Greece Before History: An Archaeological Companion and Guide

GREECE BEFORE

HISTORY

GREECE BEFORE HISTORY AN

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

COMPANION AND

GUIDE

Stanford University Press Stanford, California •Ö 2001 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford J u n i o r University Printed in the United States of America on acid-free, archival-quality paper

Library of Congress Catalogmg-m-Publication Data Runnels, Curtis Neil Greece before history : an archaeological companion and guide / Curtis Runnels, Priscilla Murray, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN ο - Ν 0 4 7 - 4 0 3 6 - 4 ( a l k . p a p e r )

—

ISBN 0 - K 0 4 7 - 4 0 5 0 - X ( p b k . : a l k . p a p e r )

j. Prehistoric p e o p l e s — G r e e c e . Prehistoric — Greece. GNN15.RN5

2. Antiquities,

I. Murray, Priscilla.

II. Title.

2001

937.6 — dc2i

00-05 NN35

Designed by Eleanor M e n n i c k Typeset by G & S Typesetters 111 1 1 / 1 4 M o n o t y p e B e m b o Original Printing 2001 Last of 0this printing: 1 0 figure 09 08below 07 indicates 06 05 year 04 3 02 01

Contents

List of Illustrations

vu

Preface and Acknowledgments Chronological Table One

xm

A i l Introduction to the Prehistory o f G r e e c e First Things 5

Two

I

The Plan of This Work 7

T h e O l d Stone A g e : H o w It All B e g a n The Palaeolithic Period 12

Three

xi

9

The Mesolithic Period 31

T h e N e w Stone A g e : T h e Earliest G r e e k Civilization

41

The Origins of the Greek Neolithic 45

Neolithic

Civilization 52 Four

T h e B r o n z e A g e : " S a v a g e Virtues and Barbarous Grandeur''

65

Life in the Early Bronze Age 71 Civilization 76

Crete and the Minoan

Distinctive Features of Minoan Culture 87

The Mycenaeans 95 Five

T h e E n d o f the B r o n z e A g e World The Collapse of a Civilization 1 1 6 of Disasters 1 1 7

Six

115

A Catalogue

Rumors of War 1 2 1

S a n t o n i n and the L e g e n d o f Atlantis The Minoan Eruption of Santorim 134

129

A Tour o f the Principal Grecce

139

The Palaeolithic 139

The

Last R e f l e c t i o n s

A

A N o t e o n the Dates U s e d 111 T h i s W o r k

Β

O n the Schlieniann Trail

163

an A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Tour o f G r e e c e Bibl i 00 rapt 1 ic Ess a y Index

195

181

159

173

List o f Illustrations

1.1

T h e G r e e k countryside.

3

1.2

A B y z a n t i n e church.

2. ι

M a p of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites.

2.2

Tools f r o m the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic.

2.3

T h e fossilized cranium f r o m Petralona.

2.4

M a k i n g a stone tool.

2.5

T h e archaeological site o f R o d i a , 111 Thessaly.

2.6

A hand-axe from Kokkmopilos.

2.7

A Palaeolithic forager.

2.8

Vanished prehistoric lake m Epirus.

2.9

M i d d l e Palaeolithic stone tools.

4 10 13

14

17 18

18

20 22

23

2.10

Tools o f anatomically m o d e r n Homo sapiens.

2.11

Palaeolithic rock shelter.

2.12

F ranch thi C a v e m the southern A r g o l i d .

2.13

T h e coastline 11ear Franchthi Cave.

2.14

T h e evolution o f Palaeolithic stone tools.

2.15

Mesolithic tools.

2.16

Mesolithic burial site at Franchthi C a v e .

2.17

Papyrus reed bo at.

25

27 29

32 34

35 35

37

3.1

M a p of Neolithic sites.

42

3.2

Typical Neolithic artifacts.

3.3

W h e a t introduced f r o m the N e a r East.

3.4

Sheep and goats introduced f r o m the N e a r East.

3.5

A Neolithic terra-cotta anthropomorphic figurine.

44 47 47 51

4· 2 3

4.25

4-27

4.29

The

X

LIST OF I L L U S T R A T I O N S (Thera). 6.2

A;

6.3

A-

133

136

6.4 136

6.5

by a n ,

6.6 . 111 Grcccc.

7.1

137

140

7.2 7-3

A:

145

7.4 7-5 151 7.6

151

157

his b o o k belongs to the genre of scientific writing called " p o p u lar," m that it is intended to present scientific findings to a general readership. B y "general readership, 11 w e mean anyone with a curiosity about archaeology in general, and the archaeology of Greece in particular. We have drawn upon our o w n familiarity with the vast technical, and usually off-putting, literature 011 the subject, and 011 our o w n original research and experience in fieldwork to obtain the material for this book. Although the summary of what archaeology can tell us about Greek prehistory is based 011 solid evidence and scientific fact, w e have spiced the text with touches of h u m o r and personal reflection and illustrated it with drawings chosen for their visual appeal. It is our firm belief that there is a need for this sort of book. Periodic "stock-taking 1 ' of what is, and is not, k n o w n about the archaeology of a particular period or place is useful for students, travelers, and all those w h o are interested in the subject but do not have the time to examine and digest the large amount of information in excavation reports and specialized scientific journals. T h e writing of this b o o k has been useful for us as well by giving us the opportunity and incentive to take a broad look at the knowledge gained by archaeology in the past 25 years. We hope that this attempt to present the " b i g picture 1 ' intrigues and satisfies our readers. A n d w e hope that our professional colleagues will have sympathy with our motives and forgive us our omissions and mistakes. B o o k s are made f r o m trees, but they do not grow 011 them. T h e y take shape over time as the result of inspiration, research, analysis, study, and m u c h hard work, all of w h i c h require authors to rely for advice and help on individuals and institutions too numerous to m e n tion. Because of the length of time required to bring this b o o k into existence, w e owe an especially large debt of this kind. We have been working 011 the idea for this b o o k in one f o r m or another for more than ten years. T h e writing of the text alone took two years, mostly

in the f o r m of one- or t w o - w e e k periods of work squeezed into the ever smaller spaces in our professional schedules of administration, teaching, and fieldwork. T h e experience and research that make this b o o k possible span a period of more than 2 5 years. T h e structure and content of the book took shape as w e read the literature, talked with students, friends, and colleagues f r o m around the world while visiting archaeological sites, and carried out our o w n fieldwork. Here then is our digested, synthesized, and abstracted v i e w of the present state of prehistoric archaeology 111 Greece. To tease apart the w h o l e and identify every influence, cite every source, or name ever ν individual w h o has contributed 111 some w a y to this w o r k is beyond our power. We would certainly fail to identify them all, but w e are truly grateful to all those w h o , although not acknowledged individually, have contributed to our thinking about Greek prehistory. We owe a special debt to the institutions that made this w o r k possible over the years, especially the Society of Antiquaries of L o n d o n and the National Geographic Society, w h i c h supported our work with grants. T h e Institute for Aegean Prehistory ( I N S T A P ) provided the lions share of funding for our research since 1984; this one institution has done more than any other foundation to promote research in this area. T h e support of I N S T A P has grown more important 111 the past decade as other sources of funding for Greek archaeology have disappeared. T h e founder of I N S T A P , M a l c o l m Wiener, deserves our special gratitude and respect for his vision and generosity, and it is a special pleasure to acknowledge him here. We wish also to thank the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, w h i c h was our base of operations while working in Greece, and Eliza M c C l e n n e n , w h o prepared the maps. Karl Petruso, best friend and colleague, kindly read the manuscript in great detail in an early draft and made many useful suggestions, both large and small, w h i c h were always helpful. Ν orris Pope, the director of Stanford University Press, deserves our thanks for his support of this project f r o m its inception.

Traditional a oc

Period

(Guitare name

Bronze

Late

Minoan / Mycenaean

1600 - 1 100

Middle

Minoan

2 1 0 0 - 1 6 0 0 B.C.

Early

Minoan

3 6 0 0 - 2 1 0 0 B.C.

Calendar

date B.C.

Cycladic Helladic Neolithic

Mesolithic

Final

4SOO-36OO B.C.

Late

SSOO-45OO B.C.

Middle

6 0 O O - 5 5 O O B.C.

Early

6850-6000

Upper

10,S00-9000

B.C. B.C.

Lower Palaeolithic

NOTES:

Upper

Aurignacian

30,000-13,000

Middle

Mousterian

1S0,000-30,000

Lower

Ac h etile a 11

4 0 0 , 0 0 0 - 1 S 0 , 0 0 0 B.P.

All dates are approximate and are given as

B.P.

B.P. B.P.

(before present, i.e.,

1950) or B.C. (before the common era). See Appendix A for a discussion of these dates. The Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic are subdivisions of the Stone Age. The names of the periods reflect the different backgrounds of the archaeologists who did the naming. The Early Stone Age names show the influence of geology, and the Neolithic and Bronze Age names derive from humanistic classifications. There are inconsistencies 111 the culture names. The culture names should end 111 "-an" and derive from a type site (note that C vela die and Helladic are the outliers) and for some reason there are no agreed-upon culture names for the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Note, loo, that the terms "Cycladic" and "Mino ah' are also used for the Middle and Late Bronze Age; "Late Helladic" can substitute for "Mycenaean/'

GREECE BEFORE

HISTORY

AN I N T R O D U C T I O N T O P R E H I S T O R Y OF

THE

GREECE

here are many books about the archaeology of Greece that provide historical and literary background information, along with detailed descriptions of archaeological sites and museums accompanied by plans and illustrations of artifacts. Some are written for the student or general reader; others are aimed at travelers and supply information on restaurants, hotels, and local customs. As contemporary readers have developed more specialized tastes and interests, n e w books have addressed these trends. M a n y readers go to Greece only in their dreams, and they read books on archaeology and travel in order to satisfy their curiosity; others prefer to do their reading after they have visited the country 111 order to gam additional insights or refresh their memories. A n d others, perhaps the majority, wish a b o o k to serve as a useful companion in their travels, one that will be on hand to answer questions that arise during visits to archaeological sites and museums. Perhaps ambitiously, w e hope to satisfy all of these readers with this book. It is intended as a guide and a companion for all visitors, whether they travel to Greece on an airplane or a ship, 111 a classroom, or in a favorite reading chair. In reviewing the books on Greek archaeology written over the past 25 years w e found that most of them concentrate 011 the classical G r e c o - R o m a n past, and to a lesser extent 011 Byzantine Greece. Far fewer attempt to interest readers in the long, rich, prehistoric past of Greece, a country with one of the oldest archaeological records of all the European nations.

T h e first h u m a n beings to leave A f r i c a and migrate to E u r o p e passed thro u gh G re e c e. It was o n the fertile plains o f central and northern G r e e c e that early farmers established their villages and created the first civilization o n E u r o p e a n soil. Later still, the legendary civilizations o f M i n o a n C r e t e and M y c e n a e w e r e established in southern G r e e c e and the islands o f the A e g e a n Sea. T h e s e civilizations m a d e m a n y i m p o r tant contributions to later Western civilization, particularlv 111 the area o f m y t h and legend. In o u r o w n day, poets, artists, writers, and even H o l l y w o o d producers tell the stories of gods, kings, and heroes f r o m the M y c e n a e a n and M i n o a n world: A g a m e m n o n , Achilles, Odysseus, and H e l e n b e l o n g to the great cycle o f the Trojan War. M i n o s , the Labyrinth, the M i n o t a u r , the great hero Theseus, and the great l e g ends tha t surround them are w o v e n into the tapestry o f our entire culture. E v e n the mysteriously popular legend o f Atlantis has its roots f i r m l y g r o u n d e d 111 the deep prehistory o f the G r e e k w o r l d . B o o k s devoted to G r e e k prehistory f o r the general reader and traveler are e x c e e d i n g l y rare. T h e r e are notable exceptions, particularly the w e l l - w r i t t e n but sadly o u t - o f - d a t e w o r k b y E m i l y Vermeule, Grcccc in the Bronze Aoc\ and some short guides to specific prehistoric sites, such as G e o r g e Mylonas's Mycenae:

A Guide.

W e h o p e to fill

this gap in the literature and have w r i t t e n this b o o k f o r students, travelers, and the simply curious w h o w i s h to k n o w something about G r e e c e b e f o r e history. We o f t e n m e e t people w h o w a n t to k n o w about the o d d l y shaped m o u n d s ("tells" to an archaeologist) that dot the countryside; about the uses o f the curious Stone A g e flints seen in m u s e u m cases; or about the brightly colored pots and mysterious a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c figurines f r o m prehistoric times in museums around the w o r l d . T h i s b o o k is also f o r those w h o w a n t to k n o w m o r e about the foundations o f l a t e r , historical, G r e e c e . Finally, this b o o k is f o r students of all ages and levels w h o simply w a n t to k n o w m o r e about the marvelous accomplishments of Europe's first great civilization. T h e approach w e take 111 this b o o k is not one w i d e l y used in scientific w r i t i n g , even f o r general audiences. T h e chronological outlines o f prehistoric cultures, as well as descriptions o f artifacts, architecture, burial customs, and the like, will be familiar. B u t o u r m o r e personal observations and attempts to interpret these facts are not " o b j e c t i v e 1 1 m the usual scientific sense. A l t h o u g h w e m a k e every effort to ground o u r interpretations o n the available evidence, w e occasionally g o b e y o n d the strict limits of the evidence to o f f e r our o w n v i e w s o n the past, w h i c h are sometimes based as m u c h o n intuition and experience

as 011 logical deduction f r o m theory. S o m e o f o u r conclusions are the result o f l o n g reflection o n a group o f related problems; sometimes these conclusions are hard to put into w o r d s , and even harder to j u s tify w i t h the scattered bits o f evidence that w e have in hand. G i v e n the lack o f b o o k s 011 this subject, w e believe this approach is justified, even necessary. W e hope to stimulate dialogue by inviting readers to consider the evidence and reach their o w n conclusions. Part of the novelty of this b o o k resides in its dual use, as indicated b y the subtitle: "A11 Archaeological C o m p a n i o n and G u i d e . ' ' In this guide w e present our evidence and conclusions in an orderly m a n n e r 011 the page, w h i c h allows all readers access; but w e also w a n t this to be a guide in the sense of a traveler's " c o m p a n i o n . 1 ' We k n o w the frustrating experience of the traveler w i t h limited time w h o finds himself or herself standing before a m u s e u m case c r o w d e d w i t h artifacts but n o labels, or l o o k i n g out over a j u m b l e of rums w i t h 110 means o f distinguishing w h a t is important f r o m w h a t is mere rubbish. B e c a u s e w e have sympathy f o r serious travelers and tourists, w e have included a chapter (Chapter 7) and an appendix ( A p p e n d i x C ) that will help to m a k e sense o f w h a t they see in G r e e c e . F o r readers and travelers alike, the drawings herein have b e e n carefully selected to provide a v i sual i n v e n t o r y of the scenery, typical artifacts, and the most important m o n u m e n t s and sites that the traveler will encounter. F o r e x a m p l e . Figure 1 . 1 shows the typical vegetation, architecture, and terrain o f a seaside village. T h u s this guide is both a reference f o r h o m e or classr o o m use and a traveler's i'adc mccuui. N o w let us g o 011 an imaginary j o u r n e y into the prehistoric past o f G r e e c e . Traveling back in time, w e quickly pass through the O t t o m a n

and Byzantine periods with their light-filled mosques and churches encrusted with frescoes and smoking with incense (see Figure ι .2). Further back in time w e encounter the G r e c o - R o m a n world of classical antiquity with its marble-strewn cities and temple precincts sprouting forests of columns. Processions of people wind their w a y up to the Parthenon, and the dark gray-blue Aegean is filled with the sails of ships. We soon leave these behind us, for the historical record is not very deep — a mere two and a half millennia. And we travel 011, finding before us a broad vista of prehistoric cultures, still only imperfectly k n o w n f r o m archaeological research. In the foreground is the barbarous splendor of the tombs and palaces of the M i n o a n and later M y c e naean civilizations and farther away a long stretch of earlier B r o n z e A g e civilizations with bronze weapons, long oared ships, and startling, yet diminutive, marble sculptures of men and gods. A n d even more distant 011 the horizon w e see the sunlit villages of the first farmers 111 Europe, pioneers f r o m Asia M i n o r w h o colonized Greece more than 9,000 years ago 111 one of the greatest adventures of humankind's early history. S m o k e rises f r o m brightly painted adobe brick houses, and 111 the fields harvesters wield stone knives. As w e come closer, w e see others

assume that the laws of nature in distant galaxies are the same as the laws of our o w n solar system if they are to infer anything about what they cannot see; the same is true for paleontologists and archaeologists. T h e same constancy of human nature assumed by T h u c y d i d e s allows us to j u d g e and interpret the actions and even the motives of long-dead peoples 111 distant and extinct cultures. Without this assumption, archaeological inference would be impossible. O n the basis of a century of prehistoric archaeological research, prehistorians of Greece have divided the hundreds of thousands of years of prehistoric life into carefully defined periods with technical names — t h e Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods (together, the Old Stone A g e 111 popular writing), the Neolithic period (the N e w Stone Age), the B r o n z e A g e , and the Iron A g e , w h i c h was initially prehistoric (the Early Iron Age) but in the end encompasses all of the historic cultures of classical antiquity. This classification system was invented by nineteenth-century European antiquarians 111 D e n m a r k and Sweden and goes back, by w a y of the R o m a n poet and philosopher Lucretius, to the ancient Greek philosophers, 111 particular the Boeotian poet Hesiod, one of the first to order the human past 111 a series of "ages.' 1 T h e three-age system is somewhat too simple and general for use 111 contemporary scientific archaeology, but it is useful for conceiving of the enormous scope of the human past. In this b o o k , w e are concerned with the first two ages, the Stone A g e , w h i c h c o m prises the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic subdivisions, and the Bronze A g e , a m u c h shorter period k n o w n chiefly for the glamorous M i n o a n and Mycenaean civilizations.

T H E PLAN OF THIS

WORK

This b o o k organizes archaeological information by period, starting with the Palaeolithic, continuing through the Neolithic, and concluding with the end of the B r o n z e A g e . Each period is illustrated with line drawings of typical artifacts and architecture rather than photographs, w h i c h usually accompany books written for the general reader. This rather old-fashioned approach perhaps requires some explanation. Line drawings are c o m m o n l y used by archaeologists to communicate their findings to each other, and drawings, though less precise than photographs, can capture the essential features of a site or artifact, highlighting what the archaeologist thinks is important about

them. N o t incidentally, they are an attractive visual accompaniment to the text while at the same time helping the reader to recognize the essential characteristics of the material culture of prehistoric Greece. We have tried to include artifacts and views that are not c o m m o n l y found m other publications. Another feature of this b o o k that is not found m the usual archaeological treatise is some practical information for travelers, whether students or seasoned professionals. Chapter 7 and A p p e n d i x C contain additional suggestions for an archaeological tour. We have dispensed with footnotes 111 order to allow the text to flow freely, without interruption. T h e Bibliographic Essay at the end guides the reader to the sources of facts and theories mentioned in the text and suggests further reading.

HH Finally, let us say a word about ourselves. Because this is such a highly personal narrative and interpretation, it is only fair for the reader to k n o w w h o w e are and where w e stand. We are professional archaeologists, both trained 111 the fields of archaeology and anthropology, with a life-long interest in prehistoric cultures of Europe and the M e d i t e r ranean world. We first met 011 a prehistoric excavation in southern Greece m the early 1970s and have traveled and worked together 011 archaeological projects in Greece and Turkey ever since. In recent years w e have been particularly interested 111 understanding the Palaeolithic cultures of this region, w h i c h have been m u c h neglected, partly because they have been overshadowed by the illustrious civilizations of classical antiquity and partly because of the fragmentary nature of the evidence. This curiosity has led us to explore much of Greece, and 011 the w a y w e have developed our o w n personal, and perhaps idiosyncratic, v i e w of Greek prehistory. O u r decades of j o i n t research have brought us to the point where we wish to share our views with people other than specialists. This book is the result of many years of private discussions across tables stacked high with artifacts and during long, usually hot, days of field w o r k , sometimes over the dinner table m the lingering twilight of evening, and, more often than not, during long walks in the unforgettable mountain country of Greece in its springtime glory. N o w w e are ready to invite the reader to j o i n in our conversation.

T H E O L D S T O N E AGE How It All Began

CORK'

L h i- Κ Λ S /3 Μζ^1 KEPHALLINIA

ZAKYNTHOS

Ionian Sea

4 0 Miles

40 Km

Elevations 500 meters above sea level •

Palaeolithic-Mesolithic Sites

(about 1.8 million years ago). A t that time the w o r l d entered the most recent o f several great Ice Ages: the ice caps e x p a n d e d and global temperatures fell sharplv. T h e oldest fossil evidence f o r primitive species o f h u m a n precursors has b e e n f o u n d m abundance m the Great R i f t Valley o f East A f r i c a f r o m Ethiopia south to Kenya and Tanzania, as well as 111 S o u t h Africa and farther to the west m U g a n d a , Algeria, and M o r o c c o . T h e earliest h o m i n i d species, Australopithecus

afarensis, was l o n g - l i v e d , persisting

f o r as long as a million years, but was eventually replaced or succeeded b y one or m o r e similar species. We are interested only in the lineage that led to o u r o w n species. T h i s lineage appears to be descended f r o m the h o m m i d s Australopithecus

africanus and Homo habilis, w h i c h lived

m east A f r i c a b e t w e e n 3 and 1 1 / 2 million years ago, overlapping the transition f r o m the Pliocene to the Pleistocene. All o f the early h o mmids exhibit some uniquely h u m a n characteristics, including upright bipedal posture, large brains, small faces, hands w i t h opposable thumbs, and a dependence o n stone tools and other implements f o r gaming subsistence. It w o u l d be unproductive to concern ourselves o v e r m u c h w i t h the details o f h u m a n evolution. B r i e f l y , h o w e v e r , the different species o f early humans are k n o w n by a variety o f scientific n a m e s — Homo habilis, Homo crcctus (a.k.a. Homo croastcr), and Homo

rudolfcnsis.

Specialists are divided over the relationships a m o n g these fossil h o m mids and are uncertain h o w to relate them to m o d e r n humans (Homo sapiens sapiens). S o m e specialists, j o c u l a r l y referred to as " l u m p e r s , " believe that there was probably only one species in existence at any one time, or at most two, and that the different fossil forms are o n l y variant forms o f one species. T h e lumpers hold that because early hominids appear to have varied in their physical f o r m they can be grouped together 011 the basis o f shared characteristics. A n o t h e r group o f specialists, h o w e v e r , called ''splitters," use the same variability o f f o r m 111 the fossil specimens to divide h o m m i d s into numerous separate species. T h e r e is 110 w a y to be certain w h i c h v i e w is correct b e cause only a f e w hundred h o m m i d fossils have b e e n f o u n d in A f r i c a

2.1

Opposite. The locations of the principal known Palaeolithic and

Mesolithic sites. They are found 111 almost all regions but are rare 111 the smaller Cycladic islands and the mountainous interior of the mainland. There arc no sites of this period 011 Crete.

tions in the types o f stone tools f o u n d in archaeological sites allow the Palaeolithic to be subdivided into separate phases. In the earliest phase, the L o w e r Palaeolithic (roughly 2 1 / 2 million to 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 years ago), stone tools w e r e manufactured in the simplest w a y : direct blows f r o m another stone struck o f f flakes; the simple shapes that resulted are the characteristic products o f early h o m m i d s , including Homo

habilis and Homo

ercctus. T h e discovery o f L o w e r

Palaeolithic tools in lands outside A f r i c a is the most important evidence that w e have of early h o m i n i d migrations. D u r i n g the second m a j o r phase, the M i d d l e Palaeolithic ( 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 to 30,000 years ago), stone tools w e r e p r o d u c e d f r o m simple flakes b y early m e m b e r s o f our o w n species, including Homo

iieauderthalcusis

(the Neanderthals) and Homo sapiens fossil is, an early f o r m o f anatomically m o d e r n h u m a n .

2.2

The transition from the Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic

and Neolithic periods can be traced 111 material culture. We have uncovered more artifacts from the later periods both because older things are less likely to be preserved and because of the underlying economic reality: the Neolithic culture was based on agriculture and settled village life, so its people built more substantial structures and had a greater variety of tools and equipment than the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic peoples, who were foragers and traveled lightly. From the bottom up: a Palaeolithic chopper (stone tool); Mesolithic microlith and bone fish hooks; and Neolithic house, arrowhead, axe, figurine, and pot.

T h e third phase, the Upper Palaeolithic (30,000 to 13,000 years ago), is dominated by finely w o r k e d stone tools made 011 long thin flakes k n o w n as blades. Upper Palaeolithic stone-tool complexes, or industries, are usually associated with anatomically modern humans of our o w n species. All three phases of the Palaeolithic a re represented in finds f r o m Greece, although never in any great abundance, and everywhere with gaps 111 our knowledge or interruptions in the record of evidence. T h e first certain evidence for the presence of hominids in Greece was discovered in a cave called Petralona on the Chalkidike peninsula near the northern city of Thessaloniki. T h e discovery was made in 1959 by local villagers looking for water; they found instead a fossilized cranium (a skull without the lower jaw) cemented 111 a stalagmite deep in a large cavern (see Figure 2.3). T h e heavily fossilized cranium appears to have belonged to a very unlucky individual. E v e r since scientists described and published a picture of the skull in i960, it has raised more questions than it has answered. H o w old is it? What species is it? A n d h o w did it get into the cavern where it was found? T h e cranium is a lonely, isolated find. Although the cavern deposits have been explored by amateur paleontologists, there are f e w published facts to go by. T h e cavern is too dark and wet for habitation, and the numerous fossilized animal bones 111 the deposits are d o m i nated by species such as the extinct cave hyena and cave bear, animals unlikely to have been congenial roommates for these hominids. T w o major theories account for the cranium's presence in the cavern. T h e theory with the most credibility is that it was brought into the cavern with the rest of the body by hyenas, w h i c h have a habit

2.3

The fossilized cranium from Petralona is an early

form of human, perhaps Homo heiiielheroensis, or perhaps an archaic form of Homo sapiens, who lived between 200,000 and 400,000 years ago.

ridge o f b o n e over the eye sockets, and the receding forehead, like the earlier Homo crcctus; its m o r e " m o d e r n ' characteristics, w h i c h resemble those o f the later Homo sapiens, include the large bramcase, w h i c h is higher and rounder than that o f the m o r e primitive h o m m i d s . We prefer the appellation Homo hcidcibcrocnsis, although it has not yet b e e n universally accepted, because it places the lonely Petralona cranium in its o w n class and recognizes its distinctive features. Fortunately, this one fossil is not the only evidence available f o r tracing the migration o f early hominids m G r e e c e . A t " o p e n - a i r ' sites, stone tools have b e e n f o u n d directly o n the present-day surface o f the earth or only slightly beneath it. T h e s e w e r e prehistoric campsites or perhaps t o o l - m a k i n g sites, w h e r e the chief finds a re shaped, οr knapped, flmt tools. A f t e r a campsite was abandoned m the distant past, the stone tools resisted the corrosion and decay that reduced other artifacts to dust and w e r e m their turn buried b y erosional sediments f r o m higher g r o u n d , gradually encased 111 thickening layers o f soil as the result o f weathering and chemical action, or sometimes b u r i e d and reexposed repeatedly m the geologically active e n v i r o n ment o f G r e e c e . S t o n e - t o o l sites are f o u n d chiefly in the northern and western districts (such as Thessaly and Epirus), although other parts o f G r e e c e u n d o u b t e d l y have sites awaiting discovery. O p e n - a i r sites are difficult to detect because they are o f t e n made up o f no m o r e than 30 — 40 stone artifacts scattered o n the surface o f an area as small as 2 0 - 3 0 meters 011 a side. T h i s is the n o r m . A f e w v e r y large and rich sites have p r o d u c e d thousands o f l i t h i c (stone) artifacts, but most sites are small, and the lithic artifacts are often difficult to distinguish f r o m ordinary rocks (see Figure 2.4). F e w e r than a hundred such sites are k n o w n at present. A l t h o u g h everything f r o m satellite i m a g e r y and aerial p h o t o g r a p h y to hand-operated augers has b e e n used to f i n d them, the most successful technique is still the simplest. T h e search f o r early sites first requires the careful analysis o f the g e o l o g y o f the region to identify sediments and soils that are o f sufficient age to contain Palaeolithic sites (recent river alluvium, f o r instance, is not productive); then the researcher walks e v e r y ravine, roadcut, and river terrace in the right areas l o o k i n g f o r places w h e r e erosion or recent digging has b r o u g h t stone tools to the surface. O n l y about a dozen L o w e r Palaeolithic sites have b e e n identified by finds o f stone tools. In 1 9 8 7 and 1 9 9 1 in Thessaly near the city o f Larisa, w e turned up half a dozen sites along the Peneios R i v e r and

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Avios Kosmas SAMOS .Tsoungiza * c ; ^ \ Askitario Askitano^ C S Zygouries^ £ 7 ( n KastrHw •Tn-yns^» Koionna {/SYRCW SvROS ^ . Λ ^ A R i>j O — U!) V·^' £% Asea · A•/. ,Le ma '.5, 75. y5 anemia, as result of malaria, 36 animal bones, fossilized, 14t, 17 animals: 111 Mesohthic, 31, 36, 3 Ν ; m Neolithic, 41, 43, j.4, 4Sf, 51, 55; 111 Palaeolithic, 5, 21, 26, 2<S, 30k 147. See also domestication archaeological culture, 159 archaeological period, 41 archaeological record, 2 1, 26, 30 Archanes, 76, 93

architecture, ^.2, 175. See also monumental architecture archives, 97, 99 Argissa, j. 1 Argolid, 26, 47, (njit 95, 4.2$, 103, 112, 125 Argos Archaeological Museum, 144, 14S Aristotle, 1 1 7 armor. See weapons arrowheads, 2.2, 2<S Asia Minor, 4, 6, 24, 50, 75, 95, 1 7 1 . See also Anatolia; Turkey Asprochalico Cave, 27-2S, 141 —142 Athens, 52, 112, 150, 173 Atlantis, 2; Akrotin, 134 - 1 3 <S; books 011, 131; sunken continent, 130t Aungnacian, xin, 24ÎF, 2.10, 2.14 Australopithecus a ja reu sis, 9, 11 Australopithecus ajricauus, 11 axes, Neolithic, 2.2, 41, 43, 12, 48, 51, 54f 62, 71, 14S Ayia Γη a da, S3 A M O S Konstantmos, 76 Ay 10s Nikolaos Archaeological Museum, 1 50 Bailey, G. N., 27f Balkans, 9, 24, 2.10, 2>f, 55, 63

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linen. „SVc textiles Lion Gate, 4.46, 1 ι ι, ι 52, 169. See also Mycenae literalists, 13 if lithics. See stone tools longboats (ships), 4, 68, 73, 4.S loom weights, A.2 Louros River, 141 Lubbock, Sir John, 41 Lucretius, 7

Miletus, 95 Milojcic, V., 52 Mmos, 81, 4.293 Minotaur, 2 Mitanm, 114, 116 Mochlos, 76f, 1 50 monumental architecture, 68f, 79 motifs. See designs Mt. Pelion, 52, 144, 173, 175 Mousterian, xni, 2of, 2.9, 24Î] 2.14 mud brick. See adobe brick Museum of Nautical History, 37 Mycenae, 105, 108, 4.46, 112, 116, 125, 127, 169. See also House with the Idols; Treasury of Atreus; L1011 Gate Mylonas, George, 2, 169 Myrtos, myths, 2, 81, 4,1 y, 87,, 89, 93, 134,, 163

magazines, 85, 4,21, 89

Nafplion, 143Ç 148, 1 5 2 , i ö 8 f f

ma go u la. See tell M a Ilia, 76, 79, S3, 4.16, 4.21 marble, 48; Cycladic idols, 71 f, ^.5, 73, 78, /.4; sculptures, 4, 58, 69; vessels, 4.9 Marmatos, S., 1 3 2 - 3 s passim, 137 marine resources, 3yfF Marine st\'le, 4. 13, 4.14, 86 Maroula (Kvthnos), 49 material culture, 8, 2.2, 30, 38, 43fr, 50, 53, 68f, 75, 86f, 95, 103, 120, 1 22, I27, 1 72 Medinet Habu (Ramesses III victory

Nafplion Archaeological Museum,

Lefhandi, 120 legends. See myths Le Mo 11 s tier (France), 2.9 Lern a, 3. 67, 4.3, 69, 1 44, 148 limitation of possibilities, 13 1 Limiies Valley. See Berbati Valley lineages, 4.3, 69, 77, 8 1 Linear A, 73, Ν9, 93, ^.-/c) Linear ß, 72L S7, (S9, ^.27, 95-99 passim, 103,

109

monument), 116, 125 megaron (pi. megara), 4. 3, 69; Mycenaean, 97, ^o'i, 4.32, 105, 146f Mesara plain, 78 Mesopotamia, 72, 92, 160 metal, 53, 56, 65, 73, 4. 7, 88, 100, 109; ore, 65 microliths, 2.2, 34, 2.j_s, 39 migrations of earl ν humans, 2, 13, 16, 19, 24, 34; demographic iiio\rements, 48ÎL See also diffusion

4-37, 143 f 148, 15 i f 170 National Archaeological Museum of Athens, 105, 144, 15 of, 166f National 'Lourist Organization of Greece, 142, 173 Neanderthals, 19, 21, 23-25, 2.6; characteristics of, 21—22; land-use strategies, 26, 45. See also Homo iieaiidenhaleiisis

Near Hast, 12, 1 5, 17, 19, 24^ 4sff, 49f j.5, 60, 8 ι Nemea, 70, 121 Neolithic: defined, 41 ; phases, 52 Neolithic Revolution, 43 - 4 4 New Palace Period, 4.13, 86f, 95 Nichoria, 120 Nietzsche, F., 154 Nile River, 36, 52 notation. See writing obsidian (Melian), 2.-/, 2.17, 38, 6if, 68, 73, 78, 4.20; definition of, 36-37

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