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GUNUNG SEWU IN PREHISTORIC TIMES
GUNUNG SEWU IN PREHISTORIC TIMES AUTHORS
Truman Simanjuntak - Centre f or Archaeological Research Bagyo Prasetyo - Centre for Archaeological Research Harry W idianto - Yogyakarta Archaeological Research Sub-centre Fadhlan S.Intan - Centre f or Archaeological Research Retn o Hand ini - Centre for Archaeological Research Anjar Sri Sayekti - Alumna of Gadjah Mada University Etik Ma hareni - Alumna of University of Indonesia
EDITOR
TRUMAN SIMANJUNTAK READER
JOHN N . MIKSIC NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY PRESS
tr
CONTENTS List of Plat es List of Figures List of Tables Pref ace by editor Prefa ce by John Miksic
IX
xv iii XXll XXlll
xx v
PART ONE: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF GUNUNG SEWU
Copyright © 2002 GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY PRESS P.O. Box 14, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281 , Indonesia E-mail:
[email protected] First printing March 2002 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form. by print•. photo-print. microfilm, or any other means without written permission from the publisher.
1119.10.03.02
Printed and published in Indonesia by: GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY PRESS
Member of IKAPI (Indones ian Publishers Association) 0263046-B5E IS BN 979-420-501-X
1. Gunung Sewu: A Long History of Occupation (Introduction) Truman Simanjuntak 1., . 2. Natural Conditions and Contemporary Communities of G unung Sewu _ ., Retno Handini Cultural Traditions in the Gunung Sewu Area Retno Handini 3. Brief notes on Paleoclimate and Paleogeography of the Archipelago
3
13
20
25
Truman Simanjuntak and Fadhlan S. lntan Preliminary Studies on the Palynology of Gunung Sewu Anjar Sri Sayekti 4. Geological Condition of Gunung Sewu
Fadhlall S. Intan History of the Formation of Gunung Sewu and the Karst Caves Fadlan S. Intan and Truman Simanjuntak
32 41
49
VII
vi
PART FOUR: PRENEOLITHIC EXPLOITATION IN THE HOLOCENE
PART TWO: EXPLOITATION IN REMOTE TIMES 5. Evidence of Early Colonization Bagyo Prasetyo The Baksoka River Terraces Fadhlan Silntan 6. Patterns of Settlement and Subsistence Bagyo Prasetyo 7. The Pacitanian Truman Simanjuntak 8. The Pacitanian Culture: Who Owns It ? Ha rry Widianto
55 62 68 73 80
PART THREE: TOWARD THE END OF THE PLEISTOCENE 9. Cave Settlement, Ne w Trend in the Late Pleistocene 89 Truman Simanjuntak 10. Caves Settlement in the Gunun g Sewu Area 97 Bagyo Prasetyo, Truman Simanj untak and Fadhlan S. lntan • CavesSettlement in Southeast Asia 102 Truman Simanjuntak
11. Keplek Cave: Settlement in the Late Pleistocene-Holocene Truman Simanjuntak 12. Braholo Cave, an Idea l Settlement Site in Western Gunung Sewu Truman Simanjuntak The Formation of Keplekand BraholoCaves Fadhlan S. lntan 13. Late Pleistocene Vertebrates in Gunung Sewu Etik Mahareni
109
119 128 133
14. Subsistence of the Cave Dwellers Truman Simanjuntak and Bagyo Prasetyo Macaca sp. and Cave Settlement Bagyo Prasetyo The Hearth in Cave Settlement Truman Simanjuntak 15. Exploitation of Rock Resources Fadhlan S. lntan 16. They Developed the Lithic Industry Truman Simanjuntak . Hake-Blade Tools in Islands Southeast Asia Truman Simanjuntak 17. The Bone Industry Bagyo Prasetyo ;"., Double Points from Braholo Cave Bagyo Prasetyo
..
147 154 155 159 165 176 18 1 189
p:~
The Distribution of Bone Tool Tradition Bagyo Prasetyo
191
PART FIVE: NEOLITHIC AND PALEOMETALLIC EXPLOITATION 18. Neolithic Workshop Sites , The Peak of Lithic Technology Truman Simanjuntak Neolithic Features in Indonesia Truman Simanjuntak 19. The Neolithic of Gunung Sewu: from Caves to Open Sites Truman Simanjuntak and Bagyo Prasetyo Gunung Sewu Pottery within the Southeast Asian Context Bagyo Prasetyo 20. From the Neolithic to the Paleometallic Bag yo Prasetyo 21. Development of Metallurgy in Indonesia Bagyo Prasetyo
197 203 206 211 215 221
viii ix Metal Objects from Paleometallic Sites Ba~"prasetyo
.
223
LIST OF PLATES
PART SIX: GUNUNG SEWU: MAN AND SETTLEMENT CHRONOLOGY
22. Prehistoric Inhabitants of Gunung Sewu Har ry Widianto The Flexed Burial System Bagyo Prasetyo
23. Settlement Chronology of Gunung Sewu Truman Simanjuntak 24. Gunung Sewu: Exploitation Since the Remote Past (Conclusion) Truman Simanjuntak Bibliography Appendix 1· List of Cave Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area Appendix 2 List of Open Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area
227 248 250 257 263 276 • 280
Plate 1: Specific view of Gunung Sewu with the hemispheric or conic karst hills. This hilly area limits the agricultural area to the valleys and narrow plains and in some cases the hill slopes . Plate 2: Another characteristic of the Gunung Sewu landscape are the dolines between the hill range . Some of these dolines never dried up and other contain water only in the rainy season. Scarcity of water forced the people to utilize the dolines for washing and bathing, etc. Plate 3: The arid condition of the soil only facilitated dry cultivation and only during the rain y-season around October- March. The longer the rainy seas0!l it will be an advantage for the farmers . In this picture a ' woman is pulling out Cassava or Manihot utilisima on her field . Plate 4: A traditional javanese house in the Gunung Sewu region. It is very simple with a tiled roof and walls of plaited woven bamboo "gedeg", The most specific characteristic is that it has a spacious room in front to receive guests. The rooms are in the back and farthest back is the kitchen. Plate 5: A sight of market day in the district town, Punung. The traditional market is very busy during harvest time and forms the place where crop products are sold and daily necessities are bought. Mobility of the people on market day enlivened the rural sphere. Plate 6: A rural scenery in the afternoon when the farmers are on the way back home after a day working in the field . They carry crop-produce and grass to feed the livestock. Plate 7: The resan Kali Jero in the village Sumugih, Rongkop, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta Special Area Province. The area of the resan is grown with big ipek and gentungan trees that form a circle with a diameter of about 10 m. Part of the local
Xl
x peopl~believe
that their ancestors spirit live in this resan and is tnerefore regarded as sacred. No one dares to disturb or harm this resan for fear of the effect it may cause. Plate 8: The sanctuary (petilasan) of Kyai Mojo in the village Semugih, Rongkop district, Gunung Kidul regency. This place is often used by the people beyond Semugih village to meditate, while the local people in the surrounding area that are to hold a feast, used this place to perform rituals of rejecting rain. Plate 9: The landscape of Gunung Sewu changes follows the seasons. During the dry season, the landscape is open, whereas during the rainy season it becomes green with dense vegetation. This picture presents a landscape during the rainy season. Plate 10: Pollen from Keplek Cave. From up left to below right: Cyatheaceae, Polypodiaceae, Euporbhiaceae, Liliaceae, Podocarpaceae, Malvaceae. Plate 11: Pollen from Braholo Cave. Up down: Cyperaceae, Nygtaginaceae, Astreaceae. Plate 12: A beach view and the karst hill range in Watukarung. Erosion by' seawater caused that some of the hills to be located separated from the continent. Plate 13: The situation of the karst hills in the western part of Gunung Sewu, Seen from afar the hemispheric or conic shape of the hills with no vegetation. There are certain parts of Gunung Sewu that are more arid, without any vegetation. Plate 14: A thin section of carbonate calcified clay showing the composition of excessive clay minerals besides calcite and carbon slivers and vertebrate bones. It also containes volcanic material, comprising andesite, magnetite, biotite, pyroxen, plagioclase, and quartz (Widiasmoro, 1999). Plate 15: A thin section of lithic tuff crystal showing the composition of crystal lithic and volcanic glass. The crystal consists of plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, biotite, magnetite, and exessive pyroxen. Lithic composition consists of andesite
and pumice. Besides it also contains calcite and vertebrate bones (Widiasmoro, 1999). Plate 16: White limestone in brittle and crackled condition. This rock is very soluble and easy to crumble. This picture is taken from a location on the southwest of the Braholo Cave entrance. Plate'17: The situation of Baksoka River in the rainy season is very much different from that in the dry season. This picture shows 'a situation in the rainy season with clear water. Usually, .after a heavy rain, the river is over flooded. In this river Koenigswald found Paleolithic artifacts in 1935. Plate 18: Kedunggamping River in Worawari village, district Kebun. . agung, Pacitan regency. It is a Paleolithic site very rich in andesite artefacts. Typologically , the artifacts it contains belong to the pacitanian. Plate 19: The chopper is the most commonly found among the massive tools. The main characteristics: a monofacial edge. From its morphology, it distinguishes the tortoise type, flatiron type, and horse hoof type. This picture presents a . chopper of the tortoise type from Baksoko river. ' Plate 20: Dolines with plains and hills surrounding it and the areas of river courses, provide various environmental nature resources to support human life. The discovery of artifacts around the river and plains indicate that human activities occurred around these areas. Photo on the left: a lake in the Rongkop area. On the right: the Paleolithic site in Sooka river, village Kebunagung, east of Pacitan. Plate 21: A specific rural scenery in Gunung Sewu in the plains and narrow valleys between the hills. This view reflects prehistoric occupation of similar landscapes. The picture is taken from around Cabak Cave, Baran . Plate 22: Andesite flake tool from Sooka river, village Kebunagung, east of Pacitan. Retouches are found on the lateral side. Compared to other lithic artifacts from this site, this tool is less rounded with corners still sharp.
xii Plate 23: A view of karst hills that will vanish due to mining activities for th~oduction of chalk. This kind of activities presents hazards to the preservation of cave sites that formed centres of human activities in the past. Destruction of the karst hills means decrease of historic data. This picture is taken from the road side of Baran, Wonosari. Plate 24: A core tool from Braholo Cave. Made of limestone, cut from a boulder by flaking at the end (distal) to create the cutting edge. Part of the surface is left untrimmed. Apparently the utilization of the tool was more important than the creation of standard forms. The scarcity of silicified rocks around Braholo Cave compelled the use of the available material. The soft rock is less suitable for the manufacture of flake tools, but it suited for the bigger tools. Plate 25: Kalak Cave, one of the most beautiful caves in the Punung area with its stalactites and stalagmites in the front. This cave stretches into the hill and contains plenty of prehistoric remains like animal bones; potsherds and lithic artifacts. Plate 26: Song Gupuh (Gupuh Cave), one of the intensively studied caves in the Punung area. The uniqueness of the cave is the presence of a thick Neolithic layer that exceeds other caves. In this cave are also found quadrangular planks and atelier flakes: Plate 27: Excavation activities in Keplek Cave, Punung. On the right: the beginning of excavating a square. On the left: activities of measuring finds in a square that is fairly deep, recording, and cleaning . Plate 28: Keplek Cave, from the Southwest. The part that can be excavated is limited to the front section. The main part stretches to the back is covered by huge blocks, as debris of the cave roof. The find in this cave are very dense. Plate 29: The hill site of Braholo cave viewed from the west. The cave - is located below a steep slope, about 15 m above the village road. In the front is the plain that contains the village settlement.
xiii Plate 30: Tool like chopper from the Late Pleistocene layer of Braholo Cave. Crude in performance with monofacial flaking from distal towards proximal part. Secondary flakings are still observable along the distal side. . ' Plate 31: Canarium seed from Braholo Cave. Seeds like kenan (Conarium sp), ketapang (Terminalia catappa) and kemiri (Al/eurites mol/ucan) were found in the middle portion of layer 3 upwards. The exploitation of seeds is assumed to occur since 6.000 years ago. Plate 32: A concentration of animal bones in B6, Keplek Cave. Similar findings often occur in occupation layers in caves. . Usually they consist of various kinds of animals and . assumed to be the food remains of the cave dwellers. Plate 33: Some faunal remains from the Late Pleistocene layer in Keplek Cave. On the leftt.part of a lower mandible of Cervidae. Centre: -antler of Cervidae; upper right; fragment of Testudinidae carapax; lo\'/er right: tooth/teeth of Suidae. Plate 34: Some wood fibers were found in the hearth layer in Braholo Cave. Some are coarse as seen in picture. Finer fibres were found in burial of square J9, around the chest part. It was assumed as dress (cloth) of the dead. The coarse fibres from dress remains is still doubted. Plate 35: Fresh water molluscs. Besides marine molluscs, land and fresh water molluscs were also found in excavations, but they are confined to the upper layer or from more recent occupation . Plate 36: Macaca sp. skull from Braholo Cave. The monkey remains are most commonly found in Braholo and Keplek Caves. The most dense distribution was found in the early Holocene layers till about 4,000 years ago or in Prene?lithic .Iayers. Based on its density, it is assumed that the main subsistence of the cave dwellers was hunting monkeys for food. The bones were often utilized for various kinds of tools, specially small sized tools like needles. Plate 37: The hearth layer in square J9, Braholo Cave (west wall).
xiv
xv
This layer reached a thickness of three meters unruptured. Radio~ric dating revealed that firing activities occurred at about 9,000 years ago and continued till 4,000 years ago. Viewed from the intensity of firing remains it can be assumed that firing formed a very significant activity in cave live at that period. This layer is also often found in other occupation caves, but not so intensi ve as that in Braholo Cave. Usually it is located in a corner near the cave wall. This general pattern in the cave indicates that room division was already practised. Plate 38: Chert Preneolithic arrow head from Braholo Cave. Chert is hard but brittle , so that trimming it make them favourable for the material of arrowheads. The mastering of various flaking techniques may result in beautiful arrowheads. Plate 39: Mortar from Braholo Cave. The outstanding characteristic is that one plane become concave and weathered by use. On the centre of the concave plane , remains of red material (hematite) is still left, indicating that mortars used also to produce hematite powder. • Plate 40: Chopper of fossil wood found on the surface in Keplek Cave. This kind of tool is not found in the Holocene cultural layer. It' was assumed that the tool was brought in to the cave. This picture shows the manner of monofacially flaking, starting from the edge to the proximal part of the tool. Plate 41 : Pebble hammer from Keplek Cave. The material clearly show allochtonous rock taken from the river. A percutor is a tool for flaking in the tool manufacturing. On the specific part of a tool, particularly the ends, shows cars of fractures effected by the blows with the flaked material. Plate 42: Double pointed needles form specific products in Braholo Cave. Morpho-technologically they present several types, - and the most commonly found are the mono lateral double pointed needles. As seen on the pictures these needles remind us of Muduk Point from South Sulawesi, but of a different type.
Plate 43: Tool of antler from Braholo Cave. Antler is hard and its shape with the many branches is very easy to be used as tool. By cutting one of the branches on the main part, there is no need for further working to get the ideal shape. Usually only one end is worked on to be the active part of a tool. By monofacially rubbings, a wide cutting edge is obtained, like spatulas sometimes the natural pointed end is also used as tool. Use marks will be left as weathered surface, even or shiny . Antler tools from Braholo Cave are more outstanding than in Keplek Cave. , Plate 44: Several scrapers of mollusc shell from Braholo Cave. The serrated side as the result of retouching and use is . observable. Next to scraper, molluscs shell were also used to produce points . Plate 45: Some molluscs shell ornaments. The shapes are varieted, there are even some that retain its natural shape, without any modification of the original shape. The characteristics of shell ornaments lies in the perforating hole, or holes in the center part: and assumed to serve to insert thread with which the ornament is to hang. Plate 46: The Neolithic site of Ngrijangsengon. The very dense distribution of chert flakes expanded not only in the dry field areas, but also on the village roads and around the houses of the local people. The density of these flakes indicate very intensive atelier activities in said site. , Plate 47: Some arrowheads from the site of Melikan, The triangular shape, thin by trirruning on both planes, retouched sides and concave base form the specific character of Neolithic arrowheads of Gunung Sewu. They were unlike the Preneolithic arrowheads, that are coarse, thick and with convex base. Plate 48: The very dense distribution of chert flakes on the site of Ngrijangan. Similar distribution of flakes are often found in other Neolithic sites. One can imagine the existence of centers of activities, that prevailed continuously in a relatively long period.
xvii xvi Plate 49 : Plank in the further stage of working from Ngrijangsengon. Usually th~oduct from the ateliers are unfinished adzes. By rubbing the surface and cutting edge , a fine smooth adze is obtained , ready for use. Plate 50 : Finished adze s and used ones from Nrijan gan site. Finished adzes are very rarely found, but their presence indicate that the atelier also produced finished adzes . The picture show s the smooth surface and damaged cutting edge by usage. Plate 51: Klepu site in the rainy season with flouri shin g crops of Cassava. The site covers a part of cultivation field that is slightly flat. The' Paleometallic cultural remains found comprise metal objects, beads and pottery. Plate 52 : Reconstructed saucer from Klepu site. This bowl is found in association with pots , other bowl, beads and metal objects within a concentration of finds. The location of the finding is assumed to be a burial , with those objects as funeral gifts. Unfortunately, no human remains were found because of the possibility that it was totally destroyed due to the high water . content on the site. The bowl was made using the rotating wheel technique, the surface is smoothened with red slip. Plate 53: A machete from Klepu Site, found in association with pottery and beads . It is corroded but the original shape is still preserved. The artifact bearing layer dates from around 600 years BP. Plate 54: A concentration of pottery found in situ in Klepu site in a layer datin g from 600 years ago. Found in assoc iation with beads and machete. Plate 55: Some strands of beads from Klepu site. The beads were made of glass, round shaped, a penetrating hole that connect both end s. The colour varie s from green , light blue, dark blue , to yellow ish. Th ey are usually small , with a diameter of"(),4 cm. Beads like these are commonly found in Paleometallic sites in Indonesia, like Gilimanuk, Plawangan, etc. Plate 56: A burial with a flexed position of the dead (Individual IV) in Keplek Cave. Both legs are folded with the heels towards the
hip , and arms folded towards che st and chin. It represents an adult woman . Plate 57: A burial with straight position facing upwards . Both arms folded on the chest and represent individual V from Kepl~k Cave. The physical characteristics point to the Mongoloid
I
I
\
\ I
race. Plate 58: A primary burial in flexed position from Bra~o.lo Cave (Individual I). Legs and arms are in flexed Posl~l?n. The skull is invisible because of its fragmentary condItIOn: On the chest and abdomen are stones heaped to protect It. It represents an adult female individual. . Plate 59: One of the secondary burials (indi vidual IT) found III square . 18 Braholo Cave. In secondary burials it is common to select the particular parts of the body that are cons idered of importance to be buried. -, . Plate 60: Lower human jaw from Braholo Cave as a part of ~econdary burial. . ':. .
xviii
LIST OF
xix
FIGU~ .Figure 7:
Figure 1:
Location of Gunung Sewu and the Southern Mountains of Java .
Figure 2:
Distribution of Prehistoric Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area The Sunda shelf in the ice age and route for migration (Sernah et .al, 1990). Glaciation that . occurred repeatedly during the Pleistocene ' has changed the shape of the Archipelago, conform to the rise and drop of sea level. During the ice age, sea level dropped effecting in the emergence of land bridge that connected the Asian continent with the islands Sumatra, Java , and Kalimantan (Borneo), forming the Sunda shelf. It was during this period that migration of man and fauna from continental area to the islands was assumed to occur.
Figure 3:
Figure 4:
Figure 8:
Geomorphological map of Gunung Sewu
Figure 6:
Cross section of the Baksoka valley. Above (after de Terra): 1. Limestone; 2. terra rosa; 3. volcanic ash; 4. old volcan ic material; TI ,2: river terraces. Below: (after Movius): 1. limestone , 2. terra rosa; 3. volcanic
1976). A large disc scraper, made of silicified limestone, was found in situ in 1970, from the cemented gravel layer on the bank of Sunglon river, near Tabuhan Cave (Bartstra, 1976). Made of sili~ified li~e~tone, marks of flaking and intensive retouchmg are VISible a~o~nd ~he tool. The size of this picture underwent diminution
from its original. '. ' Plan and section of ~eplek Cave, Eastern Gunung Figure 9: .. , Sewu Figure 10: Disc scrapers from Keplek Cave. 1: 8316-B6; 2: 8198B6 Figure 11: Bone tools from Keplek Cave: waisted tool (8075-A5), perforator from a tooth (8590-A5) Figure 12: Schematic stratigraphy of Keplek Cave, Punung (Gunung Sewu) Figure 13: Plan and section of Braholo Cave. . Western Gunung
The post glaciaton situation of the Archipelago (Semah et al, 1990) . The termination of the ice age has caused the change of the islands'palaeogeography: landbridges that previously emerged, connecting the Asian continent with the islands submerged, due to the rise of sea level. Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan that formerly formed the Sunda shelf were separated and became islands. This occurrence has brought consequences in the migration flow that formerly took the land bridge has to take the sea route .
Figure 5:
. ; Tl "23'. river terraces (Bartstra, ash, 4 . 0 Id vo Icaruc 1976). Hand-axe as one of the specific Paleolithic tools, is characterized by bifacial flaking, on most of t~e surface or the entire surface, to create a symmetnc shape. This picture (no scale) shows a hand-axe from Baksoka River made of silicified limestone (Bartstra,
Figure 14:
Sewu Stratigraphy of Braholo Cave , Western Gunung Sewu
Schematic of the formation process of Braholo Cave Figure 16: Lithic artifacts from Braholo Cave: percutor (182-08), side scraper (287-0 5) Figure 17: Lithic artifacts from Braholo Cave: blade (207-08), end scraper (490-08), utilized flake (578-05)
Figure 15:
Figure 18:
\
\ \
Big spatulas from Braholo Cave
XXI
xx Figure 19: Bone tools from Braholo Cave: spatula (122-05), point (1~6)
Figure ~O: Figure 21: Figure 22: Figure 23:
Distribution of Macaca sp. at Keplek Cave Distribution of Macaca sp. at Braholo cave Nucleus from Keplek Cave. 1683-F8. Knives with the cortical dorsal from Keplek Cave. 1: 1722-F8; 2: 794- F8; 3: 1563-F8; 4: 1227-F8. Figure 24: Concave scrapers from Keplek Cave. 1: 1903-D3; 2: 36-03; 3: ~-03 ; 4: 359-03; 5: 3659-D3; 6: 656-03; 7: 101-03; 8: 324-03. Figure 25: Denticulated tools from Keplek Cave. 1: 605-B6; 2: 19-B6; 3: 497: B6; 4: 132-B6. Figure 26: Side scraper from Keplek Cave. 1: 1834-B6; 2: 1444B6; 3: 730- B6 Figure 27: Keplek Cave: distribution of bone tools Figure 28: Braholo Cave: distribution of bone tools Figure 29: Big spatula from Braholo Cave Figure 30: Bone artifacts from Braholo Cave: spatula (176-L8), (45-17), needle (34-17), utilized teeth (26-K8) Figure 31: Neolithic sites in Gunung Sewu (after Tanudirjo, 1991) Figure 32: The unfinished adze from Ngrijangsengon site Figure 33: The unfinished adze from Padangan site Figure 34: Distribution of caves settlement in eastern part of Java Figure 35: The unretouched flakes from Keplek Cave. 1: 572303; 2:5787-03; 3:5727-03 Figure 36: Points from Keplek Cave. 1:7424-B6; 2:8232-B6; 3:6771-B6. Figure}7: Borers from Keplek Cave. 1: 6888-B6 (wood fossil); 2: 4974-B6; 3: 8223-B6; 4:5575-B6. Figure 38: Borers from Keplek Cave. 1: 871-D3; 2: 912-D3; 3:460 3; 4:903-03.
Figure 39: Figure 40: Figure 41: Figure 42: Figure 43: Figure 44: Figure 45: Figure 46: Figure 47: Figure 48:
Used flakes from Keplek Cave. 1: 587-F8;2: 667-F8; 3: 1512-F8; 4: 2005-F8; 5: 395-F8. The utilized flakes from Keplek Cave. 1: 7287-B6; 2: 4515-B6; 3:5566-B6 End scraper from Keplek Cave. 1: 36-F8; 2: 1733-F8; 3: 1666-F8; 4: 295-F8; 5: 158-F8; 6: 1327-F8. Chopping tool of limestone from Braholo Cave. 313M8 Core tool from Braholo Cave : arrow pointing at flaking direction. 366-D5. Chopper of limestone from Braholo Cave. 530-05. Various types of scraper from Keplek Cave. 1: 28808; 2: 72-08; 3: 366-08. Spatula from BraholoCave. 1: 434-D5; 2: 45-05. Other type of spatula from Braholo Cave. 38'-N8. Bone tools from Braholo Cave: spatula (above), point (left below), needle (right below)
Note: Figures no. 22-26, 38, 39, 41 drawn by Hubert Forestier, others by Oayat Hidayat.
xxii
LIST OF TABL~
Table 1:
Pollen from Braholo Cave, Western Gunung Sewu (13 samples taken from layer 1-6) Table 2: Pollen from Keplek Cave, Eastern Gunung Sewu (13 samples taken from layer 1-5) Table 3: Cave settlement sites of the Late Pleistocene in Southeast Asia Table 4: Cave settlement sites of the Holocene Times in Indonesia Table 5: C14 dates available from Keplek Cave, Eastern Gunung Sewu Table 6: C14 dates available from Braholo Cave, Western Gunung Sewu Table 7: Distribution of animal remains from the Late Pleistocene Layers of Braholo.Cave Table 8: Paleometallic Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area Table 9: Human Remains from Keplek and Braholo Caves, Gunung Sewu Table 10: Settlement Chronology of the Gunung Sewu Area.
PREFACE This book presents a synthesis of prehistoric life in the Gunung Sewu area, based on recent archaeological researches. Various aspects that relate to the inhabitants, the environment exploitation, the cultural character and chronology, become the main topics of discussion . The Gunung Sewu region has been inhabited continuously since the very remote past. Paleolithic sites distributed along the river courses that cross this area provide evidence of the oldest occupation that may have begun during the Middle Pleistocene. Since then, the exploitation of this area continued in a very long time span up to the historical period. The composition of this book involved a long sequence of activities starting with library research, followed by data collecting in the field, data processing, and data-synthesis . The primary sources for this volume are data obtained in recent fieldworks, supplemented by comparison with the results of earlier researches . It would have been impossible to achieve this new synthesis without the active involvement of the many young researchers who contributed their talents and energy to the arduous field and laboratory work required. This book consists of six main parts. Each part consists of several articles and some of these are supplemented with short articles that focus on specific matters. Part One (Chapters 1-4) presents a general history of occupation, environment and actual communities of Gunung Kidul as background to an understanding of life in the past. Part Two (Chapters 5-8) elaborates on the exploitation of Gunung Sewu in the earliest period (the Paleolithic) . Part Three (Chapters 913) discusses substantial changes in the pattern of life which took place in conjunction with a shift in locations favoured for habitation, from open sites to natural caves or shelters. Part Four (Chapters 1417) elaborates on the exploitation of this area during the Preneolithic period, covering cultural aspects related to cave settlement, hunting subsistence, exploitation of stone for tool-making, and the exploitation of bone and antler for a bone tool industry. Part Five (Chapters 18-21)
xxiv discusses Neo lithic cave habitation followed by a return to open sites, and the Paleometaw.is; as the final stage of prehistory. Part Six (Chapters 22-24) discusses the chronology of human settlement in the Gunun g Sewu area. The book concl udes with a synthesis of life in the Gunung Sewu area in prehistoric times. Research on Gunung Sewu executed in the last five years, which forms the basis of this book, has been funded by The Toyota Found ation, with support from the National Research Centre of Archaeology. Without the financial support of the previously mention ed foundation, tlie research described in this book could not have been conducted. In conjun ction with this fact, we, the compilers of this report, convey our sincere gratitude to The Toyota Foundation for the funds made available for research and publication of this work. We convey our thanks and appreciation to Ms. Yumiko HimernotoHiraishi, the Program Officer of the Internati onal Division of the Toyota Foundation, and her successor Ms. Etsuko Kawasaki, who regularly gave directives for the smooth running and success of the research project. Thank s are also conve yed to Dr. Tomoko Egami from the Aoyamagakuin University, Tokyo, who acted as the working' partner in the field and has rendered much help for the smooth running of the undertaking. Prof. Hasan Ambary, the former Head of the National Research Centre, has given much help for the smoothness of the field work, for which we address our gratitude. We are also grateful to Dr. Franc ois Sernah from the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris for his comments and suggestions regarding the substance of this book. Many thanks are due to Ms. Hendari Sofion for her assistance in translating this work into English. We convey our thanks to Dr. John Miksic from the National University of Singapore for his assistance in proofreadin g and giving introduction to this book. We are very grateful to our old friends and "parents", Madame and Monsieur Marchand, for the continued support along this work and giving encouragement and aid for the preparation of the manuscript. Finally , we thank all the researches team for their contribution in the production of this book. Editor
PREFACE John N. Miksic National University of Singapore At the beginning of the twentieth century, Java lay at the centre of the study of early human prehistory . Eugene Dubois' discoveries of a fossil skull and femur at Trinil , east Java, in 1891 and 1892, had confirmed the hypothesis of Alfred Russel Wallace that the earliest forms of human beings should be found in the tropical zones of the world. Dubois called the species of animal represented by the bones from Trinil "Pithecanthropus", giving rise to the popular term "Ape Man " (the literal translation of Dubois' Latin term)..In th~ early decades of the twentieth century, the pace of discovery In China and Africa began to quicken . By the 19508, African research had come to occupy the place which once had been reserved for Java. Most research activity and funding for the study of the an~estors of H~mo sapiens have been allocated to Africa. J~vanese p~ehlstory, :speclally the Paleolithic era, has gradually sunk into relative obscunty. Few headlines and little funding have been expended in the search for further data to illuminate what was once viewed as the goldmine of information on early hominids, where the cutting edge of human palaeontology was situated. . . The name "Pithecanthropus" has been replaced by the SCientific name Homo erectus. Fossils of this species are also found in Africa, South Asia, and China, but Java has still yielded more specimens than any other part of Asia. Homo erectus existed f~r a very long ti~e, ov~r a million years. This species was not frozen m one form dunng this long existence, however; it evolved through several stag.es. In Java, palaeontologists now recognize an archaic stage, a claSSIC stage, and an evolved form. The archaic fossils are between 700,000 and 1,700,000 years old. Classic Homo erectus date from 800,000 to
xxvi 400,000 years ago. The evolved type is believed to have lived around 150,000 years old, The classic Homo erectus fossils have long, flat skulls. One, from Sangiran, has a prognathic face (i.e. one in which the lower part of the face juts forward, a "primitive" characteristic) and a ridge over the eyebrows, called a supra-orbital torus. Behind this ridge is a transverse sulcus (depression). The top of the skull has a ridge as well, called a toms anguiaris. The more evolved specimens, found at three sites (Ngandong, Sambungmacan, and Ngawi), are still long, but are higher and wider in proportion to their length. Their brains were also larger, almost 50% bigger' than the previous stages, and not much smaller than modem humans. In fact their brain capacity overlapped with modem human brain capacities. The greatest expansion occurred in the area of the brain, associated with the motor cortical zone. Growth in this part of the brain could have equipped Homo erectus with better coordination of the hands and fingers, enabling them to produce finer tools, for instance. Unfortunately, we do not have any good mandibles (jawbones) for the evolved Homo erectus. We do have leg bones, which show that they walked like humans today, rather than like apes; and that they were about the same size as the average human of today, i.e. adults averaged about 170 em in height. In fact, the evolved Homo erectus are so similar to modem humans that some scholars debate whether these fossils represent Homo erectus or whether they should actually be termed archaic Homo sapiens. This question in tum is directly relevant to the wider controversy which revolves around the process of human evolution in general: did it take place in a restricted area of east Africa, or was the ancient human gene pool much wider, so that the process of evolution in Africa was in some way connected with contemporary developments far away in Java (Sernah et al, 1996). The long-standing neglect of Javanese data began to be rectified in the 19QDs. For the first time, human bones of early Pleistocene age were found in direct association with stone tools (Sernah and H.T. Simanjuntak, 1996), refuting the notion that Javanese Homo erectus were in some way retarded and so did not make stone tools at all. The
xxvii problem which hindered research on this topic was that m.ost of the fossils found in Java were deposited along the banks of nvers. The rivers were both a blessing and a curse to archaeologists: the flowing water made it possible to discover ancient rock strata, since they cut down through the later deposits to reveal the ancient deposits, but the streams had transported the bones an unknown distance from the spot where they were originally buried, while the stone t~o.ls, being heavier, were left behind. The sites where Homo erectus originally left their bones for many decades were frustratingly elusive. .During the 1930s the archaeologists Ralph von Koenigswald explored the mountains in southern Java where the source of the Solo River rises. He discovered stone tools in the valley of the Baksoko, a tributary 'of the Solo River. He named these tools Pacitanian, after the _ nearby town on the south coast of Java. The tools lie on several alluvial terraces cut by the river, soI1}~ of which are up to 30 meters above the level of the river now. ' Because of their location above .the riverbed, and because of theh- types, von Koenigswald and other archaeologists initially assumed that Pacitanian tools dated from the Paleolithic era, and were made by Homo erectus. The tools include many choppe~s a~d chopping tools, analogous to those found with Homo erectus m Africa. Unlike Africa, however, the tools known as hand-axes are infrequent. Hallam Movius (1948) compared these with other artifacts from Burma from an industry called the Anyathian. It was thought that the crude form of the tools and their locations on terraces formed early in the Pleistocene indicated that they were of Paleolithic age. This was based partly on the assumption that the tools were deposited on the terraces when the rivers were much shallower, before the process of erosion had proceeded to cut the riverbeds to their present depth. This assumption cannot be proved. Further doub t was cast on the early dating of the Pacitanian by the discovery that these tools are found mingled with other artifacts of the much later Neolithic era. Several scholars suggest that the Pacitanian is no older than the Upper Pleistocene, about 40,000 years ago (Bellwood, 1997; Bartstra and Basoeki, 1989). It has so far proved impossible to find any means of
xxviii
XXIX
obtaining absolute dating for the Pacitanian assemblage. Also in th~30s, archaeologists began to find cores, flakes, and retouched tools in alluvial layers capping the Middle Pleistocene Kabuh layers of the Sangiran dome. The "Sangiran flake industry" was also proposed as the toolkit of Javanese Homo erectus. Once again, archaeologists were long frustrated by the lack of any suitable means of dating the stones, and the age of the Sangiran flakes was therefore in doubt. The site of Ngandong has yielded about a dozen skulls of evolved Homo erectus, but only a few stones which might possibly have been worked by humans. Another site of evolved Homo erectus however yielded the first definite proof that Javanese Homo erectus made stone tools: Sambungmacan. A skull of evolved Homo erectus was found there in 1973. Further excavation yielded only two stone tools: a chopper and a retouched flake, but these were enough, given their stratigraphic position, to prove that they were Homo erectus products. Research at Kedung Cumpleng, Miri, in 1988 yielded more artifacts which can be dated by correlation with the geological layer in which they were found to about 900,000 years ago. These are' at present the oldest man-made objects known from Java. At the Ngebung site in the Sangiran dome, excavations in the Kabuh bed, deposited about half a million years ago (during the Middle Pleistocene) revealed an ancient riverbank buried under more recent alluvium . Here the first actual evidence of semi-intensive Homo erectus activity has been found. Numerous artifacts, including pebbles, broken bones, rough polyhedric tools, bolas (stone balls), and choppers, chopping tools, and cleavers, were discovered in a small area, perhaps corresponding to a camping site (Simanjuntak and Semah, 1996). This achievement provides another piece of evidence to confirm the conclusion that Javanese Homo erectus were no less capable of tool-making than their cousins elsewhere. Thus evidence of the antiquity of Javanese technology is slowly but surely coming to light. The Gunung Sewu, "Thousand Mountains;' region of south central Java, is today perhaps the poorest area on the entire island. Its
limestone soil is not fertile , and during the dry season fresh water is hard to find as the rivers sometimes disappear underground to flow through deep channels before emerging, sometimes in the ocean itself, just off the beach. The waters along this coast are treacherous, open to the full force of the Indian Ocean, and only at Pacitan is there a deep enough bay to provide shelter for a community of small fishing craft, mainly a local form of dugout canoe, which remain huddled within their protected environment. During the prehistoric era, however, it is possible to envision that this area might have been more enticing for human habitation. The caves which developed in the limestone outcrops would have provided shelter, particularly during the colder eras of the Pleistocene, and the rugged topography would have created many 'micro-environments, in which a wide variety of wild food sources could have been acquired. As long as the human population was not too dense, and did nqt employ destructive means of subsistence such as wholesale forest clearance, small cpmmunities could have enjoyed a comfortable lif~~tyle here in prehistory .. The archaeological research detailed in this volume sheds valuable light on the process by which humans gradually made the transition from the middle and late Pleistocene into the Holocene. Song Keplek or Keplek Cave and Braholo Cave yielded important information on cave habitation during the late Pleistocene, beginning around 33,000 years ago. It should be noted that the excavations in these caves reached depths of up to 7 meters, but did not attain the base of the deposits. Future research is obviously an urgent priority, to investigate the older occupational strata which may lie beneath. The open sites of Padangan, Ngrijangan, and Ngrijang Sengon provide important data on the later activity in this type of environment, especially the long-lived production of stone tools into a relatively recent era. Other sites such as Klepu, occupied as recently as 600 years ago, yield yet more data on the continuity of adaptation to this region. Some of the most important data in this study derive from the oldest layers of Song Terus (Terus Cave), which are interpreted to indicate that the Pacitanian tools are in fact over 180,000 years old, and therefore are true Paleolithic artifacts. This claim will no doubt
xxx stimulate yet m~ debate on this topic, and, one hopes, more fieldwork. The support of the Toyota Foundation in making possible this research has contributed significantly to the revival of archaeology in this region. which is now resuming its rightful place as one of the most important zones of Pleistocene activity in the world. This study obviously will be superceded as more work is conducted. The account of the human skeletal material, for example. is based on racial models which are on their very last legs and will probably soon be replaced as studies of genetic material' become more common. But the publication of this volume indicates that the capabilities of Indonesian archaeologists are rapidly reaching the point at which they can begin to participate as equals in joint projects with foreign counterparts. This situation bodes very favourably for the rapid increase of knowledge of the Javanese past, despite the uncertain political situation, which obtains at the time when this is written.
PART ONE
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF GUNUNGSEWU
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1. GUNUNG SEWU: A LONG HISTORY OF OCCUPATION (INTRODUCTION) Gunung Sewu forms an important area for prehistoric research in the Archipelago, due to its richness in sites and various kinds of culture exemplified there. The hilly karst area, part of the Southern Mountain Range of Java, stretches from Pacitan Bay in the east to the Oyo River in the west, a distance of about 90 kID, with a width varying between 20-25 km from the coastline of the Indian Ocean (Figure 1). A total of 135 prehistoric sites have been identified in this area, each containing dense remains.vThis number is certain to increase in the future as new sites are found. The majority of the sites are located in the eastern part of this region, in the vicinity of the Districts of Punung, Donorojo, and Pringkuku (province of East Java). The center and western part have fewer sites (Figure 2). The sites in this area display a complete range of cultures, beginning with the Paleolithic, the Mesolithic (in this monograph referred to as Preneolithic), the Neolithic, and the PaleometalIic. This indicates that Gunung Sewu as a geographical entity has had a long history of settlement from the oldest up to the latest cultural development in prehistory, continuing up to the present. The presence of these sites at the same time proved that this area has been continuously exploited over a long time span. The abundance of sites and continuity of settlement during this long time-span offers great potential for the understanding of prehistory, not only on a local, but ' also on a regional scale, and have long made it a prime field for archaeological study.
4
The exploitation of Gunung Sewu displayed specific characteristics at each stage of cultural development, both in the pattern of the exploitation of land and in the range of tools produced. In the oldest cultural stage (the Paleolithic), life and the exploitation of land seems to have been centered on open sites, around and along river-courses. Paleolithic man seems to have exploited more of the natural resources offered and available around rivers, such as water, rocks, fauna and flora. It has been assumed that they were nomadic, hunting animals for their main subsistence. To support these activities, they made tools like choppers, chopping tools, hand-axes, and scrapers of large size made of various silicified rocks available, such as silicified limestone, silicified tuff, fossilised wood, etc. When the Paleolithic began to develop in this area has long been an unanswered question. The Paleolithic sites discovered in this area have provided no materials capable of being radiometrically dated for the period of early occupation. The reasons for this situation are that the sites have been disturbed by the river sedimentation, and that no faunal remains, including human fossil remains, have been found from the sites. Scholars are still in dispute about the relative date of the Gunung Sewu Paleolithic sites: some proposed a date in the Middle Pleistocene, while others favoured the Upper Pleistocene or even an age around 50,000 years ago (Heekeren, 1972; Bartstra, 1985). Entering the following stage (the Preneolithic) a significant change is observable: from nomadism to the exploitation of natural niches like caves and rock shelters. The caves and shelters became the centres of activities such as settlement, industrial activities connected with the manufacture of stone and bone tools, burial places for the dead, and for fireplaces. Hence, the caves or rock shelters became multifunctional spaces. The caves and rock shelters had been intensively exploited since the early Holocene, and probably long before, at least approaching the late Pleistocene. The change from wandering in the open to cave life brought about changes in the use of tools. The massive tools most important in ' the earlier stage were no longer in use and through progress in flaking
i
5 technology, became flake tools with a wide diversity of types. The ex ploitation of rock for tools was followed by the exploitation of animal bones for the same purpose. Various kinds of bone tools were produced, augmented by tools made of mollusc shell a~d deer antler. That period also produced adornments of mollusc shell and bone, the practise of various burial systems, and in l~ter periods the c,~llecti~~ of seeds, like "kerniri" or candlenut (Aleurztes mollucany; kenan or Canarium (Canarium sp. and "ketapang" tTerminalia catoppa). The settlement of caves may have taken place from at least 40,000 years until 2,000 years ago.
Plate 1: Specific view of Gunung Sewu with the hemispheric or conic karst hills. This hilly area limits the agricultural area to the valleys and narrow plains and in some cases the hill slopes.
The Preneolithic was followed by the Neolithic, which was characterized by the appearance and development of pottery and quadrangular adzes. In the beginning, life was still oriented toward caves and rock shelters, but seemingly not for long, because the inhabitants moved to open sites, on plains and hill slopes. The Neolithic culture of this area can be regarded as the peak of lithic technological ability, producing quadrangular adzes and arrowheads. Hundreds of Neolithic ateliers of substantial size give evidence of the existence of vast industrial areas, forming groups in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu. The Neolithic is presumed to have continued to develop until 1,000 years ago.
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Figure 2: Distribution of Prehistoric Sites in the Gunung Sewu . Sites plotted in the map are selected sites excavated
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9
From the Neolithic, life continued to develop into the Paleometallic stage, when open sites were still the centres of activity. The tradition of flaking the rock in tool making seems to have continued, although no longer so intensively. The important new development in this cultural stage is the introduction of metal tools and weapons, particularly those of iron, and beads. Pottery developed in the Neolithic continued with various advances in technology and morphology.
River. To express their joy, they organized a party with the local population by staging wayang (shadow puppet) performances lasting seven nights (Bartstra, 1976). Around 3,000 lithic artifacts were collected. A year later von Koenigswald published his findings in the Bulletin of the Raffles Museum, he termed this technology the "Pacitanian" after Pacitan, the nearest town. After von Koenigswald' s discovery, the Baksoka River became the target of a long series of studies, the most notable of which were written by de Terra (1943), Movius, .who introduced the Pacitanian typology (1944), van Heekeren (1972), Bartstra (1976) and Soejono (1982).
History of Research Plate 2: Another characteristic of the Gunung Sewu landscape are the dolines between the hill range. Some of these dolines never dried up and other contain water only in the rainy season. Scarcity of water forced the people to utilize the dolines for washing and bathing. etc.
Gunung Sewu as a geological unit with unique hemispherically profiled karst hills has attracted more scholars than its prehistoric sites. Since the beginning of the 19th century, this area has been visited by naturalists attracted by its karst hills. Junghuhn, who travelled to Gunung Sewu in 1836, gave the first geological description of them. He noted that this area was characterized by a very great number of isolated hemispheric shaped hills, some of them conical. Between these hills are small valleys. After Junghuhn, a number of other scholars made contributions to the study of karst formations, including van Dijk , Verbeek, and Fennema. In the beginning of the zo" century, researchers increased, in chronological order: Niermeyer, Danes, van Valkenberg, White, Esher, van Heek, Lehman, and Pannekoek. Research from the 1930s was carried out by Teilhard de Chardin, de Terra, Movius, van Bemmelen, and much later by Marks, Sartono, Verstappen, and Bartstra (Bartstra, 1976). Archaeological research in Gunung Sewu only started in 1935 when von Koenigswald and MWF Tweedie (curator of the Raffles Museum in Singapore) discovered the Baksoka River site in the Punung area. The site was accidentally found when von Koenigswald visited the Gunung Sewu area in search of the source of raw material for tools used in the "Sangiran flake industry" which he presumed to lie in this area. Von Koenigswald was very much impressed by the abundance of lithic tools along the riverbed and terraces of Baksoka
7
Those scholars focused their principal interest on the Baksoka River. The existence of tens of caves and rock shelters found scattered over other parts in this area seemed destined-to remain lost in oblivion due to the popularity of the Baksoka River Pacitanian. The caves were studied during an excavation by von Koenigswald in 1936 in a shelter on the east side of Gunung Cantelan (Song Agung ?). This shelter yielded flint flakes , an andesite hammer stone, convex based arrowheads, scrapers, teeth , mollusc shell ornament, and isolated human teeth (Erdbrink, 1954) , which according to van Heekeren
.,
I 10
belongs to the Sampung bone industry. An excavation at Song Terus carried out by ~Soejono and Basuki in 1954 yielded Neolithic and Mesolithic tools (Heekeren, 1972). The caves regained attention in 1992 when Truman Simanjuntak and Francois Semah conducted reconnaissance surveys in this area . More than ten caves and shelters were identified as sites containing archaeologically significant remains. In the same year, an initial excavation was undertaken in Keplek Cave and Dono Cave . Very dense finds of lithic and bone industries and faunal remains indicated the necessity to conduct further intensive research in this cave. Almost simultaneously, Prof. R.P. Soejono and Dr. Harry Allen from the University of Auckland, New Zealand, studied Song Agung in the Punung area with the same result as Keplek Cave. Since 1994 the National Research Centre of Archaeology (NRCA) in collaboration with the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle (MNHN) have undertaken intensive excavations at Song Terus , the cave excavated in 1954 by Soejono.
Current Research Since 1995, prehistoric research in 'the Gunurig Sewu region has opened a new phase due to a grant from The Toyota Foundation. The five-year-Iong project focused its attention on the prehistory of the area, especially from the Late 'P leistocene to the Holocene. Multidisciplinary research engaged archaeologists, geologists, biologists, palaeontologists, palynologists, and anthropologists. The first phase of the research activities consisted of intensive exploration throughout the study area . A total of 135 prehistoric sites was recorded, distributed throughout the Gunung Sewu region, with the densest caves in the eastern part . All these sites can be categorized according to their Paleolithic to Paleometallic 'characteristics. The number of cave sites found reached the outstanding totalof 70. For research on the Preneolithic, two cave sites were selected for systematic excavation: Keplek Cave, representing the eastern part
II of Gunung Sewu, and Braholo Cave representing the western part. Excavation in those caves reached cultural layers as deep as about seven meters from the surface, with a very rich and varied content of archaeological remains. The findings in these two caves consolidated our understanding of the chronology of settlement of Gunung Sewu from the Late Pleistocene until the Holocene, in particular for the period beginning 33,000 years ago. This long time-span provides an excellent baseline from which to observe various aspects of cave occupation, such as patterns of settlement, subsistence, technology, the exploitation of the environment, the cave dwellers proper, and their religious concepts. Neolithic research was carried out at three open sites: Padangan, Ngrijangan, and Ngrijang Sengon, all located in the Punung area arid surroundings. Like the research on cave sites, those carried out at open sites have contributed greatly to the understanding of the Neolithic of this area. Hundreds of thousands of ~hert flakes, the waste product of adze and arrowhead manufacture, were found densely distributed in cultural layers. Along with other remains (potsherds , firing remains etc) evidence shows that atelier activities throughout a certain area continued for a relatively long time-span. Radiocarbon dating has produced a date for the Neolithic in this area of 2,000 years ago, a quite significant retardation, compared to the generally accepted assumption that theoretically gives a date for this development of , 4,500 years ago (Heine Geldern, 1945). Research on Paleometallic sites took place at Melikan and Klepu, also located in the Punung area, The most specific characteristic of the Paleometallic culture of this area is the appearance of metal objects representing weapons and iron tools, beads and bronze ornaments, a more advanced tradition of pottery making, besides a tradition of stone tool manufacture that continued although very much in decline. Paleometallic culture prevailed in this area until 600 years ago, as proven by C-14 dating from the Klepu site. Results of the aforementioned undertakings supplemented with results from earlier research have much contributed to the understanding of the prehistory of this area, particularly of the period
:1 12
toward the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene. Some main problems concerning Hol~e settlement have been solved, such as questions regarding the exploitation of environmental resources (the geographical condition, rocks, fauna and vegetation). Another point concerns the process of cultural development, from settlement in caves to open sites, covering the period of the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene, the culture elements which were outstanding during this time, and last but not least, prehistoric people proper. Also of importance is the concept of the exploitation of caves and open sites for settlement, and the relationship of the Gunung Sewu culture with regional culture. (Truman Simanjuntak).
2. NATURAL CONDITIONS AND CONTEMPORARY COMMUNITIES OF GUNUNGSEWU Based on administrative divisions, Gunung Sewu is divided among three provincial areas: the Yogyakarta Special area Province (Gunung Kidul Regency) in the west, the Province of Central Java (Wonogiri Regency) in the centre, and the Province of East Java (Pacitan Regency) in the east. The hilly geographical conditions, dominated by limestone, made this ~'area infertile. Before recent attempts at reforestation, the hill area was generally barren.t-so that .rain caused fairly strong erosion, grinding the layers of soil with no resistance from any trees. This condition causes rivers to flood in the rainy season and to dry up in the dry season. Only a few flow the year round, viz. the Giritontro River which forms the upper course of the Solo River and the Oyo River one of the upper courses of the Opak River. Agriculture only covers a third of the entire area, occupying the narrow valleys, the plains, and hill slopes, mostly in the form of very simple rice fields depending on rain for water. As a result of the dry conditions in the dry season and the sensitivity of the soil to erosion, most of the land is not fit for cultivation of rice. This limited land is usually planted with dry field crops like cassava (Manihot utilisima), sweet potato (lpamoea batatasi, maize (Zea mays), coconut (Cocos nucifera), peanut (Arachis hypogaea) , soy-bean (Glycine max), gnemon (Guetom gnemon), etc. The tropical climate of Gunung Sewu consists of two seasons, the rainy or wet season, between October and March, with an average rainfall of 181.75 mm1month, and the dry season-.The highest rain fall i
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(363 mm) is in January and the lowe st (24 mm) in August (Djaeni et al, 1983). The Gunung Sewu region lies close to the Indian Ocean , which is marked by two types of climate, Aw, and Am. The Aw type climate is characterized by a long drought as long as the winter in the Southern Hemisphere. The most extensive area close to the interior is characterized by Am type climate, which forms a climate between the tropical and-sub-tropical.
cultivated for its productive nature in the Gunung Kidul regency. The population of Gunung Sewu is sparse compared to surrounding areas. The communities in general have a close affinity with the Yogyakarta-Solo culture, including the population in the eastern part that administratively belongs to East Java. The language spoken is Javanese " ngoko" (coarse) to communicate with friends or those with whom the speaker is familiar, or Javanese "kromo" (refined) towards older people, respected ones or those with whom the speaker is not well acquainted. The Indonesian language is used for communication in formal meetings.
Plate 3: The arid condition of the soil onl y facilitated dry cultivation and onl y during the rainy season around October- March. The longer the rainy season it will be an advantage for the farmers. In this picture a woman is pulling out Ca ssava or Manihot utilisima on her field .
The Gunung Sewu region has a seasonal tropical forest vegetation, with excessive rainfall during the wet monsoon, but very dry in the dry season. This condition causes vegetation to be very dense during the rainy season and very dry in the dry season. The dense bushes that cover the hills in the wet monsoon' gradually disappearas the dry season sets in. Reforestation in the Gunung Sewu area has been conducted over the last decade. These efforts have been fairl y successful changing the once ban-en and arid land to a greener area. Various trees like the accacia and "sono keling" now cover part of the hill area . Accacia has been the main plant chosen for reforestation of the Pacitan area. The cashew nut tree has been cultivated en masse in Wonogiri , whereas sono keling has been
Plate 4: A traditional javanese house in the Gunung Sewu region. It is very simple with a tiled roof and walls of plaited woven bamboo "gedeg", The most specific characteristic is that it has a spacious room in front to rccei ve guests. The rooms are in the back and farthest back is the kitchen.
Gunung Sewu communities usually live in rural areas located in the valleys, seldom in the hill area. This preference is based on safety factors and facilities for daily needs (availability of water, easier access, etc). This choice of location is not beneficial, because it takes up part of the limited expanse of valley land , the most fertile land that should be exploited for agriculture. The limited supply of land motivates people to exploit the courtyards of their homes up to the steep slopes, although with no maximal result. The houses, which are almost all permanent structures of typical Javanese house
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construction, have generally fairly expansive courtyards (Plate 4). The walls are usually plastered brick, but some are made of plaited bamboo. The roofs are made of tiles, corrugated zinc , or asbestos. Electricity is available throughout most of the area. The Gunung Sewu region has a very low capacity of ground water with a well debit of -less than 0.05 litre/sec to a medium one of 1-10 litre/sec. A high water capacity of 10-25 litre/sec is found in the western and northwestern part of Wonogiri regency. Most of the communities subsist by limited agriculture in rain-dependent fields , dry fields, gardens, and courtyards. Rice is planted during the rain y season in the relativel y lower fields, or valleys. The gardens and dry fields were planted with crops like maize, cassava, sweet potato, and soybean, mostly for local use . In the courtyards people plant trees like coconut (Cocosnucifera), clove (Syzygium aromaticumi , coffee (Rubiaceae), cacao (Teobroma cacao), sono keling, mahogany, jati (Tectona grandis), gnemon (Guetom gnemoni, lamtoro (Leucocephala) , tobacco tNocotiana tabacumi, vegetables and fruit like bananas, papaya, mango, star fruit and guava. The barren condition of the area caused that only certain crops grow well, like cassava. This condition has been well adapted by the people so that for food they consume "tiwul" made of "gaplek" (dried cassava) as the daily main food. Only on certain occasions they consume ric e. The dry condition of the landscape and less fertile environment very much influenced the people's daily life, especially those in the rural area. They have the habit of storing food material , usually in the form of dried cassava, which can last for months. Thi s tradition has helped in the provision of food during the dry season or during famine. Besides, they also have the tradition of storing water, which they put in a water reservoir built of brick. Usually a full water reservoir can meet the need for water for months, since it is only used for cooking. For other purposes, they used water in the reservoir ' s pool. The tradition of storing water and food is a way of the people' s adaptation to environmental conditions. Next to agriculture, the people also practise animal husbandry , usually small scale, to add up the family 's income. The animals the y
breed are among others, chicken (Gallus sp), cow tBubalus sp), water buffalo (Bubalus bubalus), goat (Capra sp) and duck (Lamelhiastres). The animal pens are usually placed separated at the side or back of the house. The people's mode of Jiving beyond the agriculture and animal husbandry sector, are as fishermen , civil servants, traders, labourer in factories etc . The arid condition of the soil, motivated the people to leave their homes, particularly the young ones, to go to cities. Their perseverance made that some are successful and from time to time returned home to help the village economy. Plate 5: A sight of market day in the district town. Punung. The traditional market is very busy during harvest time and forms the place where crop products are sold and daily necessities are bought. Mobility of the people on market day enlivened the rural sphere.
One matter that has motivated the area's progress was the availability of a good infra structure. Although the greater part of the region are hilly areas, communication between one district's town to another is well running by the wide and smooth roads, especially in the western part. The roads that connect a village with another are mostly asphalted, others are paved, and the availability of public means of transportation increased the people's economy by easy access to transport and market the crop-products. The Gunung Sewu community knows the one-day market in a Javanese five days calendric cycle. viz: Pon, Wage, Kliwon, Legi and Pahing, Each district's town has a certain day for this market-day,
n
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19
which differs from one to another, for example in P unung, Pacitan regency, the market day is on Pahing; whereas in Don orojo, falls on Wage . T his cyclic system creates the shifting of traders from one town to another, following the market-days cycle. For instance, on Pon -day one trades in town A, on Wag e he moved to B and so on . Besides their five day-weekly market day , they also have the general traditional market, and a market day especially for animals. Beyond these market-days, economic activities run as usual in district's-towns, but not as busy as on specific market days. The religion tha t the people embrace is fairly varied, with the majority being Mos lems. A small part embraces the Roman Catholic fai th, the Protestant and B uddhism. Some people also still believe in - the supra-natural forces and there are places, which they regard as sacred and used it as a place for medi tation (see the cultural trad itions). The people also regard water in caves as having remedial powers. For girls and women, to was h their faces with water from Putri Cave will make the m more beautiful and closer to their mate. With regard to the religious system, the Gunung Sewu community still practises the rites for ce remonial meals on important occasions like births, circumcision, marriages and deaths.
Plate 6: A rural scenery in the afternoon when the farmers are on the way back hom e after a day working in the field. They carry crop-produce and gra ss to feed the livestock.
Another rite oft en practised is the "clea ning of the village" (b ersih d esa) , in which folk arts are performed like jathilan, meant to clean the village from all kinds of e vil spirit that may arise and harm the village. Another one is the rite of nyadran or ruwahan, which is re garded as an important tradition, by visiting and cleaning the ancestor's gra ves to obtain safet y and blessing for the living re latives as well as for the dead (Ariani et al, 1998). The local arts that flouri shed well are am ong others kerawitan (the traditional mus ic ensemble), ketoprak (kind of folk drama) , jathilan (horse riding); ledhek (folk dancing) and children 's games and play, suc h es jamuran, cublak-cublak suweng, gobag sodor, etc). The presence of the karst hills with their natural caves, beautiful beaches on the shores of the Indian Ocean became an attraction of its own for tourism. Some caves have been exploited for tourist purposes like Gong Cave in the village of Borno, Punung district, Tabuhan Cave in the village of Wareng, Putri Cave in Kendal village, all in the district of Punung. Some beaches as tourist objects are Sadeng beach in Pacitan. :Watukarung beach in the Pringkuku area, Rongkop and Baron beaches in Gunung Kidul area . This tourism sector has to be more developed, because it will add up to the area's income, it also provides the ability to increase the people's income, by sell ing food and souvenirs. Another natural potential that has been well exploited is the mining industry. The potential of diverse mining products is very much varied, starting with products of the A to C type. For the A and B type, which form strategic and vital material, are found distributed in this area, comprising coal, uranium, nickel, lead, mangane, zinccopper and gold. As for the C type , which is used as material for industry, ceramics, construction, and material of precious stones, co nsists of dolomite (material for fertili zer, ceramics) ochre (for paints, ink and rubber) , bentonite (ceramics and palmoil purifier), feldspar, piropilite, caoline (ceramics and porcelain). Material for construction, like igneous rock, sandstone and marble have been found in various villages . On of the activities that have made use of said potentials is the precious stones' handicraft or better known as batu
20
21
akik (agate craft), which markets the 'p roducts to the big cities. (Retno Handinii
drinks, of which part is offered to the village guardian in the teson. whereas the other part will be for consumption of the entire village population. In the evening there usually will be ~ woyang performance using leather puppets. The play will present the story from the Bhorotovuddho, Dewi Sri or others that relate to fertility of the crops. Some say, this performance was held because the village guardian like art performances.
CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN THE GUNUNG SEWU AREA
The majority of the Gunung Sewu community, particularly those living in the rural area, still venerate certain places, which they call reson (Plate 7). Usually, a resan is a spot in which a big tree grows, that they venerate. They believe that the resan is the abode of their ancestors, often called Sing mbohu rekso. or don yang deso (village guardian). Each Village has its own reson. and when cny harm comes to it, the one who caused it or the cu lprit will surely meet disaster. Once a year, at the time of "the cleaning of the village" ritual. the reson is cleaned. Food and offerings for the spirits of the ancestors who are believed to live there, are brought. while praying that their ancestors bless the village and keep them away from any kind of mishap. Besides the reson. some caves are also venerated. among others Semedi Cave (meditation cave) in the village . of Sooka, Kalak Cave in the village Sendang, and Putri Cave in the village of Gunung Semut . Up to the present one can still find offerings in those caves. The cleaning of the Village ritual. called merti, which means worship to the ancestors by presenting food. drinks and offerings, is intended for the village guardian (Malalatoa, 1995). This ritual is an expression of gratitUde, practised once a year in the month Dulkoidoh of the Javanese calendar. They have to cleanse themselves bodily and spiritually, because the village has given them plenty in life during the year. The cleanness is expressed by cleaning the village, graves, the field, etc, and besides for their spiritua l cleanness, they held a slometon (a ceremonia l meal), to clean the Village of evil spirits, that may cause calamity. On the occasion of the slometon ritual. each head of the family comes to the ceremony bringing food and
Plate 7: The resan Kali Jero in the village Sumugih, Rongkop, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta Special Area Province. The area of the resan is grown with big ipek and gentungan trees that form a circle with a diameter or about 10 m. Part of the local people believe that their ancestors spirit live in this resan and is therefore regarded as sacred. No one dares to disturb or harm this resan for fear of the effect it may cause.
The ceremony of ruwohon or nyodron was also common among the Gunung Sewu communities. This ritual was hel~ in the month Ruwoh (Javanese calendar), by visiting and cleaning the graves of parents or ancestors while praying and present offerings. Other rituals that are related to the life cycle are: 1. Child birth ritual. As soon as the child .is born the father chanted the call for pray in its right ear, and prayers in the left
22 ear. The baby 's placenta that was c ut, wa s c lea ned, and p ut in an earthenware pot, along w ith needles, c oins, prayers in writing, thread etc, then buried in the c o urtyard . Up to 35 days (selapanan), this placenta burial ha s to be provided with an oil-lamp, whi ch has to stay burning: 2. the ceremony o f tedhak siten (trea din g the earth soil), that is done when the child is about eight months old , and for the first time treads the earth. In this ritual, the child is led to put his feet on a juadah (kind of sticky rice coke) w ith the intent that the child will always remember his origin (w he re he came from). Then he was led ta ascend stairs made of sugar c a ne, which is meant, that the child can realize his ideals smoothly and finally the child is put into a big cage, in which are found various kinds of objects. The object he will take, symbolize the future: 3. the circumcision ceremony, held for boys to be circumcised: 4. the wedding ceremony; 5. the tingkeb (mitoni) ceremony, held when a w oman is in the seventh month of pregnancy for the first time . In this ceremony, the would-be mother is bathed in flowered water taken from seven wells, then she has to changes her sar~ng (wrap ar sheath) seven times; 6. the funeral ceremony, usually held on the first, third, seventh, fortieth day of death . Then follows pendhak pisan (after one year), pendhak pindho (after two years), and finally on the thousandth day (nyewu), all according to the Javanese calendar system. After the nyewu c eremony, the g rave c a n be built permanentl y. Although the majority of the Gunung Sewu communities embrace the Islam, many of them are follo w ers of a sec t, the kejawen. It is an indigenous religion, w hic h believes in god almighty the prophet Mohammad and the A1-Q ura n, but also believes in the power of sa c red figures, d eities (God s), magical. power, ancestors ' spirits. etc. This syncretism in the religious system is the reason that they- perform th e var ious ritua ls o f
23 slametans (c e remonia l meals) that actually is not found in the concepts of Islam. Besides, they also perform many kinds of ascetic a c ts, among others tirakat topo txoto. with the aim of success In certain undertakings, for example in getting a job, or a position. A hermitage, that is quite well known and much frequented by ascetics in this area is the Sanctuary of Njemu, located close to Rongkop beach, whereas a cave that is much used to meditate is Semedi Cave.
Pl ate 8: The sanctuary (petila san) of Kyai Mojo in the village Semugih , Rongkop district, Gunung Kidul regenc y. Th is place is often used by the people beyond Semugih village to medit ate. while the local people in the surrounding area that are to hold a feast. used this place to perform rituals of rejecting rain.
In th e villag e Semugih, Rongkop, Gunung Kidul there are two hermitages, th ey are: the petilasan (sanctuary) of Kyai Modjo, and the petilasan Maling Genthiri. The sanctuary of Kyai Modjo is a very simple house, measuring 4 x 3 metres, with tiled
24 root whereas the floor is still mode of cloy. People who wished to meditate in this ~ctuary, has.to have permit from the keeper. The duration of meditation ls.usuollv 3-7 days, without food and drinks. The sanctuary of Maling Genthiri. conform to its name, ' maling mean! thief, is much frequented by thieves who expect not to get caught in the act of stealing. From the afore mentioned elaboration. it can be concluded that there are still elements of ancient traditions that are maintained inthis area. which found its origin In the ancestor worship. and impleme.~ted in their (jaily activities. (Retno Hand/nO
3. BRIEF NOTES ON PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY OF THE ARCHIPELAGO The Pleistocene , which was agreed upon among the geologists to last from around 1,8 million years to around 11,800 BP, was characterized by the glaciation, resulting in the change of the global climate, which has occurred repeatedly in certain periods. During the glacial period, the temperature dropped and its effect was that sea water, at the poles or mountains froze, effecting in the decrease of water content in oceans and drop of sea level, creating vast areas of land (Figure 3). On the other hand, during the interglacial period, the climate became warmer, the ice blocks thawed, causing the rise of sea level. Part of the land submerged, and 'some others were separated by water to form islands (Figure 4). The period of glaciationinterglaciation occurred several times, and studies towards the moraine sediments in Europe revealed the four occurrences of this process during the Pleistocene, known as the Gunz, Mindel, Riss, and Wiirm glaciation. Each period alternated by an interglacial period. However, studies on oxygen isotopes from the sea, and supported by palynological studies, show that during the Pleistocene many climatic changes have occurred (Oilier, 1985). The change of sea level is strongly related to the astronomical parameter change on the globe position to the sun. It has occurred periodically, resulting in the change of the total and distribution of energy received by the globe from the sun (Semah, et al, 1990). Other factors of sea level change are tectonic movement and climatic change . Some scholars thought that the sea level change in the Pleistocene in Indonesia was caused by tectonic uplifts (Bemmelen, 1949; Duyfjes, 1938), whereas others have a tendency to state that glaciation and tectonics effected in these changes (Tjia, 1970).
,
,. /
27
26 Stratigraphical and paleontological observations by Duyfjes in Perning show that there~e been three times of changes in sea level in East Java during the Pleistocene. (Zaim, 1996). ' Based on the isotopic study, the lowest sea level took place successively around 150,000 BP; 80,000 BP; 60,000 BP; 40,000 BP; and 18,000 BP (Chappel, 1982). The sea level is different for each glaciation. For example, around 22,000- 18,000 BP the sea level descended between 100-120 meter below the actual sea level. The extent of the largest ice coverage and the coldest climate lasted in this period causing a large transformation on flora and fauna (LeroiGourhan, 1988). For the Archipelago, it seemed that cave settlement became more intensive since this period, because the cold climate compelled man to choose caves or Shelters for settlement and refuge. At around 10,000 BP, the sea level was about 10- 15 metres below the actual sea level. It raised gradually until reaching the actual sea level around 5,000 BP (Dunn & Dunn, 1977). The glacial-interglacial occurrences have changed 'the palaeogeographic shape of the Archipelago and each period has created a different shape, depending on the fluctuation of the sea level. In general the drop of sea level, occurring during the glaciation period has created expanse land in the western part. It covers Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Kalimantan), which is called the Sunda shelf, connected to continental Southeast Asia. In the eastern part, Australia, Irian (and PNG) and the Aru islands united in the land area called the, Sahul shelf. Between these two shelves is the Wallacea area, consisting of islands, bordered by deep seas. The rise of sea level at the end of the Pleistocene has changed the Archipelago's palaeogeography. Glaciation and tectonic processes that lasted during that period have effected in uplifts or drops of sea level thus creating the present form of the Archipelago (Sartono, 1991). Part of the Sunda shelf that was once land, submerged and became. islands, among others, Sumatra, Borneo (Kalimantan) 'and ' Java, whereas in the eastern region the Sahul shelf became Australia, Irian and the Aru islands. This basic'change has at least its impact in various aspects of life, among others (Simanjuntak, 1997; 1998): \ ,
,
•
The change of land expanse and shoreline due to the rise of sealevel, creating islands and so influencing the environmental condition, vegetation and fauna. • Submergence of the coastal area and lower plains, can cause the submergence of settlement areas and the environmental resources. This phenomena facilitated the emergence of human and faunal mobility to migrate to new environment~. . • These migrations in turn motivated the process of adaptation to the new environment, which facilitated the change in subsistence pattern and supporting technology. • The creation of islands effected in the submergence of "land bridges" and disconnecting these islands. This condition created limitation in communications between the islands, unless by sea, by means of transportation modes on one hand, while it motivated the development of local innovations. In the frame of said climatic arid'paleogeographic changes some important phenomena in human life i!'(~outheast Asia are o~ser~able. Since about 40,000 years ago one observes a new evolution III the biological development of man, that is the emergence of Homo sapiens. Based on results of research in various sites, it was assum~d that the Homo sapiens has inhabited this region and even Australia and West Melanesia contemporaneously since that time (Bowdler, 1990; Jones, 1979). Another phenomena since the Late Pleistocene was that there were new trends in settlement activities, which was oriented to caves and rock shelters. Various caves and rock shelters have been inhabited towards the Late Pleistocene and continued up to the Holocene (Simanjuntak, 1997). Life in caves and rock shelters in the Gunung Sewu area seemed to be an inseparable part of the , p_h~nomena mentioned above.
28
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Figure 3: The Sunda shelf in the ice age and route for migration (Semah et al, 1990). Glaciation that occurred repeatedly during the Pleistocene has changed the shape of the archipelago, conform to the rise and drop of sea level. During the ice age, sea level dropped effecting in the emergence of land bridges that connected the Asian continent with the islands Sumatra, Java, and Kalimantan (Borneo), forming the Sunda shelf. It was during this period that migration of man and fauna from continental area to the islands was assumed to occur.
Figure 4: The post glaciation situation of the Archipelago (Sernah et ai, 1990). The termination of the ice age has caused the change of the islands' palaeo geography: landbridges that previously emerged, connecting the Asian continent with the islands, submerged, due to the rise of sea level. Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan that formerly formed the Sunda shelf were separated and became islands. This occurrence has brought consequences in the migration flow that formerly took the land bridge has to take the sea route.
30
Climatic Changes- Vegetation Changes Climatic changes had its effect on vegetation, and that in tum may also affect human life. The studies on climatic changes and regional vegetation, particularly relating to Late Pleistocene-Holocene has been done by a number of scholars by way of palynological studies. Some among them were studies made in East Java (Beuning, 1996), West Java (Stuijts, 1993), Sumatra (Maloney, 1981; 1984) , and Papua New Guinea (Hope, 1983). The indication of the early changes of vegetation related to the climatic fluctuation was obtained in Papua New Guinea. The pollen diagram from peat and bottom of the lake at an altitude of 2,500- 4,400 metres indicated that before 10,000 BP, the temperature was much colder (Walker & Finley, 1979). Some othe r studies in Sumatra also indicated a different climatic condition in the past. Morley (1982) discovered evidence of a colder phase in about 10,000 BP in the Padang Lake, at an altitude of 950 metres in West Sumatra. Pollen records from Pea Sim-sim in North Sumatra also indicated a colder condition between 31,000 and 12,000 BP. Above mentioned data showed that from Papua New Guinea to Sumatra, there is a chain of events in which the lowest depression of the vegetation zones occurring since the Late Pleistocene. Between 14,000 and 8,600 BP the climatic condition changed towards the present condition . With regard to Java, results of research by Ingelise Stuijts (1993) in West Java, is worth mentioning as a general picture in the vegetation of Java. Studies on the lake Bayongbong, indicated that the climate during the period of 17,000 and 10,000 BP was much different than it is at present. The decrease of Dacrycarpus inbricatus occurred between 12,000-10,000 BP, indicating a change in climate: a rise in temp erature. Between 10,400 and 8,000 BP the vegetation of West Java can be called static, although Castanopis as the dominant tree , the forest was classified as a mixture. Since 8,000 BP the forests have been dominated by Quercus. Around 5,000 BP a general change occurred: on various sites where the vegetation changes seemed not to be related to the climate. An actual example was found on mountain
31 sites with a large scale of forest destruction. This could be related to forest clearing by people.
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Song Keplek or Keplek Cave is one of the most important sites among the 70 caves in the Gunung Sewu area. Located in Pagersari village. Punung, it was discovered during preliminary exploration in 1992 in joint exploration by the Indonesian National Research Centre of Archaeology and the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Trial excavations were made in the same year and continued in the following years. More intensive and regular researches were carried out since 1996, thanks to a' grant from the Toyota Foundation, to the project of "Gunung Sewu, ExploitationIn the Holocene" . Song Keplek is a local name ("song" means rock shelter or cave with two entrances face to face, usually at the front and back; whereas Keplek is a kind of card game associated with gambling). According to stories, card players and gamblers, because of its secluded location at the edge of a village among karst hills, have often used this cave" Its location at the foot of a hill made it easy to reach. In front of the cave is along narrow slope flanked by two hills, which descends to the Pasang River of about 200 meters away on the southeast. Keplek lies at an 'altitude of 333 metres above sea level with the entrance on the southeast (Figure 9). Most of the cave space (from the back) is filled with huge boulders of limestone, being debris from roof falls. Toward the northwest (the rear of the cave) the pile of boulders increases, reaching toward a hole in the roof of the cave.
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248 of Homo sapiens in Indonesia is still shrouded in mystery. Besides the complexity of its morphological aspect, and the gaps in the absolute chronology, this dark side is worsened by the absence of cultural data and the very limited number of specimens found . (Harry Widianto) THE FLEXED BURIAL SYSTEM In Southeast Asio. prehistoric burial systems have been known since the Epipaleolithic. They consisted of: various kinds of secondary burials involving inhumation of selected parts of the body (selective secondary burial); primary burials with legs in flexed positions; and open burials (Soejono. 1969). M. Colani (1930) reported on the existence of selective secondary burial of the skullin association with artifacts of Hoabinhian characteristics in a cave site in Vietnam. Callenfels and Noone (1940) analyzed an open burial found in the Gol Ba'it site in the Malay Peninsula. Direct inhumation with legs in flexed position was apporently ra ther rare in Vietnam (Heekeren and Knuth. 1967). in the Malaysian Peninsula (Stein Callenfels and Noone. 1940; Sieveking. 1954) a nd Sarawak (Harrison. 1957). and several localities in lndoneslo. The prehistoric burial system in Indonesia apparently' appeared In· the Mesolithic and' continued to develop in later stages. There were four patterns of placing the dead: stretched. flexed. crouched or squatting. and prostrate. Burials presented four systems (Soejono. 1969): Direct inhumation. single or multiple. including primary burial either without a container or with a container. made of stone and burnt clay as well. Deferred inhumation. single or multiple. including secondary burial without a container. complete as well as selective. cnd vsecondorv burial with stone or burnt clay container. completely or selectively. Combined inhumation. single or multiple. presenting primary burial without .c ontolner: primary burial with a container: and secondary burial in containers. _ Placing of the corpse in the open or exposed deposition. sometimes followed by selective inhumation. . Shell maund sites or caves present early evidence for the existence of prehistoric burial system in Indonesia. Severa l sites
249 yielded incomplete human skeletal remains. ind icating selective secondary burial. Secondary burials are usually Indicated by burial of a skull or its fragments and sometimes part of the limbs. accompanied by a scattering of hematite. Burials of this kind have been found in shell mounds in northeastern Sumatra and in several caves in East Java and in Flores (Verhoeven. 1953; Jacob. 1967).Besides secondary burials of selective nature. primary burials can be found in the caves in East Java and Flores. Unlike some kinds of burials that d isplayed diverse positions. such as extended. prostrate. and crouching. the above-mentioned areas presented the flexed position . In general flexed burials can be divided into two types : semi flexed and flexed. Semi-flexed burial is characterized by legs flexed . with thigh and knees facing left. or legs flexed and with thigh and knees slightly drawn up : Flexed burials are characterized by legs and calves flexed close to the thighs with knees upwards to the chest. This kind of burial has been found in Lawa. Sodong and Marjan caves (Heekeren. 1972; Stein Callenfels. 1932). Song Agung. next to the Keplek and Braholo Caves (Gunung Kidul. DIY). Each .b urto l in , these sites disploys some variation in the hand or leg pose. the body's position. ond in the treatment of the dead (loble 9). Stones. particularly on the chest and abdomen. partly covered the burials in Braholo Cave and Gentong Cave. The reason for this was possibly to protect the corpse from being disturbed by wild animals. as a marker. or to prevent the spirit from leaving the body. Burial goods were not found in some burials. but in Lawa Cave a burial of a child was furnished with a necklace of bored mollusc shell. The burial in Gentong Cave. Tulungagung. was sprayed with hematite powder and close to the legs were placed round lumps of hematite. The custom of inhumation in flexed position apparently continues in several tribes in Indonesia. for instance in Sawu. Ngada (Flores). Southwest TImor. Aru. and Seram. This manner is reminisc ent of the foetal position. suggesting that their religious concept was that someone who died should be treated like an unborn baby in the womb. who will be reborn In the realm of the dead. (Bogyo Prosetyo)
251
23. SETTLEMENT CHRONOLOGY OF GUNUNGSEWU The exact date of human colonization of Gunung Sewu is yet unknown, but in view of the oldest date obtained from the lowest layers in Terus Cave, which dated back to 180,000 years ago , colonization must have begun before that, during the Middle Pleistocene. Humans inhabited and exploited river courses, and made stone tools . Toward the Late Pleistocene we can observe a significant change in the pattern of settlement leading to the exploitation of caves as dwelling places . This change was already underway 45,000 years ago as shown by data from Tabuhan Cave. Data on settlement of Braholo Cave, located in the western part of Gunung Sewu shows that it was inhabited 33,000 years ago, whereas Keplek Cave, in the eastern part of the area, was inhabited 25,000 years ago. The true chronology of settlement should be older, considering that the lower anthropic levels have not been dated. Furthermore, in some cases the lowest layer of anthropic deposits has not been reached. Provisionally it is estimated that cave settlement continued till about 2,000 years ago . Within the broader Southeast Asian context, research shows that some caves were occupied 40,000 years ago, a date that coincides with the appearance of Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens settled in this entire region, including Australia and west Melanesia, contemporaneously (Simanj untak, 1997). The latest research by the French team in Terns Cave, Punung, has extended the time span of cave settlement. Cave life could be divided into three cultural layers. The lowest layer, dated between 180,000-56,000 BP, contained a lithic industry with a tendency toward crude, large tools. The Keplek industry layer with flake tools of various types characterized the upper layer, dating from the early
Holocene around 4,500 BP. Between these two cultural layers is a . transitional layer, characterized by sparse finds. The above-mentioned chronology of cave settlement reminds us of the Pacitanian culture of the Baksoka River, the dating of which is still in dispute . This culture should be older than the lower industry of Teru s Cave, because its cultural characteristics were not found in this cave . The new data from Terus Cave opens a new perspective on the chronology for the Pacitanian, and at the same time provides an understanding of early colonization in Gunung Sewu. Current research is expected to solve problems that have persisted for decades. The time span of cave settlement in Gunung Sewu can be divided into six periods: Period ,1: the oldest one, from a period which is still unknown, up to around 180,000 BP. This period was characterized by life in the open, along the river courses, with a Paleolithic culture in which core tools and large flakes are common .•As typical tools of this phase have been found in the Baksoka River, this period is called the Baksoka period . Period II: from 180,000 years ago to around 60,000 BP. Life was apparently still lived in the plain, along river courses, as in the Baksoka period . However, the technology had changed . to an assemblage, characterized by flake tools . The greater part of the artifacts found are rounded, and thus have been transported by river to their find spots. Pacitanian tools have not been found in sites of this period. Based on the type locality, this is called the Terus period. Period III: from 60,000 to 12,000 BP, characterized by early cave . occupation. Mega fauna was dominant (Bovidae, Cervida e, Elephantidae, Rhinoceritidae, etc). The environment seems to have been dominated by vegetation different from that of the Holocene, that enabled the mega fauna to exist. The lithic industry tended to be crude; the typical flakes of the Holocene were still sparse. Remains of life of this period were found in several caves excavated in the Gunung Sewu
252 area. Based on the type locality, the eponym site for this period is Tabuhan Cave Period IV: from 1:2,000 to 4,000 'BP, characterized by Preneolithic or Mesolithic culture. Based on the abundant data from Kepl ek Cave, this period is better called as the Keplek period . It formed the peak of cave settlement and a specific regi onal culture marked by intensive exploitation of the e nvironment co~prising fauna , rock s, ca ves, and shelters. Thi s expanded to include exploitation of seeds in the second half of the period, starting around 5,000 BP. ' Period V: Better known as the Neolithic phase between 4,000 and .1 ,000 BP. Based on settlement patterns, this phase is divided mto the early pha se (up to around 2,000 BP) with settlement characteristics of cave life and late phase (around 2,0001,000 BP) ch aracterized by settlement in open sites. Important cultural traits include the development of re~tangular adzes, arrowheads and pottery. For the time being we have proposed Gupuh Cave as an eponym site for the early period, whereas for the late period the name Ngrijangan period is proposed, in honor of a site with typical Neolithic finds. Period VI: Paleometallic culture characterized by the appearance of metal tools , weapons, and beads. Settlements still continue the Neolithic pattern in open sites, and a tradition of stone tool working apparently still continued. This period lasted from 600 BP till the historic period. This is called the Klepu period. It is noteworthy that the cultural periods above are continuous' there is no rupture between them, especially from the Tabuhan period onwards. It is characterized by an even vertical distribution of find s in each layer and the presence of continuous cultural elements from one pha se to .!.he next. The Gunung Sewu settlement seems to have culminated in period IV starting in the early Holocene. The vast area of Gunung
253 Sewu with dozens of caves, distributed over the karst hill slopes, has been intensively inhabited since the early Holocene. The caves and shelters were selected as places for habitation and to fulfil other needs . A local culture developed through the intensive exploitation of particular environmental resourc es. Besides the exploitation of cave s, other characteristic cultural traits of the region include the expl oitation of faun a by hunting, including marine and fresh water biota, exploitation of rocks for the lithic industry , the development of the bone industry, primary flexed and secondary burial systems, and the exploitation of seeds, particularly in the more recent periods. The Holocene culture of Gunung Sewu presented a specific local c~aracter shaped by the available resources. The double pointed needles and lithic tools of limestone are distinctive of the culture of Braholo Cave (in the western part of Gunung Sewu). Such tools are absent in Keplek Cave (in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu). On the other hand, the typo-technological richness of the lithic industry and the polishing tools of mollusc shell are distinctive cultural elements in Keplek Cave. The flexed burial system with the corpse lying on the back was practised in Braholo Cave, whereas the people of Keplek Cave employed a flexed system with the corpse in a slanting position. The bone industry was a distinctive cultural element of eastern Java. Van Heekeren (1972) tried to associate the Sampung bone tools with tho se found in a number of sites in continental Southeast Asia, including cave sites in Tonkin where they are mixed with Hoabinhian tools, and the shell mounds of Da-But, north Vietnam. Based on these findings, van Stein Callenfels was of the opinion that the Sampung Industry originated and developed in South Vietnam and Annam. In a wider context, ca ve settlement in the Archipelago has been found in such localities as Jambi, Maras and Pangkep, Muna, Pegunungan Meratus, Flores, Timor, Maluku, and Irian . Common trait s of cave life include the exploitation of rock s for the manufacture of flake tools as the Paleolithic substratum that developed until the start of the Neolithic. This industry spread over Island Southeast Asia and set it apart from continental Southeast Asia . Research in caves like Niah Cav e (Sarawak) and Tabon Cave (Philippines) displayed a
255
254
continuity in flake blade culture from 40,000 years BP until the Holocene (Glover, 1973). This suggests that the Paleolithic. continued till the Neolithic without going through the Mesolithic stage, although this inference still needs to be confirmed by furth er research in Gunun g Sewu as well as in other sites. It is certain that before the Neolithic , new cultural clements were introduced, and then developed rapidl y in the Neolithic, marked by traits like mortar s and the exploitation of seeds. Thi s can be termed the period of neolithi sation (Simanj untak, 1993). Gunun g Sewu Preneolithic culture has its roots in the previous period (the Late Pleistocene) and developed till around 4,000 BP when such Neolithic elements as pottery and rectangular adzes were introduced. Th e Neolithic in caves confinued to develop until around , 2,000 BP. Th ereafter it seems that cave dwelling was no longer practised, replaced by open settlement s developing a more intensive lithic industry producing rectangular adzes , arrow heads and pottery. The peak of lithic technological mastery was reached during the Neolithi c, as shown by the products of adzes and arrowheads. Judging from the multitude of workshop sites spread over vast areas, it can be concluded that the industry' s activities were carried on by large groups of people. Based on dates from the sites of Padangan and Ngrijangan, workshop activities continued at least until 1,000 year ago, when the Paleometallic cultural stage began, characterized by the presence of metal tools and weapons and bead s, and the further development of pottery makin g. Paleometallic culture developed into the historic period , around 600 'years ago. (Truman Simanjuntak]
Date
Periodisa -
General characteristics
Culture
lion
±600 BP
Klepu period
Pa laeometallic
• •
•
Mainarchaeological remains: pottery, iron objects, beads, stone fla kes Open landscape settlements Co ntinued Neolithic traditi on
Late . Neoli thic
•
Main archaeological remains: pottery.
period
•
stone adzes and arrowheads Ope n landscape setrlernents The emergence of groups of wo rkshops
------- --------_._-----
--------------
----.------
2,000 - 4.000 BP
Gu puh period
Early Neolithic
.--.-.--.------- ---------------------------------• Main archaeo logical rem ains: pottery,
Kep lek period
Preneolithic
2,000 - 1.00 0 BP
Ngrijangan
•
.'
4,000 -1 2.000 BP
• • • •
• • •
Tabuhan ' period
Up per .Pala eolilhi c ?
Very dense settlement remains: stone
and bone tools. fauna, humanremains.
• •
:12,000 - 60 ,000 BP
adzes. flakes Ca ve settleme nts Adze and pottery making Pren eolith ic trad ition still con tinued
•
•
seeds
Intensive exploitation of ~n vironmental resources (animal hunting) Expl oitati on of seeds in the lat er period Practice of primary an d secondary bu rial
Very intensive firing activities in caves Australomelanesid race and possibly Mon zoloid race Main archaeological remai ns: flakes and atypic," too ls, faun a Profound big fauna (cervids, bov ids , ele phants, rhin oceros)
• Oldest cave settlements in Southeast Asia • Subsistence: animal hunting 60.000 - 180,000 BP
? - 180,000 BP
Terus period
Baksoka
period
Midd le Palaeolithi c ?
Lower to Midd le Palaeolithic ?
• • • • •
•
Main arc haeological rem ains: flake too ls ro unded and fres h. fau na (rhi noceros, tapi rs , cervi ds) Sta tions alon g river bank s
Subsistence: animal huntinz Main archaeological remains: large flakes and core too ls Stations along river banks
Subsistence: animal hunting
Table 10: Settlement Chron ology of the Gunun g Sewu Area.
256
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24. GUNUNG SEWU: EXPLOITATION SINCE THE REMOTE PAST " .., " >
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Gunung Sewu as one geographical entity, characterized by thousands of karst hill with distinctive hemispheric or conic shapes, has had a long history of settlement. Man has been attracted by this area and its profusion of environmental resources since the oldest period of prehistory (Period I - VI), and is still attracted to it even now. From the aspect of cultural evolution, during that time span, life slowly altered from the simplest ways to greater complexity culminating in the preneolithic period. In classical terminology, the stages of this development have been referred to as Paleolithic, Mesolithic (Preneolithic), Neolithic, and finally the Paleometallic. The question of when Gunung Sewu was first colonized has not been answered in a satisfactorily way. Since the oldest date from Terns Cave, where Pacitanian characteristics have not yet been discerned, of 180,000 BP, provisionally it can be said that the Pacitanian of Baksoka River is older and can be presumed to date at least of the upper part of the Middle Pleistocene. It is hoped that a more definite answer will be obtained by future intensive studies in this area. In the Late Pleistocene, around 40,000- 30,000 BP or before, a new cultural phenomenon emerged. The previous pattern of settlement, characterized by nomadism along river courses, shifted to caves and rock shelters . This change caused cultural evolution, especially in stone technology, producing flake tools and other tools that tended to be massive and coarse. Let us return to the Holocene settlements, which are the most important periods of the Gunung Sewu occupation. It is characterized
258
259
by the rapid cultural change, from Preneolithic to Neolithic and then to Paleometallic period (period IV-VI). Viewed from the time span of development, Preneolithic was a longer period than the two others, i.e. from the early Holocene to around 4,000 BP. This period was characterized by intensive exploitation of resources. Since then Gunung Sewu has been inhabited by Australomelanesids with the following cultural traits: I. The exploitation of caves for settlement, as a locus for industrial activities manufacturing stone and bone tools, and for burial. In this stage hearths and fires were common in caves. 2. Exploitation of locally available rocks for tool making. 3. Exploitation of various fauna by hunting and collecting ofaquatic biota to meet the need for food. Various kinds of animal bones, antler, teeth and mollusc shell were utilized for tool making and adornments. The bone industry and lithic industry activities evolved in tandem, with no dichotomy between the two. 4. The exploitation of seeds in the later stage, around 5,000 BP, until the Neolithic. Few vegetal remains have yet been found, except for kemiri, kenari, and ketapang. 5. The practice of flexed and stretched burials in certain parts of the cave with some variations in hand pose and treatment for the dead in each site. Findings from Braholo and Keplek Caves showed that besides flexed primary burials, the inhabitants also practised secondary burial by reburying the skull, jaw and hipbone of the dead after primary burial. Besides the main characteristics mentioned above, the distinctions between the eastern and western parts of Gunung Sewu were highly influenced by the different environmental resources available in each area. The intensive production of unique doublepointed needles and tools of limestone, and rectangular adzes of fossil mollusc shell (Tridacna), represent distinctive elements from Braholo Cave-swestern Gunung Sewu), which are absent in Keplek Cave (the eastern part). On the other hand, the optimal utilization of chert with the production of polishing tools made of mollusc shell is unique to Keplek Cave. Whereas in Keplek Cave burial customs placed the dead
in the position of slanting to the right and not covered by blocks of stone, in Braholo Cave the abdomen and chest are covered by limestone blocks. Within a regional context, those cultural characteristics have a broad distribution in limestone hills in the eastern part of Java. So far, this culture has been identified in seven limestone hill unit areas: besides in Gunung Sewu, the others are located in Ponorogo, Bojonegoro, Tuban, Tulungagung, Puger and Besuki (Situbondo). The first discovery of this culture was made in 1926 by van Es in Lawa Cave, Sampung in the Ponorogo area, which became the eponymous site for what is called "the Sampung bone industry" (Heekeren, 1972). This terminology needs to be revised, considering that besides the bone industry, the lithic industry is more prominent in this cave, as was the case with other caves in East Java. Moreover, the Sampung bone industry was unsupported by definite chronological data. Henceforth, a new term, ''The Keplek Period", has been proposed for this cultural stage, based on findings in Keplek Cave where' they are better defined with regard to cultural characteristics and dating. This period lasted from the Early Holocene until around 4,000 BP. Within the Archipelago's context the Keplek layer forms a unique cultural complex, combining the Paleolithic tradition (flake tools) and the local innovation (bone tools), besides the main elements mentioned above. Another contemporary cultural group in the Archipelago is the Hoabinhian, characterized by the continental Southeast Asian culture producing Sumatraliths, distributed along the east coast of North Sumatra. In the eastern part of Indonesia, (including Kalimantan) another group producing cave paintings developed with an extended distribution from Australia and the Pacific to continental Southeast Asia. A fourth group called the flake-blade industry is not restricted to a single.geographical context but extended widely in the Archipelago. This group represents a Paleolithic tradition (flake tools) that continued into the Holocene. The end of the Preneolithic was marked by the appearance of the Neolithic with pottery and rectangular adzes. The Neolithic developed gradually, over a transitional phase, rather than abruptly. It
260
26 1
apparently lasted for a relatively short time, from about 4,000 BP to around 1,000 BP. Started with cave settlement, which lasted until 2,000 BP, the Neolithic then moved to open settlement with the development of adzes and arrowheads. After this movement, a very significant technological leap took place in the formation of hundreds of atelier groups producing adzes and arrowheads. It is noteworthy that Neolithic life in open settlements was only found in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu. This could possibly be influenced by the abundant availability of chert, which facilitated the development of the industry's activities. In the western part of Gunung Sewu, chert is very scarce or absent. If this is the case, how did the Neolithic develop in this area? The possible answer is that the Neolithic still existed in cave life, and the limited availability of chert made development of the adze industry unfavourable (remember the rectangular adzes from Braholo Cave made of fossil bone, mollusc shell and limestone). Limitation of the rock resources caused the Neolithic to be less developed in the western part of Gunung Sewu. The Paleometallic lasted from around 1,000 BP, characterized by the introduction of metal objects (specifically iron) and beads: The end of this period cannot be specified, but it has been assumed that it coincides with the influx of Indian influences. Like the Neolithic, Paleometallic culture has not been found in the western part of Gunung Sewu. However, beyond the karst area, about 20-30 km from Braholo Cave to the northwest, in the Karangmojo area, are found megalithic sites with elements of metal culture. The absence of Paleometallic sites in the western zone suggests that this culture did not develop well, possibly caused by factors relating to the limited environmental resources. It was assumed that the population moved with a tendency to select plains toward the west, and developed a megalithic culture with Paleometallic elements. Significant retardation can be seen in the Gunung Sewu area from-the early Neolithic to the Paleometallic. In the period since the end of the 4 th century AD, when other areas in the Archipelago formed historic civilizations, the Gunung Sewu area was still untouched by Indian influences , and reached its peak of Neolithic technology with
the industry of adzes and arrowheads in open settlements. The Paleometallic, which developed in other parts of the Archipelago toward the beginning of the Christian Era, also emerged in this area around 1,000 years ago. This retardation could possibly be correlated with geographical factors: hill areas with very limited plains and valleys, creating obstacles to the influx of outside influences. (Truman Simanjuntak)
-'"
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276
277
Appendix 1: list ~f Cave Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area
Appendix 1 (continued)
No.
No.
-
Site
HamJetlViliage
Settlement remains
Site
Seillement remains
Hamlet/Village
18
GuaNgiriman
Nglriman. Piton
Mollusc. potsherd
19
Gua Badut
BanJa~o.
Mollusc
Chert flake. potsherd. bone"
20
GuaGunung Dowo
Krajan Kulon. Piton
Mollusc. po tsherd. seed, bead
Tabuhan. Wareng
Mollusc. chert flake. bone"
21
GuaSemedi
KJajen. Sooko
-
Song Gempal. Wareng
22
Song Dremo
Sooko. Sooko
Chert flake
Mollusc. bone
23
Song Kenong
Sekar Kraja n. Sekar
Bliruk. Wareng
Mollusc. po tshe rd. c hert flake
Mollusc. potsherd. chert flake. bone
24
Ce ruk Glonggong
Jonsort, Belah
Chert flake
25
Gua Duren
Duren. Sukodono
Teeth. mollusc. potsherd. chert flake . bead
26
GuaPokol
Guplt. Sukodono
Chert flake. mollusc. p otsherd. unfinished adze
1
Song Terus Wareng
Weru. Wareng
2
Gua Tabuhan
Tabuhan. Wareng
3
Gua Gunung Gede
4
Gua Inten
Chert flake. po tsherd. bone"
Piton
5
Gua Togog
6
Gua KJepu KJut
KJepu Kiul. Wareng
Chert flake. potsherd. bone. seed
7
Song Terus. Mantren
Pogog . Mantren
Mollusc. potshe rd. bone. chert flake. seed
8
Ceruk Pogog
Pogog. Mantren
Chert flake
9
Gua Kukusan
Karang Gebang. Mantren
Chert flake. potsherd. bone
27
GuaKalak
Kalak. Sendong
Mollusc. potsherd. chert flake
10
Song Keplek
Page rsarl. Punung
Molusc. potshe rd. bo ne. chert fla ke "
28
GuaKendii
Bejl. Pringkuku
Mollusc. po tshe rd. c hert flake.
11
Guo Dono
Page rsari. Punung
Mo llusc. po tsherd. chert flake. bone"
29
Guo Gedangan
Telog a Sowoh. Sugihwaras
Potsherd. mollusc
12
Song Terus Kebon
Kebon.Punung
Mollusc. bone. seed
30
Song Karet
Dersono. Dersono
Mollusc. chert flake
13
Gua Putri
Gunung Sernut, Kendal
-
31
Gua Labon Semut
Kenul. Watukarung
Mollusc
14
Song Mur
Gun ung Sernut, Kendal
32
Gua Kamidondo
Kara ngno ngko. Watu karung
Mollusc
Chert. bone. seed
15
Son~
Pule. Bomo
33
Gua Tando
Sempon. Watukarung
Potsherd. chert flake . bone"
Mollusc. bone. chert flake
16
GuaGong
Pule. Bomo
-
34
Gua Langse
Tameng. G1rikikis
Potsherd
17
Gua Dawung
Papringan. Piton
35
Gua Platar
Potshe rd. c hert fla ke
Watuireng. P1atarejo
Potsherd
Gupuh
279
278 Appendix 1 (continued)
Appendix 1 (continued) ~.
No.
Site
Hamlet/Village
No.
Setllement remains
Site
Hamlet/Village
Settlement remains
36
Gua Ngantab
Ngantab. Bovernhono
-
58
GuaNgasem
Ngrombo. Balong
seed. bead. mollusc
37
Ceruk Ngantab
Ngantab. Bovernho no
Potsherd. mollusc
59
Song Terus Ngelosart
Ngelosart. Prtngombo
Bone. mollusc. chert flake
38
Gua Nanas
Guweng. Jalirejo
Potsherd
60
Gua Gesing
Purwodadi. Tepus
seed
39
Song Ngarep I
Girt Belch, Jalirejo
seed
61
Song Agung
Pakis. Punung
Chert flake . potsherd'
40
Song Ngarep II
Giri Belah, Jalirejo
Te eth. potsherd
62
Song Cabak l
Ke~o.
Boto
41
Gua Bengkrung
Tumpok, Ketos
seed
Bone. potsherd, chert flake
42
Song Terus, Klepusari
Klepusari. Joho
Bone. chert flake
63
Song Cabakll
Ke~o.
Boto
Bone. potsherd. chert flake
43
Gua Baltan
Dayakan. Joho
Bone. mollusc. potsherd
64
Song Luw an g
Siyono. Pelir Pucung
Mollusc
44
Gua Dayakan
Dayakan. Joho
Potsherd
65
GuaGlulik
Sawah . TIleng
Mollusc
45
Song Putri
Song Putrl, Sinduka rto
-
66
Gua Wareng
Nandesan. Tileng
Mollusc
46
Ceruk Sawlt
Sow!1. Gombang
Mollusc. seed
67
GuaKere
Pokok, Karan gaw en
Mollusc
47
Ceruk Ngumbut
Karangwetan. semugih
Chert flake. potsherd
68
GuaPrtgi
Tegal Prtgl. Karangawen
Mollusc
48
Gua Braholo
semugih. Semuglh
Bone. p otsherd. chert fla ke '
69
Gua Keramaian
Pelir, Pelir
Mo llusc
70
Song Clngkrang
Pule. Pule Ngelo
Mollusc
49
Ceruk Trtlis
semampir. semugih
Bone. potsherd. chert flake
50
Gua Sonten
semampir. semuglh
Mollusc. ceram ic. seed
51
Gua Sumur Teken
SumurTeken. TIleng
Potsherd. bone
52
Ceruk Kandri I
Kandri. Pucung
Che rt flake
53
Ce ruk Kandri II
Kandrt. Pucung
Che rt flake
54
Ceruk Nosumo
Kandrt. Pucung
Chert flake
55
C:.ruk Ngungap I
Ngungap. Puc ung
Bone. moll usc. seed. c he rt flake
56
Ceruk Ngungap II
Ngungap.Pucung
Mollusc. potsherd
57
Gua B1imbing
Kasihan. Baloog
Mollusc
.
.
.
280
281
Appendix 2: List of Open Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area
Appendix 2 (continued)
gies for fabricating tools. There was a progressive evolution from the simplest ways, in the remote past. until the more complex ways, approaching the historic period. Such cultural developments started in the Paleolithic and went on to the Preneohthic, the Neolithic. and until the
PaleometalliC. Settlement remains disperse in large numbers in the form of sites, artifacts and ecotaets. This book presents a synthesis of multidisciplinary researches on the preh istory of Gunung Sewu. Intentionally composed in an accessible way, it consists of a series of short artides discussing different topic; and completed with rK:h illustrations. The main themes to be taken up concern man, his culture, and his environment. Questions to be answered are among others: since when did men settle in this area, who were they, what were their environmental conditions, how did they exploit natural resources, which were their cultural characteristics compared to other regions, how was cultural devek>pment throughout the settlement activities? By answering these questions, this book presents a comprehensive view of the prehistory of Gunung 5ewu in a diachronic way. Those who read it from the beginn ing will soon recognize the accupation history of th is region from the earliest times to the end Prehistory. This booI
