Headless Chickens, Laidback Bears

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HEADLESS

UMbass.' Bears

Scientific techniques to create more time and revolutionise your life and work

Gordon Wainwright howtobooks

Published by How To Content A division of How To Books Ltd, Spring Hill House, Spring Hill Road, Begbroke, Oxford OX5 1RX United Kingdom Tel: (01865) 375794. Fax: (01865) 379162 Email: [email protected] http://www.howtobooks.co.uk All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or stored in an information retrieval system (other than for purposes of review) without the express permission of the publisher in writing. © 2004 Gordon R. Wainwright First edition in paperback 2004 First published in electronic form 2007 ISBN: 978 1 84803 205 7 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Produced for How To Books by Deer Park Productions, Tavistock Cover design by Baseline Arts Ltd, Oxford Typeset by Baseline Arts Ltd, Oxford NOTE: The material contained in this book is set out in good faith for general guidance and no liability can be accepted for loss or expense incurred as a result of relying in particular circumstances on statements made in this book. The laws and regulations are complex and liable to change, and readers should check the current position with the relevant authorities before making personal arrangements.

Contents Introduction 1 Part One: Time Creation Techniques 5

1. Accurat e Feedback 7 2. Flo w Rates 1 3. Deadline s 1 4. Anticipator y Scanning Techniques 2 5. Selectiv e Perception o f Cues 2 6. Adequat e Incubation Periods 3 7. Imaginativ e and Intuitiv e Responses 3 8. Critica l Incidents an d Learnin g Periods 4 9. Timin g and Synchronisatio n 5 10. Slippag e an d Downtim e 5 11. Flexibl e Performance Strategies 6 12. Critica l Analysis of Performance 6

3 7 1 7 3 9 5 1 7 1 7

Part Two: Overcoming Problems in Using Time Creation Techniques 7

1

13. Eliminatio n of Faults 7 14. Motivatio n 7 15. Continuatio n an d Follow-u p 8 16. Ris k Taking 8 17. Vigilanc e and Attentio n 8 18. Maintainin g Maximum Speed 8 19. Effect s o f Variety of Activity 9 20. Timewastin g 9

3 7 1 3 7 9 3 7

Part Three: Applications in Personal Skills 9

9

21. Thinkin g 10 22. Readin g 10 23. Writin g 12 24. Listenin g and Speakin g 13 25. Socia l Skills 15

1 9 7 9 1

Index 16

1

INTRODUCTION Time Creation, a s it is defined i n this book, i s another nam e fo r th e science of chronemics, the study o f how w e use ou r tim e and o f how we ma y us e i t more effectively . Bu t it is .more than this . It is a set of techniques fo r doing things in time-saving ways.

Time Creation will, literally, change your life if you put it into practice. It will change it for the better. Improve your use of time and you will cease to be one of life's headless chickens who dash round looking busy but achieving little, and become one of its laidback bears who really get things done and enjoy life at the same time. It is the purpose of this book to show you how . These techniques are needed, now more than ever, because the world is goin g throug h a perio d o f rapi d change . I f anything , th e rat e of change i s increasin g exponentiall y - tha t i s t o say , change s ar e affecting th e way we live and work faster an d faste r eac h year. So, the pace of life is increasing partly as a result of the rate of change and partl y becaus e that' s th e wa y a high-technology , sophisticate d society like ours functions. Developments in electronics, for instance, have enabled information to be produced in quantities an d at speeds that seeme d inconceivabl e not muc h mor e tha n a decad e ago . The development o f high-speed transport , particularly by rail and b y air, has meant that, technology permitting , you ca n be on the other side of the globe in less than a day or across a country in a very few hours. If w e are to keep up wit h this rate of change and thi s pace of life, w e need t o acquir e ne w technique s an d skill s tha t ou r parent s an d grandparents ha d n o nee d for . Greater spee d o f activit y i s bein g thrust upon us whether we like it or not and we have two choices. We can ignore it and turn our backs on the world an d go down bravely, i

2 Headless ciiicketfs, LaMback Bears

or we can develop the techniques which will enable us to cope. Time Creation is for those who make the second choice. Not tha t th e objectiv e i s t o mak e yo u eve n mor e lik e a headles s chicken dashing hithe r an d thithe r wit h no real sense o f purpose, o r a ra t i n a rat rac e which i s being turne d eve r faster . I t is, rather, to enable you to speed u p those activitie s that can sensibly be speede d up an d t o identif y way s o f savin g tim e i n carryin g ou t thos e tha t cannot. Th e objective i s that, i n doin g this , yo u wil l become one of life's laidback bears and be able to cope. In addition, you will be able to create some discretionary time - that is, time which you can spend in whatever way takes your fancy . You may use it to get more work done (especiall y if you wor k fo r yourself) , o r t o thin k abou t work related problem s whic h yo u don' t normall y hav e th e tim e to thin k about, or to engage in your favourite leisure activity, or just to sit and daydream. The choice is yours. You may even use it to acquire greater mastery of Time Creation techniques. These technique s ar e ofte n essentiall y simple , common-sens e one s that ca n be easily learned. They can be self-taught without difficulty , as you wil l se e as you wor k you r wa y throug h thi s book . Some of them hav e technica l name s give n the m b y scientifi c researcher s i n chronemics o r i n som e othe r sub-disciplin e o f th e behavioura l sciences. Wher e thi s happens , the y wil l usuall y als o b e give n a n alternative simple r nam e whic h thos e reader s wh o wisely prefe r t o avoid al l jargon ca n use . Th e purpos e her e is , i n othe r words , t o provide you with a very sound, practical guide to time-management techniques whic h yo u ca n us e withou t havin g t o rel y upo n th e support o f a tutor or counsellor . There are , i n fact , ver y fe w tutor s availabl e wh o coul d hel p you . Chronemics is a very young scienc e and i s not yet widely known i n the UK . Indeed , spee d ha s alway s bee n a neglecte d aspec t o f education an d training. Many teachers still have a deep suspicion of techniques tha t help people to think faster, read faster, write faster or do anything else faster. They concentrate on teaching you to do these things well. They often giv e little thought t o helping you to do them

iMfroduefioM 3 well and quickly . It is high tim e that spee d wa s emphasise d a goo d deal mor e strongl y i n ou r educationa l syste m tha n i t ha s bee n hitherto. This is not to argue, however, that everything should be done faster.ter. We need t o remember that sometimes it is better to slow down. On e can onl y d o thi s i f one use s Tim e Creation technique s t o creat e the time for doing so. Just as in driving a car, there are times when spee d is appropriate an d time s when i t is not. No one is arguing for spee d for speed' s sake . It is as ridiculous t o suggest , fo r instance, that yo u should rea d quickl y all the tim e a s it woul d b e t o suggest tha t yo u should rea d slowly all the time. Given a reasonabl e (thoug h b y n o mean s a fanatical ) degre e o f commitment t o applyin g th e techniques , yo u shoul d notic e som e benefit fro m Tim e Creation almos t straigh t away . Some technique s work soone r tha n others , bu t the y shoul d al l sho w result s afte r a week or so if they are going to work. This last qualification has to be made becaus e fe w o f th e technique s wil l wor k equall y wel l fo r everyone. But even if only some of them work for you, this does no t matter to o much. Benefit wil l still be obtaine d fro m thos e whic h d o work and this will help you to cope better with the rate of change and the pace of life. There can be no guarantee in any kind of training that any particula r techniques will work equally well for everybody. Try each one out and build on those that work for you. Most people wil l find tha t they ca n achieve a 25% increase in spee d in most activitie s without an y los s in the qualit y of performance. I n some, lik e reading, a 100% increase is by no mean s uncommon an d the benefit s tha t ca n resul t fro m tha t kin d o f improvemen t ca n b e immeasurable and lifelong . In others, the increase may only be 5% or 10% but eve n this is worth having. If something takes on average half an hou r an d ther e ar e thre e suc h activitie s a day, a 10 % increase in speed (o r reduction i n tim e spen t o n eac h one ) ca n sav e almos t 55 hours a year. Thi s ca n be th e equivalen t o f 1 Y2 working weeks , 11 five-hour games of golf, nearly 37 football matches or about 15 books read that otherwise woul d no t have been enjoyed . I f this is the kind

4 Headless c«icketfs, Laidback Bears

of benefi t whic h ca n accrue from a small increase in speed, you ca n imagine th e benefit s t o b e gaine d fro m usin g Tim e Creatio n techniques in all your daily activities at work and during leisure time. You ma y als o begin t o realis e tha t tim e creatio n is designed no t t o imprison but to liberate. You ca n star t workin g o n thi s boo k i n a number o f ways. You can read through al l of it first before trying to put anythin g into practice. You can study the chapters in Part 1 (reading Chapter 1 first) and try to practise each technique a s soon a s you lear n it. Or you ca n read Part 1 and then move to Part 3 and try to use the techniques on those skills wher e yo u ar e mos t i n nee d o f increases in speed . However , unless you have a particular preference in the choice of an approach, you wil l probabl y d o bes t t o wor k throug h th e boo k fro m th e beginning, chapte r by chapter. Before you start, however, it might help if we briefly review what you are likely to encounter in each part of the book. This kind of preview, in fact , shoul d b e th e resul t o f usin g th e technique s describe d i n Chapter 4 of Part 1 (anticipatory scanning techniques) . It i s nearly always easie r t o proces s informatio n if yo u hav e som e ide a o f it s general nature in advance. Part 1 , 'Tim e Creatio n Techniques' , present s th e twelv e basi c techniques. Each chapter introduces a technique and shows you how to use it more effectively . In Part 2, 'Overcoming Problems in Using Time Creation Techniques', most of the difficulties that you are likely to encounter in mastering the techniques are identified and ways of overcoming them are discussed . You will be able to pay particula r attention t o those which you hav e experienced and be able to take effective actio n to deal with them. Part 3 , 'Applications i n Persona l Skills' , show s ho w Tim e Creation techniques ca n be applie d i n a variety of essential skills in order t o increase spee d o f performance withou t experiencin g loss of quality or efficiency .

Parf one:

Time Creation Techniques This part of the book explains the various time creation techniques , gives example s of how an d wher e they can be used an d suggest s exercises for developing skill in using them. As the techniques are learned an d practised , the y build u p int o a strategic approac h t o saving tim e an d makin g th e transitio n fro m headles s chicke n to laidback bear.

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CHapf er oM e

ACCURATE FEEDBACK

You have to know how well or badly you are doing. The quicker and more accuratel y you ca n find out , th e faste r an d th e better yo u ca n perform, whateve r th e task . For this reason , i f for no other , accurate feedback is essential in any task or activity. We can define feedback as information coming back to an individual which enables him or her to assess performance and attempt any modifications necessary to improve it This information may be communicated by others (as when a student receives examination results) or it may result from an individual's own observations (as when, in writing a letter or a report, you read over what you have written and correct any mistakes). Some feedback ca n be unsought (a s when yo u burn you r finger s o n an iro n tha t yo u assume d wa s cool) , bu t w e shal l b e mainl y concerned her e with feedbac k that is deliberately sought i n order to speed up activitie s or tasks. Research has show n that it is a characteristic of skilled performers in many activitie s that the y appea r t o know wha t i s happening a t any stage o f a task , tha t the y tak e pain s t o chec k thei r performanc e periodically an d tha t the y consul t other s i n orde r t o obtai n furthe r feedback whic h ma y well , sinc e i t i s a secon d opinion , b e mor e objective and reliable. No on e reall y understand s ho w feedbac k o n behaviou r work s i n making improve d performanc e possible, but th e fac t remain s that it 7

8 Headless cHfcketis, LaMback Bears

does. It seems to be an indispensable par t of any learning process. It may be that what is usually referred t o as the central processing part of th e brai n use s informatio n obtaine d abou t action s t o modif y subsequent behaviou r in some subtle way so as to permit smoother, problem-free performance and the achievement of a greater degree of skill. The mechanis m b y whic h thi s kin d o f informatio n i s obtaine d i s usually called a feedback loop and there is a need to provide for such loops i n learnin g models . Th e flexible performanc e strategy PAPA ROMEO-OSCAR which we shall encounter later in more detail is an example o f suc h a model . Th e mai n feedbac k loo p i n tha t ca n b e illustrated thus : Performance Analysis (PA)

Performance Analysis (PA)

Review

Objectives (specific)

Objectives (general)

Skills

Methods

Contexts

Evaluation

Attitudes

Ongoing

Resources

= feedback loop

In othe r words , th e informatio n yo u gai n fro m evaluatin g you r performance afte r a perio d o f trainin g ca n hel p yo u t o decid e whether to proceed to the 'Ongoing' stage or to return to the 'Review' stage and repeat the process, making such modifications at each stage as ar e necessary . Thi s i s a broa d applicatio n o f th e principl e o f feedback loops , bu t i t coul d wel l b e i n man y activitie s that ther e should b e a feedback loo p between eac h stage back to the previous one, so that you can make more frequent bu t smalle r adjustments in approach. An example of where this would be desirable would be in

Accurafc feedback 9

applying the P-R-O approac h to improving decision-makin g ability, where feedback might be needed o n each decision made. Research shows that knowledge o f results is desirable in any activity, but especiall y in learning experiences. Where people ar e kept i n the dark abou t ho w wel l o r ho w badl y the y ar e doin g i t become s extremely difficul t fo r them to make progress. I f feedback i s denied , as when a teacher fail s t o mark students' exercise s regularly and a s soon afte r th e wor k i s done a s practicable , bad habit s ar e acquire d which the n becom e highl y resistan t t o change , fault s persist , individuals lose motivation an d performance generally deteriorates. You d o no t nee d t o becom e obsesse d abou t obtainin g feedback , however. Jus t build i t i n t o you r approach . A simple metho d i s t o select an activity . Tackle it in a reasonably relaxe d way. Don't tr y t o do better , but don' t tr y no t to . A little effor t wil l no t g o amiss , bu t don't get into a situation where the more you try the worse you get. Aim for smooth, confident , flowing action. Recite to yourself wha t is happening, kee p you r objective s in mind an d le t your brai n do th e rest. Sometimes feedbac k ca n mislead , especiall y i f yo u mak e a fals e connection between cause and effect . Fo r example, if you walk under a ladder and som e paint falls on you, faulty feedbac k might lead you to conclude that it is always unlucky to walk under ladders . A more rational us e o f feedbac k woul d b e t o conclud e that , whe n walkin g under ladders, you simply need to keep y.our wits about you. If. of someone i s paintin g overhead , the n o n tha t occasio n i t ma y b e sensible to walk round rathe r than under. You shoul d als o guar d agains t becomin g to o conditione d b y feedback. In his book, The Mechanism of Mind, Edward de Bono, thee originator of 'lateral thinking', likens the operatio n o f the min d t o a jelly. Trickl e ho t wate r ove r a jell y an d a pathwa y i s melte d out . Trickle more water ove r it and this water will tend t o follow the path created b y th e firs t trickle . In othe r words , feedbac k ca n mak e yo u react i n stereotype d way s i f yo u ar e no t carefu l t o appreciat e th e

10 Headless chickens, LaMback Bears

unique characteristic s that differentiat e on e situatio n fro m another . Because an approach has worked on one occasion does not mean that it is the best on e to use o n another, so feedback need s to be treated with some caution. You need t o remember that there are two kinds of feedback. 1. Positiv e feedback, or reward, tells you that things are going well. 2. Negativ e feedback, or punishment, tells you they are going wrong and tha t some form of corrective action must be taken. You can use a combination of both to strengthen desirabl e behaviour patterns and weaken undesirable ones. For instance, you can reward yourself i n som e way (i t need onl y be small , a sweet o r somethin g else you like) every time you beat a previous best time for an activity or finis h befor e a deadline , and you can punis h yoursel f (by foregoing a favourite T V programme, say) when you fail . It is worth remembering, though, that research evidence suggests quite strongly that reward s ar e muc h mor e effectiv e i n developin g desirabl e behaviour patterns than are punishments. As the old quip has it, the best way to knock a chip off a person's shoulder is to pat them on the back. Not only is positive feedback better than negative feedback, but an y kind of feedback is better than none at all. Generally speaking, where feedback i s unavailabl e o r removed , performanc e deteriorates . Where the amount given is increased, performance improves (always bearing in mind the qualifications expressed above).

The best kind of feedback is continuous and immediate, so that you know straight away how well you are doing. It makes faster responses possible, and allows for errors to be made with enough time to be able to remedy them.

Accurate feedback 11

Feedback is, in fact, almost a training method on its own. Given clear objectives and a choice of proven methods, th e provision o f accurate feedback can take you a long way towards your goals . As fa r a s obtaining feedbac k i s concerned, ther e i s a wide choic e of methods an d som e have alread y been mentioned, bu t other s ca n be suggested. You can use test s to find ou t ho w wel l you ar e doing . You can make your own observation s of what happens . You can make sound o r video recordings of activities. You can obtain the observations and comment s of other people . You can rely upon a 'gut' feeling about the success or otherwise of a response. Perhaps the simples t an d mos t effective wa y i s to keep records in a notebook. Where yo u obtai n timing s an d othe r results , i t ca n hel p t o recor d them in graph o r chart form. A pictorial record of some kind i s more useful t o mos t peopl e tha n a simpl e tabulatio n o f results . Suc h a record will help yo u t o monitor your progress sensibly , especially if you consult it regularly. No method can succeed entirely, no matter how good it is, unless you are prepared to be flexible and to make changes in your behaviour in the light of what the feedback tells you. The attitude you need i s one in which you are always actively seeking ways to enable you to make faster response s an d s o achiev e a bette r performance . Give n this , accurate feedbac k ca n for m th e basi s o f your collectio n of effectiv e time creation techniques. If you really are a headless chicken, the sooner you find out the better. Then yo u ca n reall y d o somethin g t o begi n becomin g mor e o f a laidback bear.

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CHapf er f uo

FLOW RATES All human activity is based o n information processing. Whatever we do, whethe r i t i s a n automati c activit y like breathing o r a complex and highl y sophisticate d activit y lik e solvin g a philosophica l problem, ou r brain s ar e require d t o proces s vas t amount s o f information. The brain can be looked upon as an information-processing machine. How well it performs this task is affected considerably by the rate at which it receives information. This rate is called here the flow rate. Time creatio n i s concerne d wit h identifyin g an d applyin g way s i n which the flow rate can be speeded up. It aims to achieve this without adverse effect s upo n th e qualit y o f performance . Often, i n fact , a higher flo w rat e produce s bette r performanc e because th e brai n i s being used a t a speed whic h is closer to its true potential. Sometimes the flo w rat e needs to be slowe d dow n an d thi s i s still a concern of time creation . Tim e creation i s concerne d wit h doin g thing s a t th e optimum speed , bearin g i n mind th e natur e o f the activit y and th e context i n whic h i t i s being carrie d out . I t i s no t intereste d i n fas t living o r doin g thing s faste r jus t fo r th e sak e o f doin g the m faster . Speed fo r th e sak e o f spee d i s on e o f th e factor s tha t produce s headless chicken s in the first place. The flo w rat e ca n tak e man y forms . I t i s concerne d wit h bot h receiving information and producin g it . In receiving information, as in reading , i t i s affecte d b y ho w quickl y th e eye s mov e acros s th e page, how many reading materials are dealt with in a given time, and 13

14 Headles s cKickefts , LaMbac k Bear s

so on. In producing information, as in taking part in a discussion o r meeting, i t is affected b y how ofte n a n individual speaks (or what is often called the contribution rate), how much is said on each occasion (or volume production), and s o on. Flow rat e ca n b e increase d i n a number o f ways. Shortag e o f time may mean things have to be done faster. There may be an increase in the 'informatio n density ' (as , fo r instance , i n reading , whe n on e paragraph ma y contai n a lot more information than others) . It may also b e increase d deliberately . I t i s thi s las t metho d tha t w e ar e interested i n here. Before you can try to raise your flow rate, you will need tw o things . You wil l nee d the m fo r ever y chapte r i n thi s book , s o you shoul d make sur e you hav e the m t o hand ever y tim e you ar e working o n developing time creation techniques. You will need a means o f timing activities. A stopwatch o r a digital watch or clock which has a timer facility will give you the necessary degree of precision. Accurate measurement is necessary because you cannot tel l merel y fro m a subjectiv e impressio n whethe r yo u ar e doing thing s faste r o r not. You may think you ar e doing somethin g faster an d then find you have in fact taken longer over it. So a means of making objective measurements of time and spee d is essential. You can, o f course, us e an y ol d cloc k or watc h i f you like , but yo u wil l sacrifice some accuracy in the process. You will also need a notebook in which to record your performance. This i s necessar y s o tha t yo u ca n hav e continuou s an d accurat e feedback, the reasons for which we explained in more detail in Part 1 Chapter 1. Record starting times and finishing times for activities and everything else that you are instructed to record as you work through this book. I n this way , you wil l make faste r an d bette r progres s i n mastering time creation techniques. Let us no w see , then , ho w th e flo w rat e can be increased. Select an activity, an y activity . Gettin g a mea l ready , readin g th e mornin g

?lou> rafe s 1 5

paper, walkin g fro m th e trai n t o th e office , writin g a letter, puttin g your make-u p on, or any other activit y which yo u woul d lik e to do faster. 1. Se t a startin g tim e whic h wil l enabl e yo u t o procee d uninterrupted. 2. Se t your stopwatch or timer in motion. 3. Carr y out the activity as you would normall y do it and record the amount of time it takes you. 4. Choos e a wa y o f assessin g ho w wel l yo u hav e performe d an d record this in the notebook as well. 5. Readin g can be checked by a comprehension test . Other activities can b e grade d b y yoursel f or , better still , b y someon e else , o n a scale of 0 to 1 0 for quality. On the second an d subsequen t occasions , you simpl y try to increase the flo w rat e by faste r movements . A s you d o the activity , try t o d o everything jus t a littl e faste r tha n yo u woul d normall y d o things . Don't tr y t o d o anythin g differentl y a t thi s stage , jus t faster . Faste r movements are a very simple way o f raising the flo w rate . Be careful not t o overd o it . A 5% or 10 % increase in spee d i s the mos t w e ar e looking for from thi s technique. Anything more and yo u migh t start to make mistakes. We do no t wan t that . We want a higher flo w rat e without errors. Concentrate on the chosen activit y until it is completed. Don't try to do severa l things a t once. Don't stop . Don't g o back if, for instance , you have chosen a n activity like reading, t o check on parts you have already dealt with. Going back (or regression) is rarely necessary and, since it clearly adds to the time an activity takes, it is better to aim for regression-free progress . On each occasion, at the end o f the activity, record the time taken, together with your assessment of the quality of performance. Do this for at least three days before adding on the next time creation technique to your approach.

16 Headless ctficketts, LaMback Bears

Remember that being able to do things faster does not mean that you alwayshave to do them faster. But it helps when you have to. It also gives better performance when doin g the m slightly slowe r than you know yo u ar e capabl e o f doin g them . Thi s i s becaus e onc e th e pressure fo r faster movemen t is relaxed slightly you ca n often enjo y an activity more, knowing that if the time available for it is curtailed without warning you are able to speed up without making errors and still complete the task satisfactorily . In situations where the flow rat e is controlled by others, for instance when watchin g television, on train journeys, in lectures or on massproduction lines, there is less scope for faster movement, but ther e is still some. On TV, subtitles can be read quicker, the point or purpose of a play ca n be perceived quicker , questions o n quiz shows ca n be answered (o r attempted) befor e th e participant s respond . O n trai n journeys books can be read quicker, snacks taken slightly faster, more letters ca n be written. I n lectures, note s ca n be made faste r an d o n mass-production line s there is still some scope for faster movemen t to enable one to be just slightly ahead o f the pace of the line so that extra mini-breaks can be taken while the line catches up. When yo u procee d t o th e nex t tim e creatio n technique, i t i s vita l t o remember that you d o not giv e all of your attention to that technique and forget about this one. The aim is, rather, to add on the next technique to this one, so that by the time you reach the end of Part 1 Chapter 12 you are practising twelve new techniques. That way, you will get the greatest possible benefit ou t of time creation and move gradually and certainly from bein g a headless chicken to becoming a laidback bear for whom speed ha s a purpos e an d i s used whe n necessary . Anyone wh o ha s watched o n TV grizzly bears fishing i n a river for salmon knows ho w quickly bears can move when they have to.

cuapf er f wee

DEADLINES

Originally, a deadline was 'a line drawn in a military prison, by going beyond whic h a prisoner make s himsel f liabl e t o be sho t instantly ' (Chambers Etymological English Dictionary). Nowaday s i t ha s a les s draconian connotation an d mean s simpl y a closing date or the point in tim e b y whic h a n activit y ha s t o b e completed . A s suc h i t ha s considerable value.

Deadlines focus the attention and concentrate the mind. They give a clear indication of how long you have in which to get something done. Time limits have a similar function, but, whereas deadlines dea l only with th e endin g o f a process , tim e limit s usuall y specif y eithe r starting and finishin g times or the total amount o f time available. In this latter respect they are similar to time frames o r time slots, which really deal with the time between limits. Time frame s ar e usuall y se t withi n a genera l contex t involvin g several time frames for complementary, or even competing, activities. For instance, a morning's sequence o f activities - gettin g up, having breakfast, travelling to work, dealing with correspondence, attendin g a meeting, an d so on - require s a series of time frames, on e for each activity. If all goes well, they will be complementary and buil d into a picture o f a reasonabl y trouble-fre e morning. Bu t i f th e journe y t o work takes longer than anticipate d or a meeting overruns, the y may overlap and will therefore be competing with each other for the same period o f time. 17

18 Headless ctiickens, Laidback Pears

Whether you use deadlines, tim e limits or time frames t o assist yo u in managin g you r tim e is , t o a larg e extent , a matte r o f persona l preference. Som e peopl e prefe r t o rel y solel y o n a finishin g time , some on a set amount of time and other s on a planned sequencing of activities. Ther e is n o clea r evidenc e favourin g on e technique . You must pick the one that works best for you. It may be worth trying out them all before you make your final choice . You may even decide to use al l three o n differen t occasion s as determined b y th e particular needs of the situation . Deadlines (or time limits or time frames) should be written down and kept in clear view. In this way, you have no excuse to offer yourself (though you may , if necessary, offer i t to others , bu t tha t i s anothe r matter - jus t s o lon g a s yo u d o no t delud e yourself ) abou t no t realising ho w quickl y time has passe d i f you canno t complet e th e task on time. The act of writing down the deadline commits you to it. The fact of keeping it in clear view on your desk, on a notice board or inside a frequentl y use d diar y o r electroni c personal dat a assistan t (PDA) i s a continua l reminde r bot h o f it s existenc e an d you r commitment to yourself to meet it. It thus makes it much more likely that you will, in fact, achieve it. For man y activitie s of long duration , a deadlin e ma y b e fa r i n th e future. A report may take weeks to write, a project may take months to finish, and even a simple house repair may take several weekends. In such cases, it is desirable to break the task down into stages and to set a deadlin e fo r eac h one . I f yo u don' t mee t a sub-deadline , i t shouldn't matter too much. It merely tells you that you have a little extra work to do on the next occasion. And at least it will prevent you from gettin g clos e to the deadlin e an d the n suddenl y realisin g tha t you have fallen s o far behind i n your work that you cannot possibly hope to catch up.

If you are to achieve the time creation objective of spending less time doing things, deadlines are necessary weapons in your armoury of techniques.

Deaneries 1 9

Many activitie s canno t easil y b e speede d up, i n term s o f faste r movements o n your part , s o it i s essential t o explore othe r way s of increasing personal efficiency. And you have to spend less time doing some things i f you ar e to make more time for others . In setting deadlines, yo u nee d t o set them a little tighter than seem s to be required, in case any unforeseen delays arise. Much of the time everything wil l procee d smoothl y an d yo u wil l fin d yo u hav e finished ahea d o f the real schedule. Thi s is all to the goo d becaus e it gives yo u extr a tim e fo r checkin g ove r wha t yo u hav e don e i f thi s proves t o b e necessary . I t i s alway s bette r t o finis h ahea d o f tim e anyway becaus e thi s help s yo u t o avoi d th e intens e psychologica l pressure which ca n build u p i f you ge t into the habit o f running to o close to deadlines. Finishin g 'early' (that is, before things really must be done ) helps yo u t o remain relaxe d and build s self-confidenc e i n your own ability to cope. You also need t o avoid the greates t danger wit h deadlines , an d tha t is that you may postpone a n action until the last possible minute and then not be able to complete it in time. And ther e are other dangers . You may be over-optimistic about your own abilities and abou t ho w much ca n be don e i n a certai n time . So be sur e you r deadline s ar e realistic. O r yo u ma y fai l t o provid e fo r unexpecte d delays . B y definition, i t is impossible to expect the unexpected. But at least you can se t a deadlin e whic h allow s fo r som e slac k time , fo r tha t ca n always be useful . Without deadlines, tim e can more easily be wasted. It is always easy to spen d mor e tim e tha n intende d ove r a busines s lunch , ove r telephone calls, in daydreaming and starin g out of the window, or in trying t o d o severa l thing s a t once . You can the n fin d tha t yo u ar e thrashing aroun d i n total confusio n an d reall y achieving very little. You hav e becom e a headles s chicke n again . Greate r activit y is n o reliable indication that useful wor k is being done. Deadlines als o hel p t o overcom e procrastination . Ther e ar e alway s many plausibl e reason s fo r puttin g tasks , especiall y unpleasan t o r

20 Headless cHickeris, LaMback. Bears

unrewarding ones , of f unti l tomorrow . Tim e creatio n doe s no t recognise the all-too-common philosophy tha t you should never pu t off unti l tomorro w wha t ca n b e safel y lef t unti l th e da y after . I t i s more concerned with an 'action this day' approach. The main advantage of deadlines, however, is that they enable you to plan sensibl y ahead . A n orderl y arrangemen t o f activitie s wit h realistic deadlines i s a very effective metho d o n its own o f ensuring greater efficiency . Allied to all the other time creation techniques and welded int o a n integrate d approach , i t begin s t o buil d int o a formidable an d effectiv e approac h to the better management of time both at work and in leisure. On some occasions, you may find it useful to use a little time to check on the passag e o f time in activities, especially if you hav e identified several stage s i n a task an d wis h t o check on how muc h time each stage i s taking. Yo u will certainl y find i t usefu l t o kee p a record of your progress i n using deadlines , particularl y of those occasion s on which yo u fai l t o mee t them . Thi s wil l provid e yo u wit h usefu l feedback, whic h wil l enabl e yo u t o improv e performanc e an d increase your chances of becoming a laidback bear.

chapf er four

ANTICIPATORY SCANNING TECHNIQUES

It is never enough solely to attend to what is happening at the moment. Events d o no t exis t in a vacuum. Each one i s connected no t onl y to what has already happened bu t also to what is about to happen. Anticipatory scanning techniques are designed to help you to deal more speedily and effectively with whatever is about to happen. They may be defined simply as those techniques which assist you in looking ahead (physically or mentally) to try to be ready both for what is likely to happen and for probable and possible happenings with a willingness to use flexible responses to improve your ability to deal with situations A good example of anticipatory scanning techniques at work is to be found i n the behaviour o f some of the personne l o n airline check-in desks. Some time ago, it was observed tha t those who wer e rated as the bes t check-i n clerk s ha d a habit , a s the y wer e dealin g wit h a customer, o f glancin g briefl y dow n th e queue , payin g particula r attention to the next person in the queue and also to people who were showing visibl e sign s o f nervousnes s o r impatience . Thes e clerk s seemed to be able to respond more quickl y an d mor e appropriatel y to eac h custome r tha n thos e wh o concentrate d solel y o n whoeve r happened t o b e i n fron t o f them . The y wer e involve d i n fa r fewe r altercations with passengers and generally deal t with more people in less time . Close r observation s reveale d tha t the y wer e usin g thes e anticipatory scanning s o f th e lin e o f peopl e t o acquir e som e 21

22 Headless chickens, Laidback Bears

information tha t late r enabled the m t o respon d better . They smiled encouragingly at nervous passengers and helped to put them a little more at ease even before they came to deal with them. The differences in work speed and quality of performance were such that anticipatory scanning technique s no w for m par t o f the trainin g programm e for check-in personnel o f at least one major international airline . Similar behaviour ca n be observed ever y day in any good bar, where some bar staf f see m to have no trouble in serving several people a t once with the use of anticipatory scanning. The rest of us can develop it with a little practice. Whatever the activity, try this. Just prior to the completion o f a stage of a task, glance ahead (or think ahead if it is an activity, lik e problem-solving , wher e ther e migh t no t actuall y b e anything to see) to the next stage. Don't look for all that can be seen , but pic k ou t ke y features , th e thing s tha t eithe r commo n sens e o r experience tell you may cause you to vary your approach. The aim is not to try to deal with those aspects of a situation now, but simply to be ready for them when you do get to them. The signs that nervous or impatient people give of their state of mind are examples of what to look for. S o are unfamiliar words and phrases in reading materials, obstacles that weren't there before on a walking or driving route, and a meeting , whic h follow s a busines s lunch , a t whic h brain-taxing matters have to be discussed. Experience, in the form o f past behaviour which was successful, can be very useful i n teaching you how t o tackle things in the future. I n other words , neve r neglec t th e lessons of history. Havin g sai d this , remember tha t anticipator y scanning technique s mean you have t o be more concerned wit h what lies ahead tha n with what has already been deal t with . A 'rear-view mirror ' approach t o lif e ca n have its uses, but priority of attention shoul d b e given to thinking ahea d an d to planning ahead.

Time spent planning is never wasted. A good plan can make the execution of a task very much easier by allowing you to see where you are going.

AMfrcipgfsry ScaMMiMg Tccw>fcy>es 23

A well-planne d report , fo r instance , make s th e actua l writin g o f i t much easier. In many cases, the report will almost seem to write itself. as information slots itself easil y into the most appropriate place for it. Many errors and ambiguities that might otherwise intrude are avoided as a writer, having already decided how each section is to be organised, can concentrate on getting the details of written expression right. An easy way to plan is to jot down in note form the things to be done or the items to be covered as they come to mind. They should then be studied an d place d i n a n appropriat e orde r o f importanc e o r th e order i n which the y ar e to be tackled. In doing this , the y shoul d b e grouped into stages or tasks where each one follows on logically from its predecessor . I f you us e a n appropriat e identificatio n system (for example, lettering the parts A, B, C, D, etc. and numberin g th e item s within each part 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.), you will have a plan in which not only is every aspect covered , but yo u ca n als o se e clearly which ar e th e really important points to be dealt with. As wit h an y method o f forecasting o r predicting , i t i s necessary t o check afterwards for accuracy. This provides useful feedback , for you will discover why any mistakes were made and will be able to avoid them i n future . I f yo u concentrat e o n th e consequence s o f action s whenever yo u ar e thinkin g thing s through , this , too , wil l hel p t o avoid error s later . Always be prepare d fo r thing s no t t o wor k ou t exactly a s yo u planne d an d remembe r wha t i s usuall y calle d Murphy's Law: 'If thing s can go wrong, they will/ Carefu l plannin g will help t o prevent Murphy' s prophec y fro m comin g true. Seek to identify th e ke y feature s i n situation s an d us e the m t o help yo u i n keeping your purpose an d you r directio n clearly in mind. Don't let yourself b e deflecte d fro m you r planned cours e except by necessity or because a better way unexpectedly appears. In everyda y activities , a diar y ca n help i n developin g anticipator y scanning techniques. You can see how a week's or a month's events relate t o eac h othe r an d thu s be read y t o respon d better . Reading , especially against the cloc k or with a higher flo w rate , helps. Goin g faster seem s to force you t o look ahead more.

24 Headless cKickefis, Laidback Bears

There are also a number o f specific activities you ca n practise which will develop your anticipatory scanning techniques: 1. Selec t a feature article from th e centre pages of a newspaper. Read the firs t hal f o f the article. Write down what you think the writer is going t o cover in the secon d half . Read the secon d hal f t o see how accurate your predictions were. 2. Practis e skimming an d previewing when reading. Always spend a few seconds glancing through material before you read it. Try to identify som e of the main points or parts of the material that may cause you difficult y whe n you come to read them. 3. I n an everyday situation such as driving a car or working through the agend a a t a meeting, identif y th e nex t an d th e next-but-one hazard or decision to be made. Cast your mind forward briefly t o them an d pla n ho w yo u wil l act . Be prepared t o chang e i f th e circumstances suddenly change. 4. Tr y this mnemonic in your everyday activities: PLACE, i.e., Pause - sto p what you are doing for a moment Look Ahead - cas t your mind forward to the next stage or task Continue - work through the next stage or task Evaluate - asses s how useful lookin g ahead was to you 5. Questio n yourself about what you ar e going to do next and wh y you are going to do it in the way you are. If you can, do this aloud and recor d it on tape. Play it back to yourself afterwards and se e if ther e ar e thing s which , wit h hindsight , yo u woul d d o differently. 6. Observ e other s wh o yo u kno w ar e skille d performer s i n a n activity and loo k for the use o f anticipatory scanning techniques . Try to copy the way they do it and se e how i t feels . 7. Befor e you begin a task, write down what you are going to do and how yo u ar e going to do it. Afterwards , review your notes an d see what changes you would make. 8. Pres s yoursel f t o d o thing s a littl e faste r tha n yo u reall y fin d comfortable an d se e if this forces you t o concentrate more and t o look ahead.

AMficipafory ScaMMg Tccwiiqoes 25

9. Prepar e a mental 'map' of a journey. Identify a s many difficulties , obstacles an d hazard s a s yo u can . Afterwards , revie w an d se e how many you were able to avoid or deal with more smoothly. 10. Take a situation in which you are not personally involved (e.g. an encounter between two people or a TV play or film). Try to 'read' how i t i s going t o develop . Afterwards , revie w an d asses s ho w accurate your predictions were. Practise some or all of these activities an d se e which ones appear t o work best fo r you. These shoul d the n be added t o your developing time creatio n strategy, so tha t yo u shoul d the n b e usin g increase d flow rates , deadlines , and anticipator y scannin g techniques . Onc e you are happy tha t you have mastered these techniques, you will be ready t o begin learnin g an d applyin g th e nex t one i n th e ques t for laidback bear status.

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Oiapf er CKte

SELECTIVE PERCEPTION OF CUES

A cue i n thi s contex t is an y action , signa l o r even t whic h give s a n individual information about what is happening i n a situation. Some cues are more important than others. For instance, if you ar e about to cross a road , someon e wavin g t o yo u fro m th e othe r sid e i s les s important than th e bus which i s moving toward s you on your own side. Usually there are too many cues for all to be perceived (o r seen and understood) within a given time frame. For this reason, you have to become selective and attend t o those which are of key significance at the time. The more quickly and the more accurately you can do this the better and the faster yo u can perform. Whatever the situation, you should concentrate your attention on the key features, the highlights, or the problem areas (whichever are most relevant in the particular circumstances). By focusing on the essentials, to the exclusion of all the non-critical information available, you will be making more efficient use of your skills. Examples of the effectivenes s o f the selectiv e perception o f cues can be foun d i n almos t an y are a o f human activity . A good drive r wil l attend more carefully t o the spee d an d relativ e positions of vehicles than to their colour or registration numbers. H e or she will look for cues indicatin g what othe r roa d user s ma y b e abou t t o do . Traffi c lights ahea d ma y change , youn g childre n o n th e ker b ma y unpredictably das h acros s th e road , a do g ma y se e anothe r do g across the road and run to it without looking: a quick driver will spot all suc h potentia l hazards and be read y to reac t if the nee d arises . Anticipation is an important factor in the selective perception of cues. 27

28 Headless CKickeffs, Laidback Bears

In reading, the efficien t performe r will have clearly specified hi s o r her purpose s i n advance , wil l hav e previewe d (skimme d quickl y through) th e materia l firs t an d wil l b e activel y lookin g fo r information rathe r tha n passivel y movin g th e eye s alon g the lines . This makes i t possible t o attend selectivel y to the parts that matter and s o makes faster assimilatio n possible. In sports , anticipatio n i s a n essentia l componen t o f skille d performance, and a player has to be able to perceive selectively those cues that will enable him or her to respond befor e a n opponent ca n prevent the scoring of a goal or a point. The faster such responses can be made, the better a player can become. Even i n everyda y encounter s wit h othe r people , a grea t dea l o f information abou t attitudes , motive s an d intention s i s contained i n nonverbal cues rather than in spoken words . The faster thes e can be identified an d th e mor e importan t one s responde d to , th e mor e quickly and effectivel y a n individual can communicate. Studies o f highl y skille d performer s i n thes e an d othe r area s o f activity have revealed that they actively seek cues which tell them that a situation is different fro m others and requires a different approach . They look for order and try to identify priorities. They look for key signposts, hierarchies of information (evidence of planning an d structure). They are alert to anything that will help them to concentrate on what matters and pass over the trivial and the unimportant. The laidback bears know what they are doing; the headless chicken s are still busy but dashing aroun d mindlessly . Since, as has been said, there is normally too much information to be able t o atten d t o everything , yo u shoul d tr y t o observ e thos e cue s which i n effec t say , 'You have to tak e account of us, o r else/ Being able to do this helps flexible, planned performance. It allows overall for consistentl y greater speed.

SelecfiVe Perception of cues 29

You should tr y to identify priorities for your attention. Placing things in rank order with the most important a t the top and the least importan t at the bottom helps to achieve this. Identifying, an d differentiating, th e important an d th e urgent help s too . If your ca r catches fire, i t may b e important tha t yo u rescu e you r briefcas e bu t i t i s urgen t tha t yo u yourself shoul d escap e the flame s first . You can survive without you r briefcase, but th e alternative is no use to you at all. It is best, onc e priorities have bee n determined , t o keep t o the ran k order. Don' t cho p an d chang e lik e ou r headles s chickens . I f th e sequence i s appropriat e an d yo u hav e thing s i n th e righ t order , everything will work ou t al l right in any case . If you hav e it wrong , write i t of f to experience , carr y o n an d us e th e lesson s learne d t o avoid that particular mistake in future . Practise some (or all) of the following exercises and you will find tha t your skill in selectively perceiving cues steadily improves: 1. Read a feature article in a newspaper. You will usually find them in the centre pages. Try to pick out the central point in the article, the main fact , ide a o r conclusio n tha t th e write r i s seekin g t o communicate to the reader. Write it down. Wai t 24 hours, read th e article again and se e if you still agree with your own assessment . If you don't , chang e it. If you do , yo u hav e mos t likel y selected th e main point first time round. If you can, you might also get a second opinion fro m someon e els e who has read the article. 2. Observe a street scene. On tape or in your notebook, record the key features o f what yo u see . Then recor d al l the othe r thing s tha t are happening o r tha t ar e simpl y jus t there (type s o f buildings, roa d workings, peopl e passin g by , etc.). Decid e ho w muc h yo u hav e ignored in focusing o n the key features (most people wil l relegate details o f buildings t o th e background , fo r instance , unles s the y happen t o b e architects) . Asses s ho w accurat e yo u wer e i n identifying th e key features. 3. Sort th e item s i n you r in-tra y int o priorities . Mak e thre e piles : 'Urgent', 'Important' and These Can Wait'. If you have no in-tray, try simulatin g a n in-tray exercise by imagining you have one.

30 Headless CKickeffs, LaMback Bears

4. Obtai n a 'perceptual map' (one on which key buildings and other landmarks ar e highlighte d pictorially ) of a cit y an d compar e i t with a traditiona l stree t ma p o f the sam e area . O n wha t basi s have the key features been selected? Is a perceptual map easier to follow? 5. Wh y can you drive faster (withi n legal speed limits) on an empty straight motorway tha n on an empty straight single-carriagewa y road? Lis t a s man y reason s a s yo u ca n (clues : Are ther e mor e things t o atten d t o o n a motorway or fewer ? Ar e they close r or further away ? What difference doe s it make?). 6. Conside r th e cues you attend to in deciding whe n a joint of meat is cooked, a car is roadworthy, potatoes ar e ready to be picked, and that someone is being sincere. 7. Whe n planning a holiday o r a business trip , lis t the ke y factor s that yo u tak e int o consideration . Ca n yo u identif y thing s yo u take for granted? 8. I f you work in a crowded roo m or if you attend a party or go into the local pub, note how you can attend to one thing and exclude others, tal k o n th e phon e despit e th e nois e o r pic k ou t on e person's voice and listen to it. Ask yourself how well you can do these things. Practise one of them for a week or so and se e if you notice any improvement. 9. Durin g the Second World War, aircraft personnel were trained to spot enem y plane s quickl y b y havin g silhouette s fo r the m t o identify flashe d o n t o a screen. Practise this wit h silhouette s o r photographs of cars from a car book. Time yourself over, say, fifty and se e how muc h you ca n increase speed o f identification i n a week. 10. Draw a map o f the route from you r house to the nearest railway station o r som e simila r destinatio n a s i f fo r a stranger . Wha t features and landmarks do you decide to include? How and why do you select them? Selective perceptio n o f cue s ca n no t onl y spee d u p informatio n processing, i t ca n als o make i t mor e efficien t b y focusin g on thos e

SekcfiVe Percepffort of cues 31

features of a situation or sequence of events that can materially affect the outcome. As such, it is an ability which is of considerable value to the tim e creatio n student an d i s well wort h practisin g by mean s o. exercises lik e thos e above , i n orde r t o develo p skil l an d mak e progress a s a laidback bear.

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owpfer Si'K

ADEQUATE INCUBATION PERIODS

At first sight it may seem that the idea of deliberately inserting into a task o r activit y a perio d o f tim e i n whic h nothin g appear s t o b e happening run s completely against the principles an d technique s of better tim e creation . Ho w doe s th e concep t o f waitin g time , o f a period i n which informatio n i s assimilated, i s allowed t o 'incubate' for a while, fit into a more effective approach ? Is it not simply a waste of time , a device for procrastination? Part of the answe r to questions like thes e i s that , i n th e ter m 'adequat e incubatio n periods' , th e emphasis is placed on the word 'adequate'. In other words, you only take th e 'tim e out ' tha t i s necessary. I f you don' t provid e fo r suc h periods, you do in fact waste time in less than fully productiv e effort. It is one o f the ke y feature s tha t distinguish headles s chicken s fro m laidback bears. Headless chickens are so ineffective precisel y because they cannot be still for a moment . Adequate incubation periods are needed because there is a limit to the speed at which the brain can process information. This limit varies from person to person and most of us operate at a level well below our own potential, but it is there nonetheless and we need a technique which takes it into account. The period s ar e neede d becaus e w e ofte n tak e som e tim e t o for m sound judgment s an d conclusions . Indeed , ther e i s evidenc e tha t better conclusion s ar e reache d i f adequat e incubatio n period s ar e allowed. The y hel p t o avoi d th e stres s tha t a n over-emphasi s o n speed ca n bring. They give us tim e to think, t o mull things over , to reflect. It is a false economy to neglect incubation periods. There will 33

34 Headless cKicketts, Lgidback Bears

also always be occasions when the mind, like a farmer's field, has to lie fallo w an d b e give n th e chanc e t o recove r fo r th e nex t task . Incubation o r res t period s ca n take severa l form s an d all , properl y used, ca n b e o f assistanc e i n th e practic e o f bette r tim e creatio n whether b y managers, writers , readers, travellers or anyone else for whom speed of response i s an important consideration. The principal kind o f incubation with which we shal l be concerne d here i s th e on e tha t occur s betwee n inpu t an d output , betwee n preparation o r plannin g an d execution , betwee n identifyin g o r specifying a problem an d solvin g it , o r whe n th e actua l process of creative thinkin g i s being carrie d out . I t i s th e tim e durin g whic h information continue s to be worked o n by the brain at a level other than th e consciou s level . I t require s n o effort . Al l i t require s i s a willingness simply to put adequat e incubation periods into activities and to allow them to work their particular 'magic'. The kind s o f activitie s i n whic h incubatio n period s ca n pla y a n instrumental par t includ e proble m solving , creativ e thinking , reading, writing, decision and judgment making, managing, formin g opinions, training, learning and work planning. In later chapters we shall see specifically how som e of them work, but som e examples of their usefulness will not go amiss at this point. Any rest or relaxation period in an activity can become an incubation period if , durin g it , wha t ha s happene d previousl y i s bein g considered b y th e brai n a t a leve l beyon d th e consciou s an d thi s results i n a modifie d an d improve d performanc e whe n activit y resumes. An y learnin g proces s need s time s when , becaus e o f th e effects o f the learnin g curve , wha t ha s bee n learne d ca n be mulle d over ('the learning curve' in this context is a term used to refer to the fact that experience need s to be built up graduall y an d often canno t be forced) . Other examples of incubation periods occu r in situations like being able to solve a problem in a morning when it appeared insoluble the night before .

Adequafe IfJcubaf iotf Periods 35

They occur after a brainstorrning session before evaluatin g responses obtained . They occur between writing a report and revising it. They occur between collecting information and makin g a decision on what to do about it. Typically, thos e wh o ar e skille d i n providin g adequat e incubation periods fo r themselve s wil l mak e sur e tha t the y acquir e al l th e relevant informatio n an d se t asid e a n amoun t o f tim e t o giv e incubation a chance to occur . They will then tur n thei r attentio n t o some other task for a while. This might wel l be a task which ca n be completed without too much effort an d without taking up too much time, bearing i n mind tha t a desirable minimu m incubatio n perio d should includ e a n overnigh t wait . Afte r this , th e activit y wil l b e resumed an d ther e i s a greatl y increase d likelihoo d o f confident , positive, decisive action being possible . The benefits o f such a n approac h ar e many . The mai n one s woul d appear to be that adequate incubation periods : boost confidence relax an individual give smoother performance of skills avoid errors through over-hasty judgments increase reliability avoid wastefu l repetition. This last is very important to effective tim e creation. If yo u wis h t o improve your ow n us e o f these periods , yo u ca n tr y some or all of the followin g exercises: 1. Read a featur e articl e in a newspaper . Pu t i t t o on e side . Writ e down th e mai n points . The n rea d a simila r article , but thi s tim e

36 Headless CHicken's, Laidback Bears

when you put i t to one side wait for half a n hour before you write down th e main points. Th e following day , read each article again and se e if you still agree with your assessment of the salient points each is making. You should fin d tha t the article with the half-hour incubation period is the one which produced the better results. 2. Select problem s fro m a mathematic s textbook o r fro m a boo k which contain s puzzle s tha t provid e a certai n amoun t o f intellectual challenge . On e evening , attemp t t o solv e som e problems. When you encounter a problem you cannot solve, keep working a t i t unti l yo u ca n o r unti l yo u hav e t o giv e up . Nex t evening, d o th e same , bu t thi s tim e whe n yo u com e t o th e apparently insolubl e problem , mak e sur e tha t yo u hav e firml y registered i n you r min d al l th e informatio n abou t th e problem , then g o to bed. Next morning, retur n to the problem and se e if a solution present s itself . Yo u may hav e t o carr y ou t thi s whol e experiment two or three times before you are able to form a reliable judgment, but you should find that an overnight incubation period makes it noticeably more likely that you will be able to solve the problem. Students may use homework problems for this exercise. 3. Write a letter or a report an d the n try t o edit and polis h i t on th e same day . The n writ e something , bu t leav e i t a t leas t 2 4 hour s before editin g an d polishing . Yo u should fin d tha t th e secon d approach produces much better results. One reason for this is the incubation period , bu t anothe r i s that th e followin g da y yo u ar e not s o personally committed to the writing an d ca n thus be more objective an d critica l i n you r approach t o i t an d edi t i t mor e effectively. 4. Write a letter of complaint about something tha t has happened t o you recently and which you feel pretty steamed up about . Put the letter to one side overnight. Do you still send it as you wrote it? Or do you ton e i t down a little and mak e it more reasoned an d les s abusive? Th e chances ar e you wil l ton e i t down . Th e incubatio n period has saved you from possible embarrassment by overstating your case or expecting abusiveness to work.

Adef er Twrfccrt

ELIMINATION OF FAULTS

Most o f the faults , error s an d mistake s i n th e us e o f more effectiv e time creation techniques stem from th e inadequate use or downrigh t misuse o f th e techniques , particularl y b y th e headles s chicken s among us . W e ca n extrac t th e mai n point s mad e i n eac h o f th e chapters o f Part 1 of this book an d identif y fault s whic h nee d t o be remedied. We can also suggest simple solutions fo r each one. The followin g tabl e list s concisel y th e principa l fault s o f whic h headless chickens are guilty, and alongsid e gives the laidback bear's solution in each case: Headless Chicken's Fault

Fbrgefts to record feedback or neglects to

Recognises the vital nature of

record it altogether, in the mistaken belief

accurate feedback if you are to know how much progress you are making and in which areas.

that it realty is not necessary.

Makes ceades artor in recording

Checks for errors before moving on to

terdecdk he she does mardetes

the next task

to record it

Leaves gaps in records of feedback so that an incomplete picture emerges.

Ensures the records are comprehensive as well as accurate.

Carrect begol new adds to nes the

Adopts the flow rate to the before of the tast and the degree of urgency

Critital ess and is return fishing around

Keeps going back to worry over things already done when there is no need.

Recognises that when a task is done it is done. 73

74 Headless c«icke»is, tailback Bears

Headless Chicken's Fault

Laidback Bear's Remed y

iellfe yrti I &te c0r^^et^wfe<W;fw,^~6ifcs

' Keeps: art eye Wfer MiMefeeH

EFFECTS OF VARIETY OF ACTIVITY

Variety, they do say , is the spic e of life. Thi s is certaiitnly true whent comes t o organisin g a programm e o f activit y fo r yoursel f (o r someone else , for that matter).

Nothing kills drive and initiative and productive working quicker than monotony. For this reason, we need t o organise our activitie s in such a way that the amount of time spent on a particular part of an activity is limited. You shoul d hav e a cut-of f poin t i n min d a t whic h yo u chang e th e activity, if for no othe r reaso n tha n that i t will help to solve some of the problems for which possible remedies were suggested i n the last chapter. Most people fin d tha t about 20 minutes to half a n hour on a task i s abou t righ t i f maximu m effectivenes s i s t o b e maintained . After tha t time , chang e t o anothe r activity , knowin g tha t yo u ca n always return to the previous one when you are ready. This, o f course , i s a n idea l limi t t o ai m fo r an d i n realit y longe r periods ma y b e necessary , bu t a t leas t yo u wil l b e awar e tha t th e longer yo u pres s ahea d wit h a tas k th e les s efficien t yo u become . Variety can help to prevent this fatigue effect fro m having an adverse effect upo n performance . Discretionary Time

We ar e al l familia r wit h th e 'al l wor k an d n o play ' adage . Man y headless chickens become s o caught u p i n their dail y activitie s that they have no time for play. They are always too busy. This is a very 93

94 Headless CHicketts, Lardback Bears

shortsighted approach . You have to examine everything that you fee l you have to do and as k yourself, 'Is this really necessary? What will happen if I do not do it?' If the answer is 'Not very much/ you have identified a prime candidate for giving yourself a bit of discretionary time - tha t is, time which you can use for any purpose you like. How much discretionary time you need or can provide yourself with will var y fro m perso n t o person . Th e average i s abou t 3 0 hours a week. If you cannot honestly manage as much as this, you have to do the best you can. You will never become a laidback bear otherwise. Time fo r thinkin g an d reflectio n i s never tim e wasted . A t th e ver y least it is used for incubation and at best it allows for the creative side of yo u t o have ful l rein . Man y a brilliant ide a ha s bee n though t of when someon e wa s simply sitting under a n apple tree admiring the view, like Newton, or relaxing in the bath, like Archimedes. In man y ways , sittin g an d thinking , o r eve n jus t sitting , i s th e laidback bear's favourit e activity. But do not be misled into thinking that somebody who appears to be doing nothing is not involved in a great deal of activity inside their head. Always remember to build in some discretionary time when you are setting your deadlines . Deciding Direction

It will help you greatl y in your quest t o become more of a laidback bear in your approach to tasks if you determin e which objectives to pursue first. Basically, you have two choices. You can either tackle the hard tas k first an d leave the easy ones until later, or you can do the easy ones first an d then tackle the hard ones later. The advantage o f tackling th e easy one s firs t i s that i t gives you a n easy introduction t o your dail y work, but mean s you have to tackle hard tasks when you are beginning t o tire and not at your best.

Effecfs of Variety of Acf iVify 95

Tackling the hard task s firs t mean s tha t when yo u ar e beginning t o tire yo u ar e no t face d b y an y reall y difficul t tasks . Thi s i s th e approach recommended here. Always do the hard thing s firs t whe n you ar e fresh . Conflicts Over Time Use

There will alway s be conflict s ove r how yo u ar e going t o use you r limited time . Activities will alway s overlap . Afte r all , lif e i s rarely neat. You will need to make clear decisions over which things can be run i n tandem, which wil l need t o be abandoned if there i s overlap and which will have to continue and make new tasks wait. You cannot avoid having to make decisions over time use at all times and you wil l need to kee p you r mai n objective s clearl y in mind to help yo u avoi d being unnecessaril y sidetracked . Headless chicken s are often sidetracke d and you will have to make sure that you do not suffer a similar fault . Changing Perceptions o f Tim e

Perceptions o f tim e chang e wit h age , th e interes t yo u hav e i n a n activity, the tim e of day an d othe r factors . Fo r this reason, activities need t o be time d whe n yo u ar e training yourself to complete them faster withou t creating undue stress. The older you are , for instance, the faste r tim e appears to pass. This is probably because any activit y is a smaller proportion o f the total time you have been on the planet than it is when you are younger. Interest can cause you to become unaware of the passage of time. You may therefor e spen d muc h mor e tim e doin g somethin g tha n yo u originally intended o r than you ca n afford . Time of day can change your perception. Most people work better in a morning . Some work better in the evening . Almost no one works best i n th e afternoon . Activitie s undertaken i n th e afternoo n ca n therefore appea r t o drag , eve n thoug h the y ma y no t actuall y b e taking any more time than they would i f done in the morning or the evening.

96 Headless cKrcketis, Laidback Bears

Coping With The Speed and Scale of Change

It is a truism that change is taking place nowadays much faster tha n it ever has done in the past. If you are to keep up with the increasing speed an d scale of change, you have to become extremely adaptable. You cannot ignore change. That is not an option. You either keep pace with it or you fall behind. The techniques you learn in this book will help you to achieve this and to avoid being relegated to the status of a headless chicken who dashes about looking busy but failing totally to keep in touch with rapidly changing events.

cnapf er Tue^y

TIMEWASTING You may b e guilt y of wasting you r ow n tim e an d i f this i s the cas e there should be plenty in this book to help you to avoid the problem in the future. But not all of the causes of wasted time are within your control. Below is a list of causes of wasted time , some of which yo u can d o somethin g about and som e of which yo u cannot . You might like to identify th e ones which are the biggest problems for you an d see what ther e i s in the res t o f this book that wil l help yo u t o dea l effectively wit h them. A Timewaster's Checklist

Here is a list of the factors that many people working in organisations have identified as causing them to make inefficient us e of their time. Tick the one s that you conside r your own tim e wasters. Make notes on what you intend to do about them: Unclear objective s Inadequate information on which to act Postponed decision s by others Procrastination by you and by others Lack of feedback o n whether you have done the right thing Routine work Too much reading Interruptions The telephone No time-planning Meetings Lack of competent personnel to work with Lack of delegation 97

98 Headless CKicketfs, tailback Bears

Lack of self-discipline Visitors Training new staf f Lack of priorities Unavailability of people Junk mail Outside demand s (i.e. any not related to your job) Poor filing syste m Fatigue Questionnaires Socialising by you and by others involving you Lack of concentration Coffee and tea breaks Unintelligible communications Lack of clerical staff Red tape Pet projects that you spend too much time on because you enjoy the m Attempting too much at once Span of control (having too many subordinates t o supervise) Usurped authorit y (having your decisions overridden) Can't say 'No' Low morale Mistakes Over-optimism (thinking you can do more than is possible) Employees with problem s Failure to listen (by you or by others) Responding to the urgent rather than the important Confused responsibilitie s Failure to motivate staf f Lack of activity or project co-ordinatio n Waiting for decisions Lack of monitoring and revie w procedures Orientation towards problems rather than opportunitie s In your notebook, list any other sources of timewasting that you fee l apply to your job.

Parf Twee:

Application in Personal Skills This part examines how time creation techniques ca n be applied to increase speed o r save time in the use of personal skill s necessary for effectiv e performanc e at work and in everyday life. It will hel p headless chicken s t o furthe r thei r master y o f laidback-bea r approaches.

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cnapfer TueMfy otfe

THINKING

Although ther e i s considerabl e controvers y abou t th e natur e o f thinking, on e way o f defining it is to see it as two kinds of approach to solving problems or to selecting the appropriate course of action to be taken. The two forms thinking take s under thi s definition are: 1. Convergent , logical, analytical, highly predictable thinking 2. Divergent , creative, insightful, unpredictable thinking. Headless chickens tend t o be poor at the first an d not much better at the second , mainl y because both kind s o f thinking requir e a certain amount o f discipline. Laidbac k bears tak e th e tim e t o thin k befor e acting, an d th e tim e the y spen d doin g thi s i s mor e tha n save d i n avoiding nonproductive activit y Convergent thinking

This kin d o f thinkin g follow s logica l paths . I t look s fo r a correct answer, convergin g upo n i t fro m th e informatio n th e thinke r ha s available. It is used t o analyse quantifiable problems. Its approaches and ofte n it s results are generally predictable. Convergent thinkin g i s mos t effectiv e whe n ther e i s informatio n available which ca n be handled logicall y (as in finding th e causes of a mechanical breakdown - if your car rolls to a stop on the motorway, you chec k all the possibl e cause s systematicall y and logically) . It is effective whe n there is a high probability of there being a single right answer. It is effective i n analysing both evidence and arguments .

101

102 Headless CKrcketis, Lai^back Bears

How well we communicate with each other depends to a large extent on how clearl y we think. If our thinkin g i s faulty, the n what we say or writ e wil l b e faulty . A t leas t thre e kind s o f unclear thinking, o f which headles s chicken s ten d mor e ofte n t o b e afflicted , ca n b e identified. Emotional thinking

If we base our conclusions about ideas, objects, people, events, and so on, not on the processes of reasoning, but o n our emotional reactions to them - whethe r w e like or dislike them , despis e or fear them , are pleased o r angered b y them - w e are once again on unsafe ground . Emotional thinking leads to prejudging and prejudice, and as such is unacceptable a s a basis fo r actio n i n a rational , civilise d society . It leads to the panicky reaction of the headless chicken. Dishonest thinking

Here th e illogica l an d emotiona l processe s o f thinkin g ar e use d deliberately t o reac h conclusion s beneficia l t o a n individua l an d harmful t o others. Th e point abou t dishones t thinkin g i s that thos e who us e i t are shutting thei r mind s t o the truth, eithe r consciousl y because it suits them or unconsciously throug h lack of self-insight. Superficial thinking

In thi s kin d o f thinking , error s occu r an d fals e conclusion s ar e reached simply because the individual has not devoted enoug h time to thinking abou t the problem or question. It is the kind o f thinking which is particularly encouraged i n an age of mass communication, with th e preference for the short an d the simple - an d the trivial . Evidence to support this can be found in the thinking of any headless chicken. The Characteristics of Clea r Thinking

If we are to avoid the faults in thinking discusse d above , our thinkin g should posses s a t leas t fou r mai n characteristic s of which laidback bears are the masterly proponents.

TKiMkiMg

103

Awareness of the rule s of logi c

It is easier to say which kinds of thinking break the rules of logic than to state precisely what thos e rules are but, basically, logical thought i s concerned with the relationships betwee n statement s rather than with the trut h or falsit y o f particular statements. I t is possible t o arrive at a logical conclusion which is untrue, if the original statements are untrue. However, the test to prevent this kind of situation arising lies in basing statements on evidence. A logical conclusion, then, is one which follows inescapably fro m wha t ha s bee n state d previously . A n awarenes s o f logic helps u s t o tel l whethe r fault s i n ou r thinkin g aris e fro m poo r information o r poor though t processes . I t is only when w e know th e source of any error that we can begin to do something to remedy it. Avoidance of emotional reactions and prejudices

We ca n neve r eliminat e entirel y th e presenc e o f emotio n i n ou r reactions t o statements , situations , issue s o r problems , no r ca n w e ever b e completel y fre e o f prejudice , but , i f w e ca n identif y th e occasions on which we react emotionally and if we can become aware of our own prejudices, we can begin to lessen the influence they have over ou r thinking . If we ar e to think clearly , this self-awareness and self-insight ar e essential, for it simply is not possible for the headles s chicken to think rationally and reasonably. Useful discussio n should , therefore, be a cool, dispassionate process. Honesty

We nee d t o b e especiall y hones t abou t ou r ow n motives . W e may choose t o hid e thos e motive s fro m other s i n orde r t o achiev e a specific objective , but w e shoul d neve r b e i n dange r o f deludin g ourselves abou t wha t i t i s we reall y want. Thi s self-examinatio n is another essential par t of the process of thinking clearly . It also helps considerably, o f course , i f w e ca n b e hones t wit h eac h other , eve n over motives. This way w e are much more likely to be able to get at the truth of a situation, settle an issue or resolve a problem. Adequate consideration of problem s

This doe s no t refe r simpl y t o th e nee d t o allo w sufficien t tim e fo r consideration, bu t refer s als o t o th e nee d fo r enoug h evidenc e o n

104 Headless CKfcketfs, tailback Bears

which t o bas e a conclusion . In othe r words , befor e w e ca n decid e whether th e state d relationship s betwee n facts , an d henc e th e conclusions drawn from them , are correct, we must first o f all check the accuracy of the facts. Thus, we can identify three stages in the process of allowing adequate consideration: 1. Chec k the accurac y of the informatio n available as thoroughly a s possible; 2. Chec k the validit y o f the relationship s claime d t o exis t between various pieces of information; 3. Chec k the logical validity and th e truth of the conclusions drawn by reference back to the information from which they stem. Divergent Thinking

On the other hand, divergent thinking follow s fe w rules. It does not look fo r a singl e correc t answer , no r indee d necessaril y fo r an y answer at all. Starting from a problem, a situation or a set of facts, it diverges, explores , seeks , freewheels , kick s aroun d an d examine s things fro m man y viewpoints . I t i s curious , provocative , controversial and even ridiculous. It is used t o find ne w solutions to old problems, new ways of doing things and differen t approache s to all kind s o f situations . I t i s unpredictabl e bot h i n metho d an d i n results. It is laidback. It is most effectiv e wher e logica l approaches have failed, o r there is insufficient informatio n fo r the m t o b e used , o r thei r us e i s in appropriate for any one of a thousand reasons. Divergent thinking is effective whe n ther e is a low probabilit y tha t there is a single right answer o r whe n a n unusual , out-of-the-ordinary , insightfu l interpretation of the facts has to be made to find one, as in devising a name fo r a ne w produc t o r re-inventin g a corporat e identity. I t i s effective i n opening up ne w fields for exploitation and new area s for development.

T«iMlUMg

105

Quality of idea s

One o f the mos t difficul t problem s which face s thos e ne w t o divergent thinkin g i s tha t o f producing a larg e enoug h sampl e o f ideas from which to select one for dealing with the problem. The more that can be generated, the better the chance of finding one that will work. The importance of deferring judgment

During the time that the ideas are being gathered, nothing shoul d be rejected. Ridiculous ideas, i f rejected too soon, will simply make the collection loo k nea t an d sensible . Bu t i t i s als o likel y to b e dull . If ridiculous ideas ca n be retaine d fo r th e tim e being , the y ma y wel l generate other s whic h offe r a sensibl e bu t radicall y ne w idea , interpretation or approach, so defer judgment during the production of ideas. The time for evaluation comes later. Headless chickens rush to judgment too quickly; laidback bears know to bide their time. Techniques of Divergent Thinking

Although divergen t thinkin g is , characteristically , unpredictable , there are certain basic principles an d approache s whic h will help t o stimulate it. They are of special value to those who ar e more familiar with the approaches of convergent thinking than with being creative. First o f all , th e proble m mus t b e state d an d defined . I t shoul d b e written down. This is necessary to give thinking a focal point. It will also hel p t o revea l whethe r o r no t th e subjec t i s on e i n whic h divergent thinkin g ca n help . Fo r instance , i n industry , divergen t thinking wil l be o f more us e i n findin g a name fo r a product o r i n producing marketing ideas for a product than in deciding whether or not to build a new factor y i n a particular place. Secondly, there are at least eight techniques which can be applied t o produce creativ e answers , solution s an d suggestions . Yo u shoul d work systematicall y through th e lis t unti l a reasonabl e amoun t of self-confidence i n thinkin g divergentl y ha s bee n developed . Thes e techniques are as follows:

106 Headles s CKickeffs , Lar'dbac k Bear s

1. Generation . Find as many ways of doing or looking at something as possible. Nothing should be rejected. However unpromising an idea may seem at first, i t may acquire significance later. 2. Challeng e the present situation. Is it really like this? Does it have to be like this? Is there really a problem? Could we look at things in some other way? 3. Inversion . Turn things completel y round, or upside down . If , for example, a building contracto r is designing a new kin d o f house, he might consider putting the bedrooms downstairs and the living room upstairs. This might in fac t be the best way o f doing thing s if the houses are being built on the side of a hill. The service roads could be built level with the upper floors of the houses at the back, and th e livin g room s woul d giv e bette r view s ove r th e surrounding countrysid e if they were upstairs. 4. Analogies . Compar e th e proble m situatio n o r issu e t o another . They need not be related fo r thi s technique to work. For example, comparing road s t o railway s ma y giv e u s a n ide a fo r smal l uniform-sized unit s that could be coupled togethe r and so reduce the traffi c i n town s whil e preservin g th e individualit y an d th e privacy o f th e car . Again, comparin g car s to bead s (a n unlikel y analogy) could lea d to the same kind o f solution an d migh t eve n suggest a method o f linking car-like units together. 5. Allo w ridiculous ideas. The motor car, aeroplane an d submarin e were once ridiculous ideas (no t to mention goin g to the moon). 6. Waitin g fo r inspiration . Doing nothing o r allowin g a perio d o f mental incubatio n i s a usefu l creative-thinkin g technique . Onc e the problem has been state d an d defined , the brain will continue to wor k o n i t an d possibl e solution s ma y com e t o min d a t th e oddest o f times . Solution s discovere d i n thi s wa y ca n b e revolutionary and yet highly practical. 7. Readines s for insight. This is closely allied to the previous technique and mean s bein g read y 2 4 hours a da y fo r solution s t o presen t themselves. If they do, they must be noted down straight away. Many good ideas thought of at 1 a.m. have vanished by 8 a.m. if they are not recorded. When illumination comes, one must be ready for it.

THiMkiMg

107

8. Repetitio n of process . Going over th e sam e groun d agai n ofte n produces an additional idea which turns out to be the one that will work. The third step in this approach to creative thinking is to take all ideas, interpretations, insights and solutions tha t have been produce d an d evaluate them. Th e process o f evaluation is best carrie d out afte r a t least an overnight break. The aim should be to try to identify the idea or solution which is most likely to succeed and which therefore is the one to be tried first . Questioning

Many people ar e prevented fro m thinkin g divergently because they are quit e conten t to accep t thing s as the y are . Eve n if the y see k change, the y look for improvements based o n keeping thing s pretty much as they are. Change, in these circumstances, becomes minimal and to all intents and purposes th e problems remain. You should acquire the habit of questioning everything. Why is it like this? Why do we do it this way? 'Why?' is the most creative question you ca n ask , becaus e i t i s th e necessar y firs t ste p t o seekin g ne w ideas. Unless you challenge what is, you will never know what could be. Facility i n doin g thi s ca n b e increase d i n muc h th e sam e wa y a s quantities of ideas are collected. A question is posed and then, within a time limit, all the solutions offere d ar e taped or noted down . Individual Brainstorming

Brainstorming session s ar e usuall y grou p affairs , wit h everyon e sitting aroun d throwin g idea s int o a commo n 'pool ' fo r late r evaluation. Th e evidenc e tha t i s available , however, indicate s tha t

108 Headless chickens, tailback Bears

more (and better) ideas are produced when people work individually on a topic than whe n the y work a s a group. Th e procedure to use , then, is as follows: 1. Th e proble m t o b e th e subjec t fo r brainstormin g shoul d b e selected. 2. Yo u should writ e your ideas down as quickly as you can without stopping t o analyse their practicality. 3. I t help s i f 1 0 minutes i s devote d t o a warm-u p session . Writ e down a s many solutions t o a specimen proble m as you can think of in the time. See exercise 2 on page 42. 4. Th e main subject for brainstorming shoul d then be written down . 5. Th e brainstorming session prope r shoul d follo w an d shoul d las t for abou t 30 minutes. The eight techniques describe d abov e may be used at any time that you wish. 6. Yo u should writ e down a s many solutions to the problem as you can thin k o f i n th e time . N o solutio n shoul d b e censore d o r rejected a t this stage. 7. A t the end of the brainstorming session , put you r list away for 24 hours before tryin g to evaluate it. Headless chickens find i t hard to do this, but it is necessary if you are to avoid rejecting fresh an d unusual solutions. Uses and value of divergent thinking

Most participants will by now have realised that divergent thinkin g techniques are of most use in finding new things to do, new ways of doing things, new interpretations and new outlooks. They are indeed invaluable not only in promoting chang e and development, bu t als o in indicatin g precisel y wher e an d i n whic h way s chang e an d development ca n take place.

CKaffcr Twenty Tu»o

READING Eye Movements in Reading

If you mov e your head slowl y from sid e to side when your eyes are focused o n a stationar y object , you r eye s wil l appea r t o mov e smoothly in their sockets. If, o n the other hand, you keep your head still an d mov e you r eye s slowl y fro m sid e t o side , you r eye s wil l move in a series of jerks (or 'saccades'). The pauses between move ments are called fixations. When reading, the eyes move in a series of saccades, wit h brie f fixation s (0.2 5 to 0.3 5 o f a second ) betwee n movements. The eye can only accept information, it is now believed, when stationar y and , i n fact , a mechanis m i n th e brai n switche s vision off while the eye s are in motion. Even in the firs t kin d o f eye movement describe d above , where th e ey e i s focused o n a n object , eye movement s ar e stil l saccadic , bu t th e movement s an d th e consequent fixation s ar e s o smal l an d s o rapi d tha t th e eye s d o appear to move smoothly. The amount o f information taken in at each fixation depends on the reader's span of perception (or eye span). The quickness with which the eyes can enable perception o f one piece of information (a word or group o f words ) an d mov e o n t o th e nex t depend s o n spee d o f perception (fixatio n tim e ca n b e reduce d t o 0. 1 o f a secon d an d speeds o f 0.001 are possible in certain circumstances). Indeed, sinc e poor eye movements ar e merely a symptom an d no t a cause of poor reading, there would be little to be achieved simply by making the eyes move in a certain way. But, if by the end o f working through the ideas described in this chapter, reading performance has improved, then it is reasonable to infer tha t both spee d an d spa n of perception hav e bee n increased . On e canno t happe n withou t th e other. 109

110 Headless CKickefis, LaUback. Pears

The approac h here , however , wil l b e t o allo w th e physiologica l improvement i n ey e movement s t o aris e naturall y ou t o f a preoccupation wit h comprehendin g th e writte n wor d faste r an d better. Fo r reading i s concerne d wit h understandin g meaning , an d actual technique is a secondary consideration. If reading matter could be understood b y holding i t up to the ear, then this would be a valid reading technique . Conversely , if there i s no comprehensio n the n a technique canno t be calle d a reading technique , eve n if every wor d on a page has been looked at several times. Reading is comprehension or it is nothing.

The term s 'readin g speed ' an d 'comprehension' , a s used her e an d elsewhere, refe r respectivel y to speed o f comprehension an d qualit y of comprehensio n i n reading. The fact tha t the two ar e simply part s of th e sam e process , rathe r tha n separat e entities , shoul d no t b e forgotten. Differences between Poo r and Good Readers

The most important difference s betwee n poo r an d goo d reader s ar e as follows : Poor reade r

Good reade r

Physiological difference s

1. Has nafrow 'eye span.

Has wcterseve span.

2. Has lower speed of perception.

Has a higher speed of perception.

f; 3Lacksrtiyttefp fead&g/.

Has-, rtwttwifc; confi^pf .fm fiw^ifterfts.

4 Tends to read slowly all the time.

Is B flexible reader who reads everything as quickly as purposes in reading and the nature of the

material will allow.

readiMg il l

Poor reader

5. Regresses (goes back to read things again) habitually.

Good reader

Avoids all unnecessary regressions.

6. vocalises(cannot read silenly)or Does not vocalise and reduces subvacalis(suffers from inner innerr subvocalisaation by reading faster./.. speach or reading aloud silentiy) Psychological differences

is unsure about purposes in reading Always has clear knowledge of purpose and expectations before

READING 8. Is tense when reading under pressure (e.g. lack of time).

Remains relaxed even when reading 'against the clock'.

9. Is not able to anticipate the nature Anticipates well the general nature at subsequent material when readinggoff of material yet to be rwad when READING

10. Lacks concentration except for short periods.

Concentrates well by avoidance or exclusion of distractions.

11.Is unable to retain information for very long after readinafter readoiing.afmeh e

Has good retention of information

•ovwiioRger'-4>erta&.

Educational difference s 4&j^&;Mfe£ too&ufcpy.

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13. Is unable to read critically.

Always reads critically, even at speed.

14.Has a limited general background of knowledge and experience.

Has a wide genrtera labackegeooungaofnt Has knowledge and experience and a thoughtful and critical approach to

BOTH You should ai m to be able to place yourself i n the right-hand column on as many of these points as possible. The first tw o difference s hav e already been dealt with, but le t us look briefly a t some of the others. More rhythmic eye movements will develop with increased speed, so

112 Headless CKicketfs, Laidback Pears

we do not need to take any particular action on this point. Flexibility will develop as a result of practising the approaches outlined in this chapter. Regression ca n b e prevente d b y eithe r a simpl e ac t o f wil l o r b y drawing a postcard down over material as it is read. If regression is a problem, th e bes t cur e i s t o eliminat e it altogether , a t leas t durin g practice. Comprehensio n wil l suffe r a littl e a t first , bu t wil l soo n recover. Evidence suggests that regressions add no more than 3-7 per cent to your comprehension level, so in most cases no great loss will be experienced by eliminating them. Sub vocalisation need not hinder increases in speed. It has been found that peopl e ca n read alou d a t speed s u p t o nearl y 30 0 words pe r minute (wpm), so where the 'reading aloud' does not actually go as far a s involving th e voca l cords, higher speed s tha n thi s shoul d b e possible. Sinc e th e primar y for m o f languag e i s speec h an d no t writing, it is inevitable that many readers should subvocalise. Subvocalisation ca n als o b e a powerfu l ai d t o comprehension , so , having note d it s existence, we won't regard it as a problem an d will forget abou t it. Higher speeds i n any case tend t o make its presence less pronounced , thoug h i t ma y neve r disappea r altogether , eve n when skimming (a range of techniques described later). What is Comprehension?

The point has alread y been made that 'reading speed' an d 'compre hension' are not tw o separat e activities , but merel y two parts o f the same process - that of understanding the meaning and significance of the printed word. Comprehension is , of course, a general skill that we use o n al l the informatio n that is communicated to us b y whatever means and throug h whichever of our senses . It is worth mentioning , therefore, that , although we are here concerned with comprehensio n when reading, any improvement in speed or quality achieved will be reflected i n othe r use s o f comprehensio n skills . Similarly , improvements effected generall y will result in better reading.

reading 11 3 Many reader s assume tha t ther e i s an inverse relationshi p betwee n reading speed and comprehension, and that if speed is increased then comprehension will automatically fall. If this were so, there would be little point i n a chapter suc h as this one. Fortunately it is not and, in fact, th e averag e reade r ca n increas e hi s o r he r readin g spee d b y about 80 per cen t without loss of comprehension. Comprehension comprise s a number o f abilities. Chief amon g these are the abilities: 1. to recall information from th e material; 2. to select important point s and draw general conclusions ; 3. to make deductions fro m wha t has been read, draw inferences, be aware of implications an d carr y out other interpretative activities; 4. t o relate what ha s been rea d t o prior knowledg e an d experience and to use this in achieving a better and deepe r understanding of the material; 5. t o us e al l th e othe r activitie s mentioned abov e t o evaluat e th e material and discus s it intelligently. It should als o be possible for you t o test these abilities for yourself o n materials that you encounte r during the cours e of a normal reading week. How can Comprehension be Improved?

Quality o f comprehensio n i s affecte d b y spee d - beyon d certai n limits. We have already said that higher speed s d o not automatically mean lowe r comprehensio n scores . I t i s true , however , tha t i f yo u read too quickly at any point in your progress to higher speed s the n comprehension wil l suffer . Spee d increase s nee d t o b e achieve d gradually to prevent this happening. Other factor s which affec t comprehensio n include :

114 Headless CKicketfs, La^back Bears

1. the reasons or purposes fo r which the material is being read; 2. your motivation for, o r interest in, reading the material; 3. the nature, content and leve l of difficulty o f the material; 4. the layout of the material; 5. the environment in which the reading is being done . The quality of your comprehension can be improved by making sure that each of the abov e factors i s taken into consideration. The three main ways, however, of improving comprehension ar e as follows: 1. b y testing: (i ) retention of information; (ii) interpretation o f information. 2. b y discussion . 3. b y wide, varied reading. You shoul d tak e step s t o make sure tha t the readin g yo u d o i n the course of a week or a month contains sufficient breadt h and mixture of materials to provide your comprehension skills with the challenge and variety needed t o improve them. Comprehension ca n als o b e improve d b y gettin g int o th e habi t of approaching al l writte n materia l critically . Criticall y mean s no t simply looking fo r faults an d defects , but als o looking fo r points of merit so that reasonably accurate judgments and evaluations may be made abou t th e material . A systematic approach t o critica l readin g has th e acronymi c title CITE (w e encountered a form o f it in Part 1 Chapter 12 ) and the procedures involved ar e quite simple. As you read and after you have read something, consider the following: 1. Content . Ask questions like: What does the material tell me? Is the information accurate or plausible ? What is the writer's authority or reliability?

readiMg 11 5 2. Intentions . Ask questions like: What is the writer trying to achieve? Who is the material aimed at? 3. Treatment . Ask questions like: Am I being convinced by reason or emotion? Is there any evidence o f bias? Has the treatment influenced my opinion unduly? 4. Evaluation . Ask questions like: If th e writer fails, how, where an d wh y doe s he or she fail ? In th e ligh t o f th e answer s t o thes e questions , wha t i s m y evaluation of the material? Defining Purposes and Expectations in Reading

Speeds i n readin g and , indeed , you r whol e approac h t o readin g matter, should be determined by: 1. purpose s and expectation s in reading; 2. th e nature of the material. You shoul d ai m alway s to rea d a s quickly as these tw o factor s wil l allow. On each piece of reading material a range of speeds will be possible . For the average reader the range will be narrow, probably extendin g from 15 0 wpm t o no higher than 300 wpm. For the efficient reade r the range ma y exten d u p t o 80 0 wpm. Th e ai m shoul d therefore b e always to achieve a speed a s close as possible t o the uppe r limi t on each piec e o f readin g matter . It i s eas y t o b e conten t wit h a lower speed but th e efficien t reade r wil l be consciou s o f the fac t tha t tim e can b e save d withou t sacrific e i n qualit y an d tha t thi s wil l guar d against unnecessary slacknes s i n approach. In order to achieve the degree of efficiency implie d by this approach, it i s importan t t o defin e purpose s an d expectation s i n readin g a s clearly a s possible. It is important to go beyond primar y or obvious

116 Headless ctiickefts, Lgidback Bears

purposes an d i t should b e possible t o identify wit h reasonable ease three levels of purpose, as follows: Primary

Secondary (examples)

Tertiary (examples!

Have to read.

Solve a problem. Increase special

Acquire relevant facts. Acquire new facts.

knowledge. Make a decision.

Acquire unusual facts.

want to read.

Derive pleasure

self-education. Evaluate critically.

Acquire interesting facts Acqura impartant facts Acquire insight into facts

Not al l th e possibl e purpose s hav e bee n give n i n th e abov e illustration and you will be able to add many secondary and tertiary purposes of your own. You should know the reasons why you are reading as specifically and as clearly as possible before you begin reading. Also, before you read something, you will have certain expectation s about the material. You may know the kind of information it is likely to contain or you may know that the writer will be trying to persuade you to accept a particular point of view. You should be consciously aware of your expectations before you decide how to read the material Assessing material s

In additio n t o definin g purpose s an d expectation s a s clearl y a s possible, yo u shoul d mak e a brief assessmen t o f the material before reading it. This can be done during a quick preview (or skimming) of

reading 11 7 the materia l t o obtai n a n overview , o r genera l impression , whic h covers the following points: 1. th e writer's purposes i n writing; 2. th e length o f the material ; 3. th e leve l of difficulty o f the material ; 4. th e reliability of the material , perhaps throug h informatio n given about the writer; 5. th e nature of the conten t of the material, in terms of the pattern of organisation, th e subjec t matte r an d th e importanc e and/o r relevance of the content . This previe w nee d tak e n o mor e tha n a fe w second s an d i t shoul d concentrate on identifying the pattern of organisation which the writer has impose d upo n th e material . This will help bot h i n decidin g ho w much time and attention to give to it and in assimilating the information if it is decided that the material should, in fact, be read at all. Patterns of Organisation of Written Materia l

If th e sam e se t o f fact s i s give n t o 1 0 differen t writers , the y wil l produce 1 0 different piece s of writing, som e o f which ma y diffe r s o much as to make it unclear that they are all concerned with the same subject. Th e most obviou s differenc e wil l be i n th e word s tha t each writer choose s t o expres s wha t h e o r sh e want s t o say . You should therefore tr y to 'see through' the words used t o the information, the facts, idea s or feelings that the writer wants you to understand . Your concer n i s wit h assimilatin g meanin g rathe r tha n th e wor d sequence whic h communicate s tha t meaning . Ther e ar e certai n exceptions to this rule, but it holds broadly true. This process is helped if you ca n identify the pattern of organisatio n a write r ha s used . Onc e th e genera l outlin e ha s bee n perceived , a number o f other things are made easier.

118 Headless CKicketfs, Laidback Bears

An awarenes s o f th e patter n o f organisatio n whic h th e write r ha s imposed o n his or her material helps: in defining purposes mor e closely in making a more accurate choice of reading technique s in anticipating while reading in relatin g specifi c informatio n t o it s contex t i n th e genera l framework. The pattern o f organisation ca n be looked a t in three distinc t ways , according to: 1. th e type of writing; 2. th e structural principles which all written materials follow; 3. th e patterns peculiar to specific kinds of material. Types of writing

There are four type s of writing: description exposition argument narrative. Where the types are mixed, one will dominate. If the principal type can be identified, an approach can be chosen to suit it. In description , yo u wil l concentrat e o n buildin g u p th e menta l picture that the writer wishes yo u to see. In exposition, you will be looking fo r a logica l orderin g o f points, fo r stage s o f developmen t and fo r facts. In argument, you will be looking for 'pros' and 'cons', for evidenc e and reasons, and fo r the outline of the case that is being made. I n narrative , yo u wil l b e lookin g fo r chronologica l development and for movement from on e place to another.

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