Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda

HISTORICAL DICTIONARY of AMERICAN PROPAGANDA

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HISTORICAL DICTIONARY of AMERICAN PROPAGANDA Martin Manning with the assistance of

Herbert Romerstein

James S. Olson Advisory Editor

Greenwood Press Westport, Connecticut • London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Manning, Martin J. Historical dictionary of American propaganda / Martin Manning with the assistance of Herbert Romerstein. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-313-29605-7 (alk. paper) 1. Propaganda, American—History—Dictionaries. I. Romerstein, Herbert. II. Title. E183.7.M325 2004 303.3'75'097303—dc22 2004052650 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2004 by Martin Manning All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2004052650 ISBN: 0-313-29605-7 First published in 2004 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984). 10

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Disclosure: Much of the material used in this book is found in the files of the Public Diplomacy Historical Collection, Bureau of Public Diplomacy, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC. The opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and not those of the U.S. Department of State or any other agency of the U.S. government.

Contents List of Terms

vii

Guide to Related Topics

xiii

Preface

xxi

Introduction

xxv

List of Abbreviations Chronology of Important Events in American Propaganda, 1622-2003 The Dictionary

xxxi xxxiii 1

Appendix: Research Collections

333

Select Bibliography

363

Index

377

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List of Terms Abolitionist Propaganda

Barnes, Harry Elmer

Active Measures Working Group

Benet, Stephen Vincent

Adams, Samuel

Bernays, Edward L.

Advancing American Art

Big Lie

Afghan Media Project

Binational Centers

Agitprop AIDS Disinformation Campaign

Biological and Chemical Weapons Warfare

"America First" Committee

Birth of a Nation

American Centers and American Corners

Bittman, Ladislav

American Colonization Society

Black Propaganda

American Council Against Nazi Propaganda

Blankenhorn, Heber

American Forces Network, Europe (AFN)

Books

American National Exhibition, Moscow

Boston Massacre

American Nazi Party American Republics Amerika Haus Amerika Illustrated Analysis of Communist Propaganda Anti-Imperialist League Anti-Semitic Propaganda Appendix Nine

Book Fairs Boston Gazette Boston

News-Letter

Boston Tea Party Braddock II Brainwashing Brecht, Bertolt Brussels Universal and International Exposition (EXPO 1958)

Art Exhibitions

Buenos Aires Convention for Promotion of Inter-American Cultural Relations

Atoms for Peace

Bunker Hill

Atrocity Propaganda Axis Propaganda

Bureau of Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs (U.S. Department of State)

Baby Parts

Byoir, Carl R.

List of Terms

VIM

Cadore Letter

Darlan Interlude

Campaign of Truth

Davis, Elmer Holmes

Cantril, Albert Hadley

Debunk

Carroll, John Wallace

Deception

Carter, Boake

De Leon, Edwin

Cartoons

De Lome Letter

Catholic Church

Disinformation

Cato's Letters

Disney Image

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Century Group

Division of Cultural Relations (Department of State)

Chambers, Whittaker

Documentary Films

Changing Minds, Winning Peace

Domestic Dissemination

Chaplin, Charles Spencer

Donovan, William J.

Chesapeake Affair

"Don't Tread on Me"

China White Paper

Dove, David James

Civil War Propaganda

Duranty, Walter

Civil War Tokens

Edes, Benjamin

Clandestine Radio Stations

Eisenhower-Rockefeller Letter

Cobbett, William ("Peter Porcupine")

Eisler, Gerhardt

Cold War

Emancipation Proclamation

Comics and Comic Strips

Family of Man

Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government (Hoover Commission)

Farewell Address (Washington)

Committee for National Morale Committee of Secret Correspondence Committee on Public Information Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies

Federal Arts Project Federal Bureau of Investigation Federal Theater Project (FTP) Federalist, The Fifth Column Fight for Freedom Committee (FFF)

Committees of Correspondence

Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA)

Congress for Cultural Freedom

Forgeries

Coordinator of Information

Four Freedoms

Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs

Four-Minute Men

Coughlin, Charles Edward

France

Counterattack

Frank, Benno D.

Covert Action Information

Bulletin

Franklin, Benjamin

Creel, George

Freneau, Philip Morin

Crusade for Freedom

Friendly Subversion

Cuba

Front Organizations

Cuban Freedom Committee

Geilenkirchen Salient ("Assault" On)

Cultural Diplomacy

Geisel, Theodor Seuss

Cultural Exchanges

German-American Bund

ix

List of Terms German-Bolshevik Conspiracy, The

Kobayashi Experiment

German Library of Information

Ku Klux Klan

Germany

Lasswell, Harold Dwight

Gillars, Mildred Elizabeth

Leaflets

Goebbels and His Propaganda Efforts Against the Allies

Lee, Ivy Ledbetter

League of American Writers

Gray Propaganda

Lerner, Daniel

Great Britain

Let Poland Be Poland

Gulag—Slavery, Inc.

Lexington and Concord (Battle)

Gulf War Disinformation

Liberty Lobby

Hale, William Bayard

Libraries

Hate Propaganda

Lilly, Edward Paul

Helene Von Damm Forgery Letter

Lorentz, Pare MacTaggart

Henry Ford and The International Jew

Lorient (Radio Siege)

Herz, Martin Florian

Lusitania Incident

Hitler's Airwaves

Magazines

Holocaust Denial

Marshall Plan

Home Front Propaganda

Marxist Propaganda

Hotze, Henry

Masses, The

Hour, The

McCarthyism

House Resolution 199

Mein Kampf

I Led Three Lives

Merriam, Charles Edward

Index, The

Military Propaganda

Information USA

Miller, Glenn

Institute for Historical Review

Mission to Moscow

Institute for Propaganda Analysis (IPA)

Morgenthau Plan

Institute of Pacific Relations

Moronic Little King Incident

Inter-Allied Propaganda Commission

Motion Pictures

International Expositions

Mrs. Miniver

Iraq

Miienzenberg, Willi

Italy

Murrow, Edward [Egbert] Roscoe

Jackson, Charles Douglas Jefferson-Franklin Plan

Music Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act

John Reed Clubs

National Anthems

Join, or Die

National Electric Light Association

Japan

"Journal of Occurrences"

Neue Zeitung

Joyce, William Brooke

New Deal

Katyn Forest Massacre Incident

New Masses

Kendall, Amos

Newspapers

Kirkpatrick Speech

Norden, Commander Robert Lee

List of Terms

X

Occupied Countries and Territories

Psychological Operations Coordinating Committee

Office of Facts and Figures

Psychological Strategy Board

Office of Strategic Services

Psychological Warfare

Office of War Information

Psychological Warfare Branch, Allied Forces Headquarters (PWB/AFHQ)

Normandy Invasion

OP-16W (Directive) Operation Cornflakes

Psychological Warfare Division, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces (PWD/SHAEF)

Operation Magic Carpet

Psychology of Radio

Operation Mincemeat

Public Diplomacy

Operation Veto

Public Opinion

Operations Coordinating Board

Public Relations

Paine, Thomas

Publicity Bureau

Pamphlets

Pueblo Film

Operation Annie

Panel on International Information, Education, and Cultural Relations

Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel

Pearl Harbor

Radio Broadcasting by the U.S. Government

Plow That Broke the Plains, The

Radio Caiman

Postal Regulations (Communist Political Propaganda)

Radio Free Asia

Posters in Wartime Pound, Ezra Loomis President's Advisory Committee on Government Organization

Radio Free Europe Radio in the American Sector Radio Liberty Radio Marti

President's Committee on Information Activities Abroad

Radio Sawa

President's Committee on International Information Activities

Reagan, Ronald Wilson

President's Task Force on U.S. Government International Broadcasting

Reed, John

Prestige Project

Radio Swan Red Channels Regional Service Centers Riegel, Oscar Werthold

Princeton Conference on Psychological Warfare

River, The

Prisoners of War

Robeson, Paul Leroy

Problems of Communism

Rockefeller Letter

Project Troy

Rockwell, George Lincoln

Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes

Roosevelt, Franklin

Propaganda Analysis

Rosie the Riveter

Propaganda Collections

Royal American Magazine

Propaganda Committees

Rumor

Propaganda of the Deed

Schramm, Wilbur Lang

Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion

Schweitzer-Pinochet Letter

Rockwell, Norman Perceval

List of Terms

XI

Short Narrative of the Horrid Massacre in Boston

U.S. Cultural and Information Programs

Simplicity and Repetition

U.S. Department of State

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Smedley, Agnes

U.S. Film Service

Smith, Gerald Lyman Kenneth

U.S. Government

Soldatensender Calais

U.S. Information Agency

Sons of Liberty

U.S. Information and Educational Exchange Act

Soviet Active Measures Spanish-American War

United States Magazine

Spreading Germs of Hate Stamp Act

U.S.A. Zone of the Overseas Service (North American Service)

Stars and Stripes, The

Viereck, George Sylvester

State-Army-Navy-Air Coordinating Committee

Vietnam Conflict

Stimson-Borah Letter

Vietnam. Joint United States Public Affairs Office

Stout, Rex Todhunter

Vietnam Movies

Stowe, Harriet Beecher

Voice of America

Strong, Anna Louise

Vollbehr, Otto Heinrich Friederich

Superstitions

Walker, David

Symbols

War Advertising Council

Szyk, Arthur

War of American Independence Propaganda

Tanaka Memorial Television Broadcasting Television Marti Terrorism Themes Thomas, Isaiah Thompson, Dorothy Thomsen, Hans Tokyo Rose Trust Tucci, Niccolo Uncle Sam Uncle Tom's Cabin Unconditional Surrender U.S. Army Field Manual U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Un-American Activities U.S. Congressional Investigations of Propaganda

War Propaganda Warburg, James Paul Weld, Theodore Dwight Whalen Documents White, Ralph K. White Propaganda Whitehouse, Vira Boarman Why We Fight Series Wick, Charles Z. Wodehouse, Pelham Grenville Women as Propaganda Images in Wartime World Cruise of the U.S. Navy World War I World War II Worldnet Zacharias, Ellis Mark Zimmermann Telegram Zinoviev Letter

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Guide to Related Topics ART

U.S. Cultural and Information Programs

Advancing American Art

World Cruise of the U.S. Navy

Art Exhibitions Family of Man

COUNTRIES

Federal Arts Project

American Republics

Four Freedoms

Cuba France

CAMPAIGNS Afghan Media Project Boston Massacre Boston Tea Party Braddock II Campaign of Truth Chesapeake Affair Darlan Interlude Farewell Address (Washington) Henry Ford and The International Jew Holocaust Denial Katyn Forest Massacre Incident Lusitania Incident Marshall Plan Operation Magic Carpet Operation Mincemeat Operation Veto

Germany Great Britain Iraq Italy Japan Occupied Countries and Territories

DISINFORMATION AIDS Disinformation Campaign Baby Parts Biological and Chemical Weapons Warfare Disinformation Gulf War Disinformation Soviet Active Measures

EXHIBITIONS AND FAIRS

Panel on International Information, Education, and Cultural Relations

Advancing American Art

Prestige Project

American National Exhibition, Moscow

Project Troy

Art Exhibitions

Guide to Related Topics

XIV

Atoms for Peace

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

Brussels Universal and International Exposition Family of Man

Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government (Hoover Commission)

Information USA

Committee for National Morale

International Expositions

Committee of Secret Correspondence Committee on Public Information

FILMS Birth of a Nation Disney Image Documentary Films

Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies Committees of Correspondence Coordinator of Information

Mission to Moscow

Division of Cultural Relations (Department of State)

Motion Pictures

Federal Bureau of Investigation

Mrs. Miniver

Federal Theater Project

Plow That Broke the Plains, The

Office of Facts and Figures

Pueblo Film

Office of Strategic Services

River, The

Office of War Information

Vietnam Movies

Operations Coordinating Board

Why We Fight Series

President's Advisory Committee on Government Organization

FORGERIES

President's Committee on Information Activities Abroad

Cadore Letter De Lome Letter Eisenhower-Rockefeller Letter

President's Committee on International Information Activities

Forgeries

President's Task Force on U.S. Government International Broadcasting

German-Bolshevik Conspiracy, The

Propaganda Committees

Helene Von Damm Forgery Letter Kirkpatrick Speech

Psychological Operations Coordinating Committee

Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion

Psychological Strategy Board

Rockefeller Letter

Psychological Warfare Branch, Allied Forces Headquarters (PWB/AFHQ)

Schweitzer-Pinochet Letter Tanaka Memorial Whalen Documents Zimmermann Telegram Zinoviev Letter

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

Psychological Warfare Division, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces (PWD/SHAEF) Publicity Bureau Regional Service Centers State-Army-Navy-Air Coordinating Committee

Active Measures Working Group

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Un-American Activities

Bureau of Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs (U.S. Department of State)

U.S. Congressional Investigations of Propaganda

Guide to Related Topics U.S. Cultural and Information Programs U.S. Department of Agriculture U.S. Department of State U.S. Film Service

xv

MUSIC Disney Image Music National Anthems

U.S. Government U.S. Information Agency

ORGANIZATIONS

Vietnam. Joint United States Public Affairs Office (JUSPAO)

"America First" Committee American Colonization Society

LEGISLATION

American Council Against Nazi Propaganda

Buenos Aires Convention for Promotion of Inter-American Cultural Relations

Anti-Imperialist League

Domestic Dissemination

Catholic Church

Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA)

Century Group

House Resolution 199

Crusade for Freedom

Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act

Cuban Freedom Committee

OP-16W (Directive) Postal Regulations (Communist Political Propaganda) Stamp Act U.S. Information and Educational Exchange Act

American Nazi Party

Congress for Cultural Freedom

Fight for Freedom Committee (FFF) Front Organizations German-American Bund Institute for Historical Review Institute for Propaganda Analysis (IPA) Institute of Pacific Relations Inter-Allied Propaganda Commission

LIBRARIES AND CENTERS

John Reed Clubs

American Centers and American Corners

League of American Writers

Amerika Haus Binational Centers German Library of Information Libraries Propaganda Collections

Ku Klux Klan Liberty Lobby National Board for Historical Service National Electric Light Association Sons of Liberty War Advertising Council

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

PEOPLE

Agitprop

Adams, Samuel

Brainwashing

Barnes, Harry Elmer

Cultural Diplomacy

Benet, Stephen Vincent

Cultural Exchanges

Bernays, Edward L.

Public Opinion

Bittman, Ladislav

Public Relations

Blankenhorn, Heber

Guide to Related Topics

XVI

Brecht, Bertolt

Riegel, Oscar Werthold

Byoir, Carl R.

Robeson, Paul Leroy

Cantril, Albert Hadley

Rockwell, George Lincoln

Carroll, John Wallace

Rockwell, Norman Perceval

Carter, Boake

Roosevelt, Franklin

Chambers, Whittaker

Schramm, Wilbur Lang

Chaplin, Charles Spencer

Smedley, Agnes

Cobbett, William ("Peter Porcupine")

Smith, Gerald Lyman Kenneth

Coughlin, Charles Edward

Stout, Rex Todhunter

Creel, George

Stowe, Harriet Beecher

Davis, Elmer Holmes

Strong, Anna Louise

De Leon, Edwin

Szyk, Arthur

Donovan, William J.

Thomas, Isaiah

Dove, David James

Thompson, Dorothy

Duranty, Walter

Thomsen, Hans

Edes, Benjamin

Tucci, Niccolo

Eisler, Gerhardt

Viereck, George Sylvester

Frank, Benno D.

Vollbehr, Otto Heinrich Friedrich

Franklin, Benjamin

Walker, David

Freneau, Philip Morin

Warburg, James Paul

Gillars, Mildred Elizabeth

Weld, Theodore Dwight

Goebbels and His Propaganda Efforts Against the Allies

White, Ralph K. Whitehouse, Vira Boarman

Hale, William Bayard

Wick, Charles Z.

Henry Ford and The International Jew

Wodehouse, Pelham Grenville

Herz, Martin Florian

Zacharias, Ellis Mark

Hotze, Henry Jackson, Charles Douglas

PROPAGANDA TYPES

Joyce, William Brooke

Abolitionist Propaganda

Kendall, Amos

Anti-Semitic Propaganda

Lasswell, Harold Dwight

Atrocity Propaganda

Lee, Ivy Ledbetter

Axis Propaganda

Lerner, Daniel

Black Propaganda

Lilly, Edward Paul

Gray Propaganda

Lorentz, Pare MacTaggart

Hate Propaganda

Merriam, Charles Edward

Home Front Propaganda

Miller, Glenn

Marxist Propaganda

Murrow, Edward [Egbert] Roscoe

Military Propaganda

Paine, Thomas

Propaganda of the Deed

Pound, Ezra Loomis

Public Diplomacy

Reagan, Ronald Wilson

War Propaganda

Reed, John

White Propaganda

Guide to Related Topics

XVII

PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE

Problems of Communism

Princeton Conference on Psychological Warfare

Propaganda Analysis

Psychological Warfare

United States Magazine

Psychological Warfare Branch, Allied Forces Headquarters (PWB/AFHQ) Psychological Warfare Division, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces (PWD/SHAEF) Quantico Vulnerabilities Panel Terrorism

Royal American Magazine

Maps Gulag—Slavery, Inc.

Newspapers Boston Gazette Boston

PUBLICATIONS

News-Letter

Henry Ford and The International Jew

Cartoons

Index, The

Comics and Comic Strips

Neue Zeitung

Domestic Dissemination

Stars and Stripes, The

Leaflets Propaganda Collections

Pamphlets Cato's Letters

Books

Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion

Appendix Nine Book Fairs

Short Narrative of the Horrid Massacre in Boston

Books Federalist, The Hitler's Airwaves

Reports

I Led Three Lives

Analysis of Communist Propaganda

Mein Kampf Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes Psychology of Radio

Appendix Nine Changing Minds Winning Peace China White Paper U.S. Army Field Manual

Red Channels Spreading Germs of Hate

Speeches

Uncle Tom's Cabin

Emancipation Proclamation

Magazines

Farewell Address (Washington)

Amerika Illustrated

RADIO BROADCASTING

Counterattack Covert Action Information

Bulletin

Hour, The

American Forces Network, Europe (AFN)

"Journal of Occurrences"

Clandestine Radio Stations

Masses, The

Crusade for Freedom

New Masses

Cuban Freedom Committee

Guide to Related Topics

XVI11

Debunk

TELEVISION BROADCASTING

Geilenkirchen Salient ("Assault" On)

Television Broadcasting

Gillars, Mildred Elizabeth

Television Marti

Kobayashi Experiment

Worldnet

Darlan Interlude

Let Poland Be Poland

Lorient (Radio Siege) Moronic Little King Incident Norden, Commander Robert Lee

TIME PERIODS

Operation Annie

Civil War

Radio Broadcasting by the U.S. Government

Cold War New Deal

Radio Caiman

Vietnam Conflict

Radio Free Asia

War of American Independence

Radio Free Europe

World War I

Radio in the American Sector

World II

Radio Liberty Radio Marti Radio Sawa

WAR PROPAGANDA

Radio Swan

Bunker Hill

Soldatensender Calais

Civil War Propaganda

Tokyo Rose

Civil War Tokens

U.S.A. Zone of the Overseas Service (North American Service)

Committee of Secret Correspondence

Voice of America

Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies

SLOGANS AND TERMS (USAGE) Big Lie Deception "Don't Tread on Me"

Committee on Public Information

Committees of Correspondence Coordinator of Information Debunk Four-Minute Men Geilenkirchen Salient ("Assault" On)

Fifth Column

Goebbels and His Propaganda Efforts Against the Allies

Friendly Subversion

Jefferson-Franklin Plan

Join, or Die

Join, or Die

McCarthyism

Kobayashi Experiment

Rumor

Lexington and Concord (Battle)

Superstitions

Lorient (Radio Siege)

Symbols

Morgenthau Plan

Themes

Normandy Invasion

Trust

Office of Facts and Figures

Uncle Sam

Office of Strategic Services

Guide to Related Topics

xix

Office of War Information

Soldatensender Calais

Operation Annie

Spanish-American War

Operation Cornflakes

State-Army-Navy-Air Coordinating Committee

Pearl Harbor Posters in Wartime Prisoners of War Psychological Warfare Branch, Allied Forces Headquarters (PWB/AFHQ) Psychological Warfare Division, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces (PWD/SHAEF) Rosie the Riveter

Unconditional Surrender Vietnam Conflict Vietnam. Joint United States Public Affairs Office War of American Independence Women as Propaganda Images in Wartime World War I World II

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Preface The Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda puts U.S. propaganda into a historical perspective. There are many interpretations of propaganda, but a simple one might be that it is one-sided communication designed to influence people's thinking and actions. PURPOSE This book includes two forms of propaganda: (1) any efforts created by the U.S. government and directed toward a foreign country or its people, for example, World War II radio and leaflet propaganda; and (2) propaganda created by foreign countries and aimed at the United States, for example, Axis propaganda that targeted the United States and its Allies in World War II and Soviet propaganda during the Cold War. An introduction provides an overview on U.S. official propaganda, and there are 353 entries on people and events from the period of the War of American Independence to the Iraqi conflict. Entries range in size from approximately 75 to 1,500 words. This work looks at government campaigns and noted propagandists, bringing together in one concise volume persons, events, themes, and other information on U.S. propaganda. STRUCTURE Despite the ever-increasing bibliography on propaganda, including several classic works, the Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda is, we believe, the first dictionary work. The 353 entries are arranged alphabetically with appropriate cross referencing ("see also" and "see" references). The front of the book includes an alphabetical list of all the dictionary entry names; a listing by broad subject of all the entry names; an introductory overview of the subject; and a general chronology of American propaganda, highlighting the major dates and events that are further defined in the dictionary. Bibliographic resources are provided with most entries. The bibliography at the back of the book includes general and topical works. An annotated guide provides information on research

XXII

Preface

collections that maintain propaganda-related material. Bold terms in the entries refer the reader to related entries. Although there are cross references throughout the dictionary for further access to information, in addition, an index provides more specific entry to names, publications, and events described within the entries. SCOPE The Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda came about from the authors' own experiences at the United States Information Agency (USIA), from which co-author Herb Romerstein retired in 1989 as the Soviet Disinformation Officer. Martin Manning continues as a research librarian in USIA's successor (since 1999), the Bureau of Public Diplomacy, under the U.S. Department of State. There, among other duties, he maintains the Bureau's Public Diplomacy Historical Collection, which was created at the suggestion of then USIA Director Edward R. Murrow (1961-1964) to answer questions on the history of USIA, its successors, and its functions. The authors explore the historical role of American propaganda and its significance in U.S. history from the French and Indian War (1754) with Benjamin Franklin's Join, or Die cartoon to the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on 9/11/2001. The book is not intended as a comprehensive treatise on American propaganda. Because the focus of this book is U.S. official propaganda, international propaganda is included only as it applies to the United States. The entries were compiled from both primary and secondary sources after a thorough search of books, articles, documents, dissertations and personal papers, many from the Public Diplomacy Historical Collection, formerly the USIA Historical Collection. This dictionary tries to be inclusive in its coverage of persons and events that the authors considered to be important in U.S. propaganda history. The authors include all the major publications, people, countries, and events, especially those that are well known from such sources, such as the Committee on Public Information, Office of War Information, United States Information Agency, that were created as propaganda agencies. Also included are such individuals as Thomas Paine, "Axis Sally" (Mildred Gillars), "Tokyo Rose," Harriet Beecher Stowe and her abolition novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin, and many more. However, no attempt was made to list everyone who worked in American propaganda. The selection process for the list of entries was not easy, but an attempt was made to cover topics and people the authors thought were important. General subject areas include front organizations, Soviet disinformation, prominent propagandists, and significant materials in the subject of propaganda (books, exhibitions and fairs, films, newspapers, pamphlets, periodicals, posters). Certain categories were omitted because they are not significant to the book's intent and purpose: (1) activist movements, such as domestic advocacy, or the homosexual liberation movement, a controversial but minor propaganda issue except in its importance in Soviet disinformation regarding AIDS; and (2) morale builders, such as Clara Barton and the Red Cross or the United Service Organizations (USO), which are not really propagandists or propaganda organizations. Several essays were combined under a more common term rather than treated as individual essays, for example, U.S. Congressional Investigations of

Preface

XXIII

Propaganda. This term includes such committees as the Dies Committee, House Special Committee to Investigate Communist Propaganda in the United States, Overman Committee, and Senate Committee on the Investigation of Propaganda. There are appropriate cross references in the text. However, there is a separate entry for the best known of these committees, the House Un-American Activities Committee.

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Introduction PURPOSE This book came from the authors' experiences at the United States Information Agency (USIA), now the Bureau of Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs (U.S. Department of State), where, among other duties, Martin Manning maintains the Bureau's Public Diplomacy Historical Collection. This collection was created between 1962 and 1999 to answer questions on the history of USIA, its successors, and its functions, specifically propaganda, and to maintain material that both agency staff and outside researchers could consult. It is from the resources in this collection that much of the research on this book was drawn. USIA's once-substantial Propaganda Collection was eventually shipped to the Library of Congress in the early 1980s, after its research use declined and USIA felt that it was too prohibitive to continue maintenance of an operation that required immense physical space and staff time. There was an attempt to resurrect a propaganda collection during the Reagan administration, under USIA Director Charles Z. Wick, but it never got past the planning stage, partly due to the work the original collection entailed. This propaganda library started during World War II in the Office of War Information, one of USIA's predecessors, from Axis propaganda (books and posters) that OWI correspondents sent to the New York headquarters. However, a more complete propaganda collection was maintained by its immediate successor, the U.S. Department of State. In 1953, both collections were combined in the newly established USIA. The aim of the collection was to provide a primary source of Free World propaganda samples intended for foreign readership and to make such material available for use in agency lectures, budget hearings, and exhibits. The kinds of material included in the collection included books, pamphlets, posters and periodicals received from Communist bloc countries (USSR, People's Republic of China, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, North Korea, North Vietnam, and Cuba) along with offerings from international front organizations and local Communist groups. The Propaganda Collection was first part of the International Information Administration, U.S. Department of State, then it was transferred to the newly

XX VI

Introduction

created USIA in 1953 where it was maintained by the Agency Library; it was probably the most extensive, if not the only one, of its kind at the time. Along with USIA staff members, the Propaganda Collection served other government agencies as well. However, administrative files on the Propaganda Collection, in the custody of coauthor Manning, indicate that the material had to be scrutinized through the Bureau of Customs, U.S. Treasury Department, when it entered through New York. Because it was designated as political propaganda sent from the Soviet bloc countries to the United States with its source in the Soviet government and in Soviet bloc countries' governments, this material came under the provisions of the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA). For years, Irving Fishman, Assistant Deputy Commissioner, Bureau of Customs, in the U.S. Custom House, New York City, screened and monitored the bags of books, newspapers, pamphlets and films of propaganda that entered through the Port of New York en route to Washington, under special contract with USIA. A description of this collection is: Joseph J. White, Sino-Soviet Bloc Periodicals Published in Free World Languages (MSLS, Catholic University, 1964). Mr. White was the propaganda librarian at the time he submitted his master's thesis. This document and a sample of the monthly accessions lists (Acquisitions; Periodicals) remain the best description of this collection's contents. FORMATS OF PROPAGANDA MATERIAL Most of American propaganda is ephemeral: leaflets, broadsides, banners, posters, pamphlets, broadcasts, commercials, motion pictures, television, and now the Internet. The study of propaganda is important to serious historical research of U.S. history. To accomplish this, there are archives, libraries, museums and personal collections throughout the United States and in other countries that contain American propaganda materials in their collections. This list is not complete, as there are hundreds of propaganda sources still undocumented. HISTORY OF PROPAGANDA What exactly is propaganda that this dictionary tries to explore? How can we begin to understand it? According to John Brown, a retired USIA and State Department Foreign Service Officer, few words in the English language evoke more disdain than propaganda. Like so many p words, such as pedophilia, pornography, and prostitution, Americans associate it with the worst in human nature. Its Latin roots, foreign to Anglo-Saxon ears, make it sound un-American. We believe our enemies shamelessly use propaganda to discredit and hurt us. "Terrorism," RAND expert Brian Jenkins said after the terrorist attacks of 9/11/2001, "is fundamentally propaganda, a bloody form of propaganda." To answer this question, the reader needs to go back to the birth of public opinion in Europe. The European revolutions beginning in the seventeenth century gave rise to beliefs held by society or parts of it that could influence government and politics. When the United States declared its independence, it appealed to "the opinions of mankind." By the late nineteenth century, democratization, mass education, increased newspaper circulation, and rapid communications (from the telegraph to motion pictures) made public opinion a major force in political life.

Introduction

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When war broke out in Europe in 1914, nation-states had no choice but to galvanize public opinion to pursue their domestic and foreign interests. Their tool was propaganda, derived from the ancient Greek art of persuasion ("rhetoric") modernized and amplified by new communications techniques. Chinese strategist Sun Tzu wrote The Art of War more than 2500 years ago about the military importance of manipulating information while the famed Greek philosopher Plato connected the foundations of ancient democracy with the emergence of professional communicators skilled in using language to move other people to action. In Phaedrus, he defined the practice of rhetoric as "a universal art of winning the mind by arguments both in public councils and in private conference." Plato's pupil, Aristotle, penned Rhetoric, a still valuable guide to propaganda techniques, despite the passage of time. The Greeks were among the first to select spokesmen (rhetors) to represent and to argue for various interest groups in the community. In the Middle Ages, the development of the printing press in Europe and the spread of literacy encouraged greater use of books and tracts published to sway public opinion. Much of this was religious, particularly those designed by independent Protestants trying to distribute Biblical scriptures and doctrinal commentaries to the common people; many of these reformers were tortured and executed for their publishing activities as threats to royal governments and state religious unity. The term propaganda was first widely used by the Catholic Church in 1622 when the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith) was founded during the Counter-Reformation by a body of cardinals who directed the foreign missionary work of the Roman Catholic Church, at the same time that the Inquisition was censoring Galileo for questioning church doctrines. Gradually, the word meant any effort to spread a belief. A guide to the records was published as Inventory of the Historical Archives of the Sacred Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples or (