Handbook of Global Environmental Policy and Administration

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University of Texas at El Pas0 El Paso, Texas

S. Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon

M A R C E L

MARCELDEKKER, INC. D E K K E R

NEWYORK BASEL

ISBN: 0-8247-1989-1 book

on

Headquarters 270

10016

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fdX:

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Eastern Hemisphere Distribution AG

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World Wide Web h t p :11 .o on

book

Copyright 0 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. book

1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

by by

To our mentor and friend

NICHOLAS for years of support and guidance

on

no

on

book on

V

vi

Preface

book. no

book on

by

book

book

on

on

book

book by

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vii

Preface

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1992 1993

Dennis L. Soden Brent S. Steel

This page intentionally left blank

Preface Contributors

Part I: Approaches to the Study of Environmental Policy and Administration (Introduction: Dennis L. Soden and Brent S. Steel)

\!

...

Xlll

1 7

Riley E. Dunlap, George H. Gallup, Jr., and Alec M . Gallup 29

Timothy M . Hennessey and Dennis L. Soden 49

Joseph K . Berry 81

John L. Dobra and Jeanne Wendel 97

Earl R. Ekstrand and Dirk D. Draper 111 Benjamin M . Simon and Haniey Doerksen 123 Edkvard P . Weber 155

Maureen R. McCarney, William D.Schreckhise, and Nicholus P. Lmv-ich 175

Berton Lee Lamb, Nina Burkardt, and Donna Lybecker ix

Contents

X

10

195

John R. Tennert and Dennis L. Soden 11

213

Patrick C. West 12

225

Mark Andrew Kelso 13

233

Kara L. Lurrib

Part 11: Environmental Policy and Administration in the Developing and Industrializing World (Introduction: Dennis L. Soden and Brent S. Steel)

261

14

265

Rebecca L. Warner 15

28 1

Hillary Egna 315

16

Stelten Parker 17

347 Brent S . Steel and Sushi1 Pandey

18

363

Ch14n-Oh Park and Sung-Chul Kirn 19

38 1

Edwiard Chiu- Yeng Tseng 20

393

Cnthleen Rineer- Garber 21

425 Curtis Durrunt and Laszlo Perneczky 22

333 John

Pierce, Nicholas P. Lovrich, and Russell J . Dalton

Part 111: Environmental Policy and Administration in Advanced Industrial Countries (Introduction: Dennis L. Soden and Brent S. Steel)

453

xi

Contents

23 459 Bruce Shindler and Mark Brunson

475

24 Glen Sussman

25 495 Pia Christina Wood

513

26 Meredith A. Netzwzan and Aynsley Kellow

27 529 Tsuneo Akaha

on

28

549 Masahiko Matsuoka and Taketsugu Tsurutani

559

29 Inying Schiffkan

30 579 Leslie R. A1m

31 597 Michael Healey and Timothy M. Hennessey

Part IV: International Policy and Administration (Introduction: Dennis L. Soden and Brent S. Steel)

609

32 613 Aynsley Kellow

33 63 1 Andrea K. Gerlak and Luura J. Parisi

34

659 Robert L. Friedheirii

69 1

35 Robert E. Boitqen and Catherine A. Cruinblejl

36 715 Robert

Carey and Debra J . Salazar

xi i

Contents

737

37 Richard Bath and Howard D. Neighbor

38 on Stephen P. Mumme and Terry Sprouse

759

39 779

Parricia J . Fredericksen and William G. Weailer Index

l?O3

Tsuneo Akaha, Ph.D. Leslie R. Alm, Ph.D. C. Richard Bath, Ph.D. Joseph K. Berry, M.B.A, Ph.D. Robert E. Bowen, Ph.D. Mark Brunson, Ph.D. Nina Burkardt, M.A. Robert G. Carey, M.A. Catherine A. Crumbley, M.S. Russell J. Dalton, Ph.D. John L. Dobra, Ph.D. Harvey Doerksen, Ph.D. Dirk D. Draper xiii

xiv

Riley E. Dunlap, Ph.D. Curtis Durrant, M.S. Hillary Egna, Ph.D.

Earl R. Ekstrand, Ph.D. Patricia J. Fredericksen, Ph.D. Robert L. Friedheim, Ph.D. Alec M. Gallup George H. Gallup, Jr. Andrea K, Gerlak, Ph.D. Michael Healey, Ph.D. Timothy M. Hennessey, Ph.D. Aynsley Kellow, Ph.D. Mark Andrew Kelso, Ph.D. Sung-Chul Kim, Ph.D. Berton Lee Lamb, Ph.D. Kara L. Lamb, M.A. Nicholas P. Lovrich, M.A., Ph.D. Donna Lybecker Masahiko Matsuoka Maureen R. McCarney

Tokq 0,

Contributors

Stephen P. Mumme, Ph.D. Howard D. Neighbor, Ph.D. Meredith A. Newman, Ph.D. Sushi1 Pandey, Ph,D. Chun-Oh Park, Ph.D. Steven Parker, Ph.D. Laura J. Parisi Laszlo Perneczky John C. Pierce, Ph.D. Cathleen Rineer-Garber Debra J. Salazar, Ph.D. Irving Schiffman, J.D., Ph.D. William D. Schreckhise, Ph.D. Bruce Shindler, Ph.D. Benjamin M. Simon, M.S., M.P.P. Dennis L. Soden, Ph.D. Terry Sprouse, Ph.D. Brent S. Steel, Ph.D. Glen Sussman, Ph.D. John R. Tennert

xv

xvi

Contributors

Edward Chiu-Yeng Tseng, Ph.D. Oaks,

Taketsugu Tsurutani, Ph.D. Rebecca L. Warner, Ph.D. William G. Weaver, M.A., J.D., Ph.D. Edward P. Weber, Ph.D. Jeanne Wendel, Ph.D. Patrick C. West, Ph.D. Pia Christina Wood, Ph.D.

Approaches to the Study of Environmental Policy and Administration

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REFERENCES 1990. International Environnzental Policy, 2nd

C.

C.

on 1967. istration Reviepi! 1968. 1986. Images

Atlantic Monthly

1997. 04. Public Adtizin-

Science Organization. 1998. Ecosystetns Managenrenr: A Social

Science Perspective.

IA:


1 Of Global Concern*

Riley E. Dunlap Washington State University, Pullman, Washington

George H. Gallup, Jr. George H. Gallup International Institute, Princeton, New Jersey

Alec M. Gallup The Gallup Organization,Princeton, /Yew Jersey

INTRODUCTION

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Environment 35

1993. by 0 1993.

1319

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1982 1992

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1011 1032 1414 1000 1502 800

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1019 770 99 1

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ANALYZING THE RESULTS

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1992

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ENDNOTES 1.

111 SA; NS;

y

2.

by

1989. 300

3. was

3.

5.

1992 by

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27

The Health of the Planet Survey 6. up. by

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REFERENCES 1979. Economics, Environmental Policy, and the Qualih o f Llfe. 1974. Tw*oCheers for the Affluent Society. St. 1994. Social Science Quarterly 1992. Rural Sociology 1992. Benrieett Ttrw Worlds: Science, the Ett~ircinmentalMovement and Policy Clzoice. 1986. The Europeans and Their EtnGronmetzt 1986. 1989. The Etzvironmental Wars. 1994.

Pp. 1

26

Green Globe Yearbook 1994.

~. -.

1992. 16 ronmerttal Movement, 1970-1990. 1991. ronmenf 10, 1989. ronntetttal Politics and Policy. A.M.

American E~zvirtinnzetitalisrti:The U S . EtntiErnti-

EnIiiHealth of rhe Planet.

1993b.

R. 1991. Public Opinion Quarterly 65 1989. World 1989. A.H. 1990. The Populatiotz Explosion. 1993.

State cftlie

Green Globe Yearhook I993.

28

Dunlap et al. 1982.

Znternational Conciliation, no. 56,

1991. State of the World 1991. 1992. Environment, 6. 1990. Culture Shvt in Advanced Industrial Society. 1991.

World Development

621. 1989. Public and Leadership Attitudes to the Environment in Four Continents. 1991. Reclaiming Paradise: The Global Environmental Movement. 1989. New Politics in Western Europe: The Rise and Success of Green Parties und Alternative Lists. 1991. Environment, 6. 1971. Public Opinion Quarterly 35: 108. 1989. Earth Rising: Ecological Belief in an Age of Science.

0’

1976. Environmentalism. 1992. Geoform 395403. 1992. Environmental Brhavior: North America, Canada, Mexico, United States. Environment 6. 1989. Political Behavior 1 1992. Global Environmental Change: Understunding the Human Dimensions. 1988. The Public and the Enbironment-1 988. 1992. World Development Report 1992. 1990. World Resources: 1990-91.

2 Ecosystem Management: The Governance Approach Timothy M. Hennessey University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island

Dennis L. Soden University of Texas at El Paso, El faso, Texas

INTRODUCTION

by

on

by by of

29

30

Hennessey and Soden

by on

on

DEFINING ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT most

by on

on

A

you

upon

you

Ecosystem Management

31

by U.S.

.. by

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ACTIVITY TOWARD ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT 1992,

1 1993 The National Per$onnance Relieu?:Creating a Go\iernnient that Works Better and Costs Less

by Valdez. ( 1)

(4)

1993,

THE SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE ON ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

Hennessey and Soden

32

The Scientific Basis for Ecosystem Management, by by

by on

Long-term sustainability as a fundamental value.

Clearly defined goals.

In HI = V*O*R,

0=

R= on

Sound ecological models and understanding. on

Complexifyand connectedness.

Recognition of the dynamic character

ecosystems.

Context and scale. no

do on 4).

Humans as ecosystem components. be

33 Adaptability and accountability.

by

by

ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT: A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE CENTRAL THEMES

Hierarchical context. A

on on

Ecological boundaries. Ecological integrig.

. Data collection. on

Monitoring. by Adaptive management. (

Interagency cooperation.

Organizational change.

Humans embedded in nature. on

by

Hennessey and Soden

34

do on

PRACTICAL CONSTRAINTS TO GOVERNMENT IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT by

by (

on

The goals ecosystern nianageiizent are not clearly specified: a minimum lelTe1 of ecosystem integrity andfiinctioning needs to be defined. up on no on.

Ecosystem boiinduries need to be delineated.

35


Administration’s Principles

Practical StepslActions Delineating Ecosystems Establish consistent boundaries for Establish boundaries at several geographic

4-b

“Manage along ecological rather than political administrative boundaries.”

L

Understanding Ecosystems’ Ecologies ~

~

Identify structures, components, processes, and linkages among ecosystems. Identify current ecological conditions and trends. Identify minimum ecological conditions necessary to maintainhestore ecosystems. Identify effects of human activities on ecological conditions.

0

0

-b 0

0

Identify desired future ecological conditions.

-I+

Identify distribution of activities among land units over time.

Ada tin Mana ement to New Information Continue researching, monitoring, and Modify management assessing ecologicalchoices conditions. on the basis of new information. Revise ecosystems’ boundaries as warranted.

Figure 1

I

“Consider all natural and

e--, human components and their interactions.”

“Ensure coordination among federal agencies and increased collaboration state, local, and tribal governments; the public; and the Congress.”

“Use monitoring, assessment, and the best available science.“

I

GAO 1994: 41.)

42).

by

36

Hennessey and Soden

by upon on on The ecosystems approach ttill require coordination of activities among federal agencies managing resources in the same ecosystem. by by by

on

on

on

Procedural requirements for long-range planning create barriers to interagency cooperation.

Collaboration and consensus building with state, local, and tribal golvernments und the public trdl be difficult because of incentives, authorities, and interests that are beyond the scope or authority of the federal government. by on There is still much uncertainty about horr?ecosystems function, which contributes to differences in the interpretation of scientific evidence.

The need to expand pilot projects to other areas.


37

ecosystem management is essentially intergovernmental and intersectoral.

on

VALUES A S A CONSTRAINT TOO OFTEN IGNORED BY THE “HARD SCIENCES”

flaw

As

on

3). on on

on book

38

Hennessey and Soden

up

on

up

...

by

do

THE GOVERNANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS AND THE ECOLOGY OF GOVERNANCE ecosystem nzanugeinent must be able to cope Mith the uncertainty associated uiith the conzplexity of terns as natural systems and the organizational and institutional complexity of the iinplementation emironrnent.


39

by

by

by policies are experiments; learn from them.” do

by no 1.

by

.. In this sense ecosystems are arenas of interdependence for human uses and laboratories of institutional invention.

on

Hennessey and Soden

40 Table 1 There is a mandate to take action in the face of uncertainty.

Decision makers are awwe that they are experimenting cinyHqv. no

Decision makers care about improving outcomes over biological time scales.

Presenation of pristine environments is no longer an option, cind human intervention cannot produce desired outcomes predictably.

Resources are suflcient to measure ecosystem-scale behuvior.

Theop, models, and field methods are available to estimate and infer ecosystem-scale behmior.

Hypotheses can be formulated.

Organizational culture encourages learning from experience.

There is sufficient stability to measure long-term outcomes; institutionul putience is essential

Source:

Lee

85.


41

by by

you you do

integrated

no Ecosystem management requires that we unify by putting the parts together into an integrated whole using a single unifying concept. do

of

of

as

the proportion issues that is subsumed under a common policy framework.

interdependent

42

Hennessey and Soden

do

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161). A

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go

do.

by

by on on


43

41).

by

on of by body by

on

10

by

28

EPA’s

6217 on 49 4).

Hennessey and Soden

44

Table 2 Intermediate pe formance criteria, provision costs

lnterrridicite peformnnce criteria, production costs

OLvrnll peformance criteria

Source:

et al. 1995: 124.

up linked or netctwrked ecosystem management programs intellectually unified by large-scale ecosystem heuristics (e.g.,ecoregions, bioregions) that contain the imperative to look at connections/links betctieen ecosystems. nested

45


ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT AND PUBLIC POLICY by

do you

do

do. do.

.. do. A on

upon upon

by

on

up no by

up. by but

do up

U.S.

46

Hennessey and Soden

do do

do do

if

do,

do by

by

up on

by no upon.

As

on

good

REFERENCES 1994. p. 3, Values cod Pithlic Policy.


47

1980. Why Policies Succ*eed or Fail.

1993. Society and Natural Resources

1994. Ecosystem Management: Federal Agency Acti\iities. 1983. Antericwn Ncituralist 121: men tal Monugenteit t . 1998.

:

1992. Ecosystem Health, Newt Goals ,for En\ironpp. SoEcosvstems Managentenf: A Social S c i e n c ~

Perspec-ti\v.

1995. The Scientific Basis for Ecosysteni Managernent. on 1993. The National Perjiorniance Re\ie\t*: Creating n Goivernntent that Works Better and Costs Less. 1997, hndscape and Urban Planning. 1993. Endmgered Species: Factors Associated M’itlt Delajvd Listing Decisions. 152. 1994. Ecosystems Management-Additional Actions Needed to Adequately Test a Promising Approach. 1 1 1. U.S. 1994.

Consenution Biolog? 1997. Ecology and Management of Streams and Riiters in the Pacific Coastal Ecoregion. 1994. Ocean and Coastal Managentent 167-1 91. 1994. Coastal Management 1998. Ecosystenis Maitagemenf: A Social Science Perspecti\>e. IA: 1978. Adaptive Entironmental Management and Assessnzent. 1993. Ocean and Coastal Maiicigenzent 80. 1991 . Final Consensus Report on the Keystone Policy Dialogue on Biological Dilvrsity on Federctl kinds. 1993. Compass nnd Gyroscope: Integrating Science and Politics for the En\ironnient.

1992. An Ecosystem Approach: Its Use and Abuse: Excellence in Ecology Book 3. 1998. Ecosystems Management: A Social Science Perspecti\,e.

S.H. 1996. Integrcited Resource Planning and Management: Tlie Ecosj?stenzApproach in the Grecit Lakes Bcisin.

Hennessey and Soden

48 1998.

Ecosystems Managenzent: A Saciul Science Perspective. 1998. Ecosystems Management: A Social Science Perspective. IA: 1986. Environmental Management 1995. S. Property Rights and the Environment: Social and Ecological Issues. p. 34. 1998. Ecosystems Management: A Socicil Science PerIA: spectitv. 1991. :A Ecological Applications 1: 4. 1998. Ecosystems Managemenr: A Social Science Perspective. IA: 1997. Ecosystem Function and Human Activities: Reconciling Economics and Ecology. York: & Ecosysrems Management: A Social Science Perspective. 1998b. Ecosystems Management: A Social Science Perspective. IA: A. 1997. Adaptitle Management Areas: Achieving the Promise, Avoiding the Peril. 1997 on

1998. Ecosystems Management: A Social Science Perspective. 1996. S. Risk, Environment and Modernity. ToMwds a N e ~ vEcology. p. 1. 1980. Marine Policy p. 159. 1986. Adaptive Management Renenuble Resources. York:

3 GIS Technology in Environmental Management A

Joseph K. Berry Berry and Associates/Spatial Information Systems, Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado

INTRODUCTION

“where

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EVOLUTIONARY STAGES

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on

conflicts map.

8

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9

20

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GIS

69

8

maps

Berry

70

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niap of land among

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sandbox

AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY

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ogy.

.

A HUMANE

GIS on on dynamic map pedigree 1994; 10

3) by

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box up.

. ,”

10

10

1994;

72

Figure 10

Berry

GIS Technology

73

Environmental Management

TRENDS, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

cartographic modeling,

on GIS modeling,

(2)

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES Data mining

GIS

an

predictive modeling

by

(3)

Berry

74

by

on

on A

by on

a

Dyrzctriiic .rirnrrlntiori

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TECHNOLOGY VERSUS SCIENCE

75


by

60 on

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perception

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do

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77

GIS

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do

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do

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by

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by

on

on on

78

Berry

GIS

a GIS

mid

REFERENCES 197 1. Spaticil Orgcritizcrtion: The Ceo,qrciplier'.s V i m , of' the \Vorld, Iiitei.ii(iti(,it(il

Journal of Geogrriphic*~il Inforrizotioii Systenis 1 : 1 19- 136. 1987b. Mancl~el~lellt 11 3

Jourmil of

~ii~~;i~oiti~te~iteil

Grogrtrphic, Ii?formeition Sj'stems: Principles am1 App1icutiori.s

2851993. Bryoncl Mripping: Concepts, Algorithnis etml I.s.sire.s

iii

GIS,

GIS 1994.

Corrrlliler

The CGI Soirrc,tj Book j i ) r Geogrcrphic Sjstenis, 1995b. Spcrtiril Rrrr.soni)tg .for Eflec.tii?rGIS, 1996. GIS TOR 4(2):4. 1988. Eni~ironinenteilMcincigernent 27: 1994. The GIS Applicutions Book: Exemp1e.s VA: 1949. The S t o n , ($Maps. 1980.

GIS er~qINNO\!4Joirrrteil of'

iii

Ntiturcil Resoiirces,

Jourtitil ofsoil Scieric*e 3 1 : 3 1 1987. Principles r,J' Grogrciplticcil Itlfoniwtioti Sjxterns .f;)r Lcriicl Ru.soiirc~o.sA.s.w.s.s-

nient. 1 . "GIS ,-2pplic.crtion.s,

Geognrpliic Ir~forrncitionSystems: Priitc*ip/e.strritl

1989.

199 1. Principles and Applictitions

GIS."

Grogr~ipliic1izfi)riiiiitioiiS j ~ s t e n i . ~ :

35-54.

79

GIS Technology in Environmental Management 1991.Statistics ,for Spatial Data. 1993. with GIS, 414-421. 1993.

Er~i~ironmental Modeling

Eii\~irorii?zeiitcrIModeling \$iith GIS,

404-41 3. 1982.Tliemntic Maps. 1994.

on Intemationcil Journul of Geograpltical Inforination STstems 8: 175-1 89. 1991. Geographic Information Principles and Applications,

1: 403-412. 1995. Emironmental GIS Applications to Industrial Facilities. 199 1.

Professional

Geographer 43(4): 500-5 1 1.

1991.

Geogruphic Itformation

Principles and

Applications,

489-502. 1990. Journal of U r b m and Regional Iilformcrtion Systems 2(2): 26-34.

1987. on International Journal of Geographical hzformation Systems l(4):327-334. S. 1992. 1 .” Intern at iona 1 Journal of Geog raplzical Irlfortnation Systems 6(5):407-423. 1993.Etz~~ironnzental Modeling ~ i t hGIS. 1990. Landscape Ecology 4(l ): 3 1-43.

1993. Environmental Modeling with GIS,

353-360. 1993. The GIS Book. 1983.

American Cartographer 10: 129-

149. 1990.GPS Satellite Sunfeying. 1987.

Plrotogramrnetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 53( 10): 1397-1 398. 1991a. Geographic Information Systems: Principles and Applications, 2

1991b.Geographic Itzforrnatiori Principles and Applications,

UK:

1

The CGI Source Book 11 20. K. 1995.FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern Analysis Progranr for Quant[fi*ing Lmidscape Sfructure, 1. 1969.Design ~ i t Nature. h

1994.

.for Geographic Systems.

GIS

80

Berry 1993. Hummn FLictors in Geographical IJlformatian Systems.

1988. 41 1 4 2 7 .

Terra

Sciences de lci

1980. Map Use: Rending, Analysis and Interpretation. 1982. graphical Analysis 1994. 23.

GeoGeo-lrzfo

1989. Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems: A Compendium, 8.

1993. International Jourrtul

Geographical Information Svs-

407424.

tems

1990.

American Cartogrcipher

1 ):

1990. International Journal

I$

Geographic Information Systums

1981. Spatial Statistics. 1987. GIS for Forest Management: A compendium. 1989. Fundamentals

Geographic Injiwmation Systems: A Compendiirm.

1994. The GIS Applications Book: Examples in Natural Resources. 1994. Systems.

The CGI Source Book for Geographic

1991. Principles and Applications

1982. Elements of Cartography, Geographical Information S y s t e m :

1, 1990. Geographic Information Systems: An Introduction. 1976. scupe Architecture

Land-

444455. 1980. Modelling in Geography: A Mathematical Approach.

& 1990. Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling.

1990.

Lmdsccipe Ecology

412 1981. Introductory Spatial Analysis. 1994. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 8: 1980. Journal of Soil Science 3

Query.”

Pursuing Environmental Goals

John L. Dobra and Jeanne Wendel University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada

THE SUCCESSES AND FAILURES OF COMMAND AND CONTROL REGULATIONS on

U.S.

50

As

30

by

81

82

Dobra and Wendel

by by

by 1990, $508

$434

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1990 up $1600

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MARKET INCENTIVES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

1990

Creating Incentives: Incentive Prices and Permit S y s t e m s

on

86

Dobra and Wendel

Incentive Prices

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Permit Systems

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FEE AND PERMIT SYSTEMS VERSUS CEC REGULATIONS

to

buy

pound

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by

ogy no by by

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88

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MARKET-INCENTIVE SYSTEMS:TWO QUESTIONS ABOUT COST

1.

2.

Who Should Bear the Cost?

C&C

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by on buy by by

89


Does the Benefit Exceed the Cost?

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1994).

INCENTIVE PRICES VERSUS TRADABLE PERMITS of on of

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1976.

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Solutions to Environmental Problems by

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1994. Multiple Cor!flict.s O i v r Multiple Uses p. 1. 1996. PS-8, 1991. Jountcrl of Regulation 8 233. 1968. 1995. Chicago Fed Lutter 89, 1996. Bullefirz 10 Lcirtsirtg Stcite Jourticil, 5 , 1996. 1994. on Corzflicts OiTer Mirlriple Uses p. 17. 1996. Poliq, Series, no. 1985. 1997. Jourri~l. 13. 1 .

95

),

PERC Poliqq Yale

Science 1.

53. Multiple

PERC Regulntiori

33. W d l Street

96

Dobra and Wendel

Morrall, J. F. 1986. “A Review the Record.” Regulation lO(2). Murray, A. 1997. Wall Street Journal, June 9, A l . Palmisano, J. 1994. The Environment Goes to Market. Washington, DC: National Academy Public Administration. Pigou, A. C. 1938. The Economics of Werfare. London: Macmillan. Posner, R. 1992. Economic Analysis of Law. Boston: Little, Brown. Rabin, R. 198 1 . “Ozone Depletion Revisited.” Regulation, MarcWApril. Rand Corporation. 1980. Economic Implications of Regulating Chlorofluorocarbon Emissions from Nonaerosol Applications. Simmons, R.T. 1997. “Fixing the Endangered Species Act.” In Breaking rhe Environmental Gridlock (T.L. Anderson, ed.), Pal0 Alto, CA: Hoover Press, p. 13.

Contingent Valuation Method Earl R. Ekstrand U S . Bureau of Reclamation, Denuer, Colorado

Dirk D. Draper Balloffet and Associates, Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado

INTRODUCTION

on good. good

by

If

Disclaimer: The opinions expressed here do not necessarily reflect the policy or views of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

97

98

Ekstrand and Draper

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WHY VALUE NONMARKET GOODS? on do

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MEASURING ECONOMIC VALUE good

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Contingent Valuation Method

1

YmandCurve

1

Quantity

Q

Figure 1 Measuring economic value.

purchased. At higher prices individuals would purchase less quantity, and at lower prices a greater quantity of the good would be demanded. These different combinations can be graphed by a line that economists call a demand curve, representing the quantity demanded for different price levels. Assuming that the good in question has a price (or value) P, then an amount Q is purchased. The shaded area below the price line and bounded by the line representing quantity Q represents the total cost of purchasing Q items at a price of P (this equals P*Q). As the consumer would be willing to pay a greater price for quantities less than Q, the consumer receives extra value for the good in addition to the value equaling the cost of purchase. This extra value, or net WTP, is represented by the area above the shaded portion and below the demand curve. Total economic value for nonmarket goods can be broken into use and nonuse values. Use values are derived from employing resources in activities such as fishing, hunting, observing wildlife, hiking, skiing, and boating. Hundreds of studies have established use values for wildlife and habitat resources used for these and many other activities. Examples of these studies can be found in Walsh et al. (1989). Use values can be further divided into consumptive and nonconsumptive components. Consumptive use refers to activities, such as hunting and fishing, that consume the resource. Nonconsumptive uses are those in which the recreationist uses the resource without removing it from its environment. Common nonconsumptive uses include wildlife photography, bird watching, and wildlife feeding. The term “nonconsumptive” reflects the nature of the activity and should not be confused with the consumption of related goods used by the recreationist. Bird watchers, for example, who purchase (consume) binoculars, cameras, and other gear are still nonconsumptive users in regard to wildlife. Some resources provide both consumptive and nonconsumptive uses. Many species of waterfowl, for example, could be hunted by one person and observed by a bird watcher. Endangered species, however, usually provide nonconsumptive use rather than consumptive use (if any use exists for these species) due to low population levels and because it is illegal to hunt them. Occasionally, a species that is listed as threatened, but not classified endangered, could generate some use values, such as fish species, if the

Ekstrand and Draper

100

do

1983; 70 1989).

1991;

1989).

REVEALED PREFERENCE TECHNIQUES FOR VALUATION good by

by good

good

good no

As

by

by by

on

by good

by

by

by

CONTINGENT VALUATION METHODOLOGY on

good

101

on

The Green Book by Principles and Srandards

by

U.S.

1983,

Principles and Guidelines,

(U.S. Principles and Guidelines

Ohio v. US.Department of the Interior Vuldez

1

1

16 1995 ($)

7.63 10.06 26.01 11.15 41.78 71 35.96 73.20 20.22 15.56 3 1.29 28.32 92.65 8.42 6.04 33.07

Source:

1996.

Ekstrand and Draper

102

on on

Comparisons Between CVM and TCM Measures by

no $72,000 $70,000

11

$20.91

$24.38

83 CVM

616

by

1966

by 0.89 0.25

0.81 0.96. 1.25.

1.25, by

10 on

by by

103


by

by

Controversies Related to the CVM by on by Vuldez

pound

As by good.

2000

200,000,

less

by

10,

Ekstrand and

104

on

by

on by

good on

no

by

good

good.

so

on

try

good by do

105


FUTURE DIRECTION: MEASURING RESPONDENT CERTAINTY

good

good good, good. good.

DESIGNING A CONTINGENT VALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE A

on

A

by buy

106

Ekstrand and Draper

by

500

NOAA

NOAA

(

Proper Contingent Valuation Design and Administration good

on

107


Asking the Valuation Question

good. good, good

by good,

good

on

good

of

also

by

on

bond YES

YES you

$X YES

108

Ekstrand and Draper

by

by

you $-?”

no A

$0 up

good.

by

do do

good.

no

on by

$1

109

do.

on

good, good good

by good

by by

on good

1993. on Appendix I to Natural Resource Damage Assessments Under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. 14. 1992. Land Economics 68: 405. 1983. Land Economics 1. 1996. Land 80. Economics 1986. Valuing Em~ironmerttalGoods: An Assessment of the Contingent Valuation Method. 270. 1963. Natural Resources Journal 3: 239. R. S. 1992. Measuring

110

Ekstrand and Draper Nonuse Damages Using Contingent Valuation: An Experimental E\riluution of‘ A c c u r t q . 1,

on River Basin Projects. 56. 1995.

by

1958. Proposed Practices f o r Econoniic Anulysis of on

Jourticil of Etndronmentcil Econortric*serncl Murrcrgement 256. J. 1991.

J. J.

Water Resources Research 1449. 1996. Ecological Economics 197. 1991. Journal uf Etzi’irc)rzttieritnlMurici,qenimt

177. 1989. Using Surveys to Value Public Goods: The Contingent Vulucition 463. Method, S., 0. 1996. Comparing Re,spon.ses with Voting Behaiior: Open Space Survey and Refertwclurrz in Corvallis, Oregon. 133

1983. Managing Air Quality and Scenic Resources at National Parks und Wilderness Areus

G. 1995. Journal of Environmental Econoniics and Management 181. 1991. Water Resources Research 1387. 1989. State of Ohio 1’. U S . Department of the Interior. 880

US.

2d. 432

1962. Policies, Steitttlmds, and Procedures in tire Formultition, Evaluntion, ctncl Revierrv of Plum for Use ctnd Development of Water and Relciteci Laid Resources 97, 1983. Ecunotnic cind Eni)ironmentd Principles cind Guidelinrs fbr Wtrter anti Re1ntc.d k i n d Resources Implenzentcition Studies, 137. J. 1989. Western Journal of Agricultural Economics 14: 178 M. 1993. of 133

Financing National Park Service Activities Through Entrance Fees Benjamin M. Simon and Harvey Doerksen Officeof Policy Analysis, U S . Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.

INTRODUCTION

go

by

of

go

A 111

Simon and Doerksen

112

on on

A

by

PERCEIVED “POTENTIAL” REVENUES by 1 $50 $0.19

$500

by do

1

is by 1995 by

500

f

4M)

300 QI

200

100 00

20

40

60

80

Percent of Visitors Charged

Figure 1

100

4 of

113

Financing National Park Service Activities

$15. . . . by

...

$5

no

by

by no

$3

on

on

USS Arizona

1, $300

do

$175

17,

61

good $10.

by on do

$100

U.S.

Simon and Doerksen

114

1, $100

1993 $51 1991 63 $54 on

by $42

no

on

on 1995.

$10

2.7 $1 1

2,

on

by

61 17

Figure 2

115


THE POTENTIAL FOR REVENUE ENHANCEMENT

3

by by

$50 “A”

$100 “A”

no on do

by by on

yon,

E

300

.-- 250 *E 200

Y

2 C g

150

100 50

0

15 30 45 0 Numbers of Visitors Charged (millions)

Figure 3 Alternate ways to increase entrance fee revenue.

Simon and Doerksen

116

by

by

by

STATUS OF ENTRANCE FEE COLLECTIONS

7

1,

As

1994

$41.7

$1.8

$5.9 $23.9 1994 on

$73.4 1994

$1.5 1994

135

50

326 1994

Table 1 National Park Service Fee Revenues, 1994

Type of revenue Admission fees Entrance fees Park-specific permits Golden Eagle Passports Golden Age Passports Subtotal User fees Total fee collections

Amount collected ($millions)

Percent of total

41.7 1.8 4.6 1.3 49.4 23.9 73.4

56.8 2.5 6.3 1.8 67.4 32.6 100.0

117


2. 1994 do

on

88%

1994

by

BROADENING THE BASE O F FEE PAYERS by

Implement fee collections in all units where the sewice is currently legally authorized to collect entrance fees but does not currently do so. on Apply passes only to individuals. by

Table 2

as

1994

to ~

0 0.0 1-5 5.01-20 20.0140 40.0 1-60 60

~~~

50.0 16.7 21.9 5.6 1.9 4.1 100

135 45 59 15 5 11 270 no

118

Simon and Doerksen

Have older persons pay the regular adult fee. 62

$10

A

61.

17

Lortter the age limits f o r youth rates.

as 12,

6

16. Institute rnultiple passes.

on

1996

by

$25

Establish daily entrance fees.

by 1

Pro\iide lifetime passes.

THE PROBLEM OF INCENTIVES

5-20

119


by

1918, by

no

1918

go

by 100

bound by

by

parks by 1995, by on

(U.S.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Simon and Doerksen

120

by

on

by

ENDNOTES 1.

S. 1144,

2107, 2181,

S. 964

1965

2025, to

by

2. 65% by

REFERENCES 1995.

or

on

on 2025, 3. 1983. Visitor Fees irz the National Park System A Legislatikv arid Adruirii.stroti\~e History.


121

1993. Accompanying Report 1964. 16 1. 1996. Congressional Record. Collections, National Park Service.

the National Performance Review.

Act

1963,

Public Law

25. 1993. Recreation Fee Charges and


7 The Theory and Practice of Collaborative Policy and Dispute Resolution Mechanisms

Edward P. Weber Washington State University, Pullman, Washington

INTRODUCTION

on

on

by

by

by over

on

123

Weber

124

3-4

on

by

on quo, ancl

good.

THE RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OF COLLABORATIVE ARRANGEMENTS 1973 Corps

on

Collaborative Policy and Dispute Resolution

125

XL),

on

on

6

11

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on by

of)

12,

on

do

Weber

126 [

..

1990

up up, 1’11 ...

...I do

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1987).6

and upon on

by

on

by

by

127

Policy

on

by A

do

on

on

APPROPRIATENESS AND CONDITIONS FACILITATING COLLABORATION on you

. . you

do

on

128

Weber

by

19, by

to

on

Incentives

on

Transaction-Specific Conditions

by 1987, on


129

The opportunity exists to develop creatii’e compromises.

on

on

by

There are a limited nuniber of interdependent or related issues.

The policy iniplications of the issues to be resolved are more or less limited either programmatically, geographicully, or to comnion practices and rules affecting a specific inditstriul sector.

by

Affected interests are identifiable, relatively f e w in number, and cohesive.

by on

25.

All on

of

The transaction does not inipolve issues mised.

fundamental \,alues that cannot be compro-

130

Weber

upon no There is a well-developed factual database to frame the discussion and resolirtiori of pertinent issues.

Firm deadlines exist either as statutory, judicial, or programmatic by

by

The Role of Third-Party Intervenors

do do on

is

of

131


ASSURANCE MECHANISMS AND THE REDUCTION OF UNCERTAINTY by

of

by

ex

ante

inside

on

on

132

Weber

by

good

by by

by by on

by A

by

Entrepreneurial Political Leadership (

by

133


by

by

... 1992).

by

1992;

198

1998;

1997).

inside government agency

or on

risks

Organizational Reputation (1992), of

by

134

Weber

by

good

Formal Constitutional Rules on on

hood

good on

.. ...

sory”

by

0

0

by

135


upon

Inclusivene ss

Repeat Games

on

POTENTIAL PITFALLS AND LIMITS

go on

A

1990 1995,

136

Weber

buy by

by

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by

of by 5).

do you on

do

do

on

by

on

137


b, do on by noon A

23,

on

on by

on 1

by

3,

by

32,

by

138

Weber

of do by on by

ex ante

bound by

up

by ,

.

by

1987, p. by

by

1998,

process oflicials.

199

for elected

by

139

Policy

PROSPECTS FOR THE CONTINUED USE OF COLLABORATION good

U.S.

INCENTIVES TO ENGAGE COLLABORATION STILL EXIST

a

on on of

Weber

140

U.S.

by

on quo

(GAO

failure

141


POLITICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ACCEPTANCE OF COLLABORATION

on 1987,

by 1991:

1993,

1990 by

1993,

1990. on 1994, p.

1991

by

on 1998,

U.S.

80

142

Weber

book, Beyond NrMBY,

Civic Environmentalism,

on

EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND THE GROWTH OF PROFESSIONALS

10,

by

143


’’ ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS, THE DEVOLUTION OF POWER, AND THE REINVENTION OF GOVERNMENT

by

by

30

1).

go

EPA

Weber

144

of

1993,

on on

on

CONCLUSION do

ex ante

on

by

up

145

and by

on

not

are

are accountability

represen-

tation

ENDNOTES 1.

80

2.

A

1992

..

..

by outside

the program in

question

3. do 4.

5.

6. As

by by

146

Weber

7. on

8.

on

on

1996

. 9. pp. 10.

on

161 on

70 do 11.

on to

politically grounded on 12.

on

politiccil

13.

to

is

14. is

15.

ex post

to

...

16. 17.

130

147

Collaborative Policy and Dispute Resolution 18.

do by by

19. 20.

on 21. 1996,

on by

22.

on

In 1970, 1985

25%

by 23.

10,

7, 18,

24.

1987 $1.2 1995, p.

1986 The C m

by

2000,

n C/en,z Eiivirotzment 1986

1987. 25.

26. by 1988

1979

1989,

$6.8

$2.3

on

$90 27. 28. 29.

30.

by 1993

A

Weber

148

by

31. on

32. 33. 34.

REFERENCES 1993. Cost EfSective Control

Urban Smog.

1993. 26 pp. 1987. The Politics Environmental Mediation. 1990. Environmental Policy in the 1990s. 21 1984. Environmental Dispute Resolution. 1985. Loading the Dice: A Five-Country Study of Vinyl Chloride Regulation. 1992. Breaking Through Bureaucracy: A New Visionfor Munaging Government.

1993. Agendas and Instability in American Politics. 1986. Resolving Environmental Disputes: A Decade 1996. Administration. 1988. Journal

Experience. Handbook of Policy Studies

149

Collaborative Policy and Dispute Resolution 1996. Environmental Reform: The Next Generation Project [summary]. Environmental Reform: The Next Generation.

1991.

S.

S. Law, Politics, and Society. 1997. Duke University Law Journal. 1988. American Journal Sociology 94 1980. Environmental Professional 1995. High Coun3 (http://www.hcn.org/pseudo/l995/oct try News 27

1990. Integrated Pollution Control in Europe and North America. 5 1993. Improving Government Performance: An Owner’s Manual. 1987. American Journal of Political Science 31 1995. Wisconsin State Journal 1988. Public Administration Review 1985. Temple Environmental Law and Technology Journal 2 9 4 0 . 1981. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreements Without Giving In. 1995. Trust: Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity. 1981. The Principles of Social Order. 1984. British Journal of Political Science 1994. Overcoming Obstacles in Environmental Policymaking: Creating Partnerships Through Mediation. 1991. 1995. on 1989. Taming the Bureaucracy: Muscles, Prayers, and Other Strategies. 1991. Alternative dispute resolution in the public sector.

1982. Georgetown Law Journal 7 1: 13. S. 1989. Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States.

150

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Nciturcil Resolirces

Journal 1994. Nouh’s Choice: The Future cf Endangered Species. 1984. Administrcitive Lmc~KrLtirbt 36: 2 1996. Resolving Erivironniental Conflict: TokturdJ Sustainable Community De\!eloptnent. 1990. The Struggle f o r Auto Safety. 1992. Beyond Superjiiiilure: America’s Toxics Policy fiir the 1990s. 1996. “A High Coirritt-v 13/dir/Feature-A-sarnpling.html). 3 1993. Cooperutive Plurnlisnz: The Narionul C o d Policy E.xperinient.

Nebr*.\

151

Collaborative Policy and Dispute Resolution 1992. on Journal 41 : 462. 1983. Regulation and the Courts. 1992.

Duke L a ~ l

Perspectives on Posititre Political Economy. 1992. Managerial Dilemmas: The Political Economy of Hierarchy. 1991.

Government and Environnzental Politics. 14. 1982. Democrat)* and the Public Service, 2nd 1992. Paying for Federal Environmental Mandates: A h o m i n g Crisis f o r Cities and Counties. 1994. The Environment Goes fo Market: The lntpleineritdon of Economic lncenti\,es in Pollution Control. 1995. Setting Priorities, Getting Results: A NeM, Direction for EPA. 1989. Funding Environmental Programs: An Examination A/ternati\vs. 1993. From Red Tape to Results: Creating a Government that Works Better and Costs Less. U.S. 1996. Wall Street Journal 1989. 29. 1993. Reinventing Governmenr. 1994. on 1). 1984. The Second lndustrial Divide.

B. 1995.

on 1995

The Clean Air Market1993. place 1993: Conference proceedings. 3147. 1990. Negotiated Rulemaking Sourcebook. 1991.

Alternatii~eDispute Resolution in the Public Sector. 1993. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italjl. 1995.

Journal of Democracy

1988.

Policy Studies Journal 1.

1991.

Alternative Dispute Resolution in the Public Sector.

63.

152

Weber

1994. Beyond NZMBY: Hazardous Waste Siting in Canada and the United States. 1969. Democracy in the Administrative State. Wall Street Journal 18, 1993. 1991. American Political Science Review 1 36. 1957. Leadership in Administration: A Sociological Interpretation. &

1994. Settling Disputes 2nd Participatory Democracy in America.

1993. Wall Street Journal,

2 1,

16.

1981. Revieuv

Vermont Lnbr~

17. 1987. Breaking the Impasse: Consensual Approaches to Resohi-

ing Public Disputes.

1996. Dealing u-ith an Angry Public: The Mutual Gains Approach to Resohfing Disputes. 1987. News

by

71. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 373. by Statistical Abstract the United States, U.S. 1995b. 319. Statistical Abstract ofthe United States, 1980 1996. by on 1993. on 31, U.S. 1987.

Administratilie

Lcr,tt

1960 390. 1985 855. by 802. A

Part I. 1 st

24,

13 pp.

U.S.

1990.

1994. EPA Znsight Policy PLzper, 1986. National Styles of Regulation: Environmental Policy in Great Britcrirt cind the United States. 1997. 2. 1998. Pluralism by the Rules: Conflict and Cooperation in Emironmental Regulation. 1997. Public Administration Review. 57(5):

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153

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Political Economy

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1981. Interest Groups in the United States.


Documenting Public Concerns

Maureen R. McCarney Kearney/Buffalo County Area Domestic Violence Coalition, Kearney, Nebraska William D. Schreckhise University of Arkansas, Fa yet teuille, Arkansas Nicholas P. Lovrich Washing t on S fate Oniversity, Pu 11man , Washing ton

INTRODUCTION

on

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a

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155

156

McCarney et al.

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1994,

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126,

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157

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126

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THE SETTING U.S. 1944 on 11,

55

158

McCarney et al.

1989,

$260 240,000

177 1989

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U.S. by

2018

up by

on National Environmental Protection Act tal Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and Recokrery Act

Comprehensive En\lirorznzenResource Corisenwtion by 33

1993

by

THE METHODS OF ASSESSING PUBLIC CONCERNS

by

159


Public Participation by

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1989 on

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vation and Recovery Act, by on

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ENDNOTES 1.

2.

Resource Conservation Ruco~sComprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liahilit? Act National Environmental Policy Act (

e y Act ( (

3. on by

4.

on

1994. on by 10

5. 42 U.S.C. 6. 42

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7. 42

6901

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70.105.

9.

by

10.

25

171

Documenting Public Concerns 11. 40 12. 130.

334

13.

REFERENCES 1978.

on

Land Eco-

nornics 1992.

Race and the Incidence of En~~ironmental Ha,-ards, A Time for Discourse. 1974. Redistribution Through Public Choice. 14. Political Communication 10, 120. 1996. Spokesman-Re\~ie\t* 6, p. 1993. Research in Social Problems & Public Policj‘ 5 , 24 1994. on &

on

1995. Inventor?. of Public Concerns at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Nuclear Weapons Complex, CERE Interim Public Concerns Report.

1964. ogy and Discontent.

Ideol1993.

1993. Atomic Harvest. 1995. Policy Studies Journal 1993. OvervieMP of the 1993 Hanford Site Specific Plan. 1978. Mail and Telephone Surveys, The Ttotal Design Method. 1968. Quarterly

Public Opinion

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McCarney et al. 197 1. Politics as Symbolic Action: Mass Arousal and Quiescence. 1988. Constructing the Political Spectacle. 1977. Power/KnoMdedge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings. 1940. The Pulse of Democracy. 1992. On the Home Front, The Cold War Legacy of the Harzford Nuclear Site. 1993. Nuclear Health and Sqfety, Examples of Post World War I I Radiation Releases at U S . Nuclear Sites. S. 1996. Nuclear Waste, Management and Technical Problems Continue to Delay Characterizing Hanford Tank Waste. 1976. Verbal Behavior and Politics. 1995. I n i m t o y of Public Concerns at Hanford. B. 1995. frnwztory of Public Concerns at Hanford. 1995. ln\wzton of Public Concerns at Hanford. 1995. lnverrton of Puhlic Concerns at Hanford. 1995. I n l m t o r y of Public Concerns at Hanford. 1988. Survey Errors and Survey Costs. n.d. Hanford Environmental Restoration: Questions and An.nr9er.s. WA: 1983. Introduction to Survey Sampling. Park, 1993. Public Reactions to Nuclear Waste. 14. 1972. Qualitatiirr Analysis: Historical and Critical Essaj*s. & 1992. Haherrrzas and 402461. the Public Sphere. J. 1994. Journal of Environmental Management 4 1 1987. Public Opinion Quarterly 5 1, 1956. The Fcused IntenieH,. R.K. 1946. American Journrrl of Sociology 5 1, 1992. Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards, A Time for Discourse. 1988. Focus Groups us Qualitative Research. 1979. Public Opinion Quarterly 43, 2 1995. Social Science Quarterly 10. 1986. The Making ofthe Atomic Bornb. &


173

1992.

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1988. Approaches to Social Research. 1979.

General Social Survey Report no. 17.

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S. 1996. 1995. American Political Science Review S. 1972. Participation in America. 1992. the Public Sector. 1992.

&

Habermns and

B. Race and the Incidence Environmental Hazards, A Time for Discourse. 13. 1980. Who Votes? S. 1992. American Journal Political Science 16.


Decision Analysis Tools

Berton Lee Lamb and Nina Burkardt Midcontinent Ecological Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins, Colorado

Donna Lybecker Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado

INTRODUCTION on

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INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS METHOD

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Tasks in Institutional Analysis: Strength and Weakness

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Examples

Statutory authority Physical control resource Legal control of resource Constituency support Political Public Fiscal resources Personnel Frequency of involvement Intensity involvement

strong power

A clear legislative mandate to act Ability to control water flow Designation as implementing agency or land management responsibility

Legislators favorably disposed to organization Organized cohesive constituency Adequate budget focused on issue Adequate staffing focused on issue Experiences with similar issues Issue close organization’s mission, part of organization’s culture ~~~~~

‘Sources of organizational power in negotiation as described in Lamb and Doerksen use with LIAM in Wilds (1986).

and illustrated for

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organizations: Lerma-Chapala

Water System case study.

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ENDNOTES 1.

by

on


193

2.

(1996).

3. by

1995. by

4.

(1996). by

5. (1996).

REFERENCES 1971.The Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis. 1994.Mexico Dependertcia y Authorismo. 199 1. Rivers 2(4): 326-332. 1976.Establishing Instream FloMys: Analysis of the Policy-Making Process in the Pacific Northwest. V. 1995.The Politics of Water: Urban Protest, Gender, and Paw’er in Monterrej, Mexico. 1972.The Politics of Expertise. 1995. Water Resources Bulletin 3 1( 2 ) :

187-198. 1997. Journal of Public Administrution Research and Theon 7(2): 247-275. 1996. Staking Out the Terrain: PoHter and Performance Among Natural Resource Agencies, 2nd 1994.Political Stability and Democracy in Mexico: The Perfect Dictatorship? 1993. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 13: 33 1-35 1. 1979. 15(6): 810-819. J. 1987.Mexican Politics in Transition. CO: 1976. Perspectives on Public Management.

Water Resources Bulletin

1974.The Study of Public Policy. 1972. Resources Bulletin 8(6): 1177-1 188. H. 1977. Public Administration Review 37(5): 448455.

Water

1984. Water Resources Research

323-

334. 1987. Revieit?8l(3): 85 1-872. 1976.

American Political Science

Lamb et al.

194

1980. W d e r Quality Administration: A Focus on Section 208. pp. 1987. Socrcrl Science Microcomputer Review 5(2): 1978. Journal of’Political Science 1987. Journul of Water Resources Planning und 42-52. Management 1 1990. Water Resources Bulletin 1993. LIAM: The Legal-Institutional Analysis Moclel f o r Microsoft Windouys (tm) 1. 0 45 12 S.

1996. Klamath River Institutional Analysis.

45 12 1959.

Public AdminiAtrufion Reviebr?

1969. The End of Liberalism: Ideology, Policy, und the Crises of Public Authority. 1996.

U.S.

1973. Fundamentals of Negotiating. 1981. Protecting Instream Flows in Californici: An c~dministrativecme study. 14. US. FWS/OBS-82/34. 1969. Bureaucracy, Politics, and Public Policy. 1992 . U.S. 1975. Budgeting: A Comparative Theory of Budgetary Processes. 1979. Sprciking Truth to Power: The Art and Crufi of Policy Analysis. 1986. A New Perspective in Institutional Analysis: The Legal-Institutional Anctlvsis Model (LIAM). 23, U.S. 1990. Understcinding Who Wins: OrgariizciticinalBehavior in Em~irotzrnvntcrIPolitics.

10 Rethinking Risk Assessment

John R. Tennert Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Uniuersity, Blacksburg, Virginia

Dennis L. Soden University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas

INTRODUCTION

1996, perception

1957,

do

by 195

Tennert and Soden

196

RISK A S A FUNCTION OF POSTMODERN DISCOURSE upon modernity.

no a

ground

posed

It

UNDERSTANDING RISK

unswered

Rethinking Risk Assessment

197

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interest interest, do As

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198

by prioritization. \. *

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by no do

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As

no by

go

persuasion.

on

on

U.S. 1).

The Rationality of Risk

199

Rethinking Risk Assessment Table 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Source:

U.S.

A

by 1987

1988

upon

do

on

200

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do by

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by

contrive upon

on

discovered, findings are irrelevant to risk management.

by

This is not to suggest that these


20 1

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1979 upon by by 17

Culture, Values, and Societal Responses to Risk on on A

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risk,

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risk


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RETHINKING THE LANGUAGE OF RISK go by

no

Philosophical Investigations Tractatus Inivstiga-

inverted. tions

Tractatus. upon

Investigations,

.. nor something-fixed,

.., “language-game” speaking

countless

204

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.. use

do

I no related

65). by

so

“it is our preoccupation with the method of science . . . the method of reducing the explanation of natural phenomena to the smallest possible number of primitirie natural laws . . . [which] leads . . . into complete darkness” no up

Inrvstigations. truth entirely on the truth of another sentence.

no

no

because it is all we can utilize to talk about trirth. no by ...

by

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by high risk

205


by by no

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206

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coherence, ought to do, in fact do; on do

do

.,

98).

by “is is the only standard we have

if

by do

system.

do

upon

by by

false beliefs.

on

on it

by no

no

1991 : 134).

on by

a

as not

207

Rethinking Risk Assessment .. of

do

Hence,.foi-progress to be made, ki’e must consider the social contest of the beliefs, rather t l i m the rationaliv of thein. releimt truths.

good 2

... on . . .

As

by

risks on

1. personal choice

a iyoluntary. upon

accept those risks. do

personally.

imroluntary correct,

Tennert and Soden

208

RETHINKING SCIENCE AS SOLIDARITY up

36). foundation, any do

all

opportunity no do

do, As

rational by up by

no on

try

THE PROBLEM OF TRUST

dialogue


209

29

on by by 5) consent

knowledge

no

do no

As

by

social practice. no

answers

CONCLUSION

210

Tennert and Soden

do

is

do riot

do

no

do. no

no

no

no

no

tell us brphut to do.

do

...

is

...

by no

no

REFERENCES 1996. “A

In

At the Nexits: Science

Policy. S.

1996. Public Attitudes, Risk Perceptions, arid the Fictirre


21 1

of the Nevada Test Site: Report to the Nevada Risk Assessi?tent/Mariagentent Program.

Cams 1996.

S.,

At the Ne.nrs: Science Policy. 199 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psy-holog~?, 1 ): 6 1985. Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation. 1986. Truth cind Interpretation: Perspectives on the Philosophy qf Donald Da\idson. 1996. Comparing Environmental Risks: Tools .for Setting Gm~ernrnentPriorities. 1987. The Intentional Stance. 1991. Consciousness Explained. 1982. Risk and Culture: An Essay oii the Selection of Technologicnl and Environmental Dangers. 1957. An Economic Theon of Democracy. & 1972. The Puhlic Interest, 38-50. 1992. S. 1970 American Eti~~ironmeritalisni:The U S . Environmental Mmwnent, 1970-1 990. & 1989. Doing What Comes Naturally: Change, Rhetoric, and the Practice of Tlreon in Literature and Legal Studies. 1974. Tecltnology and Society. 1992. Antericaii Eniironmentalism: The US Eniironmental Movement, 1970-1990. York: & 1996. The Annals, 545 1984. Public Reaction t o Nuclear Power. 1967. The Neiz*Industrial State. B. 1994. Whose Backyard, Whose Risk? Fear and Fairness in Toxic and Nucleur Waste Siting. 1990. Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Societies. 1984. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. 1996. Risk, Emironmerit, and Modernity: Toli’ards a New- Ecology. 1986. Wittgeiistein: Nothing Is Hidden. 1992. American Environmentalism: The US Environmental Moiiement, & 1996. “A Comparing Eit\ironmental Risks: Tools for Setting Goivemment Priorities. 1989. Improving Risk Communication. 1970-1990.

Tennert and Soden

212

1994. Science and Judgement in Risk Assessment. the Development the Philosophy of Witt1987. The False Prison: A Study genstein, 1. S. 1992. Citizens, Political Communication, and Interest Groups: Environmental Organizations in Canada and the United States. 1987. Science, Technology and Human Values, The Annals, 1996. 1988. Theory, Culture, and Socieh, 5: 1979. Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. 1982. Consequences Pragmatism. 1989. Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity. 1991. Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth: Philosophical Papers, 1995.

1987.

Dissent, S. 1987. American Political Science Review, 8 Science, 1979.

1.

384404. Eniironrnent,

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S.

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Ecosystem Management: A Social Science Perspective. 1984. Energy Use: The Human Dimension. 1996. Risk, Environment, and Modernity: Towards a New Ecology. 1998. Journal Business Ethics. 17 1990. Deadulus, 1922. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

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The Blue and Brown Books: Preliminary Studies for the “Philosopical Investigations.” & 1958b. Philosophical Investigations, by G . 1996. Risk, Environment, and Modernity: Toniards a New Ecology.

11 Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Policymaking Patrick C. West University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan

INTRODUCTION

of

on by by

U.S.

1991; 1972).

on

213

214

West

firrictions

good good

good. good

good good

good

no on

do

The Imperial Lion

by on

.

..

on on

..

(p.

by

(Colorark) Jourtial

215

Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Policy of Emironmental Law and Policy 1994;

1993;

1995;

1995).

1994). book 1993;

1993;

1990).

1992).

on

INTEGRATING, CONSERVATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND CULTURAL PRESERVATION

go on

Coevolut ion

by Homo sapiens on

on 1996;

216

West

Unnecessary Displacement

on

on

that

by

by

Killing the Goose that Lays the Golden Egg: The Parable of the Bori Marsh by

by

up

no on

217

do

Cooperation Is Better than Repression

by

do

a

on by on

TRUE PARTICIPATION

on

218

West

by by

on

do 1991; 1991;

do

book

book ( 1991). do 1991;

1

199

;

219

Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Policy

do do go

by

THE MYTH A N D PROMISE OF ECOTOURISM 1991;

on

on on

220

West

THE SHARING OF RESOURCE U S E

must inrfolriegreater residence and greater resource use than \$pe harv been \idling up to allokt?up to this point.

natural resource-based go go

do

go

do sharing ofa coininon resource base

by

A

All by

by no

There m i s t be ci change in orgarzi:ationul and institutional culture to the point that indigenous natural resource needs are g i i m equal priority in international policyinaking. on

good

221

Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Policy

no

(honro sapierrs). . . .

on

is

on (p.

up.

up

on 10

by planned and controlled ic’ay. uncontrolled way. up by by

book

REFERENCES 1993. Populatiori Eri,irorrmerit Dyiamics: Ideas arid

West

222 Observations, pp. S.,

S. 1995. Society and Nutural Resources 8: 133.

1990.

Alterncrti~~es

to Deji)restutiort: Steps To~~arcis Sustainable Use of the Amazon Raitlforest,

1993. Sanctuuy Asiu 4447. S.F. 199 1. Resident Peoples and Nutionul Purks: Socicrl Dilemmas unii Strategies in International Conserwition, S. pp. 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentiuls und PitjXs, 11, 1996. Colluborutive Management o f Protected Arecis: Tuiloririg the Approuch to the Context. 1993. Ecotourisrn: Guide for P1ariner.s c l r i d Manugers, pp. 1. 1980. Indigenous Systems of Kno\t,letlge erml Deidopment. 1991. Resident Peoples crnd Ntrtionul Pcrrks: Socicil Dilemrncis utid Strcrtegies in Internutionul Con.sen.mtion, S. pp. 1972. Resident Peciples and Nutiortul Purks: Socitrl Dilemmas mid trugeclies in Intermtiond Conserwition, S. pp. 1994. on Society and Natitrul Resources 103-1 18 1994. Colorudo Journal of’ Intern~rtiorialEn\.irorinienttiI OIH* cind Policy, 1993. Ec.otoitrisni: An Antiotuted Bihliogriiphy jbr PlunnerLsutid M(rticigers. 1991. Resident Peoples cintl Nutiontrl Parks: Social Dileniincts cind Strcrtegies in Internutionul Cori.ser\~trtion, S. pp. 333-345. 0. 1987. International Sociology 2: 0. 1991. Action and Kriouhdge: Breaking the Mottopo1.v \t itli Ptrrticipm)n Research. 1990. Sunduy Ohser\vr (Bombcry) 4. S. 1995. Haiw,ry ’Buujn: People of the Blue Green Wuter, 1989.

1994. Society arid Ncrturrrl Resources

1

24.

1989. Anibio

434. 1992. Ecotourisni: ,4 Viable Alternutii*ejbr Su.stairitrble Mcrticige-

223

Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Policy inerzt of Natural Resources in Africa.

1993. Traditional Ecological Knolidedge: Concepts and Cuses,

on 1992. Proceedings: The First World Congress on Tourism and the En\*iroitnzeitt, 1993.

Ecirth.

1988.

E~OI~OIH~C

Development.

1993. Ecotourism: A Guide for Plunners arid Managers, 1994. Society and Natural Resources 7 : 321. 1989. Agriculture arid Hurizuit Values 1984. Nationul Parks, Consenrutiori and De~~eloprnerit: The Role of Protected Areas in a Sustaining Society. 1984. Tlw lrnperial Lion: Human Dimensions of Wildlfe Mcinagentriit in Centrcil Africn, on Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilerirrnus und Strcitegies in International Conseniation, S. pp. 1991. Resident Peoples and Narional Parks: Socicil Dilertinicis crnd Strciregies in International Conservation, S. pp. 1991. Itnplenientirig PRA: A Handlmok to Facilitate Participatory Rural Appraisal. US AID 1992. Rich Forests, Poor People: Resource Control and Resistcince in J m u .

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1995.

N.1991. Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilernrnas arid Strategies in lnteritciticmrl Conserwition, pp. 133. PRA 1991. 1991 PRA Notes, 1991. .” Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dileninras cind Strategies i n Interncitiorzal Conservation, S. pp. Resident Peoples arid Nationcil ParkA: Social Dilernriias arid Strategies in 1nter.itntioncil Conser\*rrfion, S. pp. 1996. Cultural Sunival Quarterly 40114.

224

West S.D.

1993. The LAM?

Mother Earth,

1966. W A and the Grass Roots. & 1989. Agriculture and Human Values 1972. The Mountain People. & 1995. Human Ecology and Climate Chance: People and Resources in the Far North, & pp. 1991. Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilemmus and S. Strategies in International Conservation, pp. 31 M. 1991. People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management ~ i t h Local Communities. U.S. 1995. Humun Ecology and Climate Chance: People and Resources in the Far North, & pp. S. 1991. Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation, S. Protected Naturul Areas and the Dispossessed. Protected Natural Areas and the Dispossessed, C. 1991. Nature Tourism: Managing for the Environment. M. 1991. Participaton Action Research,

K. 1989. Ecotourism: The Uneasy Alliance. on

S.

12 Environmental Justice and Equity Mark Andrew Kelso Queens College, Charlotte, North Carolina

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: THE CONCEPT

on

1989

on 1992

on

of

on on

225

Kelso

by

do

on

by do

do

5.7 0.5

230

1990

4 80 do

1990, $20,173. $353. $3677 1950. of 40 by

$19,280, 1990,

1950.

227

Environmental Justice and Equity

1991: by

As

on

on on by

As

..

$50 by

U.S.

Kelso

228

(

up

$65

by 2000. $213

by 2002 on

on

$2. 6 on

$500

1989, $90

on up

up by on

by

by

42).

on 1992 by on

on

229


on by on

1990

1991: $5.4

by

on

1988 1993 1989 1989

on

Kelso

230

on

by

by 2025

11

by

1993

1994 U.S.

231

As

go

on go

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS do

on

do

by by by on 1987 1990

1992

by on

Kelso

232

A

1.7

on 100

no

of

on on by on 1992 by by

up by

on body

20,

by


233

do on on

55). by

by no

on

THE BASEL CONVENTION 1981, 1984 1985,

up by

Lynx, Zunoobia,

Khian Sea,

Karin B. 1986

Khian Sea’s 1988.

3884 on

13,476

Kelso

234

by on 1988

1989 on by 118

on 1996, 97

5 1992

on 20

22 1989

1990

1992,

up 5.3 1989

1993

up on

As

by

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

on

235


147).

by 54).

on 1992: 149).

on

of 1989

69 1991,

up

1994: 54). 1986

103 by 1993

1994:

1992,

on by

A

1994: 55).

1994,

by 1995: 6). 1995

on

1990s

1997, 1995: A-8).

1994: 56-57).

As

1995: 6-7). 10

236

Kelso

1996: 23). no

on

by

1996: 24).

of

ex-

upon on As

on

ex-

on

do

THE CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY on 1988

1992: 14).

1996: 18-19). 1980s.

1992: on

1992


237

1992 156 by 1995,

As

127

on

1993,

on 15,

on 16

by

on 16

20

on

1

by

to

by

on on

As

Kelso

238

by do

New York Times

do.

no

on on 1995 on 1999.

on

on on on


239

no of

A

do. 43).

on

on

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

do

on by by by by

Kelso

240

on on

by by by

to

do do

As As

ENDNOTES 1. 1972

on

$600

2. 15

35

REFERENCES H.A., 7): 1994. Times 1992. 1992.

1988.

C.

Newwjeek NeK, York

on

Bioscience 773 The Nation 1994.

S. Editions: GfobufIssues 94/95. 1995. Environmental Justice. 1994. Environment and Resource Policies for the World Economy. 1992. UNESCO Courier 1

1.

Arinunl

24 1

Environmental Justice and Equity 1988.

World Press Review-

1992. Economist 1994. New‘ York Times 1992. Economist 1992. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit. on

1992. World of Waste: Dilemmas of Industrial Development. 1994.

Annual Editions: Global Issues 94/95. 1992.

Environment

6-1 1, 1996. U.S. Chemical and Engineering Neu9s 1994. World Security: Challenges for a New Century, 2nd 13. 1992. The International Politics of the Environment: Actors, Interests, Institutions. 1986. Lancet 398. Enliron1994. ment 1996. Environmental Policy and Politics. 1992. on World Press Retiewt 1989. Environment 1994. tions: Global Issues 94/95. 1995. Newt Scientist 1995. 326. 1994. World Security: Challenges for a New Centurq‘, 2nd S. 1993.

on

Annual Edi19. Nature

Environment

1989. on Chemical and Engineering News 1992. Environment 1991. Global Environmental Politics. 1994.

CO: Ecologist

1996. Environment

on Na-

577.

ture

Nature

307.

1993. Development and Underdevelopment: The Political Economy of Inequality.

Kelso

242 1992. A. tional Politics of the Environment: Actors, Interests, Institutions.

The Interna-

1991. on US Department of State Dispatch “So 1992. Economist 94. C. 1992. A. The International Politics ofthe Eniirnnment: 65. Actors, Interests, Institutions. 1994. Environmental Politics: Domestic and Global Dimensions. 1992. B. International Politics of the Environment: Actors, Interests, Institutions. 1 1. 0. 1994. Nature 309. 1996. Environmental Policv: A Global Perspective for the 21st Centun. 1992. Global Biodiversity Strategy. 1995. Wall Street Journal Sept. 25: A-8.

The

27):

13 Ethical Discourse

Kara L. Lamb Eastern Colorado Area Office,U S . Bureau of Reclamation, L oveland, Colorado

INTRODUCTION by

by

DEFINING THE FIELD

by

as

do do

do 243

244

Lamb

on.

A BRIEF HISTORY Walden The Philosophy of Civilization The Sand County Almanac

1923. 1949, upon

...

1962,

Silent Spring

by 1973

by

on 1975, Animal Liberation, no

on

1971 by

on Environmental Ethics,

1979, by

Theories in Environmental Ethics

245

EnvironRespect for Nature

mental Ethics

Environmental Ethics: Readings in The-

ory and Application;

on

.

A DISCUSSION OF VALUE

do.

x

on

on x

KINDS OF VALUE

of

Lamb

246

by on

upon

no

by

instrumental

.. by (Fox

3).

on

3). on or

art”

do As


247

by by by

676). Also by

...

good on

1986: 114). on

inside

no

GOVERNING PRINCIPLES

... 71).

Lamb

248

no by

..

...

or

by no

on

THE EXAMPLE OF UTILITARIANISM

...

...

on by on

by by good,

by

good, on

A

ANTHROPOCENTRlC THEORIES of

is

249


upon

..

So

you

on by

on

no

by

by

fix

do by

by by

no

250

Lamb

CRITIQUING ANTHROPOCENTRICISMS do do no no

bug,

so nor

no on is

up

on

Houston on on

BIOCENTRIC THEORIES on no body

..

on 384

book Respecr for

Nature,

by on U

25 1

by good

good on

good

book The Philosophy

Civilization.

by by no

no on

...

AN ANTHROPOCENTRIC CATALYST FOR BIOCENTRIC ETHICS

Humans

..

252

...

Lamb

on.

up

by do

do

do

a

by no

on

1975, by by 1975


253

1994: on

DISSOLVING THE ANTHROPOCENTRIC LINE FOR BIOCENTRIC THEORIES by

on

on. on

on 1991:

classes

no by

To

1995: 391).

ECOFEMINISM

The Encyclopedia

Bioetlzics (1995).

254

Lamb

by up

up

by

As

VARIETIES OF ECOFEMINISM of

on

book The Man of Reason: “Male and “Female in Western ”

”

Philosophy.

on

As

by

255


1995). by

... #110 1992). do

on

1995).

art,

by

.. 1995: 691).

by by

by

by

on of

1995: 692).

So

DEEP ECOLOGY on

1970s by 1985).

256

Lamb

As

do

65). looks

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DEEP ECOLOGY

no

try

PLURALISTIC APPROACHES by on by by

by

257

A

#7 on

no

SUMMATION OF THEORY. do no

to

258

Lamb

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Conservation and Environmentalism: An Encyclopedia (

“No

on on young

no

by

CONCLUSION good do

by on

REFERENCES Bambrough, R. 1963. The Philosophy of Aristotle. New York: Signet. Brennan, A. 1988. Thinking About Nature: An Investigation of Nature, Value and Ecology. Athens: The University of Georgia Press.


259

1993. lntroducton Essays in Moral Philosophy, Third Edition.

Matters of Life and Death: Nei+t

1995.

Encyclopedia

Bioe-

&

thics,

S. 1985. Deep Ecology. 1991. A Companion Ethics, 284. 1996. World Futures 1949. The Sand County Almanac. 1995. Conservation and Environmentalism: An Encyclopedia. 1994. on Studies in Christian Ethics 1993. Feminism and the Mastery of Nature. 111. 1986. Philosophy Gone Wild: Essays in Environmerztal Ethics. 111. 1991. The Broken Circle: Ecology, Economics, Ethics. 1994. Environmental Ethics: Readings in Theory and Application. 1993. Practical Ethics, 2nd 264. 1995. Ethics for Modern Life, St. 1993. Utilitarianism, For and Against.

K.J. 1995.

The Encyclopedia of Bioethics, &


Environmental Policy and Administration in the Developing and Industrializing World

1995

34

1.2

27

no

on

on

on

26 1

Part I1

262

At

11

on

by by

on

I1

on

As by

263


by 1979

1998 on on on

on

of

264

Part I1

by

on

by

REFERENCES 1995. Who Will Feed China? Gary. 1997. From Promises to PerJormance: Achieving Global Environmentul Goals. 1996. International Environmental Policy: From the Tn~entiethto the TltvntyFirst Centup.

1996. Global Environmental Politics. 1996. Gendered Fields: Rural Women, Agriculture, and Environrnent. Press. 1993. The State World Population. 1997. State ($the World.

14 Gender, Development, and the Environment Rebecca L. Warner Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon

INTRODUCTION

parts

1994). on sustainability

on reproduc-

tion.

A

on

(1995),

book The Spirit

of the Soil,

by

on

1991).

(1970) on (1988) 265

266

Warner

do do

on by

SHIFTING THE ENVIRONMENTAL DISCOURSE TO SUSTAINABILITY on

on by

necessary suficient

1993 1991 development

no economic growth.

and

development rnent

... A

on eniTiron-

267

Gender, Development, and the Environment

on on

(

on to

1992

on by by

10

1996

65

by by by

268

Warner

by

by

on

(

by

Part

on

on

269


GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

on on to

on

by good

do do

as women.

by

do, to do

WHY IS GENDER IMPORTANT IN DEVELOPMENT?

by

looks 1970

Woman’s Role in Economic Deivloynzent.

270

Warner

MEASURING WOMEN’S CONTRIBUTION

do

on

on (

by by

on

to As

do

dry you

you

271

of

300

on

235

245 on on

15 com’entional economic activities expanded economic actiiities domestic actiiiities by 1.

14 1 ~

=

1995.

5.77 0.85 1.22 7.84

4.78 1.69 4.47 10.94

1.9

1.9

3.17

4.72

~

~~~~~

1.40

4.15 1.17 0.99 6.3

3.57 1.79 4.00 9.46

1S O

1S O

2.79 0.3 1 0.73 3.83

2.21 0.59 2.55 5.35

1.40

Warner

272

10.81

7.5 1

do

1.7

20

6

MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

on

1991; by

273

As

on

on by

on

dung on

WOMEN’S KNOWLEDGE

on

do

by

274

on

do

of by by

on by by

on

by

on

on by

275

THEORIES ABOUT GENDER AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1992

by

As

on on on on

As

as

as women,

1970s

As

1995),

on

As

do

1993;

1988, 1994). 1994; 1990;

1994)

276

Warner

by on on to

on on by

SUMMARY on on

do on

do

by

by

277


on on on on on on

REFERENCES 1994. Feminist Perspectives on Sustainable Development. 2. 1992.

Feminist Studies

1988. Journal of Family Issues

I. Wealth and Well-Being: Empowerment for Global Change.

EnGENDERing

1970. Woman’s Role in Economic Development. 1996. Global Inequalities.

S. S. 1994. Women, the Environment and Sustainable Development: Towards a Theoretical Synthesis. 1993. Women and Wasteland Development in India. 1994. Mountain Research and Development 1981. 11,

9.

278

Warner 1983. Rural Development: Putting the Lust First. 1991. The Women and International Development Annual, 2. 1988. Women and Environment in the World: Alliance for the Future. 1990. Reweaving the World: The Etnergence of Ecofeminism. 1995. EnGENDERRing Wealth and Well-being: Empowerment for Global Change. International 1994. Conference on the Measurement and Valuation of Unpciid Work: Proceedings.

1987. 10. US 1994. Feminist Perspecti\!es on Susruinable Development. Zed Books: 1991. Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Rein\Fention of Nature.

1995. EnGENDERing Wectlth arid Well-Being: ErnpoiiTermentfor Global Change. 1996. Feminist Politicnl Ecology: Glohnl l.s.~ue.s und Local Experiences.

1993. Ecofeminism. 1991. Women and Development in the Third World. 1993. H d f the World, Half a Chance: An Introduction to Gender arid Deifelopment.

1991. Agriculture and Human Values 1996. A

Feminist Political Ecology: Global Is.sues and Locd Eqwriences.

1992. Agriculture and Human Values 4-10. 1995. Gender and Development: Rethinking Modernization arid Dependenq~ Theov.

1988. Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Sunv’Ld in India. 1994. Close to Home: Women Reconnect Ecwlogy, Health arid Durdopment Worldwide. 1995. Women Development Democracy: A Stucly of the Socio-economic Chunges in the Projle uf Women in Nepal. by 1985. Problems

Sociul

279

Gender, Development, and the Environment 1995.

S. The Women and International Development Annual, 4. 16. 1995. The Spirit ofthe Soil. 1990. Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development. 1994. Society and Natural Resources 1995. Environment, Development and the Gender Gap.

Oaks,

1994. Feminist Perspectives on Susfuiiiuble Development. 1991. Changing Perceptions: Writing on Gender and Derielopment. 1994. Ecological Feminism. 1987.

Gender and Sociefy l(2):

151. Sri 1993. Diferent Places, DifSerent Voices: Gender and Development in Africa, Asiu and Latin America. 1995. Mainstreaming the Environment. 1994. Signs: Journal of Wonten and Culture 1993. Planning Development with Women: Making a World of Diflerence.


15 Environment, Aquaculture, and Food Policy Nexus

Hillary Egna Oregon State Uniuersity, Coruallis, Oregon

INTRODUCTION by U.S.

1982

1994.

by on

1994,

1962,

to

5). by by

281

282

Egna by

4000

2).

5;

by on on 1990, ,4n

on

by on

on look

283

Environment, Aquaculture, and Food Policy

by

by

HISTORICAL CONTEXT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN RWANDA by by on 1893,

no by

1960

on

on

by

on

1960, 1960,

of 1956.

on on 54). 1958,

1246 by

on

410 by

284

Egna

Table 1 1923 1952 1954 1959

2000

112

356 1966,

3

7 chir, 1970

448

(Oreockromis rendalli, 0. macro-

0. niloticus).

1975 by

1977 1978

2662

du

on on

9),

far

1979 1979,

by 10 100

100 USAID

10

1980

16

no

(0.rrndalli

1980, ckir). 0. rziloticus 1983

by by

1981.

0. m i c r o -

285

Environment, Aquaculture, and Food Policy Table 1 1988 1989

by

on

1992 1994 11, 12; 4, 9, 10.

Sources:

3;

1984, 1436 by As

1990,

by 2897 351 1.

0

25

Scale

Figure 1

50km

1992,

BURUNDI

4000

IN

286

Egna

pond pond

0.10 1.2

5

1984,

PROJECT LINKAGES BETWEEN AQUACULTURE AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT on as

by U.S.

on

pond

no on on no on

1982,

pond

287


by on by

by

by

1000

by ..

by on As

pond

on

pond 15,

on

Biomphuluriu, Lymnaea,

2aa

Egna Bulinus,

Oreochromis niloticus,

Oreochromis

0. zilli 0. niloticus (S. niloticu)

0. rendulli 0. niloticus

no

1991,

FAO

on 5).6 on

... ... 31-32).

... on

9.3.1, p.

(FAO

on pond

289


on

1991, on 1991,

du

25),

on

do

by

on by

290

Egna

1992, 36).

by

on on on

U.S. on 1994.

REASONS FOR DEVELOPING AQUACULTURE: PERSPECTIVES OF PROMOTERS AND ADOPTERS

1982.

on

THE PROTEIN RATIONALE

291


on

on 50 11 1960

,

.

you

no 1990

50,000

..

1991 by

292

Egna by 1991,

on

2 1.1%

FAMINE PREVENTION 1856 1944,

5

1890 1994

1990,

1979, 1984, 44,

part

Table 2 Comparison of the Importance Diets

Fish in the Rwandans and Other Sub-Saharan Africans

Country

Fish products as 70 the total daily protein supply”

Fish consumption (g/person/day)b

Chad Congo Malawi Tanzania Rwanda Uganda Zambia

9.65 2 1.95 4.70 7.05 0.02 7.40 4.65

5.1 11.3 3.2 4.2 2.2‘ 3.9 2.3

JDatawere averaged 1980 and 1990 (World Bank 1994: 168). ’Data were averaged 1987 1989 (FAO 1992: 163). ‘Data FAO 1992: 2.

293

Environment* Aquaculture, and Food Policy

1979 1990,

sary

1991. by 1991 62,

DECLINE IN THE NATURAL FISHERY by by

AN INCOME MOTIVE U.S. pond

by

on

294

Egna

200 no

U.S. by

no

on

UPRES).

IMPROVING CHILDREN’S NUTRITION by

AN UNPLANNED SUCCESS: WOMEN A S NEW TECHNOLOGY ADOPTERS 1992, 14).

do

295

Food

1991,

by

on

50).’?

on by 1980 on on 43). by no by by by

45;

by

on

by

on on

296

Egna

by

by

no

by

by

198 1). 1980 43).

on

pond pond by

by

on pond on on by

by

by

1989

... .

297

Food Policy

on

by

up

by

by

BARRIERS TO ADOPTION: WOMEN’S ACCESS TO LAND, CREDIT, AND INFORMATION by

no by by

on

Oreochromis macrochir).

1989, on

by

young rug0 (ingo),

Rugo,

umusozi, rug0

298

Egna

1994 on

up

(bus-fond,

on

by

murais marais

by

bourgmestre

1992, rug0

on by on

on on up up

of

by

on

on

by

299


bourgniesrre

nobody

1992).

USAID (1992: 3) do

on

As

1992,

1996: 24).’‘) 1994:

1992: 64;

1991: 53).” A

1992 bourgmesrre

go

she

go bourgmestre

up.

on

300

Egna 10

A

1985

by

try pond

up by 1994,

1980,

by FAO,

on by

by by 1992

INSTITUTIONAL NETWORKS on by At

part,

a

US on

301


on

1986).

on on on no on

by

by

1980s

1990s, 1990s

WOMEN FISH FARMERS

302

Egna

by 1987 The New York Times,

by

U.S. by

to

by

on

1994

by

303


NATIONAL AQUACULTURE STRATEGY

on

1983,

As

1984 1987;

1988

1988; by

1984).

upon

1992: 28).

1990 by

1991

1992.

by

of

1992). 1992, by on

by

304

Egna on

on

by on by

by

1990 on. on

by

1991

13‘1. on

du

of Developpement des Ressources Halieutiques,

SPN

by

to up no no on

305


WATER QUALITY LABORATORY up

by FAO

no by

1992,

1995,

CONCLUSION

on on on

Egna

306 15

by

on by by ,

by by U.S.

by

U.S.

by by

by by

by

to

307


do. with

up

of

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

on

ENDNOTES on

1.

1997,

1989, 2. 1994

1990

3.

1994. on

by

USAID

308

Egna 1983

on by 4.

on by

5.

0. nibticks

0. macrochir

te

6.

1’

7.

1983,

by

is by

on by body do

all

8.

9.

1983, 188).

10.

more

11.

309

Environment, Aquaculture, and Food Policy by

12. 1976

62

1989

214

1991:

36). by

1948 1949,

1960

48).

13. (1987: by

14. 1991:51). 1990s.

15. (2)

(4) 1991:64). 16. by

1992: 12).

17. ubukonde (abakonde), umugereenva (abageremu), ubuhake (1993:9) ubukonde

shabujdunzugaragu

1995:371). ubuhake,

1993: 10).

(1987:255) by

paysunnut,

on on

18.

on rnusozi

(1995:3-4) rugo. rugo. rug0 Rug0

inzu

ingo.”

19. 1987, 1994.

310

Egna

20.

1991

1991, 978

1152

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(88% 1994, 22.

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REFERENCES 1990. 2 1 pp. 1993. 39 pp.

31 1

Environment, Aquaculture, and Food Policy 1994.

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16 Ecotourism, Environmental Policy, and Development Steven Parker of

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17 Political Elite Commitment to the Environment in Nepal Brent S. Steel Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon

Sushi1 Pandey Tribh u ua n University Kathmand U , Nepa 1 )

INTRODUCTION

of

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on

on

on of

347

Steel and Pandey

348

STUDY SETTING

by

1981

1991

2.1 % 199 1 1. on 1990 on 30

1991 no

1994,

349

Political Commitment to Environment in Nepal Table 1 18,491,097 90.8% 9.28 2.10% 33 142fkm'

15

41% 101

1000

28% 2% Source: Populcrtion Monogrcrph of Nepal

Singh 1995.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS IN NEPAL of ( 199

1992 on As

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MOUNTAIN AND HILL REGIONS

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Steel and Pandey

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TERAl AND KATHMANDU VALLEY ENVIRONMENTS

351

Political Commitment to Environment in Nepal

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90% 1993).

1993). on

1993).

1995).

ELITE COMMITMENT TO THE ENVIRONMENT

1992;

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SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS

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1995

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Population Monograph

Nepal

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POLITICAL FACTORS by,

354

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by

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STUDY AND DATA

1992.

by 265

256

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by

(n=805).

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

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2 by

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES on

ANALYSES

1%),

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by

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Table 2

#1

#2

49%

43 96

14%

13%

15%

21%

13%

12%

#3

9%

#1

#2

40%

37%

19%

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256

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256

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358

Table 4

35 3645 46

18% 16% 8%

22% 17% 14%

25 %

19% 7%

14% 12%

13%

11% 19%

17%

20% 17% 10%

9% 12% 17% 19%

10% 33% 3% 9% 11% 8% 17% 19%

11% 14% 16% 18%

22%

10%

34% 10% 14%

4%

15% 11% 20% 24% 8%

6%

7%

9% 0% 0%

12% 8% 13%

13%

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359

Environment

4

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n = 253

NSP) 4

on

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

by

360

Steel and Pandey

It

by

ENDNOTES 1.

1992

2.

86 1995

1996.

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Population Monograph

Nepal. 1995.

The Rising Nepal. 1992. 2. Mountain Envi1976. 11 12. ronment and Development. 1996. Gendered Fields: Rural Women, Agriculture, and the Environment. CT:

-.

-.

1990. Kathmandu Review 1989. Mountain Tourism in Nepal: How Much Compatible Is it to the Fragile Hintalava Environment? 1986. Himalayan Review 1990. Rising Nepal 5. 1994. Contributions to Nepalese Studies S. 1995. Statistical Profile on Women in Nepal. Z.A. 1992. The Environmental Policy Paradox. B.S. 1996. Journal of Environmental Management 1994. Society and Natural Resources 1989. Social Science Journal 1992. Political Parties and The Parliamentary Process in Nepal. 84. 1994. Contributions to Nepalese Studies 21 12. S. 1993. Appropriate Technologies and Environmental Education as Possihilities for Intercultural Perception in the Himalayan Area. 1993. Annual Report.

18 Bureaucratic Politics in Korean Environmental Policy Chun-Oh Park and Sung-Chul Kim Myong-Ji University, Seoul, Korea

INTRODUCTION

1979 1980. of

on

on

363

Park

364

1961. by

on

by

THE EVOLUTION OF KOREAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY by

by

1963.4 try

1967

Kim

365

Politics in Korean Environmental Policy

no no

1978. 1978. 1980,

1980, 1992.

1991,

by

1990 on

on 1990, no

1994,

Park and Kim

366

It

WHY DOES THE MOE LACK POWER? Theoretical Background of Bureaucratic Politics It by 1967, by

(Ku

BUREAUCRATIC POLITICS IN KOREA

by

no by on

no by

EA

1994,

by

367

on

CASE ANALYSES OF BUREAUCRATIC POLITICS

1: 1989,

by 1990, 15 1990,

on 1990,

up

1991, 1991, no

A

Park and Kim

368 ~~

~~

~

~~~~~~~~~

Case 2: 1991,

1

4

10

7

1990,

1991. body,

10

THE CAUSES OF THE MOE’S LACK OF POWER by 1980, upon

1991,

by on

As

369


1985,

LACK OF POLITICAL SUPPORT FROM EXTERNAL ACTORS

(5)

Public Opinion 1980,

1982, As

1991,

Interest Groups

by

on do

Park and Kim

370

do up

go good 1992,

Mass Media by

on

no on

up

The National Assembly upon of

try.

by

do

371


The President

no

Other Administrative Agencies

THE LIMITED SCOPE OF MOE’S JURISDICTION As

do

Park and Kim

372

As

1980,

MOE’S LACK OF POWER AND POLITICAL SUPPORT: SURVEY ANALYSES

upon

by by

373


on

by on

1995, 96 on 1993, 1

20 on

=

5=

20

1993

(5) 2

3

Park and Kim

374 Table 1 (0 4.62 4.26 4.00 3.88 3.80 3.70 3.67

4.48 3.46 3.46 3.55 3.19 3.91 3.97

0.2 1 0.30

3.28 3.01 2.84 2.83 2.82 2.57

3.57 3.46 3.94 3.58 3.92 3.54

0.28 0.45 1.10 0.75 1.10 0.97

2.51 2.43 2.42 2.21 2.16 2.11 1.83

2.82 3.18 2.62 2.87 2.34 3.39 1.90

0.3 1 0.75 0.20 0.66 0.18 1.28 0.07

Table 2

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1 1 17 2 4

2 2 36 52 8

Table 3

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

0 3 22 1s

6

0 6 48 32 14

375 4

~~~~

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.83 5.28 4.22

4.00

on 4 =

on

7=

4,

3.5.

2, 3, 4 5.

on 7=

5,

5

5.01 4.09 4.10

3.98 3.86 3.11 2.64

2.56

=

Park and Kim

376 Table 6

on

5.94 5.43 4.83 4.57 4.26 4.0 1 4.00 3.97 3.43

s1

6

on

by 7=

(1 =

5

As

6

7

8

Table 7 on

0

on on 6

377 8

1 7 7 27 8

2 14 14 54 16

8,

As

by

1994

1.

4.5 15

2. 3.

4. 5.

6.

$100 “Dark

3.5

Park and Kim

378 7.

1993. by

8.

on 9. 1991 10. 11.

good

12.

1991

on 13.

.

14.

good

15.

by

45

16.

17.

1991,

18. 19.

20.

21. by 22.

23. 24.

no

1993.

379

REFERENCES 21

Korean Pub-

lic Administration Journal 1972. World Politics S. 1963. American Political Science Review 1994. Theov Korean Public Organization. 1992. Korean Regulatory Policy. 1990. Shindong ‘ah 1972.

Public Inter-

est 1982. Survey on the Public Awareness About Environmental Preseniation. ~.

1987. Sun9ey on the Public Akrpareness About Environmental Preseniation. 1991. The Politics

the Administrative Process.

1979. Deciding What’s News. 1991. Local Government Revie,r+5 : 1988. Theon cf Policy Making.

Korean

1991. on Modern Society 4( -.

1992. Society mid Public Administration Studies 1995.

Korean Korean Policy Studies Re\ie\zf

1987. Making Public Policy. 1961. Public Opinion and American Democracy. 1992. ~.

1993.

.-

Korean Public Administration Review 1994. Korean Environmental Policy and Green Movement.

on

~.

Korean Public Administration Journal

234.

1987. Interest Groups in Korea. 1989. Journal Kyunghee Public Administration 4( 1990. The Emironrnental Protecvion Agency: Asking the Wrong Questions. 1994.

Korean Public Administration Revieu,

1 12

138.

Park and Kim

380

1995. Global Environmental Protection und Koreun Emironmental Policy. 1949. Public Adtninistration Revietig 1986. Impact: Houv the Press Affects Federul Policy Making. 1980.

~.

--.--.

Administration and Sociev. 1985. Regulation: Politics, Bureaucracy, arid Economics. 1993. Politics und the Bureaucracy: Policymaking in the Fourth Branch qf Go\vrnrnrnt. 1992. White Paper.

-.

1995. Envircinmental Protection in Korea. 1989. r i d c.f Political Science 1993.

Arnerican Jouron Koreun Policy Studies Reiiriit 1( 1 ):

1993. Koreun Public AdministrLition Journul 2(1):

1981.

-.

J(iurrtu1 of Politics 4 3

1986. American Public Policy: Promise and Perforrnance, 2nd A. 1985. Enviruizmentul Politics and Policy.

-.

1972. Porcler and National Politics. 1984. Bureaucracy, Politics, und Public Policy. 1993. Environmerital Preservation 1):

Burenucrutic

A

Policy Studies Journal 1975. People 1’s. Goivrntnertt: The Responsii,eness cf Arnericctn lnstitutions. 1990. Survey on the Public Ariweness About Eri/ironmentul Presenw tiort . 1989. Politics and Public Policy. 1973. Public Achinistration Rekiuii? 1): 1989. The Politics of Regulations.

19 The Environment and the People’s Republic of China Edward Chiu-Yeng Tseng Ca1ifornia L u t h eran University, Thousand Oa ks, Ca1ifornia

INTRODUCTION

by

on

381

Tseng

by

As

59.5

A.D.

2

1812

by

no

upon

by

pets

by

by do

do 3).

700,000 B.c.)

362

383

Environment and People’s Republic of China

on

(A.D.

61

to

by

do

on

12, on

1983

A

1989, by on

3, 1995.

1982. by

384

1994 US$353

do

on

on on 21,

1994 21,

1996

2010.

by 1996

188.8 1985

47.6 1990.

2000,

a

450 do

1992,

on body, on

1997, by

Environment

385

People’s Republic of China

500

by 2005 40,000 11

by

(Ailuropoda

melanoleuca). up 14 kg

up

14

1973 by boo

on 10

100 up

20

by

by

of 1000

1984,

Tseng

386

1963, 1992, 13

6049

1980,

1991,

on

by 1996, 1995 on

1997 by

25% on

1800 200

1997 200

$1.2 1, 1997,

3

1916 of

40 by Y

83%

by 150 up

and

387

of China

1000 67,000

33,000

20 up

30

2

400

by

36,500 by 33.5

38

by

by

2.66

388

Tseng

by

1.5

U.S. by

by Beijing Review,

260,000

by

km

they

by

600 1989,

by

on

by

CO2

1994

by by

by 1995, by 100

As

by up by

7.4

389

Environment and People’s Republic of China

on

2025

2045,

by

by

2000 1995 no. by

So

of

by

1.2 20

300

Tseng

390 1.3

by

do on 1989

on on

If

so

if by

good

by

no. As

for by

391

of

to by

do

up

on

to

to do

no

392

So

REFERENCES 1997. 2 1.

http://www.ihei.com/agenda.htm.

1997.

159.226.67.61/brim/brim.html.

htrp://

8.

1995.

1.

1

: http://w w’w.lead.org/ips/demo/urchi ve /08-02-95//.html,

2. on Newsletter #Chinese.

1, 20.

1)

1997. http://iisdl .iisd.ca/trade/cciced/c.cne,r.s.ltrnt-

1997. u runde rsen ,com/bus infi)/.services/cic/wa ter.htm,

Times

1997. 5.

1997. Los Angeles Times on

http;//~r.}rt}t,.N).th-

20. 7. Los Angeles

1996. Beijing Review 1992. Taking Sides, 1992. Taking Sides, 1997. Los Angeles Times 13. 1968. Democratic and Authoritarian Elements in TKientieth-Centun Chinese Political Thought. 1996. http://~~~vn~.redfish.com/C/SEmbassy-China/sandt/mu3chfrt.htm. 1994. Taking Sides, 1996. http://\tpMw,. panda ,org/researcWfacts/fct-panda.htm 1994. Archives Environmental Health 2 16. 1996. Chinu Enivironment News 27 http://utM,M~.comlink.apc.org/fic/ne\.t,slert/ eng/nl27/ taihu.htm 1996. Beijing Reviehp

20 Transition t o a Free Market Economy in the Russian Far East

Cathleen Rineer- Garber Washington State University, Vancouver, Washington

INTRODUCTION

on

1995).

1995.) on

6

1995).

As

393

394

Rineer-Garber

RFE

RFE on

on

no by 17

10

up

by by on on on

GEOGRAPHY Dal ’niy vostok,

on by by

395

Free Market Economy in RFE

on 10 up 50 9000

6.63 200 on

by

70

50

Ussuri Tuigu,

on by on

THE SOCIAL CONTEXT 11

1928 1.5

A.D.,

by

1959,

396

Rineer-Carber

upon 1937 (sor4hozes)

(kolkohozes)

on

450,000

29 250,000

(Gaia Forest Conservation Archives

(Gaia Forest Consertation Archities

glasnost on

of

INDUSTRY,RESOURCES, AND THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK O F THE RFE on

70 1991, 1989,

1993, 1000

6000 on

1997,

397 397

Free Free Market Market Economy Economy in in RFE RFE

1996). 1996).

by by

58.5% 58.5%

7.9% 7.9%

50% 50% by by

1996). 1996). 1989. 1989.

on on (RFE (RFE Update Update

Far Far

1995). 1995).

by by

1997). 1997).

- -

Figure Far East industries. Figure 11 Russian Russian Far East industries.

45% 45%

398

Rineer-Garber

40

(GAIA Forest Corzserrmion

Archives

THE REGIONS OF THE RFE Primorskiy Krai 166,000

(64,000

by on 6000

3280 6085

2,312,000,

on

2000

1958. to

INDUSTRIALISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT: FORESTRY

Free Market Economy

399

RFE

12.46

31 by 6 3.67

1993.

500

1995,

11

5 1995 by

on

1991 by 200,000

6 no

dry

by

1992,

on 1995,

Rineer-Garber

400

upon

(GAZA Forest Conservation Archives

500,000

1993.

of

on

1994, on

1996,

1994 15

(GAIA Forest Conservation Archives

30 on on

40 1


by 1994, 310

210

160

200

50 on

to

PORT DEVELOPMENT by

lia

30 47

200

700

on

402

Rineer-Garber

Khabarovsk Krai 788,600 mi’)

1800

18

1643 1689 by

by on 30

by

23% 20,000 on (1

by

1926,

exports,

FORESTRY

oak, 1993,

7.026

57,433 on 41,446

Free Market

403

RFE

by 10

U.S. on $9

U.S. on

U.S. by 1967,

NUCLEAR POWER

on

on

Rineer-Garber

404

AMUR TIGER

(Panthera tigris altaica),

(Panthera tigris vigrutu), 1980 (Dimensions

by

a $100 pound.

on on 1977.

kedr

40

on

405


Sakhalin Oblast

87,100 up

on

by

11,

16,000

65,000

by on 20,000

50,000

10,000

by 1853.

1859

1905 1920, 11,

673,100,

2700

1906.

1875,

1855,

Rineer-Garber

406

INDUSTRIALISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT

50,000 on

by by

by 2576,

by

to

(RFE Update

(Puget Sound Business Journal

U.S.

(Puget Sound Business Journal

407


on

on

by

1995, 45

1996.

kolkhoz

on up by

by 11, on

408

Rineer-Garber

24,000. 17,000, 35% 1996).

on

mid-l930s,

5% 200

Amur Oblast 364,000 by

of

(140,540

1856,

1913 1,062,500

1502

of

55%

go

(91%)

1996).

is

by by

on

10-15

1996).

by

HYDROELECTRlC POWER by

of on

1990, on

of

409


by do

on

100

60

15 on by

200 10.

no

1995

by

Chita Oblast on on

431,500 km2 by by

on on

by

by

300

Rineer-Garber

410

5.7

1989

1.3

1200

4%

on

on 1

by by

no

1997,

on

41 1

in

Free Market

on by

by

on

1000 200,000

1993, 487.73

on 300

URANIUM on 23,000 risks

RFE.

11,

hub

no

Rineer-Garber

412 Table 1

500 140

140 400 190 220 180

1995.

Source:

Yakutia 200

on by of

part

of on 1994, of

by

413


sorry

of no 50

..

100

by by

Magadan Oblast and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug 199,100 1992, up 124,000

up

KOLYMA’S LEGACY

Rineer-Garber

414

160 1929, 4000, by 1931, As

by

1938,

by

by

3.5 120,000 by

12,600 on 15,000

INDIGENOUS STRUGGLE

to

45,000

1917,

1997,

A

15,000

415


30,000

on

on

1997). by

nov 1997).

no by 40%

1997). no by 1400

by

by

1994).

RFE 1996).

Kamchatka Oblast and Koryak Autonomous Okrug 472,300

( 182,355 mi?>,

by

29

416

200 160 on 10,000, on 472,000 is

3% 35 by by on

on

2 Kamchatka’s

417


(RFE Update on on

on

1994, 1000

5000 30,000

on 50,000

1995, As

good. good

go

Yar no

good.

do by

up on by

Republic of Buryatia 35 1,300

35,636

418

Rineer-Garber

1990

30 (GAZA Forest Conservation Archives by

700

1000

of 2000

1,059,400,

by up as

200

on

3500 1997,

of

Free Market

419

in

FROM COMMUNISM TO CAPITALISM 70

on

on

1989,

by 1995).

by

1 996).

As 1996).

upon

GLOBAL INVOLVEMENT

by

U.S.

420

Rineer-Garber

U.S. GOVERNMENT

up

by 1994. by by by

1995, on

on

by

$500,000

up

1995,

5%

Yar

1.5

Free Market

42 1

in RFE

on

by

CONCLUSION

up

on

on on on

on

Rineer-Garber

422

RFE, RFE.As

on on on

REFERENCES 1988. The Disappearing Russian Forest. 1994. Greenpeace International. 1995. on Baikal Currents 1995. Historical Atlas of Russia. 1995. Environmental Security and Quality After Cornrnunism: Eastern Europe and the Soviet Successor States. Dimensions: A Report on Exxon I995 Contributions in the Public Interest. 1995.

.

1995. 1997.

1996. 1992. A Histo?

h

.h .h . 1994. Anthropology of the North Pacific Rim. ,

Fourth World Bulletin 5( the Peoples of Siberia.

CA/A Forest Conse rvation Archives. 1994.

GAIA Forest Conservation Archives. 1995.

h . h . http://forests.org/gaia.html.

38-42.

423

Free Market Economy in RFE 1995.Gold Mining in Kamchatka.

http://forests.lic.wisc.edu/forests/rusWorld\.side Biodi\persity/

1994. Rainforest Campaign.

Common Future 13-17. Multinational Monitor 17(1 &2).

1995. 1996.

1996. on

1996. http://entrance.epa.go.jp:70/0h/doc/russial-e-e.html.

1997. Interpress Service.

Gopher://forests.org:7O/OO/rus-

V. 1997. 1997. 1996. Oil and Gas Joint Ventures in the Former Soviet Union. Biological Diversity-An

1994. Consenting Russia’s Analytical Framework and Initial Investment Porrfolio.

Yar.1995.

Time

4:42-53. USA Onramp.

1997. http://www.usaor.net/users/xlobue/trans.htm.

1995. 1997. on 1994.The RFE: An Economic Handbook. 1996.

Taiga Nelis 20: 1 1 .

1996. The RFE: Forests, Biodiversih Hotspots and Industrial Developments.

1995.Siberian Forests Protection Project. on Post-Sorviet Geography 35(1): 38-49.

1994.

International Wildlve

1995. RFE RFE RFE RFE

38-43.

Update. 1994a.4 (2). Update. 1994b.4 (9). Update. 1995.5 (6). Update. 1997.7 (1).

1995. 1997. Journal 69(1).

Lewiston Morning Tribune 26: 14. Puget Sound Business

1997.


21 Problems, Progress, and Possibilities A

Curtis Durrant Washington State Department of Ecology, Spokane, Washington

Laszlo Perneczky Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC), Budapest, Hungary

INTRODUCTION 1996,

1800

7

do

15 425

Durrant and Perneczky

426

100

THE RESEARCH 3020

3000

13

on 128 1872 71

ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

of

on

by

A TYPICAL CEE NGO

Environmental NGOs in CEE

427

do

NGOs

25

NGO do

“I

NGOs by by parts,

NGOs

NGOs.

FINANCIAL STATUS NGOs NGOs good

NGOs

on on

by

1000 USD 5000 USD

on

NGOs up

NGOs:

NGOs

the (0-10

by

SUCCESS OR FAILURE? NGOs

428


by

(16%)

by

NEEDS AND PROBLEMS do

of

...

COOPERATlON IS KEY

on

by

by

EXPERIENCE WITH THE REC AND OTHERS


429

15

EXPERIENCE WITH OTHER INTERNATIONAL FUNDING ORGANIZATIONS 150 10

‘

THE ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT IN HUNGARY

by

430


up 1945. by 1981.

on

1985.

up

At

on on on

43 1


1994, Z{ { 1993.

by

on by on

on

on

3 by

by

body

by on

1994,

by 1996,

on

on on

432

CONCLUSION CEE

by CEE

CEE on by

on

ENDNOTES 1.

1997. 9-1

31 1-199, fax:

2000

(36-26) 3 1 1-294.

htfp://M‘I.z~M,.ruC.~)r~/.

(509)

[email protected]. CDUR36 1@ ecy. ~-ci.got*. 2.

1990.

20

by by by

22 If the Truth Hurts, Consider the Source

John C. Pierce University o f Colorado at Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado

Nicholas P. Lovrich Washington State Uniuersity, Pullman, Washington

Russell J . Dalton University of California, Iruine, Iruine, California

INTRODUCTION 1996).

on 1979;

1992).

on 1989).

up no

433

Pierce et al.

434

by by

INFORMATION SOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

by

by

by

go

on

no

435

U.S.

on

200

on

A

on 1.2

by

by

on

..

Pierce et al.

436

18).

(Spokesman-RertieM. 1

1994

a

(Spokesman-Rer,iei.t.

by

on

no

a on

on on

on by by no on

THE STUDY

on

1 187 1

437

the U.S.

Nuclear Facilities in

503

318

163 203

on

by

548 178

527

149

TRUST IN INFORMATION SOURCES you

32

32

32 1

Pierce et al.

438

Richland

Chelvabmsk-70

Svokane

Chelvabinsk

100

100

90

90

80

80

70

70

60

60

Hanford

Hanford 05ciak EPA EnvironmentalGroup TV/Rdo

TV/Rado Enwonmcntrrl Groups N-paP-

DOE

C-65Scientists Environmmtd Groups TVhdidlAEA Government

Newspapa

50

50 EPA

lAEA

40

40 Hanford Scientists

NCWSppUSA.VRdI0

Ecology

Govanment Deplties

Envuonmentd Groups State Legwlature

C-65 scientists

30

30 C-65

E d W

Govenune-it State Legwlature M A

DOE

20

Newspapal Government

Deputies

Minatom

20

Government C-65

Hanford 05aals

10

10

Figure 1 Trust in various sources of information about the facilities. Figure entities are the percentage who completely or mostly trust each information source.

439

Nuclear Facilities in Russia and the U.S.

Yakama Reservation

Kvshtv d M u s l wmovo

Wenadee

Chebarkul

100

100

90

90

80

80

70

70

60

60

NewspapaK'V/Ra&o

TVlRadio Group

TViRad~o

EPA/Newspapas

50

50

Hanford Saenhsts state Govanment

TVRIK~O

Groups Hanford Saentists Nmpapaj

40

40 I E M state Legislature

Local Government

Ecology

Mu!

State Lcplature

Local G o v m e n t

30

Newspapers c-65 s a d i s t s

30

Governmalt c-65 sclentistl

20

20 hatom

Deputia c-65

10

Figure 1

IAEA Hanford Offictals

10

Pierce et al.

440

(U.S. by

do

on

on

1, 55%

by by

THE STRUCTURE OF TRUST A

Russia

44 1

the U.S.

1.

4,

1

20,

1

5

5

3

12.

2. 2.

on

1 U.S. 1 0.58 0.82 0.19 0.72 0.67 0.84 0.12 0.89 0.83

0.39 0.70 -0.14

0.84 0.37 0.45 0.1 1 0.86 0.10

2

1

2 0.58 0.39 0.8 1 0.13 0.60 0.36 0.80 0.13 0.86 0.43

0.48 0.58 0.16 0.84 0.39 0.62 0.23 0.84 0.12 0.29

442

Pierce et al.

Table 2

~~~~~~~

a1

13.98 8.28

14.91 7.09

14.96 7.70

14.57 7.65

0.67 4.1

0.57 0.007

12.31 8.53

15.63 8.64

15.16 8.96

16.23 9.3 1

63.2 3.5

0.000 0.01

sums 5 20

trust);

3

12

trust).

no

do

SOURCES OF VARIATlON IN TRUST

Personal/Background Attributes

443


1986).

1989;

1992).

1991).

Cognitive Attributes

by

(10

1982;

1986).

1990).

Affective Attributes by

Pierce et al.

444

on

on

on

on A

197 1,

.’ by

on

on on

Contextual Attributes As

on

on


445

no

Findings 4

3

Table 3

on

~

0.12 2 . 8 2 ~

R’ F

0.01 0.20W 0.01 -0.02 0.02 0.05 0.0 1

sm

0.03

0.12 3 . 3 2 ~ -0.05 -0.08 0.0 1

0.2 0.0 -0.02 0.02 0.05 0.0

0.03

0.23 0.02 -0.05 -0.0 1 0.02 0.22ii-t -0.14+ 0.05 -0.1 1 -0.0 1 -0.02

0.00

~

~~~

0.19 9 . 2 6 ~ 0.03

1 0.02 0.3 -0.3OW

0.05 -0.16 0.02 -0.03 0.00 -0.04

0.20i-H

0.05 -0.37+++

0.01 0.03

0.03

Pierce et al.

446

Table 4

on ~

~

~~~

~~~~

U.S.

R’I F

0.07

0.09+ 0.06 0.03 0.00 -0.05 -0.04 0.00 -0.02 -0.02 0.02 -0.05 0.00 -0. I3-1-t 0.02 -0.08 0.15i-1-t 0.06 0.07

0.03 1.1 1 0.00

0.03 1.12

1.5 -0.05

C

0.04 -0.05

0.00 0.00

-0.06 0.02 -0.0 1 -0.03 -0.04

0.0 1

1 0.0 1 0.0 1 -0.07 -0.07 0.02 0.02 -0.0 1 -0.01 -0.0 1

0.04 -0.06 -0.07 0.02 0.02 -0.02 -0.0 1 -0.01

0.00 -0.0 1 -0.01 0.02

-0.01 -0.13+ 0.02 -0.08

-0.08 0.03 0.03 -0.1 1 -0.14

-0.08 0.03 0.04

on on on

no

on risk

447


on

on

U.S. by

do

on

by 4%. by 3%.

THE IMPACT OF TRUST

5

4.

on

448

5 ~~~~

U.S.

R?

0.17 2 5 . 4 ~ 0.1

F

0.01

0.17

0.10

0.16 9.3i-U

0.1

0.01

0.07 0.03

-0.23+++ 0.04

0.05

0.0 1

Age

0.03 -0.12++

0.04

0.1

.

0.

0.01 0.06

0.06

on

HOW-

on on

on

on

449


. .,

ENDNOTES 1.

0

no

6

6 by

2.

0

5.

3. 10

0 4.

5.

6.

10

up

REFERENCES X.

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450

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Environmental Policy and Administration in Advanced Industrial Countries

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454

5%

1997: 9). book by

on

40

good by

455

Environmental Policy in Advanced Countries

on on by

on

on

by on

on

by

on

Part I11

456

do

U.S.

upon

111

on As

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Changing Natural Resource Paradigms in the United States

Bruce Shindler Mark Brunson

INTRODUCTION on on

of

198

459

460

Shindler and Brunson

1). on

upon by

to good

Table 1

).

by

Decentralizedl'devolved' Soiircv:

Centralized/hierarchical (

in

Resource

46 1

U.S.

on on on

NATURAL RESOURCE POLICY RESPONSES

TO SHIFTING VALUES

on

U.S. U.S.

on. on

on

on

ris

on


462

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING

on.

do

do

on do

Incomplete Understanding of Problems

on

463

US.

Resource

up on

20

on.

on

The Need for Informed Choice

on on

good

good


464

by

Science and Education Are Not Enough

As

(

’’

do up good

on

As

(1994)

... do

As

on.

(26).

by

on

Natural Resource Paradigms

465

the U S .

by

on, on by

POLICY PROCESSES AND INSTITUTIONS

As on on

up

do

on on

A

As

do

by

We Lack Integrated Approaches to Research

466


by

on by

do

We Are Weak in Public Process

by

by by

lack

467

U.S.

try

on. on.

do

do

(27-28).

by

on

do

of no

up

468


on

NATIONAL AND LOCAL SCALES by

by

on

or

469

Natural Resource Paradigms in the U.S.

quo

on

by do

good

good

CONCLUSION on

bound up


470

to

on

by

by on

to

a

ENDNOTES 1.

2. by

3.

no

4.

good

REFERENCES 1990.

Huntcin Organization

1990. 1984 1988 407. R.

1988. “A

Atnrrican Forrst.s 9 4

4648.

S.

Environment and Behmiior 22:

1989.

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Natural Resource Paradigms in the U.S.

Society and Natural Resources 1992. Social Science Quarterlj+ 1992. Society and Natural Resources 23 1992. Rangelands 1998. Stewardship Across Boundaries. 1994. . Rangelands. “

1995. S.

A New Centupfor Natural Resources

Management. 1997.

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1996.

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1994.

Governing Public Opinion Quarterly

1986. 50:

1994. 1997.

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Conservation Biology ” Conservation Biology

1990. Culture Sh$t in Advanced Society. 1994. Breaking the Mold: Global Change, Social Responsibility, and Natural Resource Management.


472 1996. High Couritn Ne,rv.s 1989.

1,

3. on Uiiiversity oj' Colorado Oi~yRevie\+,

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Society

Liritl

Natural Resources 4 :

Society trricl N~iturtilRe.sor/rce.s4:

176. 1998. Stew,cirdship Across B ~ i ~ i d c t r i e . ~ .

1994. mc-cs,

J. Mtriicigerwnt, Ecoriotiiics,

L

I

Ripctrim Resources: A Symposiion o i i the DisturhCorvlicts ~ Associcrted irith Ripnricrri Ecosystenis.

1991. 1996. 1997.

Its

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8. 7.

Crecrtiiig n Forestry f b r the 21st Ceritury.

36 1983. Erii~irori~~iuritrilistS: V~irigirrtrdji)r Li Nrnp Society. S.A. 1996.

Eii\iironNirntrrl I m p c r c t A.s.ve.s.sment Re\*ie,r, 1976. S.

Etit~ironmentcilPolitics. 1992. Citizetis, Politictrl C o i ~ i i i i i 4 t i i ~ . ~ i t imcl ~)ii. Interest Groicps: Ett r~iroiirnetrt~il Orgarri,-ntiori.s in Ctrn~idcrcrticl the Utiited Stcrtes.

1997. on

170. 1992. Rerie~~~crhle Re.sourc.esJoirrricil 1. 1997. Jouriicil of Fot-esti-y 9 3 1 ): 9. 1993. Journtrl cf Forestn 9 1996. A Joirrritrl (,f Forestry 2. 1992. Social Aspects o j ' N e ~Per.specti\v.s ' iri Forestn: A Problem Aricilysis. Press: 33. 1997. 2 1. 1995. Corrser-ivitiott Bi~lo~q~, B.S. 1996. Jouriicrl of Eiir~irnritrreritcrlMtrticigetiierrt

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1989. Politicd Behavior 1 1: 1996. Whole Farm Planriing: Volutitap?.Farmrr-Led, arid Working! 1994. Building Bridges Across Agency Boundcrries in Search of Escellerice in the U.S. Forest Service. 1996. Ecosystem Mcriiagenzent in the h i r e d States: An Assessment of Current E.xperierice. 1981. Nerry Rules: Searching f o r SelfFul’llnieiit

in LI World Turned Upside Do\~*n.

D. 1991. Coming to Public Judgment: Making Democracy Work in a Coiiiples World.


The European Union and Environmental Policy Glen Sussman Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

THE EUROPEAN UNION AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

1957,

40

on on

. of

by

on on by

475

476

As

13 by ond,

by 14

15

370

As

16). on 15

on by 1991 1993

by 1995

upon

477

bond

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND on upon by

195 1, 1957

by 1967

1972

by

on

1986 upon by

1986

1972

478

Sussman

on

by 1992

1993

on

of

by

upon

of do

15 on

479

by 3b

by by

by

EU

on

on

...

on

Sussman

480

on

1986,

by

on

on

on

by

by on

15 by

the

by

by

20 by

by

22

by on body,

48 1

European Union and Environmental Policy

15 body,

626

on by 217 27

do

3). by

by

by

by by by 50

As

body

Sussman

482

11 173

174

on body 1995.

on

5). no

1995 26-28)

1972

on

The Limits

Grmjth

1991,

56

12

by 1992

Handbook of Global Environmental Policy and Administration

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Handbook of Police Administration (Public Administration and Public Policy)

Handbook of Military Administration (Public Administration and Public Policy)

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Handbook of Global Economic Policy (Public Administration and Public Policy, 78)

Handbook of Conflict Management (Public Administration and Public Policy, Vol. 104) (Public Administration and Public Policy)

Handbook of Long-Term Care Administration and Policy (Public Administration and Public Policy)

Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration (Public Administration and Public Policy)

Sustainable Development Policy and Administration (Public Administration and Public Policy)

International Handbook of Public Procurement (Public Administration and Public Policy)

Handbook of Governmental Accounting (Public Administration and Public Policy 152)

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Handbook of Organizational Behavior (Public Administration and Public Policy)

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Environmental Policy and Politics

British Environmental Policy and Europe: Politics and Policy in Transition (Global Environmental Change Series)

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