The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association is a comprehensive guide to the Association's 'International Phonetic Alphabet' . The aim of the International Phonetic Alphabet is to provide a universally agreed system of notation for the sounds of languages, and for over a century the Alphabet has been widely used by phoneticians and others concerned with language. The Handbook presents the bas ics of phonetic analysis so that the principles underlying the Alphabet can be readily understood, and exemplifies the use of each of the phonetic symbols comprising the Alphabet. The application of the Alphabet is then extensively demonstrated by the inclusion of over two dozen 'Illustrations' concise analyses of the sound systems of languages accompanied by a phonetic transcription of a passage of speech . These Illustrations cover languages from allover the world. The Handbook also includes a range of other useful information. The 'Extensions ' to the International Phonetic Alphabet cover speech sounds beyond the sound systems of languages, such as those with paralinguistic functions and those encountered in pathological speech . A full listing is given of internationally agreed computer codings for phonetic symbols, including not only those of the International Phonetic Alphabet but also those of other traditions . And there is extensive information on the history of the International Phonetic Association and its current activities. The Handbook is an essential reference work for all those involved in the analysis of speech. The International Phonetic Association exists to promote the study of the science of phonetics and the applications of that science. The Association can trace its history back to 1886, and since that time the most widely known aspect of its work has been the International Phonetic Alphabet. The Handbook has been produced collaboratively by leading phoneticians who have been on the Executive of the Association , and it incorporates (for instance in the case of the Illustrations) material provided by numerous members of the Association world wide. Sound file s to accompany the book are available at http ://uk .cambridge.org/l ingu istics/ resourccs/ipahand book.
Handbook of the International Phonetic Association A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet
•
:::
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
I
CAMBRIDGE UNI VERSITY PRESS
Cambri dge, New York , Me lbourne, Madrid, Cape Town , Singa pore, Silo Paul o Cambri dge University Press The Edin burgh Bu ilding, Cambridge CB2
, 8R~,
UK
Published in the United States of Amer ica by Cambridge University Press, New York www .cambrid ge.org Informa tion on this title:www.cam bridge.org/9780521652360
© The International Phonetic Association 1999 Th is pub lication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provis ions of relevant collective licepsing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cam bridge University Press. First published 1999 Eighth printing 2007 Printed in the United Kingdom at the Unive rsity Press, Camb ridge
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978-0-521 -65236-0 hardback 0-52 1-65236-7 hardbac k 978-0-521 -6375 1-0 paperback 0-521-6375 1-1 paperback
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CONTENTS Foreword The IP A Chart
vii ix
PART 1: Introduction to the IPA 3
1
What is the International Phonetic Alphabet?
2
Phonetic description and the IPA Chart Linguistically relevant information in speech 2.1 Segments 2.2 The consonant-vowel distinction 2.3 Consonants 2.4 Non-pulmonic consonants 2.5 Vowels 2.6 Suprasegmentals 2.7 Diacritics 2.8 Other symbols 2.9
13 15 17
3
Guide to IP A notation Exemplification of the symbols 3.1 Languages used f or exemplification 3.2
18 18 25
4
The phonemic principle
27
5
Broad and narrow transcriptions
28
6
IP A transcriptions for a language
30
7
Working with the IPA Symb ol names 7.1 Using the 1PA in handwriting 7.2 Using the 1PA in print 7.3 Using the 1PA on computers 7.4 The /PA and braille 7.5
31 31 31 31 31 32
8 Going beyond the IP A 9
Some 9. / 9.2 9.3
problematic issues Segmentation Aligning transcriptions and speech Transcribing the speaker or the hearer ?
10 The IPA and phonological theory
3 4 4
6 7 9 10
32 33 33 35 36 37
VI
Contents
PART 2: Illustrations of the IPA Am erican English Amharic Ara bic Bulgari an Cantonese Catalan Croa tian Czech Dutch French Galician German Hausa Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Igbo
Irish Japan ese Korean Persian (Farsi) Portuguese Sindhi Slovene Swedish Taba Thai Tukang Besi Turk ish
41 45 51 55 58 61 66
70 74 78
82 86
90 96 100 104 108 II I
11 7 120
124 126
131 135 140 143 147 151
154
PART 3: Appendices Appendi x 1
The Principles of the International Phonetic Associati on
159
Appendi x 2
Computer coding of IPA symbols
161
Appendi x 3
Extensions to the IPA
186
Appendix 4 About the Internat ional Phonetic Association The History of the Association Statutes and By-laws How to fi nd out more about the Association How to j oin the Association
194 194 197 199 199
Appendi x 5
200
Referen ce charts
Foreword The Handbook of the International Phoneti c Association is a resource containing co ncise information on the International Phoneti c Alph abet and guidance on how to use it - a kin d of ' use r's manual' . It replaces the Principles of the Internati onal Phonet ic Asso ciation, whi ch has been out of print for some time and which had not been revi sed since 1949. Bu t although the Handb ook rep laces so me of the functions of the o ld Prin ciples , it is a completely new work with wider obje ctives . The old Prin cipl es contained a short tutorial o n phonetic description, examp les of the use of pho neti c sy mbols, a nd a large number of ' specimens' cons isting of ver y brief comments on the phonetics of a language and a transcription of the 'No rth Wind and the Sun ' text tran s lated into the language. Additionally, there was some information about the Association , and, printed on the inside covers, a brief history of it. Th e new Handb ook broadly speaking retain s these components. It is divided into three part s: part 1 cont ains an introduction to phonetic de scription and exemplificatio n of the use of the sym bols; part 2 consi sts of ' Illustrations' of the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet for different languag es (the se Illustrat ions are ones which have appeared in the Journal of the Interna tional Phonetic Association since 1989 ); and part 3 co nta ins appendices with a variety of referen ce material. Beyond the basic sim ilarity of struc ture, the Handb ook is very diffe rent from the old Principles . Mo st superficial ly, perh aps , it reflects the changes whi ch have been made in that most tangible and wide ly known product of the Asso ciation' s work, the IPA Chart. Discussion and e xemplification is based on the most recent (1996) edition of the chart. M ore subs tant ively, the Handbook acknow ledges the fact that ove r the past half century the advance of techniques for acoustic analys is me ans th at many readers will be familiar with , and qu ite possibly workin g w ith , speech as an acou sti c s ig nal. Thi s me ans it now seems appropriate to use an acoustic display such as a spe ctrogram not only as a way of pre senting one facet of speech , but a lso to discu ss problems whi ch arise in the relation betw een a segm ental ly based syste m of notation and the phy sical speec h e ve nt. The Handbook will a lso co nta in practical information to do with the use of the IPA on computers, such as the computer cod es for phon etic symbols. Th e most fundamental d ifferences between the old Prin ciples and the new Handbook perhaps arise from the expectation that the readership of the new work w ill be much less homogen eous than that envisaged for the old o ne. The new Handbook is inten de d to be a refere nce work not only for language teachers and phoneticians intere sted in the so unds of different languages, but also for speech technolo gists , speec h pa thologi sts, theoretical phon olog ists, and others. Thi s breadth of readership is to be encou raged , given the goa l that the Intern at ional Ph onetic Alph abe t (hereafter ' the IPA' ) should be a standard for the represe nta tio n of speec h. Bu t it poses parti cu lar cha llenges for the writ ing of the ' tutoria l' secti ons of the Handb ook . The challenges are further increased by the verti ca l spread of readers from those who are experienced phon eticians to those who know nothing about phonetics. The
viii Foreword breadth of reader ship has led pe rha ps to a more equi vocal to ne in the pre sentati on of the premis es beh ind the IP A than in the Prin c iples. For inst ance , the way in whic h the IPA dev eloped historically was c lose ly bou n6 up w ith a 'strictly segmented' ph on emic vie w, a nd in sec tio n 10 th e fac t tha t the+ a re alt ern ative s in p ho no logical theory is acknow ledged . Th e ve rtica l sprea d o f readers poses the recurring quest ion of how mu ch or how little to say . Th e low er bound is pres umab ly wh at a novice needs to pick up in orde r to have so me ide a of the pri nc ip les gove rni ng the organiza tio n of the c ha rt. The upper bo u nd is the pr acti c al go a l of a com pac t booklet , read ily afford able by stude nts, and co ncis e en ou gh to be easi ly di ge sted by non-sp ec ialist rea de rs . Th e resulting text in part I is more discur sive than tha t of the ol d Principles. It sh ould , be borne in mi nd, how ev er, that it does riot atte m pt the job either o f a phonetics te xtb ook, or of a critique o f the IPA . Now ad ays th~re are many good pho ne tics te xtbook s available, an d it woul d be exp ected that studen ts of ph onetics wo u ld read one or more o f the se in co nj unc tio n with the Handbook. The pu rp ose of the Handb ook is not to pro vide a co mpre he nsive or balan ced ed uc ation in: ph on etics , but to provide a conc ise summary of infor ma tio n needed for ge tting to grips with the IP A. Likew ise , wh ilst a full -scale c ritique of the assumption s o n wh ich the IP A is fo unde d is pe rhap s du e , the pr acticall y-oriented Handb ook is not the plac e for it. T he IPI\ is a working tool for many, and whil st it may be poss ible to improve that tool, the role of the Handbook is that of an instructi on manua l for the too! whi ch is curren tly available. Th e cre ation of the Handb ook has been in ev ery se nse a co llaborative effo rt. Th e te xt in part I is largel y the res po nsi bi lity of Francis Nol an , and the exemplificati on of the use of so u nds was provi ded by Peter Lad ef oge d and Ian M addi e son. Ian M addieso n, and M artin B arry , as successive edi tors of th e Journal of the In tern ational Ph on et ic Association, hav e been res pons ible for oversee ing and co lla ting the rich an d e ve r gro wi ng stoc k of Illu str ati o ns. Mart in Ba ll was inst ru me nta l in fo rmulati ng the Exten sion s to the IPA (a ppendix 3), and Mi ke Mac Maho n wr ote a ppe nd ix 4 o n th e hist or y of th e Association . John Es ling is res po nsi ble for appe ndix 2 on the co mp ute r co di ng of sy mbols, and for most of the wor k invol ved in the final stages of preparing the Hand book inclu din g the fin al editi ng o f the lIIu stration s. And, of course, particul ar thanks are due to the authors of the Illu st rations, and to the large number of members of the I ntern atio nal Ph on et ic Associati on who responded with sug ges tions and co rrec tio ns when a draft of pa rts of the Handbook was pu blish ed in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association.
THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 1993, updated 1996) CONSONAN TS (PUL MONIC)
Brlabsal Lab rodental Dental
I Alveolar Ipostalveo lar
p b
Plosivc Nasal
ill
Trill
B
t d n r
IlJ
Retroflex
Fricative
f
{j
U
Lateral
~.
approx rrnnnt
Where symbols appenr
In
pairs. the one
(Q
3
~
I
Denial
cf
f 9
(Posn otvcolar
:f II
5
Pelaroa lvccla r
Alveolar lateral
G
I~i
I)
J1
Labialized
Palatalized
vcl anzed Pbar yngc ntn ed
1?
g
a a
n
-
! Q t W dW tj dj n c
tV dV I t\' d) ,
Velarized or pbary ngeahzcd
Raised
~
l owered
If
Advanced Tongue ROOI Retr acted Tongue ROOI
D
W here symbols appea r III pa irs, the one to the ng ht represe nts a rounded vo we l.
l;[ rCSS
Se cond ary stress
.founo'n]on
Di acritics may be placed above J symbol with a descender. e.g.
§
B
a CE~Q
vcr cclcss cp rglon al tn can vc
IJ
Stress Engli sh has a very strong distinction between stressed and unst ressed syllables , with stressed syllables being longer, louder, and often marked by a pitch excu rsion . Although stress placement is parti ally predictable, there are many instan ces where it is not, such as in noun/verb pairs like ['eksporUek'sportJ in contrast to [so'port/so'port] . Longer word s frequently have one or more syllables with a seco nda ry stre ss , Stre ss is transcribed using the marks ' (primary stre ss) and , (secondary stress), as in [fons'trjon] ' phonetician' .
Conventions [ p, t, k] are aspirated in word-initi al position, and elsewhere when initial in a stressed syllable, but they are alw ays unaspirated when following [s] in the same syll able , as in 's py, sty, sky ' . [b, d, '9] have littl e or no voicing during the stop clo sure , except when between voiced sounds. When intervocalic and before an unstressed vowel, as in ' city, vicinity ' , [t] is a voiced flap, resembling [r). [d, n] are also flaps in similar circumstances . [I] is velarized except before [j]. The vowel symbols in column (I) have the qu alities shown in the accompanying charts when pronounced in the key word s. Vowels are raised before [I)] in the same syllable, so that the vowel in ' sing' is nearer that in ' seen' than that in ' sin' , the vowel in ' sang ' is close to that in 'sane' , and the vowel in ' length' is intermediate between that in 's ing' and 'sang' . Vowel s are lowered and centralized before [J], and many contrasts are lost , so that ' me rry; Mary , marry ' and 'Murray ' are often all pronounced [rne-ri] . [e] and [0] are usually slightly diphthongized. [u] and [uJ are un rounded , [u] often being pronounced with spread lips . [u] is considerably fronted after [t, d, n, I], all of whi ch are followed by a mid-high front glid e when preceding [u], as in ' two, new' , wh ich are pronounced [tiB, n'u],
Transcription of recorded passage Two transcriptions are given, the first being a broad phonemic trans cription using the symbols in the charts above. This transcription should be interpreted with the aid of the conventions . The second transcription is a narrow phonetic transcription in which the conventions and other detail s have been incorporated. 'The' is often pronounced as [Od] before words beginning with a vowel , but not on this recording. T his spe aker also has [h] in some words (e.g. 'he') where oth ers might have omitted it.
44 Handbook of/he /PA
Broad transcription
a;:l 'ncrf .wrnd an Cop 'sxn W~ drs'pjutnj 'WItJ W;:lZ a;:l 'strcrjqa-, wen ;:l 'ueevsle- ,kern o'lorj 'reept m ;:l 'worm 'klok. oe o'qrid oot a;:l 'WAn hu 'fe-st sak'sidod m 'mekrq O;:l 'treevols- 'tek IZ 'kIok ,of [ud bi kcn'srdo-d 'stroqqoQ;}n 01 ';:la~. oen a;:l 'norf ,wmd 'blu t;:lz 'hurd oz i 'kudo bat 00 'mor hi 'blu Q;} 'mer 'klosli did O;:l 'tnevlo- 'fold hIZ 'klok o'raund rrn; .een et 'leest O;:l 'nol8 ,wmd ,gev 'xp oi o'ternpt. 'oen O;:l 'SAn '[ a tnd ,aut 'wormli, end r'midiotli a;:l 'treevlo- 'tuk ,of IZ 'klok. on 'SO a;} 'nors ,wmd W;}Z o'blarg n kcn'fes a;}t a;} 'SAn W;:lZ Q;} 'strorjqo- ov 00 'tu. I Narrow transcription
O;:l 'norf .wrnd en ;} 'SAn W~ drs'pjurnj 'wit] W;:lZ O;:l 'strorjqe-, wen ;:l 'treevlo,kern ;}'IoI) 'reept m ;:l 'worm 'klok. ae o'qrid Q;}t O;:l 'WAn hu 'fe-st sok'sidcd m 'meknj Q;} 'treevlo- 'tek IZ 'klok ,of Jud bi kon'srdo-d 'strorjqa- a;}n 01 'A O~ . 'a en O;:l 'n:)18 .wrnd 'blu az 'hurd ;}Z hi 'kud, bat a;} 'mor hi 'blu 00 'mor 'klosli drd O;:l 'treevI~ 'fold luz 'klok o'raond rum; .een ot 'leest Q;} 'n:)l8 ,wmd ,gev 'Ap ai o'tempt, '5en a;:l 'SAn 'Jamd ,aut 'wormli, an r'midiotli a;:l 'treevlo- ,tuk 'of IZ 'klok. on 'SO a;:l 'n:)18 .wmd W;:lZ ;}'blkI3 tt konfes 5;:lt 00 'SAn W;}Z 00 'suorjqo;:lV 00 'tu. I Orthographic version The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak . They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more clo sely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the Nprth W ind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun !'Vas the stronger of the two .
Amharic J. HAYWARD * *
KATRINA HAYWARD * AND RICHARD
"Department of South East Asia. • ' Department of Af rica. School of Oriental and African Studies. Thornhaugh Street, Russell Square, London WCIH
axe. UK
Amharic, the national language of Eth iopia is the Sem itic langu age with the greatest number of spea ke rs afte r Arabic . Howe ve r, while there are large numbers of people throughout Ethi op ia who speak Am haric as a second langua ge, mother-ton gue speakers are co ncentrated in the hig hland plateau extendi ng from somewhat south of Addi s Ababa, the capital, no rthwards to a line runni ng approximately WNW from Korem. Th is territory is bounded to the east and west by lowland areas where other languages are spoke n. So me good description s of Amhar ic phonet ics and phon ology are to be found in Armbruste r ( 1908: 4-50), Cohen ( 1970: 29-68), Ulle ndorff ( 1955), and Podolsky (1991). As regards its dia lect situatio n, Amharic is (n grea t need of sys tema tic research . T he only pub lished wo rk on the subject (Habte Mariam Marcos 1973) is both use fu l and sugges tive for future work, but it is a brief pioneering effort. The speech of Addis Ababa has emerged as the sta ndard dialect and has wide curre ncy across all Amhar ic-speaking communities. Th e most divergent dialect is that of Gojjam province, though the Manz and Wallo varieties also show their own marked features , especially in pho nology. Consonants Bilabia l Plosive
(p)
Labiodental
b
Alveolar
t
Velar
k
Glottal
Labialized Velar
kW g W
9
tI d3
m
Nasa l
p
n
f
Fricative
s
z
I
h
3
r
Taprrrill App ro xima nt
W
J
Lateral Appro ximant
I (p ')
t'
Ejective Affricate Ejective Fricative
Pala tal
d
Affricate
Eject ive Stop
Postalveolar
k'
tI' S'
Additional labialized con sonants : fW, b" , rn'", pW',
r- ' , hW
k W'
46 Handbook of the IPA p
p osta
'post (mail)'
b
bokk'ala
'it sprouted'
p pappa s 'church patriarch' m makkara 'he advised' f;jll;jk' ;j
takkolo
'he planted '
k
d t'
dorrasc
'he arrived'
9
t' ;jr~ g;j
'he swep t'
n
naddofo
' it stung'
'it gushed up'
sa b baro
'he broke s.t.'
Z
za ffo no
'he sang'
S
s' afo
'he wrote'
tJ
tjollama
'it got dark'
b b b;j b;j
'he encircled'
qarramoji ' il surprised me ' k ' k'o ddada ' he tore S.t.'
h
hakim
'doctor'
d:; d:;;jrnm;jr;j ' he began' tI'
w
w at 'o
'he finished' 'u became long'
J
[orrcba
'he plaited'
:;
:;;jm b;jr
'sun'
!
lammcno 'he begged'
J1
t;jJ1J1a
'he lay down'
j
jallom
'there is not'
'he swallowed s.t.'
pW' pW' ag Wum e ' 13th mon th' b W b'<arnb'< a 'pipe (conduit)' m Wm'.\. ~"i ffi"'1l)l. n"'l.l\ £hl.h~ ~nc :: nH.\J lH. ')'"'1£" au11f.~ i'{)C£" auhAhf l\lIn "11/'1 £1'r1f ~nc :: hH.fll" au11f.?(])- ,,{)c£" auh"hf "()/'I'l' i'lIIJ..'if.(])-l l\{)n t£"'F fMD"t n'Y ll)l. £nl\rTll\ nlllJ..l\ tn01}au-: : nH.\Jau aulPL'l' ht'llllll nh-l\ i'lIIJ..~(j:t'l(])- ~4-t'l IMn",,,(])- rl\n'l' nU£l\ H.. t'l:: lfill" "1"'1 nU£l\ mL..t'l ....'Y( au"'11f.~(J) i'1)t'l(])-'J. nt\nt'l(])- l\{)n £f(l"'1 fauc:: nauCl\L7ill" ht'llllll nh-l\ i'lIIJ.. ~(j:t'l(J)- ~4-n n1lt1 L..?>£" ')'4>au:: 6th£lI" ntl.lJl IDrTl'Tr au-ttl O1}(])-L£" n'l'fll"C au11f.~(J) lI"lll" "'£4>£ IDSlf(])-'J. i't\nt'l(])-"'1 l\lIn ')'IDt\t:: nauCl\L7ill" ht'l"'l"'1 nh-l\ i'lIIJ..~(j:t'l(])- ~4-n 6th£ n'Y"'1l)l. hfl. i'lI"'l'nl\'Y aulfS:l ft\(])-£" n"l£" ,),au~::
50 Handbook of the IPA
References ARMBRUSTER, C . H. (1908). Initia Amharica: An Introdu ction to Spoken Amh aric. Cambridg e : Th e Un iversity Pre ss . COHEN, M. ( 1970). Traite de langue amharique (Abyssinie). Pari s: In stitut d'ethnologie. HABTE MARIAM MARcos ( 1973). Regi onal variations in Amharic . Journal of Ethiopian Studi es II, 11 3-29. HAYWARD, R. J. (1986). The high ce ntra l vow el in Amharic: New approaches to an old problem. In Fi shman , J. A . et al. (editors), The Fergusonian Impact, Vol. I : From Phonology to Society. Berlin , Ne w York, Am sterdam: M out on de Gru yte r. HETZRON, R. ( 1964). La voyelle du sixieme ordre en amharique. Journal ofAf rican Langua ges 3, 179-90. PODOLSKY, B. (1991). Histori cal Phonetics of Amharic. University of Tel -Aviv. ULLENDORFF, E . (1951). The labiove lars in the Eth iopian lan gu ages . Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 10,71-84. ULLENDORFF, E . ( 1955). The Semitic Langua ges of Ethiopia: A Comparative Phonology. London : Taylor ' s (F oreign ) Pre ss.
Arabic ROBIN THELWALL* AND M . AKRAM SA'ADEDDIN** '2121 l st Avenue NW, Calgary, AB T2N OB6, Canada "University of Kuwait, Kuwait City
There are many tendentious issues in proposing a text in any form of Standard or Classical Arabic in spoken form . We will not justify the present text mor e than to say that the spea ker was born in Safad, North Palestine, lived and was educated in Beirut from age 8 to 15, subsequently studied and taught in Damascus, studied phonetics in Scotland and since then has resided in Scotland and Kuwait. It seems widely accepted that there are two dominant (prestigeful) dialect centres of gravity for Spoken Arabic: first, that of AI-Shaam (greater Syria, from the Mediterranean coast to the eastern edge of the Fertile Crescent) and, second, Egypt (focused on AI-Azhar Mosque and University in Cairo) . This is not to disregard the status of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq or other areas as the sources of models, but the matter remains to be adequately investigated . Consonants Bilabial Labiodental Plosive
b
Nasal
ill
Fricative
Palatal Dental IAlveolarl Postalveolar
k
d
t
Velar Uvular Pharyn- Olonal geaJ
7
q
n
f
51 s
8
z IJ
X
h
Y
h
d3
Affricate
r
Trill Approximant
J
Lateral Approximant
W
1
Pharyngealized consonants:
t".
d~
,
s~,
o~
, 1".
7~
Note: 17'1 is represented as I'll in the transcriptions below.
b m f 8
balla malla dafara da8ara
' recovered ' 'got bored' 'stank' 'covered'
t d n z
tijn dijn nadda saara zaara
'figs' 'religion' 'released' ' walked' 'visited'
k q ? x y
kalb qalb sa?ala xilaaf yilaaf
' dog' 'heart' 'asked' 'dispute ' 'cover' (n)
52 Handbook of the IPA
0
haakaoa 'thus'
J d3 r
'doubling mark'
Jadda
d3adda i ' grandmother' I raw?a 'splendour' law?a : 'sorrow' I
sl' 01'
siarf ol'arf
tl' dl'
'exchange' 'envelope '
II' Vowels 'lidd ij 'lijd aj 'lajn
' promise !' 'feast' 'eye'
a aa
sa'iala
h
huruwb
h j w
huruwb ' escape' (n) jaraqaan 'jaundice' wasil ' receipt'
' coughed ' ' wars'
xitiaab
'letter' xidiaab 'henna' all'll'aa i 'god'
'ladd 'laadd
U
a
'1
'counted' 'came back'
u uw aw
'ludd 'luwd 'lawd
IJ
'come back!' 'lute' 'return'
UW
aa
Stress Stress within Arabic words falls on the final heavy syllable of the morpheme, disregarding suffixes. A heavy syllable is defined as having either a long vowel or a (C)VCC structure. In words with no heavy syllable the matter is still to be investigated for spoken Modern Standard Arabic, and it is assumed that the stress patterns operating in the background Colloquial Arabic of the speaker will operate. Syllabification and the determiner [al·] The assimilation of the consonant of the definite article to following [+ coronal) segments is shown in the transcription . The vowel is assimilated to the final vowel of the preceding word, if any. Since word division is shown according to orthographic conventions, we have left out the vowel of the determiner in such cases. The actual realization is, of course, continuous. Conventions It, k / are aspirated, /tl'/ is unaspirated, /tl', dl', sl', 01'/ are Retracted Tongue Root , involving simultaneous pharyngealization and greater or lesser degrees of velarization . The convenient phonological term within Arabic phonetic studies is 'emphasis/emphatic' .
Illustrations ofthe IPA 53
These consonants exert a strong co-articulatory effect on all sounds in preceding and following syllables in given lexemes . This is not blocked by labials, the labialized IfI, and Ir I . Only Ij I blocks the process. I'll is a Retracted Tongue Root glottal stop. This realization is supported by Gairdner (1925), AI-Ani (1970) and Kastner (198 I) as well as extensive observation of a range of speakers from different regional origins residing in Kuwait at present (1990) . Nowhere have we observed a pharyngeal fricative . Ixl is accompanied by uvular trill. Geminate consonants in word-final position in pre-pausal realization have an incipient syllable onset with [~], e .g. I '1addl ~ [Sad.d-], where [.] represents a syllable boundary. In context they are realized without this feature. The primary vowel allophones are conditioned by the presence or absence of neighbouring emphatics in the same word and by word-final position for non-emphatic contexts. lal has three main allophones: [a] before Retracted Tongue Root consonants, [B] before word boundary, and [a] elsewhere, taking phonological length into account. Length is neutralized in open syllables. iii and lijl become [i] before Retracted Tongue Root and pharyngeal consonants . This may be more retracted than a high central unrounded vowel , reaching towards [V]. In most contemporary colloquial d ialects there is no phonological opposition between [i] and [u]. lui and luwl become [u] and [V] before Retracted Tongue Root and pharyngeal consonants . In word final position the length opposition is neutralized . Points of particular interest in the sound system include: 1. The 'dyim ", which is here pronounced as a voiced lenis palato-alveolar affricate (Gairdner 1925 : 23; see however Kastner 198 I: 65 , where it is described as a fricative) . 2. The '(j~aa?', which is here pronounced 1(j~1 'a voiced dental fricative with tongue root retraction and concomitant pharyngealization and velarization' . See Kastner (198 I : 62ff), and in contrast, Gairdner (1925 : 21) . 3 . The ' '1 aj n', which is realized as a pharyngealized glottal stop (see also Kastner 1981: 49; AI-Ani 1970 : 62-71; and Gairdner 1925: 28-9). There are various different reflexes of these sounds in the present day spoken dialects of Arabic , and in the phonetic descriptions of past dialects, which it is irrelevant to pursue here.
Transcription of recorded passage
kaanat rijhu ffamaali tatadjaadalu wa [jamsa fij ?ajjin minhumaa kaanat ?aqwaa min al?uxraa, wa ?io bi-musaafirin jat'Iu'iu mutalaffi'ian bilabaa?atin samijka. fa tafaqataa lalaa ltibaari ssaabiqi fij ?id3baari Imusaafiri lalaa xal'ii labaa?atihi l?aqwaa. las~afati rijhu ffamaali bi?aqs~aa rna star'aa'iat min quwwa. wa laakin kullumaa zdaada 11as~f izdaada lrnusaafiru tadacfcfuran bi'iabaaratih, ?i1aa ?an ?usqit~a fij jadi rrijh fa taxallat lan muhaawalatihaa. ba'idarioin satia'iati [jarnsu bidif?ihaa, fa maakaana min almusaafiri ?illaa ?an xala'ia labaa?atahu lalaa ttauw. wa haakaoa id~t~urat rijhu ffamaali ?ilaa lritiraafi bi?anna [jamsa kaanat hija I?aqwaa.
54 Handbook of the IPA
Orthographic version
References AL-ANI, S. H. ( 1970). Arabic Phono logy: An Acoustical and Physiological Investigation . The Hague: Mo uton . GAIRDNER , W . H. T. (1925). The Phonetics of Arabic. Lond on : Oxford Un ive rsity Press. KASTNER , H . ( 1981). Phonetik und Ph onologie des modernen Hocharabi sch. Leipzig : Verlag En zyklopadi e.
Bulgarian ELMAR TERNES * AND TATJANA V LADIMIROVA-BUHl'Z** "ln stitut fiir Phonetik, All gem eine Spra chwissenschaft und lndog ermani stik, Universittit Hambu rg, Bogenallee II , D-20144 Hamburg. German y **Aumall ellweg 2. D·79117 Freiburg im Br eisgau, Germa ny
Th e style of speech illu str ated is Standard Bulgarian as used by people w ith an academ ic background, Historically, the Standard contains elements of western and eas tern Bul garian, but in its present form, it ca nnot be localized in any particular region. The speec h on the rec ording is that of a 33-year-old spe aker holdin g a post at the Univ ersity of Sofia. Bulgarian examples are given in a transliteration from Cyrillic script.
Consonants Bil abial
p
Pl osi ve
Labi odental
b
Alveolar
t
f
Fri cative
Pal at al
V
k
d
S
z
ts dz
A ffrica te
J tJ
X
3 d3
j
A pprox im ant Lateral A ppr o xim ant
pija bija
rn most far f v var row
9
r
T rill
p b
Ve lar
n
m
Nasa l
Post alveo lar
' 1 drin k' '1 beat'
' bridge ' ' lighthouse ' ' limestone' ' rose'
I
t d ts dz n s z
tom dom tsar dzift
nos
sarna ziirna lale
' volume ' 'home' ' tsar' 'ta r' 'nose' ' roe ' 'corn ' (pi) ' tulip'
k g tJ d:) x
f
s j
kol gol tSar diob halka Sal ial jak
'p ole ' 'naked ' 'charm' 'pocket' ' ring' 'scarf' ' pity' 'strong '
The phon emi c analysis underlyin g the present transcr iption doe s not assume the exis tence of pal atal ized consonant s. An alt ernative an alysis postulates the followin g palatalized con son ant s: / pi, bi, ti , d ', k i , g i, tsi, dzl, m', ni, rl, 0 , vi, s i, zi , xi, Ii /.
Chinese (Hong Kong Cantonese) ERICZEE Phonetics Laboratory, Department of Chinese, Translation and Linguistics, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowl oon, Hong Kong
The style of speech illustrated is that typi cal of the educated younger generation in Hong Kon g. The recording is that of a 22-year-old male university student who has lived all his life in Hong Kong.
Consonants Bilab ial Plosive
Lab iodent al
Dent al Alveolar
Velar
Labial Velar
k kh
k kwh
Glot tal
W
ts ts"
m
n
f
Fri cative
l)
h
s
Appr oximant
W
J
Later al Appr ox imant
I
m f
pal phal mal fal
'father' ' to lie prone' 'm other' ' flower'
w
wal
' fro g'
p ph
Palatal
t th
p ph
Affri cate Nasal
Postalveolar
t th n s ts ts" j I
tal thal phanl sa l tsal tshal j llul IIlUl
' dozen' 'he/she' ' to climb' ' sand' 't o hold ' ' fork' 'worry ' ' angry'
ka l khal pha l)l
'to add ' ' truck' ' to cook '
kW kWal kwh kwhal
' me lon' ' to boast'
k kh l)
h
hal
's hrimp '
Illustrations of the IPA 59 Vowels Monophthongs (I) or (2 ) i: sil y y: syl SEl E E: hrel oe: oe a a: sa l s:Jl :J :J: u: fUl u
' silk' 'book' 'to lend ' ' boot' 's and' 'comb' ' husband'
'to assist' ' bloo d' ' to ea t' 'to whittl e' 'gu est' 'shell' ' wide '
stk'l
'c olour' 'shirt' 'wet' 'un cle '
sen se pl
e e U
e e U
hip-l hyt-t hek-i soek.t hakh:Jk-l fut-t
suk'l
himl synl SElJl
'm oderate' ' sour ' 'so und' ' hurt' 'three' 's quare ' 'che erful '
seem sarm bIJl funl
'st ar ' 'to inquire ' 'heart' 'l oos e'
snjt
sen l sern't
sUlJl
• lu
\~
Diphth ongs (l ) or (2) ai a:i ei ei a:u au eu eu el ei EU E:U ey ey o.i :JI Ul u:i iu i:u au au
sail seil saul se ul heil tEU-l seyl so i'l
fuit siul SoUl
&\e
u.
•J
't o waste ' 'west' ' basket' 't o receive' ' rare' 'to throw ' ' bad' ' gill' ' ash ' ' to bum ' 'beard'
Tones l -I -I
J 1
A
(high, level) (mid, level) (low-mid, level) (low -mid to low , falling ) (low -mid to high, rising ) (low-mid to mid, rising)
sn si-l
si.t siJ Si1 siA
'silk' 't o try ' ' matter' 'time' 'history ' 'c ity'
srk'l sit-t srk.t
'colour' 't o reveal ' 'to eat'
64
Handbook of the IPA
color [ku'l o] 'c olour' but colo raina [kulu 'rajno] 'bright colours', There are however a number of exceptions, likefutur [fu'tur] 'future '. In emphatic speech and in certain dialects, initial postalveolar frica tives are affricated :
ximple ['(t)Simpl ;J] ' foo lish' , germa [(d)3;Jrima] ' brothe r' . Underlyin g Ivl is realized as Ibl in Central Catalan ; [b] or [13] occ ur before 'a vowel and [w] occurs finally; thi s results in altern ations between [b] or [13) and [w] . Thu s bla va ['bla13;J) ' b lue' (fe rn) vs . blau [blaw] 'blue' (masc).
Transcription of recorded passage l~ tramun'tano j ~l sol oz oispu'ta~;;)n I sustc'nin 'kao u k ef. 'ere I me s for I kwan da 'septa I 'be wan um bio'dje ko s o'kostc mbuli 'kat an una 'vraq 'ka po II ban kumbo'ni ko I ki pri'me fo'ric ks I ~i~'d3e s tro'ves l~ 'ka pa I soris tirj'qup pol mes for I lc tromun'tana s 'poz ~ Bu'fa m 'tota l~ ' s e~~ 'furio I po'ro kern mez ~u'fa~a I mez ~l ~i~'d3e s ~~ri'ya~a m la 'ka po II a lc fi I ba do'[a 'koro ferli 'trewro I elc'zoroz ~l sol kumsn'sa Oa ~ri'Aa I j cl kab d um mu'men I al ~ia'd3e I ben cskolfat I ~s trew l~ 'ka po I ~'Ji I l~ trcmun'tano ~ a '~e O~ kunjfo'sa ka 1 sol 'ero 1 mes for I
Orthographic version Thi s text was published in the Principles of the International Phonetic Association ed ited in 1912 but wa s om itted from the speci mens in the sub sequent versions of the Principles. It had appeared for the fir st time in Le Maitre Phonetique vol. 26 ns . 7-8 ( 19 I I ) p. 119 and was prepared by Josep M . Arte aga (B ar celona, 1846-1913), a Catalan phonetician who became a member of the Co uncil of the IP A in 1907. La tramunt an a i el sol es disputaven, sos tenint cad a u que e ll er a el rnes fo rt, qu an de so bte , veuen un via tge r que s 'acosta ernbolicat en una gran capa. Van conve nir que el qui primer faria que el viatger es trague s la cap a seria tingut pel mes fort . La tramuntana es posa a bufar amb tota la seva fur ia; per o co m rnes buf ava, mes el viatger s'abrigav a amb la ca pa ; a la fi, va de ixar correr fe r-Ii treure, Ale shores el sol corn en ca de brillar, i al cap d 'un moment, el viatger, ben esc alfat, es treu la capa. Aid, la trarnuntana va haver de confe ssar que el sol er a el mes fort.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank Canne de In Mota and Antonio Rfos for their useful comments and suggestions.
References ALARCOS, E. (1983). Estudis de Iingiiistica catalana. Barcelona: Ariel. BADIAI M ARGARlT, A. M. (1951). Granuitica historica catalana. Barcelon a: Nog uer. Catalan tran slati on : Valenci a, Tr es i Quatre, 198 I. BADIA I MARGARlT, A . M . (1988). Sons ifonem es de la llengua catalana. Barcel ona: Publi caci ons de la Universitat de Barcelona.
Illustrations of the IPA 65 BONET, E.-LLORET, M.-R. (1998) . Fonologia catalana . Barcelona: Ariel. GIL!, 1. (1974). Introductory Catalan Grammar. Oxford: Dolphin Books. HUALDE, J. 1. (1992). Catalan. London: Routledge. INsTITUTD'EsTUDIS CATALANS. ( 1990). Proposta per a un estandard oral de la llengua catalana I: Fonetica. Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans. RECASENS, D . (1991) . Fonetica descriptiva del catala. Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans. RECASENS, D. (1993). Fonetica i fo nologia. Barcelona: Enci clopedia Catalana. VENY, J. (1985 ). Introducci6 ala dialectologia catalana. Barcelona: Enciclopedia Catalana. WHEELER, M. W. (1979). Phonology of Catalan . Oxford: Basil Bl ackwell. YATES, A. (1975). Catalan. London: Hodder and Stoughton (Teach Yourself Books).
Croatian ERN ESTINA LANDAU vuceticev prila; 5, 10020 Zagreb, Croatia
MIJO L ONCARIC Institut e of Croatian Language , Strossmayero v trg 2, 10000 Zag reb , Croatia
D AMI R H ORGA AND Iv o S KARIC Departm ent of Phonetics, Facul ty of Philosophy , University of Zagreb , 10000 Zagreb , Croatia
Croatian is one of the Slavic languages. As the national language of Croats, it consists of three main dialects, Stokavian, Kajkavian and Cakavian, named after the different forms of the interro gative pronoun meaning ' what' IItol, /kaj' and ItI aJ, orthographically sto, kej , ca. Standard Croatian was established in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is based on the New Stokavian Jekavian dialect. The speech on the accompanying recording is that of a 57-year-old female announcer at the Croatian Television Network reading in a colloquial style. The style of speech illustrated is that of many educated speakers of Standard Croatian as spoken in the Republic of Croatia. Consonants Bilabial Plosive
p
Labiodental
b
t
Affricate Nasal Fricative
Denial
Postalveolar
tJ
m
d3
n S
Velar
k
ts
f
Palatal
d tc
9
d~
J1
I
Z
Trill
X
3
r
Approximant
J
0
Lateral Approximant
p b
Alveolar
pi .tee pice 'drink' (n) birtce bice 'creature'
1
t d
tu:ga du:ga
tl1ga diig«
'sorrow' ' rainbow'
A
k 9
kotst k osi ' bone' go:st gos t 'guest'
/
Illustrations of the IPA 67
tsar car tj ep cep d3 d3ep dzep nos n n6:s selo s selo z zatja rn zejem ts
tI
m m6:j rna) ' my' fa :za taza ' phase' u oa.za vaza ' vase '
I Ia:1 3a:l
3
ra :d l6:v
sst zal did I6v
'czar' 'co rk' ' pocket' ' nose' ' village' ' loan' 'scarf' ' beach' ' work' (0) 'c hase'
tc le:tca db Ierdza J1 J16:j x xl.r
Mea 'lentils' IMa 'bac k' (0) n)o) ' to her ' 'caprice' bir
j I.
j iJg Ijeti
jug I.eti
'So uth' ' in summer '
Vowels Th e system of Croatia n vo wels co nsists of five monophthon gal vow els, I i, e, a , 0, ul , whi ch occ ur distincti vely shor t and long , and a diphthong l iel occurring onl y in a long sy llable . These vowels have more or less co nstan t qual ities in stressed and unstr essed posit ions. There is also a sy llabic trill Irl whic h can either be long (4 to 5 co ntacts) or sho rt ( I to 2 co ntacts). W hen occ urr ing betw een two co nsonants, it is so me times pronoun ced togeth er with nonph onem ic [;:I], i.e. as [or], e.g. [ ~ rtl vrt ' garden'. A short [;:I] also occ urs in certai n othe r co ntex ts, as for exa mple in pron oun cin g the names of some letters. Th e di phthong l iel beg ins at the posit ion of the Iii monop hthong and ends a t the position of the monophth on g le i . I t ca n also be pronounced [ijeJ, but thi o 0.: 11 r a single syllable .
Short nile tek e a pas 0 k6d u duga
vil e lek pas kad diJga
' hayfork' ' only ' ' dog' ' by, at' 's tave '
Long u'i:le vile e: te tk tek a: pa:s pas 0: k6:d kOd u: diitq a dug a
' fairies' 'appetite' ' belt' 'code' ' rainb ow '
I:
[;:I] [parst] ie bielo
P!"5l bijelo
'finger ' ' white ' (adj)
Conventions When If, ts, xl preced e a voiced obstru ent they occur as [v, dz, V]: [ gr6 v~b i] grOf bi 'the ear l woul d ' , [ ot adz~b i] alae bi 'fathe r wou ld' , [ o ui y~b i] ovih bi ' of these ...woul d ' .
r:
I
i I
I
68 Handbook a/the IPA I I
(!T ere are similar alternations affecting other voiceless obstruents , but these may be Ie rded as the replacement of one phoneme with another; similarly, voiced obstruents ~l t rnate with their voiceless counterparts when followed by a voiceless obstruent.) The post-alveolar affricates II, 31 appear as the palatal sibilants [c,:/;] when they ;pr cede tic, dz /: [mlc~tee] mls ce ' the mouse will', [pG::/;~tce] pOz ce 'the snail will'. I/u occurs as [w] before the vowel luI: [wink] vOk 'wolf'. 1m! occurs as [11]] before If, u/: [t anjoaj] Iramvaj 'tram'. Inl occurs as [lJ] before Ik, g/: [stanjka] stfinka 'pause' . I I occurs as [h] when it is initial in a consonant cluster: [hmU] bmel] ' hops'. A sequence of vowels across a word boundary may be separated by a glottal stop: [":~?6nda] i onda 'and then' .
I
tress and accent n addition to the contrast of length mentioned in connection with vowels, Croatian also as rising ([ ~]) and falling ([ - ]) pitch accents. It is traditional to regard these two istinctions as forming a four -way contrast of word accent, namely , long rising ('), short denotes length on an unstressed vowel. ising C) , long falling C) and short falling C); he parenthesized signs above are not part of the usual orthography, but are used to mark the accents in specialized linguistic works . The syllable on which the distinctive pitch movement begins and in which it may be completed is the stressed syllable. Monosyllabic (full) words always have a falling accent: ImetJI mec '(sporting) match', Ime:d/ tned 'honey'. Falling accents may also occur on the first syllable of a disyllabic or longer word, e.g. /marna/ mama 'mama', Iformal forma ' form (n)' , but they do not fall on later syllables apart from a few exclamations, e.g. lahaJ aha 'aha!' , and loan words, e.g. 13ele:1 zele 'jelly ' . Rising accents may occur on any syllable but the last of a word , e.g. /zT:ma/ zima 'winter', /terasa/ tersse ' te rrace ' , ITzuiJ1c:J1el izvinjenje ' e xc use (n)' (with a secondary accent on the initial Ii/). There are two groups of words, proclitics and enclitics, which form a unit with the following or preceding stressed word respectively . Enclitics are always unstressed: 10:n~tUe to: rekaolon ti je to d3kao ' he told you that' . Proclitics can be either unstressed or stressed . They are unstressed when the following word has a rising tone, e.g. lu~u6di/ u vodi 'in water', Ipri~ra:dul pri redu 'at work', but they can be stressed when the following word has a falling tone , e.g. lokol i5ko ' eye ' but IG~okol iJ oko 'in the eye'; Igra:dl grad 'town' but IG~gra:dl iJ grad 'to town'; IIGmal siJma 'wood' but 1i1~Jumil u sutni 'in the wood'. The stress position in Croatian is relatively free . Unstressed syllables preceding the stressed one are always short while the unstressed syllables following the stressed one can either be short or long, e .g. Ikiltcal kiJea ' a house' vs. I kG:tca:l kOea ' houses (gen pi)'. The unstressed syllables are shorter than the corresponding stressed ones , by about 50 per cent in the case of long vowels and 30 per cent in the case of short ones.
n
Illustrations of the IPA 69
Transcription of recorded passage
II sjeue.rni: ledeni: ojetar i~sG:ntse~su~se prepirali o~suojoj sna.zi II st6ga odlut]e: da~onome 6 d~ J1 i : x prf padne p6bjeda koji : sou.t]e: I tf6ujeka pG:tnika II ojetar zapot]e sna:3no pinxati I a~budu:tci daje tf6ujek tfuf :sto df3ao odjetcu I nauali om j6f jatje: II tf6ujek park j6f jatje: oCstGdeni prftisnu.t I naou.t]e: na~sebe j 6f oi]er odjetce: I d6~se ojetar ne jirnori: i~prepusti:~ga tada sG:ntsu II a na : u~potfe:tku zasija iimjereno II kad~je tf6ujek ski nuo suoi ijak odjetce: I pooi.si ana: j 6f jat]e: 3eg u I d 6~se tf oojek I u~nemogu:tcnosti da~odoli siint]euo:j toplI ni ne~suu :tf e : I i~n e ~pod~ e : na j ku tpaji e u~rij e:ku tekiitcitsu II prf:tfa pokazuje: da~je~tfe:sto uspjejnije: uojera.oa.pe I neqoli na:si:,(e II Orthographic version with diacritics Sjeverni ledenl vjetar i Stlnc e su se prepirali 0 svoj oj snaz i. St og a odluce da onorne od njih pripadne pobjed a koji svu ce covjeka piltnik a. Vjetar zapoce snazno ptih ati, a buduci da je covj ek cv?sto drzao odjecu, nav ali on j os j a ce. Covjek pak , jos ja(:e od stilde ni priti snut, navuce na sebe jos viSe odjece, dok se vjetar ne umori i prepusti ga tada Silncu. Ona u pocetku zas ij a umjereno. Kad je co vjek sklnuo suvi sak odjece , povlsi ana jM jace ze gu d ok se covjek, u nernogucnosti da odoli suncevoj toplin i, ne svuce i ne pode na kupanje u rijeku tekuc icu, Prica pokazuje daje cesto uspjesn ije uvjeravanje negol i nasilje.
Orthographic version Sjeverni ledeni vjetar i Sun ce su se prepirali 0 svoj oj snazi. Stoga odluce da onome od njih pripadne pobjeda koj i svuc e covje ka putnika. Vjetar zapoce sn azno puhati , a budu ci da je cov jek cvrsto drzao odjecu, navali on j os j ace. Covjek pak, jo s jac e od studeni priti snut, navu ce na sebe j os vise odjec e, dok se vjet ar ne umori i prepusti ga tada Suncu . Ono u pocetku zasij a umje reno . Kad je covjek skinuo suvisak odjece, povi si ono jos j ace zegu d ok se co vje k, u nernc gucnosti da odo li suncevoj toplin i, ne svu ce i ne pede na kup anje u rijeku tekucicu . Prica pok azuje da je cesto uspjesn ije uvjeravanj e negoli nasilje.
Czech lANA DA!'JKOVlc ovA Department of Phonetics and Linguistics, University College London, I
4 Stephenson Way, London NWl 2HE, UK
Czech belongs to the western group of Slavic languages and is spoken as a mother tongue mainly in the Czech Republic. In its two provinces of Bohemia and Mor avia it is spoken by about 10 million people. There are also so me relatively large Czech- speaking communities in North Am erica and sm aller, isolated ones in neighbouring European countries. The closest related languages are Slovak and Polish. A continuous tradition of Czech wri ting begins in the late thirteenth century. A recognisably near-modern spoken language and written standard had evolved by the sixtee nth century. The spoke n language continued to dev elop after the establishment of a relatively stable written standard. Thu s when the written form underwent a modernizing revival from the late eighte e nth century, the result was a noticeable divergence between written and spoken usage. Thi s state has per~ i sted to the present day. The transcripti on of the sample text is 'based on the speech of a native speaker from Prague spe aking standard Czech. I Consonants Bilabial Plosive Nasal Fricative
p
Labiodental
b
Alveolar
t
f
V
S
z
ts
j
k
Glottal
9
p
n
ill
Velar
Palatal
c
d
~
Affricate
Postalveolar
f t]
X
3
fi
r Trill
r
Approximant Lateral Approximant
J 1
All the plo sives occur in voiced/voiceless pairs and are normally not aspirated. The glottal stop , while not phonemic , is typ ically used befor e vowels at the beg innin g of word s or between vowels within the word after a prefix. Apart from the glottal and velar fricativ es, all the fricatives occur in voic ed/v oiceles s pairs . The glottal fricative is alwa ys voiced . The vel ar fri cative is no rmall y voic eless, although its voiced counterpart [V] may occur
Illustrations of the lPA 71
allophonically. For more detail about the interaction between the glottal and velar fricatives with respect to assimilation, see the section on Assimilation below. Two affricate phonemes occur, a voicel ess alveolar Itsl and a voiceless post-alveolar FIJI. They both have an allophonic voiced counterpart arising from voicing assimilation (see below). There are two trills, Irl, as in ruka lrukal 'hand', and Irl, as in Feka IrEka/ 'river' . The first one is an alveolar apical trill with 1-3 periods of vibration. It is immune from voicing assim ilatio n and occurs voic ed in all positions in the word. In the case of Irl, the place of articulation is normally similar to that for Ir/ . Although it may be produced with the blade of the tongue, the main differentiating characteristic from Irl is the number of vibrations, which may be 1-2 greater than in Irl, and their lesser amplitude than for the vibrations in Ir/ . Also, the constriction is narrower and the velocity of air greater. This sound often starts as a trill but continues as a fricative and thus probably the best term for it is 'alveolar trill fricative' with the symbol Ir/. (The laminal diacritic IfI used in Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) does not capture the sound's defining property.) A voiceless allophone of Jrl occurs in places where voicing assimilation applies. There are three nasal phonemes, Iml, Inl and IJ1/. A labiodental nasal may occur allophonically, as the result of assimilation of the place of articulation with a following labiodental fricative. The velar nasal occurs allophonically before a velar stop, and in this position it is obligatory. The lateral III is always voiced and, in standard Czech, it has a clear or neutral quality in all positions in the word. However, some Czech dialects have a phonemic contrast between III (which is often palatalized) and dark It/. The bilabi al nasal 1m!, lateral III, and sonorant trill Irl can be syllabic, e.g. sedm ISEdll)1 'se ven' ; vlk /vl k/ 'wolf" ; vrba /vrb a/ 'willow' . 'pen'
f
fakulta
fa kulta
'faculty'
bota
's hoe'
v
va :za
vdza
'vase'
tento
' this'
s
si:la
sila
'strength'
dum
' house'
z
zrrna
zima
'winter'
telo
'body'
J
sest
delo
'g un'
3
JEst 3Ena
'six'
iena
'woman'
koio
'wheel'
x
xleba
chleba
'bread'
galerie
'gallery'
fi
fiora
hora
'mountain'
matka
'mother'
r
ruka
ruka
'hand'
p
pEro
pero
b t d
bota tento du:m
c
celo
j
j
9
elo kolo qalerrje
ill
matka
k
n
nofia
noOO
'leg'
reka
'ri ver'
J1
neco
'something'
r j
reka
jeden
jeden
'o ne'
tS
J1Etso tsena
eena
'price'
1
IES
les
'forest'
tJ
tjrsti:
Cisl'j
'clean'
72 Handbook of the IPA
Vowels Th e vowel system con sists of a set of five short vowe ls II
E
a
0
ul, their long counterpa rts
Ii: e: a: 0: u:/ , and three diphthongs, all fallin g: loul, laul and leul (the last two can be found only in Joan words). Th e short and long vowel s are in opposition in all positions. The qu ality cf short non -low vowel s and their corresponding long counterparts differs , in gene ral, only to a s mall e xte nt. However, in the pair !II and li:/, the sh ort vowel is noticeably less close and more ce ntral than the long on e. Th e greater difference in quality between the se two vowels than in the case of the other vowel pairs is reflected by the usage
here of a different vow el symbol for each of the two. The vowel 10:/ has a ph onemic status only in loan words (and therefore in the table below it is shown in brackets). The short Ia! is pronounced usually as marginally fronter than the long la:/. Vowel di stinctions are preserved in unstressed positions .
mile let
' nicely'
i:
'flight'
e:
mi.ls let
mile Jet
'summer (gen pl)'
fad
' row (gen pi)' ' water'
r a:t go:1
' order'
voda
a: (0:)
hid
0
rat voda
gol
' goal'
u
domu
domu
' house (gen sg)'
domu:
domu
'home (adv)'
I
mrle
e
let
a
mouxa
moucha
' fly (n)'
(au )
auto
auto
'car'
(eu)
neutra.ljii:
neutrdlni
'n eutr al'
ou
u:
'mile'
Assimilation Czech has ass imilations of place and mann er of articulation, and also voicing assimilation. Both assimilatio n of place of articulation and of voicing are normally anticipatory . Some e xamples of ass im ila tio n of place were mentioned in the di scussion of consonants. Assimilation of manner of articulation is rel ativ ely rare ; if it occurs, it usually con cerns combinations of It! and Is/,/tl and IS!, IdJ and IzI, or /dJ and 131, which may become affricates
Its/,iij/, IdZ/ and 1d31 respe ctively (e.g. detskY can be pronounced either as [jetski.] or
//lustrations of the IPA 73
[jetski.l) , Voicing assimilation affects most consonants . Apart from matching voicing to the following consonant, it also causes devoicing at the end of a word before a pause. When subject to voicing assimilation, the voiced glottal fricative lfiJ and voiceless velar fricative Ix! behave like a voiced/voiceless pair. For instance, in beh Prahou lfiJ in beh is realized as [x] ,
Suprasegmentals Primary lexical stre ss falls on the first syllable of a word; thus it does not have a contrastive phonological role and functions rather as an indication of the word boundary . The stress marks in the transcription below indicate which syllables were accented by the speaker in the recorded passage. II represents the major and I the minor intonation phrase boundary .
Transcription of recorded passage 'severa.k a 'sluntse se 'fia:dah I gdo 'z jnx je 'srljiejji: II f tom 'spatrrh
'potsestne.fio lkteri: 'kra.tj el 'zafialen 'pla.jcern lL'ujednah ted: I 3e 'ten se rna: 'povayovat 'za srljiejji.fio ll qdo 'prvjii: 'doka.je I 'abrsr 'potsestni: 'svle.kl 'plarj c lI'tu zatjal 'severa.k 'foukat 'ze fJi: 'si:lr II ale 'tj'i:m vi:ts 'foukal II ci:m 'vi:ts se 'potsestni: 'zafialoval 'do svcfio 'pla.sce II 'konetjjie se 'ssvera.k 'vzdal 'marne:fio 'u:sr1i: II 'pak zatjalo 'sluntse 'svi:crt a 'fira.t II a 'za jisjaki: 'okamyrk 'potsestni: ,'ktere:mu brio 'fiorko " 'sxojrl 'plaijc lI'tak muse! 'severa.k 'uznat I 3e 'sluntse je 'srljiejji: II Orthographic version Severak a Siunce se hadali, kdo z nich je silnejsf. V tom spatfili pocestneho, ktery kracel zahalen plastern . Ujednali tedy , ze ten se rna povazovat za silnejsfho, kdo prvni dokaze, aby si pocestny svlekl plasi. Tu zacal Severak foukat ze vsi sily, ale eim vic foukal , tim vic se pocestny zahaloval do sveho plaste . Konecne se Severak vzdal marneho iisili . Pak zacalo SJunce svftit a hl'at a za nejaky okarnzik pocestny, kteremu bylo horko, shodil plasi. Tak musel Severak uznat, ze Siunce je silnejsi.
Acknowledgements I would like to thank Martin Barry, Francis Nolan, Zdena Palkova, Miroslav Ptacek, Pfemysl Janota, Marie Svobodova and James Naughton for their comments and suggestions,
References KUCERA, H . (1961). The Phonology of Czech . The Hague: Mouton & Co. LADEFOGED, P. AND MADDIESON, I. (1996) . The Sounds of the World 's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. PALKovA, Z . (1994) . Fonetika afonologie cestiny. Prague: Karolinum . ROMPORTL, M . (1973). Zdklady fon etiky. Prague: Statnf Pedagogicke Nakladatelstvf.
I?utch CARLOS GUSSENHOVEN
Vakgroep Engels-Amerikaans, Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen, Erasmusplein J. 6525 HT Nijm egen, Tile Netherlands
Apa rt from the Republic of Surinam and the Leeward islands of the Dutch Antilles . Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao, where Dutc h is an official langu age, Dutch is spoken in the Net herlands and the northwestern half of Belgium by about 20 m illion speakers. Variation in the pronunciatio n of educated Eu rop ean D utch is substantial. For instance , the Bel g ian va rieties (a lso collect ivel y known as Flemish ) tend to have monophthongal realizations of [e:, 0: , 0:) as o ppo se d to reali zat ion s as cl osi ng diphthon gs in the Ne the rla nds . M ore ge nerally, the so uthern var ieties tend to have a full set of vo iced frica tives lv, z, yl by the side o f I f, s, xi - whi ch sys tem of vo iced fricati ves is redu ced to j us t lv, zl o r j us t h i as one gets c loser to the prest igiou s wes tern part of th e Netherlands (' Ra nds tad'). (T he re is gr eat variability in the voi cin g of fricatives. Low-prest ige urb an varieties in the wes t m ay also lac k h I.) Rou ghl y south of a lin e Rotterd arn -Nijmegen , wh ich is mark ed by the riv ers Rhine, M eu se and W aal , l x, yl are ve la r, wh ile to the north the corres po ndi ng vo ice less fricative is post- ve lar or uvul ar. Th e p~ on eme Irl tend s to be alv eo lar in Bel g ium , in A msterdam and in th e north-e ast of the Ne th erl ands , bu t uvu lar e lse where. T he vari ety illus trated represents W estern , educated , m iddle-gener at ion speech , and a ca re ful colloquial style . More info rm atio n is given by Coll ins and Mees (1982), Mees and Collins (1983), and Booij ( 1995). Con sonants Bilabial Plosivc
p
Labiodental
b
Alveolar
t
m
Nasal
f
Fricative
V
S
Palatal
Velar
Uvular
k
(C)
n
(J1)
Z
(f) (:))
Approximant
l)
fi
X j
U
Lateral Approximant
pen ben
1
' pen' '( I) am '
t
tak
d
dak
([c) ketjap
'bou gh' ' roo f' 'soy sa uce ' )
Glottal
(7)
r
Tap
p b
d
Postalveolar
k X
kal
gal
'cat' 'hole '
Illustrati on s of the IPA
m mens
v u
'human bein g'
fiets oven
'b icycle' 'o ven'
wang lente
'cheek' 'springtime'
n ([P] s z
nek oranje
' neck' 'orange' adj)
sok zeep
's ock' 'soap'
jas rat
'coat' ' rat'
75
eng
'narro w '
([3]
ch ef jury
'section head' ) 'jury' )
([7] fi
beamen 'confirm') ho ed 'hat'
I)
(rn
Ip, t, k/ are voiceless unaspirated, Ib, dl are fully voiced . Alveolars (except Irl) are laminal
and Is, z/ may have only mid-to-low pitched friction. [c, p, J] are the variant s of It, n, sl that occur before Ijl. In fact , all occurrences of these sounds can be analy zed as sequences of alveolar-plus-Ij/; by analogy, [3] could be seen as /zjl and is therefore parenthes ized in the chart above. [c, ji, J, 3] are prepalatal, the tip of the tongue bein g he ld in the lower j aw. Ivl tends to be only weakly voiced. lui is [u] in the onset , and [Q] in the coda. IfI is [f] in the onset , and [J] in the coda; in careful speech, a trill may occur word-in itially. [7] precedes vowel-in itial sylla bles with in words after l a:, 'JI; becau se of its predictable distribution it is also shown in parentheses. Vo iced obstruents and lfil do not occur in the coda; Ivl is restricted to positio ns between voiced segments within the word. Marg inal [9] (not listed ) occurs in a small number of loans. Sentence phonology is ch aracterized by a number of consonantal adjustments. Sequences of identical conso na nts are reduced to single consonants by a pro cess of degemination. Progressive devoicing will affect fricatives after obstruents, while obstruents may be voiced before Ib, d/. Moreover, post-sonorant word -final fricatives, particularly l si, may be voiced before vowel s. Vowels Dutch has a set of lax vowel s, a set of tense vowels, and a reduced vowel. The first colu mn gives the lax vowels and the reduced vow el I'JI, the second column the tense vowels. Vowels in the third column are marginal in the language, and only appe ar in recent loans. The nasalized vowels [e:, 0:, 5:] (not listed ) also have this statu s. There are also three wide diphthongs .
y
e 'J
bit hut bed 't
'bit' 'c abin' 'bed ' 'the '
y e:
¢:
biet fuut beet neus
' beetroot' 'grebe' 'b ite' 'nose'
i: y:
analyse centrifug e e: serre oe: oeuvre
' analysis' 'spindryer' 'con servatory' 'w orks'
76 Handboo k of the lPA a
o
bad bot
'bath' ' bone '
a:
zaad
0:
boot hoed
u
ei ei re y ui AU
zout
'seed' [boet' 'h at'
::>:
u:
zone cruise
' zone' 'cruise'
'egg ' 'onion ' 's alt'
Ii, y, ul are long befo re Ir/ in the same stress foot. Ie: , 1/):, 0:1 are narrow closi ng diphthongs ([e i, /flY, oul) , except before Irl in the same word, when they are pronounced [e;l, /fl;l, O;l).
0:
:)(:)
•
AU
a. Stress and accentuation Main stress falls on the antepenult, the penult, or the final syllable of the word if the penult is open, and on the penult or the final syllable if the penult is closed. The long marginal vowels onl y occur in stres sed syllables. In unstressed syllables, the otherwise long [e:, /fl:, 0:, a:] are short. Minim al pairs are rare, examples bei ng canon [ka. non] 'canon' , kanon [ka 'non] 'c annon'; Servisch [servis] 'Se rbian', servies [ser 'vis] 'd inner service' . Largely depending on focus, intonational pitch accents will occur on the syllable with main stress of some words , marked with [ , ] in the transcription. The realization of these pitch accents will extend as far as the next pitch accent or the single bar I, which marks off a minor intonational phrase . Utterance-final boundary tones may be added before the double bar II.
Transcription of recorded passage do 'notrdoumt en da 'ze n I ficda an drs 'kvsi o.vor da 'fra:x I 'ui fan fivn 'tue ra da 'steroksta uas I tun or 'jceyst imant fo.rbei kuam I di an 'drko 'corms 'jas a:nfiat I za spra rko 'of I dot oi da fo:rbeiXOIpr dortu ZAU 'kreiXa zop 'j a s cey ta treka I da 'ste rcksto ZAU zein II da 'no.rdoom t bax:)n ceyt 'old max ta 'blaizo I ma:r u fiordor i 'blis I des ta 'dlxtar da fo:rbeixal)ar zop jaz om ZIX 'fiem trek II tan 'sloto Xaf to norrdoumt at ma:r 'op I far 'blxanz bax:)n de 'zon I 'kroXtaX ta 's tra rlo I en o'mrdolok darrop I trek ta fo:rbeixol)ar zop 'j a z ceyt I do 'noir dournt ken tun slexs ba '7a:ma I data 'zon da 'stercksto oas.
Illustrations of the IPA 77
Orthographic version De noordenwind en de zon hadden een discussie over de vraag wie van hun tweeen de sterkste was, toen er juist iemand voorbij kwam die een dikke, warme jas aanhad . Ze spraken af dat wie de voorbijganger ertoe zou krijgen zijn jas uit te trekken de sterkste zou zijn . De noordenwind begon uit aile macht te blazen, maar hoe harder hij blies , des te dichter de voorbijganger zijn jas om zich heen trok. Tenslotte gaf de noordenwind het maar op. Vervolgens begon de zon krachtig te stralen, en onmiddellijk daarop trok de voorbijganger zijn jas uit. De noordenwind kon toen slechts beamen dat de zon de sterkste was .
References BOOI1, E. E. (1995). The Phonology of Dutch. Oxford University Press. COLLINS, B. AND MEES, 1. (1982) . A phonetic description of the consonant system of Standard Dutch . Journal of the International Phonetic Association 12,2-12. MEES, 1. AND COLLINS, B. (1983) . A phonetic description of the vowel system of Standard Dutch. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 13,64-75.
French , CECILE FOUGERON*;AND CAROLINE L. SMITH** Phoneti cs Laborat ory, UCLA. 405 Hilgard Avenu e. Los Angeles . CA 900 95- 1543, USA and "ln stitut de Phonetique, CNRS URA102 7, Universite Paris 11/, France "Eloqu ent Technology Inc, Ithaca , NY, USA
The following de scription of French is based on the speech of a young Pari sian female speaker. Varieties of French have almost identical inventories; the main differences are to be found in the maintenance or loss of certain contrasts. Vowels Oral vowels. French vowels, which are all monophthongs, are normally described using four values for height and two or possibly three (front, central, back) for backness . All back vowels are rounded ; there are both rounded and unrounded sets of front vowels. The mid-high and mid-low vowels have limited overlap in their distributions, but cannot be regarded as allophones. The contrast between [e] and [e] is found in open syllables in final position (e.g. [se] ses (3rd person possessive, plural) vs. [se] sail 'knows' and [pwajie] poignet 'wrist' vs. [pwajie] poignee 'handful') . Elsewhere, [e] occurs in open syllables and [e] in closed syllables: compare [se.vir] sevir 'to rage' vs . [ses.vis] servir 'to serve'. For the other pair s of mid vowels, the contrast between mid-high and mid-low is limited for the most part to closed monosyllables . In other environments, the mid-low vowels roe] and [::l] occur in closed syllables and the mid-high vowels [0] and [0] in open syllables. However, in addition to this general rule, the nature of the syll able-final consonant also has an effect: the mid-high vowels [0] and [0] are found in syllables ending
e e
si se se sell'
si ses sait serre
y 0 oe
sy S0 soell'
SLI
S;) sa
ce sa
;)
a
'if' 'his, hers' (pi) 'knows ' 'greenhouse '
'known ' ceux 'these ' soeLlr 'sister' 'this' ' his, hers'
(I)
u 0
o
SU so S::lll'
SOLIS
sot sort
'under' 'silly' ' fate'
Illustra tions a/the IPA 7 9
in [z], and [0] is not fo und even in mon osyll ables end ing in [g ], lfl], and [9] (Delattre 19 66; Leon 1992). It is not icea.ble that our spea ker of ten produces a markedl y ce ntralize d a llop ho ne of [:>], especially before [s] . T his is transc ribed [5] in the passage bel ow. So me speake rs have a contrast between two low vowel s [a] and [a] ; our spea ker has only one low vowe l, [a] , wh ich is central. Schwa , [ ~] , is also a ce ntral vowel , with some rounding. Some spea ke rs re ta in a co ntra st between long and short vow e ls in a very few words , bu t most spea kers no lon ger mainta in any len gth cont rast. Nasalized vowe ls. T radit ion all y, Fr en ch is descr ibed as havin g four d ist inct ivel y nasal ized vowel s, [e], [6 ], [5], and fee]. How ever, our speaker, like m an y othe rs , lack s [ce] , wh ich is replac ed by [£]. Th e vo we l [e] is produc ed with ton gu e and lip positi on ve ry sim ilar to its o ra l co un ter pa rt lel: however, seve ral articulatory stud ies (e.g. Ze rling 1984; Lonchamp 1988) ha ve suggested th at [6] and [5] differ subs tantia lly from thei r sup pos ed o ral co unterparts [a] and [o] , Th e pos ition of the tongue is similar in [6] and [5] , and the main articulatory difference is that [5] has a greater degree of lip rounding . Th ese aut hors sugges t that other sy m bo ls might be more app ro priate for tran scr ibing these two vo we ls , but we hav e retained the trad itional usage as non e of the altern ative proposals has ga ined wid espread acceptance .
6 5
s6
e
s£
sans son saint
s5
' witho ut' ' his, hers ' ' saint'
(m sg)
Consonants Bilabial Plosive
Labiodental
Dental
p b
t
m
Nasal
S
V
Lateral Approximant
pu bu tu du
Velar
Uvular
k
z
(I))
J1
J
9
3
ff
I Palatal
Labial-Palatal
Labial-Velar
J
q
w
Cen tral Approximants
p b t d
Palatal
d n
f
Fricative
Palatealveolar
pa ll
boue tout doux
' louse ' ' mud' 'a ll' 'swee t'
v z
fu vu su zo
[ou va us SO liS
zoo
'crazy' 'you' (pi) 'under' 'zoo'
80 Handbook of /he IPA k g
ku gu
cou gout
'neck ' ' taste'
m n
mu nu aJ10 pask iq
mou nous agn eau parking
' soft'
J1 I)
I
Iu
3
3u
Il'
Il'U
lu
chou j oue roue loup
'c abbage' 'cheek ' 'wheel' 'wolf'
soin sien suint
'care ' ' his, hers' 'grease on sheep's wool '
'we, us'
'lamb ' ' pa rking lot '
w j
swe sje
4
S4€;
French voiced stop s are typic all y full y voiced throughout; voiceless one s are de scribed as un aspirated . When preceding high vowel s, they are often followed by a sho rt period of asp ir ation and/o r fric ation . Th e vel ar nas al occurs only in final position in borrowed (usually Engl ish ) words. French has one rhotic, whose production varies considerabl y am ong spea ke rs and phonetic co ntexts. Th e spe aker presented here uses a uvul ar fricative [I!] that is sometimes reduced to an approx imant [ ~ ], particularly in final position ; it ma y also be dev oiced (for e xamples see the tran scribed text), and can be reduced to zero in so me word-final positions. For other spea kers, a uvular trill [R] is also fairly common , and an api cal trill [r) occurs in some d ialect s. Vow els are oftenlengthened before this segment. The approxim ants [w) , [4], and [j] each correspond to a high vowel . [u], [y) . and [i) respecti vely , There are a few min imal pairs where the approximant and corresponding vowel contras t, but ther e are also many cases where they are in free variatio n, Contrasts between Li) and [i) occur chiefly in fin al position . as in [abej] abeille ' bee ' vs. [abei) abbaye ' monastery' . Word-final con son ants are always released, and in keeping with a general fav ouring of open syllables, the y are usuall y resyll ab ified as onsets when followed by a vowel- initi al wo rd tenchainementi . Underlying word-fin al con sonants that are not pronounced before a co nsonant, are pronounced only when preceding a vowel in the same rhythmic group . Th is process, known as liaison , also contributes to this can on ical open-syllable pattern. Prosody Although Fren ch is often descr ibed as having stress on word -fin al syllables, in connec ted speec h this is pre -empted by the accent on the final syllable of a group of word s (sen se group or accentual group, see Vaissiere 1992 for discussion), Transcription of recorded passage The transcr iptional style ado pted in thi s illu str ation is a rel ati vely narrow one, whi ch reflects the particular pron unci ation us ed in the recording of the passage made for the illustrati on .
Illustrationsof the IPA 81
la biz e 19 sole- sa dispyte II Jake asysd kilete 19 ply f5~ II kat ilzo vy e vwojajoe ki savose II avlope da s5 mate Iii: s5 tobe dab~ ko solqi ki asivse Iapxomje a 19 lui fcsote II Sgffg ffggaffde kern 19 ply f5~ II a15~ la biz Sf; miz a sufle ds tut se f5~s II me ply £1 sufle ply 19 vwojajces sese s5 rndtonrs dg lqi II finalmd el sonosa 19 lqi fasote II a15~ Ig solei korndsa b~ije II e 0 bu d~ mornd Ig vwojajce sejofe ota s5 mota II esi la biz dy sokonet ko 19 sole- ete 19 ply f5~. Orthographic version La bise et Ie soleil se disputaient, chacun assurant qu 'il etait le plus fort. Quand ils ont vu un voyageur qui s'avancait, enveloppe dans son manteau, ils sont tornbes d'accord que celui qui arriverait Ie premier a Ie lui faire ater serait regarde comme Ie plus fort. Alors, la bise s'est mise a souffler de toutes ses forces, mais plus elle soufflait, plus Ie voyageur serrait son manteau autour de lui . Finalement, elle renonca a Ie lui faire otero Alors, Ie solei! cornmenca a briller et au bout d'un moment Ie voyageur, rechauffe, ota son manteau . Ainsi, la bise dut reconnaitre que Ie solei! etait Ie plus fort . Acknowledgement The first auth or was supported by an Allocation de recherche M.R.T. awarded to the D.E.A . de phonetique de Paris .
References DELATIRE, P. (1966). Studies in French and Comparative Phonetics. The Hague : Mouton . LEON, P. (1992) . Phonetism e et prononciations du francais. Paris: Nathan . LONCHAMP, F. (1988) . Etude sur la production et la per ception de la parole, les indic es acoustiques de la nasa lite vocalique, la modification du timbre par la frequence [ondamentale. These de Doctorat d'Etat, Universite de Nancy II. V AISSIERE, J. (1992) . Rhythm, accentuation and final lengthening in French. In Sundberg, J., Nord, L. and Carlson, R. (editors), Music, Language, Speech and Brain (Stockholm: Wenner-Gren International Symposium Series 59), 108-20. ZERLING, J-P . (1984) . Phenomenes de nasalite et de nasalisation vocaliques: etude cineradiographique pour deux locuteurs. Travaux de l'Institut de Phonetique de Strasbourg 16, 241-66.
Galician I
XOSE L. REGUElRA Instituto da Lingua Ca/ fga and Dept. de Filoloxia Ca/ega University of Santiago de' Compostela. J5703 Santiago. Spain
Galician is a Romance language closely related to Portuguese. It is spoken in the far northwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula. As a result of historical circumstances, Spanish has exerted a strong political and cultural influence over this region since the end of the Middle Ages, and there is in consequence in Galicia today a socially ascendant Spanishspeaking urban minority, while the rest of the population maintains Galician as its mother tongue, As a result, Galician is in a situation of language shift and the spoken language now includes numerous loan-words from Spanish. However, in recent decades Galician has been recognized as an official language in Galicia along with Spanish, and the language has gone through a process of standardization and social recovery. The language variety described here is that of colloquial Galician as spoken by a middleaged male speaker whose speech may be considered representative of an informal variety used by educated urban speakers.
Consonants Bilabial Plosive
p
Labiodental
b
Dental
t
Alveo lar
d
m
n r
Tap
r
f
e
k
9
Jl
1J
j
W
f
§
App roximant Lateral Approximant
Velar
if
Trill
Fricative
Palatal
j
Affricate Nasal
Postalveolar
I
Some varieties of the language, particularly among elderly speakers, display two cont rasting lateral consonants, one alveolar [I] and the other palatal [A]. However, in the language of most speakers, especially in urban and younger speakers, the palatal lateral consonant has been replaced by a voiced palatal plosive [j], as can be seen in the table above. In the dialects of western Galician, instead of leI and I§I there is only one fricative consonant, usually realized as a voiceless lamino-alveolar fricative [s]. This phenomenon is
Illustrations of the IPA
83
known as seseo (Fernandez Rei 1991: 189-215). Another dialectal characteristic which is encountered chiefly in the western half of the Galician-speaking region is known as gheada; thi s dialectal feature con sists of the absence of the voiceless velar plosive /g/, which is replaced by a voiceless fricative with several possible realizations, including pharyngeal [h], uvular [X], velar [x] and glottal [h] . Standard Galician, inc lud ing the variety of pronunciation described here, doe s not show these variants. p b t
'pa po 'bimbjo
j
tinta 'dondo 'ajo
k
'kuko
9
'90l)90
II
'lIulIo 'fofo
d
f 8 §
'8i1J.8a '§i§o
papo vimbio rinta dondo allo cueo ganga chucho fofo cinza siso
'jowl ' ' wicker' 'ink' ' soft' 'garlic' 'cuckoo' ' bargain' 'kiss' 'flabby' ' as h'
I
'[a
xa
m n
'mimo
]1
'ap o
l)
'uqo
'Iiqqwo 'baja
mimo neno aiio unha correr ouro lingua vaia
'bow
yO U
'neno
ko're r 'owro
w
'already' 'cuddle ' (n) 'child ' 'Iamb' 'a' , 'one'
't o run' ' go ld ' ' language' ' goe s' (subj)
'I go '
'good sen se '
The approximants fj) and [w] may appear after a vowel , giving rise to sequences such as [ew] , [ow). [ej], [oj] , etc. While in most phonetic descriptions of Galician these are labelled diphthongs , in the present descripti on they are viewed as sequences o f vowel plu s co nso nant, rath er than as sequences of two vowels. Vowels
•
Nasalization is not di stinctive for vowels, but any vow el can be come fully or partially nasali zed in contact with a nasal. The effect is strongest when a vowel occurs between two nasal consonants , and nasalization is systematically inclicated for this sequence of sounds in the examples in this article. (In the recorded passage, nas alization is indicated wherever the speaker produ ced a nasalized vowel, i.e. in more than ju st the NVN context.)
84 Handbook of the IPA
e
'bir ter 'bero
vir ter berro
a
'pa
pa
e
'to come] 'to have' 'shout' (0) 'shovel' '
o
'nos
0
'koro
u
'duro
nos corro duro
'we'
' I run' 'hard'
Stress Stress in Galician may fall on any of the last three syll able s of a word . If a word has a closed syllable in final position, stress usually falls on that syllable, e.g. final [fi'nal] 'end' , ron con [rorj'koq] ' pipe in a bagpip e' , armor [a r'mar] 't o arm' . In certain loans and learned words stress may be on the penultimate syll able, as in re vol ver [re'~ ol~er] ' rev o lve r', dolmen [dolrneq] ' dolmen', util [util] 'useful' . If there is a final open syllable in a word , stre ss will norma lly fall on the penultimate syllable , e.g. casa ['ko~a] 'house' , hom e [ome] 'm an' , carballo [kcr'[lajo] ' oak' , ed ificio [e{\i'fi8jo] 'building' . However, some words end in a stress ed vowel , e.g . a vo [a'~o] 'grandfather', ala [a'la] ' ove r there ' . This is true of the third pers on singul ar of the futur e tense in all verb s: canta rd [kcnta'ra] ' will sing ', lerd [Ie'ra] 'will read ', vira [bi'ra] 'will come ' . There are in consequence some min imal pairs where s tress placement is contrastiv e, e.g. revol ver [ re'~ ol~er] ' re vo lver' vs. revolver [re~ol'~er] ' to mix'; cantara [kantara] ' s ~ ng ' (subj) vs. cantata [kantara] ' will sing' . Some word s ending in two ope n syllables bear (he stress on the antepe nultimate syllable, e.g. cobado ['ko~ a{\o] 'elbow ', lostrego ['lostr etqo] ' lightning', medico ['me{\iko] ' doctor' , loxico [Iojiko] ' logical' , calculo ['kotkul o] 'calculation' .
Conventions The co nso nants represent ed in the table above as Ib d gl are only realized as a plosive afte r a pause or after a nasal con sonant (and also after a lateral in (he case of (dJ), whereas in other positions the y have approximant va riants W{\ UJ] respectivel y. Thus in vedno [be'Bijro] 'neighbour', (urn be'Oino] ' a neighbour' a plosive is pronoun ced, whil e an approx imant is found in 0 vec iiio [0 ~ e'8ipo] 'the neighb our' , mal vedno [mal ~ e'8 ip o] ' bad neighbour' , ter veciiios ['ter ~e' 8 ipo§ ] ' to have neighbours' . Pla ce of articulation in sylla ble-final nasals is non-contr astive, and assimilates to that of a foll owin g sy llable-initial consonant, e.g. inferno [inj'ferno] 'h ell ' , enredar [enre'(iar] ' to entangle', ancho ['aniijo] ' broad, wide' , nun ca ['nii!)ko] ' never' ; before a pause or before a word beginning with a vowel the realizati on is alwa ys velar [1]] : non [noq] ' no, not' , son un hom e ('§Ol] ii!) 'Sme ] ' I am a man'. The velar nasal also occurs interv ocalically in a small number of word s, for instance unha ['u!)o] 'a, one' , al gunha [ct'tquqo] ' some ' (fern ), ningunha [nl!)'gul)o] 'n o, none' , wher e the place of articulat ion is dist incti ve : unha ['U!)O] 'a , one' vs. ulla [una] 'jo ins' (subj) , una [uji a] 'nail' (Alvarez, Regueira and Mont eagudo 1995: 33) . Nevertheless, some authors do not inclu de [1]] among the phoneme s of Galici an, suggesting that in case s such as those above the velar place of articulat ion is conditioned by the locat ion of the sy llable break: [uq .u] vs. [u .na] (Vei ga 1976: 105-7 ; Castro 1989: 14455). The pres ent descrip tion prefers to regard II]I as a distinct phonem e.
Illustration s of the IPA
85
As with the nasals, the place of articulation of the lateral approximant in syllable-final positions is also affected by a following dental, palat al or velar consonant: alto ['alto] 't all', colcha ['koliija] ' bedspread' , algo [uhqo] 'something' . Elsewhere the lateral approximant is articulated as an alveolar [I]. Fricatives 181 and I§I may become partially or fully voiced in syllable-final position before a voiced consonant: de; meses ['de!;) 'me ses ] - ['deo 'me se s] ' ten months' , tres meses ['tre~ 'me ses] ' three months '. Elsewhere they remain voiceless . The open centra! vowel Ia! is realized as an open back [a] in cont act with velar consonants.
Transcription of recorded passage o '.l}el)to i: I ?ija jmta I amma: 'lOa:. soj to ka.so sa: [i: wannom motoftji: I j~ k W;}5e: rl:g;}rsa?, don kWuwa, ja: dondanne: rl:g~r g~mg~m ?~ jikmsa? to daga k'or]e: doj, saj ?Iska.: t;} sallama., daga non ne: kWuma, ?It;} ra :na: I t~ Jig;} naita ?ajkll). ?aj ko : ra:na: I soj t~ bu:cfo: hssk-anta da zaifmto warwor. h~~: I kon ka tIe: mer, soj ga.: [i wannarn motum I rnatsfrji: I ja: k W;}5e : rl:g;}rsa.:, ba: girrma: d~ ?;}rz)ki:. g;}nil) hoka kWt'Jwa I soj fISka.: d6:1e t;} ?;}m'rntIe: ?a kgn tje rwar, lolle: I ra :na: tal fi: ta k' ;}r<j>i:.
Illustrations of the [PA 95
Orthographic version Iska da Rana Wata rana, da iskar hunturu ta arewa da rana suka yi gardama a kan kowace ce daga cikinsu ta fi Rarfi. To. suna cikin wannan gardama, sai ga wani matafiyi ya zo sanye da rigar sanyi. To, shi ke nan, sai iskar hunturu da rana suka yi yarjejeniya a kan yau, za'a yi kure don a ga ko wa zai iya sa matafiyin ya tu5e rigarsa a kan tilas . To. shi ke nan. sai iskar hunturu ta buso sanyinta da Rarfi iya yinta, amma ina?! Sai ta kasa sa shi wannan matafiyi ya kwa5e rigarsa, don kuwa ya dandanne rigar gamgam a jikinsa. To daga Rarshe dai, sai iska ta sallama, daga nan ne kuma, ita rana ta shiga nata aikin. Ai ko, rana sai ta bUGO haskenta da zafinta warwar. Haba! Kan ka ce me. sai ga shi wannan rnuturn, matafiyi, ya kwa5e rigarsa, ba girma da arziki . Ganin haka kuwa, sai iska dole ta amince a kan cewa, lalle rana ta fi ta Rarfi,
References CARNOCHAN, J. (1952). Glottalization in Rausa. Transactions of the Philological Society 78-109 . London. LADEFOGED, P. (1968) . A Phonetic Study of West African Langua ges, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press . LADEFOGED, P. AND MADDIESON. I. (1996) . The Sounds of the World's Langua ges . Oxford : Blackwells. NEWMAN, P. (1980). The two R's in Rausa. African Language Studies 17,77-87 . PARSONS, F. W . (1970). Is Hausa really a Chadic language? Some problems of comparative phonology . African Language Studies 11.272-88 .
Hebrew ASHER LAUFER The Phonetics Laboratory, Hebrew Language Department , The Hebrew Unive rsity, Mount SCOpLlS, Jeru salem 91905, Israel
There are two ma in pronunciations in Modern native Israeli Hebrew : Ori ental and NonOriental. The Oriental pronunciation -is usually spoken by people with a Near Eastern origin, who have some sort of Arabic or Aramaic in their own or their parents ' background. These speakers may have been born in Israel, and by now most of them do not know any Arabic or Aramaic. The Non-Oriental pronunciation is spoken by the rest of the population. It should be noted that, for various reasons, there are 'Oriental Israelis' who use the Non-Oriental pronunciation, and ' Non-Orie ntals ' who use the Oriental pronunciation. The Oriental pronunciation was chosen by the ' Va' ad Hallashon' (the committee preceding the Academy of the Hebrew Language) to be the representative and the prestigious speech in Israel. This pronunciation was selected to be the preferred one for the official broadcasting services . However, this decision is not always followed nowadays. The recordings for this illustration were taken from two Israeli-born informants, whose education was in Hebrew. The Oriental informant was a 61-y ear-old woman whose parents were also born in Israel. The Non-Oriental informant was a 49-year-old man born to parents of East European origin ; Hebrew and Yiddi sh were spoken at their home. The main differen ce between these pronunciation s is in the con sonants ; the Oriental pronunciation has two pharyngeal phonemes, which the Non-Oriental lacks . In the NonOriental pronunciation , I'll merges with /?I and Ih/ with IXI.
Consonants
I
Bilabial Lab-dent. Alveolar Posialv . Plosive
Nasal
p
b
t
m
k
d
r f
V
S
z
Uvular Pharyng. GIOlla)
?
9 X
II
h
3
j
Approximant Lateral
Velar
n
Trill Fricative
Palatal
I
The phonemes Ih/ and I'll occur only i n the Oriental pronunciation.
h lV~QY
0
orvan
u
uFi
baolach ealaigh alainn olann amhrdn ullai
(to be) 'feared' 'escape' (imp) 'beautiful' (he) ' drinks ' 'song'
II~
e
e1~
a
ap'a h
1\
I\lV~
y
YlVu
ia
ia] Yah~
ua au
uap'ah auwmi
uile eile eallach via Uladh
'all' 'another' 'cattle' ' oil' ' U lster'
iallacha ualach
' laces '
'apples '
Eamhain
' burden ' (place)
Suprasegmentals Primary lexical stress is located on the first syllable of most words. The stress marks in the transcription indicate the syllables accented by the speaker in the reading of the passage. I and I indicate the ends of major and minor intonational phrases respectively.
Transcription of recorded passage vii on 'Vi g'c)Yuaj ISY an 'jr-ian g] 'arYggal 19 eels 19 fYal c'mrah 'caku gYgn ,yjerj!j gbYg 'yrjecg I I)YgrYg ham] '1 Yac! jal Yi gn 'b'a] Yah I gggsY 'k] Y;)kg '!jeh a xacu ep I 'gYeI)Y!Yi CggY ggr Y an gYIgjg bYg 'yrjecg I on gYIgjg bYg 'l Yua~ g 'horvhu gr Y on '!Yac!jal Yi g 'x] Y:)kg WYIgj!j 'g Y;) I m'cm 'hed! on 'vi g'gYuaj XYh '!jrjeQY ISY g 'hrku Ieco I ah a 'yjegj ISY g 'hed' ci I ca bYg 'I YU~ g 'hanr an '!Yac!ja! Yi g 'x] Y:)kg 'harY!Y fYa 'gYU gYA I gggsY sYg 'gjerju 'gjirji an 'yYi g'gYuaj gsY on 'iarYarY!Y I on'cm '!YynYrYi gn 'jrjian gg '!jeh I gggsY wYIgj an 'Fac!jaFi 'gY:) g 'x]Y:)b '}Yrehrjah 'bYYI)Y I gggsY gr Y g 'gY:)j em I b'ejon gYgn 'Vi g'gYuaj g 'adrwal I gYfYgbi i n jrlian g b Yg '}Yregjrjg gYgn 'yjerj!j II Orthographic version Bhf an ghaoth aduaidh 's an ghrian ag aragail le chelle Ie fail amach ce acu den bheirt a ba threise nuai r a thainig taistealaf an bealach agus cloca te a chaitheamh aige. D'aontaigh siad gur an duine 'ba threise an duine 'ba luaithe a thabhairfeadh ar an taistealaf a chl6ca a bhaint d6 . Ansin sheid an ghaoth aduaidh comh trean is a thiocfadh leithe, ach da mheid a sheid sf 'sea ba dhhiithe a theann an taistealaf a chl6ca thart fa dJaobh d6, agus sa deireadh d'eirigh an ghaoth aduaidh as an iarracht. Ansin lonnraigh an ghrian go te agus bhain an taistealai d6 a chl6ca laithreach bonn. Agus ar a' d6igh sin b'eigean don ghaoth aduaidh a adrnhail gurbh I 'n ghrian a ba laidre den bheirt.
Acknowledgements I am very grateful for suggestions and assistance in the preparation of this illustration Dochartaigh and Prionnsias 6 Nuallain.
[0
Cathair 6
116 Handbook of the IPA
References Nf CHASAIDE, A . (1977). The Laterals o~Donegallrish and Hiberno-English: An Acoustic Study. M.A. thesi s, University of Wales, Bangor. Nf CHASAIDE, A. (1979). The laterals of Donegal Iri sh and Hiberno-English. In 6 Baoill, D . P . (editor), Papers in Celtic Phonology. Coleraine: New University of Ulster. 6 SEARCAIGH, S. (1925) . Foghraidheacht Ghaedhilge an Tuaiscirt. Beal Feirste (Belfast): Bnin & 6 Nuallain . QUIGGIN, E. C. (1906). A Diale ct of Donegal. Cambridge University Press. SOMMERFELT, A. (1922) . The Dialect of Torr, Co. Donegal. Cristiania (Oslo): Jacob Dybwad. SOMMERFELT, A. (1964) . Consonant clusters or single phonemes in Northern Irish? In Abercrombie, D ., Fry , D. B., MacCarthy, P. A . D ., Scott, N . C. and Trim, J. L. M . (editors), In Hon our of Daniel Jones : Papers Contributed on the Occasion of his Eightieth Birthday 12 September 1961,368-73. London: Longmans.
Japan ese H IDEOOKADA 6-29 -22 Sakuradai, Nerima -ku, Tokyo 176-0002, Japan
T he style of speech illustrated is that of many educated Japanese brou ght up in T oky o or other areas with similar pitch accent systems . Th e tran scription is based on a recordin g of a 25 -year-o ld stude nt wh ose speech is ty pica l of speake rs of his age group wi th this back ground.
Consonants
Plosive
Bilabial Labiodental
Dental
p b
t d
Alveolar
Pos talveolar
Palata l
k 9
n
ill
N
r
F lap
S
Fricative
h
Z
Approximant
paN ba N
m mazu
t d t'
taijo: da Nda N t'u: t' i
' the sun ' 'g radually' 'notice'
'first'
n
mini ra N
'what' 'orchid'
N
'goodwill ' zeNi (See also Ib , p, d, r/.)
su:si zat'uzi
'numeral' 'c hores '
h
han a
' nose'
jarna
' mountain' ' pulse'
w
wa
(particle)
z
rnjaku
Vowel s
u
erne ama 6mo umu
'wind ' ' cloak, overcoat' 'medicine'
' bread' '(one's) tum'
s
imi
W
]
r
0
G lotta l
t
Nasa l
e a
Uvular
S
Affricate
p b
Velar
k
9
kaze gai to: igaku
• u ' mea ning' 'smile! ' (archaic imperative) ' wom an diver (for abalone)' ' (sur )face' (arc haic) 's uppurate'
O·
118 Handbook of the IPA
Vowe I length ozisantari 'uncles' hodo
'degree, extent'
Pitch accent 'chopsticks ' hasi hasf
hasi
' bridge ' 'end '
ozi: santatti hodo:
hasi o nuru hasf o nutu
hasi 0 nutu
'grandfathers' 'sidewalk'
'paint chopsticks' 'paint a bridge' 'paint the end'
Conventions Ip, t, tS, kJ are only moderately aspirated. Syllable-final (moraic) forms of these and other voiceless obstruents occur as the first part of geminates, e.g. /happo:1 ' firing ' , Ijaltol 'at last' , Igakko:1 'school', /hossal 'attack (6f disease)' . The geminate form of 11'1 is 1tl'I, as in /kutr'ukernasita/ ' pressed, attached' . Ibl is normally [b], but in rapid speech it may become [y] or [j3]. Ig/tends to become [V] between vowels. Older and otherwise conservative speakers use [I)] in all medial positions, except mainly for the element Ig61 'five' in number designations, as e .g. Inlzju:-g61 LV1zu:g6] 'twenty-five' . 1(/, which corresponds to or' in Romanization, is postalveolar in place rather than retroflex and mainly occurs medially. Initially and after INI, it is typically an affricate with short friction, [gl] . A postalveolar [1] is not unusual in all positions. Approximant [J] may occasionally occur in some environments. ItSI is normally [ts] but becomes [tel before Iii. Inl before iiI is prepalatal Lv]. Before luI, it may be alveolar with some speakers. Consonants generally are strongly palatalized before iiI, as Imil [m- i] 'body' . INI represents a moraic nasal with very variable pronunciation . Word-finally before a pause, it is typically a uvular nasal with a loose tongue contact or a close to close-mid nasalized vowel. Such a nasalized vowel is also the normal realization before a vowel or approximant, or before Ihl or lsI, as e.g. lzeNil [dzeii] 'goodwill ', /hosjaku/ [hoijaku] 'translation' , lzeNhaNI [dzefhaN] 'first half'. Before other consonants, it is homorganic with that following consonant, as e.g.vsixpo/ [cirnpo] 'progress', IS1Nnil [elJ.l]}i] 'truly', IS1Nril [el!JQli] ' truth' . lSi and IzI are [c] and [zl before iiI. Iz/ tends to be [dz] initially ([dZ] before iiI) and after IN/. /hI tends towards [y] and [cJ>] before iiI and luI respectively . Ihhl is realized as [yC;:], [xx] or [cJ>cJ>] depending on the (normally identical) sur rou nding vowels . IjI affects the preceding consonant as IiI does, and is itself absorbed, thus : /mjakii/ [mlaku] 'pulse', ItSjal [tea] 'tea', Isj6:1 [e6:] 'prize', Ikanju:l [kaput] 'joining'. It,dl before li,j/, normally limited to borrowings, remain es sentially unpalatalized, thus lti:pa:ti:1 [ti:pa:ti:] ' tea party', /direkutar/ [direkutai] ' director' , Idjuarul [djuaju] 'dual' . Iwl has very slight or no rounding (except after 101), but involves no spreading either. lui, resembling [ill] auditorily, has compressed lips , so that it is unrounded but without spreading; it could be transcribed narrowly as [V] or [ut). The slit between the lips may be very narrow vertically and is generally much shorter in the horizontal plane than for [i] . A very advanced variety in the [i] area may occur among the younger age groups. Except in accented or lengthened syllables, Ii , ul tend to be devoiced [j, \l] between voiceless consonants . As often as not, preceding fricatives replace them altogether. Final unaccented Isul is very often reduced to [s].
Illustrations of the [PA
LL9
There are two lexically relevant pitch levels: high and low. Within a word , if the first mora is high-pitched, the second is inevitably low-pitched, and vice versa. A mora transcribed with an acute accent, a, is said to be accented and is high. If more than one mora precedes it, the high pitch extends towards the beginning of the word up to the second mora. A word with no accent mark begins low and continues high from the second mora onwards. All moras following the accent are low until another accented or polysyllabic word is reached, when these accentuation rules reapply. Note that word pairs such as /hasi/ 'bridge' and /hasi/ ' end ' are both low -high when spoken in isolation, but will be distinguished when something else follows . What follow s will be low after the accent, but otherwise high . When a long (two-mora) vowel is transcribed with an accent, only the first mora is high, and a pitch drop occurs between the two moras.
Transcription of recorded passage
arutoki kitakaze to taijo: ga tsikarakurabe 0 simasita. tabibito no gaito: 0 nuqaseta he: ga katsi to ju: koto ni kimete, mazu, kitakaze kara hazimernasita. kitakaze wa, nani, hitomakuri ni site misejor, to, haqesiku hukitaternasita. suruto tabibito wa, kitakaze ga hukeba hukuhodo gaito: 0 sikkarito karada ni kuttsukemasita. koxdo wa taijo: no baN ni narimasita. taijo: wa ktimo no aida kara jasasii kao 0 dasite, atatakana hikari 0 okurimasita, tabibito wa daxdax joi kokoromor-i ni natte, simai nl wa gaito: 0 nuqimasita, sokode kitakaze no make ni narimasita. Romanization (Hepburn system) Arutoki Kitakaze to Taiyo ga chikara-kurabe 0 shimashita. Tabibito no gaito 0 nugaseta h6 ga kachi to yu koto ni kimete, mazu Kitakaze kara hajimemashita. Kitakaze wa , ' Nani, hitomakuri ni shite rniseyo", to, hageshiku fukitatemashita. Suruto tabibito wa, Kitakaze ga fukeba fukuhodo gaito 0 shikkarito karada ni kuttsukemashita. Kondo wa Ta iyo no ban ni narimashita. Taiyo wa kumo no aida kara yasashii kao 0 dashite, atatakana hikari 0 okurimashita. Tabibito wa dandan yoi kokoromochi ni natte, shimai ni wa gaito 0 nugimashita. Sokode Kitakaze no make ni narimashita.
Orthographic version
#.>.:0 B;!f,
~t!&
C :*~n t,
tZo' ;0\ .; ff L t, ~ ~
0
t!J L L Ifl ;0' ts Jt: ~ i! l-J
0
;f L t: 0 ~ A 1;1. ~ I:< J:. t, Je., b
L ;f ~ 'I;: 1;1. 7'j. ~ ~ .m ~';f L t: 0 -f.::. C' ~t K! Q) lit If!;:: ts l? ;f L t: 0
!> I;:: tJ: .., L,
Korean HYYNBOKLEE I
Phonetics Laboratory, Department of Linguisti cs, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Korea
The variety of Korean spoken in and around Seoul , on which the following phonetic description is based , is widely recognized as the standard language of the Korean peninsula. It differs from the speech of Pyongyang in North Korea, however, in phonetic features such as vowel and consonant qualities, vowel length, accent , rhythm and intonation. I
Consonants Bilabial
Labio-
Dental
Alveolar
dental
Plosive
p ph
Nasal
t th d
k kh 9
m
n
I)
I
S
Glottal
h
Z C Ch j
Affricate Lateral Approximant
b m
Velar
Palatal
b
Fricative
p ph
Postalveolar
pal phal bal mal
1
'sucking' 'arm' ' foot' ' horse '
I)
kal khal gal bal)
'spreading' 'knife' 'going' 'room'
h
hal
' doing'
t th d n
tal thai dal nal
'daughter' 'riding' 'moon' 'day'
k kh g
s z
sal
'rice' 'flesh'
c ch
cal chal
j
jal
I
balain
zal
'squeezing' 'kicking' 'well' 'wind'
Illustrations of the IPA
121
Vowels
a) Monophthon gs Korean can be considered as having nine vowel qualities, which occur distinctively long or short. The vowel If/J(:)I is usually pronounced as (we] in Seoul speech although the re are also words with lwei not derived from If/J/. In view of the overwhelming tenden cy of Seoul s peakers to pronounce a diphthong instead of If/J/, it may be more appropriate to postulate a sys te m of only e ight vowel qualities in modem standar d Korean. Vowe l qu alities are affected to a great extent by vowel quantity. Long vowels are pronounced with a more peripheral quality than the corresponding short ones, which are centralized or lowered. Long and sho rt IA(:)I show the greatest quality difference: short IAI is a mid-open back unrounded vowel but long IA:I is realized as a central vowel (;):]. Long Vowels
Short Vowels
ill:· • ill • •
• 0:
.0
•
u:
U
A
a: • zi'jaq e
e a 0
u A iu f/J
be 'ge the'jaq 'ma l bo 'li gu 'li 'bAl 'A:lmn 'qj o.he 'gj o:hwe
'hunger' 'pillow' 'sun ' 'horse' 'barley' 'bronze' ' pun ishment' ' se nio rs ' 'c hurch '
i: e:
e: a: 0:
u: A: m: f/J:
'ziij ar; 'be :da 'the.do 'm a :l 'bo:zu 'zu:ba g 'bA:l 'w :m zig 'f/J:thu
'market' 'to cut' 'attitude' 'speech' ' salary ' 'watermelon' 'bee' 'food' 'o vercoat'
'we. t' u
b) Diphthongs I j, wi are considered to be components of diphthongs rather than separate consonants .
Ijel Ijel Ija/
'je:zan 'j e :gi 'ja :g u
'budget' 'story' 'base ball'
Iwi I lwei lwei Iwal
dwi gwe we gwa:'il
'back ' 'box' ' why' ' fru its'
/uri I
'uriza
'doctor'
122
Handbook of the IPA
Ij ol I"u/ .I Ij AI
'gjo:za ju'li jA'gi
' teacher' 'g lass' 'here '
IWI>.1
m WA
' what'
Stress Stress placement is pred ictable in Korean. In words of more than o ne syllable it is initial when the first syllable is a heavy syllable, i.e. one which either cont ains a long vowel or has a sylla ble-final co nso nant becau se of the presen ce of an interv ocalic cons ona nt sequence . All other word s of mor e than one syllable are accented on the seco nd syllable. An acce nted syll able is longer and louder than an unaccented one. 1) Word s with acce nt on the first syllable:' a) long vowel in the first syllable: I 'ga:j al]l 'disguise' , I 'zA :lil 'acting head '
b) closed first syllable: I 'zanzul ' landscape' , I 'chulgul 'exit'
c) long vowel and closed first syllable: I 'za:nzul 'a rithmetic' , I 'ga:mza I ' thanks'
2) Words with accent on the seco nd syllable: Iga 'jal]l ' mos t', /zA 'lil ' frost' , /za 'dali/ ' ladder'
Conventions Ib , d, gl are voice less un aspirated (or slig htly aspirated) leni s plos ives [1;>, 9, g) sy llablein itiall y , but are reg ula rly rea lized as vo ice d sounds in intervoc ali c positi on. ts! shows the sa me voici ng variat ion . hi is a Jenis voicel ess alveo lar fricati ve. It is somet imes realized as voiced [z] intervocalically, especially when precede d by a nasal as in I ga:mzal ' thanks' and lin zal 'g reetings' spoke n in an informal style. Ip, t, k, c , sl are voice less una sp irated fort is sounds sy llable-initially , produc ed wi th a partially co nstricted glo ttis and additio nal subg lottal pressure . Iph th, k", chi are stro ngly aspirated voiceless sounds syllable-initially. In sy llable-fina l position Ib, p, phi are realized as a voicele ss bilabial stop without plosion , [p'], Id, t, th, j , c , chi are realized as a voice less alveolar stop with out plosion, [t'], and Ig , k, khl are realized as a voiceless velar stop without plosion, [k']. The four sonorants 1m, n, 1], II are the only other conso nants which can occur syllable-finally. Ij, c, chi are voiceless postalveol ar affricates syllable-initially. /zl and lsI are realized as alveo lopa lata l frica tives [e h], [e) when follow ed by Iii or a diphthong beg innin g with [j). Ihl is [9] before iii and [j], [x] before Iml, [fi] betw een voiced so unds and [h] elsewhe re . Inl is [J1] before iii and [j], and [n] elsew here . II/ is [r] intervocalicall y, but [I] or lll syllable-finally, and [,(] before Iii or [j]; 1111 is [11] or [J,(] , according to the vow el context.
Illustrations of the lPA
123
Broad transcription of recorded passage
ba'lamgwa 'hennimi zx'lo hi'mi 'dx 'ze:dago da't'iuqo i'surl tc, 'ha n na'qurneqa ta'turt''an 'wetr''ulurl 'ibgo 'gAllA wa'surmnida, qurdurlurn nu'qudumji na'qurneuri 'we .r' ulurl 'mAOj A 'bxdq inum oiga hi'mi 'dA 'ze:dago ha'gilo 'gjAljAl)heswmoida. buqp-unum 'hirnkxd bu'lxsuma 'burlmjxn 'bu:lsulog na'qumsnum 'we .t''ulurl 'dandanhi jx'mjxsurmnida. gw 'tee 'hennimi tur'qxun 'had bicstul ga'manhi ne'ljx 'cwe:ni na'gwnenwn 'we.t'tulurl 'xllurn bx'zx surmnida. i'lihajx 'buqp'iurjurn 'hennirni 'du.lj urje hi'mi 'dx 'ze:dago 'il)JAl)haji a'nurl zu 'xrbzz.surrnnida. Narrow transcription of recorded passage ba'ramqwa 'he nji im i ~A'fO ci'mi 'dA 'zerdaqo qa'thugo i'sur] te, 'han
na'gwoega ta'turt'ian 'we.t' unu ] 'ibko ' g ~ : f A wa'surrnjiida. gw 'dwfwn nu'qudumji na'qumeuri 'wert''urur] 'I11AnjA 'gAc}ldowo jiiqa ci'mi 'c} A '~e:dago ha'qir o 'gjAlcAlJhe sw mj1ida. l;>ugphul)wn '9imkAq bu'rxsurna 'bui[mjxn '1;>U:lSUfOg na'qumenum 'weit-urur] 'dandanfii jx'mjxsurmjiida. gw 'tee 'hcnjiimi tur'qxun hed'picbur] ga'maofii ne'rjx 'c we iji i na 'gwnenwn 'wert'turur] 'Allwo !tA'ZASWmj1ida . i'rihajx '!tugphul)wO 'henpirni 'c}u:lcul)e ci'mi 'c}A 'ze.daqo 'il)JAl)haji a'nur] su '~:9sA SW mj1 ida. Orthographic version 1l}~:4 "Bj!'
)-="'.1"
f.!.?
;lJ4 - : :
!J~
References KHUBCHANDANI , L. M. (1961) . The Phonology and Morphophonemics of Sindhi. M .A.
dissertation, Univ ersity of Pennsylvania, Phil adelphia. NIHALANI, P. ( 1974a). An aerodynamic stud y of stops in Sindhi . Phonetica 29, 193-224. NIHALANI, P. (1974b). Lingual articulation of stops in Sindhi. Phonetica 3D, 197-212.
Slovene RASTISLAV SUSTARSIC, SMIUANA KOMAR Department of English, Faculty of Arts, Univers ity of Lju bljana, Askerceva 2. 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
AND BOl AN PETEK Faculty of Natu ral Sciences and Engineering, University of Lju bljana, Snetn ii ka 5. 1000 Lj ubljana. Slovenia
Slovene (or Slovenian) is the national language of the Republic of Slovenia and is also spoken in adjo ining areas of Austria, Hungary and Italy. The variety described here is Standard Slovene as spoken by educated speakers in Slovenia. The transcription is based on a recording of two speakers, a female and a male, from Ljubljana, the capital. Slovene has 21 consonants and 8 vowels. The orthography generally represents the segmental pronunciation quite faithfully . The main exceptions are that [u] can be represented by the letters 'I' and 'v ' as well as 'u' , and that 'e ' is used to represent [e, E, a] and ' 0' to represent [0 , o r. Note also that 'Ij' and ' nj' are pronounced as [I] and [n] unless followed by a vowel. Consonants Bilabial Plosive
p
Dental
Labio-
dental
b
t
I
Approxi manl
s
I
biti
d3
z
J
3
'to drink' 'to be'
9
X
U
J 1
Lateral Approximant
pili
tJ f
f
Fricat ive
Velar
n
m
Tap
Pal atal
k
ts
Nasal
Palate -
alveolar
d
Affricate
p 'pi:ti b 'bitti
Alveolar
t ti:sk d di:sk ts tsi:n
tisk disk
tsin
'print' (n) 'd isk' 'tin' (metal)
k ki:p 9 gi:p tI tji:n d3 dyim
kip gib
tin gi ll
'statue ' ' movement' (army) 'rank' 'g in'
136 Handbook of the IPA
't hrea ds' ' my ths' n 'ni:ti niti 'fine' (adj) s 'si:niti siniti 'to shine out' z 'zi:niti zini ti 'to open o ne's mouth ' I• • ' to dig' r 'ri:ti nil ' to pour' liti u 'ui.di] vid is ' you see' 'li:ti
m 'mi:ti m iti f fi:n fi n
f 3 x
'f i:la '3i:la
fi la Zila
' awls' ' vein'
'xi:ti hiti 'ru sh ' (im p) 'j iidi] jidis ' Yiddish'
Be fore voiceless ob struents and in wor d-final position (unl es s they are followed by a word -init ial vo ice d ob struent) vo iced obstrue nts are completely de voiced : [sla :t] slad ' malt', sladkor ['sla:tbr] ' sugar' . Co mpare: [gra :d qo'rir] grad go ri ' the cas tle is on fire' . Voicele ss obs truen ts becom e voiced be fore voic ed obstruents: [Ie: s] les ' woo d ', [le:z qo'rir ] les go ri 'wood burn s' . Is, z, tsl when followed by If , 3, tJ, d31 ass imilate or coalesc e to U, 3, tJ] res pective ly, e.g . prefix I s-I in rJtJa: s:>ma] scasoma ' in the co urse of time' ; li zl ' from' but [i'3:e:pa] iz tepa ' fro m the pocket' . The nasa l Inl is pronounced as vel ar [I)] before Ik, g , xl: [banjka] banka 'b ank' , ['a njqel] ange l ' angel' , [anj xouc] Anhov o (n ame of a town ). The bil abi al and alveolar nasal s, 1m, nl , are pron ou nced as la biode nta l [fI)] before If, u/: [sinjfo'ni ij a] simfonija 'sympho ny', [sonj 'ue .deu] sem vede l ' I knew', [injfor'ma rtsija] inf orm acija ' information' , [injua'l itd] inval id ' invalid (n)' . Th e sonorants 1m, n, I, r, j , ul are normall y voi ced, but the app roximant lui has four allo pho nic variants: pre cedin g a vowe l it is pron oun ced as labi odent al [u]: [uo tda ] voda ' water' , in fina l positi on or preceding a con sonant it is pron oun ced [u] : [siu] siv ' grey ', [brautsi] bral ci ' readers' , in syllable-initial position preceding a vo iced consonant it is a voiced labial-velar appro ximan t [w] : [wnu :k) vnuk 'g randso n', [od 'wze .t i] odvzeti ' take away' and in sy llable-ini tia l positi on preced ing a voiceless co nsonan t it is a vo ice less lab ial-v el ar approxi mant [M]: [Msa:k] vsak 'e very ' , [pret'wse .rnl p redvsem ' in part icul ar ' . Instead of [w] and [M], the pronunci ation ca n also be [u]. Vowels Tra ditio na lly, the vowel system in Standard Slovene was descri bed as including a vowel length dist inction, wit h I i , a, u, e, :>1 occ ur ring both long and shor t, Ie:, 0:1 only long and I;}I sho rt (To poris ic 1984). Vowe l length , ho weve r, ca n no lo nge r be regarde d as disti nct ive for most speake rs, and it is ge ner al ly acce pted that long vo we ls occur in stresse d, and short vowel s in un stressed posi tio n (Srebot-Rejec 198 8), giving a phonemic inve nto ry of eight d istin cti ve vowe l qu alities, Ii , e, e , ;}, a, 0 , o, uf, as sho wn on the chart. All vowel s occur in stresse d and un stre ssed sy llables, but lei and 101 occur in unstre ssed posi tio n in a fe w gramm atical word s only, e.g. the auxiliary bo ('will') in the recorded passage. Becau se of th is res tric tion, so me authorities con sider th at ther e are on ly six unstress ed vowel qua lities . Wh at is meant by 's tress ' will be d iscu ssed below .
Illust rations of the IPA 137
u·
.
o
:)
Stressed
i: e:
e: a:
o: 0:
u: ;}:
mi.t
mit me:t med 'pe :ta peta ma:t mat 'porton poten po:t pot pu:st pust pes pois
' myth ' ' honey' ' hee l' 'checkmate' 'sweaty' 'path' 'carnival' ' dog '
Un stressed 'mi.ti m iti e 3e 've: ie ve e 'pe.te pete mata a 'ma :ta po'teim potem o 0 bo 'flo: bo sl o 'pu.stu pu stu u ;} 'do.bar dober
' myths ' 'a lre ady kn ows' ' hee l' (gen) 'checkmate ' (gen) ' then ' 'will go' 'carnival' (da t) 'good'
Ph onetic diphthongs ar ise when the approxima nts lui and Ij/ are pre ceded by a vo we l and follo wed by a consona nt or a word boundary. The labiodental lui in the se pos iti ons becomes a ro unde d second el em ent o f a diphthong, i.e . [u] , and Ij/ becomes [i] . Th es e ph onetic diph thon gs do not oc cur w ith sali ent lengthening when they oc cur in stressed sy lla bles. Th e degree of op enness in the fi rst e leme nt in lei! is bet ween that of lei and lei, and for lou! it is between that of 101 and hi.
ei
glei
glej
' look' (imp)
ai oi oi ui
dai
daj tvoj boj tuj
' giv e' (imp) 'your' (masc sg) 'battle ' ' fore ign '
tuoi bi tui
iu eu eu au ou
piu peu leu pau pou
pi! p el lev pa v pol
'drank ' ' sang' 'li on' ' pea coc k' 'ha lf'
;}u
'to.pou
topel
' war m '
Stress and accent In the illustrative wordlists and the tran scribed pas sage below, certain syllables hav e been marked as stress ed . These stressed syllables are ch aracterized by greater duration as well as by amplitude and pitch prominence. Non-compound words hav e no more th an o ne s tressed syll abl e . Stress pl acem ent is not predict able but is also ra rely d ist incti ve in Sl ovene, altho ugh in a few instances different forms of the same noun or ver b differ on ly
138 Handbook of /he IPA
in stress placement, e.g.: ['stua :ri], [stua'ri:], stvar i (' things ', du al vs. plur al ), [norsimo] , [no'si.mo] , nosimo (' ca n)" lst p. pI. indica tive and impera tive) . St and ard S lov ene disti ngui she s two pitch acc ents, trad itionall y referred to as the ' acute' and the 'ci rcumflex ' acce nts, and. these accents are tied to the loc ation of stress . T he pronunciati ons are vari able, but in typical realizati ons , the 'ac ute ' accent involves a step up in pitch and the ' circumflex' a step down in pitch (Top orisic 1984). In non word final positi on, the se pattern s are distributed over a stressed sylla ble and the followin g unstresse d sy llable, so that the ac ute has a low-pitched stressed sy lla ble and a high peak on the unstressed , wher eas the c ircumflex has a high pea k on the stres sed sy llable followed by a lower unstre ssed sy llab le . Hence the acute is also referred to as the low or rising tone me and the circumflex as the high or falling toneme . The accents are illu strated graphically o n the words for ' mother' and "grandfather ' in the follow ing sentenc es: ma
Acute : Circumflex :
Ma
De
je pris la .
dek je prisel.
' Mother has co me' . ' Grandpa has co me' .
The acce nts are seldom le xically dist inct ive, although there are e xampl es such as ['kl :la] kila 'h ern ia' (acute) and ['I
a
a:
kon god lang kjol hot jord
'cone' 'good' 'long' 's kirt' 'threat' 'soil'
Illustrations oj the IPA
i: y: y
\! e e: e:
e
sil sill syl syll Jul full hel hal hall
'strainer' 'herring' 'awl' 'sleeper' 'ugly' 'full' 'whole' ' heel' 'flat rock'
~:
nOt
'nut'
ce
nOli
' w or n'
Q:
mat matt mat moll bot bolt
'food ' 'feeble' 'goal' 'minor' (music) 'penance' 'lived' (perf)
a 0:
o u: u
141
Stress and accent , (p rimary stress), , (se c ond a ry stress), and ' (word accent) as in ['nu:ctan .v rndo n] nordanvinden 'the north wind' .
Conventions Ip, t, k/ are aspirated in stressed position when not preceded by lsi within the same morpheme. It, d, n, s, II are dental. The retroflex sounds [t, I) om VEm OV 'dorn sorn vo 'starkast. 'je st 'go: kom ~n 'vandraro 'vetqon 'fl a m, 'm.sverpt i on 'varm 'kapa. dorn kern do: evo 'rens om, at den sorn 'f~ ~t kendo fa vandraron at to 'o :v SEj 'kapan, han skelo 'an.sets VOla 'starkaro En den 'andra. do: 'blo.sto 'nutdan.vmdon so 'hot han 'non.sm 'kendo, men j~ 'hoidaro han 'bloisto, destu 'tertaro 'svetpto 'vandraron 'kapan 'om SEj, o n 'SISt gov 'nu.dan.vmdon 'ep f~'~0:k~t. do: lert 'surlon sina 'strorlar 'fji:na 'he:lt 'varmt, o 'jenast tug 'vandraron 'o:v sej 'kapan, o so vo 'nindan.vmdon 'tverjon at 'eu.csna, at 'suilan vo den 'starkasto ov dom 'tvor,
142
Handbo ok of the IPA
Orthographic version Nord anvinden oc h sole n tvistade e n gang om vern av dom sa m val' stark ast . Ju st da kom en vandrare vagen fram , insvept i en varm kappa, Dom kom da overens om, att den som forst kunde fa va ndraren all ta av sig kappan, han skuJle anses vara starkare an den andra. Da blaste nord an vinden sa hart han nan sin kunde, men ju hardare han blaste desto tatare svepte vandraren kapp an am sig , och till sist gay nordanv inden upp fors oket, Da Hit solen sina stralar skin a helt varmt oc h genast tog vandraren av sig kapp an, och sa val' nord anvinden tvunge n all erk ann a att solen var den starkaste av dom tva.
Acknowledgement Appreciation is extended to Ian Maddieson for the preparation of the vowel diagram .
Taba JOHN BOWDEN A."lD JOHN HAJEK
Departm ent of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, University of Melbourn e. Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
Taba (also known as ' East Makian ' or 'Makian Dalam') is an Austronesian language sp oken in northern Maluku provin ce, Indones ia. It is spoken on Makian, Moti and Kay oa islands and also in a few vill age s on other nearby islands . The spee ch recorded here is from the village of Ng ofak iaha on Maki an island. Sl ight dialectal variations are to be found in mos t villages where the language is spoken.
Consonants Bil abial
p
Plosive
Labiodental
Dental
b
Alveo lar
t
m
Nasa l
Pala tal
d
Velar
k
n
f
Fricative
Postalve olar
Glott a l
9 l)
h
S
tI
Affricate
d3
r
Tr ill Approximant
W
J
Lateral Approximant
1
The consonant tab le shows phonemic contrasts. Although /t] I and Id31 are relative ly infre quent and originally borrowed, both can now be considered fully native.
p b m f
pait bait mai fati
' moon' 'wrestle' ' then' 'to cover'
t d n
tf d3 r
top d:J n:J S:J tjoat d3:JU r:JrE bat
'sugar cane' 'couscous ' ' there ' 'to ascend' ' firewood bundle ' 'g ood' 'stone' 'to slice'
k 9
kam gah
l)
rjan
h j w
han jan wah
'1 see' 'theft' 'sun ' 'to go' 'fish' 'island'
144 Handbook of the IPA
Geminates All of the Taba cons onants except /j , w. jr, d3/ can occur with distinctive length (i.e. as 'g eminates') . Interestingly, although geminates are found word-medially, they are mo st common in word-initial position. Geminates are never found in word-final position . They may occur monomorphemically, but they also occur across morpheme boundaries where initial agreement markers are prefi xed to verbs. Phr ase-initial geminates are realized in careful speech with a greater degree of tension and more articul atory force; in more casu al varieties of speech they can be realized with the same reduced tensi on and articu latory force as singleton s. Some illustrative examples of geminate contrasts are given below . t tt 9 99 m mm I] 1]1]
tal a ttala 9:)w:) 99 :)w:) mul mmul I]an I]I]E
'to meet' ' we (inclusive) meet ' 'place' 'neck' 'to return' ' you (sg) return'
I II k kk h hh
lo lb kut kku han hhan
'i nside' 'blo od ' 'lou se ' 't ail' ' to go' 'y ou (pI) go'
'sun'
'canarium nut'
Vowels Taba has a simple five vowel system, as shown on the chart. The phon e [E] is relativ ely rare. Notw ithst andin g the effects of predictable contextual conditioning (see below) , vowels are normally realized as relatively short. Very rare examples of long vowel s can be found, e.g. [ki:] ' vagina ' , but onl y one marg inal exa mple of a length co ntrast has been uncovered : [tEl ' no(t)' vs. [te r] 'if not' . All possible sequences of unalik e vowels occur in the corpus except for [c a] and [E:)], but none are listed here bec ause they are analysed as vowel clusters and not diphthongs.
e a
o u
im hen am :)m
urn
'fishing reel' 'turtle' ' to see' 'uncle' ' house'
lllustrations ofth eIPA 145
Stress Stress is indicated by a greater degree of force in the produ ction of a syllable, a noticeably highe r pitch tha n in unstressed syllables, and som e degree of lengthen ing. In general, primary stress falls on the only syllable of monos yllabic words or on the penultimate syllable of pol ysyllabi c words . Examples of antepenultimate stress are extremely rare, e.g. ['ttji otit] ' we defecate' . Final stress in polysyllabl es is more frequent, but is generally res tricte d to a few loan words , e .g. [a 'had] ' Sunday, week' « Ar abic) , and some polymorphemic verb for ms with monosyllabic roots, e .g. [na'pe] ' he does' from [pe] ' to
do'. Conventions Stops are not released in final position, and [t] is usually slightly palatal ized be fore [i). The nasals [m] and [n] tend to assimilate towards a following labiodental [f] while [n] also tend s to assimilate towards following bilabials and velars. [r] is always strongly trilled. In add ition to its use of initial geminates, Taba is also characterized by the appea rance of a large set of unu sual clusters, e.g. ['nmu] ' muddy water ' , ['mhonas] 'sick', ['nh ik] ' bat' , [khan] ' I go ', [rnto] 'eye '. More common initiall y than mediall y, they are often the result of prefixing simple co nsonants to verb roots in order to mark person and numb er. In nasal co nsonant + [h] clusters, e.g. [rnhonas], the nasal starts off as fully voice d, w ith the latter portion devoiced without any concomitant increase in nasal airflow. The [h] offset is cle ar. Het erorganic clu ster s with initial [h] are also found, e.g. ['hkutan] 'y ou ask' vs. [kutan] ' to ask' . The articulatio n of [h] in onset is also clear. Init ial geminate cont rasts are generally stable, although there is a tendency for so me spea kers to reduc e initial [hh] to [h]. e.g. ['hhan] - [h an] ' you (pI) go ' . Conversely, som e non-gem inate fric ative clusters may be subject to optional metathesis or even compl ete assi milation, e.g. expected ['hsopaq] alongs ide ['shopal)] and [ssop an] ' you (pI) descend ' . There is not much allopho nic variation in the vowels, apart from the kinds of variat ions seen in a great many langu ages : vowels tend to be nasalized before nasal con sonants, and they tend to be lengthened slightly before voiced co nsonant s and in stressed posit ions . Some dialects of T aba repla ce many instances of Ng ofak iaha f of wit h fa t, e.g . lwosl vs. ['wag] 'canoe' .
Transcription of recorded passage A riddl e about being sick
'ba nda 'ni
'WE
'mhonas
I
'nim
'WE
na'lusa 'mhonas
I
'nim pap'puko 'ms
na'lusa 'mhonas I 'birjo nam o'lam I u'lon 'nmau 'nhan I 'poto 'P::>pE 'nmau 'nhan 'ntj'iw i " 'sumo na 'lusa 'kh an I 'mto 'nujak I 'pojo 'rnhonas I bai'bij o nrna'lorjo I u'lon 'nma u 'nha n I 'mtumo E 'lo E II pap 'puk o 'ma i na'lu sa 'mhonas " 'birp na'lusa namo 'lam
I
u'lon jase 'nmau mpa'renta 'nha n
I
146 Handbook of the IPA
'poto 'pops na 'lusa ta'siaki II 'mpili E: 'lo 'li E: I 'polo 'banda ta'siak I 'nhan 'tuli na'hates I 'mau 'nhan 'tuli se'darjkan 'banda na'pe ta'siaki II 'male 'sio I 'malai 'han 'tuli II 'sic 'mul 'malai 'han 'tuli a'han II 'male 'ttj iotit 'hu 'ma lai I 'than I 'ttfi::ltit 'okik 'malai 'than 'tuli I 'than 'tronda II Orthographic version Banda ni we mhonas, nim we nalusa ' mhonas' . Nim pappuko me nalusa 'mhonas'. Bingo namolam . Ulon nmau nhan . Poto pope nmau nhan ncioi. Sumo nalusa 'khan'. Mto nuyak, poyo mhonas, baibiyo nmalongo. Ulon nmau nhan, mtumo e 10 e? Pappuko mai nalusa mhonas . Bingo nalusa namolam. Ulon yase nmau nparenta nhan. Poto pope nalusa tasiaki. Mpili e 10 Ii e? Polo Banda tasiak, nhan tuli nahates. Mau nhan tuli sedangkan Banda nape tasiaki. Male sio malai han tuli . Sio mul malai han tuli ahan. Male tciotit hu malai than. Tciotit okik malai than tuli, than tronda.
Thai M . R. KA LAYA TINGSABADH Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330. Thailand
AND ARTHUR S. ABRAMSON Haskins Laborat ories. New Haven, CT, and Department of Linguistics. The Univers ity of Connecticut, Storrs. CT 06269-1 145, USA
Standard Thai is spoken by educated speakers in every part of Th ai land , used in news broadcasts on rad io and television , taught in school, and described in grammar books and dictionaries , It has developed through the standardization of a soci ally prestigious variety of Central Thai, the reg ional dialect of Bangkok and the surrounding provinces, Th e transcr ip tion of 'The No rth W ind and the Sun' is based on record ings made by three cultivated speakers of the langua ge . who were asked to read the passage in a relaxe d way , In fact , we find them all to have used a fairly formal colloqui al sty le, apparently equivalent to Eugenic J. A. Henderson ' s ' combina tive style ' (He nderso n 1949). In a more deliberate read ing of the text , many words in the passage woul d be transcribed differentl y. The mai n features subject to such styl istic variation are vowel qu ant ity , tone , and glottal stop . Thu s , for exarnple. vter/ ' but' is like ly und er we ak stress to be Itel wit h a short vowel; the modal auxi liary llf;a?I ' abou t to' becomes Iteal, with change of tone from low to mid and loss of fin al glotta l stop. Th e prosodic and sy ntac tic fac tors that see m to be at work he re rema in to be thoroughly ex plore d.
Consonants Bilabial Plosive Nasal Fricative
p
ph
Labiodental
Alveolar
b
t th d
ill
n f
Velar
Glottal
k kh
? I)
h tc
tc h
r
Approximant Lateral Approximant
Palatal
S
Affricate Trill
Postalveolar
J I
W
148 Handbo ok of the IPA
p ph b m f
pam pha :n ba.n ma.n fa :n
'birthmark' 'belligerent ' 'to bloom ' 'demon' 'to slice '
t th d n s
' sugar palm' ' alms' 'calloused' 'long time ' 'court' ' shop ' 'million' 'dish ' ' trash'
tam
tha:n da.:n! nain , sam
ra :n
I
lam
te
team
tch
tcha:n
k kh IJ w j ? h
ka:n kha:n rjam wa rn ja:n ?a:n ha:n
'act' 'shaft' 'work' ' to sow ' 'sagging' ' saddle' 'to divide'
Vowels There are nine vowels. Length is distin~tive for all the vowels. (In some phonological treatments, N :I is analyzed as NYI.) Although small spectral differences between short and long counterparts are psy choacousti cally detectable and have some effect on vowel identification (Abramson and Ren 1990), we find the differences too subtle to place with confidence in the vowel quadrilateral. The vowel lal in unstressed position, including the endings of the diphthongs lia, wa , ua/, is likely to be somewhat raised in quality. The final segme nts of the other two sets of phon etic diphthongs: (I ) [iu, eu , e:u , e.u , au, a:u , iau] and (2) [ai, a:i, oi, ori, ui, Y:i, uai, wail are analyzed as Iwl and Ijl respe ctively .
•
1
u 0
~ a e t:
a 0 0
u Y w
kri t ?en ph
e?
fan kEllJ khan
sut lJyn k'uin
'dagger' 'ligament' 'goat' 'to dream' 'box' 'thick (soup)' ' last, rearrno st ' 'silver' 'to go up'
i:
e: e: a: 0: 0:
u: Y: w:
~, \
e:
/l
ua
(
J
'to cut ' 'to recline' 'to be defeated' ' to slice' 'drum' ' to fell (a tree)' 'to inhale ' sutt dy:n ' to walk ' khlw:n 'wave'
kri it ?e:n ph fam k15:1J kha:n
wa[
ia wa ua
nan niian riian
'to study' 'house' 'to be provocative'
Illustrations of the IPA
Tones There are five tones in Stand ard Th ai: high 1'1, mid kha: kha: kha :
't o get stuck ' 'galangal' 'I'
149
r I, low r I, rising r I , and fallin g F].
kha : khil:
' to engage in trade' 'leg '
Stress Prim ary stress falls on the final syllable of a word. Th e last prim ary stress before the end of a major prosodic group co mmonly takes extra stress .
Conventions The fea ture of aspiration is mani fested in the expe cted fashion for the simple prevoc alic oral stops /p", til, kh/. Th e fairly long lag between the release of the stop and the onset of voic ing is filled with turbulence, i.e. noise -excit ation of the relatively unimped ed supraglottal vocal tract. In the speci al case of the 'as pirated' affricat e ItcN , howe ver , the noise dur ing the voicing lag exc ites a narrow post alveolar constriction, thus givin g rise to local turbulence. It is nece ssarily the case, then , that the constrictio n of the aspirated affricate lasts longer than that of the unaspirated one (Abr am son 1989). Not surprisingl y , it follows from these cons iderations that the aspiration of initial stops as the first element in clu sters occurs during the articul ation of the second element, which must be a member of the set /I, r, wi . Onl y Ip, t, k, 7, m, n, I), w, jl occ ur in syllabl e-final position. Fin al Ip, t, k, ?I have no audibl e release . The final oral plosives are said to be acco mpanied by simultaneo us glottal closure (Hend erson 1964; Harris 1992). Final/?I is o mitted in unstressed positi ons . Initial It, thlare often dent i-alveolar. Initial I tI and IfI are velarized before close front vowels . The con son ant Irl is realized most frequently as [r] but also as [r]. Pe rceptual experim ent s (A bramson 1962: 6-9) have shown that the distinction between Irl and IV is not very robust; ne verthel ess, the norm ativ e attitude amo ng speakers of Standard Thai is that they are separate phonem es, as giv en in Thai sc ript. Th is dist incti o n is rather we ll mainta ined by some cult ivated speakers, especially in form al speech ; however, many show much vacillation , with a tendency to favour the later al phone [1] in the position of a single initial conson ant. As the seco nd element of initial consonant clust ers, both III and /rl tend to be deleted altogether. In plu risyllabic word s, the low tone and the high tone on syllables co ntaining the short vowel lal foll owed by the glottal stop in de liber ate speec h, become the mid tone when unstressed , wi th loss of the glottal sto p.
Transcription of recorded passage
kha'oa? thj .lorn'nuia le ,phni ?a'thlt I kam'lar] 'thial) kan 'wa: I 'khraj tea 'mi: pha'lal) 'ma rk kwa 'ka n I k5 'mi : 'nak,dy:n'tha:l) 'p hO: 'ow l) 'dY:n 'ph n 'rna: I 'saj 'suia.kan'na.w I .lorn'nuia ,phra?a'thlt 'tew l) .tok'lor; kan 'wa : I 'khraj thj .sarrnan 'tham haj 'nak,dY:n'tha:l) 'phO: 'ni : I 'th3 :t 'sui a.kan'na rw ?3k 'daij
Ie
a:
150 Handbook of the IPA
.sa m're t 'ko:n I tca 'thw: 'wa: I pen 'phil: thl 'mi: pha'lal) 'mark 'kwa: I 'Ie? 'le .w I .l orn'nui a k5 kra'p'ui: 'p"at 'j a:1) 'sut!'r£:1) II te JII) 'p"at 'r£:1) 'ma rk 'khwn 'phI arj 'daj I 'nak,dy:n'tha:1) k5 'jII) 'dwl) 'suia.kan'narw 'haj kra'tchap kap 'tiia 'mark 'khw n 'phl al) 'na n II 'Ie? 'na j thi 'su t I .lorn'nuia k5 'ly:k 'lorn 'k' wa rm phaja'ja :m I 'tca.k 'nan I ,phra?a'thl t tcuiq 'sa.t 's£:1) tan 'rom 'r£:1) ?bk 'rna: I 'nak,dY:n'tha:1) k5 'thb:t 'suiaka n'na tw '?b:k 'than 't"l: I 'naj thl 'sut I .lorn'nuia tCWI) 'team 't51) 'j5:m 'rap 'wa: I ,phra?a'thlt mi: pha'lal) 'ma rk 'kwa : 'ton II Orthographic version
'lJru:;~mJL'VIU[)LLfl:;vrs:;miil/lufl1~\lL11tJ\ltl'lJ11'll'l'r'ildj'V'l~\l3Jlnn11tl'lJiHl,rnL~'lJ'Yl1\1c7 " 'VI~\l L~'lJ~l'lJ3Jl 'l~L~Eltl'lJ'VI'lJ11 fl3JL 'V\iJmLfl:;'V'l1:;miil/lu~\ll/lnfl\ln'lJ11 'If'n~m3J11'l rl1'1i'1,rm~'lJ'Yl1\1~tfC1E1(;lL~[)tl'lJ'VI'lJ11E1E1n 1;~lL1"ilnEl'lJ"il:;11 El11Lil'lJ~~il'V'l~\l3Jlnn11 uae LL;lfl 3J L'VI;j El nm:;~ [)~(;lEl ~1\1 ~ (;1 LL1\1 LL~~\I~(;1L L1\1 3Jl n~'lJLWtJ\I 'l(;l ,rnL&1'lJ'Yl1\1il~\I~\lL~EI tl'lJ'VI'lJ11'li'1m:;-a1J tl1J;l3Jl n~'lJ LWtJ\I,T'lJ uae'l'lJ~1:l(;lfl3JL 'VIUEI i1L~n;3Jl'l113J'V'ltJ1tJ13J "ill n , ,T'lJ'V'l1:;mii(;lu~\l1:l1(;1 LL1:l\l5'lJ;EI'lJ LL 1\1E1E1n~1 ,rm~'lJ'Yl1\1ti'lEI (;lL~Eltl'lJ'V\'lJl1E1E1m1'lJri 'l'lJ~ d
ell
0
(LI
Q
~cJ
Q.I
~ (;lfl3JL'V\'lJ EI "il\l"ill (;lEl\ltJEl3J1'1J11'V'l1:;mYll9l tJ3J'V'lfl\l3Jl n nJl191'lJ
Ack now ledgements WethankDr. ChalidaRojanawathanavuthi , Dr. KingkarnThepkanjana, and Miss Surangkana Kaewnamdee, whose readings of thepassage underlieourtranscription. Dr. Theraphan Luangthongkum and Dr.Sudaporn Luksaneeyanawin read (he manuscriptandmade helpful comments. Partof (hework of (he secondauthor was supported by Grant HDOl994 fromthe U.S. National Institutes of Healthto Haskins Laboratories.
Refer en ces ABRAMSON, A. S. (1962) . The Vowels and Tones of Standard Thai: Acoustical Measurements and Experiments. Bloom ington: Indiana University Resear ch Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, Publication 20 . ABRAMSON, A. S. ( 1989). Laryngeal control in the plosives of Standard Thai . Pasaa 19, 85-93 . ABRAMSON , A. S. AND REN, N. (1990) . Distinctive vowel length : Duration vs. spectrum in Thai . Journal of Phonetics 18, 79-92. HARRIS, J. G. (1992) . The consonant sounds of 17th century Siamese. M on-Khmer Studies 2 1,1-17 . HENDERSON, E. J. A. (1949) . Pro sodies in Siamese: A study in synthesis. Asia Maj or New Series 1, 189-215. HENDERSON, E. J. A. (1964 ). Marginalia to Siame se phonetic studie s. In Abercrombie, D., Fry, D. B., MacCarthy, P. A. D., Scott , N. C. and Trim , J. L. M. (editors), In Hon our of Daniel Jones: Papers Contributed on the Occasion of his Eightieth Birthday 12 Sept ember 1961,415-24 . London : Longmans.
Tukang Besi M ARK DON OHUE Department of Lingu istics, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
Tukang Besi is an archipelago in so uth-e as t Sulawesi, Ind onesia, where an Au stronesian language is spoken. Th e speech represented here is that of the northern coast of the island of Wanci . With mainly slight lex ical vari at ion it represents the spee ch of the tw o northernmost island s in the archip elago, Wanci and Kaledupa. Consonants Bilabial Plosi ve
p
5
Nasa l
m
Fricative
j3 mp
Alve olar
Dental
t
b
Implosive
Pren asaliz ed Plosive
Labiodental
(d)
Velar
k
9
Glotlal
?
cf
n nt nd
Pren asalized Fricative
h
(z)
S
mb
IJ IJk IJg
ns
T rill
r
Lateral Approx imant
I
The con sonant table represents phonemic contrasts, with the exception of [d) and [z] which are allophones of the loan phoneme Id3/ ; o nly borro wed words (or suspected loans) show this phon eme. Ibl is also a loan phoneme, present only in a few recently borrowed word s, but contrastive with 151, as seen in [bale] 'turn around (wa lking only)' « Malay batik) vs. [fiale] ' frond of coconut tree '. p 5 01
13 mp mb
apa a5a ama ?a13a kompa komba
'up to' ' previous' ' father' 'obtain' 'eel' 'moon '
t rf n s nt nd ns
titi pid i an a asa tinti pindi pinse a ra ala
' breast' ' rubbish' 'child ' 'on e' 'run'
' faeces' 'squeeze' 'if' 'fetch '
k
kai gai alJa
'hook' ' pull out' 'gills'
lJk lJg
5alJka ilJga13 i
' ship ' 'yesterday'
? h
?a cfa hacfa
' send' 'imminent'
9 lJ
I I
152 Handb ook of /he {PA
Vowel s
e
5a li 5a le
a
5a la
o
5a lo 5a lw
w
' turn around ' 'frond of a yo ung cocon ut tree ' (class ifier for soap and small objects) 'an swe r' 'buy'
Stressl accent
o
I
a
!
Stress, rea lized as a gen er ally higher a6d level pit ch on the whole sy lla ble , is almost I always on the penultimate syllable of the word. The definition of the word is so metimes ex tende d to include the following (inhe rently stress less) absol utive art icle ti e). Thus the sentence nomanga te bae ' he ate the rice ca n be pron ounced either as [no'maq at efiae] or as [n orna'qatc 'Bae] . A seco ndary stress, co nsis ting of a grea ter amplitude wi thout the higher pitch that is the cha racteristic of t~e primary stress, is also found on eve ry seco nd sy llable aw ay fro m the primary stress ed syllable. Co ntrastive acce nt pattern s have arise n fro m the introduct ion of loan word s with fin al nasals; the final nasal is borrow ed as a separate syllabic nucl eus, with predi ct able effect s on the penultimate acce nt, and then later dropped. Th is has produ ced at least one cas e of a lex ical diffe ren ce based so lely on accen t: ['kenta] 'fis h ' (a rchaic) vs. [ke'nta] ' potato' (loan , < Mal ay [ken ta rj] ).
l
Conventions
I I
Free variatio n is observed between [.f3] , [] and [u], with [.f3 ] being the most co mmon phone exc ept amo ngs t childre n, who pr~fer [] ; the implosives and Igl are pre glott alized foll ow ing a stress ed sylla ble ([75J, [70 ] and [7g)) . /hi varie s with [] before a high back I vowel. The lateral III is so metimes realized as a retrofl ex later al flap [J] after back vow els . Th e phoneme Irl varies bet ween [r] , [rJ, i[J] and [u; thus, after a back vow el, realiz ati ons of Irl and III overlap. The loa n phon eme Id31 var ies idiolec tally betwee n [d3] (mos t co mmo n), [d] (co ntras ting with [a)) , and;[z]. Thu s: [ kaqa'dar] - [,kata'd3a :] karajaa 'w ork (for a wage)' , [dari] - ['zari] - ['d3ari] ja ri ' then, thus' . Voiceless or sonorant consonants ar4 often ge minated in the stresse d o r post-stressed sy llable, in a restr icti ve set of vocalic environment s that dep end s on the co nso na nt. Thus: ['ak a] - ['ak :a] 'ro ot ', [m otunurur] - [,~otw 't:wrw ] 's leepy ' . The voiced prena sal ized stops so me times redu ce to a geminate nasal in cas ual speec h. Thu s [fia'mbai] - [5a'm:a i] ' com b' , [nd aqa] - ['n:al)a] 'jackfruit' 'i [i'l)ga.f3 i] - [i'l):ja.f3i] 'yesterday' . A glo ttal sto p del ete s or is replaced by [k) in a syll able adj acent to ano the r glottal stop: thus I?wl '2 nd per son singular possessive' and 11)0701 ':nose', but [l)o'70w] 'your nose' « 11)070 + 7w/ ), nel ' 3rd person object' and Itw 701 'cho p down' , but [tur'r oke] 'cho p it down ' « 1t1ll70 + 7el) . I
lllustrations of the IPA 153
The high front vowel shows little variation in quality, nor does the low back vowel. The high back unrounded vowel Iml can round to [u] in a syllable immediately following the vowel 101 or following Iw/ . In these and other environments it shows occasional variation with [u]. The front mid vowel let tends to raise to [e) or even [I] when not followed by a consonant (i.e. finally or before a syllable without an onset), with the notable exception of the core article te, which is invariably [te] . The mid back vowel is higher than the mid front vowel, again tending to be higher when followed by a vowel, especially when the following syllable contains 101 or bn}. Following a bilabial consonant the height of the vowel is also more pronounced , and the closer the syllable to the end of the word, the higher the vowel. All the vowels tend to de-syllabify if they occur before the stressed syllable adjacent to another vowel , or in a stressless word ; usually the highest of the vowels desyllabifies . When two vowels come together across a word boundary, the first of these often deletes . See the text for examples of these phenomena.
Transcription of recorded passage
sa'pajra sa'pajra 'a na , 'a ne ke la 'bela j3a'nde,:!sa'I)ia 'kene la 'bela ?o'lo:. te a'm:ai 'ana .nopo.bosurfiustq 'ako te e'mai na mefiokur. mbe'aka mo'Ieqo '?umpa .norna'imo na 'm ia dnr'mila pu'rnake ?e fiadyur mo'koifia , .sa ri.ta ra'kono, .nose'ttudjur ktqa te ,5a:'5a:no pumalur'Iur?e na 'mia Bumila 'iso, te 'ia nahopo'talur i po.tann'rano 'iso aj. 'mak a te la fiela j3a'nde,:!sa'I)ia 'a na no'top:a, no'topra, no'topra, 'tok:a .same'bukur no'topra .samefxikur te 'ia 'iso no'konta te fiadur .moko'bano. ka'm5ea ,moni'nino . ma,kala'?amo .mbea'karno no'sorba na la 'bela Ba.ndensa'qia 'ana. po'roli 'iso, la fiela ?o'lo: no.paso'soa te 'mia mefiadjur iso 'ke ne ,mbea'kamo o'harda pa'ke te badgtnno. 'dj ar ,a j3a'na :tw no.hopo'talur na la 'bela b'lo:, 'kcne .norno'tal ur na la fiela j3a,nde,:!sa'I]ia i .pota'rur? w ka 'Basa 'iso aj. ,sapa'ira ,sapa'ira .ta rjka'norno. Orthographic version Sapaira sapaira ana, ane ke La Bela Wandensangia kene La Bela '0 100. Te amai ana nopobusubusu ako te emai na mebuku . Mbeaka molengo 'umpa nomaimo na mia wumila pumake te baju mokoba . Sa'itaakono, nosetuju kua te baabaano pumalulu'e na mia wumila iso, te ia nahopotalu i potaru'ano iso ai. Maka te La Bela Wandensangia ana notopa, notopa, notopa, toka samebuku notopa samebuku te ia iso nokonta te baju mokobano . Kambea moninino. Maka la'amo mbeakamo nosoba na La Bela Wandensangia ana . Po'oli iso, La Bela '0100 nopasosoa te mia mebaju iso kene mbeakamo ohada pake te bajuno. Jari awana atu nohopotalu na La Bela '0 100, kene nomotalu na La Bela Wandensangia i potaru 'a u kawasa iso ai. Sapaira sapaira tangkanomo.
r urkish KARL ZIMMER AND ORHAN ORGUN
Department of Linguistics, unive Jry of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA I
The speech is that of a 25-year-old native of Istanbul. This variety of the language is cons idered standard ; most educated speakers of Turkish are familiar with this pronunciation as well as a regional variety.
Consonants Bilabial Plosive and Affricate
P
Labiodental
b
Dental
t
m
Nasal
d
Postalveolar
tI
d3
I
3
Palatal C
V
S
z I
I
Tap
h
j
t
1
I
'stamp' 'find'
t d
tel del
l' wire)
c
i' pierce '
j
I
s
mat rej sar
z
zar
tf
tfam dgarn
m far var
9
:
Lateral Approximant
f v
Glottal
f
Approximant
put but
k
Y
I
p b
J
Velar
I)
f
Fricative
Alveolar
'headlight' 'exists'
'property' I' vote' .'wrap ' 'membrane' I
d3
la:'le
k g n
y h
day [da:] 'mountain' ' every' her
'grief" 'horseshoe'
'pine' I' glass'
! ia'ia
'profit ' ' bit (for a horse)' 's now'
car ]em kar gam nat
i'servant' ['tulip'
jer
'place'
Illustrations of the [PA 155
Vowels
y e ce
a w u 0
kil kyl kel grel kat kwt kut kot
'clay' 'ashes' 'bald' 'lake' 'stay' 'hair' 'slave'
•
u
•0
'ann'
Long vowels are [ir], (e:J, (u:] and (a:]. Diphthongs can be treated as sequences of vowel and Ij/. Stress Word stress tends to be on the last syllable of the word . However, there are some unstressable suffixes which cause the main word stress to fall on the syllable preceding such a suffix, e.g . [jap-turr-rna'lur] 's/he must have (it) done' vs. [jap-rurr-ma-malur] 's/he must refrain from having (it) done', where the negative suffix (-rna] is an unstressable suffix . There are also some lexical exceptions to final stress , e.g. ('masa] ' table' .
Conventions The voiceless stops are usually aspirated in syllable-initial position and are always released in codas unless followed by a homorganic consonant. Ic, jl do not contrast with /k , gl in the native vocabulary, where (c] and (j] appear only in syllables with front vowels, while (k] and (g] appear only in syllables with back vowels . There are, however, some loanwords in which there are unpredictable occurrences of (c) and (j] with back vowels , e.g. Icarl kI1r 'profit' (cf. /karl kar 'snow'). II/ is a palatalized postalveolar lateral, It I a velarized dental lateral; It I does not occur after front vowels. /hI in final position may be realized as a voiceless velar fricative. Irl is most commonly a single tap. Ir , t, II are frequently devoiced in final position or when a voiceless consonant follows. (v] is frequently pronounced as a bilabial fricative or approximant when preceded by a vowel. Iyl corresponds to the ' soft g' (g) in Turkish orthography; its use finds its main justification in accounting for morphological alternations . Iyl between front vowels is pronounced as a weak front-velar or palatal approx imant. When the Iyl is word-final or followed by a consonant it is realized phonetically as a lengthening of the preceding vowel; elsewhere when intervocalic, it is phonetically zero. All vowels except la, 01 have a lower variant in the final open syllable of a phrase , e.g. (kel] 'bald' but [ka 'le] 'castle'.
156 Handbook of the IPA
Transcription of recorded passage ,
poj'razla jy'ne] birbirlerin'den da'ha kuvvet'li ordukiarur'nur ile'ri sy'rerec iddiarla'[urjor-lardur . 'de rce n ka'trnh 'bir 'pat to jij'mi] 'bir jo!3'd3U jcerdyler. 'bu joldju'ja 'pa i tosu'nu tfrn,karttrnrabile'nin da'ha kuvvet'li otduyu'nu ka'bu:l etrni'je ka'rar verdi'ler. poj'raz 'var jy'dvyle esmi'je bajla'dur. 'a ndga k joi'dju 'pai tosu.na 'j itj idb da 'ha surkui sarur'nurjordu. 'sonunda poj'raz uvrajrnak'tan 'va zj e tj ti. 'bu se'fer jy'ne] atj'tur orta'rurk ursur'numdya jot'dju 'pa l tosunu Ihe'me n tjurkar'dur. 'boejledge poj 'raz jyne'[in ,kendisin'den da 'ha kuvv'leeli olduvu'nu ka'bu:l etrnije medj'bur kat'dur, Orthographic version I Poyrazla gunes , birbirlerinden daha kuvvetli olduklarirn iJeri surerek iddialasiyorlardi . Derken, kahn bir palto giyrnis bir yolcu gorduler, Bu yolcuya paltosunu crkartnrabilenin daha kuvvetli oldugunu kabul etmeye karar verdiler. Poyraz, var guctiyle esmeye basladt , Ancak, yolcu paltosuna gitgide daha S~kl sanruyordu . Sonunda poyraz ugrasmaktan J vazgecti, Bu sefer gunes acu ; ortah k isrru nca yolcu paltosunu hemen crkardi , Boylece poyraz, gunesin kendisinden daha kuvvetlj oldugunu kabul etmeye mecbur kaldi . J
PART 3
Appendices
Appendix 1 The Principles of the International Phonetic Association From its earliest days (see appendix 4) the Association has tried to make explicit the principles which guide its work . The statement of these principles has been amended and updated from time to time ; the current formulation (below) was approved at the 1989 Convention of the Association . I The International Phonetic Association has a standard alphabet which is usually referred to by the initials IPA , or, in a number of non-English-speaking countries, API. It is designed primarily to meet practical linguistic needs , such as putting on record the phonetic or phonological structure of languages, providing learners of foreign languages with phonetic trans cript ions to assist them in acquiring the pronunciation, and working out roman orthographies for languages written in other systems or for languages previously unwritten. A large number of symbols and diacritics is also provided for representing fine distinctions of sound quality, making the IPA well suited for use in all disciplines in which the representation of speech sounds is required. 2 The IPA is intended to be a set of symbols for representing all the possible sounds of the world 's languages. The representation of these sounds uses a set of phonetic categories which describe how each sound is made. These categories define a number of natural classes of sounds that operate in phonological rules and historical sound changes. The symbols of the IPA a re shorthand ways of indicating certain intersections of these categories. Thus [p] is a shorthand way of designating the intersection of the categories voiceless, bilabial, and plosive; [m] is the intersection of the categories voiced, bilabial, and nasal; and so on . The sounds that are represented by the symbols are primarily those that serve to distinguish one word from another in a language. 3 In the construction of the IPA attention has been paid not only to the appropriateness of each symbol from a phonetic point of view, but also to the suitability of symbols from the typographical point of view . The non-roman symbols of the IPA have, as far as possible, been made to harmoni ze with the roman lellers . For instance, the Greek letters included in the IPA are roman adaptations; as the ordinary shape of the Greek letter f3 does not harmonize with roman type, in the IPA it has been given the form p. The Association does not favour the use of italic forms of symbols as models for the design of new symbols. 4 The construction and use of the IPA are guided by the following principles: (a) When two sounds occurring in a given language are employed for distinguishing one word from another, they should wherever possible be repre sented by two distinct symbols without diacritics. Ordinary roman letters should be used as far as is practicable, but recourse must be had to other symbols when the roman alphabet is inadequate. (b) When two sounds are very similar and not known to be employed in any language for distinguishing meanings of utterances, they should, as a rule, be represented by the same
160 Handbook of the IPA
I
I
symbol. Separate symbols or diacritics may , however, be used to distinguish such sounds when necessary. : (c) It is not possible to dispense entire lY with dia critics. The International Phonetic Association recommends that their use be limited as far as possible to the follow ing case s: I (i) For denoting length, stre ss and pitch . (ii) For representing minute shades of ~ounds. (iii) When the introduction of a single ,diacritic obviates the necessity for designing a number of new symbols (as, for instance, ip the representation of nasaliz ed vowels). 5 The use of symbols in representing the sounds of a particular lang uage is usu all y guided by the principles of phonological ~ontrast. All languages use a limited number of vowels and co nso nant s that are able to distinguish word meanings: the contrast between English m and n is used to distinguish the ,vords met and net, and these two sounds should therefore be represented by dif ferent symbols. The three k-sounds of the English words keep , c a r t , c oo l can be heard and fel t to be different, but from the linguistic or phonological point of view the differences are not dist inctive and all may be represented I by the same [k] symbol. The same appliesjto the French k-sounds in qui, cas, COU, though these differ phoneti cally from the corre sponding English ones . 6 The Ass ociation recommends that al phonetic tran scription should be enclosed in I square bracket s [ ]. A transcr ipt ion that no es only phonol ogical contrasts may be enclosed in slanted lines or slas hes t t. 7 A tran scription always con sists of a set of symbols and a set of conventions for thei r interpretation . Furthermore, the IPA co nsists of symbols and diacritics whose meaning cann ot be learned entirely from written descriptions of the phonetic categories involved . The Association strongly recommends th ~t anyone intending to use the symbols should rece ive training in order to learn how to produce and recognize the corre sponding sounds with a reason able degr ee of accuracy.
I
I
Appendix 2 Computer coding of IPA symbols This section is a revision of an article which first appeared in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association 23, 83-97 (1993), entitled 'Computer codes for phonetic symbols', by John H. Esling and Harry Gaylord . The chart of IPA Numbers and the coding tables in this section have been updated to 1998. The process of assigning computer codes to phonetic symbols began when the 1989 Kiel Convention of the International Phonetic Association was called to revise the Association's alphabet. The Workgroup on Computer Coding formed at that time had the task of determining how to represent the IPA alphabet numerically, and of developing a set of numbers referring to IPA symbols unambiguously . This involved assembling phoneticians who work with computer representations of phonetic symbols, and communicating with specialists in computer coding to gauge the fit between the phonetician's perspective on symbol usage and the non-phonetician's understanding of how to identify and use phonetic symbols. Prior to the Kiel meeting, a collection of practical approaches to coded representations was outlined in JIPA (Esling 1988), which dealt mainly with keyboard assignments of characters. At Kiel, after reviewing several submissions on current practice, the Workgroup concluded that each symbol used by the IPA should be assigned a unique, three-digit number known as its IPA Number. IPA Numbers were assigned in linear order following the new IPA Chart which resulted from the deliberations at Kiel (IPA 1989a). IPA Numbers were not only created for approved consonant, vowel, diacritic and suprasegmental symbols, but also for symbols often referred to in IPA deliberations or implied by IPA convention but which do not appear explicitly on the IPA Chart. The conclusions and recommendations reached by the Workgroup at Kiel appeared in JIPA (lPA 1989b) , followed by a supplementary report with an initial listing of IPA Numbers by symbol and by symbol name (Esling 1990) . The comprehensive documentation of phonetic symbol usage and categorization in the Phonetic Symbol Guide by Pullum and Ladusaw (1986, (996) assisted in this process . Several recommendations were made at Kiel , including the use of at least two levels of transcription when entering coded phonetic values to accompany data, but what is most important to point out about the process of associating each possible character with a discrete numerical entity is its comprehensive nature . No symbols could be ignored, and the application of diacritics had to be made explicit. The result is that the list of IPA Numbers includes more characters than are specified on the IPA Chart alone. Thus , in addition to the IPA Chart, an IPA Number Chart was also established to show the equivalent Number for each symbol; and a comprehensive list was drawn up that includes symbols cited by the IPA since 1949, as well as some non-IPA symbols, cross-referenced to their equivalent Numbers.
162 Handbook of the [PA
The reason for the comprehensive inclusion of all symbols is to anticrpate the possibility that some symbols may bf withdrawn while other symbols may be reintroduced into current usage; and a numerical listing of character shapes and types must be comprehensive enough to support slig~t revisions in symbol specification or diacritic placement as well as to be available to alwide spectrum of phonetic users of computer systems. The set of IPA Numbers also allows for the addition of new symbols, within the 100 series for consonants, the 200 series 'for extra symbols and cross-reference to other phonetic sets, the 300 series for vowels, th~I 400 series for diacritics, and the 500 series for suprasegmental symbols . Ligatures for affricates, for example, are included in the 200 series as formerly recognized IPA symbols although they do not occupy a specific I location on the IPA Chart. As the 1989 IPA Chart was subjected to review, several modifications emerged, resulting in the publication of the 1993 IPA Chart (IPA 1993) which was updated in 1996. No new Numbers were required to specify these symbols, even though a few symbols were revived and reinstated. Although the order of IPA Numbers is different from the 1989 order, because the original order was itself arbitrary , the changes on the 1993 Chart do not impinge on the IPA Number scherhe as an effective numer ical interface. In some small measure, the Numbers that accompany the symbols help to document the history of their development. The IPA Number Chart correspond ing to the updated IPA Chart is ! shown as table I. The set of IPA symbols and their numbers were used to draw up an entity set within SGML by the Text Encoding Initiative (TEl). The name of each entity is formed by 'IPA' entity name of lower-case A. These symbols preceding the number, e.g. IPA304 is the can be processed as IPA symbols and represented on paper and screen with the appropriate local font by modifying the :entity replacement text. The advantage of the SGML entity set is that it is independent or the character set being used . At the same time that this work was tieing done, two organizations were drawing up computer character sets for all world languages: the Unicode Consortium and ISO, the International Standards Organization. These projects were linked so that the code for each character is the same in Unicode and the rso Universal Character Set (UCS), also known as ISO 10646. The IPA symbols were su~mitted for inclusion in these character sets and I with a few exceptions have been incorporated. Character set 10646 was approved by the ISO and published on I May 1993. The f~lI set, which comprises over 40,000 characters, undergoes periodic revision. A recent update can be found in The Unicode Standard, Version 2.0 (Unicode Consortium 1996). I Tables 3, 4,5 and 6 below contain the lUCS Code position for each phonetic character. UnicodefUCS is a 16-bit character set, and is represented therefore as a four-character hexadecimal number. There are also some non-IPA phonetic symbols in UnicodefUCS which had been submitted by other groups than the IPA. A few IPA symbols, e.g. the Chao tone characters, have not yet been included in the UnicodefUCS character set. If the symbol is not included, this is indicated by ,------, in the table. A few symbols have two possible encodings, e.g. IPA598 is encoded as 0316 if placed under the symbol and as
rEI
I
THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 1993, updated 1996) CO NSONANTS (PULMONIC)
NUMBER CHART
Btloblal Labiodental Denta l Plosrve
I Alveo lar
IPast:l.lveoltir Retroflex
Palo,"1
Velar
Uvular
103 104
105 106
107 108
109 110
III 112
116
117
118
119
101 102
Nasa l
114
Trill
121
115
124
Tap or Flap
Fncanve
126 127
Lateral
'!l! .11
fricativ e
128 129
.
140 141
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
1
150
Lateral approx ima nt
.~. ~;~,
123
142 143
146 147
144 145
"'._.,,:0:
148 149
Approximant
iy
1I ' :.l~': 138 139
134 135
Glon al
113 ~~;~~
125 136 137
1301 3 11132 133
II
I~ -....
120 .,
II
122
'i
Pharyngeal
: ~
',~~,~iIII:
:
.~
..
I~ . . ~
Where symbols appear 10 pairs, (he one 10 (he n ght represents a voiced consonant Shaded areasdenote arn culanons Judged Impossible
VOWELS
CO NSONA NTS (NO N-PULMONIC)
I
Clicks
V OICed
Bilabial
160
Bilabral
177
Denial
162
Dcntalzslveolar
178
(Posunlvcolur
164
Pnlnlal
179
Palmoalveol ar
180
Alveo lar lateral
I
I 166 I 168
Ejecu ves
implosives
176
Velar
Uvul ar
401 101 + 40 1 103 + 401 109 +40 1 132 + 40 1
30 1
3 19 320
Denta l/alveol ar
Close-mid
302
Open- nu d
303
Open
182 183 181
Alveolar lateral flap
VOIced labia l-palata l approxrmam
175
Srmuna neous
172
VOICelesS epiglcual fncauve
174
VOIced epig lottal Inc atrve
Voiced
404
Aspir.ued
4 13
I
t h dh
y
405
Breorhy vo iced
406
Creaky voiced
407
Linguolabinl
420
Less rounded
J
421
Advanced
\l
422
g
g 12 g
Labialized Palatalized
tj
v elerizcd
tY
dJ dY
t~'
d~'
Ret racted
e
423
Pbaryn genli zed
Centralized
e
428
Velarized or pbaryngealized
4 16
Mid-centralized
e
429
Raised
X
432
Non-syllabic
419
Rhoticuy
306
324 3 12
~
Q.
430
~ 327
501
Primary stress
502
Secondary stress
50 3
Long
504
Half-long
505
Extra-short
507
Minor (foot) group
(509)
~
Denial
409
Apical
4 10
Laminal
9 !9 t
t eJ
425
509
Nasal relea se
426
Lateral relcns c
427
No audible release
= voiced al veolar fricative )
(~
=
4 18 Retracted Tongue Root
y
Linking (absence of a break)
dn
209
voiced bilnbinlnpproximanr)
Table 1 The IPA Number Char t
e
Major (i ntonauon) group
e
dl d'
e: e'
Syllable brenk
Nasalized
(t ~
313
508 506
42 4
Advanced Tongue Root
417
a-
Lowered
t}
305
.founc'uj on
408
t Q t W dW
415
Syllabic
326\39 5 - 314
JOined by a lIC bar If necessary
IJ 9 § 1
More rounded
307
SUPRASEG MENT ALS
433
can be represented by two symbols
414
431
X
and
Diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a desce nder, e.g. 119 + 402B
402A Voiceless 403
3 15
Where symbols nppcar In pam , the one 10 the nglu represents 9. rounded vowel
A f fncn tes and double amc ulnncns
DIAC RIT ICS
412
3 11 -
304
Alveclo- palat al fncan ves
171
173 Epiglcnal plosivc
308
321
323
325
VOiceless labml-vclar fncau ve
- - 316
322
Alveolar Inc anv e
170 VOIced labial-velar approximant
4 11
310 - - 397
Vel ar
OT HER SYMBOLS 169
'" ~"
309
Brlabinl
Back
Cen tral
Front
Close
Examples
ri. zekt
TONES AND WORD ACCENTS LEVEL CONTOUR Extra 512 5 19 high 524 529 Rising
5 13
520
High
525
530 Falling
5 14
521
Mid
526
531 rising
High
Low
5 15
522
Low
527
532 rising
5 16
523
Extra tow
528
533 (ailing
5 17
Downstep
5 10
Global rise
5 18
Upsrep
51 1
Global fall
Rising-
164 Handbook of the H'A
02CE if it follows the symbol. When this character set is in wide use, it will be the normal way to encode IP A symbols. In cooperation with ISO, the AssociJtion for Font Information Interchange (AFIl) maintains a registry of glyphs. The IPA sylnbols have been registered with AFII, and their registered glyph numbers are indicated J.,ith a hexadecimal number in the AFIl Code column of tables 3, 4, 5 and 6. The IAFII glyph registry may be used for font standardization in the future. A TEl writing system declaration (wsd) has been drawn up for the IPA symbols. This document gives information about the symbol and its IPA function, as well as its encoding in the accompanying SGML document and in UnicodelUCS and in AFII. The writing system declaration can be read as a text d9cument or processed by machines in an SMGL process. Table 2 illustrates that the 26 roman characters within the IP A symbol set have retained their original or 'ASCII' numbers as their UCS codes. They belong to the 00 or 'base ' table of Unicode/UCS . More specialized phonetic symbols have been assigned to subsequent tables .
I
I
Table 2 1 DCS codes retain original ASCII coding,for roman characters in the IPA set.
Symbol Symbol Name
a d
Lower-case Lower-case Lower-case Lower-case
e
Lower-case E
f g
Lower-case F Looptail G
h J k 1
Lower-case H Lower-case I Lower-case J Lower-case K Lower-case L
m n
Lower-case M Lower-case N
b
c
A B C D
Phonetic Description / Status Open front unrounded vowel Voiced bilabial plosive Voiceless palatal plosive Voiced dental or alveolar plosive Close-mid front unrounded vowel Voiceless labio1dental fricative Voiced velar plosive I Equivalent to 110 Voiceless glottal fricative Close front unrounded vowel Voiced palatal approximant Voiceless velar plosive Voiced dental or alveolar lateral approximant I Voiced bilabial nasal Voiced dental or alveolar nasal
i
IPA DCS Number Code
AFII Code
304 102 107 104
0061 0062 0063 0064
E25B E2A3 E2D9 E2BI
302
0065
E256
128 210
0066 0067
E2AC E2E3
146 301 153 109 155
0068 0069 006A 006B 006C
E2EE E251 E2DB E2DE E2BD
114 116
006D 006E
E2AI E2AF
Computer coding of IPA symbols 165 0
P q r
s t U
v w X
Y
z
Lower-case 0 Lower-case P Lower-case Q Lower-case R Lower-case S Lower-case T Lower-case Lower-case Lower-case Lower-case Lower-case Lower-case
U V W X Y Z
Close-mid back rounded vowel Voiceless bilabial plosive Voiceless uvular plosive Voiced dental or alveolar trill Voiceless alveolar fricative Voiceless dental or alveolar plosive Close back rounded vowel Voiced labiodental fricative Voiced labial-velar approximant Voiceless velar fricative Close front rounded vowel Voiced alveolar fricative
307 101 122 132 103
006F 0070 0071 0072 0073 0074
E269 E2A2 E2E6 E2CO E2B6 E2BO
308 129 170 140 309 133
0075 0076 0077 0078 0079 007A
E265 E2AD E2A8 E2EO E252 E2B7
III
The Kiel Convention Workgroup on Pathological Speech and Voice Quality has developed specialized symbols and diacritics with lPA Numbers from 600 to 699 . They are described in Duckworth, Allen, Hardcastle and Ball (1990), and listed together with their Number assignments in Ball (1991). They are not included in the present tables because they were not considered among the original submissions made to ISO for universal coding. At the moment, therefore, there are no UCS codes or AFII codes that can be easily associated with the 'Extended IPA' characters for disordered speech and voice quality of the 600 series. Table 3 lists all phonetic consonant and vowel symbols that have been given a code in the universal coded character set, cross-referencing symbol shape, symbol name, articulatory description, IPA Number, UCS code, and AFII code. The symbols are arranged in pseudo-alphabetical order. Table 4 lists all phonetic diacritic and suprasegmental symbols that have been given a code in the universal coded character set, arranged in the order of the original 1993 IPA Chart. Symbols in the declaration which are not IPA symbols and those which are no longer in IPA usage are specified, with an indication of the date when they were removed from IPA usage or superseded by other symbols. Supplementary tables 5 and 6 offer a cross-referenced listing of all phonetic consonant and vowel, diacritic and suprasegmental symbols in numerical order by IPA Number. An earlier version of these tables appeared in the Handbook of Standards and Resources for Spoken Language Systems (Gibbon, Moore and Winski 1997). The publication of these lists of coding assignments should not be construed as an endorsement by the lPA of every character in the list, but as a convenient reference to the location of any potential phonetic character in the coding tables as currently constituted.
166 Handbook ofthe IPA Table 3 IPA symbols: Phonetic consonant/vowel r,ym bol codes (in pseudo-alphabetical order by symbollshape) Symbol Symbol Name
a
Phonetic DeJcriPtion / Status Open front urtrounded vowel Near-open central vowel I Open back unrounded vowel Open back rOfnded vowel Near-open front unrounded vowel
Lower-case B Hooktop B Small capital B Beta
Voiced Voiced Voiced Voiced
C
Lower-case C Hooktop C
C
C wedge
Y
C cedilla Curly-tail C Stretched C
Voiceless palatal plosive Voiceless paital implosive Withdrawn ( 993) Voiceless postalveolar affricate Not IPA usag f Voiceless palatal fricative Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative Postalveolar click Superseded by 178 (1989)
a 0
ee
b
5 B
13 c
C
C
AFII Code
I Lower-case A Turned A Script A Turned script A Ash; Lower-case A-E ligature
B
IPA DCS Number Code 304 324 305 313 325
0061 0250 0251 0252 00E6
E25B E263 E26C E26D E25A
102 160 121 127
0062 0253 0299 03B2
E2A3 E2A9 E2FO E2A5
107 163
0063 0188
E2D8 2376
299
OIOD
FIAE
138 182 202
00E7 0255 0297
E2DA E2CE E2C4
104 162 106 219
0064 0257 0256
E2BI E2C2 E2C8 E219
212
02A3
E2F9
214
02A4
E2FA
216
02A5
E2FB
131
OOFO
E2B3
302
0065
E256
I I
bilabial bilabial bilabial bilabial I
plosive implosive trill fricative
I
,
d cf
I
dz
Lower-case D HooktopD Right-tail D Hooktop righttail D D-Z ligature
d3
D-Ezh ligature
~
D-Curly-tail-Z ligature Eth
cl
c(
a
Voiced dental or alveolar plosive Voiced dental or alveolar implosive I Voiced retroflex plosive Voiced retroflex implosive Not eXPlicitlyjlPA approved Voiced alveo ar affricate Superseded bt 104+ 133 Voiced posta veolar affricate Superseded by 104+135 Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate Superseded by 104+183 Voiced dental fricative
I
e
Lower-case E
Close-mid front unrounded vowel
Computer coding of IPA symbols 167 d ~
ae
e f)
3
0
Schwa Superscript schwa Right-hook schwa Reversed E Epsilon Closed epsilon Reversed epsilon Closed reversed epsilon
Mid central vowel Mid central vowel release
322 218
0259
E25F E21A
R-coloured mid central vowel Equivalent to 322+419 Close-mid central unrounded vowel Open-mid front unrounded vowel Superseded by 395 (1996) Open-mid central unrounded vowel Open-mid central rounded vowel
327
025A
E260
397 303 396 326 395
0258 025B 029A 025C 025E
E26E E258 E273 E262 E270
f
Lower-case F
Voicele ss labiodental fricative
128
0066
E2AC
9
Opentail G
110
0261
E2DF
9
Hooktop G Looptail G
166 210
0260 0067
E27E E2E3
G
Small capital G Hooktop small capital G Gamma Superscript gamm a Ram's horns
Voiced velar plosive Equivalent to 210 Voiced velar implosive Voiced velar plosive Equivalent to 110 Voiced uvular plosive Voiced uvular implosive
112 168
0262 029B
E2E7 E2FI
Voiced velar fricative Velarized
141 422
0263 02EO
E2EI E28B
Close-mid back unrounded vowel
315
0264
E268
Voicele ss glottal fricative Aspirated Voicele ss pharyngeal fricati ve Voiced glottal fricative Simult aneous voiceless postalveolar and velar fricative Voiced labial-palatal approximant Voiceless epiglottal fricat ive
146 404 144 147 175
0068 02BO 0127 0266 0267
E2EE D565 E2EB E2EF E2D6
171 172
0265 029C
E2A6 E2F2
Close front unrounded vowel Not [PA usag e Close central unrounded vowel Near-close near-front unrounded vowel Superseded by 319 (1989)
301 394 3 17 399
0069 0131 0268 0269
E251 00F5 E25D E253
g
G y y
y
h h
h fi fj q H
i 1
i t
Lower-case H Superscript H Barred H Hooktop H Hooktop heng Turned H Small capital H Lower-case I Undotted I Barred I Iota
168 Handbook of/he [PA
I Small capital I
Near-close near-front unrounded vowel
Lower-case J
Voiced
319
026A
E254
153
006A
E2DB
I
J
pala~al approxim ant I
Superscript J
I
Palata lized Voiced palatal fricat ive
421
02B2
D567
139
029D
E2F3
Voiced postalveolar affricate Not IPA usage Voiced palatal plosive
298
OIFO
E290
108
025F
E2D9
j
Curly-t ail J
J
J wedge
j
Barred dotles s J
J
Hooktop barred dot less J
Voiced palaJal implosive
164
0284
E27C
k K
Lower- case K Hooktop K
109 165
006B 0199
E2DE 2363
)[
Turned K
Voicel ess velar plosi ve Voiceless velar implosive Withdra wn (V993) Withdrawn
291
029E
E2F4
155
006C
E2BD
426 209
02EI 026B
FDA3 E27D
148
026C
E2BB
156
026D
E2CC
158 149
029F 026E
E2F5 E2BC
295
03BB
266E
294
019B
FD7B
114 115
006D 0271
E2AI E2AB
3 16
026F
E264
Lower-case L
t
Superscript L L with tilde Belted L
1
Right-tail L
L
B
Small capital L L-E zh ligature
A
Lambda
"-
Barred lambda
m
Lower- case M Left-tail M (at right) Turned M
llJ ill
1979)
Voiced dent :lor alveolar lateral appro ximant Later al release Velarized voiced dental or alveolar lateral approximant Voiceless dental or alveolar lateral fricative Voiced retroflex lateral I approximant Voiced velar lateral approximant Voiced dental , or alveolar lateral fricative I Voicele ss dental or alveolar lateral fricative N~t IPA usa ge Voiceless dental or alveolar lateral I affr icate Not IPA usage
I
Voiced bilabial nasal Voiced labiodental nasal I
Close back unrounded vowel I
Computer coding of [PA symbols 169
Ul
Turned M, right leg
Voiced velar approximant
154
0270
E2E2
n
Lower-case N Superscript N N, right leg Left-tail N (at left) Eng Right-tail N Small capital N
Voiced dental or alveolar nasal Nasal release Syllabic nasal Withdrawn (1976) Voiced palatal nasal
116 425 293 118
006E 207F 019E 0272
E2AF FDA8 E2E5 E2D7
Voiced velar nasal Voiced retroflex nasal Voiced uvular nasal
119 117 120
014B 0273 0274
E2DD E2C6 E2E4
Lower-case 0 Bull's eye Barred 0 Slashed 0 Lower-case O-E ligature Small capital O-E ligature Open 0 Closed omega
Close-mid back rounded vowel Bilabial click Close-mid central rounded vowel Close-mid front rounded vowel Open-mid front rounded vowel
307 176 323 310 311
006F 0298 0275 00F8 0153
E269 E2AA E261 E257 E259
Open front rounded vowel
312
0276
E25C
Open-mid back rounded vowel Near-close near-back rounded vowel Superseded by 321 (1989)
306 398
0254 0277
E26B E266
13
Lower-case P Hooktop P
101 159
0070 0lA5
E2A2 2378
Phi
Voiceless bilabial plosive Voiceless bilabial implosive Withdrawn (1993) Voiceless bilabial fricative
126
0278
E2M
q
Lower-case Q Hooktop Q
Voiceless uvular plosive Voiceless uvular implosive Withdrawn (1993)
III 167
0071 02AO
E2E6 E2F6
Lower-case R Fish-hook R Long-leg R Turned long-leg R Right-tail R Turned R
Voiced dental or alveolar trill Voiced dental or alveolar tap Withdrawn (1989) Voiced alveolar lateral flap
122 124 206 181
0072 027E 027C 027A
E2CO E2CI E2BE E2BF
Voiced retroflex flap Voiced dental or alveolar approximant
125 151
027D 0279
E2CD E2BA
11 J1 I)
'1 N
0
0 e f/J
ce CE
o (j)
P
c[ r f
r
J
r 1
170 Handbook of/he [PA
Turned R, right tail Small capital R Inverted small capital R
Voiced retroflex approximant
152
027B
E2CB
Voiced uvul r trill Voiced uvular fricative ,I
123 143
0280 0281
E2EA E2E9
S
Lower -case S
Voiceless alveolar fricative
132
0073
E2B6
S
Superscript S S wedge
Withdrawn (1989) Voiceless postalveolar fricative Not [PA usa~e Voiceless retroflex fricative
207 297
02E2 0161
FDA7 FIDC
136
0282
E2C9
134
0283
E2DO
.{ R B"
~
J J t
f
Right-tail S (at left) Esh
Withdrawn (1989) ,
204
0286
E2D2
Lower-case T Hooktop T
103 161
0074 OIAD
E2BO 2379
208
OIAE
E2AO
105 211
0288 02A6
E2C7 E2FC
213
02A7
E2FD
215
02A8
E2FE
201
0287
E2C3
Theta
Voiceless dertal or alveolar plosive Voiceless dental or alveolar implosive Withdrawn (1993) Palatalized voiceless dental or alveolar plosive Withdrawn (1989) Voiceless retroflex plosive Voiceless deptal or alveolar affricate Superseded by 103+ 132 Voiceless postalveolar affricate Superseded by 103+134 Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate Superseded ~y 103+182 Dental click Superseded Qy 177 (1989) Voiceless de' tal fricative
130
03B8
E2B2
Superscript theta
Voiceless dental fricative release
217
Lower- case U Barred U Upsilon
Close back rounded vowel , Close central rounded vowel Near-close near-back rounded ! vowel
308 318 321
0075 0289 028A
E265 E25E E267
Lower-case V Cursive V Turned V
Voiced labiodental fricative Voiced labiodental approximant Open-mid back unrounded vowel
129 150 314
0076 028B 028C
E2AD E2AE E26A
ts
t
Right-tail T T-S ligature
If
T-Esh ligature
tc
T-Curly-tail -C ligature Turned T
e u B
u
v u A
, Voiceless postalveolar fricative
Curly-tail esh
Left-hook T
e
I
E21B
Computer coding of IPA symbols 171
w
Lower-case W Superscript W Turned W
Voiced labial-velar approximant Labialized Voiceless labial-velar fricative
170 420 169
0077 02B7 028D
E2A8 D56E E2A7
Lower-case X Superscript X Chi
Voiceless velar fricative Voiceless velar fricative release Voiceless uvular fricative
140 292 142
0078 02E3 03C7
E2EO D56F E2E8
y
Lower- case Y Turned Y Small capital Y
Close front rounded vowel Voiced palatal lateral approx imant Near-close near-front rounded vowel
309 157 320
0079 028E 028F
E252 E2DC E255
z Z
Lower -case Z Z wedge
133 296
007A 017E
E2B7 FIFO
Z
Curly -tail Z Right-tail Z Ezh; Tailed Z Curly-t ail ezh Barred two
Voiced alveolar fricat ive Voiced postalveolar fricative Not IPA usage Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative Voiced retroflex fricative Voiced postalve o!ar fricative Withdra wn (/989 ) Withdrawn (1976)
183 137 135 205 290
0291 0290 0292 0293 OIBB
E2CF E2CA E2DI E2D3 E2B5
Glottal stop Barred glottal stop Inverted glottal stop Reversed glottal stop Superscript reversed glottal stop Barred reversed glottal stop
Glottal plosive Epiglottal plos ive
113 173
0294 02AI
E2ED E2F7
Alveolar lateral click Sup erseded by 180 (/989) Voiced pharynge al fricative or approximant Pharyngealized
203
0296
E2C5
145
0295
E2EC
423
02E4
E28C
Voiced epiglottal fricative or approximant
174
02A 2
E2F8
Pipe Double-barred pipe Double pipe Exclamation point
Dental click Palatoalveolar click
177 179
OICO 0lC2
23A6 23A4
Alveolar lateral click (Post)alveolar click
180 178
OICI 0l C3
23A7 23A5
w
M
X
X Y A
Zc 3 ~
;1
7 ~
.'> )'
c;
I
:f I
!
172
Handbook of the [PA I
I
T~~4
Phonetic diacritic and suprasegmental symbol codes : (in 1993 IPA Chart order) PlacemenU Phonetic I Symbol Symbol Name Description Status
h
x
v
p' k' ts'
02BC 0325
E249 E229
402B 403
030A 032C
OOCA E22A
404 411
02BO 0339
0565 E23C
9
412
031C
E232
I
I.}
I
~
413 414
031F 0320
E233 E234
415 416 431 432
0308 0330
E221 2311
0329 032F
E22E 23FA
1 9
419 405 406 407
020E 0324 0330 033C
E28A E22B 2308 22E8
tW ti
dW di tV dV
420
02B7
056E
421
02B2
0567
422
02EO
E28B
t~
d~
423
02E4
E28C
l}
9
Ejective Voiceless
Over-ring Subscript wedge
Voiceless Voiced
Superscript H Subscript right half-ring Subscript left half-ring Subscript plus Under-bar
Aspirated More rounded
ph
th
y
y
Less rounded Advanced Retract '"
Umlaut Over-cross
Centralized Mid -centralized
Syllabicity mark Subscript arch
Syllabic Non-syllabic .. Rh otrcity
I}
9
i:l 9 §
I
Breathy voiced Creaky voiced
Linguolabi~
Superscript W
Labialized
Superscript J
Palatalized I
Superscript gamma Superscript reversed glottal stop Subscript bridge Inverted subscript bridge Subscript square
Velarized
Superscript tilde
If'
AFII Code
401 402A
Apostrophe Under-ring
Right hook Subscript umlaut Subscript tilde Subscript seagull W
I
IPA DCS Number Code
Pharyngealized
~
e
e f
n
,1
~
e- e9 ? 9 g
0'-
a-
I Dental Apical
lJ eJ
408 409
032A 033A
E22C 23FD
Laminal
IJ
rJ
410
033B
23FE
Nasalized
e-
O
424
0303
E222
Computer coding of IPA symbols 173 n
dn dl
Superimposed tilde Raising sign
Nasal release Lateral release No audible release Velarized or pharyngealized Raised
Lowering sign
Lowered
y 13T (e T DT) 430
Advancing sign
Advanced tongue 1J root Retracted tongue y root Affricate or double articulation
Superscript N Superscript L Corner
Retracting sign Top tie bar
,
P B
d'
425 426 427
207F 02EI 031A
FOA8 FDA3 23F9
8
428
0334
E226
429
417
03ID/ E22F 0204 031E/ E231 0205 0318 23F7
418
0319
23F8
ts d3 433
0361
E225
0322
E228
002C
E218 002C
492
02BB
00A9
493
0307
E224
494
0207
E239
495
0206
E238
496
02B8
0570
497
0323
E230
498
0321
E227
499
032B
E220
(~
y !
fP
gb
Dol)
489 ~ ~ Superseded by 419 (1989) Not 1PA usage 490 Not IPA usage 491
Subscript right hook
Rhoticity
Open comer Comma
Release/ burst Pause (comma)
Reversed apostrophe Over-dot
Withdrawn (1979) Palatalization! Withdrawn (1979) centralization Retracted variety Use 414 or (backed) 418 (/989) Advanced variety Use 413 or (fronted) 417 (1989) High-front Not IPA usage rounding! palatalized Closer variety/ Use 429 fricative (1989) Palatalized Superseded by 421 (/989) Labialized Superseded by 420 (/989)
Minus sign +
Plus sign
y
Superscript Y
Under-dot Subscript left hook Subscript W
Weak aspiration
i1. &.
174 Handbook of the IPA
Suprasegrnentals Vertical stroke (Superior) Vertical strok e (Inferior) Length mark Half-leng th mark Breve Period
I
"
Vertica l line (thick) Double vertical line (thick) Bottom tie bar
I
.
I
foons'ujon
501
02C 8
E23E
.founa'trjan
502
02CC
E23F
e: e'
503 504 505 506
02DO 02DI 0306 002E
E23A E23 B E223 002E
507
007C
007C
508
20 16
2142
,fa :l~g 'W eI
509
203F
230F
Extra high level
a
5 12
030B
OOCD
High level
6
513
0301
OaC2
Mid level Low level
Q
a
514 515
0304 0300
00C5 OOCI
Extra low level
a
516
030F
23E2
Extra high level
mal
519
02E5
E28D
High level Mid level Low level Extra low level
mai
520 521 522 523
02E6 02E7 02E8 02E9
E28E E28F E29F E29E
524 525 526
030C 0302
OOCF 00C3 E296
Primary
str~ss
I
Second ary
~t ress
Long Half -long Extra -short Syllable break Minor (foot) group Major (intonat ion) group Linki ng (absence of a break) ,
e
ri.eekt
Tones and word accents
1 1 -J
-l J
Double acute acce nt (ove r) Acute accent (over) Macron Grave acce nt (over ) Double grave accen t (over) Extra-high tone letter High tone letter Mid tone letter Low tone letter Extra- low tone letter Wedge;h acek Circumflex Macro n plus acute acce nt Grave accen t plus macro n
Rising co ntour Falling contour Hig h rising contour Low rising , conto ur
I
ma-l m a-l maJ
a
a J
a ~
a
527
E297
Computer coding of IPA symbols 175 ~
A \J 1 ~
-{ J,
t
» -,
Grave plus acute plus grave accent Rising tone letter Falling tone letter High-rising tone letter Low-rising tone letter Rising-falling tone letter Down arrow Up arrow Upward diagonal arrow Downward diagonal arrow Superscript arch
Wedge ; hacek
Rising-falling contour Rising contour Falling contour High rising contour Low rising contour Rising-falling contour Downstep Upstep Global rise
a
528
E298
rnaA mav ma-i
529 530 531
E299 E29A E29B
rn~
532
E29C
533
E29D
rna
"1
517 518 510
2193 2191 2197
EEAF EEAD EF3E
511
2198
EF3D
Not IPA usage 595
0311
23F2
Usage re596 defined (1989) See 524 Usage re597 defined ( 1989) See 525 Superseded 598 (1989) Supers eded 599 (1989)
02C7
E247
02C6
E246
0316/ 02CE 0317/ 02CF
E245
Global fall Long falling tone/ advanced! palatal Falling-rising tone
Circumflex
Rising-falling tone
Subscript grave accent Subscript acute accent
Low falling tone Low rising tone
E243
Transcription delimitation characters Symbol Symbol Name
/ ( )
Left square bracket Right square bracket Slash Left parenthesis Right parenthesis
Phonetic Description / Status
IPA DCS Number Code
AFII Code
Begin phonetic transcription
901
005B
005B
End phonetic transcription
902
005D
005D
Begin/end phonemic transcription Indistinguishable utterance (begin) Indistinguishable utterance (end)
903 906 907
002F 0028 0029
002F 0028 0029
176 Handbook of the IPA
((
»
Left double parenthesis Right double parenthesis Left brace Right brace
Sound obscured (begin)
908
I
Sound obscured (end)
909
I Begin prosodic notation End prosodic notation
910 911
0028+ 0028 0029+ 0029 007B 007D
2127 2128 007B 007D
I Table 5 IP A symbols: Phonetic consonant/vowel symbol codes (in numerical order by IPA Number)
I
Symbol Symbol Name
p b t
d
t
ct
c j
k 9 q G
?
m IT)
n
11.
J1 I) N B
r R [
r
Lower-case P Lower-case B Lower-case T Lower-case D Right-tail T Right-tail D Lower-case C Barred dotless J Lower-case K Opentail G Lower-case Q Small capital G Glottal stop Lower-case M Left-tail M (at right) Lower-case N Right-tail N Left-tail N (at left) Eng Small capital N Small capital B Lower-case R Small capital R Fish-hook R Right-tail R
Phonetic Description / Status
IPA DCS Number Code
AFII Code
Voiceless bilabial plosive Voiced bila~ial plosive Voiceless dental or alveolar plosive Voiced dent~1 or alveolar plosive Voiceless refroflex plosive Voiced retroflex plosive Voiceless palatal plosive Voiced palatal plosive Voiceless velar plosive Voiced velar plosive Equivalent to 210 Voiceless uvular plosive Voiced uvular plosive Glottal plosive Voiced bilatJial nasal Voiced labiodental nasal
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
0070 0062 0074 0064 0288 0256 0063 025F 006B 0261
E2A2 E2A3 E2BO E2BI E2C7 E2C8 E2D8 E2D9 E2DE E2DF
III 112 113 114 liS
0071 0262 0294 006D 0271
E2E6 E2E7 E2ED E2AI E2AB
Voiced dental or alveolar nasal I Voiced retroflex nasa] Voiced palatal nasal
116 117 118
006E 0273 0272
E2AF E2C6 E2D7
Voiced vela!- nasal Voiced uvular nasal Voiced bilabial trill Voiced dentel or alveolar trill Voiced uvular trill Voiced dent~1 or alveolar tap Voiced retroflex flap
119 120 121 122 123 124 125
014B 0274 0299 0072 0280 027E 027D
E2DD E2E4 E2FO E2CO E2EA E2Cl E2CD
I
Computer coding of lPA symbols
i
Phi Beta Lower-case F Lower-case V Theta Eth Lower-case S Lower-case Z Esh Ezh; Tailed Z Right-tail S (at left) Right-tail Z C cedilla Curl y-tail J Lower-case X Gamma Chi Inverted small capital R Barred H Reversed glottal stop Lower-case H Hooktop H Belted L
13
L-Ezh ligature
u
Cursive V Turned R
J) f v
e
(5
s z
S 3 ~ ~
Y J
x
Y
X If
h )
h
11
1
.(
j tq
Turned R, right tail Lower-case J Turned M, right leg Lower-case L
1
Right-tail L
I..
Turned Y
177
Voiceless bilabial fricative Voiced bilabial fricative Voiceless labiodental fricative Voiced labiodental fricative Voiceless dental fricative Voiced dental fricative Voiceless alveolar fricative Voiced alveolar fricative Voiceless posta!veolar fricative Voiced postalveolar fricative Voiceless retroflex fricative
126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136
0278 03B2 0066 0076 03B8 OOFO 0073 007A 0283 0292 0282
E2A4 E2A5 E2AC E2AD E2B2 E2B3 E2B6 E2B7 E2DO E2DI E2C9
Voiced retroflex fricative Voiceless palatal fricative Voiced palatal fricative Voiceless velar fricative Voiced velar fricative Voiceless uvular fricative Voiced uvular fricative
137 138 139 140 141 142 143
0290 00E7 029D 0078 0263 03C7 0281
E2CA E2DA E2F3 E2EO E2E1 E2E8 E2E9
Voiceless pharyngeal fricative Voiced pharyngeal fricative or approximant Voiceless glottal fricative Voiced glottal fricative Voiceless dental or alveolar lateral fricative Voiced dental or alveolar lateral fricative Voiced labiodental approximant Voiced dental or alveolar approximant Voiced retroflex approximant
144 145
0127 0295
E2EB E2EC
146 147 148
0068 0266 026C
E2EE E2EF E2BB
149
026E
E2BC
150 151
028B 0279
E2AE E2BA
152
027B
E2CB
Voiced palatal approximant Voiced velar approximant
153 154
OOM 0270
E2DB E2E2
Voiced dental or alveolar lateral approximant Voiced retroflex lateral approximant Voiced palatal lateral approximant
155
006C
E2BD
156
026D
E2CC
157
028E
E2DC
178 HandbookofthelPA L
P 5 f cf C-
J K
Small capital L Hooktop P Hooktop B HooktopT Hooktop D Hooktop C Hooktop barred dotless J Hooktop K
9
Hooktop G Hooktop Q
G
Hooktop small capital G Turned W Lower-case W Turned H Small capital H Barred glottal stop Barred reversed glottal stop Hooktop heng
c[
!'II
w
q H
1 ~
fj
0
I
!
:f II
1
C ~
Bull's eye Pipe Exclamation point Double-barred pipe Double pipe Turned long-leg R Curly-tail C Curly-tail Z Turned T
158 159
029F 0lA5
160 161
0253 E2A9 OIAD 2379
162 163
0257 0188
E2C2 2376
164
0284
E27C
165
0199
2363
166 167
0260 02AO
E27E E2F6
168
029B
E2FI
169 170 171 172 173
028D 0077 0265 029C 02AI
E2A7 E2A8 E2A6 E2F2 E2F?
174
02A2
E2F8
175
0267
E2D6
176 177 178
0298 OICO 0lC3
E2AA 23A6 23A5
Palatoalveolar click
179
0lC2
23A4
Alveolar lateral click Voiced alveolar lateral flap
180 181
OICI 027A
23A7 E2BF
Voiceless alyeolo-palatal fricative Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative
182 183
0255 0291
E2CE E2CF
Dental click Superseded by 177 (1989)
201
0287
E2C3
Voiced velar lateral approximant Voiceless b\labial implosive Withdrawn f993) Voiced bilabial implosive Voiceless dJntal or alveolar I implosive Withdrawn (1993) Voiced dentkl or alveolar implosive Voiceless palatal implosive Withdrawn G1993) Voiced palarl implosive Voiceless velar implosive Withdrawn (1993) Voiced velar implosive Voiceless u~ular implosive Withdrawn (iI993) Voiced uvulr implosive
E2F5 2378
I
Voiceless labial-velar fricative Voiced labial-velar approximant Voiced labial-palatal approximant Voiceless epiglottal fricative Epiglottal plosive
I Voiced epiglottal fricative or approximant Simultaneouk voiceless I postalveolarand velar fricative Bilabial click Dental click I (Postjalveolar click
I I
Computercoding of IPA symbols 179
C
Stretched C
!>
Inverted glottal stop Curly-tail esh Curly-tail ezh Long-leg R
I d
r
Superscript S Left-hook T
t
L with tilde
g
Looptail G
ts
T-S ligature
dz
D-Z ligature
If
T-Esh ligature
c;
D-Ezh ligature
te ~
e ~
c( 2
T-Curly-tail-C ligature D-Curly-tail-Z ligature Superscript theta Superscript schwa Hooktop righttailD
};.
Barred two Turned K Superscript X N, right leg Barred lambda
A.
Lambda
){ x
IJ.
PostalveoJar click Superseded by 178 (/989) Alveolar lateral click Superseded by 180 (1989) Withdrawn (/989) Withdrawn (1989) Withdrawn (/989)
202
0297
E2C4
203
0296
E2C5
204 205 206
0286 0293 027C
E2D2 E2D3 E2BE
Withdrawn (1989) Palatalized voiceless dental or alveolar plosive Withdrawn (1989) Velarized voiced dental or alveolar lateral approximant Voiced velar plosive Equivalent to 110 Voiceless dental or alveolar affricate Superseded by 103+132 Voiced alveolar affricate Superseded by 104+133 Voiceless postalveolar affricate Superseded by 103+134 Voiced postalveolar affricate Superseded by 104+135 Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate Superseded by 103+182 Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate Superseded by 104+183 Voiceless dental fricative release Mid central vowel release
207 208
02E2 OIAB
FDA7 E2AO
209
026B
E27D
210
0067
E2E3
211
02A6
E2FC
212
02A3
E2F9
213
02A7
E2FD
214
02A4
E2FA
215
02A8
E2FE
216
02A5
E2FB
217 218
E21B E21A
Voiced retroflex implosive Not explicitly [PA approved
219
E219
Withdrawn (1976) Withdrawn (1979) Voiceless velar fricative release Syllabic nasal Withdrawn (1976) Voiceless dental or alveolar lateral affricate Not [PA usage Voiceless dental or alveolar lateral fricative Not IPA usage
290 291 292 293 294
OIBB 029£ 02E3 019£ 019B
E2B5 E2F4 D56F £2£5 FD7B
295
03BB
266£
180 Handbook of the /PA
Z
Z wedge
~~:~~~P~:J~I:eolar fricative
296
017E
FIFO
S
S wedge
297
0161
FIDC
J
J wedge
298
OIFO
E290
C
C wedge
Voiceless p~stalveolar fricative Not/PA usage Voiced postalveolar affricate I Not /PA usage Voiceless postalveolar affricate Not/PA usage
299
OIOD
FlAB
301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311
0069 0065 025B 0061 0251 0254 006F 0075 0079 00F8 0153
E251 E256 E258 E25B E26C E26B E269 E265 E252 E257 E259
312
0276
E25C
313 314 315 316 317 318 319
0252 028C 0264 026F 0268 0289 026A
E26D E26A E268 E264 E25D E25E E254
320
028F
E255
321
028A
E267
322 323 324 325
0259 0275 0250 00E6
E25F E261 E263 E25A
Open-mid central unrounded vowel 326
025C
E262
I
Lower-case I Lower-case E Epsilon Lower-case A Script A Open 0 Lower-case 0 Lower-case U Lower-case Y Slashed 0 Lower-case O-E ligature Small capital O-E ligature Turned script A Turned V Ram's horns Turned M Barred I Barred U Small capital I
y
Small capital Y
u
Upsilon
cl
Schwa Barred 0 Turned A Ash; Lower-case A-E ligature Reversed epsilon
e e a a o 0
u
Y !/>
ce CE
D
A y
ill
i l:l
e B
ee 3
I Close front unrounded vowel Close-mid ffont unrounded vowel Open-mid front unrounded vowel Open front unrounded vowel Open back unrounded vowel Open-mid back rounded vowel Close-mid back rounded vowel Close back rounded vowel I Close front ~ou n ded vowel Close-mid front rounded vowel I Open-mid front rounded vowel I
Open front rounded vowel I
Open back rounded vowel Open-mid b~ck unrounded vowel Close-mid back unrounded vowel Close back ~nrounded vowel Close central unrounded vowel Close central rounded vowel Near-close 'lear-front unrounded vowel I Near-close near-front rounded vowel Near-close near-back rounded I vowel Mid central ~owel 1 Close-mid central rounded vowel I Near-open central vowel Near-open front unrounded vowel I
Computer coding of [PA symb ols
181
a-
Right -hook schwa
R-coloured mid central vowel Equivalent to 322+419
327
025A
E260
1
Undotted I Closed reversed epsilon Closed epsilon Reversed E Closed omega
Not /PA usage Open-mid central rounded vowel
394 395
0131 025E
00F5 E270
Supers eded by 395 (/996) Close-mid central unround ed vowel Near-clo se near-back rounded vowel Superseded by 321 (1989) Near-close near-front unrounded vowel Superseded by 3/ 9 (/989)
396 397 398
029A 0258 0277
E273 E26E E266
399
0269
E253
IPA UCS Number Code
AFIl Code
