially known as the Stasi. The Stasi were essentially a palingenesis of Hitler’s Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei, or “secret state police”), and few writers in the GDR escaped its notice. With over 250,000 full-time and “informal collaborators” (informelle Mitarbeiter) in its employ, almost nobody went undetected—but the Stasi paid special attention to writers. It did so because the examples of Wolf Biermann, Heiner Müller, Reiner Kunze, and others had strongly contributed (sometimes unwittingly) to the GDR’s black eye in international circles. Few PEN (Poets, Essayists, and Novelists) Clubs,10 for example, had recognized the legitimacy of the East German PEN Club, largely because so many Stasi agents had infiltrated the organization. By the time the GDR collapsed in 1989, East German literature as such had also largely ceased to exist.

III Austria found itself in 1945 with a different set of historical circumstances than that of a divided Germany, even though Austria was completely occupied by Allied troops. A disproportionate number of Austrians had served in elite SS units and as administrators of concentration and extermination camps. It was estimated that a majority of Austrians had welcomed the Anschluss (annexation) in 1938; Germany completely

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absorbed Austria after a plebiscite provided a tissue of democratic legitimacy to do so soon after annexation. National Socialism had enjoyed widespread support in the Austrian populace almost to the end of World War II, but Allied leaders at the Potsdam Conference in the summer of 1945 agreed that Austria should not be held accountable for the crimes of Nazism. There was general sympathy for the Austrians as “Hitler’s first victim,” and the occupying powers allowed elections in November 1945 (in which an astonishing 3.4 million people voted), hoping to restore order in a country whose infrastructure had suffered some severe damage. By 1949, the Allies permitted former National Socialists to run for offices in a national election, though their appeal proved to be limited. The Austrian economic outlook also proved to be more positive than its German counterpart, largely because the American government had begun paying its own costs for occupation forces in 1947; the Soviet Union did the same in 1949, followed by the British and French governments. Immense sums of foreign aid flowed into Austria during the late 1940s as well, fostering the rehabilitation of the banking and manufacturing sectors. In other words, Austria drew substantial benefit from defeat in World War II; as film director and former resident of Vienna Billy Wilder once observed, the Austrians possessed an often unacknowledged talent for winning over public opinion. “After all,” he once stated, “they convinced the world that Beethoven was an Austrian and that Hitler was a German.”11 The late 1940s also saw the rise of Austrian literary journals, of which Plan (edited by Otto Basil and Edgar Jené) was the most significant. Basil (1901–1983) was most interested in providing a venue for literary debuts by several new Austrian poets and writers. He also published the work of esteemed, internationally known Austrian writers (such as Rainer Maria Rilke, Robert Musil, and Karl Kraus) with whom many young Austrians were unfamiliar because their work had not appeared in print since the German annexation in 1938. Poets Christine Lavant and Ingeborg Bachmann found themselves particularly influenced by such stalwarts, while other, perhaps more well-known writers published their work to the acclaim of Austrian traditionalists. Heimito von Doderer’s recapitulation of “the word of yesterday” in Die Strudlhofstiege (The Strudelhof Steps) lent a welcome sense of continuity to Austrian literature in the early 1950s, as did Fritz Hochwälder’s numerous plays, nearly all of which premiered at the esteemed Vienna

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Burgtheater. Many Austrians considered von Doderer’s Die Dämonen (1956) to be a worthy coequal alongside Thomas Mann’s “traditional” masterpiece of the 1950s, Doktor Faustus. Several writers and poets of the younger generation in Austria, however, rejected much of the “traditional” mold in Austrian literature and sought alternatives. They found much of what they were looking for in the linguistic musings of Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), who had been born in Vienna and grew up in Linz; there, he attended school with his contemporary Adolf Hitler (Hitler was born six days earlier than Wittgenstein in the Austrian town of Braunau am Inn). Wittgenstein became a philosophy professor at Cambridge, where he developed a profoundly skeptical philosophy of language. That philosophy appealed to many writers who later came to be known as the Wiener Gruppe (Vienna Group). Their experiments with “concrete poetry” was one result, based on a manifesto titled “Acht-Punkte-Programm des poetischen Aktes” (An Eight-Point Proclamation of the Poetic Act) published in 1953. Very few readers of poetry in Austria or anywhere else paid much attention. Several members of the Vienna Group, however, later became award-winning writers. In 1955, Austria’s return to full sovereignty became a reality with the departure of foreign occupying troops (mostly from the Soviet Union), predicated on the assurance of Austrian neutrality. The details of independence were spelled out in a treaty the Austrians themselves had negotiated with the Soviet leadership in Moscow. The country’s autonomy, which was guaranteed in the treaty, accelerated the Austrian government’s determination to duplicate the astonishing economic turnaround taking place in West Germany. The domestic political situation in Austria, however, was unlike that of West Germany; it was based on what came to be known as the Proporz system of proportional representation based on unspoken agreements between the two leading political parties in Austria, the Österreichische Volkspartei (Peoples’ Party) and the Sozialistische Partei Österreichs (Socialist Party). Leaders of those parties prized consensus and stability over almost everything else; they therefore sought to make sure that no interests were “underrepresented” in any facet of Austrian life, from banking to education to railroads to telecommunications—and in all these activities, along with hundreds more, the central Austrian government was deeply involved.

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The result was a steady decline in innovation and a sense of ossification, as a Demokratur (democratic dictatorship) regulated and controlled everything. There was a sense that Austrian literary culture was ossifying along with everything else. A group that included Austrian novelists, painters, poets, television producers, and translators formed a loosely organized club in Graz called Forum Stadtpark; it was named for an empty restaurant called the Stadtpark Café in Graz, where the group periodically met. They founded a modest journal called manuscripte, which in the 1960s became an important venue for new writers and a sign that Austrian literature was moving in a new direction. Three major writers led Austrian literature into new directions: Peter Handke, Elfriede Jelinek, and Thomas Bernhard. Bernhard’s case was unusual, largely because he had not been born in Austria, and as a result faced intense resistance from critics who despised the aggressively anti-Austrian stance in much of his work. The characters in his early fiction work are often outsiders with a deeply ingrained sense of estrangement. Peter Handke likewise produced work that featured troubled individuals—evidenced most obviously in the figure of his mother in Wunschloses Unglück (A Sorrow beyond Dreams, 1972). Handke’s mother attained tragic status by virtue of a harrowing despair similar to that found in the work of Bernhard. Both Handke and Bernhard were fond of experimenting with language and form; Handke was indeed instrumental in the process of dissolving Group 47 because he found its literary ethos not amenable to experimentation. Handke felt that experimentation with language was important, because language possessed no inherent meaning or worth in and of itself. So did Bernhard, and the influence of Wittgenstein’s theories on both writers is substantial. Many critics maintain that both Bernhard and Handke are, as a result, the natural heirs of the Vienna Group. Jelinek shared some of the linguistic skepticism of Bernhard and Handke, but her novels and scenarios bespeak a despair borne of feminism much different from the despair found elsewhere. Jelinek’s female characters implicate themselves in the oppression they suffer at the hands of men and the ruling male hegemony in Austria. As with Bernhard, Austrians found little to like in Jelinek. Sales of her work were more substantial in Germany, which in any case had 10 times the number of active readers than did Austria. Demand for her work increased

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around the world after she received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2004—an award, she said, that should have gone to Handke. By the time Jelinek received the Nobel Prize, however, Austrian literature had long since become a part of the overall German literary establishment, since German publishers dominated the market. Austrian writers were also active screenwriters, following Handke’s lead in films such as Der Himmel über Berlin (Wings of Desire) in 1987. The emergence of Austrian film directors such as Michael Haneke is also an indication of how much the Austrian and German cultural markets began to meld after German unification. Austrian playwrights find their works most frequently performed on stages in Germany, largely because German directors want to premiere them. German director Claus Peymann, for example, premiered several works by Handke, Bernhard, and Peter Turrini. Turrini has the distinction of writing plays that are actually funny, a trend that accelerated after the death of Bernhard and the rise of younger Austrian writers such as Wilhelm Menasse, Thomas Glavinic, and Arno Geiger.

IV German-speaking Switzerland found itself fully intact in 1945—though some critics have long disputed the nature of Swiss “neutrality” during World War II. Some Swiss banks had functioned as conduits for gold or hard currency that the Nazi regime had stolen and then used to purchase war materiel. There have also been disturbing revelations of irregularities that exploited Jews who opened accounts in Switzerland. Many of their accounts went unclaimed after 1945 because depositors had perished in the German death camps. There have also been frequent accusations of Swiss complicity in assisting German agents in their ruthless hunt for Jews and political refugees who had managed to cross the Swiss border. The “full boat” explanation has been the usual Swiss response to such allegations.12 The year 1945 did not mark any major departure in the GermanSwiss outlook, even though German-speaking Swiss were fully aware of what had been happening all around their “neutral” country between 1939 and 1945. In Zurich, the most important German-language theater in Europe had consistently presented new plays in German, featuring

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the best German actors and actresses able to escape and find asylum in Switzerland. In response, there were vigorous pro-Nazi protests against Jews and communists living and working at the theater and in Zurich, along with heated discussions about Geistige Landesverteidigung (Cultural Defense of the Nation) and the need to protect Swiss culture from outside influences. But for those lucky enough to be granted Swiss asylum, calm and safety prevailed. Playwright and novelist Friedrich Dürrenmatt stated in the 1980s that living in Switzerland during the years of the Hitler dictatorship was like living on an island afloat in a turbulent sea, never knowing if or when the violent waves would carry off everything. As it turned out, Switzerland not only survived, it prospered. Its political, cultural, and economic system remained intact, and there was no urgency in directing efforts toward change or rebuilding. The emergence of both Dürrenmatt and Max Frisch on the world literary scene in the 1950s came as a pleasant shock to most Swiss; to the German-speaking literary world, it was as if a golden age had dawned.13 Rarely before had two such writers made a simultaneous impact on readers and audiences around the world. The other obvious example would be that of Goethe and Schiller, but that analogy doubtless goes too far; yet never before had two Swiss writers previously become so simultaneously well known, widely read, and avidly translated. Some observers, however, drew the analogy between the economic miracle taking place in West Germany with what they considered the miraculous literary achievements of Dürrenmatt and Frisch. Economics lends itself, however, to some rational analysis, while a full explanation of writing talent and its appeal to readers is never completely possible. Both Dürrenmatt and Frisch stated they were indeed fortunate to be Swiss and to have remained outside the bloody conflicts swirling about their country, but rarely did either attempt a concrete explanation for their success. Success in literary endeavors is probably predicated on many things, including a mastery of language, a profound discernment of human relationships, a painfully sharp ability to observe, and beneficial conditions that assist in getting art delivered to the marketplace. Perhaps most important is personal ambition. Dürrenmatt and Frisch profited from the above and more. In the wake of the German collapse, a perception of emancipation swept through much of German-speaking Europe in the late 1940s and

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early 1950s. Frisch’s Nun singen Sie wieder (Now They Sing Again) of 1946 was the first play openly to confront the “German paradox” that came to preoccupy so many discussions after the war: How could a people that produced Goethe construct extermination camps? Had the path to Auschwitz begun in Weimar? Perhaps only a Swiss writer could effectively deal with such questions. In less specific ways, Dürrenmatt did the same thing in Der Besuch der alten Dame (The Visit) and Die Physiker (The Physicists). In both plays, the cosmic force of destructiveness is embodied in a female figure who is granted permission to inflict her will upon a suspicious yet compliant world. While Frisch’s approach may have been more analytical and historical, Dürrenmatt’s was cosmic and theological. Both men were enormously influential, and no Swiss writer during their lifetimes (they died within three months of each other) approached them in stature or popularity. The stature of Frisch and Dürrenmatt does not deny the significance of other Swiss writers. In the 1960s, Walter Diggelmann’s novel Die Hinterlassenschaft (The Legacy) was one of the first to condemn Swiss treatment of asylum-seeking Jews; Jürg Federspiel established himself as a skilled prose stylist in numerous novels and short stories about New York City; Otto Friedrich Walter became a prolific author of topical novels and a leader of the Gruppe Olten (Olten Group). The Olten Group also boasted Frisch and Dürrenmatt in its membership, and its bylaws contained several leftist political pronouncements. Among the group’s most outspoken members was Adolf Muschg, who gained a certain notoriety in Switzerland because he denied there was any such thing as “Swiss” literature—largely because there is no such thing as Switzerland. “Switzerland” is, after all, one of many coinages used to describe the Confoederatio Helvetica, a loose confederation of various communities set up in 1291 to resist the Hapsburg dynasty. It collapsed in 1798 and became a kind of republic under Napoleon; the Congress of Vienna restored its independence. It became a nation, Muschg noted, in the modern sense of the word when it adopted a constitution in 1848. It has since then become the beau idéal of nationhood, romanticized as a model multiethnic, diverse, multilingual, inclusive society. But that society does not exist—just as a “Swiss” literature or culture does not exist. Many writers have explored the false notion of Swiss unity. Frisch made cultural antagonism a focal point of his novel Stiller (I’m Not

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Stiller). The idea of cooperative multilingualism in Switzerland is likewise a romanticized notion, said Muschg: within German-speaking Switzerland, there are several dialects, and among the four “official” languages (German, French, Italian, and Romansh), native speakers have little to do with each other. There were also vague inferences that prior to Dürrenmatt and Frisch, the only writer of international renown that Switzerland ever produced was Johanna Spyri (Johanna Louise Heusser, 1827–1901), author of Heidi. The 1960s saw vigorous debate about the meanings of Swiss nationality, political demonstrations in Zurich, and even gunfire at the Swiss borders (usually involving border patrols and German terrorists trying to escape capture in the Federal Republic); such occurrences lent credence to the notion that a generational conflict was in the making, and perhaps even the Swiss were not immune to it. A so-called second wave of writers (second to Dürrenmatt and Frisch) emerged, the most noteworthy of whom were poet Erica Pedretti (a native German) and novelist Hermann Burger. Pedretti wrote poetry about the diamond business run by Orthodox Jews on West 47th Street in Manhattan jewelry shops and the feelings she had upon returning to her five children in what seemed to her, by comparison, the idyllic city of Berne. Burger’s novels probe the significance of what “idyllic” means within the Swiss context. In some cases, it meant a descent into insanity, because many German-speaking Swiss were beginning to believe the same generalizations about Switzerland as did the rest of the world: outstanding cuckoo clocks, delicious chocolate, an admirable work ethic, and effective social welfare programs. As a result, the inference was that Switzerland had become immobile in its self-content, unwilling to accept refugees, and amenable to illegal money in anonymous bank accounts. With the noteworthy exception of the best-selling author Erich von Däniken and his worldwide hit Erinnerungen an die Zukunft (Chariots of the Gods?) in 1968, along with several best-selling books that followed, the 1970s in Switzerland began to see what some observers termed a “third wave” in German-Swiss literature. It owed a debt to the neue Subjektivität (new subjectivity) tendency in West German and Austrian writing. Among the more well-known writers in this general direction were Urs Jaeggi, Gertrud Leutenegger, and E. Y. Meyer, who

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for the most part concentrated on the anecdotal and personal in their work, almost as if they were attempting to stand on a platform of the Swiss National Railways as an express train rushes past, describing the experience of speed, danger, noise, and efficiency—but without mentioning the train itself. The German-Swiss writers formed in 1978 an organization they called the Verein Solothurner Literaturtage (Solothurn Literature Society) for the purpose of discussing where Swiss-German literature might be heading. It was initially an offshoot of the Olten Group, and when the Olten Group disbanded in 2002, the Solothurn Literature Society gained additional prestige and status. At the annual meetings of the society, there are small-group discussions of matters that concern members, and usually members attend readings of unpublished work for appraisal. There are in addition one or two plenary sessions daily. Many of the meetings have been marked by spirited arguments, sometimes expanding into heated debates about the role of German literature—if there is one—in Switzerland. At the conclusion of the meetings, the society awards the Swiss Schiller Prize. In 2003, the prize went to Martin R. Dean, who is a somewhat unique figure in Swiss-German literature. His 2003 novel Meine Väter (My Fathers) attracted the attention of many Swiss readers by virtue of its autobiographical nature. It concerns Robert, who works as a dramaturg in Basel; his Swiss stepfather has just died, and Robert goes off in search of his Trinidadian biological father, an East Indian immigrant. In London, he finally encounters the man, whom Robert had long idealized as a dark-skinned prince with shiny white teeth and a silver walking stick. Instead, Robert’s father is confined to a wheelchair and unable to speak. Dean is like Robert in many ways: an outsider whose experiences enable him to see what others may miss—hence, the award of the Schiller Prize. Dean’s talent reminded some of the English writer Sir Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul (1932– ), who shares Dean’s Indo-Trinidadian heritage. Dean first became better known beyond Switzerland when his novel Der Mann ohne Licht (The Man without Light) was published in 1988. In it, a reclusive writer named Loder gives vent to his feelings about his homeland, condemning its xenophobia, smugness, and tendencies toward self-congratulation. Some hope that Martin Dean is the new direction that GermanSwiss literature may take in the 21st century.

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V The unification of Germany dominated discussions about the directions German literature might take in the early 1990s—but the intensity of the Historians’ Dispute of the mid-1980s remained in the minds of many writers and readers, even as the euphoria of the GDR’s collapse was at its most intense in the early part of the decade. Many Germans, in the wake of both unification and ongoing European integration (the European Union accepted three new member-states in 1995 and ten in 2004) began to wonder if a German national identity was still relevant. They also wondered if it was necessary constantly to recall and even memorialize the horrors of the German past. Many wanted simply to forget and get on with the business of building the future, but the Historians’ Dispute revealed a deep and powerful impulse among Germans to “erect memorials and immortalize their own shame,” in the words of a former Israeli ambassador to Germany.14 The pace at which Germans set up reminders to excoriate themselves for the Holocaust, established funds to indemnify victims, and gave speeches of apology around the world was astonishing. It was matched only by the intensity of locating, arresting, trying, and imprisoning former leaders of the GDR. There was a growing and unpleasant realization that the GDR had actually been a dictatorship comparable to the Third Reich, which set off another round of soul-searching among the German populace. The conflicts between the well-established former West Germans and the newly liberated former East Germans manifested themselves on several fronts. Stefan Heym condemned his former countrymen for what seemed (to him) to be their chief preoccupation: going shopping. Provided with funds from the West German treasury, former East Germans bought cars, appliances, and vacations with a feverish abandon. Heym and other writers were appalled, and most appalled of all was Günter Grass, who felt that reunification was a colossal error of historic proportions—due largely to German history. Germans, he said, had no right to self-determination as do other peoples throughout the world. They forfeited that right at Auschwitz. Unification was furthermore illegitimate for reasons only a Marxist could appreciate: it was based, he said, “on the buying power of the West German economy.”15 Grass was correct in the sense that unity was made possible because the West German economy was productive enough to underwrite the

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massive repairs needed to bring the former East Germany (now referred to as “the new federal states”) up to 21st-century infrastructural standards. West Germans agreed to tax themselves “in solidarity” with their Eastern cousins and essentially buy a decrepit, seriously outdated country. They agreed to spend billions in outlays for reconstruction, the same kind of reconstruction required in the late 1940s and early 1950s. This time, however, gleaming new train stations appeared in many cities of the new federal states, along with new schools, municipal buildings, roadways, bridges, water mains, swimming pools, pedestrian zones, microwave towers for broadband Internet transmission, and new conduits for electricity. Many former GDR writers felt their country was being swept away, as if it were an embarrassment—and in many cases, they were right. Irina Liebmann cast a nostalgic glance at the former East Berlin in her Stille Mitte von Berlin, documenting the charming but decomposing Hackescher Market in the “good old days,” then comparing it with the trendy cafés and gleaming shops that took over in the 1990s. Volker Braun’s Der Wendehals cast a similarly melancholic glance at all the pedestrian zones springing up like mushrooms in the former East Germany, imitating similar urban renewal projects in West Germany during decades previous to unification. The seductive quality of memory was apparent in much of the German literary work published from the mid-1990s through the first decade of the 21st century, because in the aftermath of reunification, memory conferred the ability to control and determine what got “officially remembered” and who was entitled to interpret the past. But official memory was, in the minds of many critics, a collective construction. On a personal remove, writers like Ulla Hahn used memory as an organizing device for narrative structure and character motivation. When her protagonist in Unschärfe Bilder (Blurry Pictures) realizes her father’s recall of events during the German campaign on the Russian front in 1941 is unreliable, she realizes that any judgment about German conduct in the war is likewise unreliable. Peter Härtling’s novels also use memory as an organizing device, but in most cases the reader is left with a sense that accommodation to transition is more significant than remembering anything. The “historicization” of memory, however, remains a powerful political impulse in 21st-century Germany. The process of institutionalizing it (in libraries and museums, in architecture, and in other public venues)

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often runs counter to the visions many writers had cherished for the “new” Germany. There have been several searches undertaken for the elusive organizational dynamics of retrospection in the hope that the construction of memory (and not necessarily constructions made of brick and mortar) could somehow restrain history from repeating itself. The result has been the disintegration of disciplinary modes of understanding memory, an epistemological crisis that recalled earlier disputes. In the first decade of the 21st century, however, the crisis of what and how to remember became a kind of discourse on reconstruction and recollection. The numerous monuments and memorials erected to mark the location of individual injustices or to define the “topology of terror” were often public exercises in Gesinnungskritik, which meant having the politically correct attitude toward the past. Memorializing ruins, creating altogether new urban landscapes, mapping the paths of tyranny, and attempting to “situate” the Holocaust in German history and literature has led to vigorous discussions about the consistency of memorialization in general and the fundamental assumptions about memory in particular. Few writers addressed such questions better than did W. G. Sebald, and indeed some critics began to credit him with creating a genre of memory literature, largely because his work is among the first effectively to treat the remnants of memory indirectly. Writers such as Böll and Grass had direct contact with the tragic events that led to memorialization and the collective construction of memory after unification. Sebald came a generation after Böll and Grass. As a result, his Jacques Austerlitz has forgotten the details of his oppression. Sebald added another degree of separation from the events of Austerlitz’ life because he was quoting Austerlitz. In doing so, Sebald “aestheticizes” memory, recalling or inventing reactions, sensations, sentiments, experiences. Yet no aesthetic strategy is completely trustworthy, Sebald notes, because most human beings look and look away at the same time; his books are as much about the failures of memory and how memory is simply erased, or erases itself, from human consciousness. Forgetting is not a political act, nor is it a social failure. It is organic and structural to the human condition. In similar fashion, the grandchildren of a German fighter pilot in Marcel Beyer’s Spione may have discovered something concrete, but memory fades and no one will conclusively know if his or her grandfather was a war criminal or not. Monika Maron made a momentous dis-

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covery about her grandfather in Pawels Briefe (Pawel’s Letters) that prompted a complete reversal in what she thought she knew about German history. Günter Grass may have “forgotten” that he served with a Waffen-SS brigade as a teenager, but his recovered memory of the experience was not a function of the “constructed memory” business over which so many seek control. The insistence on placing the Third Reich center stage in the German theater of memory is analogous to the exercise of making Original Sin a fundamental religious doctrine. It calls for an atonement, but an ongoing atonement. It signals to all Germans, regardless of how far removed from the Hitler dictatorship they are or how completely nugatory, that their responsibility for the crimes of National Socialism endures. Their sin remains, the sin of being German. Inevitable physical decay, the loss of mental function, the psychological ramifications of suffering, the theological moralism that pervades German political culture, the sociological results of dislocations, and the economic implications of the publishing business that keep Germans from forgetting—the list sounds like an interdisciplinary seminar on German literature of the postwar period. But the dissolution of boundaries that separate traditional disciplines like physiology, sociology, politics, theology, economics, history, and psychology serves only to cripple an understanding of German literature since 1945. There is no unified field theory of literature. Politicians, pundits, scholars, sociologists, critics, writers, and others often attempt to “destabilize” distinctions among disciplines in order to stake out metaphorical territory in the “landscape of memory.” They often do so in an attempt to translate their perceptions into instruments of agenda promotion and career advantage. When disciplines lose their distinctions from each other, however, there is no longer any ground in any landscape on which one can recognize, evaluate, understand, or appreciate any literary effort worthy of the name.

NOTES 1. A made-for-television film titled Stunde Null aired on West German television in 1977, directed by Edgar Reitz. It depicted a small town near Leipzig as American troops departed, replaced by Red Army occupiers. 2. Thomas Mann, “Ansprache im Goethejahr 1949,” Gesammelte Werke, vol. 11 (Frankfurt: S. Fischer, 1960): 488.

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3. Karl-Heinz Bohrer, Nach der Natur (Munich: Carl Hanser, 1988), 155. 4. “Metafiction” is generally considered a modernist conceit, inferring fiction that calls attention to itself in the making. It is essentially one narrative device among many that writers may employ, though it allows the writer to expose a device for what it is and abandon traditional devices such as the omniscient narrator, the representation of observed reality, or the conscious use of distortion as a structuring principle. 5. Members of the German Communist Party in exile mostly preferred the somewhat imprecise term “fascist” to describe National Socialism. They did so because they could not tolerate any use of the word “socialist” or “socialism” within the Hitlerian context. As early as 1928, however, they were employing the term “social fascism” to describe left-wing parties such as the Social Democrats. At the 1935 Comintern Conference (which proved to be the last meeting of the Comintern organization), “fascism” was given its official definition as “the open, terroristic dictatorship of the most reactionary, most chauvinistic, and most imperialistic elements of finance capital.” 6. Quoted in Neues Deutschland, no. 254 (1 November 1951). 7. Das Verhör des Lukullus, a party position paper published in Neues Deutschland, no. 68 (22 March 1951). 8. Manfred Jäger, Kultur und Politik der DDR (Cologne: Wissenschaft & Politik, 1982), 34. 9. Müller stated as late as 1985 that German “fascism” was historically and thus inevitably rooted in the capitalist “world war” that “had been taking place for the past four centuries.” See Ulrich Dietzel, “Gespräch mit Heiner Müller,” Sinn und Form 6 (November/December 1985): 1205. 10. The Poets, Essayists, and Novelists Club was founded in 1921 to promote literary connections among writers across international borders and to confront governmental persecution of writers throughout the world. Its cofounder was British novelist John Galsworthy, and on the organization’s first membership list were George Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, and Joseph Conrad. There are over 140 national PEN Clubs, and some of the world’s most wellknown and accomplished writers have been members. The West German and East German PEN Clubs merged in 1998. 11. Smithsonian Archives of American Art, interview with Paul Karlstrom, 14 February 1995. 12. See David Cesarani and Paul A. Levine, Bystanders to the Holocaust (New York: Routledge, 2002) for the most recent explication of the “full boat” theory. According to Cesarani and Levine, the phrase had its initial public utterance as official policy in the words of Justice Minister Euard von Steiger. A stunning cinematic treatment of the theory is Das Boot ist Voll (The Boat Is

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Full) of 2002, directed by Markus Imhoof, based on the 1967 book of the same title by Alfred Häsler. 13. Hugo Loetscher, “The Situation of the Swiss Writer after 1945,” Modern Swiss Literature: Unity and Diversity (London: Oswald Wolff, 1985), 28. 14. Quoted by Nicholas Kulish in “Germany Confronts Holocaust Legacy Anew,” New York Times, 29 January 2008 from www.nytimes.com/2008/01/29/ world/europe/29nazi.html?scp=1&sq=%22former%20Israeli%20ambassador %20to%20Germany%22&st=cse (accessed on 3 March 2009.) 15. Günter Grass, Schreiben nach Auschwitz (Frankfurt: Leuchterhand, 1990), 42.

The Dictionary

–A– ABENDLICHT (Evening Light, 1979). Memoir by Stephan Hermlin (Rudolf Leder, 1915–1997, GDR). Hermlin was a confirmed loyalist to the communist cause, who in the memoir at age 65 looks back on his career as a highly decorated apologist for the German Democratic Republic and its official party doctrine. The book is a fascinating interior wrestling match between the author’s admission of a “false consciousness” borne of his middle-class, Jewish upbringing and adherence to officially sanctioned group-think. ACHLEITNER, FRIEDRICH (1930– ) AU-FRG. Poet, critic, architect. Achleitner studied architecture and practiced as a licensed architect in Vienna during the immediate postwar period. In 1958 he gave up his architecture practice to concentrate on poetry as a member of the Vienna Group, and published his first “concrete poetry” in 1959. In 1961 he became architecture critic for the Vienna Abendzeitung and later Die Presse, two newspapers that at the time featured extensive writing about the building boom taking place in Vienna. As a result, Achleitner became Austria’s foremost architecture critic; his 1965 book Führer zur Österreichischen Architektur im 20. Jahrhundert (Guide to Austrian Architecture in the 20th Century) made him a widely read and quoted authority; he authored and coauthored several subsequent books on architecture, bringing a unique literary perspective on the subject. Meanwhile, he published several volumes of dialect poetry and one novel, titled quadratroman (1973), consisting of doggerel verse, prose, and montage in dialect.

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ADORNO, THEODOR W. (Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund, 1903–1969). Cultural historian, philosopher. Adorno is best known for critiques of popular culture and of what he termed the “culture industry.” Yet he also wrote influential books on musicology, sociology, phenomenology, epistemology, and metaphysics. In the postwar period, Adorno’s book with Max Horkheimer titled Dialektik der Aufklärung (Dialectic of Enlightenment, 1947), published in Holland, was singularly influential. It was a critique of Western culture in general, which the authors claimed was based on rationality and the belief that rational man could become his own master. “Yet the wholly enlightened earth,” they noted with elaborate syntax but little irony, “is radiant with triumphant calamity.” That much-heralded 19th-century concept called “progress” had become, in their view, irrational regress. Hitlerism, they said, was the ultimate product of the Enlightenment and Auschwitz was the Enlightenment’s truth: “Reason as total domination.” Dialectic of Enlightenment proved to be a seminal treatise for the postwar period, launching an industry of “critical theory” still under full steam today. The book was replete with aphorisms that subsequently found their way into scores of books, journals, encyclopedias, political party platforms, and university curricula. One of the more well-known expressions associated with Adorno was that to write poetry after Auschwitz would be “barbaric.” Adorno used Marxist interpretations to read backwards into history and claim that aesthetic concerns were powerful enough to wreak social change, or at least to have a social impact. One such impact was the “commodification” of culture. Adorno recognized that capitalism had not bordered on collapse after all, as Karl Marx had predicted. It had instead become more entrenched—and largely through culture, which played a dominant role in securing the status quo. Adorno suggested that socalled culture industries—like motion pictures, the music recording business, publishing, and the electronic media—had become capable of churning out “debased, unsophisticated, and sentimental products” on an industrial scale, driving the more “sophisticated” and “critical” art forms to the margins of social consciousness. The results discouraged viewers, listeners, and readers from questioning social life. Cultural industries employed two important procedures in this process. The first was “commodity fetishism” that “objectified” cultural ex-

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periences in terms of money. Audiences become markets, he noted, delighted by a cultural commodity on the basis of how much it costs. The second procedure was the standardization of cultural products, allowing them to become formulaic, similar, and almost interchangeable. Adorno returned to Frankfurt am Main in 1949, where he had worked with Horkheimer at the Institute for Social Research prior to the Nazi takeover. There, as a professor of philosophy and sociology, he produced numerous influential books during the 1950s, among them Minima Moralia (Minima Moralia: Reflections on a Damaged Life, 1951), Versuch über Wagner (In Search of Wagner, 1952), Prismen: Kulturkritik und Gesellschaft (Prisms: Cultural Criticism and Society), Noten zur Literatur (Notes on Literature, 1958), Jargon der Eigentlichkeit (The Jargon of Authenticity, 1965), and Negative Dialektik (Negative Dialectics, 1966). In these books and in several others, Adorno demonstrated an exceptionally wide-ranging and perceptive intellect. Though scholars and critics over the years recognized some significant inconsistencies in his analyses, his ideas proved to have a lasting impact, particularly in the United States. AICHINGER, ILSE (1921– ) AU. Novelist. Aichinger survived the Third Reich in Linz and Vienna, despite the fact that her mother was Jewish. She is best known for the novel Die grössere Hoffnung (Herod’s Children, 1948), which relates the experiences she, her twin sister, and other children with “mongrelized” backgrounds (that is, a Jewish grandparent) experienced under the Nazis. Yet the novel is not a detailed exposé of the Holocaust but rather an allegorical narrative that focuses on a 15-year old named Ellen, caught up inexplicably in mortal peril. The name Adolf Hitler, the city of Vienna (where the novel is set), and the term National Socialism do not appear in it. The text consists of part fairy tale, myth, dream, evocation, and monologue. Aichinger’s other writings were more concrete, but most critics agree that she was at her best in the 1950s with nonrealistic texts that are best described as character studies. Her 1953 radio play Knöpfe (Buttons) was about workers in a button factory who gradually turn into buttons themselves. A 1954 collection titled Plätze und Strassen (Squares and Streets) dealt with imaginary characters encountered in various venues throughout Vienna. A 1957 collection

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titled Zu keiner Stunde (No Specific Time) featured a series of disembodied dialogues. Aichinger received several citations for her work in the 1950s, including the Düsseldorf Immermann Prize in 1956 and the Bremen City Prize in 1957. Her work then fell into obscurity until a collection of her entire oeuvre appeared in 1991; after that she received several honors, including the Bavarian Literature Prize, the Austrian State Literature Award, and the Joseph Breitbach Prize. ALY, GÖTZ (1947– ) FRG. Journalist, historian, pundit. Originally a newspaper reporter and later an editor, Aly has won literary prizes for over a dozen well-written, often controversial nonfiction accounts of recent German history and social movements. Among them are books of his individual authorship or with others, such as Die Restlose Erfassung (The Nazi Census, 1984); Beiträge zur Nationalsozialistichen Gesundheits- und Sozialpolitik (Cleansing the Fatherland: Nazi Medicine and Racial Hygiene, 1994); Rasse und Klasse (Race and Class, 2003); Hitlers Volksstaat: Raub, Rassenkrieg und nationaler Sozialismus (Hitler’s Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State, 2005). Many of Aly’s books find an eager readership in English, particularly in the United States. He is interested in the German state of mind during the Nazi era, in the years that immediately followed World War II, and how the ideas and preoccupations that the Nazis cultivated remain in place. He notes, for example, that the major personalities (with the possible exception of Hermann Goering) in the Nazi movement were men in their 20s and 30s. Aly finds it significant that Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, Heinrich Himmler, and others were utterly humdrum personalities. The reason so many young Germans followed them, granted them the reins of power, and allowed themselves to be strapped into the Nazi harness was their own eagerness to rebuild the country, to seek adventure, and to enjoy life. The Nazi government granted them those desires and more, proclaiming new national holidays, providing universal health care, job protection, rent controls, and low taxes. In other words, the National Socialists were socialists after all. Equally controversial has been the reception of Aly’s Unser Kampf (Our Struggle, 2008), in which he takes to task the student unrest of

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1968. He maintains that the subsequent glorification of the student protestors (of which he was one) is nonsense. Student radicals like Rudi Dutschke were romantic renegades who had the audacity to claim that university officials and police were “turning them into Jews.” Student protestors worshiped mass murderers like Mao Zedong (as did Aly himself), were the products of authoritarian homes, and they all too easily embraced totalitarianism. The result of their utopianism, Aly claims, was an influx of politically correct, secondrate professors at German universities in the 1970s and 1980s. AMERY, CARL (Christian Anton Mayer, 1922–2005) FRG. Novelist, short-story writer, essayist. Amery was strongly influenced by American literature after his brief and relatively unproblematic experience as an Allied prisoner of war (unproblematic, at least, when compared with the horrors endured by most German soldiers in Soviet confinement). He resumed his studies in Munich in 1946, began publishing under the name “Chris Mayer,” and later attended Catholic University in Washington, D.C. An early member of Group 47, he published his first novel Der Wettbewerb (The Competition) in 1954 under the name “Carl Amery,” choosing the last name as an anagram of “Mayer,” somewhat in the same way Hans Meier chose the name Jean Améry as a nom de plume. In the 1960s, Amery’s writing took a tendentious turn with essays critical of his religion (Roman Catholicism) titled Die Kapitulation, Deutscher Katholizismus heute (Capitulation: The Lesson of German Catholicism, 1967) and in 1972 Das Ende der Vorsehung: die gnadenlosen Folgen des Christentums (Conclusion of Destiny: The Merciless Results of Christianity) in which Amery became one of the first German pundits to hold religion responsible for despoiling the environment. By the mid-1970s, Amery added science fiction to his critique of the Roman church: Das Königsprojekt (The Royal Project), in which the Vatican sent a member of its “Secret Congregation for the Purification of the Throne” in a time machine designed by Leonardo da Vinci to manipulate English history and allow a member of the Bavarian royal house to ascend the throne of England. Amery’s best novel (at least the one with the best sales record) was Der Untergang der Stadt Passau (The Downfall of Passau, 1975), in which an environmental catastrophe unleashes a plague throughout

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the world. The remnants of surviving humanity form themselves into factions favoring the reestablishment of civilization (that is, “civilization” defined by technological improvements that include water treatment plants, food surpluses, and alphabets) and those desirous of maintaining a far less intrusive profile, returning perhaps to a simpler age at a level of existence just beyond the tribal. The inevitable result is deadly conflict between the two groups. Amery’s writing in the later years of the 20th century pursued similar themes, as he became more active in the “Green movement” that became relatively successful in German politics. AMÉRY, JEAN (Hans Meier, 1912–1978) FRG. Essayist, journalist, novelist. Améry chose his pseudonym as a rejection of the Germanlanguage culture into which he had been born, but he continued to write in German. He is known largely in the postwar period for his writing about his experiences during World War II, which included fighting with the Belgian resistance, capture by the Gestapo, torture, and imprisonment in several concentration camps. His Jenseits von Schuld und Sühne (Beyond Guilt and Atonement, 1966) chronicled the psychological aspects of the torture to which he was subjected; it appeared in English in 1980 as At the Mind’s Limits: Contemplations by a Survivor of Auschwitz and Its Realities. The book is a collection of essays that relate the experiences of the mind in a place like Auschwitz, though he also includes a graphic account of the torture he endured at the hands of Gestapo operatives in Belgium. Taken together, the essays form an invaluable account of what the mind does to sustain itself in a wholly unsustainable situation. Prior to that volume, he had published several works of cultural reportage, including Karrieren und Köpfe (Careers and Heads, 1955), Teenager-Stars (1960), Im Banne des Jazz (Under the Spell of Jazz, 1961), and Geburt der Gegenwart (Preface to the Future, 1961). Because Jenseits von Schuld und Sühne proved to be so popular, Améry became a frequently heard voice on German radio, and he was much in demand as a public speaker. In the 1970s, he wrote two novels: Lefeu oder der Abbruch (Lefeu, or the Demolition, 1974) and Charles Bovary, Landarzt (Charles Bovary, Country Doctor, 1978), though neither proved to be popular in German-language book markets.

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ANDERSCH, ALFRED (1914–1980) FRG. Novelist, essayist. Andersch is perhaps best known as one of the cofounders of Group 47, the influential organization that promoted German literary activity in the postwar period. Andersch became active in party politics as a teenager and spent six months during 1933 in the Dachau concentration camp as a result. He served as an enlisted man on various fronts with the German army, and in 1944 he surrendered in Italy to American forces. In American prisoner-of-war camps, Andersch helped publish the periodical Der Ruf (The Call), which was intended to inform the “average” German enlisted man of Nazi atrocities and to maintain, Andersch and his colleagues hoped, a positive stance toward the German literature and culture that the Nazis had successfully suppressed. Repatriated in 1946, Andersch focused his attention on the essay and the promotion of a new generation of German writers. His was among the most frequently heard voices on postwar German radio in the late 1940s, making him one of the first German media personalities. The broadcasts were essentially talk shows; on Die Professoren (The Professors) for the Hessian Radio Network, he discussed with well-known scholars their work, interests, and opinions. Ein Buch und eine Meinung (A Book and an Opinion) consisted of book reviews and cultural discussions relating to the books in question; Radio Essay on the Southwest Radio Network presented a wide variety of topics in which Andersch was interested, which included painting, musical composition, music performance, theater, fiction, and poetry. According to many observers during the 1950s, Andersch became a household name in many German families, most of whom for the first time were exposed to controversial topics and often to freeform criticism of West German culture and politics. Some have credited Andersch with helping to develop a political maturity among his listening audiences. His radio career contributed significantly to his development as an essayist. Among the more significant of his essays to appear in print form were “Thomas Mann als Politiker” (Thomas Mann as a Politician, 1955), “Die Blindheit des Kunstwerks” (The Blindness of Art, 1956), and “Denk-Zettel für Kulturkonsumenten” (Thoughts for Cultural Consumers, 1959). What Andersch himself wanted most was acclaim as a novelist. But some critics, such as Marcel Reich-Ranicki, found his

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novels sentimental. W. G. Sebald went even further, claiming that Andersch had damaged his writing by trying to hide his past. Andersch’s literary efforts at any rate took a secondary place to his efforts as a nonfiction essayist in the immediate postwar period. As noted, American occupation authorities suppressed his work on The Call, but Andersch went on to found and edit other journals, among them the bimonthly Texte und Zeichen (Texts and Notes) while publishing his “autobiographical novel” Die Kirschen der Freiheit (The Cherries of Freedom, 1952) and the novella Sansibar (Zanzibar, 1957). The former was a treatment of the reasons for his desertion from the German army, and the latter an allegory about individuals on the run from the Nazis who attempt to save a religious sculpture by Ernst Barlach. Subsequent novels were Die Rote (The Redhead, 1960), about a woman who becomes involved in the hunt for a former Gestapo officer. In Efraim (1967), the title character is a former Berliner who ends up in Berlin at the time of the Cuban missile crisis, then covers the visit of John F. Kennedy to the city in 1963, and later has an affair with an actress who is devoted to Marxism—all in the process of rediscovering his Judaism. Winterspelt (1974) takes place in 1944 near a village of that name in the Eifel region of western Germany; in it, a German major prepares to surrender to advancing American troops. There was also Der Vater eines Mörders (The Father of a Murderer), which he completed shortly before his death. Its subject was one of his schoolteachers at the Wittelsbach Gymnasium in Munich, who happened to be the father of SS leader Heinrich Himmler (1900–1945). Andersch won several awards and literary prizes for his work. Among them were the Nelly Sachs Prize from the City of Dortmund, the Charles Veillon Prize of the City of Lausanne, and the Bavarian Literature Prize. ANGST DES TORMANNS BEIM ELFMETER, DIE (The Goalie’s Anxiety at the Penalty Kick, 1970). In this novella by Peter Handke, several scholars have noted the similarity of Handke’s treatment of extreme subjectivity to those by Franz Kafka. The first sentence is a good example of the similarity: “When Joseph Bloch, a construction worker who had once been a well-known soccer goalie, reported for work that morning, he was told that he had been fired.” The differ-

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ence between the protagonist Joseph Bloch and Kafka’s protagonists is that in Kafka, there seems to be an external reality somewhere, though only the protagonist’s tormentors fully grasp it. In the case of Joseph Bloch, there is no external reality. The only reality in the novella consists of Bloch’s perceptions. He has not been fired from his job; he merely perceives conditions at the construction site where he works as an indication that he has lost his job. Thus, he leaves the site with the gears of his paranoid schizophrenia fully in motion, carrying him through several events in the city of Vienna that include murder. Nothing is planned; he mindlessly reads newspapers, watches a movie, and encounters a young woman. She momentarily irritates him, so he strangles her. But the act of murder frightens him, and he boards a bus to a destination somewhere in the south of Austria, where a former girlfriend runs a small hotel. He takes a room and anticipates his arrest, much like a goalie anticipates the direction of the soccer ball coming into the net from a distance of 11 meters. “You’re always at a disadvantage,” someone tells Bloch. “All you can ever do is react.” Will the ball aim for the down-left corner? Or will it arc up toward the right? ANSICHTEN EINES CLOWNS (The Clown, 1963). Novel by Heinrich Böll. The original title says a lot more about this novel than is apparent, because the word “viewpoints” (Ansichten) describes Böll’s narrative strategy. The novel is essentially an indictment of the newly prosperous Germany, filled with rehabilitated former National Socialists, stunning prosperity, repressed feelings of guilt, and a pervasive sense that something is distinctly wrong with the “new” Germany—West Germany, that is. His narrative focuses on Hans Schnier, a clown in decline. After injuring himself during a pratfall routine, he returns to his apartment in Bonn and on one evening calls as many people as he can to forestall what seems to be an inevitable breakdown. His girlfriend of several years, named Marie, has left him. He telephones friends, acquaintances, and family members to request their help in locating her but in the process learns that she has married an observant Roman Catholic gentleman. That discovery is particularly galling to Hans, because Roman Catholicism was a flashpoint in the relationship between him and Marie. In between conversations on the telephone,

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Böll features digressive meditations on the Church, on the current state of West Germany, its economic boom, and the fact Germans are not really entitled to economic prosperity—not, at least, until they come to grips with their Nazi past. After making several telephone calls, Hans realizes that he is completely broke and makes his way to the Bonn train station to beg for money. Among the more significant aspects of the novel is Böll’s creation of Hans, whose “viewpoints” render him solipsistic to the point of narcissism. It becomes clear that Hans is rapidly approaching a psychological crisis, or at least some kind of mental breakdown, yet the reader becomes so increasingly fascinated with his preoccupations that he becomes a wholly sympathetic figure. When he calls his formerly anti-Semitic mother (who now gives lectures in America on the repentance of Germans), she asks him, “You just can’t forget, can you?” The impression is that Hans is surrounded by figures who have comfortably accommodated themselves to the past and have simply “moved on.” In a similar way, Hans is stunned by Marie’s insistence on loyalty to the Catholic Church, because the Church seems to offer shelter to Germans whose loyalty, only recently, was to National Socialism. Such social dynamics are possible only in a sick society, one approaching a complete collapse—much like Hans Schnier himself. See also FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY. APITZ, BRUNO (1900–1979) GDR. Novelist. Few other writers could boast the proletarian parentage, Marxist credentials, and unswerving commitment to communist ideology that marked the life and career of Bruno Apitz. He is known almost solely for one book, Nackt unter Wölfen (Naked among Wolves), the sensational 1958 autobiographical novel in which he depicted the Buchenwald concentration camp, where Apitz was confined from 1937 to 1945. It was a best-seller initially in East Germany and then went on to be translated into over 30 languages, where it likewise attracted a wide readership. In the novel, the work of the “International Camp Committee,” made up of numerous communists, is interrupted by the arrival in one of the prisoners’ barracks of Jankowski, who carries a suitcase. Inside the suitcase is a four year-old boy. Members of the committee fear their resistance work will be compromised if they attempt to hide the boy. Discovery would mean certain death for

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anyone with knowledge of the boy. The men discuss the situation and make the difficult decision to expose him and the man who brought him to Buchenwald; that decision reduces the boy to one “naked among wolves,” and the wolves are essentially the only ones who can save him. Then comes word that the Allied forces are nearby and liberation may come soon. The “wolves” decide that they must attempt to keep the boy’s presence among them a secret for as long as they can. After several near discoveries, the day of liberation arrives amid general celebration. There is a hint that efforts to save the boy probably compromised resistance efforts—but even communists can be amenable to humanitarian concerns. A film of the same title was completed in 1963, shot on location at the Buchenwald camp, directed by Frank Beyer and starring Jürgen Strauch as the boy, with Apitz in a small role. After its opening, it came to light that the boy of the actual episode in Buchenwald (and the man who brought him to the camp in the suitcase, who happened to be his father) was living in France. His father was living in Israel, where he and his son had settled in the late 1940s. The reunion of the boy, named Stefan Jerzy Zweig, with the men who had at first rejected him (including Bruno Apitz) and then risked their lives to save him attracted attention on both sides of the Iron Curtain and assured Apitz the notoriety he needed to continue his publishing career. None of his subsequent efforts (a novel and an autobiography) attracted the attention Naked among Wolves enjoyed. See also HOLOCAUST. ARTMANN, HANS CARL (1921–2000) AU. Poet and translator. Artmann was an heir to the German-language dadaist tradition and an influential member of the Vienna Group (Wiener Gruppe) of poets, whose “concrete poetry” marked the 1950s in Austrian verse as experimentierfreudig, one characterized by openness to experimentation. Artmann left the group in 1958, however, and concentrated on dialect poetry comprehensible only to those who were familiar with the patois of various Austrian regional idioms. Artmann thereafter received numerous prizes for his poetry and was considered by many an “Austrian treasure.” Among his awards were the Austrian State Prize for Literature in 1974, the Austrian Cross of Honor for Arts and Sciences, the Literature Prize of the City of Vienna, several

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encomia from the city of Salzburg, along with many others specific to Austria. ASMODI, HERBERT (Herbert Kaiser, 1923–2007) FRG. Dramatist, screenwriter, novelist. Asmodi established himself as a popular playwright in the 1950s, beginning with Jenseits vom Paradies (The Other Side of Paradise, 1953), followed by Pardon wird nicht gegeben (Pardon Denied, 1958), Nachsaison (Post Season, 1959), and several others that premiered in Munich, where he was also a theater critic. In the 1970s, his book of poetry Jokers Gala captured a surprisingly wide readership, as did its sequel, Jokers Farewell. He wrote a score of television and film screenplays, the most significant of which was probably Der junge Törless, based on the novel by Robert Musil and filmed by Volker Schlöndorff in 1966. AUSTERLITZ (2001). Novel by W. G. Sebald. The “title character” of Sebald’s novel is another of the many fictional figures whom the author created in his novels to explore the ideas of survival, exile, memory, isolation, and the unsettling experience of being German in the postwar period. Jacques Austerlitz became Dafydd Elias of Wales when his parents sent him to Great Britain from their native Prague. Much of the novel consists of quotes from Austerlitz (indicated by the devices “said Austerlitz” or “noted Austerlitz,” which Sebald so effectively employed in his other work), though what Austerlitz says is mostly experiential and thus pseudo anecdotal. Austerlitz recites to the novel’s narrator all manner of sensations, ideas, observations, and experiences, recalling his attempts to find out who his parents were and where they may have met their deaths. He is often tormented by the opacity of his beginnings and ultimately mystified by what he considers his own nonidentity. When he does learn that his mother was sent to the Theresienstadt concentration camp, and later in all likelihood to Auschwitz, his sense of isolation deepens, as does his depression. Sebald sets up the lengthy “interview” with Austerlitz by describing him as a fellow scholar whom he once met in the 1960s; a chance meeting of the two in the late 1990s leads to the main body of the novel, published in one paragraph. Also included in the novel are photographs and drawings, which are authorial efforts to maintain the

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fiction of a real encounter between the narrator and Austerlitz. What the fiction reveals, however, is the narrator’s own disquiet in the confrontation of himself as a German; is it incumbent upon him to take responsibility for the fate of Austerlitz, his parents, and the millions of others like him? AUSTRIA (1955– ). It remains something of an etymological mystery how “Austria” derived from Ostarrîchi in Old High German and later Österreich. The latter terms signify “eastern border lands” or “eastern realm,” probably to denote territories at the eastern boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire. “Austria” in Latin, however, signifies territory to the south. The Romans colonized the Upper Danube Valley around 15–20 BC, and one of their outposts was called Vindobona, which ultimately became Vienna. Marcus Aurelius died there in 180 AD. The Bundesrepublik Österreich as it is presently constituted came formally into existence 10 years and 1 week after the capitulation of German armed forces in World War II. Hundreds of thousands of Austrian men had been drafted into those forces, but large numbers had also volunteered. Many had furthermore committed atrocities as members of elite SS commando units. The four victorious Allied powers nonetheless restored full sovereignty to Austria in a “State Treaty” signed 15 May 1955, reestablishing national boundaries that were in place at the time of the German Anschluss (annexation) of Austria in 1938. During the 10 years of occupation prior to 1955, Austrian literature witnessed a remarkable turnaround, beginning with the publication of novels by Heimito von Doderer and Ilse Aichinger, the short fiction and radio dramas of Herbert Eisenreich, the plays of Fritz Hochwälder, and the poetry of Ingeborg Bachmann. Perhaps the most noteworthy development in the “occupation period” was the development of the Vienna Group (Wiener Gruppe), whose beginnings in 1953 marked a renewed embrace of modernist tendencies, along with an endorsement of Austrian-born Ludwig Wittgenstein’s linguistic theories. In the 1950s, the formation of an organization like the Vienna Group meant little. As the decades progressed, however, its membership began to attract significant critical attention and make its influence felt. Ernst Jandl, Oswald Wiener, Friederike Mayröcker,

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Konrad Bayer, Elfriede Gerstl, Gerhard Rühm, Friedrich Achleitner, and the group’s initial leader, Hans Carl Artmann, found themselves celebrated and decorated in years to come, largely because their once experimental and distinctly off-beat literary viewpoints had become mainstream. The influence of the Vienna Group is most noticeable in the work of three writers who rose to prominence beginning in the 1960s. The first of them was Thomas Bernhard, whose novels were seen as experimentierfreudig, or exercises in experimentation with linguistic form somewhat in the manner of the Vienna Group poets but combining the skepticism of Wittgenstein with the negation of Arthur Schopenhauer. Bernhard’s novels in the later 1960s turned the direction of Austrian fiction sharply toward negation, as characters slowly go insane, suffer some physical agony, or endure forms of self-induced psychic disintegration before committing suicide. Such characters bewildered, intrigued, and finally outraged many Austrian readers. Few Austrians, indeed, ever accepted Bernhard as “fully Austrian.” His last substantial work of fiction featuring language instrumental in his embrace of negation was Wittgensteins Neffe (Wittgenstein’s Nephew, 1982), a kind of requiem for pianist Paul Wittgenstein, the philosopher’s nephew. Peter Handke shared a “Wittgensteinian” skepticism about language with Bernhard, as well as a literary indebtedness to the Vienna Group. Unlike Bernhard, Handke established himself first as a playwright. His Publikumsbeschimpfung (Insulting the Audience, 1966), Kaspar (1967), and Der Ritt über den Bodensee (The Ride across Lake Constance, 1970), along with fiction works such as Die Angst des Tormanns beim Elfmeter (The Goalie’s Anxiety at the Penalty Kick) and the memoir Wunschloses Unglück (A Sorrow beyond Dreams, 1972) culminated in the Büchner Prize of 1973. Bernhard had received that award three years earlier, and by the mid-1970s there was little doubt that Austria had indeed crossed some kind of literary threshold in the postwar period. Few Austrians were enthusiastic about crossing that threshold, and even fewer read the work of Bernhard and Handke at the time. Yet even bigger developments were on the horizon. The third of the big three Austrian Nestbeschmützer (“birds who shit in their own nests,” a picturesque term Austrians initially used to describe Bernhard) was Elfriede Jelinek.

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Jelinek was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2004, by which time she had created an oeuvre that had won her global esteem—except in Austria. Her career began in the 1970s with her first novel wir sind lockvogel baby! (We’re Just Decoys). Like Bernhard, Jelinek had intensively studied music (a major theme of her novel Die Klavierspielerin, translated as The Piano Teacher, 1983). Like Handke, she employed parody and pastiche in language. But unlike both Bernhard and Handke, she promoted a political and ideological agenda as both a Marxist and feminist. Prominent Austrians denounced her publicly, and she responded in kind. She attacked Austria’s history of antiSemitism and collusion with National Socialism; so had Bernhard, but Jelinek assaulted individual Austrians and their comportment during the Nazi era and afterwards. She relentlessly flailed the male establishments that ran Austrian government, banking, industry, commerce, and most other areas of her country’s life. She was one of the first Austrian authors to set up her own Internet website for the purpose of denouncing politicians and other men whom she felt deserved her chastisement. The prizes and awards continued to come pouring in (as they had for Bernhard and Handke), while her detractors were left sputtering in frustrated stupefaction. Meanwhile, Austrian writers such as Wolfgang Bauer, Thomas Glavinic, Peter Turrini, Arno Geiger, and Robert Menasse had established themselves and embarked on successful careers. In the limelight cast on the Big Three of Bernhard, Handke, and Jelinek, those writers seemed almost to wither in the shadows. But Menasse and Glavinic have been careful to ruffle as many feathers as they can in the 21st century, and denunciations have predictably followed. AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL FICTION. Authors writing about themselves and sometimes disguising it as fiction is a long and honorable tradition in German, as it is in most literatures. Given the tumultuous events that preceded the postwar period, there was some trepidation about what to expect in personal accounts, both fictional and otherwise. The sufferings of World War II, combined with Cold War tensions, provided ample material for authors. The first autobiographical accounts of note appeared in 1946: Luise Rinser’s Gefängnistagebuch (A Woman’s Prison Journal) and Ernst Wiechert’s Der Totenwald (The Forest of the Dead)

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were riveting accounts of Nazi injustice. Bruno Apitz’ novel Nackt unter Wölfen (Naked among Wolves), like Wiechert’s, was set in the Buchenwald concentration camp, but it featured a more sensational narrative. Since it concerned the fate of a real child and how that child survived, Naked among Wolves prompted interest in the fate of other children caught up in the Holocaust and the murderous anarchy of World War II. Marie Luise Kaschnitz’ 1956 autobiography Das Haus der Kindheit (The House of Childhood) had already attracted a substantial readership, but the 1959 novel featuring a child who refused to grow up in the face of the atrocities around him, titled Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum), by Günter Grass became the autobiographical work of fiction nonpareil. Yet The Tin Drum was autobiographical only in part; Grass made equal use of conventions from numerous other novelistic traditions. When he got around to writing his “literal” autobiography in 2006, titled Beim Häuten der Zwiebel (Peeling the Onion), readers discovered that he had fictionalized not only in his novels but also in the details of his life. The 1960s brought forth a somewhat wider variety of autobiographical work, and 1966 provided a particularly rich harvest with noteworthy implications for the future. That year marked the beginning of Hermann Lenz’ nine-volume cycle of novels featuring his alter ego Eugen Rapp. Few other authors were so prolific in autobiographical fiction as Lenz, though Erwin Strittmatter’s had three volumes, as did Die Ästhetik des Widerstands (The Aesthetics of Resistance) by Peter Weiss. The Weiss work, however, was over 1,000 pages long. Not even Thomas Bernhard’s, comprised of five novellas, could approach that measure of verbosity. The five novellas comprising Bernhard’s memoir are Die Ursache, eine Andeutung (An Indication of the Cause, 1975), Der Keller, eine Entziehung (The Cellar, 1976), Der Atem, eine Entscheidung (Breath, 1978), Die Kälte, eine Isolation. (In the Cold, 1981), and finally Ein Kind (A Child, 1982). The first Bernhard novella, when it initially appeared, unleashed a storm of controversy resulting in several lawsuits against the author, as individuals mentioned in the book accused him of libel. A compilation of the five novellas later appeared in English as Gathering Evidence and later as Die Autobiografie (The Autobiography). Also in 1966, Kaschnitz followed up her 1956 autobiography with the less interesting Beschreibung eines Dorfes (Description of a Vil-

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lage), while Carl Zuckmayer’s Als wär’s ein Stück von mir (A Part of Myself) established new standards for the “theater memoir.” It provided a balanced, non-narcissistic view of what had happened in German-language theater and drama from the 1920s onward. And finally in 1966, Jean Améry’s Jenseits von Schuld und Sühne (Beyond Guilt and Atonement) appeared, a personal testimony of the agonies Améry endured at the hands of German agents. In many ways, Beyond Guilt and Atonement broke the taboo against literary renderings of the Holocaust. His descriptions of how his torturers took sadistic delight in dislocating his shoulder joints made for uncomfortable reading, but they changed the way readers were accustomed to accommodating the Holocaust—usually by entertaining the idea that history could proceed as it had always done. In the 1970s, Walter Kempowski’s novel Tadellöser & Wolff recalled Thomas Mann’s Die Buddenbrooks as a retrospection of experiences based on the author’s middle-class family. Kempowski’s novel began on Kristallnacht (the “Night of Broken Glass,” 9 November 1938) and proceeded to the Nazi government’s pogrom against its Jewish citizens, its instigation of World War II, the family’s approval of Hitler as their leader, the arrival of slave laborers at the Kempowski family’s shipping company in Rostock, and scores of domestic concerns that conclude in German capitulation. Peter Handke’s Der kurze Brief zum langen Abschied (Short Letter, Long Farewell) and Wünschloses Unluck (A Sorrow beyond Dreams) likewise differed from accustomed practices in autobiographical writing. A Sorrow beyond Dreams was a biography of his mother, her struggles during the war years, her travails during his upbringing, and her suicide at age 51. His Short Letter, Long Farewell also differed from other autobiographies because it qualified primarily as travel literature. That he used the travel format to document his divorce and probe his feelings about marriage in general (and women in particular) resulted in a stunningly effective novel. Or was it a novel? Many readers and critics refused to believe that Franz Innerhofer’s 1974 Schöne Tage (Beautiful Days) was anything but a novel. Its descriptions of his beastly childhood must have been generously embellished, readers hoped. But they were disappointed. Innerhofer convinced skeptics that what happened to him, recorded in Beautiful Days, had happened to lots of Austrian children. Christa Wolf, on

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the other hand, published a disclaimer in her 1976 Kindheitsmuster (A Model Childhood), claiming that she had invented all the characters in her book. But her narrative returns to the village where she grew up and presents readers with a child her own age whose experiences in the 1930s and 1940s mirrored her own. The implication was that no one can effectively write an autobiography; no one can possibly “come to grips with the past,” her own or anyone else’s. The most ambitious autobiographical effort of the 1970s was probably the aforementioned three-volume Die Ästhetik des Widerstands (The Aesthetics of Resistance), which Weiss began in 1975 and completed through the remainder of the decade. Weiss made little attempt to disguise the book’s autobiographical basis, nor did he intend it primarily as a novel. His purpose was to write a jeremiad, a prolonged lamentation full of accusatory invective replete with Marxist bromides. The 1980s witnessed further developments in the autobiography as jeremiad, particularly in Elfriede Jelinek’s Die Klavierspielerin (The Piano Teacher, 1983). Jelinek’s book provoked almost as much outrage as had Bernhard’s autobiographical novellas. It was a stunning roman à clef, even its most vociferous detractors admitted. Helga Novak’s second autobiographical volume Vogel federlos (Bird without Feathers) was formally much different, though it manifested at times a similar despondency. Hartmut Lange attempted to examine the despondent tendency of German-language autobiographers in his 1983 Tagebuch eines Melancholikers (Diary of a Melancholy Man), while Hermann Burger wrote a collection of apothegms about suicide shortly before he took his own life in 1989. Burger had written a lengthy autobiographical novel during the same period, and it (titled Brenner) was published posthumously. The unification of Germany in 1990 precipitated several autobiographical works, many by former German Democratic Republic (GDR) authors attempting to justify their allegiance to the failed system of which many were a part. The most egregious of them was probably Hermann Kant’s Abspann (Final Credits) in 1991. Christa Wolf encountered equally severe criticism for her short story “Was bleibt” (What Remains), in which she attempted to portray herself as a victim of state surveillance. Later (in 1993) Wolf publicly admitted she had been an informant for the East German secret police, and her professional standing never fully recovered. Her chronicle Ein Tag im

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Jahr, however, covering the date of 27 September over a period of 40 years (between 1960 and 2000) helped somewhat to rehabilitate her. Her GDR colleague Günter de Bruyn, on the other hand, enjoyed a growth in popularity and esteem among readers and critics. His 1992 Zwischenbilanz: eine Jugend in Berlin (Interim Conclusions: A Youth in Berlin) and his 1996 Vierzig Jahre: ein Lebensbericht (Forty Years: A Life Report) had little of the self-serving exculpatory ethos present in the work of former GDR colleagues. He instead claimed that in writing an autobiography, the facts one presents are much less interesting than the way in which they are presented. And furthermore, he stated, little autobiographical writing gets the facts straight anyway. The trend to play loose with the facts accelerated in the 21st century. Thomas Glavinic’s 2007 novel Das bin doch ich (That’s Certainly Me) was a record of his attempts to write the kind of book that gets considered for the German Book Prize; it made it to the short list of the German Book Prize, as it turned out. The most explosive autobiography of the new century was the aforementioned Peeling the Onion, in which Grass revealed that his conscription in World War II, which he had bruited about for six decades, was not a fact at all. His revelations in some ways threw conceptions about German autobiography into a kind of reverse cycle to the 1950s, when it seemed as if the author’s duty included at least an attempt to tell the truth—or some semblance of it.

–B– BACHMANN, INGEBORG (1926–1973) AU. Poet, novelist, shortfiction writer. Bachmann was born in Klagenfurt, Austria, and studied philosophy at the universities of Innsbruck, Graz, and Vienna. At the University of Vienna, she completed a doctoral dissertation on philosopher Martin Heidegger in 1950. She published her first work of fiction, Die Fähre (The Ferry), in 1947 and four years later began writing professionally for Austrian radio as an editor and writer of radio plays, and through the 1950s concentrated on poetry. After the 1953 publication of her poetry collection Die gestundete Zeit (Time Measured in Hours, sometimes translated as “Mortgaged Time,” also as “Borrowed Time”), Bachmann was awarded

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the Group 47 Prize. The poem from which the title derives is spare in its evocation of dread, spelled out in hours before “harder days now on the horizon arrive.” Those are the days when the mortgage on earlier times—presumably those of the Third Reich—will have to be paid off. This kind of poetry was a shock to readers of German in the 1950s, when few were prepared to consider the Nazi years as a hypothecation. Bachmann moved to the Italian island of Ischia (which had a large German-speaking population) in late 1953, where she remained intermittently for four years. During the summer of 1954, Bachmann was invited to a summer program at Harvard University to participate in a seminar program directed by Henry Kissinger. She continued to write poetry during this period, the most notable example of which was Anrufung des grossen Bären (Invocation to the Great Bear), which mixed mythic dimensions with the same kind of dread found in earlier poems. She called upon the Great Bear to come down “with your star claws . . . and break through the thickets of shaggy night.” But during this period she also produced political commentary under the name “Ruth Keller” for a newspaper in Essen. In the mid-1960s, she began to concentrate on prose, resulting in one of the best novels written during the postwar period, titled Malina, published in 1971. She had other novels underway at the time of her accidental death in Rome, and they were published posthumously. It is difficult to imagine them on the same level of achievement as Malina, which many readers consider her masterpiece. In it, she expands the idea of authorial subjectivity that had been rarely seen in the postwar period. BAIERL, HELMUT (1926–2005) GDR. Dramatist, poet. Baierl was a longtime functionary in the theater of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), and in the 1960s he served as “party secretary” of the Berliner Ensemble. That position enabled him to get his play Frau Flinz produced at the theater, in a production that featured Bertolt Brecht’s widow, Helene Weigel, in the title role. In 1970 he wrote the screenplay for an East German film titled Unterwegs zu Lenin (Off to See Lenin); it was not popular with audiences, though the Frau Flinz production remained in the Berliner Ensemble for several years. Baierl received several official state citations for his work, receiving the Service Cross of the Fatherland not once but twice. After German reunification, files in the GDR Ministry for State Security revealed

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that Baierl had been a paid informer and had betrayed several writers, actors, and artists to secret police authorities. BAUER, WOLFGANG (1941–2005). Dramatist. Bauer enjoyed a brief vogue in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a writer of anarchic, often humorous plays featuring idiosyncratic, errant youth in his native Vienna. His popularity had waned so much by the 1980s, however, that his work was rarely staged. Yet he continued to write unpublished and unstaged works; by the time of his death, he had completed over 30 plays. His Magic Afternoon (1967) was the basis of a feature film that premiered in 2003, titled The Young Unknowns, set in Los Angeles and directed by Catherine Jelski. See also THEATER. BECHER, JOHANNES ROBERT (1891–1958). Poet, cultural minister. Becher is best known as the author of the German Democratic Republic’s (GDR) national anthem, “Auferstanden aus Ruinen” (Resurrected from the Ruins), though he had composed several notable works of poetry in the Weimar Republic. Some critics have described him as a leading poet of German futurism. Others, given his unapologetic advocacy of the GDR, dismissed him as a political poetaster whose principal interest was self-aggrandizement. A devoted communist since the mid-1920s, Becher found refuge in Moscow during World War II and was instrumental in founding the Kulturbund zur demokratischen Erneuerung Deutschlands (Cultural League for the Democratic Renewal of Germany) in 1945. He served as a writer on the 1950 film Familie Benthin, one of the first featurelength movies created in the GDR. Becher later wrote several books on poetry during his tenure as cultural minister of the GDR, and in 1955 GDR cultural functionaries founded a “creative writing institute” in his name, the only one of its kind in the GDR. The putative goal of the institute, located in Leipzig, was to train novelists, poets, and dramatists in the fine art of writing socialist realism. During the “de-Stalinization” thaw beginning in 1956, Becher attempted to push through some reforms that might have loosened the restrictions on literary endeavor in the GDR, had they been enacted. His efforts met with failure and the GDR leadership removed Becher from positions of power and influence in 1957. Following his death in 1958, the

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Leipzig institute was renamed the “Johannes R. Becher Literature Institute,” which continued to function under that name until 1991. In that year, students demanded a name change, along with a completely new administration, faculty, and mission for the institute. It became the German Literature Institute in 1995 and was incorporated into the likewise newly reconstituted University of Leipzig. BECKER, JUREK (Jerzy Bekker, 1937–1997) GDR-FRG. Novelist, screenwriter. Becker was born in Lodz, Poland, and suffered extreme hardship at a very early age in the Lodz ghetto, then in concentration camps, and later in refugee camps. Both he and his parents somehow survived until 1945, the year in which his mother died; then his father took him to East Berlin, where they settled permanently. In East Berlin, Becker grew to manhood speaking the German language, beginning his university studies at Humboldt University. Becker became best known for his picaresque novel Jakob der Lügner (Jacob the Liar), which he completed as a screenplay in 1965. Prior to that time he had worked successfully as a writer for East German television and hoped the screenplay could be turned into a film. The authorities rejected the screenplay as too controversial; to them, it did not accord with the demands of socialist realism and seemed preoccupied with the character of Jakob, not with a socialist message. Becker spent the next four years transforming Jakob into a novel. Upon its release for publication in West Germany, it became a best-seller and won him several literary prizes. Its success may explain in part why East German authorities agreed to the filming of the book in 1975, directed by Frank Beyer and starring Vlastimil Brodsky as Jakob. Another version, filmed in English and starring Robin Williams as Jakob, appeared in 1999. The actor Armin Müller-Stahl appeared in both versions. Other books followed, among them Die Irreführung der Behörden (The Deception of the Authorities, 1973); it likewise has deceit as the motivation of its central character. In it, Georg Bienek is a student who opportunistically manipulates state officials, placing his own advancement as a writer ahead of socialist idealism. Der Boxer (The Boxer, 1976) continues to treat the idea of deception, as the “boxer” in question is not really a boxer at all; he invents stories of himself as such for the benefit of his son, who must learn to defend himself in a

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brutal, callous world—even if it is the socialist world of the German Democratic Republic. Becker encountered serious difficulties with the authorities of the GDR, despite his group classification as an official “victim of fascism” (Opfer des Faschismus), which entitled him to preferences in housing, employment, and other provisions of the state. Becker publicly identified himself with support for the Wolf Biermann case in 1976; that act cost Becker his membership in the East German Writers’ Union (closing all opportunities for further publication) and his membership in the Socialist Unity Party. Recognizing that his East German career was now finished, Becker immigrated to the West and taught at Oberlin College in Ohio for a year. He returned to West Germany, where he wrote three more novels: Schlaflose Tage (Sleepless Days, 1978), Aller Welt Freund (A Friend to the World, 1982), and Bronsteins Kinder (Bronstein’s Children, 1986), none of them published in the GDR. In 1986, Becker returned to the writing at which he was perhaps most gifted, the screenplay. He wrote LieblingKreuzberg (Robert Liebling of Kreuzberg, Attorney at Law), creating the title character around the talents of Manfred Krug, the highly popular actor who, like Becker, had left East Germany in 1977. Becker wrote 45 episodes of the series, winning several prizes and awards for his efforts. They included the Golden Gong Award in 1986 and the German Attorneys’ Prize in 1988. See also FICTION. BECKER, PETER VON (1947– ) FRG. Critic, historian, journalist, novelist. A widely published theater, film, and literary critic, Becker’s production of the six-part television broadcast “Das Jahrhundert des Theaters” (The Century of Theater, on ZDF and 3sat) in 2002 won wide praise from viewers and critics, as did the book of the same title that accompanied the series. Previously, von Becker had been active as a critic for the weekly newspaper Die Zeit, the news magazine Der Spiegel, and the monthly Theater Heute, and for seven years was the cultural editor of the Berlin newspaper Der Tagespiegel. He has written several books on the theater, as well as one novel, Die andere Zeit, published in 1994. BENDER, HANS (1919– ) FRG. Short-story writer, novelist, poet. Bender was one of many former soldiers (such as Heinrich Böll,

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Günter Eich, Wolfgang Borchert, Wolfdietrich Schnurre, and others) whose many years of military service (and in Bender’s case, an equally long term in prisoner-of-war confinement) as an enlisted man strongly influenced his writing upon return to the Federal Republic of Germany. Many critics considered Bender a representative exponent of Trümmerliteratur, though he arrived somewhat late (1949) for “full inclusion” within that group. Many individuals associated with Trümmerliteratur had been publishing accounts of the wretchedness they had witnessed and the deprivations they had experienced since 1946. Bender gained his first significant notice with the novel Eine Sache wie die Liebe (A Thing Like Love, 1955), which took him back to his native Mühlhausen (near Cologne) and into the arms of his first girlfriend. His second novel Wunschkost (A Treat to Wish For) detailed a young soldier named Ulmer, whose experience in Russian captivity included a deadly infection that he barely survived, only to be implicated in false accusations of committing war atrocities. It is a riveting account. His most significant writing came in the form of short fiction; his numerous collections of stories included Wölfe und Taube (Wolves and Pigeons, 1957), Das wiegende Haus (The Swaying House, 1961) and Die Wölfe kommen zurück (The Wolves Are Coming Back, 1965). Bender was also an expert editor of several volumes of lyric poetry during the 1970s and 1980s; from 1954 until 1980, he edited the literary journal Akzent, dedicated to publishing the work of young authors. BENN, GOTTFRIED (1886–1956). Poet, novelist, prose stylist. The son of a Lutheran pastor, Benn studied medicine and was a practicing physician (with a specialty in venereal diseases) most of his life. He published several widely praised volumes of expressionist poetry in the 1920s and many critics cited him as one of the best exemplars of the modernist lyric. Benn initially voiced support for the Nazi regime, but he later became disillusioned with National Socialism and the regime banned publication of his work in 1935. In that year, he rejoined the medical corps of the German army, in which he served during the remaining decade. Because he had been an initial supporter of National Socialism, the Allied occupation forces banned the publication of his poetry until 1949, when a Swiss publisher printed and distributed his volume Statische Gedichte (Static Poems)

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in the newly established Federal Republic of Germany. The volume served to rehabilitate his reputation and place much-needed distance between him and his Nazi associations; subsequent publication of work he had secretly written during the Nazi years raised his stature accordingly. His autobiography, Doppelleben (Double Life), in 1950 became a best-seller, and by the time of his death he had received numerous awards and citations. A literary society bearing his name was established in Bremen, dedicated to the study of his work and influence. BERGENGRUEN, WERNER (1892–1964) FRG. Novelist. Often cited as an exemplar of “inner emigration” during the Third Reich, Bergengruen’s novels in the postwar period form a religious bulwark against arguments of collective guilt and a Gegenbild (alternative image) of Germans who, like Bergengruen, remained essentially silent in Germany during the Nazi years. In the postwar period, Bergengruen became best known for three semi-serious novels featuring a quixotic cavalry captain as its central character. They were Der Letzte Rittmeister (The Last Captain of Horse, 1952), Die Rittmeisterin (The Captain’s Muse, 1954), and Der dritte Kranz (The Third Wreath, 1962). Bergengruen received numerous awards for his work in the 1950s, including the Federal Service Cross in 1958 and the Order Pour le Mérite in 1959. His “Ritter” books made Bergengruen extremely popular among high school students in the early to mid 1960s, due in large measure to the author’s mastery of concise narrative and historical detail. BERNHARD, THOMAS (1931–1989) AU. Novelist, playwright. Bernhard’s career as a writer began with the popularity of his novel Frost in 1963, which in fact is not a novel but a kind of text in which Bernhard manifests several characteristics that marked his subsequent work. Among them was the somewhat Schopenhauerian conviction that life, particularly in Austria, is at its core a cesspit in which human beings flail about in varying degrees of hopelessness trying to destroy each other. Most Austrians refused to accept Bernhard as one of their own; he had indeed been born in Holland. At an award ceremony granting him the Austrian State Prize for Literature in 1967, the federal minister of culture remarked that Bernhard was

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Dutch and was on a lengthy visit to Austria. Bernhard considered himself an Austrian because his mother and grandparents were Austrians, but he made it very clear that he despised Austria and the people who inhabited it. For Frost, which is a kind of report on the observations of a painter as he descends into madness, Bernhard received the Bremen Literature Prize in 1965. There, he ceremonially announced the death of the fairy tale as Europe had known it and in its place there was a miserable void. But the void itself was filled with putrefaction, much like the setting for Frost, a dark forest that had been destroyed by a paper mill; what life remained in the place was decaying. Two subsequent novels, Verstörung (Gargoyles, 1967) and Das Kalkwerk (The Lime Works, 1970), won him wider acclaim among critics in German-language Europe and led to additional literary prizes, including the Anton Wildgans Prize in 1968 and the Georg Büchner Prize in 1970. Other novels of note included Korrektur (Corrections, 1975), Wittgensteins Neffe (Wittgenstein’s Nephew, 1982) Beton (Concrete, 1982), Der Untergeher (The Loser, 1983), and Holzfällen (Woodcutters). Few authors at the time could match Bernhard’s nihilism and despair; critics attempted to assign Bernhard a place on the scale of despair about life in general, or about disdain for Austria in particular. Few could agree, however, on the level or intensity that his choler could reach. Most concurred that Bernhard was a gifted writer who felt bad when he felt good, because he was convinced that he would feel worse when he felt better. Beyond his malignant outlook, however, was Bernhard’s arresting formalism in language. His insidious use of repetition in nearly all his work became a Bernhard structural trait, as significant words or phrases recurred or permutated. His narrators usually claimed merely to be repeating what had already been said to them. And finally, the “protagonists” of his “texts” are often the subject of some kind of violence who in turn visit a related form of violence on someone else. The result is a kind of reciprocal anxiety that Bernhard skillfully allows to build throughout the “text” until it encompasses a wide range of social structures. A good example of such repetition and permutations is found in Verstörung (Gargoyles): “What I said and what he said, everything I did and everything I thought and what he did, pretended to do, what

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I pretended to do and what he thought, it was all this stereotype, this stereotyped idea of the inadequacy, poverty, frailty, inferiority, deathly weariness of human existence.” Some critics began to recognize in the late 1970s that such devices had little to do with narrative, since Bernhard seemed to be using them as musical alliterations, allowing him to exercise contrapuntal rhythmic aspects in the German language that were indeed innovative. Bernhard ultimately came to loathe the German language as much as he loathed Austria, however. He claimed that German was essentially a ponderous and ugly language, devoid of musicality, and if he had not been born into a German-speaking family he would never speak it. Yet by concentrating on a kind of musicological form of narrative, Bernhard attempted to re-form German, detaching words from meaning, much in the same way Arthur Schopenhauer felt that music should never become too closely consigned to words that describe music. Bernhard’s use of reported speech—which allows narrators a detachment from what they are merely repeating—furthers a strategy that underscores the fear of losing one’s “self” or “identity” through contact with an “other.” That “other” in many of his “texts” is a more dominant figure who often turns exploitative or oppressive. Such dynamics might seem particularly useful in dramatic work, and indeed the 1970s witnessed the beginning of a profitable relationship for Bernhard with theater director Claus Peymann. Peymann directed Bernhard’s first full-length play Ein Fest für Boris (A Party for Boris) in Hamburg. Several German and Austrian theaters subsequently attempted to stage Bernhard’s works, though very few of the productions found much resonance among audiences. Vienna’s prestigious Burgtheater and the Salzburg Festival presented several Bernhard stagings, and at times reviewers found them agreeable. Few remained long in theater repertoires, largely because audiences found Bernhard’s plays, for the most part, mere curiosities. An exception was Bernhard’s most well-known effort for the stage, Heldenplatz (Heroes’ Square, 1988), which Peymann staged for the 100th anniversary of the Burgtheater’s presence on Vienna’s Ring Strasse. Bernhard’s play attacked the Austrian embrace of native son Adolf Hitler when he came to Vienna in 1938 to inaugurate the Anschluss (annexation) of Austria into the Reich. The play was easily Bernhard’s most controversial, though it resembled many of his earlier

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plays in that it consisted largely of rambling monologues that attempted to deflate Austria’s comfortable view of itself as Hitler’s “first victim.” Austrian president Kurt Waldheim condemned Heroes’ Square as an insult to the Austrian people, while likeminded Austrians placed several piles of cow and horse manure on the Burgtheater’s ornate entryway steps as a protest. Bernhard modified his will to prohibit all publications, performances, and public readings of his work in Austria after his death. He died three months later. See also FICTION. BESUCH DER ALTEN DAME, DER (The Visit of the Old Lady, translated into English as The Visit, 1956). This drama by Friedrich Dürrenmatt is one of the most frequently read and performed plays of the postwar era. It takes place in a fictional town called Güllen, where decades earlier, Klara Wäscher was born, grew up, became pregnant, and left in disgrace. She has now returned to Güllen as Claire Zachanassian, the world’s richest woman. The basis of her vast wealth is an array of deceased husbands, but she has not forgotten her lost girlhood in Güllen nor the young man who seduced, impregnated, and abandoned her, named Alfred Ill. She wants revenge for the wrongs done her in Güllen, and she offers the town (which for dramatic purposes is conveniently destitute) one billion in some unnamed currency for the execution death of the unfortunate Ill. At first, the town authorities reject her offer out of hand. “Justice cannot be bought!” cries the mayor. “You can ultimately buy anything,” Claire answers. Gradually, both the elected officials and the townspeople begin to see the logic of Claire’s offer and begin clamoring for Ill’s death. They agree that Claire is entitled to what she demands as “justice.” On the expectation of the wealth they expect to receive, the town’s residents go on shopping sprees, provided ample credit from the town’s retailers. Ill, a popular figure in Güllen with many friends, seems oddly nonchalant about the whole affair, and he is ritually sacrificed “in the best interests of the entire community,” though the town doctor claims he died of a heart attack. Claire places him in a coffin she has had custom-made for the purpose and departs on the train, paradoxically mournful about what has just transpired. Dürrenmatt described The Visit as a “tragic comedy,” though its primary attribute is grotesque exaggeration, especially of character

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motivation. It was a popular play from its premiere performance in Zurich, and it went on to hundreds of productions around the world in translation. It was filmed in 1964 with Ingrid Bergman and Anthony Quinn in the leading roles, and composer Gottfried von Einem adapted it for his 1971 opera, which premiered in Vienna. In 2001 it was the basis of a John Kander and Fred Ebb musical that opened at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago, but it fared poorly with audiences and critics; the musical has rarely been performed anywhere since. See also SWITZERLAND; THEATER. BEYER, MARCEL (1965– ) FRG. Novelist, poet. Beyer exploded on the German literary scene in 1995 with his first novel Flughunde (The Karnau Tapes); it was an astonishing reconfiguration of the last days of World War II in Adolf Hitler’s bunker through the eyes and ears of two remarkable characters. The better-known characters from history, however, rarely made an appearance. Instead, the focus in the novel was on an acoustical and recording engineer Hermann Karnau; in 1940, he had begun working for Joseph Goebbels, who liked Karnau’s expertise with loudspeakers, microphones, amplifiers, recording devices, and other equipment required for effective political rallies. The other character is Goebbels’ eldest daughter, Helga Susanne, born in 1932. Beyer may have created such characters as extended metaphors for Germans caught on the sidelines of history—though they ultimately found themselves completely enmeshed in the intricacies of the Nazi hierarchy. Karnau is 30 years old and is fascinated with sounds; Helga, age 14, is fascinated with faces, particularly that of her father. Neither Karnau nor Helga is fully aware of the apocalypse about to overtake them. The result, in the narrative, is an atmosphere merely of disquiet. Karnau is assigned the task of recording the last sounds Helga and her siblings make before their mother murders them with cyanide capsules. With his obsession for sounds and voices, Karnau experiences few initial misgivings in the completion of his tasks. Helga realizes what is going on, but she likewise offers little resistance. Critics praised Beyer’s ability to render in fiction the possible thoughts Helga and her siblings might have had, while somehow maintaining a neutral stance toward Karnau. Karnau remains a cipher, a figure of incompleteness. Some critics at the time of publication felt that Karnau represented many Germans in the

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1940s who simply “followed orders.” Other observers found in the novel an extension of the way many young Germans of Beyer’s age perceived National Socialism. To them, several decades removed from events, the Hitler dictatorship is utterly remote and idiosyncratic. Beyer won the Berlin Literature Prize for The Karnau Tapes, which many agreed was well warranted. That his generation often finds itself distanced at a far remove from the Hitler dictatorship seems likewise justified. In his novel Spione (Spies, 2000), Beyer’s subject is in some ways related to the impression left in The Karnau Tapes—namely, that time has a corrosive effect on memory, just as oxygen or seawater has a corrosive, ultimately obliterating effect on anything organic. As in The Karnau Tapes, Spies reconfigures a historical incident for the sake of narrative. The grandchildren of a German fighter pilot attempt to discover the exploits of their grandfather in the Spanish Civil War—Was he involved in the bombing of Guernica? Why are other children in the neighborhood taunting us about him? Is his second wife trying to hide the truth about him? And was he really a pilot anyway? In between the writing and publication of his award-winning novels, Beyer has written several volumes of poetry, which were likewise accorded prizes and praise. His Falsches Futter (False Fodder) explores the use of language for both good and evil, by both adults and children. For his poetry, Beyer was awarded the Erich Fried Prize in 2006. BIENEK, HORST (1930–1990) FRG. Novelist. Best known for his “Gleiwitz cycle” of four novels about his native Silesia, Bienek first became known as a student in East Berlin convicted of “anti-Soviet provocation” in 1951 and sentenced to 25 years at hard labor in the Siberian gulag labor camps. Released in a general amnesty proclaimed in 1955, Bienek found his way to Frankfurt am Main, where he worked for Hessian Radio until 1966. In that year, he moved to Munich, where he worked as an editor and freelance writer until his death. Bienek used his experiences as a political prisoner in the Soviet camps as material for his first novel, Die Zelle (The Cell), published in 1968. Later fiction work likewise treated his experiences of priva-

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tion, exposure, and misery. In the mid-1970s, the first of his novels about Silesia appeared, beginning with Die erste Polka (The First Polka, 1975). It was set in Gleiwitz on the last day of European peace before German troops invaded Poland, supposedly in retaliation for a Polish assault on the Gleiwitz German-language radio station. Subsequent novels in the cycle were Septemberlicht (September Light, 1977), Zeit ohne Glocken (Time without Bells, 1979), and Erde und Feuer (Earth and Fire, 1982). Bienek received high praise for the novels’ evocation of Silesia’s tribulations and subsequent occupation by Soviet armies. Bienek also accepted numerous official commendations for his work, including the Bremen Literature Prize, the Wilhelm Raabe Prize, and the Andreas Gryphius Prize, along with several others. BIERMANN, PIEKE (1950– ) FRG. Novelist, short-fiction writer. Biermann first came to public prominence as a leader of the “German Whores’ Movement” in the 1980s, organizing the first “Greater Berlin Whore’s Ball” in 1988. In the 1990s, she turned to writing detective novels full time and won the German “Krimi-Prize” as the author of Violetta, voted best detective novel of 1991. She followed Violetta with Herzrasen (Racing Heartbeats) in 1994, likewise voted best detective novel in German; in 1998, her Vier, Fünf, Sechs (Four, Five, Six) placed second in the same competition. Since 2000, Biermann has regularly appeared as a popular fictional crime reporter on German radio airwaves, discussing selected “Berlin cases” she has written. See also POETRY. BIERMANN, WOLF (1936– ) GDR. Poet, songwriter, singer. Biermann had flawless credentials as the poetic voice of “the first peasant and workers’ state on German soil,” as the German Democratic Republic (GDR) liked to call itself. Born to a Jewish proletarian family, his father was a member in good standing of the original German Communist Party but was later murdered in Auschwitz. Biermann furthermore emigrated from Hamburg to East Berlin, studied Marxism at Humboldt University, worked as a dramaturg at the Berliner Ensemble under Helene Weigel, and enjoyed a close personal friendship with the wife of Erich Honecker, later the general secretary of the ruling Socialist Unity Party (SED). At

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age 23, he embarked on a musical career that many hoped would make him the East German Bob Dylan. But at age 25 he made a serious misstep: he involved himself with a performance troupe called the Student and Workers’ Theater, which produced a show titled Berliner Brautgang (Berlin Bridal Path) that criticized building the Berlin Wall. Biermann ran seriously afoul of state authorities and was denied membership in the SED. He then went on tour to the Federal Republic of Germany, further damaging his career prospects. He allowed West German publication of his poetry criticizing the workers’ paradise to which he had committed himself. He was forbidden to perform or work in East Germany but managed to get poetry published in the West, where it sold extremely well. Biermann began singing parts of his Deutschland: ein Wintermärchen (Germany: A Winter’s Fairy Tale) on a West German tour in 1964; it was fully published in 1972. It is a lengthy (over 400 stanzas!) and scatological meditation on the idea of “Germany” with numerous references to the collection of lyrical poetry under the same title by Heinrich Heine (1797–1856). Biermann speaks of Heine in the song as his “cousin,” coming back to Germany across the border on the Rhein. Biermann notes that he too is crossing a German border, across the Spree, which runs through Berlin. Lamenting the division of Germany, he comforts himself with the realization that the whole world is split into camps of East and West. The problem is that Germany occupies the position of “the world’s asshole” and German excrement is everywhere. In West Germany, it is polished and perfumed; but in East Germany, “the shit has no such sheen: they use Stalinist brushes to scrub things clean.” Such rhyming schemes found wide acceptance and readership, and many considered Biermann the nation’s poet laureate. GDR leader Erich Honecker had for many years categorically refused to imprison Biermann, revoke his citizenship, or order his deportation to the West. In 1976, however, another spectacularly successful Biermann tour of West Germany made it easier for the SED general secretary. He simply forbade Biermann’s return to East Berlin. The ban set off unprecedented waves of public protest, conspicuously among writers and artists. The SED leadership refused to reinstate Biermann’s citizenship despite petitions and protests from many members of the GDR’s cultural elite. Scores of them left the

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GDR in protest. The “Biermann affair” became an international cause célèbre, creating a public relations disaster for the regime. But it did little to extenuate the cultural rigidity among East German bureaucrats; indeed, the Biermann affair may have stiffened the Honecker regime’s determination to hold the line against the likes of Wolf Biermann. In the aftermath of the GDR’s collapse, Biermann claimed no credit for its downfall, yet the passing years have not mellowed his negative estimation of what he terms the “myrmidons of the GDR dictatorship.” Under no circumstances should they be humanized, he says, as they sometimes appear in recent German films. The GDR and its Ministry for State Security, known as “Stasi” for short, were criminals, and Biermann continues to write funny songs about them. As a result, many scholars consider him the latest and most significant in a long line of German literary songwriters, most obviously similar to his “cousin” Heinrich Heine. “There he stands,” as Marcel Reich-Ranicki has described him, “the failed revolutionary, the victorious poet.” BILLER, MAXIM (1960– ) FRG. Novelist, short-story writer. Some observers have described Biller as “the German Woody Allen,” largely because of his self-absorbed humor and a quirky realism that often turns toward an obvious autobiographical direction. His popular column in the Sunday edition of the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung contains abundant personal anecdotes, usually dealing with what he terms “Jews, Germans, Hitler, and sex.” Biller claims no literary debt to the American comedian and filmmaker but rather to American novelists Bernard Malamud, Saul Bellow, and Philip Roth. Biller first came to the German-reading public’s attention with a 1990 collection of short stories titled Wenn ich einmal reich und tot bin (If I Were Rich and Dead), whose subject matter was German Jews who had survived the Holocaust yet who remained in Germany. A collection of essays titled Die Tempojahre (The Tempo Years, 1991) followed, containing sharp critical views of the contemporary German lifestyle found frequently in the magazine Tempo; it was a lifestyle driven by consumerism, fads, and sex appeal. His novel Die Tochter (The Daughter, 2000) is about an Israeli soldier who commits war crimes in Lebanon. In an attempt to stem his overwhelming sense of guilt, he immigrates to Germany, where his participation in even

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greater criminality awaits him. In Liebe Heute (Love Today, 2007), loveless men and women seek the “right person”—desperately, humorously, and in all the wrong places. The results are almost uniformly disastrous. A novel titled Esra was banned by German courts in 2003 because Biller’s former girlfriend accused him of slandering her and her mother in it. Some critics have accused Biller of merely writing entertaining accounts of incidents or events, not literature; Biller maintains that most German literature, “with very few exceptions, sounds like it was written by professors or clerks.” See also FICTION. BITTERFELDER WEG (Bitterfeld Path). The Bitterfeld Conference of 1959 was an official attempt by the leadership of the German Democratic Republic to bring intellectuals and workers together, allowing workers to discuss and describe their experiences as industrial, mining, and agricultural laborers. They were to write down their experiences, while intellectuals and writers were to provide assistance. Writers and intellectuals were likewise to enter factories, mines, building sites, collective farms, and other areas of production within the German Democratic Republic and experience firsthand what it meant to be “proletarian” and bear witness to the creation of a new social order. Treading the Bitterfeld Path was to produce literature that reflected the proletariat and concomitantly remained accessible to them. The results were poems like “Der Mann am Kompressorhammer” (The Man at the Punch Press) by Margot Kutschau and Christa Wolf’s novel Der geteilte Himmel (Divided Heaven), which recalled experiences of working in a factory. BLECHTROMMEL, DIE (The Tin Drum, 1959). Novel by Günter Grass. Part picaresque novel, part fairy tale, part Rabelaisian fabulism, part political satire, and several parts fictionalized autobiography, many scholars and critics consider The Tin Drum a masterpiece. It was a best-seller soon after its initial printing and has remained popular ever since. It gave an insistence on Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to grips with the past) a widespread acceptability and it elevated Grass to the status of public personality. At the center of the enormously long (well over 700 pages) tale is Oskar Matzerath, a dwarf who consciously made the decision to stop growing at age

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three. The novel opens with Oskar in his 30s, confined to a mental hospital to which he has been sentenced for supposedly murdering a nurse. He recalls his humorous adventures, many of which were made possible by magical powers of observation, vocalization, and drumming. With his tin drum, he is able to conjure up figures from his past, including the man in his hometown of Danzig who used to supply him with tin drums, a Jewish merchant named Markus, killed on Kristallnacht (9 November 1938). Oskar bears witness to several other important historical events, such as the German attack on Poland in 1939 and the Allied invasion in 1944, but he is hardly a casual observer. He possesses a piercing cry that can shatter glass at great distances, a gift he employs on numerous occasions to save himself and others, including a platoon of German soldiers. Yet he is unable to save those closest to him from death. His stepfather Alfred Matzerath dies while trying to swallow ornate Nazi medallions, hoping to hide them from advancing Russian troops. That inability is particularly evident in the women he loves: his mother dies of eating too many fish, his beloved Roswitha is killed by wayward artillery fire, and his nurse Dorothea is mysteriously murdered. Authorities become suspicious when they discover that Oskar keeps Dorothea’s severed ring finger as a souvenir. After the war, Oskar becomes a tombstone engraver in Düsseldorf, and then a jazz musician at a nightclub there called the Onion Cellar. He becomes so popular a jazz drummer that he takes his act on the road to great acclaim. Later, he signs a recording contract and his records reach the top of the German music charts. Oskar becomes rich. His tours of the “new” Germany reveal an economy quickly recovering from the war’s devastation, and many Germans, like Oskar, are making a lot of money. Oskar attempts to do penance for accumulating wealth and breaks into a church, where he forcibly removes a figure of the child Jesus from Mary’s lap and installs himself in its place. Yet the sense of redemption he sought is missing, so he places his drum in the lap of the displaced Jesus; the little statue begins drumming dutifully. Amid these and dozens of other picaresque episodes, an air of morbidity pervades the novel. A sense of loss is perhaps inevitable since it begins in Danzig, which ultimately becomes Gdansk. It ends in Oskar’s aforementioned confinement, a

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welcome refuge after a lifetime of witness to horrific suffering, displacement, deprivation, villainy, and official insanity. Oskar himself is now officially insane—and thus qualified to dictate the none-toobrief and abstract chronicle of his life. Director Volker Schlöndorff created a 1979 film based on the novel (in a screenplay by Jean-Claude Carrière, to which Grass provided some dialogue), which won the 1980 Hollywood Oscar for best foreign-language feature, tied for the Golden Palm award at the Cannes Film Festival, and won several other lesser known international awards. It starred a then 12-year-old David Bennett as Oskar, but Schlöndorff’s casting a prepubescent child as Oskar proved problematic for many viewers, who initially saw the film as a protest against war’s cruelty toward children. Then they realized that David Bennett was not a child at all but the embodiment of a stunted humanity in general and of a Germany whose attempts to deal with its catastrophic history were homuncular at best. BOBROWSKI, JOHANNES (1917–1965) GDR. Poet, novelist. Bobrowski was a talented writer whose mature work won several prizes and general critical praise. His untimely death terminated what would have been, most observers at the time agreed (as have several more in subsequent retrospect), an outstanding literary career. Bobrowski was best known at the time of his death for the novel Levins Mühle (Levin’s Mill, subtitled “34 Statements about My Grandfather,” 1964). It formed the basis of an excellent 1980 East German film of the same title, directed by Horst Seemann. It starred Erwin Geschonneck and Katja Paryla. The novel’s narrative features a scheming mill owner who attempts to bankrupt a Jewish mill owner in the West Prussian village adjacent to the one in which the novel is primarily set. Though the action takes place in the 19th century, the narrator is a modern descendent of the principal characters. Numerous characters of various ethnic, religious, and linguistic persuasions come and go, offering a variety of shifting viewpoints. The Germans in the novel are divided among Baptists, Pietists, Adventists, Methodists, and a few others; they keep their wary distance from the Poles, who distrust the Lithuanians, who strongly dislike the Russians. Like much of Bobrowski’s poetry, the novel features variations of the Germanic idioms one might hear among such a polyglot and multi-

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cultural population that had lived in various stages of conflict with each other prior to World War II. Bobrowski published two volumes of poetry in the early 1960s that won him a small but admiring audience. Sarmatische Zeit (The Land of Sarmatia, 1961) and Schattenland Ströme (Shadowland Streams, 1962) marked him as a lyric poet of substantial talent; scholars have since come to praise his use of mythic allusions and a musical sensibility in portraying the people of his native region. BÖHMER, OTTO A. (1949– ) FRG. Novelist, literary scholar, poet, dramatist. Böhmer has established a remarkable and prolific career, beginning with a doctorate in philosophy and proceeding to careers in book editing, publishing, fiction, playwriting, and poetry. His most significant works are his fictionalized biographies, which are widely popular and frequently receive critical praise. His poetry has likewise won him acclaim, and in 2001 he received the Erich Fried Prize for poetry from the Austrian government. BÖLL, HEINRICH (1917–1985) FRG. Novelist, short-story writer, radio dramatist, essayist. Böll became one of the most significant and widely read authors of German literature of the postwar period. He received numerous awards and prizes for his work, beginning in 1951 with the Group 47 Prize and culminating in the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972. It was the first time in over four decades that a German author had been awarded the Nobel Literature Prize; the one most immediately previous had been Thomas Mann (in 1929); Hermann Hesse, who won the prize in 1946, had become a Swiss citizen in 1923. Böll was also among the most frequently translated of all German contemporary authors. By the mid-1980s, all of his major works had been translated and over 35 million copies of his books had sold worldwide in more than a dozen languages. He was the most widely read of all West German authors in the German Democratic Republic, due largely to the agreeably satirical stance he took toward the Federal Republic of Germany. Sales of his work have continued largely unabated since his death. Though he was by no means a “regional” writer, Böll’s work is strongly identified with settings in Cologne, Bonn, the Eifel region, Bergisches Land, and the surrounding Rhineland of which Böll was

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a native. Critics initially mistook Böll’s frequent use of the Rhineland and Cologne (though the city is rarely identified by name) as settings for his novels and short fiction for a relatively unsophisticated view of Germany and the Germans. But by 1961 and the appearance of his first international best-seller Ansichten eines Clowns (The Clown), it was clear to most observers that Böll had become a perceptive satirist of what he considered misplaced and overly materialistic values in German life. Böll viewed the enormous economic success of the West German republic with alarm, and not just because its material success was so obvious. The reigning slogan of the government of Konrad Adenauer in the 1950s was Wohlstand für alle (Prosperity for Everybody)—a slogan that was also the title of a 1957 book by West German Economics Minister Ludwig Erhard. Böll regarded the wholehearted embrace of “prosperity” as a kind of mindless escape and an excuse for Germans to accept the status quo, both of continued German division into opposing political entities and of West Germany’s place in the Western alliance. Most of the central characters in Böll’s fiction (who are usually first-person narrators) are misfits of some kind, individuals who reject prevailing opinions and attitudes. They often reflect Böll’s own positions, borne of his experiences in Nazi Germany and his service in the German army from 1939 to 1945. He saw action in Russia, France, Romania, Poland, and Hungary, and was captured by the Americans on the western front in 1945. He was wounded on four separate occasions, and through it all continued hoping the Germans would lose. To Böll, the Nazi dictatorship and its military aggression were nothing more an “organized idiocy,” an idiocy he saw repeating itself (though in a much different manifestation) in the rapid economic recovery of West Germany. Böll did not begin his career as a writer with a pronounced critical view of materialism. His early novels followed exemplary patterns of what came to be known as Trümmerliteratur (literature in the ruins), writing that depicted survivors attempting to endure the privations of life amid the rubbled aftermath of war. Böll was indeed among the first to use the term in describing the work he and his contemporaries were doing at the time: “The first literary attempts of our generation after 1945 people called ‘literature in the ruins,’ sort of shrugging it off. Most of us did nothing to resist such a des-

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ignation, because it really seemed to fit: the people we wrote about were actually living in ruins. They emerged damaged from the war, men, women, and children alike. And they had sharp eyes. They saw it, too.” (“Bekenntnis zur Trümmerliteratur,” in Erzählungen, Aufsätzte, Hörspiele [Cologne: Kiepenheuer and Witsch, 1952], 121). His 1953 novel Und sagte kein einziges Wort (Acquainted with the Night) presents the reader with a returning soldier who, in the face of horrific housing shortages, must meet his wife in shabby hotel rooms. In Haus ohne Hüter (Tomorrow and Yesterday, 1954), two boys whose fathers were killed in the war confront the shortages that surround them with escapes into nostalgia and a series of pliable girlfriends. In Das Brot der frühen Jahre (The Bread of Our Early Years, 1955), a young appliance repairman attempts to overcome memories of near-starvation. By 1958, however, with short fiction like “Doktor Murkes gesammeltes Schweigen” (Dr. Murke’s Collected Silence), Böll’s satirical gifts and profound misgivings about “prosperity for everybody” became apparent. In Billard um halb zehn (Billiards at 9:30), Böll’s use of extended metaphor came effectively into play, as a family of architects gather to celebrate the birthday of its patriarch and also the rebuilding of an abbey after its destruction in 1945. Reminiscences follow, as guests tell of their collusion with or resistance to the Nazi regime. The wife of the patriarch interrupts the festivities by attempting to murder one of the guests; the festivities conclude with the patriarch’s grandson adopting his servant Hugo, with whom he often plays billiards at 9:30 in the evening, and making Hugo his heir. Böll often combined his criticism of West Germany’s materialism with an acute Christian skepticism. He felt that increasing prosperity allowed many Germans to avoid confrontation with the past, a confrontation he considered necessary though not obligatory. But prosperity also made easier the refusal of personal responsibility for the future, which he believed was incumbent on all of German society. Such attitudes prompted many Germans to criticize Böll for what came humorously to be called Böllschewismus (using Böll’s name in a play on the word “bolshevism”), inferring that Böll was a closet Bolshevik, or at least a sympathizer with the East German regime. Böll found little with which to sympathize in the communist dictatorship of East Germany, but he applauded Willy Brandt’s Ostpolitik,

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an attempt to seek reconciliation and rapprochement with the German Democratic Republic in the 1970s. The 1970s were also witness to domestic terrorist attacks by the Red Army Faction, sometimes known in the popular press as the “Baader-Meinhof Gang.” Böll’s criticism of government measures to liquidate the gang, often using state power to an extent unknown since the 1930s, attracted widespread castigation of Böll in the tabloid press. His two most notable fiction works of the 1970s did little to assuage such criticism. Gruppenbild mit Dame (Group Portrait with Lady, 1971) was a putative collection of interviews conducted by an anonymous narrator. The “lady” of the title gradually emerges as a war widow who is attempting to stop the demolition of the Cologne apartment building in which she lives. The proposed demolition represented the prevailing ethic characteristic of the Federal Republic, which Böll regarded as dehumanizing. Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum (The Lost Honor of Katharina Blum, 1974) was even more specific in its target, namely the tabloid press. The novel begins during the Carnival festivals shortly before Lent, for which Cologne is famous; the title character is a housekeeper victimized by an overly ambitious reporter for a tabloid newspaper (a thinly disguised version of Bild-Zeitung, notorious for its sensationalism, demeaning photographs of naked women, and classified advertising catering to prostitutes offering their services). In the end, the housekeeper murders the reporter, an end he justly deserves. Böll’s oeuvre was extensive, including several novels, two volumes of stories, another two volumes of poetry, and several collections of essays. Some of Böll’s most well-known works were transformed into feature-length films, while several were the basis of made-for-television productions. Among the former were Das Brot der frühen Jahre, for which he wrote the dialogue. Its 1962 premiere took place in Cologne. Billiards at 9:30 (under the title Nicht versöhnt, or Unreconciled) premiered in 1965 at the Berlin Film Festival. Ansichten eines Clowns, with Helmut Griem in a stunning performance as the title character, premiered in 1976 in Berlin. Gruppenbild mit Dame, with Romy Schneider in the title role and American actor Brad Dourif as her Russian lover, was released in 1977. Perhaps the best of them is Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum, with Angela Winkler in the title role, directed by Volker

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Schlöndorff and Margarethe von Trotta; it premiered in 1975 at the New York Film Festival. See also GROUP 47; TRÜMMERLITERATUR; DER ZUG WAR PUNKTLICH. BORCHERT, WOLFGANG (1921–1947). Dramatist, poet, fiction stylist. Borchert is best known for his drama Draussen vor der Tür (Outside the Door, but translated as The Outsider), one of the most frequently performed of all plays in the immediate postwar period. It began as a radio play, but after its broadcast in 1947 there was substantial demand for a live stage performance. It premiered in Hamburg on the day after his premature death, caused by battle injuries suffered and diseases contracted while he was a soldier on the Russian front. Borchert had also written poetry and numerous stories; his first published poetic work appeared in 1946 under the title Laterne, Nacht und Sterne (Lanterns, Night, and Stars). His second volume, a collection of prose, appeared in early 1947 under the title Hundeblume (Dog Blossoms). BORN, NICOLAS (Klaus Jürgen Born, 1937–1979) FRG. Poet, novelist. Born’s work is usually associated with the neue Subjektivität (new subjectivity) movement that originated in Cologne in the 1970s. His 1976 novel Die erbabgewandte Seite der Geschichte (The Other Side of the Story) is perhaps the best example of his fiction in that vein. In poetry, “new subjectivity” marked an emphasis on everyday domesticity, described in intricate detail. Such detail was found throughout his 1972 volume of lyric poetry titled Das Auge des Entdeckers (The Eye of the Discoverer). Both his fiction and poetry writing were influenced by the training he received at the International Writing Program at the University of Iowa. Born shared the 1979 Rainer Maria Rilke Prize for lyric poetry with Christoph Meckel, and shortly after his death in that year Born’s much-praised novel Die Fälschung (Falsification) appeared. It was the basis of an outstanding 1981 film of the same title (but called Circle of Deceit in English) directed by Volker Schlöndorff, starring Bruno Ganz and Hanna Schygulla. Ganz played the German newspaper reporter of the novel who gets caught up in the contradictions and mendacity present in the Lebanese conflict between Maronite Christians and the Palestine Liberation Organization.

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Borchert’s work attracted worldwide attention in the late 1940s as representative of Trümmerliteratur (literature in the ruins), featuring survivors of bombed-out cities attempting to find food or shelter in the rubble of what was left. A two-volume edition of his collected work appeared in 1949, and many of his stories became standard entries in German schools as well as in literary textbooks around the world where German was studied. There was general agreement among scholars and critics that Borchert would have been an important contributor to the rebirth of German literature in the 1950s had he lived. His work manifests a sensitivity in language that is direct, yet it avoids judgments or condemnations in settings that are often horrific. BOXER, DER (The Boxer, 1976). This is a novel by Jurek Becker. It focuses on a man named Aron Blank and the boy he adopts as his son. The boy has the same name (Mark) as the son Blank lost in the Holocaust, and Blank mistakenly believes he can rear the child to be free of the psychic scars that disfigure his own perceptions of life. Blank not only lost his son in the concentration camps, his wife and two daughters perished there as well. But Blank wants the boy to grow up in the German Democratic Republic and benefit from an environment free of anti-Semitism. Blank changes his name to Arno, but he and Mark exist in a state perhaps best described as suspended cultural and personal animation, as Blank refuses to discuss anything connected with the tortures he experienced or the loss of his family. They have little real contact with other people, and Blank’s attempts to find women as a source of solace end in disappointment. As Mark grows to maturity, he begins to realize that Blank is constantly in a boxing match with demons he cannot defeat; he revolts against the isolation he feels and immigrates to the West, arriving first in Hamburg and later departing for Israel. Devastated by the loss of Mark, Blank is cheered by postcards that arrive periodically from Mark, sent from widely disparate locations—but he refuses to reestablish contact with him. He learns that Mark is in Israel and a member of the Israeli defense forces. Hearing no word from him after the Six-Day War in 1967, Blank assumes Mark was killed in battle. A made-for-television film based on the novel, directed and written by Karl Fruchtmann, was broadcast on the West German network

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Zweites Deutsches Fersnehen (ZDF) in 1980. It was poorly received and infrequently rebroadcast. BRASCH, THOMAS (1945–2001) GDR-FRG. Dramatist, novelist, poet, translator. Brasch was brash, and certainly one of the most courageous literary figures in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). He suffered repeated arrests and jailings, even though his father had at one time been a highly placed state bureaucrat; ultimately, the son’s activities cost the father his career. After Brasch attempted to stage a production he had created about the Vietnam War in 1966, GDR authorities forcibly removed him from Karl Marx University in Leipzig. For protesting East German involvement in the Soviet-led suppression of the “Prague Spring” revolts in 1968, Brasch was sentenced to hard labor in a maximum-security prison. Bertolt Brecht’s widow, Helene Weigel, intervened in 1971 and got Brasch a job at the Brecht Archive. When informers at the archives told authorities that Brasch was using the institution’s resources to conduct research on a project comparing films of the Russian Revolution with American Westerns, they promptly arrested him again. He was finally able to exit East Germany in the wake of the 1976 Wolf Biermann controversy, and in West Germany his novella Vor den Vätern sterben die Söhne (The Sons Die before the Fathers, 1977) achieved wide acclaim. He was awarded several prizes and stipends for his work, and subsequently wrote numerous novels, plays, and books of poetry. Most praised among his poetry written in the GDR but published in the West was the small volume titled Der schöne 27. September (That Beautiful September 27). In the 1980s, Brasch had substantial success as writer and director of several films; his Engel aus Eisen (Iron Angels) was nominated for a Golden Palm Award at the 1981 Cannes Film Festival. Subsequent films included Domino (1982) and Passagier (The Passenger, 1988) starring American actor Tony Curtis. In 1986, he began translating several Shakespeare plays, including Richard II, Richard III, Measure for Measure, Romeo and Juliet, As You Like It, and Macbeth. West German stages have produced several of them, and they appeared in a widely praised single volume after his death. BRAUN, VOLKER (1939– ) GDR. Dramatist, novelist, poet. Braun was one of the leading literary lights of the German Democratic Republic

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and worked at the Deutsches Theater and the Berliner Ensemble (both in East Berlin) as a dramaturg. As a young man, he established his proletarian credentials working in mines and factories; then he studied literature and philosophy at Karl Marx University in Leipzig. He was a member of the East German ruling Socialist Unity Party (SED) and remained a firm believer in totalitarian utopianism until the suppression of the “Prague Spring” revolts in 1968, in which East Germany was involved. Thereafter, Braun began to have doubts though he never attempted to leave the GDR, convinced that “socialist evolution” remained possible. He endangered himself and his career by signing a petition in support of Wolf Biermann, the singer and writer who was exiled in 1976. Many of Braun’s closest friends and colleagues departed for the West in the wake of the “Biermann affair,” but Braun stayed on and was allowed to continue publishing, and his plays remained in the repertoires of most GDR theaters. His play Der grosse Frieden (The Great Peace) and his novel Unvollendete Geschichte (Unfinished Story) manifest his misgivings about a society that prized conformity and treated artists and intellectuals like hired hands. His collection of short fiction titled Das ungezwungene Leben Kasts (Kast’s Unforced Life) was even published in the West. For his fidelity to the ideals of socialism, however, Braun was awarded the GDR’s Lessing Prize in 1981 and his career culminated in the award of the National Prize of the GDR in 1988. For many years, Braun was seen as an heir to Bertolt Brecht, still a showpiece figure for the GDR regime. Like Braun, Brecht had also been a somewhat unorthodox communist. Braun’s association with playwright Heiner Müller, however, was somewhat more problematic, as Müller remained an outsider even as his status in the West grew and blossomed. Two good examples of Braun plays written in the “Müller style” are Schmitten (1981) and Tinka (1983, though originally premiered in 1975); both are unusual because they address the dilemma of male dominance in the GDR. Braun became best known in the West during the 1980s as the author of Hinze-KunzeRoman (The Novel of Hinze and Kunze), which was a fascinating exploration of sex, eroticism, sexuality, and sexual longing in a planned society. Since reunification, Braun’s brief memoir Der Wendehals (The Turncoat, 1995) received relatively wide critical attention for the author’s finely tuned disillusionment with events that had tran-

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spired in the demise of the republic he had served. He meantime received several literary prizes and awards, including the Erwin Strittmatter Prize in 1998, a guest professorship at the University of Kassel in 1999, and the Georg Büchner Prize in 2000. BRECHT, BERTOLT (Eugen Berthold Friedrich Brecht, 1898–1956) GDR. Dramatist, poet, theorist, diarist. Brecht had a remarkably fruitful career in the postwar period, based on the foundations of work he had laid in the 1920s and in exile. In the postwar period, he began to harvest the ripened fruits of his many labors, thanks largely to his close association with the German Democratic Republic and its willingness to generously subsidize his efforts. He encountered difficulties with East German authorities periodically, to be sure, but for the most part they found in him a useful artistic personality to whom they could point with justifiable pride in accomplishments attained under their aegis. Brecht remains best known for his theater work, both the play adaptations and the theoretical treatises. Among the latter was Kleines Organon für das Theater (Little Organon for the Theater, 1948). In it, Brecht succinctly laid out his ideal theater, one that was Marxist, didactic, and anti-illusionistic. Anti-illusionism was the basis of his demand for a Verfremdungseffekt (effect of distancing); only with this effect, he stated, could one critically discern the means by which oppression could be eliminated and the old world be transformed into the new. That approach brought him paradoxically into conflict with cultural and political authorities in East Germany, who preferred transformational narratives along the lines of Soviet socialist realism. The plays Brecht completed in the postwar period were mostly adaptations of other work. They included Die Antigone des Sophokles (The Antigone of Sophocles, 1948), based on the translation of the German lyric poet Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843). In his adaptation, Brecht sets the action in Berlin immediately after World War II, as Antigone and Ismene find their brother hanged for his desertion from Adolf Hitler’s SS. In Die Tage der Kommune (Days of the Commune, 1949), Brecht attempts a chronicle of what happened among Communards in Paris after the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871. It was a sentimentalized depiction of idealists, about 20,000 of whom were killed in the overthrow of the Paris Commune. Brecht based

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much of the play on a Norwegian treatment by Nordahl Grieg, titled The Defeat. Brecht’s treatment of Der Hofmeister (The Tutor, 1950) was less sentimentalized, and indeed it creates a comic (though highly unflattering) portrait of German schoolteachers. Brecht adapted a radio drama by Anna Seghers he titled Der Prozess der Jeanne d’Arc zu Rouen (The Trial of Joan of Arc at Rouen, 1952) using published testimony of the proceedings that condemned Joan to burning at the stake in 1431. Among the autobiographical works Brecht wrote during the postwar period were his “Keuner anecdotes” and his Arbeitsjournal (Working Diaries). Many scholars have judged the observations of Herr Keuner among Brecht’s most trenchant and humorous. Herr Keuner is Brecht himself, reflecting ruefully on the world around him. Herr Keuner in one instance was told of a colleague who had an unfriendly attitude toward him. “Yes,” Herr Keuner confirmed. “But only behind my back.” The diaries are more informative, providing insight into Brecht’s working methods and political attitudes. Ever the devoted Marxist, Brecht nevertheless reveals his disdain for the pettiness of the East German cultural bureaucracy and the parochialism of its Stalinist elites. See also AUTOBIOGAPHY AND AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL FICTION; POETRY. BRINKMANN, ROLF-DIETER (1940–1975) FRG. Poet. Brinkmann was considered to be one of the most promising of new German poets at the time of his death in a London traffic accident. Critic Marcel Reich-Ranicki, whose skull Brinkmann once threatened to fracture using a book of poetry, paradoxically described Brinkmann as a distinctively hopeful sign for German literature. The paradox lay not so much in Brinkmann’s half-serious threat to injure Reich-Ranicki, but in the fact that Brinkmann hated German literature. He was most interested in creating collages consisting of snippets from movie dialogue, pop music lyrics, and odd rhyme schemes. Recent critics have described Brinkmann as a forerunner to German hip-hop, noting his anger and discontent. Rarely did Brinkmann voice anything overtly humorous or even optimistic in his poetry, though some of it was satirical enough to be considered somewhat funny. Brinkmann considered Germany itself an altogether authoritarian enterprise, and he attempted in his published work to demolish assumptions about

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literature he felt had been valorized in the Adenauer era of the 1950s. Brinkmann was also a gifted translator, particularly of the American poet Frank O’Hara. BRUSSIG, THOMAS (1965– ) GDR-FRG. Novelist, essayist, travel writer. Brussig started writing novels while still a university student, and upon his 1995 graduation from film school in Babelsberg he produced a best-seller titled Helden wie wir (Heroes Like Us). Heroes Like Us was one of the first novels produced by someone who was born and had grown up in the German Democratic Republic, experienced its collapse, but was too young to remember when there was no Berlin Wall. As a result, Brussig takes a far more whimsical approach to the momentous changes of 1989. His protagonist, improbably named Klaus Uhltzscht, at one point in the novel takes credit for the liberation of East Germany. But then, he also claims to have been a member of the Ministry for State Security and to have been a reporter for the New York Times. Several critics hailed the novel as the first great satirical novel of reunification, while others condemned it as an imitation of the American novelist Philip Roth, especially in scenes where Klaus seems preoccupied with masturbation and the general state of his penis. Brussig wrote the screenplay for the 1999 film Heroes Like Us, directed by Sebastian Peterson, and Carl Weber created an English-language adaptation of it for the stage in 2000. Brussig’s next novel, Am kürzeren Ende der Sonnenallee (At the Shorter End of Sonnenallee) became a more popular movie (with the shorter title Sonnenallee and directed by Leander Haussmann) than did Heroes Like Us, though as a novel it too was popular with readers. Its subject was a group of young East German schoolkids growing up on a street that the Berlin Wall had cut off from the West. Brussig’s travel literature includes Berliner Orgie (Berlin Debauchery) and his reports from Cairo, published in a variety of venues. Berliner Orgie is a study of the sex business in the nation’s capital, from streetwalkers to luxury bordellos, from strip clubs to call girls, and always from a heterosexual standpoint. Brussig discovers there are some rules in transactions between men and women that no amount of money can alter. In Cairo, Brussig found himself shocked by his own naïveté: Islamist sermons more bloodthirsty than any propaganda in the Third Reich, a state of disrepair that exceeded anything

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he experienced growing up in East Germany, and representatives from the West patronizing Arabs, much like a doctor in a lunatic asylum trying to talk patients out of madness. See also FICTION. BRUYN, GÜNTER DE (1926– ) GDR-FRG. Novelist, essayist. De Bruyn established his career in the German Democratic Republic with his 1963 novel Der Hohlweg (The Sunken Path), which GDR critics hailed as a prime example of Ankunftsliteratur (arrival literature), marking the metaphorical and practical “arrival” of Germans into a new society. It was curiously related in the literary jargon of the GDR to the classical “coming of age” literature of the 18th century. De Bruyn claimed he needed 17 years to complete the novel, a fictional story of a young man whose experiences (much like his own) included growing up under the Hitler dictatorship and later serving as a teenager in an antiaircraft unit. Such experiences presented him with all manner of conflicts and challenges, forcing him to grow up too soon. It also forced upon him, he said, the perceived responsibility of helping to create the aforementioned new society, a Marxist utopia for workers and peasants. His novel was part of what was then called Entwicklungsliteratur (development literature), but de Bruyn later rejected all such labels and stated that he was mainly trying to imitate Heinrich Böll. He claimed that reading Böll’s novels and stories was like reading about himself; he and Böll shared a Roman Catholic upbringing, and because Böll found the courage to criticize the Federal Republic of Germany, so de Bruyn likewise dared to voice dissent aimed at the presumptions of the GDR. De Bruyn received the Heinrich Mann Prize in 1964, a token of his acceptability at the time among the communist elites. But in 1968 he published Buridans Esel (Buridan’s Ass), a novel that transferred to East Germany a fable dating from the 14th century (supposedly from the French priest and philosopher Jean Buridan) about an ass who finds himself between two equally palatable stacks of hay. Unable to choose between either stack, the ass starves to death. In depicting the novel’s protagonist as the ass (unable to choose between his wife and his lover), de Bruyn cleverly incorporated several negative appraisals of the GDR elites and their opportunism, cowardice, and careerist mendacity. The inference was that the GDR was not a new society after all, but one consisting of unimproved human beings beset with in-

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eradicable human foibles. Critics responded to Buridan’s Ass in kind, but when it was published in the Federal Republic of Germany, cultural functionaries stepped in and removed de Bruyn from consideration for other state-sponsored encomia and privileges. Yet they allowed him to remain a member of the GDR Writer’s Union and to continue earning his living as a writer. He was permitted to work on the screenplay for the film of the novel (titled Glück im Hinterhaus, directed by Hermann Zsoche), starkly altered and revised for public consumption. His biography of Jean Paul was well received as were other books; he even maintained his status throughout and after the Wolf Biermann controversy, having signed the petition that denounced GDR officialdom’s treatment of Biermann. Observers noted that de Bruyn’s approach had changed from “critical” to “skeptical,” and that departure allowed him to remain relatively unharassed by the secret state police—though they attempted occasionally to obtain his cooperation as an informer on other writers. In 1984, de Bruyn completed what was probably his best novel about the GDR, titled Neue Herrlichkeit; the title literally means “new splendor,” which is the name of a splendid residence in which the novel’s chief protagonist (named Viktor Kösling) attempts to write a doctoral dissertation so he can join the East German diplomatic corps and live abroad. The name also signifies de Bruyn’s newly refined skepticism about the society East Germans were supposed to be building. Within the walls of Neue Herrlichkeit, several privileged residents live, frequently debating the virtues and vicissitudes of what happens when social engineers try to build an equitable, just, and coercive society. In the end, Kösling gives up trying to write his dissertation and decides to set up housekeeping with one of the women he has met at Neue Herrlichkeit. Then he gets word from the diplomatic service that he can serve as a consul somewhere abroad without a doctorate, presenting Kösling with a dilemma: domestic contentment or getting out of East Germany? With the disintegration of East Germany, de Bruyn found himself liberated and a far more prolific author than he had ever been. He produced a dozen new books in the 1990s alone, many of them highly praised autobiographical works that several critics deemed the most significant of “postunification” attempts to explain what effect four decades behind the Iron Curtain had visited on German literature. Indeed, his most

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highly praised autobiographical volume was titled Vierzig Jahre (Forty Years), which constituted de Bruyn’s attempt to reckon with what had happened to him and to Germany. Denouncing some of his earlier work (including his career-making novel Der Hohlweg) as simplistic and utopian, he also acknowledged that his Roman Catholicism was more important to him than he realized. He also admitted to a certain inexplicable sadness that when the Wall fell, most of his life—or at least that part of his life that was most familiar to him—went with it. De Bruyn won several awards for his work in the newly united Germany, including the one he treasured most, the Heinrich Böll Prize. Other recognitions have included the Greater Bavarian Literary Award, the Order of Service to the Federal Republic, the Konrad Adenauer Foundation Literature Prize, and the Jean Paul Prize. BUCH, HANS-CHRISTOPH (1944– ) FRG. Novelist, travel writer. Buch first came to prominence in the early 1970s with short stories based on his travels to the United States, the Caribbean, and Latin America. The success of his 1984 novel, Die Hochzeit von Port-auPrince (The Wedding at Port-au-Prince), solidified his standing as a writer of the tropics, and several other novels and nonfiction accounts followed. Among the more interesting was Rede des toten Kolumbus am Tag des jüngsten Gerichts (Speech by the Dead Columbus on the Final Day of Judgment). One of his funniest novels is Wie Karl May traf Adolf Hitler und andere wahre Geschichten (How Karl May Met Adolf Hitler and Other True Stories, 2003). Buch combined his interest in the tropics with his gifts as a parodist in Tod in Habana (Death in Havana, 2007), in which he hilariously chronicles the long, inevitable death of revolution in Cuba. Buch has developed a wide readership in France, where many of his books have been translated for the global Francophone market. The French Ministry of Culture awarded him the title Officier de l’ordre de l’art et des lettres as a result. He has also received numerous stipends and fellowships to teach and write at American universities, most often at Washington University in St. Louis. BUCHHEIM, LOTHAR-GÜNTHER (1918–2007) FRG. Novelist, travel writer, art historian. Buchheim became one of the most popu-

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lar and best-selling German authors in the postwar period, with several novels, biographies of painters, and books about maritime travel. His most well-known novel was Das Boot (The Boat, 1973), which in turn became a wildly popular film in 1981, directed by Wolfgang Petersen. Buchheim’s Hemingway-like reportage style in his military novels was borne of his experience as a wartime correspondent, and his interest in naval affairs from his experience as a seaman aboard German submarines in the North Atlantic. Buchheim’s books sold extremely well throughout the world in several translations, though he was rarely considered a “serious” writer among critics and scholars. Few contested the skill with which he wrote, and many envied his popularity, but few were willing to grant his work any literary status. Buchheim’s work sold so well that he created and built a multimillion-dollar museum about and for it, located in Bernheim and opened to the public in 2001. It contains a large collection of German expressionists, including works by Erich Heckel, Emil Nolde, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, and Max Pechstein. Buchheim received several awards for his work, including the Bavarian Service Order, the Federal Service Cross, and the Maximillian Medal for Service to the Arts and Sciences. BURGER, HERMANN (1942–1989) CH. Novelist, poet. Burger had a doctorate in German literature and as a writer came to initial prominence with his novel Schilten (1976); it bore the subtitle “School Report Prepared for an Accreditation Conference” and was supposedly a summary presented by a Swiss schoolteacher to his superiors about the progress of his pupils in the eponymous village of Schilten. It was actually Burger’s lengthy meditation on cemeteries, mystical cults, ancient funeral rites, and burial customs. It concludes with the teacher’s descent into lunacy, resulting from his phobia about being buried alive. It was an utterly bizarre admixture of narrative, fantasy, and horror fiction, becoming the basis of a 1979 feature film of the same title directed by Beat Kuert. In some ways, Burger’s second novel continued in the vein of psychological preoccupations about death. Titled Die künstliche Mutter (The Artificial Mother, 1983), Burger sets it likewise in his native Switzerland, though in an insane asylum deep beneath the alpine St. Gothard Pass. The novel’s protagonist suffers horrific visions of death, tended by an all-female staff

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of caregivers. When death finally arrives, it finds the protagonist in a calm, almost elated state of mind. Critics were quick to praise Burger’s ability to manipulate language that evoked the inner torments of such individuals, though many found his subject matter disturbing. Burger himself suffered dreadful bouts of depression; upon his suicide, no less an authority than Marcel Reich-Ranicki lamented the passing of what he termed a truly inventive artist of the German language. Shortly before his death, Burger had completed a volume of aphorisms on the subject of suicide, and soon after his death a fascinating two-volume autobiographical novel appeared, titled Brenner. In it, Burger continued his meditations on suicide but often interlarded them with unwonted humorous observations, such as detailed descriptions about the best type of tobacco to be used for the manufacture of cigars, along with the “lost art” of rolling a good cigar. BURIDANS ESEL (Buridan’s Ass, 1968). Novel by Günter de Bruyn. In his treatise On the Heavens, Aristotle speaks of a man who is both hungry and thirsty, and he finds himself between generous sources of both food and water. He deliberates on choosing between the two, but he cannot make the crucial decision. Aristotle used this parable to distinguish between the phenomenal realm of Earth and the noumenal realm of the heavens, where heavenly bodies remain eternal and perfect. On Earth, decisions require action; the result is inevitable corruption, almost as if Aristotle had subliminal knowledge of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, by which the inclusion of one thing means the exclusion of another. That law traces its origins to a French physicist named Nicolas Carnot (1796–1832), and the impulse for de Bruyn’s novel (arguably one of the finest works of fiction to emerge from the German Democratic Republic) is likewise French. For his novel, de Bruyn reshaped a parable purportedly authored by Jean Buridan (1295–1358), who, like Aristotle, was interested in the movement and nature of the heavens. Unlike Aristotle, Buridan was interested in the homelier aspects of phenomenal life, especially those that involve decision making. His subject is an ass who finds himself between two stacks of hay, incapable of choosing between the two. As a result, he starves to death.

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Günter de Bruyn’s novel takes the dilemma of having to choose one step further, and he situates it in the fictional life of Karl Erb, director of a library in East Berlin. Erb must choose between his wife Elisabeth (by whom he has sired two children) and his much younger subordinate Fräulein Broder, with whom he has fallen hopelessly in love. Fräulein Broder is a somewhat degraded female; Karl nevertheless finds her irresistible. She is hardly the kind of woman one might expect a well-established civil servant in the GDR to find attractive. She is frankly beneath him. The GDR, however, is a society in which there are no class distinctions; his wife Elisabeth should not look down on Fräulein Broder, even though she lives in a tenement house with other single females “of her sort.” It turns out that Karl’s wife is not the only one who disapproves of Fräulein Broder. Several colleagues warn him of involvement with her and other such women. But Fräulein Broder has charms one cannot deny in a socialist society: she grew up in a working-class environment, she has become on her own initiative a state-qualified librarian, and she is a feminist: self-reliant, confident, autonomous, and she feels free to choose her sexual partners at will. She is nevertheless susceptible to heartbreak, and when Karl decides to return to his wife, all socialist hell breaks loose. BUTT, DER (The Flounder, 1977). Novel by Günter Grass. Employing the Grimm fairy tale Von dem Fischer und seine Frau (The Fisherman and His Wife) as a literary precedent, Grass creates an enormously long creation myth and a meditation on the historical passivity of the female in the face of armed conflict. At the 1999 ceremony in Stockholm when he received his Nobel Prize for Literature, Grass stated that he had begun the novel in 1973 “when terror—with the active support of the United States—was beginning to strike in Chile. Willy Brandt spoke before the United Nations General Assembly, the first German chancellor to do so.” When Brandt noted that conflicts in the future would no longer be between East and West but between north and south, and basically over food, Grass claimed to be impressed. When Brandt declared “Hunger, too, is war!” Grass was inspired to complete The Flounder. But the novel is not about food, and certainly not about a global conflict between the have and have-not nations in the way Willy Brandt had enunciated it.

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It is instead about a newly wrought fairy-tale anthropology, in which male and female are pitted against one another, much as were the fisherman and his wife in contention throughout the Grimm fable. In that story, the wife insists on ever larger and more elaborate wish fulfillment from the magical flounder, which the fisherman has caught and released. In the Grass novel, a husband tells his pregnant wife stories to help the months of pregnancy pass, a new story for each of the nine months. The husband tells of cooks he has known. Assisting him in this task is a flounder who provides details about several recipes, along with anthropological asides pointing to man’s rise from matriarchy. That arduous process began when he stopped eating raw fish and learned to master fire, allowing him to cook all kinds of food—especially potatoes, which may hold the key for the beginnings of all civilization. The fish is ultimately brought before a tribunal of feminists called a “feminal.” As in the fairy tale, he is released. The inference is that he will be back, though not always to grant wishes.

–C– CANETTI, ELIAS (1905–1994). Novelist, essayist, playwright. Canetti was born in Bulgaria, reared and educated in Austria, and settled in England. In the postwar period, he had residences in both London and Switzerland. In 1981 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. Canetti earned a doctorate in chemistry at the University of Vienna in 1929 and remained in Vienna until 1938; during those years, he began writing fiction and drama, strongly influenced (he later said) by the writers Karl Kraus, Franz Kafka, Robert Musil, and Hermann Broch. His subsequent career as a writer would have been unthinkable without them, he stated in his speech at the Nobel Prize ceremony. Yet Canetti was not initially known for his works of fiction, and his plays remain infrequently performed. Because he had been an extraordinarily astute observer of political and social trends in Vienna during the 1930s, many of his casual observations of unrest in Vienna during the 1930s informed the book on collective behavior that brought him worldwide attention: Masse und Macht (Crowds and

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Power, 1960). In it, Canetti operates on the structuralist conviction that human beings have a “crowd instinct” analogous to the survival instinct. Though he had little in the way of formal training to support his analysis, he surmised that the crowd instinct caused humans to run in packs. As such, they turn to leaders like Adolf Hitler, who was in turn both mesmerized by the crowds who followed him and terrified that they might ultimately turn on him. In a secondary analysis, he inferred that Germans persecuted Jews because of the experience of hyperinflation during 1923; that crisis created a kind of survive-atall-costs mentality, which needed to be controlled if mankind were to avoid similar catastrophes. Crowds and Power enabled Canetti’s earlier fiction work to emerge and find a wider audience in the 1960s. The novel Die Blendung (Auto-da-Fé, 1935) reappeared in 1963; critics praised it extensively, and in the English-language press it was compared favorably to James Joyce’s Ulysses. In Die Blendung, a middle-aged philologist and Chinese literary scholar falls victim to his elderly and brutish housekeeper. He becomes blind (hence the original title, which means “the blinding”) to her machinations and ultimately marries her. She soon destroys him and his beloved Chinese texts, assisted by the equally wolfish janitor named Benedikt Pfaff. Canetti’s plays also began to get produced after the reappearance of Auto-daFé. The two most frequently staged were Komödie der Eitelkeit (Comedy of Vanity) and Die Befristeten (Life-Terms) in both their original German and in English translations. In these plays and other works, Canetti’s belief in a transformative power is evident; he posits the idea that human beings can indeed become more socially aware if they release the evolutionary potential immanent with each human being. Canetti received several literary prizes and commendations after the critical and popular success of Crowds and Power; following the Nobel Prize came additional state prizes from Germany (though he had been a British citizen since 1952) and honorary doctorates from German universities. CELAN, PAUL (Paul Antschel, 1920–1970). Poet. Celan became widely known for his first small volume of poetry, titled Der Sand aus den Urnen (Sand from the Urns), in 1948. He was thereafter invited to join

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Group 47 and in 1953 presented to the group his poem “Todesfuge” (Death Fugue). He subsequently became one of the most widely read, translated, and published poets in German—even though he was a French citizen and had been born in Romania. Celan’s experience as a German-speaking Jew in the 1940s informed much of his poetry, especially the aforementioned “Death Fugue.” It depicts a day in an extermination camp, set in dactyls to describe gravediggers and their “black milk in the morning, black milk at the midday, black milk in the evening.” The “black milk” is the haunting, breathing presence of death, accompanying inmates wherever they go. The effect of the poet’s metrical arrangement sets the fugue in motion and carries it through in a macabre chain of interlinked metaphors, creating a vigorous depiction of an essentially gruesome scene. The poem appeared in a second slim volume of poetry, titled Mohn und Gedächtnis (Poppyseeds and Remembrance), in 1952. A series of small poetry volumes appeared in the 1950s, most notable among them Von Schwelle zu Schwelle (From Threshold to Threshold, 1955) and Sprachgitter (Language Screen, 1959), each making new departures in metric and linguistic experimentation. His language became denser and less accessible with each volume, and finally most scholars and critics were perplexed by what Celan had in mind with his esoteric verse exercises. Celan was also a gifted translator of verse, rendering numerous Shakespearean sonnets into an evocative German that many readers praised. Less well known were his translations of French, Russian, American, and Romanian poetry; he was particularly effective with the work of Russian poet Osip Mandelstam (1891–1938). Celan received the Bremen Literature Prize in 1958 and the Georg Büchner Prize in 1960, and by the mid-1960s he was regarded as one of the most celebrated poetic sensibilities in German. In 1962, however, the widow of poet Ivan Goll (Isaac Lang, 1891–1950) accused Celan of plagiarizing her husband’s work. The accusations were never substantiated, and nearly everyone familiar with both men agreed they had no basis. Yet the accusations took a toll on Celan’s productivity, whose mental state was becoming increasingly precarious toward the end of the 1960s. CONCRETE POETRY. See KONKRETE POESIE.

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COTTEN, ANN (1982– ) AU. Poet. Cotten was born in Iowa and immigrated to Austria with her parents at age five. Critics greeted her 2007 book of poetry, Fremdwörterbuchsonette (Sonnets from Dictionaries of Borrowed Words), with acclaim, and in 2008 she received the Clemens Brentano Prize for poetry in German. She notes the influence of Konkrete Poesie (concrete poetry) on her compositions of sonnets, which she terms Denkmaschine (thinking mechanisms) that force her to cogitate in pictures, incorporating non-German words at strategic points in the poems for musical effect. Readers have found the sonnets (there are 86 of them in Fremdwörterbuchsonette) playful, unconventional, and accessible in a refreshing way, perhaps in a manner only a bilingual poet could discover. Her inventiveness and completely original perceptions seem to originate in a consciousness utterly at home in the computerized global network of Anglicisms and a familiarity with American pop culture.

–D– DELIUS, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN (1943– ) FRG. Novelist, prose stylist. Delius is one of several German novelists to have treated German unification in fiction, and several critics consider his some of the most effective. Delius has also written other types of historical novels, along with novels with contemporary political themes. Perhaps the most noteworthy among the latter are Adenauerplatz (Adenauer Square, 1984) and Ein Held der inneren Sicherheit (A Hero of Interior Security, 1981). The latter is a treatment of the kidnapping and murder of industrialist Hanns-Martin Schleyer at the hands of left-wing terrorists in 1977. The former features a Chilean agriculture professor who has sought political asylum in West Germany in the wake of the 1973 right-wing coup d’état in Chile. He now works as a night watchman, and the events of one night constitute the entire narrative of Adenauerplatz. A pastor’s son who completed doctoral studies in 1970 with a dissertation on the ideological stances of the late 19th-century German novel, Delius is adept at employing various structural approaches to his fiction. His novellas Die Birnen von Ribbeck (The Pears of Lord Ribbeck, 1991) and Der Sonntag, an dem ich Weltmeister wurde (The

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Sunday I Became World Champion, 1994) brought him wide international readership in over a dozen languages. The novellas treat a similar theme, namely the process of German unification that began in late 1989. Ribbeck is based on a poem titled “Lord Ribbeck of Havelland” by novelist and critic Theodor Fontane (1819–1898), in which the generous Lord Ribbeck bestowed pears and other largesse upon the children of his estate; in his will, he requested that he be buried with a pear. Later, the pear sprouted from his grave and continued to bear fruit. Delius used Fontane’s poem as a metaphor to disparage the generosity of the West Germans to their less fortunate East German cousins, whose country was bankrupt and whose decrepit infrastructure needed wholesale reconstitution. To this day, West Germans pay a yearly “solidarity tax” to cover the cost of rebuilding the former German Democratic Republic. Der Sonntag, an dem ich Weltmeister wurde is autobiographical, depicting the Sunday in 1954 when the West German soccer team defeated Hungary for the World Cup championship. That victory was the first instance since 1945 that Germans could proudly and unabashedly celebrate being German. As in the Ribbeck novella, some critics found Delius’ derogative stance toward unification agreeable, largely because several German politicians couched unification in terms of an undisputed victory. But the victory, to observers like Delius and others, was in many ways simply the robust West German economy’s conquest of utopian dreams in the East about maintaining a socialist society; it was not nearly as satisfying as a clear-cut win in a soccer match. In Delius’ most recent major novel, Mein Jahr als Mörder (My Year as a Murderer, 2004), the author returns to the subject of his 1997 novel Amerikahaus und der Tanz um die Frauen (America House and the Dance to Get Women, 1997). In the earlier novel, Delius presented his alter ego Martin (but his friends call him “Buster”) during his first years as a student in Berlin. His adventures included sit-ins at the America House, followed by other protests, followed by wild dancing and sexual experimentation with the female students who likewise took part in various escapades. The later novel features a protagonist somewhat like “Buster,” though presumably more serious. How serious? He spends a year trying to figure out how he can murder a Nazi-era judge, recently exonerated for his crimes in

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the Third Reich. But justice is not really the protagonist’s prime motivation; it is instead revenge for the sake of his childhood friend, whose father the Nazi judge ordered beheaded in 1944. DODERER, HEIMITO VON (1896–1966). Novelist. Doderer was a distinctly Viennese writer whose major work, Die Strudlhofstiege (The Strudelhof Steps) was an evocation of the Hapsburg “world of yesterday,” a 19th-century milieu comprised (among other things) of waltzes, social decay, military posturing, illicit sex, and whipped cream. The Strudelhof Steps enjoyed wide appeal among critics and readers when it finally appeared in 1951, two decades after von Doderer had begun writing it. Many critics praised it at the time as a masterful panorama of the sights, smells, personalities, and moods of Hapsburg Vienna, tottering on the edge of an abyss. It was like a Dickens novel in some ways, presenting numerous levels of society with wry observations that suddenly become detailed observations of cruelty and violence, alternating with humor and compassion. The Strudelhof Steps in the Alsergrund district of Vienna is a central meeting place of incidents, routine occurrences, accidental encounters, and remarkable coincidences. As such, the steps serve a kind of symbolic function in the novel, a marbled setting for a tumultuous historical cavalcade. Doderer continued to write well-received novels through the remainder of the 1950s, particularly Die Dämonen (The Demons), which he considered his masterpiece and in some ways was a continuation of The Strudelhof Steps. The Demons focuses on the mid-1920s and the “demonic forces” sweeping through Viennese society. Both novels are in many ways autobiographical, as Doderer was an eye witness to the events portrayed. See also AUSTRIA; FICTION. DOKTOR FAUSTUS: DAS LEBEN DES DEUTSCHEN TONSETZERS ADRIAN LEVERKÜHN, ERZÄHLT VON EINEM FREUNDE (Dr. Faustus: The Life of the German Composer Adrian Leverkühn as Told by a Friend, 1947). Thomas Mann began work on the novel Doktor Faustus in Los Angeles during 1943; it was published in Stockholm in 1947. A massive and somber undertaking, it is essentially an indictment of German culture and Mann’s first impressive postwar effort. It presents the lives of fictional composer Adrian

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Leverkühn through the novel’s narrator and Leverkühn’s boyhood friend, Serenus Zeitblom. Both figures embody contrasting aspects of German culture from the Wilhelmine period through the rise of Adolf Hitler; Leverkühn is a descendant of an old-line German family, studies music in Leipzig, falls in love with a prostitute named Esmeralda, and willingly contracts syphilis from her. Zeitblom is a passive observer, content to observe his friend’s decay and claim unavoidable helplessness in the face of his friend’s self-destruction. Leverkühn becomes an extremely successful composer, however, enjoying an upper-middle-class existence maintained by only a few successful artists of the Wilhelmine era. His success continues through the Weimar Republic up to 1930, when he confesses that he made some kind of Mephistophelean pact involving the whore who gave him syphilis. He descends into madness and is left an empty shell. Critics noticed the shared fates of Leverkühn and Germany almost from the day the novel was published, but the novel is much more than a mere allegory. It features many identifiable contemporary figures and subjects, the most notable of whom was modernist composer Arnold Schönberg. Leverkühn’s development of atonal, 12tone music (which most agree is a Schönberg creation) is a highly complex subject, and so is the parallel between Leverkühn and philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), whose early brilliance and subsequent descent into syphilitic madness shadows Leverkühn’s. Mann himself confirmed the connection in a later essay about how the novel developed. The concomitant embrace of both musical modernism and philosophical nihilism is a powerful combination; Mann infers that it was an ingredient in the devil’s brew that became National Socialism. A film based on the novel appeared in 1982. Produced, directed, and adapted from the novel by Franz Seitz, it starred Jon Finch as Leverkühn, Hans Zischler as Zeitblom, and the popular novelist Lothar-Günther Buchheim as Dr. Erasmi. It was not particularly well received among critics, perhaps because an English actor played Leverkühn and his lines were dubbed into German. DORST, TANKRED (1925– ) FRG. Dramatist, screenwriter, prose stylist. Dorst has been one of the postwar period’s most prolific dramatists, working with numerous outstanding directors. Among his

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most well-known plays was Toller in 1968, a treatment of the playwright Ernst Toller (1893–1939) and his experiences in the abortive Bavarian Peoples’ Republic in 1919; it details the difficulty that ensues when a sensitive, artistic sensibility becomes deeply enmeshed in the concrete realities of revolutionary politics. A similar work was the screenplay for Sand in 1971, detailing the assassination of playwright August von Kotzebue (1761–1819) at the hands of Karl Ludwig Sand, a student with revolutionary sentiments. Dorst has written over 30 plays that have been published and premiered on German stages, nine adaptations of French and English plays, along with numerous screenplays, children’s plays, and opera libretti. His prose works are less well known but widely published. Dorst has received numerous international awards and prizes for his work, including the Carl Zuckmayer Medallion, the Georg Büchner Prize, and is the subject of several scholarly inquiries. See also THEATER. DRAMA. See THEATER. DRVENKAR, ZORAN (1967– ) FRG. Young adult literature author, screenplay writer, dramatist. Drvenkar emigrated at age three with his parents from Croatia to Berlin, where he was educated. He began writing children’s books and soon excelled in the young adult genre, winning several awards for his gothic tales featuring teenagers. He has also written novels about adolescents and the difficulties they face in school, dealing with the growing problem of youth gangs in Berlin, and confronting the catastrophe of divorcing parents. They are not always “feel good” books but are rather humorous confrontations with situations that force young people to grow up in ways they had never anticipated. Many of Drvenkar’s young people find themselves in exaggerated situations and somehow summon the courage to deal with their dilemmas. One of his most popular novels was the award-winning Sag mir, was du siehst (Tell Me What You See, 2002), in which two 16-year-old girls (named Alissa and Evelin) make a nocturnal visit to the grave of Alissa’s father. Once in the cemetery, Alissa falls through an opening in the ground and lands in a crypt, where she finds a black plant growing from inside an open casket. To her horror, she discovers the plant has set roots within the heart of a dead child inside the

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casket! The experience causes Alissa thereafter to have visions and to witness real events no one else can see. Is it a gift or a curse? She learns to depend upon her friend Evelin to help her distinguish between what she thinks she perceives and what she doesn’t. Drvenkar’s novella Der einzige Vogel, der die Kälte nicht fürchtet (The Only Bird Who Did Not Fear the Cold, 2001) likewise employed startling images but avoided Stephen King–like scare tactics. It featured a boy named Ricki, sick and tired of winter. He has already made 38 snowmen, and his parents remain in bed day in and day out, wearing wool mufflers and caps. Ricki departs for the coldest spot on Earth to have a chat with Old Man Winter in the hope of some relief. On his way he meets a penguin with an inferiority complex but who promises to help him locate Old Man Winter—after all, he is the only bird who does not fear the cold. With Gregor Tessnow, Drvenkar wrote the screenplay for Knallhart (Tough Enough, 2006), a film about a high school boy growing up in a tough Berlin neighborhood; the film won several awards, including the German Film Prize for best feature. It was based on a 2004 novel of the same title by Tessnow. Drvenkar’s “youth drama” Traumpaar (Dream Couple) won prizes in several competitions among regional theaters that produce seasons of plays for adolescent audiences. DÜRRENMATT, FRIEDRICH (1921–1990) CH. Dramatist, novelist, essayist. Dürrenmatt was a pastor’s son (a species of artistic temperament with unusual influence in German-speaking drama) who with his countryman Max Frisch established Switzerland as a significant site of literary attainment in the postwar period. Dürrenmatt was, in the opinion of many observers, a better playwright than Frisch, and two of Dürrenmatt’s plays became well known and frequently produced around the world: Der Besuch der alten Dame (The Visit, 1956) and Die Physiker (The Physicists, 1962). The former had its Broadway premiere in 1959, winning Tony Awards for best play, for director Peter Brook, and for the two leading actors in the production (Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne), and the New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award for Dürrenmatt himself. The Visit had done equally well in a London West End production, in Paris, Rome, Tokyo, and dozens of other cities. The Visit has been revived on

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Broadway twice, and it continues to appear in repertoires of scores of theaters every year in over 20 different translations. The Physicists has not enjoyed the same illustrious production history, but it remains a subject of study in the curricula of schools, colleges, and universities. Many of Dürrenmatt’s other plays are likewise studied; some, such as Die Ehe des Herrn Mississippi (The Marriage of Mr. Mississippi, 1952) occasionally appear in theater repertoires. Dürrenmatt wrote extensively on the theater as an art form, and in his essay “Theaterprobleme” (Problems of the Theater) he discussed his embrace of the “grotesque” as a fulfillment of drama’s task in the postwar world. What was “universal” for Dürrenmatt was simply chaos. “The world,” he wrote, “and thus the stage which represents this world is simply monstrous, a riddle of misfortunes which one must accept—but before which one must not capitulate.” In a later essay, Dürrenmatt described the world as “a gas station where you’re allowed to smoke.” Dürrenmatt’s nondramatic prose work was first published in a collection titled Die Stadt (The City); thereafter came a series of extraordinarily successful “Hans Bärlach” detective novels, beginning with Der Richter und sein Henker (The Judge and His Hangman, 1951), followed by Der Verdacht (The Suspicion, but translated into English as The Quarry, 1952), Das Versprechen (The Promise, translated as The Pledge, 1958), and Die Panne (The Accident, translated both as Traps and A Dangerous Game, 1956). These books fit comfortably within the context of the German-language Krimi, or crime novel; in later, less successful novels such as the political thriller Der Sturz (The Overthrow, 1971), he elaborates on a pervading sense of chaos in the postwar world, a world with no valid judicial equilibrium or moral certainty. The Pledge became the basis of two films; the first was The Cold Light of Day in 1996, a British-Dutch production directed by Rudolf van den Berg. The second was a 2001 American production directed by Sean Penn and starring Jack Nicholson. Dürrenmatt wrote the screenplay for a West German film production of Der Richter und sein Henker (titled The End of the Game for American and British markets), starring Martin Ritt and Jon Voight; Dürrenmatt himself appeared as a minor character named “Friedrich.” Dürrenmatt’s later work often drew comparisons with Günter Grass, largely because of its skepticism and somewhat bleak outlook

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that continued to manifest itself in the grotesque. Also like Grass, Dürrenmatt was a skilled cartoonist and graphic artist; many of his sketches accompany first editions of his prose works. Dürrenmatt received several prizes and awards in his native Switzerland; in Germany, he received the Schiller Prize and the Carl Zuckmayer Medallion, and was granted honorary doctorates from several universities in the United States and Great Britain. See also FICTION.

–E– EDSCHMID, KASIMIR (Eduard Schmid, 1890–1966) FRG. Critic, novelist, travel writer. Edschmid was one of the first serious travel writers in German, though critics accused him in some of his accounts of an unsubtle racism. That was particularly true of his Afrika: Nackt und angezogen (Africa: Naked and Clothed). In many of his novels, Americans become central figures, and they are frequently unflattering portraits. Edschmid remained in Germany through the years of the Hitler dictatorship, though he was forbidden to publish. After the war he returned to some of his earlier themes, describing travels through Italy and reevaluating expressionism in the early 1920s. In the early 1960s, Edschmid was instrumental in fostering a reassessment of Georg Büchner, culminating in the novel Georg Büchner: eine deutsche Revolution (Georg Büchner: A German Revolution); the novel became the basis for an award-winning feature film titled Eine deutsche Revolution in 1981, directed by Helmut Herbst and starring Gregor Hansen as Büchner. EDUARDS HEIMKEHR (Eduard’s Homecoming, 1999). In this novel, Peter Schneider offers a new twist on the old “homecoming” novels in the 1950s, when persecuted German exiles and war refugees returned from abroad or long-absent soldiers returned after years in Russian prisoner-of-war camps to find an utterly transformed German landscape in the new Federal Republic of Germany. In the case of Eduard Hoffmann, the returnee discovers an altogether altered Berlin in the late 1990s, full of construction equipment and pounding with the noise of headlong American-style commercial development. Eduard had left Berlin for California 10 years earlier (and

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was the subject of Schneider’s 1992 novel Paarungen) and hardly recognizes the place. He has trouble finding old neighborhoods once familiar to him. Even friends he once knew treat him as a stranger. He may be a stranger, but he is also the fortunate beneficiary of a potentially lucrative apartment building in the far eastern district of Friedrichshain. There are numerous complications associated with the inheritance, however, and with Eduard’s return generally. Chief among the latter is his wife, Jenny, the descendant of Italian Jews persecuted and driven out of Europe during World War II. True, Jenny knew that Eduard was German when she met him in California and married him there, but she had no intention of resettling in Europe with him, much less in Germany. Further complicating their relationship is her inability to achieve orgasm during their sexual activity; that problem concerns Eduard to a lesser extent, since he has his hands full with squatters occupying his property. The squatters cleverly manipulate media coverage of their plight, depicting Eduard as an extremer Wessi (“extreme West German,” since he’s from California) and a capitalist exploiter of the newly reunified Federal Republic. It turns out that Jenny can talk to the squatters more effectively than can Eduard, and she begins the process of somehow accommodating them while Eduard attends to other matters. They include an endless trail of bureaucratic hurdles, unhelpful police officials, graffiti on the walls of his building, and an attractive female lab assistant he meets at the Institute for Molecular Biology, where he has been offered a job. Somehow, Eduard finds understanding for his growing list of problems with the young woman, especially when they are in bed together; they depart for Weimar, where they visit numerous locales closely associated with German cultural history. While they are in Weimar, Eduard’s apartment building burns to the ground. Is this the solution to Eduard’s dilemmas? Or the beginning of an entirely new set of difficulties? EFRAIM (1967). This novel by Alfred Andersch is structured like an autobiography written by an English newspaper correspondent named George Efraim. In 1935, Efraim’s parents sent him to live in London with an uncle; there he grew up, while his parents, relatives, and many of his boyhood friends died in the Holocaust. His boss sends him to Berlin to cover the German reaction to the Cuban missile crisis; it is

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Efraim’s first visit to Berlin since he was a boy. The editor has also asked him to find the whereabouts of his illegitimate daughter named Esther, whom German nuns removed from the school in 1938 during Kristallnacht. The girl has never been heard from since. Efraim can find no trace of the girl, but later learns his boss is having an affair with Efraim’s wife. Efraim remains in Berlin to cover the visit of President John F. Kennedy in 1963 and has a tryst with a young actress named Anna Krystek. She, however, ultimately remains with her boyfriend, deepening Efraim’s growing sense of isolation and awakening his sense of himself as a Jew in the now nearly Jew-less Germany. The fact that he can find no trace of Esther compounds his sense of himself as a solitary figure confronting the faceless forces of an indifferent history. EICH, GÜNTER (1907–1972) FRG. Poet, radio dramatist. Eich was an initial member of Group 47 and with Alfred Andersch helped initiate publication of the periodical Der Ruf (The Call), aimed at informing fellow prisoners of war in American custody of Nazi crimes. Eich received the 1950 Group 47 Prize for his radio plays. He subsequently wrote over 30 such plays, and in the 1950s he became recognized as one of the most accomplished German authors working in that genre. A well-known and often-cited quote during the 1950s, often used to describe Trümmerliteratur (literature in the ruins), comes from Eich’s play Träume (Dreams), which concludes with two lines of verse: “Do the impractical, sing the songs that nobody expects to come from your mouth./Be uncomfortable, be sand in the gears, not the oil!” Eich later cultivated his interest in and skill with poetic verse, which were inquiries he had initiated in the 1930s as a student of Chinese literature. His first volume of poetry appeared in 1948, titled Abgelegene Gehöfte (Sequestered Granges), containing what critics at the time praised as Trümmerlyrik (lyricism in the ruins), which many believed had been influenced by Eich’s reading of Chinese poetry. His most well-known poem from that initial anthology was “Inventur” (Inventory), in which a soldier inspects his equipment as the coming battle approaches: “Here’s my cap/There’s my coat/And that linen bag/Has my razor kit in it. Cans of rations/My plate and my mug/With my named carved on them.” The simplicity and “straight-

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forwardness” of the verse had a laconic quality, capturing effectively the soldier’s accounting of what was left of his life, perhaps shortly before his life might easily come to an end. Five subsequent volumes of poetry met with similar praise, though it was Eich’s gifts in radio broadcasting that maintained his literary reputation. He continued writing poems for the rest of his life, and numerous collections of them have been published. See also KAHLSCHLAG. EIN TAG IM JAHR (One Day in the Year, 2004). In this memoir, Christa Wolf chronicles the events of 27 September over a period of 40 years (between 1960 and 2000); given her status as one of the more widely read authors in the postwar period, her extrapolations (many of them very lengthy) on events during the day are of perhaps of more consequence than mere diary entries. The project started with a 1960 invitation from Izvestia, the official Soviet government newspaper, to writers around the world to pick a day at random and begin writing about events of that day for as many years as they could. Wolf was one of the few German writers to do so consistently, and the result makes for fascinating reading about details of her private life, observations of global importance (or what she considered important at the time), and responses to quotidian dilemmas or encounters. The result is a literary account akin to stop-motion photography: a sense of movement is suggested, while the preoccupation with detail is unavoidable. Her observations reveal what seems to be an unvarnished glimpse into her witness to the gradual decay of the German Democratic Republic, one that many people in her position realized was taking place but of which no one dared speak. EINE FRAU (A Woman, 1974). In this novel, Peter Härtling continues his interest in recent German history, which he divides into three parts: “Dresden: 1902–1922”; “Prague and Brünn, 1923–1945”; and “Stuttgart: 1946–1970.” The woman of the title is Katharina Wüllner Perchtmann, daughter of a prosperous cosmetics manufacturer in Dresden. But Katharina departs from the bourgeois expectations her family has for her in the aftermath of World War I and becomes a sympathizer with proletarian revolutionaries hoping to set up a Marxist state in Germany. She joins a group of young socialists in nearby Hellerau, where she unfortunately falls in love with an unsavory

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character but ends up marrying a man of her own class, the textile manufacturer Ferdinand Perchtmann. She and Perchtmann have a family and his business thrives in Czechoslovakia. They are not immune to the Nazi onslaught, and Katharina’s half-Jewish parentage places her in substantial peril. Her husband’s business goes bankrupt, and he is killed after joining the German army. His death, however, protects her from deportation; yet she finds herself caught up in the ethnic cleansing taking place in postwar Czechoslovakia and ends up in Stuttgart. There, Katharina comes into her own as a factory worker, largely because for the first time in her life she is responsible only for herself. Her grandson Achim comes to ask her about her “revolutionary days” in Hellerau, and in moments of introspection she realizes that her life has actually been a vastly intriguing adventure. EISENREICH, HERBERT (1925–1986) AU. Short-fiction writer, poet, radio dramatist. Eisenreich was an accomplished short-story writer whose subject matter usually derived from his native Vienna. In the 1950s, he also enjoyed success as a radio dramatist, when several of his Hörspiele (radio plays) were broadcast on airwaves in the Federal Republic of Germany. Most characteristic of his writing, however, remained the story with skeptical, almost cynical observations about life and love in the Austrian capital. His 1957 volume titled Böse schöne Welt (Evil Beautiful World) attracted a wide readership; his depictions of a decayed world had a distinct fin de siècle “Viennese feel” that many critics found agreeably degenerate, connecting Eisenreich to similar works by Arthur Schnitzler, Richard Beer-Hofmann, and Hermann Bahr. In Eisenreich’s stories, the background of World War II’s wholesale destruction was an added bonus, as Eisenreich concentrated on the duplicity of the Viennese, their tendencies to exploit one another, and their inevitable alienation from one another. Volumes like Sozusagen Liebesgeschichten (So-called Love Stories, 1965), Die Freunde meiner Frau (My Wife’s Friends, 1967), and Missverständnisse (Misunderstandings, 1973) were in the same vein. Eisenreich’s poetry was not so well received, though his small volumes of aphorisms were popular and helped him win the Franz Kafka Prize in 1985.

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ELSNER, GISELA (1937–1992) FRG. Novelist. Elsner briefly participated in meetings with Group 47 in the early 1960s and captured national attention with her widely praised best-seller Die Riesenzwerge (The Gigantic Dwarves) in 1964. Critics generally concurred that it was a “grotesque parody” of middle-class mores, particularly the gustatory customs practiced in the Federal Republic of Germany. Some critics noted parallels between Elsner’s characterizations and those of Günter Grass, emphasizing the distortions of personality and motivation. Her narrative style suffered in the comparison, and subsequent novels demonstrated that Elsner’s initial success may have been a fluke. Her novel Der Nachwuchs (The Offspring, 1968) depicted an ugly, ill-behaved child whom her parents regard as an unusual pet. The novel’s principal conceit is satirical, as the author concentrated on bizarre family practices of socializing, bathing, and shared mealtimes. Das Bebrührungsverbot (No Touching Allowed, 1970) depicted a group of couples who claimed sexual liberation but were unable to surmount their childhood experiences of sexual repression. Much of Elsner’s material came from her somewhat privileged upbringing; many of the episodes in her novels had their origins there. Her son, Oskar Röhler (whom Elsner abandoned when he was three years old), made an award-winning film about his mother in 2000 titled Die Unberührbare (The Untouchable, but titled No Place to Go for its American release), concentrating on her disenchantment with German unification. Elsner had been a tireless, if idiosyncratic, champion of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and its brand of Marxism; when the Berlin Wall collapsed in 1989 and the GDR dissolved soon thereafter, Elsner entered a state of prolonged depression from which she never recovered. She committed suicide in 1992 by jumping out of a fourth-story window at a hospital in Munich. Röhler’s film (starring Hannelore Elsner as his mother) concentrated on Elsner’s repeated humiliations, most of which she brought on herself. ENTWICKLUNGSROMAN. The “coming of age” or “development” novel, as the Entwicklungsroman is often translated, has several relatives in German literary history; it does likewise in other languages and literatures. The most well-known correlative in German is the

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Bildungsroman, in which the central character (in most cases, a young man) undergoes a series of experiences that leads him to some kind of maturity. Johann Wolfgang Goethe’s Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre (Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship, 1795–1796) is perhaps the most well-known example. Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield is perhaps the most popular agnate in English, with Studs Lonigan by William T. Farrell as an American bastard of the form. The Entwicklungsroman, a politicized offshoot of the Bildungsroman, became a significant manifestation of prose style in the German Democratic Republic (GDR), particularly in the 1950s and early 1960s. It usually featured young citizens of East Germany coming of age in a communist society, and the word “coming” usually meant Ankunft, which Marxist theorists understood as “arrival.” The idea of Ankunftsliteratur was to imply a voluntary “arrival” of eager young socialists in East Germany, eager to help build a “new society,” one that highlighted what East German rulers considered the singular history of the GDR and its planned society. The Socialist Unity Party (SED) was, furthermore, the only legitimate authority in the GDR to guarantee and realize the historical humanistic tradition of the Germans (by virtue of the party’s assumed legacy of opposing Hitler) by propagating what it termed a Vollstreckertheorie (Enforcement Theory)—which contradicted the “voluntary” aspect to be found in the narrative. In other words, the party justified using the whip hand on writers who did not, in their view, conform to the party’s definitions of what literature was and what it was to accomplish. But many writers and their novels met with party approval; Dieter Noll’s two-volume Die Abenteuer des Werner Holt (The Adventures of Werner Holt, 1960 and 1963), Günter de Bruyn’s Der Hohlweg (The Sunken Path, 1963), and Max Walter Schulz’ novel Wir sind nicht Staub im Wind (We’re Not Dust in the Wind, 1962) are good examples. ENZENSBERGER, HANS MAGNUS (1929– ) FRG. Poet, essayist, editor, critic. Enzensberger first achieved public notice with his poetry and as a member of Group 47. Having completed a doctoral dissertation on the poet Clemens Brentano (1778–1842) at the University of Erlangen in 1955, he began working with Alfred Andersch on radio broadcasts on the Southwest German Radio Network and by

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1957 had published a widely praised volume of poetry titled Verteidigung der Wölfe (In Defense of Wolves), followed by two other volumes of verse, which won him the Georg Büchner Prize in 1963 and a guest professorship at the University of Frankfurt am Main. By then, however, he had fallen into the orbit of Frankfurt School pundits and began to exercise critiques of the German media and assert provocative political positions in the public press. In his two-volume collection of essays titled Einzelheiten (Singularities), he began a critical examination of postwar German cultural life, concluding that the mass media had contributed significantly to mass consumerism (which he denounced) and the debasement of social interaction. He subsequently advocated a German literature that would somehow educate German readers politically. His 1970 documentary play Das Verhör von Habana (The Inquiry in Havana) took a critical stance toward the Bay of Pigs invasion, based on his experience of life in Cuba after departing from a teaching fellowship in Connecticut and denouncing American foreign policy, particularly its involvement in Vietnam. Through the 1970s, Enzensberger voiced his conviction that German intellectuals had a duty to involve themselves in public discourse. Yet in one essay of Kursbuch (a term in German that means “train schedules” but in Enzensberger’s application to the journal he founded it meant “directions”), he acknowledged that literature had in effect very little impact on political debate. His major work of the 1970s was his epic poem Der Untergang der Titanic (The Sinking of the Titanic). This work subsequently appeared as a radio drama and was staged as a play in 1980. Enzensberger’s recent work has prompted intense discussion, an excursus titled Schreckens Männer: Versuch über den radikalen Verlierer (Men of Terror: Essay on the Radical Loser). It treats the disaffected Muslim who resorts to suicide attacks and who essentially hates the West more than he is attached to life. Enzensberger acknowledges that this kind of hatred is not really new, just as the loser himself is hardly a novelty. From Karl Sand (the murderer of German playwright August von Kotzebue) to Lee Harvey Oswald, generations of sociologists, criminologists, and therapists have dedicated entire careers to understanding such outsiders and their need for recognition. What makes the “radical loser” of today such an arresting figure is the

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West’s conviction that social progress is actually possible, and that Western media have in many ways “globalized” the intense desire for recognition and awakened expectations of equality that cannot be fulfilled. The desire for recognition is moreover a form of human narcissism, and the insult of nonrecognition grows geometrically the more it becomes familiar in Western media. The parallels between Islamist losers and the German losers who became Nazi brownshirts is perhaps inevitable, as Enzensberger notes. Throughout the Weimar Republic, millions of Germans considered themselves losers. And like the Islamists of today, they sought to blame someone for their condition, then wreak vengeance upon their oppressors. In Schreckens Männer and other nonfiction work, Enzensberger has acknowledged his debt to Denis Diderot (1713–1784), whom Enzensberger considers the prototypical public intellectual; like Diderot, Enzensberger combines intellectual and scholarly pursuits with a commitment to social and political questions about contemporary society. See also THEATER. ERB, ELKE (1938– ) GDR-FRG. Erb was associated for decades with the literary life of the German Democratic Republic, maintaining an unobtrusive profile until the mid-1980s when she began to agitate and voice public support for defenders of the Polish Solidarity movement, which had begun earlier in the decade. The mid-1980s also saw her efforts to create a new style of poetic expression, which she called “processual writing.” It was, in effect, a manipulation of typography that took advantage of what was then becoming known as “word processing.” She placed printed words spread all over the page in the process of exploring or occupying normally empty space on book or magazine pages. She varied the length of the lines, inserted words lengthwise in the margins, and employed inconsistent indentation. There was to be no “meaning” in her writing (perhaps best described, some critics maintained, as “prose poetry”); wording was to function as a kind of autonomous process independent of the author. Such writing was intended, Erb said, to allow for an indeterminate and ongoing interpretation, designed to allow readers to draw their own conclusions. They had to, because the writing itself was utterly inaccessible and nearly incomprehensible, possessing what some critics called a kind of “associative compactness.” After German reunifica-

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tion, her poetry reached a much wider audience and she paradoxically began to win prizes for it. In 1995, she received the Erich Fried Prize and in 1999 the Norbert C. Kaser Prize of the Academy of the Arts in Berlin. ERBABGEWANDTE SEITE DER GESCHICHTE, DIE (The Other Side of the Story, 1976). Critics considered Nicolas Born’s novel an important contribution to the literary movement in the 1970s called neue Subjektivität, or “new subjectivity.” It features a first-person narrator living in West Berlin, wholly unable to function effectively in society and deeply sensitive to his isolation. His being seems to consist in the main of what might be termed agoraphobia; his attempts to make sense of the social and political world around him make up the novel’s structure. He should not feel that bad: after all, he has a lover named Maria, a daughter named Ursel, and a friend named Lasski who has political commitments. Yet his most significant companions are his feelings, observations, and beverage, alcohol, in one form or another. In some ways, he envies Lasski, an active participant in the student revolts of 1968; the narrator attempts to feel something at a demonstration he attends but remains oddly disengaged. He leaves Berlin for Frankfurt am Main, where he meets with his daughter. Their meeting does not go well, and he feels estranged from her too. Then comes the news that Lasski has died. The narrator immediately leaves for Berlin, where he encounters the city in a new way, as if looking through a glass wall. He is now totally cut off, merely a passive observer of “the other side of the story.”

–F– FASSBINDER, RAINER WERNER (1945–1982) FRG. Film director, screenwriter, dramatist. Fassbinder became a German film celebrity in the 1970s, due largely to the rise of the “New German Cinema,” made possible by funding for filmmaking from public television networks and the new socialist government elected in 1969. Despite his reputation for disorganization, a manic working method, and abusive treatment of actors and crew members, Fassbinder maintained a prolific output of work and completed most of his movies on

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time and under budget. Between 1966 and the year of his death, Fassbinder made over 40 films (15 of them for television), many of which by today’s standards seem hastily shot, poorly written, and badly edited; yet critics regard some of them as emblematic of the Federal Republic of Germany’s “filmic coming of age.” His most notable achievements were what critics called his BRD (Bundesrepublik Deutschland) Trilogy, consisting of Die Ehe der Maria Braun (The Marriage of Maria Braun (1978), Lola (1981), and Die Sehnsucht der Veronika Voss (Veronika Voss, 1982), along with the 16-hour long, 14-part television miniseries Berlin Alexanderplatz (1979–1980), based on the 1929 novel of the same name by Alfred Döblin. The BRD Trilogy focused on three women in the aftermath of World War II, when they (and by obvious analogy the Federal Republic) were struggling to survive. All three films chronicle the noteworthy transformations of the republic’s early years, along with many facets of German life that did not change at all from the Nazi years. The films also bespeak Fassbinder’s ability to attract generous financing for his films, as the images he records are almost always in focus, the production design seems self-assured, and the editing far more tight and coherent. Berlin Alexanderplatz has since developed a kind of cult following; it was restored from original negatives and re-released on digital format in 2007. Fassbinder had always been able to attract talented actors to his projects, many of them colleagues from his theater activities. The actress with whom he was most closely associated was Hanna Schygulla, with whom he made 20 films. Fassbinder also considered himself an actor—though he failed to gain entrance to German acting schools. He also failed in his attempts to enter film schools, so in 1967 he joined a small theater troupe in Munich, which under his influence became a kind of performance commune in emulation of the Living Theater in New York, which had recently toured Germany. Fassbinder later ran the experimental Theater am Turm in Frankfurt am Main, where he further honed his skills in intense, almost obsessive work with actors. He discovered that he had a galvanizing effect on them, somehow convincing them to reach for a level of performance they had never before achieved. Several of his actors later claimed he had brutalized and degraded them.

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After completing numerous directorial experiments both on stage and in film, Fassbinder completed his first full-length movie in 1969 with Liebe ist kälter als der Tod (Love Is Colder than Death), which was nominated for a Golden Bear Award at the Berlin International Film Festival that year. He went on to receive numerous other award nominations from the Cannes, Toronto, and other film festivals, but most American and British film organizations ignored him. His work was often too controversial in subject matter and considered too poorly made for serious consideration. In 1977, however, a New York movie house featured a retrospective of his films; three years later, several American public television stations broadcast Berlin Alexanderplatz, now considered his masterpiece. FATHER LITERATURE. By the late 1960s, there began a wave of literary interest in “father novels” (Vaterromäne), whose authors were often members of the generation born after World War II and whose parents had lived through the Third Reich. Some of those parents had been active participants in Nazi criminality, and their offspring wanted to know the extent of that involvement. Literary exploration of father-child relationships is certainly nothing new in German literature, but faced with the imperatives of Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to grips with the past) many German novelists realized that “father literature” could become an expedient agency for social criticism. There has been an eager audience for social criticism in German since the late 19th century, and the drama of expressionism in the 1920s had extensively cultivated it. Plays such as Der Sohn (The Son), Der Bettler (The Beggar), and Vatermord (Patricide) had evinced socially critical approaches to patriarchal figures, as had films like Metropolis and Tagebuch einer Verlorenen (Diary of a Lost Girl). That writers should return to those approaches in the postwar period was hardly surprising, though few anticipated how big and long-lasting the wave of interest would become. Neither did anyone anticipate the interest in father literature that emerged in the wake of German unification in 1989, as an entirely new set of fathers, this time from the disintegrated German Democratic Republic (GDR), was called to account. Many have concluded that the initial wave of postwar father literature in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) gathered strength

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in the wake of the Frankfurt Auschwitz trials of 1963–1965 and the student uprisings that began in 1968. Those events impelled fiction dealing with father-son and father-daughter relationships, though there was some evidence of father literature by the 1950s. Wolfgang Koeppen’s Der Tod in Rom (Death in Rome, 1954) featured two fathers facing accusations from sons, and one of the fathers is a former SS general. Heinrich Böll’s 1959 Billard um halb zehn (Billiards at 9:30) questioned the comportment of a family patriarch, even as the family gathers to celebrate his birthday. Böll’s Ansichten eines Clowns (The Clown, 1963) meantime censured a mother who is every bit as culpable as any father in postwar literature. Rolf Hochhuth’s 1963 novella Die Berliner Antigone (Antigone in Berlin) recapitulated the Sophoclean conflict between Creon and Haemon, but placed it within the context of the Nazi regime. The best father novel to appear after the Auschwitz trials was probably Deutschstunde (The German Lesson, 1968) by Siegfried Lenz. The relationship between father and son is far more complex than any previously depicted, and it featured a distinctly nonvillainous, low-ranking policeman as a father guilty of misdeeds so subtle that it becomes easy to understand why he claims he was simply “doing his duty.” Scrutiny of fathers’ behavior during the Nazi years increased as the 1970s proceeded. Bernward Vesper’s Die Reise (The Voyage, 1977) investigated his father’s collaboration with National Socialism, while Peter Härtling’s Hubert, oder die Rückkehr nach Casablanca (Hubert, or the Return to Casablanca, 1978) portrayed a son’s attempt to hide his father’s crimes as an SS officer. Ruth Rehmann’s 1979 Der Mann auf der Kanzel (The Man in the Pulpit) indicted a father who had been a pastor during the Third Reich. His apparent detachment from the wickedness around him was grounds for a daughter’s condemnation. Rehmann was not the only female writer to confront fathers; Angelika Mechtel did so as well in Wir sind arm, wir sind reich (We Are Poor, We Are Rich, 1977), as did Elisabeth Plessen in Mitteilung an den Adel (Such Sad Tidings, 1976). The most poignant father novel of the 1970s came from the GDR: Jurek Becker’s novel Der Boxer (The Boxer, 1976) concentrated on an adoptive father, albeit the father also of a biological son lost in the Holocaust. The father is mistakenly convinced he can rear his new son in an atmosphere free of anti-Semitism and capitalist decadence in the GDR. As

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the son matures, he realizes that his father is sparring with demons, and the demons consistently win. The 1980s brought forth Christoph Meckel’s memoir Suchbild: über meinen Vater (Image of Investigation about My Father, 1980), Brigitte Schwaiger’s novel Lange Abwesenheit (Long Absence, 1983), Ludwig Harig’s Ordnung ist das ganze Leben: Roman meines Vaters (Order Is Life’s Essence: A Novel about My Father, 1985), Niklas Frank’s nonfiction “reckoning” with his father titled Der Vater (1987), and Peter Schneider’s novel Vati (Daddy, 1987). All were among the decade’s noteworthy examples of father literature. Schneider depicted a young German lawyer on a trip to South America to meet his long-lost father—lost to the Israeli Mossad secret police, that is, who have been trying find him for years and return him to Israel for trial as a concentration camp doctor. The father was based on Josef Mengele, the infamous physician and “Angel of Death” at the Auschwitz-Birkenau camps. The 1989 dissolution of the GDR opened new avenues for father literature, both in fiction and nonfiction. In Stille Zeile Sechs (Silent Close Number 6, 1991), Monika Maron presented her undisguised disdain for the deteriorated patriarchs who ran the GDR regime. Thomas Brussig’s Helden wie wir (Heroes Like Us, 1995) took a similarly disdainful stance toward fathers in the GDR, whose children (unlike the children whose fathers had malfunctioned in the Nazi regime) were often witnesses to paternal wrongdoing. Most disdainful of all was Hanns-Josef Ortheil’s 1992 novel Abschied von den Kriegsteilnehmern (Farewell to the War Participants). Ortheil’s protagonist loathes his father, and the father’s death prompts a long journey to America. Sailing down the Mississippi River, the son hopes he can forget not only his father but also the whole idea of Germany and the German language. By the time he gets to New Orleans, he realizes that forgetting will not be easy. Some scholars have concluded that father literature is essentially an exercise in family dynamics, involving the search for oneself. They have cited evidence that much of the earlier father literature was based on fathers returning home from the war, desperate to regain control over some aspect of their lives and to restore what was lost during their long absence. The resulting emotional distance felt by children infuses many narratives, which writers often flavored

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with melancholy, even anger, and sometimes profound despair. The same might be said of children attempting to reassemble shattered identities in the GDR. Irina Liebmann’s biography of her father, who had been a prominent factotum in the GDR, is unsympathetic toward the man at first. She comes ultimately to love him—after much painful analysis of her own motives—four decades after his death. Monika Maron is left with a different set of preoccupations by the end of her memoir, Pawels Briefe (Pawel’s Letters, 1999). Her stepfather had likewise been a GDR official, active in the enterprise of suppression. The discovery that her grandfather had been Jewish and murdered by the Nazis caused her to reflect on the whole idea of the German family—especially hers, which had been on both the receiving and later the administrative ends of tyranny. Bernhard Schlink’s protagonist in his novel The Homecoming (2006) experiences similar discomfiture. He discovers that the author of a well-written manuscript defending German atrocities in World War II may have been his father. Uwe Timm’s 2003 memoir Am Beispiel meines Bruders (My Brother’s Example, 2003) includes an examination of his brother as part of an overall assessment of the German family. That his father, a decorated World War I veteran, continued to glorify an elder son killed in action as a member of an elite SS regiment left the family with a judgment that many Germans had failed to confront the crimes of family members. Timm concludes that the whole family, and by inference, the entire family of Germans, had some responsibility for Nazi criminality. FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY (1949– ). The Bundesrepublik Deutschland came into being as the victorious powers allied against Nazi Germany fell increasingly into bitter disagreement about punishing the Germans in the aftermath of World War II. The conquering armies of the Soviet Union in 1945 had unilaterally dissevered the eastern provinces of East Prussia, Silesia, and nearly all of Pomerania from the German Reich and assigned them to Poland; the Soviets meanwhile had stripped most of eastern Poland of its territory and added it to their own spoils of conquest. Nearly 10 million Germans were expelled from those eastern provinces and ordered to fend for themselves. The Western Allies concluded that such extreme policies were an unfortunate consequence of war, which the Soviet

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Union had won in the East at enormous cost. The Western Allies also agreed that Poland should somehow be compensated for its suffering and the utter destruction of its cities, infrastructure, and two million of its citizens. Yet the Soviet Union’s actions in the immediate postwar period soon hardened into nonnegotiable policy positions; they also insisted on reparation payments from the defeated Germans in all four zones of Allied occupation. The Western Allies refused, and they furthermore pursued a policy of German reconstruction in their zones of occupation, allowing Germans ultimately to feed, clothe, and house themselves. This policy started the Western zones on a path to independence, something the Soviet Union vigorously opposed. Officials in the Soviet Union, and their leader Joseph Stalin in particular, envisioned a unified but neutral Germany, one they could dominate and exploit. In their Eastern zone of occupation (which was largely agrarian), officials were already shipping most of the foodstuffs produced there back to the Soviet Union, rationing the food that was left. Soviet troops were also dismantling much of the industrial capacity in their zone of occupation, ultimately making off with about 45 percent of the zone’s industrial infrastructure. The Western Allies protested Soviet policies; they also began to see the virtue of reinstalling former Nazi Party members in positions of power and influence throughout their zones of occupation as part of their effort to rebuild Western Germany. This policy outraged the Soviets, who made every attempt to root out and liquidate former Nazis. Meanwhile, the Western zones were allowed to form regional administrative units on their own, providing “West Germans” by 1947 with a large measure of democratic, freely elected self-government. These units also began to enjoy a measure of individual freedom and prosperity unknown among “East Germans.” The Western Allies instituted currency reform in early 1948 without informing the Soviets; the new currency, called the “deutsche mark” replaced the old reichsmark and effectively terminated bartering and much illicit blackmarket dealing. Currency reform was the last straw for Stalin, who broke off all further negotiations with his former Allies and in June ordered a blockade of all land and water routes to Berlin; his goal was to drive the Allies from their sectors in the German former capital and

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to coerce an economic merger of all occupation zones—thus forestalling, he hoped, the emergence of what was rapidly becoming a quasi-independent and economically self-sufficient “West Germany.” The blockade failed; Allied supply of the Western sectors of Berlin by means of a Luftbrücke (“air bridge,” but known in America and Britain as the “Berlin Airlift”) effectively thwarted Soviet designs, and in May 1949 the Soviets reopened routes to the city. The blockade had succeeded, however, in uniting the Western zones and convincing the Western Allies that an independent (though not completely sovereign) West Germany should have its own constitution and government. The Western Allies approved the West German Grundgesetz, or “basic law,” to govern what soon became the Federal Republic of Germany. In one gruesomely accurate phrase, Die Menschheit schaudert sich vor Deutschland (“Humanity shudders in horror at Germany!”), Thomas Mann (“Die Lager,” in Gesammelte Werke, vol. 12 [Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1974], 951) initiated a literary Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to grips with the past). Much of the literary effort in West Germany initially took the form of nontendentious, apolitical Trümmerliteratur (literature in the ruins) because in the West, Marxist bravura that claimed only communists had opposed Adolf Hitler gained little credence. The West was furthermore where many displaced or expelled Germans had sought to settle, even as its cities lay in ruins; severely wounded soldiers joined the refugees, along with orphans, respectable women forced into prostitution, the homeless, penniless, and hungry by the millions. The West offered a kind of comfort borne of familiarity; myriad continuities from the Third Reich were everywhere: street signs, traffic signals, popular songs, radio frequencies, images, actors and actresses, basic legal assumptions, along with dozens of practices and usages that were holdovers from the Third Reich. Included in them were government officials; it is estimated that fully two thirds of the bureaucrats and nearly all judicial personnel in the Federal Republic were once members of the Nazi Party, many of whom had been active participants in the Hitler tyranny. Members of Group 47 (a literary association formed in 1947 to encourage writers and literary creation) were appalled by what many in the organization felt was a relatively easy transition from Third Re-

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ich to Federal Republic. Writer Ernst Wiechert described the people he saw in the West as “lonelier than any people has ever been on this earth . . . branded as no other people have ever been branded” (Ernst Wiechert, Rede an die deutsche Jugend 1945 [Munich: Zinnene, 1945], 33), but consciousness of the Nazi past did not stop them from attending the theater or concerts, celebrating when they could afford it, and drinking a lot of beer. Beer production and the quality of lager beer in particular increased substantially by the end of 1945 and continued to increase as economic conditions improved. Many writers reflected the tendency among Germans to repress memories from the Nazi past, to deny personal responsibility for criminality, and to hide complicity. The national government of the Federal Republic government, led by Cologne’s former mayor Konrad Adenauer, nevertheless began to take major steps during the 1950s in accepting guilt for crimes committed in the name of the German people. It initiated a program of recompense to Jewish victims of the Third Reich, providing millions and later billions in aid to Israel, to families of Jews and non-Jews who lost property, and to individuals whose families were exterminated or who were forced laborers. The Adenauer government pursued a policy of close alignment with the West, both economically and militarily. The result was the Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle) that allowed West Germany to reintegrate itself rapidly into Europe by participation in several international organizations. Among them were the European Coal and Steel Community, which later served as the core of the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union; in 1955, West Germany joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and gained sovereignty over its foreign relations. The 1950s also witnessed some important literary achievements. The novel Das Treibhaus (The Hothouse, 1953) by Wolfgang Koeppen was about the confusions of locating the West German capital in the university town of Bonn. Martin Walser’s novel Ehen in Philippsburg (Marriage in Philippsburg, 1953) was about the various deceits Germans employed simply to get by and start a new life in a new country. Heinrich Böll’s novels, radio plays, and stories were emblematic of the contradictions and idiosyncrasies of life in the Federal Republic, including the guilt-ridden characteristics of living

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in an ostensibly successful society built on ruins that were quickly giving way to a booming economy. Böll’s novel Billard um halb zehn (Billiards at 9:30, 1959) attempted to present three generations of witnesses to and participants in the shattering effects not only of the Third Reich but an entire half century of German history. Finally, Günter Grass’ novel Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum, also in 1959), exploded onto the consciousness of Germans who were just beginning to get psychologically comfortable with numerous aspects of their history that remained unspoken. Many Germans saw themselves reflected in the dwarf Oskar Matzerath, whose adventures in the Third Reich and in the burgeoning Federal Republic comprised a stunning panorama of violence, degradation, destruction, and rebuilding, much of it personified in Oskar himself. Böll and Grass became leading lights in a culture already bursting with astonishing literary talent. Yet neither man was altogether comfortable with the Federal Republic, its successes, its atonements, or even with its astonishingly successful democracy. The same may be said of numerous other writers in the Federal Republic from the 1960s through unification in 1989, and up to the present day. The fact that both Böll and Grass were awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature (Böll in 1972, Grass in 1999) was for some almost an embarrassment, as if a German writer did not “deserve” such an international honor in light of historical events. By the early 1960s, however, the unmistakable whiff of change was in the air; the Berlin Wall had evaporated any remaining doubts in the minds of most West Germans about their preference for the free-market, democratic order in the Federal Republic; elections in 1961 had delivered losses for the first time to Adenauer’s ruling Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and several subsequent elections allowed for peaceful, uneventful changes in governments. West Germany was rocked by student protests in 1968–1969, as a new generation demanded to know what its parents had done in the Third Reich. By the end of the decade, the Social Democrats were in power, and numerous Vaterromäne (novels about fathers, “father literature”) appeared to question and examine paternal comportment. Bernward Vesper’s Die Reise (The Journey), Ruth Rehmann’s Der Mann auf der Kanzel (The Man in the Pulpit), and Peter Härtling’s Hubert, oder dir Rückkehr nach Casablanca

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(Hubert, or the Return to Casablanca) went beyond examination and concluded in indictments. The student protests of the late 1960s gave way to what some critics called a Tendenzwende (change of direction) in the 1970s, as many citizens of the Federal Republic realized that the protestors were utopians spouting empty Marxist phrases; indeed, the 1973 novel Lenz by Peter Schneider was in many ways a chronicle of student disillusionment. The 1970s were also a period of what some termed the “new subjectivity,” as many writers turned inwards. Meanwhile, a newly reinvigorated film culture developed in the Federal Republic, thanks largely to the new socialist government’s policy of subsidizing film production. Directors such as Werner Herzog, Wolfgang Petersen, Volker Schlöndorff, and most peculiarly Rainer Werner Fassbinder unleashed a torrent of new films, many of which earned international acclaim. The German public was shocked to learn in 1974 that an East German spy had infiltrated the highest levels of Chancellor Willy Brandt’s government; Brandt was forced to resign, though his Ostpolitik of acknowledging the existence of the East German state remained when Helmut Schmidt took over as chancellor. The “Guillaume affair” (named for the East German spy in question) later became the basis of a successful play by Michael Frayn, which had a lengthy run on Broadway. But the affair at the time only deepened a sense of inwardness in West Germany, and it may have prompted sales of numerous semi-autobiographical novels. Among the best of them were Der kurze Brief zum langen Abschied (Short Letter, Long Farewell) and Wünschloses Unluck (A Sorrow beyond Dreams) by the Austrian Peter Handke. These novels marked Handke’s rise to preeminence among German-language writers. Meanwhile, other, well-established writers continued to deal with politics and “coming to grips with the past.” Perhaps the most notable (certainly the most lengthy) of them were Uwe Johnson’s Jahrestage (Anniversaries) and Die Ästhetik des Widerstands (The Aesthetics of Resistance) by Peter Weiss, both multivolume treatments of recent German politics and history. Most critics agreed that the best novel published during the decade was Böll’s Gruppenbild mit Dame (Group Portrait with Lady, 1971); many considered it his masterpiece because the “group

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portrait” of the title was West Germany itself. To readers around the world, Böll’s Nobel Prize for Literature the following year seemed completely justified. Some noted as the century progressed that Böll was, along with Günter Grass, one of the few major writers of German who still lived in Germany. Johnson lived on an island off the English coast and Weiss lived in Sweden. Nelly Sachs (co-winner of the 1966 Nobel Prize for Literature) also lived in Sweden. Elias Canetti (winner of the 1981 Nobel Prize) was born in Bulgaria, grew up in England, studied in Vienna, and lived alternately in Zurich and London. The rise of two other prominent writers in Austria (Thomas Bernhard and Elfriede Jelinek) also prompted some critics to wonder if the Federal Republic in the 1980s—with its geometrically expanding economy, unprecedented prosperity, and increasingly content populace under the Christian Democratic governments of Chancellor Helmut Kohl—was a place that could still cultivate “great” literature. In 1985, a novel that became a worldwide runaway best-seller both palliated those concerns and paradoxically compounded them: Das Parfum (Perfume) by Patrick Süskind was undeniably readable, a riveting pastiche of literary styles from various periods—but was it art, serious literary art? German critics were divided, as usual. Nothing did more to divide German critics and writers than the unanticipated collapse of the Berlin Wall and the rapid disintegration of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in 1989–1990. There were intense debates about the role of literature in what would become the “new” Federal Republic, which incorporated six new federal states and essentially reunified Germany, though there was no serious discussion of returning eastern German territories lost in 1945 to Poland. The 1990s were witness to literature that was no longer divided into “East” and “West” German categories; it was simply German. Yet many writers remained preoccupied not only with divisions in the postwar period but also with unaneled spiritual fissures dating from the devastation of World War II. Among the most remarkable of the latter was W. G. Sebald, whose unclassifiable books bespoke the deep sense of German unease in a postmodern world. Of the former, Ein weites Feld (A Broad Field) by Günter Grass came in for harsh criticism, largely because Grass used it to denounce the whole project of German reunification.

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Through the 1990s and into the first decade of the 21st century, a unified Germany expanded its well-established policy of restitution, now making it available to individuals who had suffered deprivation in Eastern Europe due to the Cold War. This program continued to impose a hardship on German taxpayers, but most citizens (who, after all, now numbered 17 million additional citizens from the former GDR) seemed to agree that Germans had an obligation “to face up to the crimes committed by the Nazi regime and acknowledge their obligation to provide material restitution” (as the Adenauer government had originally phrased it). Many Germans may have shared some unease with the course of unification; few, however, joined Grass in denouncing it. They continued to pay for it, as the costs of infrastructure overhaul in the neue Bundesländer (new federal states, as the former GDR was euphemistically termed) rose by the billions, well beyond all previous calculations. Resentments among the citizenry (who often distinguished former Western Germans as “Wessis” from East Germans as “Ossis”) were fairly predictable, given the vast differences in income and political outlooks. Former West Germans were stunned to find former members of the East German regime seated in the new Bundestag (Parliament); former East Germans simply could not fathom the presence of neo-Nazi organizations easily springing up in parts of their former homeland. Revelations that former friends, neighbors, and family members had spied on each other for years deepened their despondency. Several films about life in the former GDR, however, proved to be extremely popular (such as Das Leben der Anderen, which won a Hollywood Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film in 2006) with all Germans, hinting that some reconciliation was beginning to accompany reunification. Few things remained clear for the Federal Republic in the ensuing years of the 21st century, though its basic stability seemed certain; its citizens could also be assured that they, their children, and their grandchildren would continue indefinitely to bear the guilt for crimes committed long before they were born—and continue to pay handsomely for the privilege of living in the longest-standing democracy in German history. FICHTE, HUBERT (1935–1986) FRG. Novelist, travel writer. Sometimes called “the German Jean Genet,” Fichte’s novel Das Waisenhaus

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(The Orphanage) was awarded the Hermann Hesse Prize in 1965. Set in 1942–1943, the novel depicts the fate of Detlev, a boy of illegitimate birth whose father was a Jew, but whose mother has listed him as a “half-orphan” to protect him while she works as an actress in Hamburg. Fichte himself shared the same fate as Detlev, discovering both his Jewish ancestry and hints of his homosexuality in a Bavarian orphanage. Fichte returned from the orphanage to his native Hamburg just in time to witness the Allied firebombing of the city, killing about 55,000 people in one night. After the war, Fichte worked as an adolescent actor in theater and in films, though never on a steady basis. Failing entrance exams to acting schools and unable to complete high school in Hamburg, he was admitted to the University of Poitiers in France in 1952. In France and Scandinavia until 1961, he worked at a series of menial jobs. He returned to Hamburg hopeful of becoming a playwright. Instead, he found some success as a short-story writer, publishing his first volume titled Der Aufbruch nach Turku (Starting Off for Turku) in 1963. This volume won him the Julius Campe Stipend, allowing him time to write The Orphanage. He spent the next decade writing about the denizens of Hamburg’s red-light district, St. Pauli. Die Pallette is one result, a novel named for a particular hangout in the district, peopled by habitués on the margins of society. Fichte chronicles their comings and goings, their trials and tribulations, their prey and those who prey upon them. What emerges is a mosaic of meaningless degradation. In the mid-1970s, Fichte interviewed playwright Genet, revealing numerous affinities between the two men; in the later 1970s, Fichte became preoccupied with the sexual practices of tribal peoples; that interest led him to many parts of the Western Hemisphere and to Africa, writing travel books resembling ethnological studies. At the time of his death, Fichte was working on a massive cycle of novels he titled Die Geschichte der Empfindlichkeit (The History of Sensitivity), parts of which were published posthumously. FICTION. Several scholars and critics contend that the literary form with the largest public resonance in German is fiction, particularly the novel. There have been animated discussions and debates about contemporary novels in the electronic and print media since the 1950s, often about the way novels are perceived to configure and in-

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terpret reflections of national identity. That was true in the case of Thomas Mann’s Doktor Faustus after 1947, just as controversy surrounded Günter Grass’ Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) in the late 1950s. Until the publication of The Tin Drum, Mann and Hermann Hesse remained two of the most dominant personalities in German fiction during the immediate postwar period. Hesse had become a Swiss citizen and he had written his major work in the 1920s. When he received the Nobel Prize for Literature and the Goethe Prize from the city of Frankfurt am Main (both in 1946), there was a reawakening of interest in his fiction. Many younger readers discovered his work for the first time, and interest in Hesse continued to build through the 1960s. Thomas Mann was initially better known; both Faustus and Felix Krull bolstered public perceptions of him as postwar Germany’s preeminent “man of letters.” To be a German “man of letters” meant to write with literary significance. Many writers sought such significance in the postwar period, given the general consensus that Nazism and the Nazi era had devastated German literature. The result—in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) at any rate—was a perceived bundesdeutsche Literaturwunder (Federal German literary miracle), paradoxically analogous to the economic miracle during the 1950s. It was a paradox because most novels were expected to remain skeptical of West Germany’s economic expansion while pursuing that most significant of all dilemmas, Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to grips with the past). That pursuit included a kind of obligatory Gesinnungsästhetik (ideological aesthetic) for a truly significant novel. Several members of Group 47 became important novelists, perhaps because group membership encouraged aesthetic standards based on coming to grips with the past and offering resistance to Konrad Adenauer and Ludwig Erhard’s platform of Wohlstand für alle (Prosperity for Everybody). Long and short fiction by Martin Walser, Siegfried Lenz, and Heinrich Böll are obvious examples, but The Tin Drum by Günter Grass accorded so well with Group 47 standards that members offered Grass its emolument merely on the basis of one chapter, which he read to members in 1958. Their judgment was confirmed when he finished the novel in 1959 and it became widely praised. It also became a worldwide best-seller, though that was less important. Many observers a half century after its publication confer upon The

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Tin Drum an almost canonical status as the exemplary work of fiction in the postwar period. In some ways, Heimito von Doderer in Austria performed the same role Thomas Mann had played in the immediate postwar period. His Die Strudlhofstiege (The Strudelhof Steps) and Die Dämonen (The Demons) were stylistic throwbacks, but unlike Mann’s later novels they foreswore any direct indictment of the society they portrayed. It remained for other Austrian writers, namely Thomas Bernhard and Peter Handke, to open new directions in fiction, making wide departures from the norms espoused by Group 47. Bernhard’s 1963 novel Frost was as ideologically uncommitted as it was aesthetically hermetic. In a similar way, Handke’s 1966 novel Die Hornissen (The Hornets) rejected stylistic conventions in fiction by deploying language in ways that rendered his work, to many readers, utterly inaccessible. Some critics thought Handke was patterning himself after Franz Kafka, especially when his novel Die Angst des Tormanns beim Elfmeter (The Goalie’s Anxiety at the Penalty Kick) appeared in 1970, but nobody could really tell for sure. Critics greeted poet Ingeborg Bachmann’s 1971 novel Malina as a welcome relief from Bernhard and Handke, though it too suffered from what many called an opaque “interiority.” The German Democratic Republic (GDR) welcomed several exiled novelists in the immediate postwar period as part of its policy to create a Marxist literary culture. The first GDR novel to attract international attention was probably Stalingrad by Theodor Plievier in 1946. Other attempts appeared, but maintaining a Soviet-style police state tended to militate against the publication of fiction that did not accord with state demands for socialist realism. Several novelists who were born or were educated in the GDR showed promise, but most of them, such as Jurek Becker, Uwe Johnson, and Monika Maron, emigrated to the West. The policy of socialist realism was not the only factor that enervated or compromised the imaginations of GDR fiction writers; the official notion that socialism had finally “come to grips” with the Nazi past meant there was no need to explore the responsibility for crimes of Nazism in fiction. That avenue of literary expression the state simply cut off. The state’s ideological thrust likewise served to inhibit novelistic treatments of the Holocaust that did not conclude

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in valorizing Marxist solidarity in the struggle against National Socialism, from which Marxism had to emerge victorious. Literature was a socially formative force, and a stable Marxist society must have a cultural program that coerced conformity with the Marxist view of history. Since the GDR system had achieved historical development that could not be improved, any fictional inference that improvement was still needed was heretical. The fiction of Christa Wolf and Volker Braun generally accorded with such convictions. Günter de Bruyn’s work, however, posed distinct problems for the GDR regime. So did Ulrich Plenzdorf’s novel Die neuen Leiden des jungen W. (The New Sufferings of Young W.), which depicted the almost inconceivable idea that young people in the GDR were unhappy. There was a lot of unhappiness in German-speaking Swiss fiction during the 1950s, if the crime novels of Friedrich Dürrenmatt and Max Frisch’s novel Homo Faber were any indication. The early 1960s witnessed Walter Diggelmann’s confrontation in fiction with Swiss treatment of Jews during the 1940s, and the unhappiest Swiss novelist of all was probably Hermann Burger. His novels were preoccupied with a kind of morbid foreboding. Like many of their Austrian counterparts, Swiss authors eschewed a compulsion to get a handle on the past in favor of formal experimentation. Adolf Muschg, Gertrud Leutenegger, E. Y. Meyer, and Jürg Federspiel wrote fiction that was part of what critics began to call the “new subjectivity” in fiction. West German novelists like Nicolas Born, Hermann Lenz, and Jürgen Theobaldy also experimented with “new subjectivity,” an indication that the influence of Group 47 was slipping. The collapse of the GDR in 1989 and its absorption into the FRG in 1990 caught many writers of fiction by surprise, not least because so many novelists had maintained for years that unification was impossible, that the GDR should remain in existence, and that the only thing uniting both countries was literature. Many writers in the FRG had maintained these and other political positions through the 1970s and 1980s, and two novels became more than just novels. Jahrestage: aus dem Leben von Gesine Cresspahl (Anniversaries: From the Life of Gesine Cresspahl) by Uwe Johnson and Die Ästhetik des Widerstands (The Aesthetics of Resistance) by Peter Weiss were enormously long,

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multivolume meditations on German politics that some observers saw as attempts to convince readers that German fiction had a redemptive property. Redemption for past sins, however, was different from merely coming to grips with the past. If Germans could redeem themselves of their past through literature, then they might accept the political division of their country as permanent. Peter Schneider’s 1982 novel Der Mauerspringer (The Wall Jumper) posited that very suggestion. Böll’s novels in the 1970s, meantime, had continued to maintain a healthy skepticism toward the FRG, as Böll’s entire fiction oeuvre continued to grow in popularity around the world, particularly after he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. Soon after unification came disconcerting reports of collusion among GDR writers with the regime’s secret police. There were vigorous arguments in the media about the need for East Germans to have a “coming to grips with the past” of their own, given their experience of a dictatorship in the GDR, which many found comparable to that of the Third Reich. Fiction by Monika Maron and Christa Wolf briefly addressed that point of comparison, but the credibility of writers (such as Wolf) directly associated with the GDR regime was irreparably damaged. By 1995, novels like Thomas Brussig’s Helden wie wir (Heroes Like Us) and Thomas Hettche’s Nox (Night) were oblique analyses of German division and ensuing attempts at unification. Even more disturbing for many was Grass’ Ein weites Feld (Too Far Afield, also published in 1995), which equated unification with the German Anschluss (annexation) of Austria in 1938 and the formation of the “Greater German Reich.” Perhaps most disturbing—at least to Germans who took fiction seriously—was the growing trend that German fiction was beginning to treat politics with indifference. Some asserted that the trend began with Patrick Süskind’s 1985 thriller Das Parfum: die Geschichte eines Mörders (Perfume: The Story of a Murderer), a novel that occasioned within several critics a case of aesthetic indigestion. They could find in it little evidence of literary significance, but at the same time they had to admit that the novel was extremely well written. Fiction that paid little attention to the past began to proliferate, and by the beginning of the new century there was genuine concern that the German novel had lost its way and was no longer an instrument, many feared, for coming to grips with the past. It seemed that Wil-

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helm Genazino, Wolfgang Herrndorf, Maxim Biller, and their ilk refused to be vexed by Vergangenheitsbewältigung. Had German fiction really come to this? Novels about mass murderers, Americanized slackers, and sex addicts fixated on marzipan? If that was true, the change was good. Too much German fiction, said Biller, took itself much too seriously. It was time, he felt, for Germans as a whole to get over themselves. Predictions of serious fiction’s demise were premature, however, for directions toward “memory” literature had begun. The early fictionalized reminiscences of W. G. Sebald were part of this new direction, along with Flughunde (The Karnau Tapes) by Marcel Beyer, Thomas Lehr’s novella Frühling (Spring), and Christoph Ransmayr’s Morbus Kitahara (The Dog King). They dwelt on the Third Reich, the effects of the Holocaust, and the lasting effects of both on present-day Germany. The trend toward exploring memory—if not memorializing—culminated in Sebald’s brilliant Austerlitz. FRANCK, JULIA (1970– ) FRG. Novelist. Franck had produced four novels and received awards for them before she won the German Book Prize in 2007 for her lengthiest novel to date, Die Mittagsfrau. Translating the title into English is somewhat problematic, as the novelist herself once noted. It literally means “noontime woman” and to men it can infer a lover who makes surreptitious visits; to women, it can mean a woman who is at home by noon, making a hot lunch for her schoolage children. For purposes of the novel, it has a more sinister connotation, since it is based on a Sorbian fable familiar to residents of the area of Lausitz (in present-day Poland) where the novel begins. That particular Mittagsfrau is a witch who places a curse on laborers working in local flax fields at noontime. They can only lift the curse by telling her stories about their work, and how flax is transformed into linen. Franck’s book received high praise among many critics in addition to those who awarded her the German Book Prize. It is set against both world wars, depicting the fate of two sisters struggling to deal with their father’s death from battle wounds in World War I and their increasingly distraught and distant mother. The book follows the two sisters into the Weimar Republic and the Nazi era. Helene, who becomes the central character of the novel, becomes the kind of witch her mother had been, as she abandons her little seven-year old boy at

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a railway station in an attempt to escape oncoming Russian troops in 1945. Critics have praised Franck’s skill in capturing the spoken idiom of her characters and in maintaining narrative tension over hundreds of pages. Additional awards for her fiction include the Klagenfurt Literary Festival Prize in 2000, the Marie Luise Kaschnitz Prize in 2004, and Roswitha Prize of 2005. FRIED, ERICH (1921–1988). Poet, essayist, translator. Fried escaped with his mother from their native Vienna to Great Britain shortly after 1938; he became a naturalized British subject in 1949 and remained so the rest of his life. He worked extensively for the British Broadcasting Corporation, yet he wrote poetry almost exclusively in German. His translations of Shakespeare, T. S. Eliot, and Dylan Thomas were widely praised, but he was best known for his 18 volumes of poetry, much of which was abstract in form yet highly political in content. Many critics maintained that he was among the most significant lyrical poets of the postwar period but subsequent scholarship has concluded that much of his work is derivative. Fried was frequently in the news, and sometimes in court, during the 1960s and 1970s; he openly declared sympathies for student protestors espousing Marxist slogans that he found agreeable, just as he found many officials in the Federal Republic of Germany disagreeable. His public attacks upon them resulted in highly publicized courtroom proceedings. His public attacks against Israel and the United States attracted less publicity, but they were no less vociferous. In his later years, he turned unexpectedly mellow in his poetic output, writing tender love poems that some critics found almost paradoxical in their explorations of human relationships. As a result, he was the recipient of numerous prizes and awards. Two years after his death, the federal government of Austria instituted a literature prize in his name, bearing a –C 14,600 honorarium. FRISCH, MAX (1911–1991) CH. Dramatist, novelist. The Zurichborn Frisch maintained his architectural practice until the mid-1950s, though his career as a professional writer had begun as a journalist with Zurich newspapers and his novel Jürg Reinhardt in the mid1930s. His service in the Swiss army during World War II, his proximity to the Zurich Schauspielhaus, and his ability to travel freely

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throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s were significant advantages for his career as a writer. He completed several plays during that period, among them Nun singen Sie wieder (Now They Sing Again) and Santa Cruz (both in 1946), Die chinesische Mauer (The Chinese Wall, 1947), Als der Krieg zu Ende war (When the War Was Over, 1949) and Graf Öderland (Count Oderland, 1951). Frisch’s diaries during these years are extraordinarily informative, particularly when he discusses his encounters with German writers returning to Europe. Among them was Bertolt Brecht, and Frisch’s comments on Brecht’s influence are riveting. Frisch had little use for Brecht’s political pretensions and ultimately concluded that the theater had limited use as an instrument of political change. He later preferred the phrase Theater als Prüfstand (theater as verification platform) as the best way to describe his dramatic writing, which he discussed in his Der Autor und das Theater (1964). Frisch’s postwar fiction culminated in the 1954 novel Stiller, representing a method of writing that involved the fabrication of a narrative composed of sketches that ultimately form a kind of mosaic. In Stiller, he creates the title character of notebook entries that the eponymous character has written both about himself and about others with whom he has had contact. In the novel Homo Faber (1957), Frisch embarks on a different narrative strategy, one involving a bizarre chain of events based on convoluted mischance and totally unexpected discovery. The title character is Walter Faber, an engineer whose metaphorical designation in the title means “man the maker,” and Faber is prepossessed with order and logical outcomes. Yet he seems to encounter the opposite of logic and order throughout the novel; at several turns, he confronts irreconcilable chaos, from which he feels compelled to flee. His renewed searches for order conclude with a love affair involving a girl named Sabeth, who is young enough to be his daughter. When Faber learns that Sabeth is indeed his daughter, his regulated and well-conducted world is shattered. These novels established Frisch as a major figure in German fiction, and he was awarded the Büchner Prize in 1958—the first non-German to receive the award. Volker Schlöndorff adapted the novel for a highly effective 1991 film of the same title, starring American playwright/ actor Sam Shepard in the title role; French actress Julie Delpy played Faber’s daughter and love interest, Sabeth.

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Frisch became best known, however, for two plays; both achieved worldwide popularity in numerous translations. Biedermann und die Brandstifter (translated into English merely as The Firebugs) was a kind of “parable play” in which Biedermann (the name in German implies an “everyman” character) invites known arsonists into his home to live in his attic as his guests; they in turn store gasoline in the attic, destroy Biedermann’s neighborhood, and ultimately raze Biedermann’s entire house. In Andorra (1961), Frisch employs a similar parable in the form of 12 tableaux. Witnesses enter a downstage Prüfstand to recount their conduct during the invasion of a fictional place called Andorra by a foreign power (called “the Blacks”). Each witness defends his or her role in the persecution and death of a supposed Jew named Andri in their midst. None of them had come to Andri’s assistance, each points the finger of blame at the invaders, and all claim ignorance—or at least good intentions. The emblematic portrayal of Biedermann’s cowardice, along with the pleas of ignorance by the witnesses in Andorra, recalled for many the behavior of Germans during World War II and helped audiences around the world point convenient fingers of blame in the supposition of “collective guilt.” Frisch was awarded several encomia for his work; significant among them were the Heinrich Heine Prize (Düsseldorf), the Schiller Memorial Award from the State of Baden-Württemberg, the Commonwealth Prize (Chicago), along with honorary doctorates from the universities of Birmingham, New York City, Oklahoma, and the Technical University of Berlin. See also SWITZERLAND. FRÖHLICH, HANS-JÜRGEN (1932–1986) FRG. Novelist. Fröhlich dropped out of high school in his native Duderstadt to study musical composition in 1950. After numerous unsuccessful attempts to get his music performed or recorded, he began working in Hamburg in bookstores and ultimately got jobs editing books for several publishers. He began writing novels, applying principles of musical composition to greater effect in fiction, and with two novels in the 1960s he attracted positive critical attention and sales of his work. The success of those novels Aber egal! (To Hell with It! 1963) and Tandelkeller (Bunker of Utopia, 1967) in particular allowed him to make his living solely as an author for the next two decades. The latter book fea-

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tures families of idealists who hope to establish an ideal community deep underground in a series of bunkers. Periodically, signs of life from aboveground appear, and the families attempt to remain in contact with friends and acquaintances from above. Both critics and readers found Fröhlich’s curious use of German malapropisms and other linguistic idiosyncrasies imaginative; subsequent fiction efforts (Fröhlich wrote 10 novels after Tandelkeller) were not so successful. FÜHMANN, FRANZ (1922–1984) GDR. Poet, novelist. Fühmann’s life and career is in many ways emblematic of the full horror to which German literature was witness in the 20th century. A devout Roman Catholic as a boy, he became an ardent National Socialist at age 19 when he enlisted in the German Reichswehr. As a front soldier, he participated in numerous battles, including the siege of Stalingrad. He was captured and placed in Russian prisoner-of-war detention; as a prisoner of war, he was ordered to the “antifascist re-education facility” in Noginsk, where he became a devotee of Joseph Stalin. He returned to East Berlin in 1949 and became active in the cultural politics of the German Democratic Republic, publishing widely and winning several awards. His most notable work of the 1950s was an epic poem titled Die Fahrt nach Stalingrad (The Journey to Stalingrad), recounting his presence there as a German soldier, later as a prisoner of war, and finally as a visitor seeing the place with new eyes. A collection of poetry titled Die Nelke Nikos (Niko’s Carnation) solidified his position as a reliable voice in favor of Stalinism. Revelations published in 1956 about Stalin’s reign of terror startled Fühmann, but in a series of novellas and stories that describe the effect of National Socialist ideology on impressionable young Germans, Fühmann remained convinced that a Soviet-style socialist order was the only effective defense against a resurgence of anti-Semitism and National Socialism. The invasion of Czechoslovakia by Warsaw Pact troops (including a large contingent from East Germany) in 1968 changed Fühmann’s way of thinking. It also changed his approach to writing: he carefully selected myths, fairy tales, and other “distanced” material to explore his growing disenchantment with Marxism, and in 1976 he was one of the first signatories on a petition excoriating the East German regime for its conduct in the Wolf Biermann affair. In a new departure titled

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Siäns-Fiktschen (pronounced “science fiction” in German), Fühmann embarked on attempts at humorous prose. He also continued scholarly inquiries into the work of poet Georg Trakl (1887–1914) who, like Fühmann, became increasingly aware that the world he had known was slowly, inevitably disintegrating.

–G– GEIGER, ARNO (1968– ) AU. Novelist. Geiger began attracting critical attention in his native Austria for his short fiction in the 1990s and was nominated twice for the Ingeborg Bachmann Prize. In 2005, however, he captured the attention of a much larger audience with his Es geht uns gut (We’re Doing Well), which won the German Book Prize for 2005. The award surprised many observers, since the novel contains numerous idiomatic Austrian usages, not all of which German speakers can comprehend. But the novel is an Austrian panorama, chronicling a half century of history in the experience of a protagonist who inherits a splendid villa in a posh Vienna suburb. Cleaning out the place turns into a monumental undertaking, leading to some very uncomfortable discoveries about his mother and his two grandfathers, one of whom was a Nazi partisan. The other grandfather was a fierce opponent of the Austrian demagogue who united Germany with his homeland, namely Adolf Hitler. GENAZINO, WILHELM (1943– ) FRG. Novelist. Genazino first came to national prominence as an editor of the satirical journal pardon in the 1970s. Rumors spread that it was Genazino’s idea in 1968 to circulate portions of Robert Musil’s massive novel Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften (The Man without Qualities) to over 30 publishers throughout West Germany, using a cover letter from a man named “Bob Hansen” who hoped for publication of his novel. Everybody rejected the author’s entreaties, including the publisher who originally published portions of the Musil novel in 1930 and 1933. Genazino’s antics continued until 1977, when the first volume of his Abschaffel Trilogy was published. “Abschaffel” was the eponymous hero of three novels appearing in yearly succession, featuring the adventures of an unremarkable clerk who after working at his

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office job wanders through a large city, valiantly attempting to maintain his concentration amid an onslaught of advertisements, window displays, popular jingles, and other banalities. The problem is that Abschaffel is himself utterly banal. His thoughts about and reactions to the sights and sounds flooding over him are so insignificant that they become oddly humorous and almost interesting. He finds himself developing a kind of split personality, one he employs at his job and the other in his private life—such as it is. In the trilogy’s remaining volumes, Die Vernichtung der Sorgen (The Annihilation of Troubles, 1978) and Falsche Jahre (Phony Years, 1979), Abschaffel’s sense of bemused insignificance deepens, though despair would be far too grandiose a term to describe his condition. When he and his girlfriend Margot split up, he comes down with numerous psychosomatic illnesses. In the third novel, Abschaffel finds himself in a clinic among patients who have similar psychosomatic complaints, but many of them have been diagnosed as workaholics. That term hardly describes Abschaffel, but his observations of the patients are acute while largely inaccurate. As he often did at work, he finds himself, at the novel’s conclusion, staring out the window and imagining the happenings taking place outside. Genazino continued to write with similar humorous subtlety through the 1980s and 1990s, creating characters who read Marcel Proust while eating marzipan, often describing their fixations with a kind of compassionate indifference. Nobody would encounter such characters on the streets, where they often seem to be. They wander to and fro, rarely with any particular destination in mind. Sometimes they sit in parks, carefully cracking walnuts in unsuccessful efforts to tempt squirrels; others find photo albums in garbage cans and spend whole afternoons studying photographs of complete strangers. Many critics have found Genazino’s novels compelling and his characters somehow familiar. As a result, he began winning numerous citations and awards for his fiction, culminating in the Hans Fallada Prize in 2003, the Georg Büchner Prize in 2004, and the Kleist Prize in 2007. Those years also witnessed what have perhaps been his most successful and widely praised novels, Ein Regenschirm für diesen Tag (translated as The Shoe Tester of Frankfort), Die Liebesblödigkeit (The Stupidity of Love), and Mittelmässiges Heimweh (Moderate Homesickness).

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GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC (1949–1989). The Deutsche Demokratische Republik (popularly known as “East Germany”) came into being on 7 October 1949 and ceased officially to exist on 3 October 1990; it unofficially collapsed on the evening of 9 November 1989 when East German officials mistakenly opened the Berlin Wall and permitted thousands of GDR citizens to leave. Literature in the GDR held a place of high esteem and status, and writers were often generously subsidized while tightly controlled. The numerous literary scandals during the lifetime of “the first peasant and workers’ state on German soil” bore testimony to the importance that GDR officials, and their subject citizens, placed on the role of literary expression. The impetus for maintaining a special place for literature within postwar Germany came from numerous German Communist Party (KPD) leaders who had spent the war years in Moscow. In September 1944, writer Johannes R. Becher met with Wilhelm Pieck (head of the KPD), Walter Ulbricht, Anton Ackermann, Franz Dahlem, and several others to begin discussions about the best way to inculcate new, “antifascist and democratic” values in the postwar German public. The inclusive term “fascist” to describe National Socialism had entered the party’s official vocabulary in 1935, signifying “the open, terroristic dictatorship of the most reactionary, most chauvinistic, and most imperialistic elements of finance capital.” KPD leaders arrived in Berlin soon after Soviet forces pacified the city; Pieck was still their titular leader, but Ulbricht had the closest ties to Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Politburo. “Everything must appear democratic but we must concentrate all power in our hands,” Ulbricht informed his colleagues in June, since Allied occupation of Germany and Berlin remained fluid. On 3 July 1945, British and American troops occupied their sectors in West Berlin and the French arrived on 12 August. An inter-Allied commandant had taken over in Berlin on 11 July but not until 30 July did the control council for Germany come together for its first meeting. The Soviet Union’s policy for a conquered Germany initially focused on reparations. Winston Churchill had vigorously opposed that policy, viewing it as a repetition of the mistaken burden placed on Germany after World War I. Soviet troops nevertheless made off with large portions of German industrial capacity in their zone of occupa-

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tion, while the American and British occupiers sought to initiate a recovery of the German economy. In July 1946, the Americans offered to unify the economy of the American zone with that of any of the other zones, and in January 1947 the British and American zones of occupation merged. The Soviet Union objected strenuously to any recovery of Germany, hoping to maintain a weak and disarmed, though ultimately unified and neutral, Germany for the foreseeable future. In order to strengthen economic recovery, the French occupiers joined the Americans and British in replacing the former German currency with the new deutsche mark on 18 June 1948. A week later, the Soviet occupiers severed all road, rail, and canal links to the Western zones in Berlin. The U.S. Air Force then initiated the “Berlin Airlift,” flying in foodstuffs, medicines, fuel, and other supplies to sustain the Western sectors of the city. The Soviet blockade ceased in May of 1949. By then, however, the economic, military, and political positions among the Western Allies and their former allies in the Soviet Union had hardened into mutually hostile camps. That process had begun in April 1946, when the Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity Party of Germany, SED) was formed in a merger of the KPD and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). The SED in turn became the ruling political and cultural organization of the Soviet zone, dominated by former KPD members. When the Western zones merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany, there was added pressure on the Soviet zone to form a sovereign state as well. It did so, but only the Soviet Union, Soviet-occupied Eastern European states, China, and North Korea recognized it diplomatically. Within the new state itself, there was little debate about the utopian role literature was to play. It fell to writers and workers of the German Democratic Republic, stated Central Committee member Anton Ackermann, “to realize and bring socialism to fruition, and with it to lay the groundwork for an all-inclusive general culture of humanity. Socialism will be the ultimate emergence of man from the animal world into the realm of true humanity and freedom! That is why the socialist struggle of the worker’s movement is the struggle for the most noble humanism. This struggle is a task of the highest morality and righteousness! It will become a matter for all progressive people. That is our faith, our knowledge, our worldview.

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That is our morality and our ethics.” Soon after the declaration of the new state, party Politburo member Erich Vogt reiterated the important civic function of art in general and of literature in particular within East Germany. In one of many pronouncements by SED party leaders, Vogt rejected any notion of “art for art’s sake” in favor of “art for the sake of mankind, for the sake of helping man to become truly himself. Thus the Party not only refuses to reject tendentious art, it demands tendentiousness.” The party’s utopian vision for literature’s active role in politics appealed to numerous writers exiled during the Nazi era, along with younger writers whose memories of life under the Nazis was still fresh. For many, a state built on the principle of opposition to fascism was well nigh irresistible. By the early 1950s, however, the SED had established itself firmly in power on the Soviet model; writers were required (as they had been under the Nazi regime) to join state-chartered organizations in order to receive publishing contracts. Several manifestoes began issuing from SED headquarters defining the writer’s role and responsibility in conforming with guidelines for acceptable literary efforts. The party envisioned a didactic, rather than an artistic role for literature. Most writers accepted the party’s dictates; they had little alternative in the East, particularly if they were committed socialists. Many writers endorsed the suppression of the workers’ revolts in 1953, largely because they were genuine idealists with a fear of an open marketplace for ideas. Others supported the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. The state, after all, provided ample employment opportunities in its numerous publication outlets; the goal was the creation of a “genuine” socialist literature based on state-sponsored realism, traditional narrative, and a suppression of “decadent tendencies” like multiple viewpoints, montage effects, ambiguity, fragmentation, distortion, or other modernist innovations. There were several “initiatives” to spur writers toward a new proletarian consciousness; most notable among them were the Bitterfelder Weg (Bitterfeld Path) and Greif zur Feder, Kumpel! (Get a Pen, Buddy!) in the 1950s. Both were predicated on the search for new stories or ideas about labor, presented in conventional and accessible literary forms. Some writers nevertheless found ways to experiment, and sometimes their experimentation found ways into print. Uwe Johnson’s novel Mutmassungen über Jakob (Specula-

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tions about Jakob) featured some unaccustomed use of alliteration and picturesque prose; Christa Wolf’s Der geteilte Himmel (Divided Heaven) allowed for some interior monologue. In 1965, however, the SED attempted to put a stop to growing experimentation, condemning both the “modernism” and “nihilism” it found in several prominent writers. It also pronounced the work of writers like Franz Kafka defunct, because such writing described alienation— and alienation simply was not present in the first peasant and workers’ state on German soil. The SED pronouncement proved to be an indication of cracks in what the party assumed was an insurmountable façade; by the mid1960s, Christa Wolf wrote what many critics judged to the first “modernist” fiction in East Germany with Juninachmittag (An Afternoon in June). In 1973, Ulrich Plenzdorf’s novel Die neuen Leiden des jungen W. (The New Sufferings of Young W.) went so far as to address the previously unthinkable idea that young people in the GDR were unhappy. A verifiable crisis in East German literary affairs developed in the wake of the “Biermann affair” of 1976, and dozens of artists publicly protested the treatment of poet and singer Wolf Biermann, whom the state had stripped of citizenship while he was on tour in West Germany. Meanwhile, Wolf was becoming the most celebrated of East German writers, largely because her novels sold well in the West and functionaries in the East found themselves almost forced to lionize her as well. Her fiction in the 1970s and 1980s was beginning to meet the conditions Western critics had set for an “all-German literature”; Wolf’s feminism helped furthermore to internationalize her reputation and at times give it a status it would ordinarily not have received. In similar fashion, the plays of Heiner Müller (long an outsider among dramatists in the East) began showing up on a regular basis in the repertoires of theaters in the West. Though distinctly nonfeminist, Müller won international acceptance by 1980, as did Christoph Hein for his 1982 novella Der fremde Freund (The Distant Friend, though it was published as Drachenblut in West Germany, which means “dragon’s blood”). Hein’s was a diagnosis of a sociopolitical malady related to the dialectic of enlightenment, and many critics praised it for having no specific contextual reference to the GDR. In other words, the East Germans had achieved a parity of decadence with the West.

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When East German authorities opened the Berlin Wall in 1989, no one was more surprised by events than were the intellectual apologists for the GDR, many of whom were writers. Several had concluded by 1989 that, were the Berlin Wall somehow mysteriously to disappear, most East Germans would remain where they were. The time had come for Germans to accept the permanent division of Germany, they said. That so many thousands, and later millions, of East Germans swarmed into the West in search of consumer goods simply stupefied the elites, who clung somehow to the hope that the “Americanization” of West Germany was bogus. They had become persuaded that East Germans were in a uniquely qualified position to recognize the corruption America had visited upon West Germany and on civilization as a whole. “Ossis,” as former East Germans came to be known, were also uniquely situated to vote against it by remaining in the East. But it was not to be: The Ossis loved to go shopping and did so with a growing fervor. East German writers after 1989 began to pine for the good old days. “Imagine there was socialism and nobody ran away!” said Christa Wolf. Others offered the traditional lament of longing for a “true socialism, not the Stalinist kind,” a “socialism worthy of the name,” or “socialism with a human face.” Theirs was an echo of the 19th-century Sonderweg, a special path to some utopia, a third way to glory, a triangularization between authoritarianism and a free-market economy. The real losers when the Wall collapsed, said Wolf Biermann, were leftist intellectuals like himself. “In the name of ‘real’ Marxism and ‘true’ socialism we had dug ourselves into a fight with Party leaders. But our opponents of yesterday have long since disappeared into the sunset. And we, a tiny group of more or less upright people, cringe at the grave and chew over the body of Communism” (“Nur wer sich ändert, bleibt sich treu,” in Über das Geld und andere Herzensdinge [Cologne: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1991], 160). See also BITTERFELDER WEG; ENTWICKLUNGSROMAN; SOCIALIST REALISM. GERSTL, ELFRIEDE (1932– ) AU. Poet. Gerstl was, with Friederike Mayröcker, perhaps best known of the few female members of the Vienna Group (Wiener Gruppe). With Ernst Jandl, she was one of the founders of the Grazer Autorenversammlung (Graz Authors’ Conference), which ultimately had far more influence on

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Austrian literature than did the Vienna Group. Gerstl has been accorded numerous prizes and citations for her poetry, including the City of Vienna Literature Prize and the Erich Fried Prize. Gerstl’s poetry is often abstract and anecdotal, yet it sometimes can be very funny. One of her most popular recent volumes was titled Kleiderflug, featuring Gerstl’s poetic mediation on clothing. She discusses clothing and poetry at some length in a 2003 film titled Elfriede und Elfriede, directed by Hanna Laura Klar and featuring both Gerstl and Elfriede Jelinek. GLAVINIC, THOMAS (1972– ) AU. Novelist. Some critics have compared Glavinic to his fellow Austrian writers Thomas Bernhard and Elfriede Jelinek because of his propensity to make Austrians uncomfortable. He has spoken openly of criminal cases in Austria during 2006–2008 involving child abductions, fathers who use their children and their grandchildren as sex slaves, fanatics who blow up schools where ethnic minorities predominate, and other activities that, Glavinic claims, reveal a great deal about the Austrian character. The majority of Austrians live in towns, villages, and the countryside. In such locales, virulent forms of bigotry, resentment, and prudishness are in abundance. Such Austrians loathe the European Union, the United States, immigrants, and Jews. Glavinic began writing novels in 1998, and in 2004 he wrote a best-seller titled Wie man leben soll (How You Should Live); it was a “coming of age” novel that remained on the Austrian best-seller lists until 2006, when it was displaced by his Die Arbeit der Nacht (Night Work). How One Should Live describes the life of an overweight Austrian teenager named Charlie Kolostrum as he graduates from high school and stumbles through his 20s. As his name implies, he remains dependent on the women of his life, who nurse him through one mischance after another until he embarks on a career as a taxi driver. Night Work is a kind of science fiction thriller, featuring a protagonist who wakes up one morning to find nothing working and nobody present; then he discovers that some aspects of modern life remain (for example, dial tones) but nobody answers the phone; there is electricity, but at night few lights are to be seen. Introspection is the only solution, but it goes nowhere. Glavinic’s 2007 novel Das bin doch ich (That’s Certainly Me) was short-listed for the German Book Prize. It

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is mainly autobiographical, chronicling the kind of book Glavinic wants to write in order to be considered for the German Book Prize. GOMRINGER, EUGEN (1925– ) AU-FRG. Poet. Gomringer founded the journal Spirale (Spirals) in 1953, which became a base for his ideas about and support for Konkrete Poesie (concrete poetry), a form of poetic expression that eschewed orthography, syntax, or grammar in favor of visual form. Words and letters were to create visual patterns, so that the “reader” could capture the poetry’s sense by merely glancing at it. Gomringer also published a volume of poetry in 1953 titled konstellationen (Constellations). Gomringer formed close ties with architects, because he found that words could be used as construction blocks to form a kind of structure that people of various language groups could comprehend. He later became a professor of aesthetics in Düsseldorf, continuing to develop his ideas about the architectonic of poetry. His most influential volume of poetry was Das Stundenbuch (Book of the Hours) published in 1965; it was widely praised and subsequently translated into several languages. GRASS, GÜNTER (1927– ) FRG. Novelist, poet, playwright. When he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1999, Günter Grass reached the apex of a literary trajectory that had begun with the publication of his blockbuster best-seller Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) four decades earlier. The intervening 40 years had witnessed notable detours, controversies, and a prodigious output of poetry collections, essays, and fiction. Among the most notable of the latter were Katz und Maus (Cat and Mouse, 1961) and Hundejahre (Dog Years, 1963). Together with The Tin Drum, they formed a narrative trilogy based on Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to grips with the past), set in the city of his birth, Danzig (today Gdansk). As a boy, Grass had been a member of the Hitler Youth in Danzig and had attempted to volunteer for submarine duty at age 15. At age 17, he volunteered for the Waffen-SS (the fanatical military cohort of the Nazi Party) for active combat duty. He was wounded in battle and became a prisoner of war in 1945, interned in Czechoslovakia. Upon his release, he worked at a variety of jobs; in 1948, he became an art student in Düsseldorf and later in Berlin, developing talents in both sculpture and painting; those pursuits he has maintained throughout

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his artistic life. Many of his books are illustrated with his drawings, and his paintings fetch high prices in the art galleries of Berlin and Paris. In 1956, he began working as a sculptor and writer in Paris, and there he completed The Tin Drum. He read a portion of the novel to members of Group 47 in 1958, who thereupon awarded him an emolument. When the book was published in 1959, it set off explosions of both adulation and condemnation. Its central character, the proud owner of said tin drum in the title, was a dwarf named Oscar Matzerath; his remarkable voice could break glass at long distances and his drumming had certain hypnotic effects. The novel is a masterpiece of surrealistic fabulism, owing literary debts (as Grass himself acknowledged) to the physician and novelist Alfred Döblin (1878–1957), whose use of montage effects combined with stream of consciousness emerged as a modernist alternative to traditional linear narrative in the 1920s. Grass has frequently emulated and extrapolated upon many of Döblin’s techniques. Grass set his novella Cat and Mouse likewise in Danzig and endowed its central character with similarly remarkable propensities and curious deformities. His Adam’s apple is his most prominent feature, and he destroys several Russian tanks in an effort to win the Iron Cross. That military decoration will allow him, he thinks, to hide his protuberant deformity. The full-length novel Dog Years completed the Danzig trilogy, though it was less a consistent narrative and more a collection of tales, fables, and legends native to Danzig, set within the context of Nazi misrule. Grass makes ample use of parody, as Nazi storm troopers, party functionaries, teachers, policemen, judges, and scarecrows pass by in a colorful parade of authorial ingenuity. In his fiction writing that followed, Grass brought a tighter, if less exuberant focus to bear on his targets of choice, largely because his political activism had come to supersede his other priorities. He worked as a speechwriter for the leader of the Social Democratic Party, Willy Brandt (1913–1992), who from 1966 to 1969 was German foreign minister and from 1969 to 1974 led the ruling coalition of Social Democrats and Free Democrats as chancellor. He accompanied Brandt to Poland in 1970 on a journey that inaugurated Brandt’s Ostpolitik. It was an official West German government policy that included, among many other things, a much-disputed acceptance of existing European

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borders that renounced any further German claim on formerly German territories in Poland. Grass documented his travels with Brandt in Tagebuch einer Schnecke (Diary of a Snail, 1972). He wrote several essays, poems, and one significant play during this period: Die Plebejer proben den Auftstand (The Plebians Rehearse the Uprising). It examined the role of Bertolt Brecht in the 1953 workers’ uprising against the rulers of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). Grass wanted to portray Brecht as a “typical” German intellectual who in most cases refuses to involve himself in politics. His novels thereafter bespoke the opposite, often staking out distinct political territory. His Örtlich Betäubt (Local Anaesthetic) was a protest against the Vietnam War; Das Treffen in Telgte (The Meeting at Telgte) proposed a conference of writers (called the “Gruppe 1647”) who discuss the direction of German literature at the end of the Thirty Years’ War. Kopfgeburten; oder, die Deutschen sterben aus (Headbirths, or The Germans Are Dying Out) was an account of a couple’s decision to have children in an already overpopulated world that in any case will probably explode in a looming thermonuclear holocaust. Grass continued in that kind of eschatological vein with Die Rättin (The Rat), which envisioned humanity’s extinction in the aftermath of wholesale environmental contamination. Unkenrufe— Zeit der Versöhnung (The Call of the Toad—A Time for Reconciliation) was a treatment set in Gdansk of reconciliation between Germans and Poles. The best of his novels during the 1970s was probably Der Butt (The Flounder), which in many ways returned to the ribald surrealism of his initial work. In it, Grass presents a talking flounder’s history of cooking in general and fish recipes in particular, featuring a jury of irascible females from the Stone Age down to the present day. Contemporary feminists found much in the novel to condemn, not least the fact that Grass authorized the first English-language translations to appear in Playboy magazine. Protests about his work have rarely surprised Grass, nor have they given him pause in his prodigious output. A good example is Ein weites Feld (Too Far Afield), published in 1995. In it, Grass attacked the German reunification of 1989–1991, claiming it was analogous to Adolf Hitler’s annexation of Austria in 1938. The novel’s title refers to a phrase in the novel Effi Briest (1895) by Theodor Fontane

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(1819–1898), but the more direct analogy is another Fontane novel titled Frau Jenny Treibel (1892). It was set in Berlin after the first German unification in 1871. In Too Far Afield, Grass presents a protagonist (who is a Fontane scholar) observing the events of 1989–1991 and finding inconvenient parallels to them from Germany’s catastrophic history. It was the first major work of fiction to deal with events associated with the breach of the Berlin Wall, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the demise of the German Democratic Republic, events that most Germans viewed optimistically. Critics subjected the book and its author to withering vituperation, but Grass stoutly maintained the view that his fellow Germans lacked the ability to “renew” their country, even if they had politically reunified it. In Mein Jahrhundert (My Century), a collection of 100 related stories published in 1999, he related 100 stories about events in the 20th century, featuring 100 different narrative points of view. Grass set a new standard for public controversy in 2006 with the publication of his memoirs Beim Häuten der Zwiebel (Peeling the Onion), in which he admitted that he had not been drafted into an airdefense unit as he had maintained for the previous six decades. He had instead volunteered for duty in a Waffen-SS brigade. Grass claimed he was “driven by feelings of guilt” about his past, though he was quick to point out that at age 17 he was naïve, that he never participated in any atrocities, that he infected himself with jaundice, and claimed never to have fired a shot anyway. “I wanted to trace the origins of the German enthusiasm [for Hitler] and the reasons behind it. I did that in The Tin Drum and again, half a century later, [in] my new book” (Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 11 August 2006). He left most of his critics, by then far more numerous than heretofore, largely unconvinced. Four works of the Grass oeuvre have been filmed. The most recent (2005) was The Call of the Toad, a German-Polish coproduction. Polish participation in the project was noteworthy, given the novel’s subject matter. Several German public television broadcasters combined to produce The Rat in 1997, and a Polish production of Cat and Mouse appeared in 1967. By far the most effective film treatment of any Grass work was The Tin Drum, which won Hollywood’s Academy Award for Best Foreign Film of 1980. Volker Schlöndorff directed it, with 12-year-old David Bennett as Oscar Matzerath.

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Grass has received, in addition to the Nobel Prize, several other literary awards. They have included the Georg Büchner Prize (1964); the Carl von Ossietzky Medal (1967); the Theodor Heuss Prize and the Fontane Prize (both in 1968); the Viareggio Prize (1978); the Hermann Kesten Prize (1995); the Thomas Mann Prize (1996); and the Hans Christian Andersen Prize (2005). He was named “Pipe Smoker of the Year” in 2000 by the Tobacco Collegium of Berlin, and several colleges and universities have awarded him honorary doctorates, among them Kenyon College in Ohio, Harvard University in Massachusetts, the University of Gdansk, and the University of Lübeck. GROUP 47 (Gruppe 47). This was a literary association comprised of authors whose work came to dominate West German literature in the 1950s. Among its best known members were Heinrich Böll, Günter Grass, Ingeborg Bachmann, Günter Eich, Hans Magnus Enzensberger, and Siegfried Lenz. Its founders were Alfred Andersch, Hans Werner Richter, and Walter Kolbenhoff; as prisoners of war in Illinois and Louisiana, they joined former newspaper correspondent Gustav René Hocke in editing Der Ruf (The Call), a newspaper circulated among the nearly 400,000 German prisoners of war in American camps before the Nazi collapse. Andersch and Richter returned to Germany in the spring of 1946 and began editing another version of The Call, which became enormously popular among the German reading public. American occupation authorities, however, shut down The Call in the spring of 1947 for what they perceived to be its editorial nihilism. Andersch, Richter, Kolbenhoff, Wolfgang Weyrauch, and Wolfdietrich Schnurre then planned to start another magazine, which they wanted to call Der Skorpion (The Scorpion), but the meetings they held in the fall of 1947 to plan the new publication’s format turned into discussions that left members convinced that such meetings were more important than any new publication they might create. The founders of Group 47 invited returning soldiers like themselves—that is, Ländser (enlisted men)—to their initial meetings and encouraged them to read what they had written before the group. The group professed no specific political platform, though most of its members were skeptical of the Federal Republic of Germany and what they perceived as its materialistic ideals; they also opposed the

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socialism that emerged in the German Democratic Republic. Most were convinced of the need for a mixed economy and subsequently took strong political stands for a kind of “socialism with a human face.” Others, such as Grass and Lenz, were fervent supporters of Social Democrat Willy Brandt and his controversial Ostpolitik in the early 1970s that “normalized” relations between the two German republics. Prospective authors in the early years of Group 47 had to sit in what came to be known as the “electric chair” and read their work to the group. The procedure was often merciless. There was widespread admiration for Ernest Hemingway among the group, and many aspiring authors were encouraged to emulate him. By 1950, the group’s fortunes had improved substantially by virtue of an American public relations firm endowing the group with a prize of about $250. Böll won the prize in 1951, and he considered it a blessing to be able to feed his children with it. Other winners included Ilse Aichinger (1952), Ingeborg Bachmann (1953), Martin Walser (1955), and Günter Grass (1958). By the time Grass won the Group 47 prize, the initial literary goals had shifted considerably from emulation of Hemingway; the original founders left the group for the most part, as a new generation began writing in a variety of styles. The last years of the group (it disbanded in 1967) won it worldwide respect and more prize money (from the Ford Foundation in particular) and witnessed meetings in various locations throughout Europe. Its final meeting took place at Princeton University in New Jersey, where Peter Handke denounced the group as misguided in its attempt over the years to embrace and maintain social, political, and literary conventions that had long since ceased to be pertinent. Some scholars credit Handke with the demise of Group 47. See also AMERY, CARL; CELAN, PAUL; ELSNER, GISELA; HILDESHEIMER, WOLFGANG; JENS, WALTER; JOHNSON, UWE; LETTAU, REINHARD; REICH-RANICKI, MARCEL; RÜHMKORF, PETER; THELEN, ALBERT VIGOLEIS; WELLERSHOFF, DIETER; WOHMANN, GABRIELLE. GRUBER, SABINE (1963– ) AU. Novelist. Gruber has written three moderately popular novels and has received awards for them in her native Austria. The novels concentrate on the author’s close identification

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with her characters, who usually are women her own age facing some kind of crisis. In her most recent novel Über Nacht (Overnight, 2007), which many critics have considered her best effort to date, the focus is actually on two women: one who has recently received a new lease on life with a kidney transplant. The other has received the shock of her life when her husband falls in love with another man. They are Irma and Mira, whose names conveniently use the same letters; they meet each other under curious circumstances, and the novel goes on to explore the moral ambivalences of organ transplants. Gruber has received not only awards for her fiction but also significant stipends that have allowed her some financial independence as a writer.

–H– HABERMAS, JÜRGEN (1929– ) FRG. Philosopher, sociologist. Habermas has little direct influence on postwar German literature, but his concepts of the “public sphere” and the influence of mass media have gained wide acceptance in literary circles of scholars and critics. Many have cited Habermas’ debt to the Frankfurt School and its Marxist “critical theory” of communications in a capitalist society. Habermas’ rise to prominence began in the 1960s with his Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit (Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere); his Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns (Theory of Communicative Action) in 1982 ensured his leadership in all manner of discussions about communication in general, not only in the Germanspeaking world but in most of Europe and the United States. His influence has promoted a general expansion of “communications theories,” renewing an interest in hermeneutics, and in some cases, helping to transform it into a catchall of linguistic ontology. Many of Habermas’ theories posit the idea that language can be analyzed as part of what he terms the pragmatics of social interaction, and as such can be interpreted as part of communicative experience. The 1980s also saw Habermas attain a more public profile than he had previously sought. He involved himself in the public debates that came to be known as the Historikerstreit (Historians’ Dispute) and was widely praised for his opposition to “normalize” the phenome-

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non of National Socialism in German history; Habermas claimed that the position of the Holocaust should retain its centrality. Because Habermas occupied such towering intellectual authority, his opinions on what everyone seemed to agree was a fundamental question among Germans carried substantial weight and influence. His position came to be seen as one identified with the political left—namely, that German nationalism had no place in the ongoing effort to construct a truly democratic German society. HACKS, PETER (1928–2003) GDR. Dramatist, poet. Hacks was regarded as an apologist for the German Democratic Republic’s Marxist regime, largely because he defended the regime’s action against Wolf Biermann in 1976. But Hacks himself had been the target of GDR bureaucrats; in 1963, they banned Hacks’ comedy Die Sorgen und die Macht (The Tribulations and the Power) because it mocked the regime’s attempts to plan production and foresee demand. Officials later included Hacks on a list of writers with nihilistic, antiproletarian tendencies. Some even accused him of snobbery, going so far as to label him both “bourgeois” and “aristocratic.” Their tune changed considerably with the astonishing success of his satire Ein Gespräch im Hause Stein über den abwesenden Herrn von Goethe (A Conversation in the Stein Household about the Absent Mr. Goethe) in 1974. It was performed in nearly every theater in West Germany and went on to be translated into a dozen languages and performed throughout Europe. It was even turned into an East German television production and broadcast regularly over state-controlled airwaves. Hacks had begun his career in Munich, where he earned a doctorate in dramatic analysis. He remained in Munich as a writer for radio until 1955, when he settled permanently in East Berlin. There his plays premiered at the Deutsches Theater on a fairly regular basis, his infrequent clashes with officialdom notwithstanding. In all, he wrote over 50 plays and accepted numerous prizes for his efforts from the state. When Germany was unified, he initially retreated from public view, emerging at times to condemn reunification as a kind of “counterrevolution.” Many of his plays remained nevertheless in German theater repertoires, and by the late 1990s he had professionally resurfaced, this time as a prize-winning children’s author and poet. In

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2007, a literary society was established in his honor, dedicated to fostering research on his work and maintaining his reputation. HAHN, ULLA (1946– ) FRG. Poet, novelist. Hahn’s lyric poetry won wide acclaim in the 1980s, soon after she completed a dissertation on “socialist literature of the 1960s” at the University of Cologne. She also worked as a literary editor for several West German radio broadcasters during the 1980s, which in many ways helped her complete her widely praised first volume of poetry, titled Herz über Kopf (Heart over Head, 1981). Four subsequent volumes of poetry followed, along with awards for poetry such as the Leonce and Lena Prize, the Hölderlin Prize, and the Roswitha of Gandersheim Medallion. What established her reputation as a literary personality, however, was the 1991 novel Ein Mann im Haus (A Man in the House). The “man” of the title is a choir director at a local church in the Rhineland, where the novel is set. The choir director also happens to be the lover of the novel’s somewhat obsessive protagonist, a goldsmith named Maria. He is married; Maria wants him to leave his wife, and he refuses. She lures him to her house, where she proceeds to imprison him in her bed, held by gold-plated chains of her own manufacture. She feeds him with silver spoons and makes love to him night and day until he nearly dies from overstimulation. The book captured a wide readership in Hahn’s native Cologne and adjoining Rhineland, most of it fascinated by its eroticism but indifferent to its literary qualities. Literary critics, however, found much to like in A Man in the House. They found even more to like in Hahn’s next fictional effort, Das verborgene Wort (The Hidden Word, 2001). It is a largely autobiographical narrative, recounting the life of Hahn’s alter ego Hildegard Palm. As a girl, Hildegard grows up in a poverty-stricken Rhenish village, surrounded by working-class Catholics who instill within her little appreciation for the written word; Hildegard works to overcome the deeply ingrained tendency to speak and think in the dialect of the village and ultimately discovers “the hidden word” of the title— namely, great German literature. The book became the basis of a 2008 film titled Teufelsbraten (literally “devil’s sausage,” a term usually applied to poorly behaved children) directed by Hermine Hunt-

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geburth and starring three different actresses as Hildegard in the chronological stages of her development. Hahn’s 2003 novel Unschärfe Bilder (Blurry Pictures) attracted less attention, but it was no less remarkable. It was the first treatment in any novel of the sensational 1994 photographic exhibition sponsored by the Hamburg Institute for Social Research and its founder, tobacco heir Jan Philipp Reemtsma. The exhibition was titled “Vernichtungskrieg: Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944” (War of Annihilation: Crimes of the Wehrmacht 1941–1944), and it purported to demonstrate the German army’s direct and conscious involvement in the already well-documented atrocities committed in the Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. The exhibition sparked an enormous controversy, since regular German army units had previously escaped accusations of war crimes on the eastern front. Subsequent research revealed that the exhibition was biased and in many cases poorly researched; the exhibition was halted in the midst of its 1999 tour to major German cities. Hahn’s novel featured a schoolteacher named Katja Wild who thinks she may have seen her father in one of the exhibition’s photographs. Outraged, she immediately confronts her elderly father about his possible participation in what seems to have been the army’s collaboration in a campaign of wholesale slaughter. But his memories, like many of the pictures in the exhibition, are somewhat blurry. Katja’s strongly held moralistic views, she realizes, are likewise blurred. Her conception of what may or may not have occurred a half century earlier are no more valid than that of a young army conscript who now sits before her—namely, her somewhat bewildered father. HAMMERSTEIN ODER DER EIGENSINN (Hammerstein, or Idiosyncrasy, 2008). Fictionalized biography by Hans Magnus Enzensberger. Enzensberger’s “dialogues with the dead” (subtitled “A German Story”) feature Baron Kurt von Hammerstein-Equord (1878–1943) as the central figure, surrounded by members of his family along with characters of historical significance (for example, Adolf Hitler). Hammerstein was head of the German armed forces when Hitler assumed power in 1933 and remained in that post for a year thereafter. Hitler had him cashiered for his blatant and publicly espoused disdain for National Socialism and for the person of Hitler

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himself. Yet Hitler approved his recall to military service in 1939 after the invasion of Poland. Hammerstein was involved in numerous alleged plots to kill Hitler, and he would undoubtedly (Enzensberger maintains) have been involved in the most well-known plot, led by Count Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg, had he not succumbed to cancer in 1943. As Enzensberger notes, Hammerstein was never a leading figure in any organized resistance to Nazism; his resistance was “idiosyncratic,” as the book’s title suggests. Among his idiosyncrasies were secret collaborations and communications with the military leadership of the Soviet Union, and those contacts lend fuel to the widening debate about communist collusion with National Socialists in the 1930s. That so many German aristocrats (some in Hammerstein’s immediate family) were active communists is a point of focus in Enzensberger’s imagined dialogues, based in part on recently accessible materials in Moscow archives. The dialogues are often imaginative, funny, and disturbingly poignant, especially to those who continue to insist that communists formed the only active resistance to Hitler. HANDKE, PETER (1942– ). Dramatist, novelist, essayist. Handke is one of the most widely known, extensively read, and controversial of postwar German-language stylists. The beginning of his career was marked by innovative use of language in creating literature that is self-reflexively subjective and experiential. His fascination with the sculptural aspects of language dates from his discovery of “concrete poetry” while he was a law student in the early 1960s at the University of Graz. Handke’s association with Group 47 was also influential, though somewhat controversial; he had been invited to the group’s meeting at Princeton University in New Jersey after the publication of his first novel, Die Hornissen (The Hornets, 1966) and proceeded to sting his listeners mercilessly with an attack on what he perceived to be the group’s Beschreibungsimpotenz (descriptive impotence), followed by a reading of his new play Publikumsbeschimpfung (Offending the Audience). The subsequent popularity of that play in German theaters, followed by Kaspar the following year, established Handke as a major force in German postwar literature, a status he has maintained ever since. Yet Handke has never written a major novel that attracted an international audience, a play that has

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produced major new productions in Europe or the United States, or written any major nonfiction of international note. The body of his work taken together, however, evinces a preponderant literary presence in the German-speaking world. In 2004, fellow Austrian writer Elfriede Jelinek stated that Handke, not she, should have been awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature that year. Both Offending the Audience and Kaspar shared an affinity manifested in much of Handke’s initial work, the idea that language possesses no objective or absolute reality; human beings use it to create a reality for themselves. Strongly influenced in epistemology by Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) and Thomas Bernhard’s linguistic perception of Wittgenstein, Handke became convinced early on that literature consists of language per se and not of anything language describes. That is like saying painting consists of pigment and canvas, but it makes Handke an heir to German dadaists of the 1920s, whose manipulation of language was often typographical and phonetic. But Handke proceeds from Wittgenstein when he wonders if an individual has, or can have, a language all to himself. Rules of syntax, punctuation, and grammar are ultimately consensus agreements made somewhere at some time among speakers and hearers, so Kaspar Hauser (based on an actual 19th-century dumbstruck adolescent who materialized one day in Nuremberg) was an ideal dramatic subject on which Handke attempted to explore such ideas. Kaspar Hauser had somehow survived speaking no language. As he progresses through a basic mastery of language to a kind of autonomy in the play, Kaspar learns to associate phrases with social situations. Such phrases allow him a certain functionality. Scholars and critics began to recognize in Offending the Audience, Kaspar, and Der Ritt über den Bodensee (The Ride across Lake Constance, 1971) as the first “postmodernist” dramatic works in the German-language theater. The premiere performances of all three were staged by Claus Peymann, with whom Handke has forged an astonishing artistic relationship; their most recent effort, Spuren der Verirrten (Traces of Those Who Have Gotten Lost, 2007) is a continuation of what is one of the most productive artistic collaborations to have emerged over the past four decades. Handke’s novel Die Angst des Tormanns beim Elfmeter (The Goalie’s Anxiety at the Penalty Kick, 1970) is structured like a detective

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novel; yet the title character’s anxiety comes not from facing a penalty kick but from advancing schizophrenia. Handke wrote the screenplay for the 1972 film based on the novel, directed by Wim Wenders. That novel, like Handke’s plays, eschews plot, character, and even consensus about language. It has a Kafka-like opacity about what cannot be understood. A former soccer goalie murders a stranger for reasons he does not understand; then other inexplicable sensations and perceptions overcome him that he cannot describe— indeed, the attempt to describe them intensifies his anxiety. From the 1970s through the 1990s, Handke maintained a prolific output of novels, plays, essays, and extraordinary autobiographical pieces, detailing “relationships” with his mother, daughter, ex-wives, and others. In most of them, his subject is the idea of separateness but his form is in most cases accessible, even readable. The first of his autobiographical works was the brief elegy for his mother, Wunschloses Unglück (A Sorrow beyond Dreams, 1972). In it, Handke ruminates on the fate of his mother, who seemed destined for misfortune but never relinquished the idea that she could achieve some kind of happiness. She committed suicide in 1971, and Handke’s task, he said, was to “compare the repertoire of usages employed for writing a biography of a woman with the events in the life of my mother, sentence by sentence. Out of the process of compatibility and contradiction between the two came the actual facility of getting it completed.” The distance between him and his mother was never overcome; in similar writings, the detachment between people remains a conscious sensation. A Sorrow beyond Dreams was the basis of a made-for-television movie starring Hilde Krahl in 1981; three years earlier, Handke had been nominated for the Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival for his screenplay of Die Linkshändige Frau (The Lefthanded Woman). It likewise focuses on a woman (played by Edith Clever) whose attempts to attain “independence” succeed in deepening her sense of separateness from everyone else. Handke’s most notable screenplay, however, was for another film directed by Wenders, Himmel über Berlin (Wings of Desire, 1987) and starring Bruno Ganz, Otto Sander, and Peter Falk. It was remade as a Hollywood feature in 1998 under the title City of Angels, with Handke and Wenders given credit for the screenplay.

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Handke had revealed his intense interest in screenplays and American films in his novel Der kurze Brief zum langen Abschied (Short Letter, Long Farewell, 1972). In it, his protagonist receives a brief letter from his wife telling him not to come to New York, where she currently is residing. He ignores her request and arrives in New York, looking for her. His search leads him all over the United States, and he ends up in a lengthy meeting with film director John Ford. They have a fascinating discussion about what is real, what is fiction, and what is imagined—especially in a country like the United States, where myth, legend, imagination, reality, and fiction all seem to comingle comfortably with each other in the movies. Short Letter, Long Farewell was fictionalized travel literature, and in the 1990s, Handke produced notable travel literature of an unwonted political persuasion. His Eine winterliche Reise . . . Gerechtigkeit für Serbien (A Winter Journey . . . Justice for Serbia, 1996) posited the controversial idea that Serbia had been the chief victim in the Balkan civil wars from 1991 to 1995 in the aftermath of Yugoslavia’s disintegration. He maintained that the Western media had completely misrepresented the situation in the former Yugoslavia; as a result, Handke was summoned to the international tribunal at The Hague as a witness for the defense in the trial of former Yugoslav president Slobodan Milosevic, then on trial for crimes against humanity. At the funeral of Milosevic in 2006, Handke gave a eulogy for Milosevic in Serbian; the response was outrage among many in the West. Handke was scheduled to receive the 2006 Heinrich Heine Prize from the City of Düsseldorf that year, but the award was rescinded. Handke retains dozens of prizes and awards given him over the past four decades; he is among the most decorated of all German-language authors. Among the awards he has refused to accept are the Georg Büchner Prize (1973) and the Anton Wildgans Prize (1985); among those he has accepted are the Franz Kafka Prize (1979), the Franz Grillparzer Prize (1983), the Austrian State Prize for Literature (1987), and the Schiller Memorial Prize (1995). HÄRTLING, PETER (1933– ) FRG. Novelist, poet, children’s author, essayist. Härtling is certainly one of the postwar period’s most

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prolific authors, with dozens of novels, volumes of poetry, children’s books, and collections of essays published. His range of subject matter is almost as extensive, from literary personalities of the 19th century, to recent German history, to biographical events and instances. His novels have also treated environmental concerns, political dilemmas, and matters of personal health. Härtling began his writing career as an editor for the prestigious Fischer publishing firm in Frankfurt am Main but he became an independent writer in the mid-1970s. His childhood experiences of death and destruction (he lost both parents in World War II and as a child was caught in the ethnic cleansing of Germans in Czechoslovakia) left within him an ineradicable sense of history as a force with which human beings have little recourse; as a result, much of his work is a treatment of memory, the passage of time, the inevitability of repetition, and the need for accommodation to transition. In many of his “period” novels, there is an almost Schopenhauerian sense of history manipulating individuals according to its inscrutable will. Among the best of such novels are those that feature an artist caught in the crosshairs of events: Niembsch, oder der Stillstand (Niembsch, or the Stalemate, 1964), Schubert (1966), Janek: Porträt einer Erinnerung (Janek: Portrait of a Memory, 1966), and Hölderlin (1976) are notable examples. Eine Frau (A Woman, 1974) is one of his most widely read novels about a character to whom history essentially says, “Adapt or die.” His Das Windrad (The Wind Turbine, 1983) focuses on the ecological movement in Germany as another force of history with which individuals must contend, though it also offers opportunity for renewal. Härtling’s depiction of children in his novels has won him widespread praise, and his skill in narrative is most obviously seen in his numerous children’s books. Among the most notable of his children’s books is Krücke (1987), featuring a boy named Thomas who is separated from his mother at the end of World War II. Their planned reunion in Vienna goes awry, and Thomas is helped by a Wehrmacht soldier who lost his leg in battle and now calls himself “Krücke” (Crutch). Boy and man become fast friends. They end up on a livestock truck making its way to Stuttgart, when the Red Cross finally locates Thomas and reunites him with his mother. Doing so, however, forces him to leave his beloved Krücke. The book was the basis of a

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popular and award-winning 1993 film of the same title, directed by Jörg Grünler and starring Götz Behrendt as Thomas and Heinz Hoenig as Krücke. Meanwhile, Härtling himself has been awarded over two dozen prizes and citations for his work, among them the German Youth Literature Prize (1976), the Friedrich Hölderlin Prize (1987), the German Federal Service Cross (1995), the Eichendorff Literature Prize (2000), and the German Book Prize (2003) for his entire oeuvre. HAYEK, FRIEDRICH VON (1899–1992). Philosopher, economist. Hayek had little direct influence on postwar German literature, but his concepts of socialism as “the road to serfdom,” begun in his native Vienna and carried through a long career in Great Britain, Germany, and the United States, have often had the effect of a counterbalance to Marxist tendencies frequently present in much of German literature. Hayek became best known for his Der Weg zur Knechtschaft (The Road to Serfdom, 1944), though he had begun critical examinations of socialism under Ludwig von Mises at the University of Vienna in the 1920s. Like his contemporaries at the better known Frankfurt School, Hayek based many of his initial deliberations on a skepticism of human reason. But for Hayek, such skepticism led to critiques of “social research” that had often, he noted, imitated both the method and language of the natural sciences. In some cases, recently invented fields such as social philosophy had actually appropriated scientific methods and applied them where such methods simply had no validity. Hayek’s was an interdisciplinary way of thinking that was ahead of its time; as a result, he was often dismissed as a nonserious dilettante. At the London School of Economics, the University of Chicago, and finally the University of Freiburg, he continued to research and publish his ideas on a variety of disciplines, culminating during the 1970s in two of his most important works: Recht, Gesetz, und Freiheit (Law, Legislation, and Liberty) and Die Entnationalisierung des Geldes (The Denationalization of Money). In 1974, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics. In many ways since then, scholars have begun to recognize that Hayek’s advocacy of the “private sphere” has served as an antidote to Marxistinspired efforts to redistribute wealth, opportunity, knowledge, and information in the name of “social justice.”

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HEIDEGGER, MARTIN (1889–1976) FRG. Philosopher. Heidegger’s studies of ontology, phenomenology, and metaphysics were among the most influential in Europe by the late 1920s. By the time he was named rector of the University of Freiburg in 1933, he was a stalwart supporter of National Socialism, and French occupation troops banned him from the university until 1952. By that time, he was considered rehabilitated and became an emeritus professor in Freiburg. Despite his “rehabilitation,” he refused to disavow his Nazi past, claiming that one who “thinks great things” is likely to make “great errors.” Among his significant postwar writings were Was heisst Denken (What Is Called Thinking? 1954), Identität und Differerenz (Identity and Difference, 1957) and Gelassenheit (Discourse on Thinking, 1959). In these and other works, Heidegger recounted many of his earlier preoccupations, using hyphens to coin neologisms and parentheses to cast words or phrases with a kind of idiosyncratic irony. Such usage appeared in his criticism of notions like “public-ness” and “everyday-ness” as inherent to the “in-authenticity” of the bourgeois outlook. He had done so earlier as part of his embrace of National Socialism’s Führerprinzip (leadership principle), and it was useful in his endorsements of totalitarian utopianism. In the postwar period, many scholars began to see theological overtones in such utopianism. Some scholars felt that within Heidegger’s opaque reasoning about the human thought process and language lay the search for a “thinking Being” capable of a belief in God. Other scholars dismissed such notions, given Heidegger’s enthusiasm for Friedrich Nietzsche. Opinions about Heidegger split perhaps most vehemently in France; there, his embrace of Nazism was condemned but his contributions to “deconstructionist” theories found favor. HEIN, CHRISTOPH (1944– ) GDR-FRG. Dramatist, novelist. Hein, the son of an East German pastor, possessed a distinctive voice when he began his literary career as a “chronicler” (his term) and dramaturg at both the Deutsches Theater and the Volksbühne in East Berlin during the 1970s. His first significant play was Schlötel (1974), which depicts a “true believer” in socialism haunted by doubts about the planned economy and social institutions of the Ger-

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man Democratic Republic (GDR). Frustrated true believers likewise populate plays like Cromwell (1978) and Lasalle fragt Herrn Herbert nach Sonja (Lasalle Questions Mr. Herbert about Sonia, 1981). In both, Hein points to analogies between previous revolutions and revolutionaries and those of the present day. His novella Der fremde Freund (The Distant Friend, published in West Germany as Drachenblut, or “dragon’s blood”), however, established Hein in the West, largely because of its ahistorical context and its perceived neutral position toward neurosis in the personal lives of GDR citizens. In the novella, a physician named Claudia becomes involved with her neighbor Henry. Hein describes the social situation (from Claudia’s viewpoint only) as fairly bleak and unpromising—despite her rewarding profession and the progressive attitude of the state toward subsidized medical care for every citizen. Claudia furthermore maintains a certain “distance” from Henry, as the title implies. On a trip to her hometown, Claudia recalls the basis for her neurosis: a failed friendship with a childhood friend, with whom she no longer has contact. The remarkable facet about the novel, Western critics noted (the book was translated into several languages), is the lessthan-utopian tone that Hein uses to describe the GDR. Hein’s 1985 novel Horns Ende (Horn’s Demise) bespoke a similar detachment; this time, however, Hein employed multiple viewpoints to investigate the suicide of a museum director. Why would he commit suicide? He held a high-status position in an ideal state that honored art. Hein’s multiple narratives reveal that Horn was not the only one with doubts and misgivings. HELL, BODO (1943– ) AU. Poet, prose stylist. Hell’s reputation as an avant-garde poet and experimental media artist began in the mid1970s when he began receiving awards and citations for his multimedia work that combined word plays, neologisms, and inventive rhyme schemes with moving images. He also composed works for theater and dance companies. He had studied keyboard music in Salzburg, theater and film in Vienna, and later literature and philosophy at the University of Vienna. He then began writing radio plays, followed in the 1980s by short volumes of poetry and prose. His short films began appearing at film festivals in that decade, culminating in several lucrative and prestigious prizes. In 1990 he received

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the Elias Canetti Stipend and the year following he received the Erich Fried Prize for poetry. By that time, Hell had embarked on another career, that of shepherd and herdsman in the Alps. His work with goats and sheep in the higher altitudes had a beneficial effect on his prose, as critics praised the numerous volumes he published, with illustrations by Hil de Gard or Linda Waber. In those works, Hell’s prose took a somewhat whimsical turn, with lines like “He who lives by the media shall die by the media.” In his Tracht: Pflicht (roughly translated as “a duty to wear traditional Austrian folk costumes”) of 2003, Hell found himself compared favorably with Hans Carl Artmann and others of the Vienna Group. HERRNDORF, WOLFGANG (1965– ) FRG. Novelist, prose stylist. Herrndorf solidified his position as a leading author of “Generation Golf” (a term invented by Florian Illies, based on his book of essays bearing that title) with his short novel In Plüschgewittern (The Storm of Plush); the novel’s title is a parodistic rephrasing of Ernst Jünger’s glorification of manly heroism in war, titled In Stahlgewittern (The Storm of Steel). The hero of In Plüschgewittern is anything but heroic, though by age 30 he has accomplished the heroic task of avoiding almost everything life has to offer: love, happiness, a job, commitment, and even a decent car. He breaks up with his girlfriend at an autobahn filling station when things get too intense for him; she drives off in their truck and he decides to hitchhike up to his brother’s place in Hamburg, where he plans to spend a lot of time on a plushly upholstered couch. Herrndorf’s characters are those to whom the American slang term “slacker” seems distinctly applicable, and such characters appear and reappear in his volume of stories titled Diesseits des Van-Allen-Gürtels (This Side of the Van Allen Belt, 2007). The title comes from a short story Herrndorf had written in 2004. Herrndorf added several stories in the 2007 volume to expand on the idea of the middle-aged slacker in Germany, and some critics praised the accurate portrayals and the laconic language Herrndorf employs to depict his creatures. Most of the people in these stories know each other, some have lived with each other, some are related to each other. Many have nonadventures and all of them are approximately in their 30s. None are preoccupied with anything too serious. Some have attempted suicide, some get their battered cars stolen, some play

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ping-pong with each other, some have sex with each other. Nobody is very contented, yet all of them seem outwardly normal. Critics have described Herrndorf’s characters as throwbacks to German Romanticism, and to the Taugenicht (layabout) of Joseph von Eichendorff (1788–1857) in particular. Others see something darker, comparing them to Travis Bickle in the 1976 American film Taxi Driver written by Paul Schrader or to Holden Caulfield in the novella Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger. See also FICTION. HEYM, STEFAN (Helmut Flieg, 1913–2001). Novelist. Heym returned to Germany after living in the United States for 17 years and serving in the American armed forces; he came ashore with American forces in the Normandy invasion as part of a psychological warfare unit that broadcast programs to Wehrmacht soldiers, encouraging them to desert. His commanding officers found his communist and pro–Soviet Union sympathies counterproductive, however; they sent him back to New York, where he edited a German-language newspaper. In 1952 he moved to Prague, and a year later he settled in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). He wrote several novels during the immediate postwar period in English, then translated them himself into German. His The Crusaders of 1948 he translated as Der bittere Lorbeer, or “The Bitter Wreath of Victory.” It was a critique of American war policy, which Heym considered irredeemably compromised by capitalism. The Eyes of Reason (which he translated literally as Die Augen der Vernunft) followed the exploits of three Czech brothers as Soviet troops remained in their country to ensure the establishment of a communist government in the late 1940s. The GDR awarded Heym the Heinrich Mann Prize and granted him a comfortable villa; East German cultural officials even provided him with his own publishing company. He turned to historical fiction in the 1960s, lionizing heroes of the revolutionary socialist movement in Germany like Ferdinand Lassalle (1825–1864) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895). Yet Heym was not always a complaisant loyalist; he sometimes questioned the motivations of GDR rulers and the general secretary of the ruling Socialist Unity Party. Erich Honecker retaliated by revoking Heym’s passport. Heym was later convicted of violating currency exchange regulations, and in 1976 Heym signed a letter of

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protest against the regime’s treatment of singer and writer Wolf Biermann. In 1979, Heym’s somewhat unflattering portrait of the GDR’s ruling elites, titled Collin, was published in the West. Best described as a roman à clef, Collin deals with the GDR’s system of justice, featuring the two well-known sides of the system’s Stalinist propensities: the show trial and the secret tribunal. Collin confounded GDR authorities, who expelled Heym from the official writers’ union, fined him heavily, and passed a new law against any subsequent attempts to publish such exposés. The law provided stiff prison terms, and Western observers humorously termed the new law Lex Heym since it seemed directed exclusively at Heym. Heym was one of the most intriguing of writers in the postwar period for linguistic reasons as well. His lengthy contact and involvement in American popular culture gave his work a Romanticist coloring; many of his novels feature heroes who courageously take on forces far larger than themselves. His first novel (Hostages, 1942) became a Hollywood movie starring Luise Rainer and William Bendix in 1943; his practice of writing initially in English tightened his German-language style, making it more concise. More than anything else, Heym was a “perpetual dissenter,” as a 1992 biography made clear. He began as “Hitler’s first literary exile,” later became a critic of American policy and society; he then became one of the most celebrated dissidents in the GDR. When the reunification of Germany took place in 1991, he dissented from majority opinion about the benefits of reunification. He was elected to the new Bundestag (Parliament) in 1994 and was chosen to open the assembly’s first session as its honorary president. His speech to the assembled deputies was predictably oppositional, and the new unified German government refused to publish it. In most of his novels, the central characters are, like Heym himself, romanticized dissenters. Even after reunification, and at age 82, Heym placed a dissenter (in the figure of Bolshevik operative Karl Radek) in the center of a lengthy biographical novel titled Radek. HILBIG, WOLFGANG (1941–2007) GDR. Novelist, poet, essayist. Hilbig became known as one of the most significant of writers to emerge from the German Democratic Republic and gain a wide following in the West after the GDR’s dissolution. Hilbig’s poetry first

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appeared in the West in a volume titled Abwesenheit (Absence), for which GDR authorities arrested him and later convicted him of “currency violations,” the usual penalty writers initially paid when running afoul of GDR officialdom. When allowed to visit the West in 1985, Hilbig publicly denounced the regime’s tactics—but with equal fervor he denounced the commercial pressures on writers in the Federal Republic of Germany. Hilbig was presumably unsuccessful in resisting that kind of pressure, for in 1989 he produced a successful detective novel titled Eine Übertragung (The Commission). The novel’s protagonist, however, is not a detective; he is a factory worker attempting to figure out who murdered a postal clerk of his acquaintance. His inquiries arouse suspicion among GDR officials and he is arrested. The inference is that he will be charged with the clerk’s death. Many critics found the book an innovative imitation of the traditional detective novel, and it became Hilbig’s literary breakthrough. The novel earned him the Ingeborg Bachmann Prize of 1989. Four years later, Hilbig wrote what proved be his best work, the novel “Ich.” That book also featured the kind of detective work for which the GDR and its Ministry for State Security became infamous. Hilbig used the first-person singular pronoun “ich” as the title because it conveyed a paradoxical sense of nonidentity to the protagonist whom the state secret police assigned to spy on a certain East German writer. The writer has never published anything and indeed has done everything possible to keep out of the public eye or to arouse suspicion. Yet the Stasi suspect him of harboring anti-GDR thoughts or motives. Ultimately, the protagonist (codenamed “Cambert”) loses all interest in following “his” writer (codenamed “Reader”), realizing that Reader poses no threat to the state—in fact, Reader is not a writer at all, just as it slowly dawns on Cambert that he is not really a spy. He has merely been assigned an identity, like so many others in the GDR. “Ich” became widely praised after its publication in 1993, confirming Hilbig’s status as a worthy recipient of the Georg Büchner Prize awarded him a year earlier. HILDESHEIMER, WOLFGANG (1916–1991). Dramatist, novelist, literary stylist. Hildesheimer was born in Hamburg and escaped (his extended family included several accomplished rabbis) to England in

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1933 with his parents and sister. He grew to manhood in Tel Aviv and became an intelligence officer with the British military; in 1946, he served with the British as a translator at the Nuremberg trials. He later moved to Munich, where he began publishing prose works in the 1950s and was a member of Group 47 (he first met with the group in 1950 at Bad Dürkheim), though he did not fully subscribe to the group’s political stance. His first publication was Lieblose Legenden (Unsympathetic Legends, 1952), a collection of satirical stories that deflated pretension among well-known officials, artists, and intellectuals. It was followed by the comic novel Paradies der falschen Vögel (Paradise of the Phony Birds) about an expert counterfeiter of famous paintings. Hildesheimer’s writing style was likewise idiosyncratic, perhaps described best as highly decorative and self-consciously satirical, a kind of imitation counterfeit in itself. His most well-known biography was Mozart (1977), in which it is fairly clear that Hildesheimer identified personally with the composer. It is a lengthy personal meditation on Mozart, condemned by many critics as “unhistorical,” “unstructured,” and “solipsistic.” It is nevertheless a very interesting book to read, especially when Hildesheimer considers the significance of what it means to be a genius in either music or literature: utterly self-absorbed and yet utterly unself-conscious. As a result, Hildesheimer concludes that it is impossible to “know” a man like Mozart. The Mozart book prefigured in some way Marbot: eine Biographie (1981), which parodies the biographical genre. It purports to study the life of an English aristocrat and Feinschmecker (connoisseur), compensating in a bizarre way for the supposed failings in the biography of Mozart. The book reads as unquestionably authentic, attributing motivations, reasoning, and private thoughts of a deeply flawed and irrelevant dilettante. Also in 1981, the American premiere of Hildesheimer’s drama Maria Stuart took place in New York. Like other efforts at parodying counterfeits, the play vaguely resembled Friedrich Schiller’s better known classic of the same title. But Maria is no stalwart defender of her rights as the English “legitimate queen” in Schiller. She is, in Hildesheimer’s hands, an utterly neurotic faux Joan of Arc, surrounded by toadies who make the Marx Brothers look like the Brooks Brothers. Before departing for her beheading, for example, Maria makes a last request to fondle her little lap dogs, and suddenly a

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courtier appears with three dozen stuffed little puppies that completely fill her prison cell. Soon thereafter, Hildesheimer announced he was to write no more books, since literature in the 20th century was dead—and anyway, he stated, the Earth would soon be uninhabitable. HILSENRATH, EDGAR (1926– ) FRG. Novelist. Hilsenrath is usually identified as a “Holocaust survivor” or a “chronicler of the Holocaust” largely because of two novels: Nacht (Night, 1964) and Der Nazi und der Friseur (The Nazi and the Barber, 1977). The former attracted little attention in Germany when it was published, perhaps because it presented concentration camp survivors in an extraordinarily unflattering manner. The survivors find themselves in a small town devoid of food, water, sanitation, or shelter, and the place rapidly deteriorates into a battle for the survival of the fittest. The stronger males begin to challenge each other for access to and conquest of the females, while the weaker males survive only by serving the dominant males. Hilsenrath’s narrative was a stunning tour de force that eschewed any notion of the Jew as victim and concentrated instead on the depiction of human beings shorn of all socialization, reverting to brute force in an effort merely to stay alive. Only when Nacht appeared in English, French, and Italian translations did Hilsenrath begin to attract widespread attention. His The Nazi and the Barber was equally controversial, because it features an exchange of identity between a Jew and an SS officer; the SS officer (named Max Schultz) has what he terms “distinct Jewish features,” and after the war Schultz assumes the identity of his childhood friend Itzig Finkelstein. Max has himself circumcised, and gets his SS tattoo removed and an Auschwitz number tattooed in its place; he immigrates to Israel, fights in the Israeli armed forces, and wins numerous medals and citations for bravery. He ends up as a prosperous barber in Tel Aviv. Hilsenrath himself had immigrated to Israel after his experiences of persecution during the Holocaust. Born in Leipzig and reared in Halle, he escaped in 1938 with his mother and younger brother for a brief respite in Sereth, Bukovina (then part of Romania). They were soon transferred to the Mogilev ghetto in present-day Ukraine. In 1951, however, he settled in New York City with the remaining members of

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his family and remained there until 1975. Thereafter, Hilsenrath has lived in Berlin, where he completed several other novels. He has received several awards and citations for his work, among them the Alfred Döblin Prize in 1989 and the Lion Feuchtwanger Prize in 2004. HISTORIKERSTREIT (Historians’ Dispute). In April 1986, historian Michael Stürmer of the University of Bielefeld published an essay titled “Geschichte im geschichtslosen Land” (History in a Country without History) in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ) that declared it was time for German historians to stop viewing the entirety of German history through the lens of Nazism. “In a land without history, the future is controlled by those who determine the content of memory, coin the concepts, and interpret the past.” They are the future’s winners, he concluded. Stürmer was joined on the pages of FAZ in June of that year by Ernst Nolte, who wrote “Die Vergangenheit, die nicht vergehen will” (The Past That Will Not Pass). In it, Nolte asserted that Adolf Hitler’s crimes were no worse than Joseph Stalin’s—and, in fact, Hitler’s may have been modeled on Stalin’s. Nolte also said that Hitler’s crimes could be viewed as a preemptive response to the perceived Bolshevik threat against Germany. “Was the Gulag Archipelago not prior to Auschwitz?” Which was worse, he asked, the extermination of an entire class of people (the Kulaks under Stalin) or an entire race of people (the Jews under Hitler)? Martin Heidegger had posed similar rhetorical questions, Nolte said, noting that National Socialism was the only reasonable alternative to communism from the perspective of many Germans during the early 1930s. Many honestly believed that Hitler was the lesser of two evils—and according to Nolte, they may have been right. Such assertions predictably outraged many leftist historians, who had long asserted that the communists were the only effective resistance to Nazism. But their outrage reached a boiling point when Nolte concluded that a more dispassionate viewing of the Nazi experience was in order. The Hitler dictatorship should be accorded the same treatment historians give to other historical events. With the passage of time, historians begin to take a more rational view of events, however horrific they were. Only the Nazis, he said, seem to be exempt from a normalization that usually takes place among historians. Why? Because Nazism granted feminists, pacifists, and others on “the eternal

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left” an immediately accessible embodiment of evil that can be conveniently transferred to just about any other putative oppressor. The “eternal left,” as Nolte described individuals who still believed that the Holocaust was historically unique and that Germans had no justifiable claim to “normalization,” was led by Jürgen Habermas. In an article titled “Eine Art Schadensabwicklung” (A Kind of Damage Liquidation) in Die Zeit in July 1986, Habermas attacked any apologetic attempt to “normalize” Hitler. Doing so was tantamount to reviving nationalism among Germans. History compelled Germans, he said, to abjure nationalism and to cultivate what he termed “constitutional patriotism,” declaring an allegiance to the principles of the German constitution but not to any German “fatherland.” If Germans were “guilt ridden,” they deserved it. The Habermas article sparked a vigorous dispute that prompted the publication of several articles, essays, and television debates about German identity, German unity, German patriotism, and the German obsession with Vergangenheitsbewältigung, or “coming to grips with the past.” The dispute revealed what many West Germans had long since suspected but never fully admitted: there was a deepening split between the right and the left within their society; the left embraced unashamedly a fervent antinationalism, while the right felt it was time to move beyond Hitler (if not forget National Socialism outright) and unequivocally embrace the German commitment to the “Atlantic community of values”—culturally, militarily, and economically. Complicating the picture for the left was a conviction that the division of Germany was permanent. Complications on the right included the popular consensus of guilt and the agreement to continue paying reparations ad infinitum for crimes committed by National Socialism. The dispute quieted somewhat with the collapse of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), destroying the left’s assumption of a permanent East–West division, along with ensuing revelations of GDR criminality analogous to that under National Socialism. There was some initial sense that the crimes of the GDR regime vindicated a revisionist viewpoint toward National Socialism. Any thought to legitimizing the Nazis was brief, but discoveries in both the Stasi files and those of the KGB in Moscow lent credence to claims that National Socialism could no longer be considered “uniquely” wicked. If

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it did nothing else, the Historians’ Dispute provided moral high ground to arguments attempting to counter long-standing claims among communists that they were “the only ones fighting fascism” in the 1930s. The result was a growing conviction that National Socialism was the only force effectively fighting communism. In 1993, Nolte went even further in his memoir about the Historians’ Dispute. His most striking conclusion was that “ultimate responsibility for the disasters of the twentieth century must be borne by the ‘eternal left,’ which represents the [perverse] urge to reject existing social and institutional arrangements in the name of [a highly subjective and arbitrary] normative code of reason or justice” (Streitpunkte [Berlin: Propylaen, 1993], 323–34). HOCHHUTH, ROLF (1931– ) FRG. Dramatist, novelist, essayist. Hochhuth remains best known for his “documentary drama” Der Stellvertreter (The Deputy), an indictment of Pope Pius XII and the papacy’s supposed refusal to condemn official anti-Semitism during the Third Reich. Hochhuth was essentially a moral crusader, writing other dramas in the documentary style and using contemporary accounts to orient them toward a specific tendentious direction. The results tended to be unfocused and difficult for effective staging. Some critics asserted that Hochhuth’s dramas are best read rather than performed; The Deputy nevertheless had successful runs in several European venues and spent nearly a year on Broadway at the Brooks Atkinson Theater in 1964. None of his other plays achieved the level of acceptance among audiences as had The Deputy. Hochhuth’s novella Die Berliner Antigone (Antigone in Berlin) won fulsome praise when it was published serially in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung in 1963; it transfers the Sophoclean precedent to 1944 and portrays Anne attempting to steal the body of her executed brother from the laboratory of a medical school, where his cadaver was to be used by medical students. Anne is sent before a magistrate who, it turns out, is the father of her fiancé. The conflict between father and son results in the son’s suicide, and pressure mounts on the magistrate to hold Anne responsible for his son’s death. He attempts to save her, but she is ultimately put to death with conspirators in the July 20 assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler. The novella was filmed in 1968 for West German television broadcast.

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Hochhuth’s most successful novel was Eine Liebe in Deutschland (A German Love Story, 1978). It features Pauline Kropp, owner of a small grocery store in the southern German town of Brombach, near the Swiss border. Pauline’s husband is a soldier on the Russian front; she is assigned a Polish forced laborer named Stanislaus to help her in the store. Pauline and Stanislaus keep their distance from each other at first but soon become lovers; store customers notice what is going on between the two, and one of them informs the local SS official who is in charge of forced laborers in the district. Hochhuth gives the SS officer a relatively sympathetic portrayal, offering Pauline ample opportunity to escape prosecution if she will simply accuse of Stanislaus of misconduct. She refuses to do so and is sent to a concentration camp; Stanislaus is summarily executed. A German Love Story became the basis of a 1983 film, directed by Andrej Wajda and starring Hanna Schygulla as Pauline and Piotr Lysak as Stanislaus. HOCHWÄLDER, FRITZ (1911–1986) AU. Dramatist. Hochwälder’s plays were among the most frequently performed in postwar Vienna, the city where he was born and from which he fortunately escaped in 1939, finding asylum in Switzerland. He worked illegally in the upholstery and interior decorating trade in Zurich to support himself, and in 1944 met Georg Kaiser (1878–1945), the most prolific and frequently performed playwright on German-language stages in the 1920s. Hochwälder later claimed to have learned playwriting from Kaiser, though there is little evidence of Kaiser’s direct influence in Hochwälder’s work for the stage. His first play to gain national attention after the war was Das heilige Experiment, which had already premiered in a small Swiss regional theater. Its Vienna premiere in 1947 received unstinting praise from critics and audiences, running in numerous Austrian and German theaters for years afterwards. The “experiment” of the title is a Jesuit state established in South America during the 1760s; it had a successful run in London during 1953 (under the title The Strong Are Lonely) but flopped on Broadway. His Der öffentliche Anklager (The Public Prosecutor) premiered in Vienna in 1948 and likewise had a historical setting (the French Revolution). It was also extremely popular on Austrian stages. Numerous plays followed in the 1950s through 1965, among them Donadieu (1953), Die Herberge (The Refuge, 1955), Der Unschuldige

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(The Innocent, 1956), Donnerstag (Thursday, 1959), Schicksalskomödie (Comedy of Fate, 1960), Der verschwundene Mond (The Vanished Moon, 1961), and probably his most popular comedy, Der Himbeerpflücker (The Raspberry Picker, 1965). It was made into an amusing film directed by Erich Neuberg and starring Helmut Qualtinger; in it, Hochwälder employs the running gag of mistaken identity, though the presumptive “hero” of the piece is a former SS colonel whom a small town in Austria is prepared to celebrate. He turns out to be the town’s most accomplished thief. Though he remained in Switzerland the rest of his life, Hochwälder received several Austrian awards and citations for his work, among them the Grillparzer Prize and the Literature Prize of the City of Vienna, both in 1956; the Austrian State Prize for Literature in 1966, and the Austrian Citation for the Excellence in the Arts in 1980. HOLOCAUST. The word Holocaust is derived from the Greek holokauston meaning “completely burnt” or “utterly consumed.” In the late 1940s and throughout most of the 1950s, there was little general agreement as to what usage would adequately describe National Socialist policies to exterminate Jews and Jewish influence in Europe, largely because the Adolf Hitler regime had employed so many different methods in effectuating its policies. By the 1960s, there emerged a general consensus among Jewish leaders, media executives, governmental officials, educational leaders, and others in the business of influencing public opinion around the word Holocaust because it seemed the most adequate translation of the Hebrew word Shoa (burnt sacrifice offered to God). Holocaust also seemed at the time to have a greater impact on the human imagination than did other words such as the Yiddish Churben (meaning to destroy by breaking into minuscule pieces), German words like Vernichtung (extermination) or Endlösung (final solution), or the English neologism genocide. The use of the word Holocaust to describe all extermination policies of the Nazi regime is often imprecise, largely because Jews were not the only targets of those policies. Other groups targeted on political, ideological, behavioral, and ethnic grounds were communists, ethnic Roma and Sinti peoples known generally as “gypsies,” ethnic Slavs, ethnic Negroes (“and their bastards”), Freemasons, Jehovah’s

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Witnesses, male homosexuals, socialists, the disabled and mentally ill, and nonconformists of various stripes. The Jews, however, bore the most murderous brunt of extermination policies, largely because they were specifically singled out in the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 and because one’s ethnic identity was crucial to the state’s identification of all individuals. Yet the state targeted Jews alone for total and complete destruction, and the elimination of Jewish influence in Europe was a principal goal of Hitler’s utopian vision. The intensity of that vision remained, even after the 1943 defeat at Stalingrad and the rapidly declining fortunes of the German military until final collapse in May of 1945. There is ample evidence, indeed, that the campaign against Jews often took precedence over military endeavors. The religious practice of Judaism was also a target of Nazi persecution, but the principal categories of “Jewishness” in the 1935 laws characterized Volljuden (full Jews, those with three Jewish grandparents), Halbjuden (half Jews, those with one Jewish parent or two Jewish grandparents), and Vierteljuden (quarter Jews, with one Jewish grandparent) as ethnic and genealogical rubrics. These rubrics included “mixed breeds” of various “classes,” all of which were subject to persecution if not subsequent extermination. The various categories had almost nothing to do with religious affiliation but with ancestry. That was true of other ethnic classifications as well, but they were less severe and were in most cases outside German national territorial administration. In 1933, the total Jewish population within Germany proper was about 500,000, while the Jewish population of Europe stood at about nine million. Literary critics and historians have convincingly demonstrated that there was a kind of unspoken ethical proscription against treatment of the Holocaust in German literature in the immediate postwar years. Ernst Wiechert’s “report” on Buchenwald titled Der Totenwald (The Forest of the Dead) appeared in 1946, as did Eugen Kogon’s analysis Der SS-Staat (The Theory and Practice of Hell). Nelly Sachs’ 1947 volume of poetry In den Wohnungen des Todes (In the Dwelling Places of Death) and Ilse Aichinger’s novel Die grössere Hoffnung (Herod’s Children) in 1948 approached the subject, but none could be said to have violated what some have termed a “taboo” against creating aesthetically rendered depictions of the Holocaust. Not even Paul Celan’s 1953 poem “Todesfuge” (Death Fugue) could be said

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to have violated the taboo, a fact perhaps understandable given the unavoidable associations of pleasure with anything aesthetic. Reading about the intricacies of genocide, human suffering on an unimaginable scale, and the depths of human depravity seemed at the time an exercise in sadistic negation, not aesthetic enjoyment. Against that background of interdiction, the stunning appearance of Bruno Apitz’ Nackt unter Wölfen (Naked among Wolves) in 1958 is remarkable. A child at the center of a concentration camp dilemma gave the novel added force, since over one third (by conservative estimates) of individuals who perished in the Holocaust were children. The German novel that many critics believe opened German literature to the possibilities of an artistic treatment of the Holocaust was Jean Améry’s 1966 account of his experiences in Auschwitz, titled Jenseits von Schuld und Sühne (Beyond Guilt and Atonement). The Auschwitz trials of 1963–1965 in Frankfurt am Main brought public attention to the atrocities committed at Auschwitz and other extermination camps, as did Peter Weiss’ “Oratorio in Eleven Cantos,” titled Die Ermittlung (The Investigation), about the trials. Weiss used testimony taken at the trials to create a dramatically structured set of scenes, which many theaters in West Germany presented. In 1969, Jurek Becker’s Jakob der Lügner (Jacob the Liar) created a sensation both with its subject matter and its popularity. It was set in a Jewish ghetto, and its eponymous hero’s antics bring into sharp focus the utter misery and despair of Jews awaiting deportation to the death camps. The real “breakthrough” for acknowledging the Holocaust in the German popular imagination is thought to be the 1978 American miniseries Holocaust, starring Meryl Streep, Rosemary Harris, Fritz Weaver, and James Woods, dubbed into German and televised in 1979. The American film Sophie’s Choice (also starring Streep and likewise based on a popular American novel) proved to be popular among German audiences, too. In 1983, Heinar Kipphardt’s drama Bruder Eichmann (Brother Eichmann) concentrated on one of the most infamous Austrian apparatchiks of the Holocaust. A 1985 made-for-television French documentary film titled Shoah featured over nine hours of interviews with individuals who were both victims and perpetrators at four of the Polish death camps. By 1990, German films began to explore hitherto “untouchable” themes: Hitlerjunge Salomon (Europa, Europa) treated the unlikely yet factual case of a

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Jewish boy from Poland who escapes deportation and becomes an elite corpsman in the Hitler Youth, fighting alongside a German battalion on the eastern front. In Das schreckliche Mädchen (The Nasty Girl), a high school girl investigates the comportment of her townspeople in Passau during the Third Reich and is startled to discover how many people knew about the Holocaust and collaborated with officials in the enterprise of deportation. By the mid-1990s, when German unification had become a reality, novels such as Bernhard Schlink’s Der Vorleser (The Reader) and Peter Schneider’s Eduards Heimkehr (Eduard’s Homecoming) treat the Holocaust at a more distant remove. The events of the 1940s weigh on the characters, but not in the direct or immediate sense they had done in novels by Becker or in dramas by Hochhuth. The works of W. G. Sebald are perhaps the most poignant manifestations of the Holocaust in German literature, especially his Austerlitz of 2001. As he did in his 1992 Die Ausgewanderten (The Emigrants), Sebald attempts to preserve or at least reconstruct memory in the service of those departed, persecuted, or murdered. Doing so seems an appropriate act of mourning, though incomplete as atonement. It is an impossible task, since even the very ground where the extermination camps once stood is shifting and will one day disintegrate and resolve itself into nothingness.

–I– ILLIES, FLORIAN (1971– ) FRG. Humorist, travel writer. Best known for a devastating critique of his contemporaries titled Generation Golf, Illies has also had substantial experience as an arts editor for leading German newspapers and as general editor for the literary magazine Monopol. In Generation Golf, he characterizes Germans of his age, having grown up in the 1980s and 1990s. That was the period when Volkswagen’s automobile called the “Golf” had completely eclipsed the old “Beetle” (informally known as the Käfer in German). Illies’ generation, in fact, had little or no experience with the Beetle, exports of which had been instrumental in the remarkable rebound of the German economy during the 1950s. Illies portrays the post-Beetle generation as self-absorbed, acquisitive, media addicted,

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and politically apathetic. That is no cause for general alarm, he says, because if young Germans no longer consider politics worth a vigorous debate, it’s a good thing. The best place to find debates, he says, is in the Ikea discount furniture store, where young German couples energetically discuss the various virtues of furniture, glassware, and bed linens. Because Generation Golf proved to be so popular, Illies followed it with Generation Golf Zwei (Generation Golf II), which sold almost as many copies as its predecessor. In Ortgespräch (Local Conversation, 2006), Illies journeys through small German towns like Schlitz, where he was born and grew up. In it, he notes that many young Germans of the 21st century long for such idyllic locales, much as they did in the 19th century. See also FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY. INNERHOFER, FRANZ (1944–2002) AU. Novelist. When Innerhofer’s 1974 autobiographical novel Schöne Tage (Beautiful Days) first appeared on the Austrian book market, many critics refused to believe that the horrors described in it had any basis in the author’s personal experience. Certainly no child could have been so subject to the maltreatment as presented in the novel; and if he was, the author most certainly must have embellished his material substantially. But the incidents in the novel proved to be largely based on facts, which made Innerhofer’s rise from sadistic squalor to best-selling author even more remarkable. He wrote a succession of novels chronicling his departure from his modest beginnings, to his apprenticeship as a locksmith, to his admission as a student at the University of Salzburg. His writing style critics described as an uncompromising realism, a style he attempted to refine in the 1990s when he began what he hoped would be a new direction in both drama and fiction. Some observers complained that plays like Die Scheibtruhe (The Wheelbarrow) and the novel Um die Wette leben (A Race to Live) lacked the immediacy of Innerhofer’s earlier works, while others accused Innerhofer of imitating Thomas Bernhard.

–J– JAEGGI, URS (1931– ) CH. Sociologist, novelist. Jaeggi had embarked on a serious academic career by 1965, when he was named professor of

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sociology at the University of Berne in Switzerland. In the late 1960s, he became closely associated with some leaders of the student revolt in Berlin, many of whom were members of the radical Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund (League of Socialist German Students, or SDS). During that period, Jaeggi taught in Bochum and in New York, and by 1972 he was a full professor at the Free University of Berlin, a position he held until 1992. In the 1960s and 1970s, he published a number of leftist sociological treatises, but he concomitantly began to write some interesting novels. Among them were Die Komplicen (The Accomplices, 1964), Ein Mann geht vorbei (A Man Passes By, 1968), and Brandeis (1978). In most cases, individuals in these novels must confront the constraints of society and the social pressures individuals feel are destructive to their well-being. Those destructive forces take the form of what seems to be formlessness in Jaeggi’s fiction, as he cleverly made a virtue of his unpolished prose style. He received the Berlin Literature Prize in 1964, the Berne Literature Prize in 1978, and the Klagenfurt Ingeborg Bachmann Memorial Prize in 1981. JAHNN, HANS HENNY (1894–1959). Dramatist, novelist. Jahnn first became known as a “black expressionist” in the early 1920s with plays like Pastor Ephraim Magnus and Die Krönung Richards III (The Coronation of Richard III) and others manifesting the Freudian conflicts that many critics assumed Jahnn was trying to exorcise within himself. In the postwar period, Jahnn published a monumental, 2,000-page novel he had been writing during the Nazi period titled Fluss ohne Ufer (The Shoreless River) while living in Denmark. The initial part of the novel appeared in 1949 as Das Holzschiff (The Wooden Ship); the remainder was published as Die Niederschrift des Gustav Anias Horn (The Transcript of Gustav Anias Horn) in 1950 and Epilog in 1961. The novel’s subject is the vast river of being that carries its protagonist through various experiences on his way to achieving cosmic consciousness. There are numerous digressions that take the reader to long deliberations on music, biology, fraternal love, and the integration of man’s existence with Nature. Jahnn also returned to playwriting in the 1950s, though none of his works for the stage found much resonance. Scholars of literature have been divided over the value of Jahnn’s oeuvre, though much of it remains in print and is the subject of serious inquiry.

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JAKOB DER LÜGNER (Jacob the Liar, 1969). This novel by Jurek Becker is set in a Jewish ghetto in the Polish town of Bezanika under occupation by German forces. The novel begins with the release of the title character, Jakob Heym, who has been arrested for curfew violations. During his arrest, Jakob overheard a radio broadcast that Soviet troops are advancing and that German troops are retreating. Jakob returns to the ghetto with this bit of hopeful news, which provides what little hope the wretched dwellers of the ghetto may have. Jakob continues to provide his fellow inhabitants with invented reports of what may be their coming liberation. His exploits bring the suffering and misery of ghetto life into focus. Two movies of the novel have been made. The first was an East German production and was nominated for a Hollywood Oscar as Best Foreign Film in 1977. The second was a Hollywood version, distributed by Columbia Pictures in cooperation with a production company owned by American actor Robin Williams. Williams starred as Jacob, and both versions featured Armin Müller-Stahl, but in different roles. JANDL, ERNST (1925–2000) AU. Poet. Jandl was strongly influenced by the Konkrete Poesie (concrete poetry) movement in Vienna during the 1950s, and under that group’s influence he published several humorous poems. Jandl may indeed be one of the funniest poets in postwar German, owing as much to the American Ogden Nash as he does (in the opinion of many critics) to experimentation similar to the dadaists of the early 1920s. Like his colleague and companion Friederike Mayröcker, Jandl taught in the public schools for many years; they wrote several award-winning radio plays together and shared an interest in experimenting with sounds, neologisms, malapropisms, dialect mispronunciations, solecisms, and the general manipulation of sounds in poetry. Mayröcker and Jandl together founded an organization of likeminded Austrian “word players” in Graz, called the Grazer Autorenversammlung (Graz Writers’ Association). The Graz Writers’ Association became one of the most influential organizations of writers in Austria and ultimately relocated to Vienna, where it became the largest writers’ organization in the entire country. Jandl’s public readings usually attracted substantial crowds, perhaps because his poetry had a more palpably humorous effect and

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public appeal when recited than when read in silence. Among his most well-known and frequently repeated poems is one called “Eine Fahne für Österreich” (A Flag for Austria), which paints a picture with the words “rot” (red), “weiss” (white), and again “rot” in vertical sequence, sitting atop each other just as the colors red, white, and red sit atop each other on the Austrian national flag. Another of Jandl’s most widely quoted poems is “Ottos Mops” (Otto’s Dog); its only vowel sound is “o” and resembles a “Dick and Jane” narrative from an American first-grade reading book. Among the prizes Jandl received for his poetry were the Kassel Literature Prize for Grotesque Humor, the German Prize for Minor Art, and the more well-known Austrian State Prize for Literature. Mayröcker’s book on her life with Jandl, titled Und ich schüttelte einen Liebling (And I Shook a Sweetheart) was nominated for the German Book of the Year Award in 2005. The word “shook” of the title does not mean she literally subjected Jandl to some form of physical agitation while they were together; rather, it refers to the book’s mixing various quotes, reminiscences, conversations with, and dreams about Jandl in an effort to recall her love for him. JELINEK, ELFRIEDE (1946–) AU. Novelist, playwright, essayist, poet. When Jelinek received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2004, most critics agreed that she had already been one of the “Big Three Austrians” in postwar German literature (along with Thomas Bernhard and Peter Handke) for several years. She had won numerous awards and prizes in the 1980s, her books had sold moderately well in German-speaking Europe, and several German theaters had staged her performance texts. The Nobel Prize confirmed her position as one of the leading German-language writers anywhere on the globe—yet it surprised many observers, who regarded her as too controversial for serious Nobel Prize consideration. One member of the Nobel Prize committee resigned in protest when the award was announced. Knut Ahnlund dismissed Jelinek’s writing as “whining and unappetizing.” Granting Jelinek the Nobel Prize for Literature sent a confusing message about what literature actually is, he said. The award remained most controversial and disputed in her native Austria, largely because Jelinek had been an outspoken feminist and Marxist. She had been an active member of the Austrian Communist

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Party from the mid-1970s to 1991, a fact that rankled many followers of Austrian politician Jörg Haider (1950–2008), whom Jelinek had vociferously attacked in print, on her Internet website, and in broadcast interviews. The first Jelinek novel to gain substantial readership was Die Liebhaberinnen (Women as Lovers, 1975), which was a parody of popular romance novels. In it, she presents two women in an Austrian village located somewhere in the Alps. At first, the novel seems like a fairy tale, as Brigitte and Paula work in a factory that makes women’s undergarments. The former looks forward to marriage with an electrician, and the latter attends the local movie theater as a means to escape the dreariness of her lovelorn world. Paula falls in love with a gorgeous, insensitive, and stupid lumberjack; Brigitte’s husband turns out to be likewise unappealing, but at least he is employed. Paula ultimately becomes pregnant by the lumberjack and he marries her; he also beats her periodically, a fate Brigitte also endures. Paula becomes a prostitute to earn the money her growing family needs and which her husband cannot provide; Brigitte, meanwhile, settles into respectable lower-middle-class life and gains weight. Jelinek’s title of the women as “lovers” is as ironic as the romance novel format she employs. The women are not lovers at all but victims of a patriarchal society that objectifies women by denying them autonomy. As she does in other novels and texts, Jelinek sees a kind of Hegelian dynamic in male-female relationships—or more accurately, as she says, master-slave relationships. Men are able to increase their sexual value in capitalist societies through work, fame, or wealth. Material power is available to women only through their bodies, and only if they have beauty and youth. Such convictions do not sit well with many of Jelinek’s countrymen, especially when she employs them in deconstructing national myths. Her Burgtheater (1984) was an ironic chronicle of two wellknown Austrian performers, Attila Hörbiger (1896–1987) and Paula Wessely (1907–2000). Both were beloved by generations of Austrian theater and film audiences, and Jelinek accused Hörbiger and Wessely of complicity in Nazi atrocities. Jelinek’s first performance text was Was geschah, nachdem Nora ihren Mann verlassen hatte (What Happened after Nora Left Her Husband, 1980), a kind of meditation on Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen’s treatment of women in his

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plays. Her Clara S. was an attempt to deflate the tendency to glorify male artists at the expense of gifted pianists and composers, such as the eponymous Clara Schumann. A pianist was the central character in what became Jelinek’s best-known novel of the 1980s, titled Die Klavierspielerin (The Piano Teacher, 1983). In it, as Jelinek has described it, “a distinguished older woman becomes a slave to a younger man.” The novel is largely autobiographical and it reveals Jelinek’s firmly held convictions about male-female relationships. It presents “a phallic woman who appropriates the male right to watch, and therefore pays for it with her life.” A 2001 film based on the novel, titled La Pianiste, won several awards for its performers at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival. That La Pianiste featured well-defined characters came as a surprise to many familiar with Jelinek’s other work. For the most part, her characters are fragments who materialize when speaking or are under observation. Rarely are they fully developed in the sense that the author provides them with clear psychological motivation. For example, Erika (the title character in the aforementioned The Piano Teacher) attends live sex shows and tries to witness couples having sex in cars on the streets of Vienna. Why? Jelinek provides few clues, though it does prefigure lurid sadomasochistic suggestions she makes to her 17year-old pupil. Most of her characters are caricatures with the potential to shock and utterly surprise the reader, largely because Jelinek has mastered the form of the genre she is employing. Her Die Ausgesperrten (Wonderful, Wonderful Times, 1980) is a kind of Bildungsroman, a coming-of-age novel. But the characters neither come of age or mature in any meaningful way nor change in the traditions of the Bildungsroman. Instead, Jelinek presents young hoodlums who assault people in parks and alleyways, not for their money but on the principle of breaking the law. One of the hoodlums (a girl named Anna) kicks her victims repeatedly in the testicles as a protest against police brutality. Such activity is not, however, the liberating experience they seek; they remain imprisoned in their own misery, largely a result of the oppression experienced at the hands of capitalist masters. Jelinek’s novel Lust (1989) has been described as “pornography for pessimists,” and as she has done in other fiction works, Jelinek has cleverly imitated generic conventions. In this case it is the pornographic novel, with detailed descriptions of various

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sexual activities at the expense of Gerti, the abused and battered wife of a small-time business owner. Gerti finds brief respite in a torrid affair with a young university student but he likewise proves abusive, eager to use Gerti mostly as an object of his brutalizing pleasure. In theater texts of the 21st century, Jelinek sets her sights on the United States, particularly Bambiland (2003); the title refers to a kind of theme park that stretches across the globe, providing “wartainment” courtesy of video cameras atop cruise missiles and live coverage from prisons holding captured combatants. When Bambiland was staged at the Vienna Burgtheater, it featured clips from pornographic films, improvised routines, and interviews with invited guests on stage. None of these figures were dramatic characters; some were ghosts from Austria’s past, some were prisoners at the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq, some were sexually tormented and humiliated. Many were disembodied objects of both derision and pity, part of what the Nobel Prize Committee termed Jelinek’s “musical flow of voices and countervoices . . . that with extraordinary linguistic zeal reveal the absurdity of society’s clichés and their subjugating power.” In her Nobel lecture (recorded on video and played at the 2004 ceremony, as she was unable to travel to Sweden personally), Jelinek addressed herself to the problems of working with language. She compared her use of German to a pet dog who ran beside her for protection and direction. But she had discovered, she said, that the dog had a mind of its own. “This dog, language, which is supposed to protect me, that’s why I have him, after all, is now snapping at my heels. My protector wants to bite me. My only protector against being described, language, which, conversely, exists to describe something else, that I am not—my only protector is turning against me. Perhaps I only keep him at all, so that he, while pretending to protect me, pounces on me. Because I sought protection in writing, this being on my way, language, which in motion, in speaking, appeared to be a safe shelter, turns against me.” Some critics felt that Jelinek had reversed the Ludwig Wittgenstein formula about language (“One should remain silent about things of which you cannot speak”) and used language to describe and grapple with things unspeakable. In many recent instances, critics have responded to Jelinek’s work with vituperative condemnation. As a result, she has stated that her performance texts will no longer be published. She will present them

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only on her website, and theaters desirous of presenting them must receive her personal permission. She has done so, many believe, in an effort to avoid lawsuits from individuals who believe they are slandered in her work. JENS, WALTER (1923– ) FRG. Novelist, philologist, rhetorician, prose stylist. Jens is one of the few former members of Group 47 who had successful careers in both literary endeavors and higher education; he was also an active and widely published critic of popular culture as well as an author of popular volumes on theology. In 1950, he published his most widely read novel Nein: die Welt der Angeklagten (No: The World of the Accused), an Orwellian fable about a dystopia peopled only by jurists, the accused, and witnesses to the crimes of the accused. Several critics dismissed the novel as too obviously a product of Kahlschlag literature, but it was in fact just the opposite: it recalled recent events in German jurisprudence, secret denunciations, and “protective custody” policies commonplace in the Nazi era. Few German critics were convinced, however, though French critics hailed the novel as a breakthrough for German postwar literature. It became the basis of a prize-winning play in French that several theaters produced in the early 1950s. Through the remainder of the 1950s, Jens wrote numerous radio plays and published two more novels; in 1956, he embarked on a successful academic career at the University of Tübingen, and in 1963 Jens was named professor of rhetoric, a post the university created specifically for him. He remained in that position until 1988, during which time he wrote several nonfiction books, including popular renderings of the New Testament gospel accounts. His translations of plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides won prestigious awards, while German broadcasters produced his newer additional radio plays. For two decades, Jens wrote a column of television criticism for the newsweekly Die Zeit under the pen name Momos, named for the sharp-tongued critic in Hesiod’s Theogony. After retiring from his academic posts in Tübingen, Jens became president of the Academy of the Arts in Berlin. JOHNSON, UWE (1934–1984) GDR-FRG. Novelist. Johnson won critical public acclaim for his 1959 novel Mutmassungen über

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Jakob (Speculations about Jakob) while he was still living in East Berlin. His difficulties with East German authorities over the publication of his first novel, Ingrid Babendererde, prompted him to move to West Berlin, though he never considered himself a refugee from the German Democratic Republic. Most readers recognized the conflicts in Speculations about Jakob, however, as analogous to those between East and West. The title character in the novel works for the East German rail system (still called the Reichsbahn) but his lover, Gesine Cresspahl, lives in West Germany and works as a secretary for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). He decides to join her but then changes his mind. During operations to dispatch East German railcars filled with Soviet tanks and armored vehicles to help suppress the Hungarian uprising, Jakob somehow ends up under a locomotive and is killed. Whether it was an accident, suicide, or murder at the hands of an East German security officer (who had hoped to recruit Gesine as an East German agent) remains unclear. Johnson became a member of Group 47 when he settled in West Berlin, and from 1966 to 1968 he lived in New York City, working as an editor for a large American publisher. In those years, he began working on the book that many consider his most accomplished, a fictional tetrology titled Jahrestage: aus dem Leben von Gesine Cresspahl (Anniversaries: From the Life of Gesine Cresspahl). In it, the secretary working for NATO in the earlier novel becomes the title character, though Johnson is concerned less with conflicts between East and West than he is in experimenting with narrative. Johnson frequently shifts the novel’s viewpoint from Gesine, to her parents in Mecklenburg back in the 1920s, back to Gesine, then to lengthy quotations from the New York Times about the Vietnam conflict, to Gesine’s mother during the Nazi period, to Gesine’s young daughter, to reports about racial unrest in American urban centers. Anniversaries was not completely finished until a year before Johnson’s death, though the first three installments were completed and published by 1973. The montage effect of shifting viewpoints, tenor of the narrative, extensive quotations, and startling imagery reminded many readers and critics of devices John Dos Passos had used decades earlier; others found the intensity of memory and his use of unself-conscious irony reminiscent of Marcel Proust.

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Johnson won several prizes, fellowships, and awards for his fiction, among them the Theodor Fontane Prize in 1960, a Rockefeller Foundation grant in 1968, the Georg Büchner Prize in 1971, and the Thomas Mann Prize in 1978. By the mid-1970s, he was considered one of the leading novelists in the German language. He left Germany in 1974, however, to live on the English Channel Island of Sheppey; there he hoped to complete Anniversaries, but health problems interrupted his concentration on the work. He returned periodically to Germany for brief visits or to deliver guest lectures. For the most part, however, he remained on Sheppey, suffering and alone. JONKE, GERD (1946– ) AU. Poet, novelist, dramatist. Jonke’s poetry manifests the influence of the Konkrete Poesie (concrete poetry) movement in Vienna, though Jonke himself was not directly connected to the original membership of the group. Perhaps the best description of Jonke’s poetry comes from Elfriede Jelinek, a fellow Austrian, who has compared the experience of reading Jonke to the experience of Disney characters Huey, Louie, and Dewey discovering an ant farm. Such farms were at one time sold in Austrian pet stores; they consisted of two panes of glass separated by a layer of dirt. An ant colony had then developed an intricate network of intersections, passageways, rest stations, and meandering tunnels—all of which were visible to the viewer. Such a sight would fascinate characters like Donald Duck’s aforementioned nephews. Donald himself might find the whole apparatus somewhat questionable, as most Austrians found Jonke’s poetry (Elfriede Jelinek, “Hier ist Dort,” in Die Aufhebung der Schwerkraft: zu Gert Jonkes Poesie, ed. Klaus Amann [Vienna: Sonderzahl, 1998], 17). But on the surface at least, it was fascinating—incomprehensible as art, inaccessible as poetry, complex to the point of opacity, but fascinating. Jonke, like Jelinek, is a trained keyboard player; his fascination with the musical intricacies of words and language has resulted in over 30 published volumes of poetry, fiction, and drama. He has received numerous awards for his work, including the Erich Fried Prize (1997), the Greater Austrian State Prize for Literature (2001), the Kleist Prize (2005), and the Arthur Schnitzler Prize (2006).

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JÜNGER, ERNST (1895–1998). Memoirist, novelist, prose stylist. One of the most idiosyncratic writers of modern German literature, Jünger came to prominence soon after World War I with his memoir titled In Stahlgewittern (The Storm of Steel, 1920). In it, he glorified heroism, the privations of battle, the joy of harsh discipline, and the incomparable sense of camaraderie found among men in combat. Many found the book a healthy antidote to the numerous antiwar novels that began to appear in the 1920s, and the National Socialists repeatedly attempted to enlist him in their cause. Jünger refused their numerous entreaties, while maintaining a disdain for democracy he shared with them. His distaste for democracy matched his disgust with the person of Adolf Hitler, whom he considered an ill-bred buffoon. But like Hitler, Jünger thought war was a noble endeavor, despite its perils and the numerous wounds he suffered while engaged in it. He was allowed to continue publishing his fiction and other prose works during the Third Reich, and his 1939 novel Auf den Marmorklippen (On the Marble Cliffs) created a brief sensation until government bureaucrats ordered a halt to its publication, distribution, and sales. After World War II (in which he served as an officer in France), he refused to appear before a “de-Nazification” hearing and his works were further banned. In 1957, however, he returned to prominence with the novel Gläserne Bienen (The Glass Bees). In it, a former military man goes to work for an entrepreneur who manufactures robotic creatures, including bees that can produce honey. Unfortunately, they are unequipped to perform cross-pollination, which results in the deaths of the blossoms needed to make honey in the first place. It was a sign of Jünger’s growing disenchantment with technology and his search for an expanded consciousness. In 1970, he published a lengthy account of his experiments with LSD, mescaline, peyote, cocaine, cannabis, and other drugs, titled Annäherungen: Drogen und Rausch (Approaches: Drugs and Intoxication), dispassionately chronicling his experience of drug use, written in an unflappable style similar to the one he employed to describe seeing his comrades blown to pieces in the trenches of World War I. Of course, he had described his experiences in the trenches as a kind of intoxication in The Storm of Steel, given his predilection for courting danger. Jünger went on to write novels about dystopic future worlds in the 1980s, stating in 1982 that he had withdrawn from active participa-

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tion in the present, and instead had begun to employ meditation “as a bridge between the present and the future” (Der Spiegel, 11 August 1982). At the time of his death at age 103, Jünger had been for several years the only surviving holder of the Prussian order for military valor, Pour le Mérite. By then, he had also received dozens of other awards for his literary efforts and his valor on the battlefield. Among them were the Grand Federal Service Cross, the Goethe Medallion, the Memorial Peace Prize from the town of Verdun, the Bremen Literature prize, and the Schiller Memorial Prize. See also NAZISM.

–K– KAHLSCHLAG. The term is thought initially to have appeared within a literary context under the authorship of Wolfgang Weyrauch, who employed Kahlschlag (which had originated in the forestry business, denoting “clear-cutting of trees, leaving only stumps”) as a call for the kind of literature Germans needed to read in the late 1940s. He used it in the concluding essay of his 1949 edition of work by new German writers titled Tausend Gram (A Thousand Grams), denoting a clear cut with the past. Wolfdietrich Schnurre had issued a similar call in poems that urged his readers to “smash up your songs” and “burn up your verses” in favor of saying nakedly what has to be said. Perhaps the best example of the Kahlschlag style is the poetry of Günter Eich, which was bare to the point of nakedness—or at least to the point of unencumbered spareness. It was what some critics called a deliberately impoverished style, though in its apparent poverty there was a rich essentiality and a “clean sweep” of departure from anything that remotely suggested the Third Reich. KANT, HERMANN (1926– ) GDR. Novelist. Kant is best known as a functionary within the German Democratic Republic’s Schriftstellerverband, or Writer’s Union; Kant became head of that organization in 1978, succeeding Anna Seghers. He was no less committed to the GDR than Seghers had been, and in his position of leadership he oversaw the expulsion of several writers. In one wellknown case, that of Heiner Müller, Kant was amenable to keeping Müller out of the union (and thus unemployable) until 1985. Kant

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attempted to justify his actions as head of the Writers’ Union in his memoir, Abspann (Final Credits), in 1991, but most readers dismissed such attempts as transparently self-serving. He was a talented writer of fiction, coming to prominence with a volume of short stories titled Ein bisschen Südsee (A Bit of the South Seas) in 1962, followed by his first full-length novel, Die Aula (The Lecture Hall) in 1965. There is general agreement that his best novel was Der Aufenthalt (The Detention), which treated the fate of a young German soldier captured in Warsaw and who spent four years in prisoner-of-war captivity. Kant had himself shared a similar fate, and like the young soldier of his novel, he became a dedicated communist in the process. KARSUNKE, YAAK (1934– ) FRG. Novelist, poet. Karsunke is best known as a writer of detective novels, but he has also published several volumes of poetry. He began his career as an actor and screenplay writer with Rainer Werner Fassbinder, and after Fassbinder’s death Karsunke continued to work in radio, film, and television. In 1990 he won the German “Krimi-Prize” as the author of Toter Mann (Dead Man), voted the best detective novel of 1990. KASACK, HERMANN (1896–1966). Novelist, radio dramatist, poet. Kasack established himself as a poet in the 1920s and remained in Germany, working as an editor, through the Hitler dictatorship. He remains best known for his remarkable novel Die Stadt hinter dem Strom (The City beyond the River, 1947), which skillfully combined realism with allegory. Critics and readers greeted it enthusiastically upon its initial publication, largely because it seemed to represent at the time the possibility of good literature that was produced under the constraints of “inner emigration” (Kasack had begun the novel in 1942). Its allegorical aspects, however, proved to be the most significant attraction. It recounts the experience of an archivist assigned to collect details of a ruined city and to write a chronicle of its inhabitants. As he gets off his train in the city’s abandoned train station, he encounters numerous individuals, many of them familiar to him. He ultimately realizes they are, in fact, dead. He determines to see as much of the city as he can before he must return to the land of the living. The novel was translated into several languages by the early 1950s, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions about paral-

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lels between the “city of the dead” Kasack described and many of the destroyed cities in Germany. Kasack wrote other novels and completed numerous radio play scripts, many of them employing similar allegorical techniques present in The City beyond the River. KASCHNITZ, MARIE LUISE (1901–1974). Poet, novelist, shortstory writer. Kaschnitz was a published novelist during the Third Reich but won wide recognition and praise for her poetry in the immediate postwar period. In 1955 she received the Georg Büchner Prize for her poetry and a year later she published a popular autobiography titled Das Haus der Kindheit (The House of Childhood). In it, she treats her childhood and youth as a kind of museum she feels compelled to visit. She wanders from room to room, as memories of her life as a daughter of privilege sweep over her. She finds repressed memories in the rooms, and the reader begins to appreciate the difficulty she has in meeting up with figures from her past—a past that is now completely in the shadows, as if broken into so many shards of pottery lying about in now abandoned, uninhabitable spaces. She followed up The House of Childhood with another autobiographical volume in 1966 (equally melancholy though much smaller and less ambitious) titled Beschreibung eines Dorfes (Description of a Village). KEHLMANN, DANIEL (1975– ) AU. Novelist. Kehlmann broke off his studies in philosophy at the University of Vienna because he had become such a successful novelist at age 22. By the time he was 30, he had written the most popular German novel since Patrick Süskind’s Das Parfum: die Geschichte eines Mörders (Perfume: The Story of a Murderer) in 1985, titled Die Vermessung der Welt (Measuring the World), which has been translated into more than a dozen languages. That book was short-listed for the German Book Prize in 2005, and for it Kehlmann received three separate awards in 2006 alone: the Literature Prize of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, the Heimito von Doderer Prize, and the Kleist Prize. Kehlmann also has the distinction of becoming a major character in a novel shortlisted for the German Book Prize, namely Das bin doch ich (Isn’t That Me?) by Thomas Glavinic. Kehlmann’s first novel was Beerholms Vorstellung (Beerholm’s Performance, 1997), a fictional memoir of a magician named Arthur

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Beerholm. Magic is one of several preoccupations in Kehlmann’s fiction, and some critics have described much of his work as similar to Latin American “magic realism,” though Kehlmann’s narratives are closer in structure to those of Günter Grass than to Latin American fabulists like Gabriel García Márquez or Jorge Luis Borges. Mahlers Zeit (Mahler’s Time, 1999) is not about the Austrian composer Gustav Mahler as many readers had anticipated, but rather a physicist named David Mahler who has discovered the formula for time. The narrative focuses primarily on Mahler’s efforts to convince other physicists of his formula’s validity, but there are also sections in which Mahler deliberates on what the “passage” of time means, on the Second Law of Thermodynamics in physics, and especially on entropy. Entropy is a concept that is, in the physical world as we know it, the inevitable result of time’s passage—inevitable, that is, until Mahler’s discovery. The novella Der fernste Ort (The Furthest Shore) is a continuation, to some extent, of Kehlmann’s narrative strategy that combines the protagonist’s experience of both physical reality and an inner reality that seems equally powerful. The protagonist in this case is named Julian, a modest functionary at an insurance company. Julian may have conveniently drowned on the shores of a lake—or maybe he was thought to have drowned. At any rate, he somehow gets a chance to escape his humdrum existence and pursue another life on “the furthest shore” of his present life. Kehlmann’s next two novels are the ones for which he is best known: Ich und Kaminski (Me and Kaminski) and the aforementioned Measuring the World. Me and Kaminski is an entertaining “on the road” novel, featuring an incompetent art critic named Zöllner intent on writing a biography of a long-forgotten octogenarian painter named Kaminski. Zöllner cons his way into Kaminski’s household, then spirits him off on a bizarre trip to find Kaminski’s long-lost girlfriend Elke from decades previous. A reunion of the two lovers, Zöllner mistakenly believes, will convince Kaminski to cooperate with him in the completion of the biography. Measuring the World features an equally unlikely pair, namely the mathematician Carl Gauss (1777–1855) and the explorer Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859). In these two characters, Kehlmann creates personifications of the physical reality (Humboldt) and the inner reality (Gauss) that interests him so deeply. Gauss witnesses the

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world but imagines the forces at work in it, particularly the Earth’s magnetic field. Humboldt, on the other hand, is the inventor of modern geography, fascinated by the world’s river valleys, mountain ranges, archipelagos, and wide, sweeping plains. Both men want to measure the world, both are obsessive overachievers, both are determined to gain precedent-setting knowledge in their respective fields, and both are eager to defend their respective legacies. Both are likewise humorously foolish and make numerous mistakes that they regret later. By no means are they historical figures in Kehlmann’s treatment; they often resemble some of the types who show up in the novels of Heimito von Doderer—one probable reason among the critics who awarded Kehlmann the prize bearing von Doderer’s name. KEMPOWSKI, WALTER (1929–2007) FRG. Novelist, chronicler. Kempowski had developed skills of observation as a child growing up in the Third Reich, and he remains best known for recalling many of the events during his youth in a nine-volume series of novels about life under the Nazi dictatorship in his native Rostock. The first in that series of novels was Tadellöser und Wolff (1971), which at first appears to be the fictitious name of a shipping firm similar to the one his father administered. It turns out to be an imprecation, like “hell and damnation,” that his father uttered in moments of agitation. Kempowski’s narrative technique was unobtrusive, allowing the prose impressions he had created to accumulate; the result was a montage-like image spread across a vast wall of experience. Kempowski’s first novel, Im Block: ein Haftbericht (In the Cell Block: A Prison Report, 1969), had employed a more traditional narrative, recounting the author’s eight years in forced labor confinement for what the Soviet occupation authorities termed espionage. That novel found little acceptance among critics and readers. The “German Chronicle” novels, on the other hand, sold very well indeed. Tadellöser und Wolff was the basis of a popular television miniseries on West German television in 1975. Kempowski wrote nonfiction books as well, usually focusing on individuals and their experiences in the Third Reich; among the more noteworthy of them were Haben Sie Hitler gesehen? Deutsche Antworten (Did You Ever See Hitler? Germans Answer the Question, 1973) and Haben Sie davon gewusst? Deutsche Antworten (What Did

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You Know? Germans Answer the Question, 1979). Kempowski’s final project was his most extensive undertaking. It was a compilation of personal documents such as letters, diaries, newspaper clippings, and unpublished accounts by average Germans from the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 through the winter of 1945, as the calamitous shift in fortunes took place, as both the tide of war and the Hitler dictatorship shifted from supreme mastery to precipitous decline. “Ordinary” Germans by the thousands sent him materials, which Kempowski edited without comment. He titled the multivolume project Echolot: ein kollektives Tagebuch (Sonar Sounding: A Collective Diary) because it gave a kaleidoscopic “sounding” of the country, sung in voices that recorded history seldom hears. Upon the project’s completion, Kempowski turned over all the materials he had used in the project to the Academy of the Arts in Berlin. Kempowski received numerous prizes for his work; for Echolot alone, he received the Konrad Adenauer Literature Prize, the Uwe Johnson Prize, and the Federal Service Cross. See also NAZISM. KIPPHARDT, HEINAR (1922–1982) FRG. Dramatist. Kipphardt was best known for his “documentary dramas,” which he created from transcripts of hearings, trials, investigative proceedings, and interrogations. The play that brought him initial prominence was Der Hund des Generals (The General’s Dog, 1962), in which a general is investigated for war crimes. A private under the general’s command had accidentally shot the general’s dog; the general then deployed an entire company of men (including the unfortunate private) on a dangerous mission in the hope that the private would be killed in action. As it turns out, 59 men were indeed killed during the operation, but the private survived. The commission investigating the general concludes that the general had a vendetta against the private, but he could not be held responsible for the deaths of the other men because he had no intention of having them killed. The operation was, they determined, a necessary part of command. Kipphardt’s In der Sache J. Robert Oppenheimer (In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, 1964) takes its title—and most of its dialogue— directly from the transcript of Oppenheimer’s 1954 hearing before the U.S. Congressional Personnel Security Board. Oppenheimer (1904–1967) was the son of German immigrants and had an earned

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doctorate in theoretical physics at Göttingen; he opposed the development of the hydrogen bomb and at the conclusion of the hearing the board suspended Oppenheimer’s security clearance. Kipphardt’s documentary technique was bound hand and foot to the transcript of the Security Board hearing. Little in the drama that Kipphardt constructed retained the inherent dramatic tension of the hearing, since Kipphardt was too intent on presenting Oppenheimer as a kind of hero who opposed American military engagement as a matter of principle. In Joel Brand: die Geschichte eines Geschäfts (Joel Brand: The History of a Business Deal, 1965), Kipphardt depicted the failed transaction that in 1944 could have saved the lives of a million Jews: Adolf Eichmann was commissioned by Heinrich Himmler to offer a clandestine Jewish organization the release of Hungarian Jews in exchange for several thousand British and American transport trucks for use by the Germans on the eastern front. Eichmann grants the Jewish organization’s representative, Joel Brand, permission to negotiate with the British in Syria, but the British detain and arrest him. The deal falls through, the Germans are defeated on the eastern front, and hundreds of thousands of Jews perish. Kipphardt’s work on Joel Brand led to his final documentary play, titled Bruder Eichmann (Brother Eichmann, 1982). It was based on the interrogation of Eichmann in Israel, prior to his trial there. Kipphardt intended for the play somehow to capture the “banality of evil” contained within an utterly unremarkable man like Eichmann, then allowed to blossom into a poisonous weed that was instrumental in the wholesale slaughter of millions. In all his documentary plays, Kipphardt was unable to master the myriad facts, details, idiosyncrasies, and inconsistencies nearly always present in courtroom transcripts. Yet they enjoyed a brief vogue, largely due to the author’s unwavering commitment to a political agenda that always sought selectively and arbitrarily to identify villains and heroes. See also HOLOCAUST; NAZISM. KIRCHHOFF, BODO (1948– ) FRG. Novelist, dramatist, prose stylist. Kirchhoff’s literary career began in 1979, the same year he completed a doctoral dissertation on the French psychoanalytic theorist Jacques Lacan. In that year, Kirchhoff’s play Das Kind oder die Vernichtung

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von Neuseeland (The Child, or the Extermination of New Zealand) premiered in Saarbrücken while his novella Ohne Eifer, ohne Zorn (No Pain, No Gain) appeared to moderately good reviews. He continued to publish short fiction and drama through the 1980s and undertook an extensive program of travel that took him to every continent and allowed him to remain sometimes for years in the United States, Mexico, and the Philippines, supporting himself as a journalist and with fellowships. In the 1990s, he began to write erotic thrillers, the kind of fiction with which he is most closely associated. In 1996, Kirchhoff perpetrated what came to be known as one of the most hilarious hoaxes the German literary scene had recently witnessed. Though he claimed not to be trying to fool anybody, he entered a playwrights’ festival in Hannover with a play titled Mach nicht den Tag zur Nacht (Don’t Let the Day Become Night) under the name “Odette Haussmann.” She was, according to the festival program, “born in 1969 on an island in the Indian Ocean but grew up in Berlin and received a German education.” Odette had supposedly spent time in psychiatric care after romantic involvement with an older man. In the play, the female protagonist named Miriam described her fantasies about self-abuse, oppression by men, and masturbation—which judges for the festival assumed were based on the author’s personal experiences. The play won rave reviews and won the contest, beating out 200 other applicants. Then Kirchhoff revealed that he was the real author, and the festival organizers indignantly ceased all interest in the play, halted production plans for it, and claimed the play no longer had any value but was merely “a collection of an aging male’s frustrated libido.” Thereafter, Kirchhoff rededicated himself to writing screenplays, teleplays, detective novels, and erotic thrillers, which sold well and frequently found favor with middlebrow critics. His Manila (2000) won the Bavarian Film Academy’s award for best screenplay of that year, and in 2008 he received the Carl Zuckmayer Medallion. KIRSCH, SARAH (Ingrid Bernstein, 1935– ) GDR-FRG. Poet. Kirsch’s literary career began in the German Democratic Republic, where she had studied at the Johannes R. Becher Writers’ Institute. In the mid-1960s, she won several awards for her poetry and became a member of the East German Writers’ Union board of directors.

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Though she had vexed GDR authorities in some satirical portions of her lyrical poetry, Kirsch was for the most part allowed to publish and thrive until 1976, when she voiced support for Wolf Biermann. She immigrated to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1977 and there she established herself as a gifted Nature poet. Much of her work concentrates on sound and rhythm, which renders it incomprehensible to all but the most devoted readers by virtue of its missing punctuation. Read closely, it reveals a proselike structure that permits the reader to glimpse her deeply felt misgivings about loss. Lost childhood, lost idealism, lost love, and loss of power as a woman have characterized some of her more well-known works. Among her most interesting verse is that composed after her first visit to America that reflects her bewilderment at discovering landscapes that seemed utterly alien to her. Kirsch received the Peter Huchel Prize for Poetry in 1993 and the Büchner Prize for Literature in 1996. KIRSCHEN DER FREIHEIT, DIE (The Cherries of Freedom, 1952). The hero of this short autobiographical novel by Alfred Andersch is Andersch himself. When the book first appeared, many critics compared it with another, earlier wartime account that had become a best-seller after World War I: Nichts neues im Westen (All Quiet on the Western Front) by Erich Maria Remarque (Erich Paul Remark, 1898–1970). Like Remarque’s autobiographical novel, The Cherries of Freedom was not “literary” in the traditional sense; but Andersch was far more introspective than Remarque, more politically critical, and Andersch prominently featured his desertion from the German army. The book also depicts Andersch’s gradual transformation from a devoted Marxist to an advocate of personal freedom—a transformation that earned the book almost as much condemnation as did the act of desertion. Andersch begins the book with the execution of a communist partisan who had participated in the Spartacist uprising in Berlin during January of 1919. This episode remains with the book’s narrator and he becomes a confirmed communist at age 16, full of hope and optimistic dedication to the cause of freeing the oppressed. His activities land him in prison and later in the Dachau concentration camp. There he undergoes a kind of revelation: political engagement will solve nothing, not even in the totalitarian state that Germany had become

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after Adolf Hitler and the Nazis seized power. “I answered the totalitarian state with total introversion,” he writes. Subjected to psychological analysis and diagnosed with profound depression, he is nevertheless drafted into the German army in 1943 and sent to the Italian front. There, on 6 June 1944, he deserts and surrenders to American troops about 60 miles north of Rome. In that act, he tasted for the first time what he described as the “cherries of freedom, the sweet moments of breath between thinking and desire.” The Hamburg publisher of The Cherries of Freedom told Andersch he would be lucky if the book sold as many as 70 copies. It sold thousands more than that, but not without substantial controversy. Many Germans attacked Andersch for what they considered “boasting” about his desertion, while others on the left denounced it as a testimony to political duplicity and philistine self-glorification. KIRSTEN, WULF (1934– ) GDR-FRG. Poet. Kirsten was known primarily in the German Democratic Republic as “the poet of Saxony,” since much of his best-known work in the GDR dealt with his childhood and the area around Klipphausen, where he was born. His poetry was largely lyrical, celebrating the natural world of his surroundings, while attempting to read a kind of socialist optimism into the landscape. Some critics maintain that he is part of a 19th-century Romantic tradition that celebrated a sentimental attachment to Nature, while others have viewed his poetry as a lamentation for a rustic past. Rarely were his poems about Saxony hymns of praise, but they seemed to possess an unfeigned “genuineness.” Few readers in the West paid much attention to Kirsten before 1989; the collapse of the GDR brought him a wider readership, resulting in the discovery that he was actually an accomplished literary craftsman. Readers found much to praise in long-neglected poetry about his travels to countries that had been members of the Warsaw Pact. A volume of his collected poetry published in 2004 won him widespread praise, largely because it presented a panorama of his poetry written over a period of a half-century. Kirsten received several literary awards for his work after German reunification, chief among them the Horst Bienek Prize (1999), the Marie Luise Kaschnitz Prize (2000), the Eichendorff Prize (2004), and the Literature Prize of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation in 2005.

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KLAVIERSPIELERIN, DIE (The Piano Teacher, 1983). In this novel by Elfriede Jelinek, Erika Kohut is a piano teacher in Vienna who by night is a voyeur. By day, she is an utterly esteemed instructor at the Vienna Conservatory of Music. She lives with her oppressive and dominating mother, who constantly reminds Erika of the early promise she demonstrated as a child prodigy. Now approaching middle age, sexually frustrated, addicted to genital self-mutilation, and emotionally twisted, Erika takes out her frustrations on fellow passengers aboard crowded subway trains in Vienna. She kicks and elbows them (particularly if they are overweight women), then pretends not to notice as other, less respectable passengers get blamed. She puts broken glass in the pockets of one piano student, hoping to injure the student’s hands. She attends live sex shows, pornographic movies, and seeks out parked cars where couples may be copulating. Her life changes when she begins teaching Walter Klemmer, a young and virile stud in whom Erika sees promise—if not as a pianist, then as her partner in tightly proscribed sets of sadomasochistic exercises. Their sexual activity takes a brutal turn, however, as Walter degrades her. She begs to be tied up and beaten, and Klemmer obliges. To her, he seems to embody the Romantic soul of Schubert. Austrian film director Michael Haneke adapted the novel for a 2001 film shot in French, titled La Pianiste; it is a highly evocative depiction of classical music culture in Vienna, contrasted with seedy urban nightlife. In many ways, the contrasts reflect the fracture in Erika’s existence. Some scenes are taken directly from the novel, particularly those of sexual abuse, sadomasochism, and Erika’s self-mutilation. During a scene set in a public toilet, she demands that Walter Klemmer focus on her, not on his penis. He is mystified, fascinated, and ultimately repulsed by her demands for control, and there is little joy or even pleasure in the sexual encounters they have, but that dynamic is part of the original novel. Isabelle Huppert as Erika and Benoît Magimel both won Best Actor Awards at the Cannes Film Festival for their imaginative and courageous portrayals; Haneke in turn received the Best Directing Award. KOEPPEN, WOLFGANG (1906–1996). Novelist. One of the youngest theater and film critics working in Berlin during the late 1920s and early 1930s, Koeppen lived and worked in Holland during

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the first years of the Third Reich. He returned to Berlin as a freelance writer in 1939 and later moved to Munich, where he wrote screenplays. He is best known for three novels written in the immediate postwar period, beginning with Tauben im Gras (Pigeons on the Grass, 1951). In it, Koeppen revived the montage style of Alfred Döblin to great effect; using the convention of inner monologue, he depicts the torments of several Germans and Americans living in Munich during one day in 1949. In Das Treibhaus (The Hothouse, 1953), the subject is an idealistic deputy of the West German Parliament named Felix Keetenheuve, who grows increasingly distressed during the process of German rearmament. Keetenheuve ultimately grows so despondent that he commits suicide. The novel became the basis of a 1987 film of the same title, directed by Peter Goedel and starring Christian Doermer as Keetenheuve; Koeppen himself played a small role in the film. Der Tod in Rom (Death in Rome, 1954) features two generations of two families, and Koeppen skillfully alternates between the older and younger by capturing accurately the sensibilities of both fathers and sons. Among the former is an unrepentant former SS general; among the latter is a Roman Catholic priest deeply scarred by his unwitting connection to Nazi wickedness. Koeppen never achieved the same success these three novels brought him, though his reputation among critics continued to grow and he lived another four decades after his last “great” book. Marcel Reich-Ranicki in particular considered Koeppen among the very best of writers in the 1950s and devoted an entire chapter to him in his autobiography, Mein Leben. For years, he tried to encourage Koeppen to continue writing big, important novels, but as he grew to know the author, Reich-Ranicki realized that Koeppen did not enjoy writing. He had absolutely no desire to complete another novel and only grudgingly wrote essays and travel literature. Reich-Ranicki could never fully understand why Koeppen found writing so difficult, why he could never meet deadlines, and why he was able to write only when confronted with a typewriter and a blank sheet of paper. Koeppen could only respond with “Genie ist man nur in den Geschäftstunden” (“One is a genius only during working hours,” Mein Leben, 500). KONKRETE POESIE (Concrete Poetry). Concrete poetry had its origins in the visual arts, and some critics termed it a form of “antipoet-

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ical meditation” because it emphasized the visual characteristics of words, renouncing any inherent meaning in the words themselves. A typical “concrete poem,” for example, might consist of the word “cloud” arranged into several circular groups on a page. From those circular groups might descend the words “lightning,” “bolt,” or “flash.” Such a poem became a linguistic demonstration, questioning the primacy of linearity, capitalization, or spelling, casting into doubt the entire premise of a word’s “meaning.” Eugen Gomringer was among the first to popularize the term “concrete poetry” in the postwar period, particularly the term’s use as a means of denying the importance of logos as a vessel of meaning. See also ARTMANN, HANS CARL; GOMRINGER, EUGEN; JANDL, ERNST; JONKE, GERD; MAYRÖCKER, FRIEDERIKE. KÖPF, GERHARD (1948– ) FRG. Novelist, literary scholar. Köpf is best known for a series of novels set in the fictional town of Thulsern in Bavaria, reminiscent of Füssen, the town in which he grew to young manhood. Köpf completed a doctorate in German literature at the University of Munich in 1974, teaching literature thereafter in several venues until he was named professor of comparative literature in Duisburg. Critics early in Köpf’s career praised his insights into the psychological motivations and torments of his characters; his 1983 novel Innerfern (Interior Distance, but translated into English as Innerfar) presented a protagonist whose paranoia and schizophrenia blocked her effectiveness as hostess at a meeting of Group 47. In Der Weg nach Eden (The Way to Eden, 1994), the central character is an elderly woman in the aforementioned fictional town of Thulsern, whose unrealized goal of finding and marrying an American soldier in the immediate postwar period is a source of continued sorrow. In 2000, Köpf was awarded guest professorships in psychiatric clinics, teaching courses in the psychopathology of speech in literature. He has also received several awards for his novels, many of which have been widely translated. Most notable among his awards are stipends from the Berlin Academy of the Arts and the Wilhelm Raabe Prize. KROETZ, FRANZ XAVER (1946– ) FRG. Dramatist, prose stylist. Kroetz enjoyed a wide following for his plays in the 1960s and 1970s, when dozens of German theaters produced them on a regular basis. By 1975, Kroetz was indeed among the most frequently performed

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playwrights in all German-language theaters. His play Stallerhof (Barnyard, 1972) featured a mentally retarded couple who attempt to care for their baby, resulting ultimately in the child’s death. Stallerhof, like the one-woman play Wunschkonzert (Hit Parade) and other Kroetz dramas, featured scenes of onstage defecation. He set most such works somewhere in his native Bavaria and featured characters of severely limited mental or emotional capacity. Many of them are indeed utterly destructive toward themselves and others. In his novel Mondscheinknecht (Working by Moonlight, 1983), he attempts to use prose narrative for personal therapeutic purposes; it features a handicapped typesetter who finds love and then loses it. In his Nicaragua Tagebuch (Nicaragua Diary, 1986), Kroetz said he was through with the German theater, because the middle-class audiences who paid his bills no longer hated him. But he continued to write and direct plays in the 1980s anyway, though with much less success than he had enjoyed earlier. In 1995, he was awarded the Bertolt Brecht Literature Prize, and in 2006 he published a much-heralded collection of “unwashed stories” titled Blut und Bier (Blood and Beer). See also VOLKSSTÜCK. KÜHN, DIETER (1935– ) FRG. Novelist, short-story writer, children’s author, popular historian, dramatist, poet, biographer. Kühn’s remarkably diverse oeuvre manifests his wide range of interests, time periods, and personalities. His first book to catch the public’s interest was N (1970), about Napoleon Bonaparte. His novel Die Präsidentin (Mme. President, 1973) was so popular that it reawakened interest in the stock exchange/financial fraud artist Marthe Hanau, who had swindled millions of dollars from French investors in the 1930s. Much of Kühn’s biography became the basis for a popular 1980 French film titled La Banquière, starring Austrian actress Romy Schneider (1938–1982). His nonfiction Festspiel für Rothäute (Festival for Redskins, 1974) examined the cultural ramifications of a “state visit” by four Iroquois chieftains from upstate New York to London in 1710. The following year he wrote a short “biography” about American entertainer Josephine Baker (1906–1975) and an enormously long biography about Clara Schumann. He has written fictional thrillers about Ludwig van Beethoven (in which the composer travels to Africa with a German-

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African companion) and Christopher Marlowe (in which the English playwright is sent to France on a diplomatic mission but becomes a double agent, which helps to explain his murder in 1593). Other historical subjects of Kühn’s fiction include Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Goethe’s lover Bettina von Arnim, and painter Maria Sybilla Merian. Kühn’s writing entered a new phase when he developed an expertise in Middle High German. His translations of lyric poems by Neidhart von Reuental, of Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach, and of Tristan und Isolde by Gottfried von Strassburg were accorded generous praise by critics and scholars. Kühn has written a dozen children’s books, over 60 radio plays, and 10 plays for the stage. See also THEATER. KULTURBUND ZUR DEMOKRATISCHEN ERNEUERUNG DEUTSCHLANDS (Cultural League for the Democratic Renewal of Germany). Organized on 3 July 1945, the creators of the Cultural League were responsible for inviting numerous left-leaning German artists to the Eastern zone of occupation (later East Germany) and encouraging them to stay. Soviet occupation authorities and the German politicians they supported were desirous of fostering literary and cultural activity within the Eastern zone, and they soon set up publishing endeavors for the benefit of writers whose work accorded with political goals the Soviet leadership had in mind. Impetus for the Kulturbund had been several meetings in Moscow during September 1944, led by Johannes R. Becher; also at the meetings were fellow members of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) Wilhelm Pieck, Walter Ulbricht, Anton Ackermann, Sepp Schwab, Arthur Pieck, Erich Weinert, Friedrich Wolf, Willi Bredel, Gustav von Wangenheim, Heinrich Greif, Hanns Rodenberg, Fritz Erpenbeck, and Maxim Vallentin. Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Politburo promised them support in using literature to awaken and create a “new” Germany. KUNERT, GÜNTER (1929– ) GDR-FRG. Poet, prose stylist. Kunert was a well-established, widely published, and much-heralded poet and writer in the German Democratic Republic until he signed a petition supporting Wolf Biermann in 1976. He soon thereafter lost

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his membership in the ruling Social Unity Party; in 1979, he was granted a multiyear visa to live in West Germany, whereupon he set up permanent residence in Schleswig-Holstein. From that vantage point, he continued his accustomed prodigious output of poetry, short fiction, aphorisms, fairy tales, memoirs, radio plays, parables, satires, and even science fiction. In 1985, he received the Heinrich Heine Prize for his poetry. KUNZE, REINER (1933– ) GDR-FRG. Poet, prose stylist. The notoriety of Kunze’s persecution by the authorities of the German Democratic Republic for antisocialist activity was second only to that of Wolf Biermann. His troubles began with accusations of “de-politicizing the youth of the GDR”; his offenses grew worse, according to authorities, by the mid-1970s, and both he and Biermann were deprived of their GDR citizenship. In the 1950s, Kunze had been a faithful member of the Socialist Unity Party (SED) and its doctrine of socialist realism (Sozialistischer Realismus) in his numerous volumes of poetry, and he had been awarded several state-sponsored citations for his work, along with publishing contracts that made his poetry sell briskly in the tightly controlled East German book market. Kunze’s break with the cultural establishment came with the Sovietled invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, which Kunze bitterly criticized, resigning from the SED in protest. Thereafter, his literary career shrank to near invisibility; by the mid-1970s, GDR authorities slapped him with an official “enemy of the people” label, rendering him unemployable. Kunze managed to leave the GDR in 1977, though he had also managed by that time to get two books of prose published in the West. He was able to exact a measure of vengeance against the GDR soon after he settled in the Federal Republic of Germany by publishing what many critics consider his finest work of verse and prose poetry, Die wunderbaren Jahre (The Wonderful Years), a slim volume that cheerfully chronicles the deadening cheerlessness of life in paradise, where unemployment was nonexistent, health care was provided, housing was generously subsidized, and progress was ensured. Kunze wrote and directed a 1979 film based on The Wonderful Years, starring Rolf Boysen, Gabi Marr, and Klaus Münster. It received a Guild of German Art House Cinema Award in that year.

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–L– LANGE, HARTMUT (1937– ) GDR-FRG. Novelist, dramatist. Lange had a promising career as a dramatist in the German Democratic Republic. His 1963 comedy Marski had impressed theater directors, and several observers at the time compared him favorably to fellow GDR dramatists Volker Braun and Peter Hacks. But Lange left the GDR in 1965 and settled in West Berlin, where he worked as a dramaturg for several West Berlin theaters. Marski became a popular play on West German stages, largely because it was seen as an unsympathetic parody of Bertolt Brecht’s comedy Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti (Mr. Puntila and His Servant Matti). Lange had several other plays mounted in West German theaters in the 1970s, though none of them were as popular as Marski. His 1983 memoir, Tagebuch eines Melancholikers (Diary of a Melancholy Man), attracted substantial attention, largely because Lange cast a vaguely humorous look at the German tendency toward gloom and somberness. In the memoir, he described the German tendency toward melancholy as “a way station between depression and hopelessness.” He began to turn his attention to short fiction thereafter, concentrating on the novella with some success, though his readership remained somewhat limited. He was awarded the 1998 Konrad Adenauer Foundation’s Literature Prize for those efforts, and his recent novellas and fiction have garnered wide praise from critics. LANGE-MÜLLER, KATJA (1951– ) FRG. Short-story writer, novelist. Much of Lange-Müller’s fiction is closely associated with the social and linguistic milieu of Berlin, where she was born, went to school, and worked at a variety of odd jobs. Like Monika Maron and a few other writers who originally had close ties to the German Democratic Republic, Lange-Müller could emigrate to West Berlin (she did so in 1984) and find an audience for her fiction in West Germany. Her mother had been a high-ranking party bureaucrat and her father had responsibility for the East German regime’s television programming— yet school officials expelled her on the rather unspecific charge of nonconformity with socialist expectations. A pattern of nonconformity continued, culminating in her signature on a petition in 1976

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protesting the regime’s treatment of Wolf Biermann; yet she managed to enroll in the Johannes R. Becher Literary Institute in Leipzig, graduating in 1982 and getting a job with an East Berlin publisher. Lange-Müller’s literary career began, however, after she was able to relocate to the Federal Republic of Germany, beginning with Wehleid-wie im Leben (Self-pity, as in Life) in 1986, a small but critically praised volume of short stories. In the same year, she received the Ingeborg Bachmann Prize for her novella Kaspar Mauser—Die Feigheit vorm Freund (Kaspar Mauser—Cowardice in Front of a Friend), which had not yet been published. The prize was first in a series of awards, as she continued a prolific output of several fiction works. In 2003, her collection of humorous sketches titled Die Enten, die Frauen und die Wahrheit (The Ducks, the Women, and the Truth) won no prizes, but many critics applauded it as her best work to date. In 2007, her novel Böse Schafe (Angry Sheep) was nominated for the German Book Prize, and it likewise won critical praise. It has an unusual narrative conceit, because the protagonist always speaks in the second person. She has fallen in love with a drug addict, and dedicating herself to his “recovery” becomes an act of selflessness she had never before experienced. The tenderness she feels for a worthless drifter, who ultimately dies of AIDS, brings about a kind of transformation in her that is both convincing and heartbreaking. LANGGÄSSER, ELISABETH (1899–1950). Novelist, short-story writer. Langgässer emerged from a set of circumstances in the Third Reich perhaps more perilous than were the cases of other “inner emigrants.” The National Socialist government had classified her as a “half-Jewess,” rendering her virtually unemployable and imminently deportable. She continued writing, sustained by her deep and somewhat mystical Roman Catholic faith; her novel Das unauslösliche Siegel (The Permanent Seal) was one result, published in 1946. It presents the battle for a Jew’s soul between divine and satanic forces. Langgässer published several short stories with similar themes in the late 1940s and was awarded the Büchner Prize shortly before her death. A foundation bearing her name was established soon thereafter and, in 1988, began awarding the Elisabeth Langgässer Prize; among

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recipients of the prize have been Luise Rinser, Rolf Hochhuth, Christa Wolf, and Ulla Hahn. LATTMANN, DIETER (1926– ) FRG. Novelist, critic, politician. Lattmann was a member of the West German Parliament from 1972 to 1980, actively supporting the Ostpolitik (policies of accommodation to and acceptance of the German Democratic Republic), which Chancellor Willy Brandt had initiated. Lattmann was vigorously engaged in forming social policy oriented toward moving the Federal Republic of Germany leftward on the political spectrum, particularly active in attempting to keep American midrange rockets out of West Germany. Lattmann claimed that stationing such weapons was a provocation to the Soviet Union for which all Germans, both East and West, would ultimately pay the price. Prior to his public service in the German Parliament, Lattmann had been president of the Federal Union of Writers, an organization he helped to found. In his 2006 memoir, titled Einigkeit der Einzelgänger: Mein Leben in der Literatur und Politik (Loners United: My Life in Literature and Politics), Lattmann retained a fondness for Brandt and the writers who came to prominence during the Adenauer years. Theirs were literary goals similar to his own, since he consistently views the role of writer primarily as that of a teacher. Lattmann began his own literary career in the late 1950s and published his first novel, Ein Mann mit Familie (A Man with a Family), in 1962. As a member of that generation of high school boys drafted into military service in the waning years of World War II, memories of families ripped apart informed his most popular novel, Die Brüder (The Brothers, 1985). The brothers of the title are veterans of the war, but conflicting loyalties have estranged them. One lives with his family in West Germany, the other in East Germany. One had witnessed the Battle of Stalingrad firsthand and it turned him into a communist; the other remained loyal to the Führer until the bitter end. They attempt a reconciliation at a 1976 large family gathering in Lower Saxony. Many critics hailed the book as “living German history,” depicting the conflicts that had contributed to the war and the remaining divisions among Germans. The inference was that the German division into Western and Eastern camps is probably a

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good thing—and in all likelihood a permanent feature of German life. See also NAZISM. LEHR, THOMAS (1957– ) FRG. Novelist. Lehr has a degree in biochemistry and has worked as a computer programmer in Berlin. That background perhaps explains why some of his novels seem sprawling and lack narrative cohesion. Critics have noted, in both positive and negative ways, that his work appears to have little traditional literary aspiration. His most well-known novel, Nabokovs Katze (Nabokov’s Cat, 1995), is a lengthy, erotic coming-of-age story, focusing on a teenager named Georg. The book follows Georg through a series of adventures with drug use, a career in filmmaking, a series of mathematical discoveries, and later an obsession with philosophy. In between are numerous erotic affairs with women, and Lehr is a gifted chronicler of erotic experimentation. Most important in Georg’s life, however, is Camille, whom he met when he was 15 and emerging from a drug rehabilitation program. Camille becomes his muse throughout the novel, a source of yearning that drives him well into adulthood, middle age, and beyond. Lehr’s 42 (2005) has a resemblance to the novels of the American physician Michael Crichton, in that science has gone completely awry in human affairs and ultimately threatens human survival. In the novel, a group of 60 scientists visit the Conseil Européenne pour la Recherche Nucléaire (CERN) particle physics laboratory in Switzerland. Something deeply disturbing has occurred during their visit, however: time has stood still and they appear to be the only living survivors of a “chronometric catastrophe”: all around them, life is at a literal standstill. They go their separate ways over the next five years, trying to figure out what happened. Some become murderers, others go off to find a solution in solitude, yet others try to find their families. Some are successful in locating family members, though some supposed loved ones are discovered in distinctly embarrassing situations. Suddenly, the world goes back into movement—but for only three seconds. The remaining scientists decide to regather at the CERN facility in the hope of discovering the mechanism by which they can restart time—or at least discover some understanding of what “time” now means in a world gone utterly unfamiliar. 42 was nominated for the German Book Prize. See also FICTION.

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LENZ (1973). This novella by Peter Schneider updates the literary precedent of Georg Büchner’s narrative fragment about Sturm und Drang playwright Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz (1751–1792). In the Büchner fragment, Lenz spends time with the pietist pastor and educator Johann Friedrich Oberlin (1740–1826) in the villages of Lorraine, where Oberlin had opened schools for poor children and had developed agricultural innovation among peasant farmers. The discussions with Oberlin reveal Lenz as a troubled soul, desperate to find meaning in life and suffused with what might be today termed “existential anxiety.” Schneider’s Lenz, on the other hand, is a product of the 1968 student protests in West Germany, likewise suffering from a deep-rooted disquiet within his soul. Instead of going to meet with a pastor, Schneider’s Lenz heads for Rome (as did Schneider himself after his experiences in the student protest movement). In Rome, Lenz embarks on a “journey of self-discovery,” including an affair with an Italian woman who breaks his heart. He finds a supportive group of friends whose political motivations seem more “authentic” than what he experienced in West Germany. He returns to West Germany with a broader, less overtly politicized viewpoint. LENZ, HERMANN (1913–1998) FRG. Novelist, poet. Lenz was a prolific writer to whom recognition for a remarkable body of work came late in his career. In 1949, no less an authority than Thomas Mann recommended Lenz to his readers, but apparently only a few accepted Mann’s recommendation. Lenz’ fiction was considered too “regional” (he was a native of Stuttgart, and he sometimes wrote in the local Swabian dialect); he also eschewed direct political engagement in his writing, preferring to let characters simply record their observations. He seems in many of his novels to have left plot structure as an afterthought. As a result, some critics described his novels as fragmented. Yet Lenz’ characters are multifaceted, even if they often appear to be individuals distanced from any abstract historical context. They are introspective and withdrawn, seeking little engagement with cataclysmic events like World War II. Normally villainous characters, such as SS officials, often receive humane treatment in Lenz’ hands. Lenz had few readers and little national recognition until a 1973 article by Peter Handke in the Süddeutsche Zeitung “invited” everyone

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to read books by Lenz. By that time, Lenz had already embarked on a nine-volume autobiographical cycle of novels featuring a character named Eugen Rapp, Lenz’ alter ego. Lenz employs “documentary” material to create a set of circumstances around Rapp, but Lenz is most interested in reflecting what one critic termed a “radical subjectivity.” Many observers felt such a technique amounted to capitulation, allowing an “inner immigration” to facilitate atrocity. “Feel everything, see everything, smell everything sense everything,” says Rapp at one point. “Then you will understand it.” You won’t resist it, you won’t fight it, but you will certainly be more aware of it. He notices that Jewish stores have been plundered; as a soldier on the Russian front, he loses himself in study about the Hapsburg Empire; as villages are set afire, he is nearly run over by a tank. Rapp proceeds through capture, an American prisoner-of-war camp, repatriation to Germany, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, the economic boom of the 1950s and 1960s; he becomes a writer and wins prizes, then witnesses the reunification of Germany. Lenz himself won numerous prizes and awards for his work, among them the Federal Service Cross, the Bavarian Literary Prize, the Jean Paul Award, and the city of Munich Literature Prize. LENZ, SIEGFRIED (1926– ) FRG. Novelist. Lenz was a leading member of Group 47 whose horrific experiences in the German military during World War II fed and watered his writing throughout a long and prolific career. He returned to Hamburg after the war and began university studies there, but started working for the Berlin newspaper Die Welt in 1948 and became a literary editor for the paper in 1950. He returned to Hamburg in 1951 and established himself as a freelance writer with several successful novels, screenplays, and volumes of short fiction. His first novel was Es waren Habichte in der Luft (There Were Hawks in the Air, 1951), followed by Duell im Schatten (Duel in the Shadows, 1953). Lenz wrote radio playscripts for both novels, which were frequently broadcast on German networks during the 1950s. Like many other members of Group 47, Lenz concentrated on realistic narrative in his fiction; his most successful effort in this vein during the 1950s was Der Mann im Strom (Man in the Current), for which he subsequently wrote the screenplay for a feature-length movie in 1958 starring Hans Albers; a 2006 ver-

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sion of the novel starring Jan Fedder was nominated for several awards. Lenz was himself awarded numerous citations for his work early on, beginning in 1952 with the René Schickele Prize and a year later with the Hamburg Lessing Prize. The novel for which Lenz is probably best known was Deutschstunde (The German Lesson, 1968), which is not about lessons in the German language (as the title implies) but about lessons in being a German and “doing one’s duty.” Its central figure is Jens Ole Jepsen, “the northernmost police officer in the Reich,” whose sense of duty overrides all other considerations, especially those of artistic freedom. The novel was an enormous popular and critical success, translated into 30 languages; Lenz wrote the screenplay for a made-for-television film of the novel in 1971, directed by Peter Beauvais. The plot concerns policeman Jepsen and a painter named Max Nansen, based on Emil Nolde (1867–1956), whose work was banned in the Third Reich. Nansen and Jepsen were childhood friends, but Jepsen’s duty as a policeman includes suppressing painters like Nansen, whom the Nazi government officially considers artfremd (“un-German,” though usually translated as “decadent”). As seen through the eyes of his son Siggi, Jepsen grows increasingly obedient to his “duty” and destroys many of Nansen’s modernist canvasses, which Jepsen found worthless anyway, “green faces, mongoloid eyes, deformed bodies, and all.” Siggi Jepsen learns an important lesson about being German from his father’s overzealousness and begins to steal Nansen’s paintings to protect them from destruction. Lenz ranks among the most accessible writers in postwar German literature, and his short fiction works have frequently appeared in anthologies intended for students in German-language courses outside Europe. His lengthier works never attained the wide readership of The German Lesson, though one novel in 1978 and two from the 1980s came close. Heimatmuseum (The Heritage, 1978) was a fascinating account of a German museum that is destroyed by fire when its curator realizes no museum can rid the younger generation of racist and nationalist brainwashing. Ein Kriegsende (War’s End, 1984) dealt with a mutiny among sailors serving on a minesweeper in the Baltic Sea; a year later, Lenz published Exerzierplatz (The Training Ground), a lengthy depiction of refugees from the author’s

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native Masurian Lakes region of East Prussia. Of the many awards Lenz received, the most prestigious were the Thomas Mann Prize (1984) and the Goethe Medallion of the City of Frankfurt am Main (1999). LETTAU, REINHARD (1929–1996) FRG. Short-story writer, prose stylist. Lettau has the distinction of a doctorate from Harvard University, a successful career in American academe, and active membership in Group 47. He immigrated to the United States in 1956 and became an American citizen in 1957. His political activity in Germany resulted in his expulsion as a “foreign national” in 1967, and similar involvements led to numerous arrests in San Diego, where he was a member of the German Department faculty at the local University of California campus. His literary work was comprised almost exclusively of short prose pieces collected in volumes titled Schwierigkeiten beim Hauserbauen (Difficulties in Building Houses, 1962) and Auftritt Manigs (Manig’s Entrance, 1963). The latter consisted of short, aphoristic descriptions of the title character, reminiscent of Bertolt Brecht’s “Keuner anecdotes,” featuring an alter ego who espoused viewpoints similar to those of the author. His most successful collection of short fiction was titled Flucht vor Gästen (Flight in the Company of Guests, 1993), a brief but humorous narrative of his return to Germany after reunification. LEUTENEGGER, GERTRUD (1948– ) CH. Novelist, prose stylist. Leutenegger attended the Schauspielhaus Theater Academy in her native Zurich before embarking on a career in several German playhouses, working mostly as a director’s assistant. In most cases, she found herself in positions subordinate to dominant males, a theme she frequently explores in her fiction. She made herself initially known as a writer with the novel Vorabend (The Previous Evening, 1975). It was set on an “evening before” (hence the title) a major demonstration is to take place in Zurich. Nothing much happens on that particular evening, but the novel is an absorbing account of what a young woman (the novel’s narrator) notices and experiences during preparations for the demonstration. In Lebewohl. Gute Reise (So Long, Bon Voyage, 1980), Leutenegger reconfigures the Sumerian epic Gilgamesh as a dramatic poem, concentrating on the temple

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prostitute Shamshatum. Among her most popular recent novels was Pomona (2004), a modernized retelling of the encounter in Ovid’s Metamorphoses between the sylvan nymph Pomona, goddess of orchards, who attempted to keep the phallic deity Priapus (he with his member in a permanent state of erection) from entering her garden of delights. Leutenegger’s work is a remarkable narrative of tensions between male and female, assertion and passivity, penetration and angle of entry. Leutenegger has received several Swiss awards for her work, among them the Literature Fellowship of Lucerne, the Swiss Schiller Foundation Prize, and the Literary Testimonial Award of Zurich. See also SWITZERLAND. LIEBMANN, IRINA (1943– ) GDR-FRG. Novelist, essayist, playwright. Liebmann briefly enjoyed life as the child of communist privilege—until the ruling Socialist Unity Party in the German Democratic Republic unceremoniously dumped her father in 1953 from his prestigious government positions of authority. He had voiced objections to the brutal suppression of the workers’ uprising in that year and found himself soon thereafter shipped off to a tedious job as an archivist in Merseburg. Liebmann herself was nevertheless allowed to find positions in publishing and was awarded prizes for her radio plays in 1980. Her first novel, titled Berliner Mietshaus (Berlin Tenement), appeared in 1982, a collection of interviews, both real and imagined, with residents of a seedy apartment building in the then-decrepit Berlin neighborhood of Prenzlauer Berg. The interviews had the ring of authenticity to them, despite the fact that—or perhaps because—some of them professed continued faith in the GDR. Liebmann returned to the seedier districts of Berlin after she was able to leave the GDR with her family in 1988 with the novel In Berlin, published in 1994. It was a fictionalized autobiography, set in 1989 during months prior to the GDR’s disintegration. Critics praised Liebmann’s ability to write in direct, unadorned prose about history-making events transpiring in Berlin Mitte, the central district of Berlin that is historically the city’s midpoint, containing some of the city’s most significant architecture. The novel figured prominently in her award of the Berlin Literature Prize in 1998.

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Liebmann returned to the area with her documentary volume Stille Mitte von Berlin: Eine Recherche rund um den Hackeschen Markt in 2002 (Berlin’s Quiet Center: Research around the Hackescher Market). In this book, accompanied by dozens of photographs, Liebmann surveys the impact of German unification on Berlin’s Hackescher Market and its residents. Photos from the early 1980s are compared with photos from the early 21st century, and the results are startling. So are her essays that accompany them, which include meditations on the transformations in architecture and infrastructure in the wake of unification. Equally transformed are the lives of the people she interviews, particularly the women. In the GDR, capitalism was viewed as the archvillain in the melodrama of female oppression. Communism had brought an end to all that, many of the women recalled, because the state fought tirelessly to achieve full equality with men— and men ran the country, the party, and nearly all state institutions. The Hackescher Market had been a Jewish neighborhood, but nobody whom she interviewed could identify the Jews for whom many of the streets in the district were named. Liebmann received unwontedly fulsome praise for her novel Die freien Frauen (The Liberated Women) two years later. It was an unblinking depiction of middle-class German women in their late 50s and early 60s, abandoned by their husbands and estranged from their children. Some critics noted the growing presence of such women in Germany in their reviews of the book, lending likewise unusual empathy for the novel’s protagonist named Elisabeth Schlosser. Some critics said the sense of dislocation so apparent in Elisabeth’s life was a metaphor for the dislocation many Germans sense in the postunification period. Accustomed patterns of life are disappearing, a new generation barely aware of the German Democratic Republic is now at university, and the GDR’s “old guard” are forgotten entirely. Perhaps to remedy that loss, Liebmann’s most recent book (published in 2008) is a lengthy biography of her father, Rudolf Herrnstadt (1903–1966). He was a leading member of the GDR’s first Politburo and the founder of the GDR’s press establishment, which included the SED organ Neues Deutschland. For a few years, he functioned as East Germany’s propagandist-in-chief, then came his abrupt downfall and banishment to the provinces. Liebmann chronicles his denunciation as an “enemy of the Party” and “traitor to the cause [of commu-

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nism],” followed by his misery in exile. Yet his daughter finds much to love in such a man, though it took her 40 years after his death to discover it. LIND, JAKOV (Heinz Landwirth, 1927–2007) FRG. Novelist, prose stylist. Lind burst on the literary scene in 1962 with the publication of Eine Seele aus Holz (Soul of Wood), a collection of short stories that many critics hailed as a masterpiece. It was eventually translated into more than a dozen languages. Landschaft in Beton (Landscape in Concrete), the 1963 novel that followed Soul of Wood in quick succession, was almost as popular. Both books featured tales of stunning imagery and imaginative metaphors. Soul of Wood took its title from a novella-length story of the same title that featured a paralyzed Jewish boy. His parents engage a German with a wooden leg (the result of wounds suffered in World War I), to care for him shortly before they are packed off to a concentration camp. The peg-legged German dutifully hides the boy and secretly carts him off to the country with a three-week supply of food. He leaves the boy to fend for himself while he goes back to the city and attempts to sell the parents’ belongings for his own benefit. The boy, meantime, is miraculously cured of his paralysis and joins a herd of deer. They run through forests, oblivious to national borders. In the city, the peg-legged German begins to notice a protuberance on his head, which periodically changes its location on his skull. Critics immediately recognized the protuberance as the man’s conscience. The boy’s paralysis? Probably a metaphor for the paralysis of Jews in the face of Nazi atrocities. Lind had spent the war years in the disguise of a common laborer in Holland (his parents had sent him and his sisters there from their native Vienna soon after the 1938 German annexation of Austria), and he found himself disgusted with what he considered his fellow Jews’ quiescent acceptance of deportation. He changed his name to Jan Gerrit Overbeek, secured forged identity papers at age 15, and worked as a bargeman on the Rhein through the war years, encountering hundreds of German soldiers who occupied Holland. One of them became the subject of Landscape in Concrete, whom Lind named Gauthier Bachmann. Bachmann finds himself in a hospital recovering from battle wounds and from the embarrassing fact that his entire regiment was wiped out on the Russian front, not in battle but

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in a mudslide. Hoping to regain his integrity as a soldier and a man, Bachmann agrees to be an agent for a Norwegian collaborator and murder a Norwegian family opposed to the German invasion of their country. Appalled by his own callousness, Bachmann returns to the hospital after the murders and claims to have gone insane; he is told that his heroic acts in Norway, as well as the numerous atrocities he has committed with his regiment in Russia, prove just the opposite. Lind’s use of the grotesque reminded many of Günter Grass, and there was hope by the mid-1960s that German literature had in Lind produced another world-class writer. But Lind began writing in English—a language in which he felt more comfortable, he said, since he lived in England and had an English family. His efforts in English were characterized by some of the same extended metaphors and grotesqueries of his work in German, but for the most part, neither English-language critics nor readers responded to it with the same enthusiasm as had their German counterparts in the early 1960s. LUST (1989). Novel by Elfriede Jelinek. The author once claimed that sadomasochism was her number one theme, and she dwells on that theme extensively in this parody of a pornographic idyll, featuring all manner of sexual abuse in a writing style that is both funny and disturbing. Its central character is Gerti, the wife of an overly libidinous paper-mill owner named Hermann. He forces his employees to listen to Schubert, Strauss, and Bruckner—and even coerces them to sing in his company’s choir. He also plays the kind of music for which Austria is famous as he twice daily brutalizes his wife, who remains “passive as a toilet” throughout his sometimes horrific utilization of her. In many ways, the descriptions of what Gerti endures are metaphorical, since Jelinek is most interested in the intricacies of conjugal power equations and male domination of them, not in the characters she creates or what motivates them. Presumably, Gerti’s husband resorts to abuse because he fears catching diseases from prostitutes. But a more telling explication appears in passages like “she opens her mouth . . . [and] thinks of his strength and shuts her mouth again. This Man would play his music even up in the cliffs of mountaintops so that his violin stroke would echo off the rocks, and he’d stroke his rocks off.” For Hermann, sex is the exercise of raw

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power, and the essential dynamic behind his profanation of Gerti is the analogy between sexual lust and capitalist greed. Jelinek stated that in writing Lust, she wanted to find a female equivalent of obscene language. Gerti is in effect a kind of receptacle for her husband’s frustrations, his anger, and ultimately his need to dominate and control. For women, Jelinek said, sexuality is synonymous with violence—though only women know such synonymousness as a fact. Gerti nevertheless seeks escape from Hermann’s quotidian violations and temporarily finds it in the arms of a young law student named Michael. Jelinek again describes in minute, joyless detail the copulative functions to which Gerti is subjected, and ultimately Gerti discovers that all men are alike, even young, good-looking, initially sensitive ones like Michael. But her encounters with him bring about a kind of recognition to which she had heretofore been numb. Her lust for him gives him performance anxiety, a situation that drives him into a violent rage. When she attempts lovingly to caress and comfort him, he exercises a brutality that rivals her husband’s in degradation. Because she initially felt a kind of maternal concern for the law student, she recognizes that biology is, after all, destiny. As a mother, sexuality is denied her in a patriarchal system. In fact, maternalism and sex negate each other in the male mind, and the male mind is the preeminent force in patriarchy. At the novel’s close, she takes the only path open to her: she suffocates her child with a plastic shopping bag and then kills herself. LUSTIGER, GISELA (1963– ). Novelist. Gisela Lustiger first came to prominence with her 1995 montage novel Die Bestandsaufnahme (The Inventory). It is a series of quasi-biographical narratives of individuals involved in the persecution of Jews in wartime and postwar Germany. The individuals include both persecutors and those persecuted. One is an opera singer whom a group of brownshirts beat up after they accuse him of having a homosexual affair with his pianist. The pianist gets married to an actress and the singer goes into exile. The pianist prospers as a theater director, but when a Nazi official forces him to cast one of his favored actresses instead of his wife, the wife denounces her husband for “secret sexual perversions.” In other narratives, children unwittingly inform on neighbors, brothers are misled or even tortured into betraying brothers, lists of suspected

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Christians are read out and their names later appear in newspaper accounts. Lustiger compiles an “inventory” of small offenses that has the cumulative effect of creating a kind of sinister tapestry, made up of what seem to be inconsequential patterns of ordinary life. What they reveal is the inner workings of tyranny in which so many people become complicit, it becomes difficult at times to discern the victims from the vctimizers. Lustiger was born and grew up in Frankfurt am Main, but left Germany for Israel when she realized that being a Jew in Germany meant feeling forced to identify with her collective history. She studied German literature in Jerusalem and worked in Israel as a journalist until she grew tired of being constantly identified as a German. Lustiger moved to Paris in 1989, where she wrote The Inventory as well as two other well-received novels, the more recent of which is So sind wir (This Is How We Are), nominated in 2005 for the German Book Prize. The novel is likewise a kind of inventory but features a Jewish family much like Lustiger’s own when she was growing up in Frankfurt. She uses familiar objects in the household to spur a memory or anecdote, or to recall an episode in the history of European Jewry. Critics have praised Lustiger’s prose style as inventive, sometimes combining what seems to be a tight narrative structure with a casual, almost conversational writing style.

–M– MALINA (1971). This novel by Ingeborg Bachmann was conceived as part of a trilogy titled Todesarten (Types of Death) that Bachmann never completed. Malina is an exercise in Innerlichkeit, an interiority so intense as to be hermetic. It at first appears to be a novel about a ménage à trois, but it ultimately proves to be an extended interior monologue, narrated by a woman “of a certain age” who is identified only in the first-person singular. The character of the title seems at first to be a museum director who lives comfortably nearby. But the woman is also involved with a man named Ivan, who likewise lives in the vicinity—though not so close by. Ivan is passionate, a lover who gives her momentary satisfaction from time to time. Malina is the other side of the woman’s imagined male ideal: a good listener,

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compassionate, nonjudgmental, and consoling. Malina is not, however, passive: he is curious to the point of intrusiveness, wanting to know why she thinks the way she does, why she allows Ivan into her bed and into her body, and ultimately he forces her to confront the sexual violation of her youth. The narrator consequently finds the whole business of Ivan and Malina so upsetting that she can no longer tolerate either of them. She thus begins to contemplate a type of death; she finds it in a crack in the wall of her apartment. She steps into it and disappears with the words, “It was murder.” MANN, THOMAS (1875–1955). Novelist, essayist. When the postwar period began in 1945, Mann emerged as an exemplary figure with near-iconic status. His intellectual, literary, and ethical integrity was almost universally acclaimed as exemplary; in the early 1930s, many observers recalled, Mann had campaigned vigorously against National Socialism. He had refused to live in Germany after Adolf Hitler came to power. Stripped of German citizenship in 1936, he remained in Europe until 1938 and settled in the United States as a Czech citizen. He became an American in 1944, continuing to write as an act of conscience, completing essays on Friedrich Schiller, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Anton Chekhov, and others as Urtypen (prototypes) of the highest literary order, blessed with moral and social commitment. He wrote and presented over 50 radio broadcasts specifically aimed at German listeners in late 1944 and early 1945, elaborating on the themes of civil courage and moral resolution. After the war, he returned to Germany (though settling in Zurich), touring several locales in both the Allied- and Soviet-occupied sectors, and almost everywhere he went, honors were heaped upon him. The work he published in the 1950s critics praised as some of his best. That was certainly true of Doktor Faustus: das Leben des deutschen Tonsetzers Adrian Leverkühn, erzählt von einem Freunde (Dr. Faustus: The Life of the German Composer Adrian Leverkühn as Told by a Friend) published in 1947. The novel was about Germany as much as it was a narrative that recalled Goethean precedents, as the title might have suggested to many readers. It treated the somewhat diabolic features of artistic creativity, particularly among German artists. Mann elaborated on the writing of Doktor Faustus in a 1949 book-length essay titled Die entstehung des Doktor Faustus

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(The Genesis of a Novel). In 1951, his Die Erwählte (The Holy Sinner) appeared, a novel based on Gregorius by Hartmann von Aue (1180–1203). The Holy Sinner was a remarkable study of the Oedipus legend in medieval times, chronicling the origins of St. Gregory as the issue of an incestuous relationship between a brother and sister and later mother and son—yet the issue of that depraved union became the personification of redemption in Christ. Mann’s treatment manifested his continued preoccupation with the nature of evil and with the particularly European brand of evil. In the 1953 novella Die Betrogene (The Black Swan), Mann moved from the medieval period to a contemporary setting, depicting a widow and her two children struggling to survive the deprivations of postwar Düsseldorf. The widow is eager for her young son to learn American English and offers a young American ex-soldier a place in their home as the son’s tutor. The widow promptly falls madly in love with the tutor, and realizes that it must be “true” love because she has begun once again to menstruate. She declares herself to him, and he promises to sleep with her the following evening. The next morning, the widow is found near death, having hemorrhaged the entire night due to a malignant tumor in her uterus. Mann’s final novel was another stylistic departure, and many asserted it was one of the funniest novels ever written in German. Die Bekenntnisse des Hochstaplers Felix Krull (Felix Krull, Confidence Man, 1954) was an expansion of a short story Mann had begun decades earlier; it remained unfinished at the time of his death, but became a best-seller anyway. In some ways, Felix Krull was a parody of the theater, since Felix early on in his confessions claims to be fixated on performance. He could convince his mother he was ill and avoid going to school by “performing” an illness’s symptoms. Attending theater performance, Felix observed, provided lessons in how more effectively to hone one’s performance for one’s own benefit. Theater performance, like the performance of a confidence man, was an exercise in interdependent illusion. His skill at performance went hand in hand, later in his life, in becoming successful in confidence schemes. He could gull his victims, he confesses, by empathizing with their plight and thus winning their trust in him. In other words, Felix Krull would have been an outstanding politician, as European history brazenly attests, as does German history in particular.

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Felix Krull was the basis of an outstanding film of the same title (for which Mann’s daughter Erika did the screenplay) in 1957; it was directed by Kurt Hoffmann and starred Horst Buchholz in the title role. Many of Mann’s novels have been filmed, beginning with a silent version of Buddenbrooks in 1923. The postwar period saw an expansion of filmic interest in Mann’s oeuvre. Buddenbrooks has been filmed four different times in different languages. The most well-known film adaptation of Mann’s fiction was probably Death in Venice in 1971, an Italian production directed by Luchino Visconti and starring Dirk Bogarde; it received several prizes, including one Hollywood Oscar nomination. MARON, MONIKA (1941– ) GDR-FRG. Novelist. Maron is one of the few writers closely identified with the German Democratic Republic who had access to the corridors of literary influence (her stepfather was a GDR government minister), yet who gained credibility in the West by having her books banned by the regime with which her family was so closely associated. She was able to enter any East German university she chose, select any profession she liked, and was allowed to read or view anything the Western media had to offer. An East German publisher even wanted to publish her first novel Flugasche (Flight of Ashes) in 1979. It centered on a young woman (much like Maron herself) who discovered some curious discrepancies between official accounts of the way workers lived in the town of Bitterfeld and their actual experiences. Her research and reporting also reveal egregious instances of environmental pollution (per the ashes of the title) and cause some changes to be made, but officials threaten to kick her out of the Socialist Unity Party in retaliation, effectively ending her career. The East German Ministry of Culture banned the book’s publication, and when it was published in West Germany, Maron’s fate was effectively sealed. She was accused of spying and ultimately succeeded in getting out of East Germany in 1988. Maron then embarked on what became a successful career in the West, beginning with what is perhaps her best novel, Stille Zeile Sechs (Silent Close Number 6, 1991). The title refers to a street in the luxury enclave where many of the East German elite lived. The novel’s protagonist visits the enclave twice a week to record the

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memoirs of a regime henchman named Herbert Beerenbaum. Maron infuses her disgust for the regime in grotesque descriptions of both Beerenbaum and his colleagues. In a memoir titled Pawels Briefe (Pawel’s Letters, 1999), Maron is more generous. It chronicles the discovery that her grandfather (Pawel) was a Jew, murdered by the Nazis. That her family suffered under the Nazi regime, then caused others to suffer under the East German regime, prompted Maron to ponder the reliability of memory, the authenticity of personal experience, and the influence biography always seems to have in the creation of fiction. She has been awarded the Roswitha Prize from the Town of Gandersheim, and in 2003 she received both the Carl Zuckmayer Medallion and the Hölderlin Prize. See also AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL FICTION. MASSE UND MACHT (Crowds and Power, 1960). This book by Elias Canetti is part sociological study, political treatise, mob psychoanalysis, and part cultural anthropology; he wrote it over a period of 30 years. He began while witnessing crowds in Vienna during the 1930s, rioting both for and against Austria’s union with Adolf Hitler’s Germany to form a unified Greater German Reich. Canetti had few qualifications to write a scholarly inquiry into the subjects of his inquiry, but his writing skills trumped anyone’s whose research attributes might likewise have attempted such a book. He assembles a vast array of mythologies, local folk tales, and anthropological surveys to conclude that most crowds act on instinct, usually from a sense of victimhood, an instinct related to the “fight or flight” syndrome of “hyperarousal.” In such a state, crowds can fall prey to authoritarian commands. Ultimately, Canetti casts some light on Adolf Hitler and his ability to manipulate crowds, though not always at the mass rallies over which he presided. Instead, Canetti views the turmoil of the 1920s as a crowd phenomenon that gradually, though unhistorically, led to Hitler’s ascension to power. Such a narrative is difficult to master even for scholarly historians; Canetti’s approach allows him to dive back and forth among historical precedents, anecdotal instances, and wholly unorthodox conclusions. MAYRÖCKER, FRIEDERIKE (1924– ) AU. Poet, prose stylist. Mayröcker began publishing her poetry in 1956, when she became

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identified with the Konkrete Poesie (concrete poetry) movement in her native Vienna. Her principal focus up to 1969, however, was teaching in the Vienna public schools. After her retirement from classroom teaching, she became one of the most prolific (and decorated) of all Austrian poets. Her poetry manifests a remarkable skill in the observation of everyday occurrences, combined with a gift for synthesizing her observations and turning the process into montages. In a poem she titled “Bloody Mary” and dedicated to fellow Austrian poet Bodo Hell, she writes of “a word on a notepad behind it a questionmark/beside it the discus of music . . . and the mere thought of poems by Andrea Zanzotto/makes me bleed to death.” Late in her career she turned to prose, which critics praised for its dreamlike, evocative, even hallucinatory properties. Others have noted that the intensity of her observations sometimes leaves the impression of insuperable narcissism and self-absorption. Her most recent book, a collection of letters titled Paloma (2008), is a good example of how self-referential her observations have become. “Dear friend,” she writes to an anonymous recipient, “The white lilies you left for me in the doorway are a great joy in my study, full of light and aroma, encouraging me to write.” Mayröcker’s numerous citations and awards include the Greater Austrian State Prize for Literature, the City of Vienna Medallion of Honor, and the Roswitha Prize. MECHTEL, ANGELIKA (1943–2000) FRG. Novelist, short-story writer, poet, children’s book author. Mechtel was a prolific chronicler of the postwar period, often from a distinctly female point of view. Her 1977 novel Wir sind arm, wir sind reich (We Are Poor, We Are Rich) was one of the first to depict a 13-year-old daughter in the 1950s questioning her father about places called Bergen-Belsen and Dachau. Her 1972 novel titled Friss Vogel (Sink or Swim) about her own father, a television news correspondent murdered by Arab terrorists in 1967, had marked her literary breakthrough. It also presents a somewhat jaundiced behind-the-scenes look at German broadcast journalism in the 1960s, which in that decade was largely a male preserve. Perhaps her best historical fiction appeared in 1994 with Die Prinzipalin (The Theater Directoress), a novel based on the life and career of the18th-century actress, reformer, and manager Caroline Neuber.

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By the mid-1970s, Mechtel turned increasingly to writing children’s literature, and many of her books featured girls as multifaceted characters, though they were not always heroines in the traditional sense of the word. The Berlin Senate awarded Mechtel its Children Book Prize in 1984 for her efforts. Critics praised her 1997 novel titled Cold Turkey as an unstinting look at adolescent drug abuse and attempts to break drug addiction among teenagers. Mechtel was also engaged in work aimed at rescuing persecuted writers. Her efforts on behalf of the Indian-British novelist Salman Rushdie were said to be particularly effective. MECKEL, CHRISTOPH (1935– ) FRG. Poet, fiction and prose stylist. Like Günter Grass, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, and other writers, Meckel’s work as a graphic artist is substantial. He often illustrates his prose and poetry volumes with his own sketches and drawings, for which he has won praise and admiration. His fiction and poetry has likewise earned him several encomia, including the 1978 Rainer Maria Rilke Award for lyric poetry, the 1981 Bremen Literature Prize, and the Kassel Literature Prize “for Grotesque Humor.” Grotesqueries abound in Meckel’s work, largely because he has described it as a “chronicle of suffering.” His best-known novel is probably Bockshorn (1973), which was the basis of a 1984 film of the same title, directed by Frank Beyer with a screenplay by Ulrich Plenzdorf. Several critics found Meckel’s 1980 memoir Suchbild: über meinen Vater (Image of Investigation about My Father) a significant contribution to the growing body of father literature in German. Meckel’s father, Eberhard, had been a Nazi sympathizer, and when the son found condemnatory evidence of collaboration with the regime in his father’s diaries, he felt compelled to write about his family. The result gave impetus in 2002 to a similar, searing memoir about his mother with a similar title, Suchbild: über meine Mutter. MENASSE, ROBERT (1954– ) AU. Novelist, essayist. Menasse completed doctoral studies with a dissertation on Austrian poet and playwright Hermann Schürrer (1928–1986) at the University of Vienna; in his student days, Menasse had published short fiction. He published his first novel in 1988, titled Sinnliche Gewisseneit (Sensual Certainty), based on his experiences as a teacher in Brazil. He

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followed that novel with another, titled Selige Zeiten, brüchige Welt in 1991, translated as Wings of Stone. In it, Menasse again sets the narrative in Brazil, featuring the son of Austrian Jews departing for study at the University of Vienna. But in Vienna he discovers that the anti-Semitism his parents had encountered decades earlier is still alive and thriving. Menasse had also written a fascinating collection of essays in the early 1990s, titled Die sozialpartnerschaftliche Ästhetik (The Aesthetics of Social Partnership), in which he meditated on Austrian intellectual and political concerns. For these and other works, Menasse began to collect several literary prizes, along with some severe reproaches from his fellow Austrians. Sharply pointed satires such as Das Land ohne Eigenschaften: Essays zur österreichischen Identität (The Country without Qualities: Essays on Austrian Identity, 1992), Hysterien und andere historische Irrtümer (Hysteria and Other Historical Errors, 1996), Dummheit ist machbar (Stupidity Is Possible, 1999), Erklär mir Österreich (Explain Austria to Me, 2000) earned him the enmity of several, while others claimed such books placed him in the historical precedent of Karl Kraus and other notable Viennese critics of the earlier third of the 20th century. Among his most popular novels is Die Vertreibung aus der Hölle (Driven Out of Hell, 2001), a historical novel whose plots are divided between Lisbon in the 17th century and Vienna of the late 20th century. Persecution of Jews existed in both places and in both periods; Menasse skillfully portrays the grotesqueries in the former and the subtleties in the latter. In his 2007 novel Don Juan de la Mancha, Menasse depicts a man entering later middle age, fraught with memories of lost sexual prowess and haunted by what sexual pleasures “there might have been,” if only things in his life had worked out differently. Meanwhile, he discovers what pleasures there are left in his life at the hands, literally, of a patient lover. MEYER, E. Y. (Peter Meyer, 1946– ) CH. Novelist. Meyer is considered representative of the “third wave” of Swiss German writers, one whose tendency is existential and whose prose style is often surrealistic. If the “first wave” of Swiss writing was led by Friedrich Dürrenmatt and Max Frisch, many critics and scholars consider the “second wave” best represented by Hermann Burger. Along with Meyer, critics consider Gertrud Leutenegger a “third wave” representative.

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Like Leutenegger, Meyer evinces concern for the intensely personal and anecdotal in fiction. He is best known for the novels In Trubschachen (In the Village of Trubschachen, 1973), Die Rückfahrt (The Return Journey, 1977), and Das System des Doktor Maillard oder Die Welt der Maschinen (Dr. Maillard’s System, or the World of Machines, 1994). Meyer has received numerous Swiss citations for his work, including the Literature Prize of the Canton of Basel, the Swiss Schiller Foundation Award, and most recently, the Book Prize of the Canton of Berne. See also SWITZERLAND. MINISTRY FOR STATE SECURITY (Ministerium für Staatssicherheit). The Ministry for State Security of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was a secret police organization whose agents were known as the “Stasi” because of the German tendency to create acronyms for government hierarchies. “Stasi” was formed from the first syllables of Staatssicherheit, much as the more well-known Gestapo was formed from the official name of the National Socialist secret police, the Geheime Staatspolizei. The “peoples’ army” of the German Democratic Republic was likewise known as the VoPos, based on their official name, the Volkspolizei. The Stasi, however, were an important instrument of state control over literary effort. The Ministry for State Security was organized in 1950 with an official motto of Schild und Schwert der Partei (Shield and Sword of the Party). Its longest-serving chief administrator was the redoubtable Erich Mielke (1907–2000), who had been a communist since 1922 and proudly admitted to having murdered in cold blood several “class enemies” and “opponents” of communism. In the 1950s, Mielke established a remarkable apparatus of 85,000 full-time employees in his ministry, along with over 165,000 volunteers who informed on spouses, parents, teachers, neighbors, co-workers, and particularly writers. Soon after the collapse of the GDR, Mielke was arrested and charged with several murders—evidence for which was discovered in his private correspondence. He was convicted and in 1993 began serving consecutive prison terms. Authorities granted Mielke a release from prison after serving two years on grounds of “poor health,” though he lived for another five years after his release. Several writers, editors, publishers, actors, theater and film directors, and others engaged in literary and artistic activity during the 40

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years of the GDR’s existence testified to maltreatment, harassment, and torture at the hands of the Stasi. One of the most convincing artistic achievements chronicling the Stasi’s modus operandi was the award-winning 2006 film Das Leben der Anderen (The Lives of Others), written and directed by Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck and starring the incomparable Ulrich Mühe (1953–2007) as a Stasi officer, along with Martina Gedeck and Sebastian Koch as objects of Stasi surveillance. In 2006, The Lives of Others was named Best Foreign Film by the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, received the César Award in France, the Best Film Award in Great Britain, and won several other awards around the world. MORGNER, IRMTRAUD (1933–1990) GDR. Novelist, essayist. Scholars and critics have frequently categorized Morgner with other “true believers” in the literary ideals of the German Democratic Republic; that group usually includes Helmut Baierl, Peter Hacks, Stephan Hermlin, Erwin Strittmatter, and Christa Wolf—though not necessarily in that order and not always that group exclusively. Morgner was publically a loyal adherent to the GDR’s set of precepts, though her work often departed in substantial measure from demands placed on East German writers for conformity. Morgner’s novels often featured wide departures from official expectations of socialist realism. Some critics in the West have described hers as a “socialist magical realism”; in Die wundersamen Reisen Gustavs des Weltfahrers (The Wonderful Journeys of Gustav the World Traveler, 1972), for example, trains are transformed into boats powered by seahorses. In Amanda, ein Hexenroman (Amanda: A Witches’ Novel, 1983), all manner of figures are conjured into reality, and puppets come to life in Gauklerlegende (Legends of a Conjuror, 1970). In Morgner’s most powerful and widely praised novel, titled Leben und Abenteuer der Trobadora Beatriz nach Zeugnissen ihrer Spielfrau Laura (The Life and Adventures of Troubadour Beatrice, as Chronicled by Her Minstrel Laura, 1974), a 12th-century French countess from Provence named Beatrice disappears from history only to reappear in Paris on the eve of student riots in 1968. She meets an East German named Uwe, who tells her of a socialist utopia called the German Democratic Republic. She immediately boards a train for East Berlin, where she inexplicably encounters a streetcar conductor

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named Laura, who at one time was married to Uwe. Beatrice and Laura eventually form an artistic partnership and attempt to sell a novel they have written to one of the state-controlled publishing houses. Beatrice is hailed as a “new voice” in the East German literary scene, as Laura conceives children with her second husband. Beatrice falls out of a window (while she was cleaning it) and is killed. In between events, the characters discuss matters of importance to women in the GDR, particularly (in Laura’s case) the 1972 declaration that abortion was now legal in the GDR. East Germany has several such wonders to offer its women, though Morgner eschews realistic detail in describing them. The state awarded her with several citations and cash emoluments, largely because GDR functionaries viewed her work as a wholesome re-invocation of Romantic legend and myth. Morgner proved herself able then to reintegrate such traditions within the framework of official expectations. MOSEBACH, MARTIN (1951– ) FRG. Novelist, essayist, dramatist, librettist, poet, travel writer. Mosebach’s fiction (the genre for which he is best known) is primarily associated with Frankfurt am Main, where he was born and has lived most of his life. Mosebach began a writing career in his 30s, having earned degrees in both literature and jurisprudence. His background in legal study makes Mosebach somewhat similar to Bernhard Schlink, though Mosebach is more experimental in his literary efforts when compared with Schlink’s linear narrative style. Mosebach’s first novel, Das Bett (The Bed), attracted little attention when it appeared in 1983; its subject was a young German Jew named Stephan Korn whose expatriate family owned an automotive tire company in Frankfurt prior to the Hitler dictatorship. In the late 1940s, they sent Stephan back to Frankfurt, where he was to reestablish the company. He instead crawled into his childhood bed, where a woman named Agnes (his childhood governess/nanny) cared for him. Agnes reappears in the novel and he falls under her spell, refusing to leave it for the business world. Several volumes of poetry, fiction, and nonfiction followed, but Mosebach did not reach a wide audience until Eine lange Nacht (A Long Night) appeared in 2000, along with Der Nebelfürst (Prince of the Mist) a year later. The positive reception those books received from critics and readers contributed significantly to Mosebach’s

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award of the Kleist Prize in 2002 and the recognition that he had become an accomplished narrative stylist. Eine lange Nacht follows the career of a shopkeeper named Ludwig with ambitions for bigger and better things. He finds himself in the economic doldrums until he hires a secretary named Bella; she somehow inspires him and the business soon begins to prosper. The novel is replete with all manner of characters whom Ludwig and Bella encounter—including her husband, who discovers their love affair. Der Nebelfürst is a historical novel, based on somewhat sketchy information about an incident in the late Wilhelmine period. It involved (as does the novel) a young reporter named Theodor Lerner, who is seduced by an older woman claiming to know of enormous mineral deposits on an island near Spitsbergen in the Arctic Ocean. Both Lerner and the woman swindle numerous investors in their scheme, convincing them to finance a voyage to the island. The journey features numerous encounters with bizarre characters, concluding with the young reporter’s conviction that he has been chosen ruler of the island and becomes known as “Prince of the Mist,” per the novel’s title. The whole scheme falls apart and the investors attempt to have Lerner jailed. His charming seductress disappears but later turns up in Frankfurt (where else in a Mosebach novel?), where she is training her young son in the ways of fraud. While critical reception of these and most of his other works was positive, Mosebach aroused some intense critical vituperation with his next book, titled Häresie der Formlosigkeit. Die römische Liturgie und ihr Feind (The Heresy of Formlessness: Roman Liturgy and Its Enemy). In it, Mosebach addresses the reform of Catholic liturgy that took place in the wake of the Second Vatican Council and makes an entreaty for the reimplementation of both the Latin mass and the Gregorian chant. Some critics denounced Mosebach for even writing about such things as the Roman liturgy; Mosebach, on the other hand, felt that the reforms of the Second Vatican Council went hand in hand with the 1968 student unrest, damaging both the Church and German society as a whole. As a result of both, Mosebach stated, Jesus could have become an honorary member of the Social Democratic Party. The success and popularity of The Heresy of Formlessness contributed to Mosebach’s Büchner Prize in 2007, which further irritated his critics. At the ceremony where he received the award,

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Mosebach compared Heinrich Himmler to Louis-Antoine Léon de Saint-Just, and National Socialism in general to the Jacobins of SaintJust and Robespierre. Both the Jacobins and the Nazis were utopians, Mosebach noted, and both used extreme coercion in the cause of creating a new world. Such comments tended to “relativize” National Socialism, reviving controversies of the Historikerstreit two decades earlier. Mosebach temporarily silenced his critics with his next novel, Der Mond und das Mädchen (The Moon and the Maiden, 2007), a kind of fairy-tale love story about a young couple in Frankfurt. They take an apartment in a 19th-century building (one of the few remaining in the city) in the hope of shielding themselves from the chaos and cacophony of Frankfurt’s bustle and noise. At least, that is the plan of Hans for his childlike bride Ina, who has grown up in a protected environment. But the house seems to be haunted: a dead pigeon appears in their bedroom, bringing with it all manner of evil spirits. Out in their courtyard at night, the Moroccan building superintendent conducts weird ceremonies in the moonlight. Weirdness also plays an important part in Mosebach’s most recent book, a travel memoir titled Stadt der wilden Hunde (The City of Wild Dogs, 2008). In it, Mosebach finds himself in Jaipur, capital of the northeastern Indian state of Rajasthan. His observations about the numerous palaces, forts, and temples are often superbly phrased and strikingly funny. Some of the book’s best descriptions are of temples dedicated to rats and wild dogs. The dogs are of particular interest to Mosebach, as they seem to amble in periodically from the Great Indian Desert to the West; sometimes they are driven into the city by flocks of great Indian bustards, a kind of primeval ostrich with inexplicable influence over canines. MÜLLER, HEINER (1929–1995) GDR. Dramatist, poet, essayist. Müller became the most well-known dramatist of the German Democratic Republic, though the regime’s functionaries seldom considered him representative of the GDR’s values as a “peasant and workers’ state.” They expelled him from the East German Writers’ Union in 1961, which meant he could not make his living as a writer. The Socialist Unity Party officially denounced him as a “formalist” (which generally meant his work was inaccessible to a wide public of

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peasants and workers) in 1965, but with the help of influential directors he succeeded in getting work as a writer for film, radio, and television under pseudonyms. By the early 1970s, he had become a dramaturg at the Berliner Ensemble and at the Maxim Gorky Theater in East Berlin, allowing him time and fairly steady sources of income to write additional plays, even though few in East Germany dared to stage them. Some were premiered in the United States and others in West Germany with substantial success, earning him and the regime valuable hard currency. Perhaps most important to the regime, his success in the West brought favorable window dressing. Officials could claim they were tolerant of dissent, and they allowed him to publish some prose and nonfiction in the 1970s. Most significantly, they allowed him to travel abroad, liberties that they increased by the 1980s. Müller remained paradoxically loyal to the regime despite its treatment of him, and the regime awarded him its National Prize in 1985; soon thereafter, the regime allowed him to rejoin the East German Schriftstellerverband, or Writers’ Union, but by that time Müller was practically an institution unto himself. He realized substantial revenues from productions of his plays and performance texts abroad, along with sales of his nondramatic works in the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Many scholars and critics favorably compared Müller with Bertolt Brecht, and in some ways the comparisons were valid. Though Müller did not directly imitate Brecht’s formal characteristics, he is thought by many to have continued in the “Brechtian tradition” of combining political and ideological concerns with valid aesthetic principles. Such a combination had likewise earned Brecht the enmity of the GDR hierarchy. Müller experienced the same kind of bureaucratic insolence of office, and for many of the same reasons. Müller was branded a “cosmopolitan” for rejecting socialist realism, and by the 1970s he had embraced a distinctly unsavory form of cultural pessimism—culminating, many agreed, in the 1977 scenario titled Hamletmaschine (Hamletmachine). Müller by then had also begun to use montage as a structural expedient, eschewing narrative and using poetic idioms that were dense to the point of hermeticism. Brecht’s work was rarely as apocalyptic as Müller’s, and Brecht was furthermore careful to cultivate the GDR regime. Müller remained a loyal subject of the GDR, but his status as bona fide maverick earned

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him enormous credibility in the West and subsequently around the world. His performance texts appear in an increasing number of translations, and the Müller oeuvre has become one of the most frequently performed of any postwar German dramatist. By the year 2005, the publication of secondary literature on Müller had reached flood tide; the ongoing publication of his collected works has reached 10 volumes, with several more planned. MÜLLER, HERTA (1953– ) FRG. Novelist, essayist. Müller was born and educated in Romania, but because she was of Swabian ethnic German ancestry and thanks to the repatriation policy of the Helmut Kohl government of the Federal Republic of Germany, Romanian authorities permitted her to emigrate in 1987. By then, Müller was already familiar to German critics and readers by virtue of her first collection of stories about the lives of ethnic Germans living in Romania, titled Niederungen (Nadirs). It had been published in 1982, first in Bucharest and later in Berlin by Rotbuch, a publisher organized and operated in part by Friedrich Christian Delius. Nadirs created a small sensation in West Germany because it chronicles, in part, the ethnic German support for Adolf Hitler during World War II. Her second book of essays about German-Romanians before her emigration, titled Der Mensch ist ein grosser Fasan auf der Welt (The Passport: A Surreal Tale of Life in Romania Today), deals with the attempt of families to get out of Romania, encountering repeated demands for bribes, payoffs, and sexual favors. Upon her arrival in West Germany, Müller voiced denunciations of East German writers who had collaborated with the secret police of both the German Democratic Republic and Romania. Hers was perceived as an authentically critical voice, and not only because she was such a good writer; she had experienced vicious interrogation by the Romanian secret police and lived to tell about it. She continued a campaign of protest through the 1990s and into the 21st century against Romania’s entry into the European Union (EU), noting that most of the state security apparatus remained in place throughout Romania. Unlike East Germany, she noted, Romania had not been forced to liquidate evildoers in its midst. The country was nevertheless admitted to the EU in 2007. Much of Müller’s work since her arrival and settlement in Berlin critics have characterized as autobiographical fiction, reconfigura-

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tions of her own experience into readable narratives. Her novel Reisende auf einem Bein (Traveling on One Leg) is a good example; it follows a woman named Irene to Germany from a country much like Romania; she speaks German, but in an accent that marks her as “foreign.” She notes with intriguing detail the contradictions she finds in the West, but most of her perceptions remain fragmentary. Despite—or because of—the novel’s fragmentary nature, Müller’s language retains its poetic edge, according to some critics. Her poetry is likewise powerful, perhaps because Müller allows herself to indulge in fragmentation and collage-like depictions. Müller has collected several awards generally reserved for women, most notably the Marieluise Fleisser Prize, the Roswitha Prize, and the Ida Dehmel Award. Of the more inclusive citations, she has received the Carl Zuckmayer Medallion, the Konrad Adenauer Foundation’s Literature Prize, and the Berlin Literature Prize. MUSCHG, ADOLF (1934– ) CH. Novelist, short-story writer. Critics have noted a certain “Swiss” characteristic in Muschg’s work, particularly as he explores the idiosyncrasies of his protagonists with a keen eye and ear for neurotic tendencies that keep them from attaining happiness. Perhaps a manifestation of some “Jungian” preoccupations (some critics note) about the work of fellow Swiss Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) is the reason for such response. Muschg’s first novel, Im Sommer des Hasen (In the Summer of the Rabbit), treated six Swiss journalists sent to Japan with assignments to respond personally to their experiences in Asia; Muschg demonstrated a polished capacity for insight into each character’s personality, and his writing thereafter manifested a keen interest in the ways individuals adjust differently to reality and how their perceptions are often warped by deeply occluded psychological obstructions. Two volumes of short stories—Fremdkörper (Foreign Bodies, 1968) and Liebesgeschichten (Love Stories, 1972)—followed, both widely praised for their detailed observations of the characters’ varying dilemmas. Muschg ultimately came to believe in the “healing” properties of literature, which he outlined in Literatur als Therapie? (Literature as Therapy?) in 1981. His psychological detective novel Albissers Grund (Albisser’s Reason, 1974) had been a popular novel in that vein as well, featuring a high school teacher who attempts to shoot at his psychiatrist and

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then discuss with the psychiatrist the reasons for his aggressive feelings. Baiyun, oder die Freundschaftsgesellschaft (Bai-yun, or the Friendship Society, 1980) was similar in some ways to his first novel, in that it featured a group of Europeans in Asia—only this time one of them gets poisoned and the rest of the novel is devoted to figuring out the identity of the perpetrator. In Das Licht und der Schlüssel (The Light and the Key, 1984), Muschg added a touch of the bizarre to his repertory, featuring a protagonist who was a vampire. Muschg has received numerous prizes and awards for his work, including the Zurich Literature Prize, the Carl Zuckmayer Medallion, and the Georg Büchner Prize. See also FICTION; SWITZERLAND. MUTMASSUNGEN ÜBER JAKOB (Speculations about Jakob, 1959). This is a novel by Uwe Johnson, focusing on a character named Jakob Abs, who with his mother fled the approaching Red Army in 1945 and settled in the fictional town of Jerichow, Mecklenburg (not to be confused with the town of Jerichow in Saxony-Anhalt), where he and his mother live with a cabinetmaker named Cresspahl and his 12-year-old daughter, Gesine. Jakob eventually gets a job as a dispatcher with the East German rail system, and he finds the friendship of his fellow workers almost as important in his life as the presence of Gesine, of whom he has gradually grown extremely fond. In 1953, Gesine flees to the Federal Republic of Germany after the workers’ uprising on 17 June. She settles in Frankfurt am Main, where she enrolls in a translation school. Jakob, however, accepts the East German regime’s explanation of the 1953 uprising, caused by “fascist elements infiltrating into our German Democratic Republic.” In 1956, Jakob’s mother likewise flees to the West, and Jakob falls under secret police surveillance. A secret police captain named Rohlfs begins to speculate (per the book’s title) about Jakob and his usefulness to the regime. Rohlfs attempts to coerce Jakob into recruiting Gesine as a spy for the East German regime upon her graduation from the translation institute. Gesine briefly returns to her father’s house in Jerichow for a brief visit, and there Rohlfs speaks with her in the crudest terms about the decay of capitalism, the erection of a socialist economy, and the transformation of mankind by means of the new proletarian world order. In the background comes the news

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that an uprising in Budapest has taken place, and Gesine quickly returns to the West. Jakob finds himself on the horns of a dilemma: he has the ability to hold up the transport of Soviet tanks, artillery, and war materiel on the East German railroad to Hungary—but doubts about the East German regime are beginning to creep into his consciousness. Word comes to Rohlfs that Gesine has returned to Frankfurt and that Jakob has disappeared. Speculations about Jakob and his true intentions intensify. Then comes word that Jakob has inexplicably returned to the railyards where he works, but in the dense fog covering the yards on the night of his return he has somehow managed to fall under a moving locomotive on its way to Hungary. Attempts to rescue Jakob fail, and he dies. Speculations continue: did he fall, or was he pushed?

–N– NADOLNY, STEN (1942– ). Novelist. Nadolny earned a doctorate in history and did not attempt a literary career until he was in his late 30s. Prior to that time, he had worked extensively in German public television, serving as a production manager for several noteworthy adaptations of novels for the small screen. His own novels, beginning in the 1980s, manifest a concern for the small details of historical research, even though they concentrate on character and broad narrative. His first novel was Netzkarte (Riding the Rails), published in 1981, featuring a ne’er-do-well protagonist who travels by train through West Germany in search of adventure. It captured little attention at the time, but the novel that followed it won Nadolny a wide international audience. It was Die Entdeckung der Langsamkeit (The Discovery of Slowness), a fictionalized account of British explorer Sir John Alexander Franklin (1786–1847) and his futile attempts to discover and chart a sea route through the Canadian arctic. Franklin was considered a hero in Victorian England, and Nadolny used Franklin’s diaries and personal correspondence, along with other contemporary materials, to formulate a character at odds with his time, a time that was increasing in velocity. Nadolny views Franklin as one of the last great individuals within a metastasizing mass society, largely because he takes

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leisurely pauses in speaking and requires long periods of time to observe completely the world around him. Nadolny’s other novels include Selim oder Die Gabe der Rede (Selim, or the Gift of Speech, 1990), Ein Gott der Frechheit (A God of Impertinence, 1994), and Ullsteinroman (Ullstein Novel, published by Ullstein, 2003). In these and other novels, Nadolny likewise focuses on protagonists who are adventurous outsiders. Nearly all his works have been translated and have found international readership. In 1985, he was awarded the Hans Fallada Prize for his work on the television adaptation of the Fallada novel Der eiserne Gustav (Iron Gustav). NAZI. See NAZISM. NAZISM. The term “Nazism” is an English neologism for the German Nazismus, which in turn is an abbreviation for National Sozialismus, or “National Socialism.” “Nazism” was often conflated with the term “Fascism,” though the first “fascist” leader was Benito Mussolini. He adopted the Roman term fascis (meaning “bundle”) taken from a Roman symbol of governmental authority. “Nazism” in Germany was an agglomerated chowder of various ideologies, convictions, prejudices, superstitions, and grievances that had been accumulating over the years until Adolf Hitler effectively articulated them. In his astonishingly effective oratory, Hitler posited Nazism as the cure for a diseased literature and culture that in the aftermath of World War I had floated to the surface like so much pond scum. It was the product of several depravities plaguing the German nation, most of them products of diseased minds, Hitler stated. Soon after assuming power in 1933, the National Socialist government began creating structures to solidify its hold on power, particularly the power to regulate what could be written and published. On 15 November, Hitler’s cabinet passed the “Reich Cultural Chambers Law,” creating “guilds” for painters, musicians, performers, and writers, among others. The most practical aspect of the new law was its provision of conditions for employment. Only members of an official chamber could be issued a contract, and one stipulation of membership was the certification of German ethnicity. Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels had charge of the entire Cultural Chamber

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apparatus, and his ministry retained the right to license publication of anything. Publishers retained ownership of their firms unless they were Jewish, in which case the firm and its assets were usually expropriated. Goebbels had executive authority over nearly all publication, editorial, and print manufacturing activity. Publishers were nominally independent and writers’ organizations remained theoretically autonomous, while artistic freedom fancifully remained untouched by censorship. But anything to be published in the Reich had to conform to Propaganda Ministry guidelines. Such conformity did not constitute censorship, Goebbels insisted. It merely ensured that German readers would not experience injury to their ethnic sensibilities. The implementation of complete governmental control over the creation of literature created very little literature of note during the Nazi dictatorship. Literature that the Nazi leadership promoted usually fell into the general categories of Heimat or Blubo genres; the former emphasized tradition, the countryside, and community, while the latter was a contraction of Blut und Boden (blood and soil), glorifying the regime’s racial and nationalistic policies. Marxist critics in particular have paid special attention to aesthetic ramifications of “Nazi culture,” beginning with Walter Benjamin’s assertion of “aestheticized politics” contained within Nazi artistic doctrine. Yet Nazi artistic doctrine was, like Nazi political doctrine, a loose amalgam. Bertolt Brecht was among the most well-known critics of Nazi aesthetic formulae, and he was more vehement than most in his indictments of Heimat and Blubo literature. His and Benjamin’s Marxist tendency to view itself as an “alternative” to—or, more often, as a mobilization against—Nazism has contributed to the ambiguity of “Nazi aesthetics.” Literature to which the regime objected received the label artfremd (alien to German ethnicity) or entartet (usually translated as “degenerate” or “debased,” but the inference in the term was contamination and the threat such literary contamination posed to German ethnic consciousness). A wave of emigration ensued soon after the Nazis took power, and ultimately more than 200 well-established writers fled the country. Among the most notable of them were Brecht, Thomas Mann, Anna Seghers, Erich Maria Remarque, and Carl Zuckmayer. Nazism also initiated a wave of “inner emigration” on

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the part of individuals who neither supported Nazism nor actively opposed it and continued to write. They included Werner Bergengruen, Hans Carossa, Hedwig Courths-Mahler, Kasimir Edschmid, Gerhart Hauptmann, Hans Henny Jahnn, Hermann Kasack, Elisabeth Langgässer, Agnes Miegel, and Ernst Wiechert. Perhaps the most controversial of the “inner emigrants” was Gottfried Benn, who initially supported the Nazi agenda but later rejected it. Yet the entire concept of inner emigration was inherently controversial, because it implied a kind of rationalized acquiescence to the reign of terror that the Nazis orchestrated with barbaric proficiency. Few aspects of postwar literature in Germany remained untouched by the Nazi years and the effect Nazi ideology had on German writing. “Coming to grips with the past” (Vergangenheitsbewältigung) became an all-encompassing theme in public discourse for decades after 1945, as most novelists, poets, essayists, dramatists, critics, literary scholars, and practically anyone else writing in German seemed duty bound to confront what had happened to German culture under Nazism. Even by the mid-1980s, opinions about the historical significance of Nazism differed so strongly that a full-blown Historians’ Dispute (Historikerstreit) erupted in the German media and persisted for years afterwards. Writers as disparate in their practice and outlooks as Günter Grass, Martin Walser, Monika Maron, Heinar Kipphardt, Rolf Hochhuth, Götz Aly, and Marcel Beyer have wrestled with “the past that will not pass.” NIEMBSCH, ODER DER STILLSTAND (Niembsch, or the Stalemate, 1964). This novel by Peter Härtling grew from a study of Nikolaus Lenau, the pen name of Nicolaus Franz Niembsch (1802–1850), who personified the utterly neurotic obsessions of the German Romantic poet. The novel, subtitled “a suite,” is set into eight movements of a baroque musical concerto, namely a prelude followed by a rondo, gigue, minuet, allemande, bourée, sarabande, and air. In these movements, Härtling attempts to recapture the thinking of Lenau, whose lyric poetry contained unusual rhythms and espoused a deep bond with nature. Part of the novel details Lenau’s trip to America, where he hoped for relief from his perpetual despair and depression, though he continues to write poetry. Finding no relief from his tribulations in the New World, Lenau returns to Germany,

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where his despair deepens. Both his writing and his love affairs compound his problems, causing him to identify with Don Juan; he ultimately comes to believe that he is indeed Don Juan and ends up in a state of artistic stalemate at an insane asylum, where he dies of terminal syphilis. NOSSACK, HANS ERICH (1901–1977) FRG. Novelist, prose stylist. Nossack is best remembered as one of the first German writers to deal factually in the immediate postwar period with the utter destruction of the country’s cities (particularly his native Hamburg) under Allied air force bombing. Heinrich Böll did likewise to a lesser extent, but from a more anecdotal frame of reference. Critics have sometimes compared Nossack’s fiction to that of Hermann Kasack, but Nossack’s approach was almost clinical compared with Kasack’s description of wasted cityscapes comprehended mostly in metaphysical dimensions. Nossack’s 1947 novel Nekyia: Bericht eines Überlebenden (Nekyia: A Survivor’s Report) chronicled the experiences of a returning inhabitant to what had been a bustling German city, only to confront a nightmarish panorama of devastated ruins. It was loosely based on book 11 of The Odyssey, in which Odysseus journeys to the Underworld, where he confronts several people who have died in the aftermath of war. Nossack’s survivor encounters former acquaintances apparently asleep, and he discovers within himself the power to awaken them. When his collection of essays Interview mit dem Tode (Interview with Death) was published in the following year, Nossack had to confront certain taboos against depicting suffering by Germans at the hands of the Allies. The general consensus seems to have been that Germany had brought the suffering it was experiencing upon itself; but many considered Nossack’s descriptions artless and overly unembellished. His account “Der Untergang” (The End) of the 1943 destruction of Hamburg by firebombing has only recently won praise from several observers, particularly W. G. Sebald, but it attracted little attention among the wider German reading public at the time. His next novel, titled Spätestens in November (November at the Latest, 1955), features a convincingly realistic narrative by a protagonist who is dead, recalling her love affair with a poet. It is essentially an indictment of the German Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle), along with the jargon of success and recovery prevalent by the

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mid-1950s. Nossack also wrote poetry and drama, but none too successfully. International scholars, however, found much to like in Nossack’s work; by the 1970s, much of his fiction had been translated into several languages. Recognition for the literary value of his fiction had begun in 1961, when he was awarded the Georg Büchner Prize. Such awards continued, culminating in the Federal Service Cross in 1974. See also TRÜMMERLITERATUR. NOVAK, HELGA (1935– ). Poet, essayist. Novak has the distinction among German writers to have begun her literary career in Iceland, and at one time published there under the name “Maria Karlsdottir.” Returning to the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in 1965 (she had attended the University in Leipzig), she soon became one of the first writers the GDR expelled, predating Wolf Biermann’s experience by a decade. Novak as a teenager had developed an ear for political jargon, which contributed to her disenchantment with the GDR; yet she developed an interest in phraseology from nonpolitical sources (for example, of biblical, mythic, and literary provenance) for use in her verse. She has lived a nomadic existence, largely because she became an Icelandic citizen and later could not reclaim her German citizenship, even after the reunification of Germany. As a result, she refers to herself as a Vogel federlos, or “featherless bird” (per the title of her second autobiographical volume). Having lived and worked in several European countries did not make her cosmopolitan; her verse has a sincerity and directness, some critics feel, reminiscent of the Austrian poet Ingeborg Bachmann. Her use of colloquial language, like Bachmann’s, evokes memories of the past and an acute, melancholy sense of the present. She presently lives in an area of Poland similar in topography to her native Brandenburg, where she spent a troubled childhood and ended up in a boarding school. The sandy soil of northwestern Poland, like that of Brandenburg, she has written, is like an animal’s pelt, “between ancient creek valleys and moraines, shifting . . . between a phony passport and my genuine laughter./There I found my face again, marked by the trails of tears/That melted in rivulets through/The last Ice Age.” Novak has received numerous awards and citations for her poetry, among them the Roswitha Medallion from the Town of Gandersheim (1989), the Brandenburg Literature Prize (1997), and the Ide Dehmel Literature Award (2001).

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–P– PARFUM, DAS: DIE GESCHICHTE EINES MÖRDERS (Perfume: The Story of a Murderer, 1985). This novel by Patrick Süskind features a murderer named Jean-Baptiste Grenouille, who was born in 1738 to an unmarried, syphilitic fishwife. She soon abandons him, and he grows up in a Parisian orphanage amid “the stink of manure, courtyards of urine, stairwells of rotting wood filled with rat droppings, and kitchens of spoiled cabbage and mutton fat.” Everywhere there were smells—except those emanating from Grenouille himself. A wet nurse notices that as an infant he uncharacteristically gave off little, if any, bodily odor whatsoever. He also sucked with unusual vigor. The child ends up in a kind of private orphanage, and the children there try to kill Grenouille by suffocating him in his sleep. Everyone Grenouille meets finds him disgusting and repellent. Even as a young child Grenouille’s own sense of smell, however, was utterly extraordinary: he recalls every odor that ever passed through his nostrils, and he can smell a worm in an apple, money hidden behind walls, and people in the next street. Süskind’s great achievement with Grenouille is the idea that the absence of scent and an exaggerated sense of smell can lead to social isolation so acute that it turns him into a serial killer. But Grenouille does not kill just anybody; he kills young virgins, whose intimate odors he attempts to extract from their corpses (after he has killed them) in an effort to distill the “ultimate” perfume that will make its wearer irresistible and cause those around him to render their love to him unconditionally. He journeys south to Grasse in search of additional smells, but he ultimately murders 25 young girls, leaving their bodies stripped naked (usually in their beds) but with their hair removed. Authorities in Montpelier capture Grenouille and try him for his crimes. He is convicted, but as he is about to be executed, crowds milling around the chopping block go into ecstasies of love for him when they smell the perfume with which he has doused himself. He is pardoned, and the father of one of his victims offers to adopt him as his son. But Grenouille returns instead to Paris, the original scene of his crimes and, wearing his perfume, is hailed and adored by the denizens of the neighborhood where he grew up. Their ecstasy of love soon turns into a Dionysian feeding frenzy, however; they tear him limb from limb and eat him.

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Scholars and critics have attempted to decipher the novel as some kind of political allegory, since its affinity with the fantastic premises in other German fiction (Steppenwolf by Hermann Hesse, short works of Franz Kafka, or The Tin Drum [Die Blechtrommel] by Günter Grass are obvious examples) seems readily apparent. Some propose that Grenouille is an ersatz Adolf Hitler, a creature whose deformity from birth was actually some kind of insidious gift that enables him to hypnotize everyone he meets and bend them to his will. But the book is less about Grenouille’s power and the effect he has on others than it is a character study. The novel may indeed owe more to nonfiction accounts like Truman Capote’s In Cold Blood or Norman Mailer’s The Executioner’s Song than many realize. The 2006 film of Perfume (shot in English) won numerous awards, especially for its German director Tom Tykwer. Several German film critics dismissed the film and Tykwer’s direction, noting that Tykwer had tried to convey smell through too many “nose close-ups” of British actor Ben Whishaw (who played Grenouille). There were indeed 27 such shots of Whishaw’s nose. But Perfume featured several outstanding performances, including those by German actress Corinna Harfouch, British actor Alan Rickman, and American actor Dustin Hoffman as Baldini, who teaches Grenouille the intricacies of perfume manufacture. With a budget of over $50 million, it was among the most lavish film productions of any German novel in recent memory. PLENZDORF, ULRICH (1934–2007) GDR. Screenplay writer, dramatist. Among his contemporaries with solid proletarian credentials, Plenzdorf had few equals. He was born in the working-class Berlin district of Kreuzberg, and his parents were members of the German Communist Party (KPD) in the 1920s. In the 1930s, they were persecuted by the Nazis and served lengthy prison sentences. Immediately after the war, they cast their lot with fellow communists in the Soviet-occupied zone; their son Ulrich attended politically correct boarding schools and began university studies in Leninism and Marxism at Karl Marx University in Leipzig. In 1955, however, he gave up Marxism and became a stagehand in Berlin and later attended film school. Soon after leaving film school, he wrote his first screenplay, titled Karla, which Hermann Zscoche directed in 1965.

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Plenzdorf went on to write over 30 screenplays, but by far the most successful and well known of them was Die neuen Leiden des jungen W. (The New Sufferings of Young W.). Plenzdorf had little expectations for it when the East German journal Sinn und Form published it in 1972. In the screenplay, Plenzdorf skillfully interlarded quotations from its original source, Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (The Sufferings of Young Werther), Johann Wolfgang Goethe’s sensationally popular novel of two centuries earlier. Goethe had structured the novel around a series of fictional letters from a sensitive young man to his friend, describing in tortuous detail the tribulations of unrequited love. Plenzdorf’s contemporized treatment featured generous amounts of East German youthful slang and took place mostly in flashback, as the young man is already dead, probably by his own hand. In the German Democratic Republic, however, the idea of disturbed youth was tantamount to heresy, and suicide was forbidden. Plenzdorf wrote it, however, not as a direct critique of the GDR regime; instead, he presented a young man (named Edgar Wibeau, hence the “W.” of the title) who lives in a small town and one day discovers Goethe’s novel. It startles Edgar to realize that his life runs parallel to Werther’s in many ways, but with increasing shocks of recognition comes a despondency that leads to his accidental death— or was it suicide, as in the Goethe original? The popular reaction to The New Sufferings of Young W. as a stage play in both East and West Germany was so positive that Plenzdorf soon turned it into a novel. It became a best-seller on both sides of the German divide, and in 1976 it became the basis of a West German film, directed by Eberhard Itzenplitz. Plenzdorf never experienced similar success in his writing, though he wrote over a dozen screenplays thereafter that eventually were filmed. See also THEATER. POETRY. German language poetry, like the rest of German literature, had experienced dismemberment during the Nazi era. The regime murdered several poets and sent others to their deaths in extermination camps. Several committed suicide, many went into exile for their personal safety, and those who remained in the Third Reich often stopped writing. The case of Gottfried Benn was particularly painful; he initially had voiced support for the National Socialists,

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but the regime banned his work after 1935. Some observers found themselves at least in partial agreement with Theodor W. Adorno’s reflection that writing poetry “after Auschwitz would be barbaric”; yet history proved Adorno mistaken, as it did with many of his other apothegmatic utterances. German poetry began to flourish in the postwar period. It began ironically with Benn, whose volume Statische Gedichte (Static Poems) attracted a wide readership. When Benn received the Georg Büchner Prize in 1951, his rehabilitation was complete. Also in that year, Benn published an influential essay titled “Probleme der Lyrik” (Problems of Lyric Poetry) in which he revealed himself as “an unreconstructed expressionist” (as one critic described him). Benn restated the case for modernist poetry, emphasizing fragmentation, dissonance, the abstract, and the discordant. Meantime in the 1950s, unaccustomed amounts of poetry by Bertolt Brecht began to appear in print. Brecht had always written poetry, but few publishers had any interest in it until the 1950s, when the state-owned publishing establishment of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) found it politically advantageous to make his work more widely available. Brecht was likewise a modernist, and some observers feel that the unstated literary rivalry between Brecht and Benn was among the more significant literary developments of the 1950s. Brecht’s Buckower Elegien (Buckow Elegies) appeared in 1954. They were named for the Berlin outskirts of Buckow, where the regime had awarded him and his wife, Helene Weigel, a pleasant cottage in 1952; the elegies proved popular with thousands of German readers, even among those in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) who loathed Brecht’s politics and worked to preserve a boycott against his plays in West German theaters. Brecht’s work was a powerful influence on younger poets on both sides of the Cold War divide through the 1950s and well into the 1960s. Wolf Biermann, Hans Magnus Enzensberger, Franz Fühmann, Günter Grass, and several others expressed their admiration for Brecht and acknowledged his influence on their poetic efforts. During the same period, the “death poetry” of Paul Celan, Nelly Sachs, and other survivors of Holocaust persecution began to appear, as did the Trümmerlyrik (lyric poetry in the ruins) of Günter Eich. Eich’s poem “Inventur” became one of the most widely quoted of the 1950s, while Celan’s “Todesfuge” (Death Fugue) became an emblematic expres-

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sion in verse of the atrocities that took place at an extermination camp. Enzensberger departed somewhat from general tendencies in the FRG with his slim volume of collected poems titled Verteidigung der Wölfe (In Defense of Wolves), which was critical of the country’s maturing political and economic posture. The same period saw a rebirth of poetic expression in Austria, best exemplified in the work of loosely affiliated poets known as the Vienna Group. Their poetry, like Benn’s, was a throwback to the modernist ethos of the 1920s, though the Vienna Group’s direct literary antecedent was not expressionism but dadaism. Like the dadaists, the Vienna Group poets (who included Friedrich Achleitner, Friederike Mayröcker, Elfriede Gerstl, and most significantly Hans Carl Artmann) issued proclamations and manifestoes, staged happenings, and found an acceptable level of comfort in making fools of themselves. Many of them concentrated on Konkrete Poesie (concrete poetry), which in many cases was a linguistic display of what critics began to call “antipoetical meditation.” Much different in tone and approach was the poetry of Ingeborg Bachmann, who was among the most accomplished of Austrian poets in the postwar period. She was, however, not fully “Austrian” in the sense of the Vienna Group poets because her work bore the influence of Group 47’s insistence on Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to grips with the past). Her 1953 volume of poetry titled Die gestundete Zeit (Time Measured in Hours) won wide acclaim, and she concentrated productively on poetry through the remainder of the 1950s. Enzensberger continued to write poetry in the vein of Verteidigung der Wölfe and in 1963 became the youngest recipient of the Büchner Prize. Though he was 34 at the time, many critics regarded him as German poetry’s “angry young man,” perhaps a reflection of similar appellations employed in Great Britain to writers such as Enzensberger’s contemporary John Osborne. Enzensberger was an iconoclast, but the most interesting of iconoclasts was Rolf-Dieter Brinkmann. Brinkmann was enamored of American “beat poets” of the 1950s and, combining his withering disdain for West German culture in general, he created some of the most fascinating and dynamic verse of the postwar period. Brinkmann and Enzensberger were distinct from other German poets who by the mid-1960s were experimenting with “hermetic poetry.” Hermetic poetry, as the term implies,

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sealed itself off in a kind of poetic mayonnaise jar filled with snippets of verse, broken syntax, and destabilized orthography. The result was an obscurity that approached complete incomprehensibility. But opacity was a prized characteristic among hermetic poets and the critics who praised them, because it allowed critics nearly complete interpretive freedom. It turned them and the poets into an elite and allowed some of them, it was thought, to embrace a Schopenhauerian pessimism in a completely unabashed way. Hermetic poetry gave way to “new subjectivity” and an insistence among poets on finding ways to make poetry relevant—or at least readable. Walter Höllerer’s essay on “the long poem” in German attempted to posit ways in which German verse could “internationalize” itself, perhaps in the ways Brinkmann had done with his masterful translations of the American Frank O’Hara and Enzensberger with his of William Carlos Williams. As a result, rhymed verse became a rarity, prose poems appeared more frequently, and a generally solipsistic outlook prevailed. Jürgen Theobaldy and Nicolas Born are good examples, both emphasizing everyday occurrences described in intricate detail. In some ways, the new subjectivity movement reflected concerns that persisted in the “Nature poetry” of Sarah Kirsch, Erika Burkhart in Switzerland, or Christine Lavant in Austria. Kirsch’s poetry was more wide ranging in subject matter, and critics found her volumes of poetry during the 1980s particularly worthwhile after she immigrated to West Germany. By the 1990s, she was among the most decorated of German poets. “Nature poetry” was ineluctably associated with concerns by the 1980s about degradation of the environment; Helga Novak and Erika Burkhart each addressed the subject from different viewpoints, while Ulla Hahn revisited subjectivity with love poems in rhymed verse. So did Peter Rühmkorf, though unlike Hahn, Rühmkorf was often wont to infuse his verse with scatological and frankly sexual images. Among contemporary poets, Thomas Kling until his untimely death in 2005 stood out as a poet of memory. His volume on World War I marked him, he said, as a “cultural prehistorian.” He attempted poetically to revisit old sites of poetic inspiration and despair, such as the fields of Flanders, where he hoped to bring a new, contemporary perspective to them. His visits, often in public readings, were usually accompanied by a percussionist doing jazz riffs on a trap set.

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–R– REICH-RANICKI, MARCEL (1920– ). Critic, essayist. The literary critic occupies a long and storied place in German literature, and Reich-Ranicki began his rise to influence in that tradition by 1960, when he became chief critic for the weekly newspaper Die Zeit. Almost from the beginning of his 13 years at Die Zeit (and later as director of the literary department with the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung), Reich-Ranicki demonstrated a commanding knowledge of and passionate love for German literature that was singular among his contemporaries. His was the legacy of Oskar Blumenthal (1852–1917) and Alfred Kerr (1867–1948), mastering a prose style that manifested a comprehensive knowledge of German literature while maintaining a wry, nonreverential stance. Unlike most of his predecessors, Reich-Ranicki had no earned doctorate; a Polish citizen by birth, the German government denied him entrance to any German university upon completion of high school in Berlin, deporting him and his family to Poland in 1938. Like Blumenthal and Kerr, he was a Jew—a status far more problematic by 1939 than it had been previously for any a devotee of German literature. Confined within the Warsaw ghetto, Reich (he was not yet Reich-Ranicki) continued a rigorous program of study and even embarked on his career as a critic, writing music reviews for the ghetto’s newspaper. After his escape from the ghetto in 1943, he worked for resistance forces and hid in the cellar of a Polish patriot named Bolek, who asked only that Reich regale him with synopses of German and English literary works as payment. Under such conditions, Reich maintained and expanded his studies until Soviet troops rescued him in 1944 and arranged for him subsequently to serve as a functionary (under the name ReichRanicki) of the Stalinist-allied Polish Workers’ Party in several venues after German capitulation. During the immediate postwar period, Reich-Ranicki began working for organizations inside the Soviet zone of occupation, ultimately doing radio broadcasts in both Polish and German. In 1958, he accomplished another fortunate escape, this time to the Federal Republic of Germany. There he joined Group 47 and quickly established himself as a unique and powerful critical voice in print, radio, and regional television. His television broadcasting career culminated

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in a weekly program titled “The Literary Quartet” in 1988. On this program, Reich-Ranicki and three other critics discussed books and culture from a variety of viewpoints; there was never any doubt, however, that it was Reich-Ranicki’s show. The program won an extraordinarily large viewership, with him as its leading personality. By the early 1990s, Reich-Ranicki had become one of the newly unified Germany’s most recognizable cultural personalities. The show lasted until 2002, by which time Reich-Ranicki had published his best-selling autobiography, simply titled Mein Leben (published in English as The Author of Himself: The Life of Marcel Reich-Ranicki) while maintaining a prolific output of books and articles. He has been vigorously attacked by authors whose work he has panned, either in print or on television; though he likewise is accused of abusing his enormous power and influence, he rarely faces charges of pettiness or self-aggrandizement. As a noted British critic observed, “For more than twenty years, German writers have trembled, fumed, wept, and on occasion preened themselves over his verdicts on their work. [Reich-Ranicki] has established an almost imperial ascendancy over German literary criticism” (Neal Ascherson, New York Review of Books, 11 April 2002). Reich-Ranicki confesses to certain convictions as a critic that seem startling, because both readers and authors have long suspected that critics have too high an estimation of themselves. Many critics, Reich-Ranicki among them, believe that writers do not really understand what they are writing. In fact, “writers understand no more about literature than do birds know about ornithology. And they are the least qualified to judge their own work. That is not to say they have no general idea of what they want to show and clarify, to effect and accomplish. But what they do know often clouds their vision of what they indeed have attained and created. Whatever the author may have to say about his work . . . should not be taken too seriously” (Mein Leben [Stuttgart: Deutsche VerlagsAnstalt, 1999], 343). In the first decade of the 21st century, his major work has been the multivolume Der Kanon (The Canon) in which he sets forth what he considers the “indispensible” German works in fiction, drama, nonfiction prose, short stories, and poetry. Reich-Ranicki has been honored with several awards and guest professorships in Germany, Europe, and the United States. In 2002, he received the

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Goethe Medallion and the following year was awarded the Federal Service Cross for contributions to German culture. REIMANN, BRIGITTE (1933–1973) GDR. Novelist, short-story writer, radio dramatist. Reimann was one of the more interesting exponents of the Bitterfelder Weg (Bitterfeld Path) in the German Democratic Republic, a policy intended to bring writers and workers into closer contact and produce a more consistently “proletarian” style of literature. Reimann was also credited with creating a novelistic style called the Ankunftsliteratur (arrival literature), which was essentially a “coming of age” category, based on her novel Ankunft im Alltag (Arrival in the Everyday, 1961). In that novel, a group of youthful but well-educated GDR patriots must learn to accept adulthood in a socialist society, working in a factory and experiencing firsthand the rigors of industrial employment. Reimann’s other novel, Frankziska Linkerhand, was left unpublished at the time of her death, but it won fulsome praise for its promise. Many critics saw the potential for another Christa Wolf in Reimann’s closely observed and sensitive portrayals. Much of Reimann’s correspondence with Wolf and other writers has been published, and it reveals further the maturity of her literary sensibility. REINIG, CHRISTA (1926–2008) GDR-FRG. Poet, novelist, short-story writer. Reinig’s superb credentials as a proletarian, which included working in a factory during World War II, enabled her to study at Humboldt University in East Berlin in the early 1950s. Such credentials notwithstanding, she ran afoul of literary authorities in the German Democratic Republic and found publication of her poetry and short fiction problematic. West German publishers accepted her work, complicating even further Reinig’s literary career. Though the authorities provided her with an excellent job as a curator at the Märkisches Museum, she left East Berlin in 1964 when she received the Bremen Literature Prize and settled in the West. By the 1970s, she became best known for her advocacy of lesbian feminism, declaring herself a member of the “lesbian nation,” noting that “90% of all creatures lying in our streets, abused and slaughtered, are not rats, cats, dogs, or pigs—but women” (Müssiggang ist aller Liebe Anfang

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[Düsseldorf: Erimiten, 1979], vii). Reinig subsequently wrote passionately about the need for women to take revenge against patriarchy and create a utopia in which women are free to behave as they please without fear of subjugation by men. She was awarded the Roswitha Prize in 1993 for her lyric poetry, and in 1999 she received the Brandenburg Literary Award for a body of work that included over a dozen collections of poetry and short fiction, in addition to three novels. REINSHAGEN, GERLIND (1926– ) FRG. Dramatist, novelist, children’s literature author. Reinshagen began her prolific literary career in the late 1960s after concentrating on radio drama and short stories in the 1950s. She had several dramas produced in the 1970s and 1980s, most of them realistic depictions of family life or the workplace. One of her most frequently performed plays of the 1970s was Sonntagskinder (Sunday’s Children, 1977), featuring a 14-year-old girl at the beginning of the Third Reich and following her life as it unfolds against a backdrop of violent death, persecution, and unquestioning adherence to National Socialism. Sonntagskinder was the basis of a popular film in 1980, directed by Michael Verhoeven, with whom Reinshagen wrote the screenplay. In her prose work, on which she concentrated in the 1980s and 1990s, Reinshagen took a more lyrical turn from the emphasis on realism in her plays. See also NAZISM. RINSER, LUISE (1911–2002) FRG. Novelist, prose stylist. Rinser enjoyed an enormously long and prolific career, beginning with her years as a schoolteacher in Bavaria and contributor to the National Socialist women’s magazine Herdfeuer (Hearth Fire). When she refused to join the Nazi Party in 1939, she lost her job as a teacher and was subsequently denounced as a traitor. A Nazi “special court” found her guilty of treason in 1944; most authorities believe she was scheduled for execution in 1945. Her experiences in the Traunstein women’s prison (many of the inmates there were discarded wives and mistresses of Nazi plutocrats) became material for her widely praised initial postwar memoir, Gefängnistagebuch (A Woman’s Prison Journal) in 1946. Rinser’s experiences with fellow prisoners, many sepa-

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rated (as she was) from their young children, introduced her to numerous character types she would never have otherwise encountered. They became sources for many of her subsequent fiction efforts. Her novella Jan Lobel aus Warschau (Jan Lobel of Warsaw, 1948) depicts two women who shelter a runaway Jewish prisoner, who after the war returns to work for the women in their nursery business. Rinser later published over a dozen novels, along with several volumes of essays, short stories, and children’s books. It is estimated that her books have been translated into more than a score of languages, many of which remain in print. Rinser qualifies as a voice of conscience in the postwar period, writing best-sellers. The most widely read of them was probably Nina, a reworking of two autobiographical accounts from the 1950s. In Nina, she presents a woman devoted to her opera-singer husband, despite his profound emotional problems. Rinser was also a gifted writer of historical novels; her Bruder Feuer (Brother Fire, 1975) and Mirjam (Miriam) dealt with St. Francis of Assisi and Mary Magdalen respectively. Her last major novel was Abelards Liebe (Abelard’s Love, 1991), visualizing the relationship of the two medieval lovers Abelard and Heloise from the viewpoint of their son, named Astrolabe. In the 1970s and 1980s, Rinser’s support for policy positions of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) was controversial but won her praise on the leftist spectrum of West German politics. Her endorsement of and friendship with North Korean dictator Kim Il-Sung was more problematic, but she nevertheless became a candidate for the largely ceremonial post of German president when the burgeoning Green Party nominated her as its candidate. In the Bundesversammlung (federal assembly) election for the presidency, Rinser won 7 percent of the vote. ROCHE, CHARLOTTE (1978– ) FRG. British-born Roche created a sensation in 2008 when her semi-autobiographical novel Feuchtgebiete (Moist Areas) became a best-seller. The novel’s protagonist, named Helen, cuts herself in the process of shaving her pubic hair and ends up in a hospital. There she has time to consider the ramifications of what happened, and the result is a kind of meditation on the extremes to which women are prepared to go in an effort to cultivate what is essentially cosmetic pulchritude. Taught from childhood that

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her genitals exude a foul odor, Helen discovers that vaginal fluid, used as a perfume behind each ear or on her neck, can be a powerful aphrodisiac. She also learns the effective use of avocado seeds in giving herself sexual pleasure. While most “serious” literary critics dismissed the novel as superficial, some referred to it as a kind of accessible, even humorous alternative to Elfriede Jelinek’s preoccupation with female genital self-mutilation in Die Klavierspielerin (The Piano Teacher). ROTE, DIE (The Redhead, 1960). Some critics have noted the structural similarity between this novel by Alfred Andersch and The Red Carnation by Italian novelist Elio Vittorini (1908–1966), published in 1948. Both have red-haired women as protagonists, both have Italian settings, and the color red seems at several points in both books to infer a sympathy with the proletarian backgrounds of both protagonists. But Andersch’s treatment has major narrative departures from Vittorini’s, chief among them a wholly surprising encounter between an Irish victim of Nazi torture and the Nazi torturer himself. Franziska, the redhead of the title, has arrived in Venice pregnant; she has left her marriage and has broken off her relationship with her husband’s employer, who is probably the father of her child. In her search for an abortion provider, she encounters Patrick O’Malley, who is on a search mission of his own. He has learned that an SS officer named Kramer, who tortured him in a German prison during the war, is in Venice. Franziska improbably gets involved with luring Kramer onto a yacht waiting in the Venice harbor; aboard the yacht, O’Malley confronts Kramer and kills him. The experience of witnessing Kramer’s murder convinces Franziska that aborting her child is ill-advised. She subsequently meets a violinist named Fabio, whose adherence to Communist Party principles she finds appealing and convinces herself that rearing her child in Venice, among Fabio’s family, friends, and party comrades, is her best option. Andersch wrote the screenplay for a 1962 film adaptation of The Redhead, for which the film’s director Helmut Käutner was nominated for a Golden Bear at the Berlin Film Festival. The film featured Ruth Leuwerik as Franziska, Rossano Brazzi as Fabio, Gert Fröbe as Kramer, and Giorgio Albertazzi as O’Malley.

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RÜHMKORF, PETER (1929–2008) FRG. Poet, prose stylist, dramatist. Rühmkorf was one of the most decorated poets of the postwar era, awarded nearly every literary prize or citation available to writers over a period of four decades. His first poetry appeared on mimeo sheets distributed among students at the University of Hamburg, where he studied in the early 1950s. A member of Group 47 during that period, Rühmkorf also helped to found a literary journal in Hamburg called Studentenkurier (Student Courier); his first poetry volume, titled Irdisches Vergnügen (Earthly Pleasures) appeared in 1959 to widespread praise. Much of Rühmkorf’s poetry had wide appeal, largely because it was accessible to readers and bespoke an authentic genuineness that many critics found refreshing. Yet he was taken seriously by many literary critics as well, especially Marcel ReichRanicki, who praised his refined aesthetic sense. He said Rühmkorf was able to combine vulgarity with “exquisite irony.” Rühmkorf’s poetry volumes were noted as well for their humorous titles: Die Last, die Lust, und die List (Burden, Lust, and Craftiness) was the title of what he called “enlightened fairy tales”; Funken fliegen zwischen Hut und Schuh (Sparks Fly between Cap and Shoe), and, shortly before his death, Paradiesvogelschiss (Shit from the Bird of Paradise). For these and over 60 other volumes, Rühmkorf received 30 awards, honorary degrees, prizes, and citations, including the Erich Kästner Prize, the Heinrich Heine Award, the Georg Büchner Prize, the Walter Hasenclever Literature Prize, and the Carl Zuckmayer Medallion.

–S– SACHS, NELLY (1891–1970). Poet. Sachs escaped to Sweden with her mother shortly before their scheduled deportation to concentration camps. By then she was nearly 50 years old and had no training for a regular occupation, so she supported herself as a translator, along with the assistance of friends in Sweden. By 1945, she had developed a keen interest in the Kabbalah, a mystical aspect of Judaism with roots in medieval rabbinical studies. Sachs drew artistic sustenance from her studies and began writing poetry, which ultimately established her as a unique voice in postwar German literature, culminating in the

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Nobel Prize for Literature of 1966, which she shared with Israeli novelist Shmuel Agnon (1888–1970). Her first postwar collection of poetry, titled In den Wohnungen des Todes (In the Dwelling Places of Death, published in East Berlin) dealt with the intense feelings of dread in a life under constant threat of betrayal, an existence of being the hunted prey of murderers. Yet there is little sensational or melodramatic about the situations she poetically describes or in the situations in which the figures of her poetry find themselves. There is instead a sense of transcendence in the midst of unimaginable disquietude, and some critics compared her work to that of the Old Testament minor prophets who lyrically lamented the fate of their people in exile. Subsequent publication of her poetry manifested a growing depth of perception about the Jewish experience in the Holocaust; her 1959 collection titled Flucht und Verwandlung (Flight and Transformation) made her more widely known to readers of German, perhaps because she was beginning to use metaphors and usages that captured for many non-Jewish readers the tragedy of human existence, while maintaining a fragile hold on the conviction that life was nevertheless worth living. Sachs received the poetry award of the Federal Union of German Industry in 1959 and the Droste-Hülshoff Prize in 1960. In 1961, the city of Dortmund inaugurated the Nelly Sachs Award and named her its first recipient. Other recipients of the Nelly Sachs Award have included Alfred Andersch, Elias Canetti, Ilse Aichinger, Christa Wolf, and Horst Bienek. When she received her half of the 1966 Nobel Prize for Literature, she said her co-recipient Shmuel Agnon represented Israel, while she represented the Jewish people. SCHLINK, BERNHARD (1944– ) FRG. Novelist, jurist. Schlink began writing fiction in the late 1980s, several years after he had become an established professor of jurisprudence. His first efforts were detective novels, which generally sold well; his Der Vorleser (The Reader, 1995) became a best-seller in German and subsequently has been translated into more than 20 languages. Schlink is one of very few German authors whose works the popular American television personality Oprah Winfrey has recommended to her millions of viewers; Winfrey has indeed interviewed Schlink on her program, which doubtless increased sales of The Reader in the United States. It even

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made the New York Times’ best-seller list. As a result of the popularity and accessibility of his work, Schlink is seldom taken seriously in academic circles, even though Schlink himself remains active as a teacher and scholar. He wrote The Reader for the most part in his office at Humboldt University. Schlink has little interest in formal experimentation; his prose is remarkably direct and manifests few theoretical embellishments or abstractions. One usually detects a legal mind at work in his fiction, one concerned with the weight of certain arguments against other, equally valid arguments. Many critics have attempted nevertheless to read problematic aspects of recent German history into The Reader and later Die Heimkehr (The Homecoming, 2006). In the former, an illiterate woman is put on trial for war crimes as a prison guard when she was working at a concentration camp. Her inability to read and write led some readers to presume Schlink was attempting to present possible grounds for exculpation; several critics assumed that Schlink was attempting to link the woman’s history with that of Germany’s. In The Homecoming, a publisher named Debauer (which can be transliterated as a German etymon for “deconstruction”) discovers a defense of the German army’s blockade of Leningrad, supposedly published soon after the actual horrific events in 1941–1943. That the defense was written by a man who may be Debauer’s father led some to conclude that Schlink was contributing to that German subgenre known as father literature, which interrogates the conduct of fathers during the war years, usually from a moralistic viewpoint after the student uprisings of 1968. Schlink does not deny his place as part of what he terms the “second generation” of writers, a cohort that came of age after the “first generation” of Group 47 and others. The second cohort made distinct demands on the generation of its parents, since they were involved (sometimes as participants in, sometimes merely as witnesses to, rarely as protestors against) the crimes of the Adolf Hitler regime. Schlink’s father, Edmund, belonged to the protestors as a pastor, a member of the Bekennende Kirche (Confessing Church). Edmund Schlink was also a follower of Pastor Martin Niemöller, who had advocated a complete separation of the evangelical church from the Nazi government. Niemöller was imprisoned from 1937 to 1945 and narrowly escaped execution. Given Schlink’s knowledge

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of his father’s courageous conduct during the Nazi years, it is not surprising that he found the East German regime distinctly similar to Hitler’s. Moving to East Berlin to take a university post at Humboldt University shortly before German reunification in 1991, Schlink found in East Berlin disturbing echoes of what he remembered of the immediate postwar years during his boyhood. “But,” Schlink has nevertheless cautioned, “there is no such thing as pure memory.” SCHNEIDER, PETER (1940– ) FRG. Novelist, screenplay writer, essayist. Schneider was one of the first former student activists (sometimes referred to in German as “68ers”) to put down their experiences in fairly clear, accessible, and marketable prose. Schneider is also one of the few of his generation to maintain an active literary agenda while teaching extensively in the United States. Schneider’s novella Lenz (1973) recalls an earlier novella fragment (1835) of the same title by Georg Büchner (1813–1837); in both, the eponymous characters despair of ever discovering real personal freedom. Schneider’s Lenz is particularly poignant, because he had been a faithful believer in the Marxist credo of the Socialist German Students’ League (SDS) and other “nonparliamentary opposition” groups in the late 1960s. He finds himself lonely, depressed, sexually frustrated, and in Italy by the early 1970s. In 1982, his Der Mauerspringer (The Wall Jumper) became a widely read treatment of what, to Schneider and several members of his generation, had become a permanent fixture in the lives (or at least the minds) of all Germans: the Berlin Wall. In a now infamous essay in the New York Times Magazine published shortly before the Wall was breached, Schneider insisted that if the Wall were to come down, Germans “would lose the only thing still unifying them. And anyway, the wall is most definitely not going to come down.” In his novel, Schneider had contended that “it will take us longer to tear down the Wall in our heads than any wrecking company will need for the Wall we can see.” Such themes reappeared in Schneider’s screenplay based on the novel, titled Der Mann auf der Mauer (The Man on the Wall). Ten years later, his novel Paarungen (Couplings) maintained a tangential connection to the “68er generation”; three male friends make a bet about who can maintain the relationship in which he now finds himself. The man who no longer is in a “coupling” in one year’s time

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pays for his friends’ ski vacation. The novel pivots on the character of Eduard Hoffmann, a microbiologist who retains an overabundance of utopian idealism from the 1960s; his relationships are troubled and troubling. Eduard departs at the end of the novel for Stanford University in California for further study into the biological origins of human aggression. He returns in Eduards Heimkehr (Eduard’s Homecoming, 1999) as a man who has been in California for the past decade teaching at Stanford but is now offered a job working at the Berlin Institute for Molecular Biology. Complicating his life is the fact that he is married with children, and his family is thoroughly Americanized. Even more problematic is the fact that he and his brother have inherited his grandfather’s apartment building in what was once East Berlin. In this situation, Eduard must confront his former idealism, along with the fact that Berlin has become “the world’s largest construction site” after German unification. Squatters furthermore occupy the building, and they are precisely the kinds of people with whom 1960s student activists identified: the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the marginalized, and losers of myriad other stripes. Eduard’s problem is common to other German intellectuals of his generation, Schneider has been quoted as saying: they simply cannot admit that it was interesting that we once thought that way. A sense of self-righteousness prevents them from such honesty; they prefer, on the basis of ideological stubbornness, to maintain the same outdated and irrelevant beliefs that proved empty so many years earlier. See also FICTION. SCHNURRE, WOLFDIETRICH (1920–1989) FRG. Short-story writer, radio dramatist, critic. Schnurre holds the distinction being the first writer to present his work at the inaugural meeting of Group 47, of which he was also a founding member. Like many other initial members of that organization, Schnurre was a German army veteran, having been assigned to a “punishment battalion” ordered to do the dirtiest and most dangerous tasks toward the end of the war because he had attempted desertion and been caught. Like many of his fellow members of Group 47, he felt he had returned home to a Germany in need of moral regeneration. As a result, he was convinced that a complete break with the German literary past was needed, sometimes called a Kahlschlag, or “clear-cutting,” leaving a literary landscape

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as bleak as the one that many Germans confronted every day. He was best known for short stories resembling in many ways the short fiction of Ernest Hemingway, which some termed the “deadpan” style. This completely unadorned manner of writing was designed to confront the German reader by way of a reminder that Germans must “come to grips” with the iniquities of National Socialism and accept responsibility for them. Many of his stories depict victims of Nazi atrocities and usually assign guilt to another character who could have helped the victim in some way but chose not to do so. Schnurre was one of the few writers in the 1960s who likewise confronted the German Democratic Republic for its atrocities; he publicly denounced the construction of the Berlin Wall and wrote a book detailing its construction, titled Die Mauer des 13. August (The Wall of August 13). Schnurre received many citations and awards for his work, most notably the Federal Service Cross in 1981 and the Georg Büchner Prize in 1983. SEBALD, WINFRIED GEORG (1944–2001). Scholar, novelist, critic. Sebald was born in Bavaria and educated in Freiburg, Switzerland, and Great Britain. He completed a master’s thesis on dramatist Carl Sternheim and a doctoral dissertation on novelist Alfred Döblin; at the time of his death, he was a professor of modern German literature at the University of East Anglia in Norwich, England. Though he lectured in English and spent his working life in England, he had become a German prose stylist of the highest rank. Many scholars have asserted that Sebald at his best was a travel writer, largely because he saw well beyond the landscapes and environments upon which he chose to deliberate. In his Die Ringe der Saturn: eine englishche Wallfahrt (The Rings of Saturn, 1995) Sebald wrote a kind of memoir about a walking tour (hence Wallfahrt, or “pilgrimage” of the title) through the Suffolk countryside. In some of his most powerful prose, he described British air raids on Hamburg in 1943 in a book titled Luftkrieg und Literatur (On the Natural History of Destruction, 1999). “Horribly disfigured corpses lay everywhere. Bluish little phosphorous flames still flickered around many of them; others had been roasted brown or purple and reduced to a third of their normal size. They lay doubled up in pools of their own melted fat, which had sometimes already con-

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gealed.” Such accounts are arresting to be sure, and they often read as if they were documentary, eyewitness testimony—but they are fictional. Sebald believed that events like wars, invasions, and air raids are “true,” but details about them “get invented.” The air raids over Hamburg occurred one year before his birth; the blasted landscape in Hamburg is thus a kind of pretext for what lies beyond the charred ruins he describes. What lies beyond is the novelist Alfred Andersch, and in the essay that accompanies the Hamburg narratives Sebald concludes that Andersch was a charred ruin himself, having compromised his integrity during the Nazi years. Only through the analogy of a city leveled under 10,000 tons of phosphorus explosives, Sebald believes, can a reader begin to comprehend the destructive quality of compromise with Nazism. That may explain why most of Sebald’s work masterfully combines aspects of biography, travel, fiction, and informative essay. In these and other prose works, Sebald pursued the nuances of memory, identity, and the destruction of both. In Austerlitz (2001), the title character is a Welshman in his 50s who discovers that he is the son of Czech Jews. They managed somehow to send him as a young child to refuge in Great Britain. He, like other Sebald characters, is based on a real personage, or “maybe three and a half of them,” as he once said. Jacques Austerlitz spends what is left of his life and resources searching for any record he can find of his parents. Even when he locates some irrefutable evidence of them, however, he remains disoriented, perhaps because he has now seen beyond a landscape that was once familiar to him, only in this case the landscape is himself. Of course, the very name “Austerlitz” conjures up a landscape of destruction, since it was the 1805 site of a monumental victory by Napoleon over his Austrian and Russian opponents. That battle likewise completely altered the terrain outside the small village that lent its name to the conflict. There is a pronounced sense of melancholy in Sebald’s writing; the choice of “Saturn” in the title about a book dealing with a stroll through the English countryside reminds readers that Saturn was the subject of Albrecht Dürer’s 1514 engraving titled “Melancolia,” portraying Saturn as the planet with influence on moodiness. In his earlier books, such as Nach der Natur: ein Elementargedicht (After Nature, 1988) and Die Ausgewanderten: vier lange Erzählungen (The

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Emigrants, 1992), melancholy is more than a mood. It is a state of being, particularly for the four emigrants of the latter title. They are German exiles loosely based on individuals of his acquaintance (one of them his landlord in Manchester) who, with one exception, committed suicide. As a result, some scholars and critics termed his writing style “elegiac,” but his accounts are much darker than one usually encounters in elegies. In much of Sebald’s writing there is a sense of morose wistfulness far removed from any hope of redemption. In the 1990s, Sebald received numerous prizes and awards for his work, among them the Fedor Malchow Lyric Prize (for After Nature), the Berlin Literature Prize, the Johannes Bobrowski Medal, the Mörike Prize, the Wingate Prize for Fiction, the Heinrich Böll Prize, and several others posthumously. SEGHERS, ANNA (Netti Reiling Radvanyi, 1900–1983) GDR. Novelist, essayist. Seghers returned to the Soviet zone of occupation in 1947, heralded as the author of Das siebte Kreuz (The Seventh Cross, 1942) and an outspoken Marxist. She had spent the war years in Mexico, and The Seventh Cross was published in English during World War II; its distinctly anti-Nazi viewpoint won Seghers a wide readership. When Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer turned the book into a popular film starring Spencer Tracy, Jessica Tandy, Hume Cronyn, and Agnes Moorehead, Seghers became something of a celebrity. Both the novel and the film on which it was based were among the few realistic depictions of Nazi concentration camps during the war. Her return to the Soviet zone and immediate enrollment in the Socialist Unity Party (SED), however, quashed what hope she might have had for additional readership in the West. It is doubtful that she had such hopes anyway; critics had long categorized her as a “chronicler of the victim,” portraying various historical figures as martyrs. Her first major work published in the postwar period was her Die Toten bleiben jung (The Dead Remain Young, 1949), recounting the lives of ordinary Germans who suffered after the murders of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht in 1919 through the end of the Third Reich. In subsequent fiction, she continued to uplift the victim, of which Die Kraft der Schwachen (The Power of the Weak, 1965) is a good example. She also tended to glorify the cause of communism and its leaders, its utopian goals, and ultimately even the repressive

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East German regime. She was a long-standing member of the German Democratic Republic Writers’ Union and was its president for 26 years; for her loyalty to the regime, she received several citations and prizes. SOCIALIST REALISM (Sozialistischer Realismus). The use of literature for ideological and political purposes was nothing new by the time it was enshrined as official state cultural policy in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). It supposedly began in the Soviet Union in the early 1930s, but Joseph Stalin had begun to demand conformity among writers before official promulgation of such guidelines became law. Since most of the East German leaders had been trained in Moscow during the 1940s, they adopted Stalinist policies as they established rules and regulations for the GDR. They accepted the doctrines of Hungarian literary theorist György Lukács, a Marxist who had spent the war years with them in Moscow under Stalin’s protection as the true path for literature in a Marxist state. He termed it the “highest degree of realism,” because “the central question of socialist realism is the working man. Bourgeois realism has— as opposed to socialist realism—no clear, concise perspective. That is why, in socialist realism, the spiritual driving force of the new man as a ‘poesy of consciousness’ plays such an important role” (“Der höchste Grad des Realismus,” Neues Deutschland 157, 8 July 1949). Lukács was among the most accomplished and influential Marxist literary critics, active in revolutionary movements in his native Hungary but whose principal language of discourse was German. Lukács and others called for the reproduction of reality in literature, a reality that was both accessible to proletarian readers and somehow reflective of the immutable laws of scientific history set forth by Karl Marx (best adumbrated in the phrase “class consciousness”). As a result, language, characters, and even settings were to remain “typical” in an effort to demonstrate social and political relationships. Finally, literature should leave no doubt that socialist societies were progressing toward a concrete utopia. There would be hurdles and difficulties encountered in the path, to be sure, but they were to be overcome with perseverance and fortitude. The result was fairly boring; some scholars have since euphemistically termed socialist realism an “impossible aesthetic,” but there

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was rarely anything aesthetically praiseworthy in literature that adhered closely to the state’s demands. See also BAIERL, HELMUT; BECHER, JOHANNES R.; KANT, HERMANN; KUNZE, REINER; STRITTMATTER, ERWIN; WOLF, CHRISTA. SPERR, MARTIN (1944–2002) FRG. Dramatist, prose stylist. Sperr worked primarily as an actor during most of his career as a dramatist, and he had one outstanding success as the latter: Jagdszenen aus Niederbayern (Hunting Scenes from Lower Bavaria) in 1966. The play was published with two others set in Bavaria under the title Bayrische Trilogie (Bavarian Trilogy) in 1972. The other plays were Landshuter Erzählungen (Stories from Landshut) and Münchener Freiheit (Munich Freedom). All three enjoyed a solid but brief popularity on German stages as part of the “Volksstück revival” of the late 1960s and early 1970s. He published little of note thereafter, with the exception of stories and poetry in a 1979 volume titled Willst du Giraffen ohrfeigen, musst du ihr Niveau haben! (If You Want to Punch a Giraffe, You Must Be Up to Their Standards!) in 1979. See also THEATER. STRAUSS, BOTHO (1944– ) FRG. Dramatist, novelist, essayist. Strauss began his literary career as a theater critic for Theater Heute and later as a dramaturg/adaptor for the Schaubühne am Halleschen Ufer under director Peter Stein. That organization, along with director Stein, became one of the most well-known and distinguished theaters in the German-speaking world during the 1970s and 1980s. Among their most significant productions were premieres of Strauss’ plays. Strauss and Stein worked in films as well; Strauss wrote the screenplays for Trilogie des Wiedersehens (Trilogy of Repeated Meetings, 1979) and Gross und Klein (Big and Small, 1980), both of which were based on Strauss plays of the same titles. Die Ähnlichen (Those Similar, 1998) was based on an original screenplay. Strauss has also written several other screenplays for films directed by Patrice Chereau, Dieter Dorn, Matthias Hartmann, and others. By the 1990s, Strauss had received several awards for his plays and short stories; many critics began to compare him favorably with Heiner Müller and Peter Handke, the only German-language play-

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wrights whose record of worldwide productions and translations exceeded those by Strauss. In 1993, however, Strauss published an essay in the news magazine Der Spiegel that set off a storm of protest against him, titled “Anschwellender Bockgesang” (a brilliant syntactical construction in German, literally meaning “Goat Song Rising”; it has been most satisfactorily translated, given what Strauss has to say in the essay, as “Impending Tragedy”). In the essay, Strauss joined the ongoing debate about the role of National Socialism in German history, a debate that had begun in the Historikerstreit (Historians’ Dispute) of 1986. Strauss attempted to stake out a kind of middle ground between those who believed the Hitler years should occupy a central place in all of German history and those who contended that National Socialism and its attendant atrocities should finally become “historical.” Strauss argued that a preoccupation with Nazism had stifled the German social and intellectual maturation process, which in other societies is simply normal. The best example of how stifled, self-absorbed, and narcissistic German society had become was the prominence of the “68er generation” and the damage it had subsequently wrought in German politics, on university campuses, and within German culture as a whole. In other words, Strauss had become a cultural pessimist. As such, to many liberal observers, he sounded alarmingly similar to the cultural pessimists of the late 19th century. They were idealists who held profoundly conservative viewpoints, and many of those viewpoints were later espoused in National Socialist pronouncements. No one accused Strauss of sympathizing with the Nazis, but many were confounded by his claim that Germans had forgotten that art has a sacred task (hence the significance of the word “goat” in the title of his essay, recalling the etymological roots of tragodoi in Greek and transformed into variants of “tragedy” in many Western languages) and a responsibility to maintain the viability of myth. Strauss returned in 1995 to myth as a dramatist with Ithaka, a retelling of Odysseus’ homecoming, a play that received a moderately warm reception among critics. Subsequent works received less welcome receptions, though his numerous ventures into fiction sold well and were received more politely. Several critics have voiced concerns about Strauss’ apparent retreat, despite his 2001 Lessing Prize for literary achievement, from active participation in German literary life in

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the initial years of the 21st century, though he continued to write small, aphoristic volumes that appeared regularly on the German book market. STRITTMATTER, ERWIN (1912–1994). Novelist, dramatist, essayist. Strittmatter was almost exclusively identified with the German Democratic Republic (GDR), where his first novel, Ochsenkutscher (The Oxcart Driver), appeared in 1950. Several novels followed, and with each he gathered a larger following among East German readers. His novels were ultimately translated into over 40 languages, with the notable exception, he once noted, of “West German.” Readers in the Federal Republic of Germany found his numerous Bauernromäne (peasant novels) and Heimatromäne (country novels) too patently conformist with the East German regime’s demands for socialist realism. Yet they possessed a lyrical quality of which few other East German novelists could boast, and not all of them met with approval among the regime’s cultural functionaries. Ole Bienkopp (1963), which is probably his best known work, is the story of a returning German soldier who becomes a passionate advocate of land reform. He finds himself caught between the interests of farmworkers and party bureaucrats, most of whom have little understanding of agriculture. Ultimately, the well-meaning and unselfish Ole Bienkopp dies a broken man, exhausted by his efforts to help the farmworkers— hardly a hero’s end, and at wide variance with prescriptions set forth in the programmatic Bitterfelder Weg (Bitterfeld Path). Strittmatter’s best-known drama also dealt with land reform; he wrote Katzgraben in verse and Bertolt Brecht premiered it at the Berliner Ensemble in 1953. It too featured farmworkers, though this time in conflict with the ideals of land reform and the struggles they endure in achieving the goals of the GDR’s land reform program. Strittmatter’s lengthy (it ultimately was published in three volumes) autobiographical novel Der Laden (The Shop) was the basis of an epic television miniseries and aired in West Germany in 1988. It introduced many West Germans to Strittmatter for the first time, though it did little to increase sales of his books there. But he remained a hero in the GDR to the end of the regime’s demise, garnering five National State Prizes.

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SÜSKIND, PATRICK (1949– ). Novelist. Süskind enjoyed the distinction of producing a worldwide best-seller, one of the few German novels to capture an international reading audience numbering in the millions (in over 30 different translations) during the postwar period. Das Parfum: die Geschichte eines Mörders (Perfume: The Story of a Murderer, 1985) is a crime thriller, unlike most other German novels in the postwar period to achieve similar popularity. Various critics have offered to look for and find hidden political inferences in Perfume, but the novel is perhaps best understood as a spellbinding yarn with broad appeal. Süskind has few other works to his credit; Der Kontrabass (The Contrabass, 1981) was a very popular one-man show in the early 1980s, with over 200 productions of it in German theater repertoires. It featured a drunken musician whose humorous and sometimes grotesque observations reveal the frustrations of a little-noticed performer. The contrabassist musician notes with chagrin that there are few musical compositions featuring the bass as a solo instrument; his resentment and beer consumption grow as the play progresses. He indulges himself in hilarious antisocial and anti-artistic fantasies. One of the dilemmas the contrabassist faces is his unrequited love for a soprano whom he has seen from the orchestra pit as she performs in operas. He plans to cry her name aloud at that evening’s performance, where she will be present. “And then she will read about it in tomorrow morning’s newspaper!” he says. Süskind’s short novella Die Geschichte von Herrn Sommer (Mr. Sommer’s Story, 1993) features a similar kind of misanthrope, though seen through the eyes of a somewhat clinical observer. The narrator digresses frequently to recall his boyhood in Bavaria during the 1950s, when his passion was climbing trees. From those vantage points, he noticed Mr. Sommer’s daily peregrinations, which lasted as long as four hours and always at a rapid tempo. At one point, Mr. Sommer unwittingly interrupts the narrator’s attempt to commit suicide. The narrator had climbed to the highest bough he could find in a red pine tree and was about to jump off the bough in the hope of crashing to the earth below and landing fatally on his head. But then Mr. Sommer inexplicably passed by and the two shared a sandwich. A few years later, the narrator watched Mr. Sommer himself commit

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suicide by walking out into Lake Starnberg, the same lake where King Ludwig II apparently drowned himself. Süskind’s masterpiece of misanthropy, however, is Jean-Baptiste Grenouille, the central character of the aforementioned Perfume. Grenouille is more than a misanthrope, however; he becomes a serial killer with extraordinary gifts as the creator of exotic perfumes. Süskind’s masterful interweaving of the sense of smell with the primitive urge both to find love and to murder the objects of love was appealing to all kinds of readers around the world. Jonathan Noel, the protagonist of Süskind’s novella Die Taube (The Pigeon, 1987), is another kind of French misanthrope, though not a murderer. Noel is a doorman at a bank whose orderly routine of watching customers go in and out of the bank, day after day, year after year, offers him a kind of refuge from interaction with his fellow human beings. That order is one day disrupted by a pigeon, who builds a nest near his assigned door. Noel discovers he has no authority to get rid of the bird and thus falls into despair. In his brief and thoughtful treatise Über Liebe und Tod (On Love and Death, 2006), Süskind goes beyond misanthropy to deliberate on the “erotic longing for death” among human beings, attempting to establish a kind of connection between the two. In some ways, Süskind finds in death a “consummation of ecstasy,” though death bespeaks an admittedly opaque kind of eroticism. Süskind uses the example of Orpheus as a man who, like all human beings, finds it impossible to “balance” love and death. The fascination—or perhaps obsession— with both is borne of the inherent danger in both. Both threaten to annihilate the individual sense of self, yet both promise a concomitant loss of self-absorption. SWITZERLAND. With a population of about 7.6 million (64 percent of whom speak some form of German), Switzerland has an international influence widely disproportionate to its size. Switzerland has, however, rarely possessed a disproportionate literary influence. The major exception was the postwar period, when two Swiss German writers emerged to assume front rank among all German writers: Friedrich Dürrenmatt and Max Frisch. Dürrenmatt and Frisch were prolific in several genres, including drama and performance theory; both wrote extraordinarily effective

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plays, screenplays, poetry, novels, short fiction, and essays. They both acknowledged the debt they owed to the theater culture of Zurich and to Swiss neutrality in World War II. Yet they both realized that Switzerland had made compromises to maintain its neutrality. Both were likewise skeptical of Switzerland’s vaunted reputation for tolerance, openness, and ethnic diversity. Dürrenmatt once described Switzerland as a kind of prison, where everybody functioned simultaneously as both inmate and guard. Frisch employed the metaphor of a courtroom to describe much of his writing; he wanted to hold the Swiss (including himself) to account, for he believed they had plenty to confess. The dominance of Frisch and Dürrenmatt may have helped to obscure other German writers during the 1950s, when the Swiss Writers’ Union (Schweizerischer Schriftstellerverein) was instrumental in writing and translating a civil defense guide distributed to every Swiss citizen. The guide admonished the Swiss to spy on one another and report suspicious activity. Many attributed such bureaucratic heavy-handedness to a pervasive Cold War mentality prevalent in Switzerland at the time, but several German Swiss writers in 1970 left the writers’ union and formed the Olten Group (Gruppe Olten), whose manifesto included demands for global redistribution of wealth, a redress of oppression and marginalization in the Third World, demilitarization, safeguarding the environment, and ensuring human rights around the globe. The Olten Group disbanded in 2002 and was succeeded by the Solothurn Literature Society (Verein Solothurner Literaturtage). Such groups were reflections of other entities in postwar German-language literary history, such as the Group 47 or the Vienna Group. Organizers and members of these organizations apparently sensed the need to foster solidarity among writers in the German-speaking world and to provide possible avenues for future literary development. Writers as disparate as Hermann Burger, E. Y. Meyer, Adolf Muschg, and Gertrud Leutenegger benefitted from contact with groups, as Swiss writers struggled to step outside the long shadows cast by Dürrenmatt and Frisch. Thomas Hürlimann’s plays have been produced in Berlin and Erika Burkhart’s poetry has found readership in both Germany and Austria. Peter Stamm’s prose style is widely praised, and several critics have found Helen Meier’s fiction worthy of emulation. All have

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received prizes and awards in Switzerland for their work, but almost no one outside of Switzerland has heard of them.

–T– TABORI, GEORGE (1914–2007). Dramatist, novelist, screenplay writer, translator. Tabori had a remarkable career both in the United States and in Germany. Though he was born in Hungary and grew up speaking German and studying in Berlin, he began his novelistic career in the United States. Beneath the Stone (1945), Companions of the Left Hand (1946), and Original Sin (1947) were all originally written in English, and a half century later he and his wife, Ursula, translated them into German. He stated that writing in a language he did not fully understand prevented him from writing in clichés— largely because he did not know any. He began writing plays at the suggestion of Bertolt Brecht, whom Tabori met in California while writing the novels. Tabori met with little success as a dramatist, but one of his translations of works by Brecht, titled Brecht on Brecht, had a long run in New York and is still performed widely to this day. Tabori’s screenplays were also popular, particularly the one he wrote for Alfred Hitchcock’s I Confess (1953), starring Montgomery Clift. Tabori returned to Berlin in the 1970s and began working with the Berliner Ensemble; that organization staged a number of plays that he had written in English and then translated into German. Based on that experience, Tabori established a small troupe in Bremen that staged his Mutters Courage (My Mother’s Courage), based on his mother’s experience of escape from the Auschwitz concentration camp. It became the basis of a 1995 British-German feature film, directed by Michael Verhoeven and in which Tabori himself appeared. His best play in Bremen was Mein Kampf, subtitled a “farce,” about Adolf Hitler’s unsuccessful attempts to enter art school in Vienna. In 1992, Tabori received the Büchner Prize. See also HOLOCAUST; THEATER. THEATER. The German-language theater experienced an astonishing rebound in the immediate aftermath of World War II. In occupied Berlin, for example, performances began within three weeks of ca-

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pitulation. Stagings began soon thereafter in other cities and towns of Germany and Austria, while in German-speaking Switzerland performances had never ceased. The city of Zurich had indeed become the capital of free German-speaking theater from 1933 to 1945, premiering new plays by exiled authors, often performed by exiled actors. After the war, Zurich retained its place of prominence for a time, premiering new works by Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Max Frisch, Carl Zuckmayer, and others. Soon after Bertolt Brecht (whose works had likewise premiered in Zurich) returned to Europe, he settled in East Berlin. The sensational success of his works there prompted a shift in focus to Berlin, where theaters in both the Eastern and Western sectors of the city began an intense, decades-long competition to capture public attention away from each other. The Burgtheater in Vienna, when it reopened in 1955, was home to several premieres by Fritz Hochwälder, but rarely did a Burgtheater premiere attract attention until the 1980s. The repertoires of many theaters in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) through the 1950s were dominated by plays of Frisch, Dürrenmatt, Wolfgang Borchert, Zuckmayer, and several foreign playwrights banned under the Adolf Hitler regime. Brecht was frequently absent from West German repertoires because theaters boycotted any Brecht production, but by the early 1960s, the boycotts had largely ceased. New theater buildings, meantime, in both East and West Germany replaced those destroyed in the war, and governments increased their subsidies to city and regional playhouses. Brecht claimed that National Socialism had corrupted production values and that the German-language theater would have to reinvent itself. Several directors agreed with him and began to emulate his call for anti-illusionism. While some well-known actors and directors recapitulated the work they had done in the Third Reich (such as Heinz Hilpert, Jürgen Fehling, Gustaf Gründgens, and Saladin Schmitt), others used the opportunity of a clean break, or Kahlschlag, with the past to inaugurate a new kind of theater. Hans Schalla took over the Bochum Theater in 1947 and established the “Bochum style” of wide-open stage spaces, minimalist designs, and distinctive lighting effects. Actor Fritz Kortner returned from exile in California and established a spare acting and directing style at the Kammerspiele in Munich. Among his assistants and protégés in Munich were Peter

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Stein, August Everding, and Jürgen Flimm, who later achieved distinctive reputations of their own. By the mid-1960s, subsidies provided up to 90 percent of operating costs, allowing theaters to stage lavish productions not seen since the Hitler years. Architects in Germany designed new structures, accepting Brecht’s call for anti-illusionism without question, so stage aprons were largely absent. Overwrought, declamatory acting styles fell completely out of fashion, as a new “inner intensity” style borrowed from Marlon Brando and American “method acting” techniques became popular. In the German Democratic Republic (GDR), actors maintained the distinctive Soviet-style system based partially on the work of Konstantin Stanislavsky. East German theaters also attempted to solidify Soviet traditions and rules of appropriateness of performance—much to the chagrin of Brecht, who advocated a more “distanced” (verfremdet) performance style. Many GDR artists regularly made their way to the FRG, and most of them never returned. After the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, the steady flow of artists to the West came largely to a halt. Television had a profound effect on German theater from the 1950s onward; in the West, the trend was toward elitism, as the large majority of audience members made their visits to live theater less frequently. In the East, where television was strictly controlled, theater audiences actually grew in number and tickets were often difficult to obtain. By 1975, 95 percent of all West German households had at least one television set, and the average viewing time in each household grew each year. In the GDR, audiences began to realize that the theater was one place government authorities could not regulate their reactions. Performances were often characterized by inappropriate laughter at “inside jokes” and the subtle ridicule of government officials. In the West, television expropriated the harmless, nonpolitical situation comedy, formerly the lifeblood of most theater repertoires, and far less boulevard fare appeared in German theaters than at any time in the German theater’s history. The increased level of subsidy for the German theater furthermore prompted many critics to call for only “serious” plays in the theater, since comedies could be found on television anyway. The result was a growing sense of entitlement and elitism within the West German theater, fed by an overemphasis on directing at the

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expense of acting. That was particularly true in the case of Erwin Piscator, who returned from exile in the United States to West Berlin in 1962. At the Freie Volksbühne, he staged several sensational “documentary dramas” by Heinar Kipphardt, Rolf Hochhuth, and Peter Weiss. Meanwhile, the deceased Brecht had achieved a status comparable to that of Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Friedrich Schiller in many theaters. Brecht’s plays were done in literally hundreds of theaters, and abroad Brecht became the metaphorical face of the German theater. Hundreds of books, scholarly dissertations, articles, and theses with him as the principal subject appeared in dozens of languages. The Berliner Ensemble in East Berlin became a Brecht museum, presenting (usually to sold-out houses night after night) productions that Brecht himself had created. In the late 1960s, however, social and political unrest prompted several changes in the West German theater. A generation that had come of age in the postwar period now began to question the conduct of its elders during the Nazi era, and the result in many cases was an embrace of Marxist ideals. There were attempts at “collectivizing” repertoire selection, casting, and other aspects of theater administration, but the rise of the artistically authoritarian director was the most noticeable result of such idealism. The director’s vision became paramount, supplanting all other considerations, especially fidelity to the dramatic text. The 1960s saw the rise of several promising playwrights, including Franz Xaver Kroetz, Martin Sperr, and Martin Walser, while numerous talented directors rose to prominence in the 1970s and 1980s as well. Among them was Claus Peymann, who forced a theatrical confrontation with Austrian Nazism in 1988. That year marked the 50th anniversary of the Anschluss (annexation) of Austria into the Greater German Reich; it was also the 100th anniversary of the new Vienna Burgtheater’s construction. Peymann commissioned Thomas Bernhard to write Heldenplatz (Heroes’ Square), which treated the fate of a mythical Jewish family in 1988 Vienna. The rise to prominence of Bernhard as a leading dramatist accompanied the similar rise of two other Austrians, Peter Handke and Elfriede Jelinek. The three of them did not create plays in the normal sense but for the most part composed formless scenarios that required a strong director to shape into something performable. The same was

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true of the East German Heiner Müller, though few East German directors would dare to attempt any staging of a Müller play. Müller remained a persona non grata despite, or perhaps because of, his enormous success in the West. By contrast, the plays of Peter Hacks, Volker Braun, and Ulrich Plenzdorf were frequently produced in the East. In the West, Peymann directed several premieres of Handke and Bernhard’s works, while Jossi Wieler staged several of Jelinek’s scenarios. Peymann also staged premieres of plays by Peter Turrini and George Tabori in Vienna. In West Berlin, the plays of Botho Strauss rose to national prominence in the 1980s, many directed by Peter Stein. Strauss’ plays manifested more traditional form, featuring characters who actually spoke to each other and whose motivations developed from the play’s circumstances. The collapse of the GDR brought new opportunities for theater artists to work freely in the West and for audiences in the East to see plays long prohibited. Along with those opportunities came the realization that costs for reunification would soon curtail accustomed outlays for culture, including those for theater. Several theaters were forced to close, as a “new” but unified Germany confronted the way theater and drama were to function in an atmosphere of enormous public debt. Because the German theater had, since the mid-18th century, historically been a force for articulating what the German “nation” was, political leaders in the late 20th and early 21st centuries turned to the theater for clues as to what actually constituted “Germany.” Numerous leading politicians uttered solemnities about the theater’s importance, as panels of experts examined ways to provide guidelines ensuring a future for the German theater. No similar panels emerged in Austria or German-speaking Switzerland, but concern there nevertheless likewise appeared in newspapers, university seminars, and in media outlets about the continued role of live theater performance in the German language. Most citizens in the German-speaking world agreed that local governments must help to preserve live theater as more than “mere entertainment.” There remains a consensus that no screen or media image can do what the theater inherently does— namely, create direct and immediate communication between artists and audiences, even though the size of audiences for live theater continues a steady decline. “Theater history” was once a discipline that

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focused on the theater’s history, one expert noted. It had become a history of “performative turns,” in which all the world had indeed become a stage, and all the men and women merely players. The German theater in former times simulated the world; the world in a media-drenched epoch now simulated the theater, forcing politicians, businessmen, religious leaders, teachers, telephone solicitors, lawyers, sales clerks, and myriad other individuals altogether into new “performative” tasks and responsibilities. THELEN, ALBERT VIGOLEIS (1903–1989). Novelist, poet, translator. Thelen is best known for his lengthy novel Die Insel des Zweiten Gesichts (The Island with Two Faces). It recounts the tribulations Thelen and his wife, Beatrice, endured in finding refuge on the island of Mallorca between 1931 and 1936. There he briefly became a secretary and typist for Count Harry Kessler, though Kessler himself never mentioned the fact. The novel is a chronicle of the couple’s privations in the process of meeting such individuals as Kessler, Robert Graves, and several others who make their ways across and within the island during the Spanish Civil War, followed by revolutionaries on both sides hunting each other down, followed by German tourists trying to find sunshine. When Thelen read part of the novel for assembled members of Group 47 in the early 1950s, they rejected it as clumsily written, the product of a German who had for too many years been an expatriate. But when it was ultimately published in 1953, it became widely read and sold. Paradoxically, several members of Group 47 wrote reviews praising the book, culminating in Thelen’s receipt of the Theodor Fontane Prize for the book in 1954. Thelen’s attempt to capitalize on its success with a second novel, titled Der schwarze Herr Bahssetrup (Black Mr. Bahssetrup) did not succeed; the same may be said of Thelen’s subsequent work as a poet and writer of short fiction. THEOBALDY, JÜRGEN (1944– ) FRG. Poet, novelist. Theobaldy is usually associated with the German student revolutionary movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s, when critics began to use the term “new subjectivity” to categorize his work. That was particularly true after the publication of his volume titled Und ich bewege mich doch: Gedichte vor und nach 1968 (I’m Still Moving: Poems Before and

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After 1968). Much of his poetry featured a kind of quotidian free verse (sometimes called Alltagslyrik in German) that attempts to duplicate the immediacy of everyday speech. His first novel appeared in 1978 titled Sonntags Kino (Sunday at the Movies) and was likewise “subjective,” as the young protagonists seem hemmed in by their fantasies about reality rather than by the actual reality they inhabit in Theobaldy’s native Mannheim. They seem predictably impatient with the circumstances in which they find themselves, finding escape from those circumstances in the imaginary worlds they create, or more frequently, in the motion pictures they watch with rapt attention nearly every Sunday afternoon. See also FICTION. TIMM, UWE (1940– ) FRG. Novelist, short-story writer, children’s author. Timm gained noteworthy praise in 1974 for his remarkable first novel Heisser Sommer (Hot Summer, 1974), one of the more accomplished fictional accounts of the student revolts of the late 1960s. Timm’s treatment focused on youthful outrage aimed at the Springer Publishing Company, which many would-be student revolutionaries had correctly identified as an implacable foe of Marxism, particularly as it was practiced in the German Democratic Republic and the Soviet Union. What made Timm’s treatment unusual is the gradual realization among students that their utopian goals are in many instances merely well-worn formulae, leading to both social instability and blatant coercion. Four years later, Timm published an even better novel, titled Morenga, which depicted the Hottentot uprising against German colonial rule in German Southwest Africa (today Namibia) in the early years of the 20th century. The novel took its name from Jakob Morenga (1875–1907), a leader of the uprising. His tactics became so effective that Kaiser Wilhelm II, on the advice of his military leaders in the region, offered a 20,000 reichsmark reward for Morenga’s head. Timm cowrote the screenplay used in a madefor-television film of the same title, based on his novel; Egon Günther directed and Ken Gampu played Morenga. In some ways, Morenga resembled Hot Summer: it used a historical background, featured historical characters, and employed dialogue that seemed genuinely authentic for the periods in question. Timm enjoyed his most substantial commercial and popular success to date with the novella Die Entdeckung der Currywurst (The In-

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vention of the Currywurst, 1993). It too had a historical background, this time the final days of World War II. In the novel, a woman named Lena Brückner runs a Wurststube (a kind of hot-dog stand) in Hamburg and provides shelter for a young German navy deserter named Bremer, whom she encounters one night in a movie theater and gets to know him better that evening in an air raid shelter when an Allied raid over Hamburg interrupts the movie they were watching. Their relationship develops into one including sexual intimacy, and Lena finds herself withholding the news from Bremer as long as she can that the war is over. He ultimately discovers the truth and abandons her. Meanwhile, she has to find a way to support herself and her two children. In the process, Timm grants her the altogether fictional distinction of inventing German fast food, a kind of bratwurst (fried pork and veal sausage), sliced into bite-sized portions and served with a curry-flavored tomato sauce. Several others have claimed that distinction, but Timm claimed the “currywurst” was emblematic of the immediate postwar period, when desperation launched a thousand survival schemes. Timm’s most highly praised book of recent vintage was a memoir titled Am Beispiel meines Bruders (My Brother’s Example, 2003). It examined the short life of his elder brother Karl-Heinz Timm, who volunteered at age 18 for service in an elite SS regiment and died a year later after both his legs were amputated. Timm had attempted for years to write about his brother, perhaps because he never really knew him (Karl-Heinz died when Uwe was three). But his brother lived on within the family, a figure much admired—but admired for what? His youthful enthusiasm for the criminal organization he joined and for which he sacrificed his own life? Timm examines some of his brother’s letters, in which the young soldier exults in mowing down Russians with a machine gun. The examination of his brother’s fate ultimately leads Timm to their father, who had fought with distinction in World War I. He does not hold their father responsible for the horrific aspects of the German past, though he ultimately acknowledges that he and the whole family were a small, formative part of it. See also FATHER LITERATURE. TRÜMMERLITERATUR. Translated in this volume as “literature in the ruins,” the term refers to literature created in or as a result of living

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among the ruins of bombed-out German cities and towns in the aftermath of World War II. Heinrich Böll became an apologist for the term in 1952 with a talk he gave in Cologne’s semirestored central train station. In the talk, Böll defended the traditions of “ruins writing,” noting that writers for centuries had meditated on ruins, allowing literary ideas and forms to spring to life within the writer’s mind. Of course, ruins in the post–World War II landscape of a blasted Germany also included the ruins of ornate ideals many homecoming soldiers had been taught since boyhood, many as members of the Hitler Youth. American short-story writers, particularly Ernest Hemingway, served as models for German writers surveying that landscape; they employed direct, unadorned phraseology, in most cases to describe— but not to evaluate—“bare ruin’d choirs,” whole churches, homes, and entire cities. Böll was not the only author directly associated with Trümmerliteratur, nor did Trümmer imply simply ruined buildings. It also denoted ruined marriages, ruined—or at least severely impaired— health, rotting food one ate anyway, and boredom. For Wolfgang Borchert, it also meant a despair so deep that it defied description; for Hans Erich Nossack, it was a twisted fantasy world; and for Günter Eich, it meant the absolute necessity of dreaming, perhaps of a day when things improved. Many of the writers associated with Trümmerliteratur had returned home from prisoner-of-war camps, detainment centers, and even liberated concentration camps; their objective, Böll said, was to use a kind of vision they had gained to see and describe things that were no longer there—and even to look upon things that no eye had yet seen. TURRINI, PETER (1944– ) AU. Dramatist, polemicist, novelist, poet. Turrini came to prominence in the 1970s with controversial plays like Rozznjogd (translated into standard German as Rattenjagd; translated into English as Shooting Rats) and Sauschlacht (Slaughtering Sows). Critics tended to view the plays as part of the resurgent Volksstück movement in the 1970s. Like plays of Franz Xaver Kroetz and Wolfgang Bauer, Turrini’s plays focused on the lives of the simple Volk, many of whom found themselves unemployed, exploited, or otherwise economically disadvantaged. Such figures people the screenplays he and Wilhelm Pevny (1944– ) had written for the Austrian television miniseries titled Alpensaga (Alpine Saga).

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Like its counterpart in Germany titled Heimat, the series was an attempt to confront the origins and experience of National Socialism from the viewpoint of a small group of individuals; in the case of Alpensaga, it was a small farming village. In plays and novels since the 1970s, Turrini has generally continued to identify economic and social causes as the roots of evil within Austrian society. Many of them have been translated and staged throughout Europe, though usually in small, experimental theaters. In the fall of 2001, however, his Ich liebe dieses Land (I Love This Country) premiered at the Berliner Ensemble. The same company had done what is probably Turrini’s funniest play, Grillparzer im Pornoladen (Grillparzer in the Porno Shop) in 1993. See also NAZISM.

–V– VIENNA GROUP (Wiener Gruppe). The Vienna Group was a loosely defined and an even more loosely organized circle of Austrian poets who met irregularly in the 1950s. Its most influential member was Hans Carl Artmann, who published a manifesto in 1953 titled “An Eight-Point Proclamation of the Poetic Act.” In many ways, the group was a throwback to surrealist, constructivist, or dadaist entities whose “leader” managed to enunciate what his colleagues may have been thinking. Many of Artmann’s colleagues were thinking of ways to compose Konkrete Poesie (concrete poetry), and as a result members became some of the more significant avant-garde, or at least innovative, Austrian writers in the immediate postwar period. The group had ceased to exist by 1964. VOLKSSTÜCK. The Volksstück was historically a comedy written in local dialect, usually depicting the tribulations of young love against a musical background, frequently within a specific linguistic milieu, and offering middlebrow audiences a robustly humorous reflection of themselves. Scholars often used the term heile Welt (an “ideal” or “intact world”) to describe the atmosphere of the traditional Volksstück of the 19th century. In the postwar era of the 20th century, the Volksstück took on altogether new dimensions, thanks largely to revivals in the 1960s of “critical Volksstücke” by Ödön von Horváth

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(1901–1938) and Marieluise Fleisser (1901–1974). There was seldom anything ideal or intact in their plays; contemporary dramatists such as Franz Xaver Kroetz and Martin Sperr tried their hands at emulating von Horváth, and the results were what some critics called the “anti-Volksstück.” Characters in works by Kroetz, Sperr, and other emulators were authentically represented within a specific milieu, but they were often so depraved and brutalized that they seem merely pawns in a kind of ideological dialectic. The most recent critical Volksstück of note was Mit dem Gurkenflieger in die Südsee (Headed South aboard the Cucumber Flyer, 2005) by Christoph Nussbaumeder (1978– ). Its milieu is a cucumber farm in Bavaria, where exploited workers (predominantly East Europeans) harvest and select cucumbers for privileged German consumers. VORLESER, DER (The Reader, 1995). The action for this popular novel by Bernhard Schlink is set sometime in the late 1950s in West Germany, as a precocious 15-year-old boy named Michael, suffering from hepatitis, becomes ill on his way home from school and collapses in the street. A woman in her mid-30s comes to his aid and takes him to what is apparently her apartment. They become lovers, and all she (named Hanna) asks in recompense for the sexual education he receives is that he read to her. One day she disappears, much to Michael’s chagrin. Many years later, after Michael has completed university studies in jurisprudence (Schlink’s day job is a professorship of law, and he serves as a part-time judge in cases that require his expertise), he is part of a group observing the trials of alleged concentration camp guards. At the trials, he observes Hanna as a defendant. He also discovers that Hanna is illiterate, and as such she suffers exploitation from the other defendants who claim she is responsible for the worst atrocities committed against prisoners of the camp. In the trial’s summation, Hanna is permitted to address the court’s chief judge, and poignantly asks him what he would have done in her situation during the war; she seems genuinely desirous of an answer, for she realizes that her illiteracy is no excuse—yet it is the paramount reason for her present dilemma. She cannot effectively use it as a defense, and she even admits that she knew that many of the prisoners in her charge would be executed. The judge provides no effective response, and his

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failure prompts within Michael an unaccustomed (for him) process of soul-searching. He visits a concentration camp in an attempt to understand what went on there (since there was little in his schooling or university education to inform him of such matters) and comes to the conclusion that Hanna’s crimes should be condemned, but he cannot condemn her. He is simply still too close to her. The judge in the case places a harsh sentence on Hanna—18 years at hard labor—and Michael sends her tapes of his reading the German classics to her, just as he did when he was a boy. Hanna learns to read in prison, Michael later discovers, and is granted clemency. On the eve of her release from prison, she commits suicide. A film based on The Reader was released in 2009. British playwright David Hare wrote the screenplay for it, featuring Kate Winslet as Hanna, David Kross as the young Michael, and Ralph Fiennes as the older Michael. The German Federal Film Board provided substantial funding for the film, which the Berlin Film Festival had agreed to premiere in Germany. After the film’s limited release in the United States proved to be extremely popular, its director Stephen Baldry, along with Winslet and Hare, received nominations for several awards. Winslet eventually received the Golden Globe and Academy Best Actress Awards for her performance in the role of Hanna. See also NAZISM.

–W– WALSER, MARTIN (1927– ) FRG. Novelist, dramatist. Walser’s literary output since he first came to prominence with a collection of short stories titled Ein Flugzeug über dem Haus (An Airplane over the House, 1955) has been prodigious and wide ranging. The author of over 30 novels, several volumes of short fiction, and numerous plays, most scholars and critics accord Walser a significant place among literary figures in the postwar history of the Federal Republic of Germany. Running as a theme through many of his works is a skepticism about the Federal Republic’s astonishingly rapid rise to economic power, along with a critical view toward the acquisitiveness and obsession with financial security that seems to dominate so many aspects of German life. Walser is also a keen observer of psychic upheaval

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within the characters he creates, usually as they attempt to maintain a balance of personal happiness and a successful career. Such upheavals became most notably present in Walser’s first novel, Ehen in Philippsburg (The Gadarene Club, 1957), and later in what came to be known as the “Kristlein trilogy” of novels. That trilogy began with Halbzeit (Half Time, 1960), followed by Das Einhorn (The Unicorn, 1966), and concluded with Der Sturz (The Crash, 1973). These novels formed the basis of Walser’s reputation as a “socioeconomically critical” writer; he presents numerous conflicting and distorted values in them. Those misplaced values serve to undermine characters like Anselm Kristlein (the principal figure in the aforementioned trilogy). Das Einhorn was filmed in 1978 with Peter Vogel as Kristlein. Several novels followed, each with variations on the themes of career, success, employer–employee relations, Wohlstand (material well-being), and the neurosis that grows from preoccupation with such themes. In his plays of the 1960s, Walser was often preoccupied with something else: the effects of National Socialism. In Eiche und Angora (The Rabbit Race, 1962), Walser attempted to create what he termed a “German chronicle” that recapitulated recent German history in a realistic stage idiom, leaving characters who had experienced the Third Reich now adrift in a rapidly changing Germany. In a successor to The Rabbit Race titled Der schwarze Schwan (The Black Swan, 1964), Walser attempts to get inside the minds of characters who have had direct responsibility for Nazi atrocities. Walser’s novella Ein fliehendes Pferd (A Runaway Horse, 1978) became a best-seller, particularly after critic Marcel Reich-Ranicki praised it effusively. It marked a departure in Walser’s fiction because it featured a central character (in this case, a schoolteacher from Stuttgart named Helmut Halm) more interested in escaping his neuroses than in dwelling on them. “You can’t stand in the path of a runaway horse. It must be able to feel that its path is clear,” Halm proclaims. But Helmut does little to break away; instead, he quotes Søren Kierkegaard and ponders the significance of the term “midlife crisis.” Ein fliehendes Pferd was the basis of a 2007 film of the same title, directed by Rainer Kaufmann and starring Ulrich Noethen as Helmut Halm. Helmut reappears in the novel Brandung (Breakers, 1985), which finds him escaping to Los Angeles where he teaches at a fictitious college

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called Oakland University. There he has a passionate affair with a student, to whose unfortunate death in a drowning accident he inadvertently contributes. By the mid-1980s, Walser was off in a new direction, this time examining the thesis of German statehood. Dorle und Wolf (1987) is a short novel about East German spy Wolf Zieger and his wife, Dorle, who works for the West German government. Walser had for some time been publishing articles advocating German reunification in the 1980s, a decade when many West German writers had promoted an acceptance of permanent German division between the Federal Republic and the German Democratic Republic; in Walser’s novel, Wolf is arrested and jailed, yet the love that he and Dorle share despite their separation remains. That love became a kind of allegory, in Walser’s mind, for German citizens on both sides of the East–West divide who found themselves caught in an untenable situation. With German reunification an accomplished fact by the early 1990s, Walser turned to another untenable situation in which Germans found themselves, namely guilt for the Holocaust. Having been awarded the Peace Prize of the German Booksellers Association in 1998, Walser used the opportunity of an acceptance speech before that organization in Frankfurt am Main to reject the continued practice of assigning responsibility for Nazi atrocities to Germany, and particularly to young Germans, who had nothing to do with the Holocaust. It was time, he said, to cease using Auschwitz as “a permanent exhibit of our shame” and to expel “Holocaust retrospection from public memory” (“Erfahrungen beim Verfassen einer Sonntagsrede,” http://www.boersenverein.de /fpreis.htm, 12 October 1998). His remarks set off a firestorm of controversy, led by Ignatz Bubis (1927–1999), head of the Central Council of Jews in Germany. Bubis accused Walser of what he called “spiritual arson,” a phrase he later retracted in a meeting of reconciliation with Walser arranged by the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. At that meeting, both men agreed that some means of dealing with the Nazi past among both descendants of victims and perpetrators was needed. Most instrumental in that task, they agreed, would be a national identity that both could share. Walser’s views reflected the Historikerstreit (Historians’ Dispute) of a decade earlier; he maintained that Germany could no longer define itself, or be defined, by the Holocaust. Walser was not

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advocating any form of Holocaust denial, but he forcefully asserted that Germans had done sufficient penance for the crimes of a generation far removed from those now engaged in creating a newly unified Germany. Walser has received numerous awards, guest professorships, honorary doctorates, and citations for his work. Among the most prominent are the aforementioned Peace Prize of the German Booksellers Association, the Federal Order Pour le Mérite, Federal Service Cross, and the Georg Büchner Prize. See also THEATER. WEISS, PETER (1916–1982). Dramatist, novelist, essayist. Weiss was an unusual contributor to postwar German literary efforts because he had lived in Sweden since 1939. He was born in Berlin and emigrated at age 18 with his parents; he studied in Prague until 1938. He became a naturalized Swedish citizen in 1949, but he had already begun writing and making short films in Swedish. He stated that writing in German was a difficult undertaking for him, one that accentuated his sense of exclusion. Yet it sharpened his critical eye, and he developed over the course of a 40-year career a deep commitment to social transformation and an embittered antagonism toward the Federal Republic of Germany. Though he wrote several novels and plays, Weiss is perhaps best known for the drama Die Verfolgung und Ermordung Jean Paul Marats, dargestellt durch die Schauspielgruppe des Hospizes zu Charenton unter Anleitung des Herrn de Sade (The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade), which premiered in 1964 and went on to several significant productions around the world. The most noteworthy of them was Peter Brook’s staging with the Royal Shakespeare Company in 1965, which Brook filmed in 1967 with Patrick Magee as the Marquis de Sade, Ian Richardson as Jean-Paul Marat, and Glenda Jackson as Charlotte Corday. Weiss preferred Hans Anselm Perten’s Rostock production in the German Democratic Republic, because it emphasized the Marxist dialectic between Marat and de Sade. Brook’s production (and the several imitations that followed) emphasized sensational aspects of the play’s setting within an insane asylum. Weiss made alterations in the drama and subsequent new versions appeared

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through the 1960s. Its centerpiece remained the fictional meeting between Marat and de Sade; Weiss maintained that Marat’s position defending a Jacobin-style cruelty for the sake of social betterment was preferable to de Sade’s cruelty for cruelty’s sake. Weiss stated that everything he wrote had a political objective, and he often declared his solidarity with countries locked in the Soviet Union’s orbit, though he was reluctant to advocate a Soviet-style socialist oligarchy. Weiss followed up Marat/Sade (as it came to be popularly known) with Die Ermittlung (The Investigation) in 1965. It employed a text taken directly from the Auschwitz trials in Frankfurt am Main that had run from 1963 to 1965. In the trials, 22 individuals (of the estimated 7,000 involved in running the Auschwitz-Birkenau death camps) were called to account; Weiss used trial testimony to create a sequence of scenes he subtitled an “Oratorio in Eleven Cantos.” The work that concluded the last decade of his life was a Wunschbiographie (a kind of fictionalized autobiography) he titled Die Ästhetik des Widerstands (The Aesthetics of Resistance) and completed shortly before his death. A three-volume work of over 1,000 pages, Weiss intended it as an epic story, demonstrating the failure of resistance to the rise of National Socialism, coupled with the responsibility of art to have assisted the cause. Weiss interlarded events of his own life into fictional accounts of a young proletarian who fights in the Spanish Civil War, joins the Communist Party, meets Bertolt Brecht, Herbert Wehner, and other then well-known socialists, witnesses the dissolution of any solidarity among the left during World War II, and finally presents the utter destruction of German literary culture as a historical inevitability. WELLERSHOFF, DIETER (1925– ) FRG. Novelist, essayist, poet. Wellershoff began his literary career by completing a much-praised doctoral dissertation. Thereafter, he eschewed a full-time academic career in favor of working for a book publisher, while continuing to write poetry and innovative fiction (which he began calling “Cologne realism”). He first participated in meetings with Group 47 in 1960, for whom he read parts of his first novel, Ein schöner Tag (A Beautiful Day, 1966). Critics at the time noted that it was strongly influenced by contemporary French fiction models, particularly the work of Alain Robbe-Grillet (1922–2008). Like Robbe-Grillet, Wellershoff wrote in

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a style that is perhaps best described as phenomenological realism, featuring a preoccupation with surfaces, odd details, and frequent repetitions. Wellershoff has not remained exclusively attached to that stylistic paradigm, having written over 40 novels, novellas, volumes of criticism, poetry, and nonfiction essays. Among the more noteworthy of his novels are Die Schönheit des Schimpanzen (The Beauty of the Chimpanzee, 1977), a study of what motivates men to commit suicide; and Der Sieger nimmt alles (Winner Takes All, 1980), a character study of the prototypical “winner” in postindustrial society. The protagonist is a successful businessman who, on a sales trip, loses control of himself and murders a woman, then ends up killing himself in a lonely hotel room. In 1995, Wellershoff completed what many critics consider a stunningly effective memoir, titled Der Ernstfall (A Serious Case). In it, Wellershoff returns to the hospital where he nearly died 50 years earlier of severe battle wounds. His was indeed a “serious case,” and the experience of war on a 19-year-old conscript was something that required a half century of deliberation. In 2001, his Der verstörte Eros (Distracted Eros, subtitled “On the Literature of Desire”) explored how writers as disparate as Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Marcel Proust, Leo Tolstoy, Theodor Fontane, D. H. Lawrence, and others attempted to channel their erotic impulses into literary work. In such cases, Wellershoff finds resonance for many of the characters in his fiction; they are often loners, as even the most successful and renowned of writers must often become isolated if they are to be effective writers. Isolation can, however, have profoundly destructive effects on most people; they often find themselves (in Wellershoff’s novels at least) pushed to extremes in both thought and action, often over the edge into self-destruction. WEYRAUCH, WOLFGANG (1907–1980) FRG. Short-story writer, radio dramatist, poet. Weyrauch was an extraordinarily prolific writer of short stories, though unlike most of his other colleagues in Group 47 he had been a published novelist during the Third Reich. His approach changed completely after the war, and as an editor of several volumes of poetry by young poets and writers he is thought to have originated the term Kahlschlag to define the kind of fiction and poetry that the immediate postwar period needed: a clean break with the

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past and a commitment to experimentation that manifested a complete separation from the Hitler years. Weyrauch was convinced that National Socialism had damaged the German language in ways no one could fully measure. In his own poetry, Weyrauch often attempted to combine a kind of ecstatic hope and optimism, alternating at times with surrealistic imagery. In his short fiction, he often employed the technique of “inner monologue,” consisting of a constant internal voice that attempts to keep the central character on a focused train of thought. That train often stalled at mental images of horrors experienced in wartime or in the years immediately after the war— and rarely did the train reach its ultimate destination, largely because Weyrauch felt no such destination existed. He nevertheless received several awards and citations for his work, particularly his collections of radio plays. The best of them appeared in 1962, published under the imaginative titles Dialog mit den Unsichtbaren (Dialogue with the Unseen, 1962). See also NAZISM. WIECHERT, ERNST (1887–1950). Novelist, essayist. Wiechert was one of the most widely read of all German writers in the immediate postwar period, largely because of his open resistance to and criticism of the National Socialist regime, which granted him the status of an authentic foe of the regime. Wiechert had been a devoted nationalist and conservative pundit in the 1920s, so the Nazis were slow to take immediate action against him. After he voiced support for Pastor Martin Niemöller in 1938, however, a “special court” sent Wiechert to the Buchenwald concentration camp. Though he spent only four months there, Wiechert’s documentation of what he endured and of the sufferings of those around him became Der Totenwald (The Forest of the Dead). Upon its publication in 1946, the book became one of the first widely read accounts of the camps’ systematic abominations. Wiechert described the book simply as “a report, dedicated to the memory of the dead, to the shame of the living, and as a warning to the next generation.” WINTERSPELT. This 1974 novel by Alfred Andersch is set in the Ardennes Forest region near the town of Winterspelt; the action takes place against the backdrop of the “Ardennes offensive,” better known as the “battle of the Bulge.” German troops under the command of

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Major Joseph Dincklage await the coming onslaught of American troops, but Major Dincklage is prepared to make an unauthorized surrender of his entire battalion to the enemy in view of their superior numbers and equipment. His lover, Käthe Linck, supports his decision, and her former lover, Wenzel Hainstock, serves as a go-between in negotiations with Captain John Kimbrough on the American side. Negotiations fall apart when the Americans discover that Hainstock is a communist, whom they suspect of having ulterior motives. Meanwhile, one of Dincklage’s soldiers, an embittered former hotel clerk and unrepentant National Socialist, informs Dincklage’s superiors of the surrender negotiations. The inference is that death and destruction await the German troops, either at the hands of the Americans or by an SS Death’s Head squadron on its way to execute deserters. The novel was the basis of a 1979 feature-length film, directed by Eberhard Fechner, with Ulrich von Dobschütz as Dincklage, Hans Christian Blech as Hainstock, George Roubicek as Kimbrough, and Katharina Thalbach at Käthe. See also NAZISM. WOHMANN, GABRIELE (1932– ) FRG. Novelist, short-fiction stylist, poet. Wohmann is one of the most prolific writers in the postwar period, with well over 300 short stories published, 16 novels, and a dozen radio scripts and screenplays. She has also published novellas and poetry, but not in such remarkable numbers. Some critics have accused her of “graphomania,” writing simply because she seems inwardly compelled to do so. Very little of her work has sold well, yet she has consistently received awards and citations since the 1960s. In that decade, she began attending meetings of Group 47, though she learned after three such meetings that her conception of German literature was at variance with the majority of the members. Like many members of the group, Wohmann regarded literature’s role in social criticism to be paramount; but hers is highly personal in style, and ultimately many critics have concluded that her critical stance is not social at all but perhaps best described as theological. Many of her characters are deeply flawed by virtue of their humanity, most often in deep need of redemption. As the daughter and granddaughter of Protestant pastors, critics have sometimes accused her of presenting a judgmental case against her characters.

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Her lengthy novel titled Ernste Absicht (Serious Intent, 1970), among the first of her efforts to attract critical attention, is a good example. In it, a woman about to undergo major surgery undertakes an evaluation of her life. Wohmann spares her protagonist nothing, confronting her with numerous failings, misunderstandings, weaknesses, and betrayals. The novel proceeds along several streams of consciousness and leaves the reader, as well as the protagonist, wondering where the stream will lead next. In the novella Paulinchen war allein zu Haus (Little Pauline Stayed Alone at Home, 1974), wellmeaning adults adopt a child and then proceed to indoctrinate her with bizarre ideas of “liberation” they picked up as students in the 1960s. Both books are characteristic of what many perceived as Wohmann’s apparent cynicism toward the human condition, in which self-absorption and vanity seem to be primary motivations. Her novels and stories in the 1980s and 1990s continued to explore the inner reaches of her characters’ minds, though perhaps with a less jaundiced viewpoint and more attention to minutiae. Some critics have compared her idiomatic approach to that of William Carlos Williams (1883–1963), though she herself has stated that among American writers, she feels the deepest affinity for Sylvia Plath (1932–1963). In some ways, Wohmann’s writing is “confessional” in ways that Plath’s was also thought to be. WOLF, CHRISTA (1929– ) GDR. Novelist, essayist. Wolf was one of the most significant writers of the German Dramatic Republic (GDR) and she became best known as an apologist for the regime and an exponent of the “official” socialist realism style. Her numerous novels and shorter works of fiction were not pedestrian exercises in compliance with the regime’s demands, however. While rarely experimental, they were often thought-provoking testimonies to an accomplished literary sensibility molded in the torments of two totalitarian dictatorships. Her experiences as a teenager in Nazi Germany formed a deeply held commitment to the utopian dreams of Marxism; she was an active member of the Socialist Unity Party (SED) for nearly the entire existence of the GDR and was later accused (with some validity) of having collaborated with East German secret police operatives in their surveillance efforts.

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The book that won her initial attention outside East Germany was in many ways an allegory of allegiance to goals of the state. It was titled Der geteilte Himmel (Divided Heaven, 1963), treating an affair between a young woman named Rita and an East German technocrat named Manfred. He defects to the West, and Rita undergoes an emotional breakdown that results in an unsuccessful suicide attempt. After a near fatal accident, she uses the time allowed her in hospital for recuperation to realize that her “heaven” is not with the man she loves but in the state to which she is committed. She returns to work in a factory and a resumption of her studies to become a teacher. Wolf was praised for the realistic detail of both the factory work and the “authenticity” of Rita’s emotional state; the regime liked the book for its adherence to the Bitterfelder Weg (Bitterfeld Path) policy of exposing writers and intellectuals to the proletariat, producing literature that was accessible to them. Divided Heaven was the basis of a popular 1964 film in the GDR, starring Renate Blume as Rita and Eberhard Esche as Manfred. Wolf’s later novels were perhaps less popular but more controversial. In Nachdenken über Christa T. (The Quest for Christa T., 1968) and Kindheitsmuster (A Model Childhood, 1976), Wolf evinced a growing sense of estrangement with the regime; she had earlier insisted that artists in the GDR remain loyal to their own experiences. That idea guided her in the opening of the latter book: “The past is never really dead. In fact, it’s not even past,” a construction she borrowed directly from the American writer William Faulkner. She had to defend such writing in 1969 against attacks made upon her at a national writers’ conference, compromising her political career (she had been considered for membership in the party’s powerful Central Committee) before it really got started. By the early 1970s, she began to emerge as a kind of nonconformist and accordingly received invitations to speak in the West. She nevertheless remained on the board of the GDR Writers’ Union and maintained her position in the official literary hierarchy of the GDR. Among critics in the West, she gained credibility and stature for her use of what she termed “subjective authenticity,” which was essentially a modernist tendency toward the anecdotal as a means of understanding larger social and political trends. Those trends reached an unstable point in 1976, however, when her lengthy autobio-

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graphical novel, A Model Childhood, was published and she signed a public letter of protest against the regime’s treatment of Wolf Biermann. The novel dealt with Wolf’s girlhood experiences in Nazi Germany, and some “official” critics in the GDR felt that Wolf was attempting to draw comparisons in tyranny. But she continued to win praise, awards, and encomia in the West, granting the GDR regime some much-needed positive publicity. She furthermore had no intention of emigrating to the West. In the aftermath of the GDR’s collapse and ensuing German reunification, Wolf’s reputation paradoxically took a nosedive. The publication of her short story “Was bleibt” (What Remains, 1990) set off a kind of literary firestorm. In it, Wolf recounts the experiences of a fictional woman under surveillance by East German secret police; the result was a series of controversies, the like of which German intellectual life had not witnessed in a decade. Some critics accused Wolf of “playing it safe” and waiting to make sure the GDR was dead before pouncing on its corpse. They interpreted the book as a kind of indictment of a regime and its practices, while omitting the fact that she had been an active participant in and supporter of both. Others felt that her loyalty to the GDR regime was mere careerism, with the unfortunate by-product of solace in socialist fantasies, utopian dreams of a better world, meaningless jargon about peace among peoples, and the acceptable suppression of individual liberty. Yet Wolf had her defenders, chief among whom was Günter Grass, who accused her detractors of starting a witch hunt and failing to recognize her own difficulties with the regime. In the wake of the storm that enveloped “Was bleibt,” three major points of discussion emerged that enlivened television talk shows and newspaper editorial pages for the remainder of the decade. The first was a reconsideration of the place German writers and intellectuals have historically attempted to occupy in the face of political tyranny. There were numerous broadcast interviews, essays, and studies that revisited the entire concept of “inner emigration” during the Nazi years and what it may have meant for subsequent generations. Second was the reconsideration of the direction German literature had taken in the postwar years, based on the assumption that German literature had to be socially committed and politically oriented in a leftist direction; that direction had been, in the views of many, a Sackgasse (dead

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end). The third point was related to the second: perhaps Germans should begin to assess their literature in terms of artistic worth, literary merit, and even accessibility to readers.

–Z– ZUCKMAYER, CARL (1896–1977). Dramatist, essayist, poet. Zuckmayer was, with Wolfgang Borchert, Bertolt Brecht, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, and Max Frisch, one of the most popular dramatists of the immediate postwar era. His best plays dated from the mid-1920s to the early 1930s, but his drama Des Teufels General (The Devil’s General, 1946) proved to be extraordinarily popular because its depiction of the swashbuckling Ernst Udet (the general of the title) seemed so authentic. Udet had been a popular figure in the German media; his work for the Adolf Hitler regime, his subsequent efforts to sabotage aircraft production during the war, and his ultimate suicide made him a kind of folk hero whom many audiences found appealing. Occupation authorities initially banned the play because it featured so many men in Nazi uniforms; they gradually began to allow performances, and by 1949, when the Federal Republic of Germany was granted sovereignty, the play became both a best-seller in print and a theatrical hit. Zuckmayer’s other plays during the postwar period did not fare as well. Critics liked his Das kalte Licht (The Cold Light, 1955), about the hydrogen bomb spy Klaus Fuchs; audiences found it unconvincing, though it remained of contemporary interest as the Cold War intensified in the 1950s. Zuckmayer’s poetry also sold well, but his remarkable 1966 memoir, Als wär’s ein Stück von mir (A Part of Myself), became one of the most widely read of any in the postwar years. It is a kind of cultural chronicle, providing well-wrought portraits of numerous figures in German life during the mid-20th century. The same may be said of his Geheimreport (Secret Report, 2002), based on his work for the Office of Strategic Services in Washington, D.C. Those portraits, however, were intended for use by occupation authorities in postwar prosecution efforts aimed at well-known Nazi Party members active in German theater and film during the Hitler regime. Zuckmayer received several awards and prizes for his work; he received the Goethe

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Medallion from the City of Frankfurt am Main in 1952, the Federal Service Cross in 1955, and the Austrian State Prize for Literature in 1960. ZUG WAR PUNKTLICH, DER (The Train Was on Time, 1949). This novella by Heinrich Böll was the author’s first published work. It deals with the fate of a soldier named Andreas, heading eastward in 1943 from Dortmund by way of Lvov to the Ukraine for his assignment somewhere on the eastern front. The train that carries him and other passengers is astonishingly punctual, arriving and departing from assigned stations almost exactly according to the timetable—a remarkable feat, given the wartime conditions over that extremely long distance. Andreas has a premonition of death, one that seems to mount during his interactions with other soldiers likewise on their way to the front. Arriving in Lemberg, he spends the night in a brothel and falls in love with one of its providers, a prostitute named Olina. Olina is also a spy for the Polish resistance and convinces Andreas and others to travel with her by auto to Stryi in Ukraine. Their car is blown up and all perish. Or does Andreas somehow survive?

Bibliography

CONTENTS General Studies and Collections of Criticism Comparative Studies of Selected Authors Four German Literatures Federal Republic of Germany German Democratic Republic Austria German-speaking Switzerland German-language Literature and the United States of America German Reunification Bibliography of Selected Authors and Topics Ilse Aichinger Jean Améry Alfred Andersch Hans Artmann Ingeborg Bachmann Jurek Becker Werner Bergengruen Thomas Bernhard Wolf Biermann Johannes Bobrowski Heinrich Böll Nicolas Born Thomas Brasch Volker Braun Bertolt Brecht Günter de Bruyn Elias Canetti Paul Celan Heimito von Doderer

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253 255 256 258 259 260 261 261 261 263 263 263 264 264 264 265 265 265 266 266 267 267 267 268 268 269 269 269 270

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Friedrich Dürrenmatt Günter Eich Hans Magnus Enzensberger Hubert Fichte Erich Fried Max Frisch Wilhelm Genazino Günter Grass Jürgen Habermas Peter Hacks Peter Handke Peter Härtling Friedrich Hayek Martin Heidegger Christoph Hein Stefan Heym Wolfgang Hilbig Wolfgang Hildesheimer Historikerstreit (Historians’ Dispute) Rolf Hochhuth Holocaust Hans Henny Jahnn Ernst Jandl Elfriede Jelinek Walter Jens Uwe Johnson Ernst Jünger Marie Luise Kaschnitz Walter Kempowski Heinar Kipphardt Wolfgang Koeppen Franz Xaver Kroetz Kulturbund zur Demokratischen Erneuerung Deutschlands Günter Kunert Reiner Kunze Elisabeth Langgässer Hermann Lenz Siegfried Lenz Thomas Mann Monika Maron Friederike Mayröcker

270 270 271 271 271 271 272 272 272 273 273 273 274 274 274 275 275 275 275 276 276 277 277 278 278 278 279 279 280 280 280 280 281 281 281 282 282 282 283 283 283

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Robert Menasse Irmtraud Morgner Heiner Müller Herta Müller Adolf Muschg Sten Nadolny Hans Erich Nossack Ulrich Plenzdorf Marcel Reich-Ranicki Brigitte Reimann Luise Rinser Peter Rühmkorf Bernhard Schlink Wolfdietrich Schnurre Winfried Georg Sebald Anna Seghers Botho Strauss Patrick Süskind George Tabori Peter Turrini Vienna Group (Wiener Gruppe) Martin Walser Peter Weiss Dieter Wellershoff Gabriele Wohmann Christa Wolf Carl Zuckmayer

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Secondary literature that examines and evaluates German literature of the postwar period is extraordinarily plentiful and informative. What follows here are severely abridged sections that will assist the reader in both German and English to locate volumes that are specific to genre, topic, geographical location, and individual author. The emphasis in most cases is on recent scholarship, though some standard works remain.

GENERAL STUDIES AND COLLECTIONS OF CRITICISM Chief among the standard works of General Studies and Collections of Criticism are Marcel Reich-Ranicki’s Deutsche Literatur in West und Ost of 1963, Jerry Glenn’s Deutsches Schrifttum der Gegenwart of 1971, and Peter Demetz’

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After the Fires of 1986. Among lexicons and bibliographies, the Raymond Furness Companion to Twentieth-century German Literature remains useful but it is becoming dated. Among more recent works, the Sibylle Cramer and Thomas Kraft Lexikon der deutschsprachigen Gegenwartsliteratur seit 1945 of 2003 stands out. There are several bibliographies cited below, usually associated with specific authors. Margy Gerber and Roger Pouget’s bibliography of translations from the German Democratic Republic is an exception, though it concludes well before reunification in 1989. Murray Smith and Bayrd Quincy Morgan’s 1972 bibliography of all postwar German literature in English translation is even older, but it is still valuable. Arnold-de Simine, Silke, ed. Memory Traces: 1989 and the Question of German Cultural Identity. New York: P. Lang, 2005. Bengeser, Josef. Schuld und Schicksal: Interpretationen zeitgenössischer Dichtung. Bamberg: C. C. Buchner, 1963. Catling, Jo. A History of Women’s Writing in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Clark, Mark W. Beyond Catastrophe: German Intellectuals and Cultural Renewal after World War II, 1945–1955. Lanham, Md.: Lexington, 2006. Demetz, Peter. After the Fires: Recent Writing in the Germanies, Austria, and Switzerland. San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986. ———. Postwar German Literature: A Critical Introduction. New York: Pegasus, 1970. Dötsch, Kerstin, and Sven Hanuschek. Autorenlexikon 2003/2004. Wuppertal: Hammer, 2003. Faulhaber, Uwe K., and Penrith Goff. German Literature: An Annotated Reference Guide. New York: Garland, 1979. Frederiksen, Elke, and Elizabeth G. Ametsbichler, eds. Women Writers in Germanspeaking Countries. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998. Furness, Raymond, and Malcolm Humble. A Companion to Twentieth-century German Literature. New York: Routledge, 1991. Glenn, Jerry. Deutsches Schrifttum der Gegenwart ab 1945. Munich: Francke, 1971. Hook, Elizabeth Snyder. Family Secrets and the Contemporary German Novel. Rochester, N.Y.: Camden House, 2001. Janssen-Zimmermann, Antje, and Elke Kasper. Grenzenlos: Literatur zwischen Ost und West von 1949 bis 1989: eine Bibliographie. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1999. Keele, Alan Frank. The Apocalyptic Vision: A Thematic Exploration of Postwar German Literature. Potomac, Md.: Studia Humanitatis, 1983.

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Klimt, Andreas. Kürschners Deutscher Literatur-Kalender: Nekrolog 1971–1998. Munich: Saur, 1999. Koebner, Thomas, ed. Tendenzen der deutschen Literatur seit 1945. Stuttgart: A. Kröner, 1971. Kraft, Thomas and Hermann Kunisch. Lexikon der deutschsprachigen Gegenwartsliteratur seit 1945/A–J; K–Z. Munich: Nymphenburger, 2003. Reich-Ranicki, Marcel. Deutsche Literatur in West und Ost: Prosa seit 1945. Munich: R. Piper, 1963. Stoehr, Ingo Roland. German Literature of the Twentieth Century: From Aestheticism to Postmodernism. Rochester, N.Y.: Camden House, 2001. Wiesehahn, Gretchen E. A Dubious Heritage: Questioning Identity in German Autobiographical Novels of the Postwar Generation. New York: P. Lang, 1997.

COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF SELECTED AUTHORS Comparing and contrasting authors who are contemporary with one another has long been a productive practice among scholars, critics, and students of German literature. Among more recent developments are studies and editions that examine women writers. Also in this section are volumes that contain Gespräche (conversations or discussions) with specific writers. In such settings, writers will frequently reveal information about their work and their approach to it more readily than elsewhere. A good example of such discussions is Siegfried Lenz’ Über Phantasie, which allows writers (Lenz included) to deliberate on the role of the writer’s imagination in the creation of literature. A new development in the scholarly subgenre of comparative studies is the study of how writers use paintings, photographs, and other images as part of their fictional narrative. Thomas Steinaecker’s Literarische Foto-Texte is the most recent example of this development. Angermeyer, Hans Christoph. Zuschauer im Drama: Brecht, Dürrenmatt, Handke. Frankfurt am Main: Athenäum, 1971. Bartel, Heike. Pushing at Boundaries: Approaches to Contemporary German Women Writers from Karen Duve to Jenny Erpenbeck. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006. Calandra, Denis. New German Dramatists: A Study of Peter Handke, Franz Xaver Kroetz, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Heiner Müller, Thomas Brasch, Thomas Bernhard and Botho Strauss. London: Macmillan, 1983. Krumbholz, Martin. Ironie im zeitgenössischen Ich-Roman: Grass, Walser, Böll. Munich: Fink, 1980.

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Lenz, Siegfried. Über Phantasie: Gespräche mit Heinrich Böll, Günter Grass, Walter Kempowski, et al. Hamburg: Hoffmann & Campe, 1982. Niemuth-Engelmann, Susanne. Alltag und Aufzeichnung: Untersuchungen zu Canetti, Bender, Handke und Schnurre. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1998. Reed, Donna K. The Novel and the Nazi Past: Mann, Böll, and Grass. New York: P. Lang, 1985. Sautter, Günter. Politische Entropie: Denken zwischen Mauerfall und dem 11. September 2001: Botho Strauss, Hans Magnus Enzensberger, Martin Walser, Peter Sloterdijk. Paderborn: Mentis, 2002. Schlösser, Hermann. Reiseformen des Geschriebenen: Selbsterfahrung und Weltdarstellung in Reisebüchern Wolfgang Koeppens, Rolf Dieter Brinkmanns und Hubert Fichtes. Vienna: Böhlau, 1987. Schuscheng, Dorothe. Arbeit am Mythos Frau: Weiblichkeit und Autonomie in der literarischen Mythenrezeption Ingeborg Bachmanns, Christa Wolfs, und Gertrud Leuteneggers. New York: P. Lang, 1987. Steinaecker, Thomas von. Literarische Foto-Texte: zur Funktion der Fotografien in den Texten Rolf Dieter Brinkmanns, Alexander Kluges und W. G. Sebalds. Bielefeld: Transcript, 2007. Steinmann, Siegfried. Sprache, Handlung, Wirklichkeit im deutschen Gegenwartsdrama: Studien zu Thomas Bernhard, Botho Strauss und Bodo Kirchhoff. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1985. Ullrich, Gisela. Identität und Rolle: Probleme des Erzählens bei Johnson, Walser, Frisch, und Fichte. Stuttgart: Klett, 1977. Wittkowski, Joachim. Lyrik in der Presse: eine Untersuchung der Kritik an Wolf Biermann, Erich Fried, und Ulla Hahn. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1991. Wohlleben, Doren. Schwindel der Wahrheit: Ethik und Ästhetik der Lüge in Poetik-Vorlesungen und Romanen der Gegenwart. Ingeborg Bachmann, Reinhard Baumgart, Peter Bichsel, Sten Nadolny, Christoph Ransmayr, W. G. Sebald, und Hans-Ulrich Treichel. Freiburg: Rombach, 2005.

FOUR GERMAN LITERATURES Comparisons among literatures that emerged from West Germany, East Germany, Austria, and German-speaking Switzerland during the four decades of separate existence were perhaps inevitable. Many concluded by the 1980s that the two republics had become so profoundly differentiated that the literatures found in both required altogether different critical approaches to

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make them properly understandable. Meanwhile, other observers became convinced that the only thing “uniting” German literature was a divided Germany, convinced that Germany should remain divided as a matter of political principle. Both groups were mistaken, as the Berlin Wall fell in 1989 and the Federal Republic of Germany quickly absorbed the German Democratic Republic in 1990. German unification proved to be a crisis of literary consciousness on both sides of the East–West divide, for few had anticipated it and some remained convinced it should never have occurred. Several writers stated that any union between the two republics would be artificial at best. The book market in increasingly affluent West Germany had expanded so much by the 1980s that distinctions within the entire German-speaking world were becoming less apparent and to some readers, largely irrelevant. Austrian authors like Peter Handke and Thomas Bernhard published nearly all their work with Suhrkamp in Frankfurt am Main, as did Swiss authors Max Frisch and Adolf Muschg. Such arrangements allowed for easier access to international markets and to the then-dawning age of the Internet. Even East German authorities began tentative thoughts shortly before 1989 in the direction of somehow accepting the possibilities of profiting from GDR authors publishing books in West Germany, because sales and royalties brought much-needed hard currency to the East German government. Another, but no less important, consideration in publishing within the growing West German market was the increase in the number of publishers. There had historically been a few publishers, usually located in West German university towns like Bonn, Tübingen, Göttingen, and Heidelberg that specialized in scholarly monographs. Their publication business had often been an outgrowth of their book-selling businesses in those towns. By the 1950s, however, commercial publishers like Rowohlt (which had begun in 1908) and Reclam began to take an interest in specialized academic monographs, which led to the establishment by other publishers of imprints specializing in academic research. These publishers—such as Bouvier, Rodopi, Lang, Hansen, de Gruyter, Metzler, and many others—expanded and enriched the academic market substantially. In the United States, university presses have traditionally been venues where scholarly monographs appeared; but in the past three decades, commercial publishers, similar to their counterparts in Germany, have begun to publish hundreds of titles. Without publishers like Camden House, Mellen, and UMI Research Press, the state of German literature research would be much smaller and poorer indeed.

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Federal Republic of Germany Arnold, Heinz Ludwig, ed. Literaturbetrieb in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Munich: Text + Kritik, 1981. Bullivant, Keith, and Richard Hinton Thomas. Literature in Upheaval: West German Writers and the Challenge of the 1960s. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1974. Bushell, Anthony. The Emergence of West German Poetry from the Second World War into the Early Post-War Period. New York: P. Lang, 1989. Degemann, Christa, and Frank Benseler, eds. Anna Seghers in der westdeutschen Literaturkritik 1946 bis 1983: eine literatursoziologische Analyse. Cologne: Pahl-Rugenstein, 1985. Durzak, Manfred, ed. Die deutsche Literatur der Gegenwart. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1971. Flitner, Christine. Frauen in der Literaturkritik: Gisela Elsner und Elfriede Jelinek im Feuilleton der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus-Verlagsgesellschaft, 1995. Kegelmann, René. An den Grenzen des Nichts, dieser Sprache—: zur Situation rumäniendeutscher Literatur der achtziger Jahre in der Bundesrespublik Deutschland. Bielefeld: Aisthesis, 1995. Kinder, Hermann. Der Mythos von der Gruppe 47. Eggingen: Edition Isele, 1991. Kröll, Friedhelm. Die Gruppe 47: soziale Lage und gesellschaftlches Bewusstsein . . . in der Bundesrepublik. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1977. Lettau, Richard, ed. Die Gruppe 47: ein Handbuch. Berlin: Luchterhand, 1967. Lützeler, Paul Michael, and Egon Schwarz. Deutsche Literatur in der Bundesrepublik seit 1965. Königstein: Athenäum, 1980. Mandel, Siegfried. Group 47: The Reflected Intellect. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1973. Meyer-Brockmann, Henry. Dichter und Richter: die Gruppe 47 und ihre Gäste. Munich: Rheinsberg, 1962. Schlant, Ernestine. The Language of Silence: West German Literature and the Holocaust. New York: Routledge, 1999. Schürer, Ernst, ed. The Berlin Wall: Representations and Perspectives. New York: P. Lang, 1996. Van D’Elden, Karl H. West German Poets on Society and Politics: Interviews with an Introduction. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1979. Wehdeking, Volker. Der Nullpunkt. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1971. Wiesand, Andreas Johannes, and Karla Fohrbeck. Literature and the Public in the Federal Republic of Germany. Munich: Hanser, 1976.

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German Democratic Republic Bathrick, David. The Powers of Speech: The Politics of Culture in the GDR. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995. Dietrich, Kerstin. “DDR-Literatur” im Spiegel der deutsch-deutschen Literaturdebatte. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1998. Emmerich, Wolfgang. Kleine Literaturgeschichte der DDR. Darmstadt: Luchterhand, 1981. Gerber, Margy, and Judith Pouget. Literature of the German Democratic Republic in English Translation: A Bibliography. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1984. Gerber, Margy, and Roger Woods, eds. The End of the GDR and the Problems of Integration: Selected Papers from the Sixteenth and Seventeenth New Hampshire Symposia on the German Democratic Republic. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1993. Goeschen, Ulrike. Vom sozialistischen Realismus zur Kunst im Sozialismus: die Rezeption der Moderne in Kunst und Kunstwissenschaft der DDR. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2001. Hansen, Gisela. Christliches Erbe in der DDR-Literatur. New York: P. Lang, 1995. Hohendahl, Peter Uwe, and Patricia Herminghouse. Literatur der DDR in den siebziger Jahren. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1983. Jonsson, Dieter. Widersprüche, Hoffnungen: Literatur u. Kulturpolitik der DDR. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1978. Kaiser, Paul, and Karl-Siegbert Rehberg. Enge und Vielfalt—Auftragskunst und Kunstförderung in der DDR: Analysen und Meinungen. Hamburg: Junius, 1999. Linklater, Beth V. Und immer zügelloser wird die Lust: Constructions of Sexuality in East German Literatures. Berne: P. Lang, 1998. Mann, Ekkehard. Untergrund, autonome Literatur und das Ende der DDR: eine systemtheoretische Analyse. New York: P. Lang, 1996. Raddatz, Fritz Joachim. Traditionen und Tendenzen; Materialien zur Literatur der DDR. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1972. Scheid, Judith R. Zum Drama in der DDR: Heiner Müller und Peter Hacks. Stuttgart: Klett, 1981. Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. Sozialistisches Drama nach Brecht. Neuwied: Luchterhand, 1974. Segel, Harold B. The Columbia Guide to the Literatures of Eastern Europe since 1945. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003. Von Hallberg, Robert, and Kennth J. Northcott. Literary Intellectuals and the Dissolution of the State: Professionalism and Conformity in the GDR. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

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Austria Bartsch, Kurt, and Dietmar Goltschnigg. Für und wider eine österreichische Literatur. Königstein: Athenäum, 1982. Daviau, Donald G. Major Figures of Contemporary Austrian Literature. New York: P. Lang, 1987. DeMeritt, Linda C., and Margarete Lamb-Faffelberger, eds. Postwar Austrian Theater: Text and Performance. Riverside, Calif.: Ariadne, 2002. Eder, Thomas. Schluss mit dem Abendland! Der lange Atem der österreichischen Avantgarde. Vienna: Zsolnay, 2000. Finlay, Frank, and Ralf Jeutter, eds. Centre Stage: Contemporary Drama in Austria. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999. Fischer, Ernst. Hauptwerke der österreichischen Literatur: Einzeldarstellungen und Interpretationen. Munich: Kindler, 1997. Konzett, Matthias. The Rhetoric of National Dissent in Thomas Bernhard, Peter Handke, and Elfriede Jelinek. Rochester, N.Y.: Camden House, 2000. Kucher, Gabriele. Thomas Mann und Heimito von Doderer: Mythos und Geschichte: Auflösung als Zusammenfassung im modernen Roman. Nuremberg: Carl, 1981. Lamb-Faffelberger, Margarete. Out from the Shadows: Essays on Contemporary Austrian Women Writers and Filmmakers. Riverside, Calif.: Ariadne, 1997. ———. Valie Export und Elfriede Jelinek im Spiegel der Presse: zur Rezeption der feministischen Avantgarde Österreichs. New York: P. Lang, 1992. Naqvi-Peters, Fatima. “The Rhetoric of Victim and Perpetrator: Austrian Literature and Film, 1986–1995.” PhD diss., Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures, Harvard University, 2000. Piontek, Slawomir. Der Mythos von der österreichischen Identität: Uberlegungen zu Aspekten der Wirklichkeitsmythisierung in Romanen von Albert Paris Gütersloh, Heimito von Doderer und Herbert Eisenreich. New York: P. Lang, 1999. Schmidt-Dengler, Wendelin, ed. Verlockerungen: österreichische Avantgarde im 20. Jahrhundert. Vienna: Praesens, 1994. Stoehr, Ingo Roland. Contemporary Austrian Writings. New York: Continuum, 2007. Stuckel, Eva-Maria. Österreich, Monarchie, Operette und Anschluss: Antisemitismus, Faschismus und Nationalsozialismus im Fadenkreuz von Ingeborg Bachmann und Elias Canetti. Gladbeck: KFVR, 2001. Vansant, Jacqueline. Against the Horizon: Feminism and Postwar Austrian Women Writers. New York: Greenwood Press, 1988.

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German-speaking Switzerland Frisch, Max. Schweiz als Heimat? Versuche über 50 Jahre. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1990. Heller, Patrick. Ich bin der, der das schreibt: Hermann Burger, Adolf Muschg, et al. New York: P. Lang, 2002. Kondric-Horvat, Vesna. Der eigenen Utopie nachspüren: zur Prosa der deutschsprachigen Autorinnen in der Schweiz zwischen 1970 und 1990. New York: P. Lang, 2002.

GERMAN-LANGUAGE LITERATURE AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Hahn, Regina U. The Democratic Dream: Stefan Heym in America. New York: P. Lang, 2003. Kinkel, Elke. Thomas Mann in Amerika: interkultureller Dialog im Wandel? New York: P. Lang, 2001 Kopp, William LaMarr. German Literature in the United States, 1945–1960. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967. Krätzer, Anita. Studien zum Amerikabild in der neueren deutschen Literatur: Max Frisch, Uwe Johnson, Hans Magnus Enzensberger. Berne: P. Lang, 1982. Kunert, Günter. Der andere Planet: Ansichten von Amerika. Munich: Hanser, 1975. Ritter, Alexander. Deutschlands literarisches Amerikabild. Hildesheim: Olms, 1977. Ziltener, Walter. Heinrich Böll und Günter Grass in den USA: Tendenzen der Rezeption. Berne: P. Lang, 1982.

GERMAN REUNIFICATION Few scholars can match Stephen Brockmann for his depth of knowledge about contemporary German literature and for his expertise on the postunification period in particular. His Literature and German Unification in 1999 was the first monograph in English to provide readers with analyses of ways in which literature responded first to German division and later to unification. It is also a wellinformed source for an analysis of Germany as a nation that takes its literature very seriously. Important collections on the subject of unification and its aftermath include Textual Responses to German Unification: Processing Historical and Social Change in Literature and Film by Carol Anne Costabile-Heming and

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Rachel Halverson, Walter Pape’s German Unifications and the Change of Literary Discourse, and Martin Kane’s Legacies and Identity: East and West German Literary Responses to Unification. Beitter, Ursula E. Literatur und Identität: deutsch-deutsche Befindlichkeiten und die multikulturelle Gesellschaft. New York: P. Lang, 2000. ———. Schreiben im heutigen Deutschland: Fragen an die Vergangenheit. New York: P. Lang, 1998. Brockmann, Stephen. Literature and German Reunification. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Chiarloni, Anna, and Helga Pankoke, eds. Grenzfallgedichte: eine deutsche Anthologie. Berlin: Aufbau, 1991. Conrady, Karl Otto. Von einem Land und vom andern: Gedichte zur deutschen Wende 1989/1990. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1993. Costabile-Heming, Carol Anne, and Rachel Halverson, eds. Textual Responses to German Unification: Processing Historical and Social Change in Literature and Film. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2001. Deiritz, Karl, and Hannes Krauss, eds. Der Deutsch-deutsche Literaturstreit: Analysen und Materialien. Hamburg: Luchterhand, 1991. Grub, Frank Thomas. Wende und Einheit im Spiegel der deutschsprachigen Literatur: ein Handbuch. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003. Haas, Birgit. Theater der Wende, Wendetheater. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2004. Herberg, Dieter, Doris Steffens, and Elke Tellenbach. Schlüsselwörter der Wendezeit: Wörter-Buch zum öffentlichen Sprachgebrauch 1989/90. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1997. Kane, Martin, ed. Legacies and Identity: East and West German Literary Responses to Unification. New York: P. Lang, 2002. Koch, Lennart. Ästhetik der Moral bei Christa Wolf und Monika Maron: der Literaturstreit von der Wende bis zum Ende der neunziger Jahre. New York: P. Lang, 2001. Monteath, Peter, and Reinhard Alter. Kulturstreit—Streitkultur: German Literature since the Wall. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996. Oppen, Karoline von. The Role of the Writer and the Press in the Unification of Germany, 1989–1990. New York: P. Lang, 2000. Owen, Ruth J. The Poet’s Role: Lyric Responses to German Unification by Poets from the GDR. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001. Pape, Walter, ed. 1870/71–1989/90: German Unifications and the Change of Literary Discourse. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1993. Rosenlöcher, Thomas. Ostgezeter: Beiträge zur Schimpfkultur. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1997.

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Verheyen, Dirk. The German Question: A Cultural, Historical, and Geopolitical Exploration. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1999. Welke, Klaus, and Wolfgang Werner. Die Deutsche Sprache nach der Wende. Hildesheim: Olms, 1992. Wittek, Bernd. Der Literaturstreit im sich vereinigenden Deutschland: eine Analyse des Streits um Christa Wolf und die deutsch-deutsche Gegenwartsliteratur in Zeitungen und Zeitschriften. Marburg: Tectum, 1997.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED AUTHORS AND TOPICS Items set forth below are for the most part monographs on individual authors whose entries appear in this volume. Considerations of space forbid an extensive listing of all but major bibliographic sources for these selected authors, but the citations provide the reader with several valuable points of departure for further reading. Note that the citations are almost exclusively scholarly monographs, many of which contain extensive bibliographies themselves. No translations of works by authors appear, nor is there any listing of any collected works or volumes containing works by the authors. The point of this bibliographical listing is to provide the reader with the most well-known or the most recently published scholarly investigation of an author’s work.

Ilse Aichinger Alldridge, James C. Ilse Aichinger: Chester Springs, Penn.: Dufour Editions, 1969. Bartsch, Kurt, and Gerhard Melzer. Ilse Aichinger. Graz: Droschl, 1993. Herrmann, Britta, and Barbara Thums. Was wir einsetzen können, ist Nüchternheit: zum Werk Ilse Aichingers. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2001. Lindemann, Gisela. Ilse Aichinger. Munich: C. H. Beck, 1988. Lorenz, Dagmar C. G. Ilse Aichinger. Königstein: Athenäum, 1981. Moser, Samuel. Ilse Aichinger: Leben und Werk. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1995.

Jean Améry Heidelberger-Leonard, Irene. Über Jean Améry. Heidelberg: Winter, 1990. Sebald, W. G. “Mit den Augen des Nachtvogels: über Jean Améry.” Etudes Germaniques 43 (1988): 313–27.

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Steiner, Stephan. Jean Améry (Hans Maier): mit einem biographischen Bildessay und einer Bibliographie. Basel: Strömfeld/Nexus, 1996.

Alfred Andersch Hesse, Michael. Kunst als fraktales Spiel. Potentiale der Kommunikation in den Romanen Alfred Anderschs. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 2004. Jendricke, Bernhard. Alfred Andersch: Mit Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1999. Reinhardt, Stephan: Alfred Andersch: Eine Biographie. Zurich: Diogenes, 1996. Reinhold, Ursula. Alfred Andersch: Politisches Engagement und literarische Wirksamkeit. Berlin: Akademie, 1988. Schütz, Erhard. Alfred Andersch. Munich: Beck, 1980. Sebald, Winfried Georg. Luftkrieg und Literatur: mit einem Essay zu Alfred Andersch. Munich: Hanser, 1999. Wehdeking, Volker. Alfred Andersch. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1983. Wittmann, Livia Z. Alfred Andersch. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1971.

Hans Artmann Bisinger, Gerald. Über H. C. Artmann. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1972. Donnenberg, Josef. Pose, Possen und Poesie: zum Werk Hans Carl Artmanns. Stuttgart: Heinz, 1981. Fuchs, Gerhard. H. C. Artmann. Graz: Literaturverlag Droschl, 1992. Horowitz, Michael. H. C. Artmann: eine Annäherung an den Schriftsteller & Sprachspieler. Vienna: Ueberreuter, 2001. Pabisch, Peter. H. C. Artmann: ein Versuch über die literarische Alogik. Vienna: Schendl, 1978.

Ingeborg Bachmann Achberger, Karen. Understanding Ingeborg Bachmann. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995. Bartsch, Kurt. Ingeborg Bachmann. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1988. Brokoph-Mauch, Gudrun. Thunder Rumbling at My Heels: Tracing Ingeborg Bachmann. Riverside, Calif.: Ariadne, 1998.

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Hapkemeyer, Andreas. Ingeborg Bachmann: Entwicklungslinien in Werk und Leben. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1990. Hoell, Joachim. Ingeborg Bachmann. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2001. Höller, Hans. Ingeborg Bachmann. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1999. Krick-Aigner, Kirsten A. Ingeborg Bachmann’s Telling Stories: Fairy Tale Beginnings and Holocaust Endings. Riverside, Calif.: Ariadne, 2002. Lennox, Sara. Cemetery of the Murdered Daughters: Feminism, History, and Ingeborg Bachmann. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006. Summerfield, Ellen. Ingeborg Bachmann: die Auflösung der Figur in ihrem Roman. Malina. Bonn: Bouvier, 1976.

Jurek Becker Gilman, Sander L. Jurek Becker: A Life in Five Worlds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. Graf, Karin, and Ulrich Konietzny. Jurek Becker. Munich: Iudicium, 1991. Johnson, Susan M. The Works of Jurek Becker: A Thematic Analysis. New York: P. Lang, 1988. Kutzmutz, Olaf. Jurek Becker. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 2008. Riordan, Colin. Jurek Becker. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1998. Rock, David. Jurek Becker: A Jew Who Became a German? New York: Berg, 2000.

Werner Bergengruen Bänziger, Hans. Werner Bergengruen, Weg und Werk. Berne: Francke, 1961. MacKenzie, Paul A. Die heile Welt in the Lyrics of Werner Bergengruen. Berne: P. Lang, 1980. Meier, Peter. Die Romane Werner Bergengruens. Berne: Francke, 1967. Sobota, Elisabeth. Das Menschenbild bei Bergengruen: Einführung in das Werk des Dichters. Zurich: Verlag der Arche, 1962. Wilk, Werner. Werner Bergengruen. Berlin: Colloquium, 1968.

Thomas Bernhard Dowden, Stephen D. Understanding Thomas Bernhard. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991.

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Gössling, Andreas. Thomas Bernhards frühe Prosakunst. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1987. Höller, Hans. Thomas Bernhard. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1993. Honegger, Gitta. Thomas Bernhard: The Making of an Austrian. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001. Martin, Charles W. The Nihilism of Thomas Bernhard. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995. Mittermayer, Manfred. Thomas Bernhard. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1995. Reich-Ranicki, Marcel. Thomas Bernhard: Aufsätze und Reden. Zurich: Ammann, 1990. Schmidt-Dengler, Wendelin. Der Übertreibungskünstler: Studien zu Thomas Bernhard. Vienna: Sonderzahl, 1989. Sorg, Bernhard. Thomas Bernhard. Munich: Beck, 1977.

Wolf Biermann Kertzscher, Günter. Biermann und die Folgen. Berlin: Verlag Europäische Ideen, 1977. Pleitgen, Fritz. Die Ausbürgerung: Anfang vom Ende der DDR. Berlin: Ullstein, 2001. Roos, Peter, and Armin Broeker, eds. Exil: die Ausbürgerung Wolf Biermanns aus der DDR: eine Dokumentation. Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1977. Rothschild, Thomas. Wolf Biermann: Liedermacher und Sozialist. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1976.

Johannes Bobrowski Keith-Smith, Brian. Johannes Bobrowski. London: Wolff, 1970. Koczy, Karol. Johannes Bobrowski: ein Deutscher und der Osten. Sankelmark: Akademie Sankelmark, 1989. Meckel, Christoph. Erinnerung an Johannes Bobrowski. Munich: Hanser, 1989. Minde, Fritz. Johannes Bobrowskis Lyrik und die Tradition. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1981. Scrase, David. Understanding Johannes Bobrowski. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995. Stock, Alex. Warten, ein wenig: zu Gedichten und Geschichten von Johannes Bobrowski. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1991. Wieczorek, John P. Between Sarmatia and Socialism: The Life and Works of Johannes Bobrowski. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999.

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Wolf, Gerhard. Johannes Bobrowski: Leben und Werk. Berlin: Volk & Wissen, 1967.

Heinrich Böll Conrad, Robert C. Heinrich Böll. Boston: Twayne, 1981. Hinck, Walter, and Manfred Jurgensen. Böll: Untersuchungen zum Werk. Munich: Francke, 1975. Martin, Werner. Heinrich Böll: eine Bibliographie seiner Werke. Hildesheim: Olms, 1975. Nägele, Rainer. Heinrich Böll: Einführung in das Werk und die Forschung. Frankfurt am Main: Athenäum, 1976. Nielen, Manfred. Frömmigkeit bei Heinrich Böll. Annweiler: Plöger, 1987. Reich-Ranicki, Marcel. Mehr als ein Dichter: über Heinrich Böll. Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1986. Reid, J. H. Heinrich Böll, a German for His Time. New York: Berg, 1988. Sowinski, Bernhard. Heinrich Böll. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1993. White, Ray Lewis. Heinrich Böll in America, 1954–1970. Hildesheim: Olms, 1979. Zachau, Reinhard K. Heinrich Böll: Forty Years of Criticism. Columbia, S.C.: Camden House, 1994.

Nicolas Born Eggerts, Jörg. Langsam kehrten die Farben zurück: zur Subjektivität im Romanwerk, im lyrischen und literaturtheoretischen Werk Nicolas Borns. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2002. Kremp, Jörg-Werner. Inmitten gehen wir nebenher: Nicolas Born, Biographie, Bibiliographie, Interpretation. Stuttgart: M & P Verlag für Wissenschaft und Forschung, 1994. Prinz, Alois. Der poetische Mensch im Schatten der Utopie: zur politischweltanschaulichen Ideen der 68er Studentenbewegung und deren Auswirkung auf die Literatur. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1990. Roddy, Harry Louis. “Germany’s Poetic Miscreants.” PhD diss., University of Texas, 2004.

Thomas Brasch Frölich, Margrit. Between Affluence and Rebellion: The Work of Thomas Brasch in the Interface between East and West. New York: P. Lang, 1996.

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Janssen-Zimmermann, Antje. Träume von Angst und Hoffnung: Untersuchungen zum Werk Thomas Braschs. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1995. Ponath, Jens. Spiel und Dramaturgie in Thomas Braschs Werk. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1999.

Volker Braun Costabile-Heming, Carol Anne. Intertextual Exile: Volker Braun’s Dramatic Re-vision of GDR Society. Hildesheim: Olms, 1997. Jucker, Rolf. Volker Braun. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1995. ———. Volker Braun in Perspective. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2004. Lücke, Bärbel. Volker Braun: unvollendete Geschichte. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1990. Profitlich, Ulrich. Volker Braun: Studien zu seinem dramatischen und erzählerischen Werk. Munich: Fink, 1985.

Bertolt Brecht Bentley, Eric. The Brecht Memoir. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1989, 1991. Bloom, Harold. Bertolt Brecht. Broomall, Penn.: Chelsea House, 2002. Brockmann, Stephen. Who Was Ruth Berlau? : Wer war Ruth Berlau? Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2005. Carney, Sean. Brecht and Critical Theory: Dialectics and Contemporary Aesthetics. New York: Routledge, 2005. Kleber, Pia, and Colin Visser, eds. Re-interpreting Brecht: His Influence on Contemporary Drama and Film. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Pietrzynski, Ingrid. “Der Rundfunk ist die Stimme der Republik”: Bertolt Brecht und der Rundfunk der DDR 1949–1956. Berlin: Trafo, 2003. Schumacher, Ernst, and Michael Schwartz, eds. Ein bayerischer Kommunist im doppelten Deutschland: Aufzeichnungen des Brechtforschers und Theaterkritikers in der DDR 1945–1991. Munich: Oldenbourg, 2007. Silberman, Marc. Revolution 1989: Whither Brecht? Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991. Stuber, Petra. Spielräume und Grenzen: Studien zum DDR-Theater. Berlin: Links, 1998. Thomson, Peter, and Glendyr Sacks, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Brecht. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

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Günter de Bruyn Evans, Owen. Ein Training im Ich-Sagen: Personal Authenticity in the Prose Work of Günter de Bruyn. Berne: P. Lang, 1996. Hafner, Frank. “Heimat” in der sozialistischen Gesellschaft: der Wandel des DDR-Bildes im Werk Günter de Bruyns. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1992. Hirdina, Karin. Günter de Bruyn: Leben und Werk. Berlin: Verlag Das Europäische Buch, 1983. Tate, Dennis. Günter de Bruyn in Perspective. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999. Wittstock, Uwe. Günter de Bruyn: Materialien zu Leben und Werk. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1991.

Elias Canetti Barnouw, Dagmar. Elias Canetti. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1979. Donahue, William Collins. The End of Modernism: Elias Canetti’s Auto-da-fé. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. Engelmann, Susanna. Babel, Bibel, Bibliothek: Canettis Aphorismen zur Sprache. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1997. Falk, Thomas H. Elias Canetti. New York: Twayne, 1993. Foell, Kristie A. Blind Reflections: Gender in Elias Canetti’s Die Blendung. Riverside, Calif.: Ariadne, 1994. Lawson, Richard H. Understanding Elias Canetti. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991. Lorenz, Dagmar C. G. A Companion to the Works of Elias Canetti. Rochester, N.Y.: Camden House, 2004. Murphy, Harriet. Canetti and Nietzsche: Theories of Humor in Die Blendung. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Piel, Edgar. Elias Canetti. Munich: Beck, 1984. Scott, David. Metaphor as Thought in Elias Canetti’s Masse und Macht. Berne: P. Lang, 1999. Steussloff, Axel Günther. Autorschaft und Werk Elias Canettis: Subjekt, Sprache, Identität. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1994.

Paul Celan Colin, Amy D. Paul Celan: Holograms of Darkness. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991. Felstiner, John. Paul Celan: Poet, Survivor, Jew. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995.

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Fioretos, Aris. Word Traces: Readings of Paul Celan. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. Glenn, Jerry. Paul Celan. New York: Twayne, 1973. Rosenthal, Bianca. Pathways to Paul Celan. New York: P. Lang, 1995.

Heimito von Doderer Bachem, Michael. Heimito von Doderer. Boston: Twayne, 1981. Fleischer, Wolfgang. Das verleugnete Leben: die Biographie des Heimito von Doderer. Vienna: Kremayr & Scheriau, 1996. Pfeiffer, Engelbert. The Writer’s Place: Heimito von Doderer and the Alsergrund District of Vienna. Riverside, Calif.: Ariadne, 2001. Schaffgotsch, Xaver. Erinnerungen an Heimito von Doderer. Munich: Biederstein, 1972. Schneider, Karl Heinrich. Die technisch-moderne Welt im Werk Heimito von Doderers. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1985. Turner, Bruce Irvin. Doderer and the Politics of Marriage. Stuttgart: Heinz, 1982. Weber, Dietrich. Heimito von Doderer. Munich: Beck, 1987.

Friedrich Dürrenmatt Arnold, Armin. Friedrich Dürrenmatt. New York: Ungar, 1972. Crockett, Roger A. Understanding Friedrich Dürrenmatt. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998. Fickert, Kurt J. To Heaven and Back: The New Morality in the Plays of Friedrich Dürrenmatt. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1972. Peppard, Murray B. Friedrich Dürrenmatt. New York: Twayne, 1969. Tiusanen, Timo. Dürrenmatt: A Study in Plays, Prose, Theory. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977. Whitton, Kenneth S. Dürrenmatt: Reinterpretation in Retrospect. New York: St. Martin’s, 1990.

Günter Eich Krispyn, Egbert. Günter Eich. Boston: Twayne, 1971. Miesen, Conrad. Flammen aus der Asche: Essays zum Werk von Günter Eich. Schweinfurt: Wiesenburg, 2003. Müller-Hanpft, Susanne. Über Günter Eich. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1970.

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Richardson, Larry L. Committed Aestheticism: The Poetic Theory and Practice of Günter Eich. New York: P. Lang, 1983. Schafroth, Heinz F. Günter Eich. Munich: Beck, 1976.

Hans Magnus Enzensberger Dietschreit, Frank. Hans Magnus Enzensberger. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1986. Eggers, Ingrid. Veränderungen des Literaturbegriffs im Werk von Hans Magnus Enzensberger. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1981. Falkenstein, Henning. Hans Magnus Enzensberger. Berlin: Colloquium, 1977. Melin, Charlotte. Poetic Maneuvers: Hans Magnus Enzensberger and the Lyric Genre. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 2003. Schickel, Joachim. Über Hans Magnus Enzensberger. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1970.

Hubert Fichte Beckermann, Thomas. Hubert Fichte: Materialien zu Leben und Werk. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch, 1985. Böhme, Hartmut. Hubert Fichte: Riten des Autors und Leben der Literatur. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1992. Böhme, Hartmut, and Nikolaus Tiling. Medium und Maske: die Literatur Hubert Fichtes zwischen den Kulturen. Stuttgart: M&P, 1995. Wangenheim, Wolfgang von. Hubert Fichte. Munich: Beck, 1980.

Erich Fried Lampe, Gerhard. Ich will mich erinnern an alles was man vergisst: Erich Fried, Biographie und Werk. Cologne: Bund, 1989. Lawrie, Steven W. Erich Fried: A Writer without a Country. New York: P. Lang, 1996. Mayer, Hans. Über Erich Fried. Hamburg: Europäische Verlagsanstalt, 1991.

Max Frisch Hage, Volker. Max Frisch in Amerika. Frankfurt am Main: Schöffling, 1995. Haupt, Ursula. Weiblichkeit in Romanen Max Frischs. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1996. Köpke, Wulf. Understanding Max Frisch. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991.

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Ramer, R. Ulrich. Max Frisch Gesamtbibliografie. Frankfurt: R. G. Fischer, 1993. Reich-Ranicki, Marcel. Max Frisch: Aufsätze. Zurich: Ammann Verlag, 1991. Tantow-Jung, Karin, and Lutz Tantow. Max Frisch: ein Klassiker der Moderne. Munich: Heyne, 1994. Waleczek, Lioba. Max Frisch. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch, 2001. White, Alfred D. Max Frisch, the Reluctant Modernist. Lewiston, Me.: Mellen, 1995.

Wilhelm Genazino Arnold, Heinz Ludwig. Wilhelm Genazino. Munich: Text + Kritik, 2004. Fansa, Jonas. Unterwegs im Monolog: poetologische Konzeptionen in der Prosa Wilhelm Genazinos. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2008. Hirsch, Anja. Schwebeglück der Literatur: der Erzähler Wilhelm Genazino. Heidelberg: Synchron, 2006.

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Adolf Muschg Dierks, Manfred. Adolf Muschg. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1989. Ricker-Abderhalden, Judith, ed. Über Adolf Muschg. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1979. Voris, Renate. Adolf Muschg. Munich: Beck, 1984.

Sten Nadolny Brix, Birgit. Sten Nadolny und die Postmoderne. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 2007. Bunzel, Wolfgang, ed. Sten Nadolny. Eggingen: Edition Isele, 1996.

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Hoffmann, Dieter. Postmoderne Erzählstrukturen und Interkulturalität in Sten Nadolnys Roman Selim oder die Gabe der Rede: Interpretation, Kommentar, Materialien. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 2001. Mani, B. Venkat. Cosmopolitical Claims: Turkish-German Literatures from Nadolny to Pamuk. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2007.

Hans Erich Nossack Esselborn, Karl G. Gesellschaftskritische Literatur nach 1945: politische Resignation und konservative Kulturkritik, besonders am Beispiel Hans Erich Nossacks. Munich: Fink, 1977. Kawohl, Birgit. Hans Erich Nossack-Bibliographie. Wetzlar: Kletsmeier, 1995. Kraus, Joseph. Hans Erich Nossack. Munich: Beck, 1981. ———. The Missing Link, or the Quiet Rebellion of Hans Erich Nossack. Bonn: Bouvier, 1976. Schmid, Christof, ed. Über Hans Erich Nossack. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1970. Schroeck, Peter J. Character Transition in the Writings of Hans Erich Nossack. New York: P. Lang, 1991. Söhling, Gabriele. Hans Erich Nossack. Hamburg: Ellert & Richter, 2003. ———, ed. Hans Erich Nossack: Schreiben und Veröffentlichen: Bibliographie und ausgewählte Texte. Mainz: Hase & Koehler, 1991.

Ulrich Plenzdorf Bernhardt, Rüdiger. Erläuterungen zu Ulrich Plenzdorf, Die neuen Leiden des jungen W. Hollfeld: Bange, 2004. Mews, Siegfried. Ulrich Plenzdorf. Munich: Beck, 1984. Musial, Torsten, and Kornelia Knospe, eds. Ulrich Plenzdorf. Berlin: Stiftung Archiv der Akademie der Künste, 2004. Reis, Ilse H. Ulrich Plenzdorfs Gegen-Entwurf zu Goethes Werther. Munich: Francke, 1977. Wolff, Jurgen. Ulrich Plenzdorf, Die neuen Leiden des jungen W.: Materialien. Stuttgart: Klett, 1980.

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Wolfdietrich Schnurre Adelhoefer, Mathias. Wolfdietrich Schnurre: ein deutscher Nachkriegsautor. Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus, 1990. Blencke, Katharina. Wolfdietrich Schnurre: eine Werkgeschichte. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 2003. Roberts, Ian. “Eine Rechnung, die nicht aufgeht”: Identity and Ideology in the Fiction of Wolfdietrich Schnurre. New York: P. Lang, 1997. Warg, Ilse-Rose. Doch ich krümm mich um alles, was lebt: Wolfdietrich Schnurres lyrisches Schaffen. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1993.

Winfried Georg Sebald Blackler, Deane. Reading W. G. Sebald: Adventure and Disobedience. Rochester, N.Y.: Camden House, 2007. Denham, Scott D., and Mark Richard McCulloh. W. G. Sebald: History, Memory, Trauma. New York: de Gruyter, 2006.

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Anna Seghers Arnold, Heinz Ludwig. Anna Seghers. Munich: Text + Kritik, 1982. Bangerter, Lowell A. The Bourgeois Proletarian: A Study of Anna Seghers. Bonn: Bouvier, 1980. Batt, Kurt. Über Anna Seghers: ein Almanach zum 75. Geburtstag, mit einer Bibliographie. Berlin: Aufbau, 1975. Fehervary, Helen. Anna Seghers: The Mythic Dimension. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001. Haas, Erika. Ideologie und Mythos: Studien zur Erzählstruktur und Sprache im Werk von Anna Seghers. Stuttgart: Heinz, 1975. Sauer, Klaus. Anna Seghers. Munich: Beck, 1978. Schrade, Andreas. Anna Seghers. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1993. ———. Entwurf einer ungeteilten Gesellschaft: Anna Seghers’ Weg zum Roman nach 1945. Bielefeld: Aisthesis, 1994. Wagner, Frank. Anna Seghers. Leipzig: Bibliographisches Institut, 1980. Wallace, Ian. Anna Seghers in Perspective. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1998.

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Patrick Süskind Barbetta, Maria Cecilia. Poetik des Neo-hantastischen: Patrick Süskinds Roman Das Parfum. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2002. Buss, Angelika. Intertextualität als Herausforderung für den Literaturunterricht: am Beispiel von Patrick Süskinds Das Parfum. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 2006. Degler, Frank. Aisthetische Reduktionen: Analysen zu Patrick Süskinds Der Kontrabass, Das Parfum und Rossini. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003. Delseit, Wolfgang, and Ralf Drost. Patrick Süskind, Das Parfum. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2000. Frizen, Werner, and Marilies Spancken, eds. Patrick Süskind, Das Parfum: Interpretation. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1996. Raab, Alexander, and Ellen Oswald. Patrick Süskind: Das Parfum. Munich: Mentor, 1997.

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George Tabori Bayerdörfer, Hans-Peter, and Jörg Schönert. Theater gegen das Vergessen: Bühnenarbeit und Drama bei George Tabori. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1997. Feinberg, Anat. George Tabori. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2003. Gronius, Jörg W., and Wend Kässens. Tabori. Frankfurt am Main: Athenäum, 1989. Haas, Birgit. Das Theater des George Tabori: vom Verfremdungseffekt zur Postmoderne. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 1999. Roth, Markus. Theater nach Auschwitz: George Taboris “Die Kannibalen” im Kontext der Holocaust-Debatten. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 2003. Strümpel, Jan. George Tabori. Munich: Text + Kritik, 1997.

Peter Turrini Amann, Klaus. Peter Turrini: Schriftsteller: Kämpfer, Künstler, Narr und Bürger. St. Pölten: Residenz, 2007. Dixon, Richard. “From Theatrical Politics to Political Theatrics, the Evolution of Peter Turrini’s Dramatic Vision.” PhD diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2001. Landa, Jutta. I Am Too Many People: Peter Turrini, Playwright, Poet, Essayist. Riverside, Calif.: Ariadne, 1998. Neubauer, Herbert, and Silke Hassler. Masken und Gesicht: Peter Turrini im Portrait. Klagenfurt: Wieser, 2006.

Vienna Group (Wiener Gruppe) Achleitner, Friedrich, and Peter Weibel. Die Wiener Gruppe: ein Moment der Moderne 1954–1960. Vienna: Springer 1997. Backes, Michael. Experimentelle Semiotik in Literaturavantgarden: über die Wiener Gruppe mit Bezug auf die konkrete Poesie. Munich: Fink, 2001. Bucher, André. Die szenischen Texte der Wiener Gruppe. Berne: P. Lang, 1992. Rühm, Gerhard. Die Wiener Gruppe: Achleitner, Artmann, Bayer, Rühm, Wiener: Texte, Gemeinschaftsarbeiten, Aktionen. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1985. Schmatz, Ferdinand. Sinn & Sinne: Wiener Gruppe, Wiener Aktionismus und andere Wegbereiter. Vienna: Sonderzahl, 1992.

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Peter Weiss Beise, Arnd. Peter Weiss. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2002. Best, Otto F. Peter Weiss: vom existentialistischen Drama zum marxistischen Welttheater, eine kritische Bilanz. Munich: Francke, 1971. Canaris, Volker. Über Peter Weiss. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1970. Cohen, Robert. Understanding Peter Weiss. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993. Eldh, Asa. The Mother in the Work and Life of Peter Weiss. New York: P. Lang, 1990.

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About the Author

William Grange is a cultural historian and Hixson-Lied Professor in the Johnny Carson School of Theatre and Film at the University of Nebraska. The author of six books, along with numerous essays, book chapters, journal articles, reviews, and encyclopedia entries, Dr. Grange was recently awarded the Fulbright Distinguished Chair in Humanities and Cultural Studies at the University of Vienna. There, he taught courses and held seminars in German about American actors and American theater history. He has received fellowships from the Fulbright Commission and the German Academic Exchange Service for his scholarly efforts and teaching in Cologne, Germany, while the Dorot Foundation, the Mellon Foundation, the Jane Harrison Lyman Foundation, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the Hixson-Lied Foundation have supported his research in the United States. In recognition of his work in German theater and drama, Dr. Grange received the University of Nebraska Vice-Chancellor’s Award for Research in the Humanities. He has also won awards for his teaching and service to students, along with citations of gratitude from the association of students’ families. An Equity actor for over 30 years, he has appeared in professional productions as Polonius in Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Cleante in Molière’s Tartuffe, Sgt. Trotter in Agatha Christie’s The Mousetrap, and many others, including musical roles. He numbers Captain Georg Ludwig von Trapp in Rodgers and Hammerstein’s The Sound of Music, Professor Henry Higgins in Lerner and Loewe’s My Fair Lady, August Wilhelm Schlegel in Bob Merrill’s Carnival!, and Caldwell B. Cladwell in the neofuturist musical Urinetown by Mark Hollmann and Greg Kotis among his favorites. He has also appeared in several student thesis films, usually playing villains, dim-witted policemen, or self-styled philosophers. Dr. Grange has also directed several musicals: A Funny 297

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, Cabaret, Carousel, Grease, Happy End, Pippin, and Babes in Arms. In the Johnny Carson School of Theatre and Film at the University of Nebraska, Dr. Grange primarily teaches courses in theater and film history, though on occasion he has taught performance courses. He leads graduate seminars in the history of acting, directing, and design, while his undergraduate seminars in the University Honors Program on various film topics remain popular across the University of Nebraska campus.