Good Word Guide

GOOD WORD GUIDE

GOOD WORD GUIDE

Editor

A Martin H. Manser Consultant Editors

Jonathon Green and Betty Kirkpatrick

Compilers

Rosalind Fergusson, David Pickering, and Jenny Roberts

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publishers. First published in 1988. Third edition published as

Bloomsbury Guide to Better English.

Fourth edition published in 1997. Fifth edition published in 2003. Copyright

#

1988, 1990, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2003 by

Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 38 Soho Square, London W1D 3HB www.bloomsbury.com/reference 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 British Library Cataloguing in Publication A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0 7475 6524 4

eISBN-13: 978-1-4081-0339-5 The moral right of the author has been asserted

Acknowledgments

The editor expresses his thanks to the following: the late John Silverlight for his helpful comments as Consultant Editor on earlier editions, Rosalind Desmond and Gloria Wren for their careful editorial checking, Kathy Rooney and Faye Carney, of the publishers, for their encouragement at every stage of the book's production, and on the first edition, Sarah Peasley for help in compiling the text and Margaret McPhee for advice on Australian English. All papers used by Bloomsbury Publishing are natural, recyclable products made from wood grown in sustainable, well-managed forests. The manufacturing processes conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Typeset by Hewer Text Limited, Edinburgh Printed and bound in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, St Ives plc

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xiii

GOOD WORD GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

TABLES:

Animals (male, female, young) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Collective nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Collectors and enthusiasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Countries and peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Eponymous words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

108

Foreign words and phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

129

Non-sexist terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

211

Phobias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

231

Prefixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

240

Similes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

278

Smileys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

281

Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

292

Text messaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

300

Verbs (irregular verbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

317

INTRODUCTION T

hese days the term `communicative skills' has become a vogue expression, being much in evidence in situations vacant columns and playing an important role in

educational rethinking. In common with many voguish expressions of the age overuse has left it in danger of not being taken seriously. This is a great pity since the phenomenon which the term describes is of paramount importance in modern life. Failure to communicate effectively is at the root of many social ills and misfortunes, from war to missed career opportunities, from industrial strife to broken relationships. If only we had been able to persuade the other party of our real intentions, what misunderstandings and conflict might have been averted. Nowadays there is little excuse for poor communicative skills in those with a basic education, even in those who feel that they missed out at school in this particular area of education. Articulacy is not necessarily inborn; it can be acquired. Never before has there been such a wealth of self-help English language material available to ease the process of this acquiral. The proliferation of English language reference books is a relatively recent occurrence. Not long ago the average family bookshelves probably stocked, if any reference books, an ancient Bible, a dog-eared, somewhat elderly dictionary, and perhaps a set of out-of-date encyclopedias. In many cases this state of affairs must have changed radically, judging from current sales of English language reference books. Something of a revolution hit reference book publishing, brought about partly by the arrival of computerization and new technology and partly by the realization among publishers that reference books, although expensive to produce, represented less of a risk than other branches of publishing. There was probably also an element of response to demand as people came to realize the need for articulacy in the modern world. For whatever reasons, bookshop shelves have become positively crammed with a wide range of attractive, up-to-date English language reference books, most of them extremely reasonably priced. At first most of these were English language dictionaries but soon a wider selection of books joined them. The net result was that the promotional activities involved in bringing these reference wares to the notice of the public made it difficult for people not to be aware of an important fact ± that language is subject to change. Newspapers revelled in providing their readers with selected lists of the `new English', the more bizarre the better. The speed at which new words are added to the language nowadays is overwhelming, but it is not only the vocabulary that is subject to change. As attitudes and conventions change other areas of language change with them ± stylistics, usage, and even, in some cases, pronunciation. It is all too easy to feel marooned in this sea of change. While the importance of

Introduction

viii

communicative skills cannot be denied, many people find it difficult to set about acquiring them. Getting to grips with something as amorphous as the English language can be a daunting task, particularly for those whose formal education omitted to convey much about the structure or grammar of the language. Dictionaries obviously provide a great deal of self-help with regard to language but their contribution is frequently restricted to meaning, spelling, or pronunciation. People seeking to extend their competence in the use of English require more varied and in-depth assistance. Thesauruses are another great boon to those wishing to improve their standard of articulacy but here again they are far from providing all the solutions. Although would-be writers or speakers will undoubtedly find in thesauruses a wide range of inspirational words with which to clothe ideas, they might well feel in need of some guidance as to how exactly these words should be used. In the present age much more emphasis than hitherto is placed on the importance of being able to produce a high standard of English, whether oral or written. Formerly this aspect tended to be neglected in favour of highly developed reading and interpretative skills but this is now being rectified in these days of mass communication. Participation in the communication media, for example, is no longer restricted to a few highly educated experts. Audience participation has extended from the realms of the stage to the realms of radio and television and beyond them to the dizzying heights of chat rooms and web forums on the Internet. Indeed one wonders what local low-budget radio stations would do without the phone-in contributions of the man/ woman in the street, not to mention the chat show featuring the local celebrity who has published a first novel, climbed Everest, or lost more weight than anyone else in the community. All manner of things are of interest to the media. In order to improve one's oral and written skills it is important to have more than just a dictionary and a thesaurus as self-help material. Of immense help are books that offer guidance in the use of language, particularly those which show language in action by including example sentences or phrases. Such books provide very valuable ground rules on which to base one's own English usage. Few of us can rely entirely on instinct or even on memory when it comes to the English language for it is full of quirks and inconsistencies. Even the most educated benefit from having a standard authority to fall back on. Language reference books these days are less didactic than they were. In general we have moved on from the times when they were entirely prescriptive in their comments on language. Now most of them adopt a more descriptive role, restricting themselves to stating what is actually happening in language rather than dictating what ought to be happening. Inevitably there are people who are unhappy with this change of emphasis. There is a school of thought prevalent mainly among older people which seeks to impose a kind of restriction on language that is no longer imposed on other areas of life. It is as if, in an age of uncertainty and kaleidoscopic change, they look to language to provide a safe, unchanging structure.

ix

Introduction

This places an impossible burden on language. It does not exist in a vacuum but simply reflects what is happening in society and the world around. If we do not like the words, we probably do not like the events but it is difficult to hold back the tide of change. At the very least we cannot stem the flow of vocabulary additions which are created in response to new inventions, new discoveries, and new concepts. New labels have to be found and so are born

camcorders, E-numbers, genetic engineering,

and

teleshopping,

to name but a few of the new words that are invading the language from every area of human activity. The development of the World Wide Web and the revolution in communications it has brought about has proved a particularly powerful engine for linguistic innovation, spawning hosts of new acronyms, technical terms, and slang words, as well as promoting creative attitudes towards the use of grammar and symbols. Language change is not confined to new vocabulary additions. Sometimes the old gets recycled in a new form as words alter their meaning in some way. The classic example is, of course, the word

gay,

which has almost entirely lost its `merry'

associations ± except in literature written before the present day ± in favour of the modern meaning of `homosexual'. There are, however, a growing number of other instances of language change, several based on misconception or error.

Hopefully

was an early example when it came

to mean `it is to be hoped that' as well as `with hope'. Now

disinterested

is frequently to

be found meaning `not interested' as well as `unbiased'. There is now a very fine line to be drawn between error and alternative usage ± and sometimes the former becomes the latter. Data,

for example, as the plural of

datum

should come accompanied by a plural verb

but it is now frequently seen in the presence of a singular verb, particularly in the field of information technology. The same fate has befallen as simply the plural of

medium

media.

It is no longer thought of

but as a word in its own right. As such it is increasingly

accompanied by a singular, rather than a plural, verb. Educational trends frequently have an effect on the state of the language. With the virtual demise of the teaching of classics in schools a knowledge of Latin and Greek in relation to the English language is now quite a rare phenomenon among younger people. So is born the puzzlement over confusion over

stadia/stadiums

and

medium/media

and

datum/data

and the

referendums/referenda.

The creative writing phase in primary schools was the forerunner of many spelling problems and even more grammatical problems. It is, of course, a good thing to encourage creativity and self-expression, but some knowledge of the structure of the language is necessary if one is to use it with confidence and skill. With the introduction of such measures as the Literacy Hour in schools, significant attempts have been made in recent years to restore good standards in reading and writing, including the correct use of grammar, but what is done cannot be undone and there remain generations to whom formal knowledge of linguistic principles is a closed book. This has undoubtedly affected modern English as it is used by the man/woman in

Introduction

x

the street. It may offend purist ears but milk

less bottles of milk

is challenging

fewer bottles of

for supremacy in terms of frequency.

Then there is the nervousness about feeling that

I

me

and I. There is a general ± and erroneous ±

is much more polite and more correct than

accounts for the

between you and I

me

in all contexts. This

which so offends those brought up on a diet of parts

of speech and parsing. Prepositions in English are the source of much confusion. Should it be or

different to?

For that matter should

accompanied

be followed by

with

different from

or

by?

Is either

possible and, if so, which is correct in which context? As formal language training has diminished and public communication has increased, language has become less and less rigid and the distinction between the linguistically correct and the linguistically incorrect has become blurred. But we are not yet at the stage where anything goes; let us hope we never reach it. I think that most of us would prefer a few guidelines to a linguistic free-for-all. The trouble is that it is difficult to establish such guidelines when the language is in a state of flux. As has already been suggested it is difficult to pigeonhole language into the correct and the incorrect. The categories are often too black and white; some shades of grey are sometimes necessary. In any area where extremes are involved it is often advisable to take the middle course. So it is with language, provided the rationale and the terms of reference are clearly explained. By taking such a course and explaining the options you may not please everyone but, on the other hand, you are unlikely to offend everyone. The

Good Word Guide,

one of the most wide-ranging English language reference

books available, presents the reader with the facts associated with the relevant words and makes recommendations rather than laying down didactic rules. Where a supposed alternative is in fact still generally considered wrong this is clearly stated, but where acceptable alternatives exist these are also stated together with the justifications for these. Sometimes distinctions have to be made between the habits of the consciously careful users who wish to achieve absolutely correct and elegant English and those of the run-of-the-mill users who simply wish to get their basic message across as speedily and as painlessly as possible. A distressing number of us fall into this latter category although on special occasions, when we are out to impress, we try to mend our ways. The said special occasions are usually formal occasions when we dress up not only ourselves but our language also. Forms of language associated with particular social situations are called registers. Thus in a formal situation a formal register of language is used. Many of the entries in the

Good Word Guide

distinguish between formal and

informal registers. The formal/informal distinction is often, although not always, between written and spoken English. We tend to be at our most formal, linguistically speaking, when we are writing letters of a business nature, while informal English is kept for chatty written or keyed communications with friends and family or everyday conversation. It is important to remember that informal English is neither incorrect nor less correct as long as it is the appropriate register for the context.

xi The

Good Word Guide

Introduction

takes language as it finds it and acts as a navigator through

the many potential hazards. All problematic areas are dealt with and explained in a way that is readily understandable by all users. Giving help with language is of very little use if the help itself is more difficult to comprehend than the original linguistic problem. It tackles two types of

spelling difficulty ± words that for some reason present

problems in themselves and words which are problematic because they are likely to be confused with other words that resemble them. Into the first category come such words as

antihistamine, disappoint, innocuous, privilege,

and

wilful,

while the second

category covers such duos as

bloc/block, dual/duel, principal/principle,

stationery.

Guide

This edition of the

and

stationary/

also includes words and expressions of foreign

origin which frequently present spelling and pronunciation problems. Examples include

à te noire be

Of course the

and

Guide

à te-a Á -te à te. te

does not confine its help with

pronunciation to foreign words.

The editor has been conscious of the fact that knowing how to pronounce words correctly is essential for confident public speaking, whether in the area of business or leisure. Thus words such as

Celtic, dynasty, flaccid, irrevocable, status,

and many more

are listed to save you from red-faced stumbling. Many people find difficulty with The

Good Word Guide

punctuation and so hesitate to launch into print.

gives advice on many aspects of this from the basic comma and

paragraph to the more esoteric semicolon. Potential authors will find it invaluable.

Grammar is a cause of nervousness in many, mostly because they have never been

taught the rudiments of it. One of the great advantages of this book is that the grammatical information is presented in an easily comprehensible, rapid-to-use form as it unfolds the mysteries of the preposition, the conjunction, and the rest. If your particular linguistic problem centres on Word

Guide

usage you will find that the

Good

gives sensible answers to a wide range of possible queries, often

incorporating examples of the particular words showing the usual context. Should you use

converse

or

inverse, impinge

or

infringe, soluble

or

solvable?

A quick scan

through the alphabetical listing will reveal the answer. Although mindful of the fact that print gives a kind of credence to any statement, the editor has sensibly given examples of incorrect usage on occasion to contrast with the correct form. One of the most innovative features of this book is the concentration on what are known as

buzz words or vogue words, expressions which, however much we may

deprecate them, suddenly leap into fashionable prominence in the general language, often from specialist sources. In many cases objections to buzz words lie not with the words themselves but with their overuse, the user rather than the word being at fault. Too many of us jump on the linguistic bandwagon and reach for the vogue word of the day instead of spending time and effort in finding the more appropriate expression. What is to be done with buzz words? Should we ignore them and hope they will fade rapidly? Should we embrace them enthusiastically and risk heaping criticism on ourselves? Should we take the middle course and use them sparingly and effectively? The choice is of course yours but this particular volume advocates this last course of action. Appreciate their merits but do not abuse them by overusing them.

Introduction

xii

If you find yourself tempted by any of them put temptation behind you by consulting the

for suggested suitable alternatives. Armed with it you will have

Guide

no excuse for peppering your prose with leading-edge, parameter, matrix, online,

the bottom line, catalyst, gravitas, downsizing,

and so on unless the context demands it. Many

of them are best left to their specialist use. A severe head injury is

traumatic;

missing a

bus is just annoying. This latest edition of the

Good Word Guide

words for the male, female, and young),

has fourteen tables:

Collective nouns

Animals

(showing

(do you know the collective

noun for a group of crows?),

Collectors and enthusiasts

in?),

(what is the adjective derived from Burkina Faso?),

Countries and

Eponymous words and phrases firefighter

(showing words derived from the names of people),

(for those looking for that certain

instead of

Text messaging

The

peoples

(what is a sericulturist interested

and

Foreign words

je ne sais quoi), Non-sexist terms

(e.g.

fireman/firewoman), Phobias, Prefixes, Similes, Smileys, Suffixes,

Verbs

Good Word Guide

(irregular verbs). is a book for everyone and truly is an invaluable ready

reference to English today. Whether you are using it for guidance with spelling, punctuation, pronunciation, or usage ± or simply to settle or cause language disputes ± you will quickly come to regard it as an old friend. Just remember one thing. Do not blame the book for what is happening to the language. Betty Kirkpatrick Edinburgh

GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION a as in bad Æ as in arrest a

m as in

ah as in father

ng as in sing

air as in dare

n(g) as in restaurant

ar as in carpet Æ r as in burglar a aw as in saw

o as in hot Æ as in cannon o Å as in no o

ay as in may

oi as in boy

b as in

oo as in zoo

bed

ch as in d as in

cheese

dig

dh as in

these

mad

n as in

nod

oor as in cure or as in tore Æ r as in doctor o

e as in get Æ as in open e

ow as in now p as in

pat

ee as in see

r as in

rim

eer as in here

rr as in marry

er as in bird Æ r as in butcher e

s as in sat

ew as in few

t as in take

ewr as in pure

th as in

f as in fit

sh as in

ship thin

g as in

go

u as in up Æ as in crocus u

h as in

hat

uu as in push

i as in it Æõ as in pencil õÅ as in try

y as in

j as in jam

yoo as in

k as in

yoor as in

keep

v as in w as in

van water yes unite urine

kh as in loch

yr as in tire

ks as in mix

z as in

kw as in

zh as in treasure

quiz

zoo

l as in lie stressed syllables are shown in Æ r] italics: [siste

a or an?

A is the form of the indefinite

A

article used before words or abbreviations that are pronounced with an initial consonant sound, regardless of their spelling; an

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

is used before words that begin with a

. .

vowel sound: unit

a light

an uncle

armed bandit

an LCD screen

a horse

an ostrich

an heir

a seat

a

a one-

an SOS

a

an IOU.

The use of before words that begin with an sound and an unstressed first syllable, such as etc., is optional. Nowadays, the preference is increasingly to use followed by , etc., with the sounded, rather than followed by , etc., with the not pronounced. and are usually unstressed. The pronunciations [ay] and [an] are used only for emphasis: . In this example would be pronounced [ay]. ewe

◆

an egg

a UFO

an

h

hotel, historic, hereditary, habitual, a

hotel

an

h

hotel

h

A

an

He

told you to take a biscuit, not the whole plateful! a

abbreviations

Abbreviations are useful

space-saving devices. They are used heavily both in informal writing and in technical or

. not: . .Thereshouldbenofull stop if a capital letter does not stand for a whole word: one should not write (television) or ( ) as and are not complete words. There are usually no full stops in the abbreviations of weights and measures: . . and never in chemical symbols: . . . Apostrophes are no longer generally used for shortenedformsthatareingeneraluse: . . . . . . Mostabbreviationsformtheirpluralswithan : . . . A few abbreviations form their plurals by doubling: . (pages) . (lines). Most abbreviations (except for acronyms) are pronounced by spelling out the letters. When preceded by the indefinite article, those abbreviations that begin with a vowel sound take : . . andthosebeginning . with a consonant sound take : . . C.S. Lewis

A S Byatt

T.V.

D.N.A. deoxyribonucleic acid

km

Fe

oz

bus

phone

photo

s

JPs

PhDs

pp

ll

an

EC directive

a

spokesman

See also

aberration

.

the spelling: a single

is

a

temporary

sometimes

ability CAPABILITY -able -ible see

or

a UDR

This word, meaning `deviation

than one thing, and it is better to spell

is confusing, as the abbreviation means

a DBE

ACRONYMS.

aberration,

He was a CO in the war

an

an LSE graduate

ing. Some abbreviations stand for more

.

flu

vet

from the norm':

meaning clear.

deox-

Cu

specialized writing, but less in formal writ-

these out unless the context makes the

tele-

yribo-

and

b

,

mental

misspelt.

Note

-rr-,

error.

as in

CAPACITY or ABILITY?

? Both forms of this suffix are

both `commanding officer' and `conscien-

added to words to form adjectives,

tious objector'.

being the suffix that is productive and the

◆ The main problems with abbreviations concern punctuation. The modern tendency is to omit full stops whenever possible: . . . . , and so on. Full stops are increasingly being omitted from capital abbreviations: . . , and they are always omitted from . acronyms: . . When an abbreviation is a contraction (i.e. the final letter of the abbreviation corresponds with the final letter of the word) there is usually no full stop: . . . . There is more likely to be a full stop when the abbreviationisjustthefirstpartoftheword: . . , although here too the modern trend is to omit it. Abbreviated names can take a full stop or BBC

Lawrence USA

AD

D H

Prof

EU

NATO

UNESCO

Mr

Dr

Rd

Rev.

Feb.

.

more frequently used: collapsible.

.

washable

.

-able

com-

◆ The form is always used for words composed of other English words: . ; being used for some words of Latin origin: . . . On whether to retain the silent final in words such as , see SPELLING 3 and individual entries. The suffix may be active or (more frequently) passive in usage. In such words as , etc. it has the passive meaning of `able to be washed, eaten, dispensed (with), etc.'. In the adjectives fortable

-able

drinkable -ible

credible

defensible

-e

lik(e)able

-able

wash-

able, eatable, dispensable

changeable, perish-

abled

2

. . , etc. it has the active meaning of `able (or likely) to change, perish, etc.'. The suffix is fre. quently used to produce new words, such as ◆ In many contexts the two words are inter, meaning `able to be cooked in changeable: . a microwave oven', and . Some .. people dislike the overuse of words coined in this . way, preferring to , The use of as a noun or adjective, with for example. reference to something previously mentioned, is abled The term is sometimes used as disliked by some users but acceptable to most: . a synonym for `able-bodied'; it is also used .. in alternatives for `disabled' or `handi. . capped': . able

plane flew above the clouds

The aeroplane

flew over Southampton

microwav(e)able

Hang the picture above/over the

photocopiable

mantelpiece

Our bedroom is above/over the

kitchen

can it be found?

is it findable?

abled

above

You will need several items in addition to the above

differently abled

Marshall rejects

the term `disabled' for these children . . . She

(Daily

calls them `uniquely differently abled' Telegraph).

Users feel that such phrases

Please quote the above reference num-

ber on all correspondence

abridgment abridgement or

such as a book', may be spelt

project a more positive image of people

abridgement.

with disabilities, but these alternatives are

table.

widely disliked as much by the supposed beneficiaries as by the public at large.

ABLEISM; CHALLENGED; DISABLED; POLITICAL CORRECTNESS. See also

ableism

The term

refers to discri-

ableism

mination against people with disabilities, especially in employment and in the provision of facilities in public places. See also

Aboriginal

POLITICAL CORRECTNESS. or

Aborigine

abscess

? Either noun

abridgment

or

Both spellings are fully accep-

This word, meaning `a collection

of pus surrounded by inflamed tissue', is often misspelt. Note the

sc

at the beginning

of the second syllable.

absence

This word is sometimes misspelt,

the most frequent error being the substitution of the

may be used in referring to a member of

? This word,

meaning `a shortened version of a work

for the

-sc-

absolutely use of

-s-,

as in

abscess.

Note also

ending.

-ence

Some users dislike the frequent

absolutely

in place of

yes.

.

Others feel

the indigenous people of Australia who

that the adverb is overused as an intensifier,

settled there prior to the arrival of Euro-

in the sense of `completely':

pean settlers, but

Aboriginal

is now gener-

ally preferred to

Aborigine

by the people

The pronunciation of varies according to its meaning. In normal adverbial use it is stressed on the first syllable [ soÆlootli]; in the sense of `yes' it is stressed on the third syllable [absoÆ li].

themselves.

abound

The verb

the preposition abounds with

about

is followed by

or

The

with

[or

.

abound

in:

in] salmon.

Care should be taken in using

river

about

in describing the essential characteristics of something or as an intensifier after a ne-

.

◆

absolutely

ab

absolve

loot

The verb

of

[or

from] blame.

absorption

The final

acceptable only in informal contexts:

-p-

ances.

.

She was not about to give in to his

demands at this late stage.

See also

above

or

AROUND or ABOUT?

over

.

means

over

.

He raised his hand above his head.

She held the umbrella over her head.

.

.

.

There's

a mark on the wall above the radiator. put my towel over the radiator.

Note the spelling of this word. of the verb

absorb

changes to

in the derived noun.

abstention

or

abstinence

? Both these

nouns are derived from the verb The noun

above

`vertically or directly above', `on top of' or `across':

is followed by They absolved us

abstain,

meaning `refrain' or `refrain from voting'.

? The preposition

means `at a higher level than';

-b

.

absolve

the preposition of or from:

gative, as many people consider such usages Being a teenager today is all about appear-

it's absolutely

disgraceful!

abstention

.

is chiefly used in the

second of these senses:

24 votes for the

motion, 16 against, and 5 abstentions. Abstinence

refers to the act or practice of abstain-

.

ing, often from something that is enjoyable

.

but possibly harmful:

I've

alcohol

The aero-

course.

abstinence

from

total abstinence from sexual inter-

abstractedly abstractly or

derived

from

the

3 ?

Abstractedly

.

adjective

meaning `lost in thought':

abstractedly out of the window. abstractly,

is

abstracted, He

stared

The adverb

meaning `in the abstract', is less

frequent in usage.

abuse misuse or

? The noun

misuse,

abuse

denotes

.

denoting incorrect or

. . . ◆ The same distinction applies to the verbs . and :.

unorthodox use, is more neutral: child abuse

abuse of power

the

the misuse

misuse of the club's funds.

of words

misuse

, meaning `to become king (or queen)'. Compare , meaning `to be the next person to become king or queen, especially as an inheritance'. throne

to succeed to the throne

accelerate

The word

accelerate,

meaning

`speed up', is sometimes misspelt. Note the

wrong, improper, or bad use or treatment; the noun

access

to abuse a privilege

abuse

to misuse one's

-cc-

and single l.

accent accentuate or

? Both verbs can be

used in the sense of `to emphasize'.

Accent

usually refers to the act of stressing a sound in speech or music, whereas

.

accentuate

.

is

used in a wider range of visual and abstract contexts:

.

He accented the word `life'.

to

. . In some contexts the two words are inter- ◆ Theword isstressedonthesecondsyllable . changeable: [ak ] when it is used as a verb and on the first syllable [ seÆnt] when it is used as a noun. . time

accent the first beat in the bar

to accentuate

an outline/a problem

The misuse of drugs among teen-

agers is but one aspect of drug abuse currently being examined by government bodies.

He

predicted that it would not lead to an upsurge

accent

sent

ak

accents

Accents are sometimes used on

in alcohol misuse . . . But Action on Alcohol Abuse

words that are now accepted into English,

attacked the move at a time of increased medical

though the tendency is increasingly to omit

concern about excessive drinking

them.

( ). The word also refers to insulting language: . . . . As in the word , the final [s] sound of the nouns [aÆ ] and [mis ] changes to [z] in the verbs. Daily Tele-

graph

abuse

The president was abused by the crowd

The pickets shouted abuse at the strikebreakers use

abuse

See also

MISUSE?

bews

misuse

SUBSTANCE ABUSE

abysmal .

abysmal weather,

hence the

in the spelling.

or

ews

SUBSTANCE

This word, meaning `very bad;

dreadful':

misspelt. The word comes

academic

y

The adjective

.

is sometimes from

fa ade

academic

.

is widely

clicheÂ

c

klee o

accentuate ACCENT accept except see

or

or

role

ACCENTUATE?

? These two verbs should

not be confused, being virtually opposite in meaning.

except,

Accept

means `receive' or `admit';

.

clude' or `leave out': Accept

.

used in formal contexts, means `ex-

the job.

used in the sense of `theoretical': academic question

abyss,

◆ Accents are generally used when they show the pronunciation of the word: the cedilla in cË shows that the is soft, the acute accent on shows that the word is pronounced [ shay] not [kleesh]. A circumflex accent on the of is unnecessary and is usually omitted.

She was accepted for

He was excepted from the team.

only exists as a verb, whereas

except

an

may also be used as a preposition, meaning

of academic interest only,

`excluding', and as a conjunction, meaning

.

.

but some people object to its frequent use

`it if were not for the fact that' or `otherwise

in place of

than':

irrelevant:

Whether he wins this

department.

several points ahead of his nearest rival.

up her hat.

accede exceed or

?

Accede,

contexts, means `agree';

.

used in formal

accede to our demands. speed limit.

.

exceed

beyond' or `be greater than':

means `go They will

Do not exceed the

The two verbs are similar in pronunciation but quite different in spelling: [ak ] ends in ; [ik ] ends in . The verb is usually followed by ; it can also be used in the expression ◆

accede

-ede exceed

seed

accede

seed

-eed

to

to accede to the

.

Everyone had to attend except heads of

race or not is academic, because he is already

She did not pause except to pick

The two words are similar but

not identical in pronunciation: accept is Æ ksept] and except is pro[a

pronounced

nounced [iksept].

access

The use of the word

access

as a verb

is best restricted to the field of computing,

.

where it means `gain access to (stored information or a computer memory)':

Customers will shortly be able to access this information

with

minimum

delay

personal computer or mobile phone.

through

access

4

The extended use of the verb in general contexts is disliked by many users: . ( ).

◆

We often receive

the verb

means `go somewhere

accompany

with someone as a companion; escort', in

requests to `access' our membership lists and these

the second it means `supplement'.

are almost always refused Club Lotus News

◆ With

access

accession

or

? The noun

access

Access

noun

to

the

laboratory

accession

accede

is

restricted.

The

is derived from the verb

ACCEDE or EXCEED?) and is most

(see

.

frequently used in the sense of `becoming king (or queen)':

Elizabeth II's accession (to

the throne) in 1952.

? The noun

.

access

means

`entry' or `opportunity to make use of

.

something': building.

He

with

excess,

obtained

access

to

the

We hope to promote access to

further education.

It should not be confused

.

which variously means `surplus'

or `unrestrained behaviour':

.

The depart-

ment has an excess of materials.

Note that in syllable, while in second syllable.

He aban-

the stress falls on the first the noun it falls on the

doned himself to a life of excess.

◆

access

accessible

excess

The adjective

accessible,

mean-

ing `easy to use, enter, or approach', is sometimes understood to have particular relevance to access for people whose mo-

.

bility is impaired, specifically for people in wheelchairs: accessible

.

The site is fully equipped with

toilets.

is also used with the active verb .

The

brochure

includes

information about accessible holidays.

accessory accessary or

? In British Eng-

of impatience

The

.

adjective

accountable,

meaning `answerable', should be applied only to people:

.

Union leaders are account-

able to the rank-and-file members. accountable for their welfare.

We were

In other contexts the adjective is often better replaced by its synonym :. [not ] . The noun is best avoided where would be adequate or more appropriate: . [not ] . ◆

.

An unex-

pected fall in demand was responsible

ac-

countable for the company's financial problems accountability

responsibility

the individual responsibilities

ac-

countabilities of the directors

accumulative cumulative or

tive

.

? The adjec-

refers to something that

cumulative

.

gradually increases with successive additions: effect.

the cumulative total

a cumulative

It should not be confused with

accu-

mulative,

an adjective that is derived from

the verb

accumulate

acetic achieve

see

the

-ie-

but is rarely used.

AESTHETIC, ASCETIC or ACETIC?

This word is often misspelt. Note

spelling, which conforms to the rule

`i before

e

See also

except after

SPELLING 5.

acknowledgment ment

c'.

or

acknowledge-

? This word may be spelt with or

lish, the spelling of this word in the sense

without the

`supplementary attachment' is

fully acceptable.

accessory:

accom-

He accompanied his words with a gesture

responsible

access excess or

:.

. accountable

refers to the act, right, or means of approaching, reaching, entering, or using:

pany

e

after the

g;

both spellings are

The word is often misIn the legal sense of `a person who incites acoustics spelt, the most frequent error being the another to commit a crime', the spelling is usually doubling of the first . , being an older variant: . ◆ For the use of as a singular or plural . noun see -ICS . In American English, is the spelling in acquaint The verb is best avoided all senses. car accessories.

acoustics

◆

accessory accessary

c

an

acoustics

accessory before the fact

accessory

accommodation tion

acquaint

The word

accommoda-

is often misspelt. Note the -cc- and

-mm-.

accompany

panied by

or

.

it is used: friend.

.

tell

appropriate: plans,

be accom-

depending on the sense in which She was accompanied by her

His words were accompanied with/by

a gesture of impatience.

In the first example

.

would be adequate or more He acquainted me with his

for example, may be more simply

expressed as

The passive verb to

may be followed by the preposition

with,

where

he told me his plans.

The passive form can often be replaced by : . . Note the spelling of and its derivatives, particularly the presence and position of the letter . ◆

be acquainted with

know

I am not acquainted with

the rules

acquaint

c

acquiesce

5 The word

acquiesce,

meaning

`agree or consent to something (especially against one's inclination)', is sometimes misspelt. Note the -uie- in the middle of

ASH

actual (Action on Smoking and Health) . MAD

(mutual assured destruction). It sometimes seems almost as though organizations and systems are made to fit the acronyms, rather than vice versa: .

the word and the -sce ending. The word is

In 1984, Holmes, the Home Office Large Major

pronounced [akweees].

Enquiry System was set up. In spite of its name,

acquirement acquisition or

of `something acquired'

? In the sense

acquirement

is lar-

gely restricted to abilities or skills and acquisition,

.

the more frequent word, to

material things or people: spoken and written many

.

Fluency

Japanese is one

acquirements.

He

showed

in

of her me

his

Holmes is not an electronic version of the master detective, but a means of investigating crimes

( ). The development of electronic communications in recent years has greatly increased the number of acronyms in daily use (see E-MAIL; NETSPEAK; TEXT MESSAGING). through computers The Times

DINKY; NIMBY; YUPPIE.

See also

Both nouns may be used to denote the act of acrylic This word is sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the , not in the middle acquiring: . of the word. . . act or action? Both these nouns mean Note the spelling of and `something done', but tends to em- before the - -. phasize the process of doing whereas

latest acquisition.

◆

yl

the acquirement/acquisition of spe-

cialist knowledge

il

the acquisition/acquirement of

wealth

acquirement

tion, particularly the -c

acquit

The verb

preposition

acquit

or

of

on

on] all charges,

and

a person of (a crime)': manslaughter.

acronyms .

An

. .

is followed by the

in the sense `acquit a

person of (a charge)': [or

acquisi-

She was acquitted of

of

acronym

in the sense `acquit She was acquitted of

is a word formed

from the initial letters or syllables of other words:

OPEC

.

(Organization of Petroleum

Exporting Countries) ing and ranging).

radar

(radio detect-

The punctuation of acronyms varies. The usual styleiscapitalswithoutfullstops: . . , although some of the better-known acronyms are sometimes seen with only an initial capital: . / . / . Acronyms which refer to some piece of technical equipment, rather than an organization: . (sound navigation and ranging) . . (light amplification by stimulatedemissionofradiation) . (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), become so accepted that they are written in lower-case letters like ordinary words and many people do not even realize that they are acronyms. Other acronyms have become so well-known that it is rare to hear . their full names: . (theatre of operations missile continuous-wave anti-tank weapon). Recently there has been a tendency to make acronyms correspond with actual English words: . (sea-air-land (US Navy)) . (Police and Criminal Evidence Act). The more appropriate the word to the organization or concept the better: . ◆

WHO

NATO Nato

AIDS Aids sonar

radar

laser

scuba

Naafi

SEAL

action

qu

Tomcat

PACE

NICAM

.

denotes the deed itself: increased.

.

act

Terrorist action has

It was an act of terrorism.

The use of the word as a verb, meaning `take action on' or `put into action', is disliked by many people, including Fritz Spiegl ( ), who criticized `the many new verbs spawned by the Caring Industry. They no longer do things. They ``action'' them.' ◆

action

Daily Tele-

graph

activate actuate or

? Both words, meaning

`make active or operative', are acceptable, but careful users reserve

scientist activated the machine.

.

. .

actuate

formal or technical contexts:

for more

The young

The govern-

ment decided to activate the dormant security unit.

The system is actuated by a series of

switches.

is preferred to

Actuate

.

activate

when referring to personal motivation:

The old man's interest in the girl's welfare was actuated by greed.

active

SUBJECT

An active verb is one in which the

PASSIVE).

The sentence

mechanic mended my car

verb

.

performs the action of the verb

(compare

The

contains the active

mended.

Most clauses and sentences containing an active transitive verb can be converted into the passive: . , but the result is sometimes clumsy or needlessly complicated. ◆

My car was mended by the mechanic

actor actress? actual or

see

NON-SEXIST TERMS.

Many people object to the frequent,

redundant

use

of

the

adjective

actual

actualize

6

.

The abbreviations are always written in capital letters (small capitals are sometimes used in printed texts), with or without full stops (see also ◆ The word may, however, be used per- ABBREVIATIONS). fectly legitimately in, for instance, comparing real Some contemporary writers prefer to use andprojectedtotals: . (Before the Common Era) and (Common Era), or (Present Era), to avoid the Christian connotations of and . actualize The verb , meaning simply for emphasis:

.

This is the actual

place where the crash happened.

That is an

actual Picasso.

actual

BCE

CE

The actual figure is probably

PE

much lower.

BC

actualize

`make actual', is disliked by some users

as an example of the increasing tendency

.

to coin new verbs by adding the suffix to nouns and adjectives: tualized their plans.

See also

actually

-ize

They have ac-

±IZE or ±ISE? actually

where it

.

adds nothing to the meaning of the senActually, I prefer coffee to tea.

We

weren't actually very impressed by his perforShe doesn't live here, actually.

mance.

See also

adequate

-dd-

and the

LETTER WRITING 1. The adjective

-ss

ending.

.

their needs.

adherence

or

is fol-

adequate

or

to

for:

adhesion

?

Both

nouns are derived from the verb meaning `stick'.

Adhesion

Their

[or

income was no longer adequate to

Many people object to the fre-

. .

Note the spelling of this word,

particularly the

lowed by the preposition

quent use of the adverb tence:

address

AD

for]

these adhere,

is largely confined

to the literal sense of the word, whereas

used for the figurative senses of In some contexts, however, may serve `loyalty' oris`obedience': . the useful purpose of contrasting what is actual or . real with what is theoretical or apparent: . . . ◆ In medical contexts is the abnormal . . . union of usually separated body tissues, for examSee also IN FACT. ple as a result of inflammation.

◆

adherence

actually

the adhesion of the

I know

tape to the fabric

strict adherence to the rules

how to make a souffle but I've never actually made one

adhesion

It sounds difficult but it's actually quite easy

actuate acumen

see

ACTIVATE or ACTUATE?

In the traditional pronunciation of

.

their adherence to the cause

ad hoc

The Latin phrase

ad hoc

denotes

something that is made or done for a

this word, which means `the ability to make

particular purpose, rather than as a general

sound business acumen,

rule. It is most frequently used as an

good judgments':

.

.

Æ kyoothe stress falls on the second syllable [a Æ n]. The pronunciation with the stress on me

hoc basis.

the first syllable [akyoomeÆn] is, however,

◆

more frequently heard.

committee will meet ad hoc, as needs arise

acute CHRONIC AD BC see

and

.

The abbreviation

stands for

Anno

Domini,

stands for 1462.

.

.

before Christ,

which

is traditionally

placed before the year number; year number:

AD, BC,

which

always follows the

The custom dates back to AD

The city was destroyed in 48 BC.

adjective:

an ad hoc decision

on an ad

The phrase is also used as an adverb: . . Itis not usually written or printed in italics.

The

ad infinitum

tum

.

The Latin phrase

means `endlessly':

ad infini-

This series of events

repeats itself ad infinitum.

adjectives .

An

.

adjective

. .

is a word which

.

provides information about a noun: dirty.

fat

The main

In modern usage sometimes follows the year division of adjectives corresponds to the number: . . position that they take. Attributive adjecIt is strictly tautological to precede with , tives come before a noun: . . since literally means `in the year of Predicative adjectives follow a verb: . the Lord', but the omission of is generally . Postpositive adjectives follow a considered to be unidiomatic: . . noun: . ◆ Of course, some adjectives can be used in all . . and are also applied to centuries, threepositions: . although the use of for this purpose is disliked . Most can be used attributively and . by some people and is often unnecessary: . predicatively: . .Some . . adjectives can only be attributive: . ◆

AD

blue

happy

intelligent

The battle took place in 1127 AD AD

in

a stupid boy

Anno Domini

the

in

sky is grey

He died in AD

the chairman elect

1042. BC

AD

a long walk

AD

since

the fourth century BC

the sides are long

two yards long

until the ninth century AD

sweet tea

The tea is sweet

the principal

7 , not . Some can only be predicative: . , but not . Some are used only in the postpositive position: . . Nouns can sometimes be used as attributive . . adjectives: . , and adjectives can be used as nouns: . . . . Adjectives are also used in the place of adverbs: . .. .Such words as: . . . function as both adjectives and adverbs. Absoluteadjectivesaresuchwordsas: . . . . , which cannot be used in the comparative or superlative, and cannot be modified by words like , or . They can, however, be modified by or . :. . Other absolute adjectives cannot be mod. ified in any way: . , but it is occasionally possible to modify an apparently absolute adjective for effect: . . The overuse of adjectives should be avoided, particularlywhentheyaretautologous: . (see TAUTOLOGY). Care should be taken with choice of adjectives and the less informative ones should be avoided. tells one very little about a man; he might be , or none of these. Long strings of adjectives should also be avoided in ordinary speech or writing unless they are needed for a precise description: . . In poetry several adjectives can be used to good effect: . (Keats). reason

The reason is principal

The baby is awake

the

awake baby

There were drinks galore

a glass bowl

a Meissen plate

cotton shirts the poor

the accused

They sell their goods dear fast

late

the quick and the dead It tastes delicious

early

entire

extreme

total

unique

very, utterly

totally

almost

nearly

an almost total disaster

a nearly perfect

round

a postgraduate student

a

deciduous tree

He looked very dead

true facts

He's a nice man

good-natured,

sympathetic, witty, attractive, respectable

a small

brown one-eyed mongrel

A poor, weak,

palsy-stricken, churchyard thing

See also

NOUNS.

adjourn

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE;

This word, which means `stop for

a short time' and `go', is sometimes misspelt. Note the

our,

as in

d

in front of the j, and the

journey.

administer administrate or

? Either verb

may be used in the sense of `manage',

.

`supervise', `control', or `direct', with reference to the work of an administrator:

She

has administered/administrated the company

pense': . to

admittance

or

? Both these

nouns mean `permission or right to enter'. Admission

is the more frequent,

.

admittance

.

being largely restricted to formal or official contexts:

.

Admission is by ticket only.

admittance.

No

He presents the picture of a boy

for whom an early admission could well be advantageous. . . . Education officials say they blocked his admittance because class sizes at

(Sunday

Times).

Of the two words only may be used to denote the price charged or a fee paid for entrance. The noun also means `confession' or . `acknowledgment': . . the school were too large

◆

admission

admission

an admission of guilt

by her

own admission

admit edge' verb:

In the sense of `confess' or `acknowl-

.

admit

.

is generally used as a transitive

.

He admitted his mistake.

that I had lied.

I admitted

Do you admit writing this

The insertion of the preposition in such contexts is disliked by many users: . .. is followed by in the sense of `allow to enter' or `give access': . .. . In the formal sense of `be open to' or `leave room for' is followed by : . . letter?

◆

to

He admitted

to his mistake

Do you admit to writing this

letter?

Admit

to

We were not admitted to

the club

This gate admits to the garden

admit

of

The phrase does not

admit of a different interpretation

admittance ad nauseam

see

ADMISSION or ADMITTANCE?

The Latin phrase

ad nauseam

is used to refer to something that happens,

.

is said, etc., again and again so that it is boring or irritating: nauseam.

to discuss politics ad

◆ Literally, the phrase means `to a sickening degree'.

adolescence adopted adoptive

This word is sometimes mis-

spelt. Note particularly the or

adopted

?

sc

and the

The

nc.

adjective

is applied to children who have

been adopted;

.

adoptive

.

relates to adults who

adopt another person's child:

their adopted

her adoptive parents.

also means `give', `apply', or `dis- ◆ Careful users maintain the distinction between the two words. . is not used in such contexts. adrenalin or adrenaline? Both spellings

since the death of her father.

◆ Administer

admission

adrenalin

administer first aid

daughter

to administer

justice. Administrate

admissible

This word, meaning `accepta-

of this word, denoting a hormone secreted

ble' or `having the right to be admitted', is

by the adrenal glands, are acceptable. In

sometimes misspelt. Note the

British English

-ible

ending.

adrenaline

is preferred; in

adult

8

American English,

(also a trade-

adrenalin

name). Another US alternative is

epineph-

rine.

The noun

adult

may be stressed on

either syllable, but the pronunciation Æ lt] is heard more frequently than [adu Æ dult] in British English. [a

The adjective , which principally means `mature' or `of or for adults': . . , is often used as a euphemism . for`pornographic': . .. ◆

adult

an adult approach

adult education

adult videos

an adult film

There is a demand for commercial sex (from prostitution, through massage parlours and blue movies to strip shows and `adult' magazines) which

(

will not go away . . . if repressed The Guardian

adultescent

The noun

adultescent

).

refers to

an adult who continues to enjoy childish pastimes. The word, resulting from the combination of the words lescent,

and

adult

.

ado-

is a relatively recent coinage and is

best restricted to informal contexts. games

for

PCs

are

designed

to

Many

appeal

to

See also

KIDULT.

Note the spelling of , particularly the in the middle of the word.

-sc-

advance .

adultescent

advancement

or

? The noun

advance

means `forward motion' or `pro-

gress':

the advance of the enemy.

advancement

.

The noun

is chiefly used in formal con-

texts to refer to `promotion' or `increased status':

opportunities for personal advance-

The two nouns are sometimes con-

fused

.

Adverbs modify other parts of

and

answer

.

questions

in

.

the

development:

context

of

progress

in

advances in medical science

the advancement of medical science.

advancement

Here,

refers to the act of assisting

progress or development.

advantage vantage . or

?

vantage over one's rivals

.

means

to have the ad-

the advantages of

co-education. Vantage

is chiefly found in the

phrase

meaning `a place that

vantage point,

affords a good overall view'.

In tennis, the words and are sometimes used as shortened forms of the scoring term :. .

◆

advantage

vantage

van

(ad)vantage Smith

advantageous

.

when? (adverbs of time):

tomorrow,

.

where? (adverbs of place):

.

. .

as

then

there

They can modify verbs: . , adjectives: . , other adverbs: . , whole clauses or sentences: . , or can be used to link clauses or sentences: . . Adverbs are frequently . formed by adding - to an adjective: . , but this does not apply to all adverbs: . . . It is usually acceptable to place an adverb between parts of a verb: . , but adverbs should not come between a verb and its direct object. Whether the adverb is positioned after the object or before the verb depends on the length of the object clause: . .. . Careful positioning of the adverb is sometimes necessary in order to avoid ambiguity in a sentence: . . If relates to it should be placed before the verb. outside.

◆

She wrote neatly

extremely hot

fairly

well

Anyway, it

doesn't matter now

I dislike him; nevertheless, I feel

responsible

for

him ly

darkly

wisely

to

work late

to jump high

I have often spoken about

the matter

They tortured the prisoners cruelly

They cruelly

tortured the political prisoners who had been

She disliked intensely sentimental films

intensely

disliked

See also

INFINITIVE.

ADJECTIVES; SENTENCE ADVERB; SPLIT

adversary

The pronunciation of this word Æ dversa Æ ri] with stress on the second syllable [a

is disliked by many users, who prefer the traditional pronunciation with stress on the Æ ri]. first syllable [adveÆrsa See also

STRESS.

adverse averse or

favourable',

Advantage

`superiority' or `benefit':

greedily,

such quietly

arrested for demonstrating against the regime

adultescents as well as to younger players.

ment.

speech

how? (adverbs of manner):

adult

◆

adverbs

This word is sometimes

misspelt, the most frequent error being the omission of the -e-. Note also the pronunciation of this word, stressed on Æ ntayju Æ s]. the third syllable [adva

?

Adverse,

meaning `un-

`antagonistic',

or

`hostile',

usually precedes an abstract noun;

averse,

meaning `disinclined', `unwilling', or `having a strong dislike', usually relates to

. .

.

people and is never placed before the noun

.

it qualifies: effect

adverse criticism

to efficiency.

violence.

publicity.

. .

The committee was not averse

to the proposal. using

an adverse

These working conditions are adverse

Her father is not averse to They

are

averse

to

all

◆ The two adjectives are sometimes confused in the sense of `opposed'. is often preceded by and may be followed by or , being preferred in modern usage. Averse

not

to

from

to

9

affect

may be stressed on either syllable, but aegis This word, meaning `authority' or the pronunciation [ vers] is more frequent than `protection', is sometimes misspelt. Note [aÆd ]. is always stressed on the second the at the beginning of the word. . syllable [aÆ ]. advertise This. word, meaning `promote ◆ is pronounced [ jis]. or publicize': Adverse

ad

vers

Averse

ae-

vers

The committee operates under the aegis of the state legislature.

a brochure advertising holi-

days,

is sometimes misspelt. This is one of

the words ending in -ise that cannot be spelt -ize; see also

advise

-IZE or -ISE?

advise

as a

synonym for `tell', `inform', `notify', etc.,

COMMERCIALESE and is

.

best avoided in general usage: us of your new address.

.

I told

z

COUNSEL or ADVISE?; -IZE or -ISE?

or

? This word, meaning

adviser advisor

`person who gives advice', may be spelt or

advisor. Adviser advisor

is preferred

is more fre-

quent in American English.

advisory

aero air or

? Both these words may be used

batics

. .

airliner

.

This word, meaning `for the ending.

.

aerodrome

.

.

airport

. .

◆

the air force

air-

aerospace

airspace.

aeroplane

airplane

aeroplane aerosol

aero-

an aero

In some American words the prefix replaced by : the nouns and for example, are rendered as and American English.

engine

aero-

is , in

aerofoil airfoil

AERO or AIR; PLANE.

see

Note the spelling of this word,

particularly the

purpose of giving advice', is sometimes misspelt. Note the

at the

`relating to aeroplanes or aircraft':

advised]

See also

adviser

ae-

beginning of this word.

[not

advise

in British English but

misspelt. Note particularly the

adjectivally or as prefixes in the sense of

◆ The of should not be replaced by in British or American English.

either

This word, meaning `of the air; from

an aircraft' and `device that receives or

Please advise

him that the meeting had been cancelled.

s

aerial

ee

sends out broadcast signals', is sometimes

The use of the verb

is widely regarded as

Aegis

-ol

ae-

at the beginning and the

at the end. An

is a fine spray

aerosol

dispensed from a pressurized container; the noun may refer to the container or the

In American English may also be used as contents. a noun to denote advance warning of something, aesthetic, ascetic or acetic? These three especially of severe weather: . words should not be confused. The adjec-

◆

-ory

advisory

-aeand

and

and

-oe-

amoeba,

hurricane advisory.

In such words as

archaeology

the vowel combinations

-ae-

were once represented by the

-oe-

tive

.

aesthetic

good taste':

means `relating to beauty or aesthetic value.

An

person who practises self-denial;

ascetic

is a

acetic acid

is the main component of vinegar.

Note the spelling of , particularly the ; the variant spelling is restricted to there is an increasing tendency for the American English. and to be omitted. and are not identical in pronun◆ In American English such words as ciation. The middle syllable of is pro, , and are spelt nounced with the short [e] sound of , , , and , although, whereas the middle syllable of is usually conversely, is not usually preferred to . In British English the has already pronounced like the word . been dropped from (formerly affect or effect? The noun means ) and the and are gradually disappear- `result'; the verb means `influence' or ing from , , , `have an effect on', hence its frequent conetc. This process of simplification, which is parti- fusion with the verb , which means cularly associated with scientific and technical `bring about' or `accomplish': . contexts, is disliked and resisted by some users. The ending of such plural nouns as .. and (see PLURALS) should not be reduced . . to . . and are often characters

ñ

and

ú.

They are now usually

written or printed as separate letters and

-a-

-o-

haemor-

rhage oestrogen

morrhage

anaesthetic

estrogen

◆

aesthetic

ae-

esthetic

Ascetic

acetic

ascetic

he-

set

anesthetic

acetic

esthetic

aesthetic

seat

-o-

ecumenical

nical

-a-

medi(a)eval

oecume-

effect

-o-

encyclop(a)edia

affect

f(o)etus

effect

The new

legislation may have an effect on small busi-

-ae

vertebrae

formulae

-e

ARCHAEOLOGY; ENCYCLOPEDIA ENCYCLOPAEDIA?; FOETUS OR FETUS? etc. See also

nesses

The new legislation may affect small

businesses

improvements

or

We have effected a number of Affect

effect

misused, one in place of the other:

.

Officials said yesterday the downturn could

affectation .

10

effect the future of the scheme dian).

`It

(The

Guar-

will have very little affect,' says . . .

gatory overtones, and is often used in place of

BLACK.

Equivalent coinages recorded in other countries, such as , are known but are not ( ). ◆ The verb is largely restricted to formal yet widely familiar. contexts. The verb is also used in the sense AfricanCaribbean is the of `assume', `pretend', or `feign': . term generally applied to people of African . . . . descent who live in or come from the . Caribbean. The alternative

the

chief

economist

Morgan Grenfell

at

the

merchant

bank

◆

African Canadian

The Times

effect

affect

African Caribbean

I affected an air

of indifference

She affected to despise them

He affected ignorance

affectation

affection

or

Afro-Caribbean

?

is

Affectation

false behaviour that is intended to impress; means `fondness' or `tenderness'.

affection

The two nouns are related to different meanings of the verb

and should

affect

not be confused.

affinity

Afro-American AFRICAN AMERICAN Afro-Caribbean AFRICAN CARIBBEAN afters DESSERT SWEET PUDDING AFTERS afterward afterwards see

.

see

see

.

,

,

affinity,

for

with

in the sense of `liking' or

.

`attraction', is disliked by some users but acceptable to most:

He

has

a

natural

or

lish

? In British Eng-

is the usual form of the

afterwards

adverb meaning `subsequently', the variant

. Those who object to this usage restrict the noun . . to the meaning `reciprocal relationship or similarity', in which sense it is followed by or See also. -WARD or -WARDS? . :. . again This word is pronounced affinity for lost causes.

being more frequently used in

afterward

American English:

◆

His

afterwards

between

with

the affinity between the two friends

afflict inflict or

? To

inflict

afflict

. . . .

is to distress or

is to impose:

the prisoners with cruel torture. cruel torture on the prisoners.

afflicted with a plague of locusts. locusts was inflicted on Egypt.

I'll do the washing-up

foot

was

sore

for

days

afterwards

her

affinity with her brother

trouble, to

or

?

The use of the preposition

the noun

is equally acceptable to most people.

He afflicted

He inflicted

either Æ gen] or [a Æ gayn]. The first of these is [a probably the more frequently used.

aged

.

.

This word is pronounced [ayjid] in

Egypt was

the sense `very old':

A plague of

after the aged.

specific age:

.

his aged uncle

looking

When the word is used with a She was aged twenty,

it is

The direct object of is the sufferer; the pronounced [ayjd]. direct object of is the suffering. The two ageing or aging? This word, meaning verbs should not be confused. `(the process of) becoming old', may be

◆

afflict

inflict

affront

or

.

effrontery

?

Affront

may be

.

used as a noun or as a verb, meaning `insult':

affronted.

pudence':

an affront to his pride

.

The noun

effrontery

I felt

means `im-

She had the effrontery to suggest

we were mistaken.

aficionado

spelt

ageing

ageism

or

aging.

Ageism

is discrimination against

people on the grounds of age, especially in employment, or the offensive use of stereotypical images of old people. In the first sense the noun is not restricted to old

This noun, meaning an expert

age: any job advertisement that puts an

on or devotee of something, is sometimes

upper (or lower) limit on the age of appli-

misspelt. Note the single

and the

in the

cants may be described as

ageist.

In the second sense, the noun refers to the ◆ The word can be pronounced [aÆfishyaÆ doÅ] or assumption that all people over retirement age are [aÆfisyaÆ doÅ]. The original Spanish pronunciation dependent, unproductive, intolerant, conservative, infirm, senile, unhappy, poor, etc. Such stereo[aÆfithyaÆ doÅ] is best avoided. types are best avoided wherever possible in speech African American is the and writing. term now generally applied to Americans f

-c-

middle of the word.

◆

nah

nah

nah

African American

of African descent. It has been preferred to Afro-American

since the late 1980s, when

the latter term was judged to have dero-

See also

agenda

POLITICAL CORRECTNESS.

The word

agenda

is used as a

singular noun, with the plural form

agen-

das:

.

11 .

The agenda for tomorrow's meeting has

been changed.

This item has appeared on a

number of previous agendas.

Originally the plural form of the singular noun , literally means `things to be done'. The singular form remains in occasional very formal use in the sense of `item on the agenda'.

◆

agendum

agenda

agendum

aggravate

The use of the verb

aggravate

and its derivatives in the sense of `annoy', `irritate', or `exasperate' dates back to the early 17th century but is still disliked by some people. It is therefore best restricted to

.

informal contexts and the offending word

.

replaced by one of its synonyms:

.

aggravated by the noise. aggravating habits.

The principal meaning of worse': .

The child's suffering was aggravated

by the intense heat.

Note the spelling of and the single .

aggressive gressive

aggravate

-v-

, particularly the

The use of the adjective

since

ful' is best avoided where there is a risk of

.

confusion with its principal meaning of `belligerent' or `hostile':

I posted

the letter a fortnight since since

We have lived here since 2001. for

since

We

have lived here for three years.

agoraphobia

This word, describing a fear

of open spaces or public places, is sometimes misspelt. Note the

o

after the

◆

ag-.

agora

Agoraphobia

and

person

Modern English

the form of a verb changes in order to agree with the subject. Verb endings rarely inspeaking (the first person), the person being addressed (the second person) or someone or something else being spoken about (the third person). This simplified approach

aggressive

makes matching verb endings with their

Thederivednoun maybeusedfor bothsensesoftheadjectivebut ,withits connotationsofhostility,shouldberestrictedtothe principal meaning: . . Note the spelling of and , particularly the and .

subject relatively straightforward, with the

salesman

◆

an

agreement

lacks any formalized system under which

dicate whether the subject is the person ag-

in the sense of `assertive' or `force-

.

I posted the letter a fortnight ago.

acrophobia

aggravate

Your resignation will aggravate our

-gg-

ago

His lackadaisical attitude

◆

.

Note that is preceded by the past tense and by the present tense in sentences of this type. The first example could be more simply expressed as: . The adverbial use of for this purpose: . , is regarded as very oldfashioned. The word is also used as a preposition: . If a period of time rather than a specific time is mentioned the preposition should be substituted for : . ◆

since

The word originates from the Greek word , `marketplace'. should not be confused with , which means `fear of is `make heights'.

She has a number of

is a constant source of aggravation.

problem.

I was

agreement

an aggressive approach.

aggressiveness

aggression

the aggressiveness of the

salesman's approach

an act of aggression.

aggressive

-gg-

aggression

-ss-

aging AGEING AGING agnostic atheist

only changes relating to the third person present singular, which requires the addition of a final

-s

to the verb, and such

exceptions as to be, which retains such forms as

am

(first person singular) and

.

are

(second

person singular, and first, second, and third

.

person plural):

It remains a question to be

Thelackofdistinctiveverb endingsinEnglishcan lead to confusion in the case of multiple subjects, speaking, a person who holds that knowlespecially where one of them is in the third person. edge of a Supreme Being, a first cause of Thus,both everything, etc., is impossible. In general and may usage, however, the word is often be used, although some users will match the verb used in the broader sense of `a person who with the subject closest to it. doubts the existence of God', in contrast to See also NEITHER. an , `a person who denies the exisPeople may also disagree over the choice of tence of God'. matching in the case of nouns that ◆ The word was coined in 1869 by the may refer topronoun . either gender: English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825±95). ( ). . see

or

or

? An

resolved.

?

agnostic

is, strictly

◆

We are going to town.

Neither she nor I know where it will lead

Neither she nor I knows where it will lead

agnostic

atheist

agnostic

ago since . or

since

How to keep your

child and his phone safe The Times

? It is wrong to place

side by side:

.

ago

and

It was a fortnight ago that

[not

since] I posted the letter.

[not

a fortnight ago] since I posted the letter.

It is a fortnight

.

Always let

your baby adjust to her new surroundings in her own time.

and then.

See also

Let your toddler have its own way now

HE or SHE.

-aholic

-aholic

12 The suffix

-aholic

rived from the noun

(or

-oholic),

alcoholic,

de-

is being

attached to an increasing number of words

.

.

to denote a person who is obsessed by or

.

.

addicted to something:

golfaholic

chocoholic.

shop-

◆ The noun , coined in the late 1960s, is now firmly established in the English language, but more recent examples are best avoided in formal contexts. aholic

aid

spendaholic

workaholic

The noun

is specifically used to

aid

.

.

denote a tangible source of help, assistance,

.

or support, such as a device: teaching aids

.

hearing aid

audiovisual aids

or money,

supplies, equipment, etc., given to those in need:

overseas aid.

air AERO AIR airman airwoman TERMS air miss near miss see

or

?

or

?

see

or

? An

.

NON-SEXIST

air miss

is the

near collision of two aircraft in the sky. Such a situation is traditionally called a miss,

.

near

and both terms are in current use:

The Civil Aviation Authority has launched an

.

investigation into a near miss 33,000 feet over Exmoor

(Daily

Telegraph).

The Civil Avia-

tion Authority is investigating an air miss over

(BBC

South Today).

The expression is also used figuratively to describe something that almost succeeds: . Sussex this morning

◆

near miss

It

was a near miss failing by just 1%; better luck next

In the second sense the word was used in a series of fund-raising campaigns inspired by the aisle This word is sometimes misspelt, the rock musicians of (1984) and the im- most frequent mistake being the omission mensely successful rock concert (1985): of the silent . Note also the initial . ◆

time!

Band Aid

.

Live Aid

Live Aid raised millions for the starving in

Africa.

aÁ la carte

s

a-

On a menu in a restaurant

Á la a

The noun also occurs in certain fixed expres- dishes, in contrast to a complete meal sions, such as , and , but itsuse as ageneral synonym for `help', `assistance', charged at a fixed. price: . or `support' is disliked and avoided by many users. ◆ The expression comes from French, and means The spelling of should not be confused with literally `according to the card'. that of , a noun meaning `assistant': . Ã TE. See also TABLE D'HO carte

aid

legal aid, first aid

refers to a range of individually priced

in aid of

We only have

Á la carte menu an a

aid

aide

one of

the president's aides.

Aids

This acronym, for

Deficiency Syndrome,

Acquired Immune

was originally written

with capital letters when first identified in the early 1980s as a serious disease of the immune system. It is now generally rendered in the form

Aids,

although both

versions are acceptable.

alcopop

This word, describing a ready-

mixed soft drink with an alcoholic content, is best restricted to informal contexts. The formal name for such drinks is

FAB

(fla-

voured alcoholic beverage), although this term is largely unknown outside the drinks industry and alcohol pressure groups, etc.

Care should be taken not to confuse with alibi The use of the noun as a syno, the abbreviation for for `excuse' or `pretext' is disliked by , the infective retrovirus from which nym many people and is best restricted to inthe full-blown disease may or may not sub- formal contexts: . sequently develop. . . ◆ The word , which literally means `elsewhere', is principally used in law to denote a ain't As a contraction of defendant's plea (or evidence) that he or she or is wrong. It is however was somewhere other than the scene of a crime: generally widely used in speech and in such . jocular expressions as: . . . ◆ As a contraction of is regarded by align This word, meaning `bring or come some users as slightly more acceptable, especially into line; support', is sometimes misspelt. in informal American English in the interrogative Note the single and also the silent . form , which is replaced in British English by the grammatically irregular and in formal all The use of the preposition between and , or a possessive contexts by the full form . ◆

Aids

HIV

alibi

Human Immunodefi-

ciency Virus

Aids

Her son was diagnosed HIV-

positive five years ago but has not yet displayed any of the symptoms of full-blown Aids.

He used the power cut as

an alibi for not finishing his essay.

Her illness

provided her with an alibi to leave early.

alibi

are not, is not, have

not,

has not, ain't

Things ain't what

they used to be.

You ain't heard nothing yet.

I have an alibi for the afternoon of the robbery ± I

was at a conference in Birmingham

am not, ain't

l

ain't I

aren't I

am I not

g

of

the, this, that, these, those

all

13 adjective is optional,

.

English:

.

being preferred in

all

British English and

all

in American

of

.

All (of) the birds have flown away.

.

I can't carry all (of) that.

.

books belong to you? right-handed.

Do all (of) these

All (of) her children are

They spent all (of) their leave

is used alone before nouns that are not preceded by etc.: . . is . alwaysusedbeforepersonalpronouns: . in France.

◆ All

the, these, my, their,

have wings.

All birds

All leave has been cancelled. All of all of us

all of it.

ALL RIGHT or ALRIGHT?; ALL TOGETHER or ALTOGETHER?; NOT. See also

allege

The verb

allege,

meaning `state

without proof', is sometimes misspelt, the most frequent error being the substitution of

-edge

for the

alliteration

-ege

ending.

Alliteration,

the use of succes-

similar sound, can be employed to striking

. .

effect in poetry or newspaper headlines, for instance, but should never be overused. Round the rugged rock the ragged rascal ran. The Taming of the Shrew).

(The

should not be confused with

◆ Allude

elude

(see

AVOID, EVADE or ELUDE?). See also ALLUSION, ILLUSION or DELUSION?; ALLUSIVE, ELUSIVE or ILLUSIVE?

allure lure or

? Both these words may be

used as a noun or as a verb. The verbs and

lure

allure

are virtually synonymous in the

.

sense of `entice', `tempt', or `attract', but lure

is by far the more frequent:

to lure her away.

The verb

They tried

allure

.

is most

frequently found in the form of the present participle, used as an adjective: proposition.

an alluring

The nouns and share the meaning `attraction', but they are used in different contexts. refers to the act of attracting, whereas refers to the attractiveness of the person or thing . concerned: . .

◆

allure

lure

Lure

allure

the lure of the gambling table

sive words of that begin with the same or a

.

Full fathom five thy father lies

allusive

(Shakespeare, Down in the

the

allure of show business

allusion illusion delusion ,

or

? An

is an indirect reference (see

illusion

allusion

ALLUDE);

an

is a false or misleading impression

or perception; a

.

is a false or mis-

delusion

. .

taken idea or belief: schooldays at Eton

an optical illusion

destroy one's illusions

.

an allusion to his

delusions of grandeur

to labour under a delusion.

Guardian).

.

to

The nouns and are confused because of their similarity in pronunciation, sionally confused, as they are pronounced and because of their similarity in meanin the same way. is the past partiing. ciple of the verb : . and are virtually interchange. It should not be able in some contexts but careful users maintain confused with , meaning `audible': . the distinction between them where necessary. An is often pleasant and harmless; a all ready see ALREADY or ALL READY? may be a sign of mental disorder: . . all right or alright? The spelling is . An temporarily deceives the senses correct; the spelling is wrong. and is sometimes known to be false; a is a ◆ Some users defend the spelling , arguing strongly held opinion that is not easily eradicated. that and are analogous spel- See also ALLUSIVE, ELUSIVE or ILLUSIVE? lings. Such users want to distinguish , `satisfactory or acceptable': . allusive , elusive or illusive? The adjecfrom :. , tives and relate to the nouns i.e. all the answers were right. and respectively (see ALLUdeep dark dell

allowed aloud? or

These words are occa-

◆

allusion

illusion

delusion

Allowed

Such behaviour

allow

should

not

be

illusion

allowed

Illusion

delusion

aloud

She did not dare to voice her concerns aloud.

illusion

delusion

the illusions of

all right

alright

childhood beth I

the delusion that she is Queen Eliza-

illusion

delusion

alright

altogether

already

alright

The play was alright for

children

all right

all together GETHER allude

The answers were all right

ALTOGETHER

see

?

or

SION, ILLUSION or DELUSION?); ALL TO- `difficult to catch, find, achieve,

elusive

allude

. .

means `refer indir-

ectly'; it should not be used in place of the refer

itself:

He was alluding to the

death of his father when he spoke of the loss of a lifelong friend.

She referred

[not

alluded]

to `the spectre of redundancy' in her speech on unemployment.

illusive

illusion

.

define, remember, etc.':

The verb

verb

allusive

allusion

.

means

.

describe,

an allusive style

an elusive quality.

and are identical in pronunciation [i siv]; differs only in the pronunciation of the first syllable [aÆ siv]. Of the three adjectives is the most frequent. is rarely used and is usually replaced by its synonym .

an illusive hope

◆ Elusive loo

illusive

allusive

loo

elusive

Allusive

illusive

illusory

alma mater

alma mater

14 The Latin phrase

alma mater

is a formal expression used to refer to one's

.

by many users, especially in formal writing: Please send me a copy of your new catalogue

[not . . .

school, college, or university.

and a list of local stockists

◆

your new catalogue, also a list

The phrase, which is sometimes written with . . .]. capital initials , literally means `boun- ◆ The combination , however, is generally teous mother'. It is pronounced [almaÆ eÆr] or acceptable: . [almaÆ eÆr]. In some sentences must be carefully posialmond This word is sometimes mispro- tioned in order to convey the intended meaning: . nounced. The is silent, as in calm; the Alma Mater

a copy of

and also

maht

Please send me a copy of your new

mayt

catalogue and also a list of local stockists. also

-l-

alone lone or

?

and

Alone

lone

are both

used in the sense of `solitary' or `by oneself', but

alone

lone

.

.

is always placed after the verb and

.

before the noun:

lone cyclist tree. Lone

.

She was alone.

The house stood alone.

a

a lone

tends to be used more in literary

or poetic contexts. There is also some difference in meaning:

alone

is more likely

to suggest loneliness or a desire for solitude, whereas

lone

.

She also [as well as someone else] was carrying an

Æ nd]. correct pronunciation is [ahmo

usually describes a person or

thing that simply happens to be on his/her/

umbrella.

.

She was carrying an umbrella also [as

well as something else].

She was wearing a

raincoat and she was also carrying an umbrella.

NOT ONLY . . . BUT ALSO.

See also

altar alter or

? These words are sometimes

confused. An

is a place where sacri-

altar

fices are offered to a god and also the table

.

on which the bread and wine are blessed in Communion

.

services:

proached the altar. Alter

`change':

The

priest

with an

e

ap-

means

a scheme for radically altering the

whole tax system.

The different words both have the same proWhen is placed directly after a noun or ◆nunciation [ teÆr]. . pronoun it means `only': . Care should be taken to avoid ambiguity when alternate or alternative? The adjective is used in this sense: . means `every other' or `occurring probably means that she drinks no other by turns'; the adjective means alcoholic liquor, but it could imply that she drinks `offering a choice' or `being an alternative': in solitude. . . . . . along with In the phrase , the ◆ The use of in place of is word is often superfluous: . acknowledged by most dictionaries but disliked by many users. should not be used in could be changed to: . place of . withNote the difference in pronunciation between out affecting the meaning. the adjective [awl naÆt] and the verb aloud see ALLOWED or ALOUD? [ teÆrnayt]. The adjective is used with increasing already or all ready? The adverb frequency in the specific sense of `not convenshould not be confused with the phrase . tional' or `not traditional': . , as both have distinct meanings. . . variously means `at a time earlier than . This usage is best avoided expected' or `by or before a particular time', where there is a risk of ambiguity: . whereas means `in a state of . complete readiness': . . The noun traditionally denotes either . of two possibilities, or the opportunity of choosing ◆ The use in American English of as an between them, but is widely used with reference intensifier following an exclamation, command, or to three or more options or choices: . ( otherstatementisbestrestrictedtoinformaluse: . . ). . its own.

◆

alone

awl

He alone can help us

alone

She drinks whisky

alternate

alone

alternative

on alternate Saturdays

alternative routes

along with

alternate

The

along

alternate layers

an alternative suggestion

alternative

package was delivered along with the rest of

Alternative

The package

the mail

alternate

was delivered with the rest of the mail

alternate

ter

alternate awl

alternative

already all

ready

alternative medicine

Al-

alternative comedy

ready

alternative technology

alternative energy

all

I decided

ready

Have

your homework already?

in the building.

you finished

to buy an alternative newspaper alternative

They are already

Is everything all ready?

already

Are the

current alternatives to the dole effective? Daily

Enough already!

alright also

see

Get over here already!

ALL RIGHT or ALRIGHT?

The use of the adverb

the conjunction

and

also

in place of

is disliked and avoided

Telegraph

If the campaign against terrorism is

not successful within a few months the only alter-

natives will be surrender, negotiation, or a long

. Criticism of this usage on etymological grounds ( is derived drawn-out war of attrition

alternative

15

ambiguous

from the Latin word , meaning `other (of (1778±1829), although he had originally proposed . By analogy with the names of such other two)') is dismissed by most authorities as pedantry. elements as and , the name alternative medicine see COMPLEMENTARY was also suggested and this is now MEDICINE or ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE? the standard form in British English. alter

alumium

potassium

although however or

? The conjunction

should not be treated as inter-

although

changeable with the adverb

.

however,

which

is used to introduce contrasting information. The team should do well although they have

been hit by injuries; their opponents, however,

Note that comma, but

though

or

.

alumnus,

meaning

males but note that the plural form

alumni

may refer to former students of both sexes. The equivalent for a female student is alumna

? As conjunctions, although

are interchangeable in most

though

contexts:

word

[plural

alumnae].

a.m.

meaning `despite the fact that', and

The

however

although

although

alumnus

`former pupil or student', is reserved for

is usually followed by a a.m. and p.m. Full stops are often retained is not. in the abbreviations (for ,

are unlikely to make much impression.

◆

sodium

aluminium

We bought the table, although/

though it was damaged.

ante meridiem

meaning `before noon') and meridiem,

guish

p.m.

(for

post

meaning `after noon') to distinfrom the verb

am.

The use of capital letters is acceptable but rare. See also ABBREVIATIONS. The abbreviation refers to the hours from midnight to midday; refers to the hours from midday to midnight: . is five minutes after midnight; . is five minutes after midday. Such phrases as and are tautological; either or and either or should be omitted. a.m.

◆

is slightly less formal but more versatile than : it may be used in combination with for extra emphasis; in the phrase (see AS IF or AS THOUGH?); after an adjective; and asaninformalsubstitutefortheadverb .. .. .. is amanuensis This word, meaning `person not used in any of these contexts. to take dictation or copy manuand (less frequently) are also employed scripts', is sometimes misspelt. Note the used in the sense of `but' or `and yet': . single and the in the middle of .. the word. . ◆ , pronounced [aÆmanyoo sis], is The shortened forms , and best restricted to formal contexts. The plural form are best avoided in formal writing. is , pronounced [aÆmanyoo seez]. See also IF. a.m.

◆ Though

p.m.

although

even

as though

12.05 a.m.

12.05 p.m.

8.15 a.m. in the morning

however

We bought the table, even though it was damaged

We bought the table, damaged though

it was

Ground coffee tastes better than instant

11.45 p.m. at night

a.m.

in the morning

p.m.

at night

coffee; it's more expensive, though. Although Though

although

They

applauded, though not enthusiastically

n

It's pos-

sible, though unlikely

altho', altho, tho'

tho

-ue-

Amanuensis

en

amanuenses

altogether all together or

altogether

together

? The adverb

means `in all' or `completely';

.

all

. .

means `at the same time' or `in the

same place':

She has nine pets altogether.

.

Your system is altogether different from ours .

.

They disappeared altogether. all together.

They arrived

We keep our reference books all

together on a separate shelf.

aluminium

Note the spelling of this word,

which refers to the silvery-white metallic

amateur

en

This word, meaning `person who

.

follows an activity as a pastime rather than as a profession':

an amateur golfer,

has

several pronunciations, the most frequent Æ te Æ ]. being [ama The pronunciations Æ cheÆ], [ama Æ tewr], and [ama Æ ter] are also [ama heard.

ambience

Some people object to the fre-

quent use of the noun

ambience

ambience of the restaurant.

.

as a pre-

tentious synonym for `atmosphere':

the

◆ The French spelling and an anglicized form of the French pronunciation are sometimes . used in English. The English pronunciation of ◆ In British English, the stress falls on the third Æ is [ bie ns]. syllable; in American English on the second syllaambiguous or ambivalent? ble. was the name given in 1812 by its means `having two or more possible interdiscoverer, the English chemist Sir Humphry Davy pretations or meanings' or `obscure'; element:

-inium

in

British

English.

American English, the spelling is

In

ambiance

alumi-

num

ambience

am

Ambiguous

Aluminum

ameba

16

ambivalent

.

.

means `having conflicting emo-

tions or attitudes' or `indecisive':

The

phrase `a French horn player' is ambiguous.

of

Many people are ambivalent about the issue disarmament:

they

recognize

the

impor-

tance of the nuclear deterrent but feel that the money spent on nuclear weapons could be put to better use.

Careful users maintain the distinction between the two adjectives, avoiding the temptation to use in place of . In some contexts, including the above example, may be better replaced by or . ◆

ambivalent

ambiguous

be ambivalent

have mixed feelings

be in two minds

ameba amen

see

AMOEBA or AMEBA?

The word

amen,

meaning `so be it',

may be pronounced [aymen] or [ahmen]. Both pronunciations are correct.

amend amend,

or

emend

? Of these two verbs

.

emend

being

restricted to the correction of errors in a printed or written text:

.

The ambiguous

.

wording of the opening paragraph has been amended.

They have amended the rules.

The manuscript was emended by an eminent scholar.

The pronunciation of [aÆ ] is very similar to that of [i ]. Their derived nouns, however, are quite different: . . . ◆

amend

emend

mend

mend

an amend-

ment

an emendation

amenity

The noun

amenity

The United States of America

the United States, the USA, the US the States

I often go to

the States on business. USA

US

America

American

US

a US actor

American

The book was written by an

American

American Indian Americanisms

see

NATIVE AMERICAN.

For many years American

English has had a significant influence on British English. Although many British

meaning `correct', `improve', or

`alter', is the more general,

◆ may be shortened to , or (in informal contexts) :. and are sometimes written or printed with full stops (see also ABBREVIATIONS). Like , the adjective is largely restricted in general usage to the meaning `of the USA'. The abbreviation may be used adjectivally to avoid ambiguity: . . There is no single noun that specifically denotes a native or citizen of the USA, but is generally used for this purpose: . .

is ultimately

derived from the Latin word for `pleasant'. A few users prefer to restrict the term, which is generally used in the plural form

purists dislike American English, in some respects its differences arise from greater

.

.

conservatism than British English. Such words as:

gotten

(autumn), as well

fall

as many American spellings, were originally the British forms and have changed in Britain but not in the United States. American English is also a fertile ground for new words and idioms and there is no reason why British English should not borrow the

.

.

.

more striking ones. Such American words as:

truck

commuter

teenager

have

become part of British vocabulary. Other words of American origin that have been widely transmitted elsewhere reflect the country's

particular

.

.

cultural

.

influences,

such as that exerted by Native American culture:

The most noticeable differences between Ameror pleasure, objecting to its extended apican and British English are those of vocabulary. plication to what is merely useful or conMost British people are familiar with the bettervenient: . known American equivalents: . (pave. . . ment) (lift) (biscuit) . . (holiday) . (crisps) . (chips) . (bonnet). It is when the same word or phrase is . used with different that confusion ◆ is usually pronounced [a niti], with a arises. If an American meanings . says: long , but the pronunciation [a iti], with a person short , is an accepted variant and is usual in might think of him washing, antheEnglish dishes in his American English. underwear, while in fact he had put on his waistcoat and trousers and washed his hands. America The word is most freThere are various differences between British quently used with reference to the United . and American spellings: . States of America, although it strictly de. . Many words notes the whole landmass comprising Caending in in British English have the ending nada, the USA, Central America, and . inAmericanEnglish: . ± South America. amenities,

to what is conducive to comfort

◆

moccasin

squaw

The amenities of the hotel include a

sauna,

swimming

pool,

licensed

and 24-hour room service

prairie.

sidewalk

restaurant,

elevator

The town lacks

cookie

chips

some of the basic amenities, such as public

vacation

fries

hood

toilets and a rubbish dump

Amenity

mee

e

men

e

I put on my vest

and pants and washed up

America

tyre ± tire

mold

mould ±

connection ± connexion -re

-er

centre

center

theatre

. ;manywordsendinginin British English have the ending - in American English: . ± . .British English has in most cases resisted American spellings, such as (for ) and (for ), although the American tendency to drop the or in words like or is growing increasingly familiar in British spelling. See also -AE- and -OE-; SPELLING 1. The significant differences in grammar include a few past tenses like the American (dived) or andtheAmericantendencytosay: . where the British would say: . or: . Speakers of British English generally tend to use less direct forms of approach than Americans, preferring such forms as: . or . and may find more direct American approaches lacking in politeness. Americans in turn may consider such Briticisms forced and overly formal. ± theater

fibre ± fiber

our

or

colour

color

humour ± humor

traveler

traveller

analyze

analyse o

a

foetus

encyclopaedia

dove

gotten

Do you

have . . .?

Have

you . . .?

Have you got . . .?

Would you mind if . . .?

I'm afraid that . . .

QUOTATION MARKS; SHALL or WILL?; SUBJUNCTIVE; TENSE. See also

17

amount quently used as a noun, in the phrases the midst of,

.

in our/their/etc. midst,

.

them/etc.': campaign

in

meaning `in the middle of' and in

the

meaning `among us/ midst

of

the

election

There is a traitor in our midst.

amoeba ameba or

? There are two possi-

ble spellings for this word, which refers to a very small single-cell organism. The first is more frequent in British English, but both forms are used in American English.

-AE- and -OE-.

See also

amok amuck

or ? The word amok, proÆ muk] or [a Æ mok] and used espenounced [a cially in the phrase

run amok,

`behave in a

violent manner; go berserk', has the rarer Æ muk]. variant spelling amuck, pronounced [a

◆ The word derives from Malay attack'.

among amongst or

and

amoq

, `frenzied

? The words

among

are interchangeable in all

amongst

. Differences in pronunciation between British . and American English can lead to confusion even before a consonant over identical words, as for instance in the cases of ◆ Some users prefer (pronounced [ sõÅl] in British English but sound and . before a vowel sound: . . [ sil] in American English) and (proSee also BETWEEN or AMONG ? nounced [la raÆtree] in British English but [ braÆtree] in American English). amoral or immoral? means `not Much as many British people deplore the adop- concerned with morality' or `having no tion of suchAmerican words and phrases as . moral standards'; means `not con. . (instead of forming to morality' or `infringing ac), and . (instead of ) , it can be assumed that such words will continue to cross the cepted .moral standards': . . Atlantic and that they will continue to be absorbed . . into British English. contexts,

being the more frequent

among

in modern usage:

They hid among/amongst

the bushes

among

missile

amongst

mi

mi

among strangers

laboratory

bo

amongst ourselves

la

Amoral

laid-

back

no way

book

cookbook

immoral

cookery

truck

lorry

an

matter

an

amiable

amicable

or

?

means

Amiable

`friendly', `pleasant', `agreeable', or `congenial';

amicable

.

means

friendliness or goodwill': man

. . .

`characterized an

an amicable agreement

at me in an amiable manner.

by

amiable

She smiled

The dispute

was settled in an amicable manner.

◆

The two adjectives should not be confused.

amid amidst mid midst ,

amidst

,

or

?

Amid

and

are synonymous, and are used in

formal or poetic contexts, but

.

amidst

.

is used

politician

consider

vivisection

to

amoral

immoral

an immoral young man

behaviour people

amoral

be

Some

immoral,

others have an amoral attitude to the issue.

Careful users maintain the distinction between the two adjectives, both of which can be used in a derogatory manner. The first syllable of may be pronounced as a long [ay rraÆl] or a short [a rraÆl]; is pronounced [i rraÆl]. Note the spellings of the two words, particularly the single of and the - - of .

◆

amoral

a

mo

a

immoral

mo

mo

m

amoral

mm

amount number or

and

number

immoral

? The words

are not synonymous.

amount Number

more rarely. Both mean `in the middle of'

refers to a countable quantity and is pre-

or `among':

ferred to

waving reeds.

amid the crowd

The word

mid

amidst the

also means `in

.

the middle of'; in modern usage it is chiefly

.

found in combination with nouns: September

mid-air.

Midst

mid-

is most fre-

amount

nouns, while

.

uncountable:

◆

.

in reference to plural

amount

refers to something

a large number of volunteers.

Note that while it is correct to talk about a any amount of rubbish.

large

amuck

18

or number or amount, some people consider it less correct to talk about a or number or amount. small

big

little

be an effective way of drawing attention to what follows.

◆ Two or more subjects joined with are used with a plural verb unless they represent a single amuck see AMOK or AMUCK? concept. See also SINGULAR or PLURAL? an see A or AN? For the use of a comma before in a series anaemia or anemia? There are two pos- of three or more items see COMMA 1. may sible spellings for this word, which refers to also be preceded by a comma in other contexts, a medical condition resulting from a defiespecially in complex sentences or where there is ciency in red blood cells in the blood. a risk of ambiguity: . is the accepted spelling in British .. English, while is the usual form in American English. .. anaesthetic This word, meaning `a sub. The omission of the first stance that produces a loss of feeling', is in the last example and similar sentences is a sometimes misspelt. Note the in the frequent error. middle of the word. The use of in place of is best avoided in ◆ In the American English spelling, the second is formal contexts: . .. dropped: . . . See also -AE- and -OE-. and

and

And

Jenny owns the red car, and

Anaemia

the black car belongs to her brother

anemia

He un-

locked the door with the key that he had found inside the stolen purse, and went in

She has

been to Spain, Portugal, and Italy, and hopes to visit Greece next year and

-ae-

and

a

anesthetic

analogous

I'll

come and see you tomorrow

AND/OR; I or ME?

See also

The adjective

avoided where

to

We'd better try and find it

analogous

is best

similar, equivalent, compar-

able, corresponding, like,

.

etc., would be ade-

quate or more appropriate:

The

new

system is analogous to that used in the elec-

and/or

The phrase

.

should only be

and/or

used where three possibilities are envisaged:

cash

and/or

stamps,

postage

for

example, means `cash, postage stamps, or both'.

The phrase should not be used where or ◆ The usual pronunciation of is [aÆ oÆ- ◆would be adequate: . gouÆs], with the hard of and , not [not ] . . the soft of and . [not ] . analyse The of should not be is best restricted to official, legal, or replaced with in British English, commercial contexts and replaced elsewhere by being the American spelling of the word. a slightly longer phrase: . See also -IZE or -ISE? [not Some people object to the use of the verb ]. tronics industry.

analogous

g

g

goat

gem

analogy

s

analyse

and

nal

or

This food is suitable for

analogue

hamsters and

and/or gerbils

open on Saturdays or

The bank is not

and/or Sundays

And/or

z

analyze

The casserole may be

served with potatoes or carrots or both

. anemia

po-

tatoes and/or carrots

analyse

in place of

discuss, examine,

etc.:

Your proposal will be analysed at the next committee meeting.

noun

analysis

The frequent use of the

in general contexts is also

disliked, especially the phrases analysis,

in

the

ultimate analysis,

placed by mately,

analysis,

final

in the last

and

in

the

which can usually be re-

in the end, at last, finally, ulti-

etc.

analysis ancillary

see

.

This word, meaning `supplemenancillary services,

is

the -ll-, and the ending -ary, not -iary. The use of

and

Some people object to the frequent

view, standpoint,

.

angle

etc.:

in place of

point of

The report has been

implies alackof objectivity: . .

written from a unilateralist angle.

◆

The verb

angle

The

with the criminal

sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the c,

and

angle

use of the noun

play was angled to make the audience sympathize

ANALYSE.

tary or subsidiary':

ANAEMIA or ANEMIA? anesthetic see ANAESTHETIC. see

at the beginning of a

sentence is disliked by some users but acceptable to most. And it can sometimes

angry

The adjective

the preposition

angry

about

or

`angry about something': about

and

[or

in the sense

She was angry

at] the way they had treated him,

.

with

person':

.

is followed by

at

ANIMALS

in the sense of `angry with a Are you angry with me?

± see table, page 19

19

ANIMALS

ANIMALS

For collective nouns used with animals, see COLLECTIVE NOUNS. Animal Male Female Young antelope buck doe kid badger boar sow cub bear boar sow cub bird cock hen chick nestling fledgling bobcat tom lioness kitten buffalo bull cow calf camel bull cow calf caribou stag doe fawn cat tom queen kitten cattle bull cow calf chicken cock hen chick cougar tom lioness kitten coyote dog bitch puppy deer stag doe fawn dog dog bitch puppy whelp duck drake duck duckling eagle eagle eagle eaglet elephant bull cow calf falcon tercel falcon eyas ferret hob jack jill kit fish cock hen fry fox dog vixen kit giraffe bull cow calf goat billy-goat nanny-goat kid goose gander goose gosling hare buck doe leveret hartebeest bull cow calf horse stallion mare foal colt filly kangaroo buck doe joey leopard leopard leopardess cub lion lion lioness cub owl owl owl owlet ox bullock cow calf pheasant cock hen chick pig boar sow piglet pigeon cock hen squab rabbit buck doe kitten rhinoceros bull cow calf seal bull cow pup sheep ram ewe lamb swan cob pen cygnet tiger tiger tigress cub weasel boar cow kit whale bull cow calf wolf dog bitch whelp zebra stallion mare foal or

or

or

or

or

or

annex

annex

annexe

or

20 ? In

British English

is a verb meaning `add' or `appro-

annex

priate';

.

is a noun that denotes a

annexe

-ant

is the usual form for the noun and

for the adjective (see

DENT?; DEPENDANT or PENDENT?).

or

-ent

CONFIDANT or CONFIDEPENDENT?; PENDANT

. . ◆ It may be useful to remember that nouns and The variant spelling of the noun withoutthe final adjectives formed from verbs ending in take . is largely restricted to American English. It is the suffix rather than : . . . wrong to spell the verb with a final : . . ante- or anti-? These two prefixes are ( ). sometimes confused. , from Latin,

building built or used as an extension: to annex a state

a room in the annexe

◆

-ate

-ant

-e

-e

He had no

stimulant

-ent

tolerant

predominant

mutant

ambitions to annexe the Department of Transport The Guardian

annual biennial perennial ,

or

? An

annual

means `before':

.

plant, e.g. the marigold, completes its life

antecedent.

cycle in only one growing season. A

`against; opposite to':

bien-

plant, e.g. the strawberry, germinates

nial

and accumulates food reserves in the first year and flowers, fruits, and dies during the second year. A

perennial

plant, e.g. a woody

tree and a herbaceous plant such as the foxglove, grows for more than two years, sometimes lasting for several years and usually having a new growth of flowers each year.

◆

Note the

-nn-

anonymous

spelling in these words.

donor,

.

.

from

anteroom

Greek,

.

. .

means

anti-apartheid

anticlockwise.

In British English, both prefixes are pronounced [ ti]; in American English is pronounced [ tõÅ] or [ ti], [ ti]. IninformalspokenEnglish, issometimesused as a preposition, meaning `opposed to': . or as an adjective: . . anti-aircraft

◆

anti-American

an

anti-

an

an

ante- an

anti

He's very

anti politics

antecedent

He's very anti

An

.

is

antecedent

a

word,

phrase, or clause to which a subsequent word refers:

This word, meaning `of un-

known origin or identity':

Anti-,

.

.

Ante-

antenatal

he took it

She passed the book to him and

(in which

the book

is the ante-

an anonymous

cedent). Care should be taken to avoid

is sometimes misspelt, the most fre-

confusion over the antecedent being re-

quent error being to replace the

anorak

The word

anorak,

y

with an i.

referring origin-

ally to a thick, waterproof hooded coat, has been used since the early 1980s as a derogatory term for a person who is obsessively

ferred to: the

She

passed

the

antecedent could be either

book

through

(where the

the book

or

the

window).

antennae antennas or

interested in something generally consid-

na

ered unfashionable or boring. In this sense,

antennas.

.

.

window and he opened it

? The noun

has two plural forms, The plural form

anten-

antennae

and

antennae,

pro-

the word is best restricted to informal

nounced to rhyme with

contexts.

to denote an insect's or crustacean's feelers;

He's one of those anoraks who

hang around railway stations recording train

or

The word also has the derived adjective .

anoraky

anorakish

anorexic anorectic or

rexic

and

anorectic

? The words

are

interchangeable.

adjective to describe a person suffering the

although

disorder

anorexic

-ant -ent or

anorexia

nervosa,

is used more frequently.

? The suffixes

tree,

is used

is used to mean `aerial' (this

antennas

anti- ANTEanticipate

is preferred. or

ANTI-?

The verb

.

anticipate

used as a synonym for `expect':

is widely

.

We do not

anticipate that there will be any problems.

Oil prices showed their expected leap yesterday.

. . .

But the rally was not as strong as

some traders anticipated

(Daily

Telegraph).

-ent,

This usage is disliked by many people, who

identical in pronunciation, cause frequent

restrict the verb to its accepted more formal

-ant

or

form

see

ano-

Either may be used as a noun or as an from

antenna

or

sense being of American origin) the plural

numbers.

◆

when

my

.

spelling problems. Either suffix may be

.

.

used to form nouns and adjectives: defendant an

a superintendent

irreverent

remark.

cases where both

-ant

.

the

a defiant child

.

Preventative medicine anticipates disease.

However, in many

their doors and windows. anticipate his needs.

forms exist,

.

They anticipated the attack by boarding up

and

-ent

.

senses of `forestall', `act in advance of', etc.:

You must learn to

21

apophthegm

type a singular verb is preferred if is used in the ◆ The verb is best avoided altogether where there is a risk of ambiguity, as in such sentences as sense of `any one' and a plural verb if implies `some'. and . See also SINGULAR or PLURAL? The of in place of is used in antidote The noun . is followed by AmericanuseEnglish but should be avoided in British the preposition or : . English: . [or ] . any

any

I

anticipated her resignation

The driver antici-

pated the accident

any

antidote

to

for

Alcohol should not

be used as an antidote to

antihistamine

The

for

word

Her manners haven't improved any

depression

antihistamine,

which denotes a medicinal substance that is used to treat allergies, is sometimes mis-

at all

ANYBODY or ANYONE?

See also

anybody anyone or

body

? The pronoun

and its synonym

anyone

any-

are inter-

changeable in all contexts.

Both are used with a singular verb but are sometimes followed by a plural personal pronoun antique or antiquated? The adjective or possessive adjective (see THEY): . ? is used to describe a piece of furNote the difference between the one-word niture or a work of art that is old and compound and the more specific two. The valuable: . word form , both of which may be applied adjective , meaning `old-fashto people: . .. ioned' or `obsolete', is usually derogatory: . . . Only the two-word compound is used of things: . . antisocial, asocial, unsocial or unsocia. ble? These four adjectives are sometimes

spelt. Note the third syllable, -hyst-),

and the

(not

-hist-

ending.

-ine

◆

Has anybody/

anyone finished their work

antique

anyone

a beautiful antique vase

any one

antiquated

Anyone could have started the fire

an antiquated washing machine

anti-

Any one of the tenants could have started the fire

quated procedures

These tables are not reserved, so you can sit at any one you like

confused. Both

antisocial

and

unsociable

.

anymore any more or

? This word, var-

can mean `unfriendly', describing some-

iously meaning `any longer' or `nowadays',

body who avoids the company of others:

is generally rendered

any more

in British

Our new neighbours seem rather antisocial/

English and careful users avoid

unsociable. Antisocial

the accepted form in American English:

is the stronger of the

. anyplace

two and may also describe behaviour that causes harm or inconvenience to others: an antisocial act/habit. Asocial,

word, implies

a

deeper

withdrawal from society; used in the phrase

.

a much rarer

hostility

to

or

unsocial

is chiefly

unsocial hours,

referring

to the time when most people are not at work:

You

must

be

prepared

to

work

unsocial hours.

See also

antonym

An

antonym

right

(the antonym of

antonymous,

use than

slow).

.

is a word that has

wrong)

.

quick

(the

It yields the adjective

but this is less familiar in daily

SYNONYMOUS, which signifies two

words with the same meaning, and is best avoided in informal contexts.

any

The use of a singular or plural verb

with the pronoun

any

and context in which it is used: the furniture damaged?

.

depends on the sense

.

Is any of

Ask him if any of his

children watch/watches the programme.

In the first example , like , must be usedwith a singular verb. In example of thesecond ◆

any

any place

or

usually rendered

furniture

? This word is in British Eng-

any place

lish and careful users avoid

.

anyplace,

accepted form in American English:

the

Have

you seen my jacket any place?

British English

in any case tends to prefer

anywhere.

anytime any time ly rendered

the opposite meaning to another word:

antonym of

She does not live there any more.

or

SOCIABLE or SOCIAL?

.

anymore,

any time

careful users avoid

? This word is usual-

in British English and

.

anytime,

form in American English:

the accepted Come round

any time.

apartheid

The name of the former South

African political system

pronounced

in

several

apartheid

may be

different

ways.

Some users prefer the pronunciation Æ parthayt] following the Afrikaans origi[a nal. Other frequently used pronunciations Æ parthõÅt] and pronunciations in which are [a the

h

Æ partõÅt] and [a Æ partõÅd]. is not sounded: [a

apophthegm

This word, meaning `aphor-

ism', is sometimes misspelt. Note the

in the middle of the word and the ending. It is sometimes rendered

-ph-egm

apothegm

apostasy

.

in American English:

22 This truth is ex-

◆

apostasy

tion who were young in the '60s

a

This word, meaning `renuncia-

tion of a religious or political belief, cause, or allegiance', is sometimes misspelt. Note the

ending.

-asy

apostrophe

The

.

apostrophe

.

is

used

mainly to denote possession and other relationships:

.

Angela's house

England's doctrines

.

.

). Apostrophes are also sometimes used to indicate missing numbers: . . Apostrophes are no longer generally used for shortened forms that are in general use: . . Casterbridge

the genera-

The word is pronounced [ paÆthem].

pressed in a pungent apophthegm.

the Church of

the rabbits' warren,

.

photo

.

flu

plane.

See also CONTRACTIONS; DATES; -ING forms; ITS or IT'S?; POSSESSIVES.

appal

Note the spelling of this verb, espe-

cially the -pp- and (in British English) the single l.

American English spelling of the word . is◆ The usual . In British English the final - is doubled

and

to indicate omitted letters in contractions:

phone

appall

l

before a suffix beginning with a vowel, as in ◆ Difficulties with the possessive use of the aposand (see also SPELLING 1). trophe centre on its presence or absence and its position before or after the (for the basic rules see apparatus This word is usually pro'S or S'?). Advertisers are particularly guilty of sins nounced [apaÆ tuÆs] or [ aÆraytus], though . . the pronunciation [apaÆ tuÆs] is also someof omission: . , and market stalls are par- times heard. ticularly prone to forming plurals with apos. trophes: . . Other examples appendixes or appendices? The noun has two accepted plural forms, recorded in recent years have included: . . and . . . Units of measure is largely often have their apostrophes omitted; it should be: ◆ The use of the plural form . . . restricted to the anatomical sense of the word: . With well-known commercial organizations and . products the tendency is now to drop the aposIn the sense of `supplement (to a book, docu. . . trophe: , proPossessive personal pronouns do not take apos- ment, etc.)'Æ the plural form [a diseez], is preferred by most . . trophes . , but nounced . users: . indefinite pronouns do: . . Purists have maintained that as is not a noun or pronoun it cannot take an apos- applicable In the more traditional pronuntrophe, and have used the form: . , of this word, the first syllable is but is now generally acceptable. ciation Æ bl]. The pronunciation with stressed [ lika There are a few exceptions to the rule that the second syllable Æ Æ bl] is stressed [a a apostrophes cannot be used for plurals. They probably more frequently heard, however. can be used to indicate the plurals of individual See also STRESS. letters,words, andnumbersinexpressions like: . apposition A noun or phrase that is in .. apposition supplies further information .. . The apostrophe is also about another noun or phrase. Both nouns sometimes used for the plural of some abbrevia- or phrases refer to the same person or tions: . , but this usage is becoming less thing; they are equivalent in meaning. In the sentence . frequent. , the phrases and Apart from the use of the apostrophe to indicate are in apposition. In the phrase . contractions such as , , (for : . ), it is used to indicate and are missing letters in poetic forms such as , in terms such as , and in in apposition. names like . It might also be used when ◆ Like relative clauses (see CLAUSE), appositive writing dialogue to indicate Cockney or dialect nouns or phrases may be defining or non-defining. The phrase . is nonspeech: . .. ... definingin . (Hardy, can't

you're

there's.

appalled

appalling

s

ray

mens clothes

last years prices

ap

rah

special childrens menu potato's

apricot's

appendix

cres's

gateaux's

appendixes

Beware of the dog's

50 years' service

appendices

appendixes

a six months' stay in America

During his early years as a surgeon he removed countless tonsils, adenoids, and appendixes

Barclays Bank

:

his book

Macmillans

its name

Pears soap.

anybody's guess

one's fault

appendices

pen

it is ours

no

else

One of the appendices lists foreign words

and phrases in general usage.

someone's else

someone else's

ap

plik

It

takes two l's in the past tense

She often begins

sentences with and's and but's

He writes his 7's

in the continental way MP's

Mary Jones, an accountant,

was elected

shouldn't I'm 'n'

and

salt 'n' vinegar flavour crisps

Mary Jones

an

accountant

the accusation that he had stolen the car, the

e'er, o'er

accusation

that he had stolen the car

o'clock, will-o'-the-wisp

O'Connor

'E was goin' to 'Ackney

'a was a poor parish 'prentice

'tis said

The Mayor of

that he had stolen the car

The accusation, that he had stolen the

23

arbiter

and defining in . appropriate The adjective is . followed by the preposition or : . Many names and titles are made up of two [or ] nouns in apposition; for example, and . in . or and in . The noun is followed by . Longer titles are better placed after approval the preposition or : . the proper noun with which they are in apposition: [or ] . . , which (the insertion of before managing director is a priori The Latin phrase literally means `from the previous', is apoptional). car, was untrue

The accusation

appropriate

that he had stolen the car was the most upsetting

to

for

language that is appropriate to

Lake

eva

Lake Geneva

Prince

Gen-

Charles

approval

of

Mr Green, managing director of the company

They expressed

for

their approval of

for

our plan

a priori

the

COMMA 3.

appraise apprise apprize ,

or

plied adjectivally to deductive or presump-

? To

.

appraise

is to assess the quality or worth of something;

apprise

details. Apprize

.

means `inform':

praised their work.

She ap-

He apprised me of the

is listed in some dictionaries

as a less frequent variant spelling of

apprise;

it is also an archaic verb meaning `appraise'.

The verb contexts.

the

situation in which it is used

Prince Charles

See also

for

is largely restricted to formal

tive reasoning, arguments, statements, etc.

The phrase is usually pronounced [ay prõÅ õÅ], the pronunciation [ah pree ee] being an accepted variant.

◆

or

or

apropos

.

As a preposition meaning `with

regard to',

apropos

.

may be followed by

apropos (of ) your enquiry new development.

of:

apropos (of ) the

◆ In formal contexts is also used as an adjective, meaning `appropriate', and as an adappreciate The frequent use of the verb verb, meaning `incidentally': . in place of or is .. disliked by a few users: . .. is always written as one word in English, unlike the French phrase , from which ◆ The principal senses of are `be grateful it is derived. Note that the initial is followed by a for',`recognizetheworthof',and`increaseinvalue': single . . .. The pronunciation of this word is [aproÆ ]: the .. is not sounded. . apt see LIABLE or LIKELY? ◆

apprise

apropos

Your remark was

appreciate

realize

understand

not quite apropos

I appreciate that the

concluded?

Do

child's parents were unaware of the risk

Apropos the contract, is it

Apropos

you appreciate our problem?

aÁ propos

appreciate

a

He would appreciate some assistance

not appreciate good wine

p

She does

po

Their house has appre-

s

ciated considerably during the past six months

apprehend comprehend or

? These two

verbs are sometimes confused when they have the meaning `understand'. hend

Compre-

implies a complete understanding,

.

sometimes emphasizing the mental activity needed to come to such knowledge:

They

did not fully comprehend the motives that lay behind

her

decision.

Apprehend,

which is

aqueduct

The noun

(as in

aqua-

Arab Arabian Arabic ,

Arab

or

? The adjective

their descendants,

Arabian

other Arab countries:

to apprehend the nature of beauty.

◆ Both verbs have other meanings. means `arrest' and is used in formal contexts: . . In formal contexts means `include', in which sense it is more frequently found in the form of the adjective (see COMPREHENSIBLE or COMPRE. The noun HENSIVE?) . means `understanding'; is rarely used in this sense. Apprehend

to

apprehend a criminal

compre-

hend

comprehensive

a comprehensive survey

comprehension

appre-

hension

apprise apprize apprize ,

?

see

APPRAISE, APPRISE

or

not

etc.).

relates to the people of Arabia and

perception ± not always complete ± of the

.

aque-,

aqualung, aquaplane,

and

thing:

describing a

spelt. Note that the word begins

used fairly rarely in this sense, implies a essential quality or significance of some-

aqueduct,

structure that carries water, is often mis-

Arabic

Arab nations Arabian Sea literature.

.

to Arabia itself,

. .

to the language of Arabia and

. .

an Arab sheikh

.

the Arabian peninsula an Arabic numeral

the the

Arabic

All three words are used as nouns, being a rare variant of : . .. . The word is also applied to a breed of horse that is used for riding; the is a collection of oriental tales; and (note the lower-case ) is a gum obtained from certain acacia trees. ◆

Arabian

Arab

an Arab

His sister married

Arabic is the official language of Egypt Arab

Arabian Nights gum arabic

a

arbiter

or

arbitrator

? An

arbiter

is a

person who has the power to judge or

arbitrarily

24

who has absolute control; an

.

.

arbitrator

is a

person who is appointed to settle a dispute:

.

an arbiter of fashion

destiny

The

.

Argentine flag

.

an Argentinian/Argentine ship

Her stepfather is an Argentinian/Argentine.

◆ The word may be pronounced [ jeÆntõÅn] or [ jeÆnteen], rhyming with or . . The republic of Argentina is sometimes called :. may be used in place of , but the two nouns are .

The general term the more specific not fully interchangeable.

Argentine

an arbiter of human

arbitrator's

decision

ar-

ar

proved

mine

mean

acceptable to both parties

◆

the Argentine

arbiter

arbitrator

arbitrarily

The adverb

They lived in the Argentine for

several years

should be Æ reÆli]. stressed on the first syllable [arbitra arbitrarily

argument

The final

Note the spelling of this word.

-e

of the verb

when the suffix

-ment

argue

is dropped

is added to form the

noun. ◆ The pronunciation [arbi rreÆli], in which the primary stress shifts to the third syllable, although arise or rise? means `come into unacceptable to many people, is the most fre- being', `originate', or `result'; means quently used. `get up', `move upwards', or `increase': . tre

Arise

rise

arbitrator ARBITER arch- archisee

and

or

ARBITRATOR?

The prefixes

arch-

A problem has arisen.

and

a misunderstanding.

. .

.

The quarrel arose from He rose to greet her.

The water level is rising.

◆ may be substituted for in some senses of the latter, but this usage is largely restricted to the prefix the sound is soft, as in formal or poetic context and is generally regarded ; in words beginning with the prefix as old-fashioned. the sound is hard, as in : . The verb is followed by the preposition Æ p] . [arch o [ itekt]. or : . [or ] ◆ The word [ aynjeÆl] is an exception . to this rule. In the suffixes and the See also RAISE or RISE? sound is always hard: . [ triark] . aristocrat In British English this word is [ aÆrki]. usually stressed on the first syllable [ risarchi-

are both derived from a Greek word

meaning `to rule'. In words beginning with arch-

Arise

rise

-ch-

choose archi-

-ch-

chord

archbishop

bish

arise

architect ark

from

archangel ark

-arch

-archy

patriarch

-ch-

out of

issues arising from

out of the

discussion

pay

anarchy an

archaeology

This word, describing the

study of the material remains of ancient cultures, is spelt with the vowels

-aeo-

in

the middle of the word in both British and American English.

a

Æ krat]. to

◆ Some speakers stress the second syllable [aÆ toÆkrat], but this is disliked by many people, although standard in American and Scottish English.

ris-

◆ The alternative spelling is occasion- around or about? In British English ally encountered in American English. is preferred to in the sense archeology

See also

archetypal

about

-AE- and -OE-.

The adjective

avoided where

.

around

.

`approximately': archetypal

is best

typical, characteristic, classic,

200

employees.

eleven o'clock.

We

He

have

left

of

about/around

at about/around

◆ Many people regard the use of in this sense as an Americanism. In the sense of `here and there' and archi- see ARCH- and ARCHIare interchangeable in most contexts: . aren't The use of this informal contracted . . form of is widely avoided in formal . In the contexts. sense of `surrounding' is less frequent than ◆ Note that in questions may also be used in (in American English) and (in British . English). In the sense `concerning', both British informal contexts as a contraction of and . American English use :.

original,

.

etc., would be adequate or more

appropriate:

around

an archetypal Yorkshire village.

around

about

to

run around/about

are not

sitting around/about all day

toys scattered around/about the room about

aren't

around

am not:

next, aren't I?

Aren't I clever?

or

? Either word

may be used as an adjective, meaning `of Argentina', or as a noun, denoting a native or inhabitant of Argentina. Though purists

.

Argentine, Argentinian

quent in both senses:

the

.

around

Argentine Argentinian prefer

round

I'm

is more freArgentinian/

around his childhood.

He has issues

A lot of people have

expressed worries about the threat of biological terrorism.

See also

AROUND or ROUND?

around round or

?

Around

and

round

are

synonymous in most of their adverbial and

25 prepositional

senses,

.

around

being

ferred in American English and British English:

.

pre-

round

I turned round/around.

.

The wheels went round/around. round/around the table.

.

in

They sat

She wore a gold

chain round/around her ankle.

AROUND or ABOUT?

See also

arouse rouse or

or `excite';

rouse

?

Arouse

. . .

means `stimulate'

.

The ban on

smoking has aroused widespread opposition. The noise of the aeroplanes roused the child. I was roused to anger by his accusations.

The direct object of is usually an abstract noun; the direct object of is usually a person or animal. The substitution of for in the sense of `wake' is acceptable but rare. ◆

arouse

rouse

arouse

arpeggio

rouse

This word, meaning `the notes of

a chord played in succession', is sometimes misspelt. Note the word.

◆ Arpeggio

-gg-

in the middle of the

or

? Both spellings of this

noun, referring to an object made by a person, e.g. a tool with special historical Artefact

is probably

more frequent in British English and

arti-

in American English.

fact

articles A AN artifact ARTEFACT artist artiste see

or

THE. or ARTIFACT?

?;

see

or

? An

artist

is a person who

is skilled in one or more of the fine arts, such as painting or sculpture; an

.

She loves the child as much as her hus-

band

as . . . as

He is not so/as

clever as his sister

to

so . . . as

I would not be so careless as to leave

my car unlocked

as . . . as

as

Her car is as old (as) or older than mine

artiste

is a

.

He

dances as badly (as) or worse than you as . . . as

as

Tired as he was

As

he finished the race as

pej

interest, are correct.

as . . . as

tired as he was

is pronounced [ah eeoÅ].

artefact artifact

The construction is sometimes ambiguous: . , for example, may mean `she loves the child as much as her husband does' or `she loves the child as much as she loves her husband'. In such cases the missing verb may be inserted for clarity. The substitution of for in negativeconstructions isoptional: . . When the construction is followed by an infinitive with , however, is preferred: . . When the construction is followed by a comparative adjective or adverb, the second is sometimes omitted in informal contexts but is retained by careful users in formal contexts: . .. . The use of the construction when alone is required, in the sense of `though', is widely disliked in British English: . [not ], . The dialectal use of in place of or should be avoided in formal contexts: . [not ] .. [not ] . so . . . as

means `wake' or `stir':

Their curiosity was aroused.

as from

that

who

I don't

know that

as I agree

the man who

as

cleans our windows

See also AS FAR AS; AS FROM; AS IF or AS THOUGH?; AS PER; AS TO; AS WELL AS; AS YET; BECAUSE, AS, FOR or SINCE?; COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE; LIKE; SUCH AS or LIKE? ascent see ASSENT or ASCENT? ascetic see AESTHETIC, ASCETIC or ACETIC?

as far as

concerned

The phrase

.

as

far

as

. . .

is

can often be replaced by a simple

preposition:

The course is a waste of time

professional entertainer, such as a singer or

for the more experienced students

dancer:

the more experienced students are concerned].

the Dutch artist Vincent Van Gogh

[not

as far as

follows The phrase should be In its extended sense of `skilled person' the noun as used when introducing a list or other may be substituted for , which is Note that retains becoming less frequent. Both nouns can be ap- enumeration. the ending regardless of whether it plied to people of either sex. succeeds a singular or plural noun: .

the music-hall artiste Marie Lloyd.

as follows

◆

artist

artiste

follows

-s

as

The

The

. . .

as

.

as

construction may be

followed by a subject pronoun or an object pronoun:

.

She loves the child as much as he

[as much as he does].

She loves the child as

[as much as she loves him].

In informal contexts the subject pronoun is sometimes replaced by the object pronoun, espe. ciallyinsimplecomparisons: . . This usage, which is unacceptable to many people, should be avoided in formal contexts.

much as him

◆

as tall as me

as them

as old

.

conditions demanded by the hijackers are as follows.

as for as from

The result is as follows.

see

where

AS TO.

The phrase

from, on, at,

or more appropriate: work from

[not

.

as from

.

is best avoided

etc., would be adequate

Sunday deliveries will cease on November. effect at

[not

.

I shall be available for

as from] next Monday.

[not

as from] 1

The increase will come into as from] midnight.

Asian

26

may serve a useful purpose in the assent or ascent? These two words are context of retrospective payments, agreements, sometimes confused, being identical in proetc.: . nunciation. The noun means `agree. ment' (see ASSENT or CONSENT?); the noun

◆ As from

The reduced interest will be payable as

assent

from last July

Asian

Asiatic

or

? Either word may be

used as an adjective, meaning `of Asia', or as a noun, denoting a native or inhabitant of Asia.

.

is preferred in both

Asian

senses, the use of

Asiatic

with reference

.

to people being considered racially offensive: [not

.

an Asian/Asiatic country

Asiatic] doctor

living in Europe.

an Asian

[not

an Asian

.

climb', or `upward slope': assent.

She gave her

the ascent of Everest.

assent consent or

? Either word may be

used as a verb, meaning `agree', or as a noun, meaning `agreement'. The verb sent

than plan.

INDIAN.

See also

Asiatic]

.

means `the act of ascending', `a

ascent

.

con-

sometimes implies greater reluctance

.

assent:

They readily assented to our

After hours of persuasion they con-

sented to end the strike.

The word may be pronounced [ shaÆn] or ◆ The noun has connotations of acceptance [ zhaÆn], although [ shaÆn] is more common or acquiescence, whereas the noun deamong younger people. notes approval or permission: . . . as if or as though? and are ◆

Asian

ay

ay

assent

ay

consent

with the assent of

As if

.

my colleagues

as though

interchangeable in most contexts:

.

The car

looked as if/though it had been resprayed.

.

assertion assertiveness or

aggressive:

◆ As if

is preferred in emphatic exclamations: .

.

if it mattered!

.

to make an assertion

tiveness training.

As

As if I needed their advice!

assertion

.

asser-

Careful users maintain the

distinction between the two nouns.

◆

is

asser-

is the state of being dogmatic or

tiveness

sence. speak.

? An

a positive statement or declaration;

She trembled, as if/though aware of our preHe opened his mouth as if/though to

without her parents' consent

The use of

assertion

in place of

assertiveness

is

probably due to confusion with the noun selfSUBJUNCTIVE; WERE or WAS? , which means `putting oneself forward asocial see ANTISOCIAL, ASOCIAL, UNSOCIAL or assertion in a forceful or aggressive manner'. UNSOCIABLE? assignation or assignment? Both these as of see AS FROM. nouns may be used to denote the act of See also

as per

The use of the phrase

MERCIALESE: .

of

as per

.

in place

is widely regarded as

COM-

.

assigning:

the

assignation/assignment

of

household chores.

has the additional meaning of `sealso means `task': . . ◆ The use of the jocular expression in place of is best restricted to informal . The two words are not intercontexts: . changeable in either of these senses. . assimilate This word, meaning `absorb or according to

as per instructions

specifications.

as per the

as per usual

as usual

◆ Assignation

cret meeting';

assignment

an

assignation with her lover

having completed his

first assignment

The train was ten minutes late, as

(per) usual

asphalt

This word, used to describe a

material used in road-surfacing, is often misspelt. Note particularly the

sph.

The

preferred pronunciation is [asfalt], although [ashfalt] is also heard.

asphyxiate

This word, meaning `suffo-

integrate', is often misspelt. The only double letters are the

-ss-.

The verb should not be confused with (see DISSEMBLE, DISSIMULATE or SIMULATE?; SIMULATE or STIMULATE?).

◆

assimilate

simulate

assist

The verb

preposition in or with:

larly the

with] her research.

phy,

assassinate

as in

physics.

assassinated,

the

-ss-,

The president was

is often misspelt. Remember

which occurs twice.

The nouns and same spelling pattern. ◆

.

This word, meaning `murder

an important person':

assassin

assassination

follow the

assonance

.

assist

cate', is sometimes misspelt. Note particu-

Assonance,

is followed by the He assisted her in

[or

meaning `the repeti-

tion of similar sounds in successive words', can be employed to striking effect in head-

.

.

lines or poetry, etc., but overuse is best avoided:

History's

light-stifling night.

greatest

mystery.

assume

presume

or

27 ? In the sense of

`suppose' or `take for granted' the verbs

.

and

assume

presume

changeable:

I

are virtually inter-

assume/presume

you

will

accept their offer.

as yet

as to

Many people object to the unneces-

.

sary use of etc.:

before

as to

.

whether, what, why,

There is some doubt (as to) whether she

is suitably qualified.

He offered no explana-

tion (as to) why he was late.

In some contexts may suggest a hypoth- ◆ is also best avoided where , , , esis postulated without proof and a con- etc., would be adequate or more appropriate: . clusion based on evidence: . .. .. . The phrase (or ) may serve a useful purpose at the beginning of a sentence, in the . Both verbs have a number of additional senses. sense of `with regard to' or `concerning': . means `undertake', `feign', or `adopt': . . .. . . means `dare' or `take advantage of': . astrology or astronomy? These two .. nouns are sometimes confused. . is the study of the movements of the planets

◆

assume

As to

of about on

presume

He assumed that she

Please give me your opinion as to the efficiency of

was an experienced player and did not offer her

the system

any advice

risks involved

From her performance in the opening

They received no warning as to the

as to

game he presumed that she was an experienced

as for

player

As to/

Assume

for the results of the survey, they will be published

to assume responsibility astonishment

to assume an air of

to assume a new name. Presume

in next month's magazine

As for his sister, she

survived the accident

I did not

presume to contradict him

They presumed on

Astrology

our hospitality

assurance insurance or

and

insurance

? Both

assurance

are used to denote financial

.

and their effect on human affairs; omy

. astronomical

protection against a certainty, such as the death of the policyholder: life insurance.

life assurance

Of the two nouns only is used with reference to financial protection against a possibility, such as fire, accidental damage, theft, or . medical expenses: . . . . The noun has a number of other meanings derived from the verb , such as `guarantee' and `confidence': . . .

◆

insurance

motor insurance

insurance

travel insurance

household

health insurance

assurance

assure

an assurance of

help

an air of assurance

See also

ASSURE, ENSURE or INSURE?

assure ensure insure ,

or

? To

assure

is to

state with conviction or to convince; to ensure

.

is to make certain; to

protect financially:

.

insure

is to

He assured me that the

carpet would not be damaged.

.

Please ensure

astron-

is the scientific study of the universe.

astronomical

The use of the adjective

.

in the sense of `very large' is

.

best restricted to informal contexts: astronomical increase in crime prices.

an

astronomical

◆ This usage probably originated in the very high figures required to express measurements in astronomy.

astronomy as well as

ASTROLOGY or ASTRONOMY?

see

When two or more verbs are

linked by the phrase

as well as,

.

in the sense

of `in addition to', the verb that follows well as

is usually an

-ing

.

form:

as

The burglar

broke a valuable ornament, as well as stealing all my jewellery.

As well as weeding the

borders, the gardener pruned the roses and mowed the lawn.

For the use of a singular or plural verb after nouns see SINGULAR or PLUR◆ In American English the word is some- AL? linked by times used in place of . is best avoided where there is a risk of See also ASSURANCE or INSURANCE? confusion with the literal sense of the phrase: . for example, may asthma This word, which describes the mean `both Mark and Peter play,golf' or `Mark and disorder that makes breathing difficult, is Peter are equally good at golf'. sometimes misspelt, the most frequent erthat you do not damage the carpet.

I insured

the carpet against accidental damage.

◆

as well as

insure

ensure

As well as

Mark plays golf as well as Peter

ror being in the combination of the consonants

sthm.

It is not easy to pronounce the word in its entirety, and [ maÆ] is probably more frequently heard than the full pronunciation [ maÆ]. ◆

as

as though

asth

see

AS IF or AS THOUGH?

as yet

The phrase

as yet,

.

meaning `up to

now' or `so far', is best avoided where would be adequate:

tickets yet yet.

.

.

[not

tickets (as) yet.

as yet]?

.

yet

Have you sold any I haven't sold any

No tickets have been sold (as)

Only a few tickets have been sold as yet.

at

at

28 The word

features in many e-mail

at

.

which there is the greatest difficulty or

addresses and is conventionally represented

danger:

by the symbol @, usually placed between a

of violence on the field and also criticism from

.

football referees at the sharp end

person's name and their organization or

the

Internet service provider:

[television]

Please send your

media

.

`Nurses'

. . .

a

repeat

of

the

series on life at the sharp end of

(The

Guardian).

The symbol @, again representing (and pro- Care should be taken to avoid overusing nounced) , may also be used in other technical this expression, which is best restricted to . contexts: . informal contexts. and increasingly in nontechni- ◆ The expression is a figurative extension of the cal contexts: . term , nautical slang for the bows of a at or in? is traditionally used before the ship.

reply to [email protected].

the National Health Service

◆

at

200 packets @ £4 each.

2,000 miles @

23 miles per gallon

sharp end

Come to a party @ our house.

At

name of a village or small town,

.

.

in

before

the name of a large town, city, country, etc.:

.

He lives at Great Snoring.

Keswick.

.

They stayed at

She works in Southampton.

have a house in Scotland.

We

at this moment in time

Many people object to the frequent use of the cliche at

this moment in time

in place of

now:

.

I am

not in a position to comment on the situation at this moment in time.

may be replaced by when the speaker or The verb , meaning `aswriter is referring to his or her own place of attribute cribe', is generally used with the preposiresidence, work, etc.: . . tion : . In other contexts generally indicates a more . . exactorspecificpositionthan : . . ? .. .. . .. . ◆ The use of the preposition , in ate This word, which is the past tense of the sense of `credit', iswith wrong: . the verb , is pronounced [et] or [ayt] in [not ] . British English. Note the difference in pronunciation between ◆ In American English the usual pronunciation is the verb [aÆ ewt] and the noun [ayt], the pronunciation [et] being considered non- [ ribewt]. standard. See also STRESS. ◆ At

in

attribute

I live in Southbourne in

Street

He lives in North

He lives at 27 North Street

a bank

They attributed the accident to

to

at

She works in

She works at Barclays Bank

careless driving

To what do you attribute

The idea was attributed to his

your success

colleague

attribute

with

His colleague was

eat

credited

attributed with the idea

attribute

trib

attribute

at

-ate

A number of words ending in

-ate

may be used as adjectives (and/or nouns) and verbs. In these adjectives and nouns the Æ t]; in verbs it is ending -ate is pronounced [-a pronounced [-ayt]. For example, the adjecÆ t], tive animate is pronounced [anima whereas the verb is pronounced [animayt], and the noun delegate is pronounced [deliÆ t], whereas the verb is pronounced [dega ligayt].

atheist attach

see

This word, meaning `join or fasten',

-ch.

There is no

attempt

t

before the

The noun

.

the preposition something':

at

attempt

-tt-

and the

-ch.

is followed by

Her first attempt at setting up a

.

and

`trying to kill someone':

on

in the sense

He had survived

two earlier attempts on his life.

at the sharp end

To be

Au fait

.

means `familiar', `informed',

or `competent':

Are you au fait with the

◆ The phrase is of French origin and is sometimes written or printed in italics in English texts. It is pronounced [ ]. procedure?

au fait

oÅ fay

aural oral or

? These two words are some-

at the sharp end

Aural

means `of the ear or the sense of

hearing',

oral

means `of the mouth; ex-

pressed in speech'. An

aural comprehension

tests a person's ability to understand a

in the sense `trying to do

business ended in failure,

see

times confused, partly because they both Æ l]. often have the same pronunciation [awra

AGNOSTIC or ATHEIST?

is sometimes misspelt. Note the

attributive ADJECTIVES au fait .

of

an activity is to be involved in the area in

spoken language; an

oral

examination

is

one in which the questions and answers are spoken, not written.

◆ In order to distinguish and , the variant pronunciations [ raÆl] for and [ ral] for are sometimes used. aural

ow

Australianisms

ences

between

aural

oral

o

oral

There are fewer differAustralian

and

British

29

awake

English than between American and Brit-

dience to authority as opposed to individual

ish English, probably because until com-

freedom';

paratively recently nearly all settlers in

authority' or `official':

Australia were British or Irish. The words

.

.

father

.

authoritative

.

.

means

an authoritarian regime

that were adopted by the early settlers from

itarian policy

the Aboriginal languages:

authoritative article

.

.

`having

an authoritarian

.

an author-

an authoritative voice

an

an authoritative source.

◆ The word , which is also used as a noun, usually has derogatory connotations, whereas is generally used in a comtralian words which were coined in the plimentary manner. context of the early days of European . . is often misspelt, the most fresettlement: . . . quent error being the omission of the third or . fourth syllable. ◆ Although the speech of many Australians is not markedly different from British forms, for most avenge see REVENGE or AVENGE? British people Australian English is associated with the pronunciation known as or averse see ADVERSE or AVERSE? . In the amusing book , pub- avoid, evade or elude? means `keep lished in 1965, examples are given of this char- away from'; and mean `avoid by acteristic pronunciation: . (air cunning or deception': . conditioner) . (couple of minutes) .. . (cheese sandwich). .. Australian English seems particularly adapted to . informal use (the very formal British ◆ Allthreeverbs haveothersenses anduses: . becomes the informal Australian greeting ) .. and it abounds in colourful slang. Although . . . . . (mate) (perfect) and . (vomit) are now dated, other Australianisms, such The between the terms tax as . (aBritishperson) . (woman)and . and taxdifference, both of which relate to methods (as a verb, see NOUNS) remain widely of reducing or minimizing tax liability, is that tax familiar in Britain. Slang words are often formed is legal and tax is not. byadding or toanabbreviatedword: . (barbecue) . (refuse collector) . (day avoidance see AVOID, EVADE or ELUDE? taken off work for real or invented illness) . await or wait? is principally used as (can of beer). verb, meaning `wait for' or `be Australian spelling has traditionally been iden- aintransitive store for'; is chiefly used intransitical to British. In recent years, however, Australian tively, often followed , in the sense of spelling, as well as pronunciation and vocabulary, `remain in readiness orbyexpectation': . has been influenced by American English. erang,

koala

boom-

are now in general use, and most

authoritarian

British people are familiar with those Aus-

authoritative

outback

man

digger

bushranger

Authoritative

swag-

walkabout

Broad Australian

Strine

Let Stalk Strine egg

Avoid

evade

nishner

He avoided the police

garbler mince

chee semmitch

good day g'day

cobber

dinkum

pom

chunder

by turning down a side street

He evaded the

police by hiding in the cellar

He eluded the

police by using a series of false names

She

managed to avoid damaging the car

to evade his responsibilities

He is trying

Your name eludes

me

avoidance

sheila

evasion

rubbish

-ie

elude

-o

barbie

garbo

avoidance

evasion

sickie

tinnie

Await

wait

for

They

Australoid

.

awaited the verdict of the jury with trepida-

This word, describing a member

tion.

of the indigenous aboriginal population of

your

Australia and the southern Pacific, is avoided

outside.

by careful users because of its potentially

◆

.

I wonder what adventures await you in

.

new

career.

She

asked

us

to

wait

He waited for the rain to stop.

In the sense of `wait for' is largely restricted to formal contexts, where its direct object is usually an abstract noun. In other contexts one of the preferred alternatives. is preferred: . [not ] author The use of the word as a . verb, in place of , is disliked and is used as a transitive verb in the phrase avoided by careful users in all contexts: . and similar expressions. The phra[not ] sal verb means `serve'; its use in place of . or is disliked by many people: . ◆ On the use of , see -ESS; NON-SEXIST . TERMS. awake, awaken, wake or waken? All offensive racial connotations.

ABORIGINAL

await

is

wait

for

author

write

We're waiting for

awaiting

a taxi

Wait

wait one's turn

She has written

authored

a number of

books on the subject

authoress

authoritarian authoritative or

jective

authoritarian

wait on

wait for

await

They're waiting on the results

? The ad-

these verbs may be used transitively or

means `favouring obe-

intransitively in the literal senses of `rouse

award-winning

30 .

or emerge from sleep' and the figurative

.

senses of `make or become aware':

.

waken me at six o'clock. the summer.

Please

He wakes earlier in

.

Her sister's plight awakened her

to the problems faced by single parents.

They

and

awaken

wake

waken

Woke

Don't wake

I woke up in the middle of the night

woken

wake

waked

Waken

Awaken

awake

His absence from

work may awaken/awake her suspicions awake

awoke

awoken

awaked

waken awaken

awake

Did the children

manage to stay awake?

The police are awake to

the situation

award-winning

The adjective

award-win-

which is frequently used in advertis-

.

ing, is meaningless unless the nature of the

.

award is specified:

an

award-winning

an award-winning writer.

◆ It is therefore best avoided or replaced with a more precise synonym, such as or . design

see

in figurative contexts. up

the baby up

excellent

re-

markable

aware

The use of the adjective

aware

before the noun it qualifies, in the sense

.

of `knowledgeable' or `alert', is disliked by

.

miration or dread': sibility.

and

The verb than , is oftenfollowed by : .. . and respectively are the usual forms of the past tense and past participle of , although is also used from time to time. is a regular verb. and (less frequently) are also used in the sense of `arouse': . . The usual forms of the past tense and past participle of the verb are and respectively, being an accepted variant. Like , is a regular verb. The word is also used as an adjective, meaning `not asleep' or `alert': . . . ◆

`What was the party like?'

restricted to the sense of `inspiring ad-

are preferred in literal contexts and

awake

.

In formal contexts it should be

`Awesome!'

awful , which is more frequently used awfully .

awoke to the dangers of drug abuse. Wake waken

ning,

young people:

an awesome respon-

AWFULLY.

The use of the adverb

.

.

awfully

as

an intensifier is best restricted to informal contexts:

I'm awfully sorry.

It's awfully

difficult to decide which to buy.

The substitution of for in this sense is wrong. Ultimately derived from the noun and are rarely used in their literal senses (`being inspired or filled with awe') today. Their principal meanings in modern usage are `bad' or `badly': . .. . ◆

awful

awfully

awe, awful

awfully

The weather is awful

They played

awfully in yesterday's match

awhile a while or

?

Awhile

and

a while,

both referring to a brief period of time, are

.

used in different grammatical contexts. Awhile

but

is an adverb:

a while

.

Come inside awhile,

is a noun phrase, usually pre-

ceded by `for':

Sit still for a while. Awhile

is

often preferred in poetical contexts.

axe

In

JOURNALESE the verb

.

axe

is frequently

used in the sense of `dismiss', `terminate', `remove', etc.:

Britain's biggest teaching

union, the National Union of Teachers, is to

. .

axe a third of its head office staff Times).

ing company, is to axe 120 jobs graph).

(Sunday

Coloroll, the wallpaper and furnish-

(Daily

Tele-

Saturday Review, the BBC's current

arts magazine programme . . . will be axed after a final series starting in October

(Sunday

Times).

◆ This usage is best avoided in general contexts. . Aware is usually placed after a noun or pronoun axes is the plural of or : . and is often followed by : . . . . The plural of is pro-

.

many users:

one of our more aware students

financially aware individuals

◆

of

I am aware of the

need for secrecy

awesome

The adjective

Axes

for

chopping

vertical

awesome

is used

as a slang term of approval, especially by

axe

wood

axes

the

axis

and

axe

nounced [aksiz] and the plural of pronounced [akseez].

axes

horizontal

axis

is

-babble

B Many people dislike the increasing

use of the suffix

.

-babble

to coin new words

.

.

for particularly incomprehensible types of jargon:

.

.

used for so long that they are no longer

. .

.

recognized as back formations: editor)

(from

laze

burglar)

lazy)

(from

edit

burgle

(from (from

enthusiasm).

Back formations often arise as a result of false assumptions about the composition of a word. See also -SPEAK. hearing the word might assume babe is a slang term frequently ap- People incorrectly that the noun comes from a verb plied approvingly to a sexually attractive and so come to use this verb. Often, howyoung woman or (increasingly) man. Beever, the removed affix is not a genuine affix at all. cause it focuses on a person's superficial The 19th-century writer on obesity and slimming, attributes, without reference to character or William Banting, invented a system of diet which intelligence, the word may cause offence: . became known as , which in turn gave rise to the verb . . New verbs are regularly being formed in this bachelor This word, meaning `unmarried . . . . way: . man': . , is sometimes Many, like (from ), are disliked when misspelt. The most frequent error is to newly coined, but when such verbs are created insert a before the . from a genuine need for them in the language, back This word can be a cause of confusion they tend to be retained. technobabble

Eurobabble

ecobabble.

psychobabble

◆

enthuse

scavenger

Babe

sca-

venge

the banting system

He walked in with a long-legged babe on each

to bant

Her brother is a real babe.

arm.

televise

a confirmed bachelor

t

explete

euthanase

liaison

ch

when used in relation to time. When referring to the past, to an earlier time:

.

back

refers to a change

The date of the temple

has been pushed back 1000 years

[i.e. 1000

years

thought].

earlier

than

previously

.

When referring to the future, to a change to a later time:

back

refers

Because of this

difficulty, hopes of a successful Mars landing have been pushed back another 20 years

[i.e.

20 years later than previously expected].

back burner

The phrase

.

background of the word

Some people object to the use

background

to mean `the cir-

cumstances that relate to, lead up to, or explain an event or experience', preferring to use such words as tions, context,

or

circumstances, condi-

instead.

Recently has also been used for a person's work or professional experience and training: . ( ). ◆

setting

background

The successful applicant will probably

have a building background Executive Post

on the back burner

is often used, especially in informal contexts, in the figurative sense of `deferred' or `postponed':

automate

liaise

`People are examining things

backlash

Backlash

is used metaphorically to

describe a strong adverse reaction to a recent

.

event or political/social development or tendency:

the backlash against the Government's

on a long-term basis, not on an expedient

radical new changes in education policy.

basis,' a London Underground spokeswoman

◆

said. `Priorities will be made, and some things will be put on a back burner.' dian).

(The

Guar-

Care should be taken not to overuse

this phrase.

back formation

.

removing an affix from an existing word: donate

(from

The phi-

losophy of the New Right can be seen as a backlash against the pacifism and permissiveness of the

Back formation is a way

.

of creating new words, usually verbs, by

extradition).

The metaphor suggests a sudden reaction, but in fact the word is often used in describing a gradual reaction, perhaps over years: .

donation)

extradite

(from

Many such words have been

1960s

.

back of

The phrases

back of

and

in back of,

meaning `behind', are largely restricted to American English and are avoided elsewhere, although the opposite phrase,

in

backward front of,

.

is universally accepted:

was parked in back of the hotel.

.

32 The car

A bomb had

or

lish

? In British Eng-

is principally used as an

backward

adjective,

being the usual form

backwards

.

. .

of the adverb meaning `towards the back'

.

or `in reverse': ward child backwards.

a backward step

walking backwards

The adverb American English. ◆

backward

bacteria

a backwritten

is more frequently used in

-WARD or -WARDS?

See also

The term

bacteria

or

? These two words are Baited

means `pro-

voked or teased' or `hooked or trapped

been placed back of the building.

backward backwards

baited bated

occasionally confused.

with food to attract a fish or animal'. is used only in the expression breath,

.

Bated

with bated

meaning `tense with anxiety or ex-

citement':

They waited for news of the

missing child with bated breath.

balance

Some people dislike the frequent

use of the noun

.

in the sense of

balance

`remainder', especially in nonfinancial contexts:

The balance of the work will be

completed by the end of the month.

refers to all

microorganisms exhibiting certain characteristics. They are thought of as diseasebearing, but in fact many are harmless and some essential to human life, although

bale BAIL BALE baleful baneful see

or

or

?

stare.

.

? The adjective

means `harmful' or `menacing':

baleful

a baleful

It should not be confused with the

adjective

baneful,

meaning `destructive' or

is a plural noun so expressions like: . `fatal', which is very rare in modern usage. are incorrect; the balk or baulk? Either spelling may be used singular term is . for this word: . [or ] others do cause disease.

◆ Bacteria

I

think it's caused by a bacteria

bad

bacterium

The adjective

. .

He balked

bad

is used as a slang

paying such a high price.

term of approval, especially by young peo-

[or

ple. The potential ambiguity of this usage is

balked

obvious.

man.

WICKED.

baulked] at the fence.

[or

baulked

at

The horse balked As usual she was

baulked] in her ambitions by a

game or ballpark? Both these terms This sense derives originally from American black ball have informal idiomatic uses, of American English. origin. In the phrase See also

◆

bade

verb

a whole new ball game,

Bade bid:

traditional

.

is a form of the past tense of the He

bade

them

pronunciation

is

farewell.

[bad],

Its but

The noun

baguette,

describing a

long narrow French loaf, is sometimes misspelt. Note the

bail bale or

-guette

ending.

? The spellings of these words

these words are as follows.

Bail

is the

security deposited as a guarantee of the appearance of an arrested person; a

bale

is a large quantity of hay, old newspapers,

.

etc. The associated verbs also follow these

.

bail.

.

Davies was released on £10,000

.

same

His friends bailed him out for £10,000. to bale hay.

means `state of affairs'; in the and

in the right ballpark

.

ballpark, a

ballpark

ballpark

figure

is an estimate

.

are sometimes confused, producing such expressions as:

balmy barmy or

. .

times confused. pleasant':

a

It was a completely new

? These words are someBalmy

balmy

means `mild and

evening.

Barmy,

◆

`foolish':

I've never heard of such a barmy

derives from , a plant with fragrant leaves that is used for flavouring foods and for scenting perfumes. The word derives from the Latin `balsam'. comes from the Old English `the yeasty froth of fermenting beer'. In American English and sometimes in British English, is the main spelling for both senses.

idea!

◆ Balmy

balm

balsamum

beorma

bail out

bails

bale out

an

informal word in British English, means

In the senses of scooping water out of a boat, helping someone out of a difficult situation, and escaping from an aircraft in an emergency by using aparachute,either or canbeused. The are the two crosspieces over the baneful see BALEFUL or BANEFUL? stumps in cricket. bales of old papers

not in the

means `range' or

or approximate figure. The two terms

ballpark.

are often confused. The primary senses of

spellings:

phrases `area':

[bayd] is also acceptable.

baguette

ball game

balmy

Barmy

33

banister

A

banister,

a handrail supported

by posts fixed alongside a staircase, has the less common variant spelling

bannister.

baptismal name see FIRST NAME, CHRISTIAN NAME, FORENAME, GIVEN NAME or BAPTISMAL NAME? barbarian barbaric barbarous ,

.

baric

or

?

Bar-

means `crude, primitive, uncivilized':

They discovered a barbaric tribe living in

the bush;

.

or sometimes merely `uncultured,

unsophisticated':

Most teenagers have bar-

baric tastes in music. Barbarian

as a noun

means `someone living barbarically' and as an adjective is synonymous with

.

barbaric.

means `cruel, harsh, or inhu-

Barbarous

bath The plural of both and is but the plural of is pronounced [ siz] and the plural of [ seez]. base

base

basis

bases

bay

basis bay

base bass or

? The noun

means `a

base

foundation, substructure, or support'; the noun

bass

.

means `a voice, instrument, or

sound of the lowest range':

.

The company

has been established on a sound base.

He

The two words

sings bass in the local choir.

are pronounced the same [bays]. The fish bass

is pronounced [bas].

basically .

The literal sense of

basically

is

`concerning a base or basis, fundamentally':

.

His argument has a superficial persuasive-

ness but it is basically flawed. basically a good person.

I believe she is

◆ It is often used to mean no more than `imporis often used with the same condem- tantly': . ; and it has recently become fashionnatory meaning as , although it can be able to put it at the beginning of a sentence, used approvingly: . where its presence is often wholly superfluous. . This usage is disliked by some: . barbecue The word is often mis. spelt. The most frequent error is the sub-

man':

Torture is condemned as a barbarous

practice.

It is basically the case that fats can cause

◆ Barbaric

heart disease

barbarous

The dance had a barbaric

vitality

Basically, I don't

barbecue

think he should have been offered the job

stitution of -que for the -cue ending, perhaps influenced by advertisements that use the nonstandard phonetic spelling

bare bear or

bar-b-q.

see

see

or

or

BASIS? BASS?

This word, meaning `person born

? Care should be taken not to

confuse the spelling of the adjective

basis BASE bass BASE bastard

to unmarried parents', should be used with

bare,

caution as many people find it offensive

meaning `naked' or `simple', with that of

when used in this original sense. In its

the noun

alternative use as a slang term for a despic-

the verb

bear,

referring to the animal, and

bear,

meaning `support', `with-

able or unlikable person

is, how-

bastard

stand', `give birth to', etc. All three words

ever, increasingly considered a relatively

are pronounced the same: [bair].

mild term of abuse, especially when refer-

barely HARDLY barman barmaid NON-SEXIST TERMS barmy BALMY BARMY base basis see

or

? see

see

or

ring to something inanimate:

.

or

? Both

.

?

base

and

basis

mean `a

foundation, substructure, or support'.

.

Base

is usually used to refer to the bottom support of a tangible object:

the base of

theoretical foundations:

.

the evidence received

The new pay scale

a pillar,

while

basis

is used for abstract or

.

on the basis of all

lucky bastard!

see

or

bath

`wash someone else in a bath':

is also used to mean `a principal ingredient': . , and `a centre', as in: . . can be used asa verb: . ,and asan adjective: . .

water

We used the flat as our London

base Base

based in Sheffield

The company is base unit

BATED?

? In British English the verb

Bathe

The cocktail has a whisky base

or

.

means `have a bath (in a bathroom)', or

apply

◆ Base

You

He lost all his money on

bated BAITED bath bathe bath'.

basis.

.

It is

the horses, poor bastard.

.

overuse of

.

of jocular affection or sympathy:

Careful writers avoid the

on a daily basis.

That ma-

equally likely to be encountered as a term

baby,

provides a sound basis for the new contract

.

chine can be a real bastard to control.

bath the

while the noun means `the vessel in

which one baths, or the act of washing in a

.

means `immerse in liquid, or

soothing

liquid

to

(a

wound)', or `swim, usually in the sea, for pleasure':

Who's coming for a bathe?

American English

bathe

In

is used to mean

`have a bath' and does not have the transitive use of

bath.

bathos

34

◆ is pronounced [bahth] and [baydh]. . . The past tense of both verbs is and the . present participle , but the pronunciation ◆ The use of as a variant form of the past differs: : [bahtht], [ thing]; : [baydhd], participle is largely restricted to the informal phrase . [ dhing]. , meaning `exhausted'. Bath

bathe

He

bathed

beat

the

bathing

bath

has

beaten

the

bathe

bay

or

She

beat

bah

bathos pathos

eggs

champion

dead beat

?

means `anticli-

Bathos

beat beet or

? These two words are occa-

max' and is used in literary criticism to

sionally

confused

describe a sudden change from something

nounced in the same way [beet]. The

since

they

are

pro-

serious or grand to something absurd or

verb and noun

beat

should not be confused

commonplace. The word

with the noun

beet,

which refers in British

pathos

is used

more frequently and in less specialized

.

.

contexts to refer to a quality that evokes

English to beetroot:

pity or compassion:

a rough circle.

the play highlights the

pathos of pain and mortality.

.

English to sugar beet and in American He beat the iron into

The following year the field

Both words are Greek in origin; means This word, meaning `delightful `depth'; means `suffering, experience, beautiful . to the senses': . emotion'. The derived adjectives are , is sometimes misspelt. Note and . particularly the first letters . bathroom see TOILET, LAVATORY, LOO or ◆ The word derives from the Old French word and comes ultimately from the Latin , meanBATHROOM? ing `pretty'. battalion The word , denoting a was planted with beet.

◆

bathos

pathos

bathetic

pathetic

a beautiful woman

a

beautiful sunset

beau-

biau

bellus

battalion

military unit, is sometimes misspelt. Note the consonants

-tt-

and

-l-,

same as those in the word

which are the

because

.

The conjunction

`for the reason that':

because

means

You're cold because

you need warmer clothes.

battle.

It is often used incorrectly in such constructions as: . , which should be: , or: . Another mistaken use of The infinitive is used in some British istomean`thefactthat': . dialects in place of other parts of the verb: . . . In standard speech it is used

baulk BC BCE be

BALK or BAULK? see AD and BC. see AD and BC.

◆

see

The reason her accent is so good is because

her mother is French

Her accent

is so good because her mother is French mother is French

be

be-

cause

It be a fine day

mainly in imperatives:

.

.

You ought to be careful,

iliary verb:

The

reason for her accent being so good is that her

Be quiet!,

after to:

.

and after an aux-

He should be home soon.

Because he's deaf

doesn't mean he's daft

See also

NOT; REASON.

because as for since ,

,

or

? All these words

Two common uses after an auxiliary verb con- reason for whatever has been said in the cern age and money: . .. is often used to mean ◆mainandclause. are similar in use, although is `become': . rather more formal. They are used more often at the beginning of a sentence than , and beach or beech? These two words are tend to be used when the reason is already well known or when the reason is considered not as occasionally confused since they are proimportant as the main statement: . nounced in the same way [beech]. The .. noun means `strip of sand or pebbles ◆

are used to introduce clauses which give the

She'll be 40 tomorrow

That'll be £10 exactly. Be

What do you want to be when you

As

since

grow up?

since

because

As you're only

staying a little while, we'd better have tea now

beach

on a shoreline'; the noun

.

beech

refers to a

He refrained from smoking between courses, since

.. tends to put the emphasis on the cause: . is also sometimes bear see BARE or BEAR? used to introduce a reason for stating a fact: . beat or beaten? is the past tense and. the past participle of the verb : would be better here although species of tree with greyish bark and shiny leaves.

.

There were hundreds of tourists on

the beach.

The old beech fell during the

he knew that was generally thought to be impolite

As/Since we went there in the summer, the

weather was gloriously hot. Because

He married her

storm.

because she was rich. Because

You

must have forgotten to invite him, because he

Beat

beaten

beat

didn't turn up. For

35

below

it would have a more formal sound. always preposition : . comes between the elements it joins and places . . equal emphasis on the main statement and the . reason: . beg the question To is . used as if it meant `evade the Ambiguity in the use of should be avoided, sometimes skilfully' or `raise the question'. Its since it can mean both `while' and `because': . question principal meaning, and the only one accepted by some people, is `base an argu. ment on an assumption whose truth is the For

by

Begin by mixing the dry

He

ingredients

began

by

thanking

the

visiting speaker

She never saw him again, for he returned

beg the question

to Greece soon afterwards

as

As

Hugh went out to do the shopping, Sandra looked after the baby

because of DUE TO OWING TO OF beech BEACH BEECH been there, done that see

,

or

?

see

or

BECAUSE

?

pressing a blase response to some suggestion or invitation to do something, is of relatively recent coinage but has already acquired cliche status and many people avoid using it for this reason: heard in its fuller form

.

Aquaboard-

It is occasionally

been there, done that,

bought the tee-shirt.

beer bier or

sionally

since

they

are

pro-

nounced in the same way [beer]. The noun

refers to the alcoholic drink

beer

made from hops; the noun

bier

describes

the platform or stand upon which a coffin

. .

or corpse may be placed before burial or cremation:

The waiter brought them two

pints of beer.

The princess's lifeless body was

placed upon a bier in the chapel.

beet BEAT befriend see

or

Some people dislike the increas-

.

To speak or act

some-

on behalf of

.

one else is to act as the representative of that person or those people:

I am speaking

◆ In American English is also used and a distinction is sometimes drawn between (acting for) and (in the interest of). A frequent mistake is to use instead of :. . in behalf of

on

behalf

in behalf

on behalf

on the part

That was a serious error on behalf

of the Government

beige

This word, describing a very pale

brown colour, is sometimes misspelt. Note the

ei

and the soft

g.

SPELLING 5.

bells and whistles

whistles

The phrase

bells and

is used in informal English to refer

in the sense of

to the nonessential facilities and special

She soon befriended

features that are used to promote sales of

The traditional mean-

a particular computer, software package, or

befriend

`make friends with': her new neighbours.

behalf

See also

BEET?

ing use of the verb

the question

on behalf of my union.

? These two words are occa-

confused

For example, to argue that God must exist because one can see evidence of his creation in the natural beauties that surround us is , for the premise that these natural beauties are evidence of God's creation is unproved, and dependent on the truth of God's existence, which is supposed to be the conclusion of the argument.

begging

This phrase, ex-

ing? Been there, done that.

very thing that is being disputed'.

◆

.

.

ing of the verb is `act as a friend to (by

similar product:

giving assistance or showing kindness)':

bells and whistles, but it's half the price.

They befriended me when I first came to work at the hospital.

beggar

This word, describing a person

who begs, is sometimes misspelt. Note

This system's got fewer

The

phrase should not be overused.

beloved

This

word,

meaning

`dearly

loved', may be pronounced [biluvid] or [biluvd]. Either is acceptable.

, beneath, under or underneath? This spelling is different from other `doer' words below These words all mean `lower than', and the such as , , and . distinctions between them are subtle. begin The verb is followed by the ◆ are often synonymous; preposition in the sense of `have someis contrasted with , and with . alone is used to refer to written material thing at the beginning': . following: . . When referring to , and is more often used in comparison of levels: . doing or saying something as the first part .. of an activity, is followed by the is

the ending

-ar,

not

-er.

◆

hunter miner

writer

Below and under

begin

below

above

with

The word `knee'

under

over

Below

See chapter 5 below

begins with the letter `k'

She lives in

begin

the flat below

He was below me in rank. Under

beneficent

36

used in reference to being subject to authority: . other than': . is used mainly for physical situations, and often suggests ◆ This last use is always inclusive, not exclusive as proximity: . with :. can be synonymous with implies that Ben is Jewish; while but sounds either old-fashioned or poetic; it . . . implies that he is not. is now used mainly to mean `unworthy of': . best or better? Careful writers prefer . when comparing two persons or He's

He served under Montgomery. Underneath

except

She kept her savings underneath her

mattress. Beneath

interested

in

nothing

besides cricket.

under-

neath

Besides Ben, my colleagues are all

Jewish

Except for

Ben

beneath contempt

beneficent beneficial BENEVOLENT NIGN BENEFICENT BENEFICIAL benefit . ,

see

,

or

,

?

BE-

Note the single -t- in the spelling

.

of the past tense:

participle:

benefited

and the present

benefiting.

better

things, reserving

for comparisons be-

best

.

tween a larger number of persons or things or in idiomatic contexts:

.

On the night they

.

proved the better of the two teams. painting is the best in the exhibition.

This

She had

The is not doubled, because the syllable containing this consonant is not stressed. The verb See also COMPARATIVE or SUPERLATIVE. is followed by or : . best-before date see SELL-BY DATE. [or ] best-selling is the adjective ◆

t

benefit

from

decided to keep the best till last.

by

pensioners will benefit from in taxation.

See also

Most old age

by these changes

SPELLING 1.

Best-selling

derived from

best-seller,

which is applied

benevolent benign beneficent beneficial

to anything which has sold very well, but

`disposed to do good; charitable':

tory of Time. The term

,

,

or

? These are all adjectives suggestive of

doing or intending good.

.

Benevolent

means

a donation

from a benevolent well-wisher. Benign

.

means

`kind, mild, and well-disposed' and can be used of things as well as people: climate;

.

a benign

it is also used as a medical term

meaning `non-cancerous': Beneficent

a benign tumour.

means `doing good; promoting

good' and is used of people, while

.

beneficial

means `promoting good or well-being' and is often used of things:

The waters are said to be

beneficial to one's health.

bereft

with

was formerly synonymous

bereaved

but is now used mainly to

suggest loss or deprivation of any nonmaterial thing:

number of copies:

Stephen

author of the best-selling book

Hawking,

A Brief His-

best-selling novelist, Frederick Forsyth.

bet betted or

?

Bet

.

.

is ap-

best-selling

plied to the author as well as the books:

is the usual form of the

past tense and past participle:

£10 I wouldn't do it.

They bet me

is a much rarer word, preferred in more generalintransitivecontexts: . , but even here a phrase such as is more common: . .

◆ Betted

He has never betted

in his life

place a

bet

He has never placed a bet

in his life

Bereft

.

.

particularly a book which has sold a great

He was now bereft of all hope.

beÃte noire

A

à te noire. be

.

à te noire be

person fears or hates:

is something that a Rock music is her

The phrase is of French origin

is sometimes written or printed in When used of death, suggests the des- and italics in English texts. olation of loss more forcefully than does : ◆ Note the spelling of the phrase, particularly the . accent on the first - - and the - ending of . . It should not be used The plural is formed by adding to both words: . merely as a synonym for `without', with no sense ofloss,asin: .

◆

bereft

bereaved

A year after his death she still wandered through

e

the silent house, bereft

I was unable to help, being bereft of

any mechanical skill.

beside besides. or

`by the side of ':

?

Beside

means literally

Come and sit beside me,

and is also used in the expression oneself,

was

himself

mean `moreover':

.

with

grief.

.

beside

meaning `extremely agitated':

beside

e

noire

s

Besides

.

He

can

I won't be able to go;

besides, I don't want to,

`as well as':

Besides

the usual curries, the restaurant offers some unusual tandoori specialities,

and `except for;

What are your beÃtes noires?

betted better

see

BET or BETTED?

.

The phrase

.

to' or `should':

window.

had better

means `ought

You had better close the

She'd better stay here.

users do not drop the word

.

contraction

'd),

had

Careful (or its

even in informal contexts:

I'd better apologize,

not

This last form, without

I better apologize.

had

or

'd,

is com-

mon in informal speech, but it should be avoided when writing.

37 ◆

The negative form of the phrase is :. , but isalsoheardininformal speech: . .

had better

not

He had/He'd better not be late

hadn't

better

He better

hadn't be late

between

The preposition

either before a plural noun:

.

the interval

.

or in conjunction with

between the acts

it should not be used with

or:

[not

your work.

should not be used with followed by a singular noun: . [not ].

◆ Between

and;

You must

choose between your family life and

each

or

or]

every

There is a gap of

one foot between the skittles skittle

between each

between among or

?

Between

.

writings of the Christian religion: a Bible reading.

.

among

lower case

.

b-:

I bought her a bible for

Christmas.

The noun is also spelt with a

lower-case

b-

is tradition-

of three or more:

There was dissent among the

committee members.

◆

.

when it refers to an author-

itative book on a particular subject: gardener's bible.

the

The adjective biblical is usually spelt with a lower-case -: . .

◆

bid

b

in biblical times

The noun

bid,

normally meaning `an

.

headlines, to mean `an attempt or effort': Athlete's bid for title

Rescue bid fails

Vicar's bid to cut family breakdowns.

see

There was a clear hostility between George

and Henry.

the first

When the

ing these writings, it may be spelt with a

biennial ANNUAL BIENNIAL bier BEER BIER However, in current usage is accep- big bang table as a substitute for :. .

.

is spelt

. .

journalism, where it is used, particularly in

ally used when speaking of the relationship of two things, and

Bible

when it refers to the sacred

offer', takes on a new meaning in popular

I or ME?

See also

? The noun

B

noun refers to a copy of the book contain-

is used

between

or

with a capital

book of the Bible

BEST or BETTER?

See also

Bible bible

billion

see

or

The

between

among

,

agreement

or

PERENNIAL?

?

big-bang theory

is a cosmo-

logical theory that suggests that the uni-

, although verse originated in an explosion of a mass is still only used for several elements. is of material. also used when discussing the joint activities of a ◆ The was also used to describe the group: . radical reorganization of the London Stock Exchange which took place in 1986. , and in the expression The term is increasingly used in general contexts , meaning `in confidence': . to denote any sudden radical change or reform: . . . See also AMONG or AMONGST? between the NATO countries

among

Between

Big Bang

The carol-singers collected £50 be-

tween them

between

ourselves

Between

ourselves, I think he's heading for a nervous breakdown

bi-

the big-bang approach to solving the problems of the National Health Service

The prefix

.

bi-

bicycle

bifocal,

bisection.

This

with words like

and sometimes halving: is

. .

always means `two' but

sometimes in the sense of doubling: particularly

biweekly,

confusing

which sometimes

big brother

The phrase

big brother

refers

to a person or organization that observes and controls the lives of others. It was coined by George Orwell in his book teen Eighty-Four

Nine-

(1949), describing a tota-

means `every two weeks' and sometimes

litarian state, and was subsequently applied

`twice a week'. It is probably best to avoid

to any action by a government or similar

biweekly

and

bimonthly

and express in a

fuller form what is intended.

means `twice a year', while means `every two years'. A (or ) is a 200th anniversary. is used more frequently in American English and can also be used as an adjective: . .

◆ Biannual

biennial

bicentenary

bicentennial

Bicentennial

bias

bias

bicentennial celebrations

The doubling of the final

s

of the word

before a suffix beginning with a vowel

is optional. Most dictionaries give with

biassed

See also

biased,

as an acceptable alternative.

SPELLING 1.

body that is considered to be an invasion of privacy, such as the installation of CCTV cameras or the monitoring of personal Internet use and e-mail communications. The phrase was substantially revived in the late 1990s through the television show Brother,

Big

which was seen in many countries

around the globe.

billion

Billion

has traditionally meant `one

million million' in Britain. However, in the United States it means `one thousand million' and this usage has been increasingly adopted in Britain and internationally.

bio-

38

When used with specific figures the word is not used: . , not . When used informally to mean `a great number', issometimes used: . . has replaced as the word for one million million, or 10 to the power of 12. The word may be treated as synonymous with when referring to an otherwise unspecified largenumber: . ◆

of

Five billion dollars

five billion of

dollars

billions of

Billions of

people are living in poverty Trillion

billion

trillions

bil-

lions

There were trillions of wasps in the

nest.

bio-

The prefix

word

bios,

bio-

comes from the Greek

meaning `life', and words begin-

.

.

.

and

gro

are also considered offen-

Negress

sive.

is used in many words and phrases, usually . having negative connotations: . . . Someblackpeople resent the association of the colour black with evil and unpleasantness and, while it is difficult to find synonyms for established words like , it is desirable to avoid such possibly offensive terms . . as: . . ◆ Black

black magic

blackleg

black market

blackmail

a black look

an accident black spot

blacken

someone's name

black hole

The term

black hole,

originally

used in astronomy, is increasingly found in

.

ning with it have a connection with life or

figurative contexts, where it is used with a

living organisms:

variety of meanings:

biopsy.

biology

biography

If a region of the UK

◆ There are several recently coined words having the prefix: . `the application of knowledge about living systems to the development of ( ). artificial systems' . `able to decom- ◆ In astronomy, a is a hypothetical pose organically without harming the environ- region of space with such a high gravitational field ment' . `supposed regular cycles in that nothing can escape from it. human physiological processes that affect emo- blame , as a verb, means `hold retions and behaviour' . `study of moral on': . problems connected with issues like euthanasia, sponsible; place responsibility . The expression surrogate motherhood, genetic engineering, etc.' . `statistical analysis of biological data' is disliked by: .some careful users, who . `a missile or other weapon contain- would substitute: . ing harmful bacteria' . `the employ- or: . However, the ment of biological warfare by terrorists'. usage is well-established and is acceptable gets into trouble through high wages, under-

investment or because it is regarded by busi-

bio-

bionic

ness as an economic black hole, Whitehall can bail it out with grants

biodegradable

The Guardian

black hole

biorhythms

Blame

bioethics

He was

blamed

for

the

blame (it) on

biometrics

accident

They all blame it on me

bioweapon

They blame me for it

bioterrorism

bivouac

The verb

the suffixes

-ed

-ing:

halfway up the mountain.

See also

bizarre

.

bivouac

and

They put the blame on me

adds a

-k-

before

We bivouacked

SPELLING 1.

in all but very formal contexts.

blanch blench or

come pale'.

Note the spelling of this word,

Blanch

.

a transitive verb:

the single

rug.

and the

Do not confuse market'. ◆

black

Black

bizarre

-rr-.

with

, `a type of

bazaar

is the word now usually ap-

plied in British English to dark-skinned people of Afro-Caribbean origins, sometimes extended to include other non-white races. It is broadly acceptable to most black people, although

AFRICAN AMERICAN

has re-

placed it to a substantial degree in Amer-

.

.

ican English among people of African descent:

Coloured

black power

black consciousness.

is considered offensive as it groups

all non-white people. Under the former

.

may be applied to peo-

ple or things and is more frequently used as

meaning `eccentric or odd', particularly -z-

? Both these verbs mean

`make or become white' or `make or be-

Her

face

The sun had blanched the

was

blanched

with

fear.

is chiefly applied to people and is

Blench

.

more frequently used as an intransitive verb:

He blenched with shock.

In this sense the verb is a variant of , which is derived from the Old French `white'. There is an unrelated verb , meaning `recoil (in fear)', which is derived from the Old English `to deceive'. In cookery, the verb refers to the process of immersing vegetables, nuts, etc., in boiling water: . .

◆

blench

blanch

blanc

blench

blencan

blanch

blanched almonds

blatant flagrant or

?

Blatant

and

flagrant

are both concerned with overtly offensive

policy of apartheid in South Africa it

behaviour but their usage is not identical.

was a technical term used to refer to South

Blatant

Africans of mixed descent. The terms

obvious':

Ne-

.

means `crassly and conspicuously The article was blatant propa-

39 ganda.

means

Flagrant

shocking or outrageous': parliament

sees

the

.

`conspicuously The European

tougher

measures

as

a

`flagrant violation of human rights and justice'

can be used of a person: . , but is used only of abstract things and carries a stronger suggestion of moral disapproval. (Sunday

Times).

◆ Blatant

a blatant liar

flagrant

blench blends

see A

BLANCH or BLENCH?

blend,

teau word,

also known as a

portman-

joining parts of two other words, usually

.

.

the beginning of one and the end of the brunch (breakfast

+ lunch)

(motor + hotel). Many of these words

motel

◆A on a radar screen is the sharp peak or flash of light that indicates the position of something. blip

bloc block or

? The noun

bloc

denotes a

.

group of people or nations that have political aims or interests in common: Communist bloc.

with

block,

the

It should not be confused

.

.

which has a wide range of

.

meanings and uses: mental block

is a new word that is formed by

other, such as:

blue-sky

a block of wood

a block of flats.

blond blonde or

a

? These two spellings of

the word meaning `light in colour' are sometimes a cause of confusion. As a noun, blonde

is generally reserved for a girl or

woman with fair hair, while

may

blond

refer to fair-haired people of either sex. As

fill a genuine gap in the English language;

an adjective, the distinction between

others are best restricted to informal con-

and

texts.

may be employed for either sex, although

blonde

blond

is frequently ignored and both

Some people dislike the increasing number of is more common in British English: neologismscoinedinthisway: . ([video] . . . . era + re ) . ( mentary + ). ( rmation + enter ). ( anese + ) . blue The verb has the slang sense ( ce + influen ). `squander': . ◆

blonde

camcorder

cam

corder

drama

She is a blonde

docudrama docu

room.

infotainment info

ment

tain-

Japanimation Jap

affluenza affluen

blessed

blue

za

He blued the prize money on

This word sometimes causes pro-

blems

with

blessed,

the past tense of the verb

He blessed the child,

The

.

.

word bless:

is pronounced [blest].

It is synonymous with the verb

.

blow,

used in the slang sense `spend freely or recklessly':

She blew her inheritance.

The

two verbs are virtually interchangeable;

the Blessed

neither should be used in formal contexts. Ambiguity or confusion may arise from the

blessed:

but is occasionally pronounced [blest].

blind

drink.

is usually pronounced [blesid]

The noun or adjective Sacrament,

hair.

animation

pronunciation.

A blond man entered the

Both brother and sister have blonde

fact that

Because of its negative associations,

and because there are many different degrees of visual impairment, the word

blind

blew

blue

(present tense of

(past tense of

blow)

blue)

and

are identical in

pronunciation.

blue-chip

Blue-chip

is originally a Stock

is increasingly avoided by careful writers in

Market term referring to a share issue

general reference to people who have dif-

which is considered to be both reliable

ficulties with their eyesight. It is especially

and profitable:

important to avoid the impersonal plural

◆

form

the blind.

Preferred terms, depending

upon the loss of vision involved, include visually sighted,

impaired,

and

visually

.

challenged,

partially sighted:

un-

The hotel

has been redesigned throughout to accommodate the needs of visually impaired guests.

blip

Blip,

a term used in radar, has devel-

oped the figurative sense of `sudden change or

interruption;

temporary

minor

pro-

blem'. It became a vogue word in the late 1980s when the Chancellor of the Exche-

.

a blue-chip investment.

It is extended to companies and any extremely worthwhile asset or property: . ( ). The meaning has now become further extended, to `fashionable and exclusive' or `of the highest standard': . ( ).

one of the world's

most successful manufacturers . . . with a bluechip reputation Sunday Times

polo,

the blue-chip sport Daily Telegraph

Parents in

Britain believe they are entitled to blue-chip facil-

ities when they go out and about with their

( ). Many people dislike the use of the word in this way. children

Daily Telegraph

blue-sky

This is a vogue term describing

.

quer, Nigel Lawson, dismissed a sudden

wild, ambitious, or purely theoretical re-

rise in the Retail Price Index as a `tempor-

search, thinking, etc.:

ary blip'. The word should not be overused

could be up there along with health, education

in this figurative sense.

and transport as one of the government's big

One day, childcare

blueprint spending

40 departments.

thinking for now.

(The

that's

blue-sky

Guardian).

But

It should

not be overused in formal contexts.

blueprint

A

blueprint

is literally a print

and architectural designs. The word is used

.

metaphorically to mean any plan, scheme,

.

a blueprint for a successful life

the London launch of a policy document, `A

Blueprint

for

Urban

(The

Areas'

ity, honest intention':

He had no docu-

mentary proof but we did not doubt his bona

used for mechanical drawing, engineering,

or prototype:

.

singular noun, meaning `good faith, sincer-

Times).

Although a literal blueprint is a finished plan, the metaphorical use, very popular as

fides.

is also sometimes used to mean `authentic' as in: . . is pronounced [boÅnaÆ fõÅdi] in British English, but sometimes [boÅnaÆ fõÅd] in American English. is pronounced [boÅnaÆ eez]. ◆ Bona fide

It's not a reproduction; it's a

bona fide Matisse Bona fide

Bona fides

bored of bored with or

avoid the construction

.

fõÅd

? Careful users

bored of

except in

a jargon and journalistic term, is just as

very informal contexts, preferring

often applied to preliminary schemes. Care

with

should be taken, however, not to overuse

tidying up.

this word.

old-fashioned farces.

blush flush or

? Both these verbs mean `go

red in the face'. To

blush

may be a sign of

modesty, embarrassment, shame, or guilt; to

flush

may indicate any of these emotions

or

.

bored by:

See also

Modern audiences are bored by

BOARD or BORED?

born borne or

? These two spellings are

sometimes confused.

.

ticiple of the verb

.

enough pain.

or the effects of alcohol or physical causes.

borne in mind.

◆

borne out by the facts.

flush

He was flushed with rage

flushed

You look flushed ±

.

is the past par-

Borne

bear:

as well as stronger feelings, such as anger,

The verb is also used transitively, often in the passive or in the form of the past participial adjective: . . To be may also indicate excitement or be the result of exertion or illness: . ? cannot be used in this way.

bored

He was soon bored with

They had borne

The following points should be

.

His account is simply not airborne supplies.

the sense of `giving birth',

borne

In

phrases where the mother is the subject:

.

She has borne six children,

passive with

.

by:

and also in the

borne by her. Born

.

.

is used in

is used

have you got a temperature Blush

for all other passive constructions without

board bored

to her.

or

? The noun

board

variously

denotes a flat piece of wood or other

.

material, a group of people chosen to head

.

an organization, daily rations of food, etc.:

.

a sheet of board over the window put before the board board and lodging.

suggestions

to set out in search of

She quickly grew bored with the work.

boat ship or

? The use of

mainly a matter of size.

or

boat

ship

is

is usually

Boat

.

applied to smaller vessels, especially those

.

that stay in shallow or sheltered waters: rowing boat

.

lifeboat,

and

vessels that travel the open seas: warship.

.

ship

wife.

.

.

He was born in Italy. a born leader

born-again

The term

Twins were born

his Burmese-born

born-again

was ori-

.

ginally confined to the context of evangelical Christianity, to mean `converted':

born-again believer.

a

The term is now often used generally to refer to

. a conversion to any cause or belief, particularly when accompanied by extreme enthusiasm or . fervour: .

It should not be confused

with bored, past participle of the verb bore:

by:

a

to larger steamship

◆

a born-again conservationist

Having

declared himself born again as a Republican, he set

. Occasionally, is also used to mean `renewed; fresh, new, or resurgent': . about nurturing old contacts within the party born-again

again car

.

a born-

.

born-again post offices with refur-

bished premises

the mini-skirt appears to have

The rule is by no means invariable: cross-Chanorigin of the term is John 3:3 in nel ferries are informally described as . Most theTheBible. sailing expressions refer to ships even when ap. . plied to boats: . borne see BORN or BORNE? . borrow Besides its literal meaning of `take been born again.

◆

born again

boats

amidships

aboard ship

The

fishing boat was shipwrecked

bona fide

Bona fide

.

is an adjective mean-

ing `of good faith; genuine or sincere': will accept any bona fide offer. Bona fides

I

is a

.

something for a limited period with the intention of returning it':

I borrowed this

book from the library, borrow

can also be

41 .

bow

used metaphorically to refer to words,

the final line registers the net profit or loss.

ideas, etc., taken from other sources:

It can mean `the most important or primary

Wagner

.

borrowed

mythology.

this

theme

from

Norse

Some American slang is bor-

, not someone: . is generally considered

rowed from Yiddish.

One borrows wrong.

◆

from

off

I bor-

rowed it off my friend

See also

both

LEND or LOAN?

Both

. .

.

noun, a conjunction, and an adverb: legs were amputated.

I like both.

an artist and a writer. and cold water.

.

.

is used as an adjective, a proBoth

He is both

The room has both hot

It should not be used where

more than two elements are involved, as in:

Theconstructions . and . are equally acceptable. However, in possessive constructions with , etc., it is usually necessary to use : . , not . When two things are being considered separately, it is often better to use to avoid ambiguity. . might involve two boxes or one shared box. In general one should be careful about placing the word in order to avoid ambiguity: . might suggest . as a conjunction goes with , and as with all such pairs of conjunctions must link grammatically similar things. So one can say: . but not . is often used redundantly, when some other phrase in the sentence conveys the same sense: . .. . She's both selfish, mean, and malicious.

◆

Both his parents are teachers

Both of his parents are teachers

us, them

of

the opinion of both of them

both of their

opinions

each

We were both given a box of choc-

olates

both

He has

insulted both his aunts and his grandmother his two aunts

Both

and

She is

both charming and intelligent

She is both

charming and an intellectual Both

They are both identical

Both of them are

equally to blame

bottleneck

A bottleneck

is a term originally

applied only to narrow stretches of road which cause traffic hold-ups. It is now

.

extended to anything that holds up free movement or progress:

A bottleneck at the

Traffic Area Office is resulting in long waits

.

point or consideration':

.

The bottom line is

that we have no more resources for the project ;

or `the final result': their divorce.

The bottom line was

Care should be taken not to

overuse this phrase.

It is also sometimes used as an adjective to mean `having a pragmatic concern for cost and profit': . .

◆

He has a bottom-line approach to running the company

bottom out

To

was formerly

bottom out

.

used to describe a levelling out of something that has reached its lowest point: Industrial output is now bottoming out.

point is prior to an upsurge:

.

has

is

It is

now often used to suggest that the low now

bottomed

out

and

The market expected

to

improve by the spring.

bough bow or

.

? The noun

large branch of a tree:

the lawn during the storm.

confused with

bow,

bough

denotes a

a large bough fell on

It should not be

which describes the

.

front of a boat or ship or refers to bending as a sign of respect: with a bow.

◆

She greeted the duke

Both words are pronounced [bow]. See also

BOW.

bought brought or

.

? As the past tense and

past participle of the verb correct:

I bought

[not

buy, bought

is

brought] the dress in

the January sales.

◆ Brought

theverb

is the past tense and past participle of :. .

bring

bouquet

She brought an umbrella with her

This word is usually pronounced Å kay], but some users prefer [bookay] or [bo to stress the first syllable.

bourgeois .

class':

This word, meaning `middle

a bourgeois mentality,

is sometimes

misspelt. Note the first syllable the

which softens the

e

g

bour

and

in the second

syllable.

◆

The word comes from the Old French word , meaning `burgher or merchant'.

borjois

for driving tests.

As a vogue word it is sometimes overworked The word has two pronunciaand its literal meaning forgotten. The original bow tions. The noun and verb , referring to metaphor refers to the narrowness of the neck the bending of (part of) the body a sign of a bottle, which makes such phrases as: . of respect, etc., are pronounced toas rhyme . . with . The same pronunciation is used absurd. for the noun meaning `front of a boat or

◆

bow

bow

an

enormous bottleneck

an increasing bottleneck

reducing the bottleneck

bottom line

Bottom line

is a vogue expres-

sion, taken from financial reports where

how

ship'. The noun knot', the

bow

bow,

meaning `looped

that is used as a weapon,

boy the

42 bow

that is used to play a violin, etc.,

and the verb

bow,

meaning `curve', are

pronounced to rhyme with

In the adjective , the word with .

◆

toe.

and the noun is pronounced to rhyme

bow-legged

window

toe

See also

boy

A

bow

bow

BOUGH or BOW?

.

The use of the noun as a synonym for `man'

.

.

.

is largely restricted to informal contexts: one of the boys

a local boy

night out with the boys.

boycott .

the new boy

a

boycott the Olympic games,

sometimes misspelt. Note the

-tt

is

at the end

of the word.

The term originates from the name of Charles Cunningham (1832±97), an Irish land agent who was ostracized for refusing to grant reductions in rent.

◆

Boycott

bracket

Some people object to the frequent

use of the noun

level, range,

etc.:

.

bracket

in place of

.

group,

the 25±35 age bracket

lower income bracket.

brackets

a

The most frequently used kind of

brackets are round brackets, also known as parentheses. They are used to enclose sup-

.

plementary or explanatory material that interrupts a complete sentence:

.

William

James (1842±1910) was the brother of the novelist Henry James.

The Chartists demanded

(1) annual elections, (2) universal manhood suffrage, (3) equal electoral districts

boy(s)

This word, meaning `refuse to

deal with':

He came from a humble background. (His

mother was a charwoman.) Yet he mixed with people of all classes

is a male child or adolescent.

boy

stop falls outside the second bracket. The onlytime when a full stop appears inside brackets is when the parenthetic material in brackets comes between two sentences, rather than within a sentence: . . Round brackets are also used for letters or numbers in a series: . . . . They are also usedtoindicatealternativesorbriefexplanations: . (meaning `boy' or `boys') . . . Square brackets are used for brackets within brackets: . . They are also used to indicate editorial comment or explanation in quoted matter: . .` '. To use ordinary round brackets implies that the words inside them are part of the original quotation. it cost 15 euros

(roughly £10)

the payment of VAT (value added

tax)

Browning's wife (the poet Elizabeth

Barrett Browning [1806-61]) was an invalid

The Young Visi-

ters [sic]

who would fardels [burdens] bear

brake break or

? These words are some-

times confused. A something down: Break

.

brake

is a device to slow

the handbrake on a car.

.

has many meanings including `(cause

.

.

to) fall into pieces', `stop', and `transgress': break a vase

bratpack brat pack,

break for lunch

The noun

break the law.

bratpack,

often spelt

is a slang term applied (especially

He asked his scout (as

by the media) to any group of young

college servants are called in Oxford) to wake

people, usually precociously rich and fa-

him at nine.

mous, noted for their rowdy or ill-man-

The material in parentheses

could be removed without changing the

nered behaviour.

meaning or grammatical completeness of

◆

The term, originally applied to a group of upand-coming American film stars in the mid-1980s (modelled on the `ratpack' of Hollywood stars preference to commas or dashes, when the including Frank Sinatra who appeared regularly interruption to the sentence is quite a in the headlines in the 1950s), should not be marked one. overused. ◆ Punctuation within brackets is that appropriate to the parenthetic material, but even if it is a bravado, bravery or bravura? These complete sentence, capital letters and full stops three nouns are sometimes confused. are usually not used. Punctuation of the sentence means `courage'; is a false or containing the brackets is unaffected, except that outward display of courage or daring; any punctuation which would have followed the is an ostentatious or brilliant display of word before the first bracket is placed after the daring, skill, etc. second bracket: . the sentence. Round brackets are used, in

Brav-

ery

bravado

bra-

vura

Worst of all, their confidence is

undermined by a lurking fear of the meaningless-

breach

or

breech .

?

The

word

breach

ness of those basic questions in themselves (is this

means `the breaking or violating of a rule

good? is this right?) which yet they find them-

or arrangement':

selves unable to cease from asking

Breach

,

(Richard Hoggart, ). If the parenthetic material comes at the end of a sentence the full The Uses of Literacy

a breach of the peace.

should not be confused with

.

breech,

`the rear part of the body' and `the part of a gun behind the barrel':

a breech birth.

43 ◆ The nouns and are pronounced [breech], but the plural noun , meaning `knee-length trousers', may be pronounced [ chiz] or [ iz]. breach

breech

breeches

bree-

brich

bread bred. or

? The word

the foodstuff:

refers to

a loaf of bread. Bread

not be confused with ciple of the verb

.

bred,

to breed:

been bred for speed.

◆

bread

should

see

or

selves.

Britain

The expression

Britain

is often used

.

a

major

so frequently

that it has lost all impact.

is also sometimes used to mean `success': . or `new idea': . (advertisement for a loan company).

◆ Breakthrough

Olympic breakthrough for British ath-

The Great Borrowing Break-

through

bred BREAD BRED breech breeches BREACH bridal bridle

British Isles.

Great

United Kingdom

As an abbreviation of

it means England, Scotland,

and Wales.

The includes Northern Ireland as well as England, Scotland, and Wales. The includes all the United Kingdom, together with the Republic of Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands.

◆

One reads, for example, of:

sometimes for the

Great Britain

scientific or technological) knowledge' has become something of a journalistic clicheÂ.

,

speaking nations, not by the British them-

or the

as a metaphor

breakthrough in cancer research

is

chiefly used by people of other English-

Britain,

BREAK?

or

(Daily

Britisher

This species has

meaning `a sudden advance in (particularly

see

The informal term

vaguely, sometimes as a substitute for

Breakthrough

letes

motorway service area south of Paris Telegraph).

the past parti-

Both words are pronounced [bred].

break BRAKE breakthrough

broach

United Kingdom

British Isles

Briticisms

British English is the basis on

which the English of America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the West Indies, and the rest of the English-speaking world is built. To greater or lesser degrees the English of these countries has gone its own way, producing distinct varieties of English, while the English spoken in Brit-

?

see

ain has its own characteristics, known as

BREECH?

or

Briticisms.

Specifically British, usually in contrast to American, usage of grammar, spelling, and so forth, is `of or relating to brides or weddings': discussed under various headings in this book. It is . should not be confused vocabulary and idiom that mark the speaker or with , used as a noun meaning `harwriter of British English. A sentence like: . ness for a horse's head' and as a verb meaning `restrain' or `show resentment': marks the speaker as British; in other English. speaking countries it would have been: . . . ◆ Both words are pronounced [ daÆl]. . . Suchfamiliarwordsorphrasesas: bring or take? The verbs and . . . differ in meaning. generally denotes . (in the senses of both the fetching of something and carrying it to merry-go-round and traffic junction) are peculiarly ; the speaker: . British uses. generally denotes the removal of something Of course there is no one standard form of to a more distant location: . English spoken throughout Britain; marked differin pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and ◆ Note that is the correct past tense and ences usage found in the different countries and past participle of and that is incorrect: regionsareof Britain. . or

bridal veil

? The word

bridal

.

means

◆

a

Bridal

bridle

I rang

you from a call box but the line was engaged

The soldier slipped the bridle over the horse's

I called

to bridle one's tongue

head.

you from a phone booth but the line was busy

brõÅ

bank holiday

bring

take

Bring

fortnight

white coffee

Christmas

spring onion

Father

roundabout

Please bring me that book take

Take

this

rubbish with you.

brought

bring

brung

He brought the money with him.

Brit

The noun

Brit,

son', is often used derogatorily. It should be restricted to informal contexts. A British person may be called a

Briton,

but this term

.

is most frequently found in newspaper reports about the British abroad:

A coach

carrying 58 Britons . . . was preparing last night

to

spend

a

third

night

DIALECT; AMERICANISMS. Britisher, Briton see BRIT. See also

meaning `British per-

trapped

in

a

Brittany

Brittany,

the English name of a

region of northwest France, is often misspelt. Note the

-tt-

and single

-n-,

unlike

Britannia.

broach brooch or

? A

brooch

.

is a piece of

jewellery that is pinned to a garment:

a

brochure diamond

44 Broach,

brooch.

a

rare

variant

spelling of this noun, is most frequently

.

used as a verb, meaning `introduce' or `mention':

to broach a subject.

Both words

Å ch]. are pronounced [bro

second syllable is unstressed; the

end-

-ark

ing has the same pronunciation as the ending of

buoy

-ock

hillock.

The noun and verb

buoy,

meaning

◆ To a barrel or a bottle is to open it in derived adjective , are sometimes ordertousethecontents: . misspelt. The most frequent mistake is to . the and the in the wrong In nautical contexts, means `to swerve place order. dangerously in a following sea, so as to lie broad- ◆ should not be confused with the noun side to the waves'. BOY, which is identical in pronunciation in British brochure This word is usually pronounced English. In American English is pronounced [ ]. [ sheÆr], although the French-sounding Å [bro ] is also possible. bureaucracy Note the spelling of this ◆ Note also the , not in the spelling. word: the first , the vowels , and the `type of float' or `keep afloat', and the

broach

buoyant

We broached a second

bottle of champagne

-u-

broach

-o-

Buoy

buoy

booi

Å bro

shoor

ch

brooch BROACH brought BOUGHT brownie points see

sh

u

BROOCH? or BROUGHT?

suffix

or

see

Brownie

points

,

are no-

achievement, especially something that is

. .

deliberately or ostentatiously done to win favour:

(The

Guardian).

B-

.

.

In the senses `a counter where food is

served' and `food set out on tables': a buffet lunch, buffet

a buffet

[buufay]. In the sense `strike sharply': feted by the wind,

bulk

Bulk

in bulk

buf-

the pronunciation is [bufit].

.

means `thickness, volume, or

size; a heavy mass': castle walls.

.

is pronounced

the vast bulk of the

.

It is also used in the expression

to mean `in large quantities':

We

? To

steal

is to take

He stole her jewellery. Burgle burglar

is a back

.

and means `break

into a building in order to steal':

Their

house was burgled when they were on holiday.

To

b-

car

sion:

formation from

Burglary

The phrase may be spelt with a capital or with a lowercase . It is best restricted to informal contexts. The expression derives from the erroneous belief that Brownie Guides receive points for doing something good.

buffet

.

or

You should get some brownie points

opening hospitals

-crasy).

other people's possessions without permis-

There are political brownie points in

◆

eau

(not

burgle rob steal

tional marks of approval for an action or

for that.

-cracy

rob

.

always involves unlawful entry.

person or place, often with violence: bank

rob an old lady. Rob

incorrectly used in place of car

.

is to steal money or property from a

.

rob a

is sometimes

steal:

to rob a

is to take things from a car, not to take

the car itself.

The verb ican English.

is chiefly confined to Amer-

or

? Either word may be

◆

burglarize

burned burnt

used as the past tense and past participle of the verb

burn.

In transitive contexts

burned

is preferred in American English and

burnt

.

in British English; in intransitive contexts burned

.

.

is the preferred form in both:

burnt/burned

the

burned his hand.

.

letters.

He

has

We

burnt/

She burned with anger.

The fire had burned all night.

or ±T? is frequently used to mean `the greater See alsois ±ED also used as an adjective in part, the majority': . and American English: . . Some people object to British . the application of to anything other than . may be pronounced [bernd] or mass or volume, but this usage is well-established [bernt]; is always pronounced [bernt]. and generally acceptable. buy rice in bulk.

◆ Bulk

The bulk of the population

support the new legislation

Burned

This word, meaning `statement of

news':

No further bulletin will be issued this

evening,

is sometimes misspelt. Note the

and single t, as in

bulwark

burnt toast

a burnt offering

bulk

bulletin.

Burnt

-ll-

bullet.

This noun, meaning `fortifica-

tion', is sometimes mispronounced. The

bus

burnt

Although the noun

short for

omnibus

an apostrophe.

bus

was originally

it is now never spelt with

◆ The word was rarely used as a verb until the 1960s, when the controversy in the United States over the practice of sending schoolchildren by bus to different districts in order to

45 achieve a racial balance in the schools gave rise to the need for such a verb. The problem of how to spell the various forms of the verb has not been wholly resolved. Traditional British spelling rules dictate and , but the American preference was for and and these spellings have now been widely accepted in Britain. bussed

bussing bused

business

busing

This noun, meaning `occupation',

`commercial activity', or `matter', is sometimes misspelt. The most frequent mistake is the omission of the letter

-i-,

which is

by the same token double negative. When used with in (or ) a triple negative is formed, but in fact the expression is used positively: . . The phrase is awkward and should be avoided; the expressions and can also be rephrased: . .. . help

I can't

help but regard your attitude as hostile can but

cannot but

I can only regard your attitude as

hostile

I can't help regarding your attitude as

hostile

See also CONJUNCTIONS; HELP; NOTHING BUT; NOT ONLY . . . BUT ALSO.

buyout

◆ is a two-syllable word, pronounced . [ nis]. It should not be confused with the noun , meaning `the state of being busy', which has three syllables and is pronounced [ inis].

A

is the purchase of a

buyout

company, often by a group of managers:

silent in speech. Business

biz

MFI Furniture, the independent company

.

resulting from the management buy-out from

busyness

Asda-MFI

biz

businessman businesswoman NON-SEXIST TERMS but or

?

see

but.

.

As a conjunction it is

used to link two opposing ideas: in Surrey but works in London.

He lives

.

It should not

be used to link two harmonious ideas:

She

is not British-born but originates from Kenya,

and should not be used in a sentence with however, But

which conveys the same meaning:

their

however,

suggestions

were

for

ill-received.

improvement,

agree but I have reservations.

.

Careful users

.

avoid inserting a comma after

Guardian).

And . . . cer-

currently a very popular flavour

(The

Book-

seller).

◆ The word is most commonly printed or written without a hyphen. buyout

There are various problems with the

usage of the word

(The

tainly in the UK . . . management buyouts are

.

.

cannot

can't help but

but:

I

That's a good

buzzword

A

buzz word

is a vogue word or

expression, especially one that is first used in technical jargon and subsequently enters everyday language, usually in a figurative sense. Examples of buzz words that are dealt with in this dictionary are:

bottom line,

gravitas, matrix, traumatic.

by and large by in large or

? The correct

.

rendering of this phrase, meaning `in the main' or `on the whole', is by and large:

We

were content with the decision, by and large.

◆ The problem with used to mean `except' is or bye? These spellings are sometimes this: is it functioning as a conjunction or as a by confused. Note the spelling of the followpreposition and should it be followed by an object ing compounds and expressions: . or subject pronoun? Is it (conjunctional) (occasionally, ) . or (prepositional)? There is no absolute (sometimes, . ) . rule here but a rough guide to natural usage is to . . (`genuse the object when it falls at the end of a clause erally') . (`later')(occasionally, , and the subject when it comes in the middle: . `incidentally') . in sports, and . .. (informal for ). . ◆ Further problems may arise from confusion with The use of at the beginning of a sentence is and , which are pronounced the same [bõÅ]. disliked by some users. But it is acceptable to most by the same token is an and can be used to good effect. The expressions and are expression meaning `for the same reason; in slightly formal and old-fashioned but still used: a similar way': . . (advertisement, ). The oddity is that . Care should be the expressions mean much the same thing, for the of combines with the to form a taken to avoid overusing this phrase. point but not an original one.

but

by-elec-

all but he

tion

all but him

bye-law

bypass

by and by

bye-bye

goodbye

escaped

but

by the by

a bye

All but she had

by-product

by and large

by the bye

They had all escaped but her

by-law

bye-election

buy

bi-

By the same token

can but

cannot but

Middle-aged men should

setting a standard others can but hope to follow Sunday Times

avoid overworking because of the effects of

stress on the heart; and by the same token they should

not

cannot

but

avoid

fatty

foods

cache cash or

C ?

Cache

.

means `secret store'

or `place where valuables are concealed':

For years he had suspected her of keeping a secret

cache

of

confused with

.

money. cash,

It should not be

which means `ready

money' or `money in the form of coins and banknotes':

◆

He paid for the car in cash.

Both words are pronounced [kash].

cadre

especially the -ff- and the vowel sequence -ei-. It is an exception to the `i before e' rule (see

SPELLING 5 ).

is a rare variant spelling of the word.

◆ Caffein

calendar calender colander ,

or

words are often confused. A the date, a

Note the pronunciation of this noun,

which means `unit or nucleus of personnel'. Of French origin, cadre is usually pronounced [kahdeÆ], rhyming with larder, in British English. The variant pronunciation [kahdreÆ], which is closer to the French original, is less frequent but not incorrect.

Caesarean

coffee. Note the spelling of the word,

This word, meaning `of or

? These tells

calendar

is a machine used to

calender

smooth paper or cloth, and a

is a

colander

perforated bowl used for draining food.

◆ The first two words are pronounced in the same way [ indeÆ]. is pronounced [ aÆndeÆ] or [ eÆndeÆ]. This second pronunciation of is reflected in the variant spelling . kal

Colander

kol

kul

colan-

der

cullender

callous callus or

?

Callus

is a noun, denot-

ing a hardened or thickened area of skin,

relating to any of the Caesars', is used

especially on the hand or foot. The adjec-

particularly in the expression

tive

section,

Caesarean

`the surgical operation for the de-

is related to this noun, but is

callous

livery of a baby by cutting through the wall

of `unfeeling' or `insensitive':

of the mother's abdomen and into the

attitude to the poor.

womb'. The variant spellings and, in American English, Cesarian,

Caesarian,

Cesarean

or

are also used. Note, too, that

.

any of these spellings may be written with a lower-case

c:

She had a caesarean.

.

most frequently used in the figurative sense

calorie

a callous

Note the spelling of this word,

which is a unit for measuring the energy value of food and also a measurement of heat.

The word derives from Julius , who, it is traditionally thought, was born by this method. calvary see CAVALRY or CALVARY?

◆

cafe cafeteria or

Caesar

? The noun

 cafe

refers to

any small restaurant or coffee-bar serving

. .

nonalcoholic drinks, snacks, light meals, etc.:

Â. a seaside cafe

The noun

cafeteria

is

more specific, meaning `self-service restaurant':

There is a cafeteria on the third floor.

cameraman camerawoman SEXIST TERMS camouflage . or

? see

.

This

guise':

flage,

word,

meaning

NON`dis-

The trees provided excellent camou-

is sometimes misspelt. Note the

and the soft

ou

g.

◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the acute can or may? The verb means `be accent, which should never be omitted. The noun permitted' or `be able'; the verb means may be pronounced [ fay] or [ fi]. `be permitted' or `be likely'. In the sense of should not be confused with the noun `be permitted', is preferred in formal , denoting a type of coffee-pot with a contexts and is best restricted to inplunger, in which coffee can be brewed and formal contexts: . served. The grave accent on the second - - of . is optional in English. ◆ The negative contraction is disliked by many people and is usually replaced with : . caffeine , pronounced [ een], [ Mayn't] is a stimulant substance found in tea and cafeÂ

ka

can

may

ka

Cafeteria

may

cafetieÁre

can

e

cafetieÁre

Can I come to your party?

May I borrow your pen, please?

mayn't

Caffeine

can't

kaf

Can't not

she stay?

47

capital letters

Both verbs can be ambiguous: . may -cap The suffix relates to restrictions mean `he is permitted to go' or `he is able to go'; . imposed by central government on local may mean `he is permitted to go' or `he council spending and taxation. Under the is likely to go'. and , the past tenses of system of domestic rates, councils could be and respectively,areequallyambiguous: . ; the introduction of the com.. . munity charge (or poll tax) led to such and are also used in polite requests: terms as . The verb is some. , ? times used independently: . He can go

-cap

He may go

Could

can

might

may

rate-capped

She said he could go Could

She said he might go

might

charge-capping

Could/Might I have another cup of tea please

BUT; CANNOT and CAN'T; HELP; MAY

See also

MIGHT?

or

candelabra

The government

threatened to cap a number of councils.

capability capacity ,

The word

candelabra,

mean-

or

ability

ing `a branched candlestick or lamp', was

thing.

originally a plural noun, from the singular

lities needed to do something:

candelabrum.

.

incorrect to speak of: or to say: room,

.

Purists therefore consider it a valuable candelabra

There were candelabras in every

although such usage is widespread.

are often confused with which hang from the ceiling, while stand on surfaces.

◆ Candelabra

cannon canon or

cannon

gun and a shot in billiards, a n,

,

candelabra

is a large

canon,

with a

is a ruling laid down by the

church, or a title given to a clergyman.

◆

Both words are pronounced [ naÆn].

cannot

not

and

can't

In American English

.

cannot

can

is standard. It may

be necessary to write

can not

stressed:

not

money,

No, I can

when the

.

not

is

lend you any more

or in sentences like:

It can not only

blend vegetables but also grind coffee beans,

where the

not

goes with

only,

rather than

can.

Care should be taken when using in constructionslike: . .. , where ambiguity can arise. Was her work excellent or poor? Should a large or small amount of pepper be put in? The contraction is normally used in speech and often in writing. The standard British English pronunciation is [kahnt].

◆

cannot

Her work cannot be too highly

praised

You cannot put too much pepper in

can't

BUT; CAN or MAY?; HELP. canon see CANNON or CANON? can't see CANNOT and CAN'T. See also

canvas

or

canvass . ?

Canvas

type of woven cloth:

end, means `solicit votes': the Labour Party.

.

She has the

capability to handle the work. Capacity

.

sug-

gests being able to absorb or receive:

Children are born with the capacity to acquire language.

.

can sometimes suggest

Ability

above-average skills:

He has considerable

hasseveralothermeanings:`volume': . , `(maximum) output': . , `aparticularrole': . . It is also used as an adjective in the journalistic phrase: . . mathematical ability.

The pot has a capacity of two litres

The factory is working at (full) capacity

I am speaking in my capacity as

treasurer

a capacity crowd at the

capital capitol or

?

Capital

.

denotes the seat

of government of a country or state: Tokyo is the capital of Japan. Capitol

refers to

the building housing a state legislature,

.

often specifically to the headquarters of the US Congress:

The party's control of

the Capitol is no longer in question.

capital letters

Capital letters are used to

draw attention to a particular word. There are some generally accepted rules for their use, but some areas where it is a matter of choice.

Capitals are used to mark the first word of a sentence, a direct quotation, or a direct question within a sentence (see also QUESTION MARKS; QUOTATION MARKS; SENTENCES). They are sometimes used after a colon (see COLON). They are used for the first word of each line of poetry: . / / (Robert Graves), and for the major words of titles of literary, musical, or artistic . works: . . Capitals are used for proper nouns and most . adjectivesderivedfromthem: . . . . . . . If an adjective is not closely connected with its original proper noun it does not usually ◆

Forewarned of madness In three days time at dusk The fit masters him

The Mill on the Floss

.

is a certain

a canvas bag

painting on canvas. Canvass,

.

suggests having the qua-

Capability

ground

ka

is sometimes written as two words but

in British English

These

◆ Capacity

? These two words are

sometimes confused. A single

chandeliers

?

words all refer to the power to do some-

a

with -ss at the

He canvassed for

Peter and the Wolf John Brown

York

Sainsbury's

Freudian

OxfordStreet

French

New

Jewish

carat

48

. takeacapital: . , carburettor Note the spelling of this word, and capitals are not used for verbs derived from particularly the - -, the - -, and the . proper nouns: . (see also ending. EPONYMS; TRADE NAMES). Titles of people or ◆ The spelling in American English is . places are capitalized when part of a proper name carcass This word, which describes the . . butnotwhenusedalone: . , of a dead animal: . . . body may be spelt or in British . . For institutions the rule is that capitals are used in ◆English. In American English only is used. specificreferences but not in general ones: . brussels sprouts

french windows

u

anglicize

tt

or

boycott

carburetor

my aunt

redbrick universities

professor of history

.

world governments

Aunt Jane

Cambridge University

.

many

.

.

the Government has agreed St Mark's Church

. The pronoun always takes a capital, but no other pronouns apart from those referring to God, where some people choose to capitalize , , . Capitals are used for days of the week, months, . holidays, and religious holidays: . . . , but not for seasons. They are used for historical, cultural, . and geological periods: . . . . Capitals should never be used for emphasis; italics should be used for this purpose: . an [not ENORMOUS] r In recent years the conventions relating to capitals have been considerably relaxed in the context of electronic communications, simply because it is quicker and easier to type lower-case characters than upper-case ones. It is usually not necessary to distinguish between capital and lower-case letters in e-mail addresses and Internet searches, and computer users have accordingly fallen into the habitofusinglower-caseletterstoopensentences, writenames,etc.: . The same tendency has been observed in other contexts, such as company names, in conscious imitation of the abbreviated, simplified writing styles associated with modern electronic communications. the Church of England

I

He Him His

Monday

Easter

Yom Kippur

the Restoration

Enlightenment

the Spanish Civil War

the

the Stone

Age

enormous

bea !

joe did u get my message about

the new york trip?

ABBREVIATIONS; COLON; EAST, EAST EASTERN?; E-MAIL; HYPHEN; NORTH, NORTH or NORTHERN?; SOUTH, SOUTH or SOUTHERN?; WEST, WEST or WESTERN? See also

or

carat caret or

? These words are some-

times confused. A

carat

is a unit for mea-

suring the weight of precious stones and a unit for measuring the purity of gold; in this second sense, the spelling

karat

usually used in American English. A spelt with an

e,

carcass

Professor Thomson

he goes to a Baptist church

February

a chicken carcass

a

is

caret,

is a character used in

written or printed matter to indicate that an insertion should be made.

care

carcase

carcass

The verb

.

preposition affection':

their family,

care

or

for

is followed by the

in the sense `feel

about

Most people care for

and

for

don't care for foreign food.

after' it is followed by wounded

fox,

[or

.

.

about]

in the sense `like':

I

In the sense `look

for:

He cared for the

.

and in the sense `be con-

cerned' it is followed by

about:

care about the cost.

She doesn't

Some people avoid using the phrase to describe a person whose welfare is the responsibility of the social services, believing this carries a stigma: . . They may, however, be equally reluctant to use such suggested alternatives as the voguish :. ( , job advertisement). ◆

in care

Both children have been in care since the

arrest of their parents

looked-after

You will chair

child protection case conferences and reviews of Looked After Children . . .

caret carat Caribbean see

or

The Guardian

CARET?

This word, referring to the

region extending from the southeastern tip of Florida to the northern coast of South America, is often misspelt. Note the single and the

in the middle of the word.

is pronounced [kari aÆn] in British English and [kaÆ beeaÆn] in American English.

-r-

-bb-

◆ Caribbean

caring

bee

ri

Caring

.

.

has been used in recent years

in such phrases as: the caring services,

the caring professions

to describe people pro-

fessionally involved in various kinds of social

work,

sometimes

also

including

health care and education.

It combines the idea of `taking care of' and the idea of `concerned': .

◆

The welfare state itself, and

all the caring professions, seemed to be plunging into . . . uncertainty, self-questioning, economic

(Margaret Drabble, ). The noun is used to denote a person who looks after a sick or old relative: . .

crisis

The Middle Ground

carer

The new benefit

is payable to carers and their dependants

carpal .carpel or

the wrist:

?

Carpal

refers to a bone in

The x-ray revealed an abnormality

in the carpal.

49

.

.

It

carpal-tunnel syndrome.

should not be confused with

carpel,

which

CE

catastrophic

comes from

The

adjective

catastrophic

which was origin-

catastrophe

refers to the female reproductive organ in a

ally used in Greek drama to describe the

flower:

denouement of a tragedy. The word should

These blooms are notable for their

prominent carpels and colourful petals.

◆

The French phrase

means

.

tragic events:

kah

carte blanche

blanche

`complete

carte

freedom

or

authority to do whatever one thinks is right'.

He was given carte blanche to do

what he wanted.

The literal French meaning of `blank document'. ◆

case

Case

carte blanche

is

is very often loosely used to mean

`state of affairs, the truth' in sentences where it is either redundant or could be

.

replaced by simpler or more specific wording:

.

Is it the case that you are his aunt?

could be changed to:

Are you his aunt?

Teenage pregnancies are now less common than was the case ten years ago

changed to: . . .

.

could be

than they were ten years ago.

The expression is acceptable in sentences like:

is used as a conjunction: .

This rule applies in your case.

◆ In case

The use of , contexts.

CASH?

castor

or

caster.

Finely granulated white sugar is usually although the spelling

castor

is also found. The medicinal or lu-

bricating oil, spelt with an

catalyst

A

castor oil,

is, however, always

o.

is a scientific term that

chemical reaction though itself remaining chemically unchanged. It is also used as a

.

metaphor to apply to a person or event that, by its action, provokes significant change:

The shooting of Archduke Ferdinand acted as the catalyst for the outbreak of World War I.

Overuse of the word

catalyst

is disliked by

some.

This word, which describes an

inflammation of the throat and nasal passages, is sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the single

In Joseph Heller's novel

Catch

published in 1961, the catch in question

was that airmen could be excused from flying missions only if they were of unsound mind, but a request to be excused from

flying

missions

was

a

sign

of

a

concern for personal safety in the face of danger and therefore evidence of a rational mind, so it was impossible to escape flying missions. A

catch-22 situation

is any such circular dilemma or predicament from which there is no escape, and is often extended to any situation or problem where the victim feels that it is impossible benefit or make the

to

or

for:

.

is followed by the The leisure centre

Catholic catholic or

? The word

catholic,

with a lower-case c-, is an adjective mean-

.

ing `general, wide-ranging, or comprehensive':

It

is

a

catholic

anthology

which

includes poems by Shelley, Auden, and Allen Ginsberg. Catholic,

with a capital, as a noun

.

.

or adjective, usually refers to the Roman Catholic Church:

He's a good Catholic.

As some `high' Anglicans prefer to refer to themselves as Catholics, it is advisable to use the term when speaking in a specifically theological context.

They go to a Catholic school.

◆

catalyst

applies to a substance which speeds up a

catarrh

22,

caters to [or for] the needs of the local people.

? For the senses `a swivel-

spelling may be either

sugar

catch-22

cater

from which sugar may be shaken', the

sugar,

Do you remember that catastrophic dinner

party when I burnt the casserole?

Take your

ling wheel on furniture' and `a container

caster

◆ It is often used informally for quite minor disasters: .

preposition

or

or

the catastrophic earthquake in

a personal . torightgaindecision. , with no clause: . is acceptable only in informal cater The verb

cash CACHE caster castor see

Mexico City.

in case it rains

just in case

mac just in case

.

be applied to extremely severe disasters and

Both words are pronounced [ paÆl].

t

and the

rrh.

Roman Catholic

cavalry

or

Calvary

?

sometimes confused.

These Cavalry

words

are

is used to

refer to soldiers trained to fight on horseback and the branch of the army that uses armoured vehicles.

Calvary

is the hill near

Jerusalem where Christ was crucified.

caviar caviare or

? Both of these spellings

are acceptable for the word which describes the salted roe of the sturgeon.

CE

see

AD and BC.

cede

cede seed or

50 ? These two verbs, which are

pronounced the same, should not be con-

.

fused. to':

means `surrender' or `give way

Cede

.

The

match.

defending

champion

ceded

the

The President ceded the point.

should not be confused with

.

seed,

It

which

means `scatter seed in', `initiate', or `rank a

.

sportsperson as a seed': the

field.

This

.

money

economic recovery.

ceiling

Ceiling

.

The farmer seeded will

help

to

seed

seeded tennis players.

is frequently used, particu-

larly in economic jargon, to mean `an upper limit':

The

organization

is

urging

the

Government to put a ceiling on rent rises.

As the word

ceiling,

in its literal meaning, is

in constant use, it can sound odd to speak of increasing

or

able ceiling,

.

reducing a ceiling,

and so on:

an

unwork-

Sir Gordon Borrie

. . . said, `If money and manpower ceilings were to become too tight in relation to the demands put upon my office, then the taxpayer . . . would be likely to pay the price in other ways'

celeb

(The

Guardian).

This abbreviated form of

celebrity

since the 1990s but remains essentially a

.

slang term and should be avoided in formal contexts:

.

The usual posse of celebs turned up She's a bit of a celeb

around here.

celibate

Celibacy

means `the state of being

unmarried, often because of a religious vow'.

Celibate

is used as a noun to describe

.

a person living in a state of celibacy and, by implication, chastity: find

it

difficult

problems,

to

give

As celibates, priests advice

and as an adjective:

.

on

marital

She never

married but chose a celibate life.

The word is sometimes used to mean `abstaining from sexual intercourse': . . Careful users consider this usage to be incorrect. ◆

After twenty years of

marriage, they decided to live a celibate life together

Celsius centigrade ,

or

Celsius

Celtic

Fahrenheit

The word

Fahrenheit

? All

these terms denote scales of temperature.

Celtic,

referring to a

language or people of Scotland, Wales, Ireland, or Brittany, is usually pronounced [keltik], with a hard initial

C-.

The variant pronunciation [ tik], with a soft initial -, is most frequently associated with the Scottish football team of that name.

◆

sel

C

censure censor ,

censure sure

and

.

or

censer

? The verbs

are often confused.

Cen-

means `blame, criticize strongly, or

condemn': the

censor

brutality

The judge censured them for of

the

attack.

Censor

means

`examine letters, publications, films, etc., and remove any material which is consid-

.

ered obscene, libellous, or contrary to government or official policy': mail is censored.

has been heard with increasing frequency

for his birthday bash.

centigrade scale, on which water freezes at 0 and boils at 100, is now known as the Celsius scale, to avoid confusion with other units of measurement. and should always begin with a capital letter, being the surnames of the scientists who devised the scales.

All prisoners'

The person who examines

letters, etc., in this way is also known as a censor.

The adjective from is and from , . should not be confused with the noun , meaning `a vessel used for burning incense'.

◆

censor

censorial

censure censorious Censor

censer

centenary centennial or

and

centennial

? Both

.

centenary

are used to mean a hundred-

year anniversary:

1982 was the centenary of

Joyce's birth. Centennial

is used more fre-

.

quently in American English and can also be used as an adjective: celebration.

a

centennial

The recommended pronunciation of is [sen aÆrõÆ], although some people pronounce it [sen aÆrõÆ]. is pronounced [sen õÆaÆl].

◆

centenary

teen ten

Centennial

centigrade CELSIUS centre middle

RENHEIT?

see

or

?

ten

,

CENTIGRADE or FAH-

Centre

and

middle

.

.

are

sometimes used virtually synonymously:

The Celsius and centigrade scales are the

Put it in the centre/middle of the table. Centre

same; the degree Celsius is now the prin-

is used as a precise geometrical term:

cipal unit of temperature in both scientific

centre of the circle,

and nonscientific contexts.

often used generally in situations where the

whereas

middle

the

is more

The Fahrenheit scale, on which water freezes at geometric centre is not obvious or measur. 32 and boils at 212, remains in informal use, able: . is also used to mean a place where particularly with reference to the weather: . ◆ . . The activity is concentrated: .

◆

the middle of the sea

Centre

The temperature reached the eighties today

shopping centre Middle

51

chain reaction

is used to mean the point equally distant from osity: . extremes, either literally: . , or fig. uratively: . . certainty or certitude? Both these nouns She presided over the dinner table with

middle name

a ceremonious air

middle-of-the-road politics

centre on centre around or

.

centre

can be used with

place)

at:

theory.

.

or

on

? The verb

upon

or (of a

His argument centres on Marxist

The European Parliament is centred

at Brussels.

mean `the state of being certain'.

.

Certainty

is by far the more frequent, and is used in a

.

wider range of contexts: certainty

a

feeling

of

the certainty of death. Certitude

is a formal or literary word, largely re-

The expressions and stricted to the state of mind of somebody :. who is certain: . . .. are frequently used, although they are disliked by ◆ may also be used as a countable noun: many careful users as being illogical, because, it . , . is is argued, a centre cannot be anything. not used in this sense. Since this usage is so widely objected to, it is There are two pronunciations for best avoided. One alternative is to use the more cervical this word, both of which are perfectly . acceptable instead: Æ l] and [seÆr ka Æ l]. acceptable: [ vika ◆

centre

around

War

round

centre

The film centres around the Vietnam

Her hobbies centred around the arts

Nothing could disturb his

certitude

Certainty

She may win but it's not a certainty Certitude

around

revolve around

Everything

revolves around the children in this house.

centrifugal

There are two pronunciations

for this word. The traditional pronunciation stresses the second syllable [sentrifyooÆ l], but the alternative pronunciation ga Æ l] is widely used in contem[sentrifyooga porary English.

centuries

võÅ

ser

cession cessation or

? These two nouns

should not be confused. from the verb tion

.

cede,

Cession

is derived from the verb

`stop':

is derived

meaning `yield';

.

cease,

the cession of territory

of warfare.

cessa-

meaning

the cessation

Both words are largely restricted to formal contexts.

◆

People often become confused

about when centuries start and end and how one should refer to them. As there was no year AD 0, we calculate in hundred years from the year AD 1. This means that the twentieth century ended on 31 December 2000 and the twenty-first century began on 1 January 2001.

CESSION or SESSION?

See also

cession session or

yielding (see

?

is the act of

Cession

CESSION or CESSATION?); a

.

session

is a meeting or a period of time devoted to a

.

specific activity: erty

.

.

the cession of rights/prop-

a parliamentary session

a recording

◆ Despite the reckoning above, 31 December ◆ The two nouns are identical in pronunciation 1999 was popularly accepted as marking the and should not be misspelt; is the more end of the twentieth century and 1 January frequent in usage. 2000 the beginning of the twenty-first century. session

The court is in session.

session

See also

cereal

or

cf. ff.

MILLENNIUM.

serial

or

? These two words are

sometimes confused. A

cereal

that produces grain for food: cereals.

A

serial

.

is a plant breakfast

in several parts and at regular intervals: television serial.

ceremonial ceremonious or

tives

.

is a novel or play produced

ceremonial

times confused.

a

and

ceremonious

by ceremony or ritual':

.

are some-

means `marked

The Queen wears

her crown only on ceremonial occasions like the

opening

of

Parliament.

47.

.

? The abbreviation

means `compare':

The abbreviation

.

ff.

cf.

Ceremonious

means `devoted to formality and ceremony' and usually carries a slightly pejorative suggestion of overpunctiliousness or pomp-

(from Latin

cf. table on page

stands for `folios

following' and means `see subsequent pages or lines':

chafe

or

.

For more details, see page 172 ff.

chaff

? The verb

chafe

means

chaff

means

`rub'; the old-fashioned verb

? The adjec-

Ceremonial

confer)

`tease':

These boots chafe my ankles.

was chaffed by her colleagues.

.

She

The two verbs

should not be confused.

is also a noun, meaning `husks (of wheat, etc.)', and is used figuratively in the phrase , meaning `separate the good from the bad'.

◆ Chaff

to

separate the wheat from the chaff

chain reaction

Chain reaction

is an expres-

sion from scientific terminology that refers

chair

52

to a chemical or nuclear reaction which creates

energy

or

products

that

cause

changeable .

This word, meaning `liable to

changeable weather,

change':

misspelt. Note the

to mean any series of events where each one

retained before the suffix -able.

.

sets off the next one, though this usage is disliked by some:

The shooting started a

chain reaction which culminated in the street riots.

chair

e

which is

change

SPELLING 3.

See also

chaperon chaperone or

? An older wo-

man who accompanies a young unmarried woman on social occasions is known as a

The noun

chair

is sometimes used to

denote a person presiding over a meeting,

chaperon

the final

sexist

◆

terms

chairman

and

chairwoman

and the controversial neologism

chairper-

or a

chaperone.

The noun, and its

derived verb, may be spelt with or without

committee, etc., to avoid the potentially

.

of

is sometimes

further reaction. It is now more often used

e.

The usual pronunciation for both spellings is [ eÆroÆn]. shap

character The word can be used This usage is disliked by some people. of the distinguishing qualities that make up See also NON-SEXIST TERMS; PERSON. people or things, of people with The verb , meaning `preside over', is ac- individual unusual traits, of people portrayed in works ceptable to most users: . of fiction, and of moral firmness and in. tegrity: .

son:

◆

The new chair will be elected next week.

character

chair

The leader of the Union

chaired the conference

challenge

quent use of the word

.

Such behaviour did not seem con-

Some people object to the frechallenge

in the sense

. .

of `stimulate' or, as a noun, `something that is stimulating or demanding': children need challenging work. presents a challenge.

Gifted

The job

sistent with what I knew of her character.

. .

It

is a lively town with a great deal of character. Everyone know him

.

±

he's a real character.

Mrs Gamp is a minor character in

Chuzzlewit.

Martin

Anyone who takes this job on

will need character and determination.

The verb sometimes means little more ◆ is often used vaguely in such phrases . than `interest; excite': . as: . . . . Where it challenged is a vogue word is used to mean no more than `type' or `quality', used to form euphemisms for disability would be better replaced. . . or disadvantage: ◆

challenge

Character

The film challenged us

visually and musically

the

intimate character of our conversation

Challenged

physically challenged

See also

the strange character of this declaration

programmes of an intellectual character

ABLED; POLITICAL CORRECTNESS.

character

charisma

The word

was origin-

The use of this term is widely satirized by ally used only in theological contexts to opponents of political correctness, who have refer to supernatural spiritual gifts of healcoined such phrases as , ing, speaking in tongues, etc. A `balding'. It is often used facetiously or ironically: is one where emphasis is placed on . ... the exercise of these gifts. and are now often used to describe a ( ). . person with unusual qualities of leadership, ± , ( personal appeal, and magnetism, though ). . care should be taken to avoid overusing these words: . ( ). . ( ). ± ◆ The word is sometimes used more , ( loosely to mean `charming or showing a confident ). efficiency': . (advertisement, chamois This word may cause problems ). with pronunciation and spelling. The ante◆

charisma

follicularly challenged

charismatic

church

Robert Lindsay

is about to play the nasally

challenged Cyrano de Bergerac in the West End Daily Telegraph

The Borrowers are a vertically

challenged family

6in tall to be exact Sunday

Times

Charisma

charismatic

Financially challenged souls cannot afford

to cast aside the clothes that have been key fash-

Lange is planning to run a

ion investments over the past three years Daily

presidential-style election campaign, based on

Telegraph

his own charisma

The usual assumption made about

those still watching the TV of their youth

that

Sunday Times

charismatic

they're sad socially challenged creatures Sunday Times

Our client . . . is looking for two

charismatic sales managers

Daily

Telegraph

lope

chamois

leather

is pronounced [shamwah]. The

chamois

made from the skin of this

charted chartered or

?A

tant/surveyor/engineer/etc.

chartered accoun-

is a person who

animal or a sheep is usually pronounced

has the required professional qualifications

[shami].

and experience. A

chartered yacht

is a hired

53 yacht.

.

with

should not be confused

Chartered

charted

(derived from the word

chart):

charted territory.

childish

cheque check? or

A

cheque

is an order to a

bank to pay money from a person's account.

is the spelling preferred in

Similarly, the adjective , describing American English, but is never preferred something that has not been mapped or surveyed: to in British English. . , should not be misspelt as ◆ Both spellings are pronounced [chek]. . chequered Note the spelling of this ad◆

Check

uncharted

cheque

uncharted waters

unchartered

chat .

The verb

with:

or

jective, meaning `varied; marked by many

with] his friend on the

changes in fortune', most frequently used

is followed by

chat

[or

chatting to

to

telephone.

in such phrases as a

and

The advent of on the Internet, . In British English the adenabling people to communicate directly with jective is spelt ; is the others via a computer network, has brought a American English spelling. whole new linguistic dimension to , with parThis word, meaning `light ticipants adopting a radically abbreviated style of chiaroscuro and shade' (usually in reference to drawwriting that makes much use of coded phrases and ings and paintings), is often misprosymbols: . :-) (meaning `got to go, The correct pronunciation is talk to you later', followed by a symbol indicating nounced. Å ]. [kiaros o happiness). ◆

chat rooms

chequered career

chequered past

chequered

checkered

chat

got to go ttyl

kyoor

See also

E-MAIL; SMILEY; TEXT MESSAGING.

chattering classes

The

chattering classes

are educated middle- and upper-class lib-

.

erals who frequently air their opinions in the media:

[Rupert]

Murdoch is contemp-

tuous of the views of those to whom he and

. . .

Andrew

`chattering

Neil

obsessively

(The

classes'

refer

as

Bookseller).

the

This

vogue term is generally used in a derogatory manner.

chauvinism

`excessive

or

chauvinism

fanatical

means

patriotism'

Chauvin,

and

a soldier of

Napoleon's army who was noted for his overzealous patriotism. It is used more loosely to describe any prejudiced belief in the superiority of a group or cause, particularly in the term The media

or

. . .

male chauvinism:

fanned the flames of male

chauvinism, stereotyping all women who took a serious interest in the issues as bra-burners

(Elaine Storkey,

What's Right with Femin-

eagle chicks.

.

.

A

is a type of domestic fowl and

chicken chicken

.

? A chick is a young bird:

The chicks have hatched.

.

is the meat of this fowl:

geese and chickens.

.

He keeps

roast chicken.

Either

noun may be applied to the young of a domestic fowl: chickens].

[or

a hen and her chicks

is also used offensively as a slang term for a young woman. This is now dated, although the derivatives and , respectively denoting a film and book aimed at a female audience, are relatively recent coinages: . These phrases are considered derogatory by some women. ◆ Chick

chick flick

The word

comes from Nicolas

.

chick chicken

chick lit

It's a

romantic chick flick that won't appeal to many men.

chihuahua

Note the unusual spelling of

this word, which denotes a breed of tiny dog. These dogs are named after the state of

Chihuahua

in Mexico; the noun is some-

times written with a capital

C-.

is usually pronounced [chi wah] or [chi waÆ].

◆ Chihuahua

wah

wah

◆ Some people, encountering the word for the chilblain A sore that is caused by exposure . The first time in the context of male chauvinism, to the cold is known as a wrongly assume to be synonymous with word is sometimes misspelt, the most com:. . The mon error being to retain the second of word should not be used in this sense unless which has been lost in the formation of preceded by . this compound noun.

ism).

chilblain

chauvinist

sexist

Her husband's an awful chauvinist

l

chill

cheat

male

The verb

preposition

cheated of cheat on

of

[or

or

cheat

.

is followed by the

out of:

She had been

out of] her inheritance.

To

one's husband or wife is to be

unfaithful to them.

childish

or

childlike

?

Childish

is almost

always used in a pejorative sense to indicate

.

immaturity and the less endearing characteristics of childhood: tolerate

his

selfish

She

behaviour

refused

and

to

childish

chill outbreaks of temper. like

childish

54

.

The drawings looked

scribbles.

is usually

Childlike

.

chronic

Chronic

.

means `long-standing; per-

manently present':

.

She has suffered from

applied to the attractive qualities of child-

chronic asthma all her life.

hood, such as enthusiasm and innocence:

chronic problem in the Third World.

Malnutrition is a

It is often confused, in its medical context, with , which means `intense and of sudden onset': . [not ] chill This word, meaning `relax' or `take . Because is so often used of pains time out', is a vogue term of 1990s origin, and illnesses that are very bad it is also sometimes probably coined in imitation of COOL: . used in informal British English to mean `bad' or It is `dreadful': . ` ' best restricted to informal contexts. (Shaw, ). ◆ It is often encountered in the form , in which case it may also mean `calm down': . chute or shoot? means `slide' or . `slope' and is also an abbreviated form of A is a `parachute': . . quiet, restful place in a club where dancers may relax. means `to fire a weapAt 85, she retains a childlike curiosity about

◆

her environment.

acute

I suddenly got an acute

shoulder

chronic pain in my

chronic

I

plan to stay at home tonight, just chilling.

Drank! My word! Something chronic

Pygmalion

chill out

Chute

Everyone needs to chill out occasionally.

yelling at me and chill out.

Stop

chillout room

Three sacks of grain came down

He opened the chute as soon as he

the chute.

Chinese

left the plane. Shoot

.

Chinese

or from China':

as an adjective means `of Chinese writing;

it is also

.

used as a singular or plural noun for a person or people of Chinese nationality:

took a party of Chinese around London.

There is a Chinese studying at my college.

The singular expression sounds odd to some people, who prefer to say . The term is out-of-date, derogatory, and offensive.

◆

a Chinese

a Chinese man/

woman

Chinaman

chiropodist

This word, describing a per-

son who treats and looks after people's feet, Æ dist] or [shiromay be pronounced [kiropo

Æ dist], po

although the first of these is pre-

ferred by many users.

cholesterol

He shot several

Both words are pronounced [shoot]. Chutzpah

or

chutzpa

is a Yiddish

expression now in general use which, in one word, conveys `cheek, gall, effrontery, audacity,

cool

nerve,

brazen

self-confi-

dence, arrogance'.

◆ In , Leo Rosten writes `Chutzpa is that quality enshrined in a man who, having killed his mother and father, throws himself on the mercy of the court because he is an orphan.' It is pronounced [ paÆ]. The Joys of Yiddish

circumstances

khuuts

In

the

under the circumstances

This word is sometimes mis-

.

The dog shot out of the

pipe.

◆

. chutzpah I

.

on', `to travel quickly', etc.:

times at his enemy

different ways.

circumstances

and

are used in slightly

In the circumstances

is more

spelt. The most frequent error is the omis-

general, and merely acknowledges the ex-

sion of the second

istence of a situation:

e,

often silent in speech.

Remember also that the first syllable is not - as in .

◆

chlo

chlorine

chord cord or

chol

- and

stances

? These spellings are some-

times confused. In the musical or mathe-

.

although in

.

cannot be blamed for stealing food.

the liver, is sometimes misspelt. Note par-

struck

vocal cords

.

the

right

chord.

umbilical cord

is

h.

The word

which describes any type of string is spelt nylon cord.

Under

. cirrhosis

the word is nearly

always spelt without the cord:

He was starving and under the circumstances

either spelling is acceptable,

He

the anatomical sense: cord,

.

suggests more of a connection be-

tween the circumstances and the action:

In

chord. Chord

also used when describing an emotional

spinal

In the circumstances

◆ is more often used than in a negative context: . .

matical senses the spelling is reaction:

.

you had better do nothing. Under the circum-

Christian name see FIRST NAME, CHRISTIAN NAME, FORENAME, GIVEN NAME or BAPTISMAL NAME?

in

Under no circumstances will I allow it

This word, denoting a disease of

ticularly the -rrh- combination.

cite, site,

or

sight

? These words may

occasionally be confused since they are all pronounced in the same way [sõÅt]. Cite

.

means `to give something as an example', `to order', or `to praise':

.

The prisoner cited

several cases in his defence.

The two men

55 .

were cited for their bravery. Site

locate something': sited

in

that

corner.

means `to

The memorial will be

.

Sight

someone or something':

means `to see They sighted a

or

.

? In general

a city

is a place

that is larger and more important than a town:

◆ This last use was at one time disliked, having no connection with the recognition of rights, but it is now widely used and accepted. It should, however, be avoided when the assertion is not particularly forceful or controversial, when , , , or sometimes just , is often better. maintain

ship on the far horizon.

city town

clause

She had only lived in small towns

allege contend

clandestine

say

This word, meaning `secret',

before and was apprehensive about moving to

is generally stressed on the second syllable

the city.

[klandestin], although it is acceptable to

The British `rule' that the possession of a cathe- stress the word on the first syllable [ dral confers city status on a town is misleading. It is deÆstin]. the monarch who grants a town the right to call itself a city, and though cities very often do have classic or classical? There is some overlap and , but cathedrals this is not always the case. Cambridge, in the meanings of for example, was granted city status and has no they have distinct separate meanings. means `typical of or unusually fine in its cathedral. . .

◆

klan-

classic

classical

Clas-

civic civil ,

refer

to

citizenship

meanings. centre,

civilian

or

? These words all

but

have

.

different

means `of a city':

Civic

.

sic

civic

or is used of the attitudes of citizens

class':

classic symptoms of diabetes

example of 1960s pop art. Classical

a classic

essentially

means `of the classics, i.e. the literature,

.

history, and philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome':

a classical education.

is also used to mean `elegant and unlikely relates to citizens of a state, rather than a . . to date': , and , or is used as distinct from city: . . `definitive, absolute': . criminal, religious, or military: . ( ). . . refers While the are the works of ancient Greece to a person who is not a member of the and Rome, is any work of high standard armed forces, police, or other official uniand enduring quality, whatever its date: . formed state organization: . . . , too, can suggest elegance, but there is ◆ is also used to mean `polite or courteous': . a definite link with the standards and forms of . ancient Greece and Rome. , in its sense, is the music of about 1750± clad or clothed? means the same as narrowest 1830, which is characterized by its formal beauty. but, except in expressions like The term is, however, widely applied to all serious or , is considered archaic or music, as distinct from jazz, folk, and popular poetic. It can be used of things other than music. , or of clothes clothes: . to their city:

a sense of civic pride. Civil

◆ Classic

a classic dress

civil rights

civil law

civil marriage

classic design

Your behaviour was a dirty

civil defence

trick of classic dimensions . . .

Civilian

The Guardian

classics

a classic

the jazz

The major had

classic `St Louis Blues'

been a bank manager in civilian life

Classical

Civil

The proprietor was very civil to us

Classical music

Clad

clothed

thinly

clad

ill-clad

rose-clad trellises

where the note of archaism is appropriate: clad

clothed

is used:

in black.

, not :.

◆ Clothed

of

.

armour,

in

naked

clad

She was clothed completely

, may be used as the opposite

With that paunch, he looks sexier

clothed these days

claim

The

.

verb

.

means

`demand

The dismissed work-

ers are claiming redundancy pay;

`take some-

.

thing one rightfully owns or that is one's due':

He claimed his father's estate.

claimed

the

.

prize,

She

and `assert forcefully,

especially when faced with possible contradiction':

A

clause

is a group of words, in-

cluding a finite verb, within a compound or complex sentence. A

main clause

can stand

alone as a sentence in its own right; it is expanded by a clause

subordinate clause.

A

relative

modifies the subject or object of a

In the sentence . , is the main clause and is the subordinate clause. The sentence . contains two main clauses. Relative clauses may be defining (identifying) or non-defining (non-identifying). They are usually introduced by , etc. A defining clause provides essential information; a

sentence. claim

something as a right':

.

. clause

but for ordinary dress,

He claims that there have been no

composers of genius since Beethoven.

◆

She stayed at home because it

was raining She stayed at home because it was raining

She stayed at home but

her sister went out

that, which, who

claustrophobia

56

non-defining clause provides parenthetical information. The clause is nondefining in the sentence . and defining in . . The first sentence implies that she is the only sister the speaker has; the second sentence implies that the speaker's other sisters are not coming home for Christmas. who lives in India

My sister, who lives

in India, is coming home for Christmas

My sister who lives in India is

coming home for Christmas

clicheÂs

The word

Â, cliche

referring to a

phrase or idiom that has become stale

. .

through overuse, is almost always used pejoratively. Examples of clicheÂs are:

.

from time immemorial last but not least.

as old as the hills

◆ Not all fixed phrases are necessarily bad. Some clicheÂs were quite apt when first used but have become hackneyed over the years. One can hardly avoid using the occasional clicheÂ, but clicheÂs that are inefficient in conveying their See also COMMA 3; THAT or WHICH? or are inappropriate to the occasion claustrophobia The fear of being in con- meaning should be avoided. fined spaces is known as . There are various categories of clicheÂ. There are Note the - in the spelling. overworked metaphors and similes: . . clean or cleanse? While functions as , overused . idioms: . adjective, noun, adverb, and verb, is , the clicheÂs of public speakers: . used only as a verb. The two words are . almost synonymous but has more of . , and the quotation (or a suggestion of very thorough cleaning usually misquotation) from the Bible or Shakewhich also purifies: . . .. speare: . . Journalists are perhaps the worst . ◆ has a more formal sound than and offenders. To them all countries at war are , all battles are , and all denials is sometimes used figuratively to mean `purify', as . it is in the older translations of the Bible; . Many clicheÂs have become such through many years of use. But it can take a very short time for a (Psalm 51:2). newly-coined phrase to become a clicheÂ. Some cleft lip , referring to a congenital modern examples are: . split in the upper lip, is preferred to the claustrophobia

claustro

leave no

stone unturned

clean

as good as gold

to add insult to injury

cleanse

a blessing in

disguise

someone

who needs no introduction

cleanse

in no uncertain terms

without fear or favour

I'll just clean the flat

quickly

pride goes before a fall

The wound must be cleansed before

a poor thing,

but mine own

a dressing is applied

Cleanse

strife-

clean

torn

Wash

pitched

cate-

gorical

me throughly from mine iniquity, and cleanse me from my sin

Cleft lip

former term

harelip,

which is now consid-

ered offensive and should be avoided.

clench clinch or

sometimes

.

The

verb

her hand.

The verb

.

.

clench

means `close tightly' or `grasp firmly': to clench one's teeth

She clenched the key in

clinch

is most frequently

used in the figurative sense of `settle definitely':

time

.

to clinch a deal.

.

sixty-four thousand dollar

.

at the end of the day

keep a low profile

game of two halves

? These two words are

confused.

.

question

.

client customer or

? A

.

at this moment in

a level playing field

a

is someone

client

who receives the services of a professional person or organization, while a

.

customer

is

someone who buys goods from a shop or other trading organization:

had several showbusiness clients.

.

The solicitor She was a

◆ The literal meaning of the verb is `secure noun for regular clients is , by bending over the protruding point of a driven ◆andA collective this word is also sometimes used for custonail'. is also used as a noun and verb to refer particularly if there is a suggestion of superto two people holding each other tightly with the mers, arms in boxing or wrestling or in an amorous iority in the shop or its customers: . embrace. . The rather formal word is also sometimes used in place of , clergyman or clergywoman? see NONwhen they are regarded as bestowing the favour SEXIST TERMS. of their custom on an establishment. clever The adjective is followed by regular customer at the fish market.

clinch

clientele

Clinch

The customers

at the Co-op have less exacting tastes than the clientele of Harrods

pa-

tron

clever

the preposition

at

subject, an activity, etc.': clever at maths,

.

in the sense `clever at a

and by

with

He's not very

`clever with a tool, one's hands, etc.': clever with a needle.

.

in the sense She's

clientele

customer

The preferred pronunciation of

.

this word, which means `clients' (see

or

CUSTOMER?):

CLIENT

an exclusive clientele,

is

[kleeontel]. Note also the spelling, particularly the -ele (not -elle) ending.

57

climactic climatic or

? These two words

. .

have completely different meanings. is the adjective from

mactic

climax:

CliThis

aria marks the climactic point of the opera. Climatic

is the adjective from

climate:

The

climatic conditions are unsuitable for outdoor activities.

Both words should be distinguished from the noun , which means `a crucial stage in life; the menopause or corresponding male equivalent'.

◆

climacteric

climate

The word

has been ex-

climate

tended in meaning to embrace not just

.

the atmosphere as regards the weather, but atmosphere in general: hope.

a climate of

It is used rather more specifically of

the prevailing state of affairs or the atti-

.

.

tudes and opinions of people at a particular time:

the economic climate

the moral climate of America

the change in

(Franklin D.

Roosevelt).

climatic clinch clique

CLIMACTIC or CLIMATIC? see CLENCH or CLINCH? see

The noun

clique,

coherent .

not interchangeable: . . . . In all these compounds is pronounced [kloÅs] and is pronounced [kloÅzd]. a close shave

shop agreement

at close quarters

a closed-

closed-circuit

television

close

closed

close proximity

Proximity

.

means `being

close or near in space or time': convenient.

As `close' is part of the meaning

.

of the word, it is never necessary to add close

before

proximity:

made me feel uneasy.

His close proximity

TAUTOLOGY. clothed see CLAD or CLOTHED? See also

clout

Some people object to the overuse of

.

the noun

clout

power':

financial clout

.

to mean `influence; political The union doesn't

carry much clout with the government.

co-

The prefix

co-

is increasingly attached

users prefer to retain the hyphen when the

often used pejora-

people, may be pronounced to rhyme with

. . (see also HYPHEN 1). Some dictionaries retain the hyphen in

prefix is attached to a word beginning with o-:

co-ordinate

co-operate

jointly with another: . The first of these pronunciations, [kleek], is .something, but the spellings closer to the French original and is preferred by etc., are acceptable. many users. or

tick.

words referring to a person who does

◆

Clone

is a word taken from genetic

science, where it means `the asexually, and often artificially, produced offspring of a parent, which is genetically identical to the parent, or a group of such offspring, which are genetically identical to each other'. Despite the dislike of some people, the word is now used popularly to

.

suggest anything very similar to something else:

Marketing the Arts

magazine, tabloid size, a clone of

(Daily

Telegraph).

mously with

or

Campaign

It is also used synony-

lookalike:

Presley clones.

close closed

.

is a new

a

dozen

Elvis

? Confusion between these

used in compounds, especially

close/closed

(the period of time when the killing

events':

is pre-

closed season.

and

closed

are

coarse cloth.

means `progression of

in the course of time,

means `hunt or pursue';

course

or `route': The verb

coursing

is

the sport in which hares are hunted with dogs.

[not ] is the activity of catching freshwater fish other than salmon or trout.

◆ Coarse

cocoon

course

second

.

fishing

This word, which means `protec-

its cocoon, c

The butterfly emerged from

is sometimes misspelt. Note the

and the -oo-.

coherent cohesive or

hesive

herent

close season

close

course

.

means `rough or

coarse behaviour

The ship steered a difficult course.

cohere,

In most other compounds

. .

The noun

den). In British English

◆

? These words are some-

Coarse

crude':

of certain animals, birds, or fish is forbidferred; in American English,

or

times confused.

tive covering':

two words sometimes arises when they are season

coarse course .

co-author

coauthor, costar,

co-star

clone

This

usage is best restricted to informal contexts.

without a hyphen in modern usage. Some

tively to denote a small exclusive group of teak

Its proxi-

mity to the station made the house particularly

?

Coherent

and

co-

have the same roots in the verb to but they are used differently.

.

.

Co-

means `logically consistent; compre-

hensible':

a coherent argument

speech. Cohesive

coherent

means `clinging or sticking

cohort

58

.

A can only be of lions; a only of fish and other aquatic animals. Others, such as , have a more general use. tively of anything that holds together or has The main problem with collective nouns is unity: . whether to treat them as singular or plural. With . nouns there is no choice. Class collectives cohort This word, meaning `united group some always take a singular verb: . of people', is encountered with increasing .Words for people in general or a particular frequency in the singular, referring to an . . class of person: , take a plural individual supporter or accomplice: . verb: . . It is with . . . groupnounssuchas: This usage is more common in American that problems arise. American English treats them English than in British English and is as singular: . but avoided by careful users. British English treats them as either singular or ◆ A is also a group of people sharing a plural: . . For particularstatisticalcharacteristic: . the use of singular and plural verbs see individual entries and SINGULAR or PLURAL? together': mortar,

the

cohesive

properties

of

the

pride

school

but is more frequently used figuraUnion

members

should

think

herd

of

themselves as a cohesive group

My luggage is

missing

He

has emerged as a loyal cohort of the President.

folk

the police

The clergy are up in arms about it audience

jury

committee

The Government is undecided

cohort

to compare the

The Government is/are undecided

exam results of children within the various cohorts.

coiffure usually

This word, meaning `hairstyle', is pronounced

[kwahfewr].

This

should be clearly distinguished from the pronunciation of

coiffeur

meaning `hairsty-

list' [kwahfer].

◆ Note the different endings of these nouns and also the - - in the spelling. ff

colander CALENDAR CALENDER collaborate cooperate see

DER?

,

or

rate

and

or

? Both

cooperate

.

COLAN-

collabo-

mean `work together for

a common purpose':

The two scientists

have collaborated/cooperated for years on various projects. Collaborate

has the extra sense

of working with or assisting an enemy,

.

particularly an enemy occupier of one's country:

The French politicians who had

collaborated with the Nazis were discredited after the war.

is more likely to be used of a cooperative enterprise of an intellectual or artistic nature: people might in writing a book but in organizing a party. The verb is followed by the preposition or : . [or ] . ◆ Collaborate

collaborate

cooperate

collaborate

in

on

They have collaborated in

on a

number of musicals

collective nouns troop,

.

.

The term

applies to such nouns as:

.

which are usually followed by

another noun:

.

a flock of sheep,

.

gang of

and

orchestra

.

crowd,

.

.

to other

nouns which apply to groups, such as: audience

.

collective noun flock

and to `class'

.

collectives, which include various things of

.

a certain kind:

◆

furniture

cutlery.

underwear

Some collective nouns have very restricted uses.

greengrocery

COLLECTIVE NOUNS a herd of a shrewdness of a pace of a cete of a battery of a sloth of a colony of a swarm of a singular of a herd of a caravan of a clowder of a drove of a brood of a chattering of a covert of a flight of a bask of a murder of a herd of a pack of a school of a dole of a team of a convocation of a parade of a gang of a business of a charm of a shoal of a skulk of an army of a gaggle of a tribe of a cloud of

antelopes apes asses badgers barracudas bears beavers bees boars buffaloes camels cats cattle chickens choughs coots cormorants crocodiles crows deer dogs dolphins doves ducks eagles elephants elks ferrets finches fish foxes frogs geese goats grasshoppers

59 a bazaar of a husk of a cast of an array of a brood of a siege of a bloat of a string of a pack of a troop of a kindle of a desert of an exaltation of a leap of a pride of a plague of a tittering of a sord of a labour of a troop of a barren of a watch of a family of a parliament of a pandemonium of a covey of a muster of a rookery of a nye of a litter of a congregation of a school of a bevy of a bury of a colony of an unkindness of a crash of a building of a pod of a flock of a walk of a host of a dray of a murmuration of a flight of a mutation of an ambush of a knot of a rafter of a turn of a gam of a rout of a fall of a descent of a zeal of

guillemots hares hawks hedgehogs hens herons hippopotamuses horses hounds kangaroos kittens lapwings larks leopards lions locusts magpies mallards moles monkeys mules nightingales otters owls parrots partridges peacocks penguins pheasants pigs plovers porpoises quails rabbits rats ravens rhinoceros rooks seals sheep snipe sparrows squirrels starlings swallows thrushes tigers toads turkeys turtles whales wolves woodcocks woodpeckers zebras

COLLECTORS

COLLECTORS AND ENTHUSIASTS

The

right-hand column lists the field of activity that is referred to by the formal descriptive term for the relevant collector or enthusiast given in the left-hand column.

aerophilatelist ailurophile antiquary arachnologist arctophile argyrothecologist audiophile balletomane bibliomane bibliopegist bibliophile cagophilist campanologist canophilist or cynophilist cartophilist coleopterist conchologist copoclephilist cruciverbamorist cumyxaphilist deltiologist ecclesiologist entomologist ephemerist epicure errinophilist ex-librist fusilatelist gastronome gemmologist gourmet herpetologist hippophile hostelaphilist iconophilist incunabulist labeorphilist lepidopterist medallist myrmecologist notaphilist numismatist oenophile omnibologist ophiophilist orchidophilist

airmail stamps cats antiquities spiders teddy bears money boxes sound recording ballet collecting books bookbinding books keys bell-ringing dogs cigarette and chewing-gum cards beetles shells key-rings crossword puzzles matchboxes picture postcards churches insects diary-keeping good food and drink non-postage stamps bookplates phonecards good eating gems good food and drink reptiles horses pub signs engravings, prints, and pictures early printed books beer bottle labels butterflies and moths medals ants banknotes coins and medals wine buses snakes orchids

colon

60

ornithologist paroemiographer peridromophilist philatelist phillumenist philologist philometrist phonophilist plangonologist pteridophilist sericulturist speleologist steganographist stegophilist tegestologist ufologist vexillologist

colon

A

colon

birds proverbs transport tickets postage stamps matchbox labels language and literature postmarked envelopes gramophone records dolls ferns silkworms caves climbing buildings cryptography beer mats UFOs flags

introduces a clause or word

.

which amplifies, interprets, explains, or reveals what has gone before it:

.

He

was beginning to be anxious: they had been gone for five hours.

.

Only one party cares:

colonnade

Note the spelling of this noun,

meaning `row of columns', particularly the -l- (as in

column)

coloration

and the -nn-.

Note that the

of

u

is

colour

omitted in this derived form of the word,

.

which refers to a pattern or arrangement of colours: feathers.

◆

the distinctive coloration of the

The same principle applies to the noun , derived from the verb .

loration

coloured colourize

disco-

discolour

BLACK.

see

The verb

.

refers to the

colourize

process of adding colour to black-andwhite films:

the controversial practice of

colourizing classic films.

Note that the verb is

spelt -our- in British English (the American spelling is ize,

colorize),

unlike the verb

decolor-

meaning `remove the colour from',

which is spelt -or- in British and American English.

columnist

The

n

of this word is sometimes

The Thames Valley Police Authority

not sounded in speech. The pronunciation Æ mnist] is strictly correct, but [kolu Æ mist] [kolu

covers three counties: Berkshire, Buckingham-

Æis becoming increasingly common; [kolu

Labour.

lists: shire,

Its other main uses are to introduce

and

Oxfordshire,

and to introduce

lengthier quotations, often when quotation marks are not used and the quoted material is indented.

The clause preceding a colon should usually be able to stand on its own grammatically. Capitals should be used after colons only if the word following is a proper noun; if the first word of a quotation is capitalized; if the colon follows a formal salutation or brief instruction: . . . or sometimes if the material following the colon is a whole sentence or sentences expressing a complete thought. Colons are also used to introduce speech in plays . . They are used between titles and subtitles: . ; in biblical references between chapter and verse: . ; in businesscorrespondence: . . andto showthe relationship of one number to another: . . Colons are also used in books such as this to introduce examples. The use of the dash following a colon is restricted to lists, usually where each item starts on a new line and is indented. Even then the practice is old-fashioned and not recommended. ◆

To whom it

may concern:

:

Note:

Warning:

Cecily: Are you called Algernon? Alger-

non: I cannot deny it

Men Who Play God: The Story of

the Hydrogen Bomb

James 2:14±17

To:

The ratio was 2:1

See also

DASH.

Reference:

mist] reflects the pronunciation of with its silent

come come

column,

n.

The tendency to follow the verb with

and

.

is avoided by some users

and is best restricted to informal contexts: Come and tell me all about it.

comedian comedienne TERMS comic comical or

? see

.

or

not

quite

?

Comic

synonyms.

.

and

Comic

.

NON-SEXIST

comical

are

means

`of

comedy, intended to cause laughter or amusement': Comical

a comic actor

.

a comic poem.

means `having the effect of causing

laughter or amusement':

a comical sight.

Something can be , in that it is intended to be funny, even if it fails actually to arouse mirth: . . is often used in cases where the humour is unintentional: . . ◆

comic

His comic songs did not raise a smile Comical

It was comical to see their attempts to

appear sophisticated

comma

Of all the punctuation marks, the

comma is the most likely to cause confusion or ambiguity through its misuse, overuse, or omission. Some of the conventions that formerly governed its use are now regarded as optional; it is important, however, to be consistent within a single piece

61 of writing. Excessively long sentences containing many clauses separated by commas are best divided into shorter units; short sentences that require many commas for clarity should be reworded if possible. The principal uses of the comma are listed

1 The individual items of a series of three or

below.

commandant enthetical commas can alter the meaning of a sentence: . implies that the speaker has two or more daughters, one of whom is called Elizabeth; . implies that the speaker has only one daughter. My daughter Elizabeth is a doctor

My

daughter, Elizabeth, is a doctor

See also APPOSITION; BRACKETS; CLAUSE; DASH; RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE; THAT or WHICH?

more are separated by commas; the final comma preceding or is optional: . .. .. . The same conventions apply to series of longer units: . . Omission of the final comma may cause confusion if the last or penultimate item contains : . . 2 The use of a comma between adjectives that precede the noun they qualify is optional in most . cases: . When thefinal adjective has acloser relationship with the noun, it should not be preceded by a . comma: . . . In the following examples, omission of the comma could cause ambiguity or confusion: . . . 3 Commas separate non-restrictive (or non-defining) or parenthetical clauses and phrases from the rest of the sentence: . .. . It is important to ensure that both commas are present (unless the clause or phrase falls at the end of the sentence) and that they enclose the appropriate information: it should be possible to remove the words between the commas without affecting the basic message of the sentence. As a general rule, the subject of a sentence should not be separated from its verb by a single comma, although this rule is being flouted with increasing frequency when the subject is a long phrase: .

4 The use of the comma or commas to separate such words and phrases as , and from the rest of the sentence is optional: . .. .. . 5 Commas are always used to separate terms of address, interjections, and closing question tags from the rest of the sentence: . .. .. . ? 6 The main clause of the sentence may be separated from a preceding subordinate clause or participial phrase by a comma. The comma is oftenomittedafterashortclauseorphrase: .

man killed by an inter-city express train at Hadden-

She

ham station two weeks ago, was one of the

speaks French and German; her husband, Spanish

county's leading bridge players

and Italian

◆

and

or

We have invited

Paul, Michael, Peter, and Mark

hockey and netball

She plays tennis,

He doesn't like cabbage,

carrots, or beans

I closed the window, drew the curtains,

and went to bed and

They only serve pies, fish and chips,

and beefburgers

a large, red, juicy tomato

a small round

black button.

a picturesque French village

pertinent little boy

an im-

an eccentric old woman

however, therefore,

nevertheless, of course, for example

on the

other hand

I wondered, however, whether he was

right

The holiday will include visits to some of the

local attractions, for example the caves and the pottery

We could go by train or of course we

could use the car

I'm sorry to have

troubled you, madame

Please sit down, Mr

Smith, and tell me what happened

a beautiful garden!

Oh, what

It's cold today, isn't it

After

loading all their luggage into the car and locking

.. . DANGLING PARTICIPLES. 7 Two or more main clauses linked by a coordinating conjunction ( , , , etc.) may be separated with a comma if necessary. The comma is usually omitted if the clauses have the same subject or object: . .. . If the clauses are fairly short the comma is optional: . .. . Between longer or more complex main clauses, a comma is often necessary to avoid ambiguity or confusion. (Where such clauses are not linked by a coordinating conjunction, they should be separated by a SEMICOLON rather than a comma.) 8 A comma may be used in place of a repeated verb in the second of two related clauses: . ( ). . Commas are not used around restrictive (or defin- See also DATES; LETTER WRITING; NUMBERS; ing) or essential clauses or phrases: . QUOTATION MARKS. .. commandant, commander or comman. and are In some cases, the removal or insertion of par- deer?

bright, blue curtains

a freshly ironed, neatly

folded shirt

up the house and garage, they set off on their holidays

When it stops raining we will go out

See also

and or but

The mayor, who is very

fond of gardening, presented the prizes at the flower show

My diamond necklace, a valuable

family heirloom, has been stolen

Tom washed the dishes and

Sarah dried them

He shut the door but forgot to

turn out the light

The lorry overturned but the

driver was uninjured

The hotel is very comfor-

table, and the food is excellent

A

Bucks Herald

The classical

guitarist AndreÂs Segovia has died

The skirt that I

bought last week has a broken zip

Commandant

commander

commemorate nouns;

62

commandeer

is a verb. The noun

refers to an officer in com-

commandant

mand of a particular group or establishment,

such

as

a

military

academy

prisoner-of-war camp; the noun der

or

comman-

refers to an officer in command of a

military operation, ship, etc.

Commander

is

also the name of a rank in the Navy and is

.

used in nonmilitary contexts to denote anybody who is in command: of

expedition.

the

.

the commander

The verb

commandeer

means `seize, especially for military or public use':

They commandeered our car.

commemorate

member with a ceremony':

morated

the

revolution,

.

This word, meaning `re-

50th

They comme-

anniversary

of

the

is sometimes misspelt. Note par-

ticularly the -mm- followed by a single

commence

begin

or

Commence

start

means the same as

but should be used only in

.

formal contexts, where its opposite is clude,

m.

rather than

end:

con-

The meeting will

commissionaire .

This word, meaning `at-

tendant in uniform':

the theatre,

the commissionaire at

is sometimes misspelt. Note the

-mm-, -ss-, single -n-, and the -aire ending.

Do not confuse this word with , meaning `an important official of a government, . etc.': . . ◆

commissioner

a high commissioner

the police commis-

sioner

commitment

The sense of

commitment

.

which means `loyalty to a cause or ideology'

.

is an increasingly popular one: Christian commitment

.

a genuine

his commitment to

the animal rights movement

As my commit-

ment to the struggle for a racial justice intensified,

I

wanted

to

go

further

in

relationship with the black community

Wallis,

The New Radical).

my

(Jim

Many users dis-

like this word's overuse.

Note the - - and single of . The - is not doubled in , unlike , , etc.

◆

mm

t

commit

commitment

t

committed

committing

committee

.

The noun

committee

may be

It sounds affected or pompous if one uses . . . in contexts where or is appropriate: . . . See also COLLECTIVE NOUNS; SINGULAR or . PLURAL? is the noun from Note the spelling of , particuand should be used in similar contexts: . larly the -, - -, and - . . It has a common see MUTUAL, COMMON or RECIPROCAL? special meaning in the United States, where is the ceremony at which students communal This word, meaning `of a comreceive degrees. munity': . , has two difcommence at 9.30 a.m. and conclude at noon.

singular or plural:

◆

Thursdays

com-

mence

begin

start

The committee meets on

The committee were unable to

reach a unanimous decision

I shall commence my new job tomorrow

The car commenced making a rattling noise Commencement

commence

committee

the

mm

tt

ee

commencement of the financial year

Com-

mencement

communal living

commensurate .

means

Commensurate

`equal in measure or extent; proportionate': The rent charged is commensurate with the

flat's current value.

Remuneration will be commensurate with the importance of this key role

commercialese

(Executive

Commercialese

Post).

is a usually

pejorative term applied to the jargon used in the business and commercial world.

Typically such jargon is found in business letters and includes such abbreviations as: . . (this month) . . (last month) . . (next month), as . well as such phrases as: . . . . . Unlike other forms of jargon, commercialese is becoming distinctly old-fashioned and most modern companies prefer to conduct their correspondence in plain English. ◆

inst

ult

prox

Please find enclosed

Further to your letter

esteemed favour

I beg to remain

speakers, however, prefer the first of these pronunciations.

. communicate .

The word is frequently

used in connection with job salaries:

Æ l] ferent pronunciations. Both [komyuuna Æ mewna Æ l] are widely used. Careful and [ko

your

your communication to hand

The verb

communicate

followed by the preposition

with

thing)

.

to:

is

or (some-

They communicated with each

other through an interpreter.

nicated the news to her staff.

community

Community

She commu-

has become a vo-

gue word in two different ways. The ap-

.

plication of the word to a recognizable

.

group within a larger society: community

the Jewish

the black community,

has given

the word an association with minority racial groups, and now a munity Relations, ficer,

a

Council for Com-

community relations of-

and so on, are those that deal with the

problems of black and Asian minorities in Britain.

63 ◆ is also used in a much vaguer sense to mean `society in general'. When psychiatric patients are discharged from hospital and are recommended to be it usually means no more than that they are to live in society. The community

cared for in the community

comparable

The traditional pronunciation Æ ra Æ bl]. The variant of this word is [kompa Æ mparra Æ bl] is avoided by careful speakers. [ko See also

STRESS.

comparative parative

superlative

and

com-

form of an adjective or adverb is

.

Anne is smaller than her sister,

the

superlative

of

comparison

things:

.

while

is used as the highest degree between

three

or

more

Anne is the smallest girl in her class.

The two main ways of forming comparatives and superlatives are by adding the suffixes - and - , or preceding the word with or . sad± . ± ± ± . One-syllable words always take - and - , as do two-syllable words ending in - : . . . Two-syllable words ending in - , - , - sometimes also take - and . ± - :. ± . ± . Other two-syllable words and all words of threeormoresyllablestake and : . . . . Most compound adjectives can use either form: . . . There are two wellknown words with irregularly formed comparatives and superlatives: . ± ± . ± ± . is used instead of - , even with onesyllable words, in certain contexts: when two adjectives are being compared with each other: . ; and when the aptnessofanadjectiveisbeingchallenged: . Absolute adjectives (see ADJECTIVES) cannot be used in comparative or superlative forms. One cannot say or . It is, however, possible to use comparative forms when suggesting a closer approximation to perfection: . . Mistakes concerning comparatives and superlatives include the use of the comparative in phrases like: , . , instead of: . , although when an actual measure is specified it is appropriate to say: . . . Another mistake is the use of or - in ◆

er

more

sadder saddest

eager

est

most:

more eager

eager

most

er

est

y

big±bigger

pretty±prettiest

le

est

ow

er

little littlest

er

shallow shallower

clever

cleverer

more

abject

minded

most horrific

most

We have two sons; Tom is the

youngest

X

washes whiter and cleaner!

Y gives you a better

closer shave!

He's really more shy than aloof

She's

no more fat than a stick insect!

emptier

A fuller

description will be given tomorrow

three times wider ten times more three times as wide

ten

times as expensive

ten pounds more expensive more

comparative

comparitive

comparison

comparatively was

comparatively

.

means `rela-

Comparatively

tively, as compared with a standard': inexpensive

for

It

vintage

champagne.

It is often used as a synonym for `rather, fairly, or somewhat', with no question of comparison: . , but many people dislike this usage.

◆

It is

a comparatively small resort

compareto comparewith or

and

compare with

Compare to

?

Compare to

are not interchangeable.

.

is used when things are being

likened to each other:

He compared her

skin to ivory. Compare with

is used when

.

er

three feet wider

est

fairer

most interesting

bad/badly worse worst

expensive

most

things are being considered from the point

good/well better best

more total

one of the more promising of

more

more fair-minded

More

phrases like: . , when it is clear that more than two things or people are being compared, and the use of or - when only two things or people are being compared: . A (possibly deliberate) mistake much used by advertisers is the use of the comparative when it is unclear what is being compared: . . , , and the unbridled use of superlatives: . Finally, a frequent mistake is the misspelling of as , probably based on . the new novelists

The most luxurious holiday ever!

The

used when two things or people are compared:

compete

er

of view of both similarities and differences: Tourists find London hotels expensive com-

pared with those of other European capitals.

When

compare

.

is used intransitively,

should always be used:

His

with

direction

compares with early Hitchcock.

In American English and are frequently used where is appropriate: . , .. , and these uses are coming into British English. ◆

compared to

able to

compar-

with

Compared to my brother I'm poor

It's

not comparable to the home-made version

compel impel or

? Both these verbs mean

`force', but they differ in usage.

.

Compel

is

used with human and non-human subjects

.

and implies strong obligation: pelled us to take part. compelled him

chiefly

.

used

to

accept

with

They com-

Financial necessity the

job.

Impel

non-human

is

subjects

.

and implies an urge rather than an obligation:

She felt impelled to protest.

impelled him to turn back.

compete

The verb

the preposition

with

compete

or

[or

.

is followed by

against:

ourselves competing with

Fear

We found

against] three

other companies for the contract.

competent

64

competent

The adjective

lowed by the preposition

cants

must

be

competent

.

is fol-

and a verb,

Appli-

tion of something necessary to make some-

competent

or

at at

in:

[or

in]

word

processing.

contest

.

?

and

Competition

both involve rivalry with an oppo-

nent or opponents and can be synonymous: At 18 she won a contest/competition for

young

musicians.

However,

is re-

contest

stricted to the sense of organized compe-

.

titive events or exertions to achieve victory over opponents:

the contest for nomination

.

as candidate. Competition

erally of rivalry:

is used more gen-

There

competition for tickets,

will

be

keen

and is also used of

.

the people or organization against which one is competing:

We

must

assess

the

strengths and weaknesses of the competition.

complacent complaisant or

? A

compla-

person is smug or self-satisfied; a

cent

person is obliging or willing

complaisant

.

to comply. Both adjectives may be applied to the same noun:

.

`We

with a complacent smile.

.

whole

complement

competition contest or

thing

complement

can't lose,' she said He opened the door

the

room's

or

.

complete:

The

decor

suggests the addi-

flowers

perfectly.

a

ship's

complemented Compliment

is

used as a noun and verb to refer to an

.

expression of praise, respect, or admiration:

.

She complimented her host on the excellent

meal.

ment.

with the compliments of the manage-

To avoid mistakes remember the is also in

e

of

complete.

The derived adjectives and are also confused, particularly when is used in the sense of `given free': . [not ] . [not ] .

complement

◆

complementary

com-

plimentary

complimentary

a complimentary

his latest book

complementary copy of

two complimentary

com-

plementary tickets to the exhibition

complement

ment

and

or

supplement

supplement

?

Comple-

have a distinct differ-

ence in meaning. Both as noun and verb, complement

suggests the addition of some-

.

thing necessary to make something whole or complete:

The closures were forced by the

hospital's inability to recruit 92 nurses out of

) . The two words should not be confused. They are an addisimilar in pronunciation but quite different in tion to something that is suggests already complete: spelling: [koÆm seÆnt] ends in - ; . [koÆm zaÆnt] ends in - . . is the more frequent word, being rather old-fashioned.

with a complaisant smile.

its

full

complement

Telegraph .

◆

of

nearly

(Daily

800

The music complemented the

mime aptly. Supplement

complacent

complaisant

play

cent

play

sant

Complacent

com-

plaisant

complement

The

complement

of a clause

or sentence provides essential additional information about the

SUBJECT

or

OBJECT.

A complement may be a noun, adjective,

Her fees for private tuition supplemented

her teacher's salary.

Most Sunday newspapers

publish a colour supplement.

complementary medicine alternative medicine or

?

Complementary medicine

is the

treatment of illnesses by such techniques

and systems as osteopathy, acupuncture,

pronoun, or phrase.

and homoeopathy. The term

◆

tary medicine

complemen-

suggests that the treatments A subject complement usually follows such verbs as , , , , , , , and and therapies complement ± fit in with and . In the sentence . , work alongside ± orthodox scientific medicine; the term , used for is the complement. In . , is the complement. The treatments such as herbalism and naturoclause . is the complement of pathy, emphasizes that such treatments are completely different from those of `conventhe sentence . An object complement usually follows the direct tional' medicine. object of such verbs as , , , , complete When used to mean `total' comand . In the sentence . plete is an absolute adjective (see ADJECTIVES) , is the complement. In . many people dislike any modification , is the and . of it: . complement. However, complete also has the meaning of be become turn look appear seem feel

sound

He became a teacher a

teacher

pointed

alternative medicine

They felt disap-

disappointed

where we live

This is where we live

make find declare elect

call

You made me very

proud very proud

The

judges declared him the winner the winner

See also COMPLEMENT or COMPLIMENT?; COMPLEMENT or SUPPLEMENT?

complement compliment or

? These two

words are often confused. Both as a noun

We were in almost complete darkness

`thorough':

.

.

a complete overhaul,

and in

that sense can be modified with more or most:

This is the most complete study of the

period yet published.

complex

65 The noun complex is taken from

computerate bathroom.

subconscious repressed ideas and emotions

Eleven players comprise a team

.

.

which can cause an abnormal mental condition':

complex.

an Oedipus complex

an inferiority

The term has been taken up and

.

of

She's got a complex about spiders.

`You're crazy,' Clevinger shouted . . . `You've got a Jehovah complex'

(Joseph Heller,

compose:

players

.

Catch

22).

constitute:

is not gen-

The team is comprised of eleven

is wrong.

CONSIST OF or CONSIST IN?; INCLUDE COMPRISE?

See also or

. compound

tely conscious. This usage is disliked by some.

Its use in place of

erally considered acceptable; its use in place

used popularly to mean any behavioural problem or obsession, even if it is comple-

.

three bedrooms, a living room, kitchen, and

psychoanalysis, where it means `a set of

A

compound

is a word that

consists of two or more other words joined

.

.

.

together, with or without a space or hyphen:

breakdown

forget-me-not

dining

◆ is also used to mean `something made ◆ There are no absolute rules governing the use of up of interrelated parts' and this is now often spaces and hyphens in many compounds (see applied to a group of buildings as in: . HYPHEN 2). . . The plural of a compound noun is usually formed by making the noun element plural: . complex or complicated? and . sons-in-law. are very similar in meaning See also PLURALS. and the differences in usage are subtle ones. The coining of new compound verbs, such as Both mean `consisting of many parts which or , is disliked by some are intimately combined': . . people ◆ emphasizes the fact that the multi- See also VERBS. faceted nature of a thing makes it difficult to solve As a noun or adjective, the word is or understand, and there is sometimes a negative stressed on the first syllable [ pownd]; as a verb connotation to it ± a suggestion that it could it is stressed on the second syllable [koÆmp ]. possibly be simpler: . comprehend see APPREHEND or COMPRE. is more neutral and HEND? emphasizes the intricacy of the combination of comprehensible or comprehensive? parts rather than the resulting difficulties: . These two adjectives are derived from . different senses of the verb room.

Complex

shopping

complex

housing complex

Complex

passers-by

complicated

This is a com-

drug-test

rubber-stamp

.

plex/complicated problem

Complicated

compound

kom

ownd

Compared with Scottish

procedure, housebuying in England is unnecessarily complicated

Complex

The

blood-clotting system is a complex mechanism

compliant

The word

compliant,

meaning

`acquiescent' or `complying', may be used in combination with other nouns to indi-

.

cate that something conforms to a parti-

.

cular system, set of rules, etc.: program is fully web-compliant.

This

We have

checked that the machine is industry-compliant.

compliment complimentary COMPLEMENT COMPLIMENT compose comprise constitute ,

see

or

?

,

or

? All

these verbs are concerned with parts making up a whole.

Compose

and

constitute

are

both used to mean `come together to make (a whole)' but passive and

compose

constitute

. .

is usually used in the in the active:

team is composed of several experts.

The the

commodities that constitute the average household

diet.

Comprise

mean `consist of':

.

can only be used to The

house comprises

(see

comprehend

APPREHEND

hensible hensive

things':

or

COMPREHEND?).

means `understandable';

.

means

`including

all

Comprecompre-

or

.

most

The explanation must be compre-

hensible to the average reader. prehensive car insurance.

fully com-

comprise COMPOSE COMPRISE TUTE INCLUDE COMPRISE compulsive compulsory see

?;

,

or

?

or

or

CONSTI-

? Both these

adjectives are derived from the verb pel,

meaning `force'.

Compulsive

com-

refers to

something that one is forced to do by an internal or psychological urge;

.

compulsory

refers to something that one is forced to do

.

by an external rule or law: gambler

a compulsive

a compulsory payment.

computerate

The

word

computerate

means `able to operate a computer; experienced in computing'. It is a blend of the synonymous phrase

computer literate

(see

concede

66

LITERAL, LITERARY

or

LITERATE?)

used in job advertisements:

.

and is often Applicants

must be computerate and able to work under pressure.

concede

.

hence the possible confusion with

driving.

condition precondition or

This verb, meaning `admit' or

condemn:

The association does not condone reckless

? A

condition

.

is

a requirement or stipulation on which an

`yield', is sometimes misspelt. Note the

agreement or contract depends:

-cede ending, as in the verb

you go on condition that you are back before

cede,

which

midnight.

is similar in meaning.

concept

The precise meaning of

concept

is

`an idea of a category or thing which is formed by generalization from particular instances'. The meaning has widened to

I will let

While a condition can be fulfilled

either before or after the agreement is made, a

is a requirement that

precondition

.

must be satisfied in advance of an agreement being made:

Assent to the manifesto

was a precondition of membership.

◆ can be used, not just of agreements, but also of situations and states of being: . cular thing': . . . . It is frequently used very loosely The words and are used to mean little more than `an idea or notion', synonymously to mean anything which has to be particularly in advertising. Many people true or occur before something else can happen: . dislike this usage: . . . ◆ means `form a concept' or `intercondone see CONDEMN or CONDONE? pretconceptually': . . It should conducive The adjective not be used to mean `think', `imagine', or `visua- lowed by the preposition : . is follize'. . embrace ideas in general, and is often now

Condition

used to mean `an accepted idea of a partithe

concept

of

alternative

the

condition of the world

medicine

in good/poor condition

condition

a new concept in slim-

ming

precondition

The establishment of a just society is an essential condition/precondition for peace

Conceptualize

The Greeks conceptualized all

their experiences in terms of the gods

conducive

to

concerned

The adjective

followed by

about

.

`anxious' and by

. .

subject of': pollution.

.

pollution.

or

with

concerned

for

may be

when it means

when it means `on the

We are very concerned about

The

article

is

concerned

with

They are concerned for his health.

The organization is concerned with public

health.

◆

an environ-

ment conducive to mental concentration

For discussion of the phrase , see AS FAR AS.

as far as . . . is

concerned

concerning

Concerning

.

This word, which describes a pipe

pronunciations. The most widely used is [kondyuuit],

but

[kondit],

The head

teacher is available to talk to people concerning their career choices.

confidant confident or

inine

confidante,

either

[konfidant]

adjective

or

confide

.

confident

or certain':

sister

confidant,

fem-

[konfidant].

These

which means `assured

a confident young man.

The verb in

or

? These words are condemn

means

to:

to condemn the atrocities/terrorist activities The prisoners were condemned to death.

is followed by the

He confided in his

He confided his problems to his sister.

the preposition

not conform with

confrontation

.

conform

with

[or

or

to:

is followed by The results did

to] our expectations.

. .

face meeting, especially in the context of

`declare something to be unacceptably bad or evil' or `give a punishment to someone':

.

confide

about

opposite in meaning. To

?A

is someone in whom one

It is normally used between two clauses rather .. than at the beginning of a sentence and is rather more formal than . conform The verb or

and

can confide. Both words are pronounced

preposition

◆

condemn condone

[kundit],

[kondwit] are also heard.

nouns should not be confused with the

means `relating to,

on the subject of, or about':

conduit

or channel conveying liquid, has various

To

A

confrontation

is a face-to-

opposition, challenge, or defiance:

.

George's confrontation with the dragon.

St

Pop-

behaviour that is wrong means to

ular journalism has now weakened the

accept it, or turn a blind eye to it, con-

meaning so that any disagreement or con-

sidering it harmless or unimportant.

flict of ideas is now inevitably referred to as

condone

done

Con-

is sometimes used with a negative,

a

confrontation.

67 ◆ Similarly, anyone with a tendency to argumentativeness is described as :. confrontational

Mr

Underhill said Mr Senchak's style `was that of the old-fashioned confrontational ``us and them'' un-

(

ion official' The Times

).

congenial genial congenital genetic ,

? Both

sant';

,

congenial

atmosphere

.

genial

to people:

.

Congenial

.

a congenial

He finds the work congenial.

host.

genial

mean `plea-

genial

is usually applied to abstract

congenial

nouns and

or

and

a

refers to

company

people who share one's interests or attitudes;

genial company

refers to people who

are friendly and cheerful. Congenital genetic

nital brain damage

.

conge-

genetic engineering.

A

is not hereditary or inher-

congenital defect

ited; a

.

means `existing from birth';

means `relating to genes':

genetic defect

is hereditary or inher-

ited.

◆ The adjectives and are sometimes confused, being similar in spelling. Note that the of is short, as in , whereas the of is long, as in . congenital

e

congenial

congenital

men

e

congenial

mean

congressman congresswoman NON-SEXIST TERMS congruent congruous or

? see

.

or

and

congruous

thing is

? Both

congruent

and

with

expectations

the

Congruous

mystical

elements

of

congruent

converted

.

pagans.

refers to something that is in

harmony with something else:

decorations

congruous with their surroundings. Congruous

is more often found in its negative form

incongruous,

which is less formal than

con-

.

and is used to refer to a person or

gruous

thing that seems strange and out of place: behaviour beliefs.

that

incongruous

with

his

In mathematics, two shapes are

.

if they are equal in size and

congruent

shape:

was

congruent triangles.

conjoined

Conjoined twins

.

twins:

replacing

the

is the preferred

previous

Siamese

The doctors have succeeded in separ-

ating conjoined twins delivered at the hospital last Sunday.

conjunctions

.

but

or

And, but, yet

because

or

Martha and Mary

She is young yet

surprisingly wise But

yet

and

or

I'm tired and cold and hungry

and miserable

because

when

are

if

though unless

He's fat because he eats too

much

It won't work unless everyone cooperates

or

neither . . . nor

either . . .

Neither Williams nor Jenkins is now

an MP

He's either wicked or mad

and but

or

See also individual entries for conjunc-

tions and

SINGULAR or PLURAL?

conjurer conjuror connect or

? Either spelling is

The verb

the preposition

to

connect

or

with

is followed by

in the sense `join':

A narrow lane connects the farm to

with] the village.

words

which link two or more words, clauses,

.

[or

In the sense `associate' it is

followed by the preposition

with:

The

broken window may not be connected with the robbery.

connection

meaning

or

connexion

? This word,

.

`a

relationship

things; joint':

between

two

some connection with the stormy weather. faulty electrical connections, connection.

.

His death must have had

Connexion

is usually spelt

is a rarer variant

spelling, especially in British English.

connoisseur

A person who is an expert connoisseur.

Note the -nn-, -oi-, and -ss- in the spelling.

connote denote or

? These two verbs are

sometimes confused.

Denote,

the more fre-

.

quent of the two, refers to the literal or primary meaning of something: do

not

more

always

formal

.

The word

`bachelor' denotes an unmarried man. Conjunctions

I

love Mozart but I detest Mahler

within a certain field is called a

term for babies that are born joined together,

and

◆ , and are known as coordinating conjunctions. They connect words and clauses of . thesamegrammaticaltype: . . They often connect clauses which share a common verb and this does not need to be repeated: . . and can be used only to link two sentence elements, but and can linkmorethantwo: . . Conjunctions such as , , , , are known as subordinating conjunctions, as they connect a subordinate clause to its main clause: . .. . Correlative conjunctions are the pairs and which are always used together: . .. . Few people still have objections to sentences starting with the conjunctions , , and , which can be effective if used sparingly.

. .

with another, there is

a similarity or connection between them: ritualistic

.

perfectly acceptable.

are formal words. If one

congruent

or sentences: when.

connote . . .

Tears

denote

sadness.

Connote,

word,

means

`imply'

a or

conscience

68 .

`suggest', referring to secondary meaning

consequent grief

or association:

sequent

For some people, the word

`bachelor' connotes freedom.

conscience

preposition

Note the spelling of this word,

particularly the -sci- in the middle and the -ce ending. The second syllable is identical in spelling (but not in pronunciation) with the noun

science.

conscientious conscious . or

?

Conscientious

means `diligent and careful':

She was a

.

worker.

conscientious

`aware' or `awake': was barely conscious.

.

means

Conscious

He was so tired he

Both words are some-

.

her bereavement and sub-

remarriage.

.

on,

takes the

Consequent

while

takes

subsequent

to:

increase in salaries consequent on the pay

review arrival.

his

behaviour

subsequent

consequential CONSEQUENT conservative Conservative see

QUENTIAL?

or

or

his

CONSE-

? The word

with a lowercase

conservative

to

c-

means

`tending to support tradition and established

institutions,

opposed

to

.

change,

moderate, cautious, conventional':

The

.

times misspelt: note in particular the

-sc-

in

college has a reputation for being conservative

the middle of both words and the

-t-

in

and still refuses to admit women students.

conscientious.

consensus

means

Consensus

.

`opinion

shared unanimously, a view generally held or accepted':

.

He

has conservative tastes and dresses in sombre

He had broken the pro-nuclear

colours.

A

is someone who

Conservative

supports or is a member of the Conserva-

.

tive Party in Britain or elsewhere; it is also used as an adjective:

a Conservative MP.

A is one that is cautious ). and moderate, but the term is often used to mean ◆ As the meaning contains the idea of a generally . `a low estimate': held opinion, the frequently used expressions . and are tautologies, and are avoided by careful users. consider means `regard as being': is frequently misspelt as , . , `think about perhaps from a mistaken belief that it is connected carefully': . with the word . In fact it derives from the , and `regard sympathetically': . same root as . . consent see ASSENT or CONSENT? ◆ In the first sense given above, is more or less synonymous with , and this leads consequent or consequential? somepeopletoadd to .. means `following as a direct result': . . This construction is wrong. There is, however, nothing wrong with using when is used in the sense of . , a rarer word than `think about, give consideration to': . , is also used to mean `following , as a direct result': . .

consensus shared by all postwar leaders

(Sun-

day Times

gen-

eral consensus

consensus of opinion

◆

conservative estimate

It's worth a million pounds at

the most conservative estimate Consider

Consensus

concensus

I consider him a nonentity

I have considered all aspects of the

census

problem

consent

We

will not fail to consider your feelings on the matter

consider

regard as

Conse-

as

quent

She was knocked down by a lorry and her

consider

He considered

their work as vitally important

consequent injuries left her a permanent invalid

as

Consequential

consider

The songs

consequent

the improvement in the

local economy and the consequential loss of the area's

.

status.

special

means `important':

Consequential

also

Their decisions were

becoming increasingly consequential in determining the direction of the company.

used in legal expressions such as tial loss

It is also

consequen-

to mean `an indirect result' and has

.

the additional meaning of `self-important; pompous':

His manner was pretentious and

consequential.

consequent subsequent or

and

subsequent

While

consequent

result',

?

Consequent

means `following as a

.

subsequent

`occurring after':

her

lacks solidity

considerable

Considerable

consideration; significant':

a

considerable

research.

.

contribution

.

means `worth She has made

to

biochemical

It has been extended to mean

`large in amount': considerable

amount

They of

have

money,

saved

a

although

some people dislike the imprecise nature of this use.

is usually attached to abstract . nouns: . , but in American English it can be used with concrete nouns: . . This use is not yet acceptable in British English although when the meaning is `significant' ◆ Considerable

are sometimes confused.

direct

are tuneful but considered as an opera the work

simply

means

bereavement

and

a considerable quantity

considerable

numbers of

They have mined consid-

erable gold

one can attach

considerable

a considerable pianist

.

to a concrete noun: .

consist of consist in or

?

.

means

Consist of

`comprise, be made up of':

Breakfast

69 contacts,

and `communication':

regular contact with her.

.

contemptible .

I am in

A modern use is `a

person one knows who may be useful to one':

I have a good contact at the Home

Office.

The use of the verb to mean `communicate with': . is still disliked as an Americanism by some people. It is, . however, particularly useful in cases where one ◆ usually precedes a list of concrete wishes to avoid specifying whether communicanouns, while is usually applied to ab- tion will be made by letter, telephone, message, or stract nouns. personal visit.

.

consists of bread, croissants, jam, and coffee. Consist in

means `have its essence in':

◆

contact

The

I will contact you next week

appeal of the writing consists in its use of language rather than its content

Consist of

consist in

consonant

A

consonant

is the sound re-

presented by any of the letters

b, c, d, f, g, h,

j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y,

English language. Compare

and

z

VOWEL.

in the

The presence of a consonant at the beginning of aword may affect the form or pronunciation of the preceding word (see A or AN?; THE). Note that in such words as and , the letter functions as a vowel.

◆

party

rhyme

-y-

consortium consortia or

?

plural form of the noun

Consortia

sortium

form

of

insurance

.

consortium,

means `association of companies': brokers.

is a

which a con-

The plural

.

is sometimes wrongly used in

-ia

place of the singular noun:

Now only

Phonepoint, a consortia led by British Tele-

contagious infectious or

infectious

?

Contagious

and

are both used of diseases that can

be passed on to others.

Contagious

diseases

are those that are passed on by physical contact, like venereal diseases or impetigo; infectious

diseases are those passed on by

airborne or waterborne microorganisms,

In figurative use the words are synonymous: . .

like measles or influenza.

◆

His optimistic mood was infectious/contagious

containerize

Containerize

from the noun

container

is a verb formed in its sense of a

large packing case in which goods are transported by road and sea, being handled mechanically throughout. To

containerize

.

means both `pack into containers for trans-

com, and Byps, owned by Hutchison Telecom

port and transport in this method':

UK, are keen to offer the mobile phone service

beans must be containerized before the end of

(The

◆

Guardian).

The plural form

constable

consortiums

is also acceptable.

A police officer of the lowest

rank is known as a

constable.

The word has

Æ bl] or [kontwo pronunciations: [kunsta Æ bl], both of which are acceptable. sta

constitute COMPOSE comprise STITUTE constrain restrain see

,

?

or

or

CON-

the week;

.

The

and `change over to the use of

containers':

We

are

containerizing

our

shipping procedures.

contemporary contemporary

same time as':

.

The primary meaning of

is `happening or living at the Joyce was contemporary with

the Bloomsbury group, though not a member of it.

It has more recently been used to

.

mean `happening at the present time; cur-

? Both these verbs

rent':

Contemporary values are materialistic

mean `hold back' or `limit', but there are

and selfish.

differences of usage and application be-

◆

A development of this meaning has been the use of to mean `modern, up-toand implies an abstract or undesirable redate', sometimes qualified with , , striction; may involve physical etc.: . force: . . This use is disliked by many people and is . . . best avoided. One should beware of ambiguities ◆ has the additional and more frequent between the first and second meanings of meaning of `compel': . . :. may mean written when Shelley was alive, or contact The meanings of . as a noun one writtenonerecently. include `the state of touching': tween

them.

Constrain

is

more

formal

contemporary

very extremely

They sell the most contemporary fashions in

restrain

Such strict guidelines constrain crea-

tivity

town

He struggled to restrain the dog

Constrain

con-

I felt constrained to resign

temporary

a contemporary biography of Shelley

contact

He avoided

.

all physical contact with dogs,

tionship':

`link or rela-

The two towns have commercial

contemptible

contemptible

or

and

contemptuous

contemptuous

? Both

are

con-

contest

70

cerned with tinctly

contempt,

different

.

but they have dis-

meanings.

Contemptible

means `despicable; deserving scorn or contempt':

His meanness was contemptible.

Contemptuous

.

means `scornful, feeling or

showing contempt':

She observed his feeble

efforts with a contemptuous smile.

contest COMPETITION contingency see

A

or

.

seen that might possibly occur in the fuWe must prepare ourselves for every

contingency.

In modern use the word almost always appears in the phrase and is usually applied, not to unforeseen future events, but to those that are predictable, although not inevitable: . . ◆

contingency plans

The council have made contingency plans in

case of a severe winter

continual means

continuous

or

`frequently

?

Continual

repeated':

continuous

means `without break or interruption':

.

.

Our neighbour's continual complaints forced us to move house.

and

. . . .

the word verb:

not

I'm

.

.

.

.

combined with an auxiliary

you're

she's

shouldn't.

we've

he'll

◆ An apostrophe indicates the missing letter(s), although in the contraction , where there are actually two sets of missing letters, only the missing is indicated. The contracted form can stand for either or , and can be either or ± or when used in the word ; it should always be clear from the context which word is intended. Two irregular contractions are (will not) and (are not), which can also . mean , as in: . Contractions are almost always used in speech. They should always be used in written passages of dialogue, and they are generally acceptable in all but the most formal writing. Some contractions are more likely to be written than others . and: . are more . acceptable in writing than: . , and the contraction (except when used with personal pronouns: . ): . .. is not usually used in writing. Care should be taken with the placing of the apostrophe. A frequent mistake is placing it where the syllables break, rather than where the letter is missing: . [not ]. they'd

can't

o

is `something

that happens by chance; something unforeture':

am,

are, is, have, has, had, will, shall, would,

shan't

CONTEST?

contingency

tions in English are those of the verbs

The continuous noise from

the generator kept him awake all night.

'd

had

is

has

would

's

us

won't

let's

aren't

am not

Aren't I right?

Aren't I

clever!

.

He's late

Jill's late

Dinner's late

train's late

I'll

there

The

'll

Tim'll be

The bus'll be on time

The fundamental difference in sense, which also applies to the adverbs and , is that something stops from time to time, whereas something does not stop until it reaches its natural end. It is acceptable See also AIN'T; 'S or S'? in certain contexts to interchange the two words, contrary This word, meaning `opposed in but this may lead to ambiguity and is therefore position': . best avoided if possible. is not used of , is stressed on the first syllable physical objects, such as a , Æ ri]. Only in the sense `perverse or tra nor may be substituted for in [stubborn': . , is it stressed such phrases as: . . Æn on the second syllable [ko i]. ◆

continually

ously

continu-

continual

continuous

wouldn't

On the contrary, I would like to go

Continual

continuous roll of paper

continuous

for a walk kon

continual

continual interruptions

continuance continuation ity ,

or

continu- contribute

? All three nouns are derived from

the verb

continue. Continuance

is the act

of continuing, usually without a break, whereas

continuation

.

discussion.

the continuance

a continuation of yesterday's

In some contexts, such as the first

example above, tion

.

may be the act of

continuing after a break: of the strike

continuance

are interchangeable.

CONTINUOUS?): .

and

continua-

Continuity

state of being continuous (see

is the

CONTINUAL or

the continuity of the action.

such a contrary girl

trair

In the traditional pronuncia-

tion of this word, the stress is on the second Æ ntribyoot]: some users dislike syllable [ko the pronunciation with the word stressed on the first syllable [kontribyoot].

controversy

In the traditional pronuncia-

tion of this word, the stress falls on the first Æ versi]. The variant pronunsyllable [kontro ciation, with stress on the second syllable Æ ntrove Æ rsi], is widely heard, but is dis[ko

liked by many users.

STRESS continuous CONTINUAL CONTINUOUS continuous tense PROGRESSIVE TENSE convalescence contractions see

or

see

would'nt

?

.

The most common contrac-

See also

.

This word, meaning `re-

covery after an illness', is sometimes misspelt. Note the combinations

sc

and

nc.

71

convenient

The adjective

convenient

followed by the preposition

to

or

Come whenever it is convenient to

for:

[or

for]

you.

converse inverse obverse reverse ,

These

,

four

`opposite';

words

in

share

some

interchangeable. specifically

or

.

denotes

they

noun

?

of

are

converse

something

opposite in meaning:

that

is

the converse of this

.

is more frequently used as

an adjective in such phrases as proportion; obverse,

.

sense

contexts

The

statement. Inverse

the

in inverse

a formal word and the

least common of the four, refers to a counterpart:

The obverse of the company's

success is the failure of its rivals. Reverse,

the

most frequent and general of the four

.

.

words, may be used as a verb, noun, or

.

adjective:

to reverse a decision

in reverse order.

to do the

and may also refer to the two sides of a coin, being `heads' and `tails'. The of a statement or proposition is one that reverses the elements of the proposition: . ± . The word is now usually used much more loosely to mean `opposite': . , . The adverb , similarly, is now used to mean just `on the other hand': . , , . The noun or adjective is stressed on the first syllable [ vers]. The verb , meaning `have a conversation', is stressed on the second syllable [koÆn ]. reverse

◆ Obverse

reverse

obverse

reverse

converse

You say that your mother dislikes you but in fact

the converse is true

you dislike your mother

The previous speaker claimed

that nuclear weapons help to preserve peace but I maintain the converse

conversely

In such an emergency one can stop the car

or conversely one can accelerate out of danger converse

kon

converse

vers

convertible

.

This word, meaning `capable

of being changed':

convertible

car,

sometimes misspelt. The ending is not

is

-ible,

-able.

cool

Cool

.

is widely employed as a slang

.

`excellent': the

COLLABORATE or COOPERATE? see CHORD or CORD?

He looks really cool in that

We had a cool time at the party.

dominant

slang

term

of

As

approval

among young people since the late 1980s, it is used both in longer sentences and on its

bleu

.

cordon

bleu

bler

co-respondent CORRESPONDENT corporal corporeal. see

RESPONDENT?

or

?

ment.

.

means

corporal punish-

It should not be confused with

poreal,

CO-

or

Corporal

`relating to the body':

cor-

which means `physical' or `material':

Her

imaginary

friend

has

no

is pronounced [ praÆl]. pronounced [kor eeaÆl].

corporeal

reality.

◆ Corporal

kor

Corporeal

por

corps corpse or

? The noun

corps,

is

meaning

`body of people', should not be confused

.

with the noun the

corpse,

diplomatic

.

meaning `dead body':

corps

The

corpse

lay

undiscovered for several weeks.

◆ Both are ultimately derived from the Latin `body', via the French noun . The English word retains the French pronunciation [kor], whereas , which entered English from Old French some 400 years earlier, is pronounced [korps].

corpus

corps

corps

corpse

correspond

ings of

There are two main mean-

correspond.

met

his

Italian

penfriend

corresponded for years.

.

.

One is `communicate

with someone by exchange of letters': after

they

He had

The other meaning

is `match or be equivalent or comparable in some respect': witnesses. roughly

.

with

the

Your account corresponds description

The

corresponds

to

the

of

the

other

baccalaureÂat

French

British

A-level

In this second meaning is considered correct by many careful users, although is often used.

exam.

◆

correspond to

correspond with

correspondent co-respondent or

by letter:

CHILL.

cordon

◆ The French phrase literally means `blue ribbon', from the blue ribbon worn by members of the highest order of chivalry under the Bourbon monarchy. Its anglicized pronunciation is [kawdon(g) ].

be avoided: See also

.

of the highest standard: cuisine.

respondent

`We could go to a restaurant

The French phrase

is used to refer to cookery or a cook

own as an exclamation. Its overuse should later.' `Cool.'

see

cordon bleu

exactly

term variously meaning `fashionable' or

jacket.

cooperate

. cord

is

correspondent

continents,

.

?A

cor-

is someone who communicates She has correspondents in three

or

someone who

contributes

news reports to a newspaper or to radio

cosmetic

72

.

or television programmes:

And now a

report from our Middle East correspondent.

A

is the person cited in divorce

co-respondent

.

proceedings as the lover of the husband or wife who has been accused of adultery:

Divorced couples hobnobbed with each other

(Noel

and with each other's co-respondents

Coward,

cosmetic cosmetic

Present Indicative).

Some people dislike the use of

as an adjective to apply to anything

could have could of council counsel or

or

OF.

? see

? The noun

.

council

means `a body of people meeting for discussion and consultation':

.

council. She

The noun always

counsel

gave

wise

corresponding verb advice to someone':

.

.

against acting rashly.

counsel,

.

county

and the

means `give

counsel

about her future career.

the

means `advice':

She was counselled He was counselled

psychiatric counselling.

A (in American English, sometimes ) is a person who belongs to a , just as a (in American English, sometimes ) is a person who :. ( . ). A is a lawyer or group of lawyers: . ◆ It is extended further to anything which makes a . . superficial improvement but does not make any counsel or advise? In many instances fundamental change: .

.

that improves the outward appearance of

◆

something:

councilor

One supplier of decaffeinated

councillor

coffee . . . plans to switch from the chemical process . . . although a spokesman insisted this was necessary for `cosmetic' reasons only

Sun-

council

counsellor

counselor

counsels

marriage-guidance counsellors

day Times

counsel

Queen's Counsel

the counsel for the defence

Opposition claims that the

counsel

and

cosmetic effect were hotly denied by the Depart-

although

counsel

ment of the Environment

I would advise/counsel you not to drink any

cost price or

?

Cost

synonymously

.

.

and

as

price

nouns

are often used

to

mean

`the

amount paid or charged for something': We were afraid the cost/price would be

more

than

we

could

afford.

.

Cost

is more

likely to refer to an amount paid and to an amount charged: manufacturing

costs

will

price

An increase in

result

in

higher

prices.

are

.

Government's inner-city plans would have only a

advise

synonymous,

is rather more formal:

more if you're driving home. Advise

is more

likely to be used in informal contexts and

.

when the advice is not of great importance: He advised me to go on the ring road.

Counsel

is more appropriate when the ad-

.

vice is serious and when it is given by trained or professional counsellors:

He

has been counselled by social workers, doctors, and

clergy

but

he

still

can't

sort

out

his

is more often used when preceded by an . adjective: . , andwhen speaking of the amount needed in order COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES The right-hand column lists the words to bribe someone: . ` ' (Sir Robert Walpole). is used in the used as adjectives and nouns referring to the countries in the left-hand column and plural for the expenses of a lawsuit: . , and either or is used their people. A single item in the rightto describe the expenditure in terms of effort and hand column, such as `Albanian', indicates sacrifice made in order to achieve an end: . ` that the same word is used as adjective and ' (St Ignatius Loyo- noun. `Argentinian Argentine' indicates that either of these words may be used as an la). . adjective or a noun. . problems.

◆ Price

an exorbitant price

bargain prices

All those men have their

price

Cost

The court

awarded him costs

cost

price

To

give and not to count the cost

or

This was indeed a high price to pay for

success

couch potato

The slang term

couch potato

originated in American English in the mid1970s and entered British English in the late 1980s. It is applied to people who spend

.

most of their leisure time watching television:

We are inexorably mutating into a

coast-to-coast

(The

allotment

Guardian).

see

couch

potatoes

The term is best avoided

in formal contexts.

could

of

CAN or MAY?

Where the adjective and noun are not

identical, they are separated by a semicolon, with the adjective first: `Danish; a Dane' indicates that Dane

Danish

is the adjective and

the noun.

.

Most of the nouns can be converted to

.

plural or collective form by adding -s: Albanians

a party of Danes.

the

However, the

plural and collective form of nouns ending

.

.

in -ese and -ois is identical to the singular form:

the Chinese

the Seychellois.

Other

73 irregular plurals and collective forms are separated from the singular noun by a second

semicolon,

as

at

`Lesothan;

a

Mosotho . . .; the Basotho . . .' and `Irish; an Irishman (or -woman); the Irish'. Cross-references, e.g. see

CHINESE, are also

included to main entries in the

Good Word

Guide.

Afghanistan Afghan Albania Albanian Algeria Algerian Andorra Andorran Angola Angolan Antigua and Barbuda Antiguan Argentina Argentinian Argentine ( ARGENTINE ARGENTINIAN Armenia Armenian Australia Australian Austria Austrian Azerbaijan Azeri Azerbaijani Bahamas, the Bahamian Bahrain Bahraini Bangladesh Bangladeshi Barbados Barbadian Belarus Byelorussia Belau Belauan Belgium Belgian Belize Belizean Benin Beninese Beninois Bermuda Bermudan Bermudian Bhutan Bhutanese Bolivia Bolivian Bosnia-Herzegovina Bosnian Botswana Botswanan Brazil Brazilian Brunei Bruneian Bulgaria Bulgarian Burkina Faso Burkinabe Burma Myanmar Burundi Burundian Byelorussia Byelorussian Cambodia Cambodian Cameroon Cameroonian Canada Canadian Cape Verde Cape Verdian Cape Verdean Cayman Islands, the Caymanian; a Cayman Islander Central African Republic, the Central African Chad Chadian Chile Chilean or

see

or

?)

or

see

or

or

see

or

COUNTRIES China ( CHINESE) Colombia Comoros, the Congo Costa Rica CoÃte d'Ivoire Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic, the East Timor Ecuador

Chinese Colombian Comoran Congolese Costa Rican Ivorian Croatian; a Croat a Croatian Cuban Cypriot Czech Danish; a Dane Djibouti Dominican Dominican East Timorese Ecuadorean Ecuadorian Ecuadoran Egypt Egyptian El Salvador Salvadorean Salvadorian Salvadoran England English; an Englishman ( -woman); the English Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinean Eritrea Eritrean Estonia Estonian Ethiopia Ethiopian Falkland Islands, Falklands; the a Falkland Islander Fiji Fijian Finland Finnish; a Finn France French; a Frenchman ( -woman); the French Gabon Gabonese Gambia the Gambia Gambian Georgia Georgian Germany German Ghana Ghanaian Gibraltar Gibraltarian Great Britain British; a Briton; the British ( BRITAIN; BRIT) Greece Greek ( GREEK GRECIAN?) Grenada Grenadian Guatemala Guatemalan Guinea Guinean Guinea-Bissau Guinea-Bissauan Guyana Guyanese Guyanan see

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

see

see

or

or

COUNTRIES

74

Haiti Haitian Holland Netherlands, the Honduras Honduran Hungary Hungarian Iceland Icelandic; an Icelander India Indian Indonesia Indonesian Iran Iranian Iraq Iraqi Ireland, Republic of Irish; an Irishman (Eire) ( -woman); the Irish NORTHERN IRELAND ) ( Israel Israeli Italy Italian Ivory Coast CoÃte d'Ivoire Jamaica Jamaican Japan Japanese Jordan Jordanian Kazakhstan Kazakh Kenya Kenyan Kiribati Kiribati Korea Korean NORTH KOREA, SOUTH KOREA ) ( Kuwait Kuwaiti Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyz; a Kyrgyzstani Laos Laotian Lao Latvia Latvian Lettish; a Latvian a Lett Lebanon Lebanese Lesotho Lesothan; a Mosotho a Lesothan; the Basotho the Lesothans Liberia Liberian Libya Libyan Liechtenstein Liechtenstein; a Liechtensteiner Lithuania Lithuanian Luxembourg Luxembourg Luxembourgian Luxembourger; a Luxembourger Macedonia Macedonian Madagascar Madagascan Malagasy; a Madagascan a Malagasy Malawi Malawian Malaysia Malaysian Maldives, the Maldivian Mali Malian Malta Maltese Marshall Islands Marshallese Mauritania Mauritanian see

or

in table

see also

see

in table

see also

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

Mauritius Mexico Micronesia, Federated States of Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Montserrat Morocco Mozambique Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, the

Mauritian Mexican Micronesian Moldovan Monacan Monegasque Mongolian Mongol Montenegrin Montserratian Moroccan Mozambican Myanmar Burmese Namibian Nauruan Nepalese Dutch; a Netherlander a Dutchman ( -woman); the Dutch New Zealand New Zealand; a New Zealander Nicaragua Nicaraguan Niger Nigerien Nigeria Nigerian Northern Ireland Northern Irish; a Northern Irishman ( -woman); the Northern Irish North Korea North Korean Norway Norwegian Oman Omani Pakistan Pakistani Panama Panamanian Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinean Paraguay Paraguayan Peru Peruvian Philippines, the Philippine; a Filipino Poland Polish; a Pole Portugal Portuguese Puerto Rico Puerto Rican Qatar Qatari Romania Romanian Russia Russian Rwanda Rwandan St Kitts and Nevis Kittitian St Lucia St Lucian St Vincent and the Grenadines St Vincentian Samoa Samoan San Marino San Marinese Sanmarinese SaÄo Tome and PrõÂncipe SaÄo TomeÂan or

or

or

or

or

or

or

coup d'eÂtat

75 Saudi Arabia Scotland

Saudi Arabian Saudi Scottish; a Scot a Scotsman ( -woman); the Scots the Scottish ( SCOTCH, SCOTS SCOTTISH?) Senegal Senegalese Serbia Serbian Serb Seychelles, the Seychellois Sierra Leone Sierra Leonean Singapore Singaporean Slovakia Slovak Slovenia Slovenian Solomon Islands, the Solomon Islands; a Solomon Islander Somalia Somalian Somali South Africa South African South Korea South Korean Spain Spanish; a Spaniard; the Spanish Sri Lanka Sri Lankan Sudan Sudanese Suriname Surinamese Swaziland Swazi Sweden Swedish; a Swede Switzerland Swiss; a Swiss; the Swiss Syria Syrian Taiwan Taiwanese Tajikistan Tajik Tadjik Tanzania Tanzanian Thailand Thai Togo Togolese Tonga Tongan Trinidad and Tobago Trinidadian Tobagoan Tunisia Tunisian Turkey Turkish; a Turk Turkmenistan Turkmen Tuvalu Tuvaluan Uganda Ugandan Ukraine Ukrainian United Arab Emirates, Emirian the United Kingdom, the British; a Briton; the the UK British GREAT BRITAIN, NORTHERN IRELAND ( ) United States of American America, the the USA the US Uruguay Uruguayan Uzbekistan Uzbek

Vanuatu Vatican City Venezuela Vietnam Wales

or

or

or

or

or

see

or

or

or

see also

in table

or

or

or

Yemen Yugoslavia Zambia Zimbabwe

or

or

Vanuatuan Vatican Venezuelan Vietnamese Welsh; a Welshman ( -woman); the Welsh Yemeni Yugoslavian Yugoslav Zambian Zimbabwean

country .

or

or

countryside

?

Both

these

words may be used to denote a rural area: We went for a walk in the country/country-

side. Countryside

.

is commonly preceded by

and usually only

the

noun:

country

cottage/lane.

◆

.

occurs before a

the English countryside

a country

In the sense of `nation' or `state', the noun cannot be replaced by :. [not ].

country

countryside

epidemic is sweeping the country

A flu

country-

side

country nation . or

? These words are often

used interchangeably: nations of the world. try

the poorer countries/

Strictly speaking

.

coun-

should be used when the context is one

of geographical characteristics: mountainous

country,

and

.

Wales is a

nation

when

speaking of the people or of social and political characteristics: of musicians and orators.

Wales is a nation

carries a suggestion of a people with a common culture, language, and traditions, and is often better replaced with the more general when describing a multicultural society like modern Britain.

◆ Nation

peo-

ple

countryman countrywoman NONSEXIST TERMS countryside COUNTRY COUNTRYSIDE coup de graÃce or

? see

.

see

or

?

The French expression coup

à ce de gra

.

is a formal phrase that is used to

refer to an event that finally destroys something:

The latest bombings have effectively

à ce to the whole peace process. dealt a coup de gra

The literal meaning of the expression is `stroke of mercy'. It is sometimes written or printed in italics and its anglicized pronunciation is [koo de ]. The accent on the in is sometimes omitted.

◆

aÃ

grahs

coup d'eÂtat  tat d'e

graÃce

The French expression

coup

is used to refer to a sudden, violent

course

76

seizure of power in a country. The phrase is often shortened to simply

coup.

is increasingly used as a vogue word meaning `power to convince or impress': . Credibility

Ap-

The literal meaning of the expression is `stroke of state'. Note that it is sometimes written or printed and should not be confused in italics. The plural of is . Both the singular and plural have the same pro- with , `a set of beliefs'. nunciation: [koo day ]. See also CREDIBLE, CREDITABLE or CREDULOUS?

◆

pointing such a senior figure to the post would give instant credibility to any administration.

coup d'eÂtat

coups d'eÂtat

Credence

credibility

creed

tah

course cover

see

The verb

preposition

crafted

in

[or

covered in

credibility gap

COARSE or COURSE?; OF COURSE.

This

.

is followed by the

cover

or

with:

The

floor

was

with] sawdust.

word,

`skilfully

made', is sometimes used simply as a sy-

.

nonym for `made' or `produced' in exaggerated sales descriptions:

fitted cupboards

crafted from the finest wood.

Many people

dislike this usage.

craftsman craftswoman IST TERMS crash or

? see

.

The adjectival use of

NON-SEX-

crash

in the

.

sense of `intensive' is best restricted to the

.

few phrases in which it is most familiar:

a

is a fashion-

trust created by a discrepancy between what

.

is said officially and what is actually seen to happen:

meaning

Credibility gap

able expression used to describe the lack of

The public cynically accepts the

credibility gap between election promises and the Government's subsequent policies.

credible creditable credulous ,

three

or

adjectives

credulous,

? The

creditable,

times confused.

and

credulity

Credible

are some-

means `believable':

My story may sound barely credible but I

.

assure you it's true. Creditable

ving praise':

means `deser-

Her readiness to forgive her

.

attacker is creditable. Credulous

lible; too ready to believe':

means `gul-

Only the most

The word should not be used in contexts that There is a further, fashionable use of may be associated with its sense of `collision': . ◆mean `authentic; convincing': . [ ] . . crash diet

◆

a crash course.

credulous person could believe such nonsense.

an

intensive crash course in air-traffic control

creak

creek .

or

?

scraping sound': hinges.

The door creaked on its

It should not be confused with

creek,

which variously means `inlet or bay on a

.

shoreline' or, in American English, `stream flowing into a river':

.

The smugglers hoped

to lure the ship into the creek. the creek to the main river.

◆

They followed

The adjective

creative

.

She is very creative.

tradition-

a creative mind

.

It is increasingly used in

a less favourable sense, describing some-

.

thing that stretches the limits of convention, legality, or truth: bookkeeping.

creative accounting/

credence credibility or

?

Credence

.

the state of being believable: credence to her explanation.

◆ Credence

phrase

.

is the

credibility

is

He gave

Her explanation

The two nouns should not

be confused.

, a formal word, is also used in the , meaning `credentials'.

letters of credence

see

Creep

has recently acquired a new

noun meaning beside that of `move slowly' or `approach' and may now denote an

.

The American forces in Afghanistan could be

.

leaving themselves open to charges of mission creep.

This a clear example of jargon-creep.

In this usage

creep

remains a vogue term

and is best avoided in formal contexts.

creÁme de la creÁme Á me de la cre Á me cre

The French expression

.

is used to refer to the best

people or things of their kind:

state of believing something;

lacked credibility.

CREDENCE or CREDIBILITY? CREDENCE or CREDIBILITY? see CREAK or CREEK?

See also

creed creek creep

tended or officially sanctioned scope:

ally refers to originality and imagination used for artistic purposes:

to

expansion of something beyond its in-

Both words are pronounced [kreek].

creative

credible

They serve a

credible paella

means `make a

Creak

and

and their corresponding nouns

credibility, credit,

.

credible,

The fee-

Á me de la cre Á me of paying schools take the cre local children.

The literal meaning of the example is `cream of the cream'. It is pronounced [krem deÆ lah ]. ◆

crescendo

krem

Crescendo

is a musical term that

is frequently misused in both its technical

.

and figurative senses. In music it describes a gradual increase in volume:

The brass

77

crotch

sections take up the theme as the crescendo builds up.

to describe any build-up of intensity:

.

.

It can be used of other sounds or The

baby's whimpering increased in a crescendo to a howl.

Public interest in the matter has risen

in a crescendo.

Because people sometimes mistakenly refer to , the word is often interpreted to mean the loud climax which is actually the culmination of a crescendo, and it is used to mean both `a loud noise' and, in figurative contexts, `peak, climax, or milestone': . .. . ◆

building up/rising to a crescendo

The drum

solo ended in a deafening crescendo

She

reached the crescendo of her career before she was 30

cripple

The term

cripple

is considered

offensive by many people when referring to a person with a physical impairment. Careful users avoid

cripple

prefer other terms: see

crisis

Crisis

or

crippled

DISABLED.

and

and it should be used for situations that have reached a turning point for better or worse, for decisive moments in dramas, for

.

crucial states of affairs where significant

.

The illness had passed its

.

crisis and it was clear that she would live. worsening economic crisis

the

It is feared that the

crisis which resulted in the military coup may lead to civil war.

To the dislike of some people, is now often applied to situations which are worrying or serious but without any definite implication of imminent change: . ( ), or for quite trivial problems: . . Note the spelling of the plural of , which is , pronounced [ ]. ◆

crisis

Independent television is facing a crisis

through declining audiences Daily Telegraph

I've got a crisis here ±

my zip's broken

crisis

crises

krõÅseez

criterion criteria or

? The word

criterion,

.

meaning `a standard by which to judge or evaluate something', is a singular noun: Exam

results

were

the

only

criterion

for

.

deciding whether candidates should be interviewed.

The plural of

criterion

is

criteria:

on the condition that the basic criteria of the

(The

The noun or : . for

Bookseller).

criterion

is followed by the preposition [or ]

the only criterion of

critic critique or

? A

critic

for success.

is someone who

criticizes. The word is sometimes used in

.

the sense of someone who finds fault or expresses disapproval:

Acupuncture has

many critics in the medical profession.

It is

.

also used of someone who is employed to evaluate works of art, music, or literature:

The public loved the play but the critics did not have a good word to say for it.

A

critique

is

a work of criticism, usually applied to an

.

academic work which analyses and discusses ideas in depth:

This is a thoughtful

critique of logical positivism.

critical .

Critical

severely':

means `inclined to judge

My mother is so critical of the way

.

I bring up the children;

scholarly evaluation': Jung's

literally means `turning point'

changes are likely:

of

.

work;

crucial':

`involving careful or a critical account of

`involving a turning point;

We are at a critical point in our

◆ This last use is often applied to serious or dangerous illnesses or injuries: . and has in its turn led to such uses as: . ` ' , ( ). negotiations.

in a critical con-

dition

A

woman was later described as critical in hospital with one wrist almost severed Daily Telegraph

critique CRITIC CRITIQUE crochet crotchet see

or

or

?

? The noun

crochet

refers to a type of needlework; the noun is the name of a note in music.

is a word of French origin that retains the French pronunciation [ ] in English. The past tense of the verb is , spelt with a single - - and pronounced [ ]. The noun , pronounced [ it], has the derived adjective , which means `irritable' in informal English. crotchet

◆ Crochet

kroÅshay

crochet

crocheted

t

kroÅshayd

crotchet

kroch

crotchety

cross-section

A

is a piece of

cross-section

something which has been cut off at right

.

angles or a drawing of the dimensions revealed by such a cutting:

shows an artery in cross-section.

The diagram

The expres-

.

sion is more often used popularly to mean `a typical or representative sample':

Over

five thousand people were interviewed as a

. Many people take to be a singular noun with the plural . This is wrong. It is, how- crotch or crutch? Either noun may be used ever, acceptable to use the phrase as to denote the angle between a person's legs an alternative to when a singular expres- (hence, the genital area) or the correspondsion is required: . ing part of a garment (such as a pair of

code are accepted and met

◆

criteria

cross-section of the general public

criterias

set of criteria

criterion

Pay awards may be given

according to the following set of criteria.

trousers). The term

crotch

is more fre-

crotchet

78

merely a synonym for or :. . ◆ The principal meaning of the noun is This use is so widespread as to be generally ac`supportusedbypeoplewithinjuredlegsorfeet': . cepted, although some careful users object to it. The verb is followed by the preposition : . . . quently used in these senses, but

crutch

is

not incorrect.

result

The

conclude

growing unrest culminated in industrial action

crutch

culminate

She was on crutches for three months after the accident

crotchet crucial

see

cult

CROCHET or CROTCHET?

The use of

crucial

as a synonym for

is best avoided in formal speech

important

.

and writing, where it should be restricted to the sense of `decisive' or `critical': constituencies

where

the

self-employed

vote

could be crucial to the outcome of the election

(Daily

Telegraph).

is widely used in informal contexts, and increasingly by journalists, broadcasters, advertisers, and others, to emphasize the importance of events or issues that are by no means decisive or critical. The word has the same derivation as , meaning `a decisive point', which is most frequently encountered in the expression . ◆ Crucial

crux

the crux

of the matter

crutch CROTCH cue queue see

or

?

Cue

actor heard his cue.

CRUTCH?

or

means `signal':

. .

The

teach

someone how to hold their cue properly.

should not be confused with means `line' or `sequence':

.

queue,

It

which

a queue of

traffic.

cuisine

The rebellion culminated in civil war

Some people dislike the adjectival use

of the word

cult

to refer to a particular

person, idea, activity, etc., that arouses great

.

iod of time: cult figure.

a cult movie

cuisine

is used to de-

scribe a style of cooking food, particularly

.

one which is typical of a particular country or region:

.

Peppers and tomatoes are charBasque

cuisine;

for the food

acteristic

of

itself:

Their cuisine is excellent;

.

.

and in

various phrases which convey a particular style of cooking:

nouvelle cuisine

.

a

overusing the word in this way.

cultured cultivated or

tivated

?

and

Cultured

cul-

are almost synonymous in that they

are both used to mean `educated, refined'. is particularly applied to educa-

Cultured

.

tion in terms of an understanding and appreciation of the arts:

They were cul-

tured people who attended concerts and art galleries,

while

.

cultivated

haviour and speech:

is applied to be-

He gradually dropped

his Cockney twang and spoke in a soft, culti-

Both and also have connections with things that are produced artificially: . . .

◆

cultured

cultured pearls

cumulative curb kerb

cultivated

cultivated plants

see

TIVE?

or

.

ACCUMULATIVE

cuisine

or control':

CUMULA-

or

? These two spellings may Curb

means `check

He curbed his anger.

A

kerb

is

the edge of a pavement; in American English this word is spelt

currant current or

? A

curb.

.

always put lots of currants in her cakes,

.

of several different soft fruits: jam

blackcurrant juice.

.

is a small

currant

seedless dried grape used in cookery:

carries a suggestion of good food skil- flow: . . . fully cooked so its use in such a sentence as: . . ± is either inappropriate or jocular. current The adjective

minceur.

a cult book

Care should be taken to avoid

sometimes be confused.

The word

.

popular interest, especially for a short per-

vated accent.

It also means `rod, as in

the games of billiards, snooker, etc.':

in

She

or any

redcurrant

A current is a steady

They did not swim because the current

◆ Cuisine

It

was typical service-station cuisine

chips with

was

very

strong

everything

cullender culminate

DER?

.

see

CALENDAR, CALENDER or COLAN-

means `form a sum-

alternating

current

means `oc-

.

curring in or belonging to the present time; presently existing or in progress':

techniques Culminate

volts,

250

current

for

treating

the

knowledged to be inadequate

disease

.

Current are

ac-

and `accepted

mit; reach the highest or most crucial

or prevalent at this time':

.

opinions of American Catholics are in conflict

point': Her

The church culminates in a steeple.

rise

in

society

in

her

with the Vatican.

◆ and are often used superfluThe word is very often used as though it were ously where there is no need to emphasize that

marriage to an earl.

◆

culminated

The current

Current

currently

79

czar

one is talking about the present as contrasted with cyber- This prefix is commonly used in the the past or future: . context of high-technology communication . and information systems and virtual reality: The company currently em-

ploys over a thousand people

curriculum

This

word,

meaning

.

`pro-

gramme of courses available or subjects

.

studied in a school or college': ranging sixth-form curriculum Curriculum,

a wide-

the National

is sometimes misspelt. Not

that the only double letters are -rr-, as in current.

A , often abbreviated to , is a summary of a person's career and qualifications that is often required when applying for a job. may be pronounced [ tõÅ] or [ tee].

◆

curriculum vitae

Vitae

curtsy curtsy

curtsey

or

CV

vee

võÅ

? The noun and verb

refer to a formal greeting made by a

girl or woman in which the head and shoulders are lowered, the knees are bent

.

and the skirt is held outwards with both hands:

She curtsied to the Queen.

alternative spelling

curtsey

The

is also accepta-

ble.

customer CLIENT cutting edge see

or

.

cutting edge

LEADING-EDGE.

in

at the

cutting edge of information technology.

See also

.

cybercrime

.

.

cyberoptics

.

The word may also be used

independently:

the

cyber

age.

.

Caution

.

should be exercised in adopting some of the very informal coinages:

cybersex

cybersquatting.

cymbal symbol or

? Note the spelling of

these words, which have the same pronunÆ l]. A cymbal is a circular brass ciation [simba percussion instrument; a

.

symbol

clash of cymbals peace.

.

is a sign or

design that represents something else:

the

The dove is a symbol of

cynical sceptical or

? A

cynical

person is

one who has a distrust of human nature

.

and sincerity, believing others to be motivated by self-interest:

He had a cynical

belief that nobody took up law or medicine for

ican English,

Some people dislike the

frequent use of the phrase

cybercafe

cyberspace.

any reason but the money. Sceptical

CUSTOMER?

the figurative sense of `forefront':

.

.

unwilling proof':

to

skeptical)

believe

(Amer-

means `doubtful, without

rational

While accepting Jesus' moral teach-

ings she remained sceptical about the miracles and the resurrection.

czar

see

TSAR or CZAR?

dais

D This word, meaning `a raised plat-

form', is usually pronounced [dayis]. It was

dare

The verb

dare

can be used in two

.

formerly pronounced as only one syllable

followed by an infinitive with

[days], but this is now rarely heard.

you

daisycutter

In cricket, a

daisycutter

is a ball

rolled along the ground towards the batsman, but in modern US military slang it is

.

different ways. It can be used as a full verb, to

jump.

contradict him;

.

We'll

see

if

to: she

I dare

dares

to

or it can be an auxiliary

.

or modal verb, followed by an infinitive without to:

He dared not go there at night.

How dare you say that?

As an auxiliary the verb is only used in the forms and , and only in negative and interrogative constructions. destruction. The expression means `suppose, ex◆ Similar euphemisms used by the military to . pect, orthinklikely': describe such weapons include . It is only used in the present tense and in the (modelled on the bomb of World first person; and is sometimes written as one word: War II). . . used euphemistically to denote a type of

bomb that is designed to explode a metre or

so above the ground, causing maximum

◆

dare

dared

dare say

bunker buster

dambuster

dangling participles

I dare say we'll go to Bognor

again

I daresay

Participles are often

dash

. .

pairs. Though the dash is useful, most of its

Being by now very tired, we stopped at a pub.

tuation marks, and excessive use of the

There is a tendency, though, for such

dash is sometimes considered to be a mark

used to introduce a phrase which is attached

to

a

later-mentioned

subject:

Startled by the noise she dropped her book.

.

introductory participles to become apparently attached to the wrong noun:

by the noise, her book fell to the floor.

.

Startled Being

Dashes can be used both singly and in

functions can be performed by other punc-

of a careless writer. A sentence should never contain more than one dash or pair of dashes.

◆ The double dash is used to mark a break in a sentence, very much in the same way as round pub that was tired. Then there is the brackets: . ± sentence where the participle appears to ± . As with have no subject at all, which is the thought parentheses, the material enclosed by dashes behind the term (also should be able to be removed leaving the sentence known as , or grammatically complete. Commas should not be , ): . used with double dashes. . Who, or what, was A single dash is used to introduce a statement lying in the sun? summarizing what has gone before: . ◆ Some participles are habitually used in a manner where they might be thought to dangle, but they . It is also used to introduce an are usually being used as prepositions or conjunc- afterthought or a sharp change in subject or contions, and such use is acceptable: . tinuity: . . , .. . , .. , . On the borderline is the increasingly Dashes are used to indicate an unfinished senpopularuse of :. , tence or hesitant speech: . ±. , which is . They are often used to considered unacceptable by many people. precede the attribution of a quotation: . ` by now very tired, a pub was a welcome sight.

It was not the book that was startled or the

My mother

birth

dangling

unattached

ple

a Yorkshire-woman by

had little time for Londoners

participle

unrelated partici-

Lying in the sun it felt as though it had

always been summer

Beer, chips,

and cigarettes ± these are the main threats to the nation's health

Speaking of

fruit does anyone want an apple?

the odds against them they did well your enquiry

Considering Regarding

I have pleasure in enclosing our

I'm surprised to see Nigel here ± he's

usually late

You take two eggs ± but perhaps you

don't even like omelettes?

I don't believe it ±

caviare!

catalogue

having said that

Having said that

the West Indies still look certain to win

I think he's

I ± um ±

er ± I don't er ± know

No man

81 '± . They are, occasionally, used to indicate an omission of part of a name, and to replace all or part of an obscenity: . .. . They are also used between points in space or time, where they are equivalent . to : . . A dash may be thought of as a less formal punctuation mark than a colon: . For dashes with colons see COLON. is an island

Donne

I travelled to

the small mountain town of LÐ-

It's none of

your Ð-ing business to

London±Paris

1914±18

This word

means `like a goat' ± Lloyd George was known as `the Goat'.

data

.

means `facts, information that

Data

can be used as a basis for analysis, etc.':

We

have data on road accidents for the past thirty years.

◆ is actually a plural, with the singular , but this singular is rarely used and has come to be regarded as a collective noun, which is appropriate to its use for a body or aggregate of information. There is still considerable controversy as to whether it should take a singular or plural verb. In American English the singular verb is now usual: . , and this use is becoming increasingly frequent in British English. However, some careful users (especially those working within scientific and medical circles) still insist on using the noun as a plural: . . The pronunciation [ taÆ] is preferred, although [ taÆ] is sometimes used and is usual in American English. Data

datum

data

This is essential data

These are

essential data

day

dah

dates

It is usual to write dates in figures,

rather than words, except in some very formal contexts, such as legal documents. There dates:

.

are

various

ways

5 October 2003

of

expressing

is becoming the

standard form in Britain in preference to 5th October, 2003

and

October 5th, 2003.

The standard form in the United States is October 5 2003.

deaf-mute . .

the date, while BC follows it: . See also AD and BC. The apostrophe in a series of years is nowadays . generally omitted: . . Specific years are usually rendered in numerical form. Sometimes a year date may be rendered in abbreviated form where the fuller form is felt to be . unnecessary: . AD 527

in the 1990s

1000 BC

the 1800s

.

He died in the 14±18 war.

.

we had known that back in '39. another bottle of '47 Lafitte.

If only

Let's have

Do you remember

Another abbreviated form appears to be limited to the year 2000, marking the turn of the millennium: . (for `the year 2000'). the summer of '69?

Y2K

See also

de-

CENTURIES; NUMBERS; MILLENNIUM.

The prefix

.

descale,

.

is used to signify `the

de-

opposite or reverse':

.

declassify,

or `reduction':

`removal':

degrade.

◆ As a productive prefix, is constantly being used to create new words: . (to reverse a practice or law involving racial segregation), . (todecreaseinscopeorextent), . (to release patients from an institution), . (to remove from a list of approved items), . (the separation of previously merged companies). Some users object to the coining of such forms. de-

desegregate

de-escalate

deinstitutionalize

delist

demerger

deadly deathly or

?

to cause death';

.

Deadly

deathly

teristic of death:

a deadly weapon

deathly silence. Deadly

place of

deathly

means `likely

.

refers to a characa

.

is sometimes used in

in figurative contexts:

Both words may be used adverbially: . . . In informal contexts the adjective can also mean `extremely boring': . . `Goodbye,' she said, with a deadly finality.

◆

deadly

quiet

deathly pale

deadly

The party was deadly

deaf

Because of its negative associations,

and because there are many different de-

of hearing impairment, the word The abbreviated form or is grees is sometimes avoided by careful writers in acceptable in informal use but it should be used general reference to people who have difwith caution as this abbreviation would mean the ficulties with their hearing. Preferred tenth of May in the United States, where the fifth terms include : . of October would be abbreviated to . In at least one exceptional circumstance, however, the Similarly, those with perfect hearing may US version has become widely familiar elsewhere be termed . in the world and is not reordered: . (or See also PROFOUNDLY DEAF. , ), referring to the terrorist attacks on the United States that took place on deaf-mute This term, describing a person 11 September 2001. who cannot hear or speak, is no longer Centuries may be written as numbers or written considered acceptable by many people, who out in full: . or . prefer the less offensive alternative PRO, and the abbreviation AD usually precedes FOUNDLY DEAF.

◆

5.10.03

hearing impaired

10.5.03

9/11

the 19th century

This loop

system is a great help to the hearing impaired.

9-11,

nine-eleven nine-one-one

century

deaf

5/10/03

the nineteenth

hearing people

deal

82

The alternative is similarly considered old-fashioned and offensive as it may suggest that the person concerned is incapable of communication of any kind.

◆

deaf-and-dumb

deal

The verb

deal,

sell', is followed by the preposition

.

in:

In the sense

`see to, tackle, look after' it is followed by with:

The police were called in to deal with

the riot.

dear

deer

and

.

.

my dear wife.

.

variously means `be-

loved', `expensive', or `appealing': very dear.

be unintentionally deceptive:

This is

The prices in that shop are

What a dear little picture.

should not be confused with

deer,

It

which

inspection it turned out to be gold.

the

-ei-

This word is often misspelt. Note

spelling, which conforms to the rule

`i before

except after

e

SPELLING 5.

See also

c'.

decent decorous behaviour.

decorous

Decorous,

whereas

decent

has the additional meanings

.

.

language

remains': the

They removed the debris from

building

site,

is stressed on the first

syllable [debri]. The variant pronunciation [daybri] is widely used, and this pronuncia-

.

tion should be used when the word is written with an acute accent:

debut

Debut,

 bris. de

meaning `first appearance':

He made his debut in a James Bond film,

.

.

may

be pronounced [daybew] or [debew]. If the word is spelt with an acute accent:

The use of as a verb: . , is disliked by many users.

 but, de

the first pronunciation should be used.

◆

debut

She debuted last

month

deca- decior

.

? The prefix

.

`ten times'; the prefix tenth':

decagon

ten metres; a

deci-

decibel.

decimetre

A

.

a decent meal

means

means `one decametre

is

is one tenth of a

metre.

.

decent

to do the decent

He's a decent enough fellow.

In the sense of `not obscene', is not as common as its opposite (`obscene').

thing

◆

decent

indecent

deceptive deceptively

DECEITFUL or DECEPTIVE?

see

The adverb

deceptively

sug-

gests misleading appearances and is used to

.

indicate that something is not as suggested by the following adjective.: tached

house

offering

accommodation

a semi-de-

deceptively

(advertisement,

spacious

Chichester

Observer).

deci- DECA- DECIdecidedly decisively see

or

?

or

deca-

formal

of `not obscene', `adequate', `morally correct', `obliging; pleasant', etc.:

This word, meaning `rubble or

decent/

a

word, is largely restricted to this sense,

◆

debris .

.

? Both these adjectives

can mean `socially acceptable':

denotes the animal.

Both words are pronounced [deer].

The ring's

dull appearance was deceptive, for on closer

or

Dear

.

dishonest motivation, and something might

. deceive

in the sense `buy and

They deal in antique furniture.

to a misleading effect or result rather than

?

a

decidedly

welcome

.

Decidedly

means `definitely; unquestionably': suggestion.

usually It was

It is also

sometimes used to mean `firmly; reso-

.

lutely', and way:

decisively

is used in the same

`I'm going ahead with it,' she said

. is also used to Note the difference in pronunciation, particu- imply decision-making which is marked by larly the hard [k] of and the soft [s] of firmness, confidence, and lack of wavering: . . decade The word , denoting a per. iod of ten years, is variously pronounced ◆ can be applied to anything which makes a particular outcome inevitable: . [ kayd] or [di ]. Either pronunciation is the onethatdecides theresult of thematch; may be used, although some people disand is also used in this sense; . approve of the latter, more recent, version. deceitful or deceptive? Both and . imply misleading appearances or decidedly/decisively Decisively

◆

-c-

deca-

-c-

deci-

He studied the options briefly before decisi-

decade

vely choosing the second one

Decisive

de

a decisive

kayd

goal

decisively

deceitful

deceptive

cheating. However,

deceitful

suggests an

intention to deceive or mislead, even if

.

Her

conduct at the interview influenced the board decisively

decimate

Decimate

literally means `destroy

one in ten', from the Roman practice of

not successful, and therefore carries nega-

killing every tenth soldier as a punishment

tive moral overtones:

It was deceitful of you

for mutiny. The word is now used popu-

applies

larly to mean `inflict considerable damage;

to pretend to be an orphan. Deceptive

destroy a large part of': decimated

today's

sports

.

83 The

weather

posals to the Commons select committee on

(BBC

broadcasting for a new `dedicated' parliamen-

programme

TV). This use probably arises from the mistaken belief that the word means `destroy all but a tenth' and, although the usage is very widespread, many careful users still dislike it.

Decimate

.

should not

.

be used to mean `annihilate totally', or in

.

such constructions as: utterly decimated

badly decimated

Some 75 per cent of the

DECIDEDLY or DECISIVELY? see COLOURIZE. Â cor, de

(The

Guardian).

deduce deduct or

? To

I deduced that she was lying.

.

from the bill.

noun

.

in common:

that she was lying

deer DEAR de facto

.

the deduction

a deduction of £10.

DEER?

or

that

.

He deducted £10

The two verbs have the derived

deduction

something

.

is to come to

deduce

a logical conclusion; to deduct is to subtract:

The Latin phrase

see

The noun

tary channel

see

cattle were decimated by the disease.

decisively decolorize deÂcor

defensible

exists

de facto

in

refers to

actual

fact,

whether or not that is justified or was

meaning `interior

decoration' or `stage decoration', may be spelt with or without the acute accent in English. The pronunciation is [daykor] or

[dekor].

intended:

de facto recognition of the state's

independence.

The literal meaning of the phrase is `in actual fact'. Note that it is sometimes written or printed in italics.

◆

See also DE JURE. The spelling and the pronunciation [ kor], being closer to the original French, are pre- defective or deficient? means ferred by some users. `having a fault; not working properly': . deÂcor

◆

day-

Defective

decorous DECENT DECOROUS decriminalize legalize see

or

or

?

The

?

washing

machine

.

I

bought

yesterday

turned out to be defective. Deficient

These

two

.

`having a lack':

means

She sings well but her voice

verbs are virtually interchangeable in the

is deficient in power.

sense of `make no longer illegal':

◆

While can be applied to concrete as well as abstract nouns: . . is the more frequent, , it is not usually applied to manufactured and is used in a wider range of contexts objects. is usually applied to concrete in the sense of `make legal': . nouns, including manufactured objects, but can be . applied to some abstract nouns, particularly those ◆ The verb emphasizes the (former) denoting some physical quality: . criminality of the practice to which it refers, and it . may be more emotive than :. defence The noun :. , is spelt with a in . British English, while the adjective

legalize

[or

cannabis

decriminalize]

the

smoking

to

deficient

Your diet is deficient in

of

calcium

Legalize

Defective

to legalize

independent radio stations

decriminalize

His colour vision

is defective

legalize

He was an

ardent supporter of the campaign to decriminalize homosexuality

decry descry or

? To

decry

.

an idea or plan

is to criticize or denounce it strongly:

The

report decried television news for concentrating on disaster and conflict. Descry

word and is much rarer than descry

.

is a formal decry.

To

something is to notice it, especially at

a distance:

descry the coast on a clear day.

Etymologically both and derive from Old French , to proclaim or decry.

◆

dedicated

decry

descry

descrier

In technology, the word

dedi-

defence

the importance

of the country's defence

sive

is spelt with an s:

defensive strategy.

◆

.

c

defen-

The players adopted a

In American English the noun is spelt with an .

defensible

or

defensive

idea, etc., that is

s

? An opinion,

defensible

morally payment.

defensible Defensive

method

is

.

is one that is

capable of being defended: of

used

the

most

calculating

more

fre-

.

quently and refers to things or actions that protect someone or something:

the

is applied to machines, parts, acces-

strong defensive walls of the city . Defensive

sories, computer programs, etc., that are

is also used to describe the behaviour of a

.

person reacting to criticism and, in sports

cated

designed to fulfil a single specific function: a dedicated word-processing package.

.

The

nent from scoring in a competition:

contexts:

up a defensive position .

Three companies gave their pro-

.

contexts, actions that prevent an oppo-

term is increasingly used in more general

take

defer

84

To be is to protect oneself by adverb, such as being prepared for expected attack or criticism. or defer The verb is followed by the ◆

on the defensive

surprisingly/considerably/less/etc.

To what degree . . .?

preposition

to:

.

much . . .?

defer

She deferred to our wishes.

deficient DEFECTIVE DEFICIENT defining clause RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE definite definitive see

or

or

different.

.

means

Definite

`precise, exact, or unambiguous': rules

draw

a

definite

.

distinction

`final; conclusive':

The

between

professionals and amateurs. Definitive

means

This is the definitive

game in the tournament,

and is frequently

used in criticism in the sense of `author-

.

itative' to describe a work or performance that is unlikely to be improved on:

Painter

has written the definitive biography of Proust.

◆ Careful users avoid the vague use of emphasis: . .

is either

deity

tional pronunciation.

? These two words

are

The pronunciation of

widely used, the latter is the more tradi.

are sometimes confused, although their meanings

How

[dayiti] or [deeiti]. Although the former is

?

see

deity

may be replaced by

To what extent . . .?

definite

deÂjaÁ vu

The French phrase

is used

 ja Á vu de

.

to refer to the feeling that one has already experienced a present situation:

As we

came into the village we had a strange sense of  ja Á vu. de

In modern usage it may also de-

.

scribe something that is so often repeated it has become hackneyed and stale: Â ja Á vu. style is so de

That

The literal meaning of is `already seen'. Its anglicized pronunciation is [dayzhah ]. deÂjaÁ vu

◆

de jure

voo

The Latin phrase

de jure

refers to

for . . ◆ The literal meaning of the phrase is `by right'. Note that it is sometimes written or printed in italics. It is pronounced [day ray] or [day ay]. something that exists or is so by legal right: the de jure leaders

He has a definite resemblance to

Winston Churchill

definite article definitely .

see

THE.

This word, meaning `certainly':

He was definitely going to win,

is some-

times misspelt, the most frequent error being the replacement of the second an

i

with

a.

definitive DEFINITE defuse diffuse see

or

or

? To

.

DEFINITIVE?

defuse

diffuse

is to spread:

delirious

joo

yoor

Note the spelling of this adjec-

tive, particularly the first two vowels and

-i-.

Æ s], lirriu

-e-

The correct pronunciation is [diwith the short [i] of

squirrel,

not

Æ s]. [dileeriu

is the adjective that derives from , `a confused mental state because one is suffering from a feverish illness' or `a state of great excitement or happiness'.

◆ Delirious

is to remove

the device that causes a bomb to explode; to

.

DE FACTO.

See also

The bomb was defused.

The light was diffused.

delir-

ium

deliver

Some people dislike the intransi-

The two verbs are sometimes confused, being tive use of the verb in the sense of similar in pronunciation: is pronounced `fulfil a promise or commitment': . [dee ] and is pronounced [di ]. .. The adjective , meaning `widely spread', has a final sound [di ]. . The verb is also used in figurative con- ◆ This usage is derived from the very informal texts, meaning `make less tense': . expression , which originated in American slang about 1850 and has the same . meaning. ◆

deliver

defuse

fewz

The

diffuse

fewz

diffuse

s

government has failed to deliver on tax cuts

We don't just want people with good ideas; we

fews

want people who will deliver

defuse

The President

deliver the goods

hopes to defuse the current highly-charged atmosphere

degree

The phrase

to a degree

The match was exciting to a degree.

.

has two

meanings, `somewhat' and `extremely':

This may

deliverance

or

delivery

?

Both

nouns are derived from the verb Deliverance

these deliver.

specifically refers to the act of

give rise to ambiguity, as in the above

delivering from danger, captivity, evil, etc.,

example: how exciting was the match?

and is used in formal or literary contexts;

◆

delivery

The use of the phrase in the sense of `extremely' should be restricted to informal contexts. The phrases are often better replaced by a simple

to a surprising/considerable/lesser/

etc.,degree

.

. .

is used in the many other senses of

the verb:

.

to pray for deliverance

delivery of a baby

delivery of a speech.

postal deliveries

the the

delusion ALLUSION ILLUSION demi- hemi- . semi- . see

SION?

,

,

or

85 DELU-

or

mean `half':

demigod

semicircle. Semi-

is the most frequent, and

.

it

is the subject:

depends whether I'm well enough. what you mean by socialism.

It

It depends

◆ This usage is widespread but disliked by some . careful users who insist on the word or following in all cases. The expression: .

? All three prefixes hemisphere

constructions where

deprecate . . on

upon

depend

It

, as a complete utterance, is acceptable . . - is only in informal speech. found in a number of scientific terms: .

may be used to form new words: professional

semi-independent

hemihydrate

Hemi

(a term used in chemistry)

Demi-

or

.

.

is chiefly found in words of

French origin:

demitasse

(a small cup)

(a crescent-shaped formation).

The noun , the name of a note in music that is one eighth of the length of a quaver, is the only word in English that makes use of all three prefixes.

demilune

◆

hemidemisemiquaver

demise

The original meaning of

demise

was `the transfer of an estate or of sovereignty', and because such a transfer was

.

frequently the result of death, the word came to mean `death':

We were sad to hear

of the demise of your husband.

all depends

. dependant dependent

(paralysis of one side of the

hemiplegia

body).

semi-

This usage is

formal and somewhat outdated.

◆ can be used figuratively to mean `the endingofexistenceoractivity': . . Its use to mean merely `failure' or `decline': . should be avoided. Demise

The demise of the

dependent:

He is completely dependent on other people's help.

The noun, meaning `someone who

.

relies on another person for financial support', is spelt

dependant:

Apart from your

children, do you have any dependants? Exmoor Area Tourist Attractions:

visitors respecting the life of the countryside.

◆

Note that in American English the noun is often spelt .

dant

with

pronunciation.

The

most Æ bl] widely used pronunciation is [dimonstra which is stressed on the second syllable. Some careful speakers prefer the tradiÆ nstra Æ bl] which is stressed on tional [demo the first syllable.

denote CONNOTE denouement . see

or

dependence

or

dependency

?

being dependent', but

outcome':

ment.

the stunning denouement of the

may be spelt

Note the

oue

denouement

or

 nouede

vowels in the middle of

the word.

◆ The usual pronunciation is [day mon(g)] although in American English the word may be stressed on the first or third syllables. noo

deny depend

see

REFUTE or DENY?

Depend

depend

on

used with

Social on

.

means `be contingent':

depends on the weather,

or

or `be reliant':

Security. upon,

See also

. .

is the

dependence

more frequent in this sense:

his depenher depen-

DEPENDANT or DEPENDENT?

can also mean `territory that is controlled by another nation': . . It cannot be replaced by in this sense. Note the spellings of the two words. The endings - and - are American variants. ◆ Dependency

one of Britain's

dependencies

depen-

dence

ance

dependent deploy

ancy

see

DEPENDANT or DEPENDENT?

is a military term meaning

.

`organize troops or equipment so that they

This word, meaning `final

novel,

Either

noun may be used to mean `the state of

Deploy

DENOTE?

depen-

dependent

dence/dependency on alcohol.

blems

But this

freedom will remain largely dependant upon

dence/dependency on his parents

This word may cause pro-

.

The

two are often confused, as in a leaflet for

ployment in the area

demonstrable

.

in-

dustries that are dependent on North Sea gas

steel industry in Consett caused massive unem-

the demise of the cinema

.

? The adjective,

meaning `reliant', is spelt

.

It

They

It is normally

except in certain

are in the most effective position':

the

decision to deploy the Marines in the Middle East.

Careful users object to the frequent

.

use of the word with reference to any utilization or organization of resources:

It will be up to you to set ambitious revenue targets and then train, develop, and deploy your team-members to ensure that those targets are met and surpassed

deprecate

or

(Daily

Telegraph).

depreciate . ?

means `express disapproval of':

Deprecate She de-

precated the Government's record on equal opportunities. Depreciate

means `reduce in

value', where it is usually used intransi-

deprived .

86

tively: year,

.

It depreciates by about £100 every

and `belittle or disparage':

He de-

preciated their attempts to talk English.

is often used instead of in the sense of `disparage' and is also extended to mean `play down; show modesty'. This usage of is disliked by some people, although it is acceptable in the well-established use of :. . ◆ Deprecate

depreciate

deprecate

self-de-

precating

Jewish humour tends to be ironical

and self-deprecating

deprived

Deprived

.

means `having some-

thing taken away or withheld':

Brain

damage can occur if a baby is deprived of oxygen during labour.

It should properly be

from the adjective

bold;

the noun

is derived from the noun

member-

member.

◆ Sometimes the base form of the word changes in the derived form: the - of , for example, changes to - - in the derived forms and . New words are also formed by adding prefixes or inflectional endings, such as - , - , - , - , . . . . and- : . Some derived words are more complex: . , for example, consists of the base form plus -, - , and - .

ship

y

happy

i

happily

happiness

s

est

unhappy

members

ed

reading

ing

er

bolder

un-

knowingly know

un

ing

ly

PREFIXES; SUFFIXES.

See also

descendant descendent or

.

Descendant

is

applied to things which were once pos-

a noun meaning `someone descended from

sessed or would be possessed in normal

a particular ancestor':

circumstances, but the modern tendency

of the fourth duke.

She was a descendant

It should not be confused

is to connect it with basic necessities and

with the adjective

rights. As an adjective it has become a

scribes something moving downwards:

.

descendent,

.

which de-

vogue word often meaning little more than

The aeroplane continued in a descendent arc

`poor':

towards the hills.

women,

It

is

usually

always with

the

most

housing

deprived

problems

or

(The

of low intelligence, who are involved Times).

derail

.

Some people dislike the increasing

use of the verb

derail

in a figurative sense:

The British Government . . . would not be allowed to use its presidency of the European Community to derail progress to greater political union or a `social Europe' dian).

This

usage

is

best

(The

Guar-

restricted

to

informal contexts.

de rigueur

gueur

descry deselect

sen

DECRY or DESCRY?

see

The verb

de ri-

The literal meaning of ness'. It is pronounced [deÆ rõÆ ].

◆

de rigueur

derisive derisory

ger

?

Derisive

deselect,

referring to an

MP who is not selected for re-election, is

DE-: .

one of a number of new words formed with the prefix

a number of Labour

MPs have been deselected by their local constituency parties.

desert dessert or

. AFTERS . . is `of strict-

The French expression

meal

(see

?):

? These words are some-

Dessert

is the last course of a

DESSERT, SWEET, PUDDING

a deliciously sweet dessert

.

or a

. . ◆ The verb is often followed by the preposition : . . dessert

Evening dress is de rigueur at the dinner.

spoon.

contexts:

just deserts.

is used in all other

Desert

the Sahara desert

She got her

a deserted city.

desert

.

means `ex-

pressing derision; mocking or scornful':

.

His speech was received with derisive mirth. Derisory

Both words are pronounced [di daÆnt].

times confused.

means `required by social custom':

or

◆

means `deserving derision':

a derisory performance.

It was

from

He deserted from his regiment

As a noun, is usually pronounced [ zaÆt]; as a verb (or in the noun phrase ) it is pronounced [di ]. is pronounced [di]. desert

de

just deserts

zert

Dessert

zert

◆ is used particularly in the sense of meaning `dried': . `ridiculously inadequate; contemptibly small': . desiccated This word, , is sometimes misspelt. (BBC Note the single and - -. Radio). ◆ It is worth remembering the Latin words and , meaning `to dry', from which the word derived words Derived words are formed originates. by adding fixed groups of letters at the Derisory

He was retired with a derisory pension

desiccated

coconut s

cc

de

siccare

beginning or end of another word. The noun

sad;

sadness

is derived from the adjective

the adjective

the verb

read;

readable

the adverb

is derived from boldly

is derived

design designer

see

adjective

INVENT, DESIGN or DISCOVER?

Designer

applied

has become a vogue to

clothes

and

other

87 manufactured goods which are produced

.

.

by a well-known company with a reputa-

.

tion for fashionable design: designer watches

designer jeans

He won't wear anything

without a designer label.

destined situation,

is sometimes misspelt. The mid-

dle part of the word is spelt in

per,

not

par

as

separate.

desperation

see

DESPAIR or DESPERATION?

The use has been extended to mean `chic; despicable , meaning `contemptrendy' and is applied, sometimes jocularly, to tible': . , is usually anything that is in fashion: . (a stressed on the second syllable [di aÆbl]. fashionably unshaven appearance) . Careful users, however, prefer the tradi(mineral water) . tional pronunciation with the stress on the Æ bl]. first syllable [ pika ( ). . . . . despite or in spite of? and , [at Gatwick airport] ( ) . are completely interchangeable: . , . is used rather more (headline, ). ◆

Despicable

It was a despicable act

designer stubble

spik

designer

water

The arrival of the designer

salad has increased our enthusiasm for French dressing Sunday Times

the first glimpse of the light

The Guardian

Designer Nazis rise on the tide of German fear

desirous

.

?

.

Desirable

`worth desiring or having': residence

means

a desirable

Confrontation with the union is

not desirable at this stage. Desirous,

which

means `desiring; wanting', is a more formal

.

.

adjective, usually placed after the verb and followed by of:

to be desirous of peace

president is desirous of your opinion.

The

The two

adjectives should not be confused.

desk dining

This is a contemporary busi-

ness term describing the practice of eating

.

meals at one's workstation or desk in order to continue working uninterrupted: discourage desk dining in this office.

vogue term,

We

As a

is considered jar-

desk dining

gonistic by many people and is best restricted to informal contexts. See also

DESKING.

DRESS-DOWN DAY; DUVET DAY; HOT

despair desperation. or

in spite

De-

of

spite/In spite of his injury superb

Sunday Times

or

Despite

roomy designer

terminal

desirable

des

as the world gets

In

spite

his playing was

of

frequently, although

despite

has the advan-

tage of brevity.

needs no preposition; is incorrect, and it is never necessary to precede either or with .

◆ Despite

despite of

despite

in spite of

but

dessert sweet pudding afters ,

,

or

? The

question of how the sweet (usually) last course of a meal is referred to in Britain is not fixed. Usage not only varies slightly from one individual, family, etc., to another, but also is probably currently changing. Generally,

dessert

.

is found in both

spoken and written contexts:

For dessert

we were offered ice cream and fruit. Sweet

and is considered by some middle- and upper-class people to be unacceptable. Such users prefer the word

pudding,

but this may

be becoming slightly old-fashioned to refer generally to the last course of a meal.

? The noun

despair

is

more informal, is found in spoken English,

.

Afters

is used in very informal spoken English: What's for afters, Mum?

has a number of other culinary senses. It may refer to a cooked sweet or savoury dish . containing flour, eggs, etc.: . that results from despair: . , or to a sausage-like savoury . preparation . . These connotations ◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the may make it seem an inappropriate second - -, which is sometimes wrongly replaced dessert, such as ice cream or fruit. term for a light with the - - of . traditionally denotes a course of fruit, despatch or dispatch? Both of these spel- dates, nuts, etc., served at the end of a meal.

.

means `loss of hope': despair

a feeling of utter

She gave up in despair.

The noun

◆ Pudding

is often applied to a reckless act

desperation

In desperation he

jumped out of the window

treacle pudding

Yorkshire pudding

black pudding

desperation

e

a

despair

Dessert

lings are acceptable for the verb meaning

.

`send quickly' or the noun meaning `message or report':

.

The letter was immediately

despatched/dispatched.

The

despatch/dis-

patch arrived that afternoon.

desperate .

hope':

desperate

man

destined

.

a

desperate

DESERT or DESSERT?

Destined

means

`being

deter-

mined or intended in advance; directed

.

towards, or having a particular purpose or end':

This word, meaning `having no

a

See also

.

She believed her son was destined

to be the messiah.

destined for Australia.

The convict ship was

desultory

88

Some people object to the use of as a verb meaning `plan': . synonym for , with no suggestion of . . The use of to mean ◆ Note that is one of the few verbs that `later became': . cannot be spelt : see also -IZE or -ISE? is also disliked. However, these uses are devoid The adjective is followed by well-established and generally acceptable. the preposition : . ◆

destined

They devised a new

intended

destiny

method of classifying the books

was destined to be

devise

-ize

He was destined to be prime

minister

devoid

desultory

This word, meaning `unmetho-

dical', should be stressed on the first syllable Æ ltri]. [desu

detach

The verb

detach,

meaning `sepa-

rate', is often misspelt, the most frequent error being the substitution of -tch for the -ch ending.

detract distract or

means `take

Detract

.

figuratively to describe the diminishing of some desirable quality:

The new hotels can

only detract from the resort's charm. Distract

.

means `take one's mind off something; divert attention elsewhere':

I

tried

to

concentrate but I was distracted by the noise outside.

The adjective

followed by the preposition

development

.

detrimental

to:

detrimental to health.

countries,

Smoking is

and

then

underdeve-

less-developed

countries, least-developed countries, oping countries,

is

Since Third World coun-

tries have been referred to as

the word

or

devel-

development

has

come to have a specialized meaning in terms of the economic growth and im-

.

provements in living conditions of these

.

countries:

devolve on devolve,

or

devolve to

? The verb

meaning `pass to' or `transfer',

may be followed by either

on

or

to

and

little distinction is made between the two in general modern usage. Careful users, howdevolve on

for the transfer of

powers or authority, etc., and use

.

devolve to

when referring to the passing of a right or benefit to someone:

.

The power to impose

tax will devolve on local government bodies.

The property will devolve to her surviving relatives.

devotee

The noun

devotee,

meaning `en-

thusiast', `supporter', or `follower', is sometimes

detrimental

ment

of interesting features.

ever, reserve ?

away from; diminish' and is usually used

loped

The landscape is devoid

of

the World Development Move-

The rich world need provide only

$5 billion a year in development assistance

(Ronald Sider,

Rich Christians in an Age of

Hunger).

mispronounced. The correct Æ tee], with the stress pronunciation is [devo on the last syllable. The first two syllables rhyme with

clever:

they do not have the

same vowel sounds as the verb

dexterous

dextrous .

or

?

devote.

This

word,

meaning `skilful or nimble':

a dexterous

artisan,

or

may be spelt

dexterous

dextrous

although the former is the more frequently used spelling.

Note that the extra . ◆

ambidextrous

e

diagnosis

and

prognosis

or

prognosis

of

a

.

? Both

diagnosis

are most often used in med-

ical contexts. A tion

is always spelt without

diagnosis

disease,

is the identifica-

from

studying

the

Note the spelling: there is no after the . is a Note that while more developed countries are forecast of the likely course .ofAan illness and frequently referred to as belonging to the First the prospect of recovery: . World, and less-developed or least-developed countries ( ) are commonly said to belong to the Third World, the phrase Second World, de- ◆ Both . and can be used of scribing the former countries of the Communist problems in general, with the meanings, respecbloc, is rarely used today and is not likely to be tively, of `an analysis of the cause of the problem' understood without explanation. and `a forecast of the course and outcome of a device or devise? These words are some- problem':. . times confused. is a noun meaning . `contrivance or gadget': . The plural of both nouns is formed by changing , or `scheme or ploy': . . the ending to : . . . is a ◆

e

p

symptoms:

The doctor's diagnosis, based

on her spots, was chicken-pox

prognosis

The

doctor's

prognosis is that he will never fully regain

LDCs

his eyesight

diagnosis

prognosis

They diagnosed a major fault in the

wiring.

Device

a device for open-

ing bottles

His prognosis indicated that the company

was heading for bankruptcy

It was a

cunning device to get his own way Devise

-sis

-ses

diagnoses

prognoses

dialect

89 Dialect

usually refers to an estab-

dietician membrane and especially refers to the

lished variety of a language, confined either

partition that

to a region or to a social group or class.

the abdomen. The word also refers to a

◆

contraceptive device. In spelling, note the

The dialect used by educated middle- or upperclass people is often regarded as the standard form of a language and other dialects as nonstandard (see PRONUNCIATION). At one time nonstandard regional dialects were considered a handicap to acceptance in `civilized' English society; regional accents have now gained wide acceptance, for example among BBC announcers, although nonstandard grammar or vocabulary is still considered unacceptable. Dialect is seen not only in pronunciation: vocabulary, grammar, and sentence construction vary too. Compare the Northern English: . with the Southern: . , ortheNorth-EastEnglish: . with the standard: . . An example from William Trevor shows the Irish use of for :.` '( ). Social dialects are often associated with the working-class dropping of 's, use of double negatives, and so on, but upper-class cultures have their own dialect forms too. There is a wealth of dialect words. Often the same word has different meanings in different regions. means `thrifty or shrewd' in Scotland, but `pleasant or agreeable' in North-East England. He'll not be

coming

He won't be coming

You suit that dress

That dress suits you

the

a

Well, Bridie, isn't that the grand outfit you

have on

The Ballroom of Romance h

Canny

dialectal dialectic or

?

Dialectal

dialectal term. Dialectic

.

is an ad-

jective, meaning `relating to dialect':

a

is a noun, meaning

`disputation'; it has a number of specialized uses in logic and philosophy.

is also a variant of the adjective , meaning `relating to dialectic'.

◆ Dialectic lectical

dialogue

Dialogue

dia-

is now rarely used for

an ordinary conversation between two or more people, but is increasingly applied to exchanges of opinion and high-level negotiation between organizations and indivi-

.

duals who are usually ideologically opposed or have a conflict of interest: bring

about

meaningful

management and unions.

.

dialogue

We must between

It is hoped that

military conflict can be avoided through in-

ph

separates the

and the silent

diarize

rize,

chest

from

g.

Some people dislike the verb

dia-

meaning `write in one's diary', as an

example of the increasing tendency to coin

.

new verbs by adding the suffix nouns and adjectives: appointments.

See also

diarrhoea

to

to

-ize

diarize

one's

-IZE or -ISE? This word is often misspelt.

Note particularly the -rrh- and also the

◆

ending.

In American English the - - is usually omitted.

-oea

o

See also

dice

Dice

-AE- and -OE-.

was originally the plural form of

a singular noun

die,

but this singular form

.

is now almost never used in Brtish English except in the expression: Dice

.

The die is cast.

.

is used now both as a singular and as a

plural:

He made a dice out of a sugar cube.

You need two dice for that game.

The word is also used for a gambling game played withdice: . ` ' (Albert Einstein). The word may also be applied generally to cube-shapedpiecesofsomething: . ◆

I cannot believe that God plays

dice with the cosmos dice

Next place the

parsnip dice in a saucepan of boiling water.

dichotomy

A

dichotomy

is a division of two

things which are sharply contrasted, espe-

.

cially if they are mutually exclusive, contradictory, or irreconcilably different:

the

dichotomy between Christianity and atheism.

It has become a vogue word used generally

.

to mean `conflict, split, schism, or difference':

A new dichotomy is developing in the

Church of England.

This usage is disliked by

some people, both for its lack of precision and for its pretentiousness.

The usual pronunciation of oÆmi], with the long of .

◆ t

dichotomy

die

-i-

The verb

position

of

or

die

.

die

is [dõÅ

ko-

is followed by the pre-

from:

from his wounds.

.

Thousands died of

from] starvation during the drought.

[or

He died

or dietitian? A person who stuis used as a verb in American English: . dietician the principles of nutrition is known as , but this use is dies a or . Both spellings of the not generally acceptable in British English. word are perfectly acceptable. diaphragm A is a separating ◆ Note that the science itself is called . ternational dialogue.

◆ Dialogue

We must dialogue with each other

dietician

diaphragm

dietitian

dietetics

difference

difference differentiation or

and

90 ?

Difference

differ slightly in mean-

differentiation

ing and cannot be used as synonyms for each other. while

means `dissimilarity',

Difference

.

denotes the process of

differentiation

becoming dissimilar:

.

There

are

several

marked differences between the two machines. Scientists have followed the differentiation

of the two species over several decades.

digital television. Digital

.

digital watch

thermometer.

.

or

dilapidated.

frequently used form and the most acceptable:

Your

.

is

different

from

mine.

is often used in informal British

Different to

English:

life

That suit is different to this one.

It

is, however, disliked by some people and not used in American English. than

a dilapidated cottage,

Different

is in frequent use in American English

but is disliked by many users of British English and generally should be avoided.

is some-

times misspelt, the most frequent mistake

with

is the most

digital

This word, meaning `falling

into ruin':

than the correct

different

than. Different from

.

digital display

being to begin the word with

or

? It is possible to follow

from, to,

.

digits rather than pointers on a dial or scale:

different from different to different than dilemma ,

also refers to the

presentation of information in the form of

A

dilemma

.

de-,

rather

di-.

is a situation where

one is faced with two equally unsatisfactory alternatives:

It was a hopeless dilemma

± she

could stay with her husband and be miserable, or she could leave him and lose the children.

It is usually considered acceptable to use when more than two choices are involved, provided they are equally unattractive, but one should not use for desirable things: .

◆

dilem-

ma

dilemma

His

mouth watered as he pondered the dilemma of

is considered most acceptable . is often used to mean when followed by a clause: . just `a problem', where there , as element of choice at all: . is open choice or no it removes the need for clumsy phrases such as: . . . . Careful users dislike this imprecise use of the word. differential , as adjective and The - - of may be short [di aÆ] or long noun, is a term in mathematics and has the [dõÅ aÆ]. The first of these pronunciations is prenontechnical meanings of `based on a differred by some users. ference; a difference between comparable ◆ Different than

My values now are

whether to choose the chocolate souffle or the pistachio icecream Dilemma

different than they were when I was a teenager

the dilemma of what to

wear

from those that I had

the dilemma of how to attract new mem-

bers

Differential

i

dilemma

lem

lem

things'. It is now most frequently used in

reference to differences in pay rates for various jobs in the same industry, based

.

on differences in skills, work conditions, etc.:

Pay differentials between nursing and

The use of in place of :. is inappropriate, as a is a discrepancy based on related differences, not the difference itself. administrative staff have widened.

◆

differential

difference

a

differential of £20 a week differential

dimension

The literal uses of

dimension

are concerned with measurement, sions

.

dimen-

being also used figuratively to mean

`scope or extent':

They were now in a

position to assess the dimensions of the tragedy.

.

The word is also fashionably used as a synonym for

aspect

or

factor:

The fact

that one of the applicants was black and one a woman added a new dimension to their de-

differentiation DIFFERENCE DIFFEREN- Some people dislike the overuse of the nonliteral senses of this word. TIATION differently abled ABLED diminution . different than different to DIFFERENT FROM DIFFERENT TO DIFFERENT THAN diffuse DEFUSE DIFFUSE dinghy dingy digital see

or

cision.

◆

?

see

.

,

,

see

or

see

This word means `decrease in

size, intensity, etc.':

The adjective

Note the spelling and the proÆ n]. nunciation [diminewsho

?

or

?

digital,

or

meaning `stor-

dingy

signals', has specific technical uses in com-

shabby':

.

◆ Dinghy

.

.

dinghy

is a small boat;

is an adjective meaning `gloomy or a dingy basement flat.

is pronounced with a hard [ gi] or . [ i]. The pronunciation of is [ ji].

puting, sound recording, and broadcasting: digital recording

? These words are some-

times confused. A

ing information as numbers or electronic

digital superhighway

the possible diminution

in readers.

ding

g ding

dingy

din

91

dining room dinky

see

Dinky,

LOUNGE.

such as

an acronym of `dual (or

.

disassociate .

said, whispered, shouted,

out!' he cried.

See also

She replied,

REPORTED SPEECH.

`I

`Get

etc.:

don't know.'

In passages of conversation, the words of difreference to a childless couple earning ferent speakers are often placed in separate paraabove-average salaries. The final is graphs. The verbs that follow or precede the direct sometimes interpreted as `yet'. speech are sometimes omitted once the identity of ◆ Of American origin, the acronym is one of many the speakers has been made clear. contrived in the 1980s and 1990s to identify perceived categories of society (see also NIMBY; dis- or dys-? Confusion between these two YUPPIE). Most are now considered outdated, prefixes can cause spelling mistakes. - is although similar new coinages such as the more frequent, indicating lack, rever. (young, entrepreneurial, technology-based) con- sal, negation, removal, etc.: . . tinue to appear sporadically. . - means `abnorThere is also the British adjective , `pretty; mal', `faulty', `difficult', or `bad' and is neat'. chiefly found in technical words relating ``double'') income, no kids', is used with

◆

y

Dis

yettie

disagreement

discontinue

dissimilar Dys

dinky

dinner lunch tea supper ,

,

tion of

or

? The ques-

how meals and mealtimes are

referred to in Britain is fraught with class and regional considerations. In general,

.

to physical or mental problems:

dyslexia

disabled

dysfunction. Disabled

.

dyspepsia

.

is the preferred word in

both British and American English for

middle- and upper-class people have their

people with physical or mental disabilities,

main meal in the evening and call it

replacing

or

supper; lunch

and

is

usually

dinner

is taken around midday a

light

meal

or

snack,

etc.:

.

handicapped,

.

crippled,

defective,

He was disabled as the result of an

accident at work.

I believe from personal

although Sunday lunch may be the main

experience of having a disabled mother that it

meal of the day.

is not disabled friendly and we will look at it.

Tea

(or

afternoon tea),

if it

is taken, is eaten late in the afternoon and

(Bucks Herald).

consists of small sandwiches and cakes.

◆

High tea

is a meal eaten in the late after-

noon rather than

dinner

or

supper

later in

the evening. Some people, especially those living in Northern England and Scotland, have

at midday, while

dinner

tea

is a

substantial meal eaten at about six o'clock. is always the last meal of the day

Supper

and is sometimes a light bedtime snack for those who have had a large tea, or it can be the main evening meal for those who choose not to call the main evening meal dinner

or

tea.

See also

diphtheria

with the

LUNCH or LUNCHEON?

phth

diphthong ph

Note

sound is Æ ] or by careful users [diftheeria

See

ABILITIES.

ACCESSIBLE; PEOPLE WITH DIS-

also

disadvantaged DEPRIVED,

Like

UNDERPRIVILEGED

disadvantaged

and

has become a fash-

ionable euphemism for `poor', with particular emphasis on the lack of a reasonable

.

standard of housing, living conditions, and Up

ph

one or two months studying such matters as how to motivate disadvantaged children

(The

Times).

disappear disappoint

Note the spelling of this word,

particularly the single -s- and the -pp-.

Note the

phth

in the spelling.

sound is pronounced

users [difthong] or

direct speech

differently abled

physically challenged.

opportunities for gaining basic rights:

pronunciation.

in the spelling. The

pronounced f Æ] p [diptheeria

The

and

disabled

person with disabilities

to 100 teachers from each country are to spend

This word causes problems

spelling

As preferred terms in sensitive areas such as disability tend to change, some users now consider even unacceptable and prefer such terms as , , or

p

f

by careful

[dipthong].

Direct speech

disappoint

and its

frequent error being the doubling of the

is a record of

the actual words used by a speaker. These words are usually enclosed in

The verb

derivatives are often misspelt, the most

QUOTATION

MARKS and followed or preceded by a verb

-s-. Note also the -pp-.

disassemble disassociate

DISSEMBLE or DISASSEMBLE? see DISSOCIATE or DISASSOCIATE? see

disassociation

disassociation and

dissociation

or

92 ?

Disasso-

discreet discrete or

.

? These two words are

are close in meaning,

sometimes confused.

denoting the separation of two things, persons, or concepts:

.

cious or prudent':

he is very discreet; discrete

ciation

.

dissociation

She has completed

the process of disassociation from all her old friends.

The party's disassociation from the

affair has not been entirely successful.

The

two words are, however, not always exact synonyms of each other; in psychology and psychiatry,

dissociation

.

specifically denotes

the separation of emotions as a defence mechanism:

As

an

adult

he

protected

himself through dissociation from this childhood trauma.

disastrous

This word is sometimes misof

e

disaster

is dropped

before the suffix -ous is added.

In pronunciation careful users avoid sounding the of : [di streÆs] rather than [di steÆreÆs]. The overuse of this word, to describe something very bad in its performance or results, is disliked by many.

◆

disaster

disc disk or

zah

zah-

? These spellings are some-

.

times confused. A circular shape:

disc.

.

is a flat round or

disc

a slipped disc

compact

In American English this word is

usually spelt

disk.

In British English

disk

is reserved for use in computer science, to

.

describe a thin plate on which data is stored: spelt

a floppy disk.

This is occasionally

discipline discoloration COLORATION discomfit discomfort Note the

following the

c

s

in the

spelling of this word. see

or

.

means `defeat or thwart':

He discomfited his opponent,

cert, confuse, or embarrass':

.

and `disconThey were

discomfited by his strange manner. Discomfort

.

means `make uncomfortable or uneasy'. This might be physical distress: seats discomforted her,

The hard

or mental uneasiness,

in which case the distinction between

them.

.

noun from

discover

the same; a

discomfit

His

often

ominous tone

discomfit

see

these

disparity

is

.

.

is a greater difference

that suggests imbalance or inequality:

a

discrepancy between the accounts of the two witnesses

a disparity between the wages of

discriminating discriminatory or

is

? Both

these adjectives are derived from nation

discrimi-

and are connected with `distinguish-

ing, making distinctions' but they are used in very different ways.

Discriminating

is

applied to someone who is discerning in

.

matters of taste and able to tell the difference between good and poor quality: better

serve

the

Bordeaux

because

We'd

Paul

is

discriminating when it comes to wine. Discriminatory

is now almost always applied to

.

discrimination that is unjust and based on prejudice:

Feminists are organizing a boy-

cott of the bank because of its discriminatory practices.

disinterested uninterested or

est':

.

?

Disinter-

means `impartial; having no self-interAs a disinterested party he felt free to

intervene in the dispute. Uninterested

.

means I

Perhaps because is not in frequent use, is now often used in its place to mean `lacking interest', which was, in fact, the original meaning of :. ( ). However, its use in this sense is objected to by many people: .

dis-

uninterested

disinterested

disinterested

discomfiture

becomes

discomforted

.

INVENT, DESIGN or DISCOVER?

Charles, in

turn, appeared cold and disinterested in his wife Sunday Times

`It was nothing but

copying documents and tedious things like that,

canceled checks and invoices, little chits of things. I've never been so disinterested.' Macon stirred and said, `Don't you mean uninterested?'

Tyler,

The Accidental Tourist

disk DISC is both a verb and a noun, but the disorganized

and

◆ Discomfort

Both

discrepancy

a difference between things that should be

◆

? There is some

Discomfit

comfort

?

was quite uninterested in their holiday photos.

confusion as to the distinction between

blurred:

disparity

or

nouns mean `difference'. A

`having no interest; indifferent; bored':

overlap between these words and often

.

means `separate or

discrete elements in the composi-

discrepancy

ested

disc.

them.

tion.

.

means `judi-

factory and office workers.

spelt. Note that the

e

distinct':

Discreet

You can confide in him;

see

or

DISK?

or

).

unorganized

?

(Anne

Either

adjective may be used in the sense of `not organized'. As the past participle of the verb

disorganize,

disorganized

specifi-

93 cally refers to something organized that has

. .

distil

dissect

This word, meaning `separate or

been thrown into confusion, but it is also

cut up for analysis', is spelt with -ss-, unlike

used in a general informal sense:

bisect.

disorganized

this

morning.

I'm a bit

Unorganized

more neutral and less frequent: organized method of working.

disorient disorientate or

is

an un-

.

dissect

bisect

sekt

dissemble disassemble or

?

and

Disorient

are interchangeable and mean

disorientate

◆ Although is often pronounced to rhyme with [dõÅ ], careful users prefer [di ].

confuse':

machine.

confused.

completely disoriented/disorientated.

After

◆

years of being institutionalized she was dis-

s

is preferred by some users as the

orient

shorter and simpler alternative; it is also the standard form in American English, while

disorientate

is more frequently used in

British English.

ORIENT or ORIENTATE? disparity see DISCREPANCY or DISPARITY?

dispassionate impassioned sive ,

? The adjectives

dispassionate

their similarity in meaning; impassive

form.

and

im-

are sometimes confused because of

passive

because

of

impassioned

their

and

similarity

in

means `not influenced

Dispassionate

means `showing no emotion':

.

nate assessment of the problem

She remained

by emotion; objective', whereas

impassive,

ignoring

cries.

his

means `full of passion': attack on the government.

dispatch DESPATCH dispel disperse see

or

.

?

.

.

or

impassive

a dispassio-

Impassioned

an impassioned

Dispel

means `scatter;

He allowed them to see the original

.

document so as to dispel their doubts about its authenticity. Disperse The

family

were

means `break up':

dispersed

`spread over a wide area': persed

over

half

the

.

town,

evaporate, or vanish':

.

over

Europe,

The gas dis-

and `dissipate,

The mist had now

dispersed and visibility was normal.

dispute

The noun

dispute

,

verbs

or

and

dissemble

? The

dissimulate,

may be pro-

nounced with the stress on the first syllable

which are formal, mean `pretend not to

.

have; conceal';

.

have; feign':

simulate

means `pretend to [or

to dissemble

dissimulate]

to simulate enthusiasm.

SIMULATE or STIMULATE?

dissension dissent or

.

? The noun

[dispewt] or the second [dispewt]. The first

cord, or conflict: dissension. assent,

The proposal caused much

The noun

dissent,

the opposite of

means `difference of opinion'; it

.

refers to the act of disagreeing or an expression of disagreement:

a voice of dissent.

Confusion between the two nouns may lead to the misspelling of , with - - in place of the third - -.

◆

dissension

t

s

dissimilar

The adjective

lowed by the preposition

dissimilar from

or

[or

to:

.

is folThe

to] that of

dissimulate DISSEMBLE DISSIMULATE SIMULATE dissociate disassociate see

,

or

.

disassociate associate:

?

Dissociate

and

are interchangeable opposites of One of the committee members

told me after the meeting that she wished to dissociate/disassociate

herself

from

what

the

chair had said.

◆

Most careful users prefer the form

dissociation TION distil

see

?

In British English the verb l,

dissociate

.

DISASSOCIATION or DISSOCIA-

creasingly frequently heard, although it is

suffix beginning with a vowel:

disliked by many users.

◆

◆

distill

is always stressed on the

or

?

in a single

dispute

dissen-

refers to a state of disagreement, dis-

sion

of these pronunciations is becoming in-

The verb second syllable.

both of

chicken.

drive away' and is often used for abstract things:

dissemble dissimulate simulate

flavour is not dissimilar from

DISPATCH?

He dis-

She disassembled the

ss

See also

impas-

or

.

Note the spellings of the words, particularly the - - and - -.

one's anger

See also

.

a

The two verbs should not be

traffic system since his last visit and he was

oriented/disorientated after her discharge. Dis-

Dissemble,

means `take apart':

disassemble

sembled his excitement.

.

?

literary word, means `pretend' or `conceal';

`cause to lose bearings or sense of identity; They had organized a one-way

sekt

distil

.

ends

which is doubled before a distillery.

The American English spelling of the verb is . See also

SPELLING 1.

distinct

distinct distinctive or

94 ? These two adjec-

tives are frequently confused although they are not interchangeable.

.

means

Distinct

`definite; clearly perceivable or distinguishable':

There's a distinct taste of garlic in this

stew. Distinctive

.

means `characteristic, pe-

culiar to, distinguishing':

He

had

the

distinctive rolling gait of a sailor.

distract distribute

Roth,

◆ The use of (pronounced [doÅv]) is now generally considered acceptable in all but the most formal writing in American English. It is still considered nonstandard in British English. dove

divorcee

A divorced person of either sex is

The traditional pronunciation

`share out' or `spread', is [distribyoot], with the stress on the second syllable. The alter-

called a

do

is used as an informal replacement

Do

.

for various different verbs, for example `prepare': `clean':

become equally acceptable in both British

`visit':

and American English.

tomorrow,

?

Distrust

.

and

are often used interchangeably:

mistrust

Somehow

I distrust/mistrust the whole business. Distrust

is more frequently used and has a far more

.

emphatic suggestion of suspicion and lack of trust:

I have known him to be deceitful in

the past and I have come to distrust everything he says. Mistrust

is rather more tentative and

is used for a less positive lack of trust or

.

when the doubt is directed against oneself: There was something about her manner

that

made

me

uneasy

.

and

beginning to mistrust her.

I

found

myself

I tend to mistrust

my critical judgment when it comes to my own writing.

disturb

or

perturb

.

can mean

Disturb

His

was disturbed by a ring at the doorbell.

.

.

reverie I

hope I'm not disturbing you by phoning so

`throw into disorder':

disturbed all her papers,

The cleaner had

.

and `upset; destroy

the mental composure of': disturbed by this revelation.

I was deeply

In this last use,

is virtually synonymous with the less

disturb

frequently used word

.

perturb,

which means

`cause disquiet to; cause mental disturbance':

His violent language and abrupt

departure had perturbed her.

dived dove or

tense of

dive

dove

Shall

I'm

I

just

do

you

going

.

to

sandwich?,

a do

my

teeth,

We're doing the British Museum

`perform':

.

The local rep are

The Cherry Orchard,

doing maths at Cambridge,

`study':

`provide':

.

She's Do

There are also the slang meanings of `cheat': . , `arrest': . , `rob': . , `attack': . , `have sexual intercourse with': . (Anthony Powell, ). is also used informally as a noun to mean `a party or social event': . . The addition of in constructions when a previously mentioned verb is omitted: . is best reserved for informal use. isalsousedasanauxiliaryverbinquestions: . , in negative sentences: . , and for emphasis: . The construction in British English (probably under the influence of American English) is often used in questions and negative statements as an alternative to :. . . In such contexts, some users find more acceptable than , although both are equally correct grammatically. they do breakfasts?

◆

You've been done!

burglary

He was done for

They did the bank last night

I'll do you

Glober did me on the table

Temporary Kings

Do

I'm going to the firm's Christmas do do

They

behaved just as I wanted them to do

Do you like it?

They don't

want to go

I do wish he'd

phone!

do have

have got

new edition of this?

Do you have the

Do we have his reply yet?

We don't have time to wait. do have

document

have got

Document

is used as a verb to

.

mean `provide documentary evidence or

.

? In British English the past

is almost always

all dived for cover.

doing

. .

Do

?

`interrupt; inconvenience':

late,

[divawsay] or

 divorce

[divawsee].

Âe divorce

stress on the first syllable, has, however,

or

[divawsee]. A divorced

[divawsee], and a divorced woman is also

native pronunciation [distribyoot], with the

distrust mistrust

divorcee

man is also called a

in British English of this word, meaning

(Philip

Goodbye Columbus).

known as a

DETRACT or DISTRACT?

see

swimming back to the side of the pool

dived:

They

However, the past tense

exists in some British dialects and is

.

information to act as factual support':

His essay was well documented with authoritative references.

It is also used in reference

to the production of a written, filmed, or

.

the standard form in several regions of the

broadcast work that has plentiful detailed

United States and Canada:

factual

beautifully,

and

a

moment

later

She she

dove was

information:

The

programme

documents life in a women's prison.

Domesday doomsday or

Book

95 ? The

Domesday

is the survey of England carried out

double whammy many website addresses. Though widely understood,

dot.com

.

should be avoided in

during the reign of William I. The noun

formal contexts. It is increasingly spelt as

doomsday,

one word:

D-,

sometimes spelt with a capital

means `Judgment Day; Last Judgment'

in the Christian religion, and `day of reckoning' or `end of the world' in general

.

usage. The phrase `for ever':

till

but I won't change my mind.

◆

Both words are pronounced [

dominate .

means

doomsday

You can wait till doomsday,

domineer

or

doomz

?

To

day]. dominate

means `rule, exert power or control over': Her charm and energy were such that she

came to dominate the whole company.

◆ The phrase has inspired a host of subsidiary phrases relating to computer-based business, often with a hyphen in the place of . the full stop: . dot.com

.

dot-com millionaire

double entendre double

entendre

word or phrase, one of whose meanings has indecent connotations.

◆

double entendre

ton

The church is built on a hill and dominates the town. Dominate

The French expression

refers to an ambiguous

Our products dominate the pet-food market,

and `overlook from a superior height':

dot-commer

dot-comback.

literal meaning of is `dou. bleThemeaning'. It is pronounced [doobeÆl on dreÆ]. negative . . double .

It can

also mean `occupy a preeminent position':

He works for one of the new

dotcom outfits.

is often used in a negative

way that would be better reserved for

The double negative, as

in:

tea,

I didn't do nothing.

He hasn't had no

is always avoided by careful users. The

objection to such constructions is that the

which means `tyrannize, exert

negatives cancel each other out and reverse

power in an arbitrary or overbearing man-

When two negatives are intended to cancel each .. , they are, however, acceptable. Another generally acceptable, if colloquial, use is in such sentences as: . . The cruder double negative is not difficult to avoid. It is more likely to occur with the seminegative adverbs , , :. , or in complex sentences where the various negative words and phrases might get muddled: . , . The word should not be used in sentences that are already negative: . .. .

domineer

participle that functions as an adjective: his cruel domineering manner.

done finished or

? Both

.

done

.

and

signify completing something: thing's been done.

Some users prefer

contexts, preferring computer

to

doomsday doorstep

finished Every-

The race has finished.

finished

to

done

in formal

I have finished with the

I'm done with the computer.

see

DOMESDAY or DOOMSDAY?

The verb

doorstep

the meaning of the sentence.

. other: .

ner'. It is most frequently used as a present

is disliked by

some people as an example of the increasing tendency to use nouns as verbs. It originally referred to the practice of selling door-to-door, then to the practice of canvassing door-to-door, and later to the practice (favoured by investigative journalists,

◆

She is not without talent

It is not

impossible

I shouldn't be surprised if it

doesn't snow

hardly scarcely barely

They

were left for hours without hardly any food

Despite

his injury he denied that it was unlikely that he would not play again this season neither

I'm not hungry

and I'm not thirsty neither

double whammy

A

I didn't neither

double whammy

.

is a

press photographers, etc.) of waiting out-

double blow, or any problem or difficulty

side the house or office of somebody in the

that has a two-pronged effect:

public eye and accosting that person when

been hit by a double whammy: a cut of £30

he or she appears.

million below meagre expectations . . . and

do's and don'ts

don'ts,

In the phrase

do's and

note that the apostrophe in

comes after the apostrophe in

dot.com

n

do's

don'ts

and not after the t. The is sometimes omitted.

The phrase

dot.com

refers to a

commercial computer website or company operating through the Internet, the origin of the phrase being the

.com

ending of

We have

major cost increases for equipment and international subscriptions following the devalua-

(Daily

Telegraph).

The term , meaning `devastating blow', has been used in American English since the 1940s, where it originally (in the Li'l Abner cartoon strip) referred to the evil eye: the use of one eye is a whammy; the use of both, only in an emergency, is a . On the same model, a situa-

tion of sterling

◆

whammy

double whammy

doubling of consonants

96

tion that involves a series of three setbacks or blows may be described as a . triple whammy

doubling of consonants .

.

On the general

rule of doubling consonants in such words as:

drop

±

dropped

individual entries and

doubt

refer

±

referred,

SPELLING 1.

The main problem with

see

doubt

is

about it,

.

is used as a noun it is most

often followed by

about:

.

I have my doubts

but it can be followed by

negative construction:

that

.

in a

There is no doubt in

my mind that he is telling the truth.

When

is used as a verb it can only be

doubt

followed by

that

or transfer of information, data, etc. load

Down-

refers to the transfer of data from a

.

larger computer or other information system, while

.

denotes the opposite:

upload

He downloaded the file onto his PC.

The

program will take about twenty minutes to doubt

what preposition or conjunction to use with it. When

English language to denote the copying

in negative constructions:

I don't doubt that you are right,

upload from the disk.

downside means

The

.

avoided where

.

vogue

`unfavourable

appropriate:

word

aspect';

disadvantage

downside

it

is

best

would be more

the downside of the new system

Every scientific break-through has its down-

side.

downsizing

Downsizing

is the act of re-

and in

ducing in size. In America in the late 1970s

most other constructions it is followed by

it referred to the production of smaller cars:

whether:

.

They doubted whether she would

be welcome.

is a possible alternative to suitable for more informal use: . .

◆ If

whether

but it is

I doubt if I can

make it

doubtful dubious or

? Both

doubtful

and

.

tain, questionable' and they are often more or less interchangeable:

They were doubt-

ful/dubious whether the car was safe. Doubtful

.

is more neutral and is more likely to be

used when expressing uncertainty: eventual

result

remains

doubtful.

The

Dubious

carries more negative overtones and is often used to suggest a suspicion that a

.

With the whole industry downsizing, big-

car addicts will find fewer alternatives

.

(Time).

.

In Britain in the late 1980s it referred to redundancy:

downsizing the workforce

In

the case of the latest cuts ± 55 jobs to go at US

mean `giving rise to doubt, uncer-

dubious

.

person or practice is underhand or dishon-

investment bank L.F. Rothschild ± downsizing is something of an understatement

The term is also used in computing: .

(The

Guardian).

◆

`Down-

sizing' simply means that firms are tending to buy smaller computers to do jobs which used to require big ones (The Guardian).

Down's syndrome

This is the preferred

modern term for the congenital disorder formerly known as

mongolism,

a term that

is now widely considered unacceptable.

◆ Named after the English physician J. H. L. Down (1828±96), the disorder is known as in American English. ◆ is always preferable in constructions starting : . downward or downwards? In British . English is principally used as est in some way:

He was involved with

some dubious export company.

Down syn-

drome

Doubtful

it is

It is doubtful whether he has ever

actually visited Germany

doubtless UNDOUBTEDLY douse dowse see

or

downward

.

an adjective,

? Either spelling of this

verb may be used in the sense of `soak' or

.

`extinguish', pronounced [dows]. the more frequent: douse

a

candle.

The verb

.

Douse

doused with petrol dowse,

is to

in the

additional meaning `search for water using a divining rod' and pronounced [dowz], should never be spelt

douse.

dove DIVED DOVE download upload see

or

and

load

? Download

.

level': wards.

up-

are both computer terms that have

been absorbed to some extent into the

being the usual

a downward slope

◆ The adverb in American English.

downward

.

to look down-

is more frequently used

-WARD or -WARDS? dowse see DOUSE or DOWSE? draft see DRAUGHT or DRAFT? See also

dramatist playwright or

and

downwards

form of the adverb meaning `to a lower

playwright

?

Dramatist

and

are synonymous words, both

.

dating from the late seventeenth century and meaning `a person who writes plays':

97

.

due to

. There may be a slight tendency to apply .. . to those who write more serious plays or plays which conform to the traditional categories drugs slang The drugs subculture has of drama: . a large number of slang , and to modern wri- contributed coinages to British and American English. ters and those whose work is less serious: . Some of these terms are useful as they provide succinct names for otherwise un. wieldy chemical titles, but care should be Note the spelling of the final syllable of taken over their use as they tend to come : , not . into and go out of fashion very rapidly. He is a poet as well as a dramatist/playwright.

derived from the verb

◆

drier than those

dra-

matist

dry:

These socks are

a hair-dryer/drier

a spin-

dryer/drier

Racine was a dramatist writing in the

classical tradition

playwright

play-

wrights like Neil Simon who are popular on both sides of the Atlantic

play-

wright -wright

draught draft or

.

-write

? These words are some-

times confused. A

outline:

draft

is a preliminary

a rough draft of the essay.

E

.

mine)

a draught from an open

acid

draft

also a money order and a group of soldiers. Draught

.

is the spelling for:

draught animals door.

draught beer

The American English spelling of is

draft.

.

mained current through the years are:

is

.

A

.

Examples of slang terms that have reor

Ecstasy

.

.

(for the drug MDMA)

(amphetamines)

.

.

.

crystal

(cannabis)

weed

speed

(methampheta(heroin)

smack

.

(LSD). Terms that are less common

today include: (heroin).

(cannabis)

hash

horse

◆ A person who draws up a rough version of a or drunken? Both and document is a ; an artist or someone drunk are adjectives applied to alcoholic inwho prepares detailed drawings of buildings, toxication, but is normally used after machinery, etc., is a (feminine, a verb: . , ; American English ). is normally used before a The board game called in British Eng- while lish is known as in American English. noun: . .. draught

drunk

draftsman

drun-

ken

drunk

draughtsman

draughtswoman

She got drunk on cheap white wine

draftsman

drunken

draughts

We were just sipping sherry ± it was

checkers

draughtsman draughtswoman? NON-SEXIST TERMS drawing room LOUNGE dreamed dreamt or

see

.

see

.

or

? Either word may be

.

used as the past tense and past participle of the verb

dream:

Australia.

See also Dreamed

or [dremt];

I dreamed/dreamt I was in

may be pronounced [dreemd] is always pronounced

[dremt].

dress-down day

This contemporary busi-

.

employees to wear casual clothing at work on designated days of the week: forward

vogue term,

to

dress-down

dress-down

Friday.

day,

We all

As a

and its less

frequently encountered opposite, day,

dress-up

is considered jargonistic by many peo-

ple and is best restricted to informal contexts. See also

DESKING.

DESK DINING; DUVET DAY; HOT-

drier dryer or

However, implies temporary intoxication, while suggests a habitual state of being drunk. When this distinction is being emphasized it is possible to reverse the usual rule and use before a noun: . and, though less frequently, after a verb: . . ◆

drunk

drunken

drunk

drunk driving

drunken

dryer DRIER dual duel see

or

or

DRYER?

? These two words are some-

ciation.

Dual

`double';

.

duel

is

Drier

is the usual spelling

an

adjective,

meaning

is a noun or verb referring

.

.

to a rather formal fight between two people:

dual-purpose

duelling.

.

a dual carriageway

duel of the champions

Note that in British English the final of doubled before - , - , - , etc. l

ed

ing

dubious DOUBTFUL duel DUAL DUEL due to owing to see

see

or

the

to settle a quarrel by

◆

,

?

He was drun-

times confused, being identical in pronun-

ness term refers to the practice of allowing

look

drunken driving.

ken, foul-mouthed, and inconsiderate

-ED or -T? dreamt

the campaign against

hardly a drunken orgy

er

or

duel

is

DUBIOUS?

? or

because of

?

Although these phrases have roughly the

of the comparative form of the adjective

same meanings they are not used in the

dry;

same way.

both are equally common for the noun

Due to

should strictly speaking

du jour

.

be used only adjectivally: due to Parkinson's disease;

98 His shakiness is

whereas

and because of are used as prepositions:

.

.

owing to We

were delayed owing to an electrical fault on the line.

Because of poor health he took early

retirement.

Although the use of as a preposition is objected to by careful users, this usage is becoming increasingly widespread: .

◆

due to

Due to the sheer

size of the operation, we now need additional people to join our . . . Membership Recruitment and Corporate Marketing Departments Times

).

du jour

(

Sunday

This French phrase, meaning `of

in menus to indicate a dish available on a plat

du

jour).

It has

recently been adopted in a wider context to denote something that is currently pop-

.

ular or fashionable but not likely to remain so for long: is

the

claim

cholesterol

that

levels.

The health scare du jour

such

products

can

raise

It is best restricted to

informal use.

dumb mute or

dwarf

Dwarf

cannot speak. As

dumb

dumb

also means `stupid'

in very informal contexts, many users of English prefer to use the word

mute

person. None of the alternatives so far coined, such as

may also cause offence and should

midget

be avoided.

◆

Note that is the more frequent plural of , although is also acceptable. dwarfs

dwarf

dwarves

dwelled dwelt

when

the verb

dwell. Dwelled

but

is the preferred form in both:

dwelt

He dwelt on her infidelity.

See also

dying

or

plication

? The noun

is derived from the verb

du-

duplicate,

meaning `copy' or `repeat'; the more formal noun

.

duplicity

ble-dealing':

tion in the text. duplicity.

means `deception' or `dou-

.

There may be some duplicaThey were unaware of his

The two nouns should not be

confused.

dustman dustwoman TERMS. duvet day or

? see

NON-SEXIST

term refers to the practice of allowing

.

employees to take an occasional day off In addition to holi-

days, staff are allowed half a dozen duvet days over the year.

? These spellings are

.

participle of the verb live': dye,

Dying die,

Her son is dying.

.

is the present

meaning `cease to his dying words.

.

is the present participle of the verb

meaning `change the colour of':

was dyeing her hair blonde.

dynamic .

Dynamic

She

is an overworked vogue

word meaning `lively, forceful, or enerThe Party needs young, dynamic

Its frequent use, particularly in job advertisements, has considerably weakened its impact: . + ( ). . ( ).

As a vogue term,

If

you are aged 28 , a dynamic team leader and an imaginative business organiser Daily Telegraph Self-motivated, dynamic person required

The

Times

dynasty

The preferred British English

pronunciation

of dynasty, which means Æ sti]. `series of hereditary rulers', is [dina The American English pronunciation [dõÅÆ sti] is sometimes also used in British na English.

This contemporary business

work at short notice:

dyeing

◆

duplication duplicity or

.

±ED or ±T?

sometimes confused.

getic':

DEAF-MUTE).

is more frequent in

American English than in British English,

leadership.

can also cause of-

? Either word may be

used as the past tense and past participle of

speak. However, fence (see

person of restricted growth,

has achieved wide acceptance. The term

referring to people who are unable to mute

is no longer considered an

acceptable term for an abnormally small

Dyeing

? A person who is

DESK DINING; DRESS-DOWN DAY; HOT

or

the day', has become a standard term used particular day (le

See also

DESKING.

duvet day

is

dys- DIS- DYSdyslexic dyslectic see

or

or

and

dyslectic

?

? The words

dyslexic

are interchangeable; either

may be used as a noun or adjective to describe a person suffering from dyslexia,

considered jargonistic by many people and

though

is best restricted to informal contexts.

quently.

dyslexic

is used much more fre-

e-

E The prefix

e-,

meaning `electronic', has

been used to form numerous new words

. . . . . . . .

. .

. .

since the advent of the Internet and webbased business: e-commerce e-bill

e-mail

e-trade

e-learning

e-book

e-ticket.

e-business e-shopping

Note the grow-

ing tendency to drop the hyphen following e:

email

each

emarketing.

ezine

When

each

is used as a determiner or

as a pronoun which is the subject of a

.

sentence, the rule is that subsequent verbs

.

and pronouns should be singular: man has his price. sung in English.

All the students had a

paper handed to them

each

The

cakes each have cherries on top

or

?

BOTH.

Each

.

in turn.

.

are inter-

every

He picked up

He picked up every book

There is, however, a subtle but

important difference between the two in that

each

emphasizes the individuality of

each person or item under consideration, while

.

every

a group:

or

all

each other one another or

tional rule is that

can often be

each other

? The tradi-

is used when

two elements are involved and

. .

one another

when more than two are involved: and Charles love each other deeply.

Helen

All the

people at the party already knew one another.

ignore it.

◆ There is a slight difference between the two phrases in that tends to emphasize each individual element whereas sounds more general. So it would be preferable to say: . rather than , the former gives a general impression of horseplay and allows for the odd person who was neither thrown nor throwing, while the latter suggests something much more systematic. each other

one another

They were throwing one another into the

swimming pool

.

treats them collectively, within

each car in the garage

every ship

throwing each other

earthly earthy or

and

changeable in some contexts: each book in turn

each, everyone,

this rule and most people feel free to

to him

? see

for which

substituted.

However, there is no particular reason for

Each student had a paper handed to

or

and as an unnecessarily wordy construction

Each of the operas was

The rule is frequently broken, partly because those who are sensitive to sexism in language prefer: . [rather than ]. Of course, one can avoid both sexism and grammatical error by rephrasing such sentences: . . When follows a plural noun or pronoun which is the subject of the sentence, the subsequent verb is plural: . .

each both each every

It is disliked by most careful users as a clicheÂ

Each

◆

them

deeply grateful to each and every one of you.

?

Earthly

.

earth as opposed to heaven;

.

earth in the sense of `soil': an earthly paradise

relates to the

earthy

.

refers to

our earthly life

an earthy taste/texture.

The two adjectives are not interchangeable.

Both words have other meanings. is used informally in the sense of `possible', usually in negative contexts or in questions: . . . means `coarse' or `crude': . . ◆

Earthly

What earthly

reason could she have for saying that?

They

haven't an earthly chance of success Earthy an earthy remark

Note, however, that , not , should be east, East or eastern? As an adjective, used after a plural noun: . always written with a capital when it , and also that refers to two or isforms . part of a place-name: . more in number, while refers to at least three . The noun is usually . in number: . written with a capital when it denotes in the fleet.

◆

each

every

east

The guests each have

their own room

East Anglia

every

She put a shoe on each foot.

She

had frostbite in every finger.

each and every

E

each

East

End

east

E

. .

a specific region, such as the countries of

.

Each and every

emphasis in such phrases as:

the

is used for

.

Each and

every person has a vital part to play.

I am

Asia: East.

◆

She has travelled extensively in the East-West relations.

In other contexts, and as an adverb,

east

is

eastward

100

usually written with a lower-case : . to several words with the prefix , some . .. legitimate terms in ecology: . . .. . , and some more modern . . The adjective is more frequent and coinages: . . usually less specific than the adjective : . . . . ◆ New words are being spawned all the time: Like , is written with a capital . when it forms part of a proper name, such as: ( ). . ( ). . With or without a capital , it also means `of the East': . economic or economical? is the . adjective from or e

east in search of land to the marrow

They sailed

eco-

The east wind chilled him

The sun rises in the east

ecospecies

ecotype

ecosystem

eastern

ecocatastrophe

east

the eastern shore east

ecotourism

in eastern Australia

eco-

eastern

E

a new magazine . . . described as the journal of

eco-politics The Guardian

E

eastern/

Economic

Eastern philosophy

or

.

economics

Eastward

is the

correct choice when an adjective is needed: an eastward direction.

.

.

Either

eastward

or

may be used when an adverb is

eastwards

required: city.

the eco-warriors of

Greenpeace Sunday Times

the Eastern Orthodox Church

eastward eastwards?

They travelled eastward from the

The skies were full of birds flying

eastwards.

eatable edible or

?

Eatable

.

man's economic theories

.

economic policies. Economical

tive from

is the adjec-

thrift and the avoidance of waste: economic price

seller, but an

meal.

.

Edible

eating as food':

means `suitable for

Common sorrel is edible

but wood sorrel is poisonous.

If something is not it would be either impossible or dangerous to eat it, but a substance can be without being , for example, raw potatoes. Despite these differences the two words are often used interchangeably in informal contexts: . . The distinction between and is also applicable to their antonyms, and :. .. . ◆

edible

edible

eatable

The cabbage was overcooked but just

about eatable/edible

eatable

edible

uneatable

inedible

The meal was uneatable

Toadstools

are inedible

echelon

Echelon

an

a large economical pack.

is one that benefits the

economical price

benefits the

buyer.

He had managed to get together a reasonably eatable

.

and is concerned with

economy

.

Fried-

the Government's

Although careful users keep the distinction . ◆between the two words, each is frequently used withthemeaningbelongingtotheother: . (BBC Radio). .

ble', but with the suggestion of `not actually tasting unpleasant' rather than `delicious':

economy

tribution, and structure of wealth:

An

means `palata-

the

and is concerned with the production, dis-

economical car

-WARD or -WARDS?

See also

eco-freak

ecotoxicology

is a military expression

applying to the formation of units or to a division of a supply organization. It is now often used as a fashionable synonym for

Labour

gave fewer details of their economical brief

Buying a whole chicken makes economic

(advertisement, magazine). The initial of both words may be short [ekoÆik(l)] or long [eekoÆ ik(l)].

sense

Bejam

e-

nom

economics ecstasy

nom

see

-ICS.

This word, meaning `intense emo-

tion', especially of happiness, is sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the ending, as in

cs

and the -

fantasy.

, usually spelt capitalized, is the slang name for the drug methylenedioxymethamphetamine, or MDMA.

asy

◆ Ecstasy

-ed -t or

? The past tense and past participle

of the verbs

burn, dream, dwell, kneel, lean,

leap, learn, smell, spell, spill,

and

spoil

may

end in -ed or -t.

◆ In most cases the form is preferred in American English and the - form is slightly more frequent in British English. For further discussion . specific information or pronunciation and ◆ Note the spelling: not , and although the and adjectival word comes from the French there is no words. use see the entries at the individual acute accent on the English word. The usual pronunciation is [ aÆlon], although edible see EATABLE or EDIBLE? [ shaÆlon] is sometimes heard. -ee or -er? In general, the suffix - can be

.

grade, rank, level of power,

.

people at that level: echelon

the

higher

or to describe the the

echelons

management of

the

civil

ed

t

service

ch

sh

eÂchelon esh

ay

eco-

ee

The growing popularity of the science

applied to the recipient of an action de-

the study of living things in their

noted by the verb to which the suffix is

relation to the environment, has given rise

attached, and the suffix -er is applied to the

of

ecology,

.

thing or person who performs the action: employer±employee

trainer±trainee.

101 .

suffix

.

someone way:

-ee

can

who

.

sometimes

behaves

absentee

.

in

arrestee

a

indicate

effrontery e.g. i.e. .

particular

escapee,

`fruitful', meaning `worn out by producing offspring'. It became applied to systems that were no longer effective and in the 20th century has also been applied to effeminate boys and men. fetus

How-

ever, this rule does not apply in all cases. The

either

and

the suffix -er can be applied to something

.

that is a suitable object for an action: (type of apple).

for

The suffix - is also found as a substitute for or , suggesting smallness, in the word , and is sometimes applied to people or things . associated with a particular noun: . , although - is more often used in this . way: . . prisoner

◆

cooker

ee

-ie

-y

bootee

townee

goatee

er

AFFRONT or EFFRONTERY?

see

and

The abbreviation

exempli gratia

stands

e.g.

and means `for example'.

.

It is used before examples of what has previously been mentioned:

We

could

show you some of the sights, e.g. Buckingham Palace and the Tower of London.

breviation

i.e.,

stands for

id est

The ab-

often used in error for

e.g.

and means `that is'. It is

. effect AFFECT EFFECT effective effectual efficacious effi- The abbreviations and are best confined cient to official writing or very informal writing; in other docker

villager

see

or

?

,

?

words is subtle.

between

Effective

were

Effectual,

effective

in

these

.

means `having

or producing the desired effect': talks

avoid eggs and dairy products.

or

distinction

settling

the

.

The

dispute.

a formal word, means `capable

of achieving the desired effect':

All plans to

.

reduce the trade deficit have not so far proved effectual, people.

.

and in religious contexts:

tual prayer

effec-

God's effectual calling of his

Efficacious,

also a formal word,

means `having the power to achieve the

.

desired effect' and is usually applied to medical treatment:

an efficacious remedy.

is applied to people or things

Efficient

.

producing results through a good and eco-

.

of what has previously been mentioned:

They were vegans, i.e. vegetarians who also

,

The

used before amplifications or explanations

nomical use of resources:

an

efficient

an efficient secretary.

◆

e.g.

i.e.

contexts and in speech and should be used. It is usual in American English to render and with both full stops, but there is an increasing tendency to omit them in British English. Note that it is incorrect to end a list that begins with with for example

that is

e.g.

i.e.

e.g.

egoism

and

etc.

or

egotism

egotism are

? The words

frequently

egoism

used

inter-

changeably but there are differences between them.

Egoism

is applied to the ethical

theory that all actions and motivation are based on self-interest. An

is a believer

egoist

.

in this theory or, much more often, a

Similar distinctions apply to , . , and :. . means `being self-obsessed; . self-centred'. The typical is vain, . boastful, and uses the word constantly: is used in various other ways. It can . mean `impressive': . , . `operative; in force': . ◆ The conspicuous self-obsession of often , and `actual; in practice if not theory': . makes them absurd pathetic figures, whereas . may pursue their own interests in a covert, though calculating, manner. effeminate or effete? To describe a man

machine

◆

tual

ineffective ineffec-

inefficient

an ineffective remedy

ineffectual policy/leader

an

person who is selfish and self-seeking:

His

conduct

egoism

was

characterized

by

ruthless

Egotism

an inefficient system/

egotist

clerk

I

Effective

Her egotism makes her oblivious to other

an effective performance

people's concerns

The law is effective as from

today

egotists

He

had become the effective leader

or boy as

effeminate

means that one thinks

that he shows, in an excessive manner,

.

ego-

ists

egregious

The adjective

egregious,

used in

formal contexts and meaning `very bad', is

qualities which are usually thought of as

sometimes misspelt and/or mispronounced.

he spoke in a high-pitched,

Note the -egi- in the middle of the word. Æ s]. The correct pronunciation is [igreeju

being feminine:

effeminate voice. Effete

is used more rarely,

eighth is derived originally from Latin and either .

particularly in formal contexts, and means `weak or powerless': aristocrats.

◆ Effete

charming but effete

ex

Note that in the spelling of this

word the letter

h

occurs twice:

plus

h.

either

is

eight

As an adjective or pronoun

eke out .

used with a singular verb: left-handed?

102

.

Is either child

Is either of your children left-

◆ In the . . . construction, a singular verb is used if both subjects are singular and a plural verb is used if both subjects are plural: . .. . The use of a plural verb with the pronoun or with singular subjects in an . . . construction is avoided by careful users, especially in formal contexts. When a combination of singular and plural subjects occurs in an . . . construction, the verb traditionally agrees with the subject that is nearest to it: . .. . The same principle is applied to singular subjects that are used with different forms of the verb: . [not ] . If the resulting sentence sounds awkward or unidiomatic it may be reordered or rephrased. The alternatives presented in an ... construction should be grammatically balanced: . may be changed to: or: . As a pronoun should be used only of two alternatives: . . . [not ] . However, the use of the . . . construction with three or more subjects is acceptable to some: . . The first syllable of may be pronounced to rhyme with or . The pronunciation [ dheÆr] is more frequent in British English. handed?

either

or

Either

David or Peter is responsible

Either their parents

or their teachers are responsible

either

either

either

or

or

Either David or his parents are

responsible

Either his friends or his brother is

responsible

Either you or I am

are responsible

either

or

Dilute the soup either with milk or water

Dilute the soup either with milk or

with water

Dilute the soup with either milk or

water

either

I haven't seen either of my parents

since June

Any

Either of the four knives may

be used to cut vegetables either

or

Either Sarah,

Jane, or Pauline will be there either

try

See also

eke out .

tree

õÅ

NEITHER

The original meaning of

eke out

is

She eked out the meal with extra rice.

It is frequently used in two other senses:

.

`make something last longer by using it

or:

is elder than Sarah

without adding

the. Older

over two weeks,

They eked out the supplies

and `make (a living) with

laborious effort':

and

.

.

wider range of constructions: than David.

oldest

.

,

eldest

,

or

?

Elder

and

are applied only to people, and usual-

ly within the context of family relation-

can be

He is older.

I am older

It is the oldest

is also used in such expressions as: . although: . sounds less formal. It is also used for people noted for age and experi. . ence: . ; and for an officer in various nonconformist churches. church in Yorkshire.

◆ Elder

I am

his elder by eighteen months

I am older

than him by eighteen months an elder statesman

village elders

one's

elders and betters

COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE.

See also

electric electrical or

can

both

mean

?

Electric

`worked

and

by

electrical

electricity'

. . . . ◆ is also applied to things that produce or . carry electricity: . . , and is used figuratively to describe something stimulating or thrilling: . . is also used to mean `concerned with electricity': . although

electric

to specific, and

tends to be applied more

electrical

electrical lighting

to general things:

an electric motor

elec-

electrical equipment.

trical appliances

Electric

an electric socket

current

electric

an electric shock

The atmosphere was electric Electrical

engineering

electrical

.

elemental

elementary

or

.

?

Elemental

means `of or like the elements or forces of nature':

passion.

This evoked a flood of elemental

.

It is also sometimes used to mean

`fundamental or essential': truth of Christianity.

fused with

elementary

computers

so

an elemental

It should not be con-

.

which means `very

simple; introductory': I

I

need

know an

nothing

elementary

manual.

A further possible mistake is the confusion of with which means `to do with the provision of nourishment': . .

◆

elementary

alimentary

the alimen-

tary canal

see

or

see

The children eked out a

elder eldest older oldest

Rachel

He is elder/eldest

used of things as well as people and in a far

living by selling wild flowers to tourists.

liked by some careful users, but they are wellestablished and generally acceptable.

.

She is the elder of

One cannot say:

elicit ILLICIT ELICIT . eligible ILLEGIBLE ELIGIBLE Both these uses, particularly the latter, are dis- ellipse ellipsis

economically':

◆

. .

my eldest brother

my two daughters.

about

`make something more adequate by adding to it':

.

ships:

or

or

ellipsis

?

? An

ellipse

? is an oval;

is a term used in grammar and

ELLIPSIS).

linguistics (see

.

elliptical shape

.

The two nouns

share the derived adjective

elliptical:

an

an elliptical phrase. Elliptical

.

also means `ambiguous' or `obscure' in formal contexts:

an elliptical reference.

103

ellipsis term

There are two meanings of the

ellipsis

in grammar: one is for the

punctuation marks . . ., usually indicating omission; the other is for the omission of

.

words in a sentence, as an abbreviation or

e-mail

The use of as a conjunction: . is also disliked by many people. Unless it is used in very informal speech should be substituted. For possessive forms see APOSTROPHE.

◆

else

or

else

elude elusive The ellipsis . . . is used mainly to indicate an e-mail omission from a quoted passage: . .

in order to avoid repetition:

Friday.

See

you

make some phone calls.

◆

mary, that's for remembrance . . . and there is

AVOID, EVADE or ELUDE? see ALLUSIVE, ELUSIVE or ILLUSIVE?

see

I ought to write some letters and

`There's rose-

Stop, else

you'll have an accident

There are a number of broadly

accepted conventions relating to the style

If the quotation does and layout of e-mails (or emails). not start at the beginning of a sentence the ellipsis 1 The layout of the (giving the precedes it: . ` ', identity of the sender, the person or persons and when the end of a sentence is omitted the to whom the message has been sent, etc.) is three dots of the ellipsisare sometimes followed by inserted automatically by the software and afourth,toindicateafullstop: . ` is thus rarely subject to stylistic variation. '; if a whole sentence is left out the Note that it is considered good practice sentence before the omitted one has a full stop always to complete the one optional eleand the ellipsis follows. An ellipsis is always three ment of the header, the box in which the dots, or four if a full stop is included, except when sender briefly summarizes the content of a whole line of poetry is omitted, when a row of the message. Some care should be taken dots can be used to fill the length of the line. over the wording of this summary, as some The ellipsis is also used in the same manner as computer software will filter out messages the dash, to indicate halting speech, an unfinished that appear from this summary to be junk sentence, or an omitted obscenity (see DASH). mail or to contain obscene or offensive When used for an unfinished sentence, a dash material. suggests a more abrupt break, while an ellipsis 2 The style for salutations is less rigid than gives an impression of speech tailing off: . ` for letters. Some users prefer the formal ' An associated with letter writing ellipsis should not be used at the end of a passage greetings into suggest that the rest of an episode can be left to (formality of , etc.) orand dislike the Others the reader's imagination. state the addressee's name: . When using ellipsis in sentences to avoid repeti- may simply . , or alternatively launch straight tion, the danger is that the omitted word(s) might into the message itself, particularly if renot correspond with the word(s) repeated, as in plying to another's message: . the following two examples. In: . , which in full would be 3 The e-mail itself should ideally be imthe second is omitted after mediately visible in its entirety on the but does not appear later in the sentence. screen, avoiding the need for the reader In: . , to scroll down to get to the end. In terms of the omitted word is , not . The only content, writers should observe the usual case in which such a false ellipsis is acceptable is conventions of letter writing, taking care when the omitted word is part of the verb : . over spelling, grammar, and punctuation. . Some users, however, deliberately flout the pansies, that's for thoughts.'

headers

. . . a good fellow of infinite jest

Cudgel thy brains

no more . . ..

I

suppose I had hoped that you might . . .

Dear Mr Smith

Hi Sam!

Hello Joe!

Mr

Smith

I know him as

well or even better than you do

Bill

That's fine

with me, let's meet on Friday.

know him as well as or even better than

you know him,

as

as

well

No one has ever or will ever solve the mystery solved

solve

to be

I'm going to London and Sarah to Edinburgh

elliptical else. Else

.

but:

see

ELLIPSE or ELLIPSIS?

is often followed by either

usual conventions in the interests of mak-

or

Nothing else than revolution is possible.

Anybody else but him would be preferable.

Some careful users object to following with

but

.

ing their writing feel spontaneous and than

informal:

hiyaaaa! wot u reckon to this

then i think its cool.

The use of empty lines

between paragraphs and the insertion of

else

bullet points or numbered sections makes

and difficulties can be avoided by

for greater clarity. When replying to a

substituting such phrases as anyone other than.

nothing but

or

previous message and making use of the `reply to' facility, it is best to add a reply

embarrass

104

either above or below the received message and to avoid interspersing the existing text with responses.

4

The use of capital letters is similar to

shouting and should be avoided. Asterisks can be used to highlight particular words *like this*.

5

Many people close their e-mails with the

fixed phrases traditionally used in letter writing (Best

wishes, Love from, With thanks,

etc.). Note, however, that the more formal Yours faithfully

and

are re-

Yours sincerely

latively rare. Some people type their name

should not be confused with the far less frequently used word , which means `inherent, indwelling', and has the respective philosophical and theological meanings of `inherent' and `pervading all things throughout the universe'.

◆ Imminent

immanent

emoticon SMILEY emotive emotional see

.

or

?

.

means

Emotive

`causing or arousing emotion, especially as opposed to reason':

Taxation is always

an emotive subject (Mind Your Own Business).

Emotional

.

means `expressing emo-

.

tion, showing excessive emotion':

an

an emotional meeting.

◆ is often used when is intended, especially since the word has become phrase altogether. more fashionable: . See also LETTER WRITING; NETSPEAK; SMILEY; ( ). TEXT MESSAGING. is also sometimes used when would be better, although it is acceptable to use embarrass This word, meaning `cause to in this sense: . feel shy, ashamed, or self-conscious': . , is ( ). often misspelt. Note the , the , and emotional woman

as a signature or have it appended auto-

Emotive

matically, while others omit any closing

emotional

She is very emotive and gets

emotionally involved herself

The Times

tional

Emo-

emotive

emo-

She

was embarrassed by her brother's behaviour -rr-

the last vowel, which is an

emend AMEND EMEND emigrant immigrant see

or

or

.

not an

for

? An

scheme.

An

under

the

immigrant

.

Empathy

means `an imaginative

identification with another's feelings or

? emigrant

is

Thousands of emigrants left Britain

Australia

almost wrenching pathos, and is being supported

empathy

e.

someone who is migrating from his or her country:

It features television spots of

by equally emotional posters Sunday Times

-ss-

a,

tional

assisted

.

passage

is someone who is

migrating into another country:

Some of

the immigrants had only been in the country for a week.

ideas':

He read all he could about the king,

and meditated on his character, so by the time he came to play the part he felt a real empathy with Henry.

It has recently become a fash-

.

ionable word and its frequent use as a mere synonym for sympathy is disliked by some:

Essential attributes are . . . an empathy for the ideals within a voluntary organisation

(Daily

◆ The word should not be applied to means `attempt to equal nonwhite British residents unless one is sure that emulate or do better than, especially by close imitathey were actually born abroad. The word is applied to someone who has tion': . been forced to leave a country, usually because of . a repressive political regime or intellectual atmoof `imitate sphere. The reasons for leaving are generally less ◆ The word is often used in the sense pressing than for those described as , and closely' without the idea of rivalry: . carries a suggestion of refined class and . This intellect that lacks . usage is disliked by some. . Telegraph).

immigrant

Emulate

eÂmigreÂ

Since the company's success all our

competitors are trying to emulate our products

As a teenager

refugees

he had admired John Lennon devotedly and had

eÂmigreÂ

refugee

Nabokov is the most

famous of Russian eÂmigre writers

eminent imminent immanent ,

nent

or

?

Emi-

means `outstanding, notable, or dis-

tried to emulate him in his dress and speech

enable

The word

enabled

is in increasing

tinguished' and is particularly applied to

working with a particular system':

people who have achieved some distinction

WAP-enabled phone.

.

.

.

use as a suffix, meaning `made capable of a

As a suffix, it should

or fame in their profession, or in the arts or

not be overused as some people may find it

sciences:

jargonistic.

an eminent barrister

poet. Imminent

.

an eminent

means `impending; about to

happen; threatening': war was imminent.

It now seemed that

Note also the use of to describe the conferring of additional legal powers: .

◆

enabling

enabling

legislation.

105

en bloc .

The French expression

en

bloc

means `all together, all at the same time': The whole committee decided to resign en

bloc.

encyclopedia

encyclopaedia

or

?

Both en-

being the more traditional in

British English. In American English

en-

is the more frequent spelling and

cyclopedia

this spelling is now becoming standard in British English.

-AE- and -OE-.

See also

end

The verb

position

in

.

with] `-er',

result':

end

or

and by

.

is followed by the pre-

with: in

[or

words ending in

in the sense `have as a

.

Their marriage ended in divorce.

the sense `finish' it is followed by

with:

ended his speech with a vote of thanks.

endemic epidemic or

?

Endemic,

In

He

a formal

word, is most frequently used as an adjec-

.

.

tive, meaning `occurring in a particular area':

an endemic disease

endemic in

.

[or

to] Africa.

An

.

England engrossed

BRITAIN.

see

The adjective

.

is fol-

engrossed

lowed by the preposition

in:

She

was

engrossed in her work and didn't hear the

spellings of this word are acceptable, cyclopaedia

enrol

The plant is

epidemic

is the

doorbell.

enhance

means

Enhance

`improve,

The

new

windows

have

.

considerably

hanced the value of the house.

.

in-

crease the value or attractiveness of':

en-

The images

◆ It has become a fashionable word, particularly used by employers in connection with extra benefits offered to employees: . ( ). had been digitally enhanced.

Excellent salaries are

enhanced by a wide range of benefits including relocation assistance Daily Telegraph

en masse

The French expression

.

en masse

means `all together; in a crowd or group':

The people stormed the president's palace en masse.

enormity

or

enormousness .

?

Enormity

means `the quality of being outrageous or wicked, a very wicked act':

Those experi-

widespread occurrence or rapid spread of a

ences alerted him to the enormity of what was

disease:

being done to the Jews

a flu epidemic

an epidemic of

(The

Guardian). En-

may also be used as a noun and extremely large': . . as an adjective. Both words have figurais frequently used as though it meant tiveuses: . . ◆ but, although this usage is now . acceptable in American English, most careful users . of British English still dislike it. end product and end result

measles.

means `the quality of being

ormousness

They were daunted by

◆ Endemic

the enormousness of the task

epidemic

Vandalism is endemic in the inner cities

There was an epidemic of resignations after the

Enormity

enormousness

takeover

End product

.

usually means `the final product of a process, or series of processes':

.

We use the best

enquiry inquiry or

materials so that the end product is a quality

enquiry

item.

quire

These young men are the end products

? For many users of

British English the spellings of the nouns and

and

(and of the verbs

inquiry

inquire)

of expensive public schools and the most ex-

changeable.

clusive colleges.

maintain that

◆

for simple requests for information:

Both phrases may simply mean `the eventual outcome', as in the phrase :. . Many careful users dislike both these phrases as the is clearly redundant. end result

The

en-

are completely inter-

Some enquire

users, and

enquired after her health.

.

are used

directory enquiries,

years of negotiation

are used for investigations, especially offi-

enervate

Enervate

.

means `weaken, to les-

sen vitality or strength':

It was an en-

cial ones:

.

inquire

and

.

He

an enquiry office

agreement is the end product/end result of many end

and

.

however,

enquiry

inquiry

.

The police are now inquiring into

the events that led up to his disappearance.

MPs are calling for a public inquiry into the causes of the disaster.

In American English, the general preference is to use . ◆ It is sometimes used as though it meant quite enrol In British English the verb ends the opposite, as a synonym for or , and is also sometimes used as though it in a single , unlike the word . The is doubled before suffixes beginning with a meant `irritate' or `get on someone's nerves'. . . is most often used in the forms or vowel: . ◆ Note that the derived noun has only . ervating climate and they felt listless most of the time.

◆

inquiry

invigorate

en-

ergize

enrol

l

roll

En-

ervate

enervating

enervated

enrolled

enrolling

enrolment

l

en suite

106

one in British English. The American spellings are entourage Of French origin, the noun and . , meaning `attendants; retinue', l

enroll

en suite

enrollment

entourage

En suite,

denoting an adjoining

.

bathroom and bedroom, has long been in use as an adjective:

an en suite bathroom.

is pronounced [ontuurahzh] in English.

entrepreneur

entrepreneur

ENTERPRISE,

Like

the noun

is losing its traditional conno-

as a noun is

tations of risk and initiative and is indis-

disliked by some and best restricted to

criminately applied to any person who

informal contexts:

becomes self-employed or sets up a new

The adoption of

en

.

suite

Does the bedroom have

is pronounced [on

an en suite?

◆ En suite

ensure ASSURE ENSURE -ent -ANT -ENT enterprise see

sweet

,

see

or

or

small business:

].

requirement

INSURE?

risk loving

.

in the context of

.

the enterprise culture

the

government's Enterprise Allowance Scheme a

network

of

Local

.

Enterprise

Britain's enterprise economy initiative.

Agencies

the enterprise

An is also simply a business or company: . . is industry and business owned by independent individuals or groups, i.e. not receiving financial help from the government. Note the spelling of , which always ends in - , unlike the word .

◆

enterprise

several large industrial enterprises Private

enterprise

enterprise

ise

enthral

prize

In British English the verb

enthral

.

ends in a single l, which is doubled before

.

suffixes beginning with a vowel: enthralling.

en-

Note thatthederived noun has only one in British English. The American spellings are and .

thralled

◆

enthralment

l

enthrall

enthuse

enthrallment

The verb

mation from enthusiasm': new

play,

.

enthuse

enthusiasm

is a back for-

and means `show

.

The critics enthused over her

or `make enthusiastic':

(The

.

Guardian).

She regularly

scoured the Businesses for Sale columns of the papers for the inspiration that would turn her

(Daily

Telegraph).

Of French origin, the noun is . frequently misspelt. Note that it begins with -, not -, and ends in - , not - . .

self-employment and the setting up of new small businesses:

entrepreneurship

view of the entrepreneur as someone who is

?

enterprise

Skills appear to be the main successful

. . . in contrast with the simple traditional

Some people dislike the over-

use of the noun

.

for

The

into an entrepreneur

◆

entrepreneur

entre

enter

E-numbers

eur

E-numbers,

er

which appear on

food labels as E401, E218, etc., denote additives use

that

have

throughout

been

the

approved

European

for

Union.

The belief that E-numbers denote harmful artificial substances is a popular misconception: E440(a), for example, is pectin, which occurs naturally in ripe fruit and vegetables; E270 is lactic acid, which is found in dairy products; and E150 is caramel. The term was popularized by Maurice Hanson in

E for Additives

(1984).

envelop envelope or

? The verb

envelop

.

means `enclose, surround, or enfold' and is used both literally and figuratively:

.

He

was enveloped in a blanket and barely visible. She spent a happy childhood, enveloped in

love and security.

The noun

.

envelope

means

`something that envelops, a wrapper (particularly for a letter)': brown envelope.

It arrived in a plain

◆ is pronounced [in oÆp]. The preferred pronunciation of is [ vaÆloÅp], although ◆ Although it has been in use, especially in American English, for over a century, it is still disliked by [ vaÆloÅp] is also heard. many people and is perhaps best avoided in formal enviable or envious? Both these adjecuse. tives are derived from the word (see minister enthused his congregation with his vision of a new church.

Envelop

vel

envelope

en

on

entomology etymology or

is the study of insects;

?

etymology

Entomology

is the study

of the origin and development of words. The two nouns should not be confused.

ENVY or JEALOUSY?). envy';

envious

.

envy

Enviable

means `feeling envy':

centum

entomologist

pes

the

enviable task of showing the film star around the building

He was envious of his sister's

◆ An may think that all centipedes have a hundred legs, as the word is derived from able. Latin `hundred' and `foot', but an environment knows that they do not. to the surrounding etymologist

.

means `causing

success.

The two words are not interchange-

Environment

can be applied

conditions of people

107 and other organisms and can include physical and social influences, though many people are careful not to overuse this word.

eponym than usually large and impressive: . an epic

, but it is preferable not to use the word so that it entirely loses its connection with its heroic origins. gathering

and its derived nouns and are now much used ecology and the protection of the world's epidemic see ENDEMIC or EPIDEMIC? physicalenvironmentfrompollution: . epigram, epigraph, epitaph or epithet? These four nouns should not be confused. . An is a short witty saying; an

◆ Environment mentalism

environ-

environmentalist

The present

wave of environmentalism is now being viewed as a long-term influence on the market

See also

epigram

-FRIENDLY; GREEN.

envisage envision or

epigraph,

? Both

envisage

and

mean `have a mental image of,

envision

.

especially of something hoped for in the future': where

They envisaged/envisioned a world

war

and

poverty

no

longer

existed.

is more often used in British

Envisage

English and

in American English.

the least common of the four

words, is a quotation or motto printed at the beginning of a book or engraved on a monument. An

epitaph

is a commemora-

tive statement about a dead person, often inscribed on a gravestone; an

epithet

is a

short descriptive word or phrase applied to a person, such as

Lionheart

in

Richard the

The wordsshouldnot be usedas meresynonyms ◆ Some people dislike the extended euphemistic for `expect': . use of the word in the sense of `term of . Careful users avoid using these abuse': . . wordswith : . [not epitome. This word, meaning `typical example': ]. envision

◆

Lionheart.

A further downward trend in share

epithet

prices is envisaged that

We envisage an improvement in

the situation improve

envy

envisage that the situation will

jealousy

or

shouting epithets at each other

He is the very epitome of the absent-

?

Envy

involves

the

awareness of an advantage possessed by

.

someone else, together with a desire to

.

have that advantage oneself: his car with envy . relax. Jealousy

She gazed at

I envy your ability to

involves a concern to avoid

minded

professor,

sometimes

eponym .

An

.

eponym

mispro-

.

quisling

.

eponymous nouns:

one's own, and includes the tendency to

listeria

be suspicious of rivalry and infidelity in

herculean,

relation to a person one is close to:

tine.

.

cardigan

watt,

martinet

.

. .

ampere.

adjectives:

and verbs:

.

is a person from

whose name a word is derived:

the loss of something that one regards as

.

is

nounced. Note that there are four syllables Æ mi]. [ipito

sandwich

. .

There are

salmonella

.

quixotic

bowdlerize

guillo-

◆ The only problem with the use of eponymous words is whether or not they are written with a capital letter. The rough rule is that the closer the . connection between the word and the name, the ephemeral This word, meaning `lasting more likely it is that a capital should be used. only a short time': . When one calls a young man given to amorous , is sometimes misspelt. Note partiadventures a , one is making a definite cularly the , pronounced [f], and the allusion to the Shakespearean character and sequence of vowels. would use a capital. One would use a capital but not when epic originally applied to long nar- when referring to referring to , a concept further rerative poems on a grand, heroic scale, moved from Plato. There are no firm rules with like Homer's and or the things named after the person who invented or Finnish . It was extended to popularized them. Generally such words are more other works with some of these qualities likely to be capitalized when used adjectivally than or to series of events or episodes which . when used as nouns: . might be fit subjects for an epic: . ( , review , but this is very much a matter of custom. and are of Salman Rushdie's ) . nearly always capitalized, while hardly ever is. Eponymous verbs such as: . . . ◆ It is also sometimes used of anything more never have capital letters. Her

husband's jealousy forced her to conceal even the

most

innocent

encounters

with

other

men

the ephemeral pleasures

of life

Romeo

ph

Platonic forms

Epic

platonic love

Iliad

Odyssey

Kalevala

Wellington boots

a

marvellous epic novel

Newsweek

wellingtons

Pullman cars

Midnight's Children

Bunsen burners

diesel engine

the epic battle between Greenpeace and

boy-

the whaling ships

cott

pasteurize

EPONYMOUS WORDS

108

EPONYMOUS WORDS

ampere the basic metric unit of electric current, named after Andre Marie , French physicist, 1775±1836 atlas a book of maps, named after , Greek mythologicalcharacter,oneof theTitans who, as punishment for his part in the attempt to overthrow Zeus, was condemned to hold up the heavens on his shoulders for the rest of his life aubrietia a trailing perennial plant bearing small purple flowers, named after Claude , French painter of flowers and animals, 1665±1742 baudaunitofmeasuringthespeedofelectronic data transmission, especially one equal to 1 unit of information per second, named after JeanM.E. ,Frenchinventorandpioneer of telegraphic communication, 1845±1903 Beaufort scale a measure of wind speed, named after Sir Francis , surveyor, 1774±1857 becquerel a basic metric unit of radiation activity, equal to one disintegration per second, named after Antoine-Henri , French physicist, 1852±1908 begonia a genus of succulent herbaceous plants, named after Michel , French patron of science, 1638±1710 Belisha beacon a flashing light in an amber ball that is mounted on a post to mark a pedestrian crossing, named after 1st Baron (Isaac) Leslie , British politician, 1893±1957 Biro a trademark used to describe a kind of ballpoint pen, named after LaÂszlo Jozsef , Hungarian-born inventor, 1900±85 bloomers the women's undergarment that has full, loose legs gathered at the knee, named after Amelia Jenks , American feminist, 1818±94 bougainvillea a genus of tropical South American woody climbing shrub, named after Louis Antoine de , French navigator, 1729±1811 bowdlerize to remove words or passages considered indecent from a book, named after Thomas , British doctor, 1734±1825 bowie knife a stout hunting knife, with a long, one-edged blade curving to a point, named after James , American soldier and adventurer, 1799±1836 boycott to refuse to deal with a person, organization, etc., named after Captain Charles Cunningham , Irish landlord, 1832±97 AmpeÁre

Atlas

Aubriet

Baudot

Beaufort

Becquerel

BeÂgon

Hore-Belisha

BiroÂ

Bloomer

Bougainville

Bowdler

Bowie

Boycott

Boyle's law that at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportionate to its volume, named after Robert , Irishborn British physicist, 1627±91 Braille the system of raised dots by which blind people can read, named after Louis , Frenchman, 1809±52 buddleia a genus of trees and shrubs that have showy clusters of mauve or white flowers, named after Adam , Essex rector and botanist, c. 1660±1715 Bunsen burner the gas burner with an adjustable air valve, named after Robert Wilhelm , German chemist, 1811±99 camellia a genus of ornamental shrubs, named after George Joseph , Moravian Jesuit missionary, 1661±1706 cardigan a knitted jacket or sweater fastened with buttons, named after James Thomas Brudenell, 7th Earl of , British cavalry officer, 1797±1868 Celsius the temperature scale for which 0 is the freezing point of water and 100 the boiling point, named after Anders , Swedish astronomer and scientist, 1701±44 chauvinism an excessive unthinking devotion to one's country, named after Nicolas of Rochefort, 19th-century French soldier clerihew a witty four-line verse that consists of two rhymed couplets, named after Edmund Bentley, English writer, 1875±1956 coulomb the basic metric unit of electric charge, named after Charles Augustin de , French physicist, 1736±1806 dahlia a genus of herbaceous perennial plants that have showy, brightly coloured flowers and tuberous roots, named after Anders , Swedish botanist, 1751±89 derrick now referring to a hoisting apparatus or crane, formerly describing a gallows, named after a 17th-century English hangman surnamed diesel an internal-combustion engine ignited by highly compressed air, named after Rudolf , German mechanical engineer, 1858±1913 Dobermann pinscher a breed of short-haired, medium-sized dog with a short tail, named after Ludwig , German dog breeder and tax collector, 1834±94 Doppler effect the technical name for the change in the apparent frequency of the waves of sound, light, etc., when there is relative motion between the source and the observer, named after Christian Johann , Austrian physicist, 1803±53 Boyle

Braille

Buddle

Bunsen

Kamel

Cardigan

Celsius

Chauvin

Clerihew

Coulomb

Dahl

Derrick

Die-

sel

Dobermann

Dop-

pler

109 draconian of or relating to a very harsh or severe law, measure, or regulation, named after , 7th-century BC Athenian lawgiver dunce a person who is stupid or slow to learn, named after John Scotus, Scottish theologian, c. 1265±1308 Earl Grey a blend of China teas flavoured with oil of bergamot, named after Charles, 2nd , British statesman, 1764±1845 Eiffel Tower the tower in Paris, named after Alexandre Gustave , French engineer, 1832±1923 einsteinium a radioactive chemical element that is produced artificially, named after Albert , German-born American physicist, 1879±1955 Everest the world's highest mountain, named after Sir George , surveyor-general of India, 1790±1866 Fallopian tube one of two tubes that connect the uterus to the ovaries in female mammals, named after Gabriel , Italian anatomist, 1523±62 Fahrenheit the scale of temperatures in which 32 represents the freezing point of water and 212 the boiling point of water, named after Gabriel Daniel , Germanscientist, 1686±1736 farad the basic metric unit of electrical capacitance, named after Michael , English physicist and chemist, 1791±1867 fermium an artificially produced radioactive element, named after Enrico , Italianborn American physicist, 1901±54 forsythia a genus of ornamental shrubs of the olive family, named after William , British botanist, 1737±1804 Fraunhofer lines numerous dark lines in the sun's spectrum, named after Joseph von , German physicist and optician, 1787±1826 freesia a genus of ornamental sweet-scented South African plants of the iris family, named after Friedrich Heinrich Theodor , German physician, died 1876 fuchsia a genus of ornamental shrubs and herbs native to Central and South America, named after Leonhard , German botanist and physician, 1501±66 Gallup poll a survey of the views of a representative sample of the population, named after George Horace , American statistician, 1901±84 galvanize to cover iron or steel with a protecDraco

Duns

Earl

Grey

Eiffel

Einstein

Everest

Fallopius

8

8

Fahrenheit

Faraday

Fermi

Forsyth

Fraunhofer

Freese

Fuchs

Gallup

EPONYMOUS WORDS

tive zinc coating; in a derived sense to stimulate into sudden action, named after Luigi , Italian physician, 1737±98 gardenia a genus of ornamental tropical shrubs and trees, named after Alexander , Scottish-American botanist, 1730±91 Geiger counter an electronic instrument that is used to measure the presence and intensity of radiation, named after Hans , German physicist, 1882±1945 gerrymander to divide an area into new electoral districts in order to give one party an unfair advantage, named after Elbridge , American politician, 1744±1814 guillotine a device for beheading people, named after Joseph Ignace , French physician, 1738±1814 Halley's comet, named after Edmund , British astronomer, 1656±1742 Heath Robinson of or relating to an absurdly complex design, named after William , English artist, 1872±1944 henry the derived metric unit of electric inductance, named after Joseph , American physicist, 1797±1878 herculean of or relating to a task that requires immense effort or strength, named after (Greek, ), the son of Zeus and Alcmena, and the greatest and strongest of the Greek demi-gods Hoover a trademark used to describe a type of vacuum cleaner, named after William Henry , American businessman, 1849±1932 Jacuzzi a trademark used to describe a system of underwater jets of water that massage the body, named after Candido , Italianborn engineer, c. 1903±86 JCB the trademark for a type of mechanical earth-mover, named after oseph yril amford, English manufacturer, 1916±2001 joule the metric unit of work or energy, named after James Prescott , English physicist, 1818±89 kelvin the metric unit of thermodynamic temperature, named after William Thomas , 1st Baron Kelvin, Scottish physicist, 1824± 1907 KoÈchel number a serial number in a catalogue of the works of Mozart, named after Ludwig von , Austrian botanist and cataloguer, 1800±77 leotard a close-fitting, one-piece garment worn by acrobats, ballet dancers, etc., named after Jules , French acrobat, 1842±70 listeria the bacteria that cause listeriosis, a Galvani

Gar-

den

Geiger

Gerry

Guillotin

Halley

Heath

Robinson

Henry

Her-

cules

Heracles

Hoover

Jacuzzi

J

C

B

Joule

Kelvin

KoÈchel

LeÂotard

EPONYMOUS WORDS

110

serious form of food poisoning, named after Joseph , British surgeon, 1827±1912 lobelia a genus of flowers bearing showy blue, red, yellow or white flowers, named after Matthias de , Flemish botanist and physician, 1538±1616 loganberry the large, sweet purplish-red berry of the upright-growing raspberry plant, named after James Harvey , American lawyer, 1841±1928 Luddite a person who is opposed to industrial innovation, named after Ned , 18th-century English labourer macadam compacted layers of small broken stones bound together with tar, asphalt, etc., named after John Loudon , Scottish engineer, 1756±1836 Machiavellian of or relating to cunning, double-dealing, and opportunist methods, named after NiccoloÁ , Italian political theorist, 1469±1527 Mach number a number that represents the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound in the same medium, named after Ernst , Austrian physicist and philosopher, 1838±1916 mackintosh a kind of raincoat made of rubberized cloth, named after Charles , Scottish chemist, 1760±1843 malapropism the unintentional confusion of words that produces a ridiculous effect, named after Mrs in the play (1775), by the Irish dramatist Richard Brinsley Sheridan, 1751±1816 martinet a strict disciplinarian, named after Jean , French army officer during the reign of Louis XIV, died 1672 maverick a person who is independent and who does not wish to conform or be identified with a group, named after Samuel Augustus , American pioneer, 1803±70 Melba toast; peach melba Melba toast (thinly sliced toasted bread) and peach melba (a dessert of peaches, ice-cream, and raspberry melba sauce), named after Dame Nellie , Australian operatic soprano singer, 1861± 1931 Mercator projection a form of map projection, named after Gerardus (original name Gerhard Kremer), Flemish geographer, 1512±94 mesmerize to fascinate, spellbind, or hypnotize, named after Franz Anton , Austrian physician and hypnotist, 1734±1815 Molotov cocktail a crude petrol bomb, named Lister

Lobel

Logan

Ludd

McAdam

Machiavelli

Mach

Macintosh

Malaprop

The

Rivals

Martinet

Maverick

Mel-

ba

Mercator

Mesmer

after Vyacheslav Mikhailovich (original surname Scriabin), Soviet statesman, 1890±1986 Montessori method an education method in which the creative potential of young children is developed, named after Maria , Italian physicist and educator, 1870±1952 Moog synthesizer the trademark for a type of synthesizer, named after Robert Arthur , American physicist, engineer, and electrician, born 1934 Morse code a telegraphic system of signalling in which letters and numbers are represented by dots and dashes, named after Samuel Finley Breese , American artist and inventor, 1791±1872 narcissism an extreme interest in or love for oneself, named after , the beautiful young man in Greek mythology newton the metric unit of force, named after Sir Isaac , British physicist and mathematician, 1642±1727 ohm the metric unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon , German physicist, 1787±1854 Pareto principle the 80/20 rule, e.g. 80 per cent of the sales may come from 20 per cent of the customers, named after Vilfredo Frederico , Italian economist and sociologist, 1848±1923 Parkinson's law which states that work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion, named after Cyril Northcote , English historian and author, 1909±93 pasteurize to destroy bacteria in a drink or a food, named after Louis , French chemist and bacteriologist, 1822±95 pavlova a meringue cake topped with cream and fruit, named after Anna , Russian ballerina, 1885±1931 Peter principle that in a hierarchy, every employee tends to rise to the level of his incompetence, named after Laurence J. , Canadian educator, 1919±90 Peters projection a form of map projection, named after Dr Arno , German historian, born 1916 platonic of a close relationship between a couple that does not involve sex, named after , Greek philosopher, c. 427±347 BC Plimsoll line a set of markings on the side of a ship that show the various levels that the ship may safely be loaded to, named after Samuel , English leader of shipping reform, 1824±98 Molotov

Montessori

Moog

Morse

Narcissus

Newton

Ohm

Pareto

Par-

kinson

Pasteur

Pavlova

Peter

Peters

Plato

Plimsoll

111 poinsettia the traditional Christmas evergreen plant, named after Joel Roberts , American diplomat, 1779±1851 Pulitzer prizes prizes awarded for outstanding achievements in journalism, literature, and music, named after Joseph , Hungarian-born American newspaper publisher, 1847±1911 Pullman the luxurious railway passenger coach, named after George Mortimer , American inventor, 1831±97 quisling a traitor who collaborates with an invading enemy, named after Vidkun Abraham , Norwegian politician, 1887± 1945 quixotic; Don Quixote (of or like) a person who is carried away by the impractical pursuit of romantic ideals and who has extravagant notions of chivalry, named after , hero of the novel (1605, 1615) by the Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, 1547±1616 Rafflesia the genus of parasitic Asian herbs, named after Sir Thomas Stamford , British colonial administrator, 1781±1826 raglan a loose-fitting coat that has sleeves that extend to the collar without shoulder seams, named after Fitzroy James Henry Somerset, 1st Baron , British field marshal, 1788± 1855 Reuters the news agency, named after Baron Paul Julius von (original name Israel Beer Josaphat), German-born Briton, 1816±99 Richter scale a scale for expressing the magnitude of earthquakes, named after Charles , American seismologist, 1900±85 Romeo a romantic lover, named after , the hero in Shakespeare's tragedy Rorschach test a psychological test in which the interpretation by a subject of a series of inkblots reveals aspects of the subject's personality, named after Hermann , Swiss psychiatrist, 1884±1922 Rubik's cube a puzzle consisting of a cube, each face of which is divided into nine small coloured squares that can rotate around a central square, named after ErnoÈ , Hungarian designer, sculptor, and architect, born 1944 Rudbeckia a genus of flowers with showy flowers with yellow rays and dark-brown to black conical centres, named after Olof , Swedish botanist, 1630±1702 Poinsett

Pulitzer

Pull-

man

Quisling

Don

Quixote

Don Quixote de

la Mancha

Raffles

Raglan

Reuter

Richter

Romeo

Romeo and

Juliet

Rorschach

Rubik

Rud-

beck

EPONYMOUS WORDS

rutherford a unit of radioactivity, named after Ernest , 1st Baron Rutherford, British physicist, 1871±1937 Ryder Cup the biennial professional golfing match between the USA and Europe, named after Samuel , English professional golfer, 1859±1936 Sabin vaccine; Salk vaccine vaccines against polio, named after Jonas Edward , American microbiologist, 1914±95, and Albert , Polish-born American microbiologist, 1906±93 sadism the pleasurederived from inflicting pain on others, named after Count Donatien Alphonse FrancËois de , known as Marquis de Sade, French soldier and writer, 1740± 1814 salmonella the rod-shaped bacteria that cause diseases including food poisoning (salmonellosis) in human beings, named after Daniel Elmer , American veterinary surgeon, 1850±1914 sandwich the snack consisting of two slices of buttered bread with a filling between, named after John Montagu, 4th Earl of , English diplomat, 1718±92 sequoia either of two giant Californian coniferous trees, named after , Native American, c. 1770±1843 shrapnel the projectile that contains bullets or fragments of metal and a charge that is exploded before impact, named after Henry , English artillery officer, 1761±1842 siemens the metric unit of electrical conductance, named after Ernst Werner von , German electrical engineer, 1816±92 silhouette the outline of a dark shape set on a light background, named after EÂtienne de , French politician, 1709±67 simony the practice of buying or selling of church or spiritual benefits or offices, named after Magnus, 1st-century AD sorcerer sousaphone the large tuba that encircles the player with a forward-facing bell, named after John Philip , American bandmaster and composer, 1854±1932 spoonerism in which initial sounds of words were accidentally transposed, often with a comical effect, named after the Rev. William Archibald , English clergyman and scholar, 1844±1930 stetson the wide-brimmed, high-crowned felt hat, named after John Batterson , American hat-maker, 1830±1906 tantalize to tease someone by offering someRutherford

Ryder

Salk

Sabin

Sade

Salmon

Sandwich

Sequoya

Shrapnel

Siemens

Silhouette

Simon

Sousa

Spooner

Stetson

equable

112

thing desirable to view and then withholding it, named after , Greek mythical king of Phrygia tontine a financial scheme that provides life annuities to a group of subscribers, named after Lorenzo , Italian banker, 1635±90 tradescantia a genus of flowering plants, named after John , English traveller and gardener, c. 1570±1638 Turing machine a hypothetical universal computing machine, named after Alan Mathison , English mathematician, 1912±54 Venn diagram in which circles and other shapes are drawn to overlap at certain points in order to represent mathematical and logical relationships, named after John , English mathematician and logician, 1834±1923 volt the metric unit of (electric) potential, named after Count Alessandro , Italian physicist, 1745±1827 Wankel engine a type of internal-combustion engine that has a triangular-shaped rotating piston with slightly curved convex sides, named after Felix , German engineer, 1902±88 watt the metric unit of power, named after James , Scottish engineer and inventor, 1736±1819 Wellington boot a waterproof rubber boot without fastenings that reaches to the knee, named after Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of , British soldier and statesman, 1769±1852 wisteria a genus of twining climbing plants with purple flowers, named after Caspar , American anatomist, 1761±1818 Zeppelin an airship, especially a large rigid cylindrical airship, named after Count Ferdinand von , German general and aeronautical pioneer, 1838±1917 Tantalus

Tonti

Tradescant

Turing

Venn

Volta

Wankel

Watt

Wellington

Wis-

tar

Zeppelin

equable

equitable

or

?

means

Equable

and is frequently applied both to climates which are consistently mild and not subject to sudden changes, and to people who are placid and even-tempered.

.

Equitable

`fair, reasonable, impartial':

It

means

was

an

equitable agreement which both parties found satisfactory.

word

Careful users avoid modifying the equal,

believing it to be incorrect to

.

animals

are

(George Orwell,

equally

more

than

The word

others

.

should not be

equally

followed by as in such sentences as:

She is a

brilliant pianist, and her brother is equally

[not

equally as talented].

The word may, however, be replaced by in the above example, in which case it is stressed. In the sentence: . , the first should not be preceded or replaced by . The sentence can, however, be rephrased as: . . talented

◆

equally

as

This dress is as expensive as

that one

as

equally

The two dresses are equally

expensive

equal to equal with or

? When briefly

indicating identity, equivalence, or similarity

by

. .

is used as a verb with no preposi-

equal

tion:

x equals 5

to:

or as an adjective followed

x is equal to 5.

tions, using

.

In longer construc-

as an adjective, it is

equal

preferable to use equal to:

equal with,

rather than

The Bradford team have gained

five points and are now equal with the team from Liverpool. Equal to

.

has the specific

meaning of `capable of meeting the requirements of':

He

seemed

too

young

and inexperienced to be equal to the task.

equitable -er -EE -er or -or

EQUABLE or EQUITABLE? or -ER? see

see

? The suffix

-er

.

.

.

.

is used to form

nouns to indicate an occupation:

lawyer

.

bricklayer,

or an action performed by a

person:

steeplechaser

quirer.

The suffix

messenger

en-

is used in the same

-or

way with other words, normally those formed from Latin roots. Often these are

.

.

.

.

words where there is no English verb base: sponsor

doctor

.

author

sailor.

.

mentor,

actor

.

but this

investigator

◆ It is not always possible to guess which ending should be used and sometimes both are accepta. ble: . . The ending is more frequent and more likely with recently coined nouns and those that do not have Latin roots. adviser/advisor

See also

vendor/vender

-er

-EE or -ER?

erogenous

Erogenous

zones are the parts

of the body that are sensitive to sexual stimulation. Note the spelling of the word

say that one thing can be more or less equal

erogenous:

than another:

in

All animals are equal but

equal

Animal Farm).

is not always the case:

`regular, moderate, not given to extremes'

equal

some

a single

misogynist.

r

and

-gen-,

not

-gyn-

as

erupt

irrupt

113

estimation

, and redundant. and are retained in some contexts, although and are generally considered to be of are identical in pronunciation but different neutral gender. Certain occupational titles, such as in meaning. means `burst out; come and , tend to be used as masculine or go out with force', whereas , a nouns, and being their femmore formal word, means `burst in; enter inine equivalents. The suffix is obligatory in with force': . such words as , , and .. . . ◆ The verb is also used with reference to volcanoes, with reference to the sudden appear- See also NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEXISM. ance of a rash on the skin, and in the figurative essential The adjective is followed sense of `begin suddenly and violently': . by the preposition or : . . The verb should [or ] . not be used in this sense. essentially should be used priNote the single of and the of . or

? These two verbs (and

their derived nouns

eruption

and

irruption)

tress

manageress

Actress

hostess actor

host

Erupt

waiter

irrupt

steward

waitress

stewardess

-ess

The crowd erupted onto the

street

princess

The police irrupted into the building

essential

Fighting

erupted along the border -r-

Escalate

escalator,

irrupt

erupt

-rr-

irrupt

is a back formation from

and as a vogue word meaning

used. It is best confined to the description

. .

of an upward movement that increases step Rents have escalated over the last

five years.

Officials killed by mine as Tamil

attacks escalate

(The

Times).

Eskimo INUIT esophagus OESOPHAGUS especially specially see

.

see

or

or

ESOPHAGUS?

? These adverbs are

often used interchangeably, but there is a difference

.

in

their

meanings.

.

Especially

means `more than usual, in particular, above all':

He was especially hungry.

especially big ones. Specially

I hate dogs,

.

.

means `specifi-

cally, purposely, in this particular way':

The car is specially designed for handicapped people.

to

essential to

`expand, rise, intensify' tends to be over-

by step:

countess

marchioness

erupt

escalate

duchess

I made it specially for you.

for

Money is not

for

happiness

Essentially

.

marily to mean `basically, inherently, or most importantly':

The play is essentially

a tragedy although there is some comic relief.

It tends sometimes also to be used with a weaker meaning of `in general terms': . , or `importantly': . . This usage is disliked by some.

◆

It was

essentially a good match

Your

view isn't essentially different from mine

establishment

The Establishment

refers to

the powerful figures in government (especially the civil service), the legal system, the established church, the armed forces, and

.

the City of London, who are thought to control the country:

The Prime Minister,

the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Lord Chief Justice were among the Establishment figures

present.

The

Establishment

times with a lower-case

e)

(some-

is thought to

have a conservative outlook, generally opposing changes to the existing order, and as

is often used where is in- A further meaning of is `a contended, and sometimes, as in the last example, this ◆trolling or influential group': . might lead to confusion as might . mean `for you above all' or `specifically for you'. esthetic see AESTHETIC, ASCETIC or ACETIC? ◆ Specially

such is often used as a derogatory term.

especially

establishment

the pedigree dog

specially for you

esprit de corps esprit de corps

establishment

The French expression

is used in formal contexts

to refer to a feeling of team spirit, loyalty, and devotion that unites members of a group.

estimation estimate esteem ,

tion

or

is the act of estimating; an

. .

Estima-

is a

figure, idea, etc., arrived at by the process of estimation:

◆ The literal meaning of is `spirit of respect': the body'. Note that it is sometimes written or `great ◆ The noun printed in italics. It is pronounced [espree deÆ ]. `regard': . take. Esteem,

esprit de corps

?

estimate

an estimate of the time it will

a more formal word, means He held her in high esteem.

also means `opinion' or , . -ess The use of the feminine suffix is sometimes regarded as patronizing or sex. ist and is often unnecessary. is an invalid elaboration of ◆ Such nouns as , , , , and should be avoided. It attracted atten, etc., can be applied to people of either tion when used in a speech by US President sex, making , , , George W. Bush. estimation

kaw

-ess

What, in your estimation is the cause of

the problem?

She went down in their estimation

when the truth came out Misunderestimate

author poet sculptor editor

manager

authoress

poetess

sculptress

edi-

estimate

et al.

et al.

114 is an abbreviation of

Et al.

et alii

and

means `and other people'. It is used particularly in writings of a formal technical

.

nature to indicate the omission of other names:

Similar findings have been recorded

by Jones, Bernstein, et al.

◆ Stephen Burgen ( ) warns against the adoption of euphemisms coined by the perpetrators of atrocities: `Already some newspapers have started taking ethnic cleansing out of quotation marks, thus moving the phrase one more step along the road to respectability.' The Guardian

It should not be used in ordinary writing or in see ENTOMOLOGY or ETYMOLspeech, and should be used only when a list is etymology ? OGY specific and does not start with or . euphemisms A is an inoffen-

◆

for example

such as

etc.

euphemism

The abbreviation

cetera,

.

etc.

stands for

et

which means `and other things,

and so forth': non-academic

The college offers several

subjects

±

home

economics,

sive term that is used as a substitute for one that might give offence. Euphemisms tend

.

to be used particularly when referring to

.

sexual and bodily functions:

and so on

smallest room

(urinate), and to death:

◆

.

.

private parts

. It is used in technical or informal writing, but in . formal writing or are Some euphemisms have arisen out of genuine preferred. One should not write . or use ◆feelings sensitivity, but many are an attempt to it in a list preceded by or . cover upofsomething reprehensible: . There is never any point in writing . ., (mass extermination of the Jews) . although it is sometimes used in informal speech. (lying). The correct pronunciation of . is [et eÆraÆ] or The invention of new euphemisms in the busi[et raÆ], not [ek (eÆ)raÆ]. ness and professional worlds is becoming almost an art form: . ethics see -ICS. ethnic The original meaning of is ( ). . `classified according to distinctive social [An American] characteristics, e.g. race, culture or lanphysical education, craft and design, etc.

(genitals)

(toilet)

pass water

She passed away.

I

lost my wife two years ago

and so forth and etc

for example

such as

etc

etc

set

etc

the Nazi Final

Solution

being

economical with the truth

set

set

At one international computer

ethnic

guage':

.

is `achieving schedule overrun' Sunday Times

hospital recently announced the

There are many different ethnic

groups in the USA. Ethnic

mean

company the accepted wording for falling behind

`belonging

to

a

is now used to

.

particular

group, especially a minority one': continued last night in Sukhumi,

social

Shooting

. . .

more

than 24 hours after the start of ethnic clashes in

(Daily

relapse of an important patient by saying he

`did not fully achieve his wellness potential'. He later experienced a `terminal episode'

(

).

viously known as death The Times

Eurasian

The meaning of

...

Eurasian

pre-

has

changed over recent decades. Formerly it

Tele-

was used to describe a person of mixed

Because ethnic groups tend to be

British and Indian parentage. Today it is

defined in relation to the majority popula-

used more widely to refer to a person of

which 11 people have been killed graph).

.

.

tion it has also come to mean `belonging to a

mixed white and Asian parentage:

non-Western culture', `foreign':

ticians are becoming increasingly aware of the

But a great

deal of ethnic food is not hot, but spiced, with pronounced

`non-white': ethnic MPs

.

flavours

(Sunday

Times),

and

Labour now has three other

(Sunday

ethnic cleansing

Times).

The phrase

Poli-

needs of the country's Eurasian population.

Euro-

Although the United Kingdom is

part of Europe, British people have traditionally spoken of

Europe

to mean all the

ethnic cleans-

continent apart from the United Kingdom.

is a euphemism originally applied to the

When United Kingdom membership of

deportation and murder in 1991 of thou-

the European Community was mooted,

sands of Muslims and Croats living in

it was often referred to as

Bosnia. It has since been adopted to refer

and

ing

to similar programmes of extermination elsewhere in the world, such as Rwanda and Kurdish Iraq, and is occasionally applied to earlier atrocities of this kind, including the extermination of Jews by the Nazis in the 1930s.

Europe

going into Europe,

is now quite often used as a

synonym for the European Union.

The prefix is sometimes used in words which are connected with Europe in general: . . . . but more often with those having con. nectionswiththeEuropeanUnion . ◆

Euro-

Eurocommunism

Eurobond

Eurovision

Eurobank

Euro-sceptic

Eurocrat

.

evince

.. tensives: . should be confined to informal contexts, ( ). and without an adjective or adverb followis the name of the single currency of the ing: . is better avoided. European Union. On whether to write or , or , etc., in such sentences as: evade, evasion see AVOID, EVADE or ELUDE? Europhile

.

115

Demand for the `rare breed'

of Euro-manager will far outstrip the supply in the

He's ever so clever

It's ever such a nice

house

single market Daily Telegraph

ever so

Euro

Thanks ever so

whatever

.

wherever

evangelical evangelistic or

? Evangelism

is the activity of declaring the Christian gospel in order to bring about conversion to Christianity.

.

is the adjective

Evangelistic

used to describe such activities:

an evan-

gelistic mission to the city. Evangelical

de-

scribes people and beliefs that emphasize salvation by faith in the death of Jesus Christ,

.

personal

.

conversion,

authority of the Bible:

and

the

evangelical Chris-

an evangelical church.

is also used in the extended sense of `very enthusiastic': . .

tians

◆ Evangelical

speak with evangelical fer-

vour

even

The position of the word

even

in a

sentence can influence its meaning. Com-

.

pare the following sentences and their implications:

.

Even I like opera on television

(so other people would like it still more).

where ever

What ever did he say next?

what ever

.

Wherever you

travel you'll find businesses that accept our credit card

, see WHATEVER or WHAT EVER?

every

is used with singular nouns

Every

.

and all related words should be in the singular form:

Every machine is equipped

with a safety device.

The temptation to use

.

plurals arises when one wishes to avoid such gender-specific constructions as:

I

hope every committee member has remembered to bring his agenda.

the controversial clumsy

his

or

Rather than use

their agendas

her

.

agenda

rephrase the sentence:

or the rather

it is better to

I hope all commit-

tee members have remembered to bring a copy of the agenda with them.

See also

EACH or EVERY?

everybody everyone or

everybody

? The pronoun

and its synonym

everyone

are

interchangeable in all contexts.

Both are used with a singular verb but are sometimes followed by a plural personal pronoun (though it is or possessive adjective (see THEY): . inferior on television). In formal writing it . is best to put before the word it Note the difference between the one-word modifies, in order to make the meaning compound and the more specific twounambiguous although in speech it is often word form , both of which may be more natural to put before the verb: . applied to people: . . . . . . Onlythe two-word compound isusedof things: eventuate is used, usually in . formal contexts, to mean `result': . I like even opera on television

.

(presumably

I would prefer things other than opera).

◆

I

like opera even on television

Everybody/

Everyone has paid their fare

even

everyone

every one

even

Everyone knew the answer

He doesn't even stop working on holiday

Every one of the contestants knew the answer

I

Eventuate

If the

proposed merger takes place, this might even-

bought six glasses and every one was cracked

everyday every day or

?

Everyday

means

tuate in the new company having a monopoly

`completely ordinary' and is used as an

of the market.

adjective or (more occasionally) a noun:

It is disliked by many people

as pompous and affected, and conveying

.

her

everyday

clothes

.

not

part

of

the

nothing that is not conveyed by simpler and

everyday.

more usual words.

adverb, meaning `daily', and as a noun,

ever

The use of

.

ever

such constructions as: his fastest speed ever,

.

with superlatives in the largest pie ever

is disliked by some

people as they feel that

ever

includes the

.

Every

day

meaning `each day': day.

.

can be used as an Brush your teeth every

He starts every day with a half-hour

exercise routine.

evince

Evince

.

is a formal verb meaning

future, as well as the past. The usage is

`show clearly; make apparent':

well-established, but the criticism can be

ing evinces keen perception and skills of ob-

.

servation.

.

met by changing the constructions slightly: the largest pie ever baked

his fastest speed

to date/the fastest he has ever run.

◆

The expressions

ever so

and

ever such

as in-

Some

Her writ-

careful users believe it

should be applied only to qualities, not to attitudes or emotions, although it is generally acceptable in such applications.

ex

ex

116 .

As a prefix,

`outside':

ex-

telephone number.

.

means `former' or

the ex-chairman

an ex-directory

It is usually attached with

a hyphen. The noun

ex,

meaning `former

.

exceptional exceptionable? or

Apart from the exceptional quiet day, we've

.

been kept busy all month,

spouse' or `former partner', should be re-

good':

stricted to informal contexts:

British English

letter from her ex this morning.

She had a

The preposition is used in financial contexts in . thesenseof`without'or`excluding': . . In commercial contexts it means . . `from': . . The phrase is sometimes misinterpreted as `no longer in stock', through confusion with the prefix - in the sense of `former'. ◆

ex

ex interest

£150 ex VAT

ex stock

ex warehouse

ex works

ex stock

ex

exaggerate

This word, meaning `repre-

sent as greater than is true', is sometimes misspelt. Note the -gg- and single -r-, as in stagger.

See also

OVEREXAGGERATE.

exalt exult or

`praise';

.

exult

?

means `rejoice' or `triumph':

.

He exulted at his success.

to exult in victory.

.

Both words are formal and more frequently found in their derived forms, such as the adjectives and and the nouns and . exultant

exaltation

exultation

exceed excel

see

ACCEDE or EXCEED?

The verb

preposition

at

or

creative writing.

except

.

is followed by the

in:

She excels at

except for:

. .

walk except Flora.

we are

[or

in]

except

We all went for a

The exceptions are at the

beginning of a sentence: all under 40,

Except for Stuart,

and when a whole

.

statement is being qualified and means `if it were not for':

except for

The room was

silent except for the occasional squeak of a pen.

◆ is also used with the meaning `without; but for': . , but this is an informal use and some careful users dislike it. (meaning `except, excluding') is considered acceptable only when used after `always', `not', `only', or `without': . as a preposition should be followed by the object form: . [not ] . [not ]. Except for

I wouldn't have got this far except

for your support Excepting

It was the happiest day

of her life, not excepting her wedding day. Except

except me

he

See also

ACCEPT or EXCEPT?

and `unusually

exceptional

wine.

In

is often used of

exceptional

gifted':

an exceptional student

tional musician.

.

ever,

an excep-

In American English, how-

exceptional

is applied to children of

both below and above average ability, and is now applied particularly to physically challenged children, or those with learning difficulties. fused with

Exceptional

should not be con-

exceptionable,

.

which means `ob-

jectionable; something to which exception might be taken':

His

words

were

not

offensive in themselves but there was something

see

I

.

or

EXCESS?

Hurray!

.

Exclamation marks are

.

used to indicate strong feeling or urgency: Go away!

Help!

Exclamation

marks may come at the end of a sentence,

.

as a substitute for a full stop, or at the end of a quotation, within quotation marks: `Ouch!'

he

cried.

Occasionally, they may

occur in the middle of a sentence.

Exclamation marks are used after interjections, oaths,andwordsrepresentingloudnoises: . . . . . , after alarms . . , and and commands: . . afterinsultsandcurses: . Theyareusedaftervariousexclamationsexpressing surprise, indignation, pleasure, or displeasure, often starting with or , and some which have the form of questions: . . . . . They are also used after longer sentences when strong emotion is being expressed: . There are no words or utterances that always need an exclamation mark. The presence or absence of one indicates the intonation required when reading a word or sentence . would be read with a different intonation from: . or: . . Exclamation marks should be used sparingly, and never doubled or trebled. The excessive use of exclamation marks in writing, particularly when used in an attempt to create an atmosphere of excitement, fun, or humour, generally has a negative effect on the reader. ◆

Oh!

excel

It is usually better to use

rather than

an

excess ACCESS . exclamation mark

◆

exalted

is

in his manner that we found exceptionable.

She was exalted to the position of sales director . to exalt a hero

.

This

people to mean `above average; superior;

means `elevate' or

Exalt

.

Exceptional

means `out of the ordinary; uncommon':

except him

Ow!

Crash!

Damn!

Gracious!

Look out!

Quiet!

You bastard!

how

Fire!

Rot in hell!

what

How beautiful!

What fun!

What a mess!

How we laughed!

Aren't you silly!

I'm absolutely sick to death of the lot of you!

.

You can't

be serious!

You can't be serious?

be serious

You can't

117

exclamations

Exclamations

are

words,

phrases, or sentences that express a strong

.

.

.

feeling, such as surprise, anger, shock, excitement, etc.:

Gosh!

Get out!

They are always followed by an

TION MARK.

Oh dear!

EXCLAMA-

In writing, exclamations are best restricted to direct speech. They may also be used in informal letters, but they become less effective if overused. ◆

exclude preclude or

? Exclude means `leave

out' or `prevent from entering';

preclude

.

is

used in formal contexts and means `make impossible' or `prevent from happening':

number of items were excluded from the list.

.

A

Lack of resources precluded further research.

The two verbs should not be confused.

executive

An

executive

is a senior business-

man or businesswoman. Many people object to the increasing use of the word in the sense of `fashionable', `luxurious', or `expensive', describing items that are designed to appeal to those who aspire to the social level of an

.

executive or the (supposed) high income of an executive:

.

an exclusive development of

exotic

◆ The literal meaning of the phrase is `by favour' and it is pronounced [eks shaÆ]. ex gratia

exhausting

or

exhaustive .

?

means `extremely tiring': shopping exhausting.

fused with ough;

.

Exhausting

I find Christmas

It should not be con-

exhaustive,

which means `thor-

comprehensive;

possibilities':

gray

.

considering

all

They made exhaustive enqui-

ries but to no avail.

This is an exhaustive

study, covering every aspect of the subject.

exhilarate .

This word, meaning `thrill or

an exhilarating experience,

excite':

is some-

times misspelt. Frequent errors include the omission of the -h- and the substitution of -ler- for -lar-.

existential

Existential

.

usually means `relat-

ing to existence, particularly human existence':

.

an

statement,

existential

or

`grounded in human existence; empirical': an existential argument for the existence of

God.

It is also sometimes used to mean

.

.

`existentialist, based on existentialist philosophy':

existential angst

theories.

Sartre's existential

◆ It is also sometimes used as a vogue word to ◆ The adjectival use of the noun to describe items that are intended for or used by the executives of a mean `referring to a subjective intellectual viewpoint', but such use is generally considered precompany is more acceptable: . tentious. . . executive homes

an executive bathroom.

the executive

restaurant

an executive jet

exercise exorcise or

? These two words

ex officio

The Latin phrase

ex officio

is

is a noun

used in formal contexts to describe a right

and verb with various meanings, including

or rank to which someone is entitled be-

`a set of energetic movements', `a short

cause of his or her occupation or position:

should not be confused.

.

Exercise

piece of school work', and, in formal con-

.

texts, `make use of': exercise.

You should take more

He exercised his right to remain

.

The chairman is an ex officio member of all the subcommittees.

◆ The phrase literally means `by virtue of one's office'.

. . exorbitant This word, meaning `excesBoth words are sometimes misspelt with - - in sive': . , is someplace of the - -. Note also the - endings: times misspelt. There is no in the spelling, is one of the few words in which - cannot be unlike . replaced by - (see -IZE or -ISE?). has the variant spelling , but the - ending is exorcise see EXERCISE or EXORCISE? sometimes preferred by those who use the - exotic The original meaning of is form for other verbs. `from another country, not native to the The two words are not identical in pronuncia- place it is found': . . By this tion. The unstressed - - in the middle of definition the potato would be an exotic is pronounced [-or-], whereas the unstressed - - in vegetable in Britain but it is never spoken the middle of has the weak sound of the of as such, because is now almost final - of , , etc. always used with the meaning of `unusual,

silent.

The verb

spirits from':

exorcise

means `expel evil

The house had been exorcised

◆

xc

x

ise

exercise

ise

ize

h

exhilarate

Exorcise

exorcize

an exorbitant price to pay

ise

ize

or

exotic

exotic flowers

exorcise er

exercise

er

ex gratia

exotic

baker tumbler

An

ex gratia

payment is one that

.

.

excitingly different, interestingly foreign':

is given as a favour, rather than because it is

exotic food

legally necessary.

exotic lands.

exotic dances

.

travel to distant

expatriate

expatriate

118 The word

expatriate,

meaning

exquisite

.

Exquisite,

meaning `very delicate

exquisite carvings,

may be

`a person who is living in a country that is

and beautiful':

not his or her native country', is sometimes

pronounced in two ways. Some users pre-

misspelt. Note the spelling of the ending of

fer the stress to fall on the first syllable

this word: -ate, not -ot as in

[ekskwizit]. Other users find this pronun-

expeditious

and

or

expedient

patriot.

?

Expeditious

come from the same root,

expedient

.

but have quite different meanings. tious

means `speedy; efficient':

service

is

the

most

expeditious

sending parcels. Expedient

Expedi-

Our courier method

.

of

means `conveni-

ent for a particular situation or aim':

It

would not be expedient to change the law at

ciation slightly affected and prefer to stress the second syllable [ikskwizit].

◆

Overuse of this word is disliked by many users.

extant extinct or

?

Extant,

Seven of Sophocles' plays are extant. extant law. Extinct

.

a formal word,

.

means `surviving' or `still in existence':

an

is usually applied to a

.

species of animal or plant that has died out

the present time.

or to a volcano that is no longer active:

◆ Expedient

The African elephant is in danger of becoming

is associated with practical action and . The two adjectives are virtually often also a concern for self-interest rather than opposite in meaning. moral considerations: . or impromptu? These two (W. extempore words have similar meanings but are not Somerset Maugham, ). quite interchangeable. Both are applied to extinct

You can't learn too soon

that the most useful thing about a principle is that it can always be sacrificed to expediency

explicable

The Circle

In the traditional pronunciation

speeches and performances which are not

.

no explicable reason for their

suggests that nothing has been memorized

the stress was on the first syllable

or written down beforehand, although the

of this word, which means `able to be explained':

behaviour,

rehearsed in advance. However,

.

extempore

Æ bl]. It is now more usual and [eksplika

speaker or performer may have thought

perfectly acceptable to stress the second Æ bl]. syllable [iksplika

wrote his sermons down but preached extem-

STRESS.

See also

explicate .

means `explain in de-

Explicate

tail; analyse and explore the implications of':

This series of lectures aims to explicate

Kant's critical philosophy and explore its influence on German idealism.

It is a formal

word, usually confined to intellectual contexts, and it is pretentious to use it merely as a synonym for

explain.

explicit implicit or

.

?

Explicit

means `clear;

unambiguous, stated or shown in a direct manner':

He gave them explicit instructions

so there was no question of their making a

about the content in advance: pore. Impromptu

.

He never

suggests something impro-

vised on the spur of the moment, with no prior notice: address

them

She was surprised to be asked to but

managed

a

splendid

extemporize temporize or

ize

? To

extempor-

is to act, make a speech, play music, etc.,

without preparation; to

.

temporize

(a rarer

word) is to gain time by delaying, stalling, or being evasive:

He

.

extemporized

accompaniment on the piano.

Implicit

means `implied; under-

stood although not directly expressed':

He detected an implicit criticism in her words ,

and `without reservation; unquestioning':

I have implicit faith in your organizational abilities.

ized, being unable to think of a reasonable excuse.

The two verbs should not be con-

fused.

or- in the

middle, unlike the -er

or

`large'

explicit

It is very explicit and is

or

temper

?

`widespread';

Extensive

means

extended

means

`lengthened in time or space':

search

explicit scenes of sex and violence

an

She tempor-

especially the . ◆ Note the spellings, ending of . . extensive extended . . ◆ Because is often used in phrases like: . . , some people now use the word to mean `frankly portraying . (usually) sexual material': . mistake.

im-

promptu speech.

an extended contract.

an extensive

Both adjectives

may be applied to the same noun:

extensive discussion

subjects;

an

covers a wide range of

an extended discussion

goes on for

. It would be pre- longer than usual or longer than planned. or , if exterior, external or extraneous?

not suitable for family viewing

ferable to say that is what is meant.

explicitly sexual

sexually explicit

Exter-

ior

means `on the outside; relating to the

outside':

119

.

.

The

exterior repairs.

house

needs

some

minor

Beneath his charming ex-

exult .

extension of known data and past experience:

We can extrapolate from the existing

terior he has a cold and selfish nature. External

figures and

means `outwardly visible; suitable for the

trends in mobility and birth control to produce

.

.

outside; coming from the outside; not essential':

This ointment is for external use only.

.

.

He has a few external injuries.

The

paper will be marked by the external examiners.

in twenty years' time.

of overuse.

see

see

We

try to impart our values to our children but

Let's concentrate on the main issue and ignore those extraneous points.

extinct extract

see

extricate

extricate

? Both these verbs

is more formal and specifically

.

refers to disentanglement or setting free

.

.

from a difficult situation: to extract information

ball from a thorn bush.

extraordinary

to extract a tooth

.

to extricate oneself

from a complex relationship

to extricate a

.

sual or exceptional':

an

extraordinary

is sometimes misspelt,

the most frequent mistake being the omission of the first

a.

Remember the two

elements of the word:

extrapolate

extra

plus

ordinary.

Apart from specialized math-

ematical uses,

?

Extrovert

and

in-

are terms coined by the psychologist

Jung that are now in general use.

Extroverts

.

inner selves; they are generally sociable, outgoing, and confident:

He is an extro-

vert and enjoys nothing better than a noisy, crowded party. Introverts

are primarily con-

cerned with their own mental and emo-

.

tional lives. They are withdrawn and quiet, and prefer reflection to activity:

She tends

to be an introvert and is happiest in her own company.

This word, meaning `unu-

memory for details,

or

trovert

their surroundings than with their own

have the sense of `remove' or `withdraw', but

EXTRICATE? or EXTRINSIC?

or

are people who are more concerned with

EXTANT or EXTINCT?

or

previous

Careful users, how-

extricate EXTRACT extrinsic INTRINSIC . . extrovert introvert

they are influenced by extraneous pressures.

the

ever, are aware that this word is in danger

means `from the outside;

not essential or relevant to the issue':

knowledge of

an estimate of the populations of major cities

Do not be misled by these external

details. Extraneous

our

extrapolate

is usually applied

to the estimation or prediction of unknown factors by the examination, analysis, and

The original spelling was , and this is still more frequently used than in American English. The spelling was formed by analogy with and is now standard in British English. ◆

extravert

extrovert

extrovert

introvert

exuberant

This adjective is sometimes

misspelt, a common error being the insertion of -h- after the -x-. Note also the -ant ending.

exult

see

EXALT or EXULT?

facË.ade in:

F This word, which means `front', as

the palace's ornate fac Ëade,

with a cedilla under the

c

is usually spelt

in British Eng-

lish.

The spelling is sometimes anglicized by dropping the cedilla, but the French pronunciation [faÆ ] is retained.

◆

sahd

face face up to or

? Some users object to

◆ Facilitate

is largely restricted to formal contexts.

facility faculty or

? These two words are

sometimes confused in the sense of `ability'. Facility

is ease or skill that is often gained

from familiarity;

faculty

.

is more likely to

.

denote a natural power or aptitude: facility for public speaking

a

a faculty for

understanding complex scientific concepts.

Both words have additional meanings. A is a division of a college or university: . . there is a slight difference in sense and usage A provides the means for doing somebetween the two: thing; with this sense, referring to buildings or suggests a greater degree of effort and equipment, the word is usually found in the plural: courage than . . . ◆ The verb often requires qualification: . . . .. or as sy. , on the other The extended use of hand, conveys the subject's feelings of resignation, nonyms for `premises', `factory', or `shop' (or, euphemistically, for `toilet' ± as in: . ` determination,etc.,byimplication: . ' ± or `hospital') is avoided by careful . users. facetious This word, which means `jocu-

face up to

as an unnecessary extension of the

◆

faculty

the faculty

verb face, meaning `confront' or `accept', but

of arts

to face up to one's punish-

facility

ment

to face one's punishment

face

He

faced death with equanimity

They face the

conference facilities

sports facilities facility

future with hope/fear Face up to

facilities

May I use

I will just have

your facilities?

to face up to the prospect of redundancy

lar' or `flippant', as in: sometimes misspelt.

.

a facetious remark,

is

It is worth remembering that is one of the few words in the English language in which each vowel appears just once and in alphabetical order.

◆

facia facile

facetious

see

facilities

for the visually impaired

FASCIA.

factious fractious or

sometimes confused.

? These adjectives are

Factious

factious

rancour

.

in

voice.

her

.

means `show-

ing or caused by faction or dissension':

the

Fractious

is

used more frequently and means `irritable' or `unruly':

tired and fractious children.

factitious fictitious or

? Both these adjec-

tives mean `not genuine', but they differ in

In the sense of `easily achieved' or

`superficial', the adjective

facile

used in a derogatory manner:

is often

facile prose

usage and application and should not be confused.

Factitious,

which is largely con-

is produced with little effort and lacks

created' or `unnatural':

substance; a

siasm. Fictitious

facile argument

is glib and lacks

sound reasoning.

.

fined to formal contexts, means `artificially

.

factitious enthu-

means `false' or `invented':

The usual pronunciation of is [ Åõl], rhym- See also FICTIONAL or FICTITIOUS? ing with ; the alternative pronunciation [ il], factor A is a contributory element, rhyming with , is an accepted but rarer variant. condition, or cause; many people object to a fictitious address.

◆

facile

fas

mile

facilitate

fas

mill

The verb

facilitate

.

means `make

easier'; it should not be used as a synonym

.

for `help' or `assist': cilitated our

task.

factor

.

its frequent use as a synonym for `point', `thing', `fact', `event', `constituent', etc.:

A

His cooperation fa-

rise in the cost of raw materials and a fall in

[not

demand were important factors in the com-

We

were helped

facilitated] in our task by the information he

pany's collapse.

gave us.

relevant points

.

[not

We must discuss all the factors].

faculty FACILITY Fahrenheit see

121 or

FACULTY?

Note the spelling of this word,

See also

HEIT?

fail

CELSIUS, CENTIGRADE

or

FAHREN-

.

Some people dislike the frequent use of

the verb

fail

as a simple negative:

Those

who fail to pay the tax will be imprisoned.

The principal meaning of

fail

. The anglicized pronunciation is [fayt aÆ plee]. plis

which should always begin with a capital letter.

fare

is `try un-

fallible fallacious or

kom-

? These two adjec-

tives, both of which are formal, are sometimes confused.

means `capable of

Fallible

making an error' or `imperfect'; All human beings are fallible. reasoning.

The adjective

applied to people;

.

fallacious

.

means `containing an error' or `illogical':

fallacious

may be

fallible

is applied only

fallacious

to abstract nouns.

Both adjectives are derived from the Latin verb `to deceive'. Note the spelling of and thing that is deliberately not done. its opposite , particularly the ending. ◆ This misuse of can lead to ambiguity: . syllable is pronounced [fal-], to rhyme with may mean that the The, first not [fawl-], as in . driver applied the brakes ineffectively, or that he or she made no attempt to stop. false friends are words in successfully (to do something)': the verb

should not be used with reference to somefail

or

?

means `not clear' or

Faint

derived from the verb

.

feign,

refers to

an action or movement intended to distract

.

On hearing the news she fell to

the floor in a faint.

The boxer made a feint

with his left fist then struck with his right.

The confusion between these two words may be due to the use of by printers and stationers to denote the fine lines on ruled paper. In this sense either spelling is acceptable, being by far the more frequent.

◆

feint

feint

fair

or

ible

fall

False

referring to a brief loss of consciousness.

or mislead:

fallible

infallible

pal

`not strong'; it is also a noun or verb Feint,

fallere

The

driver of the car failed to stop

faint feint

◆

fare

? These words, which are

pronounced the same, are occasionally confused. The noun

fair

variously refers to an

.

event with amusements, sideshows, stalls, etc. or a commercial exhibition: the week the fair came to town.

be confused with

fare,

That was

It should not

which means `a fee

. .

different

languages

friends

that

appear

amples of potentially confusable pairs include the English the Italian assist

gusto

gusto

(`enthusiasm') and

(`taste') and the English

(`to help') and the French

,

or

? All three

nouns are formal and are derived from the adjective

false,

meaning `untrue', `not gen-

uine', or `disloyal'.

Falsehood

and

.

This restaurant

offers the usual fare.

fait accompli

A

fait accompli

.

is something

that has already been done and that therefore cannot be changed:

She was afraid he

might not agree to her selling the car, so she decided to present him with a fait accompli

[i.e. She did not tell him until she had sold the car].

A

falsehood

deception.

is a lie; a

Falseness

falsity

faits accom-

is an act of

may be used in all three

sense of `disloyalty':

.

the falseness of his

statement/name/behaviour.

fantastic

The use of

fantastic

as a synonym

.

for `excellent' or `very great' is best re-

.

fantastic wealth.

a fantastic

, related to the noun , originally meant `fanciful' or `unreal': . . The word should be used with care, however, even in these senses, to avoid misinterpretation through association with its informal usage.

◆ Fantastic

fantasy

a fantastic tale

FAQ NETSPEAK Far East see

.

The countries of East Asia and

South-East Asia were formerly known as the

Far East,

but this term is now consid-

Of French origin, the phrase is sometimes writ- are the preferred terms.and ten or printed in italics in English texts. The plural is formed by adding to both words: . fare see FAIR or FARE? s

the

senses, occurring most frequently in the

ered outdated.

◆

are

difference between truth and falsehood/falsity.

holiday

The driver carried

.

falsity

largely restricted to the first sense:

stricted to informal contexts:

and climbed on the coach.

(`to

falsehood falseness falsity

food or entertainment':

just two fares that evening.

assister

attend').

for travel', `passenger in a taxi', or `choice of He paid the fare

similar

but in fact have different meanings. Ex-

East Asia

South-East Asia

farther

farther farthest further furthest ,

,

or

122 ? In

the sense of `more (or most) distant or

COMPARATIVE

advanced', as the

LATIVE of further

far, farther

and

farthest

.

farther/further from Bristol.

SUPER-

and

.

is interchangeable with

with furthest:

from

Manchester

London is

than

it

is

Which of the three can run

◆ Some users restrict and to physical distance, using and for more . figurative senses: . . In the sense of `additional', is more . acceptable than :. . is also preferred in cer. tainsetphrases,suchas: . . ... is not interchangeable with when the latter is a verb, meaning `advance' or `promote': . . the farthest/furthest?

farther

farthest

further

furthest

the farthest country

further

from the truth

further

farther

further supplies

further questions Further

further education

further notice Farther

fascia

until

Further to your letter of

further

to further one's career

The noun

may be spelt

facia,

overtake slower cars and a is one on which the horses race at high speeds.

fast horse-racing track

fast-moving

This expression is often used

.

in commerce and advertising to describe products that sell quickly: world's

most

marketers

(Sunday

successful

of

one

of

manufacturers

fast-moving

consumer

the and

goods

Times).

◆ is also used in similar contexts to create the impression of an enterprising up-todate company: . . Although these usages are widely accepted in the business world, they may not be understood by lay people and are best avoided in more general contexts. Fast-moving

one of Britain's most innovative

and fast-moving building societies

fast track FAST LANE fatal fateful see

or

?

.

death or ruin';

.

important':

. means `causing

Fatal

fateful

.

.

means `decisively

a fatal illness

a fatal mistake

that fateful night.

Both words are related to : originally meant `decreed by fate'; means `controlled by fate'. from which the word is derived. The word Æ ]. In its extended sense of `having momentous and is pronounced [ sha disastrous fascinate This word, meaning `attract and able with effects',: . is sometimes interchange. capture the interest of', as in should not be used in this sense if there is a , is sometimes . possibility of misinterpretation: misspelt. The most frequent error is the may change one's life; may end in confusion of the - -. ◆ The term originates from the Latin `to death. It is also worth remembering that the consebewitch'. quences of something can be good, fast-forward Some people dislike the use although the word is very rarely used in this sense. fascia

without the -s-, but many careful users prefer

fascia,

their fateful meeting

◆

the spelling of the Latin noun

fate fatal

fateful

fay

fatal

fateful

fascinating tales

a fatal/fateful decision Fatal

about her experiences in China

a fateful journey

a fatal journey

sc

fascinare

fateful

of the word

fast-forward,

fate . feÃte .

normally applied

to video recorders, cassette players, etc., as a verb and adjective in figurative contexts:

.

Fast-forwarding through Times)

the

years

(Sunday

Fast-forward reviewers dependent

on the index

fast lane

(The

The

Guardian).

fast lane

(or

fast track)

in the fast lane

or

in the

or who are described as

fast-track

have great ambitions, are involved

.

fast-lane

or

in a lot of intense hectic activity, and are promoted rapidly:

He tells Carol Price how

.

he copes with the critics, the fame, the fortune and a career in the fast lane (TV Times). track executives.

fast-

These fashionable modern

expressions should not be overused and are best restricted to informal contexts.

◆

The expressions derive from literal senses: the of a motorway is for drivers who want to

fast lane

means `destiny' or

Fate

.

à te, fe

which

denotes a celebration or fund-raising festivity:

is the

fast track

?

She met her fate without flinching.

It should not be confused with

à te. fe

quickest and most competitive way to success. People who are

or

`death':

There were hundreds of people at the

See also

◆

FEÃTE.

Note that both words are pronounced [fayt].

faun fawn or

? A

rounded by fauns.

with

fawn,

.

faun

classical mythology:

is a wood spirit of

The goddess was sur-

.

It should not be confused

denoting a young deer:

The

Note that both words are pronounced [fawn].

hunter killed a fawn with his first arrow.

◆

faux

The French word

faux,

meaning

`artificial' or `imitation', has appeared with

.

increasing frequency over recent years in

.

discussions of contemporary fashion: marble

faux pearls.

faux

Å ]. It is pronounced [fo

faux pas

A

is a social blunder:

faux pas

123 .

of being done':

.

feel The committee decided that

the project was feasible.

◆ In informal usage, now shares the , describing something Of French origin, the phrase literally means `false double meaning of step'. It is occasionally written or printed in italics in that can be done or something that might happen, English texts. The plural form is the same as the and is therefore equally ambiguous: . singular: . . . The anglicized pronunciation Note the spelling of the word: ends in is [foÅ ]. , not . fawn see FAUN or FAWN? Inviting her ex-husband to the party was a faux pas.

feasible

◆

possible

Raising

prices is a feasible solution to the problem

faux pas

feasible

pah

-ible

fax

The word

fax,

short for

facsimile

(a

system for transmitting documents telegraphically), has established itself in the English language as a noun (referring to the system of transmission, the machine used

.

. .

for transmission, or the document transmitted) and as a verb:

by fax

.

a combined

feature

where

-able

The verb

have,

feature

include,

is best avoided

.

display,

may be more appropriate:

appear,

etc.,

a new leisure

centre, featuring squash and badminton courts and an indoor swimming pool with flumes.

.

It

is principally used in the entertainment world:

The concert will feature such stars

as Britney Spears and Whitney Houston.

Both as a noun and as a verb, should be reserved for what is prominent, distinctive, char. This abbreviation is . acteristic, or important: acceptable in most contexts. [not ] ◆ is also used as a respelling of the plural noun . , as in the trade names and . This usage is less acceptable and may be confused February This month name causes prowith the sense of `facsimile'; it is best restricted to blems of spelling and pronunciation, the most frequent being the omission of the informal contexts. . faze or phase? . is a verb, meaning ◆firstThe full pronunciation of the word is [ rooaÆri]. `worry' or `daunt': In informal speech, however, the simplified pro. is a noun, meaning `stage': nunciation [ raÆri] and [ ewri] are often heard. . . The first of these is more acceptable than the , or second.

.

fax, photocopier, and answering machine

number

a fax from head office

fax

◆

feature

I faxed the

details to the agency

The spiral staircase is a

feature of the house, which also has

Fax

facts

Ceefax

Filofax

features

central heating, double glazing, and fitted carpets

r

Faze

feb

She was not fazed by the

accusation Phase

feb

the next phase of the development

through a rebellious phase in his early teens

a verb, often found in the phrasal forms

.

phase in/out,

gradually':

meaning `introduce/withdraw The benefit will be phased out

over a period of five years.

is regarded by some people as an Americanism and is best restricted to informal contexts. Compare the spelling of , particularly the and , with that of , which is spelt exactly as it sounds. ◆ Faze

phase

ph

s

faze

fearful fearsome or

? Both adjectives can

mean `frightened' or `frightening', but ful

.

fear-

is the more frequent and principally

.

used in the sense of `frightened':

fearful of

a fearsome sight.

feedback

The use of

term to its scientific or technical usage.

In science andtechnology, isthe return of part of the output of a system, device, or process to its input, the most familiar example being the high-pitched whistle heard when the output from a loudspeaker returns to the microphone. Both in scientific contexts and in general usage, often leads to modification: .

◆

feedback

feedback

We must

try to get as much feedback as possible from the public to see if our ideas are being successfully put Feedback from customers helped us choose

the most practical design

feasible

The use of

fearsome weather

feasible

to mean `prob-

as a syno-

by some people, who prefer to restrict the

over

I had a fearful cold

feedback

nym for `response' or `reaction' is disliked

Either adjective may also be used in informal .. contexts as an intensifier, meaning `extremely bad': . .. . feel Some what might happen

◆

feb

He went

noun

feel

.

people dislike the use of the

in the sense of `impression' or

able', `likely', or `plausible' is avoided by

`quality', as in the phrases

many careful users, especially in formal

it, a different feel about it,

contexts, where the word is restricted to

strange feel about it.

its original sense of `practicable' or `capable

◆

.

a nice feel about

etc.:

The car has a

Such expressions may be more succinctly

feel-good factor worded by using the verb .

feel

strange

feel-good factor refers

factor

to

The

a

:.

124 The car feels

phrase

feeling

of

feel-good

optimism

amongst the general public about the state

.

of the nation, for example the economic situation:

The `feel-good factor' ± as it has

come to be known ± has plummeted since the time

of

graph).

the

General

Election

(Daily

Tele-

The phrase is disliked by some

people and should not be overused.

feet feint fellow-

FOOT or FEET? see FAINT or FEINT?

see

The word

.

fellow

derless): .

She's/It's a beautiful vessel.

very smoothly.

may be combined

with other nouns to denote a person in the

.

She corners

is occasionally confused with , which refers to the movement or belief ( ) that women should have the same rights, opportunities, etc., as men, particularly in economic, political, and social fields. A is a person who supports feminism, especially someone who is actively trying to bring about change: . . For names of female animals see table at ANIMALS. For female, male, and neutral (gender-inclusive) terms for people see table at NON-SEXIST TERMS. Feminine

feminist

feminism

feminist

She

regards herself as a staunch feminist

ferment foment or

.

? These two verbs are

virtually interchangeable in the sense of `stir up':

to foment/ferment trouble.

This figurative sense is now the most frequent people with whom one is travelling; . use of ; in medical contexts it retains its are people who work in the same original meaning of `bathe or apply warmth to'. place. The two words are sometimes hyThe principal meaning of , however, is phenated in British English: . `undergo fermentation', referring to the chemical . . reaction involved in the formation of alcohol. Its See also HYPHEN 2. figurative usage is an extension of this sense. ◆A is someone who sympathizes Confusion may be caused by the identical prowith the aims of a political party (especially the nunciation of the two words [feÆ ]; they may be Communist Party), but is not actually a member of more clearly distinguished, if necessary, by using it. the variant pronunciation of [foÅ ]. same category:

are the

fellow passengers

◆

fellow

foment

workers

ferment

fellow-stu-

dents

fellow-sufferers

fellow-traveller

ment

female feminine or

? The adjective

MALE: .

female

refers to the sex of a person, animal, or

.

plant; it is the opposite of giraffe

a female

female reproductive cells. Feminine

is

applied only to people (or their attributes)

MASCULINE: .

or to words (see

GENDER); it is the opposite of

feminine charms.

With reference to people, is used only of the childbearing sex; it is used to distinguish women or girls from men or boys but has no further connotations: . . Care should be taken, however, in using the term in certain contexts, as it may be considered denigrating or condescending. In such cases it may be better to use instead: . See also WOMAN. , on the other hand, may be used of both sexes; it refers to characteristics, qualities, etc., that are considered typical of women or are traditionally associated with women: . . . Note that some inanimate objects are conventionally considered feminine, among them ships and cars (although an official decision was taken in 2002 to the effect that ships were henceforth to be treated as gen◆

female

There are more female students

than male students at the college

female

woman

a woman doctor.

Feminine

a feminine

hairstyle

a feminine voice

foment

feÃte

ment

This word, used as a noun or verb, is

usually spelt with a circumflex accent over the first

in British English.

The word may be pronounced to rhyme with or , the first of these being the more frequent. e

◆

gate

get

See also

fetid

or

FATE or FETE?

foetid

? Both spellings of this

adjective, which describes something that has a very unpleasant smell, are acceptable. The spelling

fetid

is preferred in British

English and is standard in American English. See also

-AE- and -OE-.

The first syllable of may be pronounced with a short [ id] or with a long [ tid]; is usually pronounced [ tid]. ◆

fetid

e fet

fetus few

e fee

foetid

fee

see

FOETUS or FETUS?

The difference between

few

and

a few

is one of expectation or attitude rather than

.

.

number; both expressions mean `some, but not many':

They brought few books.

brought a few books.

◆

They

The first of these sentences suggests that more

125 books were expected; the second, that no books were expected. The actual number of books may be the same in both cases. has negative force, contrasting with ; has positive force, contrasting with : . .. . The same principles may be applied to and :. .. . For the distinction between ( ) and ( ) see FEWER or LESS? Few

many

a few

none

have many acquaintances but few friends

I

There

are no pears left, but there are a few apples little

a little

I added little salt to the soup

I added a

little salt to the soup

a few

fewer less or

few,

?

Fewer,

the comparative of

means `a smaller number of';

comparative

of

.

little,

means

amount or quantity of': unemployment.

(or

fewer

and

.

a little

less

few)

(or

`a

less,

.

the

smaller

fewer cars

less

The general rule is that is used with plural nouns

little)

.

with singular nouns,

.

.

whether the nouns are concrete or abstract:

.

fewer pleasures

.

few chairs

less wood

less noise.

The use of in place of occurs widely in informal speech and also, occasionally, in more formal contexts: . (Post Office advertisement, ). Many people find this usage unacceptable in formal speech and writing. The same principles apply to the phrases . and :. . However, plural units of measurement, time, money, etc., are regarded as singular in such cases: . .. . little hope

◆

fewer noises

less

fewer

Please remember, on Tuesdays

and Thursdays there are less queues in the afternoon

The Guardian

fewer

than

less than

fewer than four people

less

than a pint of milk

It took less than ten

seconds

He earned less than £50 last week

ff. CF. FF. fiance fianceÂe see

or

or

?

? An engaged woman's

future husband is her

Â; fiance

an engaged

finite verb

[of Tom Sharpe's

]

Porterhouse Blue he reassured

dons that the college was fictitious and that no

( ). However, is more frequently used with direct reference to stories, novels, plays, etc.; is preferred for deliberate justification that is intended to deceive: . . . individual tutors had been singled out

Sunday

Times

fictional

ficti-

tious

Fagin, Scrooge and other

fictional characters

this fictitious character you

claim to have met in the park

See also

fifth

FACTITIOUS or FICTITIOUS?

The second

in this word is some-

f

times not sounded in speech.

The pronunciations [fifth] and [fith] are both acceptable, but some people object to the omission of the second .

◆

figurative

f

describes

Figurative

.

That lad's a real devil. gets

She's a tiger when she

Figurative

going.

.

language

that is metaphorical rather than literal: language

can

be

highly effective in creative writing and as a tool in colloquial speech, but it should be used only sparingly and with care in formal contexts. See also

fill in

or

METAPHORS.

fill out

? In British English,

application forms and other official docu-

.

ments are usually out:

filled in

rather than

filled

Fill in this form and give it to the

receptionist.

◆ is the more frequent verb in American English and is disliked by some British users for this reason alone. It is also considered less appropriate ± the blank spaces are to be , like holes, to make the form complete. suggests enlargement or extension. The verb is also occasionally used for this purpose. Fill out

filled in

Fill out

fill up

. finalize The verb is best avoided The feminine form is sometimes misspelt, the where , etc., second being dropped in error. would be adequate or more appropriate: . Unlike some other words of French origin, [not and are always written with an acute ] . accent over the (first) . word does, however, serve a useful purpose The pronunciation of both words is identical in◆ The some official contexts, combining the senses of [fi say]. `reach agreement on' and `put into final form': . fictional or fictitious? means `of . fiction' or `not factual'; means man's future wife is his

Âe fiance

finalize

◆

complete, finish, conclude, settle

e

fianceÂ

fianceÂe

The preparatory work must be finished finalized

e

as soon as possible

on

The committee met to finalize arrangements for

Fictional

.

.

`false' or `not genuine': his fictional works

fictitious companion.

.

the prime minister's visit

fictitious

.

a fictional detective

a fictitious address

her

The two words are largely interchangeable in the sense of `imaginary', `invented', or `not real': .

◆

finished finite verb

see

DONE or FINISHED?

A

finite verb

is a verb in any of

the forms that change according to the person or number of the subject or accord-

fiord .

.

ing to the tense in which the verb is used. She helps. They

.

The train stopped. leaving.

were

.

He

I am cold.

.

lost his key.

has

.

The following verbs are not finite: to school leave.

covered

126 . whose surname precedes their other names (Hun. garians or the Chinese, for example). The same

with dew

going

I want to

first name

Given name

baptismal name

fiord fjord or

problem may occur with the use of . is the preferred expression in American English. The term is occasionally used in British English, but like , it is inapplicable to non-Christians.

? Both spellings of this word

Christian name

Derived from the Old Norse , the word is fish or fishes? The plural of is ; usually applied to the narrow inlets of the sea is used in a wider range of contexts along the Scandinavian coastline. , the Nor- than the alternative form: . wegian spelling of the word, is preferred by some .. users. .. fireman or firewoman? see NON-SEXIST ◆ Considered as a food item, usually remains TERMS. in the singular: . first or firstly? may be used in place . of the adverb when enumerating a list: The plural form is most frequently found . in technical contexts, often with reference to individual groups or species: . . ( ). ◆ The use of , in fix or repair? Both these verbs are used in accordance with a former convention that rejected the sense of `mend', being more the word , remains acceptable and is still formal than : . favoured by some users. Others, however, find . this usage inconsistent, preferring or , accord- ◆ The. verb has a number of other meanings, ing to the context. should not be substituted for in any of principally `make firm' or `fasten'. its other adverbial uses: . [not ] fjord see FIORD or FJORD? flaccid The formal adjective , mean.. [not ], ing soft and limp, may be pronounced . are acceptable.

◆

fjoÈrthr

fish

fishes

fish

Fjord

Fish live in

water and breathe through their gills are five fish in the pond

There

Dace, bream, roach,

and burbot are all freshwater fishes/fish.

fish

Fish is more expensive than some

cuts of meat

Firstly

fishes

first

There are three good reasons for not buying

the house: firstly, it is outside our price range;

The major division in

secondly, it is too close to the railway; thirdly,

this group is between jawless and jawed fishes Longman Illustrated Animal Encyclopedia

the garden is too small

first . . . secondly . . . thirdly

repair

firstly

fix

first . . . second

. . . third

He was ordered to repair the damaged

boat

firstly . . . secondly . . . thirdly

Firstly

yet?

Have you fixed the radio

fix

first

When he first

firstly

came to this country, he could hardly speak any English

Janet came in first

firstly

flaccid

followed

by the others

first name Christian name forename given name baptismal name ,

,

or

,

? All

these expressions are used to denote the name or names borne in addition to one's surname; in British English replacing

.

Christian name

quent choice:

first name

is

as the most fre-

a dictionary of first names.

[flaksid] or [flasid]. The first pronunciation is more widely accepted than the second.

flagrant flagship

see

BLATANT or FLAGRANT?

The noun

flagship,

which denotes

the ship that carries the commander of a fleet, is increasingly used in figurative con-

with reference to the most important The principal objection to is that texts of a group of products, projects, services, it is inapplicable, and possibly offensive, to non- etc.: . Christians. For this reason the expression is gen. erally avoided on official forms. It remains in regularuse,however,ininformalcontexts: . means `a . flair or flare? The noun The term may lead to confusion natural aptitude or instinct'; is a noun among people who bear more than one such or verb referring to a sudden burst of . flame: . name: . . . is widely used on official forms but is ◆ The two words are sometimes confused, though rarely heard in informal speech. It is not, however, not always with the humorous effect of an adverquoted by the ideal solution, being inappropriate for people tisement from the

◆

Christian name

Education policy is the Labour party's

flagship.

We never

The chain's flagship store is located

in a fashionable quarter of San Francisco.

address our teachers by their Christian names

flair

first name

flare

My first name is Leonard but I prefer

to be called by my middle name, Mark

a flair for cookery

the flare of

the torch

Forename

Gloucestershire Echo

`Peterborough' in the

Daily Telegraph

:.

127 Chef/

Cook. Really talented person with flare required

. Both words have additional senses: is an informal synonym for `stylishness'; a is a light signal used especially at sea. To may also mean `to become wider': . .

at Burlington Court Hotel, experience essential flair

flare

flare

flak

a flared skirt

The use of

flak

in the sense of `heavy

flee fly or

.

flounder

town.

They have fled.

The verb

.

flee

You must flee the

I fled from the danger.

.

is also occasionally used in this

fly

sense in literary contexts: town,

.

? The rather literary verb

means `run away (from)':

You must fly the

but is more frequently found in its

.

.

principal sense of `(cause to) move through the air':

.

Most birds can fly.

were flying a kite.

The children

We flew to Paris.

Note the potential ambiguity of the last example, which can mean `We travelled to Paris by air' or `We ran away to Paris', although the second . is far less likely. ◆ The principal meaning of is `antiaircraft meaning Both verbs are irregular: is the past tense fire'; of German origin, the word is an acronym and past participle of ; and are the of (flyer) (defence) past tense and past participle, respectively, of . (guns). A is also an insect, but the name of the The spelling , an anglicized variant, is also that sounds like is spelt , with a finalinsect -. occasionally used.

.

adverse criticism or opposition' is best restricted to informal contexts:

Civil-service

◆

bureaucrats come in for a lot of flak from the general public

flak

Flieger

fled

Abwehr

flee flew

Kanonen

fly

fly

flack

flaming

With the advent of electronic

communication, the word

flaming

has ac-

quired a new meaning beside `being on fire'. To users of electronic mail, it now

.

refers also to the sending or receipt of a mass of insulting e-mail:

Flaming is a

phenomenon that can cause its victims con-

flammable INFLAMMABLE flare FLAIR FLARE flaunt flout see

or

or

?

Flaunt

.

.

means `show off' or flout

.

means `treat to flaunt

◆ The use of in place of is avoided by careful users in all contexts, but the confusion occurs with some frequency: . [of the laws on Sunday trading] . . . (Jubilee Centre leaflet). This confusion may be due to the sense of openness that is conveyed by both verbs: the open disregard shown by one who a law may be seen as an open display, or , of contempt. flout

If Christians are

to campaign against total deregulation

they must be seen

to obey, and not flaunt, the present law

flouts

flaunting

flavour of the month of the month

.

fleshy

?

Fleshly

refers to the

body as opposed to the spirit;

.

.

refers

fleshy

.

to the flesh of a person, animal, fruit, or plant:

fleshly desires

thighs. Fleshly

of

fleshy,

fleshly delights

fleshy

is occasionally used in place

but some users prefer to maintain

the distinction between the two adjectives.

flier flyer as

to flout the rules.

flaunt

or

a

? The spellings

flier

and

flyer

.

or thing that flies' and in such compounds

with contempt' or `disregard': one's wealth

fleshly

flea

are interchangeable in the sense of `person

?

`display ostentatiously';

flee

or

siderable distress.

see

flown

The phrase

flavour

is applied to something or

high-flier/high-flyer.

floor storey or

? Both these nouns are used

to denote a particular level of a building or the rooms on this level. The word

floor

is

more frequently used with reference to the interior of the building,

.

storey

on the fourth floor.

.

with refer-

ence to the exterior or structure.

He lives

The new office block will

be ten storeys high.

In American English the of a building is at ground level. In British English this is known as the , the being the floor above (called the in American English). This difference in usage does not apply to the word .

◆

first floor

ground floor

first floor

second floor

storey

See also

STOREY or STORY?

flounder founder or

? To

flounder

is to

struggle, move with difficulty, or act clum-

someone that is popular or fashionable for a

sily; to

short time:

collapse, or sink. Both verbs can be used

The new Secretary of State for

founder

.

is to fail, break down,

Education has opposed increases in fees and is

literally or figuratively:

likely to be flavour of the month at colleges

the mud.

and

universities

across

the

country.

The

speech.

.

.

They floundered in

She floundered on to the end of the

.

The project foundered through lack

phrase is often used in a derogatory man-

of

ner. Its overuse should be avoided.

harbour entrance.

support.

The

ship

foundered

at

the

flout

128

◆ The two verbs are often confused, especially in figurative contexts, being used in place of : . [of the Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Games] ( ). The two words are not unrelated: is probably a blend of and . itself is ultimately derived from the Latin `bottom'. flounder

founder

future Games could flounder unless £2.5

million is raised Bucks Advertiser

flounder

founder

blunder Founder

fundus

flout flu

FLAUNT or FLOUT?

see

The word

influenza

flu

technical contexts. The final of the noun is never doubled before the plural ending. See also SPELLING 1. The noun is often used in the figurative sense of `centre of attention or activity': . . It is better avoided, however, where , etc., would be more appropriate: . [not ] . s

focus

The

proposed route for the new bypass is the focus of today's meeting

emphasis, object, point

the emphasis

foetid FETID foetus fetus . see

She's off work with (the) flu.

tends to be restricted to very formal

or

or

± is more frequent in general and influenza:

focus

on unemployment in the Labour Party's manifesto

± the shortened form of

some technical contexts than

focus

FOETID?

? There are two possible

spellings for this word. The first is more frequent in British English, and the second

contexts. spelling in scientific contexts: . . See also ABBREVIATIONS; APOSTROPHE. should not be confused with the noun , ◆ The distinction between and is in which denotes a shaft or pipe in a chimney or fact spurious, as there is no etymological basis for organ. ( was once a variant spelling of , but the spelling, the origin of the word lying in the is no longer used for this purpose.) Latin . has, nonetheless, been in widespread use since the 16th century. fluorescent This word, which is usually ◆ Influenza

in American English.

Fetus

is the standard

The fetus is

no longer viable

Flu

flue

Flue

foetus

flu

fetus

-oe-

fetus Foetus

See also

-AE- and -OE.

foist FOB FOIST Note the order of the vowels in the first syllable folk (as in ), the - - combination, and the ending. . . . flush BLUSH FLUSH fly FLEE FLY The word is chiefly used adjectivally, in the sense . . of`traditional': . flyer FLIER FLYER . Like , the noun is used with a plural fob foist verb: . .

applied to light fittings, colours, paint, etc.,

see

may cause spelling problems.

◆

fluoride

sc

ent

or

?

The use of the noun

folk

as a synonym

for `people' is generally considered to have slightly old-fashioned and sentimental as-

see

or

see

or

see

folk music

? Both these verbs may refer to

.

old folk

a name

◆

?

the disposal of something unwanted or worthless:

country folk

that will be familiar to many folk.

?

or

or

sociations:

?

.

He fobbed the damaged toys

off on Christmas shoppers.

She always foists

people

folk dance

folklore

folk

Poor folk often dream of a life of luxury

, the plural form of the word, is largely restricted to informal contexts, in the sense of `relatives': . or `people in general': . Folks

My folks are coming here tomorrow

Theinsertionof after : . , on the model following The preposition may of , is disliked and avoided by many be confused with the present participle; it is careful users. best avoided where or The verb may also be used in the sense of would be adequate or less ambiguous: . `appease' or `put off': . [not ] . . may not be substituted for in this sense. ◆ may serve a useful prepositional pur. poseinthedualsenseof`afterandasaresultof': focus The doubling of the final of the verb before a suffix beginning with a . vowel is optional. Most dictionaries give is also used as an adjective meaning , , , etc., as the pre. `next' or `about to be mentioned': ferred spellings, with , , . . , etc., as acceptable variants. ◆ The noun has two plural forms, and [ si], the latter being largely restricted to follows, as see AS FOLLOWS.

the boring jobs on her assistant.

◆

off

foist

She always foists

That's all, folks!

the boring jobs off on her assistant

following

fob off on

after

because

of

fob off

They fobbed us off with

the usual excuses Foist

They went home after

following

the

party

fob

Following

s

Following the burglary we fitted additional locks to

focus

focused

the doors and windows

focuses

Following

focusing

focussed

focusses

focussing

focus

foci foÅ

focuses

I left the

following morning required . . .

The following tools will be

foment FERMENT foot feet see

or

129

? The plural of

.

.

measurement, may be

.

foot fence long

FOMENT?

or

five feet tall

foot

foot,

or

ever spelling is used, is stressed on the first

.

as a unit of

feet:

a six-

nine feet eight inches

a pane of glass measuring two foot six

by four foot three.

In compound adjectives that precede the noun, thesingularform isalwaysused: . . The same convention applies not only to other units of measurement but also to such expressions as ,etc., and to compound nouns such as , etc. For measurements in feet and inches, is preferred in more formal and precise contexts: . . In informal usage the word is omitted and the plural form is more frequent: . . In such expressions as or , the same distinctions of formality and precision may be applied: . .. . For larger measurements, such as the height of a mountain, is preferred in all contexts. ◆

foot

a three-foot

rod

a two-car family, four-star petrol, a five-year-old

child

trouser

leg, toothbrush

feet

seven feet four inches inches

foot

seven foot four

three feet high

ten foot

wide

The wall must be exactly

three feet high

The room is about ten foot wide

feet

for BECAUSE for- foresee

or

,

AS, FOR or SINCE?

? The prefix

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

usually in-

syllable [forbair].

forbid prohibit or

? Both these verbs are

used in the sense of `refuse to allow',

.

prohibit bid:

.

being more authoritative than

I forbid you to visit her.

prohibit us from visiting her.

for-

The rules

Note the difference in construction: is followed by an infinitive with ; is followed by an form with . ◆

forbid

to prohibit

-ing

See also

forceful forcible or

.

from

FORBADE.

ing great force';

?

Forceful

forcible

.

means `hav-

means `using force': forcible expulsion.

Something that is may be contrasted with something that has little force; something that is may be contrasted with something that uses no force. In many contexts, in the sense of `powerful' or `effective', the two words are virtuallyinterchangeable: . . (Some people may interpret a reminder as one that is powerfully presented, a reminder as one that has a powerful effect.) should not be replaced by where physical force or violence is involved or implied: . . a forceful personality

◆

forceful

forcible

a forceful/forcible reminder forceful

forcible

Forcible

forceful

forcible entry

fore- FOR- FORE. . . forebear FORBEAR FOREBEAR forefather foremother NON-SEXIST Confusion of these two prefixes may lead to TERMS spelling mistakes. forego FORGO FOREGO FORBEAR FOREBEAR FORGO foregone FOREGO forbade . for-

dicates prohibition (forbid), abstention (forbear),

or neglect (forsake). The prefix

means `before':

foreboding

see

fore-

?

see

forecast

or

?

or

forefather.

? see

.

◆

See also

or

?;

see

or

?

forbid,

or

or

Foregone,

?

meaning

`already

settled' or `predetermined', is usually en-

Forbade, the past tense of the verb Æ rbad] or [fo Æ rmay be pronounced [fo

countered in the phrase

foregone conclusion:

Electoral defeat is a foregone conclusion.

as a noun: . The first of these pronunciations, rhyming with use rather than with , is the more frequent. , an alternative spelling of , is forehead This word is usually pronounced always pronounced [foÆr ]. [ rrid], rhyming with . ◆ The variant pronunciations [ hed] and [ rred] forbear or forebear? is the only are widely used and accepted. accepted spelling of the verb, which means Many people dislike the recent tendency to

bayd].

◆

foregone

mad

made

It's a foregone that

the party will block such action.

Forbad

forbade

bad

fo

horrid

for

Forbear

`to refrain':

.

I shall forbear from criticizing

her appearance.

The noun, meaning `ances-

tor', may be written spelling

forebear

forebear

or

forbear,

being the more frequent:

His forebears were wealthy landowners.

See also

.

the

FOR- or FORE-?

The two words are not identical in

fo

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

The

following table, on pages 130±134, lists both familiar and less familiar foreign borrowings with their language of origin in the middle column and their meaning in the right-hand column. Cross references, e.g.

AUFAIT, are also included to main entries

pronunciation: the verb is stressed on the

see

second syllable [forbair]; the noun, which-

in the

Good Word Guide.

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

130

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

ab initio ab ovo a cappella addendum aÁ deux ad hoc adieu ad infinitum adios ad lib ad nauseam ad rem aficionado agent provocateur agitprop aide-de-camp aide-meÂmoire aÁ la carte aÁ la mode al dente alfresco alma mater alter ego alumnus/alumna amanuensis amour propre ancien reÂgime angst apparatchik a priori apropos au contraire au fait au naturel au pair au revoir badinage beau monde beÃte noire bijou bona fides bon appeÂtit bonhomie bon mot bon viveur bon voyage bouquet garni

Latin Latin Italian Latin French Latin French Latin Spanish Latin Latin Latin Spanish French Russian French French French French Italian Italian Latin Latin Latin Latin French French German Russian Latin French French French French French French French French French French Latin French French French French French French

from the beginning from the beginning unaccompanied addition for two people for this purpose ( AD HOC) goodbye endlessly ( AD INFINITUM) goodbye spontaneously interminably ( AD NAUSEAM) to the point enthusiast, expert ( AFICIONADO) secret agent propaganda assistant reminder from a separately priced menu ( AÁ LA CARTE) chic lightly cooked out-of-doors a person's school or college ( ALMA MATER) other self former male/female pupil ( ALUMNUS) secretarial assistant ( AMANUENSIS) self-esteem the old system anxiety underling deductive ( A PRIORI) with regard to, appropriate, incidentally ( APROPOS) on the contrary well-informed ( AU FAIT) with nothing added live-in domestic helper goodbye humorous banter fashionable society detested or feared thing or person ( BEÃTE NOIRE) compact but elegant good faith ( BONA FIDE) enjoy your meal geniality witticism person who enjoys good living farewell mixture of herbs see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

131 bric-a-brac carpe diem carte blanche casus belli cause ceÂleÁbre caveat emptor charge d'affaires chef d'oeuvre che saraÁ saraÁ chez chutzpah ciao compos mentis contretemps cordon sanitaire coup de graÃce coup d'eÂtat creÁme de la creÁme cum laude curriculum vitae debacle de facto deÂjaÁ vu de jure denouement de rigueur diktat distingue distrait dolce vita double entendre du jour eÂclat eÂmigre eÂminence grise en bloc encore en crouÃte en famille enfant terrible en masse ennui en passant en route en suite entente cordiale entre nous ergo

French Latin French Latin French Latin French French Italian French Yiddish Italian Latin French French French French French Latin Latin French Latin French Latin French French German French French Italian French French French French French French French French French French French French French French French French French Latin

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

bits and pieces seize the moment freedom of action ( CARTE BLANCHE) cause of conflict notorious affair buyer beware diplomat below ambassador masterpiece what will be, will be at the house of audacity ( CHUTZPAH) goodbye of sound mind argument or difficulty protective barrier decisive blow ( COUP DE GRAÃCE) revolution ( COUP D'EÂTAT) the very best ( CREÁME DE LA CREÁME) with honours summary of a person's career ( CURRICULUM VITAE) fiasco in actual fact ( DE FACTO) something already seen or experienced ( DEÂJAÁ VU) by legal right ( DE JURE) final outcome ( DENOUEMENT) required by social custom ( DE RIGUEUR) order distinguished distracted the soft life phrase with a risque second meaning ( DOUBLE ENTENDRE) of the day, fashionable ( DU JOUR) success, ostentation emigrant influence behind the scenes all together ( EN BLOC) again cooked in pastry with one's family unorthodox person in a body ( EN MASSE) boredom incidentally on the way connected, adjoining bathroom and bedroom ( EN SUITE) cordial relationship between ourselves therefore see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES esprit de corps et al. ex cathedra ex gratia ex officio ex post facto extempore factotum fait accompli faux faux pas femme fatale fin de sieÁcle flambe garni gauche genre goujon gravitas habeas corpus hasta la vista haute couture haute cuisine hoi polloi hors de combat hors d'oeuvre idem imbroglio in absentia in camera incognito incommunicado in extremis in flagrante delicto ingeÂnue in loco in memoriam in situ in toto in transit in utero in vitro ipso facto je ne sais quoi jihad joie de vivre kamikaze kaput laissez-faire

French Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin French French French French French French French French French French Latin Latin Spanish French French Greek French French Latin Italian Latin Latin Latin Spanish Latin Latin French Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin French Arabic French Japanese German French

132

team spirit ( ESPRIT DE CORPS) and other people ( ET AL.) with authority as a favour, by favour ( EX GRATIA) by virtue of one's office ( EX OFFICIO) retrospective unpremeditated ( EXTEMPORE IMPROMPTU?) general employee done deed ( FAIT ACCOMPLI) artificial social blunder ( FAUX PAS) seductress end-of-the-century in flaming liquor served with a garnish awkward, clumsy style ( GENRE) strip of meat or fish seriousness ( GRAVITAS) writ to summon a person before court until we meet again high fashion high-quality cuisine common masses ( HOI POLLOI) out of action appetizer ( HORS D'OEUVRE) something already mentioned confusion, muddle ( IMBROGLIO) in the absence of a person in private under a false identity out of communication in extreme difficulty ( IN EXTREMIS) caught in the act naive young woman in place of ( IN LOCO PARENTIS) in memory of in its existing position completely ( IN TOTO) on the way in the womb in a test tube ( IN VITRO) by the fact itself indefinable quality holy war enthusiasm for living suicide, suicidal dead, defeated, broken unrestricted ( LAISSEZ-FAIRE) see

see

see

see

or

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

133 largesse leitmotiv leÁse-majeste lingua franca locum tenens macho maestro magnum opus maõÃtre d'hoÃtel malaise manÄana manque mea culpa meÂlange meÂnage meÂnage aÁ trois modus operandi modus vivendi mot juste mutatis mutandis neÂe nil desperandum noblesse oblige noli me tangere nom de plume non sequitur nouveau riche nouvelle cuisine objet d'art oeuvre opus outre panache paparazzi par excellence parvenu pas de deux passe pastiche patois peccadillo penchant per annum per capita per pro per se persona non grata

French German French Italian Latin Spanish Italian Latin French French Spanish French Latin French French French Latin Latin French Latin French Latin French Latin French Latin French French French French Latin French French Italian French French French French French French Spanish French Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

generosity basic theme disrespect common language ( LINGUA FRANCA) temporary substitute ostentatiously masculine ( MACHO) master, conductor masterpiece ( MAGNUM OPUS) headwaiter unease, debility tomorrow unsuccessful I am to blame mixture household household of three people method or procedure ( MODUS OPERANDI) compromise ( MODUS VIVENDI) appropriate word ( MOT JUSTE) with necessary changes made born ( NEÂE) never despair the obligations of nobility warning against interference pen name statement that does not follow logically from what preceded it ( NON SEQUITUR) newly rich person healthy style of cookery work of art ( OBJET D'ART) literary or artistic work work ( OPUS) unconventional flamboyance press photographers ( PAPARAZZI) beyond compare ( PAR EXCELLENCE) upstart dance for two outmoded imitation non-standard dialect minor vice ( PECCADILLO) inclination ( PENCHANT) annually ( PER ANNUM) per head ( PER CAPITA) used when signing a letter on behalf of someone else ( P.P.) in itself, as such ( PER SE) banned or excluded person see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES petit bourgeois pieÁce de reÂsistance pied-aÁ-terre plus cËa change post hoc preÂcis prima facie pro bono publico pro forma pro rata proteÂgeÂ(e) quid pro quo quod erat demonstrandum raison d'eÃtre re recherche reÂsume risque roue sangfroid savoir faire sic sic passim sine qua non smorgasbord sotto voce spiel status quo sub judice sub rosa sui generis table d'hoÃte tempus fugit terra firma teÃte-aÁ-teÃte timbre tour de force trompe l'oeil ultra vires verbatim vis-aÁ-vis viva voce volte-face weltanschauung weltschmerz wunderbar wunderkind zeitgeist

French French French French Latin French Latin Latin Latin Latin French Latin Latin French Latin French French French French French French Latin Latin Latin Swedish Italian German Latin Latin Latin Latin French Latin Latin French French French French Latin Latin French Latin French German German German German German

134

lower middle class chief attraction ( PIEÁCE DE REÂSISTANCE) temporary lodging the more things change, the more they are the same henceforth summary at first view ( PRIMA FACIE) for the public good invoice sent in advance proportionately ( PRO RATA) pupil ( PRODIGY PROTEÂGEÂ?) exchange ( QUID PRO QUO) which was to be proved motivation ( RAISON D'EÃTRE) concerning ( RE) choice, obscure summary indelicate, improper rake, debauchee composure, equanimity assurance, capability ( SAVOIR FAIRE) thus ( SIC) so throughout something essential ( SINE QUA NON) buffet under the breath chatter, sales pitch the existing state of affairs before the court in confidence in a class of its own ( SUI GENERIS) fixed price meal ( TABLE D'HOÃTE) time flies firm ground private conversation ( TEÃTE-AÁ-TEÃTE) resonance, tone feat of skill or ingenuity ( TOUR DE FORCE) optical illusion outside one's power or scope word for word in relation to ( VIS-AÁ-VIS) orally about-face world view sentimental pessimism wonderful successful young person spirit of the time see

see

see

or

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

see

135

forth

foreman forewoman NON-SEXIST or should not be used to refer to a single previously mentioned item; the TERMS be repeated or a simple pronoun, such as forename FIRST NAME CHRISTIAN NAME itemor may, may be used: . FORENAME GIVEN NAME BAPTISMAL NAME [not ] . forever forever or

? see

◆ The former

the latter

.

see

,

,

,

or

or

?

it

this

The killer left the scene of

the crime in a stolen car; the car/this

? The adverb forever may

the latter

was later found abandoned in a lay-by

Of three or more items or people, the firstmentioned should be referred to as , , or (not for the principal sense of `eternally': . ) and the last-mentioned should be referred to . . as , , etc. (not ): . . . ◆ In the sense of `continually' or `incessantly', is preferred to :. [not ] . . The use of r to mean `a very long time' is For the sake of simplicity or clarity, , best restricted to informal contexts: . etc., should be avoided if possible by restructuring . sentence or by repeating the names of the foreword or preface? Both these nouns the items or people concerned. are used to denote the statement or rebe written as a single word in all contexts, but some people prefer to use the two-word form

the first the

first-named

for ever

We shall remember her for ever

It will stay

the for-

mer

the last the last-named

Liverpool for ever!

there for ever

the first-mentioned

the latter

The secretary, the treasurer, and the chairman had

forever

for ever

He is forever

a meeting at the house of the first-named

the

former yesterday evening

changing his mind

the former,

foreve

It will take

the latter, the first-named, the last-mentioned

forever to get this carpet clean

formerly is the older of the two words and the formidable

marks that often precede or replace the

see

introduction to a book.

◆ Preface

FORMALLY or FORMERLY?

This word may be stressed on

Æ bl] or the second first syllable [ mida more frequent; some authorities suggest that a the Æ rm a Æ bl]. syllable [fo is usually written by a person other than ◆ The first of these pronunciations is the more the author of the book: . widely accepted in British English. .. See also STRESS. for

id

foreword

The foreword will be

written by a distinguished historian

Have you

read the author's preface?

FORWARD or FORWARDS?; PREFIX or

See also

PREFACE?

forgo forego

formulae formulas or

? The noun

has two accepted plural forms, and

formula

formulae

formulas.

, pronounced to rhyme with , is largely restricted to scientific contexts: . . spelling of this verb: . For other senses of , the plural form . is preferred by most users: . ◆ The verb , meaning `go before' or `pre. cede', is most frequently found in the adjectival . forms or , which have no alter. forte The noun , denoting a person's native spellings: . . strong point, may be pronounced as two or

?

Forgo

is the usual spel-

ling of the verb that means `do without' or `give up',

forego

being an accepted variant

The union will not

◆ Formulae

tree

chemical

formulae

formula

forgo the right to strike

formulas

forego

foregoing

no easy

peace formulas that will resolve the dispute

the foregoing instructions

a

forte

foregone conclusion

See also

FOR- or FORE-?; FOREGONE.

formally formerly

There

are many different formulas for success

foregone

syllables [fortay] or as a single syllable [fort].

◆ The first of these pronunciations is the more frequent of the two, although the second is closer to the French original ( is an English feminine pronunciation. means `in a formal rendering of French , meaning `strong; manner'; means `in the past': . strength'). . The two-syllable pronunciation may possibly . have been influenced by the musical term , former and latter Of two previously men- meaning `loud' or `loudly'. Pronounced [ ti] or tioned items or people, denotes [ tay], this word is of Italian origin. the first and the second: . or

? These two adverbs

are sometimes confused, being identical in

forte

Formally

fort

formerly

formally dressed

Sri Lanka, formerly called

Ceylon

forte

for

the former

the latter

On

Monday evening there will be a lecture on

for

forth fourth. or

?

.

Forth

means `forward' or

local history and a meeting of the chess club:

`out into view':

the former will be held in the main hall, the

that day forth.

latter in the lounge.

should not be confused with

She never spoke again from

He brought forth a knife. fourth,

It

which

fortuitous refers to the number four:

.

136 This was the

fourth time he had taken the test.

fortuitous fortunate or

?

Fortuitous

means

`happening by chance' or `accidental'; tunate

.

for-

.

means `having or happening by good

fourth fowl foyer

FORTH or FOURTH? see FOUL or FOWL? see

In British English this word, mean-

ing `an entrance hall or lobby in a theatre, hotel, etc.', is usually pronounced [foiay].

The pronunciations [ eÆr] and [ yay] are also acceptable, the last of these being an approxima◆A occurrence is not necessarily good, tion of the French original. but the similarity between the two words, and their frequent confusion, has led to the increasing fraction Some people dislike the use of to mean `a small part' or `a little': . acceptance of `fortunate' as a secondary meaning of . Many people object to this usage, . . which can result in ambiguity: . may be accidental, or lucky, or both. Unlike , the adjective is not ◆ A fraction is not necessarily a small part of the whole: nine-tenths is a fraction. applied to people: . To avoid possible ambiguity or misunderstand. ing, forty Note the spelling of , with the such:a .small fraction should be clearly expressed as of and omitted. . ◆ Similarly, has no . . fortune' or `lucky': fortunate child.

a fortuitous meeting

a

◆

foi

fwah

fortuitous

a

fraction

fortuitous

We flew there in a fraction of the time it takes

a fortuitous

discovery

Could you turn the volume

to go by sea

down a fraction, please?

fortunate

fortuitous

You were fortunate to find

another job so quickly

forty

-u-

four

fortieth

forward forwards or

forward

Why dine out when you can eat at home

fourteen

for a small fraction of the cost?

-u-

planning.

.

a forward remark

.

s:

forward

.

In some of its adverbial senses, the

word may be written

forward

or

forwards:

He ran forward/forwards to greet his father.

Some users restrict the adverb to physical movement in the opposite direction to ; some use in the wider adverbial sense of `ahead in space or time'; others use for all adverbial senses of the word. In idiomatic phrasal verbs, such as , etc., and in the sense of `into a prominent position', the adverb is never written with a final : . .. . The word is also used as a noun (denoting a player or position in various sports) and as a verb: . . See also -WARD or -WARDS? , pronounced [ waÆrd], should not be confused with , pronounced [ werd], the introduction to a book. ◆

forwards

backwards

forwards

forward

come for-

ward, put forward, look forward to forward

s

came forward as a witness

She

I put forward the

proposals at the meeting forward

to forward a letter

Forward

for

foreword

See also or

act':

foul.

for

FOREWORD or PREFACE?

foul . fowl

? As a noun,

foul

The player was sent off for a vicious

.

It should not be confused with

Both words are pronounced [fowl].

founder

see

FLOUNDER or FOUNDER?

fowl,

He ate

neither fish nor fowl for several weeks.

◆

fraught

.

Fraught with

`charged with':

expedition was fraught with danger.

of the adjective

.

means `filled with' or

fraught with problems

fraught

The

The use

alone, in the sense

of `tense' or `anxious', is disliked by some

.

.

people and is best restricted to informal usage: fraught.

-free

a

fraught

The adjective

evening

free

He

looked

is frequently used

.

in combination to indicate the absence of

. .

.

something undesirable or unpleasant: free petrol

.

free food

.

rent-free accommodation

pollution-free water

a trouble-free life.

lead-

additive-

duty-free spirits

◆ Some careful users object to this usage, preferring to replace some compounds by a paraphrase: . . . accommodation, for which no rent is paid

water that has not been polluted

free gift

gift,

Some users avoid the phrase

free

arguing that it is a tautology, all gifts

being necessarily free. Others accept that the phrase has acquired a specific meaning,

means `illegal

denoting a chicken or similar bird:

HYPHEN 6. see FACTIOUS or FRACTIOUS?

See also

. fractious

? As an adjective,

is never written with a final

forward motion

Only a small

fraction of the work has been completed

denoting something given away for promotional purposes.

freeze frieze or

? The verb

freeze

Water freezes at 08C.

.

The noun

.

means

`change from liquid into solid form': frieze

de-

notes a decorative or ornamental band or strip on a wall:

a frieze depicting the history

137 of the town.

The two spellings should not be

is also used figuratively: . .

confused.

.

◆ Freeze

to freeze prices

.

The adjective

friable,

a technical

term, means `crumbly' or `easily broken up':

friable soil.

It has no etymological

connection with the verb

-friendly

fry.

Some people object to the vogue

for attaching the adjective

USER-FRIENDLY: .

to an

friendly

.

increasing number of nouns, on the model of

or old-fashioned and by others as incorrect; it is best avoided. It is important to recognize the difference between - and : . denotes the quantity of water held by a bucket, but not the bucket itself; denotes both the bucket and the water it contains. The tendency to confuse - with sometimes leads to the misspelling of both nouns and adjectives, such as , , etc., with the ending - (see also FULLNESS or FULNESS?). ful

a pay freeze

friable

fulsome

customer-friendly

Read-

full

a bucketful of water

a bucket full of water ful

full

spoonful doubtful

ll

fulfil

Note the spelling of this word: in

British English neither

is doubled.

The spelling of the derived noun in British ( ). English is . . . . The spellings and are almost . exclusively restricted to American English. How◆ In the last three examples, has devel- ever, the final of the verb is doubled in British oped the extended sense of `not harmful': . English before a suffix beginning with a vowel, as in and (see also SPELLING 1). ( ). full see -FUL. has further evolved into fullness or fulness? Both spellings are the phrase , sometimes acceptable, being the more frequent hyphenated: . in British English. . ◆ In the nouns derived from adjectives ending in The opposite of is or . - , the is never doubled: . . :. . . ers . . . voted M & S Britain's least parentfriendly high street store ozone-friendly

l

◆

Daily Telegraph

fulfilment

environment-friendly

fulfill

dolphin-friendly

-friendly

fulfillment

l

Supermarkets . . . realised that green products,

from ozone-friendly aerosols to bleach-free nap-

fulfilled

fulfilling

pies, can give a marketing edge Daily Telegraph Environment-friendly

environmentally friendly

fullness

No one knows the real costs of

this new environmentally-friendly policy -friendly

friendly

user-hostile

-hostile

-un-

ozone-unfriendly

ENVIRONMENT; GREEN. frieze see FREEZE or FRIEZE? See also

frolic .

The verb

.

frolic

adds a

suffixes beginning with a vowel: frolicking

frolicky.

derived adjective See also

front-line line

.

before

k

There is no

frolicked k

in the

frolicsome.

SPELLING 1.

In military contexts, the

fuchsia

.

front

a front-line defender of governfront-line inner city areas.

ch.

It is pro-

The plant name honours the German botanist Leonhard (1501±66). ◆

Fuchs

For nouns ending in -ful, such as

cupful, spoonful, sackful, handful, mouthful,

.

.

etc., most users prefer the plural form -fuls:

◆

. Thepluralform - ,asin: . , is regarded by some authorities as rare two cupfuls

spoonsful

three spoonfuls.

sful

The principal use of the full stop

that is neither a direct question nor an exclamation.

See also EXCLAMATION MARK; QUESTION MARK; SENTENCES.

three cupsful

the full stop may also mark the end of a

two

.

group of words that does not conform to the conventional description of a sentence: He

had

drunk

six

pints

of

beer

and

two

whiskies. Two very large whiskies.

.

A full stop is often used in decimal

.

fractions, times, and dates:

Note the spelling of this plant

name, particularly the silent Æ ]. nounced [fewsha

-ful

hope-

In creative writing, reference books, etc.,

of the phrase in figurative or nonmilitary ment policy

faithfulness

as a punctuation mark is to end a sentence

tion in a battle. Some people dislike the use

.

l

full stop

is the most advanced or exposed posi-

contexts:

ful

fulness

silk

of 26.6.02.

.

3.6 metres of

at 9.15 tomorrow morning

your letter

Full stops are also used in some

ABBREVIATIONS.

A full stop is sometimes called a

point,

or (in American English) a

email addresses it is pronounced as See also

COLONS.

fulsome

ments,

stop,

period.

a

In

dot.

BRACKETS; QUOTATION MARKS; SEMI-

Fulsome

praise,

fulsome

compli-

etc., are offensively excessive, exag-

gerated, or insincere.

fun

138

◆ Derived from and the suffix - , the word ◆ Care should be taken in using words that have originally meant `abundant'; its derogatory con- undergone such shifts in function, as they are notations may have developed from a mistaken often disliked by other users. etymology that associated with . fundamental The adjective fundamental full

fun

some

fulsome

The use of the word

fun

foul

as an adjec-

tive, meaning `enjoyable' or `amusing', is

.

.

disliked by some users and is best restricted to informal contexts:

.

mean `small':

fun-size apples,

function

where

a fun game

The commercial use of

person.

a fun

fun-size

a fun-size packet of sweets

is also to be avoided.

The verb

.

to

is best avoided

function

work, perform, operate, serve, act,

etc.,

would be adequate or more appropriate,

.

particularly in general, nontechnical contexts:

The machine never works

tions] properly in very hot weather. automatic

lock

[not

serves

.

[not

functions]

funcThe as

a

means `basic', `essential', `primary', or `principal'; it is best avoided where

.

major, great,

priate:

important,

etc., would be more appro-

.

the fundamental difference between

the two systems

a major [not fundamental]

The noun , which is more frequently used in the plural form, denotes a basic principle, constituent, etc.: . .

improvement in East-West relations.

◆

fundamental

the fundamentals of

the issue

funeral funereal or

? The adjective funereal

.

.

means `like a funeral; suggestive of death; mournful; gloomy':

funereal music

atmosphere was funereal.

The

It should not be

. . Some people also object to the excessive use of tivally: . the noun as a synonym for `duty', `role', fungi , one of the plural forms of `party', etc.: . , may be pronounced to rhyme with confused with the noun

safety device.

function

bishops and priests in the modern world?

function word

A

function word

serves chiefly to create a grammatical relationship between other words. They can be subdivided into conjunctions, such as and

but;

determiners, such as

prepositions, such as such as can

and

around

and

do;

and

will;

at

how;

and

a

with;

and

the;

adverbs,

modal verbs, such

primary verbs, such as

and pronouns, such as

I

and

fungus try

is a word

that has no real meaning of its own but

and

used adjec-

a funeral cortege

Fungi

What are the precise functions of

as

funeral

a funeral service

◆

be

this.

or

tree;

soft, as in

the

g

may be hard, as in

gum,

or

germ.

The pronunciations [ gõÅ] and [ jõÅ], rhyming with , are the most frequent. The first of these is closer to the singular form, which has a hard sound. See also SPELLING. is an alternative plural of .

◆

fung

fun

try

g

Funguses

furore

The final

fungus

e

of the noun

furore,

meaning `uproar' or `craze', can cause problems of spelling and pronunciation.

noun but came to be used also as an

◆ In British English the is never omitted in spelling; is the usual American spelling of the word. is usually pronounced as a three-syllable word stressed on the second syllable [few i]. It is occasionally pronounced as a two-syllable word stressed on the first syllable [ or]; this is also the pronunciation of the American spelling.

.

FURTHER or FURTHEST?

functional shift

The term

functional shift

describes the process by which a word may shift in grammatical identity from its original function and be used in a new way. Examples include

gift,

which was originally

a noun but has subsequently been also used as a verb, and adjective:

.

rubbish,

which began as a

a rubbish salary

and as a verb:

The teacher rubbished his essay.

e

furor

Furore

ror

fewr

further furthest ,

see

FARTHER, FARTHEST,

Gaelic

G

Gallic

or

?

.

gaol . garage

is a noun or

Gaelic

of Scotland and Ireland: Gaelic word. Gallic

to speak Gaelic

.

a

is an adjective, meaning

`of France or the French': The pronunciation of

a Gallic custom.

Gaelic

is [gaylik],

with the alternative pronunciation [galik] used especially in regions where the language is spoken. This second pronunciation is identical to that of

Gallic,

and so may

cause confusion or ambiguity in some contexts.

gaiety

Gaiety,

meaning `a cheerful and

carefree manner' or `festivity', is sometimes misspelt.

◆

Note the middle vowels -.

gait gate. or

?

or moving':

a rolling gait. gate,

.

Gait

The stress falls on the first syllable in British English, although in American English [ga ], the second syllable is stressed. rahzh

gases gasses or

is

? The plural of the noun

or, less commonly,

gasses.

is also a form of the verb , meaning `affect with a gas' or `talk idly'.

gas

gases

◆ Gasses

gas

See also

-gate

SPELLING 1.

The suffix

-gate,

derived from the

affair (a scandal involving Ri-

.

1972), is sometimes attached to other words

means `way of walking

He walked along the deck with

It should not be confused with

There was a queue of people at the

gate.

gallant

the former pronunciation.

◆

chard Nixon, then president of the USA, in

meaning `movable barrier' or `point of

access':

This word may be pronounced

[garahzh] or [garij]. Many users prefer

Watergate

-aie

GAY.

See also

JAIL or GAOL?

see

adjective that refers to the Celtic languages

to denote a political scandal: Contragate

Irangate/

(an American scandal in 1987

involving the sale of arms to Iran and use of

.

the profits to supply arms to the antiCommunist Contras in Nicaragua)

The

`Dianagate' scandal, the disclosure of intimate tapes of conversations believed to be between

.

The adjective

courageous', as in:

gallant,

`brave and

put up a gallant fight,

is

the princess and James Gilbey, her close friend

(Sunday

Times).

Many of these coinages are inevitably journalistic and ephemeral in usage and are best avoided ◆ The sense `courteous to women' may have the same pronunciation or may, in rather old-fash- in formal contexts. ioned English, be stressed on the second syllable gate see GAIT or GATE? [gaÆ ]. Æ nt]. stressed on the first syllable [gala

◆

gauge

lant

Gallic gallop

see

GAELIC or GALLIC?

Note the spelling of this verb,

particularly the -ll- and the final

.

p,

which

is not doubled before -ed, -ing, etc.:

The

horse galloped across the field. inflation.

gamble

gambol

This word, which means `measure

or standard', is frequently misspelt. The

.

galloping

comes after the

u

and not before it.

◆ The correct pronunciation is [gayj]. A mispronunciation [gawj] may arise from the unusual spelling.

gay

a

The adjective

gay

is so widely used as a

gamble

synonym for `homosexual' that its use in

means `take a risk on a game of chance';

the original sense of `cheerful', `merry', or

or

? The verb

. The spelling of these words is sometimes con- in some contexts: . . fusedalthoughtheirmeaningsareverydifferent: . .. ◆ The noun is principally applied to homo. sexual men, being the preferred term for

gambol

means `skip and jump playfully'.

`bright' may be open to misinterpretation

◆

a gay bachelor

party

He went to the casino to gamble bolling in the fields

lambs gam-

gay

lesbian

a gay

geek

140

homosexual women: . genes or jeans? In science, are the . The noun derived from in units of heredity that transfer certain charthe sense `homosexual' is ; in other senses acteristics from one generation to another: . it is . In the sense of `homosexual', is becoming The word should not be confused increasingly acceptable in formal contexts and for with , which describe working or many gay people is preferable to casual trousers made of durable twill cloth: . itself. a community centre for

gays and lesbians

genes

gay

gayness

gaiety

The scientists have mapped the entire gene

gay

sequence.

jeans

homosexual

geek

She pulled her jeans on.

The word

geek

describes someone

who is obsessively interested in something,

.

especially in something that most people find only moderately interesting:

His

The term often

brother's a computer geek.

carries derogatory overtones, suggesting

.

the person is unattractively or boringly obsessive:

She liked the look of him but

he turned out to be a real geek.

◆

The word has the derived adjective

geeky

geeky little brother.

gender

The word

gender

:.

her

refers to the

genetic genial GENITAL GENETIC genre ,

see

or

The word

?

CONGENIAL, GENIAL, CON-

genre,

meaning `category'

or `style', may be pronounced in different ways. The anglicization of the French Æ ], but [jonra Æ ] is also pronunciation is [zhonra widely

heard.

A

third

pronunciation,

Æ ], is occasionally used but this is [zhahnra sometimes considered pretentious.

gentleman

is used as a syno-

Gentleman

.

grammatical classification of nouns as mas-

contexts and as a term of politeness:

culine, feminine, or neuter. The use of

the

by many users in formal contexts:

.

cations

qualified

gender

as a synonym for `sex' is avoided are

invited

from

candidates of either sex

suitably

[not

gender].

compounds in informal use, instead

of

sex,

e.g.

Appli-

In some

gender

is used

gender-bending,

`the

blurring of the difference between the sexes, for example by transvestism'.

The frequency of this usage is attributable both to the use of the word as a synonym for `sexual intercourse' and to the association in English grammar between gender and sex. In many languages all nouns are of masculine or feminine gender: the French word for is feminine; the Italian word for is masculine. In English, however, masculine nouns refer to male people, animals, etc., and feminine nouns to female people, animals, etc.: , , , and are masculine nouns; , , , , and are feminine nouns.

◆

sex

flower

carpet

king brother drake

bull

heroine

mother vixen

See also

ISM.

queen

cow

ANIMALS; NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEX-

general generic or

gentleman

to

? The adjective

Show

Ladies

and

gentlemen, may I introduce tonight's guest

◆ The noun has connotations of nobility, chivalry, and good manners: . . . speaker?

gentleman

a country

gentleman

If you were a gentleman you'd stand

up and give me your seat

See also

geriatric

MAN; WOMAN.

Many people object to the in-

creasing use of the noun and adjective geriatric

should

.

as derogatory synonyms for `old

person' or `elderly': be

banned

.

These geriatric drivers

from

the

roads.

The

country is governed by a bunch of geriatrics.

◆ is the branch of medical science concerned with the diseases of old age and the care of old people; the use of in such contexts as is acceptable to all users. Geriatrics

geriatric

the geriatric ward of the hospital

gerunds get

see

INFINITIVE; -ING FORMS.

In formal contexts

general

.

.

such as

get

can often be

become, buy, obtain, receive,

difficult to obtain

or specific':

financial matters.

general

opinion

.

general

means `referring to a

whole class or group':

a generic term for

products that do not damage the environment.

[not

It is becoming

`widespread', `overall', and `not specialized knowledge. Generic

room.

his

replaced with an appropriate synonym,

has a wide range of meanings, including

.

.

nym for `man' in some formal or official

[not

etc.:

getting] increasingly

get] impartial advice on

However, if the synonym

sounds clumsy or unnatural in context, or causes ambiguity,

get

should be retained or

the sentence restructured.

◆ is also used in the sense `cheaper, ◆ The same principles apply to phrasal verbs, because it does not have a trade name': . idioms, and other expressions containing , such as (escape), (survive), . Generic

get

a

generic drug

get out

get by

get dressed

(dress),

.

get well

(recover): .

141

See also

geyser

GOT.

The noun

. glamorous

I often get up/rise at six

They will get married/marry in the spring

geyser,

gobbledygook

.

Some people object to the

frequent use of the adjective

glamorous

.

as

a synonym for `beautiful', `romantic', `ex-

meaning `hot

.

citing', `interesting', etc.:

a

glamorous

a glamorous career.

The adjective is best restricted to the combination of showy attractiveness, fashion, romance, excitement, charm, and fascination that is known . :. gibe, jibe or gybe? The word , or. as variant spelling , means `jeer or taunt': . The of is usually omitted in the . , although some dictionaries ◆ , sometimes spelt or , is a nautical adjective . term referring to the movement of a ship's sail. acknowledge the rare variant spelling

spring' or `water heater', is usually pronounced [geezeÆr] in British English and [gõÅzeÆr] in American English.

setting

◆

glamour

gibe

u

gibes/jibes and insults

Gybe

gild

gibe

guild

or

?

.

Gild

is a verb, meaning

or `make golden in colour': Guild

GILT

.

or

GUILT?)

glass ceiling

is an invisible

plied to barriers that prevent women from

is a noun, denoting an organization

women's Guild.

.

.

a guild of

She belongs to the Towns-

is also a rare variant spelling of the noun

gilt guilt or

?

Gilt

is a variant form of the

(see GILD or GUILD?) used as an attributive adjective in

past participle of the verb

gild

the sense of `covered with gold': candlestick.

As a noun,

gilt

.

be confused with the noun

.

guilt,

He admitted his guilt.

A motion calling for the removal of the glass

ceiling on women becoming bishops is back on

(The

Guardian).

A was originally conceived of as a hypothetical barrier which allowed people to see a goal while at the same time prevented them from reaching it.

the synod's agenda

◆

glass ceiling

global

The adjective

global

is increasingly

.

or environmental issues that affect the

It should not

`responsibility for wrongdoing':

.

.

Does your organization have a `glass ceiling'?

used with specific reference to geopolitical

denotes the gold

Some of the gilt had worn away.

rising to top-level executive positions:

a gilt

or other substance used for this covering:

.

A

barrier to promotion, based on sex or race. Increasingly, the expression is being ap-

wine merchants

.

glass ceiling

glamourous

gilded picture

with similar or related interests:

guild

glamour

The setting sun gilded the leaves.

of craftsmen, tradespeople, or other people

◆ Gild

a glamorous

glamorous

jibe

`cover with gold' (see also

frames

a glamorous film star

lifestyle

jibe

meaning a feeling

.

whole world: politics

.

.

global consciousness

Terrorism is a global issue.

the world as a global village.

.

This usage is

probably influenced by the phrase (see

global

Think of

GREENHOUSE EFFECT).

global

The use of in such contexts may cause confusion with the more general sense of `world`wanderer', has two spellings: and wide'. . is often used negatively to refer to ◆ Some users prefer the spelling, but the the process by which large international compaspelling indicates the derivation from . nies can dominate markets and even economies At one time this migrant people was thought to worldwide: . have originated from Egypt. of guilt

gipsy

gypsy

or

warming

? This word, meaning

◆

global

gipsy

gypsy

i

y

Globalization

Egyptian

protests resulting from the globali-

ROMA.

zation of modern communications.

glycerin glycerine girl WOMAN given name FIRST NAME CHRISTIAN NAME FORENAME GIVEN NAME BAPTISMAL NAME glacier gobbledygook See also see

or

.

cerin

see

,

,

or

,

?

The first syllable of this word,

and

glycerine

with

[glayseer].

mass [glaseer]

or

Both pronunciations are acceptable in British English, while [ sheÆr] is the usual American English pronunciation. clay

◆

glay

gly-

Glycerin

is

the usual spelling in American English, while

glycerine

is the customary spelling

in British English.

The noun

which means `a vast area of ice', may be pronounced to rhyme with

? Both spellings

are correct.

gobbledygook

is

used in informal contexts to denote the pretentious

or

incomprehensible

JARGON

of bureaucrats, especially the circumlocutory language of official documents, reports, etc.

gobsmacked

142

The alternative spelling regular use.

◆

gobbledegook

is in

OFFICIALESE.

See also

gobsmacked

The adjective

gobsmacked,

.

less with amazement', is a slang term that should not be used in formal contexts:

I was

gobsmacked when I found out how much it would cost.

There was a long pause (maybe he

was gobsmacked at the prospect of me staying at home for another year), then an unconvincing `Never mind'

god God or

(The

? A

Guardian).

beings worshipped for their supernatural powers.

God,

written with a capital

G,

.

is

the supreme being worshipped in many

.

.

religions as the creator and ruler of all:

the

and

seem

the

food

smelt

good

and

had

been

Note the difference between

well.

and

.

feel well

adjective):

(in which I

don't

well

.

feel

informal way of saying (i.e.

well

contexts

.

is chiefly used as an adverb

well

after verbs without any sensory function:

I

feel

ill),

chosen

feel good

is used as an

too

good

is an

I don't feel very

but in less informal

has connotations of mor-

feel good

al, emotional, or spiritual well-being that feel well

is any of a number of

god

be

or where a sensory function is involved, while

meaning `astounded; flabbergasted; speech-

.

tive after such linking verbs as

does not have.

See also

FEEL-GOOD FACTOR.

goodwill good will or

.

? The term mean-

ing `a feeling of kindness and concern', as in:

a gesture of good will,

can be written

either as one word or as two.

◆ Some users prefer the latter, unless the term is being used in the commercial sense when it is ◆ Compounds and derivatives of the noun, written .. whether they refer to a or to , are usually . . written with a lower-case : . . . . The adjectives gorilla see GUERILLA, GUERRILLA or GORILLA? and , however, may be written with a gossip Note the spellings of the derived capital or lower-case ; is usually forms: , , , : . hyphenated. . . gold or golden? The word is used ◆ The word derives from and adjectivally to describe things that are `relation', as in modern . were originally the equivalent of present-day godparents made of gold or contain gold: . . and over the course of time the word became . The adjective applied to close friends and then to the sense of usually refers to the colour of gold: . . people who were fond of engaging in idle talk. . ◆ In the four examples above and are got , the past participle of , is often not interchangeable; however, is sometimes superfluous in the expressions used in the sense of `gold-coloured' and in (meaning `possess') and (meanthe sense of `made of gold': ing `must'): . . . .. has a number of other meanings, such . as `prosperous': . , `important': . ◆ In informal contexts, especially in negative sen, and `fiftieth': . . tences, questions, and CONTRACTIONS , is often The phrase , denoting a large retained: . . . sum of money paid to a retiring employee, has . . given rise to (a similar sum paid to a In some contractions, the occasional omission of new employee), (a payment cause confusion: . may mean made to discourage an employee from leaving), `shemay is a cat' or `she has a cat'; is and (a guarantee of compensa- unambiguous. tion if the employee is dismissed or demoted Used alone, is the past tense of ; it should following a takeover). A is the control place of or :. held by a national government in a privatized not be used in[not ] .. company in order to prevent the company from . being taken over by foreign business interests. is an American variant of the past participle ; in British English its use is restricted to good or well? and are somesuch expressions as . times confused. is used as an adjec-

.

god of war

the Greek gods

for God's sake.

to believe in God

god g

godchild

goodwill

God

godly

godsend

godless

They paid £12,000 for the

goodwill of the shop and £6,000 for the stock

god-fearing

god-forsaken

g God-forsaken

gossiped gossiping gossiper gossipy

They gossiped all afternoon

a gossipy letter

gossip

gold

God

sibb

sibling Gossips

a gold

medal

a gold mine

golden

golden

hair

golden syrup

gold

golden

Got

gold

get

have

golden

fabric with blue and

gold stripes

a golden necklace

Golden

golden age

golden rule

He has (got) grey hair and a

They have (got) to win this

small moustache

match to avoid relegation

golden anniversary

got

golden handshake

We haven't got any milk

enough money?

golden hello

golden handcuffs

got

have got to

Have you got

I've got to write to my brother

got

She's a cat

She's got a cat

golden parachute

got

golden share

get

have

have/have got

have got

They got three children

a new car last week Gotten

Good

Good

well

got

ill-gotten gains

They

I got

gourmand gourmet or

143 ? A

gourmand

with or without regard to the quality of the food.

Gourmet,

the more common and also

more complimentary of the two terms,

.

refers only to a connoisseur of fine food or drink:

The size of the meals will satisfy

the gourmand; their quality should please the most discriminating gourmet.

biguity, ton

gourmand

To avoid am-

may be replaced by

Note the spelling of the word, particularly the and single .

en-

joys the pleasurable indulgence of eating,

glut-

in the sense of `one who eats greedily or

to excess'.

gravitas

-ff-

grammar .

-t-

The word

grammar,

.

which de-

notes the rules of a language or a type of school:

Latin grammar

a grammar school,

is often misspelt. The most frequent error is the substitution of Note also the

-er

for the

ending.

-ar

-mm-.

grand- greator

? Both these prefixes are

used to denote family relationships that are two or more generations apart. Either

Many people object to the increasing use of prefix may be used for the aunts and uncles to describe restaurants, meals, etc., in of one's parents and the children of one's being more which the food is elaborate and expensive but not nephews and nieces,. . frequent than : necessarily of high quality. . . . is usually pronounced [ maÆnd] or is always used for the parents [ mon(g)]; is pronounced [ may]. ◆ The prefix Both words are occasionally stressed on the sec- .of one's parents and. the children of.one's children:. ond syllable. . government In the sense of `the group of The prefix is also used for the parents of people who govern a country, state, etc.', one's grandparents and the children of one's may be a singular or a plural . . grandchildren: noun: . . . (The father of . . one's is one's . , and so on.) See also COLLECTIVE NOUNS; SINGULAR OR ◆

gourmet

great-

great-niece

grand-

Gourmand

goor

gourmet

great-uncle

nephew

goor

grand-

grandaunt

grand-

goor

granddaughter

grandfather

grandchild

grandma

great-

government

The government is blamed for the rise

in unemployment

The government have

rejected the proposal

or

?

Graceful

refers to

movement, actions, forms, shapes, etc., that elegance:

.

in the sense of beauty, charm, or a graceful dance. Gracious

.

means

`kind', `courteous', `benevolent', or `compassionate':

a gracious gift.

The two words are not interchangeable, although they may occasionally qualify the same noun: . is a beautiful or elegant movement; . is an act of kindness or courtesy. The adjective may also occasionally imply condescension: . . In such expressions as , the word conveys an impression of luxury, comfort, elegance, and indulgence. ◆

a graceful gesture

a gracious gesture gracious

She thanked the waiter

with a gracious smile

gra-

cious living

graffiti

Nowadays very few people still

.

object to the widespread use of a singular noun: quite obscene.

.

graffiti

as

Graffiti covers the walls of

the community centre.

great-grandfather

grass roots

PLURAL?

grace,

great-

great-grandparent

great-great-

grandfather

graceful gracious

have

great-grandmother

grandson

Some of this graffiti is

, the singular of this Italian borrowing, meaning `a little scratch', is used only very occasionallytorefertoasingleinscriptionordrawing: . .

◆ Graffito

Some people object to the

widespread use of this term both in political or industrial contexts and as a noun

.

meaning `the fundamental level' or as an

.

adjective `fundamental' or `basic': roots of the problem

.

the grass

.

at the grass-roots level

support for the party at the grass roots roots opinion.

grass-

◆ The noun came originally from mining in the USA, referring to the soil immediately below the surface. It was subsequently applied to the ordinary people as opposed to the political leaders of society. The of a trade union or other organization are its rank-andfile members. grass roots

grass roots

gratuitous

The adjective

gratuitous

.

is most

frequently used in the sense of `unwar-

.

ranted' or `uncalled-for':

gratuitous vio-

gratuitous criticism.

The original meaning of the word is `free' or `given without payment'. lence

◆

gravitas

The noun

gravitas,

meaning `ser-

ious or solemn nature or manner; weight,

.

substance, or importance', is a vogue word that is increasing in frequency:

The most

The first graffito appeared the day after the room

mentioned attribute which best equips him

was repainted

[Peter Sissons]

for sustained political encoun-

gray

144 .

ters is the gravitas he clearly was born with

(The Guardian).

[Jonathan] Dimbleby is felt

to be a safe pair of hands, with sufficient stature to give the book gravitas graph).

(Daily

Tele-

more frequent in this sense. Spelt with a capital -, the word specifically denotes a political party that is chiefly concerned with the protection of the . environment: . G

to vote Green

The Greens have

Some users consider the word to be

shaken Britain's three big parties by winning

a pretentious and unnecessary synonym for

2.25m votes and 15% of the poll in the European

`seriousness'.

elections Sunday Times

( ). is a rural undeveloped site, The implication, since this is a Latin word, is the A high solemnity of the mythical ancient Roman often near a town or city, that has not been designated as part of a green belt and so is official. available for development, e.g. for industrial esgray see GREY or GRAY? tates, retail parks, or housing. has been coined to graze The verb , traditionally applied The verbal noun denote the process of removing environmentally to animals in the sense of `eat', is increasharmful substances: . ingly used in human contexts with three . specific meanings: `eat small amounts of (a reference to `environment-friendly' detergents). food throughout the day', `eat food from ◆

greenfield site

greening

graze

the greening of the city

streets

supermarket shelves while shopping', and

.

`eat standing up'. The first sense is the most frequent in British English:

doing away

with family meals and replacing them, as the report

suggests,

with

(Daily

Telegraph).

`grazing

. . .

eating'

The second and thirdsenses are largely restricted to American English but are becoming increasingly common in British English.

◆

great- GRAND- GREATGreat Britain BRITAIN Greek Grecian see

or

see

or

?

.

BROWNFIELD; ENVIRONMENT;

also

greenhouse effect

The

greenhouse effect

.

is

the warming of the earth's atmosphere (global

warming)

.

caused by an accumula-

tion of gases that trap the radiated heat from the sun:

Flood defences along Britain's

coasts will fail to prevent large tracts of farmland from being flooded when sea levels rise graph).

(Daily

Tele-

The gases thus function like the

glass in a greenhouse, hence the name.

? The adjective

Greek

.

means `in the simple but

Grecian

See

-FRIENDLY.

because of the greenhouse effect

means `of Greece, its people, or its language';

the greening of the washing machine

elegant style of classical Greece': a Grecian vase.

Greek

Sometimes called

greenhouse

gases,

they

include carbon dioxide produced by the burning of coal, oil, stubble, and the tropical rainforests that would normally absorb carbon dioxide from the air.

The adjective was formerly applied to or gray? This word can be spelt with the art, architecture, literature, culture, etc., of grey an an , although the former is far ancient Greece; in these senses it has been largely more orfrequent in British English. superseded by . The noun denotes a native or inhabitant ◆ is standard in American English. of Greece; a is a scholar of classical Greek grieve The verb is followed by the language or literature. preposition or : . [or

history

◆

Grecian

e

Greek

a

Gray

Greek

Grecian

green

grieve

for

The adjective

green

is becoming

overused in its application to any product,

.

policy, or ideology that is connected with

.

.

the protection of the environment:

.

consumerism go green

green issues

.

green

to buy green

to

The Whole Thing is a mail order

company dedicated to providing a wide range of over 150 of the greenest products available

(advertisement,

The Guardian).

over

She grieved for

over] the death of her horse.

grievous

The correct pronunciation of this

word, most frequently encountered in the Æ s], not phrase grievous bodily harm, is [greevu Æ s]. Note the spelling of the word, [greeviu particularly the order and position of the vowels.

grill grille or

? A

is a framework of

As a noun, may be spelt with a lower-case bars used for cooking food. A is a or capital initial letter to denote a person who is grating over a window or door. generally in support of the protection of the en- ◆ These words are occasionally confused, espevironment, but the lower-case form is probably cially as can also sometimes be spelt .

◆

green

grille

grill

grille

grill

145

grisly grizzly or

? The spellings of these

words may sometimes be confused.

. .

means `gruesome'; grey': fully':

means `partly

grizzly

a grizzly bear,

Grisly

or `whining fret-

a grizzly toddler.

ground zero

gypsy

aÆ]. However, may be pronounced [ge aÆ] to make it distinct from [geÆ aÆ]. il

guerilla/guerrilla

ril

gorilla

ril

guesstimate

The word

guesstimate,

mean-

.

ing `rough estimate', resulted from the

The phrase

ground zero

ori-

combination of

guess

and

estimate:

He

ginally described the location immediately

quoted a figure but warned that it was only a

above or below the area where a nuclear

guesstimate.

explosion takes place and, by extension, the

people and should be used sparingly and

starting point or site of activity of some

only in informal contexts.

kind, especially of a military nature. Since the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in New York on 11 September 2001, however, the phrase has come to be uniquely associated with the site of the former towers and is now normally used

only

in

reference

to

that

.

event,

although it can be used by extension to other similarly devastated sites: Bali's ground zero

grow

(The

Prayers at

Guardian).

Care should be taken over the me-

taphorical use of the transitive verb

.

grow,

.

as

this is considered unacceptable by many people:

their profits players.

.

grow a range of products

grow

grow a successful young team of

.

The literal use of the transitive verb

is, however, generally acceptable:

grow

some houseplants.

growth

guest

guested on his chat show last month.

host

growth

a growth

is used adjectiv-

industry

He guested at

guidelines

Some people object to the in-

creasing use of the plural noun

.

place of

could

The sport of canoeing is

increasing in popularity

.

This word, which is often mis-

agreement will be kept':

.

The washing-

machine was still under guarantee.

◆ It is worth remembering that the vowels of the first syllable are like those in : . . guard

A guarantee

guards the rights of the consumer

guerilla guerrilla

or

gorilla

?

Guerilla/

means `fighter within an indepena guerrilla war;

large ape. The spellings

a

guerilla

gorilla

and

is a

guer-

are both acceptable, although the latter

is preferred by many users since it derives from the Spanish

.

in

etc.:

New guidelines to establish minimum sen-

(The

Guardian).

The

series is within the BBC's guidelines on vio-

(Daily

Telegraph).

The noun , which is rarely used in the singular, is now usually written as one word; the hyphenated form is an accepted but less frequent variant.

lence

◆

guidelines

GILD or GUILD? see GILT or GUILT? see

`a war', with -rr-.

◆ The usual pronunciation of both words is [geÆ guerra

r-

gut

as an adjec-

tive, meaning `instinctive', `strong', `basic',

.

.

.

or `essential', is best restricted to informal contexts:

issues.

spelt, means `an assurance that a certain

.

guidelines

advice, policy, instructions, rules,

tences in rape cases

a growth

Canoeing is a growth sport

rilla

guest

The use of the word

paraphrase: well be changed to:

dent army':

She

He was a guest at our

wedding

economy.

guerrilla

.

Unlike , the verb is not used outside theentertainmentindustry: . [not . . .].

◆

guild guilt . . gut In other contexts it is often better replaced by a .

,

as a verb,

is best restricted to informal contexts:

increasing', in economic and commercial

guarantee

guest

radio show)', is disliked by some users and

ally, in the sense of `rapidly developing or

◆

The use of the word

in the sense of `be a guest (on a television or

guide-lines

The word

spheres:

The word is disliked by many

a gut reaction

gybe GIBE gymkhana see

a gut feeling

gut

JIBE or GYBE?

,

This word, meaning `competi-

tion for horses and their riders', is sometimes misspelt.

◆

It is worth remembering that is spelt as in , and as in . gym

gymnastics

gynaecology

khana

khaki

This word, meaning `the

branch of medicine concerned with women's diseases', is frequently misspelt. Note the

y

and, in British English

ican English See also

◆

ae,

or Amer-

e.

-AE- and -OE-.

This word is pronounced [gõÅnõÆ oÆji].

gypsy

see

GIPSY or GYPSY?

kol

haemoglobin

hemoglobin

or

H ?

This

word, describing the red protein in blood, is sometimes misspelt.

is the

Haemoglobin

usual spelling in British English, while is

hemoglobin

the

accepted

spelling

in

American English.

haemorrhage

half

This noun, meaning `im-

mense loss of blood', is often misspelt. Note the -rrh- and the British English -ae-, which is reduced to -e- in American English (see

-EA- and -OE-).

hail hale or

? The noun

.

hail

.

means `frozen

means `call' or `be a

hail

hail a taxi

Scotland. Hail hale,

She hails from

and hearty.

or

.

should not be confused with

meaning `vigorous and healthy':

hair

hare

hale

Hair

describes the fine

beings and other animals. It should not be confused with

hare,

which describes a spe-

cies of animal resembling a large rabbit. Although

half

is a singular noun, it is

.

number rather than an amount: the books are missing.

.

.

Half of

Half of the water has

evaporated.

In most cases the word

optional:

Give him half (of) the money.

of

is

Such expressions as a and , and , and , etc., are equally acceptable in most contexts. However, the insertion of an extra indefinite article before , , etc., is avoided by careful users. half-hour

hour a half-dozen

a half

half an

half a dozen a mile and

one and a half miles

half an

hour half a dozen

See also

half-

or

mother

or

see

,

HALLO or HULLO?

Most users prefer to form the

handicap .

handfuls.

-FUL.

See also

The final

p

of the word

.

HYPHEN 4.

step-

? One's

stepfather)

step-parent

(step-

is the new spouse of

a divorced or widowed parent. Any children of this step-parent by previous partners become one's

stepbrothers

or

stepsisters.

Any children of one's father or mother by

vowel:

handicapped

SPELLING 1.

See also

dis-

DISABLED.

See also

hands-on

.

This expression refers to practical

or personal involvement in a task:

.

This is not

a desk job. It is a `hands-on' sales role Telegraph).

(Daily

The Prime Minister returned to

London last night to resume hands-on control of

(The

Guardian).

The term is often used in the expression , practical experience `in . . . learning ± where students can obtain real experience of possible future jobs ± or in business, where there is a similar implication of rolling up one's sleeves and getting involved, rather than simply reading or talking, or in a variety of situations where the practical is seen as improving on the merely theoretical' (Jonathon Green, ). the Gulf crisis

◆

hands-on

hands-on experience

Diction-

ary of Jargon

hangar hanger or

misspelt. A

hangar

? These words are often is a building for storing

one's

articles can be hung:

half-sisters.

handicapped

person with disabilities

aircraft; a

or

handicapping.

◆ The words and are avoided by many people in relation to those suffering from various physical or mental disabilities on the grounds that these terms have negative connotations. Preferred alternatives include and .

this step-parent (or any other partner) are half-brothers

handicap

is doubled before a suffix beginning with a

abled

followed by a plural verb when it denotes a

◆

hallo HELLO handful .

step-parent

handicap

?

strands that grow on the skin of human

half

step

plural -fuls:

rain'; the verb native of':

Confusion arises because half-brothers and halfsisters are usually the offspring of one's stepmother or stepfather. A person may have both half-brothers (or half-sisters) and stepbrothers (or stepsisters). Note that - is always attached with a hyphen in this sense, whereas - is attached without a hyphen (except in the case of ).

◆

hanger

.

is an apparatus on which coat hanger.

147 To avoid mistakes, remember the in and in .

◆

a

aircraft

or

?

is the past tense

Hung

and past participle for most senses of the verb

hang; hanged

is restricted to the mean-

ing `suspended by the neck until dead', in

.

. . .

the context of capital punishment or suicide:

picture

He hung his coat on the peg. was

hung

up

in

the

hall.

conspirators were hanged for treason. father hanged himself.

hanger hang-up

The The Her

The noun

.

hang-up

She's

got

a

[not

can't] hardly see you.

See also

DOUBLE NEGATIVE.

is an informal

hang-up

about

than

the

phone.

The world should

when

barely . . . when

to speak when

She had hardly begun

than he interrupted her

Scarcely had they reached the end of the road when

than the rain began than

No sooner had I stepped into

when the doorbell rang

Hardly

hard

a hard surface

see

◆ Hang-up

The verb

[or

is followed by the

hanker

or

after

for:

the preposition

or

with:

Are you

with] the arrangements?

is the traditional spel-

Hara-kiri

abdomen:

.

to commit hara-kiri.

Æ nounced [harra

It is pro-

kirri].

The variant spelling , pronounced [ rri rri] or [ i i], is best avoided. hari-kari

ha

har kar

harangue

.

This word, which means `a

vehement and lengthy speech', as in:

a

long harangue about the state of the economy,

is sometimes misspelt. -gue

harass

ending is the same as in

meringue

.

This word, meaning `trouble per-

sistently', is spelt with a single -r- and ends Æ s]. The Amerin -ss. It is pronounced [harra ican

pronunciation

Æ ras] [ha

has

recently

come into British English but is disliked by some people.

◆

Note that the same spelling rules apply for .

harassment

hardly

In the sense of `only just' or `almost

not' the adverb

scarcely

and

hardly,

barely,

hatred

of:

is followed by the

Her hatred for

like its synonyms

is used with negative

[or

of]

.

.

The adjective

lowed by the preposition

.

hazardous

to

or

sharp edges can be hazardous to

ritual act of suicide by cutting open the

The

see

is followed by

ling of this Japanese term, which refers to a

◆

or

her father.

those who hanker

happy

about

[or

happy about

◆

for

see

The adjective

ka

.

for] power.

hara-kiri

?

The noun

hang-

preposition

preposition

after

or

see

hang-up

to work hard

hard-earned money

not be used in formal contexts.

ups

when

hardly . . . when, scarcely . . .

hare HAIR HARE is usually hyphenated in British English but may be written as one unhyphenated word in harelip CLEFT LIP American English. The plural of is hatred . . hanker . have OF have got (to) GOT happy hazardous . answering

I

Careful users avoid using in place of in the constructions ,or :. [not ] .. [not ] . This confusion may be due to the use of in the construction :. [not ] . is rarely used as the adverbial form of the word , which functions both as an adjective . . andasanadverb: . . ◆

the bath than

name for a mental or emotional problem or inhibition:

can

no sooner . . . than

HANGAR or HANGER?

see

.

force; it is unnecessary to add another negative to the clause or sentence:

hangar

hanged hung

heal

for:

[or

is folThese

for] young

children.

he HE SHE headed for heading for see

or

.

or

be headed for

place of

? The phrase

is sometimes wrongly used in

be heading for.

.

When the verb

head

is used intransitively, the correct phrase is be

for:

heading

We

is heading

[not

headmaster SEXIST TERMS head up

.

were

headed] for Southampton.

heading

[not

The government

headed] for defeat.

or

.

headmistress

? see

NON-

Many people dislike the use of

.

this phrasal verb in place of the simpler head,

meaning `lead' or `be in charge':

head up a team of workers.

heal heel or

?

Heal

to

means `cure' or `be-

come sound again'. It should not be confused with

heel,

which refers to the back

part of the foot.

Note also the spelling of `wealthy'): .

◆

well-heeled

(meaning

She came from a well-heeled back-

ground.

healthful

healthful healthy or

.

148 ?

Healthy

.

can mean

`having good health' or `promoting good health':

a healthy child

a healthy diet.

is a less frequent synonym of

Healthful

in both these senses, but in modern

healthy

.

usage it is largely restricted to the sense of `promoting good health':

foods that are

both healthful and relatively inexpensive.

hear .

The verb

preposition

of

or

spelling and

The pronunciation [ uÆs] is also acceptable but [ uÆs] is best avoided.

◆

heen

hõÅn

hello hallo hullo ,

or

? This word of greet-

ing has various spellings which are all the most frequent in contemporary usage.

[or

.

and by I

of] his promotion yester-

day.

or

ei

Æ s]. the stress on the first syllable [haynu

acceptable. The first spelling is probably

only heard about

heard herd

is often misspelt and

mispronounced. Note the

is followed by the

hear

in the sense `find out about':

of

This word, meaning `extremely

a heinous crime,

in the sense `know about':

I'd never heard of the disease before,

about

heinous .

evil':

help

.

Many people object to the phrases

cannot/can't/could not/couldn't help but ,

in:

I couldn't help but laugh,

either ?

is the past participle

I couldn't help laughing

quently,

as

preferring

or, less fre-

I couldn't but laugh.

The idiomatic construction, where means `refrain from', is followed by a present participle. number of cattle or other animals. See also BUT. hearing impaired is the In the sense of `assist' or `contribute' is preferred modern alternative to DEAF, usually followed by a direct object and/or an inwhich is considered unacceptable by many finitive, with or without : . people because of its negative connotations. .. . Some users prefer to retain in the absence of a heaved or hove? is the usual form direct object: . of the past tense or past participle of the .. . verb :. . . . is an of the verb with

Heard

hear.

herd,

It should not be confused

a noun referring to a large

◆

cannot/can't/could not/couldn't

help

help

Hearing impaired

help

to

you (to) sleep

These pills will help

They all helped (to) tidy the house to

Heaved

This money will help to pay for the

He heaved the crate up the steps

heave

She heaved a sigh of relief

archaic variant of

heaved

that is used face-

tiously or in nautical contexts, in the past tense or past participle of `stop', and

.

heave into sight

ing `appear':

heave to

(or

meaning

.

view),

We hove to for lunch.

hove into sight.

new car

This money will help us pay for the new

car

Hove

hemihence

DEMI-, HEMI- or SEMI-?

see

Hence

means `from this time' or,

mean-

more rarely, `from this place'; it is therefore

A ship

unnecessary to precede the adverb with from:

.

. The phrase (or ) is also used in non-nautical (but fairly literary) contexts, usually ◆ The use of in the sense of `from this place' in the past tense: . is largely restricted to very formal or archaic contexts. . See also THENCE. heavy-duty The term should is also used to mean `for this reason' or be restricted to articles, materials, etc., that . `therefore': are designed to withstand hard wear or .. . frequent use: . . In the second of . these examples, note that is often followed ◆ In other contexts the adjectives or by a noun rather than a verb; to replace with may be adequate or more appropriate. would involve rewording the clause: . ... . heel see HEAL or HEEL?

◆

heave into sight

view

The concert will begin three hours

hence

hence

As they rounded the corner the

house hove into view

heavy-duty

Hence

My route is more direct, and hence

heavy-duty overalls

heavy-

duty plastic sheeting

tough

faster, than yours

Her father drowned at sea,

hence her reluctance to go sailing hence

strong

hence

therefore

height

therefore she is reluctant to go sailing

This word refers to the distance

.

from the base to the top of an object or person:

summer. Height

the ending width,

.

the height of the mountain.

means `most intense point':

etc.

-th,

he she or

The use of

he/him/his

as pro-

nouns of common gender, with reference

It also

to a person of unspecified sex, is widely

at the height of

considered to be misleading and sexist, as is

is sometimes misspelt with on the model of

length,

the use of

she/her/hers

for the same purpose

.

with reference to jobs or activities that are traditionally associated with women:

The

149 .

candidate

must

penses.

This book will be of great value

pay

his

own

travelling

ex-

to the student nurse preparing for her examinations.

high

building, custom, etc., especially as a means of exploiting its commercial potential in the tourism industry: . .. heritage tours of the docklands

The most acceptable substitutes

Tourism and the heritage industry inevitably distort

for these pronouns are the cumbersome

the past by making imitations of historic buildings

.

and pedantic expressions (s)he, his or her,

etc.:

he or she, he/she,

learn, he or she will be given extra tuition. The

candidate

must

. hero heroine

pay

his

or

her

own

travelling expenses.

by

restructuring

the

.

.

sentence,

making the subject plural, or both:

Tra-

velling expenses must be paid by the candidate.

.

Candidates must pay their own travelling

expenses.

or

Children who are slow to learn will

? see

).

NON-SEXIST TERMS.

hesitance hesitancy hesitation ,

nouns

In some cases, the problem may be avoided

(

or changing their use The Guardian

If a child is slow to

or

and

hesitance

? The

hesitancy

refer to the

state of being hesitant (i.e. wavering, irresolute, indecisive, reluctant, etc.).

.

Hesitancy

is the more frequent of these synonyms:

There was a note of hesitancy in her voice .

The noun

.

.

refers to the act or an

hesitation

instance of hesitating:

after a slight hesita-

He accepted the offer without hesitation.

Various attempts to coin new pronouns, such as heterogeneous This word is often mis, etc., have met with little success; it ending. has also been suggested that the pronoun , spelt. Note the already used of babies, should be extended to hew or hue? is a verb meaning `cut', human beings of all ages. The solution most often `carve', or `cut down': . . resorted to now is the previously criticized use of , and as singular pronouns It should not be confused with the noun (see THEY). which means `colour' or `shade of be given extra tuition.

tion

◆

s/he, tey, hesh

-eous

it

Hew

He hewed down the

tree.

they, them, their

theirs

herd HEARD HERD hereditary heredity see

or

hue,

colour':

?

or

?

Hereditary

is an

.

which it is derived: hereditary.

.

is the noun from

heredity

Is

.

The walls are painted in two hues

of pink.

adjective, meaning `genetically transmitted' or `inherited';

They hewed a road through the jungle.

The disease is not

intelligence

determined

by

hiatus

where

The noun gap, break,

hiatus

or

pause

quate or more appropriate: discussions.

hiccup hiccough or

is best avoided

.

would be adea hiatus in our

? Both spellings of this

are acceptable but is the more The two words are sometimes confused, being word similar in pronunciation (the of is often frequent. ◆ The word refers to a sudden intake of breath elided in speech). resulting in a characteristic sound. It has the addiheritage or inheritance? The noun tional informal sense of `small problem': . most frequently refers to cultural items, natural features, or traditions of .

heredity or environment?

◆

a

hiccup

hereditary

The

heri-

project is going well apart from a few minor hic-

tage

cups

the past that are handed down from gen-

.

eration to generation and are considered to be of importance to modern society: pyramids

are

inheritance

.

part

of

Egypt's

heritage.

The

An

is money or property that an

heir receives from an ancestor who has died:

He squandered his inheritance.

hidden agenda

The phrase

hidden agenda

is generally used in a derogatory manner, referring to a secret intention or ulterior

.

motive concealed behind a public statement, political policy, etc.:

Ministers have

assured their critics that there is no hidden

phrase is regarded by some may also refer to the inheriting of people. asThe a vogue cliche and should not be physical or mental characteristics from one's par- overused. ents. In its broader sense, denotes anything that one inherits at birth; it is thus high or tall? Both these adjectives mean `of interchangeable to some degree with : greater than average size, measured verti. . cally', but there are differences of sense, Some people dislike the indiscriminate applica- usage, and application between them: . . tion of the word to any historical event, .

◆ Inheritance

agenda

heritage

inheritance

the family's rich intellectual heritage/inheritance

a

heritage

high mountain

a tall woman

high-profile

150

◆ The adjective is largely restricted to people, animals, and plants and to things that are narrow in proportion to their height; it is the opposite of . :. . has the additional meaning of `situated at a great distance above the base'; it is the opposite of : . . . The two adjectives may be applied to the same noun in different senses: is a long way from the floor; is relatively large from top to bottom. The size of the window and the position of the window are unspecified. Like other adjectives of magnitude ( , etc.), and are used in combination withspecificmeasurementsregardlessofsize: . .. . tall

short

a tall tree

a tall chimney High low

branch

a high

a high shelf

a high window

a tall window

high

tall

wide

high

see

The noun

has become

Hispanic

an accepted term for a Spanish-speaking person from Central or South America living in the USA, alongside

Latino

and

Chicano.

historic historical or

toric

? The adjective

his-

relates to events, decisions, etc., that

He

PROFILE.

earn a place in recorded history;

meaning `seize

. .

control of (a vehicle in transit)', is increas-

.

past in general: historical records

.

a

historic

historical

election

.

The king's visit to the town

was not a historic occasion, it is of historical interest only.

hijack,

HE or SHE.

see

relates to the study of history and to the

The wall is less than one

The verb

or

are memorable or important enough to

metre high

high-profile hijack

his her Hispanic

let

long, deep,

tall

is only five feet tall

. The subject of is usually the owner of the property rather than the person who pays for temporary use. pany cars are leased

The adjective

historical

is also

applied to people, events, etc., that existed

.

or happened in fact, as opposed to fiction or legend:

a historical character.

The two adjectives are not fully interchangeable, . although both may be applied to the same noun. , for example, is contrasted with . one that is of no lasting significance, whereas ◆ is a rare variant spelling of the verb. is contrasted with one that never took place: the voyage of Christopher Columbus him or his? see -ING FORMS. to the New World was both and . Hindi or Hindu? is a language of See also A or AN? India; is a noun or adjective relating Some people dislike the overuse of with to the Indian religion of Hinduism: . reference to events that are of ephemeral signifi. . . The two cance: . words should not be confused. ( ). hire or rent? Both verbs mean `have or ingly used in figurative contexts:

plane has been hijacked by terrorists

of

their

most

successful

authors

has

The

One

been

hijacked by a rival company

◆

A historic voyage

a

Highjack

historical voyage

historic

Hindi

Hindu

historic

She

speaks Hindi

historical

He is (a) Hindu

Western Samoa produced the first major

upset of the World Cup with a historic victory over Wales . . . The Guardian

.

give temporary use of something in return

.

for payment':

.

wedding. centre.

He

hired

a

suit

for

the

We rented a flat in the town

They hire/rent (out) cars at compe-

titive rates.

◆ The basic difference in sense between the two verbs concerns the length of the period of temporary use and, to some extent, the nature of the item in question: a room or building may be for a party or conference or for a longer period of time. Clothes are (usually for a single occasion), not ; television sets are (sometimes for a number of years), not . Cars may be or . The verbs and are also used in this context, usually with reference to buildings or land: . .. .. .. ..

hired

rented

hired

rented

rented hired

hired

let

rented

lease

She lets the cottage to tourists

to let

Room

They leased the land from the council

The council leased them the land

All the com-

histrionic

or

and

histrionic

hysterical hysterical

? The adjectives

are both used of

emotional outbursts but should not be confused:

histrionic

behaviour is a display

of insincerity, being deliberately exaggerated for melodramatic effect;

hysterical

be-

haviour is the result of an involuntary loss of control.

◆ The same distinction may be applied to the nouns and , both of which are used with plural verbs, adjectives, etc., in this context (see -ICS). and originally referred to actors and the theatre; and also relate to the mental disorder of hysteria. histrionics

Histrionics

hysterics

histrionic

hysterics

hi-tech

The adjective

hi-tech

hysterical

specifically

refers to high technology, or sophisticated electronics; its indiscriminate application to

151 basic electrical appliances or to anything

.

remotely connected with computing is dis-

.

liked by many careful users: tech

modern

home

a beautiful hi-

high-tech

benefits

.

[a

holy holey wholly ,

or

homogeneous ? These three spel-

lings should not be confused. The adjective holy

means `sacred'; the adjective

.

.

reference to the computerization of the

`having holes'; the adverb

social security benefits system]

`completely':

This tran-

sition of the cycle from leisure `toy' to hi-tech pedal machine

(Daily

Telegraph).

.

spellings: high-tech, high tech, hi-tec, high-tec, etc. It is also used as a noun: world of high tech

line],

[spelt

Reflecting the

hi-tech

in the head-

the first museum devoted to the chemical

industry opens today

hoard horde or

.

(The

? A

Guardian).

hoard

served for future use'; a crowd':

is `a large

hordes of tourists.

These words are often confused, as they have the same pronunciation.

◆

hoarse horse or

?

Hoarse

describes a voice

that is rasping or harsh, typically as the result of an infection or through overuse. It should not be confused with

horse,

which

refers to the animal.

hoi polloi

referring to the common populace, is often the

words. Because

hoi

-oi

ending of

both

means `the' in Greek

it is technically redundant, but the phrase is firmly established in English.

◆

The phrase is pronounced [hoy paÆ ].

holey holistic

.

hoÅ

house

-ll-

? The word

holistic

is used of any

.

the whole rather than with individual parts holistic medicine

home

may

has his or her residence, but varies from house

in conveying an affectionate, even

.

`retreat from the world':

.

the heart is.

.

Home is where

I'm tired and I want to go home.

He has no home to go to. Home

is also

useful for describing buildings that are not houses, such as flats.

House

generally refers

more dispassionately to a place of residence,

.

usually a single-family dwelling as distinct from a flat or other type of residence:

All

the houses in this street are due for demolition.

Note that in the sense of `care facility', in such uses as or is disliked by many people, including those who live in or run such places:

◆

home

home for the

mentally disabled,

.

They put the old lady in a home.

in a home.

homely

.

He should be

In British English the adjective is complimentary, meaning `like

.

in American English it has the derogatory

system, method, theory, etc., that deals with or members:

or

are pronounced [ li]; the pro[ li] reflects the spelling.

wholly hoÅl

home', `unpretentious', or `sympathetic';

HOLY, HOLEY or WHOLLY?

The adjective

home

.

means

holey socks

refer to an actual building where a person

homely

loy

see

holey

retirement home

This phrase of Greek origin,

misspelt. Note

◆ and nunciation of

wholly

sentimental, sense of `place of refuge' or

is `a store re-

horde

holy relics

wholly convinced.

Holy

The word hi-tech has a number of variant

holey,

only used facetiously or informally, means

a holistic

.

sense of `ugly' or `unattractive': a homely child.

a homely

Misunderstanding is most likely to occur when the adjective is applied to a person, in which case it may be replaced by an appropriate synonym.

room

◆

◆ The term relates to the concept of wholes that homogeneity The traditional pronunciaare greater than the sum of their parts, of the tion of this word, derived from natural tendency to form such wholes, and of a (see HOMOGENEOUS or HOMOGENOUS?) universe that is composed of such wholes. Many is [homoÆjeÆ iti], although [homoÆjeÆn iti] people take care not to overuse or misuse this is sometimes heard. word. homogeneous or homogenous? These approach to life.

homoge-

neous

nee

holocaust

ay

to

two adjectives are virtually interchangeable

denote any major disaster, especially one

in the sense of `similar, identical, or uni-

that involves great loss of life, is disliked by

form in nature, structure, or composition',

The use of the noun

holocaust

some users, who prefer to restrict the word

homogeneous

being the more frequent:

.

a

. . ◆ In biology, the adjective specifiThe , usually written with a capital , cally refers to correspondence or similarity due to refers to the massacre of the Jews by the Nazis common descent. The two words are closer in spelling and meanduring World War II. to its original meaning of `total destruction by fire':

◆

homogenous

the nuclear holocaust

Holocaust

homogeneous mixture.

H

homograph

152

ing than in pronunciation: pronounced [homoÆ niuÆs] and [hoÆ inuÆs].

homogeneous

jee

moj

homograph homonym homophone ,

A

or

?

spelling or pronunciation as another word. There are two kinds of homonym: and

homo-

homophone.

◆A is a word that is spelt like another word, but has a different meaning or origin. For example, , `a slender marsh plant', from Old English and , `to move quickly', from Middle French , `to put to flight'. Homographs need not have the same pronunciation, e.g. , `to guide', rhyming with , and the metal , rhyming with . A is a word that is pronounced in the same way as another but with a different meaning, derivation, or spelling. Examples are ; ; ; . graph

homograph rush

risc

rush

ruser

lead

feed

lead

head

homophone

hear±here rain±reign right±write son±sun

homophobia

The

noun

homophobia,

meaning `fear or dislike of homosexuals', and the derived noun jective

frequency:

.

homophobia.

.

homophobe

and ad-

are used with increasing

homophobic

The Church has been accused of a homophobic police officer.

Some people object to these coinages, on the basis that the

homo-

element can only

mean `same' (as in the word

homosexual

itself) or `man'.

homophone HOMOPHONE homosexual

see

?

the Hon. Sec.

Hon

HOMOGRAPH, HOMONYM or

honour

honorary

honourable

hoofs hooves or

? Either

word

may

be

pro-

nounced in several ways, two of the most Æ seksyool] and [ho Å mo Åfrequent being [homo

hoofs

acceptable as the plural of

or

hoof,

hooves

is

`the hard

bony part of the foot of a horse, cow, etc.'.

hopefully

The use of

hopefully

to mean `it

is (to be) hoped (that)' or `I/we hope (that)'

.

is disliked by some users and is best restricted to informal contexts:

Hopefully the

rain will stop before we leave.

◆ The resistance to this usage is based on a number of arguments, of which the most valid is the possible confusion with the traditional adverbial sense of ± `with hope' or `in a hopeful manner'. Ambiguity is most likely to occur when the adverb is placed directly before the verb: . may mean `I hope they will wait for us' or `they will wait for us with hope'; and are less ambiguous renderings of the two senses. See also ADVERBS; SENTENCE ADVERB. is favoured by some users as a less cumbersome alternative to `it is (to be) hoped (that)' and a more impersonal alternative to `I/ we hope (that)'. hopefully

They will hopefully wait for us

Hopefully they will wait for us

They will

wait for us hopefully

Hopefully

horde HOARD HORDE horrible horrid horrific horrendous see

or

,

This

the Rt Hon.

Margaret Thatcher

u

is a word that has the same

homonym

. . in titles: . . Note the spellings of the two words: the of is always absent from ; it is present in the British spelling of but absent from the American spelling of this word.

is usually to

homogenous

Horrible

?

,

and

or

?

are virtually inter-

horrid

changeable in the sense of `very unpleasant';

horrific

and

.

horrendous

convey

a

. . Some people prefer [hom-] to [hoÅm-] because, in . this case, is from the Greek `same' . and not the Latin `man'. ◆ All four adjectives are ultimately derived from the Latin verb , meaning `to tremble or See also GAY. bristle (with fear)'; in formal contexts they are honorary or honourable? principally used in the sense of `causing fear or means `given as an honour, without the dread'. usual requirements or obligations' or `unThe use of and to mean `dis. paid': . . . agreeable' or `unkind': . . , is best restricted to informal contexts, as is means `worthy of honour' or the use of to describe exorbitant `showing honour' and is also used as a title prices, very bad weather, etc. . of respect: . stronger sense of horror:

seksyool].

◆

a horrible dream

homo

homos

a horrid sight

a horrific attack

the

horrendous prospect of nuclear war

homo

horreÅre

Honorary

an honorary degree

member of the society

the honorary secretary

Honourable

deed

.

Margaret Thatcher.

honourable the

Right

man

an

Honourable

The two adjectives are not interchangeable in any of their senses, but both may be abbreviated

◆

horrid

a horrid man

a horrible

hors d'oeuvre

is an item

meal

horrendous

an

honourable

horrible

an honorary

hors d'oeuvre

An

of food served before or as the first course of a meal. Of French origin, the phrase is sometimes misspelt: note particularly the

153 .

vowel sequence -oeu-. The two words are sometimes hyphenated:

hors-d'oeuvre.

The plural is usually , but , without the final - , is also acceptable. The anglicized pronunciation of is [or vr] or [or ]: the - and - are silent. If the final - of the plural form is sounded, the pronunciation is [or ]: it can be difficult to say [or vrz]. ◆

hors d'oeuvres

d'oeuvre

hors

s

hors d'oeuvre

der

derv

h

s

s

hors d'oeuvres dervz

horse HOARSE hospitable see

der

or

HORSE?

former, more traditional pronunciation. The verb

hospitalize,

meaning

`send or admit to hospital', is disliked by some users as an example of the increasing

.

tendency to coin new verbs by adding the suffix -ize to nouns and adjectives:

She was

hospitalized in the eighth month of her pregnancy.

host .

.

However I wash my hair, and

however carefully I dry it, it always looks untidy.

and

For the distinction between see

however

WHATEVER or WHAT EVER?

◆ In the sense of `nevertheless', often serves the same purpose as ; careful users avoid using both words in the same sentence or clause unless is being used in one of its other senses: . .. .. . Some users always separate (in the sense of `nevertheless') from the rest of the sentence with commas or other punctuation marks; others use punctuation marks only where there is a possibility of ambiguity or confusion. See also COMMA 4. In the sense of `nevertheless', is usually placed immediately after the word or phrase that it serves to contrast or emphasize: . suggests that I like the colour but my friend does not; , , suggests that my friend likes some other feature of the object in question but does not like the colour. Some users object to the positioning of (in the sense of `nevertheless') at the beginning or end of a sentence or clause; however, this is generally acceptable in most contexts. how ever

however

but

however

The girl screamed; she did not, however,

try to escape

The girl screamed, but she did not

try to escape

This word may be stressed on Æ bl] or the second the first syllable [hospita Æ bl]. Some users prefer the syllable [hospita

hospitalize

of room inside.

humanism

The girl struggled, but however

hard she tried, she could not escape

however

however

my friend,

however, does not like the colour

my friend

The verb

host,

meaning `act as host at'

.

or `be the host of', is disliked by some users: He hosted the firm's Christmas party.

is to host the BBC's new quiz show.

See also

GUEST.

host hostess -hostile -FRIENDLY hot desking or

? see

see

She

NON-SEXIST TERMS.

This contemporary business

whatever work space is available or is most

.

convenient rather than at a designated workmotes efficiency.

however

ALTHOUGH or HOWEVER? hue see HEW or HUE? hullo see HELLO, HALLO or HULLO? See also

.

term refers to the practice of working at

station or desk:

does not however like the colour

We believe hot desking pro-

As a vogue term, hot desking is

considered jargonistic by many people and is

human human

(or

Some people dislike the use of

as a noun, preferring

man, woman, child, person,

.

human being

etc.):

This

job can be done more efficiently by a robot

dictionaries acknowledge the noun human DESK DINING; DUVET DAY; DRESS- asMost a synonym for human being. DOWN DAY. See also INHUMAN or INHUMANE? best restricted to informal contexts. See also

hour our or

? The words

hour

and

our

are

Æ ] but have different both pronounced [owa meanings and should not be confused. Hour

denotes a period of time, while

our

means `belonging to us'.

house HOME hove HEAVED however see

see

HOUSE? or HOVE?

or

.

or

?

Humanism

rejects the need for religion. The noun humanity

for the

The two nouns should not

◆ also refers to a cultural movement of the Renaissance. The are academic subjects such as history, art, literature, language, and philosophy, as distinct from science. Humanism

have a large boot; it does, however, have plenty

.

refers to human beings collec-

be confused.

The car doesn't

is a

philosophy that values human beings and

sake of humanity.

are `nevertheless', `in whatever

way', and `no matter how':

humanism humanity

tively; it also means `kindness':

The principal adverbial senses of

however

than by a human (being).

◆

humanities

humanist

humanist humanitarian or

154 ?A

humanist

is

a person who supports the philosophy of

HUMANISM or HUMANITY?); a

humanism (see

is a philanthropist, a person

humanitarian

who works for the welfare of human beings.

The word adjective: . ◆

is also used as an .

humanitarian

a humanitarian organization

humanity HUMANISM humiliation humility see

or

or

?

HUMANITY?

Humiliation

is a

pride sometimes caused deliberately by

.

being humble or modest: of failure

humorist

.

is the quality of

humility

the humiliation

the nun's humility.

The noun

humorist,

misspelt. As in the adjective humour

meaning

HUMOROUS, the

is changed to -mor

before the suffix -ist.

humorous

This word, meaning `amusing u

of

is dropped before the suffix -ous.

must not be confused with the long bone in the upper arm. ◆ Humorous

hung hygiene

humerus

,

HANGED or HUNG?

see

This word, meaning `science of

ensuring good health', is often misspelt. Note

hy-

and not

hi-

at the beginning of

The word

hype,

used as a noun or

verb with reference to extravagant and

.

often deceptive publicity of books, films, etc., is generally regarded as a slang term:

.

The launch owed more to hype than to literary merit

(Sunday

making Weekly)

(The

.

hype

Times). in

sports

Hyping

the biggest moneyhistory

books

is

(Publishers

big

business

Bookseller).

The word is of uncertain origin: many authorities associate it with the slang use of as an abbreviation for ; others have suggested a connection with the prefix -, meaning `excessive', as in .

◆

hype

hypodermic

hyper

hyper- hypoor

hyperbole

or

?

describe a type of symmetrical curve; perbole

.

I've warned him a

is an example of

million times

hyperbole

? These two prefixes are

word and they share the derived adjective

◆ Note that the final - of is pronounced, producing the four-syllable word [hõÅ boÆli]. is pronounced [hõÅ boÆlaÆ]. hyperbolic(al).

e

hyperbole

per-

hypercritical hyphen

TICAL?

per

see

HYPOCRITICAL

Hyper-

means `above or

.

hyperactive

means `beneath or under': syringe.

or

HYPERCRI-

The principal uses of the hyphen

together, either as a fixed compound or to avoid ambiguity, and to indicate that a word has been broken at the end of a line through lack of space.

◆ There are a number of other situations in which the use of the hyphen is optional.

1

.

.

Most standard prefixes are attached with-

.

out a hyphen:

unimportant

prefabricated.

child;

hypo-

a hypodermic

multicoloured

Some users prefer to hyphenate words non-

and words in which the

.

absence of the hyphen would result in a

.

.

word with a doubled vowel: mable

pre-eminent

non-flam-

co-ordinate.

.

Such

.

words are widely and increasingly accepted

.

in the single-word forms: preeminent

double

i

coordinate,

nonflammable

etc. However, the

of words prefixed by

.

inflationary

semi-independent.

Words prefixed with

.

ex-

.

anti-, semi-,

etc., is usually split by a hyphen:

anti-

ex-wife

.

(in the sense of

`former') and self- are usually hyphenated: self-sufficient.

A hyphen is sometimes inserted after the prefix to avoid ambiguity or confusion; for example, to distinguish between the nouns co-op

(a cooperative) and

coop

recover

a

hyperbole.

Both nouns originate from the same Greek

derstanding when each is joined to its

.

hy-

means `exaggeration used for effect

sure), or between the verbs

excessively':

two

Hyperbola

is a technical term used in mathematics to

often confused. This may result in misunrelevant suffix.

These

nouns should not be confused.

prefixed with

the word, and the -ie- in the middle.

hype

hyperbola

in English are to join two or more words

or funny', is often misspelt. The second humour

Her son is rather hyper

Hyperbola

`humorous writer, speaker, etc.', is often

-mour ending of

hyper

in speech or writing':

feeling of shame, embarrassment, or loss of other people;

The prefix - is increasingly used as an adjective in its own right, in the sense of `hyperactive': . .

◆

(see also

RE-),

(an enclo-

re-cover

and

and to clarify the

pronunciation and meaning of such words as

de-ice.

See also

CO-.

A hyphen is always used to join a prefix

.

to a word beginning with a capital letter: anti-British

2

un-Christian.

155 .

long-

without a hyphen, depending on convention, frequency of usage, the writer's per-

.

.

sonal preference, or the publisher's house hearted

dining room

or

boyfriend.

or

.

dining-room

hardhearted

.

element may be replaced by a hyphen:

Many compounds can be written with or

style:

hard-

or

boy-friend

.

solid compounds, in which the common

-LIKE.

See also

hypocrisy

There is a growing tendency

or

-women.

short-haired dogs

salesmen and

Some users dislike this conven-

tion, preferring to retain the full compound in all cases.

6

.

A hyphen is inserted when numbers

.

.

.

between 21 and 99 are written out in full: twenty-one

thirty-seven

hundred and fifty-three.

eighty-six

four

towards minimal hyphenation, with the

A hyphen is used when fractions are

substitution of two words or one word as

written out, to separate the numerator

appropriate.

and denominator:

Some fixed compounds of three or more words, such as etc.,

are

son-in-law, happy-go-lucky,

always

hyphenated;

two-word

compound adjectives in which the second element ends in -ed, such as

4

blue-eyed, short-sighted,

phenated (see also

light-hearted,

etc., are usually hy-

below).

.

Some compounds derived from phrasal verbs are always hyphenated:

.

broken-down;

some are always solid (not hyphenated):

.

breakthrough;

or solid:

or take-over

rundown.

3

.

others may be hyphenated

takeover

run-down

or

Compounds of two or more words used

.

adjectivally before the noun they qualify

.

are usually hyphenated: sells used cars;

a used-car dealer

coated with plain chocolate; month-old baby

.

a plain-chocolate biscuit a

three-

is three months old;

once-in-a-lifetime

opportunity

.

is a

occurs only

. .

once in a lifetime. These hyphens are often essential to avoid ambiguity:

a red-wine

bottle

is a bottle for red wine;

bottle

may be a wine bottle that is red.

4

.

.

adverb are not hyphenated if the adverb ends in -ly:

a neatly written letter

that is neatly written.

a letter

Compounds contain-

ing other adverbs, especially those that may be mistaken for adjectives (well, little,

half,

ill, best,

etc.) are usually hyphenated

.

when they are used adjectivally before a

.

noun, to avoid ambiguity: loaf

his

best-known

novel.

a half-cooked

When such

compounds occur after the noun, the hyphen is sometimes optional.

5

7

A common element need not be repeated

.

three-tenths

two-thirds.

.

thir-

The other major use of the hyphen is at

the end of a line, splitting a word that is to be continued at the beginning of the next line. There are a number of conventions relating to the points at which a word may

be

divided;

these

recommended

breaks are marked in some dictionaries. There is an increasing tendency for word

.

division to be influenced by phonetic rather than etymological principles photog-rapher Æ togra Æ feÆr], not photo-grapher. [fo A word should always be split between syllables, ideally at a natural break: after an existing hyphen; between the elements of a one-word compound; after a prefix, such as semi-, inter-,

etc.; or before a suffix, such

as -ness, -ment, etc. Words of one syllable should not be broken. Words should not be broken immediately after the first letter or immediately before the last.

a red wine

Adjectives or participles preceded by an

.

teen-sixteenths

It is also important to ensure that the letters on either side of the break will not

.

.

mislead the reader, especially if they form a

.

.

word in their own right:

.

rapist

.

mans-laughter

homes-pun

.

leg-end,

.

mace-rate

not-able

the-

rear-range

re-creation tractor.

un-ionized

8 hypo- HYPERhypocrisy

.

and that the hyphen

.

.

will not be mistaken for a fixed hyphen: de-crease

ex-

In handwritten and typewritten texts a

hyphen is often used in place of a see

or

The noun

HYPO-? hypocrisy

DASH.

is sometimes

misspelt, a common error being the sub-

in groups of two or more hyphenated

stitution of

compounds but the hyphen must not be

-crisy

omitted; the same convention applies to

not

-cracy

(as in

democracy)

ending. Note also the prefix

hyper-.

for the hypo-,

hypocritical

hypocritical hypercritical or

words

are

often

156

? These two

confused.

Hypocritical

.

means `insincere' or `two-faced'; cal

means `excessively critical':

hypercriti-

It would be

.

hypocritical of me to say I enjoyed the concert, when really I thought it was awful.

He's so

hypercritical about the way I lay the table .

As well as being misspelt, these words are sometimes mispronounced. is pronounced [hipeÆ ikl], is pronounced [hõÅpeÆ ikl]. ◆

Hypocritical

krit

hypercritical

krit

hysterical hysterics ,

HYSTERICAL?

see

HISTRIONIC

or

I me or

I ? The subject pronoun

object pronoun

me

and the

I

are sometimes confused

in informal speech, especially in the phrases and

Between you and I.

After verbs and prepositions, the object pronoun should be used; before verbs, the subject pronoun should be used: . [not ] .. [not ]. . [not ] . Confusion and errors occur in the highest places: . (said during Prime Minister's Question Time). These problems rarely arise when the pronoun stands alone; any confusion may therefore be resolved by mentally removing the other item(s) and assessing the result: . .. .. . The verb , according to grammatical convention, is an exception: in formal contexts is unacceptable to a few careful users, who prefer . However, in informal contexts the idiomatic is generally considered to be more natural than the pedantic and is acceptable to most users. See also IT. The phrase is avoided by many users in all contexts, although it is often heard in informal speech. , which conforms to grammatical convention, is the preferred usage. It's me

◆

me

I

They have invited

my mother, my father, and me wedding

I

to the

He works with Mary and me

My friend and I

I

me will help

She could

give a better answer than that to I and to my honourable friends

They have invited me to

the wedding

He works with me

I will help

to be

It is me

It is I

It's me

It's I

between you and I

Between you and me

AS; LET; MYSELF; PRONOUNS; THAN. -ible see -ABLE or -IBLE? See also

-ic -ical

ELECTRIC or ELECTRICAL?; HISTORIC or HISTORICAL?; MAGIC or MAGICAL?; POLITIC or POLITICAL?

Some adjectives, especially those related to nouns ending in , are found only in the form: a may be ; a is . Others, such as or , are very rarely, if ever, found in the form. With the exception of and , all adverbs derived from adjectives ending in or . have the suffix : . . -ic

-ical

critic

critical

static

sceptic

sceptical

tragic

-ical

politic

public

-ic

-ical

-ics

-ically

tragically

critically

A number of words ending in

.

-ics

may

be singular or plural nouns, depending on

.

the sense in which they are used: is the study of sound.

Acoustics

The acoustics of the room

have been improved and are now excellent.

◆ Such nouns are usually singular when they denote a science or some other area of study or activity: . .. .. . In other contexts, the same nouns may become plural, when they refer to a system, set of principles, group of activities, etc. . .. Some nouns, such as , and , may be singular or plural as described above but also exist in a singular form: . Mathematics was not my favourite

subject at school

Gymnastics is just one of

her many hobbies

Economics is taught in the

sixth form, but politics is not on the curriculum

His politics are very

left-wing

What are the economics of the coal

industry?

tactics, statistics

ethics

.

military tactics

.

.

vital statistics

her latest tactic

.

-ic

an alarming statistic

. Nouns relating to behaviour, such as , are usually plural.

ethic

hysterics

See also

.

professional ethics

the work

heroics

and

SINGULAR or PLURAL?

. identical with identical to . . . ◆ Sometimes either suffix may be added to the . same root. The pairs of words thus created may be virtually interchangeable, such as: . ◆ Some users dislike the phrase , con. ,althoughone sidering to be the more acceptable preposior

? Many adjectives are formed by

the addition of the suffixes cubic

symmetrical

phonetic

-ic

or

-ical:

geographical.

or

jective to:

metric±

metrical

philosophic±philosophical

identical

? The ad-

may be followed by

with

or

This picture is identical with/to the one

we saw in the shop.

identical to

is usually more frequent or more specialized than tion in this context. the other. In other pairs the two words may differ in meaning or usage: see CLASSIC or CLASSICAL?; identify Some people dislike the frequent COMIC or COMICAL?; ECONOMIC or ECONOMICAL?; use of as a synonym for `associate', with

identify

idioms

158

.

is difficult but rewarding' or `difficult work is rewarding'. It is impossible to ascertain from the second example whether the service was excellent . or not. ◆ In the sense of `share the ideas or feelings of', The use of in place of may also be is sometimes used reflexively: . confusing in certain contexts: . . In commercial and bureaucratic contexts, probably means `ask him whether it is is increasingly used as a synonym for `find', raining (or not)', but it may also mean `if it is `discover', or `recognize': . raining, ask him (for a lift, to close the window, etc.)'. . `link', or `connect':

They have been iden-

tified with a number of extreme right-wing organizations

identify with

if

I

whether

cannot identify (myself) with the heroine

Ask him if it is

iden-

raining

tify

to identify a gap in the

market

idioms

An

is a more or less fixed

idiom

expression, such as

out of hand, in spite of, to

come into one's own,

or

a storm in a teacup,

See

SUBJUNCTIVE; WERE OR WAS?;

also

WHETHER.

if and when

Many people object to the

the meaning of which is distinct from the

frequent use of the phrase

individual senses of the words it contains.

which can usually be replaced by

◆ Many idioms, such as . `beshowntobefoolish'and . `bevery tired after exertion' are best restricted to informal contexts; others, such as . `people regarded as having praiseworthy qualities', are acceptable at all levels.

alone:

METAPHORS; SIMILES.

See also

have egg on one's face be dog tired

the salt of the earth

idiosyncrasy

This word is often misspelt,

.

when we start a family.

The phrase sometimes serves a useful purpose, however. In the example above the users may not wish to commit themselves on the subject of parenthood: would imply doubt; would imply certainty. if

ignoramus

the ending

person', is

correct ending is like

-acy.

The

and not like

fantasy

privacy.

◆

i

idle idol idyll . ,

or

.

`not active; lazy': fellow

an idle machine

He is never idle.

An

of worship or admiration:

.

idol

They bowed before the idol.

means an idle

.

is an object

a pop idol

An

.

.

idle

idyll

The only plural form of the

ignoramus,

which means `ignorant

ignoramuses.

i

PLURALS), it is not a

is (a

not know'.

ilk

The use of

as a synonym for `type' or

ilk

`sort', in the phrase

.

some users:

is widely

Barbara Cartland and other

writers of that ilk.

idealized scene or situation:

times replaced by

an idyll of life

of that ilk,

accepted in many contexts but is disliked by

piece of writing that depicts) a pleasant or on the Pacific island.

Although the word

is of Latin origin, implying a possible

noun in Latin but a verb, meaning `we do

y

? The adjective

when

ending in the plural (see

Note also that and each occurs twice.

when

◆

noun

is replaced by

or

if

We'll move to a larger house if and

the most frequent error occurring when -asy

if and when,

The word

that

.

is some-

your, their, his, her,

etc.:

Barbara Cartland and other writers of her ilk.

and are sometimes confused, being ◆ The phrase is traditionally used to identical in pronunciation: [ dl]. is pronounced denote the landed gentry of Scotland, meaning `of with a short initial : [ il]. that estate': . is is more usually found in the derived ad. In such contexts the phrase is jectival word . often misinterpreted as `of that family'. ◆ Idle

idol

of that ilk

õÅ

i

Idyll

id

Glengarry of that ilk

Idyll

Glengarry,

laird of Glengarry

idyllic

idyllic

ill SICK ILL illegal ILLICIT ILLEGAL ILLEGITIMATE The stress occurs on the second syllable in both illegible eligible . cases: [i ik] or [õÅ ik]. . i.e. E.G. I.E. if ILLEGIBLE UNREADABLE . The first

nounced as in

i

of

ill,

pronounced as in

idyllic

is usually pro-

see

although it may be

or

see

item.

? ,

or

or

◆

dil

see

? The adjective

eligible,

meaning `qualified; suitable; worthy':

dil

be eligible for a competition

and

The use of

?

bachelor,

in place of

often

(see

should not be confused with or

to

an eligible

?).

ille-

Note the differences in spelling between the two words, particularly the and vowel sequence of and the and vowel sequence of . . ◆ The first of these examples may mean `the work

.

if

causes ambiguity: rewarding. excellent

though

The work, if difficult, is

gible

◆

-ll-

The service was good, if not

illegible

eligible

-l-

i-e-

e-i-

159

Illegible

[i õÆbl]; lej

is stressed on the second syllable, illustrative In British English the adjective on the first, [ ijõÆbl]. , is , as in: .

eligible

illegible illegible

or

el

unreadable

? The adjective

describes something that cannot

unreadable

means `uninteresting' or

`badly worded', describing something that

.

cannot be read with enjoyment, ease, or

.

understanding: ble.

novel.

.

Her handwriting is illegi-

He has produced another unreadable The document is unreadable; it must

be reworded.

may be used as a synonym for `illegible' in certain contexts, but it can cause ambiguity: . may be a criticism either of the handwriting (or printing quality) or of the content or wording. ◆ Unreadable

This paragraph is totally unreadable

illegitimate illicit elicit

see

MATE?

or

ILLICIT, ILLEGAL

ILLICIT, ILLEGAL

? The adjective

or

ILLEGITIMATE?)

.

be confused with the verb `draw out' or `evoke':

illustrative examples

illustrative

be deciphered and is therefore impossible to read;

immigrant

or

ILLEGITI-

illicit

(see

should not

elicit,

.

meaning

illicit dealings

to

Æ stra Æ tiv]. In stressed on the first syllable, [ilu American English the second syllable is Æ tiv]. stressed, [ilustra

image

The frequent use of

.

image

as a

synonym for `reputation' is disliked by some users:

This scandal will not be good

for the president's image.

In many contexts, however, has a wider range of meaning than : an advertising campaign can improve the , but not necessarily the , of a political party, for example. The of a person, product, organization, etc., is based largely on past performance; the word denotes a more general impression, which may also be influenced by presentation, appearance, association, etc.

◆

image

reputation image

reputation

reputation

image

imaginary

imaginative

or

?

Imaginary

means `unreal' or `existing only in the imagination';

.

imaginative

.

means

`having

or showing a vivid or creative imagination': an

.

imaginary

house

an

imaginative

an imaginative story.

The two adjectives are not interchangeable, The two words have the same pronunciation ◆although both may occasionally be applied to [i it]. the same noun: . does not has a lively imaginaillicit, illegal or illegitimate? All these exist; adjectives mean `unlawful', but there are tion. Note the spelling of , particularly the differences of sense, usage, and application . (not ) ending. between them: . . . An is a confused si◆ means `not permitted or approved by law': imbroglio . Note the tuation: . elicit the truth.

designer

◆

lis

an imaginary friend

an imaginative friend

imaginary

illicit trade

illegal parking

-ary

-ery

an illegitimate attack

.

imbroglio

Illicit

The Government should seek the co-operation

of the unions, business and revenue authorities to

a political imbroglio

spelling of this word, particularly the silent

. It is used in formal contexts and is of ( Italian origin; the anglicized pronunciation ). The word is also used to describe some- is [im lioÅ]. thing that is contrary to social custom: . ◆ The plural is formed by adding , not : . . See also ILLICIT or ELICIT? means `forbidden by law': . I mean The phrase may be used in informal speech to clarify, expand, or cor. The word is also used to describe rect a previous statement, question, etc.: . something that contravenes the regulations of a . sport, etc.: . . . The adjective is principally applied to children born of unmarried parents: . ◆ In some contexts the phrase serves no useful . It also describes purpose and may be omitted: . something that defies reason or logic: . . . eradicate illicit and irregular earnings Daily Tele-

graph

an illicit

relationship

g

bro

-s

-es

imbroglios

Illegal

The posses-

I mean

sion of such weapons without a licence is illegal in this country

Is

your foot very painful, I mean too painful to

an illegal tackle

walk on?

illegitimate

She lives in Plymouth, I mean

Portsmouth

the presi-

dent's illegitimate daughter

You could have

an illegi-

timate explanation

illusion ALLUSION illusive illusory see

,

ILLUSIVE?

bought a new umbrella, (I mean) they're not very expensive

ILLUSION or DELUSION? immanent see EMINENT, IMMINENT or IMMANENT? see ALLUSIVE, ELUSIVE or immigrant see EMIGRANT or IMMIGRANT? ,

imminent

160

imminent immoral immovable

or

AMORAL or IMMORAL?

see

both

EMINENT, IMMINENT

see

NENT?

or

immovable

immoveable and

IMMA-

[am-], [im-], or [om-]; the second syllable [-pahs] or [-pas]; and the stress may be on either syllable. The pronunciation [ampahs] is closest to the French.

impassioned impassive . NATE IMPASSIONED IMPASSIVE . impeccable .

? Note that

immoveable

,

are con-

sidered acceptable spellings of the word: The

chandelier

proved

immovable.

or

He

DISPASSIO-

see

,

?

This word, meaning `fault-

inherited the property together with various

less':

immoveables.

misspelt. Note particularly the

-able

ings as in

-ible

immune from immune to or

jective

immune

? The ad-

is followed by

to

in the

literal sense of `protected against or resis-

.

tant to disease and figurative extensions of

.

this sense: disease.

The plant is immune to fungal

She is immune to criticism.

.

figurative sense of `exempt', followed by

from:

punishment.

In the is

immune

Nobody is immune from

She spoke impeccable Italian, acceptable,

and not

is often endas in

sensible.

impel COMPEL IMPEL imperial imperious see

or

or

perial

?

? The adjective

im-

means `of an emperor, empress, or

empire';

.

imperious

`arrogant':

.

means `overbearing' or

the imperial palace

perious gesture.

an im-

The two words are sometimes confused in the extended sense of ± `majestic', `regal', or emption or freedom from obligation or `commanding': are those that are duty; is exemption or freedom as majestic as an emperor's, not those that are from punishment or harm: . domineering and arrogant. Both are derived from the Latin noun , meaning `command'. The adjective also refers to the British . system of weights and (pounds and ◆ is a restricted form of ; the ounces, feet and inches, measures gallons and pints, etc.), word occurs most frequently in the phrase which has now been largely replaced by the metric . system. also means `resistance to disease': . . impersonate, personate or personify?

immunity impunity or

?

Immunity

is ex-

◆

imperial

imperial powers

impunity

Diplomatic

immunity provides foreign ambassadors with

imperium

immunity from taxation and enables them to

imperial

infringe the law with impunity

Impunity

immunity

with

impunity

Immunity

This vaccination may not confer total immunity

impact

The use of

impact

as a synonym for

`effect', `impression', or `influence' is best

.

restricted to contexts in which the effect, impression, etc., is particularly powerful:

.

the impact of the government's resignation on the stock market

[not

The new packaging has had

impact] on sales.

To

impersonate

.

is to imitate or pretend to

be somebody else:

.

The comedian imper-

sonated Humphrey Bogart. impersonate a police officer.

It is a crime to

To

personify

.

is to

represent or embody something abstract or inanimate as a human being:

nifies the greed of modern society.

He perso-

The rare

Some people object to all figurative uses of the or . noun, reserving it for physical collisions and their effects: . . impinge or infringe? Either verb may be The use of as a verb meaning `affect' is used in the sense of `encroach': . . Note that best avoided: . both verbs are followed by (or ) in could be reworded as: is used with more ab. this sense. The increasing tendency to follow with stract nouns: . . isespeciallydislikedbymanypeople: . ◆ To , in formal contexts, also means to impasse The formal word . , mean- strike: .. , used transitively without , ing `deadlock; stalemate': means `break' or `violate': . . , is of French origin and has a little effect

verb

◆

personate

is sometimes used in place of

impersonate

personify

the impact of the bullet on the car door impact

They are

The cutbacks impacted secondary

education negatively

impinging/infringing on our rights

The

on

cutbacks had a bad effect on secondary education impact

on

This change

The bullet impinged on the side of the

impasse

reach

an

impasse

number The

first

of

anglicized

syllable

may

pronunciations. be

everything that impinges on

our consciousness

impinge on

will impact severely on small companies.

to

upon

Impinge

pronounced

vehicle

Infringe

impious

on

to infringe the rules

This word should be stressed on Æ s]. the first syllable [impiu

161 ◆ This contrasts with , which is stressed on the second syllable [im iti]. impiety põÅ

implement

The verb

avoided where

or

implement

is best

carry out, fulfil, accomplish,

.

would be adequate or

put into action

more appropriate:

[not

His absence will enable

implement] our plan.

incentive

be

another

person',

though the spelling quently used than

has

two

impostor

imposter.

impractical impracticable impresario or

CAL or PRACTICABLE? An

spellings,

is more fre-

? see

PRACTI-

is a theatrical

impresario

Originally a legal term, the verb is the word, particularly the single , unlike widelyusedinofficialcontexts: . . The usual pronunciation is [imÆ ]; the variant [impreÆ Æ ] is dispreÆ io io . liked by some people. As a noun, denotes a tool or instru- ◆ The plural is formed by adding - , not - : ment: . . There is a slight . difference in pronunciation between the verb and the noun: the final syllable of the verb is sounded impromptu see EXTEMPORE or IMPROMPTU? [-ment], rhyming with ; the final syllable of the improvise This word is sometimes misspelt. noun is unstressed [-meÆnt], as in . Note particularly the ending, which does

us to carry out

◆

producer or sponsor. Note the spelling of

implement

The company has

been ordered to implement safety measures as a

s

impress sar

result of the accident

sair

implement

s

agricultural implements

es

impresarios

tent

implicit EXPLICIT imply infer see

or

garment

or

? The verb

.

`suggest' or `hint at'; or `conclude': be

some

-ise

IMPLICIT?

infer

not have

imply

means

means `deduce'

.

She implied that there would

redundancies

in

the

factory.

I

inferred from what she said that there would be some redundancies in the factory.

To

imply

involves speech, writing, or action; to

infer

involves listening, reading, or observation.

The two verbs are frequently confused, being used in place of , to the extent that some dictionaries now list `imply' as an additional sense of . Many people object to this usage, however; it is therefore advisable to maintain the distinction between the two words. Similarly, the noun is sometimes used instead of , but it is preferable to maintain the distinction between these two words: . [not ] . is stressed on the second syllable; the final is doubled before - , - , and - . The noun , in which the stress shifts to the first syllable, has a single . ◆

infer

imply

infer

inference

im-

plication

the

implications

the inferences of the report

Infer

r

ed

ing

er

inference

r

See also

SPELLING 1.

important importantly or

tant

(short for

?

More impor-

what is more important)

is

sometimes regarded as an adverbial phrase,

.

the adjective importantly:

important

being changed to

His assistants are very con-

-ize

as a variant (see

impugn impute or

-IZE or -ISE?).

? These words, both of

which are formal, are sometimes confused. To

impugn

.

is to question the integrity of,

implying that someone is not being honourable: impute

to dare to impugn his motives.

.

To

is to attribute, sometimes unjustly:

it is grossly unfair to impute blame for the crime to them.

impunity IMMUNITY IMPUNITY impute IMPUGN IMPUTE in AT IN INTO IN TO inaccessible see

or

see

see

or

or

?;

?

?

or

?

Note the spelling of this ad-

jective, particularly the single -in-, the -ccand -ss-, and the -ible ending.

inapt inept or

? The adjective

inapt

means

`inappropriate' or `unsuitable'; its synonym inept

.

is more frequently used in the sense of

.

`incompetent' or `clumsy':

an inapt com-

an inept mechanic.

Both adjectives are ultimately derived from the Latin word , meaning `fit', and the negative prefix -; entered the English language via the Latin adjective .

parison

◆

aptus

in

inept

inasmuch as written

ineptus

This phrase may also be

in as much as,

.

although

is far more frequent:

inasmuch

scientious and, more important(ly), they are

as

utterly trustworthy.

significant inasmuch as it demonstrated the

. The phrase is preferred by many See also IN SO FAR AS. users in formal contexts, although is becoming increasingly acceptable. incentive The noun

◆

The result was

power of the individual

more important

more impor-

tantly

impostor imposter or

.

incentive

? This word, mean-

ing `person who fraudulently pretends to

by the preposition [or

to

or

for:

is followed

an incentive to

for] their employees to work harder.

incident

162

incident

The noun

is frequently

incident

the most common error being the substitu-

used in the mass media to denote an action

tion of an

or occurrence that has or is likely to have

◆

for the final i.

It is worth remembering that the word the same sequence of vowels. serious, violent, or political consequences: .

The

incident

sparked

off

a

wave

of

anti-

globalism protests.

a

independence

finite

independent

and

has

These

◆ In other contexts the noun is principally error being the substitution of used with reference to events of minor impor- frequent an for the final . tance: . ◆ Note, however, that the noun , `per. son who relies on another for financial support', is , the plural form, should not be con- spelt with a final . fused with , which means `occurrence', `rate', or `frequency': . in-depth The adjective is disliked words are sometimes misspelt, the most

incident

a

The unfortunate incident was soon for-

e

dependant

gotten

Incidents

a

incidence

The incidence of crime has

include comprise or

?

and

Include

comprise

are similar in meaning but not identical. is less restrictive than

Include

comprise,

suggesting that the things cited are part of a greater number or range of things, while

implies that the things cited

comprise

. .

in-depth

by many users; it can usually be replaced by

fallen in recent months.

thorough

or

detailed,

unnecessary synonym:

.

for which it is an

depth study of child abuse.

indexes indices or

.

an in-depth knowl-

edge of the latest electronic equipment

? The noun

two accepted plural forms,

an in-

index

indexes

are the entirety of the things under discus-

indices.

sion:

pronounced [indiseez], is largely restricted

tions.

The list includes a number of condiThe

document

comprises

a

full

The use of the plural form

has and

indices,

to mathematics, economics, and technical contexts.

For other senses of , especially that of `alphabetical list', the plural form is out comparison', is often mispronounced. . preferred by most users: The stress falls on the second syllable and not the third. The correct pronunciation is .. Æ ra Æ bl]. [in pa . incongruous see CONGRUENT or CONGRUconfession.

incomparable

This word, meaning `with-

◆

index

indexes

This cookery book

has two indexes: one lists recipes by name; the other lists principal ingredients

kom

indexes

OUS?

incontrovertible vertible,

ble',

The adjective

incontro-

meaning `undeniable; indisputa-

and

the

incontrovertibly,

are

derived sometimes

adverb misspelt.

Note the -ible (not -able) ending. Another frequent error is the substitution of -a- for the second -o-.

incredible

means

.

or

.

incredulous

`unbelievable';

`disbelieving': story.

Book titles

and authors' names are entered in separate

?

Incredible

incredulous

means

He told her an incredible

expression.

The useof the adjective in the sense of `wonderful' or `amazing' should be restricted to informal contexts: . . incredible

We had an incredible holiday

See also

LOUS?

CREDIBLE, CREDITABLE

indecent DECENT indefinite article indefinitely see

The adjective and noun

Indian

.

may

refer to India and its inhabitants or to the

.

indigenous peoples of America: an Indian reservation.

the Indian

This common confusion can be blamed on the explorer Christopher Columbus, who mistook the New World for India. The term is sometimes used to distinguish these peoples from the Indians of Asia; it is preferred to the older British term , which refers to the Indians of North America, and is now generally considered offensive. It has, however, been largely replaced in its own turn by NATIVE AMERICAN. An inhabitant of Pakistan, part of the Indian subcontinent, is a . Asian Indians and Pakistanis living in Britain are usually referred to as . Note that the Indian subcontinent itself is today more likely to be referred to as See also ASIAN or ASIATIC? Further confusion may be caused by the term , which refers to inhabitants of the West Indies and their descendants. Empire

◆

American Indian

She looked at him with an incredulous

◆

Indian

or

CREDU-

DECOROUS? see A or AN? or

This word is often misspelt,

Red Indian

Pakistani

Asians

South Asia.

West Indian

163

indicate indicate

.

In the field of medicine the verb

can mean `require; show the need

for or advisability of', usually in the passive: A course of antibiotics was indicated.

people object to the use of

indicated

Some

in this

.

sense in nonmedical contexts, in place of

.

shown to be necessary, advisable, dundancies were indicated.

etc.:

Re-

Upgrading of the

see

or

indite

or

INDICES?

? The words Indict

indict

and

± note the

c

that is not pronounced ± means `accuse; formally charge';

that means `write down'.

◆

The derived nouns are spelt . The

This word, meaning `absoIn this job, a car and a

telephone are indispensable assets,

times misspelt.

◆

The ending is .

-able

tructible

indite INDICT individual

, and not

in place of who

reserve

.

about:

.

or

for

individual

a group: person

[not

for

the rights of the individual

`unconcerned' or `uninterested' and from `neither good nor bad' to `below average' or `poor'. Used in either of its original senses, or even in one of its modern senses, the word is sometimes open to misinterpretation or confusion: . may be impartial, uninterested, neither good nor bad, or poor.

an indifferent

referee

NATIVE.

an eccentric individual

The adjective

or

about]

.

having

a person', it is followed by

Industrial

derived from the noun

in the sense

industry

is

of `manufacturing or commercial enterprises'; (from

means `hard-working'

industrious

.

industry

assiduity'):

.

in the sense of `diligence;

an industrial town

dustrious student.

industrialaction

an in-

The term industrial action

dissatisfied employees to put pressure on

to

do

.

the

She

their employers:

.

Industrial action by elec-

tricity workers may result in power cuts.

The

term is, however, misleading and contradictory, as a strike is characterized by a

lack

of action, rather than action.

The expression , which origidustry (in the sense of `manufacturing or commercial enterprises'): civil servants, teachers, hospital staff, etc., may take industrial action.

undiscriminating nated in the early 1970s, is not confined to in◆

?

nation (in the sense of `discernment' rather `prejudice');

? These two ad-

rule, or overtime ban) used by protesting or

Both adjectives refer to a lack of discrimithan

or

jectives should not be confused.

He was

REPORTED SPEECH.

or

to go

Indoor games are played indoors.

(such as a strike, sit-in, go-slow, work-to-

with:

seemed indignant with me.

see

.

is an adjective;

an indoor aerial

in the

about

In the sense `indignant with

indirect speech indiscriminate

Indoor

is fol-

indignant

at

sense `indignant at something': washing up.

?

is an adverb:

may denote any of a number of measures

lowed by the preposition [or

the

individual] who wrote this article.

or

indoors

indifferent

at

.

in

individual

indoors

indignant

contexts

indifferent

as to

trial.

see

individual

an unplea-

I am indifferent as to the outcome of the

indigenous indignant

indes-

which a single person is contrasted with

He is indifferent to your criticism.

◆

as in

is disliked by some users,

indoor indoors . . The two principal senses of have undergone a gradual change, from `impartial' to industrial industrious .

or

to

is some-

INDITE?

or

person

sant individual

adjective

should be followed by

-ible

indictment

inditement

indifferent

indispensable .

lutely essential':

◆ The noun is also used, with a derocontemptuous, or humorous effect, to and gatory, denote a particular kind of person: . . .Thisusage is best restricted to informal contexts. , not

is an older word

indite

DISCRIMINATING or DISCRIMINATORY?

The use of the noun

are both pronounced [indõÅt], but they

have different meanings.

See also

see

computer system is indicated.

indices INDEXES indict indite

inept

indiscriminate

has

the

industrial action

industrious INDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIOUS inedible EATABLE EDIBLE There is a tendency for to be ineffective ineffectual inefficient preferred to with direct reference to EFFECTIVE EFFECTUAL EFFICACIOUS EFFICIENT . people: . inept INAPT INEPT . .

.

extended meaning of `random' or `unselective':

indiscriminate killings

minating palate.

◆

undiscriminating viewers

or

see

undiscriminating

indiscriminate

viewing

see

an undiscri-

indiscriminate

or

?

,

,

,

see

,

or

?

see

or

?

?

inequality

inequality inequity iniquity ,

ity

?

Inequal-

is the state of being unequal or different;

.

means

inequity

.

or

164

wickedness:

`unfairness';

the inequity of the law

Inequity

and

words than

.

is

iniquity

the inequality of their ages

iniquity

a den of iniquity.

are much more formal

inequality.

infinite infinitesimal or

?

Infinite

means

`having no limits' or `extremely great':

.

.

infinitesimal

means `negligible' or `extre-

mely small':

She has infinite patience.

The

difference is

infinitesimal.

An

infinite

amount is so great that it cannot be measured; an

amount is so small

All three nouns may be used in the sense of that it cannot be measured. `injustice', with different connotations: . The of a verb, often means that some people infinitive preceded by , is its basic form, without . pay more tax than others; any of the changes or additions that relate implies that the system is unfair; . to tense, person, number, etc.: is the suggests that the system infinitive of the verb from which the past is morally wrong. participle is derived. in extremis The Latin phrase is ◆ The infinitive is used without after a number . . used in formal contexts to refer to an emerofauxiliaryverbs: . . , etc. gency or a very serious situation in which After a number of other verbs, the infinitive is extreme methods must be taken: . used with : . .. . .. ◆ In other, especially religious, contexts, the .. phrase also means `at the point of The infinitive (with ) is also used . death': . afteradjectivesandnouns: . . The phrase is sometimes . written or printed in italics. In some constructions the infinitive functions as a verbal noun and may be interchangeable with its in fact The phrase is largely used for gerund (see -ING FORMS): . emphasis or to expand on a previous state. . .. ment: . .. . . . In other constructions the infinitive and gerund . . ± ◆ Since means `actually' or `in reality', the arenotinterchangeable: . ± addition of is considered by many users to . ± . be superfluous: . Replacing an infinitive with a gerund sometimes . changes the meaning of a sentence: . Note that it is incorrect to write the phrase as a [i.e. paused] .. single word, [i.e. He finished reading it]. . [i.e. I didn't forget to infamous or notorious? Both adjectives mean `well-known for something bad': do it]. . [i.e. I recalled having locked it]. emphasizes the well-known aspect; emphasizes the bad aspect: . See also SPLIT INFINITIVE. For irregular parts of verbs see table at VERBS. infinitesimal

◆

The in-

infinitive

equality of the tax system

to

The inequity of the tax

system

The

(to) go

iniquity of the tax system

gone

to

in extremis

you can leave

he may object

they must wait

we should succeed

The use of

to

these drugs is only permitted in extremis

come

in extremis

I hope to see it

to go home?

easy to mend

legislation

housing

We love walking/to

will

conditions

not

in

in

fact

inner-city

I'm not familiar with the machine,

areas

a book

to read

in fact

improve

Do you wish

to

to administer a rite only when the

patient is in extremis

This

She refused to

It never fails to amuse him

walk

He began writing/to write

To teach/

Teaching young children requires great patience To find/Finding another job is not always easy

in fact I've only used it once

able to win

in fact

winning

actual

He often spends his holidays in

a tendency to cheat

He volunteered to help

capable of

a habit of cheating

he considered helping

France, but in (actual) fact he hates the French

He stopped

to read the notice

infact.

He stopped

reading the notice

I

remembered to lock the door

I remembered locking the door

notorious

infamous

.

.

the execution of this infamous/notorious criminal

.

his notorious lack of punctuality

junction is notorious for accidents. Richard III's most infamous deeds.

That

one of

Note the pronunciation and stress pattern of [ faÆmuÆs], which is quite different from that of [ muÆs]. ◆

infamous in

famous fay

infectious CONTAGIOUS infer inference IMPLY inferior . see

,

see

The adjective

by the preposition to his last one.

to:

INFECTIOUS? or INFER?

or

inferior

is followed

This novel is inferior

inflammable

The adjective

.

inflammable

describes something that will catch fire and burn easily:

This

inflammable. Inflammable

liquid

is

highly

may be wrongly

interpreted as the opposite of its synonym flammable

(by analogy with

sensitive±insen-

sitive; visible±invisible; edible±inedible; capable±incapable;

etc.). The potential danger

of such confusion has led to a preference, especially on warning signs and labels, for the less ambiguous terms

flammable

(denot-

ing an inflammable substance) and

non-

165

-ing forms

is also used in the sense of `inspire', which is closer to the meaning of the Latin verb `give shape to', from which it is derived: ◆ also means `easily angered or excited': . . In this figurative . . sense it cannot be replaced by . informant or informer? An is a The adjectives and person who gives information; an should not be confused; something who gives the police informatends to arouse strong or violent feelings: . istiona person about criminals and their activities: . . (denoting a substance that is not

flammable

Inform

(in)flammable).

informare

Inflammable

an inflammable situation

His learning informs his whole discourse

flammable

inflammable

informant

inflammatory

informer

inflammatory

an

inflammatory speech

inflation

.

the level of prices: risen to 6%.

The rate of inflation has

The word is widely used, espe-

.

cially in informal contexts, to denote the rate of inflation:

.

The professor was one of the author's most

Inflation is a general increase in

Inflation has risen to 6%.

useful informants.

The police were tipped off

about the robbery by an informer.

◆ Thenoun mayalsobeusedintheneutral sense of , but to avoid misunderstanding it is best restricted to its more specific meaning. informer

informant

is sometimes misinterpreted as being information The noun synonymous with the level of prices: . lowed by the preposition or , [or . A fall in (the rate of) inflation does not mean a fall in prices; it simply infringe see IMPINGE or INFRINGE? denotes a slower increase. ◆ Inflation

information

They say

inflation's going down but my money isn't going

any further than it did

inflection

is the term used for

the change in form that words undergo in order to denote distinctions of number, tense, gender, case, etc. It is also used to describe the grammatical relation of a word to its root by inflection. See

DERIVED WORDS.

So one can say that the word is formed by inflection from ; is formed by inflection from ; is formed by inflection from ; is formed by inflection from . The spelling is occasionally seen in British English. This is not incorrect but it is now considered virtually obsolete and is the preferred spelling.

◆

tables

table walked

walk heroine

hero them

they

inflexion

inflection

see

see

or

INFLICT?

info-,

short for

.

information,

to form

new blends and compounds, especially in tive entertainment)

.

infotainment

(informa-

infomania

(preoccu-

pation with information for its own sake) (information technology).

.

The noun `information' should be used only in informal contexts. infotech

◆

inform where

info

The verb tell

.

inform

is best avoided

would be adequate or more

appropriate:

Please tell

[not

inform] your

husband that his car is ready for collection.

Unlike , infinitive: .

◆

tell inform They told

should not be followed by an [not ] .. . informed him to leave

They informed me of his departure

ingenuous

or

`clever'

.

or

?

`inventive';

Ingenious

ingenious idea

.

ingenuous

means `innocent', `naive', or `frank': an ingenuous smile.

an

The two

adjectives are not interchangeable, but are sometimes confused.

The noun form , originally derived from and formerly used for both adjectives, is now restricted to the sense of `cleverness' or `inventiveness'; is the noun form of . Note the pronunciations of the two adjectives: the of is long, as in ; the of is short, as in .

◆

ingenuity

ingenuous

ingenuousness

ingenuous e

ingenious

ingenuous

-ing forms

noun):

.

informal contexts.

ingenious

means

.

mean

e

men

The -ing form of a verb may be

a present participle or a gerund (verbal

Some people dislike the increasing

use of

Do

about] the

company?

Inflection

inflict AFFLICT influenza FLU info-

you have any information on

.

is fol-

about:

on

.

I am learning Japanese

participle].

[present

Learning Japanese is not easy

[gerund]. It is sometimes difficult, and often unnecessary, to distinguish between a gerund and a present participle.

◆ Problems of usage arise when the gerund has its own subject: . .. . According to grammatical convention, the possessive form should always be used in such cases. The substitution of for in the first example (or of for in similar cases) would be unacceptable to many users, even in informal contexts. However, the substitution of for in the second example would be clumsy, unidiomatic, and also unacceptable to many users. She disapproves of your using the

car

She disapproves of the house where she

spent her childhood being demolished

you

him/us/them

childhood's

your

my/his/our/their

childhood

me/

inherent

166

Between these two extremes ± the simple personal pronoun and the complex noun phrase ± the possessive form is used with varying degrees of acceptability. For personal names and nouns relating to people, animals, etc., the possessive form is usually preferred in formal contexts but is sometimes rejected in informal contexts: . .. . If more than one name or noun is involved, the possessive form is usually rejected in all contexts: . .. . For abstract nouns and nouns relating to inanimate objects, which are rarely used with the possessive ending , the possessive form is usually rejected: . .. . In the four preceding examples, the absence of the possessive ending may cause confusion: the reader or listener is momentarily led to believe that . Such confusion can often be avoided by restructuring the sentence or by replacing the gerund with a noun: . . The use of the possessive form with such words as , etc., which may denote either an action or its result, can be ambiguous in some contexts: . [that they intended to hold a meeting]. . [that they had met]. In other contexts, the use of the possessive form may alter the meaning of a sentence: . places the emphasis on the girl; . places the emphasis on the dancing. She disapproves

of Peter's using the car

She disapproves of the

gardener's using the car

She disapproves of

Michael and Peter using the car

She disapproves

of the cook and the gardener using the car

-'s

She disapproves of the house being

demolished

She disapproves of religion being

taught in schools

she disapproves of Michael/the cook/the house/ religion

She disapproves of the

demolition of the house

painting, writing, meeting, cooking

We were not

informed of their meeting

We were not informed of their

meeting

They

watched the girl dancing

They watched the girl's dancing

treatment. Inhuman,

the opposite of

human,

is stronger and has a wider scope than inhumane.

To be

.

means to lack

inhuman

.

all human qualities, not only compassion and kindness:

inhuman violence

living conditions.

inhuman

◆ has the additional meaning of `not having human form': . . Inhuman

An inhuman shape ap-

peared at the window

iniquity QUITY in-law

INEQUALITY, INEQUITY

see

?

INI-

or

The use of the plural noun

in-laws,

.

denoting a person's relatives by marriage, is best restricted to informal contexts:

My in-

laws are coming for dinner on Saturday.

The plural of ,etc.,is formed by adding to the first element of the compound: , etc. ◆

mother-in-law, father-in-law, son-

in-law, daughter-in-law

s

mothers-in-

law, fathers-in-law

in lieu

The phrase

avoided where

in

lieu

.

quate or more appropriate: [not

the airport instead

(of)

is best

would be ade-

instead (of)

She drove to

in lieu] of taking the

train.

is chiefly used in formal contexts with reference to the replacement of one thing with another or others of equivalent value or importance: . .. . The word may be pronounced [lew] or [loo]. ◆ In lieu (of)

If they have to work on Christmas Day they

should be given time off in lieu

We are sending

two bottles of dessert wine in lieu of the champagne you ordered lieu

in loco parentis parentis

The Latin phrase

in loco

is used in formal contexts to mean

.

`acting for a parent; having the responsibilities of a parent':

On

a

school

trip,

teachers act in loco parentis.

◆

The phrase is pronounced [in loÅkoÅ paÆ tis]. It is ren

APOSTROPHE; DANGLING PARTICIPLES; sometimes written or printed in italics. INFINITIVE; PARTICIPLES; 'S or S'?; WANT. innit This is a contraction of , usually inherent This word, meaning `essential or employed as a tag question (see QUESTIONS) See also

isn't it

.

intrinsic', has two possible pronunciations: Æ nt] or [inherreÆnt]. The first of these [inheere

at the end of a statement: place, innit?

Originally used in working-

is the more traditional and is preferred by

class speech,

innit

many users.

British speakers in the early 1980s as an all-

inheritance HERITAGE inhuman inhumane see

or

or

INHERITANCE?

? Careful users

maintain the distinction between and

inhumane. Inhumane,

humane,

inhuman

the opposite of

.

means `lacking in compassion and

kindness; cruel; not merciful':

inhumane

This is a nice

was taken up by black

.

purpose question tag and imitated in turn by young white speakers: to the party, innit? Innit

They're coming

is a strictly non-

standard slang usage and should always be avoided in formal contexts.

innocuous .

The adjective

ing `harmless':

innocuous,

mean-

a few innocuous remarks,

is

167 sometimes misspelt. Note the single

c,

-nn-,

and the vowel sequence

innovative

in place of

innovative

creative, imaginative, progressive,

.

innovative method of contraception novative sales manager pany.

inoculate vaccinate or

and

vaccinate

.

etc.:

.

new, an

an in-

an innovative com-

.

input

to input data direct to a central computer input

contribute

input ideas to a meeting

? The verbs

inocu-

are virtually synonymous

body of a person or animal to provide [or

She has been inoculated

vaccinated] against whooping cough. Inocu-

provide with

input equipment

inquiry inside of

see

in the sense of `introduce a vaccine into the immunity':

The verb refers to the process of entering data into a computer: . . In other contexts, use of the verb is generally deprecated, other verbs being preferred: . . [not ] [not ] . Travel agents will be able

Many people dislike the fre-

quent use of

late

the

-uou-.

institute

ENQUIRY or INQUIRY?

Many people dislike the preposi-

tional phrase

inside of,

meaning `within' or

`in less than', in which the word

.

is

of

incorrect. The phrase should not be used in formal contexts: inside

[not

.

There was a cheque

inside of] the envelope.

The job

[not inside of] two weeks.

The addition of this superfluous to the preposition may be influenced by the phrase , which is followed by when it is used contexts in the sense of `instil': . . prepositionally: . . ◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the and the single . in sofaras This expression may be written late

has a wider range of usage: it may refer

to the introduction of a substance other

was completed inside

◆

of

inside

than a vaccine and is also used in figurative

He in-

on

the inside

of

a coupon on the inside of the

oculated his students with egalitarian ideals

wrapper

vaccinate

-cc-

inoculation

-n-

This word is often misspelt,

in so far as

or

insofar as,

the most frequent error being the addition of an extra

INASMUCH AS. in spite of see DESPITE or IN SPITE OF?

c

n

as in

and the single l.

in order that in order that

or

.

Note the single

in order to

is followed by

rather than

should

would:

and

innocent.

The phrase

may, might, shall,

can, could, will,

.

or

He moved his suitcase in order that

we might

[not

could] open the door.

She

.

the latter being

more frequent in American English: help you in so far as it is appropriate.

I'll

See also

install

or

instal

? Both spellings of this

.

word are correct, although the first is more frequently used: system.

install a central-heating

If the spelling with a single is chosen, then this doubles before the suffixes beginning with a ◆ These restrictions do not apply to the simpler vowel: . expression (see SO), which is often prefer- In British English, has a single , in able to in such contexts. American English it usually has a double . If the subordinate clause has the same subject as instantly or instantaneously? The adthe main clause, may be replaced by verbs and are virfollowedbyaninfinitive: . tually interchangeable in the sense of . . The phrase is best avoided where `immediately' or `without delay': . would be adequate: . [not ◆ has the additional meaning of `very ] . quickly' or `almost simultaneously': . input Many people object to the use of the . drove him to the station in order that he should

[not

◆

instal

I

would] not miss his train.

installing, installed, installer, installation

so that

instalment

I

in order that

I

in order that

in order to

instantly

He moved his

instantaneously

suitcase in order to open the door in order to

to

He turned the key to

in

order to open the door

He

replied instantly/instantaneously

Instaneously

She was hit

by the car and died instantaneously

.

noun

input

We

as a synonym for `contribution':

hope

to

have

some

input

.

from

teaching staff at tomorrow's meeting.

the

.

posi-

instil

This word, meaning `introduce gra-

dually', is often misspelt. It ends in a single in British English.

l

◆ It is worth remembering that the must be doubled before a suffix is added: . ◆ As a noun, may be used to denote the See also SPELLING 1 . power, energy, data, etc., put into a system or machine, or the resources, labour, raw materials, institute or institution? Both nouns are etc., required for production. used to denote certain professional bodies tive input

`approval or encouragement'

negative input

`criticism'.

input

I

instilled

instructional

168

and established organizations founded for

.

research, study, charitable work, the pro-

.

motion of a cause, etc.: Materials

the Royal National Institute for the Blind the Royal National Lifeboat Institution.

i.e. `essential to the completeness of

the whole', by definition.

In many contexts the word

. betterreplacedby .

the Institute of

the British Standards Institution

integral,

◆

would be ,etc.: .

integral

essential, important

Cash

registers have become an integral part of even the

The

most backward industries in these competitive

. The usual pronunciation of is [ tigraÆl], ◆ has a range of additional meanings: stressed on the first syllable; the variant pronunciation [in raÆl], stressed on the second syllable, is `the act of instituting': . ; `an established social custom or disliked by many users. practice': . ; `a school or integrate The verb is widely used hospital': . the sense of `make or become part of a The verb means `establish', `initiate', or insocial group': . `install'. nouns also denote the buildings or premises

days

used by these organizations.

integral

in

Institution

teg

the institution of a new

electoral system

the institution of marriage

integrate

an educational institution.

institute

One

instructional instructive or

of

.

the

aims

of

our

organization is to integrate ethnic minorities

?

Instructional

is the rarer word and means `providing

into

community.

the

Newcomers

to

the

village often find it difficult to integrate.

◆ In other contexts is often better replacedby ,etc.: . . . [not . ] . ◆ Both adjectives may sometimes be applied to the Note the spelling of , which does not samenoun: . isintendedto begin with the prefix . instruct and may succeed or fail in this objective; . intense or intensive? means `exsucceeds in instructing, treme' or `very strong'; means whether or not this was the intention. `concentrated' or `thorough': . instruction(s)';

instructive

is used in the

integrate

wider sense of `informative; enlightening': an

instructional

leaflet

an

instructive

mix, amalgamate, join, combine

a

new television programme that combines integrates learning with entertainment

experience

integrate

an instructional course

inter-

Intense

an instructive course

intensive

insulate

The verb

the preposition

from

or

.

is followed by

insulate

against:

The cup-

board next to the cooker is insulated from

[or

against] the heat of the oven.

insults

Note that the power of an insult

it is uttered and the company to whom it is delivered. Many insults, for examples ones that refer to a person's ethnic origins or orientation,

may

intense

heat search.

intensive

.

be

considered

highly offensive when delivered by a person from a different background, but innocuous enough when exchanged between

.

intense pain

intensive

training

an

The two adjectives are

not interchangeable, although both may be applied to the same noun:

depends largely upon the context in which

sexual

.

intense/inten-

sive study.

Both adjectives have additional senses: describes a person who has very strong and deep feelings; has specialized meanings in grammar and agriculture and is used in such compounds as and .

◆

intense

intensive

intensive care

inter INTERMENT inter- intrasee

or

.

or

labour-intensive

INTERNMENT?

? The prefix

.

inter-

means

members of the same group, and may even

`between' or `reciprocally';

be intended as an inclusive term of affec-

`within':

tion. Examples include such taboo slang

The two prefixes should not be confused: means `of two or more nations'; means `within one nation'. The prefix is most frequently found in . medical contexts: . . .

terms as

bugger, nigger

(used by some black

people among themselves), and

queer

(used

see

see

,

INSURANCE? or INSURE?

.

which the adjective fluous:

integral part,

integral

inter-

national

intrana-

intracranial

intramuscular

intrauterine

in

is often super-

The study of local history is an

integral part of the syllabus.

◆

interdependent

intramural.

intra-

or

Some people object to the fre-

quent use of the phrase

.

intercontinental

intravenous

means

tional

by some gays among themselves).

insurance ASSURANCE insure ASSURE ENSURE integral

.

intra-

Most parts are

interactive interactive

In computing, the adjective

.

refers to direct communication

between the user and the computer:

The

disks are interactive, which means that they pose questions on the screen, and you only get

169 further information by answering egraph).

(Daily

Tel-

The term is also applied to televi-

sion programmes, video games, etc., in which the viewer or player is physically involved in the progress or completion of the programme, game, etc.

intercede

This verb, meaning `mediate', is

sometimes misspelt. Note the as in

concede, precede,

succeed,

etc. (unlike

ending, proceed,

etc.).

interface noun

-cede

interface

denotes a surface forming a

common boundary or a point of communication. Its extended use as a synonym for

.

`interaction', `liaison', `link', `(point of) contact', etc., is disliked by many people:

.

the

interface between professionals and lay people

.

in the caring professions history and literature

the interface of

at the interface be-

tween design and technology.

The verb is also best restricted to technical contexts: . . interface

The office microcomputers

will interface with the main computer

interfere

by the preposition in in the sense `intrude':

. .

The

a

The verb

the preposition

with

interfere

is followed by

in the sense `meddle':

Don't interfere with my papers.

police

are

reluctant

to

It is followed interfere

in

domestic dispute.

interjections EXCLAMATIONS interment internment see

or

.

means `burial'; sonment':

◆ The first of these, the original meaning of the word, is the least frequent of the three; it is no longer listed in some dictionaries. In British English the word is pronounced [inteÆrsõÅn]; the variant pronunciation [inteÆr õÅn] is regarded by some as an Americanism. nee

nes

Internet

The

viated to the

Internet,

commonly abbre-

is a worldwide network of

net,

computer networks which, with its vast amount of information, as well as innumer-

In science, computing, etc., the

◆

in that

?

internment

. Interment

.

means `impri-

the interment of the corpse

able forums for discussion and entertainment

sites,

has

been

responsible for

a

communications revolution. It is significant that the Internet was not set up as a commercial venture and has no central governing authority. This lack of central administration means that users of the new medium have felt free to develop their own styles of communication, unfettered by the rules of conventional grammar and spelling, etc., making extensive use of shorthand versions of words, symbols, and slang. With time, however, the Internet has adopted its own conventions and etiquette (or

netiquette)

and numerous manuals on

using it recommend correct spelling and grammar.

See also CHAT; DOT.COM; E-MAIL; NETSPEAK; SMILEY; WEB. internment see INTERMENT or INTERNMENT?

interpersonal

The adjective

interpersonal,

meaning `between people', is disliked by some people as a vogue term and can often

.

be replaced by a synonym, such as

social,

or

are social skills; . The two words should not be confused. The noun and the verb (from means `with people'. which it is derived) are formal words that refer to interpretive or interpretative? Either adthe depositing of a dead body in the earth or in a jective may be used, but is the tomb. more frequent: . The noun is derived from the verb . , which refers to the confinement of enemy aliens, prisoners of war, etc. intestinal The adjective is usually In both nouns and both verbs the stress falls on stressed on the third syllable, [intes nl]. the second syllable. The variant pronunciation [in tinl], with The noun , stressed on the first syllable, is the stress on the second syllable, is also an American name for someone in the final stages heard. of professional training, especially in medicine. in that The phrase means `because'

the internment of the terrorists.

by a simple paraphrase:

◆

interpersonal skills

in an interpersonal situation

interment

inter

interpretative

The

internment

appendix

contains

interpretative/interpretive notes on the text

intern

intestinal

tõÅ

tes

intern

internecine

.

in that

The adjective

internecine

may

. .

refer to slaughter or carnage, mutual de-

.

struction, or conflict within a group: internecine battle

internecine dispute.

internecine warfare

or `to the extent that':

.

He is unsuitable for

the job in that he has no relevant experience.

an

The two machines are different in that one is

an

fully

automatic

controlled.

and

the

other

is

manually

in the fast lane

170

◆ In some contexts, however, may be better intonation indicates the end of the list: . replaced by or one of its synonyms: . , , , . [not ] in toto The Latin phrase means . `entirely' or `completely': . in that

You can

because

We

are in financial difficulties because

have carrots peas cabbage or cauliflower

in that my

in toto

wife has recently been made redundant

in the fast lane in the fast track LANE in the near future ,

see

.

The phrase

future

FAST

in the near soon:

The electronics company is considering relo-

in this day and age

The clicheÂ

in this day nowadays,

appropriate:

.

education

not

etc., would be adequate or more

is

In this day and age a good a

passport

to

a

successful

career.

into in to or

intra-

INTER- or INTRA-? see VERBS.

see

intrinsic extrinsic

? The adjective

.

in-

means `inherent', `essential', or `ori-

ginating from within':

The discovery is of

great intrinsic interest. Extrinsic,

site of usage: only.

.

intrinsic,

the oppo-

is less frequent in general

The document is of extrinsic interest

◆ The value of a pound coin, for example, is the value of the metal from which it is made; its value is one pound. intrinsic

?

Into

is a preposition with a

variety of meanings; of the adverb

.

It is acceptable, but not necessary, to use italics when writing or printing this expression.

trinsic

is best avoided where

today, now,

not

◆

or

cating to Swindon in the near future.

and age

did

. intransitive

is disliked by some users as an

unnecessarily wordy substitute for

He

disagree in toto.

infinitive marker

is a combination

in to

.

and the preposition or

in

to:

.

I went into the house.

I went in to fetch a book.

I went in to tea.

extrinsic

introvert Inuit

see

EXTROVERT or INTROVERT?

The term

Inuit

refers to the people of

America and Greenland traditionIt is important to recognize and maintain the North ally known as Eskimos. The term distinction between these uses. `people') is preferred to As prepositions, and are occasionally (meaning (meaning `eater of raw flesh'), by the Inuit interchangeable: . themselves. It may also be used to distin. usually suggests movement from the this people from the Eskimos of the outside to the inside, whereas suggests being or guish Aleutian Islands and Siberia. remaining inside. In many contexts the two pre- ◆ , sometimes spelt , is pronounced positions are not interchangeable: . [ yooit]. The plural is ( ) or ( ) . .. . invalid The adjectival sense of `not valid' is

◆

Inuit

into

Eskimo

in

He put the letter into/in his

pocket Into

in

They sailed

into the harbour at four o'clock

They sailed in the

Inuit

Innuit

in

In n uit

In n uits

harbour all afternoon

intonation

Intonation

is a change in pitch

that adds to the meaning of a spoken word, phrase, or sentence. It should not be confused with

STRESS, which relates to loudness

pronounced with the stress on the second

syllable [invalid]. The noun sense of `someone who is ill' is pronounced with the stress Æ lid] or on the first syllable, either as [inva Æ leed]. [inva

The verb sense, `disable' or (usually followed by ) `remove from active service because of illness ◆ In English intonation is most noticeable in QUESor injury', be pronounced [ vaÆlid], [ vaÆleed], TIONS, where the pitch of the voice tends to rise or [invaÆ may ]. . . towards the end: The sentence . , inveigh or inveigle? To is to prospoken with rising intonation, means `Does Jane test strongly; to is to persuade want a cat?' or `Is it true that Jane wants a cat?': cleverly: . with falling intonation it is a neutral statement of . . fact. Other variations in the intonation of the . , an intransitive verb, is folsentence and the stress on individual words may lowed by , whereas is tranproduce a number of alternative interpretations, sitive and often used with . such as `I don't believe that Jane wants a cat', `Jane ◆ The two verbs are both formal and are somewould like a pet of some sort, but not a cat', and times confused. Note the spelling of both. `Other people want a cat, but not Jane'. is always pronounced [in ]; Rising intonation is also heard in lists; falling may be pronounced [in gl] or [in gl]. or emphasis, although the two are often used in combination.

◆

out

in

When did she arrive?

day?

in

leed

Satur-

Jane doesn't want a cat

inveigh

inveigle

She inveighed against the inequity

of the law form

He inveigled us into signing the

Inveigh

against

inveigle into

ei

Inveigh

vay

vay

vee

inveigle

invent design discover ,

design

new;

or

171 ?

and

Invent

refer to the creation of something

.

.

refers to the finding of some-

discover

thing that is already in existence: a machine

.

to invent

to design a new computer

to

ironic

Note that the stress pattern of the noun is different from that of the verb: the noun is stressed on the first syllable; the verb is stressed on the second syllable.

◆

invite

STRESS.

See also

vitro The Latin phrase is used to The three words sometimes overlap in usage. in refer to a method of fertilizing a woman's A scientific may lead to an , by artificial means outside the woman's and inventions have to be . Some egg body. people dislike the use of in place of The literal meaning of is `in glass'. It is : a new type of car, for example, that ◆sometimes written or printed in italics. It is prois modelled on existing styles and uses a tradi- nounced [in troÅ]. tional method of propulsion, is , not The abbreviation stands for . . discover a cure for cancer.

in vitro

◆

discovery

invention

designed

invent

in vitro

design

vee

designed

IVF

invented

inventory vent

and

in vitro fertiliza-

tion

The noun

invention,

inventory,

unlike

in-

is stressed on the first

syllable. The usual British pronunciation is [inveÆntri]; in American English the -o- may be sounded: [inveÆntori].

inverse REVERSE inversion

see

?

CONVERSE, INVERSE, OBVERSE

Inversion

involve

Some people object to the frequent

use of the verb

.

involve

and its derivatives in

place of more specific or more appropriate synonyms:

or

.

This proposal will entail

involve] further cuts in expenditure. changes may be necessary

[not

involved].

have a number of questions concerning

is a reversal of the

normal order of the elements of a sentence

[not

.

Some I

.

[not

involving] teaching methods and discipline.

These fingerprints are evidence of his partici-

[not

involvement] in the robbery.

Many authorities recommend that and verb: . .. . its derivatives be restricted to the sense of entan. glement and complication: . . . ◆ Inversion is most frequently used in QUESTIONS: . . It is also used after , and inward or inwards? In British English :. .. ,andaftersome is principally used as an adjective, negative words and phrases: . the usual form of the adverb . .The meaningbeing `towards the inside': . . use of inversion in conditional clauses: . . ◆ The adverb is more frequently used in .. English. , is rather more formal than the use of an American See also -WARD or -WARDS? clause: . . . .. . . . . IQ This abbreviation for `intelligence quoInversion is optional after direct speech, but is tient': . , must best avoided if the subject is a pronoun: . ` always be written with capital letters. The ' ..` ' . In abbreviation may be written with full stops, poems and stories inversion is sometimes used for , but this form is becoming less freeffect or variety: . quent in modern usage (see ABBREVIATIONS). .. ◆ The abbreviation with lower-case letters, , (Rupert Brooke). stands for , a Latin phrase meaning `the inverted commas see QUOTATION MARKS. same as'. or clause so that the subject follows the There goes the bus

pation

◆

involve

In came Michael

At the bottom of the heap was the missing

book

Am I late?

nor

the chairman's in-

volvement in the scandal

involved account of the incident

so, neither

So are they

Neither do we

Never have I heard

such nonsense!

a long-winded and

inward

inwards

On no account should he go

inward

Had she

known about his past, she would not have married him

feelings

to push inwards

inward

There's a fire extinguisher here, should you

need it

if

If she had known

if you should

need it

The average IQ is one hundred

Go

away! cried the boy

Go away! he cried

I.Q.

In a hole in the tree lived a wise

old owl

Stands the Church clock at ten to three?

i.q.

idem quod

invite

in

The use of the word

place

of

.

invitation,

invite

is

as a noun,

disliked

and

avoided by many users, even in informal

.

contexts: party?

Have you had an invite to their

Thank you for your invitation, which

I am very pleased to accept.

irascible

The

formal

word

irascible,

meaning `easily angered', is sometimes misspelt. in

-ible,

also the

Irascible

has a single

unlike its synonym

and ends

sc.

ironic ironical ironically ,

r

irritable.

,

see

IRONY.

Note

iron out

172

iron out

The phrasal verb

iron

out

.

is

irreparable

This word, meaning `unable

widely used in the metaphorical sense of

to be repaired', is often mispronounced.

`settle', `resolve', `solve', or `remove':

The stress should fall on the second syllable Æ ra Æ bl]. and not the third [irepa

We

have a few more problems to iron out before work can begin.

See also

REPAIRABLE or REPARABLE?

It is best avoided, however, in contexts that may irresistible Note the spelling of this adbe associated with its literal meaning of `smooth jective, particularly the and the with an iron': . (not ) ending. .. . irrespective The word is most ◆

-rr-

The laundry workers have ironed

out their difficulties

The last stumbling block was

ironed out at yesterday's meeting

irony

Irony

irrespective

is the use of words to express

the opposite of their accepted meaning, often

for

satirical

Words such as

or

humorous and

precious

-ible

-able

fine

effect.

are often

.

frequently used in the prepositional phrase irrespective of, Applications

meaning `regardless of':

are

invited

from

all

suitably

qualified candidates, irrespective of age, sexual orientation, nationality, disability or religion.

The expression is generally considered to be unidiomatic. ◆ Some people object to the frequent use of the should not be noun and its derivatives to refer to something usedUnlike . adverbially in other contexts: paradoxical, incongruous, or odd: . [not ]. See also IRREGARDLESS. .. irrevocable In its. general sense of `not able .. , the to be changed': word is stressed on the second . The adjectives and are both in use, syllable, [i oÆkaÆbl]. The pronunciation [irÆ bl], stressed on the third syllable, is i ka being the more frequent. restricted to a few legal or financial conmay be used as a form of , but the two words should not be confused: an re- texts, where the sense is literally `not able to . be revoked': . mark is more witty and less cruel than a remark. irrupt see ERUPT or IRRUPT? used ironcially, as in `This

is a fine time to

tell me you've no keys!'

◆

irrespectively of

regardless, irrespective

irony

She resigned

when they rejected her proposals; the irony of the situation is that they have now adopted the system she proposed

It soon began

to rain but they carried on with their game regardless

irrespective

It's ironic that he should win a

skiing holiday just after breaking his leg

Ironi-

cally, it was the police inspector's car that was

an irrevocable decision

stolen

irrevocable

ironic

ironical

rev

Å vo

ironic

Irony

sarcasm

ironic

sarcastic

irrefutable

.

This word, meaning `impossi-

ble to be disproved':

irrefutable evidence,

may be stressed on the second or on the Æ bl] or [irifyoota Æ bl]. third syllable: [irefyoota The

second

pronunciation

is

becoming

more common.

irregardless

The word

irregardless

irrespective

is a

and

re-

Most dictionaries do not acknowl-

.

edge its existence, but it is frequently heard in colloquial usage:

`Irregardless of what we

say about Robbo, he done a good job,' was a near-miss by Elton Welsby for ITV in Bologna

(The

Guardian).

The word should be

avoided in all contexts; either regardless

irrespective

may be used in its place (see

RESPECTIVE).

irregular verbs irrelevant

verbs see table at

or

IR-

For irregular parts of

VERBS.

Many people dislike the repetition of

any future in this? to work?

-rr-

and the vowels

is

in

the question is, is there

and the problem is, is it going

Careful speakers and writers use

.

one is only, by rewording either part, or avoid

.

The question

is whether there is any future in this or not.

We

must ask ourselves, is there is any future in this?

-ise -ism

see

-IZE or -ISE?

Some people object to the increasing

use of the suffix

-ism,

in the sense of

.

`discrimination', to coin new words modelled on the nouns

.

racism

.

legislation against ageism

and

.

sexism:

the controversial heightism.

The use of the suffix to form new nouns in the conventional sense of `doctrine' or `system' is acceptable in moderation: . . issue of heterosexism

◆

ableism

The 'Third Way'

was one of the key ideas of Blairism

This word is frequently mis-

spelt. Note the

is

such constructions as

such constructions altogether:

nonstandard blend of gardless.

irrevocable letters of credit

i-e-e-a.

issue

Overuse of

issue

as a euphemistic

substitute for words such as

problem

or

173

.

.

itinerary

[not ] . (Note the use of and , rather than and ; see also I or ME?; PRONOUNS.) or -ist or -ite? Both these suffixes may be used The: .construction is not used with to denote an adherent, follower, advocate, [not ]. . or supporter of a particular doctrine: . [not . . . ]. The suffix is sometimes used in a However, the construction should not be conderogatory manner: people who call themfused with such statements as selves , for example, may be deand scribed by opponents of Trotskyism as or such expressions as and . . ◆ The suffix , which is also used to form adjectives, may face the same objection as -ISM: See also ITS or IT'S?; THAT or WHICH? . . . italics The word denotes a sloping . . typeface that is used for a variety of purdifficulty

.

should be avoided:

relationship issues.

They have

He has issues around his

fault.

It is the books that make

trunk so heavy me

appearance.

makes the

I

they

them

where

when

It is in France that the best cheeses are

to be found

Stalinist

Luddite

communist

Blairite.

-ite

It is France where . . .

It was in

2001 that he won the championship

It was

2001 when . . .

It was dark when

Trotskyists

we arrived

It's snowing where my parents live it is believed that . . .

Trotskyites

-ist

ageist principles

it

is possible that . . .

heterosexist attitudes

classist

italic

genderist

-ista

The word ending

-ista,

probably mod-

elled originally upon such Spanish words as (a member of a left-wing orga-

Sandinista

nization in power in Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990), has appeared with increasing

.

frequency in recent years in a variety of vogue terms:

fashionista.

Such coinages are

humorous and often slightly derogatory.

isthmus

The noun

isthmus,

meaning `nar-

poses in English. In handwritten or typewritten texts, underlining is generally used to indicate italics.

◆

1

The principal uses of italics are: For the titles of books, newspapers,

.

sical works, etc.: Husband,

Variations.

2

adjacent consonants

round the world in

-sthm-.

The [th] sound

is not heard in the usual pronunciation Æ s]; the full pronunciation [isthmu Æ s] [ismu

it

The pronoun

it

has a wide range of uses:

to replace an abstract noun or the name of

. .

Elgar's

An Ideal Enigma

For the names of ships, boats, trains,

aircraft, etc.:

3 .

Sir Francis Chichester sailed Gipsy Moth IV.

For the Latin names of plants, animals,

etc.:

is no more or less correct.

.

.

The Economist

by Oscar Wilde

spelling and pronunciation. Note the four

row strip of land', causes problems of

.

magazines, plays, films, works of art, mu-

The tiger,

Panthera tigris,

is found in

Asia.

4

For foreign words and phrases that are

.

.

an inanimate object, as the subject of an

not fully integrated into the English lan-

impersonal verb, etc.:

He washed the towel

guage:

It hasn't rained for a

The teacher is

.

and hung it out to dry.

.

week.

I find it difficult to make new friends.

it

Some dictionaries offer guidance on this

.

She took her

[the purse or the handbag?]. the

window

if

it

times difficult to judge whether a foreign word or phrase should be italicized or not.

.

purse out of her handbag and put it on the

open

It is some-

may sometimes

cause ambiguity or confusion: table

Á ce de re  sistance. pie

in loco parentis.

For

It's obvious that she doesn't like him.

this reason, the use of

This was his

gets

too

You can

hot

[the

window or the weather?].

matter.

5

.

To indicate stress or emphasis:

raining?

I don't

like

.

Is it

still

spiders, but I'm not

afraid of them. Excessive italicization for

the purpose of stress or emphasis is avoided The constructions and by careful users. should be usedonlyfor emphasis: . 6 To draw attention to a particular word, phrase, or letter: . How do you pronounce .. ? . Her surname is spelt with a . In such constructions the verb agrees with the double . pronoun or noun that follows or , not with -ite see -IST or -ITE? the word : . [not ] . [not ] itinerary This word, meaning `planned

◆

it is/was . . . who

it is/was

. . . that

It was

she who broke the window, so I don't see why you should pay for the repair

It's the weather that's

making me feel tired ± I'm not ill

controversy s

is

it

complain.

was

It's I who wish

It was they who were

wishes

to

was at

its

174

Whichever spelling is preferred, it is important to be consistent within a single piece of writing, both in the choice of other words and in the should ensure its correct spelling. in its or it's? , a contraction of or , spelling of any derivatives ending , etc. should not be confused with , the posis the only verb of more than one sessive form of : . syllable that is never spelt . . . However, there are a number of verbs that . . . cannot be spelt ; the most common of these See also APOSTROPHE; CONTRACTIONS; 'S or S'? are ◆ The insertion of an apostrophe in the possessive form is wrong in all contexts, although it occasionally finds its way into print: . , and . See also EXERCISE or EXORCISE? (advertise- Verbs ending in , such as and ment for The English-Speaking Union, , are never spelt in British English. ). English, is always used for verbs The omission of the apostrophe in the contrac- thatIn American can have either ending in British English, but tion is less frequent, but equally unacceptable. is usually retained for verbs of the ... IVF see IN VITRO. group. , etc., are spelt -ize or -ise? In British English, the sound with in American English. Some people object to the modern tendency to [-õÅz] at the end of many verbs may be spelt . . create new verbs by the addition of to a or :. . . . noun or adjective: . ; etc. . . . Such verbs are Most modern dictionaries, partly because best avoided where a simpler form or synonym of the American international influence, exists: may be replaced with list as the preferred spelling, giving can often be replaced with . as an accepted variant. Otherwise, is However, verbs (and their derivatives) that generally as common as in British have neither a one-word equivalent nor a simple English. paraphrase often serve a useful purpose: . ◆ There is etymological justification for both spel. lings, the suffix being derived via French from . Latin and Greek . route of a journey', is sometimes misspelt. Æ ra Æ ri] The careful pronunciation [õÅtine

-ize/-ise

It's

it is

it has

its

It's

it

difference

It's

been

easy

raining

to

tell

for

the

-ization/-isa-

tion, -izer/-iser, -izable/-isable Capsize

-ize

-ise

several

-ise

The lion has escaped from its cage

hours

-ize

advertise, advise, chastise, circumcise, com-

prise, compromise, despise, devise, enfranchise,

its

It's aim is to

encourage new ideas and developments in the

excise, exercise, franchise, improvise, merchandise, revise, supervise, surmise, surprise

field of learning and teaching English

The Guar-

dian

-yse

ralyse

televise

analyse

pa-

-yze -ize

it's

-ise

advertise

televise

Analyse, paralyse

z

-

ize

-ise

baptize/baptise

recognize/recognise

-ize/-ise

realize/realise

pedestrianize

organize/organise

prioritize

finalize

hospitalize

weaponize

to martyrize

-ize

-ise

-ise

to finalize

to martyr, to finish

-ize/-ise

-ize

to

-iser

-izare

-izein

computerize the stock-control system

imalization of British currency

the dec-

jail gaol or

J ? In British English these two

spellings are both acceptable, although

jail

is preferred by many people. In American English

jargon

jail

is the only accepted spelling.

Jargon

◆

Note that the vowel pattern is the same as in .

leopard

jewellery jewelry or

is the technical language

used within a particular subject or profes-

ceptable

although

jewelry,

standard

in

American English, is less frequent in Brit-

sion, such as science, computing, medicine,

ish English.

law, accountancy, etc.:

◆

.

? This word has two

spellings in British English. Both are ac-

The preferred pronunciation is [ eÆlri] rather than the dialectal or nonstandard [ eÆri]. The spelling is more common in British . English; in American English. ◆ The term is also used to denote the complex, obscure, pretentious or euphemistic language jibe see GIBE, JIBE or GYBE? used by estate agents, journalists, sociologists, jodhpurs This word, meaning `riding advertisers, bureaucrats, politicians, etc.: . trousers', is often misspelt, the being . either incorrectly placed or omitted comJargon of both types is acceptable, and often pletely. ,acity in India, indispensable, in professional journals and in writ- ◆ The word originates from ten or spoken communications between members hence the unusual spelling. of the same group. It should be avoided, however, join or joint? The nouns and are in articles, brochures, insurance policies, etc., that synonymous (but not interchangeable) in are to be read and understood by lay people and in the sense of `place where two parts are conversations with members of the general public. joined'. most frequently refers to the Jargon should not be used to impress, intimidate, visual effect of the act of joining, the line or confuse, or mislead the outsider. seam between two flat or flexible parts vascular

accident

is

CVA or cerebral

medical

jargon

for

joo

jool

a

jeweller

stroke

jeweler

In so-

ciological jargon the class system has been re-

h

placed with a series of socioeconomic groups

Jodhpur

join

joint

Join

See also

COMMERCIALESE; JOURNALESE; OFFI-

.A is more Jargon sometimes finds its way into everyday .practical or functional, joining two rigid language in the form of CLICHEÂS or vogue words, three-dimensional parts: . e.g. . Such words . . and expressions are disliked and avoided by many . users. is used in expressions Jargon should not be confused with DIALECT or joined-up such as and SLANG.

CIALESE.

(such as paper, fabric, carpet, string, etc.): You can hardly see the join

interface, traumatic, user-friendly

joint

The

leaking

at

one

of

the

joints

pipe the

was

joint

between the shaft and the head Joined-up

jealous

joined-up

.

The adjective

the preposition

success.

of:

jealousy ENVY jeans GENES jeopardize see

see

jealous

is followed by

He was jealous of her

JEALOUSY? or JEANS? or

This word, meaning `expose

to danger', is often misspelt, the most frequent error being the omission of the letter

o.

policy

thinking

.

approach to an issue:

What we need here

is some joined-up thinking.

derived from more

joined-up

to describe a logical coordinated

It is presumably

joined-up writing,

sophisticated

than

the

regarded as individual

handwritten lettering of young children. Many people consider it a jargonistic term that is best restricted to informal contexts.

journalese

Journalese

is a derogatory name

for the style of writing or language that is considered to be typical of newspapers.

judgment

176

It is characterized by the use of CLICHEÂS and short sensational synonyms, e.g. , , , which occur especially in headlines. The telegraphic style of newspaper headlines sometimes gives rise to ambiguity or confusion: . ( ). This headline was intended to mean `A teaching pack about child abuse has been launched on Merseyside', but it could be interpreted as `Pioneers on Merseyside are misusing a teaching pack'. Careful users avoid such techniques and devices in formal writing. ◆

axe bid probe

Merseyside

pioneers abuse teaching pack for schools

The

Guardian

See also

JARGON.

judgment judgement or

judge-

was formerly more common in Brit-

ish English and

judgment

in American

English.

◆ Whichever spelling of is adopted, it is advisable to be consistent in the spelling of this word and words such as and . judg(e)ment

abridg(e)ment

ac-

knowledg(e)ment

judicial judicious or

?

Judicial

means `of

judgment in a court of law' or `of the administration of justice';

.

judicious

.

means

`having or showing good judgment' or `prudent': choice.

judicial proceedings

a judicious

The two adjectives are not interchangeable, although both may be applied to the same noun: . is the decision of a court of law; . is a wise decision. may also mean `of a judge; impartial; fair'; it is in this sense that it is most likely to be confused with . ◆

a judicial decision

a judicious decision

Judicial

juncture

judicious

The phrase

at this juncture

refers

to a critical point in time; many people

now:

.

The leader's resignation at this juncture would have

a

morale.

.

disastrous

effect

on

the

members'

I suggest that we take a short break

[not

at this juncture].

This use of has developed from its meaning of `concurrence or conjunction of events or circumstances'. The noun is rarely used in its original sense, as a synonym of `junction' or `joint'.

for refreshments now

◆

juncture

junta

This word refers to a controlling

political council and has various pronunciations. The preferred pronunciation is [junÆ ]. ta

Other alternatives such as [ taÆ] and [ taÆ] have arisen in imitation of the Spanish pronunciation.

◆

? Either spelling

of this word is acceptable, although ment

object to its frequent use in place of

huun

just

Just

juun

has a variety of adverbial senses: `at

this moment', `exactly', `only', etc. For this reason it must be carefully positioned in a

.

sentence in order to convey the intended meaning:

.

Your son has just eaten two cakes

[i.e. a short time ago]. just two cakes

Just your son has eaten two cakes

[i.e. only

your son; no one else]. Transposing

.

.

Your son has eaten

[i.e. not one or three, etc.].

.

just

and

may also change the meaning of a

not

sentence:

I'm just not tired.

tired; I'm hungry too.

I'm not just

◆ In the sense of `in the very recent past', should be used with the perfect tense in formal contexts: . . Its use with the past tense in this sense ( . . .) is regarded as an Americanism and is avoided by many careful users, even in informal contexts. may be used in place of, but not in addition to, :. [not ] . just

They have just arrived at the station

They just

arrived

Just

exactly

need

That's just

just exactly what I

K

K The letter

K,

short for

.

kilo-,

is increas-

ingly used to represent 1000, especially in

.

sums of money:

a salary of £50K plus

houses

priced

from

£250K

company

car

upwards.

The abbreviation is also used in

spoken language:

.

She

was

earning

a

.

the economy will form a key element in the chancellor's

strategy

(Sunday

Times).

kick-start the housing market.

to

The metaphor is derived from the world of motorcycling, where the verb refers to the act of starting an engine by kicking or pressing a pedal.

◆

kid The use of the noun as a synonym This usage was adopted from the jargon of for `child' or `young person' is best recomputing, where may represent 1000 or 1024. stricted to informal contexts: .

hundred K in the City.

kid

◆

kaleidoscope

K

word

is

sometimes

local kids broke the window.

the first

any kids?

from the Greek

eidos,

meaning

`form'.

◆

The correct pronunciation is [kaÆ doÆskoÅp]. lõÅ

karaoke

The noun

karaoke,

denoting a

form of entertainment in which people sing along with a pre-recorded tape, causes problems of spelling and pronunciation. Of Japanese origin, the word may be proÆo Å ki] or [karrio Å ki] in English. nounced [karra

kerb key

see

CURB or KERB?

frequent use of the word

key

as an adjec-

tive, in the sense of `fundamental', `essential',

`crucial',

`indispensable', etc.:

.

kidnap

`most a

important', number

of

.

key

individuals to manage their top UK stores

setting up a policy committee that will take

The final

.

p

One of the

Have you got

of the word

.

kidnap

is

doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel:

kidnapped

See also

kidult

SPELLING 1.

The noun

kidnapper.

kidult

refers to an adult

who continues to enjoy childish pursuits and tastes. In marketing terms it also describes consumer products and entertainment,

Some people object to the increasingly

.

very different when I was a kid.

misspelt. Note particularly the -ei- and o

.

Things were

This

including

books,

films,

and

TV

programmes, that appeal to adults as well as children. The word, resulting from the combination of

kid

and

adult,

.

is a vogue

term best restricted to informal contexts:

The surroundings appealed to the kidult in me.

See also

ADULTESCENT.

kilo The word , pronounced [ loÆ], is In many contexts it is better replaced by one of most frequently used as an abbreviation for its synonyms. . . : . ◆ Some dictionaries also list as an abbreviation kibbutzim is the plural form of for , but this usage is very rare. the noun , denoting a collective Note that the first syllable of the prefix -, in community in Israel. is prosuch words as , , etc., is pronounced [ki ], rhyming with ; nounced like the word , not . is stressed on the final syllable key decisions

(Sunday

Times).

kilo

◆

kilogram

kee

a kilo of sugar

50 kilos of coal

kilo

Kibbutzim

kilometre

kibbutz

kilo

Kibbutz

buuts

puts

butzim

[kibuutseem].

kick-start kick-start

The figurative use of the verb

in the sense of `take action to get

in motion (again)' is becoming rather hack-

.

neyed, especially in the phrase economy:

kilometre kilogram

kib-

kick-start the

Plans to balance income tax cuts

with measures to boost business and kickstart

kilometre

kill

keel

This word may be stressed on

Æ meete Æ ] or on the the first syllable [kilo Æ ]. second syllable [kilomite

◆ The first of these pronunciations is the more widely accepted in British English. The second, regarded by some as an Americanism, is probably becoming more current in British English.

kindly

178 METER or METRE?; STRESS.

See also

kindly

The word

kindly

knee-jerk response of many union leaders.

may be used as an

.

.

and not be overused.

A knee-jerk reaction or response is the meta. ◆phorical equivalent of the physical reflex action

adjective, meaning `kind' or `sympathetic', or as an adverb, meaning `in a kind way':

The

term should be confined to informal usage

that results from a light blow just below the knee◆ The adjective has no one-word adverbial cap. form: . . kneeled or knelt? Either word may be The adverb is also used in polite or angry used as the past tense and past participle of requests or commands: . the verb . is more frequent in .. ; British English: . in American English. .. In such contexts it is See also -ED or T? often better replaced by . knight or night? The word vara kindly policeman

treated us kindly.

kindly smile

They

kindly

He smiled in a kindly manner kindly

Patrons are kindly re-

quested to refrain from smoking

to tell you what happened

kneel

Knelt

Kindly allow me

Would you kindly

He knelt on the grass

kneeled

take your hand off my knee!

please

kind of

of, sort of,

and

type

and

those)

type of,

in which

kind

kind, sort,

are in the singular, should be

preceded by or

knight

In formal contexts the phrases

or

this

.

that

(rather than

.

these

and followed by a singular noun: that sort of biscuit.

Such expressions as , , etc., are sometimes heard in informal contexts but are disliked and avoided by careful users. A plural noun may used if the expression is rephrased: . . Note that the verb agrees with , not . Where more than one kind, sort, or type is concerned, the whole expression may be put into theplural: . : . In such cases, the noun that follows may remain in the singular: . . . . (Note that the verb here agrees with , not .) The same principles apply to , , and in other contexts: . . . See also SINGULAR or PLURAL? The use of or in place of or isbestrestrictedtoinformalcontexts: . .. . The spelling is sometimes used in writing to denote `kind of' in casual speech. this kind of story

◆

these kind of stories those

sort of biscuits

Stories of this kind are very popular stories

kind

She specializes in detective stories and

horror stories these kinds of stories are very pop-

ular

kinds/

sorts/types of

these

kinds of story are very popular kinds

story

kind of sort of

type of

a different type of

vegetable

many different types of vegetable/

vegetables

kind of

sort of

rather

somewhat

I

sort of like him

It's kind of warm in here

kinda

kinsman kinswoman TERMS knee-jerk or

.

? see

NON-SEXIST

iously

describes

an

armoured

medieval

warrior or a romantic hero. It should not be confused with

night,

as in

day and night,

although both words are pronounced the same [nõÅt].

knit knitted or

?

Knitted

is the more fre-

quent form of the past tense and past parti-

.

ciple of the verb

.

sense:

knit,

especially in the literal

I (have) knitted a cardigan for the baby.

She was wearing a knitted jacket.

, an alternative form of the past tense and past participle, is largely restricted to figurative contexts, especially in combination with an adverb . before a noun: . .

◆ Knit

a closely knit family

a well-knit

athlete

knock-on effect

fect

.

The phrase

knock-on ef-

refers to a series of related causes and

effects:

The reduction in taxes will have a

knock-on effect throughout the economy.

knot not or

?

tied a knot in the cord.

confused with

not,

.

means `fastening' or

Knot

`tangled mass of hair or thread, etc.':

She

It should not be

both words being pro-

nounced [not].

know YOU KNOW knowledgeable see

.

This

word,

meaning

`having clear knowledge or understanding', is sometimes misspelt. Note that the final -e of

knowledge

is retained before the

suffix -able.

kudos

This word, from Greek, is approxi-

In figurative contexts, the term

mately equivalent to `prestige' or `status'.

is applied to an automatic, pre-

Some people avoid using it on the grounds

dictable, and/or unthinking reaction, as

that it sounds pretentious, although this

.

reservation has become less pronounced

knee-jerk

opposed to a more considered response:

.

A knee-jerk reaction to the problem could

make matters worse.

Industrial action is the

over the years as the word has gradually become more widely familiar.

L

laboratory

laissez-faire

The usual pronunciation of Æ to Æ ri], this word in British English is [laÆborra

sez-faire

with the stress on the second syllable; the

allowing businesses to operate freely with-

second

out government interference or control.

o

is sometimes not sounded. In

American English the stress falls on the Æ ra Æ tori]; the first and fourth syllables, [labo first

o

is sometimes not sounded.

laborious

The word

laborious

lack

after the first

When using the verb

place of

.

u

is sometimes

o,

as in

labour.

lack, lack for

in

is unacceptable to many peo-

lack

ple, and the superfluous [not

for

is best omitted:

lack for] friends.

The use of may be influenced by the synonymous phrase , in which the optional preposition serves the useful purpose of avoiding ambiguity or confusion with in the sense of `desire': . . She did not lack

◆

lack for

want for

for

want

lacquer

She did not want for friends

This word is sometimes misspelt.

Note that it has only one in

-er,

and not

-eur

laden loaded or

of the verb adjective,

?

lade,

Laden,

loaded

laden lorry.

.

verb

lade,

a past participle

`weighed

.

down'

or

is the past tense and past

.

participle of the verb laden with apples.

the word ends

liqueur.

is principally used as an

meaning

`burdened';

-u-:

as in

load:

The tree was

We overtook a heavily

He (has) loaded the car.

The

meaning `load with cargo', is

rarely used in modern times in any other form, except in the term

lais-

The phrase can also be extended to refer to the non-interference with the freedom of choice of individuals: . . The literal meaning of the expression is `let people do (as they choose)'. The phrase has the rarer variant spelling . Each variant is pronounced [lesay ]. ◆

parents with a laissez-faire attitude to

misspelt, the most frequent error being the insertion of a

The French expression

is used to refer to the policy of

bill of lading.

the bringing up of their children

laisser-faire

lama

or

llama

fair

? The spelling of these

words is sometimes confused. A

lama

Lamaist

Lamaism

monk,

the

order

of

is a

being a form of Buddhism of Tibet and Mongolia. A

llama

is a South American

mammal related to the camel. Note the

ll-

at the beginning of this word.

lamentable

This word has two pronun-

ciations. The traditional British English Æ nta Æ bl]. pronunciation is [lame

◆ The stress may also fall on the second syllable [laÆ taÆbl], although this is disliked and avoided by some users. men

languor

Note the spelling of this word,

particularly the unusual guor

-uor

ending.

Lan-

is a formal word that means `laziness;

weariness'; the derived adjective is spelt languorous.

larva lava or

? These two words are occa-

sionally confused. A

larva

is an insect in its

◆ is also used as an adjective in literal and is the flowing or hardened molten rock . figurative senses: . a volcano. , `one that contains hidden implications ◆from The plural of is , with the second or is misleading'. The two adjectives should not be confused: . syllable rhyming with . implies that the van lasso A is a rope with a noose, used is weighed down or full to overflowing with fur- for catching horses or cattle. There are two niture; . simply acceptable pronunciations although [la ] means that the van contains furniture. is the more frequent in contemporary British usage. lady see WOMAN. ◆ The second pronunciation [ soÅ] was once stanlaid, lain see LAY or LIE? dard but is now less frequent. Loaded

a loaded gun

first stage after coming out of the egg.

Lava

a loaded

question

larva

larvae

me

The van is laden with furniture

lasso

The van is loaded with furniture

soo

la

last

180

last

To avoid ambiguity, the adjective

last

should be replaced, where necessary, with

.

an appropriate synonym, such as final,

or

novel

was

[not

preceding:

last]

The final

published novel

[not

was

.

.

His latest

in

June.

published

in

latest,

launch

lava LARVA LAVA . lavatory TOILET LOO law and order

[not

last]

His

final

June.

Some people object to the frequency of this usage, replacing with an appropriate synonym wherever possible. see

or

?

see

,

last] chapter contains a list of

useful addresses.

[not

The preceding

last]

chapter contains a list of useful addresses.

or

Careful

BATHROOM? speakers

pro-

nounce this phrase without an intrusive

The use of may also cause confusion in such . Similar care should be taken with phrases as , used on a Friday, the pronunciation of other words and which may mean `two days ago' or `nine days phrases containing the sound [aw] followed ago'.If the context is clearly in the past, may be by a vowel, such as replaced by before days of the current week: . . [not ] . lawful, legal or legitimate? All these See also NEXT or THIS? mean `authorized by law', but may be retained where the context makes adjectives there are differences of sense, usage, and its meaning clear: . application between them: . .. . . . . late Used directly before a noun denoting a ◆ means `allowed by law' or `rightful'; it is person, the adjective may mean `dead' largely restricted to formal contexts or set phrases, or `former': . such as . . . is more widely used, having the additional . To avoid meaning of `relating to law': . confusion, (in the sense of `former') . . . . is often better replaced by or : . The adjective is principally applied to . . children born in wedlock: . ◆ It is generally unnecessary to add to a . It also means`reasonable',`logical', `genuine', person's name in obituaries, death announce- or `valid': . . ments, or in historical contexts. . ◆

[r] sound between the words

last

law

and

and

last Wednesday

last

drawing, awe-inspiring, I

on

I

posted it on

saw it

last Wednesday

Last

His last novel was published

posthumously

The identity of the narrator is not

revealed until the last chapter

the

a

owner

legal

contract

a

lawful

legitimate

organization

Lawful

late

The

widow

gave

sident

has

written

his

her

late

one's lawful business

The late pre-

husband's clothes to charity

Legal

memoirs

the legal profession

late

legal advice

ex-

the ex-chairman

the legal system

former

my former flatmate

the king's legitimate

late

son

a legitimate excuse

? These two nouns should not

be confused. A

lath

is a thin strip of wood; a

is a machine for shaping wood, metal,

lathe

etc. Note that it is the noun that is used in the simile

◆ Lath

[laydh].

is pronounced [lahth];

lath,

not

lathe,

as thin as a lath.

lathe

is pronounced

This word has various pronuncia-

tions.

The

rhymes with

traditional gather,

rhyming with

pronunciation

but the pronunciation

father

is becoming more

The pronunciation [ theÆr] is incorrect.

latter launch

? The verb

lay,

confused with

lie,

which is usually

on the sand to dry. a while.

.

which is intransitive, i.e.

.

does not have an object:

I'll lay the towel

She's going to lie down for

Careful users maintain the distinction between the two verbs in all contexts. This confusion is probably due to the fact that the word also serves as the past tense of . . .. . The past participle of is ; the word (note the spelling) is the past tense and past participle of : . .. . This verb , meaning `rest in a horizontal position', should not be confused with the unrelated verb , meaning `be untruthful'. The past tense and past participle of the latter are regular: . . The present participle of both these verbs is ; the present participle of the verb is .

FORMER and LATTER.

The verb

launch

.

be launched next month

.

The campaign will They have just

is also used figuratively as a noun: .

launched their new perfume.

◆ Launch

lie

lay

is widely used in

the figurative sense of `set in motion', `start', or `introduce':

lay

The baby lay in his cot and screamed lie

lay

see

You'd

too long

lain

laid

They have lain in the sun for

We (have) laid our coats on the bed

lie

lie

He

He

gave a party to celebrate the launch of his latest

.

or

better lay the baby in his cot

frequent in contemporary usage.

novel

lay lie

transitive ± i.e. has an object ± is often

◆

lather ◆

a legitimate

reason

lath lathe or

legal action

legitimate

(has) lied about his age

lying

lay

laying

181

learn

The verb has a number of specific uses: . advances, as yet largely unproved in real applica. . ; etc. The tions and thus carrying a certain degree of risk: . expression , meaning `to bring down', should not be confused with , meaning `to stay in hiding'. The verb is rarely used without a direct See also CUTTING EDGE. object, a notable exception being the sense of leading question A sug`produce eggs': . gests or prompts the expected or desired . The verb never has a answer, such as: . direct object. . lay

lay eggs

to

to lay the table

to lay a ghost

to lay low

This company is cautious about adopting bleed-

to lie low

ing-edge technology that may cause problems in the long run.

lay

leading question

If the hens don't lay there will

be no eggs for breakfast

lie

Did you see the defendant

OVERLAY OR OVERLIE?; UNDERLAY or

See also

UNDERLIE?

layman laywoman TERMS LDC DEVELOPMENT leach leech or

?

NON-SEXIST

see

.

see

? These two words are occa-

in the same way. The verb

leach

.

means

`deprive of something' or `drain away': The colour leached from his face.

It should not

be confused with the noun

leech,

which

describes a bloodsucking freshwater worm: She picked a leech off her leg.

lead led or

front':

.

Lead

means `guide by going in

He was leading the walking party,

and is pronounced [leed]. The past tense of this verb is spelt as

led.

lead

This is sometimes wrongly

lead,

pronounced [led].

leadership

.

because the pronunciation is

the same as that of the metal:

Leadership

as heavy as

.

ciated with a good leader:

.

elected to the

to lack leadership potential.

.

use of the noun in place of by some people:

leaders

The

is disliked

China's leadership ap-

peared to be stepping up efforts to promote its version of recent history

leading-edge ing-edge

(Daily

.

Telegraph).

The adjectival use of

is best avoided where

up-to-date

The use of the verb and noun

leak

. .

tious, or improper disclosure of secret information is acceptable in most contexts: Details of the report were leaked to the press.

The managing director's secretary denied all

The verb is used both transitively and intransitively in this sense: . . . . ◆

leak

He leaked the story

The story leaked out

leak leek or

? These two words are occa-

sionally confused since they are pronounced in the same way.

.

advanced

leading-edge technology

or

.

Leak

describes an out-

pouring of liquid or something else escaping oil leaking from the pipe.

should not be confused with

.

leek,

It

which

refers to a vegetable with a white bulb and long cylindrical stem:

leaned leant or

.

a bowl of leek soup.

? Either word may be used

as the past tense and past participle of the verb

lean:

She leaned/leant forwards to open

the window.

may be pronounced [leend] or [lent]; is always pronounced [lent].

◆ Leaned

lead-

would be adequate or more

appropriate:

leak

with reference to the unofficial, surrepti-

a container: is the state or rank

of a leader; it also denotes qualities assoleadership

leading question.'

responsibility for the leak.

? These two words are often

confused.

Many people object to the frequent use of the term with reference to questions that are challenging, unfair,embarrassing, etc.: . animals for their fur?

◆

to be any redundancies at the factory?' `That's a

sionally confused since they are pronounced

.

Do you

approve of the wholesale slaughter of innocent

`Are there going

.

or

stab his wife with a kitchen knife?

a

leant

See also

-ED or -T?

leaped leapt or

? Either word may be used

The noun denotes the forward verb : .. edge of an aerofoil, wing, etc. The noun is also ◆ may be pronounced [leept] or [lept]; used figuratively, in the vogue expression is always pronounced [lept]. :. See also -ED or -T? (Harrap catalogue). learn or teach? The use of.the verb A modern derivative of the term is in place of is wrong: , which refers to the very latest technological [not ] .

leading-edge project.

◆

leap

leading edge

They leaped/leapt across the very

wide ditch

at the

leading edge

as the past tense and past participle of the

This impressive product is at the

Leaped

leapt

leading edge of both lexicographical and computer technology

learn

bleeding-

edge

teach

learning

me to swim

He's teaching

learned

182

To is to gain knowledge; to is to impart knowledge. The verb is followed by the preposition or inthesense`receiveinformation': . [or ] It is followed by the preposition in the sense `gain knowledge': . . ◆

learn

teach

learn

of

about

When

did you learn of

about

the accident?

about

We learnt about the Vikings

. .

avoided by many users: [not

leave] go of the rope.

to let

[not

leave

alone

leave] him be.

and

You mustn't let

I told the children

The expressions

alone,

let

however, are

virtually interchangeable in the sense of

.

`refrain from disturbing, bothering, interfering with, etc.':

Leave/Let the dog alone.

also means `allow or cause to be learned or learnt? Either word may be alone',: .in which sense it cannot be replaced by used as the past tense and past participle of . the verb :. is also used as a set phrase meaning `not to mention' or `still less': . ◆ The past tense and past participle may . be pronounced [lernd] or [lernt]; it should not be See also LET. confused with the two-syllable adjective [ nid], meaning `erudite': . led see LEAD or LED? . last week

◆ Leave alone

let

alone

Have you learned/learnt the

learn

Please don't leave me alone ± I'm afraid of

the dark

Let alone

words of the song?

They can't afford

learned

minced beef, let alone fillet steak

learned

ler

a very learned pro-

fessor

See also

-ED or -T?; LEARN or TEACH?

learning curve

The phrase

learning curve

knowledge or experience as if represented by a graph. (The rate of learning is usually not uniform: the curve may rise steeply at the beginning, when a large amount of knowledge is acquired in a relatively short time.) It is a vogue term, often found in

see

This word has two possible pro-

in nautical contexts.

legacy legacy

their second year of LMS and head teachers admit to being on a steep learning curve

(The

Bookseller).

learningdifficulties

In modern usage, this

is the approved designation for any condition that hinders a person from absorbing

.

basic information or learning simple skills: The

local

authority

.

is

opening

a

new

department to support youngsters with learning difficulties.

They employ a number of

adults who have learning difficulties.

replaced such terms as handicapped,

retarded

or

It has

mentally

which are now considered

unacceptable.

◆ People with learning difficulties may also be termed learning-disabled.

learnt LEARNED LEARNT lease HIRE RENT least-developed countries MENT leave let see

or

see

or

?

?

see

.

or

place of go

and

let,

DEVELOP-

ending.

With the advent of computers in recent years has expanded beyond its original meaning of `inherited gift' or `something handed down from an ancestor or predecessor' and may now also refer specifically to essential computer software that has been in use for some time but has become costly and difficult to maintain: .

used:

Most schools have only just started

This word is sometimes misspelt.

Note the

◆

to help new employees up the learning

or

nunciations. The generally accepted proÆ rd] but [looa Æ rd] is used nunciation is [leewa

business contexts, and should not be overcurve

LEECH? or LEEK?

see

refers to the process of acquiring new

. .

leech LEACH leek LEAK leeward

software

-acy

.

legacy

legacy system.

legal LAWFUL LEGAL legalize DECRIMINALIZE legendary see

,

or

see

LEGITIMATE? or LEGALIZE?

The use of the adjective

ary

legend-

.

in the sense of `very famous or notor-

ious' may be misleading or confusing:

.

The

legendary Dick Turpin rode a horse called Black Bess.

Listening to recordings of the

 s Segovia during the 1930s legendary Andre

(Reader's

Digest).

The context of the second example makes it clear that AndreÂs Segovia existed in fact, not legend, but the first example is ambiguous. . . .

◆

legible readable or

? The adjective

legible

describes something that can be deciphered and read;

.

readable

describes something that

.

leave

in

may be read with interest, enjoyment, or

especially in the expressions

let

ease:

? The use of the verb

let be,

is regarded as incorrect and

novel.

legible handwriting

a very readable

183

.

◆ Readable

is also used as a synonym for `legible': lengthy The adjective

The text is barely readable without a magnifying

glass

.

neutral antonym of

-nn-.

A

means `te-

.

short:

.

long

as a

The children

became very restless during the headmaster's lengthy speech.

Note the spelling of this word,

particularly the

lengthy

diously, excessively, or unusually long'; it should not be used in place of

ILLEGIBLE or UNREADABLE? legionary see LEGIONNAIRE. See also

legionnaire

letter writing

legionnaire

is a

(former) member of a military legion, such as the French Foreign Legion, the British Legion, or the American Legion; the noun also occurs in the name of a serious disease, legionnaires' disease.

She has long

[not

lengthy]

dark hair and brown eyes.

◆ may be pronounced [ thi] or [ thi]. Note the consonant sequence in the spelling. Lengthy

leng

lenk

-ngth-

leopard

This word is sometimes misspelt.

The most frequent error is the omission of

should not be confused with the the which is not pronounced. noun , which has a single and specifi- less see FEWER or LESS? cally refers to a member of an ancient Roman less-developed country see DEVELOPMENT. legion. o

◆ Legionnaire

legionary

legitimate leisure

n

see

LAWFUL, LEGAL or LEGITIMATE?

This word, meaning `time spent

free from work', is sometimes misspelt. Note the

spelling.

◆ is commonly pronounced [ zheÆr] in British English and [ zheÆr] in American English. -ei-

Leisure

le

leisurely

lee

The word

may be used

leisurely

.

as an adjective or, more rarely, as an

.

adverb, meaning `without haste': at a leisurely pace the garden.

lend loan or

stroll

She walked leisurely up

lest

This word, meaning `in case some-

thing bad happens', is a relic of Old English that has become relatively infrequent in should

or a verb in the

.

.

is used only

lend

as a verb; in British English principally as a noun:

loan

needless pain. late.

We should go now lest we be

Many people consider its use preten-

tious and avoid it altogether.

let

Used in the imperative,

. .

loan

a subject pronoun: see the letter.

◆ Let's

Let them try.

ingly acceptable, however, with reference to the lending of large sums of money,

The bank will

.

loan us the money we need to finance the setting up of the new venture.

This picture

has been loaned to the gallery by the Duke and Duchess of Kent.

The use of the verb in place of is wrong: . [not ] To is to give for temporary use; to is to take for temporary use.

◆

lend

Can I borrow

please?

borrow

lend your umbrella,

lend

borrow

lengthways lengthwise or

.

? Either word

may be used as an adverb in British English:

Fold the sheet lengthways/lengthwise

, an informal contraction of

◆

lengthwise

See also

-WISE or -WAYS?

lengthways

Let him

[not I]

let us

, is used to

Let's stay here

don't let's

Let's not go to the party

See also

let's not

.

HIRE or RENT?; LEAVE or LET?

letter writing

There are a number of

conventions relating to the style and layout of a formal or semiformal letter.

1

The sender's address, followed by the

date, should appear at the top of the letter, usually in the right-hand corner. The recipient's name and address appear below this, on the left-hand side of the page. Punctuation of the address ± a comma at the end of each line (except the final line, which has a full stop) and sometimes after the house number ± is optional.

As an adjective, and as an adverb in American 2 The salutation ( English, is preferred to .

before ironing it.

.

let's

as an Americanism. It is becoming increas-

.

should be

Let Paul and me

as a verb is widely regarded

valuable works of art, etc.:

let

followed by an object pronoun rather than

Thank you for the loan of your lawn mower.

The use of

I

. introduce a suggestion or proposal made to the other member(s) of one's group: . . The preferred negative form of is , although isalsousedin BritishEnglish: .

is used

He lent me his pen.

SUBJUNCTIVE:

did not mention it, lest it should give her

finish his meal first.

? The word

.

everyday conversation. It is followed by

Dear Sir, Dear Madam,

Dear Miss Jones, Dear Mr

Brown,

or, in-

creasingly, under American influence,

Dear

leukaemia

184

Chapman,

James

wants

to

avoid

Mr Chapman James)

etc., where the writer

lish a level playing field for competition be-

the

Dear

tween

Dear

market (The Guardian).

formality

of

and the informality of

is set on a separate line, beginning

community

.

countries

in

rest of the book trade, but . . .

comma

seller).

British

English,

a

colon

in

American English. See also

3

ABBREVIATIONS; MS, MRS or MISS?

The letter itself should be divided into

single

to compete on a level playing field with the

with a capital letter and ending with a in

the

I don't mind trying

liable likely or

(The

Book-

? Both adjectives are used to

express probability, followed by an infinitive with

to. Liable

refers to habitual prob-

paragraphs, with or without indentation.

ability, often based on past experience;

The style and content of the letter depend

likely

on the level of formality (see also

may be without precedent:

CIALESE).

4

COMMER-

The letter is closed with any of a number

of fixed phrases, the most frequent being Yours sincerely

(if the recipient's name is

used in the salutation) or

Yours faithfully

an impersonal salutation, such as or

Dear Madam,

(if

Dear Sir

is used). Like the saluta-

tion, this phrase is set on a separate line, beginning with a capital letter and ending with a comma.

5

The signature is usually followed by the

sender's name, title, and office (if appropriate).

6

informal letters: the position of the sender's address, the punctuation and layout of the salutation and closing phrase, etc. An informal letter may begin with the recipient's first name and end with any of a number of expressions, such as

Best wishes, Yours, Love,

etc. The recipient's name and address are usually omitted and it is rarely necessary to add the sender's name after the signature.

leukaemia

This word is sometimes mis-

spelt. Note the three sets of vowels: ia

eu, ae,

in British English. The American

English spelling is

level

liable to bite strangers.

.

.

The noun

leukemia.

level

serves a useful pur-

pose in a variety of literal and figurative

.

senses but is sometimes superfluous or unnecessarily vague: employment

.

a high level of un-

(high unemployment)

increase in the noise level

(more noise)

decisions made at management level

.

an

(deci-

sions made by the management).

level playing field

ing field

The phrase

level play-

is increasingly used in figurative

.

contexts, denoting a situation where all can compete on equal terms: European market rules]

These

[the single

are meant to estab-

The dog is

The dog is likely to

bite you if you pull his tail.

.

The shelf is liable

to collapse when it is filled with books.

The

shelf is likely to collapse if it is filled with books.

Careful users maintain the distinc-

tion between the two words.

◆ The adjectives and , which are similar in sense and usage to , principally refer to disposition, inclination, or tendency: . . also means `responsible (for)' or `subject (to)': . .. is interchangeable with in the second of these senses: . . apt

prone

liable

He is apt/

prone to lose his temper Liable

She is liable for their debts

He is liable to

epileptic attacks. Prone liable

Some of these conventions also apply to

and

.

refers to a specific probability that

She is prone

to indigestion

See also

liaison verb

LIKELY.

The noun

liaison

and its derived

are often misspelt, the most

liaise

frequent error being the omission of the second i.

Some people object to the widespread use of and as synonyms for `communication', `communicate', or `(maintain) contact', and the use of to refer to an illicit sexual relationship: . ..

◆

liaison

liaise

liaison

Closer liaison between teachers and social

workers might have prevented this tragedy

Overseas travel will be necessary to liaise with

..

subsidiaries and distributors in Europe, North America, and the Far East

His wife found out

about his liaison with his secretary

libel

slander

or

defamatory

.

? Both words refer to

statements:

libel

is

written,

drawn, printed, or otherwise recorded in permanent form;

slander

is spoken or con-

veyed by gesture.

In informal contexts the word is often used in place of . Both words may be used as nouns or as verbs. The final of is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel in British English; the final of is never doubled. ◆

libel

slander

l

r

slander

See also

libel

SPELLING 1.

185

library

The pronunciation of this word is

like .

English:

second syllable [lõÅbri], but this pronuncia-

pipe.

tion is frequently heard.

◆

licence license or

. .

premises

.

licence,

television licence licence

.

? In British English, the

noun is spelt

the verb

.

an off-licence

to license one's car licensing hours.

.

license:

a

poetic

(un)licensed

In American Eng-

lish, both the noun and verb are spelt license.

lichen

This word has two pronunciations

Æ n] or [liche Æ n]. Some people prefer the [lõÅke first of these, which is the same pronunciation as

liken.

licorice LIQUORICE lie LAY LIE lieu IN LIEU lieutenant see

see

or

see

.

The pronunciation of this

syllable varies. The most frequent pronunciation in British English is as in

left,

in

nautical contexts the pronunciation is as in and in American English, the pronunloot.

lifelong livelong or

.

lifetime':

my lifelong friend

admiration for her work. long,

a lighted match

a lighted cigarette

lighted

a well-lit room

lightning

lit

a badly lit stage

or

lightening

words are often confused.

.

?

These

two is a

Lightning

flash of light produced by atmospheric electricity:

thunder and lightning. Light-

.

is also used as an adjective to describe

ning

things that happen very quickly:

.

the

lightening someone's load.

.

A

light-year

.

life-

his lifelong

The adjective

live-

meaning `very long' or `whole', is

is a unit of distance,

.

not time; careful users avoid such expressions as:

It happened light-years ago.

wedding seemed light-years away.

The

◆A is the distance travelled by light in one year (approximately six million million miles); the term is used in astronomy. light-year

likable like

see

LIKEABLE or LIKABLE?

The use of

? The adjective

means `lasting or continuing for a

long

lighted

a lighted torch

light-year

This word is often misspelt, the

ciation is as in

He lit his

Used adjectivally before a noun, is the . . preferredform: . . If the adjective is modified by anadverb,however, maybereplaceby : . . .

lighten:

most frequent errors occurring in the first

let,

Have you lit the fire?

The hall was lit by candles.

is the present participle/gerund of the verb

?

lieu-.

.

is the more frequent in British

lightning strike by postal workers. Lightening

.

syllable:

.

light. Lit

Æ ri]. Careful users avoid dropping the [lõÅbra

like

as a conjunction,

introducing a clause that contains a verb, is disliked by many users and is best avoided in formal contexts, where if,

or as though should be used instead:

garden

looks

as

if

[not

.

like]

years.

it

.

as, as The

has

been

[not

like]

chiefly used in the old-fashioned poetic

neglected

expression

the headmaster said, corporal punishment is

all the livelong day.

for

many

As

. is usually written as a solid compound, the hyphenated form being an accepted ◆ The use of as a preposition, introducing a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, is acceptable in all but rare variant. .. , which is etymologically unrelated to contexts: . the word , is pronounced [ long]. .. .. lifestyle Some people object to the fre. (Note quent use of the term , a synonym that the preposition is followed by the object for `way of life', by advertisers, journalists, pronouns , etc., not the subject pronouns . etc.: . , etc.) . . The use of in place of the preposition may change the meaning of the sentence: . . , .. , There is an increasing tendency today . . for to be written as a one-word .. . In other compound. It is sometimes hyphenated contexts, the two prepositions may be virtually ( ) but not usually written as two . interchangeable: separate words. .. . lighted or lit? Either word may be used as The habitual use of . in spoken conversation as a meaningless filler: , the past tense and past participle of the verb

◆ Lifelong

not used in this school

like

life-long

The garden looks like a jungle

Livelong

live

ishment

lifestyle

urban lifestyle

values

consumer lifestyle

lifestyle packaging

The spread of

personal lifestyles of many people

His sister writes like him

Like you and

me, they are keen amateur photographers like

him, me

he, I

as

Aids is likely to have tremendous effects on the

lifestyle

Like

the headmaster, she disapproves of corporal pun-

liv

like

As your

father I have a right to know

have a right to know sional

life-style

Like your father I

She plays like a profes-

She plays as a professional

He was dressed as/like a po-

liceman

They treat me like/as an idiot like

He was, like, really angry

-like

186

when exaggerating for effect: . ◆ Neither word is in frequent use: is largely or to introduce speech: . restricted to formal contexts, to the world of printing and publishing. is also used as a variant spelling of is best avoided, or at , in which case it is pronounced [ ij]. leastconfinedtoironicremarks: . He was like 100

feet tall,

lineage

linage

She was like,'-

Where do you think you're going?' and I was like,

Lineage

`Mind your own business!'

Like, who rattled

your cage?

AS; SUCH AS or LIKE?

See also

-like .

or

The suffix -like may be attached with or

.

spade-like

autumnlike

or

lõÅn

lineament liniment ment,

or without a hyphen in British English: spadelike

linage

? The noun

.

linea-

meaning `feature', is largely restricted

to formal or literary contexts: lineaments

of

face.

his

the noble

It should not be

confused with the noun

liniment,

denoting

◆ When is added to one- or two-syllable or stiffness: . . words that do not end in - , the hyphen is often linger The verb is followed by the . . omitted: . , par- preposition in the sense `be slow' . ticularly in words that are well-established in the . It is followed by English language, such as and . Words that end in - , especially those that end in the sense `dwell on': . . in - , and words of three or more syllables usually . lingua franca A retain the hyphen when adding - : . is a language . . . adopted as a common language by speakers autumn-like.

a liquid rubbed into the skin to relieve pain

like

a bottle of liniment

I

dreamlike

birdlike

linger

paperlike

lifelike

ladylike

l

like

doll-like

likeable likable likely or

Don't let your

on

coal-like

lingua franca

potato-like

? Both spellings of this

word are acceptable. See

SPELLING 3.

In British English the adverb

.

in formal contexts; it is usually preceded by or

most:

.

They will very

likely arrive tomorrow morning.

whose native languages are different:

.

English is rapidly becoming the lingua franca of the world.

likely,

meaning `probably', is not used on its own very, quite, more,

lingered over his breakfast

mind linger on the unpleasant details

II

model-like

He

over

I'll most

◆ The expression is pronounced [lingwaÆ kaÆ]; the plural is [lingwaÆ kaÆs]. The phrase comes from Italian, meaning `Frankish language'. lingua franca

fran

lingua francas

fran

lingua franca

linguist The noun may denote a Some people avoid the problem by using person who knows a number of foreign or by rephrasing the sentence to make languages or a specialist in linguistics, the an adjective: . study of language. . , .. , . . . As an adjective, may stand alone or be . modified by an adverb: . . . ◆A is someone who can speak or See also LIABLE or LIKELY? is studying modern European languages such as limited Some people object to the use of French, German, and Spanish. Although the noun is rarely ambiguous in context, it may be the adjective as a synonym for replaced, if necessary, by the synonym (for `small', `little', `few', etc.: . . . the first sense) or (for the second sense). . ◆ is best reserved for its original meaning liniment see LINEAMENT or LINIMENT? of `restricted': . .. .. liquefy or liquify? Both spellings of this . word are acceptable, although the first is likely see you at the party.

◆

linguist

prob-

ably

likely

They will probably arrive tomorrow

morning

They are likely to arrive tomorrow

morning

likely

a likely effect

a more

likely explanation

Mr Evans

an accom-

plished linguist

was a great help to us on our

European tour

At yesterday's lecture the

linguist Noam Chomsky expounded his theory of language structure

modern linguist

linguist

limited

polyglot

a limited income

with limited assistance

linguistician

of limited educa-

tion

Limited

Their powers are limited

have a limited choice

We

He finds it difficult to work

in a limited space

lineage linage or

? The noun

lineage,

pro-

nounced [liniij], means `line of descent' or `ancestry'; the noun

.

linage,

.

pronounced

generally preferred.

liqueur liquor or

? The spellings of these

words are sometimes confused. A

liqueur

[lõÅnij], means `number of printed or written

[likyoor] or, less commonly, [liker] is a sweet

lines':

alcoholic drink taken after a meal. Æ r] is any alcoholic beverage. [like

the emperor's lineage

on linage.

payment based

Liquor

liquidate liquidize . or

? The verb

is used in finance:

euphemism for `kill': To

.

liquidate

to liquidate a company

to liquidate one's assets, rivals.

187 .

and as an informal

He liquidated his

liquid, usually in a blender or liquidizer:

Liquidize the fruit and add it to the whipped cream.

liquify liquor liquorice

LIQUEFY or LIQUIFY? see LIQUEUR or LIQUOR?

ciations of this word. The traditional proÆ ris] is preferred by many, nunciation [liko Æ rish] is also acceptable and widely but [liko used.

In American English the noun is spelt see

or

,

lating to literature';

.

Literal

. .

means

.

means `able to

read and write: (well-)educated':

barely literate.

a literary critic

.

.

a literal

the literal meaning of the word

literary works

.

means `re-

literary

literate

They are

a highly literate candidate.

All three adjectives are ultimately derived from Latin `letter', but they are not interchangeable in any of their senses. Some people avoid using to mean `welleducated' where there is a risk of ambiguity. In a job advertisement, for example, may refer to anything from a basic ability to read and write to degree-level qualifications. In such combinations as . , the word is reduced to the sense of `competent; able; experienced'.

◆

littera

literate

literate

computer literate

literate

literally

The use of the adverb

literally

.

as

an intensifier, especially in figurative con-

.

texts, is disliked by many users: rained all night.

It literally

I was literally tearing my

hair out by the time they arrived.

◆ The effect of this usage may be misleading or ambiguous: . , or quite absurd: . . As the opposite of , may be used to indicate that a metaphorical expression is to be interpreted at its face value: . . We were literally starving

She literally laughed her head off figuratively literally

The dog had

literally bitten off more than it could chew

literary literate LITERATE literature ,

?

see

LITERAL, LITERARY

or

literature,

The principal objection is not that is an no one-word equivalent in general use for this sense ± but `that so reputable a word should be put to so menial a duty' (H.W. Fowler, ). ◆

literature

little live

FEW; FEWER or LESS?

see

.

The adjective

recorded':

live,

.

.

meaning `not pre-

a live broadcast

live music,

is

increasingly used in the extended sense of `actually present':

They have never per-

formed in front of a live audience.

◆ This usage inevitably leads to humorous associations with the principal meaning of , i.e. `living' or `alive', in contrast to `dead'.

livelong livid

LIFELONG or LIVELONG?

see

The adjective

may be used to

livid

describe a range of colours, from the dark purple colour of a bruise, through the greyish-blue colour of a

livid

sky, to the

pale complexion of somebody who is

livid

with fear.

is perhaps most frequently used in the sense of `very angry': . . This usage is best restricted to informal contexts.

◆ Livid

His mother will be livid

when she finds out

living room LOUNGE llama LAMA LLAMA loaded LADEN LOADED loan LEND LOAN loath loth loathe see

see

.

or

see

?

or

see

or

,

?

?

or

?

Loath

and

loth

are

different spellings of the same adjective,

.

meaning `unwilling' or `reluctant';

.

a verb, meaning `detest': to move to London. London.

.

Loath

confused:

and

is

He loathes working in loathe

are frequently

The team would be loathe to

see the manager go.

users prefer

loathe

He was loath/loth

loth,

For this reason some

the more distinctive spel-

ling of the adjective.

The adjectives and are pronounced [loÅth], with the final sound of ; the verb is pronounced [loÅdh], with the final sound of . Note the spelling of the adjective , which may be pronounced [ soÆm] or [ soÆm]. ◆

loath

loth

th

bath

loathe

th

bathe

Some people object to the use of

the noun

the Far East.

live

?

`word for word; exact';

translation

licorice

?

or

They're

sending us some literature about holidays in

of Modern English Usage

There are two possible pronun-

lit LIGHTED LIT literal literary literate

other written or printed matter:

A Dictionary

see

◆

.

greatness, to denote brochures, leaflets, and

. unnecessary synonym for some other noun ± it has

is to make something

liquidize

loath

with its connotations of

loathsome

loÅdh

loÅth

locale

locale locality ,

location

or

188 ? All three

belt.

gether synonymous.

able.

Locale,

the most for-

.

loosed the lion from its cage.

nouns mean `place', but they are not alto-

He loosened his

The two verbs are not interchange-

◆ The adjective , which means `free' or `not tight', may be applied to something that has been :. .. . of events: . The verb is rarely used in modern times. It (example adapted from is occasionally confused with the verb , which COBUILD corpus). often refers is similar in spelling and pronunciation ( is to a neighbourhood or geographical area: . pronounced [loos]; is pronounced [looz]). mal of the three, refers to a place that is

loose

connected with a particular event or series

an unlikely locale for a human

rights

loosened

The lion was loose

His belt was loose

loose

convention

lose

Locality

loose

There

are

a

number

locality. Location

of

bookshops

in

the

means `site' or `situation'

and is often used as a formal or pretentious

.

substitute for the nouns location

locate

LOCATE):

.

(see also

etc.

the location of the town hall.

The verb

location

place, position,

to move to a different

locate

and its derived noun

are best avoided where

place, position,

. .

find, situate,

etc., would be adequate or

more appropriate: my front-door key.

I can't find

[not

locate]

.

The shrub should be

planted in a sheltered position

[not

location].

Offices in a prestigious part of the City

[not

a

prestigious City location].

location LOCALE LOCALITY lone ALONE LONE longevity see

,

see

or

or

LOCATION?

?

This

word,

meaning

`long

length of life', is usually pronounced [lonjevÆõti] although [longjevÆõti] is also frequently used.

◆

The pronunciation [long õÆti] is nonstandard.

longitude

gev

This word, referring to the

lose

lorry

Lorry

British

and

lorry driver,

English

terms,

lents

lose lot

and

truck

see

truck driver

The expressions

tyood]. Note that there is no i

in

longitude,

either in spelling or pronun-

ciation, unlike ,

The

,

noun

or

BATHROOM? denotes

lookalike

.

someone who closely resembles another

.

person, usually a famous person: Charles

lookalike

the

lots (of)

[not

have many

Note that

a great deal of

◆

lots of] books.

[not

a lot

.

many, much, a

.

great deal (of), a good deal (of), etc.:

We

They received

a lot of] help.

should never be written

alot.

MANY; MUCH; SINGULAR or PLURAL? loth see LOATH, LOTH or LOATHE? lots see LOT. See also

loud loudly or

?

.

Loud

adjective or adverb: shouted loudly

as

loud

as

he

a loud noise could.

may be substituted for

.

loud

She read the poem out

out loudly].

loudly:

.

loud] and angrily.

.

in all

out loud,

It is not always ac-

ceptable, however, to use the adverb place of

He

The adverb

its adverbial uses except the phrase [not

.

may be used as an

loud

They protested loudly loudly

[not

in

[not

loud] dressed

in a blue-and-yellow striped jacket.

latitude.

loo TOILET LAVATORY LOO lookalike see

before the

t

and

a lot (of)

they may be replaced by

meaning `audibly':

[longgi-

trucker.

are best avoided in formal contexts, where

loud

g-sound

or

LOOSE or LOOSEN?

meridian, may be pronounced with a sound [lonjityood] or a

increasingly

being overtaken by their American equiva-

distance west or east of the Greenwich j-

the traditional

are

a Prince

Marilyn

Monroe

lookalike competition.

lounge

The

of a private house or

lounge

flat is the room used for relaxation, recrea-

.

tion, and the reception of guests, as opposed to the

dining room:

into the lounge.

synonyms

She showed the vicar

Some people consider the

sitting room

and

living room

to be

◆ Some users consider to be an unneword also denotes a room in a hotel, cessary synonym, of American origin, for the noun ◆pub,Theclub, . or airport: . . . is sometimes written as a hyphenated . compound, . The noun , an old-fashioned synonym for , is derived from the French verb , loose or loosen? The verb means meaning `to speak': . `release', `set free', or `undo'; the verb . The word also has a number of means `make or become less tight': . less pretentious than

lookalike

lounge.

lounge

Coffee will be served in the

double

lounge

Lookalike

The passengers waited in the departure

lounge

look-alike

parlour

lounge

loose

She

parler

The maid has tidied the

loosen

parlour

parlour

189

. specificuses: . . The term (short for ), another synonym, has connotations of grandeur and formality: . . , , , and are sometimes hyphenated in British English. beauty parlour

ice-cream parlour

drawing room

withdrawing

room

The ladies retired to

the drawing room

Sitting room living room drawing room

dining room

lour lower or

?

Lower

in the sense of `look

sullen; look gloomy or threatening' may also be spelt rhyme with

lour

tower:

over the sea.

unrelated to

.

and is pronounced to clouds lowering/louring

The word is etymologically lower,

used as an adjective to

mean `relatively low', and as a verb to mean `move down'.

Lower

in these senses is

pronounced to rhyme with

low . .

or

lowly

opposite of

a low wall

.

high,

low morale

lowly,

.

mower.

? The adjective

.

.

to feel low.

the

a low voice

The adjective

meaning `humble' or `inferior', is

.

much more restricted in usage and is formal:

see

or

see

see

a lowly job.

?

.

.

or

? These two words are

identical in pronunciation and are sometimes confused.

Lumbar

is an adjective used

.

in medical contexts, referring to the lower

.

part of the back and sides: puncture

a

lumbar

the lumbar vertebrae. Lumber

is

used as a noun or verb. In the sense of `unwanted articles', the noun

. .

ber room;

past;

the lum-

in the sense of `timber' it is chiefly

found in American English: lumber.

is

lumber

chiefly found in British English:

.

heaps

of

The verb lumber means `move heav-

ily, awkwardly, etc.':

low,

has a number of senses:

a low temperature

lowly LOW LOWLY low-profile PROFILE Ltd PLC lumbar lumber

lying

An elephant lumbered

.

in the sense of `burden' it should be

restricted to informal contexts:

I got lum-

bered with the job of delivering the leaflets.

lunch luncheon or

? Both nouns denote a

midday meal: a

luncheon

social occasion;

lunch

is usually a formal

is often a light infor-

meal or a fuller meal at which business Both adjectives may be applied to the same mal is conducted: . noun with different connotations: . .. . .. . . As an adverb, can mean `in a low manner' ◆ The use of as a synonym for is or `in a lowly manner', but it is very rarely used generally considered to be old-fashioned, `lunch' surviving in either sense. The word may be used only in such terms as and . . adverbially: . . . . See also DINNER, LUNCH, TEA or SUPPER?

◆

their lowly abode

the low status

of women in 18th-century society

the lowly

status of the gardener

The Prince of Wales was the

guest of honour at the luncheon

the contract at their business lunch

lowly

luncheon

low

to lie low

shoes

to bow low

low-heeled

a low-cut neckline

lower LOUR LOWER lower-case CAPITAL LETTERS low-hanging fruit see

We stopped

They discussed the terms of

at a pub for lunch

or

?

see

luncheon meat

lure ALLURE LURE luxuriant luxurious see

.

or

?

or

This phrase, meaning

.

luncheon

voucher

?

Luxuriant

`profuse', `lush', or `fertile';

.

luxurious

means

`sumptuous' or `characterized by luxury':

term of relatively recent coinage:

luxuriant vegetation

The

company has concentrated on picking off some

two

low-hanging fruit.

luxuriant

A favourite example of

adjectives

are

a luxurious hotel.

not

.

means

`easy pickings' or `an easy target', is a vogue

The

interchangeable:

is principally applied to things

contemporary business jargon, it is best

that

avoided in formal contexts.

things that are very comfortable, expensive,

low-key

produce

abundantly;

luxurious

to

opulent, self-indulgent, etc.

◆ The noun is also used as an adjective, meaning `desirable but not essential': . `of low intensity', in place of . Its use as a synonym for `luxurious', espe, etc.: . . . cially in advertisements: . . , etc., is disliked by some. ◆ The variant is also used from time to lying see LAY or LIE? time. Some people object to the fre-

quent use of the adjective

low-key,

modest, re-

strained,

subdued,

unassertive

reception was a very low-key affair

low-keyed

luxury

meaning The

luxury

goods

a luxury car

hotel

luxury flats

a luxury

M

macabre

Note the spelling of this word,

which ends in

-re

.

in both British and

American English. It means `relating to death; gruesome':

a macabre tale.

The

r

is not always sounded in speech, the proÆ kahbeÆ] and [ma Æ kahbreÆ] nunciations [ma being equally acceptable to most people.

machinations

This word, meaning `de-

vious plots or conspiracies', is traditionally Æ nz], although the pronounced [makinaysho Æ nz] alternative pronunciation [mashinaysho is becoming increasingly common.

vowel is optional: for example, and may be replaced with and .

macroeconomics

microorganism

economics

macro-

micro-organism

HYPHEN 1.

See also

Madam Madame or

?

is a polite

Madam

.

term of address for woman; the word may

.

be written with a capital or lower-case Would madam like a cup of coffee? help you, Madam? Madame,

m:

Can I

.

written with a

capital M, is the French equivalent of

Mrs:

Wax models of famous people are displayed at Madame Tussaud's.

The usual English pronunciation of both words is [ aÆm]; is also pronounced [maÆ ] or Æ [ma ], anglicized forms of the French pronunÅ ] or , may be pronounced [ma mo ciation. Å ]. Note that the [ma mo does not have is also used as an impersonal salutation the sound of . in LETTERWRITING andasaformaltitleofrespect: . ◆ Derived from a Spanish word meaning `male' . In both these (see MACHO), it is a derogatory word that is dis- uses the word.is always written with a capital . liked by some users of British English and is best , the plural of the French word restricted to informal contexts. , also serves as the plural form of . It is macho The adjective , the Spanish usually pronounced [ dam] in English. word for `male', has derogatory connotaThe noun denotes a woman who runs a tions in English, describing a man who brothel or a girl who is impudent, conceited, displays his masculinity in an aggressive precocious, badly behaved, etc. . .

machismo

The noun

aggressive masculinity:

.

machismo,

denoting

the machismo of the

leader

◆

mad

kiz

chiz

ch

sh

Madame

dam

dahm

Madam

machine

Dear Madam

Madam President

M

Mesdames

Ma-

dame

Madam

macho

may

madam

or ostentatious way: macho hero.

a macho image

MACHISMO,

Like

the

should

macho

not be used in formal contexts or overused

mad cow disease

This is the popular

name for the cattle prion disease bovine

in informal contexts: it is sometimes better

spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). Note

replaced by

that

masculine, virile, male,

etc.

The in , unlike , is always pronounced [ch], not [k]: [ oÅ].

◆

ch

macho

machismo

mad cow disease

is not the approved

term for the condition among scientists or farmers.

Note also that (or ) only affects cattle. The human version is ,a means `small'. Both prefixes are used new form of thought to . in scientific and technical terms, such as: be caused by exposure to BSE . .

macro-

and

micro-

.

micro-

.

microwave

macroscopic

means `large';

microchip.

.

croskirt,

.

microorganism

.

macrocosm

microscopic

.

The use of

other contexts, e.g.

microcosm

microprocessor

BSE

variant CJD

macro-

and

. . magic magical

micro-

.

.

micro-

macrocontract

in

mi-

large,

etc., is best avoided.

or

? The adjective

magic

is

more closely related to the art or practice of

The insertion of a hyphen between the prefix or and a word beginning with a

macro-

mad cow disease

macro-

in place of the adjectives

great, small, tiny,

◆

Macro-

◆

Creuzfeldt-Jakob Disease,

macroeconomics biotic

mach

magic than

.

magical,

.

experience believe.

◆

.

a magic potion

the

.

which is used in the

wider sense of `enchanting': magical

.

a magic wand

a magic spell

world

a magical of

make-

The two adjectives are virtually interchangeable

191

male

in many contexts, although is retained in maintenance The noun , . which is related to the verb certainfixedexpressions,suchas: . , is , etc., and is sometimes often misspelt, a common error being the preferred for things that happen as if by magic: substitution of for in the middle . . , but not of the word. Note also the ending. , is also used in informal contexts to mean major Some people dislike the frequent `wonderful': . use of the adjective in place of , magic

maintenance

magic carpet

magic lantern

maintain

magical

-tain-

a magical transformation Magic

-ten-

ma-

-ance

gical

The holiday was magic!

magnate magnet or

major

? These two words

are occasionally confused. A

important,

chief,

.

great

principal,

serious,

etc.:

is a

There was certainly major news interest in the

person with great wealth or influence. A

details of the background of a man convicted

magnet

magnate

is a piece of iron or other substance

that attracts iron. Figuratively,

.

magnet

is

used to describe a person or place that attracts many people:

The region became

murdering

(Daily

five

members

of

his

family

Mail).

◆ Although is an accepted synonym of these words, it should not be used to excess. major

majority and minority means The endings of the words are pronounced `more than half of the total number'; : [-ayt] and : [-it]. means `less than half of the total

a magnet for computer businesses.

◆

of

magnate

Majority

min-

magnet

magnitude

The noun

greatness,

etc., would be adequate or more

.

extent,

is best

where

appropriate:

size,

magnitude

avoided

importance,

the magnitude of the problem.

The expression is used in astronomy to describe the brightness of a star; its figurative use, in the sense of `greatest' or `most important', is disliked by some people: . .

◆

of the first magnitude

a disaster

of the first magnitude

magnum opus num opus

The Latin expression

mag-

is used to refer to the greatest

work produced by a writer, artist, musician, etc.

The phrase is pronounced [magnuÆm oÅpuÆs]. Its plural forms are and [magnaÆ oÅpeÆraÆ]. ◆

magnum opus

magnum opuses

magna opera

Mahomet mail

see

MUSLIM or MOSLEM?

Since the development of worldwide

electronic networks the word originally

.

ority

referred

solely

mail,

to

which

traditional

He spent the morning opening the mail.

a

◆ and should not be used to denote the greater or lesser part of a single item: . . [not ] [not ] . A may be as small as 51%; a may be as large as 49%. For this reason, and are best avoided where , , etc., would be more appropriate. and may be singular or plural nouns. If the people or items in question are considered as a group, a singular verb is used; if they are considered as individuals, a plural verb is used: . .. . Majority

minority

the greater part less than half

the majority of the house

the minority of the meal

majority

minority majority

minority

Majority

most a few

minority

Only a minority was in favour of the

proposal

The majority have refused to pay

See also

PLURAL?

COLLECTIVE NOUNS; SINGULAR OR

The two nouns also denote the difference between the greater and lesser numbers; in this sense they are always singular: . .

The Labour

candidate's majority has increased

or

masculine

? The adjective

FEMALE: .

male

refers to the sex of a person, animal, or

.

The message on the screen told her she had

plant; it is the opposite of

mail.

kangaroo

Thus, while

.

the majority of the books

minority of his friends.

. male .

postal services, has come to represent a much wider range of communications:

number':

let me mail you the results

a male

male genital organs. Masculine

is

may still be understood to mean that the

applied only to people (or their attributes)

material in question will be sent by post, it

FEMININE: .

could

also

mean

that

some

electronic

means is intended. To avoid confusion, careful users should specify the method they intend to use, whether it be (conventional post),

e-mail

sage sent via the Internet), telephone cally), etc.

message

snail mail

(a typed mesvoicemail

recorded

(a

electroni-

or to words (see

GENDER); it is the opposite of

masculine strength.

With reference to people, is used only of the sex that does not bear children; it is used to distinguish men or boys from women or girls but has no further connotations: . . , on the other hand, may be used of both sexes; it refers to characteristics, qualities, ◆

male

We have a male

French teacher and a female German teacher Masculine

malevolent

192

etc., that are considered typical of men or are traditionally associated with men: . . . The noun is best reserved for animals and plants, and being the preferred terms for male human beings, unless the question of age makesthesenounsinappropriate: . . See also BOY; CHAUVINISM; MAN. For names of male animals see table at ANIMALS. For male, female, and neutral (genderinclusive) terms for people see table at NON-SEXIST TERMS.

a masculine

walk

masculine clothes male

man

boy

Haemophilia is

almost exclusively restricted to males

malevolent malicious malignant ,

or

? All

these adjectives mean `wishing harm to

.

others', but there are differences of sense,

.

.

usage, and application between them: malevolent look

malicious gossip

malignant intentions.

a

cruel,

◆ is the strongest of the three, describing an intense desire for evil. It is common in medical contexts, in the sense of `cancerous', `resistant to treatment', or `uncontrollable': . . The adjectives and are interchangeable in many contexts. , the more frequent, is also used in law with reference to premeditated crime: . . Malignant

a

malignant tumour

malevolent

malicious

Malicious

man

noun

malicious intent

Many people consider the use of the man

.

.

as a synonym for `person' to be

ambiguous and/or sexist: the job

All men are equal.

the best man for

With reference

to individual human beings of unspecified sex, it is usually possible to use people,

human

.

being,

worker(s), citizen(s),

or

men:

individual,

person,

everyone,

etc., in place of

the best person for the job

people are equal.

.

man All

Idiomatic expressions, such as , , , or , and compounds, such as , , , or , should not be changed but may be replaced with a synonym or paraphraseifnecessary: . (for ). (for ). (for ). (for ). Some users also object to the verb , preferring , , , , etc. The useof in thesense of `male adult'dates from around the 11th century. Before his time, in Old English, the noun denoted a human being of either sex and the nouns and wereused to distinguish between male and female ◆

the man in the

street to a man as one man man

be one's own

manhole

power man-made

man-

man-hour

without exception

a man

be independent

workforce

to

be one's own man

manpower

synthetic

man-

made

man

operate staff work run man

man

wer

wõÅf

(respectively). was subsequently combined with to form , from which the noun is derived. The word also survives in the noun and in compounds such as and , where the element simply means `woman' and does not necessarily refer to a married woman. WõÅf

man

wõÅfman

woman

wõÅf

wife

fishwife

midwife

-wife

See also BOY; CHAIR; GENTLEMAN; MALE or MASCULINE?; MANKIND; NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEXISM; WOMAN.

manageable .

This word meaning `able to

be controlled': bers,

retains the

of the

manageable in small num-

-e-

to indicate the softness

g.

manager manageress TERMS mandatory or

NON-SEXIST

? see

.

The adjective

mandatory

is

Æ to Æ ri]. usually pronounced [manda

◆ The alternative pronunciation [man toÆri] is disliked by many users and is best avoided. Some people object to the frequent use of as a synonym for `compulsory', `obligatory', or `essential': . . day

mandatory

A degree in archaeology is

desirable, but not mandatory, for this post

man-hours mankind

see

NON-SEXIST TERMS.

The use of the noun

mankind

to

denote human beings collectively may be confused with its second sense of `men in general' (as opposed to

.

womankind,

ing `women in general'): mankind.

mean-

the future of

The word , coined as a replacement for the first sense of , is disliked by many users. may be ambiguous, having the additional meaning of `kindness', but is acceptable to most: . . ◆

humankind

mankind

Humanity

the human

race

the future of the

human race

MAN; NON-SEXIST TERMS. man-made see NON-SEXIST TERMS. See also

man-management

agement

The term

man-man-

denotes the management of people

.

rather than processes, usually in an industrial environment:

An honours graduate is

required, with 3 years man-management experience.

Like other compounds, the term is disliked andavoidedbysomeusers: . ( ).

◆

man-

You will need to have

skills in people management Daily Telegraph

See also

MAN.

manoeuvre

This word is sometimes mis-

spelt. Note the vowel sequence

-oeu-

and

193 the

ending in British English. The

-re

American spelling is

maneuver.

The verb

marginalize

means

`treat as unimportant' or `relegate to the

-AE- and -OE-.

See also

marginalize

martial

fringes (of society, an organization, etc.)'.

The derived adjective is in British Sometimes spelt (see -IZE or English, in American English. -ISE?), it is chiefly used in the passive: .

◆

manoeuvrable

marginalise

.

maneuverable

manpower NON-SEXIST TERMS mantel mantle see

or

? A

commonly a

Britain fears being marginalized in the EU.

.

mantel,

mantelpiece,

or more

is a shelf forming

part of an ornamental structure round a fireplace. A that covers:

.

mantle

is a cloak or something

shrouded in a mantle of secrecy.

The spellings and are also possible for the fireplace shelf, but are rarer. ◆

many

many

may be used in place of the informal and

a lot (of)

lots (of)

(see

LOT).

is also used in informal contexts,

especially

.

mantlepiece

In formal contexts the adjective

expressions Many

mantle

sentences:

.

in negative and

sentences, however,

.

In some positive

a lot of

more idiomatic than contexts:

interrogative

She doesn't buy many clothes.

Have you got many pets?

and

lots of

are

in informal

many

.

Opponents of a stern military response risk

[not many] books.

being marginalized on the back benches. arts are no longer marginalised dian).

A vogue term,

(The

marginalize

The

Guar-

is disliked

by some people as an example of the increasing tendency to coin new verbs by adding the suffix

-ize

to nouns and adjec-

tives. It should not be overused in formal contexts.

marital MARTIAL market forces see

or

MARITAL?

The phrase

market forces

refers to anything that affects or influences the free operation of trade in goods or services, such as competition or demand, as opposed to (artificially imposed) govern-

.

ment controls. It is in danger of becoming overused as a vogue term:

The printing of

denotes a large number (as opposed to ( ). . , which denotes a large amount); it is therefore used with a plural verb: . ( ). . . . However, in the idiomatic expressions marquess or marquis? A is a . . . and . . . a singular verb is used: British nobleman who ranks below a duke . . and above an earl; a is a nobleman . . of corresponding rank in other countries. ◆ Many

We have a lot of

this holy work

[the Bible]

to market forces

much

Many have dis-

appeared

Many

houses

were

destroyed

should be subjected

Green

The Bookseller

market forces are working in the appliance manufacturers' favour

Daily Telegraph

many a

marquess

many's the

Many a child has dreamt of becoming a film star

marquis

Many's the time I've walked down this road

margarine

The usual pronunciation of this Æ reen]. word has a soft g [marja

The word place of

marquis

is sometimes used in

marquess.

◆ Note that is a masculine title, despite The original pronunciation, with a hard , as in the apparently feminine . The female , is now rarely used, even though it is counterpart of a marquessending or marquis is called a more in keeping with the spelling and the etymol, although the term is someogy of the word. times used for the non-British feminine title. and have the same pronunmarginal Some people object to the use of ciation, [ kwis], in British English, but the nonthe adjective as a synonym for . British title is sometimes pronounced [mar ]. `small' or `slight': . ◆

marquess

g

-ess

Margaret

marchioness

marquise

Marquess

marginal

.

marginal changes

.

a marginal effect

student of marginal ability.

a

sometimes with reference to a lower limit: . . The adjective also has a number of specific uses, notably in politics: . (or ) is one in which the Member of Parliament has only a small majority. is also used to describe land on the edge of cultivated areas that is too poor to produce many crops. marginal profits

a ceremony of marginal, not

primary importance

a marginal seat

ency

Marginal

kee

a

marshal MARTIAL means `close to a margin or limit', martial marital .

marginal improvement

◆ Marginal

marquis

mar

constitu-

see

or

or

MARSHAL?

? These two adjectives

are sometimes confused, being similar in spelling.

Martial

.

martial arts

.

.

martial music

martial law. Marital

.

. .

means `of or relating to

war or military matters': or relating to marriage':

marital

means `of

marital problems vows.

The word

marital

status

marital

is also found in the adjectives

tramarital, premarital,

etc., and

the compound noun and verb

martial

ex-

in

court-martial.

martial

martial marshal or

194 ? The pronunciation of

its original meaning of `make or become real': . .

these two words is identical and they are

They watched in horror as the spirit materialized

sometimes confused. The adjective

before their very eyes

martial

means `of or relating to war or military

MARTIAL or MARITAL?).

matters' (see

Marshal

may be used as a noun, meaning `officer' or

.

`official', or as a verb, meaning `arrange',

.

`assemble', or `guide': tgomery

.

Field Marshal Mon-

damaged car off the racetrack. facts

.

One of the marshals pushed the to marshal the

We were marshalled into the court-

room.

Note that the second element of the compound noun and verb is not . The word is sometimes misspelt with at the end. The should be doubled only before , and (in British English), and in the surname . ◆

court-martial

-martial

-marshal

marshal

-ll

-l

-ed, -ing

-er

Marshall

masculine massage

MALE or MASCULINE?

see

The verb

massage

.

is increasingly

.

(figures, data, etc.) to make them more to massage the accounts

massage the results of the survey.

to

This usage

is best restricted to informal contexts.

masterful masterly or

.

`domineering'; ful':

His

masterly

masterful

?

Masterful

.

unpopular with the staff.

means

means `very skil-

approach

made

him

The team reached

their fifth World Cup final with a display of

(The

Guardian).

◆ The two adjectives relate to different senses of the noun , from which they are both derived: `person in authority' ( ) and `expert' ( ). is sometimes used in place of :. , but many users prefer to maintain the distinction between the two words. masterly efficiency

master

masterful

masterly

Masterful

terly

mas-

a masterful performance by the soloist

mat matt matte ,

or

? The adjective

matt,

meaning `not shiny', has the variant spellings

and

mat

.

matte.

Matt

mat

matt black paint.

.

is the most

frequent spelling in British English: matt finish

a

The spelling

is preferred in American English.

materialize in place of

some users:

The use of the verb

.

happen

to materialize.

.

or

turn up

-ICS.

see

This word, describing the state

of marriage, is sometimes mispronounced.

The correct pronunciation is [ rimoÆni] with the stress on the first syllable. ◆

mat

matrix

The noun

denotes the sub-

matrix

stance or environment within which something originates, develops, or is contained. It is also a technical term in fields such as mathematics, computing, printing, anatomy, and linguistics. In general contexts matrix

is disliked by many as a vogue word

and often better replaced by

materialize

is disliked by

The threatened strike is unlikely Her friends didn't materialize

etc.:

the

matrix in which primitive societies evolved.

matrixes

has two plural forms, or , either of which is acceptable to most

users.

matrices

matt matte MAT mattress maximal maximize maximum ,

see

Note the

,

MATT or MATTE?

-tt-

and the

-ss

in this

word, which is often misspelt. ,

see

MAXIMUM.

The noun and adjective

imum

.

max-

refer to the greatest possible quan-

.

tity, amount, degree, etc.:

a maximum of

the maximum dose.

◆ Thenoun hastwopluralforms,usually in technical contexts, and . The adjective is more frequent than its synonym . The verb means `increase to a maximum'; it is best avoided where would be adequate or more appropriate: . . Some people also dislike the use of to mean `make maximum use of': . .

twenty guests

maximum

maximums

maxima

maximum

maximal

maximize

increase

The initial brief is

to maximize sales of existing products maximize

may might or

may (see

to maximize resources

CAN or MAY?): . ?

May we sit down?

.

examples, may.

might

. .

is the past tense of

Might

She may win.

I thought she might win.

He said we might sit down.

In the last two

cannot be replaced with

In the first two examples, however,

might

.

can be substituted for

slight change of meaning:

may

with a

She might win

.

expresses a greater degree of doubt or uncertainty than

so we left without them.

we sit down?

◆

than

In formal contexts the word is best restricted to

.

setting, back-

ground, framework, environment,

◆ Matrix

used in the figurative sense of `manipulate acceptable':

mathematics matrimony

She

may

win.

Might

is a more tentative request

May we sit down?

195

mediocre

and are both used in the perfect denoting a metal disc, cross, etc., given as tense. expresses a possibility that still an award; is a verb, meaning `inter. exists; expresses a possibility that no fere': . longerexists: . . .. media The word , frequently used to

◆ May

might

May have

meddle

might have

a gold/silver/bronze medal

She may have won: I didn't hear the

result

She might have won if she hadn't fallen on

the last lap.

maybe. may be or

?

Maybe,

meaning `per-

.

is often confused with the phrase the verb

and the verb

may

be:

that she has missed the train.

mayoress

A

mayoress

may be,

It may be

is the wife of a male

mayor of either sex at social functions and on ceremonial occasions. The use of the mayoress

to denote or address a female

mayor is incorrect.

me I ME me my -ING FORMS mean I MEAN meaningful see

or

or

see

cant,

.

serious,

and

meaningful

◆ The plural of in the sense of `spiritual intermediary' is . Either plural form may be used for other senses of the noun; `agency through which something is transmitted': . [or ] , `means of communication': . [or ] . The increasing use of as a singular collective noun is unacceptable to many people and is bestavoided: . ( ). is also used adjectivally in front of other nouns: . is an event that is deliberately created for extensive coverage by the mass media. mediums

the

mediums

media of air and water for transmit-

ting sound

English

and French are the media

mediums of instruc-

the field open for a hostile media The Guardian

meaningful

.

etc., would be

adequate or more appropriate: loving,

Television is an influential medium.

There has been a failure to educate

important, signifi-

worthwhile,

.

The

the young to the benefits of trade unions, leaving

adjective

should be avoided where

medium:

media

.

The

the plural forms of the noun

media act as publicity agents for writers.

tion

?

? see

.

as means of mass communication, is one of

medium

mayor or a woman who assists or partners a

term

media

refer to television, radio, newspapers, etc.,

Maybe the letter will come tomorrow,

haps':

Don't

meddle in other people's affairs

.

a caring,

relationship

a

Media

a media event

mediaeval

MEDIEVAL or MEDIAEVAL?

see

is best reserved for its literal sense of mediate The verb is followed by . the preposition in the sense `mediate in a `having meaning': . . . situation': . meaningful experience.

◆ Meaningful

mediate

meaningful utterances

meaningful smile

means

a

a highly meaningful pause

In the sense of `method',

means

An

may

.

be a singular or plural noun; in the sense of `resources' or `wealth' it is always plural:

.

A

means of reducing engine noise was developed.

.

Several different means of transport were

used.

His means are insufficient to support a

meantime

SINGULAR or PLURAL? or

meanwhile

Meantime

is in

while

and

.

for the meantime; mean-

.

is chiefly used as an adverb:

.

wrote a letter in the meantime. enough for the meantime.

He

We have

Meanwhile, I had

place of place of quent.

medal

.

was

In the

sense `mediate between people', it is followed by

between:

Who

will

mediate

between the union and the management?

medicine

The word

medicine

is sometimes

misspelt, the most frequent error being the e

for the first i. This letter is

in the two-syllable pronunciation [medsin]. Some users prefer the full pronunciation [medisin].

medieval mediaeval or

? The two spel-

lings of this word are both acceptable. The spelling

medieval

is far more frequent in

British English and is standard in Amer-

may also be used as an adverb, in ican English. , and as a noun, in See also -AE- and -OE-. , but these uses are less fre- mediocre This word, meaning `of indif-

phoned the police.

◆ Meantime

adviser

sometimes not sounded in speech, resulting

chiefly used as a noun, in the phrases the meantime

?

independent

called in to mediate in the dispute.

substitution of

large family.

See also

in

meanwhile

meanwhile

meantime

or

meddle

ferent quality', is sometimes misspelt. Note

?

These

should not be confused.

two

Medal

words

is a noun,

the ending

◆

-cre.

Some users object to such expressions as

quite

Mediterranean

196

and , considering that something either is or is not mediocre.

mediocre

very mediocre

Mediterranean

Note the spelling of this

word, particularly the single t, the the

-ean

-rr-,

and

ending. It may help to associate the

central syllables with the Latin word

terra,

meaning `earth; land', from which they are derived.

,

.

see

MEDIA.

molten rock.

.

hasn't met with an accident.

molten

The use of the adjective is restricted to substances that become liquid at very high temperatures.

iron

◆

molten

membership .

is the state of

to apply for membership.

.

The noun is also used to denote the number

.

should be restricted to the

sense of `experience' or `receive':

.

is used only as an adjective,

meaning `melted' or `liquefied':

being a member:

In British English the phrasal

meet with

Serve the asparagus with melted

butter. Molten

Membership

medium mediums meet with

verb

.

melted.

I hope he

Does it meet

of members of an organization: ship has increased this year.

in place of

.

members,

some people: bership.

Member-

Its frequent use

however, is disliked by

We must consult the mem-

The American use of in the sense of The word is some`have a meeting with' is disliked by many British memento times misspelt, the most frequent error users: . being the substitution of for the first , . through confusion with such words as The phrasal verbs and are . It may help to widely regarded as unnecessary synonyms for associate and the with and `meet' and are best avoided, especially in formal . contexts: . .. ◆ has two acceptable plural forms, . and . with your approval?

◆

meet with

memento

We met with the managing director this

o

morning

meet up with

meet up

moment

momentum

mem-

I met (up with) her at the theatre

They

met (up) in the park

mega-

prefix

.

mega-,

.

nontechnical contexts, as in: way

.

.

meaning `great' or `large', in

mega-trend

mega-merger

megathon.

.

.

mega-motormega-bid

The prefix is often used as an adjective in its own right, meaning `very large and impressive': . . This usage is best restricted to very informal contexts. In science, the prefix means `one million': a is one million tons. In computing, the prefix means 220: a is 1,048,576 bytes. megabucks

◆

memory

re-

member

Memento

mementos

Some people object to the use of the

e

mental

mementoes

The use of the adjective

mental

as a

synonym for `stupid', `foolish', `mentally ill', `mentally deficient', etc., should be

.

avoided as it is very likely to cause offence:

.

They must be mental to set off in such

terrible weather.

Her youngest son's a bit

mental, and the other children tease him.

◆ The principal meaning of is `of or . involving the mind': . . The adjective is also used in the sense of `relating to disorders of the mind': . . , although recent usage prefers . and . and a mentally ill person would more meltdown In nuclear physics, the noun correctly be described as being . refers to the melting of the core The term was formerly of a nuclear reactor, caused by a defect in the accepted term for a person suffering from the cooling system. It is also used figuraintellectual impairment of some kind. Note that tively with reference to any disastrous the term is now avoided by many people and such event, especially a stock-market crash: . alternatives as (see LEARNING . ◆ Given the very serious nature of a meltdown (in DIFFICULTIES) are preferred. the literal sense of the word), some people object mentholated or methylated? These two to the figurative application of the term to com- words should not be confused. paratively trivial issues, such as a fall in company refers to the addition of , a medicprofits. inal substance found in peppermint oil; The new leisure complex is really mega

mega-

megaton

mega-

megabyte

mental

mental illness

mental

arithmetic

a mental

hospital

a mental patient

psychiatric hospital

a psychiatric

patient,

in poor mental

health

meltdown

mentally handicapped

learning-disabled

Meltdown Monday

Mentholated

menthol

melted molten or

?

Melted

.

is the past tense

and past participle of the verb used as an adjective:

melt;

it is also

The chocolate (has)

methylated

.

refers to the addition of the

.

poisonous substance lated lozenge

methanol:

methylated spirits.

a mentho-

197

meretricious meritorious or

?

Meretricious

means `superficially attractive' or `insincere';

.

meritorious deed.

.

means `having merit' or

meritorious

`praiseworthy':

meretricious glamour

a

Both adjectives are fairly

formal in usage.

methodology

Æ mawfo Æ sis] with the of this word is [meta stress on the third syllable.

The alternative pronunciation [metaÆmaw is] is possible but disliked by many people.

◆

foÅs

metaphors

A

is a figure of

metaphor

◆ The adjective originally meant `of a with its literal meaning, but to suggest prostitute'; like , it is ultimately derived not analogy with something else. The comfrom the Latin verb , meaning `to earn' or an parison is implicit, not introduced by or `to deserve'. . . :. Note the spellings of the two words, particularly . the second vowel: has the of its ◆ Many expressions used in everyday speech are Latin root; has the of . metaphorical but they are so frequently used that theyarehardlythoughtofasmetaphors: . merge The verb is followed by the . preposition or in the sense `merge , and many occur in . well-knownidioms: . with [or into] something else': . . . [or Metaphors have been used very successfully ] . In the sense `merge with with striking effect in literature. There are biblical another business, company, etc.', it is folexamples: . (Psalm lowed by : . 119:105)andcountlesspoeticones: . , and in the sense `form a combined group': . (Keats, ). However, as . used by modern politicans and journalists, meta- Some people object to the increasing phors can often be tired and overworked: meta. use of the prefix in the sense of . `transcending' or `of a higher order': . . . Mixed metaphors, where two or more different metaphors are used in one sentence, should be ( ). . . avoided: . .. . ◆ The prefix has a number of other accepted meter or metre? The spelling of these meanings: `change': . ; `after', words is often confused, probably partly `behind', or `beyond': . . because the American spelling of the measpeech in which a word or phrase is used,

meretricious

meritorious

mereÅre

like

the winds of change

as

meretricious

meritorious

merit

the arm

merge

with

of a chair

into

a branch of a bank

not up my street

On the

the weather

horizon, the sea appeared to merge with into

the

stone

deaf

e

i

an icy voice

feel under

if you play your cards right

sky

Cadbury

with

Schweppes

merged

Thy word is a lamp unto my feet

with

I see a lily on

into

The

three

companies

thy brow . . . and on thy cheek a fading rose La Belle Dame Sans Merci

merged into one

the

meta-

A

suggestion

of

metafiction,

of

cure for unemployment

fighting against inflation

light at the end of the tunnel

uncertainties

found to be themselves fictionally productive

Could this be a

London Review of Books

symptom

Large

of

parts

a

of

developing the

town

metaculture?

centre

are

now

dominated by cinemas and other manifestations of meta-entertainment.

In resurrecting these allegations they are

just fuelling the flames of racism

The commit-

tee's task was to iron out all the bottlenecks in the system

metamorphosis

metal mettle or

metatarsus

? These two words, which

have the same pronunciation, are sometimes confused. A

metal

is one of a group

of mineral substances that are good conductors

of

heat

and

.

electricity.

Mettle

surement a

.

meter

meter

metre

is

meter.

speedometer.

A

.

In British English,

is a measuring instrument: metre

.

gas

is the basic

.

metric measurement of length and is used in derived measurements: millimetre.

kilometre

◆ is also the technical term for the regular arrangement of syllables in poetry. Note The confusion may arise from the fact that rhythmic however that in compounds describing such meawas originally derived from . sures, the spelling - is followed: . , `a line having five stresses'. metallurgy This word, meaning `the

means `strength of character':

He was

Metre

given no chance to prove his mettle.

◆

mettle

metal

meter

penta-

meter

science of metals', is usually pronounced [metaleÆrji], although it can be stressed on Æ lerji]. the first and third syllables [meta

The second pronunciation is rarer in British English but standard in American English. ◆

metamorphosis

The usual pronunciation

methodology

The noun

methodology

de-

notes a body or system of methods, rules,

.

principles, etc., used in a particular area of activity:

the methodology of teaching.

The use of the noun in other contexts, especially as a synonym for `method': . ◆

experimental design

methylated

.

methodology odologies,

avoided.

198 unstructured pragmatic meth-

is disliked by many people and is best

methylated meticulous

LATED?

MENTHOLATED

see

The adjective

or

◆

mõÅ

mileage milage or

.

is

widely used and accepted as a synonym

.

headache', is [meegrayn].

The alternative pronunciation [ grayn] is also acceptable and is standard in American English. METHY-

meticulous

for `painstaking' or `scrupulous':

word, meaning `a severe and recurrent

meticu-

?

is the more

Mileage

frequent spelling of this word,

an accepted but rare variant:

.

milage

being

The excep-

tionally low mileage makes this car a good buy.

See also

SPELLING 3.

In its figurative sense of `benefit' or `usefulness', . the noun is avoided by some users in formal ◆ Some people, however, object to the use of the . contexts: , , adjective in a complimentary manner, restricting it to the pejorative sense of `fussy' or `excessively ( ). careful': . militate or mitigate? The verb , . originally meant `timid', being ulti- which is usually followed by the preposi, means `have a powerful influmately derived from , the Latin word for tion ence or effect': . `fear'. lous attention to detail

a meticulous secre-

◆

tary

It was an interesting subject though

and the chairman . . . got the maximum intellec-

If you weren't so meticulous you'd have

tual mileage out of it The Guardian

militate

finished the cleaning hours ago Meticulous

against

metus

His

metonym

A

metonym

is a word or phrase

that is used as a substitute for something else to which it is related or of which it is a part. Thus,

Rome

may serve as a metonym

for the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church,

Hollywood

try, and

the crown

for the US film indus-

for the monarchy. Care

should be taken to use only metonyms whose relevance will be correctly interpreted.

metre METER mettle METAL mezzanine see

see

storey

METRE? or METTLE? two

against

The verb

his

little

to

.

mitigate

bereaved parents.

◆

.

mitigate

or `make less severe': did

left-wing

appointment

opinions

as

head-

means `moderate'

The judge's decision

the

suffering

of

the

mitigating circumstances.

The two verbs are occasionally confused, being wrongly used in place of .

miti-

gate

milkman milkwoman TERMS millennium or

? see

.

militate

NON-SEXIST

This word and its plural form

or

between

master.

millennia

are often misspelt, the most fre-

.

quent error being the omission of the second

This word, meaning `inter-

mediate

militated

floors',

is

n:

Over the millenia, as earth move-

ments cause new formations

advertisement for

(Reader's Digest

Marvels and Mysteries of

the World Around Us).

Spelling mistakes may be avoided by associating the word, which means `a thousand years', with the - - of and (from Latin ◆ The last syllable in both pronunciations should `thousand') and the of and rhyme with and not with . (from Latin `year'). micro- see MACRO- and MICRO-. The phrase was much used around the year 2000 to refer to the start of the mid see AMID, AMIDST, MID or MIDST? new (third) millennium: . middle see CENTRE or MIDDLE? There is some confusion about when millennia midget see DWARF. start and end. As there was no year 0 AD, we midwifery This word is sometimes mis- calculate in thousand-year segments from the year pronounced. In British English the correct 1 AD. This means that the second millennium Æ ri]. pronunciation is [ wife began on 1 January 1001 and ended on 31 ◆ In American English may be pronounced December 2000. Despite this reckoning, in modlike . ern usage 1 January 2000 (rather than the strictly 1 January 2001) is often considered to have might see CAN or MAY?; MAY or MIGHT? correct been the beginning of the third millennium.

Æ neen]. The alterusually pronounced [meza Æ neen] is sometimes used and is native [metsa closer to the original Italian. keen

◆

ll

millipede

millimetre

nn

line

annual

mille

perennial

annus

the millennium

celebrations to mark the

millennium.

mid

-wif-

wife

migraine

The usual pronunciation of this

See also

CENTURIES.

199

millionaire mimic

The word

millionaire

is some-

times misspelt. Note the -ll-, but only one This word, meaning `imitate':

likes mimicking the teachers,

misspelt. Note that a

k

See also

He

is sometimes

is added before the

suffixes -ed, -ing, and -er. however, have a

.

n.

Mimicry

does not,

k.

SPELLING 1.

mincemeat

The noun

mincemeat

princi-

fruit, suet, sugar, and spices that is used to fill mince pies, traditionally baked and eaten at Christmas. To avoid confusion, meat that has been minced (minced

meat)

is usually called

mince

and

in American English.

miner

minor

or

in British English

? These two words are

occasionally confused. A

miner

is a person

who works underground in a mine.

Minor

is an adjective that is the opposite of

major,

.

MINER or MINOR? see MAJORITY and MINORITY.

see

The use of the preposition

.

minus

in

the sense of `without' or `lacking' is best restricted to informal contexts:

home minus her umbrella.

She came

Some people also avoid using the noun as a synonym for `disadvantage' in formal contexts: .

◆

pally denotes the sweet mixture of dried

ground meat

minor minority minus

miss

minus

Having to move to the South is one of the minuses of my new job: we'll never be able to afford to buy a house there

minuscule

. see also PLUS.

This word is often misspelt, the

most frequent error being the substitution of an

i for the first u. The word is proÆ skyool]. nounced [minu

minutiae

The plural noun

minutiae,

mean-

ing `small, minor, or trivial details', may be pronounced [minewshiee] or [mõÅnewshiee]:

.

The minutiae of the problem are of no

interest to me.

, the singular form of the noun, is rarely used. The noun is best avoided where noun, means a person who is still would be more appropriate: . legally a child, one who has not yet reached [not ] . the age of majority. , particularly the ◆ and have the same pronunciation Note the spelling of three final vowels . [ neÆr]. meaning `less important; relatively unimportant':

have a minor part in a play;

and is

◆ Minutia

also used to refer to a musical scale. As a

minutiae

minor

details

discuss the details

minutiae of a contract

Miner

minutiae

minor

mõÅ

miniature

Miniature,

meaning `small in

miscellaneous

-iae

This word, meaning `of a

size', is sometimes misspelt. Note the spel-

variety of items', is sometimes misspelt.

ling -iat-.

Note particularly the

minimal minimize minimum ,

see

MINIMUM.

The noun and adjective

the mini-

-eous

-sc-,

the

-a-,

and

ending.

mischievous

The correct pronunciation of

Æ s]. this word is [mischivu

The mispronunciations [mis vuÆs] and [misviuÆs] are heard from time to time but are . avoided careful speakers. The word is often ◆ The noun has two plural forms, misspelt: byparticular should be paid to the usually in technical contexts, or order and position attention of the vowels. . , The frequent use of in the sense of `very misogynist Note the spelling of which refers to a person who hates women. small' is disliked by some users: . The word derives from Greek . `woman' as in .. . `hatred' and , the branch of medicine concerned with Note alsothat should neverbe usedwith a women's diseases. modifier: . . is usually pronounced [mis inist], The verb means `reduce to a mini- ◆ mum'; it is best avoided where would be although the first syllable is very occasionally pronounced with a long , as in . adequate or more appropriate: . . Some Miss see MS, MRS or MISS? people also object to the widely accepted use of to mean `play down' or `belittle': . miss The verb , meaning `regret the loss or lack of', is sometimes wrongly used . mum

.

refer to the smallest possible quantity,

.

amount, degree, etc.: employees

a minimum of four

the minimum requirements

◆

chee

chee

minimum

minimums

minima

minimal

misogynist

The response to

our advertisement was minimal ± we received only two applications

minimal effort

misos

minimal risk

minimal

gyne-

gynaecol-

ogy

rather minimal

Misogynist

minimize

oj

reduce

The new safety

i

regulations should minimize the danger minimize

minimize one's achievements

to

miss

my

mission statement . with

not:

200 means `I

telephone

or

was happier before I had a car', not `I wish

ferred to

mobile

I miss not having a car

mobile phone

is usually pre-

in formal contexts.

◆ has largely replaced the former and in British EngThis error is not confined to informal spoken terms contexts: . [aship'sdoctor] lish. ( ). moccasin This word, used to describe a

I had a car'.

Mobile phone

◆

cellphone

Passengers . . . ask me

cellular phone

if

I miss not being a `proper' doctor Reader's Digest

AIR MISS or NEAR MISS?

See also

mission statement

A

soft leather shoe without a heel, is some-

mission statement

is a

statement made by a company or other

.

organization summarizing its values and objectives:

The staff have been given a new

mission statement.

Some people consider the

times misspelt. Note the

modal modern

see

modern

but single s.

-cc-

VERBS.

or

modernistic

? The adjective

means `of the present time' or

phrase jargonistic and avoid using it.

`contemporary';

◆

teristic of modern trends, ideas, etc.' and is

A variant is

vision statement

misspelled misspelt or

.

? Either word may

.

be used as the past tense and past participle of the verb

misspell:

misspelled my name.

See also

You have misspelt/

-ED or -T?

Misspelled

or [misspeld];

may be pronounced [misspelt] misspelt

is always pronounced

Note the spellings of the two words, particularly the single the

-ss-

l

of

and

misspelt

see

or

Modern

see

modus operandi

or

mix

range:

.

modus operandi ran

modi

The Latin phrase

modus

is principally used in formal English

.

to denote an arrangement or compromise

A

wide mix of subjects will be taught at the college.

between conflicting parties: vivendi

enabled

them

to

This modus

complete

the

mix

◆ The literal meaning of the phrase is `way of living', but some people object to its use in place of the English expression . The word is pronounced [moÅduÆs]; may be pronounced [vi dee] or [vi dõÅ].

modus vivendi

way of life

marketing mix

modus

di

The word

mnemonic,

referring

to something that aids the memory (e.g. the spelling rule `i before

causes

spelling

and

blems. The initial

m

e

except after

pronunciation

c'),

pro-

is silent; the word is

pronounced [nimonik].

mobile

massive

As a noun, revival

in

has enjoyed a

in

recent

years

through the widespread introduction of mobile

phones

ven

molten MELTED MOLTEN momentary momentous see

or

or

viven-

ven

?

?

Momentary

means `lasting for a very short time'; mentous

.

means `of great significance':

momentary lapse

.

moa

The Commons . . . took

the momentous step of opening its doors to the

mobile

use

job

without further disruption.

◆ In the sense of `combination' or `mixture', is found in compounds such as , `the various elements that need to be coordinated in a marketing plan'. Some users, however, object to its use in formal contexts. Mohammed see MUSLIM or MOSLEM?

mnemonic

The

new working party.

vivendi

?

in place of

to a particular method of working:

committee discussed the modus operandi of the

modus vivendi

Some people object to the increasing

use of the noun

modus

operandi

?

see

The Latin phrase

is used in formal English to refer

ran

.

or

.

modernistic

◆

?

see

modernistic architecture.

◆ has a wider range of sense and usage than , which is largely restricted to objects, designs, thoughts, etc., that are conspicuously modern or unconventional. modern society

The phrase is pronounced [moÅduÆs opeÆ dee, opeÆ dõÅ]; its plural is [moÅdi].

of both words.

mistrust DISTRUST MISTRUST misunderestimate ESTIMATION misuse ABUSE MISUSE mitigate MILITATE MITIGATE mix .

.

means `charac-

sometimes used in a derogatory way:

operandi

[misspelt].

modernistic

.

(portable telephones com-

monly referred to simply as

mobiles):

I

tried to reach you on your mobile. Mobile

television

cameras

for

the

first

time

Guardian).

(The

◆ The two adjectives relate to different senses of the noun , from which they are both derived: `a very short time' ( ) and `significance' ( ). moment

momentary

momentous

201 Note the difference in stress between the two adjectives: is stressed on the first syllable, on the second. The adverb should also be stressed on the first syllable [ meÆntaÆrõÆli]; the pronunciation [moÅmeÆnrrili] is unacceptable to many people. momentary

momentous

momentarily moÅ

te

mongolism mongoose goose

is

see

DOWN'S SYNDROME.

mon-

the word should not be

treated as a compound of the noun (the plural of which is

may mean `her dresses are more beautiful (than mine/yours/etc.)', `she has other dresses that are more beautiful (than this one)', `she has a greater number of beautiful dresses (than you/me/etc.)', or `she has other beautiful dresses (in addition to this one)'. The phrase , although it implies a plural subject, is used with a singular verb: . . If the sentence is reworded, however, a plural verb is used: . . more beautiful dresses

more than one

More

The plural of the noun

mongooses;

most

goose

geese).

than one accident has happened at this junction

More accidents than one have happened at

this junction

◆ is derived from the word , of See also COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE; Indian origin, and is etymologically unrelated to SINGULAR or PLURAL? . mortgage This word is sometimes misMongoose

manguÅs

goose

monogram monograph or

? A

.

monogram

is a design made up of a person's initials:

There was a monogram on the corner of the handkerchief.

.

A

monograph

is a learned

book, treatise, etc., about a single subject: He wrote a monograph on Oliver Crom-

well.

The two nouns should not be con-

fused.

moot

spelt, the most frequent error being the omission of the silent t.

mortgagee mortgagor or

?

a mortgage; a

moot,

is

is the person or

mortgagee

organization, e.g. a building society or bank, that lends the money. The two nouns should not be confused: the

The adjective

A mortgagor

a person who borrows money by means of

mortgagors

are

meaning `deba-

the people who are mortgaging their prop-

table' or `open to question', rarely occurs

.

erty, i.e. using it as security for a loan; the

outside the fixed phrase

mortgagees

a moot point:

Whether she will accept this offer is a moot

are those who receive this se-

curity, not the recipients of the loan itself.

The verb , meaning `put forward for de- Moslem see MUSLIM or MOSLEM? bate', is most frequently used in the passive in most The adverb is used to form the formal contexts: . superlative of a number of adjectives and . adverbs: . point.

◆

moot

most

The subject was mooted at our

last meeting

moral morale or

? These two spellings are

sometimes confused.

.

Moral

means `con-

cerned with the principles of right and wrong':

the gradual erosion of moral stan-

dards. Morale

.

is the extent of confidence and

optimism in a person or group:

After the

election defeat, the party's morale sank to an all-time low.

is stressed on the first syllable [ rraÆl]. is stressed on the second syllable [mo ].

◆ Moral Morale

more

mo

rahl

The adverb

.

more

is used to form the

comparative of a number of adjectives and

.

adverbs: sister.

She is more intelligent than her

The trains run more frequently in the

summer months. More

should not be used

with adjectives that already have the comparative ending

-er,

such as

happier, older,

etc.

◆ Other uses of the word ± as the comparative of or , or in the sense of `further' or `additional' ± may lead to confusion: . more

much

.

This is the most expensive picture

many

She has

in the shop.

The prize will be awarded to the

child who writes the most neatly. Most

should

not be used with adjectives that already have the superlative ending -est, such as saddest, youngest,

etc.

Other uses of the word ± as the superlative of or , or in the sense of `very' ± may cause ambiguity: . may mean `this teacher has the greatest number of intelligent pupils' or `this teacher's pupils are the most intelligent in the school'; . may mean `she danced very gracefully' or `she danced more gracefully than the other dancers'. See also COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE. The use of in place of is generally best avoided, although it is acceptable in certain contexts: . .. . The adverb , meaning `mainly' or `usually', should not be confused with : . [not ] .. ◆

most

much

many

This teacher has the most

intelligent pupils

She danced most gracefully

most

very

I am most grateful for your assistance

He

spoke most rudely of his former employers mostly

most

mostly

most for children

He writes

Old people are

motif

202

[not ] . In some contexts the much time at his or her computer screen) and (an aching wrist caused by repeated substitution of for , or vice versa, clicking of a mouse). changes the meaning of the sentence: . .± mousse The noun denotes a crea.. .± my or foamy preparation. Some types of . . mousse are for eating: . most

mostly at risk most

mouse wrist

mostly

Our

friends are mostly helpful helpful

Our friends are most

The shop sells most books

mousse

The shop

sells mostly books

motif motive or

chocolate mousse

? These words are some-

times confused. A

feature

which

motif

is a recurrent

establishes

throughout a work of art, etc.:

.

with a feather motif.

a course of action: the crime.

motivation tion,

A

motive

.

a

pattern a design

is a reason for

no apparent motive for

The use of the noun

motiva-

which means `incentive' or `drive', in

place of

reason

or

.

motive

avoided by many users:

.

salmon mousse;

poses:

.

some are for cosmetic pur-

styling mousse

body mousse.

be confused with the animals

◆

and

The pronunciation of this word is [moos].

moustache

This word is sometimes mis-

spelt. The most frequent error is the substitution of

u

for

ou

in British English. The

British English spelling is

[not

American English spelling

motivation] for deserting his wife and family.

moose

mouse.

is disliked and his reason

Note

the spelling of this word, which should not

moustache; mustache.

the

Note

also the -che ending.

Some people also object to the frequent use of or moveable? This word has the noun in its accepted sense of `providing with movable two different spellings. Both are acceptable an incentive' in the context of industrial psychol- although the first spelling , which ogy: . . As Roland omits the before the suffix - , seems Gribben remarked in the : `Motiva- be more frequent in contemporary usage.to tion is a grossly overworked and abused term for See also SPELLING 3. getting the best or more out of people.' Similar objections may be applied to the use of movers and shakers is the verb in place of and of an expression used informally to refer to asasynonymfor`keen': . who get things done, either through . people [not ] their own power and influence or by ur. ging or encouraging others to take action: . . .

◆

movable

the motivation of the workforce

e

Daily Telegraph

able

Movers and shakers

motivate

cause

vated

moti-

an action that may

cause

motivate her to change her mind

highly motivated sales manager

a

a self-motivating

entrepreneur

motive mot juste

see

the movers and shakers of the film industry

MOTIF or MOTIVE?

The phrase should not be overused.

The French expression

.

mot juste

is used in English to refer to the exactly appropriate word or phrase:

This diction-

ary of synonyms will help you find the mot juste.

move the goalposts

To

move the goalposts

is to change the rules, requirements, etc., usually to the advantage of the person or

.

organization that sets and changes the rules:

The Government is moving the goal-

The literal meaning of is `right word'. It support] is sometimes written or printed in italics. Its angli- [for eligibility for income ( cized pronunciation is [moÅ ]. The plural is ◆ The verb is sometimes replaced ).by or , with the same pronunciation as the . The expression is best restricted to inforsingular. mal contexts. ◆

posts again from April 6, with the cut-off point

mot juste

reduced

to 16 hours a week

zhoost

move

mots justes

mouse

shift

change

The plural of the noun

the sense of `small animal', is computing contexts, where a

mouse,

in

mice.

In

mouse

is an

electronic device used to move the cursor on the screen, the preferred plural form is mice,

The Guardian

though the plural form

sometimes used.

mouses

is

mowed mown or

.

? Either word may be

used as the past participle of the verb

◆

When the participle is used as an adjective, is preferred to :. . . The past tense of the verb is always :. .

mown lawn

mowed

mouse

mouse potato

mowed

a neatly mown

new-mown hay

The adoption of in a computing context has inspired a number of derivative terms, among them (a person who spends too Mr see MS, MRS or MISS?

◆

mow:

Have you mowed/mown the grass yet?

mow

I mowed the grass yesterday

Ms Mrs ,

Miss

or

203 ?

Ms,

Mrs,

and

shortened forms of the archaic title

Miss,

Mistress,

must

and pronunciation. Note the first syllable, and the

-li

-ue-

in the

ending. The usual

are used before the names of girls and

pronunciation is [mewzli], with the first

women, according to age and marital sta-

syllable pronounced as in

tus, in letter writing and as polite terms of

pronunciation [moozli] is also acceptable.

address.

is traditionally used for girls, unmarried women, and married women who have retained . their maiden name: . . . In formal contexts, two or more girls or unmarried women with the same surname should be referred to as etc. rather than etc. , pronounced [ iz], is used before a wo. man's married name: . . , pronounced [miz] or [mõÆz], is used before the name of a woman of unknown or unspecified marital status. It was introduced as a feminine equivalent of the masculine title , which makes no distinction between married and unmarried men. Because of its feminist associations, however, the title is disliked by some people. is most frequently used in place of , but is best avoided when referring to elderly unmarried women or young girls. See also SEXISM. The titles , , and are usually written without a full stop. ◆ Miss

Miss Mary Baker

Davies

Miss

Miss Elizabeth Taylor

the Misses

Brown/Smith/

the Miss Browns/

Smiths/ Mrs

mis

Mrs Anne Johnson

Mrs

Johnson Ms

Mr

Ms

Ms

Miss

Ms Mrs

See also

much

Mr

ABBREVIATIONS.

The use of the adjective

.

much

.

in

positive sentences is best restricted to for-

Muhammad multi-

see

music,

but the

MUSLIM or MOSLEM?

Some people object to the increasing

use of the prefix

multi-,

meaning `many', to

.

coin new words that are often better ex-

.

.

pressed by a paraphrase: a multistage process

tasking

a multirole device

her outstanding multi-

.

(`her abilities to perform

abilities

many tasks at the same time').

Specialist

skills are now ignored or swamped in the drive

(The

Guardian).

In neologisms of this kind a hyphen is sometimes inserted between the prefix and the word to which it is attached.

for multi-skilling

◆

municipal

The adjective

municipal

should

be stressed on the second syllable [mewniÆ l], not the first or the third. sipa

muscle mussel . or

?

he took the strain. of muscle.

.

mussel,

means `fibrous

Muscle

tissue' or `strength':

His muscles bulged as

The new squad has plenty

.

It should not be confused with

which refers to a bivalve mollusc:

The stone was covered by mussels.

Muslim Moslem or

? Nowadays the pre-

ferred spelling for a follower of the Islamic faith is ling

Muslim,

rather than the older spel-

Moslem.

is pronounced with the vowel sound as in [ lim] or as in [ lim]. ◆ Even in formal contexts, some users prefer to The most accepted spelling of the name of the replace with prophet of Islam is , rather than . ,etc.: . or . In informal contexts, may be replaced mussel see MUSCLE or MUSSEL? with or :. must The auxiliary verb expresses mal contexts:

They own much land.

There

is much work to be done.

much

of

◆ Muslim

put muuz

cup muz

a large amount of, a great deal

They own a large amount of land.

There

is a great deal of work to be done.

Muhammad

hammed

Mo-

Mahomet

much

a lot of

to be done.

See also

lots of

There is a lot of work

LOT.

In negative and interrogative sentences, acceptable in all contexts: .

land.

.

is

They don't own much

Is there much work to do?

See also

MANY; VERY.

mucous mucus or

Mucous

tive from the noun

mucus; mucus

The noun

.

They must go.

is the adjecis the

mucous membranes.

muesli,

. .

this letter.

We

.

denoting a type of

breakfast food, causes problems of spelling

must obey the

I must finish writing

You must be very thirsty.

.

tenses, and in the negative,

? These two words are

secretion produced by

.

tion, certainty, etc.: rules.

replaced by

sometimes confused.

muesli

much

must

obligation, compulsion, necessity, resolu-

have to:

must

In other

is usually

We had to obey the

The negative form (or ) expresses prohibition: . . The past tense is used only to express certainty: . . The use of as a noun, meaning `something necessary or essential', is best restricted to informal

rules.

◆

They don't have to go.

must not

mustn't

They must not go

must have

You must have been very thirsty must

mute

contexts: .

204 Waterproof clothing is an absolute

must for a sailing holiday

.

mute DEAF-MUTE DUMB MUTE mutual common reciprocal see

;

,

or

or

He praised her new novel, and she

?

?A

. can also be used to describe an action or emotion that is done or felt in return: . . reciprocal hatred Reciprocal

expressed reciprocal admiration for his latest film

my me . myself

mutual

or

action or emotion is done or felt by each of two or more people to or for the other(s):

.

mutual

etc.

The feeling is mutual.

mutual

a mutual agreement

exchange

a mutual

their mutual love for each other. mutual

a mutual friend

common

mutual interests

a

mutual problem. common

a common friend

our joint friend

in common

Reciprocal

the friend we have

the friend we share mutual

reciprocal help

-ING FORMS.

The use of the pronoun

help/destruction/admiration/hatred/

The adjective is superfluous in such . phrases as: . . The frequent use of in place of , meaning `shared' or `joint', is disliked by many . . users: . However, the other senses of can cause ambiguity: . may mean `an unsophisticated, rude friend' as well as `a friend shared by two people'. Thus expres. sionssuchas . . could be used instead. and are synonymous in the . principal sense of the latter: . ◆

? see

.

myself

for

emphasis is acceptable to most users but

.

disliked by some: behaviour myself.

I disapprove of such

◆ should not be used in place of or in the following sentences and similar constructions: . [not ] . [not ]. Myself

I myself have never met her.

My sister and I

ing.

I

me

myself will do the garden-

The bill was paid by Richard and me

myself

See also

mythical

I or ME?; SELF.

mythological

or

.

means `imaginary'; mythology':

?

mythological

a mythical danger

logical kingdom.

Mythical

.

means `of a mytho-

Both adjectives also mean `of a myth or myths', inwhichsensetheyarevirtuallyinterchangeable: . .

◆

a mythical/mythological character

naff

N The adjective

is a derogatory

naff

.

.

slang term meaning `inferior or worthless; vulgar or tasteless; not stylish':

That tie is really naff.

a naff film

The adjective should

the indigenous inhabitants of lands colo-

.

nized by the West), is derogatory and offensive:

The settlers intermarried with

the natives.

The noun and adjective may be applied to a person, people or animal born in a specified naive, naõÈve or naõÈf? This word, meaning place: . . As a noun, is `innocent' or `credulous', is most commonly . followed by the preposition : spelt or . . As an adjective, it is followed by : . ◆ NaõÈf, the French masculine adjective, is no longer . This usage is generally used, (or ) being used to describe acceptable, but some people prefer to avoid the people of both sexes. word where there is a danger of confusion The derived noun is most commonly spelt . with the derogatory sense: or , although the variants and [not ] . are also found. is pronounced [nõÅ ] or [nah ]. Native American is the is pronounced [nõÅ veÆti] or [nah eÆti]. preferred modern term for a person desbe restricted to informal contexts.

◆

native

native Spaniards

naive

Ève naõ

naive

naõÈve

Sweden

naiveteÂ

naõÈvety

eev

eev

ee

naked

or

nude:

.

The

native

the indigenous in-

natives of Tasmania

Naivety

Native American

eev

nude

? A person wearing no

clothes at all may be described as or

to

habitants

naõÈveteÂ

Naive

She's a native of

bird is native to Australia

naiv-

ety

native

of

naked

pictures of naked/nude men.

.

cended from one of the indigenous peoples of the Americas:

The

rights

Americans must be defended.

of

Native

It replaces such

as and The adjective ,however, has a wider range former, terms which are no longer considered of usage and application than , which is acceptable. largely restricted to artistic or pornographic human . naturalist or naturist? A nakedness or to nudism: . is a . [not ] person who studies animals and plants or . [not ] an advocate of naturalism (in art, literature, . philosophy, etc.); a is a nudist: . is also used as a synonym for `bare' or . `uncovered' in other contexts: . . .

◆

Red Indian

naked

nude

nude photography

naturalist

nude bathing

a naked

nude body buried in a

shallow grave

naked

nude children playing

in the sand

naturist

Naked

Naturalists will appreciate the flora and fauna

a naked room

a

naked flame

name

preposition named

name,

in the sense `name a

after

in British English:

after

his

American English by

.

grandfather,

.

for:

He

and in

The airport is

named for John F. Kennedy.

naphtha

of the island; naturists can take advantage of its secluded beaches

The verb

person or something', is followed by the was

American

Indian

nature

and

Such phrases as

in the nature of

of this/that nature

.

are often better replaced

by more concise or less vague expressions: Crimes like that severely

.

[for

punished.

assessment is like

of that nature] should be

[for

This

new

method

of

in the nature of] an

examination.

The word is used in other unnecessary . circumlocutions: is sequence . . is ◆ Note also the spellings of the compounds ; etc. and . This word, meaning `petroleum',

is sometimes misspelt. Note the consonant

◆

nature

a problem of a difficult nature

-phth-

a difficult problem

naphthalene

nation native

see

COUNTRY or NATION?

The word

native,

a remark of a flippant nature

a flippant remark

naphthene

used in the sense

of `nonwhite person' (originally applied to

naturist NATURALIST naught nought see

or

or

NATURIST?

? These two words are

sometimes confused.

Naught

means `noth-

nauseous

206

ing' and is used in idiomatic expressions

unless one is speaking slowly and carefully.

such as

`consider unimportant'

Many users dislike the alternative pronun-

`produce no successful

ciation, which has the main stress on the third syllable [neseÆserrõÆli].

and

set at naught

.

come to naught

results':

All our plans came to naught.

British English

ZERO): .

nought

the figure 0 (see also 100 has two noughts. noughts and crosses.

is used to represent

.

The number

play the game of

◆ InAmerican English,however, the mathematical sense.

nauseous

In

naught

necessary

This word, meaning `essential',

is often misspelt. Note the single

and

c

the -ss-.

is usedfor neÂe

 e, Ne

the feminine form of the French

.

word for `born', is used to indicate the

The use of the adjective

nause-

maiden name of a married woman: Â e Eliot. Susan Davies, ne

◆ The pronunciation of , which is sometimes written without an accent, is [nay]. English but is best avoided in British Engshould not be used to indicate a man's . [not ]. lish: original name or pseudonym or ◆ The principal meaning of in British man's previous married name: . a remarried, woEnglish is `nauseating' or `causing nausea': . [not ] . , . [not ] . ous

in the sense of `nauseated' or `suffering

Mrs

neÂe

from nausea' is acceptable in American I feel sick

NeÂe

nauseous

nauseous

Ringo Starr born

a

nauseous smell

naval

navel

or

.

Naval

is used to de-

scribe something connected with the navy: a naval officer

naval warfare.

The navel is

the small depression in the middle of the abdomen where the umbilical cord was formerly attached, and the word is also used in the phrase

near nearly or

the adverb able with

nearly:

.

.

is sometimes interchangeI nearly

[or

near] forgot.

nearly] impossible.

This use of

near

may be considered informal or archaic,

and

nearly

is a safer choice in most contexts.

Used in combination with an adjective, especially one that is placed before the noun, may be preferred to and is usually attached with . ahyphen: . .

◆

near

nearly

a near-perfect copy

a near-successful

attempt

nearby near by or

? There is often con-

fusion as to whether this term should be one word or two.

.

Nearby

is the preferred

form for both adjectival and adverbial senses:

Wolverhampton, Dudley, and other

maystillbeusedintheadverbialsense: . .. .

nearby towns.

◆ Near by

a town near by

He lives near by

nearly NEAR NEARLY near miss AIR MISS NEAR MISS necessarily see

or

see

?

or

may be used as a full verb, in

Need

the sense of `require' or `be obliged', or as

.

.

an auxiliary or modal verb, indicating necessity or obligation: leave.

.

.

We need help.

daughter needs to wear glasses.

Your

He need not

The use of as an auxiliary verb is indicated by the absence of - in the third person singular and the omission of in the following infinitive. The auxiliary verb is used only in questions and negative sentences (see the last two examples above) and in certain constructions that have negative force, such as: . .. .. .. . The full verb may also be used in questions and negative sentences: . .. In the sense of `require', is followed by the - form of the verb or by a past participle preceded by , not by the past participle alone: . [not ]. . . ◆

Need she reply?

need

s

? In the sense of `almost',

near

[or

It's near

navel orange.

need

Jacqueline Onassis

neÂe Jacqueline Kennedy

formerly

? These two words are

sometimes confused.

.

neÂe Richard Starkey

?

There are two possible pro-

nunciations for this word. In the traditional pronunciation, the first syllable is stressed Æ seÆrõÆli], but this is very difficult to say [nese

to

need

All she need buy is

food

He need do no more than wait

need only ask

You

Nobody need suffer

need

He doesn't need to

leave

Does she need to reply? need

ing

to be

This shirt needs washing

washed

This shirt

needs to be washed

needless to say needless to say

The idiomatic expression

.

is frequently used for em-

phasis, especially in informal contexts:

Needless to say, the unions intend to campaign against the proposed legislation.

◆ The expression is disliked by those who choose to interpret it literally, but is acceptable to most people.

negative used

to

A negative word is one that is deny

Words such as

or

contradict

something.

no, not, nobody, never,

and

207 make the clause in which they

nothing

appear a negative one. Care must be taken as to where a negative word is placed in a sentence;

usually

.

the

negative

word

is

.

placed with the clause whose truth is being denied:

He said he had never been there.

He never said he had been there.

The exception is with verbs such as , , , , etc., where the negative word is generally placed before the verb: . [rather than ]. . [rather than ]. The adjective is now often used in a very general way to mean not only `lacking in positive features', but also `pessimistic; unenthusiastic': . .. . ◆

believe

think except imagine

I don't

think you know what you're talking about I think you don't know . . .

She didn't

expect them to return before dark

She

expected them not to return . . . negative

You're taking a rather negative view

I

felt very negative about all his suggestions

DOUBLE NEGATIVE.

See also

neglectful negligent negligible ,

and

neglectful

`heedless';

.

or

negligent

? Both

mean `careless' or

.

means `very small',

negligible

.

`trivial', or `insignificant':

a

neglectful

negligible effect.

netspeak

with some frequency: . . When a combination of singular and plural subjects occurs in a construction, the verb traditionally agrees with the subject that is nearest to it: . .. . The same principle is applied to singular subjects that are used with different forms of the verb: . [not ] .. [not ] . If the resulting sentence sounds awkward or unidiomatic it may be reordered or rephrased. The alternatives presented in a construction should be grammatically balanced: . may be changed to: . or: . . As a pronoun should be used only of two alternatives: . . . [not ] . However, the use of the construction with three or more subjects is acceptable to some people: . . The first syllable of may be pronounced to rhyme with or . The pronunciation [ dheÆr] is more frequent in British English. Neither the ship nor its

cargo were able to be salvaged

neither . . . nor

Neither his brother nor his parents

have been invited

Neither his friends nor his

sister has been invited

Neither you nor he has

have been invited

have

Neither my husband nor I

has been invited

neither . . . nor

She travelled neither by boat nor train

She travelled neither by boat nor by

train

She travelled by neither boat nor train neither

There are two cars outside, but

neither is mine

None

Neither of the three

candidates arrived on time neither . . . nor

The adjectives and are not completely synonymous: often implies habitual or more serious neglect or negligence, which may be punishable by law. Note the spelling of , especially the See also DOUBLE NEGATIVE; EITHER; NOR. nephew There are two different pronuntwo 's. mother

◆

a negligent driver

neglectful

negligent

They eat neither meat nor fish nor eggs neither

negligent

try

tree

nõÅ

negligible

i

negligible NEGLIGIBLE negotiate

see

?

NEGLECTFUL, NEGLIGENT

or

ciations for this word. Both [nevew] and [nefew] are acceptable, although some people prefer the first pronunciation.

The usual pronunciation of this

Å shiayt]. The variant pronunciaverb is [nigo Å siayt], in which the tion [nigo

sh

sound is

replaced by s, is disliked by some people.

Negress Negro neither ,

see

BLACK.

◆

In American English [ ew] is standard. nef

nerd

Nerd,

a derogatory slang term for a

person who is considered boring or socially inept, is sometimes misspelt. Note the form

.

As an adjective or pronoun

neither

is clean. clean.

◆

in

nerdy.

See also

GEEK.

nerve-racking net INTERNET In the construction, a singular net nett verb is used if both subjects are singular and a .

is used with a singular verb:

-e-

the middle of the word, and in its adjectival

Neither towel

Neither of the towels is

[not

RACK or WRACK? NETSPEAK.

see

are]

see

neither . . . nor

or

;

? The word

net,

referring to

plural verb is used if both subjects are plural: . expenses, loss, packaging, etc., is sometimes [not ] spelt : . [or ] . [or ] .. . . [or ] [or . ] . [or ] . Both The use of a plural verb with the pronoun spellings are acceptable in British English, or with singular subjects in a construction is avoided by careful users, espe- but is the more frequent. cially in formal contexts, but nevertheless occurs netspeak The advent of the computer age what remains after the deduction of tax,

Neither his brother nor his sister has

been invited

have

Neither his parents nor his friends

have been invited neither

nor

nett

profit nett

neither . . .

net

net

to net

net

nett income

nett

weight

nett

net

nett

500 kg net

£2000 a month

network

208

and the development of the worldwide

all but a few informal spoken contexts:

network

never said a word! Never

of

computers

WORLD WIDE WEB (or (or

net)

known

web)

as

the

INTERNET

or the

has inspired a substantial body of

new coinages and linguistic conventions, sometimes treated as a separate language in its own right and identified as

netspeak.

Usages include

(the con-

ventions of

netizens, netiquette

netspeak),

or

Netlish

(netspeak as a version of English),

Weblish

netwallah

(a net administrator), and such technical terms as

byte, cookie, crash, domain name,

firewall, hit, offline, search engine, server, URL.

and

The temptation to relax the rules of

grammar, for instance by running sen-

.

.

I

means `at no time'

.

and should not be used when referring to a single occasion:

I never met his wife.

not meet his wife in town yesterday.

I did

is sometimes used informally as a substitute for a simple negative when expressing surprise: . .. .. .

◆ Never

He never expected that to happen

We never thought it would work

I never knew

you could play the guitar

nevertheless THELESS New Age

NONE THE LESS

see

?

The

New

or

NEVER-

movement, of

Age

American origin, is a cultural movement

tences together without a full stop and

dating from the 1980s that emphasizes

ignoring upper case/lower case distinctions,

alternative modes of spiritual consciousness

may offend many users.

(embodied in non-Western ideas such as

Some terms and acronyms have al- reincarnation, meditation and astrology), ready been absorbed into mainstream English. and a holistic approach to areas such as . Examples include (meaning `clueless', from medicine and diet: . . an error message numbered 404) and (ab. breviation for `frequently asked question'). next or this? The adjective is often See also ACRONYMS; CHAT; E-MAIL ; INTER◆

netspeak

404

New Age philosophy

FAQ

New Age music

New Age publishing this

NET; SMILEY; TEXT MESSAGING.

network

The word

used in place of

.

with reference to days

next

of the current week, months of the current

network

is used as a

.

year, etc.:

verb in telecommunications, computing,

Friday.

and the media; it is also increasingly used

◆

I'm not going to the club this

She's getting married this September.

As a result, the use of in similar contexts may lead to ambiguity or confusion: the phrase , used on a Tuesday, for example, may in a . mean `three days hence' or `ten days hence'. next

in general contexts to mean `communicate

.

or make contact with other people similar situation':

next Friday

to network with clients

Women also often mentioned the help, advice

See also

. nice

and support they had received from networking with other women Those four and

.

draw

(Alpha).

people . . . on

specialist

Networking

(The

Bookseller).

network

extensively

help

as

appropriate

. . .

is

one

of

the

current buzz-words of the enterprise industry

LAST.

The adjective

nice,

in the sense of

`pleasant', `agreeable', `kind', `attractive', etc., is often better replaced by an appro-

.

.

priate synonym, especially in formal contexts:

an attractive

[not

[not

nice] garden

nice] afternoon.

a

). In the sense of `subtle' or `precise', is In computing, is the connecting of ◆acceptable in all contexts: . . computers in different places to one another as is ultimately derived from the Latin adjeca means of transferring and sharing information. tive , meaning `ignorant'; it was originally neuron or neurone? The conventional used in the now obsolete sense of `foolish'. (The

Guardian

◆

pleasant

nice

networking

a nice distinction

Nice

nescius

spelling of this word, referring to a nerve cell, in scientific contexts is general neurone

neutral

nontechnical

neuron.

contexts,

In more

however,

is the usual spelling.

niceness nicety or

derived from nicety

.

to refined details: weather/his sister

The use of

in place of

never saw/took/went/etc.

did not see/take/go/etc.,

usually

for emphasis, is avoided by careful users in

is used in the

is restricted to the sense of

ble at

never

Niceness

.

`subtlety; precision' and specifically refers

(gender-inclusive) terms for people see ta-

NON-SEXIST TERMS.

? Both these nouns are

general senses of `pleasantness', `kindness', etc.;

For male, female, and neutral

NICE.

the

the niceties of etiquette.

niche

niceness

of

.

the

a nicety of grammar

This word may be pronounced to

rhyme with

pitch

or

leash.

The second of

209 these pronunciations is closer to the French origin, and is more frequent than the

non sequitur

noisome

The

adjective

noisome

The word is increasingly used with refer- noun : . . ence to a gap in the market, especially a gap that ◆ is derived from the verb . can be profitably filled: . largely restricted to formal contexts. anglicized [nich].

◆

tion, etymological or otherwise, with the

niche

a noisome smell

noise

Noisome

niche marketing

Niche

retailers like Sock Shop, Tie Rack and Knobs & Knockers have shown that they struggle when

(

times get hard The Guardian

night -nik

see

).

-nik,

.

of Russian or Yiddish

.

connected with or does what precedes it: exception

peacenik

of

refusenik.

refusenik

.

these

With the

words

are

rather dated; the suffix is less frequently encountered in contemporary usage and should not be indiscriminately attached to other nouns and verbs.

◆A was originally a Jew who had been refused permission to leave the Soviet Union. However, the word is increasingly used in more general contexts to denote somebody who refuses to do something: . . refusenik

a proposal that should satisfy

the remaining refuseniks

nil ZERO nimby see

The prefix

.

an acronym of `not in my

back yard', is used with reference to a person or people who object to proposed

.

new developments, such as roads or power

.

stations, in the vicinity of their houses: Nimby syndrome

the

If he has changed his mind,

. It is

is used to form a

.

a

nonprofessional

non-Christian religions.

The prefix , attached to the same words, may have stronger negative force: an or act, for example, violates professional ethics or Christian principles. Many people object to the frequent use of the prefix to coin unnecessary antonyms: . (for ). (for ). (for ) . (for ). Note that, though in fairly wide use, the term to describe a person who does not belong to the white racial grouping may be considered offensive by some people because of its assumption that white is the standard skin colour. A more politically correct alternative is ◆

un-

unprofessional

un-Christian

non-

non-

presence porary

absence

nonpermanent

nonsuccess

failure

tem-

nonobligatory

optional

nonwhite

person of

colour.

See also

.

Nimby,

non-

annoy

simple or neutral antonym of the word to

golfer

origin, is used to denote somebody who is beatnik

non-

which it is attached:

KNIGHT or NIGHT?

The suffix

means

`offensive' or `noxious'; it has no connec-

none

HYPHEN 1; INFLAMMABLE.

The use of a singular or plural verb

with the pronoun

none

None of the milk was spilt.

.

friends has/have seen the film .

these examples

none,

.

depends on the

sense and context in which it is used:

like

None of my

In the first of

milk,

must be

should

used with a singular verb. In examples of

withdraw his objection to having homes at

the second type some people prefer a

and

is

now

a

true

non-Nimby,

(The

he

Guardian).

The noun has been coined to denote this selfish opposition (the protesters usually have no objection to the development being sited elsewhere): . the bottom of his garden

◆

nimbyism

Their deep dislike of the kind of gung-ho

development and growth-at-all-costs going on in their communities . . . is not crude Nimbyism, as

(

Nicholas Ridley would have us believe Daily Tele-

).

graph

no NO ONE NO-ONE YES nobody NO ONE NO-ONE no-brainer see

or

see

?;

or

and

NO.

?

.

question or problem whose solution requires little or no intelligence:

The first

As a relatively

recent vogue term, it is best restricted to very informal contexts.

cially if `not

is used in the sense of

none

one'.

In

informal

contexts,

or

in

the sense of `not any', a plural verb is more frequent. See also

SINGULAR or PLURAL?

none the less

or

nevertheless

? These

two synonyms are sometimes confused. Traditionally

none the less

has been written

as three separate words, although less

is gradually being accepted.

nonethe-

Nevertheless

is always written as one word.

This is a slang term for a

question was a real no-brainer.

singular verb in formal contexts, espe-

In American English both words are written as single words.

◆

nonflammable non sequitur

see

INFLAMMABLE.

The Latin expression

sequitur

non

is used in formal contexts to refer

no one

210

to a statement that does not follow logically

.

ten days.

.

.

They live in north London.

from what has just been said. An example

wind is blowing from the north.

of a

◆

The

The adjective is more frequent and usually less specific than the adjective : . . ◆ The literal meaning of is `it does not follow'. . Like , is written with a capital NON-SEXIST TERMS ± see table, page 211 when it forms part of a proper name, such as or without a capital , it no one or no-one? Many users prefer the also means `of the. With . North': two-word compound to the hyphe. nated form . Unlike , non sequitur

is:

If all males are mortals

northern

then all mortals are males.

north

non sequitur

the northern part of the country

in northern

France

north northern

N

Northern Ireland

no one

no-one

and

anyone, everyone

someone, no one

should not be written

as a one-word compound.

◆ The pronoun and its synonym are interchangeable in all contexts. Both are used with a singular verb but are sometimes followed by a plural personal pronoun or possessive adjective (see THEY): . . no one

nobody

No one/Nobody likes to see their

children suffer

nor

. . .

Nor

is used in place of

nor

construction (see

.

in the

or

NEITHER)

neither

and to

introduce a negative alternative that stands

.

as a separate clause: nor Spanish.

has her sister.

.

N

a northern/Northern

I speak neither German

She hasn't been to America, nor He never watches television,

accent

northward northwards? or

.

Northward

is

the correct choice when an adjective is needed:

northward

a

or

northward

Either

direction.

. .

may be used when

northwards

an adverb is required: northward from the city.

They

travelled

The skies were

full of birds flying northwards.

-WARD or -WARDS? no sooner see HARDLY. See also

nostalgia

The noun

nostalgia

and its deri-

vatives are most frequently used with re-

.

ference to a wistful or sentimental yearning for the past:

She remembered the seaside

and are inter- . . . The original meaning of `homesickness' is now rather dated. .. ◆ The use of the adjective in the sense of . `causing nostalgia', rather than `feeling nostalgia', Many users prefer to where the negative is disliked and avoided by some users: . forceofanauxiliaryverbcoversbothalternatives: . . .. not The position of the word in a . The use of at the beginning of a sentence is negative sentence may affect its meaning and can sometimes lead to ambiguity: . generally acceptable: . . . . . . ( ). nor does he listen to the radio.

In many other contexts changeable: . ◆

nor

Listening to old records always makes

gia

or

The library is not open on Thursday

mornings, nor/or at the weekend

holidays of her childhood with a deep nostal-

me

nostalgic

We have no

nostalgic

food to eat nor/or clothes to wear or

nor

They cannot sing or dance

the

She has not eaten her

nostalgic sound of the church bells

biscuits or drunk her tea

not

nor

Nature is slow to compen-

All

sate for deforestation Nor has man been able to

children are not afraid of the dark

make good the damage Daily Telegraph

not go because it was raining

normalcy normality or

? These two nouns

are synonymous derivatives of the adjective normal. Normality

British English;

is the preferred form in

normalcy

is chiefly used in

American English.

north North northern ,

tive,

north

or

is always written with a capital

North America

.

the North Sea.

.

.

N

The noun

is usually written with a capital

N

when it denotes a specific region, such as the northern part of England: are lower in the North.

and as an adverb, with a lower-case

.

north

n:

first

of

.

these

He is not

He is trying not to win.

examples,

.

which

The

literally

means `No children are afraid of the dark', is easily reworded: afraid of the dark.

Not all children are

House prices

In other contexts, is usually written

We travelled north for

Because it was raining we did not go. not

go

because

.

The second example may

.

be reordered or expanded for clarity: ? As an adjec-

when it forms part of a proper name: north

trying to win.

We did

it

was

raining,

We did

we

went

because we were bored.

The frequent use over recent years of as a one-word contradiction of what has just been said is disliked by many people and should be restricted to very informal contexts: .

◆

not

That's a really cool hat

you're wearing ± not!

See also

ALSO.

KNOT or NOT?; NOT ONLY . . . BUT

211

NON-SEXIST TERMS

NON-SEXIST TERMS

The following table lists words showing male, female, and neutral (gender-inclusive) terms. Crossreferences ± e.g. see MANKIND ± are also included to main entries in the where there is a fuller discussion. Male Female Neutral (gender-inclusive) actor actress actor airman airwoman pilot author authoress author writer (see also -ESS) barman barmaid bartender businessman businesswoman (business) executive cameraman camerawoman camera operator photographer chairman chairwoman chairperson chair (see CHAIR) clergyman clergywoman member of the clergy comedian comedienne comedian comic comic actor comic entertainer congressman congresswoman member of congress countryman countrywoman native/inhabitant of . . . compatriot craftsman craftswoman craftsperson craftworker draughtsman draughtswoman draughter draughtsperson dustman dustwoman refuse collector refuse operative cleansing operative fireman firewoman firefighter forefather foremother ancestor forebear forerunner foreman forewoman supervisor headmaster headmistress headteacher head hero heroine hero host hostess host (tour) guide kinsman kinswoman relative relation layman laywoman lay person member of the laity man ( ) woman person individual human being (see MAN) man ( ) operate staff run work equip manager manageress manager man-hours working hours work hours mankind womankind the human race human beings (see MANKIND) man-made synthetic artificial manufactured manpower workforce personnel staff milkman milkwoman milk roundsperson dairy salesperson poet poetess poet (see also -ESS) policeman policewoman police officer postman postwoman delivery officer salesman saleswoman salesperson sales executive (sales) representative salesgirl sales assistant shop assistant sales clerk ( ) sculptor sculptress sculptor serviceman servicewoman member of the armed forces spokesman spokeswoman spokesperson representative official sportsman sportswoman sportsperson statesman stateswoman statesperson leader public figure steward stewardess ( ) flight/cabin attendant usher usherette usher waiter waitress waiter server weatherman weathergirl meteorologist weather forecaster workman workwoman worker artisan Good Word Guide

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

noun

or

verb

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

or

air hostess

or

or

or

or

or

American

notable

notable noted . noteworthy . ,

or

means `famous':

212

?

Noted

a noted scientist

The

area is noted for its spectacular scenery. No-

and

table

.

both mean `worthy of

noteworthy

notice or of being noted': noteworthy] achievement,

.

but

a notable

[or

noteworthy

is

Æ t] is widely alternative pronunciation [nuga used.

nought nouns

see

NAUGHT or NOUGHT?

Nouns are the names of things,

places, or people. The main division of

usually used to describe facts or events

nouns is into countable and uncountable

rather than people:

nouns. Countable nouns are those which

It was noteworthy that

the average price remained the same despite

can be preceded by

or

a

.

the

.

or a number or

. . A person or thing that is or . Uncoundeserves notice, admiration or renown; a person or table nouns are not able to be counted thing that is has already received notice, because they are nouns of mass: . . . Some words can be countable or admiration, or renown. the effects of inflation.

word denoting number:

◆

notable

noteworthy

the priest

lemons

a goat

noted

flour

water

notable noticeable or

? The adjective

no-

table

means `remarkable' or `worthy of

note';

noticeable

.

vious': change

.

means `perceptible' or `ob-

a notable achievement

in

temperature.

The

a noticeable

two

words

should not be confused.

The final - of the verb is retained in , whereas the final - of is omitted in . ◆

e

notice

noticeable

e

note

notable

noted noteworthy NOTEWORTHY nothing but ,

NOTABLE, NOTED or

see

?

The phrase

nothing but

.

. . . is

used with a singular verb, even if the noun that follows

is plural:

but

[not

Nothing but

were] left on the plate.

When is followed by an infinitive, the word is omitted: . . The same rules apply to the synonymous phrase :. crumbs was

◆

nothing but to

They have done nothing

but cry since you left nothing except

Nothing except his shoes was

found.

noticeable NOTABLE not only . . . but also see

and

must be grammatically balanced:

.

.

but also I have

lost not only my purse but also my car keys I have not only lost

broke

the

world

swimming but pounds

for

They not only long-distance

also raised several thousand

charity

[not

They

. . .].

Inmanycontextstheword .

only

◆

for

. . .].

record

also

broke

not

canbeomitted: .

He not only wrote to the headmaster but (also) consulted his solicitor

notorious nougat

see

used:

INFAMOUS or NOTORIOUS?

The standard pronunciation of this

word is [noogah], after the French. The

.

Have a beer.

Beer is fattening.

Proper nouns refer to a single particular person or thing and begin with a capital letter: . . Exceptionally, proper nouns can be made . plural: . . Nouns can often be used as adjectives, when they sometimes form one word with another noun, or are hyphenated, or remain as two words: . . . . They are more likely to be hyphenated when the two nouns are used together adjectivally before a third noun: . . . See also HYPHEN 3. The use of nouns as verbs has a long history. We use the verb without thinking that it wasoriginallyanoun.Suchphrasesas: . . . are also so frequently used as to be wholly acceptable. However, more modern innovations, such as: . .. .. .. , are disliked by many people. ◆

Trevor

Jones

the Americas

There are two Susans on

the staff

postbox

tea-tray

Christmas cake

Christmas-cake decorations

a bathroom-fit-

tings shop

to question

to paper a

room

to tin fruit

to pencil it in

Let me

month

The words or

not only

.

uncountable, according to how they are

example that for you

NOTICEABLE?

or

clauses that follow

[not

three

several books

They text each other every

He rubbished their policies

See also

to modern

VERBS.

noxious obnoxious or

? Both these adjec-

tives can mean `extremely unpleasant', but obnoxious noxious

usually refers to a person and

morally harmful: noxious fumes.

◆

.

.

to something that is physically or their obnoxious children

Both words are ultimately derived from the Latin `injury'.

noxa

nubile

The adjective

nubile,

derived from

the Latin word for `marriageable', is frequently applied to any sexually attractive

.

young woman, especially in jocular or informal contexts:

His friend's nubile sister

was sunbathing in the garden.

Some people

213 object to this usage, restricting the term to its original meaning.

The use of the adjective to describe attractive married women or unattractive unmarried women is therefore best avoided.

◆

nubile

nuclear

The occasional use of

noun, meaning `nuclear power':

debate about nuclear,

.

nuclear

as a

a national

is disliked and avoided

by most people.

This usage is potentially confusing, as the word may also refer to nuclear warfare, nuclear missiles, nuclear fission, nuclear energy, etc. The term refers to a period with very little light, heat, or growth that would follow a nuclear war. In the phrase the adjective simply means `forming a nucleus'. is pronounced [ kleeaÆ] in British English and [ kleeaÆ] in American English. It is sometimes mispronounced as if the word ended in , especially in American English.

◆

nuclear

nuclear winter

nuclear family

nucle-

ar

Nuclear

nyoo

noo

-cular

nude number

NAKED or NUDE?

see

The phrase

a number of

. . . is

used with a plural verb; the phrase

.

. . . is used with a singular verb:

number of

A number of pupils were late.

of pupils has increased.

See also

PLURAL?

numbers

.

the

The number

AMOUNT or NUMBER?; SINGULAR or

nutritive

one to twenty; others spell out all numbers up to one hundred. It is important to be reasonably consistent within a single piece of writing, but some users prefer not to mix figures and words in the same sentence: . [not ] .. [not ] . Thetimemaybeexpressedinwordsorfigures: . . . . . Times using the 24-hour clock are written as . figures: . See also A.M. and P.M.; DATES. Numbers of five or more digits are separated by commas or spaces into groups of three: . . .Four-digitnumbers are usually printed or written without commas or spaces: . . . Some numbers have acquired their own particular semantic value: . . [emergency] [24 hours per day, 7 days per week]. . [the terrorist attacks on the USA on 11 September 2001] There are nine boys and

fifteen

15 girls in his class

guests but only 80

twenty past three

3.20

16.25

We invited 130

eighty turned up eight o'clock

0700 hours

45,069/

45 069

3,728,960/3 728 960 5069

8960

We need to review the 999

services.

The shop is open 24/7

new security

measures introduced in the wake of 9/11 .

See also

DATES; HYPHEN 6.

nutritional

or

nutritious

?

Nutritional

means `relating to nutrition (the process

written texts may be expressed in figures or written out in full, according to the nature of the work, the context, the writer's personal preference, or the publisher's house style.

.

of taking food into the body and absorbing it)';

nutritious

.

means `nourishing':

nutritional requirements of a baby

Numbers that occur in printed or

8 o'clock

nutritious meal.

the

a very

The adjective is increasingly used with reference to the content of processed and other foods: . ( ). . ( ). The more formal adjective may be used in place of or , but it more frequently replaces the former: . ◆

nutritional

Nutritional labelling must be made com-

pulsory

Sunday Times

People should have

◆ In mathematical, scientific, technical, commercial, or statistical texts numbers are usually expressed in figures throughout. In other works specific measurements or sums of money, page numbers, dates, and numbers higher than one hundred (except two hundred, three hundred, four thousand, five million, etc.) (Kellogg's Rice Krisare usually expressed in figures. Some writers and publishers spell out numbers pies packet). from one to ten only; some spell out numbers from nutritive see NUTRITIONAL or NUTRITIOUS? enough nutritional information to make dietary changes Daily Telegraph

nutritive

nutritional

nutritious

New recommen-

dations have been made by the Ministry of Agri-

culture, Fisheries and Food for the way in which nutritive values are displayed

O

O oh or

?

O,

always written with a capital,

subjective

.

feelings, etc.':

.

is a rarer, more poetic variant of the exclamation oh:

.

O come all ye faithful.

Oh] for the school holidays! see

.

you

mind.'

later,

afraid.'

I'm

She burst

[or

`I can't come and `Oh

.

into tears,

dear! Oh dear! Oh dear!'

O

well,

never

crying, `Oh

I just thought

see

,

SENIOR CITIZEN. or

confused

as

they

nounced in the same way [or].

are Oar

pro-

The oars dipped in the water. Or

.

.

refers to mineral from

which metals may be extracted:

iron ore.

is a very formal word

.

that means an attitude or gesture of deference or respect: an

obeisance.

obedience,

to pay obeisance

although both nouns are derived

from Old French

obeir,

◆

obeisance

object

to make

It is not synonymous with

Note the spelling of and the ending.

`to obey'.

-ance

The

object

, particularly the

ei

of a clause or sentence is

the noun, pronoun, or phrase that is affected by the verb. The object usually follows the verb.

An object may be or . In the sentence: . , is the direct object and there is no indirect object. Inthesentences: . and . , is the direct object and is the indirect object. Many sentences that contain both a direct and an indirect object canberephrasedusingtheprepositions or : . .. . Compare SUBJECT. ◆

direct

indirect

The dog buried the bone the bone I gave the child a book

She

bought the child a book a book the child

to

I gave a book to the child

for

She bought a book for

the child

objective

objective

or

be

objective

when

we're

◆ Some users consider the adjectives to be unnecessary synonyms for etc. The noun is best avoided where etc., would be adequate or more appropriate: . [not ] . [not ]

fair, impartial, personal,

biased,

this meeting.

goal,

subjective

? The adjective

means `not influenced by personal

feelings, beliefs, or prejudices'; its antonym

Our aim

objective of

objective is to provide

equal opportunities for all.

. objet d'art .

is a con-

junction linking two or more alternatives:

Obeisance

This is a subjective opinion:

to

discussing my own daughter's career.

refers

to a paddle used to propel a rowing boat:

obeisance

.

hard

the purpose

ore

right or wrong. Ore

it

aim, purpose, object,

? These three words are

occasionally

find

objective

. . . oh, never mind.

OAP oar or

I

means `influenced by personal

d'art,

The plural of the phrase

meaning

`small

object

worth', is formed by adding word,

-s

of

objet

artistic

to the first

objets d'art.

◆ Of French origin, the phrase is sometimes written or printed in italics in English texts. Note the spelling of , which lacks the of the English word . objet

c

object

obliged obligated or

.

? Both these adjec-

tives may be used in the sense of `morally or legally bound':

He felt obliged/obligated to

report the accident.

The use of is largely restricted to formal contexts. has the additional meaning of `physically constrained' or `compelled': . .

◆

obligated

Obliged

They were

obliged to remain in their seats

oblivious .

The adjective

oblivious

is often

used in the sense of `unaware' or `heedless': He

remained

in

the

shelter

of

the

tree,

oblivious of the fact that the rain had stopped.

Some people object to this usage, restricting the adjective to its original sense of `no longer aware' or `forgetful': . . The frequent use of the phrase , rather than , is unacceptable to some users and is best avoided in formal contexts: . . [not ] [not ] .

◆

Oblivious of the need for

caution, she stepped out of the car to photograph the lions

oblivious to

oblivious of

oblivious of

to the dangers

oblivious of

to my presence

obnoxious

see

NOXIOUS or OBNOXIOUS?

215

obscene

Some people object to the increas-

ing use of strong

.

as a general term of

obscene

disapproval:

Recent

large

pay

awards to some company directors are obscene, the Bishop of Manchester . . . has told the General Synod in York

(Daily

Telegraph).

◆

obscene

occurrence

of course This word is often misspelt. A

frequent error is the substitution of for the -rr-,

-ence

ending. Note also the

as also in

octopus

and

occurred

-ance

-cc-

and

occurring.

The plural of the noun

octopus,

The primary meaning of is `offensive to is . As the word is ultimately of accepted standards of decency': . Greek origin, the plural form is . . incorrect; is permissible but pedThe word is sometimes misspelt: note that the second syllable is identical with the word antic. . oculist see OPTICIAN, OPHTHALMOLOGIST, OPdenoting a sea animal with eight tentacles, octopuses

obscene lan-

guage

octopi

an obscene picture

octopodes

obscene

scene

observance observation or

? The noun

denotes either the act of com-

observance

plying or a ritual custom or practice; servation

ob-

.

denotes either the act of watching

.

or noticing or a remark or comment:

.

observance of the rules

observation made by his client.

obverse REVERSE obviate

.

religious observances

their observation of human behaviour

CONVERSE, INVERSE, OBVERSE

see

?

an

odious odorous or

mely unpleasant';

.

?

obviate

.

means `extre-

Odious

odorous,

.

a very formal

word, means `having a particular smell': an odious man

an odorous room.

The two

adjectives should not be confused.

Like the noun , may refer to a pleasant or an unpleasant smell. Note that the of is dropped before the ending of . The word , not , is used in the saying `Comparisons are odious'.

◆

odour odorous

u

or

odour

-ous

something is to make it The man-

agement's new proposals obviated our com-

It is largely restricted to formal

contexts and should not be used as a pretentious synonym for `remove' or `get rid of'.

odor-

ous

odious

To

unnecessary or to dispose of it: plaints.

TOMETRIST or OCULIST?

odorous

-oe- -AE- -OEoesophagus esophagus see

and

.

or

? This word,

describing the part of the alimentary canal

The verb is unconnected in meaning to spelt differently in British and American the adjective , although the two words are English. is the usual spelling in etymologically related. British English, while is the acSome users avoid the construction cepted spelling in American English. , arguing that is redundant: . of The preposition is sometimes wrongly substituted for the verb or, more . frequently, its contraction : . ◆

linking the pharynx and the stomach, is

obviate

obvious

Oesophagus

esophagus

obviate the

need for

the need for

of

A reduction in inflation would obviate the need for

have

higher pay rises

occasion

where

.

They

've

The verb

.

occasion

cause, bring about,

adequate:

is best avoided

etc., would be

The accident was caused

[not

should have

[not

[not

must of] forgotten.

of] tried.

.

of] refused.

She must've

He could have

[not

This substitution, caused by the

occasioned] by a fault in the braking system.

similarity in pronunciation between the

◆

two words when unstressed, is wrong.

Note the spelling of the word cularly the and single . -cc-

s

occupied preoccupied or

person,

occupied

occasion

, parti-

? Applied to a

means `busy';

preoccupied

.

I was occupied with the preparations for the carnival.

.

Try to keep everybody occupied.

of a Friday, of an

evening

on Fridays, in the evening

I

go shopping of a Tuesday afternoon

OFF 'S S' SINGULAR PLURAL . of course .

means `absorbed in a particular train of thought (often to the exclusion of all else)':

The use of such phrases as , etc., in place of , etc., should be restricted to informal contexts: . .

◆

See also

;

or

?;

The phrase

or

of course

?

serves a

number of useful purposes, but should not be used to excess.

◆ It has a variety of connotations, some of which Being may involve the mind and/or the may cause offence. body, whereas being usually involves Used for emphasis, either alone or to introduce a reply, the phrase may convey impatience or the mind alone. He

was

blems.

◆

preoccupied with

his

marital

She seemed preoccupied.

occupied

preoccupied

pro-

off

216

politeness: . `

.' . ` '` .' Used in the sense of `naturally' or `admittedly', it may be patronizing, superior, sympathetic, or apologetic: . .. . .. . Did you remember to post my letter?'

`Of course (I did)

May I use your telephone? Of

course (you may)

It is of course impossible to com-

municate with the dead

I knew his uncle, of

course. I don't believe you ever met him, did you?

Of course you're tired, you've had a long journey I may be wrong, of course

off of

The use of the preposition

from,

off

in place

to indicate the source of an acqui-

.

sition, is considered wrong by many people, even in informal contexts: [not

off] my sister.

I bought it from

The phrase is also wrong and should be avoidedin allcontexts: . [not ] .. [not ] . The word is usually pronounced to rhyme with ; the variant pronunciation [awf] is generally considered to be old-fashioned or affected.

◆

off of

He jumped off

the wall

Take your feet off

off of

off of the table

off

scoff

See also

offence

OFF-LIMITS.

This word, meaning `action caus-

ing displeasure; illegal act', is sometimes misspelt. Note the

not

-c-

The derived adjective is spelt British and American English. ◆

offer proffer or

.

offense).

offensive

in both

.

offered] his passport.

He

proffered

She offered

fered] her sympathy. Offer proffer

[or

[or

prof-

has a much wider

is largely restricted

to formal contexts, and should not be used as a pretentious substitute for

other bureaucratic documents.

Known informally as , officialese is characterized by the use of pompous and wordy language, obscure jargon, and long unintelligible sentences. An example quoted by Tom Vernon in is from a Department of Employment form: . ◆

gobbledygook

Gobbledegook

In certain circumstances that con-

dition may be modified to enable those persons

who claim benefit early in their insurance life to treat as paid in one tax year all class 1 (standard rate) contributions paid in the period starting with the year in which they first became liable for such contributions, and ending with the day from which

. Widely satirized in the media, government departments have tried in recent years, with some success, to eliminate officialese by simplifying vocabulary and circumlocutory phrases, shortening sentences, and personalizing instructions. benefit is claimed

JARGON. officious see OFFICIAL or OFFICIOUS? See also

off-limits

The term

off-limits,

offer.

entering general British usage:

the factory is off-limits to visitors.

fered her a glass of champagne

nyms.

off-the-wall

The adjective

official officious

official

means `authorized', `formal', or `of an ofwhich is generally used in a

derogatory manner, means `interfering',

.

`bossy', `self-important', or `offering un-

.

.

wanted advice or assistance': strike

an official visit

an official

an officious clerk.

The two words should not be confused.

In the field of diplomacy the adjective means `informal' or `unofficial': . . This sense is not in general usage. ◆

officious

an officious

agreement

officialese

Officialese

is

American English, to mean `amusingly

.

unusual; eccentric or unexpected; zany': off-the-wall humour.

Care should be ta-

oftener

prof-

? The adjective

off-the-wall

used in informal contexts, especially in

They offered

proffered us £2000 for the car

officious,

This part of

Many users

ken to avoid overusing this expression.

offer

He offered

fice';

.

in American military contexts and is now

cannot be used in place of in more often The words complex constructions: . [not accepted comparative ] .. forms of the adverb [not ] . ◆ Proffer

or

meaning

`out of bounds' or `forbidden', originated

prefer to retain the more traditional syno-

? Both verbs mean `pre-

sent for acceptance':

range of usage;

in British

-s-

English (American English,

reports, memoranda, letters, leaflets, and

is a derogatory name

often,

prefer

more often

.

in formal contexts: autumn.

.

and

and

and

oftenest

are

superlative

but many users

most often,

especially

It rains most often in the

The of is rarely sounded, the most frequent pronunciation of the word being [ eÆn]. The pronunciation [ teÆn] is heard from time to time, but the variant [ eÆn], which sounds like , is generally considered to be old-fashioned or affected.

◆

t

Which car do you use oftener?

often

of

of

awf

orphan

oh O OH OK okay see or

or

?

? The term

OK

or

okay,

denot-

.

ing agreement or approval, may be used as

.

.

for the style of writing or language that is

an adjective, adverb, noun, or verb:

considered to be typical of official forms,

OK.

The meeting went OK.

That's

Has she given

us the OK/okay?

217

.

They are unlikely to okay/

OK the suggestion.

◆ As the term is most frequently used in informal speech, the variations in its written form are not of great importance. In informal writing, the extended form is generally preferred for the verb, especially if inflectional endings are to be added: . . The two-letter form is now rarely written with full stops in British English: . . okay

The project

has been okayed by the committee OK

It looks O.K. to

me

old age pensioner SENIOR CITIZEN OLD older oldest ELDER ELDEST OLDER OLDEST omelette see

AGE PENSIONER? ,

see

or

,

,

or

?

This word is sometimes mis-

spelt. In British English the spelling is omelette,

in American English

the first

e.

◆

omelet.

Note

The word is pronounced [ lit].

omission

omitting' or `something omitted', is often misspelt. The most frequent error is the for the single

-mm-

ending (not

-ission

-m-.

-ision

or

-ition).

on

struct phrases around

on,

such as

one-on-

(meaning `individual-to-individual' or

`person-to-person')

and

white-on-white

(meaning `white against white'), is disliked

.

by some users and is best restricted to informal contexts:

The

increasing

inci-

dence of white-on-white violence is worrying. One-on-one

phrase

is an American variant of the

.

one-to-one,

which is more acceptable

in British English:

It's time we had a proper

one-to-one discussion about this.

See also

one

one

his her

The twins' tastes are not identical: one drinks her one's coffee black, the other drinks it white

one

you

I

one

we

I have

very good at sport

One has never been

We hope

One hopes that

the situation will improve

one in three/five/ten/

one of the . . .

One in four teachers

is in favour of corporal punishment

One of the

eggs is broken

one in . . .

One in ten men are thought to have a drink

one of the . . . that He is one of those

people who are never satisfied

It is one of the

shortest books that have ever been published one

His smile was not a friendly one

The relatively recent tendency to con-

one

One should be kind to

his friends

one of those . . . who

This noun, meaning `the act of

substitution of

.. . When the pronoun represents a specific person it is always followed by , , etc.: . [not ] . In formal contexts the impersonal pronoun is generally preferred to . The use of in place of or , however, is widely considered to be affected and is best avoided, especially in informal contexts: . [not ] .. [not ] . See also YOU. The constructions etc. and , followed by a plural noun, should beusedwithasingularverb: . .. . However, a plural verb is often seen or heard after the construction :. (BBC radio news). The constructions and are followed by a plural verb: . .. . See also SINGULAR or PLURAL? In some contexts the word is superfluous: . , for example, may be more concisely expressed as: . One often talks to himself

problem

om

Note also the

ongoing

ONTO or ON TO?; UPON or ON?

The pronoun

one,

representing an

His smile was not

friendly

See also

onerous

EACH OTHER or ONE ANOTHER?

.

This word, meaning `demanding

or troublesome':

acceptable Å ne Æ ru Æ s]. [o

one-stop

onerous tasks,

pronunciations, The term

one-stop

has two

Æ s] [oneÆru

and

refers to the

modern trend towards combining various

.

.

related facilities or services in one place or package:

a one-stop system

The report . . .

suggests local authorities can offer `one-stop shops' where employers can find child-care, training and other contacts under one roof (Daily Telegraph).

It is a vogue word disliked by some people.

originally referred to shops that sell a wide range of essential items ± food, than by , , etc.: newspapers, books, toys, clothes, gardening and . household goods, etc. ◆ If the resulting sentence sounds clumsy or uni. diomatic, it may be paraphrased: ongoing Many people object to the use of , for the adjective in place of , example, may be changed to: , , etc.: . . . In American English, however, is usually . The cliche followed in such contexts by , , etc.: . is also widely disliked. indefinite person, is usually followed in British English by his himself

.

one's, oneself,

etc., rather

◆ One-stop shopping

One should be kind

to one's friends

When one lives

on one's own one often talks to oneself

People who live

on their own often talk to themselves

one

his himself

developing

search

ongoing

continuing

in progress

ongoing re-

an ongoing investment programme in

manufacturing

going situation

technology

on-

on-line

218

◆ The word phenated form: .

sometimes appears in hy- poetry, in such a way as to suggest the sound described. An example is: Keeping time, time, time, ( In a sort of Runic rhyme, ). To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells From the bells, bells, bells, bells. on-line The term , which relates to (Edgar Allan Poe, ) equipment that is directly connected to ongoing

We put you through the world's

most advanced management training courses, fol-

lowed by on-going personal development Execu-

tive Post

on-line

and/or controlled by a central computer,

.

is sometimes used in the extended sense of

ON-STREAM: .

on-stream

The term

on-stream

relates to

an industrial process or plant that is in

on-line to

production or about to go into production

It should not be confused with

or operation or to the launching of a new

`in direct communication with': the president.

The Bells

Rent A Film . . . will be getting

in the party spirit to celebrate a very special

advertising campaign, etc.:

.

The rest of the

country should be on-stream by the end of 2005.

It is sometimes possible to replace the phrase with , etc. is ◆ The phrase often refers specifically to The hyphen is often omitted when . employed as an attributive adjective: being connected to the Internet: . . . When used as an attributive adjective the onto or on to? The preposition may phrase is usually spelt as one word: . be written as one or two words: . service which has just come on line at their plush,

newly-refurbished

(Little-

premises

◆

come on-stream

hampton Guardian).

open, begin

on-stream

on-line

An on-

Is your com-

puter on-line yet?

I haven't gone on-line yet

stream date of 2010 is proposed

today.

onto

Let me tell

you about our online services.

only

only

In some written sentences the adverb

must be carefully positioned, as near as

.

possible to the word it refers to, in order to convey the intended meaning: only on Fridays eats only fish

She drove

onto/on to the pavement. On to

[i.e. not other days].

[i.e. nothing else]

.

She eats fish

combination of the adverb preposition

or

.

infinitive

on

and the

marker

to,

in

.

which case it should not be written as one word:

She drove on to London.

She drove on to find a hotel.

. onward onwards

She

on Fridays.

may also be a

or

? In British English

onward

is principally used as an adjective,

fish on Fridays.

onwards

being the usual form of the adverb

◆

meaning `ahead':

[i.e. She is the only one who]

Only she

eats

In speech, where the stress and intonation of the sentence should eliminate any ambiguity, and in written sentences that are not open to misinterpretation, may be placed in its most idiomatic position, i.e. between the subject and the verb or between an auxiliary verb and a main verb: . . . The use of as a conjunction, in place of or , is best restricted to informal contexts: . . Some people object to the use of the phrase as an intensifier, reserving it for the sense of `regrettably': . [not ] .. . only

He

only needs one more to complete the collection. They have only sold three books only

but

however

I'd like to go to Canada, only I can't afford the air

fare

only too

I am very

to help

only too pleased

The new container, which is supposed to

be childproof, is only too easy to open

See also

NOT ONLY . . . BUT ALSO.

onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia

.

mation of words that imitate the sound

.

◆

.

.

.

.

cuckoo

twitter.

It also refers to the use of words, usually in

moo

clang

croak

hiss

.

◆ The adverb American English.

onward

See also

operative .

to

is more frequently used in

-WARD or -WARDS?

The frequent use of the noun

in place of

operative

.

Onward motion

worker,

especially in

nonindustrial contexts, is disliked by many users:

a strike by cleaning operatives at the

hospital.

ophthalmologist MOLOGIST OPTOMETRIST opposite.

see

,

The noun

of,

not

to:

to

(not

opposite

is followed by

Hot is the opposite of

As a preposition, by

OPTICIAN, OPHTHALOCULIST?

or

of)

opposite

[not to]

◆

but usually stands alone:

The adjective :.

from

opposite

cold.

.

may be followed

car park opposite (to) the station.

is the for-

associated with an object or action:

march onwards.

the

may be used with or . to

He sat on the opposite side to/from her

oppress repress suppress ,

or

? These verbs

are similar in meaning: all three refer to subjugation

or

restraint.

Oppress

means

219 `subjugate by force, cruel treatment, etc.'; the

.

.

optimum

or The adjective and noun

optimum

.

direct object of the verb is usually a group of

refer to the most favourable or advanta-

people

geous condition, amount, degree, etc.:

a regime that oppresses women

oppressed workers.

the

The verb repress is also used

optimum speed

in this sense, but more frequently refers to the

optimum.

.

◆

.

the

A temperature of 158C is the

The noun has two plural forms, usually in technical contexts, and . . In psychology, means `banish or The frequent use of the adjective and its synonym in the sense of `best' is disliked exclude (thoughts, feelings, etc.) from one's by many users: . conscious mind or awareness', an act that may lead to psychological problems: . . The verb has the ( ). . . more general meaning of `restrain' or `conThe verb means `make the most of' or trol': . . `make as efficient as possible': . also means `withhold' or `crush': . . . . . ◆ Note the differences in spelling, particularly the of and and the single opt in see OPT OUT. of .

.

act of concealing or controlling one's feelings: I repressed the urge to hit him.

desire

optimum

optimums

a repressed

optima

optimum

repress

optimal

a manufacturing programme

re-

pressed sexuality

designed to make optimum use of all available resources Executive Post

suppress

A combination of olive

oil and butter will produce the optimal result

She couldn't suppress her

optimize

laughter

to optimize the

Suppress

to suppress information

to suppress a rebellion

potential of the business

to optimize the pro-

duction process

-pp-

oppress

suppress

optometrist optician ophthalmologist optometrist GIST OPTOMETRIST oculist opt out

-p-

repress

,

or

see

,

,

? All four nouns denote people

who are concerned with defects or diseases of the eyes.

Opt

OPTICIAN, OPHTHALMOLOOCULIST?

or

out

means `choose not to

participate or be involved', with the im-

that a person or organization that ◆ The word , which is probably the most plication included: . familiar, may denote an or a does not opt out is automatically . . the An is qualified to test eye- opposite situation, where people .orInorgasight and prescribe corrective lenses. A are automatically excluded unless makes and sells glasses (and other optical nizations they choose to participate, the verb equipment). An is a doctor who specializes may be used: . in eye diseases. is a less frequent name for an ; is synon` ' ymous with . ` ' The word is sometimes mis). spelt, the most frequent error being the omission ( of the first . It is usually pronounced [ofthal opus The formal noun , denoting a oÆjist]; the pronunciation of the first syllable to musical work or other artistic composition, rhyme with , rather than , is disliked by may be pronounced [ puÆs], with the long many users. Æ s], with the short of , or [ u of optician

ophthalmic optician

to opt out of society

dispensing optician

out

ophthalmic optician

(of

local

schools that have opted

government

control)

dispensing

optician

opt in

A survey into public attitudes

ophthalmologist

to kidney donation found that most people are

Optometrist

ophthalmic optician oculist

willing to donate their kidneys but they are

ophthalmologist

against a scheme to

opt

out

of donorship

rather than the present scheme of

ophthalmologist

opting in

New Scientist

h

mo-

opus

l

hop

optimal optimistic

see

scoff

Å o

open

OPTIMUM.

operate.

Many people object to the freoptimistic

as a

. .

She is

synonym for `hopeful', `confident', `cheerful', `favourable', `encouraging', etc.: optimistic that the car will be found. produced

an

o

Both pronunciations are acceptable,

but the first is more frequent.

quent use of the adjective

have

o

op

optimistic

report

They

on

the

also has two plural forms, and . As the word exists as a singular noun in its own right, some users prefer : the phrase , for example, may refer to a single operatic composition or to all Mozart's musical works.

◆ Opus

opuses

opera

opera

opuses

Mozart's opera

two or more singular In general usage principally relates to or When connectsverb is used: . a tendency to see or expect the best or to take a subjects a singular [not ] .A favourable view of things: . plural verb is used if both subjects are . plural: .

company's prospects.

◆

or

optimistic

Throughout his illness

Perhaps

Peter or Jane knows

he remained optimistic

optimize

see

OPTIMUM.

know the answer

Carrots or parsnips are served with

this dish.

oral

220

In a combination of singular and plural alternatives the verb traditionally agrees with the subject that is nearest to it: . .. . The same principle is applied to singular subjects that are used with different forms of the verb: . If the resulting sentence sounds inelegant or unidiomatic, a second verb may be added: . The use of at the beginning of a sentence is generally acceptable: . . . For the use of a comma before in a series of three or more items see COMMA 1. may also be preceded by a comma in other contexts, especially if it introduces a synonym rather than an alternative: . , . ◆

One large pot or two

small ones are needed

Two small pots or one

large one is needed

Are you or your wife going to

the concert?

Am I the winner or is he? or

We may go to London

tomorrow Or we may stay at home or

Or

the policy of glasnost or openness

See also

ORE?

AND/OR; EITHER; NOR; OAR, OR or

oral AURAL ORAL VERBAL ordinance ordnance see

or

?;

or

? An

or

ORAL?

ordinance

decree or regulation; the noun

is a

ordnance

denotes military supplies or artillery.

reflexively, meaning `get one's bearings' or `adjust oneself to new surroundings': . . The past participle is increasingly used in the sense of `inclined towards': . . . Many people dislike this usage, which is generally avoidable and often quite superfluous: examples include the local government service designed rather than `to meet the needs of the locality' and job advertisements that call for experience in (product development) or (engineering). They found it

difficult to orient/orientate themselves in the unfamiliar town

a commercially

orientated service

a science-oriented course

to

meet locality-oriented needs

product-orientated de-

velopment

engineering-

orientated environments

See also

Oriental

DISORIENT or DISORIENTATE?

The use of

as a noun

Oriental

describing a person from one of the countries of East Asia is no longer considered acceptable. The preferred modern alternative is

South-East Asian.

orthopaedic

paediatric

or

? Both these

adjectives are used in medical contexts and they are often confused.

Orthopaedic

Neither word is in frequent use: is refers to the treatment of bones, joints, refers to the treatlargely restricted to local government contexts; muscles, etc.; is chiefly associated with Ordnance Sur- ment of children. ◆ The - element in both words is derived vey maps. The similarity in spelling often leads to confusion from the Greek word for `child': an specialist was originally concerned with the bones, between the two words. joints, etc., of children but now treats people of all ore see OAR or ORE? ages. Note that there is no connection with the - element of and , which is organic The adjective is applied to derived from the Latin word for `foot'. methods of food production that do not In American English the - - of and make use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, is reduced to (see also -AEand -OE). . . etc.: ◆

ordinance

paediatric

ordnance

paed

orthopaedic

ped

organic

pedestrian

ae

organic farming

fruit.

organically produced

Some people dislike the increasing

.

.

paediatric

pedal

orthopaedic

e

oscillate osculate or

? To

oscillate

means

tendency to apply the adjective directly to

`move from one position, mood, or value to

the produce itself:

another; fluctuate or swing':

vegetables.

organic food

organic

◆ This objection is based on the fact that all meat, fruit, and vegetables may be described as in the principal sense of `relating to or derived from living plants or animals'.

organic

orient orientate or

verb are acceptable:

? Both forms of the orient,

the standard

.

.

The value of

the pound oscillated between 1.50 and 1.70 US dollars.

His moods oscillated between

anger and indifference. Osculate

is a much

rarer word mainly used in humorous contexts to mean `to kiss'.

ostensible

means

.

form in American English, is preferred

`showy':

by some users as the shorter and simpler

sence

alternative, but

◆

.

or

ostentatious

`apparent';

?

Ostensible

ostentatious

means

the ostensible reason for her ab-

an ostentatious display of grief.

Both adjectives are ultimately derived from the quent in British English. Latin verb , meaning `show', and neither ◆ To originally meant `to face east'; the is complimentary: has connotations of variant was probably a BACK FORMATION falseness or deception; suggests prefrom the noun . The verb is often used tentiousness or vulgarity. orientate

is the more fre-

ostendere

orient

ostensible

orientate

orientation

ostentatious

221

other than

The use of

other than

.

as an

adverbial phrase is disliked by some users:

They were unable to escape other than by

outplacement

ourself ourselves or

? When referring to

people in general or to an individual person, the singular pronoun

ourself

is occasionally

. Its adjectival use, however, is acceptable to all: . :. . This is not incorrect, but is the is best avoided where safer option in most contexts. would be more appropriate: . out The verb , meaning `expose the ; [not ] , homosexuality of', is a relatively recent . the phrase The construction should not be coinage derived ,from meaning `reveal one's . replacedby or : homosexuality': . [not ] . . [not ] . If the word is omitted, however, or ( may be substituted for . ). ◆ The verb and its associated noun are otherwise Some people object to the fre- increasingly used in other contexts: . quent use of as an adjective or [of people alleged to have collabo, , pronoun: . rated with the former communist secret police] .. squeezing through the narrow window.

used in preference to the plural form

◆

selves

There was no means of escape other than the

dear, have we hurt ourself?' she said to the

narrow window

child.

Other than

our-

We can decide that for ourself.

`Oh

ourselves

apart from

There was a narrow

window apart from

out

other than that there

was no means of escape

come

other . . . than

other . . . but

other . . . except

had no other friend than other card than

He

but me

Every

except yours arrived on time

other

but

except

out

(of

the

The militant gay group

which

threatened

to

`out'

MPs

and

. . .

said

it

was

all

a

hoax

The

Guardian

out

outing

Indiscrimi-

otherwise

All essays

other

leading figures for not disclosing their homosexuality

than

closet)

finished or otherwise

nate `outings'

The

must be handed in tomorrow morning

entire workforce, union members and other-

prompted Mr Havel to announce that he himself

wise, went on strike. Otherwise

had been listed as a `candidate for collaboration' in

placed by and by

not

in the first of these examples

◆

(

1965 The Guardian

out out of in combination with an .

in the second.

The use of adverb is acceptable to all: . In the sense of `or else', preceded by : . . others

may be re-

otherwise

or

The window was

).

? In recent years the pre-

positional phrase

broken, accidentally or otherwise, by one of your

stormed out the door.

children

window.

otherwise

or

should not be

Turn the volume down, other-

wise you'll wake the baby

OTT ought

see

ought,

expressing

duty, obligation, advisability, expectation,

.

.

etc., is always followed by an infinitive with to:

. .

They ought to visit her more often.

Ought we to have invited your sister? oughtn't to leave your car unlocked. meat ought to be cooked by now.

You The

out:

He

She looked out the

This tendency is disliked by many

people and is best restricted to very informal contexts.

outdoor outdoors or

OVER THE TOP.

The auxiliary verb

.

.

has been reduced

out of

with increasing frequency to

.

?

jective,

outdoors

.

outdoor pursuits

sports

◆

Outdoor

.

is an adverb:

.

is an adoutdoor

to play outdoors

is also used as a noun: .

Outdoor clothes are worn outdoors.

The word

outdoors

great outdoors

outing outlet

see

.

the

OUT.

.

Some people object to the frequent

in place of : The negative and interrogative forms , , , . , etc., are regarded as wrong by ◆ In commercial contexts also means `marcareful users. . ket': can occasionally be replaced by . :. . out of see OUT or OUT OF? In most contexts, however, expresses a stronger sense of duty, obligation, advisability, outplacement The noun reetc., than . fers to advice and assistance given to people

◆

didn't

ought to

hadn't ought to

did we ought to

use of the noun

product

is

outlet

available

a

number

of

The

retail

outlets in London

had I ought to

outlet

The company has yet to find outlets for its

Ought to

should

shop

at

The meat should be cooked by now

solar-powered torches

ought

outplacement

should

SHOULD or WOULD? our see HOUR or OUR? our or us? see -ING FORMS. See also

.

who have been made redundant (or who

.

are about to be made redundant): placement counselling sulting.

out-

outplacement con-

outrageous

222

originally denoted a greater ◆ The use of the noun as a euphe- The term mism for `making redundant' is best avoided. capacity than necessary for destruction, with speoutrageous This word,.meaning `shock- cific reference to nuclear weapons: . ing or unconventional': . , is sometimes misspelt. The of overkill

outplacement

The de-

outrageous man-

ners

e

is retained before the suffix the softness of the

outside of

to indicate

outside of,

in which the

.

is incorrect. The phrase is best

of

avoided in formal contexts: [not

There was a

outside of] the house.

The addition of this superfluous to the preposition may be influenced by the prepositional phrase or by the phrase , which is followed by when it is used prepositionally: . .

taxi outside

◆

of

outside

out of

on the

outside

of

a label on the outside of the box

outward outwards or

? In British English

is principally used as an adjective,

outward

.

being the usual form of the ad-

outwards

.

verb meaning `towards the outside':

overlay overlie or

the

past participle

? Both verbs are used has the past tense and

overlaid; overlie

has the past

tense overlay and the past participle overlain.

means `cover or superimpose', and is often used in the passive: . ;. . Either or is used in the sense of `cause the death of, by lying on': . . is used less frequently and means `lie over or upon': . . ◆ Overlay

floorboards overlaid

with old rugs

the atmosphere was overlaid with

a sense of nostalgia

overlay

overlie

The sow overlay the piglet

Overlie

overly .

adverb

.

rocks overlain by alluvial deposits

Many people object to the use of the overly

in place of

too, excessively,

etc.:

She was not overly enthusiastic about my

idea.

He is overly sensitive to the slightest

criticism.

to pull outwards.

overly

outward

over overall

see

where

over-

overenthusiastic

ABOVE or OVER?

The word

is best avoided

overall

total, whole, comprehensive, general,

average, inclusive, altogether,

[not

overall]

appearance

. .

overall] cost of the project

.

etc., would be

adequate or more appropriate:

the

his general total

[not

The journey will

In some contexts is superflous: . . The use of the word in its original sense of`fromendtoend'isacceptabletoallusers: . . take five days altogether

◆

[not

overall].

overall

an

overall increase in production

overall

the

overall length of the room

overexaggerate

emphatic form of that the prefix importance

of

Careful users avoid this exaggerate

overthis

.

on the grounds

is redundant:

development

The

cannot

be

overexaggerated.

overkill

overkill

The frequent use of the noun

.

in the sense of `excess' is disliked

by some users:

In

the

coverage

of

the

over the top

oversensitive

The clicheÂ

slang abbreviation

.

used:

meaning `exces-

The restaurant sketch was a bit OTT.

overtone undertone or

? In the figurative

sense of `implicit shade of meaning or feeling', these two nouns are virtually synonymous, although

overtone

an additional effect and

.

used in the plural:

undertones of discontent

kill

We must avoid overkill in the

an un-

religious undertones.

.

overtones of malice political overtones

. .

The words are not interchangeable in their other meanings; is a technical term in music and denotes a hushed voice: . .

◆

overtone

undertone

to speak

in an undertone

overview

The

avoided where

noun

be adequate or more appropriate:

,

An

.

oxymoron

or

.

best

etc., would

eral overview of the situation.

see

is

overview

survey, summary,

owing DUE TO OWING TO The noun is particularly undesirable in contexts oxymoron

presentation of our anti-abortion campaign

may convey

undertone

derlying effect. Both are more frequently

kill.

that may be associated with the literal meaning of the verb : . .

and its

over the top

OTT,

sive' or `outrageous', should not be over-

election the media have been accused of over-

◆

overlay

In some contexts the need for can be is more frequently used in ◆obviated by attaching the prefix , with or without a hyphen, to the relevant adjective: . See also -WARD or -WARDS? . .

The adverb American English.

outward journey

◆

blem of overkill

transitively;

g.

Many people dislike the pre-

positional phrase

word

-ous

outrage

escalation of the arms race has reduced the pro-

a gen-

BECAUSE OF?

is a phrase in

.

which two apparently contradictory words are combined:

kind.

a cowardly hero

cruelly

pace

P usually printed

form used in stacking and moving stored

in italics, means `with due respect to' and is

The Latin word

pace,

goods, and also a hard bed or straw mat-

.

used when stating an opinion contrary to that of the specified person: profession,

pace

The teaching

George Bernard Shaw, is not

a refuge for those who cannot do anything else.

is a two-syllable word with at least two accepted pronunciations, [ si] and [ chay]. Since the word is largely restricted to formal written contexts, the problem of pronunciation does not frequently arise.

◆ Pace

pay

package pression

The word

pah

package

package deal

and the ex-

are widely used to

.

denote a set of proposals or offers that must be accepted or rejected as a whole:

a new

package of measures dealing with pay and working conditions.

tress.

palindrome

A

palindrome

is

a

word,

phrase, or sentence that reads the same whether read forwards or backwards. Examples include such words as madam,

such names as

Anna

noon

and

and

Hannah

and, more ambitiously, such phrases as `Able was I ere I saw Elba'

(supposedly said

by the exiled Napoleon).

pallor

The noun

pallor,

meaning `paleness',

is sometimes misspelt. Note the final -or, as in

stupor,

palpable

rather than -our. The use of the adjective

palpable

◆ In other contexts is often better omitted in place of , , , etc., is or replaced by a more appropriate noun: . disliked by some people: . . ◆ Derived from the Latin verb , meaning ( ). . `touch', was originally restricted to what could be touched or felt: . . ( ). denotes a uniSome people also object to the frequent use of panacea The noun versal remedy for all ills; it should not be the verb in place of :. used with reference to individual problems . or troubles: . in the extended sense of `easily perceived',

package

obvious

manifest

Japan's

recent announcement of a substantial package of extra spending Sunday Times

plain

a palpable lie

palpare

Hammicks has

palpable

spent over £100,000 on a retail design package

palpable warmth

The Bookseller

panacea

package

present

the dif-

ferent ways in which the major political parties

Efficient use of energy saves

were packaged during the election campaign

paediatric pain pane

see

or

sionally

nounced

ORTHOPAEDIC or PAEDIATRIC?

? These two words are occa-

confused the

since

same.

Pain

they

.

physical or mental discomfort': phine should stop the pain. caused him great pain.

are

.

means

pro`acute

The mor-

Her remarks

The word

pane

to a sheet of glass or other material:

.

refers The

explosion broke three panes of glass.

pajamas palate

see

PYJAMAS or PAJAMAS?

.

the inside of one's mouth' or `sense of taste': a cleft palate

He has a sensitive palate,

is

sometimes misspelt. It should not be confused with

palette,

the board on which an

artist mixes colours, or

pallet,

(Daily

Telegraph).

Often used disparagingly, the word is more frequently found in figurative contexts than in its literal sense of `cure-all'. Note the spelling of , which is derived from the prefix -, meaning `all', and the Greek word for `cure'. It is pronounced [panaÆ aÆ].

dioxide pollution

◆

panacea

pan

pane panic

see

see

PAIN or PANE?

The word

panic

adds a

k

.

before the

suffix -y and suffixes beginning with an

This word, meaning `the top part of

.

money but is not a panacea for solving carbon

a flat plat-

or

i

.

such as -ed, -er, and -ing:

They panicked.

See also

paparazzi

panicky

.

e

Stop panicking!

SPELLING 1.

This term, referring to free-

lance photographers who specialize in taking unguarded shots of celebrities to sell to

paradigm

224

newspapers, is often misspelt. Note particularly the single

-p-

word and the second

in the middle of the

is the less frequently encountered singular form of the word. -a-.

◆ Paparazzo

paradigm avoided

.

The

noun

where

paradigm

example,

model,

is

best

pattern,

.

etc., would be adequate or more appropriate: a

a paradigm of enterprise and initiative

paradigm

of

the

problems

faced

by

the

unemployed.

specifically denotes a clear or typical example; it should not be confused with the noun , meaning `model of excellence'. The word is often encountered in the phrase , which describes a fundamental change of direction or in underlying attitudes, etc. The of , pronounced [ rraÆdõÅm], is silent. In the adjective , pronounced [parraÆdig ik], the is sounded.

◆ Paradigm

paragon

paradigm shift

g

paradigm

pa

paradigmatic

mat

paraffin paragon paragraphs

g

parameter

Many people object to the

frequent use of the noun

parameter,

a

mathematical term, as a synonym for `lim-

.

it', `boundary', `framework', `characteristic',

or

`point

to

be

considered':

.

A

business must operate within the parameters of time, money, and efficiency.

.

We keep on

refining our mailing selection parameters (The Bookseller).

What are the parameters of the

Note the pronunciation of , which is stressed on the second syllable [paÆ iteÆr]. Care should be taken not to confuse with , which means `boundary' or `outer edge': . problem?

◆

parameter ram

parameter

perimeter

Guards were posted along the perimeter.

paranoid

The adjective

paranoid

princi-

pally relates to a mental disorder (paranoia)

.

characterized by delusions of persecution or grandeur:

Often, he

[a schizophrenic]

feels himself to be persecuted delusion

(Reader's

that

occasionally

±

leads

a paranoid to

violence

Digest).

Some people object to the frequent use of and with reference to any intense suspicion, distrust, anxiety, fear, obsession, see PARADIGM. etc.: . A is a subdivision of a written passage, which usually deals with (advertisement, ). one particular point or theme. It expresses The word is also used as a noun, an idea which, though it relates to the sense although this may cause offence. Its synonym of the whole passage, can to some extent , pronounced [parraÆ ik] or [parraÆstand alone. ak], is less frequent. ◆ There is no specified length for a paragraph. It Note spelling of , particularly the can be one sentence or over a page long. How- last threethevowels. ever, very short successive paragraphs, as found in advertisements and popular journalism, can have a paraphernalia The noun , rather disjointed effect, while very long paragraphs sometimes used with derogatory connotacan give the impression of heavy material that can tions, denotes all the miscellaneous items be read through only in a slow, laborious manner. associated with a particular activity: . The most effective writing usually mixes longer . It is also used and shorter paragraphs. in more abstract contexts: . A paragraph starts on a new line and is usually . is indented. In a passage of dialogue each act of a plural noun, but it is frequently used with speech normally starts a new paragraph. a singular verb: . This word is sometimes misspelt.

Note the single

r

and -ff-, as in

raffle.

◆

paranoid

paranoia

It gives me an interest-free overdraft of £250

paragraph

so I don't have to get paranoid at the end of the month

Sunday Times

paranoid

paranoiac

noi

noi

paranoia

paraphernalia

the

paraphernalia of photography

the parapher-

nalia of buying a new house Paraphernalia

parallel

His camping paraphernalia

This word is sometimes misspelt.

is stored in the attic.

This usage is generally

acceptable.

◆ Note the spelling of the word, particularly the The spelling of some derived forms and com- unstressed syllable . . . pounds varies: or . . . parentheses see BRACKETS. or . parenting The word , which

Note the single r, -ll-, and then the single l.

◆

paralleling

alleled

parallelled

parallelling

parallelism

par-

parallelogram

unparalleled

paralyse

parenting

This word is sometimes misspelt.

The spelling in British English is [not -yze], in American English, See also

-phern-

-IZE or -ISE?

paralyse

paralyze.

means `being a parent' or `parental care', is increasingly used to emphasize the joint

responsibility of both parents in all aspects of a child's upbringing and to avoid the

225

passive

. However, in actual usage such guidelines tend to be ignored, and the words are used interand their derivatives: . . changeably, with being the more frequent. The H.M. Customs and Excise VAT notice onPartial . Exemption (1984), for example, describes those ◆ This expression is disliked by those who object to registered for VAT as , even though the use of nouns as verbs. the notice is titled Exemption. par excellence The French expression sexual stereotypes and traditional roles associated with the words

and

mother

lack of full commitment by his fellow workers

father

the advantages of

partly

a guide to parenting the

shared parenting gifted child

partly exempt

par

excellence

.

is used to refer to a person or

thing that is better than all others of its kind:

He is a news reporter par excellence.

Note that the expression comes after the noun to which it refers and is sometimes written or printed in italics. Its anglicized pronunciation is [par seÆlahns].

◆

par excellence

parliament

ek

The noun

parliament,

meaning

`legislative authority, assembly, or body', is usually written with a capital

P

when it

Partial

participles ples,

All verbs have

which are formed with

walking,

and

past participles,

-ed

-d

for regular verbs and in other ways

.

for irregular verbs:

gone

.

.

seeing

formed with

. . ◆ Participles are often used as adjectives: . . . They are also used, with an inversion of the usual sentence construction, to introduceasentencesuchas: . . Attached to his wrist was a or

.

.

present partici-

-ing:

thought.

loved

finished

given

broken

promises

a leaking tap

Sitting in the corner

was an old man.

luggage label. Care should be taken with such introductory participles, as they are sometimes . used to link items that are quite unrelated: see ◆ The usual pronunciation of is [ laÆ- DANGLING PARTICIPLES. meÆnt]; the pronunciations [ limeÆnt] and [ yaÆ- The pronunciation frequently used is [parmeÆnt] are accepted variants. Note the spelling of ipl]; [ tisipl] is anmost older variant. the word, particularly the central vowels. See also STRESS.

.

denotes a specific parliament, especially that of the United Kingdom:

The issue

will be debated in Parliament this afternoon

parliament

par

par

parl

tis

parlour LOUNGE partandparcel see

par

See also

.

The phrase

part and parcel,

meaning `included as an essential aspect of

.

-ED or -T?; -ING FORMS. For irreVERBS.

gular parts of verbs see table at

particular

particular

correctly as

have any particular preference?

part

and

partial:

Physical

exhaustion is all part and parcel of being a

cular

top athlete.

`Gone with the Wind'.

partially partly or

? Both adverbs mean

`not completely' or `to some extent', but

.

there are differences of sense, usage, and application between them: blind

and

consists

partially

partly

of

sighted

oral

work

.

facilities for the The

and

course

partly

of

written work.

.

Used for emphasis, the adjective

.

is often superfluous:

something else', is sometimes rendered in-

dress

was

worn

by

Do you

This parti-

Vivien

Leigh

in

◆ Many people dislike this usage, reserving the adjective for what is exceptional, special, specific, or worthy of note: . .

This discovery is of particular

importance

partly PARTIALLY passed past see or

or

PARTLY?

? These spellings are some-

In some contexts the two adverbs are virtually past participle of : .is the past tense and. interchangeable: . . . It can be helpful to think of as .◆ is used for all other forms: noun, adjective, meaning `concerning one part; not wholly': . preposition, andadverb: . [i.e. only part . .. .. of her face was hidden] .. .. . times confused.

◆

a partly/partially successful at-

tempt

partly

pass

We passed the station

The years have passed by so quickly

Past

Your past is catching up

The woman's face was partly hidden

by her veil

Passed

The art

treasures were partly on permanent loan to the museum and partly in the possession of the Adams

with you

the past weeks

It's five past three

passive

She ran past the sign

The plane flew past

A passive verb is one in which the

. may then be used to mean `to a SUBJECT receives the action of the verb limited extent; not completely': . (compare ACTIVE). The sentence . [i.e. her whole face may contains the have been hidden but to a limited degree] passive verb . .. ◆ The subject of a passive verb is the direct object family Partially

The woman's

face was partially hidden

by her

veil

The play

was

His hopes were partially frustrated by the

written

by

Oscar

Wilde

was written

past

226

of the verb in a corresponding active sentence. The subject of the above example, , is the direct object of the active equivalent . A passive verb is usually formed from part of the verb followedbyapastparticiple: . .. . Many users prefer to replace a passive clause or sentence with its simpler active equivalent, but this is not always possible. One cannot convert the two examples in the previous paragraph into the active unless one knows who or what struck the woman and demolished the house. the play

Oscar Wilde wrote

the play be

The woman

was struck on the head

The house had been

demolished

past patent

PASSED or PAST?

see

to

This word may be pronounced

.

patent/apply

invention

adverb

for

a

patent

.

patent leather shoes,

patently

Æ ntli]: [payte

obvious she's lying.

for

a

new

and as the

It is patently

In legal and official contexts, in the noun and verb senses of the word, (obtaining) the official rights to a product, is usually pronounced [ eÆnt]. In American English [ eÆnt] is used for all senses. ◆

patent

pat

pat

pathetic

The use of the adjective

pathetic

in the derogatory sense of `contemptible' or

.

`worthless' is best restricted to informal contexts:

.

The comedian made a pathetic

attempt to mimic the president.

The principal sense of or sorrow': . . pathetic!

◆

pathetic

Don't be so

is `arousing pity

The sick child made several pathetic

attempts to stand up

pathos patriot

BATHOS or PATHOS?

see

This word, meaning `one who

see

CLIENT or CUSTOMER?

The prefix

pay-

.

.

reference to payment for services at the

.

pay-as-you-go

pay-per-listen.

Care should be

taken not to overuse the prefix, especially in contexts where is is unnecessary or inappropriate.

PC

see

peaceful

or

? The adjective

meaning

`disposed

.

to

peace',

`peace-loving', or `not aggressive', is prin-

.

cipally applied to people: inhabitants of the town perament. Peaceful,

the peaceable

a peaceable tem-

the more frequent of

.

the two adjectives, means `characterized by

.

peace', `calm', or `not violent': scene

a peaceful demonstration

coexistence.

.

a peaceful peaceful

Note the spelling of , particularly the second (see also SPELLING 3).

◆

peaceable

e

peak, peek, pique or

? These three words

POLITICAL CORRECTNESS.

pronounced in the same way [peek].

Peak

refers variously to a mountain, summit, or

.

cap brim or, as a verb, to the action of reaching a high point: peaked around midnight.

.

glimpse: the

.

menu,

peek,

climbers

The storm

He tapped the peak

of his cap with his forefinger.

confused with

.

The

reached the peak around noon.

It should not be

which denotes a brief

He could not resist a quick peek at

or with

pique,

.

which means

`resentment' or `hurt pride':

He changed

his mind in a fit of pique.

peal peel or

? These two words are pro-

nounced in the same way but have differ-

.

ent meanings.

Peal

bells ringing:

. . .

refers to the sound of

the peal of church bells

long loud sound

peals of laughter. Peel

skin of a fruit:

.

or a

a peal of distant thunder

as a noun refers to the

orange peel;

and as a verb

means `remove the skin of a vegetable or piece of fruit':

peccadillo

to peel the potatoes.

The spelling of this word, which

cause difficulty. Note the and

-cc-,

single

-d-,

-ll-.

◆ The plural is either or . The word derives from Spanish , diminutive of `sin'. peccadilloes

peccadillos

pecado

wide range of contexts in recent years in

pay-per-view

peaceable,

pecadillo

has been adopted in a

time they are received:

BC.

and

means `a small, unimportant offence', may

loves his or her country', has two acceptable Æ t] or [patrio Æ t]. pronunciations [paytrio

patron pay-

see

are occasionally confused since they are all

Æ nt] in all senses in British English: [payte

.

PE AD peaceable

pedal peddle or

piano peddle

.

.

? The word

.

to a foot-operated lever: a pedal bin

pedal

relates

the soft pedal on a

to pedal a bicycle.

To

is to sell small articles or illegal

.

goods, such as drugs, or to put forward ideas or information: heroin/gossip.

confused.

◆

The verb

to peddle brushes/

The two verbs should not be

peddle

is a BACK FORMATION from the

227 noun , denoting a person who goes from place to place selling goods. In other senses of the verb the spelling is often used in . place of : . . In American English is preferred for all senses; in British English is usually retained in its original sense. Note the single and the ending of . In British English the final of the verb is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel: . . . The American spellings are , etc. pedlar

peddle

peddler

pedlar

a drug peddler

ideas

a peddler of

peddler

pedlar

d

-ar

pedlar

l

pedalled

pedal

pedalling

pedaled, pedaling

SPELLING 1.

See also

pedigree

pedigree

denotes an

ancestral line or line of descent, specifically that of a purebred animal; its use as a

.

synonym for `record' or `background' is disliked by some users:

a

pedigree

of

success spanning over 50 years in the radio and television rental and retail field (Executive Post).

pedlar PEDAL PEDDLE peek PEAK PEEK PIQUE peel PEAL PEEL peer pier or

see

see or

?

or

or

?

was much admired by his peers. pier,

jetty or platform on stilts:

penchant

The noun

penchant,

meaning

`inclination' or `liking', is of French origin and is pronounced [pon(g)shon(g)], an an-

glicized form of the French pronunciation,

.

pendant pendent or

? The noun

pendant,

denoting a type of necklace, has the rare variant spelling

pendent.

The word

pendent

is also used as an adjective, in the sense of `hanging', with the (less frequent) variant spelling

pendant.

peninsula peninsular

tive is

.

.

He

a peer of the

It should

which refers to a There were two

boats tied up at the pier.

? These two spel-

.

peninsular:

1808 to 1814.

peninsula

the Peninsular War of

pennies penny PENCE pensioner SENIOR CITIZEN SIONER people ,

see

.

see

Æ tiv]. a

or

?

OLD AGE PEN-

is usually a plural noun, but

People

.

in the sense of `nation', `race', or `tribe' it

.

may be singular or plural:

This word, meaning `dispara-

ging', can be pronounced in two ways. The Æ tiv] is used more frepronunciation [pijorra Æ rquently than the more traditional [peejo

pence

sik-

fact is joined to the mainland. The adjec-

He peered at the signature.

pejorative

6p

spens

almost surrounded by water but which in

?

variously means `equal',

not be confused with

6d

siks

is a long narrow section of land that is

a close look at someone or something':

.

pence

or

`member of the nobility', or, as a verb, `take

realm

Can you lend me twenty p?

lings are sometimes confused. A

?

,

Peer

and new pennies or pence. This usage has continued,butisbestrestrictedtoinformal contexts: . The pronunciation of the word was also affected by decimalization: the sum of was pronounced [ peÆns], with the stress on the first syllable, whereas is usually pronounced [ ], with equal stress on both syllables.

in British English.

The noun

see

people with disabilities

.

people of Africa

a

nomadic

all the peoples of the world

The French people are renowned for their

culinary expertise.

plural form

.

The use of the alternative

persons

to denote a number of

human beings is best restricted to formal As

the noun

pence

is one of the plural forms of

penny,

many people object to the

contexts:

use the lift.

.

No more than eight persons may There are four people

[not

persons] in the waiting room.

With reference to a group or body of human beings, the word is preferred in all contexts: The plural noun is . . used with reference to a number of coins, . whereas usually refers to a sum of Note that the possessive of when refer. . money: . ring to a single group or people in general is . . formed by adding : . When referring to several groups or nations the possessive is formed by adding : . ◆ After the decimalization of British currency in . 1971 the abbreviation , pronounced [pee], was often used in speech to distinguish between old people with disabilities This is the pre-

.

use of the term penny coin:

one-pence piece

to denote a

Does the machine still take one-

pence pieces?

pennies

◆

people

a meeting place for young people

represen-

tatives of the people

pence

My purse is full of pennies

envelopes cost fifteen pence each

give me ten pennies in exchange for a tenpence piece?

people

The

Can you

's

He is the people's favour-

ite.

s'

p

peoples' organization

an oppressed

per

228 In American English is usually written as one word. In British English the two-word form is preferred. :.

ferred modern term for people with phy-

per cent

sical or mental disabilities, replacing such former terms as

handicapped

and

retarded

The building has been specifically designed to meet the needs of people with disabilities.

DISABLED.

See also

per

The preposition

.

meaning `for each'

.

or `in each', is often better replaced by an:

four times a

per] metre.

[not per] month

.

per

a

.

person.

The

or

[not

60p a

In some contexts, however,

must be retained:

percentage of

per,

per

Use two ounces of cheese left-luggage

attendant

SINGULAR or PLURAL?

See also

Many people object to the use

a percentage

.

to mean `a small part', `a

little', or `a few':

Only a percentage of the

workforce will be present.

A percentage may

be as small as 1% or as large as 99%; in the

.

sense of `proportion' the noun often needs a qualifying adjective for clarity:

.

A small

percentage of the money is used for adminis-

charges one pound per item per day.

tration costs.

◆

was damaged in the fire

Many people consider the use of in place of . tobeexcessivelyformaloraffected: . ◆ When discussing a particular , pre. faced by , a singular verb should be used: . When See also AS PER; PER ANNUM; PER CAPITA; PER is prefaced by , the verb usually CENT; PER SE. per-, pre- or pro-? These three prefixes agrees with the following noun: . per

by

A large percentage of the stock

The parcel

percentage

will be sent per Securicor

the

The

percentage of passes is lower this year. percentage

a

.

A small per-

sometimes cause confusion in the spelling and usage of certain pairs of words.

See PERSECUTE or PROSECUTE?; PERSPECTIVE or PROSPECTIVE?; PRECEDE or PROCEED?; PREREQUISITE or PERQUISITE?; PRESCRIBE or PROSCRIBE? ◆

per annum

The Latin phrase

.

per annum,

meaning `for each year', is best restricted to formal contexts:

You will be paid a salary of

In other contexts the more informal phrase is preferred: . .

year

a

It costs several hundred pounds

a year, excluding petrol, to keep this car on the road

See also

PER.

per capita

A large

percentage of the work has already been done.

is sometimes better replaced by , or ; by or ; or , etc. The use of the noun as a synonym for `advantage' or `profit' is best restricted to informal contexts: . . Percentage

number, amount, part

centage fewer

many

proportion a high per-

much a lower percentage by

less

percentage

There's no real percentage

in sending your children to a private school

£12,000 per annum.

◆

centage of new vehicles are defective.

perceptible perceptive ,

The adjective

percipient

or

tive

.

means

`observant',

?

means `perceiva-

ble', `noticeable', or `recognizable'; `sensitive':

The adverbial or adjectival

perceptible

percep-

.

`discerning',

a perceptible change

ceptive remark.

or

a per-

, which is virtually synonymous with, but less frequent than, , is largely re. stricted to formal contexts: . . The adverbs and are . often confused, being similar in spelling and pro◆ Some people object to this usage as an inaccurate translation of the Latin phrase, which literally nunciation: . .. means `by heads': . . .

in the sense of `for each person':

.

minimum

capita

phrase

per capita

cost

is widely used in English

per

capita

a

per

◆ Percipient

perceptive

the

a percipient writer

perceptibly

allowance of ten pounds

perceptively

The children were perceptibly quieter

The estate will be divided per

She spoke

perceptively of the composer's orchestral works

capita

per cent

when their teacher was present

The phrase

per

cent

is used

.

adverbially, in combination with a number,

.

in the sense of `in or for each hundred': increase of 25 per cent students.

peremptory perfunctory or

. .

?

Peremptory

.

means `commanding; dogmatic; positive;

an

decisive':

75 per cent of the

tory man

a peremptory order door.

.

a peremp-

in a peremptory tone of voice

a

The use of as a noun, meaning `one- means `quick; careless; cursory; superficial': hundredth' or `a percentage', is disliked by some . . Both users: the phrase , for example, is adjectives are largely restricted to formal better replaced by . contexts; they should not be confused. See also PERCENTAGE. ◆ is usually pronounced [peÆ toÆri],

◆

peremptory

knock

at

the

Perfunctory

per cent

a perfunctory glance at the letter

half a per cent

half of one per cent

Peremptory

remp

229 with the stress on the second syllable, but [ rreÆmptoÆri], stressed on the first syllable, is an acceptable alternative. pe

perennial perfect

see

ANNUAL, BIENNIAL or PERENNIAL?

Many people avoid using such

adverbs as

very, rather, more, most, less, least,

etc., to qualify the adjective

.

perfect,

mean-

ing `faultless', `unblemished', `complete', or `utter': than

.

This book is in less perfect condition

that

one.

It

was

the

diamond that he had ever seen.

sions

nearly perfect

and

most

perfect

The expres-

almost perfect,

how-

.

legal action against': for their beliefs. cuted.

.

personage They were persecuted

Trespassers will be prose-

The two verbs should not be con-

fused.

perseverance

The noun

perseverance

is

sometimes misspelt. A common error is the addition of an extra Note also the

persevere

-ance

The verb

by the preposition

persevered in

[or

before the

-r-

-v-.

ending. persevere in

or

.

is followed

with:

They

with] their efforts to dam

the stream.

Many people prefer to use the noun The pronunciation of the adjective is person, rather , to denote a human different from that of the verb. The adjective is being whose sexthanis unspecified: . stressed on the first syllable [ fikt], whereas the verb is stressed on the second syllable [peÆr ]. . ◆ The for in such perfunctory see PEREMPTORY or PERFUNC- words assubstitution of TORY? , etc., is a more controperimeter see PARAMETER. versial issue: . ever, are generally acceptable.

◆

perfect

person

man

We need to

per

take on another person to deal with the back-

fekt

log

person

man

chairman, salesman, statesman, spokes-

man, layman, craftsman

perk PREREQUISITE PERQUISITE permissible permissive see

or

Mr

Smith

.

has

chairperson of the committee.

?

resigned

as

Mrs Liz Forsdick

. . . will act as `linesperson' in the third qualifying

( ). Some users apply the terms meaning `allow' or `authorize'. , etc., to both men and women: . means `permitted'; means `toler. ant': . ( ). Others use . sometimes the more or less acceptable feminine forms implies disapproval of such tolerance (or , etc., for women: . of the thing tolerated), especially when it is used with reference to sexual indulgence: . ( . ). ◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the See also CHAIR; MAN; NON-SEXIST TERMS; ending. SEXISM. As a general rule the substitution of for perpetrate or perpetuate? , in any context, is best avoided if a simpler or means `commit' or `perform'; more idiomatic solution can be found: the use of means `cause to continue' or `make perpeinstead of , . tual': . instead of instead of . The two verbs should not be , etc. confused. has two plurals, and : see per pro. see P.P. also PEOPLE. or

? These two

adjectives are derived from the verb

Permissible

the smallest permissible investment attitude

chairman, sales-

man

The

chairman of the CBI's Smaller Firms Council,

permissive

permissive

round game The Guardian

permit,

a

Mrs

Jean Parker

The Guardian

chair-

Permissive

woman, saleswoman

The

appointment was announced yesterday by ChildLine's chairwoman, Miss Esther Rantzen

The

Guardian

the permissive society

permissible

-ible

Perpetrate

perpetuate

to perpetrate a crime

to perpetuate a

tradition

person

man

someone else

another person nobody

no person, crew of four

Person

perquisite perse

see

PREREQUISITE or PERQUISITE?

The Latin phrase

.

per se,

meaning `by

itself' or `in itself', is best restricted to formal contexts:

The discovery is of little

importance per se.

◆ se

four-

person crew

Note the spelling and pronunciation of the word [say].

persecute prosecute or

`harass' or `oppress';

?

Persecute

prosecute

means

means `take

See also

personage

persons

people

AGREEMENT and PERSON. or

personality

? Both nouns

are applied to famous people, but they are not synonymous.

Personage

is used in for-

mal contexts to refer to an important or distinguished person; a

.

personality

is a fa-

mous person from the world of show business, sport, etc.:

.

members of the royal

family and other personages

opened by a TV personality.

The shop will be

personal

230

The principal meaning of the noun `character': .

◆

Personality is more important than looks

personal personality personally

see

ally

is ..

personality

She has a delightful personality

.

PERSONALLY; PERSONNEL. PERSONAGE or PERSONALITY?

see

The use of the adverb

for emphasis is disliked by some users:

to

I personally prefer to spend my holidays at home.

the

personal

a personal friend

opinion

her personal

a personal visit

personally

per-

sonal

I personally

think you should accept their offer but as your solicitor I must advise you to make further enquiries

He is a business acquaintance but not a

persona non grata

see

PRONOUNS.

the

workload.

increased

The

is principally used to denote

employees

of

a

large

considered

.

company

or

collectively,

or

the department that is concerned with their recruitment and welfare: the personnel officer.

hospital personnel

◆ may be a singular or plural noun, but it should not be used with a specific number: . [not ] . Note the spelling of , particularly the - - and the second , and the pronunciation of the word, with the primary stress on the last syllable [persoÆ ]. is sometimes confused with the adjective :. Personnel

We are moving four people

personnel

from the sales office to the production department

personnel

nn

e

nel

Personnel

personal

There will

be strong prospects of long-term personnel development for . . . the truly commercial engineer Sunday Times

).

Person

of

colour

is a

preferred modern alternative to such terms

The Latin expression

.

is used to refer to someone

who is unwelcome or unacceptable:

with

personnel

person of colour

personal friend

personal pronouns persona non grata

They do not have enough personnel

organization,

Similar objections may be raised to the unnecessary use of the adjective in such ex. pressions as: . . , etc. In some contexts, however, and may serve the useful purpose of distinguishing between the unofficial and the official, the private and the professional, etc.: . , .. ( .

◆

cope

word

. .

person-

.

staff, workforce, workers, employees, people,

etc.:

as

coloured

and

.

nonwhite,

people find unacceptable:

which many This council

After

welcomes applications from persons of colour.

his book was published, he became persona

Many users find the term ponderous, how-

non grata with certain foreign powers.

ever, and it has yet to enjoy wide accep-

The phrase, which is sometimes written or tance. printed in italics, literally means `person not ac- persons see PEOPLE. ceptable' and is pronounced [persona non ta]. Its plural is [personee non perspective or prospective? is tee]. a noun, meaning `view', `aspect', or `objec◆

grah

personae non gratae

Perspective

grah

personate personify PERSONATE PERSONIFY personification ,

or

see

?

IMPERSONATE,

Personification

refers

to

tivity'; it should not be confused with the adjective

.

.

prospective,

`likely', or `future':

meaning `expected', a different perspective

a prospective employer.

In painting, drawing, etc., the noun teristics to animals, inanimate objects, or principally refers to the representation of abstract ideas: . three-dimensional and their relative sizes . and positions on aobjects flat surface. Its figurative use in the phrase is derived from this Such personifications are acceptable in poe. sense: tic and informal contexts, but should genthe practice of attributing human charac-

◆

perspec-

tive

The orang-utan winked at

me, for all the world like a knowing old man.

Gravity is the sworn enemy of the paraglider.

in perspective

You must try to put things in perspec-

erally be avoided in formal contexts.

tive: the loss of one customer is relatively unim-

One aspect of is the tradition of . allotting specific genders to various inanimate objects, such as cars and ships, which are fre- perturb see DISTURB or PERTURB? quently described as feminine (despite recent offi- perverse or perverted? cial decisions to end this practice): . `obstinate' or `contrary'; ◆

personification

portant when the future of the company is at stake

She's a

beautiful little craft.

personnel

.

means means

.

`corrupt' or `characterized by abnormal

Many people object to the fre-

quent use of the noun

Perverse

perverted

personnel

in place of

sexual behaviour': perverted attack.

a perverse refusal

a

The two adjectives should

231 not be confused: to call a man

perverted

is a

more serious and offensive accusation than to call him

perverse.

Both adjectives may be applied to the same noun in different contexts: . .. .

◆

He took a perverse

delight in making her wait

He took a perverted

delight in torturing his victims

phase FAZE phenomena ENA phenomenal see

or

see

?

PHASE? PHENOMENON

or

PHENOM-

The use of the adjective

as a synonym for `extraordin-

phenomenal

.

ary', `remarkable', `prodigious', or `outstanding'

is

disliked

by

some:

phenomenal achievement.

phenomenon phenomena or

ena

.

?

is the plural form of the noun

enon:

a

Phenom-

.

phenom-

This phenomenon is of great interest.

Such phenomena are not easy to explain.

◆ The use of as a singular noun, a frequent error, is wrong: . ,' , , ( ). Careful users avoid overuse of the word , resisting the tendency in recent years to apply the word to anything mildly unusual: . phenomena

`The development of

the Muslim community in Britain is only a recent phenomena and needs proper research man Ahwal

Mr Ay-

London spokesman of the World

Muslim League said The Times

phe-

nomenon

The

increasing number of police on the streets is a recent phenomenon.

philosophy

avoided

.

The noun

where

idea,

philosophy view,

is best

policy,

etc.,

would be adequate or more appropriate:

.

My philosophy is that children should be

seen and not heard.

The company has a

philosophy of sound management practices at the local level.

phlegm

This word causes problems with

spelling and pronunciation. Note the initial phg.

spelling, pronounced [f], and the silent

The word is pronounced [flem].

phobia

A

phobia

.

about flying.

.

is an abnormal or irra-

tional fear or aversion:

He has a phobia

She has a phobia of spiders.

◆ The noun should not be used as a synonym for `dislike', `dread', `obsession', `inhibition', etc.: . .. . She has a phobia of losing her car keys

He has

a phobia about undressing in front of other people

See also

SUFFIXES, page 293.

PHOBIAS

Fear of air animals bacteria beards bees being alone being buried alive birds blood blushing books cancer carriages cats chickens childbirth children closed spaces clouds cold colour comets contamination corpses crossing a bridge crossing streets crowds crystals darkness dawn daylight death deformity demons dirt disease disorder dogs draughts dreams drinks drugs duration dust eating electricity everything eyes faeces failure fatigue

PHOBIAS Phobia aerophobia zoophobia bacteriophobia/microphobia pogonophobia apiphobia/melissophobia monophobia/autophobia taphophobia ornithophobia haematophobia erythrophobia bibliophobia cancerophobia/carcinophobia amakaphobia ailurophobia/gatophobia alektorophobia tocophobia paediphobia claustrophobia nephophobia/ nephelophobia cheimophobia chromophobia cometophobia misophobia/mysophobia necrophobia gephyrophobia dromophobia demophobia crystallophobia achluophobia, scotophobia eosophobia phengophobia thanatophobia dysmorphophobia demonophobia mysophobia nosophobia/pathophobia ataxiophobia cynophobia anemophobia oneirophobia potophobia pharmacophobia chronophobia amathophobia phagophobia electrophobia panphobia/pantophobia ommatophobia coprophobia kakorraphiaphobia kopophobia

PHOBIAS Fear of fears feathers fire fish flashes flogging flood flutes flying fog food freedom fur germs ghosts girls glass God going to bed graves gravity hair heart conditions heat heaven heights hell heredity home horses human beings ice ideas illness imperfection infection infinity inoculations insanity insects itching jealousy lakes leaves leprosy lice light lightning machinery man many things marriage meat

232 Phobia phobophobia pteronophobia pyrophobia ichthyophobia selaphobia mastigophobia antlophobia aulophobia aerophobia homichlophobia sitophobia eleutherophobia doraphobia spermaphobia/ spermatophobia phasmophobia parthenophobia nelophobia theophobia clinophobia taphophobia barophobia chaetophobia cardiophobia thermophobia ouranophobia acrophobia stygiophobia/hadephobia patroiophobia oikophobia/domatophobia hippophobia anthropophobia kristallophobia ideophobia nosemaphobia atelophobia mysophobia aperiophobia trypanophobia lyssophobia/maniaphobia entomophobia acarophobia/scabiophobia zelophobia limnophobia phyllophobia leprophobia pediculophobia photophobia astraphobia mechanophobia anthropophobia polyphobia gamophobia carnophobia

Fear of men metals open spaces poison skin sleep smell smothering snakes snow soiling solitude sound sourness speaking aloud speed spiders standing stars stealing stillness stings strangers string strong light stuttering sun surgical operations syphilis taste teeth thinking thirteen thunder touch travel trees trembling vehicles venereal disease voids vomiting walking wasps water weakness wind women words work worms wounds writing

Phobia androphobia metallophobia agoraphobia toxiphobia dermatophobia hypnophobia olfactophobia pnigerophobia ophidiophobia, ophiophobia chionophobia rypophobia eremophobia akousticophobia acerophobia phonophobia tachophobia arachnophobia stasiphobia siderophobia kleptophobia eremophobia cnidophobia xenophobia linonophobia photophobia laliophobia heliophobia ergasiophobia syphilophobia geumaphobia/ geumatophobia odontophobia phronemophobia triskaidekaphobia brontophobia/tonitrophobia haptophobia hodophobia dendrophobia tremophobia ochophobia cypridophobia kenophobia emetophobia basophobia spheksophobia hydrophobia asthenophobia anemophobia gynophobia logophobia ergophobia helminthophobia traumatophobia graphophobia

233

phone

The use of the noun and verb

in place of

telephone

phone

is becoming increas-

ingly frequent and acceptable: the telephone directory is now officially entitled `The Phone Book', the term long used to describe it in informal contexts. The shortened form

phone

.

.

is best avoided, however,

in formal contexts:

.

The phone's ringing.

You'd better phone the doctor.

.

The cost of

your telephone call will be refunded.

Please

write or telephone for an application form.

ABBREVIATIONS; APOSTROPHE.

See also

phoney

phony

or

in British English, and

in

phony

American English.

phosphorous phosphorus or

ous

at the back of the room

CLAUSE; SENTENCES.

See also

physician physicist or

doctor of medicine; a

? A

physician

physicist

who has specialized in physics:

.

is a

is a scientist

.

the number

of physicians in the National Health Service physicists involved in nuclear research.

The

two nouns should not be confused.

◆ The term is chiefly used to distinguish qualified medical practitioners in nonsurgical fields from surgeons. In everyday usage the term is preferred; sounds formal or old-fashioned in British English. physician

physician

physiognomy

Note the spelling of this

?

Phosphor-

ance of a person considered to show the

is the correct spelling for the adjective

person's character'. The most frequent er-

.

relating to phosphorus':

The craft will

probe the phosphorous clouds. Phosphorus

.

is

the correct spelling for the noun referring to the chemical element:

The industrial

uses of phosphorus.

photo .

highly polished

word, which means `the outward appear-

meaning `containing phosphorus' or `of or

of

.

doctor

? The more frequent

spelling of this word, meaning `fake', is phoney

up

with reference to.

pieÁce de reÂsistance . .

.

contexts:

in place

photo

is best restricted to informal

Did you take a photo of the baby?

g.

picaresque picturesque or

? A

picaresque

story is one that deals with the adventures of a rogue. Examples of picaresque novels in English include Daniel Defoe's and Henry Fielding's

Flanders

The use of the noun

photograph

ror is to omit the silent

Wild. Picturesque

Moll

Jonathan

is used much more fre-

.

quently and means `attractive and charming;

quaint'

and

.

`evocative;

vivid':

picturesque language.

The plural of is . ◆ derives ultimately from Spanish `a rogue; wily trickster'. The word is not generally used as a shortened form of the verb . picnic This word adds a before the See also ABBREVIATIONS; APOSTROPHE. This pass is not valid without a photograph

of the holder.

◆

photo

photos

picturesque villages

Picaresque

pi-

caro

photo

photograph

photo-opportunity photocall)

ranged

suffixes

Photo-opportunity

(or

is a vogue term used for a prear-

event

photographers:

.

for

press

and

television

Now the gloves are off,

life is one endless round of photo-opportunities, media calls,

. . .

across the country

(The

.

-er, -ed, -ing:

picnicked in the woods.

.

.

k

picnickers

They

SPELLING 1. picturesque see PICARESQUE or PICTURESQUE? See also

pidgin pigeon or

? These two words may

and hectic journeys

sometimes be confused.

Times)

guage that is a mixture of two other lan-

Whirling

.

Pidgin

is a lan-

from photocall to photocall, now cutting a

guages:

birthday cake, now smiling coyly by a What-

bird with short legs and compact feathers:

the-Butler-Saw dian).

The

machine,

opportunity

. . . (The is

Guar-

ostensibly for

the camera operators, but in fact is created by and for the politician or media star being photographed in order to obtain favourable visual publicity.

Both and may be spelt as two-word compounds, without hyphens. ◆

photo-opportunity

phrase

A

phrase

photocall

is a group of words that

.

.

pidgin English.

A

pigeon

.

is a grey

the pigeons of Trafalgar Square.

also has the informal, rather old-fashioned sense of `concern': . .

◆ Pigeon

pieÁce de reÂsistance  sistance, re

that's his pigeon

The phrase

Á ce de pie

meaning `main dish of a meal;

most outstanding or impressive item', is of

.

French origin and is sometimes written or printed in italics in English texts:

The

Á ce de re  sistance was the exquisite designer's pie

function together as a noun, verb, adjective,

dress worn by the princess at her wedding.

adverb, preposition, etc.:

Note the accents, which serve to distinguish

the red car

give

pier

234

Á ce, pie

pronounced [pyes], from the English

word

piece

sometimes confused. A

is the per-

plaintiff

[rezistahns] Æ ns]; from the English word resistance [rizista

son who commences legal action in a court; plaintive

means

these accents should never be omitted.

choly':

a plaintive song.

[pees], and

 sistance re

.

`mournful

The plural is formed by adding to the first plane The use of word, . shortened form of

◆

-s

pieÁces de reÂsistance

pier PEER PIER pigmy PYGMY PIGMY pique PEAK PEEK PIQUE piteous pitiable pitiful see

or

?

see

or

see

,

,

mean

`arousing

See also

? All these

or

deserving

pity', in which sense they are virtually interchangeable in many contexts. There

.

are, however, slight differences of usage

.

.

the noun

.

melan-

plane

as a

is acceptable

aeroplane

What time does your

More than 250 people were

killed in the plane crash.

?

or

adjectives

plane leave?

?

or

.

in most contexts:

and

and application between them:

a piteous

or

PLANE?

plastic

ABBREVIATIONS; APOSTROPHE; PLAIN

The first syllable of the word

plastic

may be pronounced with the short

plan,

or with the long

a

of

plant.

of

a

The first of

these pronunciations, [plastik], is more frequent than the second, [plahstik].

◆ Many people object to the informal use of the Note the spelling of , the least frequent noun tomean`(paymentby)creditcards': . of thethree adjectives, in which the is followed by rather than (as in and ). . and have the additional meaning platform The use of the noun to of `arousing or deserving contempt': . denote the declared policies and principles of a political party or candidate is disliked . cry

◆

a pitiable figure

a pitiful sight.

piteous

plastic

t

e

i

Pitiable

pitiable

I

very rarely pay by cash these days ± I usually use

pitiful

plastic

pitiful

platform

Their pitiful

offer of a two per cent pay rise was immediately rejected by the union

pivotal

pivotal

The frequent use of the adjective

.

in the sense of `crucial or very

important' is disliked by some users:

to

.

by some users as an Americanism but is acceptable to most:

platform

will

win

them

Their few

unilateralist votes

in

the

forthcoming election.

◆ Note the pronunciation of , which is playwright see DRAMATIST or PLAYWRIGHT? stressed on the first syllable [ oÆtaÆl]. plc This abbreviation for come to a pivotal decision.

pivotal

place

piv

plaice

or

public

? These two words are

occasionally confused since they are pro-

.

nounced in the same way [plays].

.

means `location' or `position': is back in its place.

Everything

What a delightful place.

It should not be confused with

.

Place

plaice,

which refers to a large flat-bodied sea fish: They had a fine catch of plaice.

plain plane or

? These words are some-

.

times confused. The main noun sense of plain

is `level, treeless expanse of land':

the

vast plains of the prairies. Plane

as a noun is a

shortened form of

a carpenter's

aeroplane,

company

limited

is often written or printed in

lower-case letters, without full stops.

A is a company whose shares can be bought and sold on the stock exchange, as opposed to a private limited company, which has the abbreviation (spelt with a capital and usually without a full stop) after its name.

◆

public limited company

Ltd

L-

pleaded

pleaded

or

pled

?

In

British

English

.

is the usual form of the past tense

.

and past participle of the verb my child,' she pleaded. with him to stay.

plead:

`Save

They had pleaded

is an American, Scottish, or dialectal variant of . has particular significance as a legal term ◆ has several adjectival senses, including `straightforward', `simple', and `clear'; the adjecti- in the context of a defendant admitting or denying val use of means `flat': . . guilt: . The idiomatic expression is used to describe easy progress: . pleasantness or pleasantry? . is an uncountable noun, meaning `the state

tool, or a surface in geometry. See also

Plain

PLANE.

◆ Pled

pleaded

Plead

plane

She pleaded guilty when the case came to

a plane surface

plain sailing

court.

Once I've mended this

Pleasantness

switch, the rest will be plain sailing

plaintiff plaintive or

? These words are

of being pleasant':

.

the pleasantness of the

235 weather. Pleasantry

is chiefly used in more

formal English in the plural form tries,

meaning

`polite,

.

casual,

friendly,

agreeable, or amusing remarks': change pleasantries.

plenitude religious

pleasan-

to ex-

means `abundance':

Plenitude

adornments

in

plenitude.

great

formal word, it is best avoided where

.

A

plenty

would be adequate or more appropriate.

The word is sometimes misspelt, the most frequent error being the insertion of a after the , as in . It is pronounced [ itewd]. ◆

plenitude

t

n

plenty

plen

plenty

The use of

place of

quite

or

.

as nonstandard: enough for us.

.

as an adverb, in

plenty

very,

is regarded by some

The house is plenty big

She was plenty upset when she

heard the news.

◆ The second of these uses is generally considered to be an Americanism. The adjectival use of without is also unacceptable to many users: . . plenty

of

They have plenty

toys to play with

plethora

The phrase

a plethora of

implies

excess or superfluity; it should not be used

.

as a pretentious synonym for `a large number of' or `plenty of': sale,

a plethora of houses for

for example, describes a situation in

which there are too many houses on the market, far more than the number of prospective buyers, with the result that many will remain unsold.

plum

or

? These two words are

occasionally confused since they are pronounced in the same way.

variously

Plum

. .

refers to the fruit of the plum tree or to something of choice quality: a dish of plums and custard.

She served up He's landed a

plum job with the government. plumb,

It should not

has plumbed in the new sink.

of

plumb line,

.

which means

.

`install piping for water' or `probe': the depths of despair.

He

She plumbed

Note also the spelling

denoting a line with a weight

attached that is used to check or determine verticality.

◆

Both words are pronounced [plum].

plurals .

where foxes

.

-es

churches

.

.

-s,

is added:

-x,

sashes

.

.

-ch,

ships

.

.

Words ending in a consonant and then have

-ies

.

in the plural:

fairies

except for proper nouns, which have -ies:

-s

have

.

.

wives,

.

hoofs ± hooves.

Some

while others simply add a choice:

.

Some words ending in

in the plural:

-ves

beliefs

words ending in

add

-o

.

or

I've invited the Joneses and the Hartys.

the Two Sicilies. -fe

-y

ponies,

-s,

halves

-f

or

and others allow

-es,

others just an

-s.

It is impossible to formulate a general rule here, although note the frequently used potatoes

and

.

tomatoes,

.

which both end

.

.

-es.

Note also that shortened forms ending in just add -s: videos.

photos

pianos

radios

.

. .

-o

stereos

Some nouns ending in -s are already

. .

plural and cannot be pluralized: spectacles

scissors.

.

trousers

With various animal

.

names the plural form is the same as the singular:

deer

sheep

bison.

The same

.

applies to a number of other words that can

.

be treated as either singular or plural: the accused.

Several English words have plurals not formed in any of the ways described above: . ± . . ± ± . ± . ± . There is no rule about these words and one cannot generalize from them; the plural of is [not ]. Foreign words sometimes take a regular English plural and sometimes the plural of the appropriate language. Often either is regarded as correct: . . Latin or Greek words often take the plural of their original language. The ending of such nouns as and . . changes to - in the plural: . The endings - and - may change to - (see APPENDIXES or APPENDICES?; INDEXES or INDICES?); the ending - may add an - (see FORMULAE or FORMULAS?); the endings - and - may change to - (see MEDIA; PHENOMENON or PHENOMENA?); and the ending - may change to (see FUNGI). Difficulties often arise with the plurals of compound nouns. The general rule is that when the qualifying word is an adjective then . the noun is made plural: . , though in less formal usage, the second word is made plural: . . If both words are nouns the second is made plural: . , although becomes . In compounds of a noun and a prepositional phrase or adverb, the . noun is made plural: . . . If no words in the crossroads

◆

man

child

children

foot

feet

mongoose

mouse

mice

mongooses

goose

men

geese

mongeese

chaÃteaus/chaÃteaux

-s,

except for

-sh,

houses

analysis

es

ix

analyses

ex

thesis

theses

ices

a

e

on

um

a

us

i

courts martial

poets laureate

poet laureates

The regular way of forming plurals

for English words is to add an words ending in

there are many irregularly formed plurals.

is

plumb

be confused with

plurals

.

and

-z,

buses

buzzes. Of course,

town clerks

woman teacher

women teachers

mothers-in-law

ers-on

men of war

hang-

plus

236

compound are nouns, then - is added at the . The two adjectives should not be . . end: . confused. . ◆ was originally synonymous with . On using singular or plural verbs, see SINGULAR This sense of the word survives only in the expression , meaning `the state'. or PLURAL? Note the different of the two plus The prepositional use of in the words: is stressedstresson patterns the first syllable, sense of `with the addition of' is acceptable on the second. , in all contexts: . s

forget-me-nots

party

go-betweens

grown-

ups

Politic

political

the body politic

plus

politic

My savings plus the money

my grandmother left me, are almost enough to

political correctness or

buy a car.

po-

litical

PC,

Political

correctness,

is the avoidance of words, phrases,

◆ Note that the verb agrees with ; if the or actions that may be deemed offensive by sentence is reordered to make the principal a particular section of society, such as ethnic minorities, homosexuals, women, and subject a singular verb must be used: . BLIND, DEAF, DISABLED or old people: . , , ', . Some people avoid using the noun as a synonym for `advantage' in formal contexts: . . The expression is tautological and ( ). It exshould be avoided. The construction is avoided by many tends beyond vocabulary, to the way people speakers, particularly when beginning a new sen- are portrayed in television advertisements, children's books, etc., and the way they tence or clause: . interact in their working or social lives. The use of in the sense of `and' or `with' is The term is most frequently used in situations where this anxiety to avoid offence bestrestrictedtoinformalcontexts: . seems excessive, and is often the subject of , humorous exaggeration: . .. . savings

money

The money

my grandmother left me plus my savings is almost enough to buy a car

Tradi-

tional industrial terms such as `blackleg

plus

the

`black economy' and `blacklisted' have been banned because they might offend TUC de-

Being within walking distance of the station is one

legates from ethnic minorities. Speakers have

of the pluses of living on this estate

been

an added plus

asked

not

to

use

descriptions

deemed

politically incorrect on grounds of race, disability and gender

Daily Telegraph

plus which

I'm fed up and I've had enough.

Plus which, I'm tired. plus

He's afraid to

go sailing because he can't swim plus he suffers from seasickness

She was met at the airport by

her son plus his new girlfriend

MINUS. p.m. see A.M. and P.M. See also

pneumatic

and p-

inappropriate

pneumonia

Note

the

and the -eu- of the first

The prefix - is derived from a Greek word meaning `air', as in , `using compressed air', or `breath', as in , `inflammation of the lungs'. pneum

pneumatic

pneumonia

poet poetess poignant or

? see

-ESS; NON-SEXISTTERMS.

This word, meaning `distres-

Æ nt] usually pronounced [poynya Æ nt] is also acceptable. The although [poyna sing',

g

is

is silent.

policeman policewoman politic political

IST TERMS.

or

or

?

dent',

`shrewd',

means

`of

.

or

politics,

making, etc.':

continue

Politic

? see

NON-SEX-

means `pru-

`cunning':

.

political

government,

a politic decision

body

to

sexism,

language

direct

stoutism

at

every

their

and

area

of our public and private life, sniffing out

syllable.

◆

correct

accusations of racism,

spelling of these words, particularly the silent initial

The legions of the

politically

policy-

a political

imaginary insults and creating antagonism in

(Daily

Telegraph).

Political correctness also strives to project a more positive image of negative or undesirable qualities, with the substitution of such euphemisms as for failure. Other examples of terms proposed as politically correct alternatives include for , for , for , and for . Of American origin, political correctness is often regarded in Britain as unacceptable interference with English usage and thenatural development of the English language. Nevertheless, it has served a useful purpose in drawing people's attention to the need for sensitivity in their use of words and images, and not all its suggested changes are necessarily for the worse. their wake

◆

de-

ficiency achievement

person of size

nienced

fat

deaf birth name

companion animal

aurally inconvemaiden name

pet

See also ABLED; ABLEISM; AGEISM; CHALLENGED; NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEXISM. politics see -ICS.

237

poltergeist

The word

poltergeist,

denoting

a mischievous spirit, is sometimes misspelt. Note the

in the middle and the

er

ei

in the

final syllable. The word is pronounced Æ rgõÅst]. [polte

pomegranate

Note the spelling of this

word, particularly the single -ate ending (not -ite, as in

m

and the

granite).

Note

also the first e, which is usually sounded in British English [pomigranit], but is often dropped in the American English pronunciation [pomgranit].

populace populous or

? These two words

.

is a noun meaning `inhabitants' or

.

`the ordinary people': populace.

The cries roused the

This news will not go down well

with the general populace. Populous

.

is an

adjective meaning `densely populated' or `crowded':

California is the nation's most

populous state.

pore pour or

.

intently':

as a verb means `look

Pore

.

They pored over the map; pour

means `cause to flow': The noun

pore

She poured the tea.

refers to a minute opening

in the skin.

portmanteau word Portuguese

see

BLENDS.

possessives

The two ways of showing that

.

a noun is one of possession are the apos-

.

.

trophe and the use of the word car

.

the

company's

profits

of:

the

Anne's

rabbits'

soldiers of the Queen.

The apostrophe is used more frequently than and there is no firm rule as to where it is appropriate to use . One can say either: . or , but where there is a recognized phrase containing : . , an apostrophe cannot be substituted. is usually used of inanimate things; when it is used of people an apostrophe is generally used as well: . . It is also often used for . geographical regions: . . In cases of joint possession the apostrophe belongs to the last owner mentioned: . . . With a compound noun the last word takes the . apostrophe: . . Care should be taken with such phrases as: which might mean `the dogs belonging to one of the residents' or `one of the dogs belonging to one of the residents' or `one of the dogs jointly owned by the residents'. It is better to rephrase such an expression to avoid ambiguity. burrow

◆

of

of

leg

the table's

the leg of the table

the Valley of

the Rocks Of

a friend of Peter's

the wines of France

u

and the -e- that

follows it.

the

cities of Europe

Tom

and Lucy's house

Beaumont and Fletcher's plays

the

county court's judge

one

of the residents' dogs

See also

This word is sometimes mis-

spelt; note the second

position

She was possessed by a desire for possessed by a demon.

the lady-in-waiting's dress

? These spellings are some-

times confused.

. .

by:

revenge.

of

are occasionally confused since they are Æ s]. pronounced in the same way [popyoola Populace

tion

post-traumatic stress disorder

post-

APOSTROPHE; 'S or S'?

Some people object to the frequent

use of the prefix

.

post-,

meaning `after', to

.

coin new adjectives, often of a futuristic

To

position

is to put carefully and

nature:

.

post-nuclear Britain

post-feminist

deliberately in a specific place; the verb is

literature

best avoided where

wind of economic reality throughout the post-

locate,

.

place, put, post, situate,

etc., would be adequate or more

appropriate.

She

.

positioned

the carpet to hide the stain.

the

mat

He put

on

positioned] his dirty plate on top of the others. The offices are situated

[not

.

[not

positioned] in the

town centre.

Russia has shivered in the cold

Communist period,

.

or to produce cumber-

.

some phrases that could be reworded more elegantly:

post-September 11 anxiety

post-

retirement financial planning.

posthumous

This word causes problems

◆ Some people also dislike the unnecessary use of the noun in many contexts. It is usually is not as in , but as in . possible to replace the verbal phrase , for example, with or : . postman or postwoman? see NON-SEXIST . TERMS.

with spelling and pronunciation. In speech Æ s]; the first syllable the h is silent [postewmu

position

post

be in a

position to

be able

can

I am not in a position to answer your questions

possessed

.

The adjective

lowed by the preposition `having':

possessed of

is fol-

in the sense

He is possessed of an ability to

post-traumatic stress disorder phrase

drome)

post-traumatic stress disorder

(or

The syn-

denotes a combination of largely

In the sense

psychological symptoms, such as irrational

`dominated', it is followed by the preposi-

fear, feelings of guilt, depression, night-

communicate

with

animals.

possible

pour

238

antonym of , may refer to a person who lacks practical abilities. Additional senses of include `not thetion, such as a rail or plane crash, a major oretical', `suitable for use', `skilled at doing or fire, a terrorist bomb attack, or warfare: . making things', and `virtual': . . . .. . See also PRACTICALLY. ( ). ◆ Originally applied to American veterans of the practically The adverb is widely Vietnam War, the term is sometimes regarded as a used as a synonym for `almost', `nearly', modern or pretentious synonym for or `virtually', etc.: . . . ◆ Some people dislike this usage, which can lead pour see PORE or POUR? to confusion with one of the more literal senses of theword: . ,forexample, power The word is sometimes used may mean `it is impossible in practice' or `it is adjectivally to refer to an important busialmost impossible'. ness occasion. For example . mares, etc., resulting from the shock of

practical

being involved in a highly distressing situa-

practical

The

. . .

constable

has

been

diagnosed

a practical course

as

having post-traumatic stress syndrome result-

in first aid

ing from her experiences while on the Stevens

My brother is not a very practical man

investigation into links between the security

practical control of the company

forces and loyalist groups

a more practical layout for the kitchen

She has

Daily Telegraph

practically

shell shock

I practically broke my ankle

battle fatigue

It is practically impossible

power

a power break-

[or

fast

lunch]

is a meeting of influential

people from e.g. politics, business, or the media that is held over breakfast (or lunch). This vogue usage is best restricted to informal contexts.

p.p

. The abbreviation

nem,

(or

p.p.

short for the Latin phrase

per

pro.),

per procuratio-

is used when signing a letter on behalf

of somebody else. The Latin phrase means `by proxy' or `through the agency of', and the abbreviation should precede the name of the person signing the letter.

In modern usage the abbreviation is frequently interpreted as `for and on behalf of' and placed before the name of the person on whose behalf the letter is signed. This `incorrect' sequence is so well-established that the correct usage could lead to misunderstanding. ◆

practical practical

or

practicable

? The adjective

has a wide range of senses; the

principal meaning of

practicable

is `capable

of being done or put into practice'. A practicable

suggestion is simply possible

or feasible; a

practical

suggestion is also

useful, sensible, realistic, economical, prof-

.

itable, and likely to be effective or successful:

It may be practicable to create jobs for

everyone but this would not be a practical

PRACTICAL or PRACTICABLE?

See also

practice practise. or

the verb is practise:

? The noun is

.

practice,

the doctor's practice

doctor who practises in our town.

the

◆ In American English both the noun and verb are spelt . practice

practitioner

This word is sometimes mis-

spelt, the most frequent error being the substitution of

pray prey or

times

or

prey,

upon,

preys

s

for the final t.

? These spellings are some-

.

confused.

`speak to God': verb

or

c

The

verb

means

pray

pray for forgiveness.

.

The

which is usually followed by

.

means `hunt' or `obsess':

on other

animals.

preying on my mind.

The problem

.

The noun

`animals hunted for food':

prey

is

means

birds of prey.

Spelling mistakes may be avoided if associated with .

◆

on

The lion

pray

prayer

pre- HYPHEN 1 PER- PREWAR precautionary measure see

;

,

or

.

PRO-?; PRE-

The phrase

cautionary measure

by the noun

pre-

can usually be replaced

precaution,

.

is

which denotes a

measure taken to avoid something harmful or undesirable:

The police closed the road as

a precaution(ary measure) against flooding.

means `come Careful users maintain the distinction between precede or proceed? the two words, which is also applicable to their before', `go before', or `be before'; means `continue', `go on', or `advance': . antonyms, and :. . . .. .. . . . . , a less frequent

solution to the problems of unemployment.

◆

Precede

proceed

impractical

impracticable

It's

impractical to use the washing machine when

September precedes October

you only have a couple of shirts to wash

preceded by an introduction

It's

impracticable to use the washing machine when

proceed with this work

there is a power cut Unpractical

dismantle the car

The text is

I am unable to

They proceeded to

239

prefix

The two verbs should not be confused or mis- subject itself. Thus, in spelt: note the different spelling but identical the predicate is pronunciation of the second syllables, and See also PREDICT or PREDICATE? [ ]. predicative see ADJECTIVES.

◆

the President conceded

defeat

conceded defeat.

-cede

-ceed -seed

precedence precedent or

cedence

noun

? The noun

pre-

means `priority' or `superiority'; the denotes a previous example

precedent

.

that may serve as a model (in a court of law or elsewhere):

.

Should this work take pre-

cedence over our other commitments?

.

The

predict

or

predicate

foretell; the verb

? To

.

predicate

`declare', or `imply':

is to

predict

means `affirm',

.

It is impossible to

predict the result of tomorrow's match.

They

predicated that the accident had been caused by negligence.

◆ In British English the verb is rare and largely restricted to formal contexts. In American English, however, it is widely used as a synonym . for`base'or`found': . ◆ Both nouns are derived from the verb . (see PRECEDE or PROCEED?); to interchange them is In grammar and logic the word is also wrong. a noun (see PREDICATE). The pronunciation of is [ i- usedTheasverb is pronounced [ ikayt]; deÆns]. The noun is pronounced [ ideÆnt], but the rarer adjective is pronounced the noun is pronounced [ ikaÆt]. [pri deÆnt]. preface see FOREWORD or PREFACE?; PREFIX or guests were seated in order of precedence.

.

predicate

The committee's decision has set a precedent for future claims.

This result is without

precedent

precede

Her decision was predicated

on past experience

predicate

precedence

pres

precedent

predicate

pre-

see

precipitate precipitous or

precipitate

`sudden';

? The adjective

means `rushing', `hasty', `rash', or

.

precipitous

or `very steep':

.

means `like a precipice'

.

a precipitate decision

their

a precipitous slope.

The substitution of for is disliked by some users but acknowledged by most dictionaries. , however, should not be used in the sense of `precipitous'. The word is also used as a verb and as a noun. In the pronunciation of the adjective and noun the final syllable is unstressed [pri itaÆt]. The verb has the same primary stress pattern but the final syllable is pronounced to rhyme with [pri itayt].

precipitate departure

pred

pred

s

PREFACE?

prefer

prefer

.

The elements that follow the verb

.

should be separated by to, not than:

prefer cricket to football.

I

She prefers watch-

ing television to reading a book.

If these elements are infinitives, the preposition (and the second infinitive marker) may be replaced by in informal contexts: . . In formal contexts the sentence should be rephrased: . .. . Careful users avoid qualifying the verb and its derived adjective with such adverbs as , , etc.: . [not ]. preclude see EXCLUDE or PRECLUDE? precondition see CONDITION or PRECONDI[not ]. TION? The verb is stressed on the second syllable; the final is doubled before , , predecessor The noun denotes and . In the adjective , the adverb the previous holder of an office, post, etc.: . , and the noun , the stress shifts to the first syllable and the second is not . Although the words and doubled. The pronunciation of with (meaning `death') are both derived the stress on the second syllable [pri aÆbl] is from the Latin verb , a predecessor widely disliked. is not necessarily dead: the Latin verb See also SPELLING 1. means `go away', not `die'. ◆ Note the spelling of , particularly the prefix or preface? The words and and and the ending. are most frequently used as nouns ◆

precipitous

precipitate

Precipitate

precipitate

sip

◆

to

rather than

He prefers to walk rather than (to) drive

He

would rather walk than drive

He prefers walking

to driving

prefer

gate

preferable

sip

more most

you prefer

Which dress do

prefer most ?

Quiet background

music is acceptable but complete silence is preferable

more preferable prefer

r

predecessor

-er

Her predecessor had left the accounts in a mess

preferably

preference

r

predecessor

preferable

decease

fer

decedere

predecessor

-c-

-ed -ing

preferable

-ss-

predicate

-or

The

predicate

is that part of a

sentence or clause that includes information about the

SUBJECT,

prefix

preface

but excludes the

FOREWORD or PREFACE?; PREFIXES and SUFFIXES). As verbs, both can mean `add at the

(see

beginning' or `put before', although

preface

prefixes is more common:

.

240 She prefaced/prefixed her

speech with a few words of welcome.

Some users dislike this use of the verb , reserving it for the literal sense `add as a prefix': . .

◆

prefix

The word `organized' may be prefixed by `dis-' or `un-'

prefixes

and

suffixes

Prefixes and suffixes

are elements attached to a word in order to

.

form a new word. Prefixes are attached to

.

.

.

.

the beginnings of words and include: dis-

.

anti-

.

non-

.

ex-.

un-

.

Suffixes are

.

attached to the ends of words and include: -ship.

Prefixes are sometimes used with hyphens, . sometimes not: . : see HYPHEN 1. There are some cases where a word cannot . stand alone without its prefix: . . . , although , , etc., are occasionally used jocularly. Most affixes are in productive use: they can be attached to any appropriate noun. However, new coinages involving affixes are often disliked: see, for example, MACRO- and MICRO-.

-ism

◆

-ful

-dom

-logy

disenchanted

ex-husband

uncouth

gruntled

dishevelled

dis-

unkempt

gruntled kempt

PREFIXES

co-, col-, com-, con-, cor. together; with: . see COcontraagainst; opposite: . 2 counter- 1 opposite: . corresponding; matching: . see CYBERcybercomputers: . de1 take away something: . see DE2 go back: . decaten times: . see DECA- or DECI-? see DECA- or decione tenth: . DECI-? see DEMI-, HEMI- or demihalf: . SEMI-? . ditwo: . diathrough; across: . digidigital: . . 2 dis1 not: . see DIS- or opposite: . DYS-? see DIS- or dysabnormal: . DYS-? 2 European: . e1 electronic: . see Eecoenvironment;ecology: . . see ECOelectro- electricity: . . em-, en- 1(usedtomakeverbs): . . 2 in; into: . equiequal: . EuroEurope; European Union: . see EUROex1 former: . 2 out of: see EX extraoutside: . see FOR- or forprohibition: . FORE-? 2 before: . fore1 front: . see FOR- or FORE-? geoearth: . grandparents of one's parents; children of . one's children: . see GRAND- or GREAT-? greatparents of one's grandparents; children of one's grandchildren: . . see GRAND- or GREAT-? haemo- blood: . hect-, hecto- one hundred: . see DEMI-, HEMI-, hemihalf: . or SEMI-? heptaseven: . collect

combine

contradict

counteract

counterpart

cybercafeÂ

dethrone

decode

decagon decibel

demigod

diphthong

dioxide

diameter

digibox

disagree

dissimilar

disconnect

dysfunction e-mail

e-number

eco-friendly

eco-aware

Cross-references, e.g. see AERO AIR?, are also included to main entries in the where there is a fuller discussion. 2 in; a1 without; not: . on; at: . see AERO or aero-, air- aircraft: . AIR? ambiboth; two: . see ANTE- or antebefore: . ANTI-? anthropo- human: . see ANTE- or antiagainst: . ANTI-? see ARCH- and arch-, archi- chief: . ARCHIastrostars: . audiohearing or sound: . autoself: . be(used to make verbs): . see BIbitwo; twice: . bibliobook: . . see BIObiolife: . byless important: . centione hundredth: . chrontime: . or

Good Word Guide

asymmetrical

ashore

aeronautics

ambidextrous

antenatal

anthropology

anti-aircraft

archenemy

astronomy

audiovisual

autobiography

becalm

bicycle

bibliography

biography

biology

by-election

centimetre

chronological

electrolysis

enthrone

enrich

enable

enlist

equidistant

Eurocrat

ex-president

expel

extraterrestrial forbid

foreword

foretell

geology

grandfather

granddaughter

great-grandmother

great-

grandson

haemorrhage

hectare

hemisphere

heptagon

241

hexasix: . homosame: . hydrowater: . hypermuch more than normal: . see HYPER- or HYPO-? see HYPER- or hypounder: . HYPO-? ig-, il-, im-, in-, ir. . not: . . il-, im-, in-, ir- in; into: . infrabelow: . 2 from inter1 between: . see one to another: . INTER- or INTRA-? see INTER- or intrainside: . INTRA-? kiloone thousand: . see MACROmacrolarge: . and MICROmalbad: . 2 big: . mega1 million: . see MEGAmeta1 change; after: . see 2 transcending: . METAmicrosmall: . see MACROand MICROmidmiddle: . millione thousandth: . minismall: . misbad; badly: . monoone: . see MULTImultimany: . neonew: . neuromind or nerves: . see NONnonnot: . obagainst: . . octa-, octo- eight: . omniall: . orthocorrect: . 2 outside: out1 greater than: . . 2 too much: . over1 above: . see OVERLY pentafive: . periaround: . photo1 light: . 2 photography: . physionature: . polymany . . see postafter: . POSTprebefore: . pro1 in favour of: . 2 substitute: . hexagon

homogeneous

hydroelectricity

hypermarket

hypodermic

ignoble

illogical

income

impossible

irrigate

infra-red

intermediary

interchange

intravenous

kilometre

macrocosm

malfunction

megawatt

megaphone

metamorphosis

metafiction

microscope midday

millimetre

minibus

mislead

monotony

multicoloured

neoclassical

neurosis

nonstop

obstruct

octagon

octopus

omnipotent

orthodox

outlast

outbuilding

overhang

overdo

pentagon

perimeter

photosynthesis

photocopy

physiology

polygon

postscript

post-war

prelude

pro-African

pronoun

premier

first; original: . not real; pretended: . mind; behaviour: . four: . five: . see REagain: . back: . see RETRO oneself: . see SELF half: . see DEMI-, HEMIor SEMI-? seven: . six: . social; society: . 2 less than . 1 under: . 2 greater: . 1 over: . see SUPER. together with: . practical skill and science: . see TECHNO. distant: . see TELEGod: . heat: . across: . three: . 1 driven by a turbine: . see 2 powerful: . TURBObeyond: . see ULTRA 1 not: . 2 opposite: . . see NON1 below: . 2 too little: . one: . assistant: . video: .

protopseudopsychoquadquinreretroselfsemiseptsexsociosubsupersym-, syntechnoteletheothermotranstriturbo-

prototype

pseudonym

psychology

quadrangle

quintet

reappear

retrograde

self-confident

semicircle septet

sextet

sociology

subsoil

subnormal

superimpose

supersonic

sympathy

synthesis

technology

telephone

television

theology

thermometer

transcontinental

triangle

turbojet

turbo computer

ultraununderunivicevideo-

ultraviolet

unhappy

undo

untie

undergrowth

underdeveloped unity

vice-president

prelude

videolink

The frequent use of the noun

.

prelude in the sense of `introduction' is disliked by some users:

The leaders had

an informal meeting this morning as a prelude

◆ The noun is principally used to denote a piece of music: . .

to next week's summit in Geneva.

prelude

premier

avoided

.

one of Chopin's preludes

The where

adjective foremost,

is

best

principal,

first,

premier

etc., would be adequate or more appropriate:

We

consulted

one

of

the

country's

premier authorities on the subject.

is pronounced [ yeÆr] or [ ieÆr], the first syllable having the short of , not the long of . It should not be confused with PREMIERE, which is sometimes pronounced in the same way. ◆ Premier

prem

e

e

theme

prem

them

premiere

premiere

242

when it applies to two elements of a sentence: . .. , although the preposition must the first performance of': . be repeated if ambiguity might otherwise arise. . . ◆ The verb is also used intransitively: . . could have a different meanThe noun , meaning `first perfor- ing if the second were omitted. mance', is acceptable to all users: . On the use of a preposition with a particular . verb, adjective, or noun see individual entries. may be pronounced [ iair] or [ or perquisite? A ieÆr]. It is sometimes spelt with a grave accent on isprerequisite a precondition; a thesecond , as in the French word from which it is privilege, or exclusive right: . is a benefit, derived: . . . the word

Some people dislike the use of

premiere

as a verb, meaning `give

The film will be

They went to France and Italy

He behaved with

tact and discretion

premiered in New York

The play

premiered in the West End

They were arguing about physical fitness and about drinking spirits

premiere

about

the world

premiere of Andrew Lloyd Webber's latest musical Premiere

prem

pre-

prerequisite

m

perquisite

e

A degree is not

premieÁre

ACCENTS.

See also

premises

A

a prerequisite for a career in journalism

company car is often regarded as a perquisite.

In the sense of `incidental benefit' the noun is largely restricted to formal contexts, the abbreviation being the usual form elsenying land or grounds, is always plural: . where: . . See also PREREQUISITE or REQUISITE? . ◆ The singular noun , which is not used in or requisite? Both these this context, means `assumption' or `proposition'; prerequisite words may be used as nouns or adjectives. it has the variant spelling . relates to anything that is reThe noun

premises,

denoting a

building (or buildings) and any accompa-

◆

perquisite

perk

one of the perks of the job

Their new premises are on the other side of the railway line

premise

premiss

premiss PREMISES preoccupied OCCUPIED preparation see

Requisite

quired, necessary, essential, or indispensa-

.

see

The

or

noun

PREOCCUPIED?

preparation

is

sometimes misspelt, a frequent error being the substitution of

-per-

for

-par-,

as in

desperation.

prepositions . . . . . at

with

of

up

are such words

before that show the

relation of a noun or noun equivalent to the rest of the sentence.

One often hears of the grammatical rule that sentences should never end with a preposition. It is truethatprepositions, as their name implies,usually precede the noun or pronoun to which they are attached: . .. , but it certainly does not have to be in thisposition. . and are both possible, although the latter sounds more formal. In some cases it is hardly possible to put the preposition anywherebutattheendofthesentence: . . .Areliable rule is that the preposition should be placed where it sounds most natural. The `rule' about not ending a sentence with a preposition originated in the fact that a Latin sentence cannot end with a preposition, but there is no reason for this to have any implication for English usage. A preposition does not need to be repeated ◆

It was under the chair

They drove to

Birmingham

Which village did you stay in?

In

which village did you stay?

What is

he up to?

prerequisite

It isn't worth worrying about

.

relates to something that is

required in advance: shop

sells

requisites.

.

pens,

paper,

Physical

.

Does the building

have the requisite number of fire exits? and

fitness

other is

The

writing

prerequisite

to/a prerequisite of success at sport.

PREREQUISITE or PERQUISITE?

See also

Prepositions

as:

ble;

prescribe proscribe or

? To

prescribe

is to

lay down as a rule or to advise or order as a remedy; to

proscribe

bit, outlaw, or exile: scribed

a

.

new

complaints.

habit

of

The union has pre-

procedure

.

for

dealing

with

Surrogate motherhood has been

proscribed in Britain. tor's

.

is to condemn, prohi-

Proscribing the doc-

prescribing

(Daily

Telegraph

headline).

The two verbs are similar in pronunciation but almost opposite in meaning: a book is recommended, a book should not be read; a drug should be taken, a drug is banned.

◆

prescribed

proscribed

prescribed

pro-

scribed

presently

Some people object to the in-

creasingly frequent use of the adverb

sently now:

.

in place of Mr Iain

pre-

currently, at present,

.

Duncan-Smith,

leader of the opposition

or

presently

The company pre-

sently manufactures components for the elec-

◆ The word has long been used in this sense in Scotland and America.

tronics industry.

243 The principal meaning of English is `soon': .

in British whose right to succeed or inherit may be superseded by the birth of another. Note the spelling of , particularly the second .

presently

.

preventive

We walked on a little further

and presently we reached the inn. presently.

preside

The verb

preposition

at

[or

presided at

.

u

is followed by the

preside

or

over:

The

chairman

over] the meeting.

pressure pressurize or

pretence pretension ness ,

? The noun

of pretending; a

? The verb

pressure,

which literally means `apply pressure to', is

.

presumptuous

I'll phone him

frequently used in the figurative sense of

. .

tentiousness

tion': door.

pretentious-

or

pretence

pretension

denotes the act is a claim;

pre-

means `ostentation' or `affecta-

.

She made a pretence of closing the

He has no pretensions to fame.

pretentiousness does not impress me.

Their

◆ In some contexts may be used in place of , especially to denote or un◆ The literal meaning of the verb is supported claim; both nouns may bea false used in the `increase the pressure in', but it is also used fig- sense of `pretentiousness'. . uratively in British English: Compare the spellings of and , particularly the of the former and .. the second of the latter. In American English the . of is replaced by . The figurative use of and is disliked and avoided by some users, especially in prevaricate or procrastinate? To potentially ambiguous, contexts: . is to be evasive, misleading, or untruthful; to is to delay, defer, ( ). or put off: . `coerce':

They were pressured into accepting

pretence

the pay rise.

pretension

pressurize

Aircraft cabins are

pressurized to maintain normal atmospheric pressure at high altitudes

They were pressurized into

pretension

tentiousness t

accepting the pay rise

pressurize

pre-

s

c

pretence

pressurized

s

prevar-

The ability to

icate

work effectively in a pressurised stimulating envir-

procrastinate

onment is essential Daily Telegraph

She prevaricated in order to avoid

prestige

The noun

prestige,

denoting the

high status, esteem, or renown derived from wealth, success, or influence, is usual-

is also used adjectivally: . .

ly pronounced [presteezh].

.

◆ Prestige company

a prestige

a prestige car

See also

PRESTIGIOUS.

prestigious

The adjective

.

prestigious

is

.

new ways of raising

money for the country's most prestigious opera house

in

the

hope

of

avoiding

He the

work altogether.

The two verbs should not be confused: is partially derived from the Latin word , meaning `crooked'; contains the Latin word , meaning `tomorrow'. ◆

prevar-

icate

varus

procrastinate

cras

frequently used in the sense of `having or conferring prestige':

.

revealing her husband's whereabouts.

procrastinated

The company will shortly be relocat-

prevent

When the verb

prevent

is fol-

lowed by an -ing form in formal contexts,

.

the -ing form should be preceded either by from

. .

or by a possessive adjective or noun:

They prevented me from winning. prevented

Andrew

prevented

my

from

.

winning.

They They

The original meaning of was less . complimentary: derived from the Latin word for ◆ In informal contexts last example may be `conjuring tricks', it was used as a synonym for considered unnatural or the unidiomatic and the word `fraudulent' or `deceitful'. may be omitted from the first two examples: Unlike has the anglicized . . pronunciation [pres uÆs]. See also -ING FORMS. ing to prestigious new offices in the City.

◆

prestigious

They prevented me/Andrew winning

presume ASSUME PRESUME presumptuous presumptive or

?

or

pudent';

means

Pre-

`based

.

preventive preventative or

?

means `bold', `forward', or `im-

presumptive

on

? Either word

. .

may be used as an adjective or noun, but

.

preventive measures

is the more frequent: preventative surgery

presumption or probability' or `giving rea-

used as a preventive/preventative.

sonable grounds for belief':

◆

.

The adjective term

This is only presumptive evidence

presumptive

heir presumptive

preventive

This drug is

Some users consider to be a needlessly long variant. In medical and technical contexts the adjective is . is also used in the used with reference to procedures that forestall , which denotes a person disease, damage, breakdown, etc., rather than It's

rather

presumptuous of him to make such a request.

◆

prevented

from

tij

sumptuous

They

Andrew's winning

prestige, prestigious

see

winning.

preventative

pre-war

curing or repairing it: . .

preventive medicine

preventive maintenance

pre-war

244 . .

lings are often confused. The adjective principal

This word is usually hyphenated,

although some dictionaries list it as a oneword compound.

the

means `of the most importance': cause;

principal

the noun

the principal of a college. Principle

.

principal

refers to the head of an organization:

is always a

. The adjectival standard: . is generally used as an adjective: . form is . . . Its ◆ means `in theory', adverbial use is less frequent, the phrase means `because of the principle'. being preferred by some users: . . principalparts The of a verb In general usage usually refers to the are the main inflected forms from which all period preceding World War II, but in some con- the other verb forms can be derived. In texts the reference may be to World War I or, more English they usually include the infinitive, rarely, to a different war. This can occasionally lead the present participle, the past tense, and to ambiguity or confusion: . past participle. The principal parts of , . , , , for example, would be: . See also

◆ Pre-war

HYPHEN 1.

war conditions

noun and refers to a fundamental truth or moral principles

pre-

principled

reverting to pre-war practices

In principle

before

the war

on principle

These

houses were built pre-war/before the war

principal parts

pre-war

pre-war house prices

give

in the Falkland Islands

prey PRAY price COST prima facie see

see

give

PREY? or PRICE?

given.

or

be listed:

This Latin phrase is used

. .

Often the past tense and past parti-

`at first sight', `(based) on first impressions',

walked.

when it is derived regularly, as in:

◆

.

The

know,

For irregular principal parts see table at VERBS.

principle Largely restricted to formal contexts, the phrase prioritize is pronounced [ maÆ shee]. primarily prõÅ

walking,

knew, known.

There is prima facie

evidence to support his case.

◆

walk,

present participle is not always included

Her argument seems

reasonable prima facie.

.

ciple are the same, and do not both have to

adverbially or adjectivally in the sense of or `apparently true':

giving gave

see

PRINCIPAL or PRINCIPLE?

The verb

prioritize,

meaning `put

in order of priority' or `give priority to', is

fay

disliked by some users as an example of the

Many users prefer to stress this Æ re Æ li], but word on the first syllable [prõÅma

this is very difficult to say unless one is

increasing tendency to coin new verbs by

.

adding the suffix -ize to nouns and adjectives:

.

The methods of increasing industrial

speaking slowly and carefully. The pro-

output have been prioritized.

nunciation with the stress on the second syllable [prõÅmerreÆli] is becoming increas-

are, in fact, seen to prioritise their career, they

ingly common in British English, although

feminine' or `on the shelf'

it is disliked by many. It is the standard pronunciation in American English. See also

prime

STRESS.

are considered in some way `unnatural', `un-

prior to

Some people dislike the frequent prime

in the sense of

before:

ing them in the evening

◆

.

that is not of the highest quality, signifi-

.

primeval

in prime condition

a prime example.

the

This word, meaning `of the first

ages', is usually spelt

primeval

English may also be spelt

-AE and -OE. primitive see SAVAGE.

but in British

primaeval.

See also

principal principle or

in place of

Players and singers rehearsed the

especially when it is applied to something

prime position

prior to

works during the afternoon prior to perform-

`best', `most important', `principal', etc.,

.

Bookseller).

Many people object to the unne-

cessary use of the phrase

.

(The

the simpler and more natural preposition

use of the adjective

cance, or rank:

Where women

The use of all: .

prior

(Chichester

Observer).

as an adjective is acceptable to

I would like to come but unfortunately have a

prior engagement

prise prize or

.

? For the meaning `to force

.

open', either spelling can be used in British English, but

prise

is more common:

end we managed to prise the lid off.

In the

is the only possible spelling for the noun meaning `a reward' and the verb `value greatly': . ..

◆ Prize

Gloria won first prize in the competition

? These two spel-

The

thieves made off with most of their prized posses-

245 . In American English, the spelling is more common than for the sense `force open'.

sions

prize

prise

pristine

The use of

pristine

.

to mean `spot-

lessly clean', `pure', or `as good as new' is

.

acceptable to most users: cloth

a pristine table-

He made the packet look untouched

(Daily

Telegraph).

prodigy

is done':

.

to

part

quently, take

proceedings)

in

proceedings.

the

.

means `something that

to follow the established procedure

The two

words should not be confused.

◆ Note the difference in spelling between the two words, particularly the - - of and the - - of . ced

ceed

proceed

procedure

proceeding

see

PRECEDE or PROCEED?

A few people object to this usage, restricting the adjective to its earlier sense of `original' or `primi- proceeding see PROCEDURE or PROCEEDING? . tive': . process The noun is always pronounced with the stress on the first syllable, . pronunciation [ es], with a The second syllable of may be pro- [shortses].- -,(The is largely restricted to American nounced to rhyme with or . English.) The verb is also stressed on

and in pristine condition

◆

The mists of a pristine swamp

The pristine

process

severity of the Benedictine rule was moderated in the course of time

Å pro

pristine

mean

privacy

mine

process

This word has two pronunciations: Æ si] and [prõÅva Æ si] in British English. [priva

The standard American English pronunciation is [ vaÆsi]. ◆

prõÅ

privilege

This

word,

meaning

`special

right or advantage', is often misspelt. Note particularly the second -i- and the first -e-.

Remember also that there is no

prize PRISE PRIZE pro- PER PRE- PROproactive see

or

see

,

d

as in

ledge.

?

or

Proactive,

pros

o

the first syllable in most contexts; however,

.

in the rare sense `move (as if) in a procession':

They processed down the avenue,

This rare sense, a BACK FORMATION from , is etymologically distinct from the noun and other meanings of the verb. ◆

pro-

cession

pro-choice procrastinate TINATE prodigal

see

?

?

a technical term in

psychology, has entered general usage as a vogue word, meaning `taking the initia-

the

Æ ses]. second syllable is stressed, [pro

PRO-LIFE. see PREVARICATE

.

or

PROCRAS-

means `recklessly waste-

Prodigal

ful', `extravagant', or `lavish':

.

Her brother

has always been prodigal with his money. They were prodigal of praise.

The use of the adjective to mean `returning home after a long absence' (based on a misunderstanding of the word in the New Testa. This word is disliked by ment parable of the prodigal son, Luke 15:11±32) many people and should not be overused is disliked and avoided by some careful users: . in this sense. ( ). probe In the headline language of popular The use of the noun , however, in the newspapers the noun is often used in extended sense of `returned wanderer' or `repenplace of the longer or :. tant sinner', rather than the traditional sense of `spendthrift', is acceptable to most: . ( ). . See also JOURNALESE. ◆ In medicine a is a slender instrument for prodigy or proteÂgeÂ? The noun examining a wound or cavity; exam- meaning `marvel', is used to denote an, ine and investigate the expanse beyond the earth's exceptionally talented person, especially a atmosphere. , , In nontechnical contexts is more fre- child: . quently used as a verb: . ( , ). A is someone who receives . help, guidance, protection, patronage, etc., tive;

acting

in

.

anticipation

.

reacting after the event':

approach to business

rather a

than

proactive

◆

prodigal

a proactive role in

the marketplace

Prodigal performers from the Bosham Players are to return home 40 years on Chichester Observer prodigal

probe

enquiry

investigation

Crucial questions the BBC poll probe must answer

The prodigal

Sunday Times

has returned

probe

prodigy

space probes

Tracy Austin then 14 was starting to

probe

After further gentle

probing Mark revealed some new details of the incident

procedure procedure

or

proceeding

?

The

noun

denotes a way of doing some-

thing; the noun

proceeding

(or, more fre-

be

acknowledged

as

one

of

the

prodigies in professional tennis

first

child

Daily Tele-

 ge  prote

graph

.

from a more influential or experienced person:

one

of

Lord

Olivier's

 ge  s. prote

The two nouns should not be confused.

produce

246

Derived from the French word , meaning `protect', the noun has the (optional) . feminine form . profile The noun proteÂger

◆

produce

at] French and

German

proteÂgeÂe

or

[or

cants must be proficient in

proteÂgeÂ

product

? Both these nouns

denote something that is produced.

Produce

the expression

profile

is widely used in

keep a low profile,

.

meaning

`be inconspicuous or unobtrusive' or `avoid

refers to things that have been produced by

attention or publicity':

growing

a low profile since the arrest of its leader.

.

or

farming,

usually

refers

to

goods:

farm produce

whereas

.

industrially

product

produced

the company's latest

The group has kept

This

usage is disliked by some.

◆

Two adjectival compounds, and , have developed from this use: . low-profile

. The noun is also used in more abstract senses: . . . .. See also VISIBLE. . The noun is also used alone in a further Both nouns are pronounced with the stress on extension of this sense: . [Joan Bakewell] the first syllable. The verb , however, is stressed on the second syllable, [proÆ ]. ( ). . ( productivity The noun , fre). quently used in industrial contexts, relates The word is also occasionally used as a to efficiency or rate of production; it is not verb, meaning `construct a profile of': . synonymous with , which denotes product.

◆

high-profile

system

a

low-profile investigation

product

The star has lived a low-

He is a product of the public-school

profile existence since the scandal appeared in the

the product of a vivid imagination

press

Such attitudes are the product of ignorance and suspicion

profile

She

produce

is

credited with raising the profile of arts coverage on

dews

television Sunday Times

You can't risk loss of

profile, market share, and media appeal

productivity

The

Bookseller

profile

The new

.

output

.

the amount produced: bonus

a

productivity

The installation of new machinery

will increase the company's productivity; em-

leader has been profiled in most of the leading newspapers.

profoundly deaf

Profoundly

deaf

is the

.

ploying more workers will only increase its

preferred modern term to describe a person

output.

who is both deaf and unable to speak:

professional

The adjective

professional

is

applied to people who are engaged in a

.

profession or who take part in a sport or other activity for gain: other

professional

.

doctors, lawyers, and

people

golfer/actor/writer/musician.

a

professional

The noun

pro-

is used to denote such people.

special

school

for

the

profoundly

replaces such former terms as and

deaf-and-dumb,

deaf.

A

It

deaf-mute

which are now avoided

because of their negative connotations.

prognosis DIAGNOSIS PROGNOSIS program programme see

or

or

?

Both

?

these

In general usage the word , in the English the spelling is resense of `(person) engaged in a profession', may British to the computing sense of `(provide refer to any career that requires advanced learning stricted and/or special training, such as law, medicine, with) a series of .coded instructions': . . theology, accountancy, engineering, teaching, nursing, and the armed forces. Many users object word is also the. American spelling of the to the wider application of the term to include ◆ The noun has avarietyof senses and other middle-class occupations: . uses, such as `broadcast', `list', `plan', and `sche. . . . dule': . . . Note the spelling of the word , . . which has one , and - -. . means `plan', `schedule', professor This word is sometimes mis- The verb or `cause to conform to particular instructions', spelt. Note the single , - -, and the though some object to this usage: . ending. .. proffer see OFFER or PROFFER? . In British English the final of is proficient The adjective is foldoubled before , , , and . In Amerlowed by the preposition or : . fessional

◆

words may be used as nouns or verbs. In

professional

program

a

to program a computer

computer program Program

programme

programme

a marketing

professional

sales professionals

recruitment

professionals

professional

f

ss

a television programme

gramme

a theatre pro-

the programme for tonight's concert

research programme

a housing programme

a

the

programme of events

programme

f

ss

or

The new road

is programmed for completion next spring

has been programmed to respond in this way m

proficient

in

at

Appli-

-ed -ing -er

program

-able

He

247 ican English , , etc., are sometimes spelt with a single . The spelling was adopted from the French in the 19th century; , which is now regarded as an Americanism, was the original spelling of the word in British English. programmed programming m

programme

program

progressive tense

tinuous) tense

.

The

progressive

(or

con-

describes those forms of verbs

that describe an ongoing or unfinished

.

action:

We were driving towards London.

They are deceiving themselves.

.

Note that

some verbs cannot be used in the progressive tense:

prohibit project

I am having black hair.

The word

project,

that arises with pronouns is in the use of the personal pronoun, where many people are

ing `scheme or plan', is usually pronounced

.

forms. Such phrases as: to he who waits.

Everything comes

It was up to Julia and I,

though incorrect, are frequently used. Remember that after verbs and prepositions,

.

the object pronoun (me,

.

should be used: who waits.

him, her, us, them)

Everything comes to him

It was up to Julia and me.

.

The

confusion can be resolved by mentally

.

changing the sentence slightly: come to him

(I,

as a noun, mean-

.

confused between the subject and object

[not

FORBID or PROHIBIT?

see

pronunciation

I].

[not

he].

Things

It was up to me

.

Before verbs the subject pronouns

he, she, we, they)

.

I

[not

[not

her]

should be used:

me] and my friend will come.

She

and her colleague are arguing.

See also

I or ME?

Perhaps because of this uncertainty about the times heard but is avoided by careful users. personal another frequent mistake is the ◆ The verb , meaning `protrude' or `esti- use of a pronoun, reflexive pronoun instead of a personal mate for the future', is pronounced [proÆ ]. pronoun: . [not ]. pro-life The adjective is used to describe an organization, movement, etc., A further difficulty with pronouns is that of uncertainty of reference. This can occur in senthat supports the right to the maintenance tences containing : . of the life of the unborn. Those with . It is unclear whether the bus was late or views are in favour of limitations on the the time was late. availability of legal abortions and a ban on Å jekt] is some[projekt]. The alternative [pro

◆

project

jekt

It was written by another author and

me

pro-life

myself

it

pro-

experiments on human embryos:

.

The

controversial Human Fertilisation and Embryo Bill faces new dissent from pro-life MPs

(The

Guardian).

is considered by many people to be a euphemism for . The term , describing the opposite point of view, may be considered a euphemism for : ◆ Pro-life

anti-abortion

pro-

choice

.

We took the bus although it

was late

life

pro-abortion

The pro-choice movement believes that women

have a right to choose whether to have an abortion or not

prolific

.

See also

I or ME; IT; THEM.

pronunciation

The recommended pro-

nunciation of English words found in dictionaries and grammar books is usually what is known as tion,

RP

or

received pronuncia-

which more or less represents the

speech of educated middle-class people from the South-East of England. Until comparatively recently, RP was regarded as `correct' and other pronunciations were sometimes thought of as, if not actually

The adjective

means `very

incorrect, at least inferior. Most people now

productive'; it is applied to the person or

accept that there is no one standard form of

.

prolific

thing that produces rather than to what is

English pronunciation which is correct.

produced:

There is great regional variety within the

A prolific author, she writes two

or three new novels every year.

Many people object to the use of as a synonym for `abundant' or `numerous': . . ◆

prolific

Her

prolific novels deal with a wide range of subjects

prone LIABLE PRONE SUPINE pronouns

LIKELY?; PROSTRATE,

United Kingdom and further variations in the speech of other English-speaking countries, and there is nothing incorrect about a pronunciation that is standard to a particular community or region.

◆ It is perfectly valid, then, to say [bath] instead of [bahth] if one comes from northern England, or for an American to say [ l] instead of [ õÅl]. are words that are There is, however, still the possibility of misproused to replace nouns or noun phrases to . nunciations, where a certain pronunciation is not refer to something or someone: . . . . . , etc. The main difficulty an accepted regional variation and would genersee

or

or

?

mis

Pronouns

I

him

it

you

they

she

mis

propeller

248

ally be regarded as a mistake, for example, pro- proposal or proposition? Both these nouncing as [gist] instead of [jist]. It should nouns can mean `something that is proalso be noted, though, that pronunciation is not posed, suggested, or put forward for constatic; it changes over the years and new pronun- sideration', but they are not always ciations which were originally resisted by careful interchangeable: . . speakers sometimes eventually become the stan. dard form. .. A frequent mistake is to misspell . as . The recommended pronuncia- ◆ The two words have other specific senses that tion is [praÆnunsi shaÆn], not [praÆ siayshaÆn]. should not be confused: a is an offer of marriage; a is an invitation to extraSee also LAW AND ORDER and other indimarital sex. The verb usually relates to vidual entries. this meaning of the noun (and much more propeller This word for a rotating device common than the noun in this issense): . with blades is usually spelt with the ending ; it should not be used , though is occasionally found. in place of . Some people dislike the informal use of the proper nouns see CAPITAL LETTERS; NOUNS. noun in the sense of `person', `thing', prophecy or prophesy? These spellings etc.: . and pronunciations are sometimes con.. fused. The noun meaning `prediction' is . In both these examples the adjective phrase spelt and pronounced [ isi]. could be replaced by the adjective alone. gist

the

proposition/proposal

pronunciation

government's

latest

That's an interesting

proposal/proposition

an insurance proposal

a business proposition

pronounciation

ay

nown

proposal

proposition

proposition

He

-er

propositioned his secretary

-or

propose

proposition

The new manager is a formidable proposi-

tion

Recycling may not be an economic propo-

sition

prophecy

prof

The verb meaning `utter predictions' is spelt prophesy and pronounced [profisõÅ ].

and are a similar noun-verb combination, spelt with a for the noun and an for the verb.

◆ Advice

advise

c

proportion

s

The noun

proportion

ratio; it is best avoided where some,

etc., would be adequate or more

appropriate: students Some

.

denotes a

part, number,

to

[not

The

male

proportion

students

of

.

female

increased.

has

A proportion] of his friends are

unemployed.

Such phrases as and may be replaced by , etc.: . [not ] . [not ] . Some people also dislike the use of the plural noun in place of or :. .. .

◆

a small(er) proportion

large(r) proportion

a

few, less,

many, more

many

of our employees

less

a large proportion

a smaller proportion

of their money

proportions

size

dimensions

proprietary

Note the spelling of this word,

which is used to refer to goods sold under a particular trade name, especially the second r,

the

ie,

and the

-ary

ending. The

is not

a

always sounded in speech.

pro rata

The Latin expression

.

pro rata

is

used in formal contexts to mean `in proportion to an amount':

a part-time job at a

salary of £20,000 per year paid pro rata.

◆

The expression taÆ].

pro rata

rah

is pronounced [proÅ

proscribe PRESCRIBE PROSCRIBE prosecute PERSECUTE PROSECUTE prospective PERSPECTIVE PROSPECTIVE prostate prostrate see

see

or

or

see

or

?

?

or

? The word

?

prostate

.

refers to a gland around the neck of the

Men of his proportions have difficulty finding

bladder in men and other male mammals:

clothes that fit

He's going into hospital to have his prostate

They set sail in a ship of enor-

mous proportions

(gland) removed.

It should not be confused with the adjective , which means `lying face downwards', jectives and are `exhausted', or `overcome': . virtually synonymous in the sense of `in .. [or proportion': . . . ] The word is also used as a verb. The [or ] adjective is stressed on the first syllable; the verb is . stressed on the second syllable. ◆ In the phrase , denoting a type of electoral system, the adjective prostrate, prone or supine? and cannot be replaced by . mean `lying face downwards';

proportional proportionate or

proportional

proportionate

a proportionate

tional increase in spending is proportional

? The ad-

propor-

the cooking time

proportionate

◆

prostrate

He stepped over the

prostrate body of the prisoner

They were pros-

trate with anguish

prostrate

to the size of

the joint of meat

proportional representation

Prostrate

proportional

proportionate

prone

supine

249 means `lying face upwards'. In these senses the adjectives

and

prone

are largely

supine

restricted to formal or literary usage, or to contexts where the distinction between `face downwards' and `face upwards' is particularly important or relevant. Elsewhere, the adjective prostrate (with its additional meanings of `exhausted' or `overcome': see

PROS-

TATE or PROSTRATE?) is more frequent than prone

.

and may also be used in place of supine

or in the general sense of `lying flat': prostrate with exhaustion.

protagonist

She lay

frequent use of the noun

to

protagonist

denote a supporter, especially a leading

.

or notable supporter, of a cause, movement, has

been

the

chief

. In British English it is more frequently used . . asanadjective: . . The accepted pronunciation of the word is [ veÆn], although the pronunciation [ veÆn] is also heard from time to time, particularly in the Scottish legal phrase . proven

a proven remedy

proven skills

a proven liar

proven

proo

proÅ

not proven

proverbial

The clicheÂ

the proverbial

. . . is

. .

often used when (part of) a proverb or other idiomatic expression is quoted:

like taking the proverbial horse to water.

It's We

found ourselves up the proverbial creek.

Some people object to the

idea, political party, etc.:

psychiatrist

The Bush regime

.

protagonist

action against maverick states.

in

calls

for

I would find

myself a protagonist of a movement to intro-

◆ The use of the adjective as a synonym for `famous' or `notorious' is disliked by some: . . proverbial

the proverbial British weather

provided

or

provided (that)

providing

and

.

The expressions

providing (that)

the condition (that)':

mean `on

You may have a dog

provided/providing that you look after it yourself.

◆ Some consider more acceptable than . The inclusion or omission of such contexts may be better is optional in most contexts. replaced by an appropriate synonym, such The use of or in place of is as , or . usually unnecessary and sometimes wrong: . ◆ The traditional meaning of is `the leading or principal character in a play, story, etc.': .. [not . ] . ( provident or providential? These two ). In this sense it should not be necessary adjectives, both used in formal contexts, to qualify the noun with such adjectives as should not be confused. means , etc. `showing or exercising foresight' or duce sanctions on those who do not use these established

trade

tools

(The

Bookseller).

protagonist

champion, advocate

provided (that)

In

providing (that)

that

provided

proponent

providing

if

I'll

protagonist

clean the windows this afternoon if/provided/pro-

Wheeler and Webb then added a third series,

starting with `Murder Gone to Earth' (1937), . . . in

viding it doesn't rain

We'll miss our train if

provided/providing we don't leave soon

which the protagonist was a country doctor Daily

Telegraph

chief,

Provident

main, leading, principal

protect

The verb

preposition tion

will

from

protect

or

protect

against:

you

.

is followed by the

from

This vaccina-

[or

against]

a

number of tropical diseases.

proteÂge protein

see

PRODIGY or PROTEÂGEÂ? -ein

to the `i before

pro tem

e'

The expression

SPELLING 5).

pro tem

tened form of the Latin phrase

.

.

means `fortunate' or

They

should have been more provident with their resources.

A

providing psychedelic

see

ending. It is an exception rule (see

providential

providential

shower

of

rain

brought the game to an end.

Note the spelling of this word,

especially the

`thrifty';

`relating to divine providence':

PROVIDED or PROVIDING?

The adjective

psychedelic,

de-

scribing hallucinogenic drugs or their effects, is sometimes spelt

psychodelic.

This

is a shor-

spelling is acknowledged by some diction-

pro tempore,

aries but is unacceptable to many users, on

meaning `for the time being' or `tempora-

the grounds that the adjective is derived

rily':

from the word

.

Mr

Jones will take charge of the sales

department pro tem.

proved proven or

of the verb

prove

?

psyche

rather than the prefix

psycho-. Proved

is the past tense

.

and the usual form of its

past participle in British English: (have) proved their innocence.

They

◆ The use of the adjective in the sense of `vividly coloured or patterned' should be restricted to informal contexts. psychedelic

psychiatrist psychoanalyst ,

see

As a variant form of the past participle, is OGIST, PSYCHIATRIST, PSYCHOANALYST largely restricted to the Scottish legal phrase CHOTHERAPIST?

◆

proven

not

PSYCHOLor PSY-

psychological moment

250

psychological moment

The phrase

psy-

the use of emphasis and pauses; punctua-

of German origin, is

tion has to serve the same purpose with

generally used with reference to the most

written language. Lack of punctuation or

chological

.

moment,

appropriate time to produce the desired

incorrect punctuation can lead to misun-

effect:

derstanding and ambiguity.

He waited until she had digested

the news of his promotion and then, at the psychological moment, he proposed to her.

◆ This usage derives from a misinterpretation of theGerman original, which would have been more accurately translated as . The expression should not be used in place of , , etc., or in contexts where the noun would be better qualified by a different adjective, such as , , or :. [not ] psychological momentum

turning point nick of time moment

crucial critical

exact,

precise

the critical

She lost her concentration at

psychological moment.

psychologist psychiatrist psychoanalyst psychotherapist ,

,

or

? These words

are sometimes confused. A

psychologist

is

a person who studies psychology, the study of the human mind and reasons for human behaviour. A

psychiatrist

is a doctor who is

concerned with psychiatry, the branch of medicine concerned with the treatment of mental illness. A

is someone

psychoanalyst

who treats people with mental disorders by means of psychoanalysis, i.e., by bringing patients' mental processes into conscious-

◆ The importance of punctuation in conveying meaning can be illustrated by the various levels ofpunctuationinthefollowingsentences: . . The sense here is that one of my sons was commenting on Geoff'smentalstate. . . The suggestion here is that I have only one son and he was commenting on Geoff's mental state. . .' Here Geoff is commenting on his son's mental state. Punctuation is sometimes a matter of rules and sometimes a matter of style or personal preference. A heavily punctuated passage of writing is unpleasant to read and, in general, it is preferable to use the minimum amount of punctuation consistent with conveying the meaning clearly.

My son

who is a psychiatrist said Geoff is insane

My son, who is a psychiatrist,

said Geoff is insane

`My son, who is a psychia-

trist,' said Geoff, `is insane

See also APOSTROPHE; BRACKETS; CAPITAL LETTERS; COLON; COMMA; DASH; ELLIPSIS; EXCLAMATION MARK; FULL STOP; HYPHEN; ITALICS; PARAGRAPHS; QUESTION MARK; QUOTATION MARKS; SEMICOLONS; SOLIDUS.

pupil student or

? In British English the

ness by allowing them to talk freely about

noun

themselves, especially their early childhood

person receiving instruction from an ex-

experiences. A

pert; a

psychotherapist

is someone

denotes a child at school or a

pupil

student

is a person who studies at an

.

who treats people with mental, emotional,

institute of further or higher education,

or psychosomatic disorders using psycho-

such as a college or university:

logical methods.

at the local infant school

publicly

This word is frequently misspelt;

Michelangelo's

pupils

student at Oxford.

. .

a pupil

a painting by one of while

she

was

a

before the suffix . by American usage, the application This word does not conform to the normal rule ◆of Influenced the noun to schoolchildren, especially that adjectives ending in have an adverb ending the older pupils at a secondary school, is becoming in , as in . increasingly frequent in British English.

there is no

-k-

-ly

◆

student

-ic

-cally

tragic±tragically

pudding DESSERT SWEET AFTERS punctilious punctual see

,

PUDDING

,

?

or

or

purposely

means

? These two ad-

jectives should not be confused.

Punctilious

`on

purposefully

or

purpose;

?

Purposely

intentionally'

and

usually refers to the reason for doing something;

purposefully

means `in a determined

is the more formal of the two and means

way; with a definite purpose in mind' and

`scrupulously correct' or `attentive to de-

usually indicates the manner in which

tail';

.

.

punctual

time':

means `prompt; exactly on

He is very punctilious about etiquette.

If you're called for an interview, be punc-

into the room.

.

He purposely left his

She strode purposefully

The two adverbs are some-

times confused.

tual.

punctuation

.

something is done: umbrella behind.

The

primary

purpose

of

punctuation is to clarify the writer's meaning. In speech the meaning is conveyed by

pusillanimous mous,

.

The

adjective

pusillani-

used in formal contexts to mean

`timid' or `cowardly', is sometimes misspelt.

251 Note the

-ll-,

the single

-n-,

and the

-ous

ending.

putrefy

pyjamas

word's Greek origins,

`dwarfish'.

should be written with an initial capital letter when it is used to refer to a member of one of the tribes of equatorial Africa. pygmaios

◆ Pygmy This word, used in formal English

to mean `decompose' or `rot', is sometimes misspelt. Note the ending

-efy

(like

stupefy),

in spite of the spelling of the related word putrid.

pygmy pigmy or

pyjamas pajamas or

mas

? The spelling

is used in British English and

pyja-

pajamas

is

the usual form in American English. The ? Both of these spellings

are acceptable, although the

y

spelling is

preferred by some users as it shows the

word comes originally from the Urdu and Persian

pay

(meaning

(meaning `clothing').

`leg')

and

jama

quality

Q The word

is often used

quality

.

.

adjectivally as a synonym for `excellent'

.

or `of superior quality': quality fiction

quality goods

a quality newspaper.

Some

people object to this usage on the grounds that the noun

does not always de-

quality

note excellence: the quality of a product, service, etc., may be good, mediocre, or bad.

quality time

The phrase

quality time

is a

personal relationships, e.g. by working parents with their children, especially a comparatively small amount of time exclusively

.

devoted to the needs and interests of the an hour's quality time with the

twins before they go to bed.

Objections to the

phrase have become more muted as it has been absorbed into mainstream English.

quantum leap

Many people object to the

frequent use of the term

.

quantum jump)

advance:

quantum leap

(or

to denote a great change or

The administration must make the

`quantum leap' to negotiations with the new rebel government.

This word for `landing place' is

sometimes misspelt. Although pronounced like

key,

queer

note its totally different spelling.

The use of

queer

as an informal,

often derogatory, synonym for `homosexual', dates back to the early 20th century. In recent years it has been replaced by the word

GAY, which is not derogatory.

Although the term sounds dated in modern usage when used by a heterosexual, it is increasingly used in a non-derogatory manner by homosexuals amongst themselves.

◆

vogue expression applied to time spent in

children:

quay

queer

query

where

The verb ask

propriate: [not

.

or

query

question

`Where

is best avoided

would be more ap-

do you live?' she asked

queried].

The word has connotations of doubt: a is a question prompted by doubt; to is to cast doubt on: . .. .

◆

query

query

query

They accepted his statement

without query

quest

We queried the bill

The noun

preposition

for

quest for the truth.

.

quest

.

or

of:

is followed by the The never-ending

She travelled the world in

quest of her missing brother.

◆ The term is borrowed from the field of physics, question see BEG THE QUESTION; LEADING where it refers to a sudden transition that is QUESTION ; QUESTION MARK; QUESTIONS; RHETOdiscernible but far from great. RICAL QUESTION.

quarrelled quarreled or

.

? In British Eng-

lish the correct spelling of the word is quarrelled:

They quarrelled over a woman.

.

In American English, however, the accepted spelling is

quarreled:

We should

not have quarreled over something so minor.

quasi

The Latin word

quasi,

meaning `as if',

may be combined with adjectives, in the

question mark

The primary use of the

question mark is as a substitute for a full

.

stop at the end of a sentence that is a direct question:

Where are you going?,

.

and at the

end of a quoted question, within the quotation marks:

.

asked.

`Where

are you going?' he

It is not used for an indirect question:

He asked me where I was going.

A question mark may appear after a question thatisnotacompletesentence: . most', or with nouns, in the sense of `resemIt may also appear after a sentence bling', `so-called', or `apparent': . . . which is not actually in question form but where . the rising intonation of speech would indicate a ◆ The hyphen is sometimes omitted but the words . question: . are never written as a one-word compound. may be pronounced [ zõÅ], [ sõÅ] or A question mark usually follows a request: . [ zi]. sense of `virtual', `seemingly', `partly', or `al-

◆

Beer? Wine? Red

quasi-

religious

quasi-official

or white?

quasi-republics

You can't mean that?

Quasi

kwah

kway

kway

going to do it?

She's really

253 If the request is more of an instruction, especially if it is lengthy, it normally ends with a full stop, not a question mark: . . If a verb of thinking follows a direct question it takes a question mark unless the question is in the past, where it has the force of reported speech: . . One would not write: . , although it is occasionally possible for a question mark to appear in the middle of a sentence: . . This is disliked by some people who insist that, as a question mark has the force of a full stop, it cannot appear except at the end of a sentence, or in quotation marks or parentheses. A question mark can be used to show that a fact is dubiously true: . . It is sometimes also used, humorously or ironically, to express doubt: . , but only in very informal contexts. Similarly, doubled question marks and the combination of question marks and exclamation marks should be avoided in formal writing. Could I possibly have a cup of tea?

Would all ladies who wish to travel to

the gardens by coach kindly remain here for a short time

Where are they now, I wonder?

Where were they

now, I wondered.

Where

are they now? I wonder

The question Why me?

is one that cannot be answered

Ambrose Bierce (1842±?1914)

my devoted (?) little brother

questionnaire

This word is sometimes

misspelt. Note the

-nn-,

unlike the single

quit

statement. Usually a positive statement is followed by a negative tag question, and vice versa: .

tall, isn't he?

.

.

He's

.

You work in a bank, don't you?

She can't swim, can she?

The clock hasn't

Tag questions usually require a `yes' or `no' answer but they are sometimes rhetorical. A positive statement followed by a positive tag question may be more of an exclamation than a question: . Negative tag questions usually contain the contraction ; the full form is heard only in very formal contexts or in dialectal English: . stopped, has it?

They want higher wages, do they!

-n't

not

You left

the car unlocked, did you not?

queue quick

see

CUE or QUEUE?

The use of the word

.

quick

as an

adverb should generally be avoided in formal contexts:

Please

.

reply

quick] to avoid disappointment.

quickly

[not

The comparative and superlative forms and are more informal than and :. .. . may be preferred to when the adverb is preceded by : . ? The use of the adverb in fixed combinations, such as , , etc., is acceptable in all contexts. ◆

quickest

Come quick!

quicker

more quickly

most quickly

Some plants grow more

quickly/quicker than others

The German athlete

ran the quickest/most quickly

Quicker

more quickly

any

Can you drive any quicker quick

quick-drying paint

quick-frozen

food

pro quo A is something The traditional pronunciation of the first syllable quid given to someone in return for something was [kest-] but in contemporary usage the first else: . syllable is generally pronounced as in .. [kweschoÆ ]. . questions A is a word, phrase, or ◆ The phrase is Latin in origin, sentence that asks for information and meaning `something for something'. Its English requires an answer (see also RHETORICAL . QUESTION). Questions often begin with plural is

n

in

millionaire.

quid pro quo

◆

question:

nair

They felt obliged to write research

papers as a kind of quid pro quo for their fees

to exchange information on a quid pro quo basis

question

quid pro quo

quid pro quos

how,

.

why:

.

what,

when,

where,

.

How did you find out?

inverted verb:

.

you hungry?

Must she?

it?

Which

one?

.

.

which,

Why?,

.

who,

or

Where is

.

or with an

Is he old enough?

Are

Will the car be

quiet quieten or

? Both these verbs may be

used to mean `soothe, calm, or allay' or `make or become quiet'; in the second of these senses the verb is often followed by down.

In British English the verb quiet is largely reQUESTION MARK. stricted to the first sense and formal usage and ◆ Indirect questions, which occur in REPORTED quieten to the second: . We must try to quiet his SPEECH, do not have a question mark at the ready tomorrow?

Direct questions are al-

ways followed by a

◆

.. end: . . . In American English the verb Other words, phrases, and sentences may beis preferred in both senses. come questions by the addition of a question mark in written or printed texts or by INTONATION in quit or quitted? Either word may be used . as the past tense and past participle of the speech: . A is an inverted form of the verb verb . is preferred by some etc., that is added to a ◆ In British English She asked me what I was doing

doubts

The children quietened down when their

mother appeared quiet

You've sold it?

tag question

be, have, do, can, must,

Coffee?

quit

quitted

quite

254

users in formal contexts, but the American variant from the expression used: . is becoming increasingly frequent, particularly . in informal contexts: . ◆ The convention in British English has been for .. . punctuation to come inside the quotation marks when it is part of the actual quotation. Howquite In the sense of `completely', `totally', only ever, the comma usually also comes within the or `entirely', the adverb is generally quotation marks when it is followed by , used with adjectives that cannot be quali. ,etc.: . . fied by : where the quoted matter is . . not followedIn sentences by or similar, then the comma . Used with other . takes its logical position: adjectives, usually has the meaning . In American English `somewhat', `fairly', or `rather': . the comma would appear within the quotation . . . marks in the last example. Full stops also always ◆ In some contexts, however, the adverb may be appear within the quotation marks in American ambiguous: . .. English: . . whereas in British English when the In the sense of `fairly', the adverb usually quoted material is not a complete sentence or precedes the indefinite article: . the full stop falls outside the quotation . . The adjectival use of utterance theexpression , meaning`remarkable' or marks: . `exceptional', is best restricted to informal con- Either single or double quotation marks can be texts: . .. used but when there is a quotation within a . quotation, double marks must be used inside quitted see QUIT or QUITTED? single ones, or vice versa: . quiz Some people dislike the use of. the Quotation marks are used instead of italics for verb in the sense of `interrogate': various short literary and musical works (see TITLES). They are also sometimes used by writers to . This usage is widely regarded as indicate slang or as an apology for using a partiJOURNALESE. cular word or expression: . ◆ A further objection to the verb is raised by those . They are also used in who feel that the lighthearted connotations of the various specialized writings to indicate meanings noun (in the sense of `general knowledge means `from game or competition') are inappropriate to the or interpretations: . The word this time'. seriousness of a police interrogation. He

quit

said

he

was in an `ongoing situation'

They quitted/quit the build-

ing without delay

He has quit/quitted his job

quite

he said

a quite excellent result

very

unnecessary remark

a quite

It is quite impossible!

Martha replied go away.'

he said

The ring is quite worthless

He loves Kipling's `If',

quite

They are

quite useful

`I wish,' she said, `you would

and is constantly quoting it

The film is quite frightening

The room is quite clean

The bucket

is quite full

See Fowler's section on `hackneyed

phrases.'

quite

quite an easy

question

quite a long time

He said I should work at `improving my

quite a/an

image'.

She has quite a collection

That was quite

a meal

She commented, `I

wish he wouldn't call me ``sweetie''.'

quiz

The

police quizzed him about his involvement in the affair

I gather my writing is

thought to lack `pizzazz'

quiz

hence

quotation marks .

Quotation marks are

.

used at the beginning and end of direct quotations:

He said, `I'm going out now.'

`All right,' she replied, `but don't be late.'

Only

the words actually spoken are placed with-

.

.

in the quotation marks; they are not used in reported speech:

`I am tired,' she said.

said that she was tired.

She

However, in reported

speech, one might use quotation marks in order to draw attention to the fact that the speaker has used certain words, particularly if one wished to dissociate oneself

quote

The noun

quote

and the plural form

. .

(short for

quotes

quotation)

(short for

quota-

.

tion marks)

are best restricted to informal

contexts:

It's a quote from Shakespeare.

We'd better get a quote for having the fence repaired.

Should

the

last

sentence be

in

The word is also used in speech to introduce a direct quotation: . . (The addition of at the end is optional.) quotes?

◆

quote

The chairman said,

quote, there will be no further redundancies this year, unquote

unquote

race

R The term

race,

denoting a particular

falling from clouds or similar downpours:

.

refers to the

people or racial group, is avoided by many

The rain eased at noon. Reign

users because of its controversial associa-

rule of a monarch or other leader, while

tions. Preferred terms include

rein

racism racialism or

ethnic group.

? Both these nouns are

.

describes one of the leather straps used

.

to control a horse:

discrimination',

racism

being

more

fre-

racialism

The company was accused of racism in its recruitment policy

The noun

the reign of the present

is also used in such expressions as `allow freedom to' and quent than in modern usage: . `control strictly'. The verb means `exercise royal authority': . . . is alsoused to describe a rack or wrack? These two words are powerful prevalent power or influence:.. sometimes confused. is used for a . framework for storing or displaying things: used in the sense of `racial prejudice or

queen

◆

pull on the reins.

rein

give free rein to

keep a

tight rein on

reign

King Henry VIII reigned

from 1509 to 1547 Reign

the reign

of terror in Uganda under Idi Amin

Rack

.

a luggage rack

.

reigned in Europe since 1945

.

rack

racked

is also

on the rack.

means `cause to suffer pain': uncertainty;

with

one's brains.

.

a shoe rack. Rack

used for the torturing frame:

As a verb

one also

The expression

and ruin; nerve-racking,

racks

rack and ruin,

`a state of collapse', may also be spelt

wrack

`causing great anx-

iety and tension', has the variant spelling nerve-wracking. Wrack

is seaweed.

racket racquet or

in sport for striking the ball:

.

rainbow coalition

tennis racket/

The phrase

rainbow

is a vogue expression of American

coalition

origin, denoting a political alliance of minority groups (such as ethnic minorities,

.

pressure groups, or minor political parties): a rainbow coalition of New Agers, peace

campaigners, and animal rights activists.

raise raze or

? Either spelling is ac-

ceptable for describing the implement used

.

Peace has

high; raze city

was

.

? The verb

to a higher position':

raise

means `move

means `destroy completely': razed

to

the

.

He raised the trophy ground.

The

The two

spellings should not be confused.

The spelling has the additional noun ◆ The verb has the variant spelling . is more frequent than in modern usage. senses `loud noise': . , and `illegal business': . raise or rise? Both these verbs mean `move . to a higher or upright position' or `in-

racquet

◆

the game of rackets/racquets.

raze

racket

rase Raze

rase

That music is a terrible

racket

involved in a drugs

racket

rage

The word

has been used to form

rage

a variety of compounds in recent years

.

crease'.

Raise

.

.

is transitive,

She raised her arm.

denoting outbursts of anger at some incon-

price.

venience of modern life or the inconside-

temperature was rising.

.

.

.

rate behaviour of others in a particular situation:

road rage

air rage

web rage.

As vogue terms, these phrases are best restricted to informal contexts.

rail

The verb

rail

.

Protesters railed at

[or

against] the reform of the abortion law.

rain, reign, rein or

? These spellings are

sometimes confused.

Rain

is intransitive:

I watched the smoke rise.

.

The

◆ The verb is also used in the sense of `bring up',`rear',or`breed': . .. . (Some people regard this usage as an Americanism.) , an irregular verb, has a number of specialized uses: . .. . . The noun means `increase': . . In American English is used in place of to denote an increase in salary, wages, etc.: . ; this usage is raise

He was raised in Cornwall

We raise Highland cattle

Rise

is followed by the pre-

position at or against:

rise

They may raise the

refers to water

She rose at

dawn

The dough has risen rise

rise in unemployment rise

He asked for a raise

a pay rise

raise

a

raison d'eÃtre

256

sometimes found in British English, but is disliked by many. See also

ARISE or RISE?; RAISE or RAZE?

raison d'eÃtre

The phrase

à tre, raison d'e

a reason or justification for existence; it is best avoided where

reason, explanation,

Helping

the

à tre. raison d'e the reason

.

bereaved

is

the

rug rat

rateable ratable

organization's

à tre] for the governraison d'e

ment's change of policy.

Note the spelling of the phrase, particularly the circumflex accent on the first . The anglicized pronunciation is [ zon treÆ].

(for a small child),

? Both spellings of this

.

word are acceptable, but ferred by some users:

SPELLING 3.

. rather

etc.,

The Prime Minister explained

[not

.

are grudgingly affectionate. or

of

French origin, is used in English to denote

would be adequate or more appropriate:

others, such as

would

The adverb

or

had,

but

modern usage,

rather

See

may be used with

being rather formal:

had

.

is more frequent in

would

.

is pre-

rateable

rateable value.

They would/had rather watch television than listen to the radio. stayed at home.

She would/had rather you

The contraction ' , which may represent either or , is often used in informal contexts: . . rang see RINGED, RANG or RUNG? See also SHOULD or WOULD? The substitution of for after a rapt or wrapped? These spellings are comparative . is wrong: sometimes confused. The adjective means `engrossed or absorbed': . [not ] . . . is the past tense of the verb , Some people object to the use of before meaning `enfold': . or when the following noun is qualified by an . to ◆ Note that can also be used figuratively: adjective, preferring . If the noun is not . . qualified by an adjective, must precede rara avis The phrase , denoting a the indefinite article: . . ◆

e

ray

de

◆

d

would

had

I'd rather write than telephone

rather than

rapt

rapt with

They listened with rapt attention

wonder

Wrapped

wrap

than

He is more interested in

the customs and traditions of Elizabethan times than

rather than in the political events of the

period

rather

She wrapped the shawl

a

an

round the baby

it's a rather expensive car

wrapped

it's rather an expensive car

He is completely wrapped up in his work

rather

rara avis

.

rare or unusual person or thing, is often better replaced by the noun

rarity:

The

dedicated employee who is prepared to work long hours without reward is a rara avis.

Of Latin origin, the phrase literally means `rare bird'. The usual pronunciation of is [ aÆ vis] or [ aÆ vis].

◆

He's rather a coward

ravage ravish or

? These two verbs should

not be confused.

Ravage

means `cause great

.

damage to' and `devastate';

.

`delight or enrapture': ravaged by war.

ravish

means

The country was

They were ravished by the

beauty of the sunset.

◆ has the additional meaning of `rape' or `carry off by force': . rarefy This word, meaning `make rare or . less dense', is sometimes misspelt. Note the Both verbs are largely restricted to formal conending, unlike , etc. texts. The word is also used as a noun, in The variant spelling is acknowlsuch phrases as , and the word edged by some dictionaries but is best in the adjectival form :. avoided. . ◆ The past participle , used as an adjective meaning `exalted', `exclusive', or `thin', is the most raze see RAISE or RAZE? frequent form: . . re The use of the preposition , meaning rara avis

ay

rar

rair

Ravish

ay

She was ravished by her

captors

-efy

purify,

intensify

ravage

rarify

the ravages of time

ravish

rarefied

rat

ravishing

You look

ravishing in that dress

rarefied atmosphere

re

has been in common use

`with reference to' or `in the matter of',

for many years as an insult for someone

should be restricted to the heading or

The word

rat

.

who has behaved despicably or deceitfully,

opening of a business letter:

but in recent times it has enjoyed renewed

rates for personal loans.

.

currency in a number of combined forms. Some, such as

mall rat

.

(for a person who

spends many hours shopping) or

love rat

Country Life.

about concerning

(for a man who cheats on his partner), are

umentary about

broadly

single parents

contemptuous

in

tone,

while

Re: Interest

In other contexts can usually be replaced by , , etc.: . [not ] ..

ment in

◆

.

Re your advertise-

re

I am producing a doc-

re the problems faced by

We have received many com-

257

reason

[not ] real Many people object to the frequent use . of the adjective in place of , is usually pronounced to rhyme with . The , etc., or simply for emphasis: . . . . pronunciation [ray] is also heard from time to time, but is incorrect. . See also COMMERCIALESE. ◆ The adverbialuse of in the sense of `really'or `very' is an American or dialectal usage: . re- The prefix , meaning `again', should . be followed by a hyphen in compounds that plaints concerning

re the proposed route for

the new bypass

real

Re

bee

important

a real

serious

a real problem

achievement

the real facts

in real life

real

He's real

re-

clever

might be confused with existing or more familiar words. Such verbs as lease,

and

re-sound, re-

(meaning `sound again',

re-sign

real reel . or

?

Real

or `verifiable':

means `existent', `actual',

.

The country in which the

story is set is not real.

The real reason for her

`lease again', and `sign again'), for example,

resignation came out later.

are thus distinguished from the verbs

confused with

sound, release,

and

re-

resign.

REBOUND or RE-BOUND?; RECOUNT or RE-COUNT?; RECOVER or RE-COVER?; RECREATION or RE-CREATION?; REFORM or RE-FORM?; RELAY or RE-LAY?; REPRESENT or RE-PRESENT?; RESORT or RE-SORT? See also

The use of a hyphen in the words

re-

educate, re-election, re-entry, re-erect, re-examine,

etc., is optional (see also

HYPHEN 1).

Some people prefer to retain the hyphen in such words as

re-invent, re-arrest,

avoid confusion with

rein, rear,

etc., to

etc.

reel,

It should not be

which describes a re-

.

volving device of some kind or, as a verb,

.

means `stagger' or `whirl': reel.

realism reality or

?

.

and

back

.

really are: reality.

Daydreams are an escape from

We must face reality. Realism

.

in 1945.

.

[not

[not

idealistic attitude of mind: this

must

be

approached

made

me

again].

re-

returned back] to England

.

I refer you back].

[not

The use of

the

.

We are redecorating

redecorating again].

rewrite

article

again

[not

He

rewrite

in the last example

.

would imply that the article had been written more than twice:

He was

not

satisfied with my second draft and made me rewrite the article again.

reaction

The noun

reaction,

nion,

etc., would be more appropriate:

panic.

.

response

.

reply, response, answer, opi-

hearing the alarm his

reaction was

On

reaction] from the committee.

[not

reaction].

A can only occur in response to something else; the word should not be used in place of , , etc.: . [not ] , but: .

◆

realistic realistic

reaction

effect influence

What was the effect

reaction of the news on her family?

What

was the reaction of her family to the news?

readable

see

The frequent use of the adjective

as a synonym for `sensible', `prac-

.

.

tical', `reasonable', etc., is disliked by many users:

.

a

alternative

realistic

proposal

a realistic offer.

reality REALISM reality TV see

or

a

realistic

REALITY?

The phrase

reality TV

refers to

those television programmes that make tate the challenges of real life as closely as possible, the camera appearing to eavesdrop upon its subjects. A relatively recent development in popular television, TV

LEGIBLE or READABLE?

reality

remains a somewhat jargonistic term.

. really

one of

Please study these proposals and give me your opinion

and

realism

We had hoped for a more favourable

[not

realism

common sense.

entertainment out of situations which imiwhich denotes

a spontaneous or automatic response, is best avoided where

Problems like

with

◆ In art, literature, etc., the term denotes a style in which things are depicted as they really are, to as opposed to abstract art, romantic literature, etc. . :

I refer you to the opening paragraph

the lounge

is the

acceptance of reality, a practical rather than

again

verbs that begin with the prefix She returned

is the state of

Reality

being real, or the state of things as they

Careful users avoid the tautological addition of the adverbs

A fisherman's

He reeled with shock.

really

The excessive use of the adverb is best avoided, even in informal

contexts.

Really

can often be replaced by

a different intensifier, such as mely,

.

thoroughly,

altogether:

truly,

very, extre-

etc., or omitted

.

until the paint is really dry. that holiday.

reason

.

It was really late when they

.

arrived and we were really worried.

Wait

I really enjoyed

She really hates her job.

Careful users regard the tautologi-

rebound

258

cal construction

as

the reason is/was because

wrong, preferring

the reason is/was that

simpler paraphrase using

alone:

because

The reason for the delay is that

[not

.

because]

there are road works in the town centre.

reason I opened the window was that

The

.

[not

because] there was a wasp in the room.

the first syllable, is becoming increasingly

. reciprocal

or a

I

opened the window because there was a wasp in the room.

frequent.

see

CAL?

reckon of

MUTUAL, COMMON or RECIPRO-

The use of the verb

think,

in place

reckon

.

expressing a personal opinion, is

best restricted to informal contexts:

He

◆ Similar objections are raised to the use of such ◆ In the sense of `consider' or `regard', however, constructions as is acceptable in all contexts: . , etc. The phrase is acceptable to . some users but disliked by others: . is followed by the . In such contexts may be recoil The verb . preposition or : replaced by or omitted altogether; if a noun [or ] . can be substituted for the verb, the phrase may be used instead: . recommend This word, meaning `praise . . or suggest as suitable', is often misspelt. reckons the other team will win.

the reason is due to, the reason

was on account of

reckon

She is

reckoned to be one of the most talented musicians

the reason why

of her generation

the reason

why he resigned

recoil

why

from

that

at

the

reason for

the reason (that)

he resigned

the reason for his resignation

rebound re-bound or

? These two spel-

.

lings are sometimes confused. The verb means `spring back':

rebound

rebounded. Re-bound,

The ball

spelt with a hyphen,

is the past tense and past participle of the verb

.

(or

re-bind

again':

rebound

rebind),

meaning `bind

The book has been re-bound.

or

redound .

?

`spring back':

The

Rebound

ball

upon the government. bound.

or lead to':

.

re-

to the sense `contribute

Your skilful performance re-

is used as a noun: . ..

dounds to your benefit.

◆

Only

rebound

bounced off Smith's arm

.

rebound

receipt

The rebound

marry someone on the

This word, meaning `written con-

firmation that something has been paid or received', is sometimes misspelt. Note the -ei-

spelling, and the silent

See also

receive

the

-ei-

p.

This word is often misspelt. Note

spelling, which conforms to the rule

`i before

e

See also

recess

SPELLING 5.

except after

SPELLING 5.

The noun

recess

-mm-.

This word, meaning `ex-

ploration or survey of an area for military intelligence purposes', is often misspelt. Note the -nn- and -ss-.

Note also the spelling of the verb meaning `make a reconnaissance'. ◆

or

reconnoitre

? These two spellings

are sometimes confused. The verb

However, most careful users prefer redound

reconnaissance

and

c

. recount re-count .

In the figurative sense

is sometimes used in place of

to restrict

Note the single

means

rebounded.

The success of the project threatens to rebound

redound

She recoiled from

at

the prospect of meeting him again

c'.

means `narrate':

ences

during the

recount

He recounted his experi-

war.

The verb

re-count,

with a hyphen, means `count again', and the noun

.

re-count,

which is used more

frequently than the verb, means `second count':

to demand a re-count of the votes.

recourse resort resource ,

or

? Similarities

in the sense, usage, form, and pronunciation of these words may lead to confusion.

.

All three can refer to a source of help or an expedient:

Violence was our only recourse/

resort/resource.

In the expressions and and are virtually interchangeable but cannot be replaced by is the more frequent noun in such contexts, being used as a verb in similar constructions: . .± .. .± . In the expression the nouns and are interchangeable but cannot be replaced by . is generally ◆

have recourse/resort to

without recourse/resort to, recourse

resort

resource. Recourse resort

I hope he will not have recourse to

violence

I hope he will not resort to violence

They settled the dispute without recourse to vio-

may be pronounced

[rises] or [reeses]. The first pronunciation, with the stress on the second syllable, is preferred by some users of British English, but the second pronunciation, stressed on

lence

They settled the dispute without resorting

to violence

as a last resort/resource

resort

resource

recourse Resort

259

reform

considered to be the more idiomatic choice in such reel see REAL or REEL? contexts: . . refer The verb She turned to violence as a last resort

recover re-cover or

.

? These two spellings

are sometimes confused. `regain':

.

means

Recover

She recovered her health. Re-cover,

with a hyphen, means `give a new cover to': The upholsterer re-covered the chair.

recreation re-creation or

of these words are sometimes confused.

.

means `relaxation; leisure (pur-

Recreation

suit)':

a

ground.

recreation

.

Re-creation,

r

is doubled before

-ed, -ing, and -er. In the noun

the

reference

stress shifts to the first syllable, and the second

is not doubled.

r

SPELLING 1.

See also

? The spellings

is stressed on the

refer

second syllable; the final

For the use of the adverb verb

referee umpire or

with the

back

RE-.

see

refer

? Both nouns denote a

person who ensures that a game is played

with a hyphen, is less frequently used

according to the rules and settles any dis-

and means `a new creation':

putes that arise during the course of the

the re-crea-

game. A

tion of the Wild West for the film set.

recuperate

The verb

recuperate,

meaning

`recover', is sometimes misspelt, a common

supervises such sports as

referee

football, boxing, etc.; an

umpire

such

cricket,

sports

as

tennis,

supervises baseball,

hockey, etc.

◆ A is also a person who supplies a professional or character reference for a job ap◆ Note that the verb is always used intransitively: . plicant, prospective tenant, etc. The noun is not used in this sense. error being the substitution of -coup- for -cup-, as in the verb

referee

recoup.

umpire

It will take him weeks to recuperate.

recur

The word

recur,

. referendum

meaning `happen

again', should never be followed by

again:

Make sure this situation does not recur.

Red Indian NATIVE AMERICAN redouble reduplicate see

or

double

.

redoubled our efforts.

formal verb

.

? The verb

means `increase' or `intensify':

reWe

The rarer and more

reduplicate

The noun

plural forms,

means `repeat' or

.

referendum

and

referendums

has two

referenda.

Referendums

is the more frequent in gen-

eral usage:

Their proposed referendums on

nuclear disarmament and the return of capital punishment will be welcomed by many.

reflective reflexive or

? These two ad-

jectives should not be confused.

Reflective

`double'; it also has the specialized sense of

is used in the literal sense of `reflecting

`repeat (a syllable)', as in the words

light' or the figurative sense of `thought-

papa,

bye-bye,

etc.

Note that in general usage does not refer to the act of doubling something. ◆

redouble

redound redundant

see

REBOUND or REDOUND?

place of

. .

redundant

in

unnecessary, superfluous, irrelevant,

unimportant,

etc.:

Our

second

car

will

become redundant when my husband starts commuting by train.

The cancellation of the

dinner dance made the baby-sitting problem redundant.

reduplicate REDOUBLE reek wreak . see

or

?

`smell strongly':

Reek

or

REDUPLICATE?

The flat reeked.

not be confused with

wreak,

.

which means

storm wreaked havoc in the harbour.

WROUGHT.

The

It should

`cause havoc' or `inflict violence': See also

.

means `stink' or

affair reeked of state interference.

.

a

REFLEXIVE): .

mood. Reflexive

The

reflexive

A

.

. .

reflective

stripe

in a reflective

is a grammatical term (see

reflexive verb

noun.

Some people object to the fre-

quent use of the adjective

ful; contemplative':

across the back of the jacket

reflexive

reflexive pro-

is a transitive

verb

.

verb in which the subject and object are the same:

directors creases. self,

.

I washed myself.

behind a tree.

awarded

themselves

The pronouns

herself,

yourselves,

and

pronouns.

See also

itself,

or

large

The

pay

in-

myself, yourself, himoneself,

themselves

ourselves,

are called

reflexive

SELF; VERBS.

reform re-form sometimes

.

She hid herself

He perjured himself.

? These spellings are

confused.

The

verb

means `change by improvement':

.

to reform the tax system. Re-form,

hyphen, means `form again':

.

reform plans

with a

After a lapse

of ten years, the club decided to re-form.

refrigerator

refrigerator

260 Note

the

spelling

of

this

word, particularly the -er- in the middle and the -or at the end. There is no refrigerator,

d

in

unlike the informal short form

fridge.

refute deny or

? The verb

.

`prove to be false'; be false':

deny

means

refute

means `declare to

.

He refuted their accusations by

producing a receipt for the camera.

He denied

their accusations but was unable to prove his innocence.

The use of

refute

in place of

deny

is avoided by many careful users but nevertheless occurs with some frequency.

regard .

.

should be used with the preposition

regard as:

In the sense of `consider' the verb

She regards her mother as her friend.

This novel is regarded as the author's masterpiece.

Compare

CONSIDER.

The verb has a number of other senses and is also used in the prepositional phrase , meaning `with respect to', `about', or `concerning': . . should not be confused with the phrases and the less frequent , used in similar contexts, in which the word is a noun and does not end in . In mid-sentence these compound prepositions are often better replaced by , or . The noun is used in a variety of other expressions. means `show consideration for': . . The plural noun , meaning `greetings', occurs in such expressions as (used to close a letter) and :. . ◆

regard

as

regards

As regards your suggestion, the

committee will discuss it at tomorrow's meeting As regards

with regard to

in

regard to

regard

s

about, concerning

regarding

regard

Have regard for

They have no regard for her

safety

regards

with kind

regards

give one's

regards to

Please give my regards to your

daughter when you next see her

regardless IRRESPECTIVE registry office register office see

.

or

? Both

these terms are used to denote the place

◆ , not , may be used to mean `it is regrettable that': . , . The increasing use of in place of in this sense may be due to confusion with HOPEFULLY, THANKFULLY, etc. Regrettably

regretfully

Regrettably the

house does not have a garage regretfully

regrettably

reign, rein reiterate

see

RAIN, REIGN or REIN?

The verb

reiterate

means `repeat'

RE-): .

or `say or do repeatedly'; it should not be used with the adverb

again

(see also

The Prime Minister was simply reiterating the promises made in the party manifesto.

relation

relationship

or

?

Both

these

nouns may be used in the sense of `con-

.

nection' but they are not interchangeable in all contexts:

.

Is there any relation/relation-

ship between unemployment and crime?

.

This evidence bears no relation ship] to the case.

[not

relation-

What is his relationship

[not

relation] to the deceased?

The noun is preferred for human connections, for more abstract connections. A similar distinction may be applied to the use of and the plural noun in the sense of `mutual feelings or dealings': .

◆

relationship relation

relationship

relations

.

relations

.

an intimate relationship

ment's relations with the unions with his wife

See also

.

.

business

the govern-

his relationship

RELATION or RELATIVE?

relation relative or

? Either noun may be

.

used to denote a person connected to another by blood, marriage, or adoption:

.

Most of her relations/relatives are going to the wedding. Canada.

I have a distant relation/relative in

RELATION or RELATIONSHIP? relative clause see CLAUSE; COMMA; THAT or WHICH? See also

relatively

The adverb

relatively

implies

where civil marriages are conducted and

comparison;

where births, marriages, and deaths are

use as a synonym for `fairly', `somewhat',

recorded.

`rather', etc., where there is no comparison:

Registry office

is the more fre-

quent term in general usage,

register office

being largely restricted to formal contexts.

regrettably

or

regretfully

? These two

adverbs are sometimes confused. bly

Regretta-

relates to something that causes regret;

.

regretfully

.

regret: low.

relates to somebody who feels This year's profits are regrettably

She regretfully turned down their offer.

.

many

.

people

object

to

its

After the heat of the kitchen the lounge felt

relatively cool.

Our records are fairly

[not

relatively] up to date.

relay re-lay or

.

? These two spellings are

sometimes confused. The verb `pass on':

lay,

to relay a message.

relay

means

The verb

to re-lay a carpet.

.

re-

spelt with a hyphen, means `lay again':

261

repairable

The past tense and past participle of is reminiscent This word is sometimes mis; the past tense and past participle of spelt. Note particularly the - -, as in . is . remission or remittance? Both these The word is also used as a noun: . nouns are derived from the verb . .. is largely restricted to official . In this usage, and in such phrases as contexts, in the sense of `payment': . , is stressed on the first syllable. . The verbs and may be stressed on a wider range of uses and either syllable; is sometimes stressed on meanings, has such as `reduction in the length both. of a prison sentence', `abatement of the ◆

relay

relayed

re-lay

sc

scent

re-laid

relay

The

switch is operated by a relay

They worked in

relays

remit

Remittance

Please

relay race relay relay

enclose this counterfoil with your remittance

re-lay

Remission

re-lay

relevant reliable reliant

This word is sometimes misspelt.

Note particularly the second

e.

.

symptoms of a disease', `discharge; release': the remission of sins.

Careful users maintain the distinction between the two words. means `dependable' or `able to be trusted': . or

a reliable car not

.

reliable

Some of the author's sources are

reliable.

very

? The adjective

The

adjective

.

reliant,

meaning `dependent', is chiefly used in the phrase

be reliant on:

on their assistance.

relocate

in

and

.

relocate,

frequently used

industrial

contexts,

is

widely regarded as a pretentious synonym for `move':

.

the latest major firm to relocate

to Basingstoke

remit

where

The noun

Unemployment in the North

is forcing many families to relocate.

remedial remediable or

.

`intended as a remedy'; `able to be remedied':

a remediable problem.

?

Remedial

remediable

means

.

means

remedial treatment

The two adjectives

remit

is best avoided

task, responsibility, brief,

.

etc., would

be adequate or more appropriate:

The

quality control function will also be part of

(Executive

Post).

As a synonym for the wordy expression , however, denoting the scope of an investigation, is welcomed by many users: . . The verb is pronounced [ri ]. The noun may also be stressed on the second syllable, but its usual pronunciation is [ mit].

your remit

The verb

business

We were reliant

◆

◆

terms of

reference

remit

Financial matters are not part of the inquiry's

remit

remit

mit

ree

STRESS. remittance see REMISSION or REMITTANCE? See also

The traditional pronunciation of is specifically applied to theteaching of renege this word, which means `not keep (a pro. slow learners: . mise, agreement, etc.)' is [ri ], but [ri. ] is also frequently used and is is less frequent than its antonym acceptable. :. . the spelling of , particularly Both adjectives are stressed on the second syl- theNote ending. The spelling is a lable, unlike the word from which they are less frequent variant. derived. is pronounced [ri diaÆl], The verb is followed by the preis pronounced [ri diaÆbl]. . position : .

should not be confused.

◆ Remedial

remedial education

a remedial

course

neeg

nayg

Remediable

irremediable

The damage is irremediable

renege

ege

remedy

Remedial

mee

mediable

remembrance

re-

noun

remembrance,

ory', or `memento', is often misspelt, the most frequent error being the substitution of -ber- for -br-, as in the verb

remember.

Note also the -ance ending.

.

The verb

preposition of':

of

remind

.

about

is followed by the

in the sense `cause to think

The smell of pine forests reminds me of

my childhood in Scotland.

or

of

had made.

It is followed by

in the sense `cause to remember':

She reminded me about

[or

They reneged on the deal

on

meaning `the act of remembering', `mem-

remind

renege

mee

The

renegue

of] the promise I

rent HIRE RENT repair FIX REPAIR repairable reparable see

or

see

?

or

or

?

? Both these ad-

jectives mean `able to be repaired'; careful users apply and

repairable

reparable

. .

to material objects

to abstract nouns:

badly damaged but repairable. scarcely reparable.

The car is

His loss is

The two adjectives relate to different senses of the verb : `mend' or `restore' ( ) and `remedy' or `make good' ( ). , which is stressed on the first syllable

◆

repair

repairable

reparable

Reparable

repel

262

[ aÆraÆbl], is less frequent than its opposite repetitious or repetitive? The adjective :. means `characterized by repeti. tion'; means `characterized by is stressed on the second syllable unnecessary or tedious repetition': . . [ri aÆbl]; its opposite is :. . . ◆ , the more frequent of the two adjectives, is also sometimes used in the derogatory repel see REPELLENT or REPULSIVE? sense of , but careful users avoid this usage: . [not ] repellent or repulsive? and . mean `causing disgust or aversion'. Note the spellings of , and is the stronger of the two adjecthe related noun , particularly the second tives, both of which are ultimately derived - - which is sometimes wrongly replaced by - -. from the Latin verb , meaning rep

irre-

parable

These allegations have done irreparable

repetitive

harm to his political career

repetitious

Repairable

a re-

pair

unrepairable

These

petitive rhythm

shoes are unrepairable

repetitious arguments

Repetitive

repetitious

Repellent

a lengthy repetitious

re-

repetitive

description of the ceremony

pulsive

repetitious, repetitive

Repulsive

repetition

.

.

`repel': sight.

e

repellere

His deformed body was a repellent

.

The partially decomposed corpse was a

repulsive sight. ism are

The principles of Commun-

repellent

to some; the doctrines of

Nazism were repulsive to many.

The adjective is also used in combination to mean `driving away' or `resistant': . . . is a less frequent spelling of the noun and adjective . The verb is a weaker synonym of . The use of the verb in the sense of `disgust' or `cause aversion' is disliked by some users, who restrict it to the sense of `drive back' or `rebuff': . .. . may be used in any of these senses. ◆

repellent

insect-

repellent cream

water-repellent fabric Repellant

repellent

repel

repulse

repulse

The inhabitants repulsed the invading army

He

repulsed her offer of friendship Repel

repent

The verb

the preposition

dissolute youth.

repercussions

may be followed by

He repented (of) his

or

The word

repercussions

is

result, consequence, ef-

etc., would be adequate or more ap-

? The verb

. .

means `take the place of'; the verb means `put in the place of': painting for her photograph.

was

substituted

for

her

replace

substitute

I substituted his

.

Her photograph

was replaced with his painting.

.

His painting

photograph.

painting replaced her photograph.

His

is always used with the preposition may be used with the preposition or (especially in passive sentences): . . All the examples above refer to the act of removing and putting in its place. The two verbs are often confused in such contexts, being used instead of , but careful users maintain the distinction between them. ◆ Substitute

;

for replace

with

by

Her

photograph was replaced by his painting her photograph

his painting

substitute

replace

replica use of

Some people object to the frequent replica

reproduction,

best avoided where

.

.

repent

of:

replace substitute

i

in place of

model,

etc.:

.

copy, duplicate, He

.

bought

plastic replica of the Eiffel Tower.

a

.

This

article is a replica of yesterday's editorial.

The noun principally denotes an exact copy of a work of art, especially one made by the is therefore ◆ The noun literally means `rever- original artist. The phrase beration' or `rebound'; in figurative contexts it tautologous. should be restricted to indirect or far-reaching reported speech Reported speech, also effects: . called indirect speech, differs from direct . speech in a number of ways. In direct

fect,

propriate:

the repercussions of a ban on

legislation to ban replica guns.

◆

replica

smoking in restaurants.

exact replica

repercussion

the repercussions of a serious accident

at one of Britain's nuclear power stations

repertoire repertory or

toire

? The noun

reper-

principally denotes the musical or

dramatic works, poems, jokes, etc., that a

.

person or group is able or prepared to perform:

That song is not in her repertoire.

speech the actual words of the speaker are given, enclosed in

QUOTATION MARKS in

written or printed texts: lost my ring.'

.

Mary said, `I've

.

In reported speech quotation

marks are not used for this purpose:

The word is also used in this sense but . is more frequently applied to a company of actors ◆ Note the differences between the two examples that presents a of plays at the same above. The subject pronoun usually changes to . theatre: . or in reported speech; often changes to . . The subject pronoun may change to in . ◆

repertory

repertoire

a repertory company

theatre

Mary

said that she had lost her ring

I

a repertory

to act/be performed in repertory

she

they

he

we

you

I

263 reported speech if it refers to the person who is reporting the speech: . . . The use of the word to introduce reported speech is optional.In formal contexts is usually included. Note also the change of TENSE in reported speech: becomes ; becomes . Thus the present tense usually changes to the simple past; and change to ; changesto : . . ; and change to ; changes to , etc. Peter said, `You need a

new battery.'

Peter said that I needed a new

battery

that

that

I've lost

she had lost you need

I needed

has

had will

be late.'

would

have

He said, `Anne will

He said that Anne would be late am

is

was are

represent re-present or

.

were

? These spellings

are sometimes confused.

`act in place of': whole

school.

Represent

means

The team will represent the

.

Re-present,

means `present again':

with a hyphen, He

re-presented

the series of lectures the following autumn.

repress reproach

see

OPPRESS, REPRESS or SUPPRESS?

The verb

the preposition me with

[or

with

.

reproach

is followed by

or

She reproached

for:

,

see

?

REPELLENT or REPULreputable

should

Æ bl]. be stressed on the first syllable, [repyuuta Æ bl], with the The pronunciation [ripewta stress on the second syllable, is incorrect.

requisite research

see

PREREQUISITE or REQUISITE?

The word

research

is traditionally

syllable [riserch]. In recent years, however, many people have taken to placing the stress on the first syllable [reeserch] and this is now widely considered a valid alter-

all the index cards.

z

s

zort

resort resource RECOURSE RESORT RESOURCE respectable respectful respective ,

see

,

or

?

,

or

?

These three adjectives should not be confused.

Respectable

spect';

respectful

respective

SPECTIVE

.

means `worthy of re-

means `showing respect';

.

RE-

means `separate; several' (see

or

RESPECTIVELY?):

.

In those days

acting was not considered a respectable profession.

a respectful silence

Jane and Michael

collected their respective children and went home.

respective

respective

respectively

and

and

The words

should be used

respectively

.

only where there would be a risk of ambiguity or confusion in their absence: the shop steward.

.

The

Toys and furniture are sold

on the second and third floors respectively. respective,

the first example could

imply that all the workers had the same problems; without

respectively,

is a natural substance

exuded by plants, insects, etc., or a synthetic substance that resembles natural resin.

the second

example might suggest that toys and furniture are sold on both floors.

In other contexts the words are often unnecessary or inappropriate: . .. .. . ◆

their (respective) cars and drove away

Ro-

is a type of natural resin used on the

Each book

must be returned to its (respective) shelf

She

worked (respectively) in Paris, Vienna, and Rome

respite .

This word, meaning `relief, delay':

no respite from the toil,

is often mispro-

nounced. The stress falls on the first syllathe second syllable.

sin

re-sort

sort

ble, unlike

Resin

re-sort

, both as a noun and as a verb, is pronounced with a [ri ]; is pronounced with an [ree ].

verb.

?

re-sort,

◆ Resort

native for the noun, though rarely for the

or

.

Paul and Sarah got into

pronounced with the stress on the second

resin rosin

I hope he

The verb

with a hyphen, means `sort again';

Without

The adjective

.

means `turn to':

resort

workers explained their respective problems to

for] my carelessness.

repulse repulsive SIVE reputable

The verb

will not resort to violence.

restive

despite,

which has the stress on

The second syllable may be pronounced [ pit] or [ põÅt] although some users prefer the former pronunciation.

◆

res

res

restaurateur

Note the spelling of this

bow of a stringed instrument to increase

formal word for a person who runs a

friction, on the hands of a gymnast to

restaurant. There is no

increase grip, etc.

◆ Restaurateur

◆ Resin

[ in]. roz

is pronounced [ in]; rez

resort re-sort or

rosin

.

? The noun

n

restaurant.

ter

is pronounced restive or restless? The adjective means

`place of rest or recreation':

as in

is pronounced [restaÆraÆ ].

resort

means

seaside resorts.

`resisting

.

control';

`fidgety' or `agitated':

restless

.

restive

means

The teacher tried

to discipline his restive pupils.

Some of the

restrain

264

congregation became restless during the long sermon.

The use of

restive

in place of

restless

is disliked by careful users.

The two adjectives are etymologically unrelated: , which originally meant `refusing to move', is derived from the same Latin source as the noun (meaning `remainder'); , the opposite of , is derived from the noun (meaning `repose'), which is of Germanic origin. ◆

restive rest

restless

restful

rest

restrain CONSTRAIN restrictive clause see

A

or

RESTRAIN?

restrictive clause

.

limits

The pistols which are on the wall were carried

the restrictive clause

Here

which are on the wall

RE-.

see A

returner

is a person who returns

to work after an extended period of absence from paid employment, such as a woman

who

resumes

.

her

career

her children:

Few employers are actually

offering women returners a new deal . . . but a

wealth

of

information

(The

.

on

Guardian).

the

turner schemes' which offer career breaks of between two and five years

reveille

(The

This word may be pronounced

◆

which are on the wall, were carried by my great-grandfather at Waterloo,

non-restrictive clause

in which the

which are on the wall,

preceded and followed by commas, implies that these are the only pistols under consideration and conveys the incidental information that they are on the wall. See also

COMMA 3; THAT or WHICH?

resuscitate

This word, meaning `revive':

.

is often misspelt. Note particu-

retch wretch . or

?

Retch

means `heave prior

The gore made him retch.

should not be confused with

wretch,

denotes a pitiable or wretched person:

.

It

which The

wretch had no shoes and rags for clothes.

retread

The noun

retread

denotes an old

tyre with a new outer surface; it is synonymous with

remould.

Many people object to

the metaphorical application of the word retread

to people, such as politicians return-

ing to parliament after a spell out of office

.

reÂveiller

revenge avenge or

? Both these verbs refer

to the act of repaying a wrong. The person who

revenges

is usually the offended or

ly a third party acting on behalf of another:

.

I will revenge myself on those who cruelly humiliated me.

.

He planned to avenge his

daughter.

He avenged his murdered brother.

This distinction is not observed by all users in all contexts, however, and is often interchangeable with .

◆

revenge

avenge

REVENGE or VENGEANGE?

revenge vengeance or

.

? Both these nouns

may be used in the sense of `retaliation' or `retribution':

The destruction of her parents'

home was an act of revenge/vengeance.

Some users associate with the subjective or personal act of revenging and with the objective or impersonal act of avenging (see REVENGE or AVENGE?): . .. .

◆

revenge

vengeance

They humiliated me,

but I will take my revenge

He sought vengeance

for the murder of his brother

reverend reverent or

?

used by members of the clergy:

ment:

Jones took the service.

There will be a number of retreads in

the new government.

The prefix

Rev.

retro-,

meaning `back-

wards', is increasingly used as an adjective in its own right, describing fashions, styles,

.

.

ideas, etc., that have been revived from the past:

.

the retro look/sound

unashamedly retro. food is just so now

His latest film is

Retro British nursery

(The

Guardian).

ent,

.

Reverend

or retired people returning to paid employ-

retro

.

injured party; a person who avenges is usual-

See also

larly the -sc- in the middle of the word.

to vomiting':

Note also the spelling; the word is derived from the French `awaken'.

brother's death by drowning the murderer's

All attempts to resuscitate him with the kiss of life failed,

Guardian).

[rivali] or [riveli], the former being the more frequent pronunciation.

The pistols,

is

are centring on more widely appealing `re-

being referred to, and also implies that there room. Note the contrast with

subject

Current trends

makes it clear which particular pistols are are some other pistols elsewhere in the

after

spending a number of years bringing up

available

the meaning of another part of a sentence:

by my great-grandfather at Waterloo.

return returner

is a title Reverend

It is abbreviated to

It should not be confused with

an adjective meaning `respectful':

.

reverHe

handled the relic with reverent awe.

reversal reversion or

.

of reversing;

?

reversion

Reversal

the reversal of this trend

former way of life.

not be confused.

.

is the act

is the act of reverting: reversion to his

The two nouns should

reverse CONVERSE INVERSE OBVERSE REVERSE reversion REVERSAL REVERSION review revue see

,

,

265 or

?

see

or

or

`critical appraisal':

.

Review,

.

as a noun, is a

a review of her latest

or a `reassessment':

The minister

ordered an urgent review of prison security. revue

.

A

is a light theatrical show consisting of

sketches, songs, etc.:

sent and past participles: ricocheting [riÆ shaying] or ricochetting [riko Æ sheting] ko Æ shayd] or ricochetted and ricocheted [riko Æ shetid]. [riko

? These two spellings are

sometimes confused. novel

?

ring

the annual Christmas

right rightly or

? Both these adverbs may be

used in the sense of `correctly' or `properly'.

.

Right

is generally placed after the verb,

rightly

before the verb:

.

name right? crossing.

.

Have I spelt your

.

He rightly stopped at the zebra

You're not holding your fork right.

She rightly held her fork in her left hand.

The phrase is a may also be spelt , but this is best ◆notable exception to this rule. avoided in order to maintain the distinction behas a number of other adverbial uses: . tween the two words. .. . . . rhetorical question A is also means `justly' or `suitably': . one which is asked for effect, and to which .. no answer is expected: . The two adverbs are not interchange. able in any of these senses. The question is sometimes asked so In informal contexts is sometimes used to that it can be answered immediately by the mean `very' and to mean `with certainty': . speaker: . .. . ◆ A rhetorical question is sometimes just a rephrased statement, put in question form for great- right or write? variously means er emphasis: . `correct', `good', or `of or relating to the revue.

◆ Revue

if I remember right/rightly

review

Right

Turn right at the next junction

rhetorical question

What is the world

How can people behave like

coming to?

home

They went right

We live right at the top of the hill Rightly She was rightly

annoyed by their behaviour

Am I rightly dressed

for the trip?

that?

right

Why are we on strike? I will tell

you why . . .

rightly

We're right pleased to see you

He doesn't rightly

know

Right

Was there ever a more unfortunate

person?

rheumatism

This word for an illness that

causes pain in the muscles or joints is sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the first syllable

rhinoceros

rheum-.

c

beginning and the

-do-

rhododendron

rhodon

This word is frequently misspelt.

Note particularly the first

h

and the

y.

This adjective, meaning `coarse or

crude':

ribald language,

is often misproÆ ld]. nounced. The pronunciation is [riba

.

The car

It should not be confused

write:

She writes a thousand

The word generally appears combined with other words to describe someone who pur. suesaparticulartrade: .

.

wright

millwright

See also

at the

dendron

.

Everything is now right

words a day.

see

in the middle.

The word the Greek (meaning `rose') and (meaning `tree').

rhythm ribald .

with the verb

.

wheelwright

shipwright

playwright.

DRAMATIST or PLAYWRIGHT?. or RIGOR?

rigor RIGOUR comes originally from rigorous rh-

.

He was in the right.

turned to the right.

This word is sometimes

misspelt. Note particularly the

◆

rh-,

in the middle of the word.

rhododendron

and proper.

◆

The name of this animal is

often misspelt. Note particularly the and the

.

side opposite left':

This word is sometimes misspelt.

The

u

suffix

of

rigour

is dropped in front of the

-ous.

rigour rigor . or

?

Rigour,

conditions; severity':

meaning `harsh

the rigours of winter,

.

should not be confused in British English with the medical

rigor:

rigor mortis.

Note, however, that in American English is spelt . ◆

rigour

rigor

The alternative [ bawld] is regarded as unac- ring or wring? These two verbs are someceptable by careful users. times confused, being identical in pronun-

◆

ricochet

rõÅ

This word, used to describe bul-

ciation.

Ring

means

`make

a

resonant

.

lets, etc., that rebound, is usually proÆ shay] although [riko Æ shet] is nounced [riko

sound' or `surround or mark with a ring';

also acceptable. There are alternative pre-

bell

.

wring

means `twist' or `squeeze':

.

to ring a

I asked her to ring any errors in red ink.

ringed

266

.

to wring one's hands

Shall I wring out the

The past tense and past participle of is , which should not be confused with (see RINGED, RANG or RUNG?) wet clothes?

◆

wring

wrung

rung

ringed rang rung ,

or

?

Ringed

is the past

tense and past participle of the verb

.

ring

in

the sense of `surround or mark with a ring': He

.

ringed

misspelt.

all

the

words

that

had

The birds have been ringed for

identification. Rang

is the past tense and

.

the past participle of the verb

rung

.

the sense of `sound (a bell)': bell.

been

ring

in

She rang the

The telephone has not rung.

The substitution of for is now restricted to dialectal usage; it is considered incorrect in formal British English.

◆

rip-off

rung

rang

Derived from the slang verb

meaning `steal' or `cheat', the noun

rip off,

rip-off

is

.

This handbag is an absolute rip-off ± it's not even made of real leather.

The verb

rob,

meaning `steal money or

property from' or `take away an important

.

quality from' is followed by the preposition of:

.

He robbed his employers of thousands of

pounds. dignity.

The incident robbed him of his

See also

role

BURGLE, ROB or STEAL?

Some people object to the frequent use

of the noun

religion in modern society record

in

a

.

as a synonym for `place',

role

.

`function', `position', `part', etc.: technical

sales

the role of

.

a proven track role

A

new

manager is now sought to play a key role in determining the company's future strategy.

The noun

role

is principally used to denote

the part played by an actor. In psychology

.

and sociology it refers to the part played by

.

an individual in a social situation:

◆

role-playing.

role

The word is sometimes spelt with a circumflex

reversal

over the , as in the French word from . accent whichitisderived: . .Itshouldnotbeconfused

principally applied to overpriced goods or the practice of charging exorbitant prices:

rob

I had to pay £10 to

o

roÃle

with the English noun , to which it is etymologically related. roll

Extending this sense of `exploitation', is Roma is the approved modern realso used to denote an inferior film, book, etc., placement for the former term , which that seeks to exploit the success of another by is felt by many people to have acquired imitation. negative connotations over the centuries. The noun should not be used in formal Note that is used in both singular contexts. and plural contexts, though the correct

get in ± it's a rip-off!

◆

rip-off

Roma

gipsy

rip-off

rise ARISE road street see

or

or

Roma

RISE?; RAISE or RISE?

? Generally the noun

singular form is road

is

used to denote a thoroughfare between towns or cities or in the suburbs of a town or city; a

.

street

or city centre: street

London

.

.

.

is a thoroughfare in the town

.

a country road

the road to Brighton

or

`covering of a building', is usually

roofs,

pronounced [roofs] or [roovz].

◆

The spelling of the plural

root ROUT . rosin RESIN roughage see

the streets of

see

There are, however,

numerous exceptions to this rule, especially in the naming of roads and streets.

? The plural of the word

roof,

a one-way

a new housing estate on Park Road

their Oxford Street store.

roofs rooves

Rom.

rooves

ROUTE? or ROSIN?

is less frequent.

or

This word, meaning `coarse

food; dietary fibre', is sometimes misspelt.

Through its association with inner-city areas the Note the in the middle of the word. word has acquired certain negative conno- round see AROUND or ROUND? tations, and it is rarely used in the names of rouse see AROUSE or ROUSE? thoroughfares on new estates. It is used in a means number of words and expressions related to pros- rout or route? The noun . titution: . ,andalsoin `overwhelming defeat' or `disorderly remeans `road' or neutral idioms such as , meaning treat'; the noun . . `course': . `much better': . , and , meaning . `suited to one's interests or experience': . ◆ The risk of confusion is greater when the words . are used as verbs, especially in the past tense: . See also STREET-. -gh-

◆

street

rout

on the streets

streetwalker

streets ahead

route

She's streets ahead of her sister

at maths

(right) up one's street

The

This

project is right up my street

They put the enemy to rout

procession

summer

took

a

different

route

this

267

Russian

.. run-up Some people dislike the frequent . The of is use of the noun , adopted from the sometimes retained in the spelling of the present field of athletics, to denote the period preparticiple. ceding an important event: . . The phrasal verb , meaning `find by searching' or `force out', is a variant of the verb , meaning `rummage', and is etymologically unrelated to the verb discussed above. (BBC TV). is pronounced [rowt], rhyming with , in rural or rustic? Both these adjectives relate all its senses and uses. The pronunciation of the countryside, country life, country is identical with that of in British English; in topeople, etc. is used as a American English may be pronounced [root] neutral farming, opposite of ; has the or [rowt]. connotations of simplicity, crudeness, They routed the enemy

The procession was

routed along a different road

e

route

run-up

the last few

rout out

days in the run-up to the general election

The

root

run-up

being

rout

to

deployed

the

on

anniversary

the

streets

of

of

soldiers

Northern

Ireland

Rout

out

route

root

Rural

route

rowlock

urban

This word, for the device in a

.

.

rustic

quaintness, or lack of sophistication:

.

.

. .

rural

boat that holds an oar in place, is usually Æ k]. pronounced [rolo

food

◆

Careful users maintain the distinction be-

In nontechnical contexts, pronounced [roÅlok].

RSI

The abbreviation

repetitive

strain

injury;

rowlock

RSI

is sometimes

is short for

injury to muscles

.

schools

a rural setting

a

rustic

cottage

rural areas rustic

rustic

manners.

tween the two words.

Russian

or

Soviet

? The word

Russian

relates to the country of Russia, which

.

or tendons caused by repetitive action, such

formed the major part of the Soviet Union

as using a computer keyboard:

from 1922 to 1991, and its people:

Repetitive

Strain Injury (RSI) is an umbrella term for a

Russian composer Rimsky-Korsakov

series

sian

of

affecting others

musculo-skeletal the

(The

rubbish

newspaper

complaints

industry

±

now

among

Guardian).

The use of the word

rubbish

as a

demn as worthless', is disliked by many

.

users and should be avoided in formal The

report

rubbishes

GCSE examinations.

rung

see

company.

The

the

a Rus-

word

is used with reference to people

.

and events of the years when the Soviet

verb, meaning `criticize severely' or `con-

contexts:

manufacturing

Soviet

.

RINGED, RANG or RUNG?

the

new

.

Union was in existence:

Soviet

a Soviet politician.

space

◆ The noun and adjective , formerly loosely applied to all the constituent republics of the Soviet Union and their people, should not be used with reference to (the people of) Ukraine, Lithuania, etc., since their independence in 1991. missions

Russian

's or s'

S ?

Possessive

formed by adding

nouns

are

usually

to singular nouns,

's

an apostrophe to plural nouns that end in

.

s,

and

's

.

.

to irregular plural nouns that

do not end in s:

.

Jane's pen

the boy's father

women's clothes.

In the possessive form of a name or singular noun that ends in , , or , the apostrophe may or may not be followed by . The final is most frequently omitted in names, especially names of three or more syllables that end in the sound [z]: . . . For words of one syllable is generally used: . . . . . The presence or absence of the final in other possessives of this group depends on usage, convention, pronunciation, etc.: . . . . . the directors' cars

◆

s x

z

s

Euripides' tragedies

s

Berlioz' operas

's

Palace

St

the fox's tail

Liz's house

James's

the boss's

secretary

s

`showing holy',

disrespect

sometimes

towards

causes

something

problems

with

spelling. Note the position of the first and

e,

i

which are in the opposite order in

the word

religious.

sail sale or

.

?

Sail

means `expanse of canvas

or cloth used to propel a vessel using windpower':

The crew lowered the sail as the gale

gathered strength.

with

sale,

something:

sake

.

a house sale.

The noun

.

It should not be confused

which denotes the selling of

sake

sake

.

is usually preceded by

.

a possessive adjective or noun: for Edward's sake

old times' sake.

.

for their

for pity's sake

for

◆ If the preceding noun ends in the sound [s] the possessive form is not used, although an apos. trophe may be added: . . See also APOSTROPHE; CONTRACTIONS; -ING Such expressions as and FORMS; POSSESSIVES; SAKE. , using the plural form of , are sac or sack? These two spellings are some- disliked by some users but acceptable to most. times confused. The noun is largely They may be replaced by , restricted to scientific contexts, where it , etc. denotes a baglike part of an animal or the princess's

tiara

Jesus' apostles

the rhinoceros'(s) horn

Nostradamus'(s) prophecies

for goodness sake

for all our sakes

both their sakes

for the sake of us all for

the sake of both of them

salable SALEABLE In informal contexts is also a noun or verb salary wage referringtodismissalfromemployment: . .

for

sake

sac

plant:

for

conscience' sake

a fluid-filled sac.

A

is a large

sack

see

bag used to hold coal, potatoes, etc.

◆

or

sack

.. . The word , of French origin, occurs in the compound , meaning `dead end'.

They got

the sack

We sacked them sac

cul-de-sac

saccharin saccharine or

? The sweet pow-

der that is used as a sugar substitute is spelt saccharin,

without a final -e;

.

saccharine

.

adjective meaning `excessively sweet':

is an

or

SALABLE?

? Both these nouns denote

the money paid to employees at regular intervals in return for their services. A salary

is usually paid monthly to profes-

sional people or nonmanual workers; a

.

is usually paid weekly to manual

wage

workers or servants:

.

My

salary

barely

covers our mortgage repayments and living expenses. workers.

the minimum wage for factory

The noun is often used in the plural form . :. . ◆ The use of in place of is is not used with a singular verb, acknowledged by some dictionaries but is widely The noun regarded as incorrect. Note also the - - and - - of except in the well-known biblical quotation (Romans 6:23). both words.

drink is sweetened with saccharin. charine smile.

saccharine

The

a sac-

◆

wage

wages

saccharin

a bricklayer's wage(s)

He seems to

spend most of his wages on cigarettes and alcohol wages

cc

sack SAC sacrilegious see

the

ar

wages of sin is death

or

SACK?

This

word,

sale SAIL SALE saleable salable see

which

means

or

or

?

? Both spellings of this

269 word are acceptable, but

saleable

is the

more frequent in British English. See

LING 3.

salesman saleswoman TERMS salivary or

? see

.

SPEL-

NON-SEXIST

nunciations. The more traditional pronunciation has the stress on the first syllable Æ ri]. The pronunciation [sa Æ lõÅva Æ ri], with [saliva the stress on the second syllable, is perfectly acceptable and is more frequently used. This word is sometimes mis-

Unlike the in , the first in is clearly sounded. The word has in fact nothing to do with ; it is named after the American veterinary surgeon Daniel Elmer Salmon (1850±1914), who first identified this genus of bacteria. -l-

salmon

-l-

salmonella

salmonella

salmon

salon saloon or

?

is the anglicized

Saloon

form of the French word

salon.

Both words

entered the English language in the 18th century and have developed a number of individual meanings.

is most fre-

Salon

.

quently found in the names of certain

.

places of business, such as: hairdressing salon.

A

saloon

beauty salon

.

.

is a large room

in a public house or on a ship: into the saloon (bar);

This usage is widely

COMMERCIALESE.

regarded as

noun, such as

or

it

substituted for

.

them,

same:

blanket and used it

[not

Another procan usually be

He found an old

same] to line the dog's

Nouns qualified by the adjective are usually followed by : . .. . In the second example and similar sentences is often omittedorreplacedby : . . This usage is disliked and avoided by a few users.

◆

same

as

He works for the same

company as his brother-in-law

We went

it also denotes a type of

She sent me the

same book as you gave her last Christmas as

that

pronounced. The correct pronunciation is Æ nela Æ ]. [salmo

◆

same by registered post.

basket.

This word has two possible pro-

salmonella

sate

the same suit that he

wore for his wedding

sanatorium

A

sanatorium

is a medical

establishment for the treatment and care of people, especially those suffering from long-term illnesses. Note the spelling of this word in British English, particularly the second

◆

a

and the

o.

The spelling

sani-

is an American English variant.

The plural forms of both spellings may end in or .

tarium

-riums

-ria

sanction

The noun

sanction

has two senses

that appear to contradict each other. It may

.

mean `official authorization or permission': The project has been given the sanction of

the board of directors.

This use is largely

restricted to formal contexts, and the noun is perhaps more frequently found in the plural form

sanctions,

referring to coercive

. A is also a room for receiving visitors in a tion: . large house or an assembly of important political . or artistic guests: . ◆ The verb means `permit' or `authorize': . . . It should not be used in the sense of salubrious or salutary? means `impose sanctions'. `wholesome' or `conducive to health'; car:

◆

the most popular saloon (car).

measures taken against a state or institu-

salon

economic sanctions against Iraq

to

impose political sanctions

the literary salons of 17th-

century Paris

such cases

Salubrious

salu-

tary

. . .

.

means `beneficial', `causing improve-

ment', or `remedial': a salutary warning

a salubrious climate

We decided to look for a

more salubrious hotel. in

prison

can

sanction

The law does not sanction the use of violence in

be

a

Spending a few days

salutary

experience

for

sank sunk sunken ,

or

the verb

sink

is

sank

or

? The past tense of

sunk, sank

being the

more frequent. The usual form of its past participle is

sunk, sunken

.

stricted to adjectival use:

.

being largely reThe dog sank its

◆ The adjective was formerly synonymous . . with but is rarely used in this sense sarcasm, sarcastic see IRONY. today. Both adjectives are ultimately derived from the Latin word , meaning `health'. sat see SITTING or SAT? Note the spelling of , which ends in , sate, satiate or satisfy? The verb not . means `supply' or `fulfil': . teeth into the man's leg.

young offenders.

salutary

sunk

One of the boats has

We are diving for sunken treasure.

salubrious

salus

salutary

-ary

-ory

same

The use of

same

.

as a pronoun is best

restricted to business or official contexts:

I

enclose my passport, as requested; please return

been

satisfied.

demands.

.

satisfy

Her needs had

This

The verbs

should

satisfy

their

and

satiate

may

sate

mean `satisfy fully', but are more frequently

satire

270 .

.

used in the sense of `supply or fulfil to

used for cutting wood etc.:

excess':

into the bark of the tree. Soar

to

satiate

a

person's

appetite

Television viewers are sated with imported comedy shows.

A person who is

had enough; a person who is and

or

sated

has usually had too much.

satiated

has

satisfied

Sate

are used in formal contexts

satiate

and are largely synonymous, but

sate

is

very rarely used as an active verb.

.

`rise rapidly':

.

.

The saw bit

means `fly' or

The bird soared on the breeze.

Inflation is soaring. Sore

`hurting':

.

.

means `painful' or

The child has a sore elbow.

My

heart is sore.

says

This

word

is

sometimes

mispro-

nounced. The form of the verb

say

in the present tense with

it

used

, The nouns and are derived from pronounced [sez]. . means `the act of satiating' or `the state of being satiated'; is used only in scallop The standard pronunciation of this the second of these senses. Both nouns are used word, which means `a shellfish with two Æ p]. An alteronly in formal contexts. flat fan-shaped shells', is [ o Note the change in pronunciation of the first native which rhymes with is often in [ shiayt] and [saÆ eÆti]. heard, but avoided by careful users.

◆

satiety

satiation

he, she,

or

is

says

satiate Satiation

satiety

skol

-t-

satiate say

satire satyr or

satiety

?

Satire

t õÅ

is the use of irony or

gallop

scam

The noun

originally a vogue

scam,

.

parody to mock folly and evil in human

word of American origin, means `swindle',

behaviour, politics, religion, etc.; a

`trick', `racket', or `hoax':

satyr

is a

goatlike

ment

man,

associated

with

lechery.

scam

to

get

the

[the En-

This

mythological creature in the form of a

terprise Allowance Scheme]

was a govern-

unemployed

off

the

The two nouns should not be confused

register and pretend they were all setting up

in usage or pronunciation:

small

with of

matter,

rhymes with

satire

satisfy saturate

see

The verb

saturated with

see

rhymes

fire.

SATE, SATIATE or SATISFY?

the preposition

satyr savage

satyr

whereas the second syllable

saturate

with

[or

or

in:

.

is followed by The rug was

in] dirty water.

the

scanty

or

gre'. than

Scant

is more formal and less frequent

scanty,

savage

to

. .

The sailors found themselves surrounded by

Note that for similar reasons the term may also cause offence. savages brandishing spears.

primitive

The French expression

.

savoir

ability to act appropriately in different

.

situations, especially to behave with selflack savoir faire.

paid

.

Their knowledge is

a scanty bikini

collection of books.

◆ Scant ounces

.

to display/

scant

is used before or after a a scanty

is also used with units of measurement to

scarcely scared

see

the preposition

of:

.

As a past participle preposition : .

◆

by

a scant two

HARDLY.

As an adjective

is used in formal contexts to refer to an

confidence in social situations:

rather scanty.

He

She has scant regard

. mean `barely' or `slightly less than': .

undeveloped culture is no longer considered acceptable and should be avoided:

.

being chiefly used in front of

certain abstract nouns:

wider range of nouns:

◆

enterprise

? Both these adjectives

for the law. Scanty

The use of the word

thriving

Guardian).

attention to my words.

describe a person from a technologically

faire

scant

in

(The

mean `limited', `barely enough', or `mea-

SATIRE or SATYR?

savoir faire

businesses

culture instead

scared

is followed by

He's scared of spiders.

scared

is followed by the .

We were scared by their threats

scarfs scarves or

? Either

scarfs

or

scarves

acceptable as the plural of the noun

is

scarf,

denoting a piece of cloth worn around the

The phrase is sometimes hyphenated in English neck or on the head. and is pronounced [savwah ]. Its literal French scarify The verb should not be used meaning is `knowing how to do'. in place of , to which it is unrelated in ◆

fair

saw, soar, sore or

scarify

scare

? The spellings of these

.

three words are sometimes confused. the past tense of the verb yesterday

see:

Saw

is

I saw her

and also denotes a serrated blade

meaning and origin.

Scarify

.

tends to be

used in formal contexts and means `scratch or break up the surface of':

.

to scarify the

skin before administering a vaccine

to scarify

271 the topsoil of a field.

sculptor

In figurative contexts it

which is characterized by hallucinations,

is used in the sense of `wound with harsh

delusions, social withdrawal, emotional in-

criticism':

.

a scarifying review.

The traditional pronunciation of is [ rrifõÅ], the pronunciation [ ifõÅ] being an accepted and frequent variant. ◆

scarify

ska

skair

scarves scenario

see

SCARFS or SCARVES?

The noun

scenario

is frequently

used to denote a projected or imagined

.

future state of affairs or sequence of events: a scenario in which the superpowers would

have

recourse

to

nuclear

weapons.

Many

people object to the frequency of this usage, especially

in

contexts

where

plan,

pro-

scene, situation, etc., would be adequate or more appropriate. The clicheÂs gramme,

and

nightmare scenario

worst-case scenario,

stability, loss of contact with reality, etc.:

.

Another sufferer believes during a schizophrenic attack that he is in command of a spaceship,

(Reader's

Digest).

The use of the adjective in the extended sense of `inconsistent', `contradictory', `unpredictable', `capricious', etc., is disliked and avoided by most users. Note the spelling of and and the difference in pronunciation between the two words: is pronounced [skitsoÆ ik], with a short ; [skitsoÆ iaÆ] has a long . 2,000 years in the future

◆

schizophrenic

schizophrenic

schizo-

phrenia

schizophrenic

fren

phrenia

e schizo-

freen

scone

e

The pronunciation of this word is a

favourite topic for debate; both [skon] and Å n] are equally acceptable. [sko

The parish of in East Scotland, the original site of the stone on which Scottish kings were ever possible. crowned, is pronounced [skoon]. ◆ The principal meaning of is `outline or synopsis of a play, film, opera, etc.'. The word is Scotch, Scots or Scottish? All these adusually pronounced [si ioÅ]; the variant pronun- jectives mean `of Scotland', but there are differences of usage and application beciation [si ioÅ] is disliked by some users. them. sceptic or septic? The pronunciation of tween ◆ , the most frequent, is used in a wide these two words is sometimes confused. A . range of contexts: . (American English, ) is a per. . . son who has doubts about accepted beliefs . . or principles, and is pronounced [ tik]. The adjective was formerly used for such ◆ is an adjective meaning `infected with purposes but is now restricted to a number of fixed harmful bacteria': . , and is pro- phrases, in the sense of `produced in Scotland' or nounced [ tik]. . `associated with Scotland': . . . sceptical The adjective is followed is usually applied to people: . by the preposition or : . . . .Thelasttwo [or ] . examples may be replaced by the noun , See also CYNICAL or SCEPTICAL? which means `a native or inhabitant of Scotland': . schedule This word, meaning `plan or . The collective name for the timetable': . people of Scotland is or . The , is usually pronounced [ yool] in noun also denotes a variety of English spoBritish English. The word may also be ken in Scotland. pronounced [ yool], particularly in In some contexts two of the adjectives are . American English. interchangeable: . . ◆ The verb , `to plan', should not be . overused. sculpt or sculpture? The verbs and both of which mean `the worst thing that

could happen', are also best avoided wher-

◆

Scone

scenario

nar

nair

Scottish

Scottish history

sceptic

skeptic

town

Scottish Gaelic

dancing

a Scottish

a Scottish name

Scottish

a Scottish poet

skep

Scotch

Septic

a septic wound

sep

Scotch whisky

Scotch broth

sceptical

about

sceptical about

of

I remain

of

her motives

Scotch mist

Scots

Guards

the Scots

a Scotsman

a Scotswoman

Scot

She married a Scot

the Scots

The train was behind schedule

again

the Scottish

Scots

shed

sked

a Scots/Scotch pine

schedule

schism

tish/Scotch terrier

a Scot-

a Scottish/Scots accent

sculpt

The traditional pronunciation of

sculpture

.

are synonymous and virtually in-

this word, meaning `separation into op-

terchangeable in all contexts:

posed groups', is [sizm], with a silent

sculptured a copy of the Venus de Milo in

ch.

.

The alternative pronunciation [skizm] is

marble.

perfectly acceptable.

her attic studio.

schizophrenic

The adjective

relates to the mental disorder

schizophrenic schizophrenia,

sculptor TERMS.

He sculpted/

She paints and sculpts/sculptures in

or

sculptress

?

see

NON-SEXIST

sea

sea see or

.

272 ?

the sea.

.

means `ocean' or `wide

Sea

expanse of something':

They set sail upon

A sea of eager faces.

.

confused with the verb sight of':

see,

It should not be meaning `catch is also

Did you see that? See

.

occasionally used as a noun to refer to the office or jurisdiction of a bishop:

the see of

Rome.

seamless

more correct form of the conjunction:

seem

When the verb

negative, the word

seam' or `uninterrupted', is sometimes mis-

.

spelt. Note particularly the

.

in the

We

.

is used in the

seem

(or other negative

not

.

element) may be placed before or after the verb:

seemed

. .

She didn't seem to understand. not

understand.

to

The

doesn't seem likely to improve.

This word, meaning `having no

.

should go at once, seeing that it is already late.

seems unlikely to improve. seem, doesn't seem,

She

weather

The weather

The use of

didn't

etc., is best avoided in

formal contexts.

Similarly, the phrases , etc., should be restricted to infor.. ◆ The word is an archaic word meaning mal speech: . . In formal writing such `unseemly; shameful; unfitting' ( phrases may be replaced by or simply ). :. .. seasonal or seasonable? means . `of or occurring in a particular season'; middle of the word:

-ea-

a seamless blouse

a seamless transition from one story to another.

◆

cannot seem, can't seem,

couldn't seem

He couldn't seem to hear us

seemless

Oxford English

seem unable

Dictionary

cannot

Seasonal

.

or `opportune':

.

sonal work

.

.

seasonal vegetables

seasonable weather

sea-

seasonable

The two adjectives should not be

confused.

secateurs

This word, meaning `pruning

shears', is sometimes misspelt. Note the single

and the

-c-

ending.

-eurs

second secondly second-guess or

FIRST or FIRSTLY?

? see

The verb

second-guess,

.

of

American origin, means `predict', `anticipate', or `evaluate with hindsight':

On a

scale of difficulty of one to 10, second-guessing the travel market this year is 12

(The

Guar-

dian).

◆ Some people object to the use of this Americanism in British English.

secretary

The word

misspelt. Note the

secretary

-ary

is sometimes

ending, which is

attached to the letters of the word

secret.

◆ The of is rarely sounded in the British English pronunciation [ reÆtri]. Careful users always sound the first , however, and object to the pronunciation [ eÆtri]. The usual American English pronunciation is [ reÆterri]. a

secretary

sek

r

sek

sek

see SEA SEE seed CEDE SEED seeing as seeing that see

or

see

tion

?

or

I cannot

seemless seize .

He seized the money and ran,

vowels

which does not correspond to

see

SEAMLESS.

This word, meaning `take eagerly or

by force':

is

sometimes misspelt. Note the order of the -ei-

the usual `i before See also

self

e'

SPELLING 5.

rule.

The use of the word

.

self

as a pronoun is

disliked and avoided by many users, even in informal contexts:

and self.

tickets for husband

◆ The noun and its plural form are . acceptable to all users: . . The suffixes and are used to form the reflexive pronouns , etc.: . . Some people object to the use of these pronouns for emphasis: . .. . See also MYSELF. The prefix is always attached with a hy. . phen: . . . See also HYPHEN 1. Some people object to the increasing use of the prefix to coin new verbs: . self

selves

his usual self

their

true selves

-self

-selves

myself, yourself, ourselves,

themselves

She killed herself while under

the influence of drugs

The house

itself will be demolished next week

He has not

driven the car himself self-

self-catering

pelled

self-confident

self-pro-

self-sufficient

.

self-

berries

?

self-pick straw-

We teach them to be aware, to self-

). .

market, to look at the future, perhaps in a slightly

or

? The construc-

seeing as,

meaning `since', is disliked by

.

He seemed unable to hear us

find the key

means `suitable for the season'

seasonable

advice.

I

cannot seem to find the key

(

different way The Guardian

Farmers may one

day be able to graze `self-dipping' sheep which do

some people and should be used only in

not need to be dunked in chemicals to deter

very informal contexts:

attacks by pests and parasites Daily Telegraph

We will help you

out seeing as you helped us. Seeing that

is the

( ). Such verbs can often be replaced by a more

273

sensual

acceptable phrase using a reflexive pronoun, such contain commas, the semicolon is often used to separate the clauses: . , as in place of . , ; , , self-starter The frequent use of the noun . The semicolon can also be , especially in job advertisements, used in order to establish subsets in a long list or to denote a person with initiative who can series separated by commas: . work without supervision, is disliked by , many users: . , , . , , . sell-by date This phrase literally means market oneself

self-market

Eliot

though born in

America was a British subject he lived worked

and died in England

self-starter

Applicants must

We need an ambitious self-

starter with experience in production control and man-management

have a good honours degree preferably in English; a lively writing style a knowledge of magazine

publishing

and proven editorial experience; an

ability to work under pressure to cooperate with colleagues and to work flexible hours

`the date by which perishable goods should

be sold', but it is increasingly used in

. .

figurative contexts, meaning `no longer useful or effective; out-of-date': ernment is past its sell-by date. have passed their sell-by date.

The govideas that

The phrase

semiotics semiology SEMANTICS SEMIOTICS SEMIOLOGY senior citizen old age pensioner ,

see

or

or

?

Both these expressions are used with reference to people who are over the age of

should not be overused in this sense.

retirement. The expression

◆

considered a euphemism by most:

Other phrases adopted from commercial usage include and :. best-before date

shelf-life

. .

the best-

before date for new entrants to the profession

,

?

.

senior citizen

is

There

are courses for senior citizens at the university. Senior citizens are entitled to reduced bus

She was forced to admit that she was approaching

and train fares.

the end of her shelf-life as a marriage prospect.

specifically denotes a person who receives a

semantics semiotics ,

Semiotics

(or

semiology)

or

semiology

?

is the study of the

properties of sign systems, especially as used in human communication.

Semantics,

one part of semiotics, is the study of the meaning of linguistic signs. For example, discussion of the meaning of the words book, the moon,

or

yellow

belongs to seman-

The term

old age pensioner

state retirement pension.

◆ Old age pensioner

or abbreviated to dependence: . . .

, oftenshortened to , may have connotations of

pensioner

OAP

helping old age pensioners in the

community

pensioners who are unable to pay

their fuel bills

sensible sensitive or

? The most frequent

meaning of

sensible

.

.

tics, whereas the wider cultural aspects of

common sense; not foolish; practical':

raising one's eyebrows when people greet

sensible child

.

.

is `having or showing

sensible advice

a

the sensible thing

sensible shoes. Sensitive

means `easily

each other at a distance belongs to semio-

to do

tics.

hurt or irritated', `having awareness', `deli-

semi- DEMIsemicolons see

,

HEMI- or SEMI-?

. .

cate', or `reacting to very small differences':

.

sensitive skin

Unlike many of the other

nose.

We are sensitive to your problems.

sensitive issue

when the semicolon cannot be replaced

◆

construction and its use appears to be gradually declining. It is mainly used between clauses that are linked by sense but

.

are not joined by a conjunction, and that

.

could each stand as a separate sentence: am very tired; I am also hungry.

I

The night

was dark; the rain fell in torrents.

a sensitive instrument.

a

Note that, by extension, denotes a person's emotional or aesthetic awareness, while refers more generally to a person's emotional or physical responses: .

punctuation marks, there is no occasion by another form of punctuation or sentence

.

.

He's very sensitive about his large

sensibility

sensitivity

Her association with

.

famous painters of the day is a testament to her artistic sensibility.

The school must show sensi-

tivity to the parents' wishes.

sensitive

The adjective

sensitive

is followed

It is frequently used before such phrases as by': . , and by , , and :. in the sense `self-conscious': . ; , . . The semicolon can sometimes be replaced by a sensual or sensuous? Both these adjeccomma, but in sentences where clauses already tives relate to the gratification of the senses. by the preposition

◆

however none the less

precaution is recommended

compulsory

nevertheless however

This

it is not

to

in the sense `affected

He is too sensitive to criticism

about

very sensitive about her large nose

She is

sentence adverb

274

Something that is

sensual

appeals to the

.

anti-communist sentiment.

These are my

body, arousing or satisfying physical appe-

sentiments on the matter. Sentimentality

tites or sexual desire; something that is

state of being sentimental, with particular

appeals to the senses, sometimes

reference to excessive indulgence of the

sensuous

especially

the

mind,

being

pleasing or spiritually uplifting:

. .

.

aesthetically to indulge

in the sensual pleasures of eating and drinking

.

the sensual movements of the striptease artist the sensuous movements of the ballerina

to

appreciate the sensuous music of Elgar's cello

.

.

emotions:

is the

the sentimentality of the film

She kept his handkerchief under her pillow

for reasons of sentimentality.

may also refer to indulgence of the emotions, but it is more neutral than :. .

◆ Sentiment

sentimental-

ity

He seems to be totally lacking in sentiment

separate This word is often misspelt. Note The use of the adjective sometimes the vowels; the most frequent error is to implies disapproval, whereas is generally replace the first with . It may help to used in a favourable manner. associate the central syllable was coined originally by the English central letters of the word . with the poet John Milton in the mid-17th century. ◆ The verb is followed by the preposition :. sentence adverb A sentence adverb is .a word that qualifies an entire sentence: .

concerto.

◆

sensual

sensuous

-a-

-e-

-par-

Sensuous

apart

separate

from

Keep raw meat separate from cooked

meat

Militarily the campaign was a great success.

It

should be noted that sentence adverbs that relate more to the speaker's attitude than to

.

.

the content of the sentence itself may incur criticism:

.

Personally I think it's a mistake.

Thankfully no one was hurt.

Hopefully

everything will go well.

sentences

A

sentence

can be defined as `a

grammatically complete unit consisting of one or more words, which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark'.

The old rule that `all sentences must contain a verb' holds good for most kinds of writing but it is a rule that is often legitimately broken, for exam. . ple: . . Verbless sentences are often used for stylistic effect, particularly in order to emphasize orqualifyapreviousstatement: . .. . Sentence structure and word order in English are partly a matter of rules and partly a matter of style. The normal word order is subject-verb-object; for example: . cannot be changed to without changing the sense of the sentence. However, one can choose one's word order in sentences like: . .. . ◆

Whatever for?

For heaven's sake!

Yes, of

course

It was an illusion,

he told himself. A trick of the light

He's as rich as

Croesus. Possibly richer

The dog bit the postman The postman bit the dog

After lunch we could go for a walk. ±

We could go for a walk after lunch

Even more

delicious is her chocolate mousse. ± Her chocolate mousse is even more delicious

See also

INVERSION.

sentiment sentimentality or

septic SCEPTIC SEPTIC sequence of tenses see

or

?

When you change a

verb from the present tense to the past tense, other verbs in the sentence may

.

change too, according to a fixed pattern. This is known as the

sequence of tenses:

said, `I

know

knew

was

.

sold she

it

it

See also

±

±

He

He said that he

She said, `I

am

glad I

was

She said that she

glad

her house.

TENSE.

serf surf or

too late.'

too late.

my house.'

had sold

is

? These two words are occa-

sionally confused, as they are pronounced in the same way.

Serfs

were agricultural

labourers in feudal times, who had to work on their master's land.

Surf

swell of the sea. As a verb

is the breaking

surf

means `ride

the surf' or in the informal expression the net,

surf

to look generally on the Internet for

any information that interests one.

sergeant

The spelling of

source of error. A

sergeant

sergeant

is often a

is a middle-

ranking noncommissioned officer in an army, etc., or an officer in a police force. A

sergeant-major

is

a

noncommissioned

officer of the highest rank. A arms

serjeant-at-

is an officer in a parliament; a

at-law

serial series

serjeant-

a former rank of barrister. see

CEREAL or SERIAL?

The word

series

can be treated as

either a singular or a plural noun, depend?A

.

sentiment

is a feeling, emotion, attitude, or opinion:

.

ing upon whether one or more series is being discussed:

A series of programmes has

been agreed .

275

.

Several series of programmes

and

mistress-piece

to

person

the

telephones

do little to further their cause.

have been agreed.

seriously

shall See also

POLITICAL CORRECTNESS.

The most frequent examples of sexism include avoided where or would the use of the noun in place of ; or be adequate or more appropriate: . in place of ; , , and as pro[not ] nouns of common gender; and the titles and [not . . . See HE or SHE ; MAN ; MS , MRS or MISS ?; ] . WOMAN . ◆ The adjective is also overused in the The problems of sexism arising from occupasense of `great', especially in the phrase tional titles fall into three categories. The words , meaning `a large amount of money'. and , for example, are of neutral serve The verb . is followed by the gender but are traditionally associated with men and women respectively. For this reason the terms preposition or : [or , etc., are sometimes ] . used to avoid confusion. This is often quite unservice The verb is best avoided . necessary: where would be adequate or more The

adverb

is

seriously

very

best

extremely

They

seemed to be having a very

seriously good

Her parents are extremely

time

iously

ser-

rich

◆

man

girl

person lady

woman he him

his

Mrs

Miss

serious

serious

money

engineer

nurse

serve

as

for

for

The sofa serves as

female engineer, male nurse

a spare bed

service

serve

appropriate:

.

Labour

Dr Tony Butterworth, 40, a former

MPs

have

accused

male nurse, has been appointed Britain's first Professor of Community Nursing at Manchester

( ). The ban on sexual discrimination in job adver( ). . tisements has encouraged the substitution of neutral synonyms for occupational titles that specify . and , for example, may ◆ The principal meanings of the verb are sex: and and `overhaul': . , and be replaced byby and ; `pay interest on a debt'. and by and by serviceable This word, meaning `ready to or . be used; durable': . , is someSee also NON-SEXIST TERMS; PERSON. The use of feminine suffixes is also disliked by times misspelt. The is retained before the some users: . suffix in order to retain the soft .. sound. .. See also SPELLING 3. . serviceman or servicewoman? see NONThames Water officials of spending too much time on privatisation issues rather than servi-

University Daily Telegraph

A national

cing customers Daily Telegraph

organization has been formed to service the local groups

foreman

service

charwoman

supervisor

The mechanic serviced the car

firefighter

policeman

policewoman

salesman

The television had been

cleaner; fireman

cameraman

camera-operator

saleswoman

police officer;

sales representative

shop assistant

repaired and was now serviceable e

-able

The feÃte was opened by the come-

c

dienne Victoria Wood

Her sister is an usherette

at the local cinema

He married a successful

authoress

SEXIST TERMS.

See also

session CESSION sewed sewn see

or

or

sexy

SESSION?

.

? Either word may be used

as the past participle of the verb

sew:

Sexy,

`arousing

-ESS.

an informal adjective meaning sexual

interest'

or

`sexually

aroused', has increasingly become used as

I

a synonym for `attractive', `enjoyable', `ex-

have sewn/sewed a patch over the hole. Sewn

citing', or `fashionable' in contexts that are

is often preferred to

sewed,

.

especially when

the participle is used as an adjective:

a

The past tense of is always :. . The verb and its derivatives should not be confused with (see SOWED or SOWN?).

neatly sewn hem.

◆

sew

sewed

She

sewed the lace along the edge sew

sexism

sow

The use of sexist language can

often be avoided by the substitution of neutral synonyms or simple paraphrases, without recourse to clumsy or controversial neologisms. Those opponents of sexism who coin such expressions as

the

artist's

completely devoid of sexual connotations:

.

`Crime,' according to an independent televi-

.

sion producer recently, `is very sexy this year.'

(The

Guardian).

Boots wanted a presence in

some of the sexier parts of the retailing business

(The

Guardian).

Shakespearean Shakespearian or

.

? This

word, meaning `of or having the characteristics of Shakespeare': sonnet,

may end with

shall will or

between

-ean

a

Shakespearean

or with

-ian.

? The traditional distinction

shall

and

will

is that

shall

is used in

shaved

276

the first person and

in the second and

will

third persons as the future tense of the verb to be

and

and that

shall

is used in the first person

will

in the second and third persons to

express determination, compulsion, inten-

.

.

tion, willingness, commands, promises, etc.:

.

I shall wash the dishes later.

back tomorrow.

We will not obey you.

In informal contexts the problem rarely arises, the contraction being used to represent both and in all persons. Outside England, especially in American, Scottish, and Irish English, the distinction between and is more simply defined, being used in all persons to express determination, compulsion, etc., and as the future tense of the verb , with an increasing tendency to use in all senses. Modern usage in England is following this trend, although is retained in official contexts: . . The use of and in questions is a more complex issue. . means `Do you want me to stay?' . is a suggestion or proposition. . means `Am I/Are we going to win?' . means `Are yougoingto pay thebill?' . is a request. ◆

'll

shall

will

shall

will

shall

will

to be

will

shall

Passengers shall remain seated until the vehicle

is stationary

shall

will

Shall I stay?

Shall we go?

Will I/we win?

Shall you pay the bill?

Will you pay the bill?

shaved shaven or

of the verb

?

past participle: beard. Shaven,

.

.

shave

Shaved

is the past tense

and the usual form of the He (has) shaved off his

a variant form of the past

.

participle, is largely restricted to adjectival use:

the shaven heads of the monks

shaven young man.

she HE SHE shear sheer see

or

or

?

;

Shear

off

the

.

confused with or `vertical':

budget. sheer,

or

of the verb

?

It should not be

.

.

which means `utter'

Sheared

shear; shorn

its past participle:

The mast had

Millions have been

sheer cheek

sheared shorn

.

means `cut or break

.

sheared off halfway up. sheared

a clean-

FEMALE or FEMININE?

off' or `remove or deprive':

a sheer drop.

is the past tense

They have shorn the sheep. of your power.

.

You will be shorn

The past participle isused inthe technical sense of `deformed', `distorted', `fractured', or `broken': . . isalsousedasanadjective: . . . ◆

sheared

The head of the screw has sheared off

Shorn

his shorn hair

The preferred pronunciation of this

word, which means `an Arab chief or ruler', is [shayk]. The alternative pronunciation [sheek] is not generally accepted.

◆

Note the spelling of this word; the spelling

shelf-life sheriff

a shorn lamb

see

sheik

SELL-BY DATE.

This word is often misspelt. Note

the single the

-ff

-r-

in the middle of the word and

ending.

shibboleth

The noun

shibboleth

is fre-

quently used to denote a catchword, slogan, maxim, clicheÂ, etc., especially one that is old-fashioned or obsolescent:

.

We were

unimpressed by his speech, in which he did little more than repeat the old shibboleths of the party.

◆ traditionally refers to a custom or practice that serves to distinguish the members of one party, sect, race, etc., from those of another. In the Old Testament (Judges 12:6) the word is used as a test to distinguish the Ephraimites, who could not pronounce the sound [sh], from the Gileadites. Shibboleth

shined shone or

?

Shone

is the past tense

and past participle for most senses of the verb

.

shine; shined

ing `polished':

shined our shoes.

ship shone shoot shorn should

.

is restricted to the mean-

.

The sun (has) shone all day.

He shone his torch on the statue.

They (have)

BOAT or SHIP? see SHINED or SHONE? see CHUTE or SHOOT? see SHEARED or SHORN?

see

or

would

? In reported speech,

conditional sentences, and other indirect constructions, the use of follows the pattern of

should

shall

future tense of the verb

and

and will

would

(as the

to be); would

is

always used in the second and third persons

. .

is the usual form of

They sheared the sheep.

SHEAR or SHEER?

see

. is an accepted variant.

He will come

They shall apologize immediately.

sheer sheikh

and often replaces

.

should

in the first person:

.

We said we should/would stay until Satur-

day.

She thought you would fail.

.

If you

were in trouble I should/would help you.

He

would open the door if he had the key. Would

.

is also the correct choice when asking a question:

the house?

See also

Would you like to see the rest of

SHALL or WILL?

277 A similar convention applies to the use of and in polite or formal constructions: . .. .. .. . In informal contexts, the distinction between and does not arise, the contraction being used to represent both and in all persons. In the sense of `ought to' is used in all persons: . .. . There is sometimes a risk of ambiguity in the first person: . may be a paraphrase of `I thought I ought to . . .' or the past tense of `I think I shall . . .' In the sense of `used to' is used in all persons: . .. . On the use of (or ) for (or ) see OF. ◆

should

would

We

should/would be delighted to see you would like to buy a pair of sandals

pleased to oblige

I should/

She would be

They would prefer to play

outside should

would

'd

should

would

should

We should visit her more often

You

should be able to see it from here

I

thought I should accept their offer

would

When we were on holiday we would

sometimes spend all day on the beach

Before his

retirement he would always get up at seven o'clock

should

would have

See also

would of

should

RATHER; SUBJUNCTIVE.

shrank shrunk shrunken ,

or

the past tense of the verb

?

shrink

Shrank

and

is

shrunk

the usual form of its past participle, the variant

shrunken

. .

being more frequently

used as an adjective: telling shrunk.

.

her

truth.

the

He My

shrank

from

pullover

has

A shrunken old woman stood in

the doorway.

The use of in place of acknowledged by some authorities. ◆

shrunk

Siamese twins sibling

shrank

see

The noun

is also

CONJOINED.

sibling,

which denotes a

brother or sister, is a useful word that is unfortunately disliked by many users and

.

largely restricted to formal contexts and

.

sociological jargon:

the twins' relationship

sibling rivalry.

silhouette

for `more thorough analysation [sic]' of the results.

is enclosed in square brackets and inserted immediately after the word or phrase it refers to. The use of italics is optional.

◆ Sic

sick ill or

? In British English to feel

.

to feel nauseated or queasy, to feel

feel unwell: yesterday

.

is to

usually

She was sick yesterday

means `she vomited yesterday':

is

sick

ill

She was ill

means `she was not well yester-

day'.

◆ The adjective is not usually used in this sense beforeanoun, beingpreferred: . [not ] . ( may, however, precede a noun in the . . sense of `bad': . .) is also used with reference to absence . . fromworkbecauseofillness: . . . In American English and are interchangeable in most contexts, being the more formal of the two adjectives. ill

sick

man

a sick

ill

Ill

ill fortune

health

ill treatment

ill

Sick

to go sick

sick pay

off sick

sick leave

sick

ill

ill

sideline

Some people dislike the increasing

use of the verb

sideline,

This

country

.

must

United Nations.

not

.

meaning `prevent

from taking part' or `put out of action': be

sidelined

at

the

The old guard has been

◆ Of sporting origin, the verb has been used in American English since the 1940s, usually with reference to illness or injury that puts a player out of action. sidelined by the new administration.

sideline

siege

This word, meaning `the surround-

ing of a fortified place to force a surrender', is sometimes misspelt. Note the order of the vowels -ie-, which conforms to the normal `i before

e'

rule.

SPELLING 5. sight or site? see CITE, SIGHT or SITE? See also

significant

.

The adjective

`having meaning': significant gesture.

significant

.

means

a significant detail

a

The use of and to simplify such ◆ Its frequent use as a synonym for `important', sentences as: . `large', `serious', etc., is disliked by some users: . . . [rather than ] and: . . [rather than ] has yet to gain general acceptance. silhouette This word, meaning `outline;

with their siblings

◆

sibling

siblings

He would like to have a sibling

a brother or sister to play with

All her siblings

brothers and sisters

a

significant writer

a significant increase

a

significant problem

have left home

sic

meaning `so' or

shadow', is sometimes misspelt, the most

`thus', is used in printed or written text

The Latin word

sic,

frequent error being the omission of the

(often in a quotation) to indicate that an

The word derives from the name of the French politician EÂtienne de (1709±67), perhaps because of his small-minded economies.

unlikely, unexpected, questionable, or mis-

.

spelt word or phrase has in fact been accurately transcribed:

He spoke of a need

silent -h-. Note also the -ette ending.

◆

Silhouette

silicon

silicon silicone or

?

278 is an element

Silicon

that occurs in sand and is used in alloys,

.

glass manufacture, and the electronics industry:

silicon chip. Silicone

is a compound

.

that contains silicon and is used in lubricants, polishes, and cosmetic surgery: silicone rubber.

The two words should not be confused. The final syllable of is unstressed; the final syllable of rhymes with .

◆

silicon

silicone

bone

similar

Note the spelling of this adjective,

particularly the single -m- and -l- and the -ar ending.

The adjective is followed by the preposition : . .The alternative is incorrect.

◆

similar

to

Their car is similar to ours

similar as

similes

A

simile

is a figure of speech which,

like a metaphor, suggests a comparison or analogy, but a simile expresses the compar-

.

.

ison explicitly and is usually introduced by like

or

ocean.

as:

teeth like pearls

as wide as the

(In the second example the first

as,

Similes are used in many well-known idioms: . . . , and many similes are so overworked as to have become . clicheÂs: . . . Similes can, however, be used to good effect, particularly in humorous or ironical prose: . (P.G. Wodehouse, ). . ( ). They are more often used seriously in poetry: before

wide,

is optional.)

◆

good as gold

dry as dust

to run like the wind

bold as brass

a voice like thunder

eyes like stars

Jeeves

coughed one soft, low, gentle cough like a sheep with a blade of grass stuck in its throat The Inimitable Jeeves

A laugh

swept through the conference hall as a drip of water might sweep through the Kalahari

Times

Life, like a dome of many-coloured glass, Stains the white radiance of Eternity.

(Shelley,

SIMILES

Adonais

)

as bald as a coot as black as coal/soot as blind as a bat as bold as brass as bright as a button as brown as a berry as busy as a bee as clean as a new pin/a whistle as clear as a bell/crystal as cold as ice as common as muck as cool as a cucumber

The

as dead as a doornail/the dodo as deaf as a post as drunk as a lord as dry as a bone/dust as dull as ditchwater as easy as A.B.C. as fat as a pig as fit as a fiddle/a flea as flat as a pancake as free as a bird/air as fresh as a daisy as gentle as a lamb as good as gold/new as green as grass as guilty as sin as happy as a sandboy/Larry as hard as nails/iron as heavy as lead as helpless as a newborn babe as honest as the day is long as hungry as a horse as keen as mustard as large as life as light as a feather as like as two peas in a pod as mad as a hatter/a March hare as nutty as a fruitcake as obstinate as a mule as old as the hills as patient as Job as plain as a pikestaff as playful as a kitten as pleased as Punch as poor as a churchmouse as proud as a peacock as pure as the driven snow as quick as lightning as quiet as a mouse as regular as clockwork as right as rain as round as a barrel as safe as houses as sharp as a needle/a razor as sick as a dog/a parrot as silent as the grave as slippery as an eel as slow as a snail as sly as a fox as snug as a bug in a rug as sober as a judge as soft as butter as sound as a bell as steady as a rock as stiff as a poker as straight as a die/an arrow

279

sine qua non

as strong as an ox/a horse as sure as eggs is eggs as sweet as a nut/honey as thick as thieves/two short planks as thin as a rake as tough as old boots as ugly as sin as weak as water as white as a sheet/a ghost/snow as wise as an owl/Solomon

simplistic

The adjective

.

simple:

[not

condition or requirement:

Of Latin origin, the phrase literally means `without which not'. The word may be pronounced [ ni], [ i], or [ ay]; may be pronounced [kway] or [kwah]; may rhyme with or . sine

sin

means

.

a simplistic exa simple

His simplistic solution to the problem

was rejected without further discussion

? These two verbs Simulate

means

.

pose of study, training, experiment, etc.': simulated leather

.

The process is simulated in the laboratory. Stimulate

stimulated his pupils' interest. experience.

See also

LATE?

.

means `arouse' or `excite':

simultaneity

He

a stimulating

DISSEMBLE, DISSIMULATE

or

SIMU-

The traditional pronuncia-

SIMULTA-

NEOUS

Æ lta Æ nayiti] is also heard. The American [simu English pronunciation is [sõÅm-].

simultaneous

This word, meaning `hap-

pening at the same time', may cause problems

with pronunciation. The usual Æ ltayniu Æ s]. The Amerpronunciation is [simu ican English pronunciation is [sõÅm-]. see

?

or

SINCE?; BECAUSE, AS, FOR or

The adverb

sincerely

is some-

times misspelt. Note the -cere- in the mid-

dle, and the -ly (not -ley) ending.

sinecure

The noun

sinecure,

meaning `a

job or position in which payment is received for little or no work', is often mispronounced. The correct pronunciation of this three syllable word is [sõÅnikewr]: the -i-

is long, as in silent.

or

?

`burn slightly':

.

bone

is the pre-

Singeing

singe,

meaning

It is difficult to iron this

blouse without singeing the lace. singe

sin

is retained in

singeing

The -e of

to keep the -g-

.

soft and to distinguish it from

singing,

present participle of the verb

sing:

birds were singing in the trees.

the The

◆ is pronounced [ ing]; is pronounced[ ing].Carefulspeakersdonotinsertthe hard sound, as in , into , , etc. Singeing

sinj

singing

sing

g

single

or

singing singer

plural

? As a general rule a

singular verb is used with a singular subject and a plural verb is used with a plural subject. Problems arise when the subject is a noun or phrase that can be singular or plural and when a singular subject is se-

.

parated from the verb by a number of plural nouns (or vice versa):

A

list

of

the names and addresses of new members is

tion of this noun, derived from Æ lta Æ neeiti], , is [simu although

since AGO SINCE sincerely

singeing singing

gone

sent participle of the verb

. singular .

`feign', `imitate', or `reproduce for the purto simulate indifference

sõÅ

qua

non

is generally used in a derogatory manner: . . are sometimes confused.

Mutual trust is a

◆

simplistic] explanation for her behaviour.

or

.

sine qua non of a successful marriage.

◆ Simplistic

simulate stimulate

sine qua non,

texts, denotes an essential or indispensable

simplistic

planation of the theory of relativity

The expression

which is largely restricted to formal con-

`oversimplified' or `naive'; it should not be used in place of

singular

wine,

and the first -e- is not

[not

are] available on request.

Such nouns as , , , , , , , etc., and other collective nouns followed by ( , , , etc.), are used with a singular verb if the people or items in question are considered as a group and with a plural verb if they are considered as individuals. ◆

audience

government

jury

committee family crowd herd

of a bunch of flow-

ers a flock of geese a gang of thieves

See also COLLECTIVE NOUNS; COMMITTEE; GOVERNMENT; -ICS; KIND OF; MAJORITY and MINORITY; NUMBER.

Any corresponding pronouns or possessive adjectives should agree with the chosen verb: . [not ] .. [not ] . American English treats groups as singular more than British Englishdoes: . ,but: . Measurements, sums of money, percentages, etc., are used with a singular verb if they are considered as a single entity: . .. .. . The

audience were asked to remain in their

seats

its

The jury has to consider all the evidence

before it

they can reach a verdict Harvard plays Yale

Oxford play

Cambridge

Four metres is

all we need

Ten pounds is not enough

Fifteen per cent is a generous increase

sink

280

Two or more nouns joined with are used purpose, but it should not be used to excess: with a plural verb unless they represent a single . concept: . . . .. . . However, nouns and phrases joined to the prin- ◆ Insomecontexts is quitesuperfluous: . cipal subject with , , , , isacrisis; . is etc., are regarded as parenthetical; the verb an interview. agrees with the principal subject alone: . See also ONGOING. , , sixth This word may be pronounced .. , [siksth] or [sikth], although some people , dislike the omission of the second [s] sound. . and

We discussed our financial situation with

His sister and her friend were killed in

the accident

Gin and tonic is a popular drink

the

bank

manager

They

are

trying

to

improve the unemployment situation

situation

as well as together with plus

a crisis situation

an interview situation

A

valuable painting

as well as her engravings

was destroyed in the fire

Her engravings

together with a valuable painting were destroyed

in the fire

See also ANY; EITHER; FOOT or FEET?; MORE; NEITHER; NONE; ONE; OR; PLUS; THERE IS or THERE ARE?; TOGETHER WITH.

sink sync or

?

Sink

.

is a verb meaning `go

.

down' or `reduce' or a noun meaning `basin for washing':

.

as the sun sinks in the west

Hopes were sinking fast.

the kitchen sink.

should not be confused with an abbreviated form of

sync,

It

or

synchronization:

? This word, meaning

atmospheric pressure', can be spelt with an or a

y.

Some users prefer the spelling, since this reflects the original Greek siphoÅn. ◆

i

Sir .

Sir

is a polite term of address for a man:

Thank you very much, sir.

The word is

usually written with a lower-case s- in such contexts, but as an impersonal salutation in

LETTER WRITING

capital

S-:

.

it is always written with a

Dear Sir.

? Both spellings of this

SPELLING 3.

The adjective

skilful,

meaning `pos-

sessing skill', is sometimes misspelt. The final

l

of

skill

is dropped in British English

before the suffix -ful. In American English, the -ll is retained:

. skill

`(draw off liquid by means of a) tube using i

or

word are acceptable. See

which is

The two systems run in sync.

siphon syphon

sizeable sizable skilful The noun

preposition

at

considerable

skill

skillful.

in: at

.

is followed by the

skill

or

[or

The in]

job

requires

dealing

with

difficult people.

slander slang

see

Slang

LIBEL or SLANDER? is unauthorized language, of-

ten but not necessarily coarse, which stands in the linguistic hierarchy between general informal speech and the specific vocabularies of professional and occupational jargon. Innovative and dramatic, slang is the most ephemeral of language, continually coining new terms and discarding old ones, which are either abandoned to obscurity or

, with a capital -, is also the title of knights standard language. . and baronets: . Slang includes shortening of words: . (busi. Note that it is correct to use with a ◆ness) . (vibrations); onomatopoeic words: . person's first name alone but not with his surname ;rhymingslangorabbreviationsofit: . alone: . [not ]. (sister) . (feet, from ); . terms from the criminal and drug subcultures: sitting or sat? The substitution of , the (a police informer, or alternatively marijuana) past participle of the verb , for the pre. (time spent in prison) . (an sent participle is found in some amphetamine drug). dialects of English: . Many slang terms are existing words which are [in some dialects ] . given new meanings. Examples include: . ◆ is correctly used in the passive form of the (impressive) and . (great). transitiveverb : . A sparing use of slang can be effective, except . when the context is too formal for it to be approsite or cite? See CITE, SITE or SIGHT? priate. However, slang often becomes obsolete or old-fashioned very quickly and the use of out-ofsitting room see LOUNGE. date or overworked slang can make speech or situation In the sense of `state of affairs' writing seem dated and tedious. ◆ Sir

transferred into the respectability of the

S

Sir Lancelot

Sir Humphrey

Appleby

biz

Sir

Sir Humphrey

vibes

zap

Sir Appleby

blister

sat

sit

sat

were

speed

sitting

in the garden

cool

Sat

sit

wicked

We were sat at this table by the

head waiter

the noun

situation

plates of meat

grass

porridge

sitting

They

skin and

plates

often serves a useful

See also

DRUGS SLANG.

slash

281 The symbol /, called a

slash,

is widely

used in computing, both in command lines

smear

so The increasing use of the noun

to denote a defamatory attack, often

smear

.

for computer software and in e-mail ad-

involving slander or libel, is disliked by

dresses. Note that a forward slash (/) is the

many users:

form used in Internet addresses, while a

misconduct are the latest in a series of smears.

backward slash (\) is used to identify com-

the victim of a smear campaign.

puter files, etc.

SOLIDUS.

See also

sled sledge sleigh ,

or

? All these nouns

denote vehicles that are used on snow for

.

Their allegations of professional

◆ The noun is particularly frequent in the headline language of popular newspapers.

smelled smelt or

? Either word may be

.

used as the past tense and past participle of

transport or recreation.

the verb

◆ Sledge

delicious

smell:

The

cake

smelled/smelt

. , the most frequent in British English, is replacedby in American English. usually See also -ED or -T? may be pronounced [smelt] or refers to a large sledge that is pulled by animals; the smaller sledge that is used for sliding downhill [smeld]; is always pronounced [smelt]. is also known as a :. smiley A is the popular name for an . , a symbol used in electronic com. munications to indicate the writer's resled

Sleigh

Smelled

smelt

toboggan

Christmas on his sleigh

a picture of Father

children playing on their

sledges/sleds

sleight

The word

used in the phrase

sleight,

most frequently

sleight of hand

(`dexterity

in using the hands to perform conjuring

smiley

emoticon

sponse.

:-) (-: :-)) :-( :-< >:( :-* []

pronounced. Note the -ei- spelling and the pronunciation [slõÅt] not [slayt].

slough

Slough how,

is pronounced [slow], rhym-

.

in the sense `swamp; state of

hopeless dejection':

in the slough of despond,

and [sluf] when referring to the cast-off skin of a snake or the verb `shed or abandon'.

slow

The use of the word

.

slow

as an

adverb should generally be avoided in for-

.

You'd better drive slow in this fog.

slowest

more slowly

mal contexts: in prison.

Time passes slowly

[not

slow]

restrictions

imposed

by

rendered sideways.

tricks, etc.') is sometimes misspelt and mis-

ing with

The

keyboards mean that most smileys are

smiling smiling back very happy sad very sad angry kiss hug

SMS TEXT MESSAGING snail mail MAIL sneaked snuck . see

see

.

.

The comparative and superlative forms or ? is the standard and are more informal than past form of : and :. The alternative form is dis.. . liked by many people, although its history may be preferred to when the in American English goes back to the 19th adverb is preceded by : . century. Today it remains confined largely . to the USA. The use of the adverb in fixed combina- so The phrase purpose, tions, such as , , etc., is sometimes reduced, expressing to in informal is acceptable in all contexts. contexts. In formal speech and writing ◆

slower

most slowly

than you

She eats more slowly/slower

Sneaked

sneak

They sneaked into the

house.

snuck

Michael works the slowest/most slowly

Slower

more slowly

any

I can't walk any

slower

slow

so that

slow-moving traffic a go-slow

smart

In modern usage the adjective

so

smart,

meaning `intelligent', is often applied to

.

devices that use sophisticated electronic technology:

smart

card

smart house

on

.

(a house with computer-con-

trolled heating, lighting, etc.)

smart weap-

(a bomb or other missile that can be

automatically guided to its target).

that

should be retained:

.

The

gate had been left open so (that) we could drive in.

To introduce a result or consequence may be , . The phrase , which also expresses purpose, is followed by an infinitive with and should not be confused with :.

. used alone in all contexts: .

(a plastic bank

card with an integral microprocessor)

the word

◆

so

The gate had been left

open so we drove in so as

to

so that

She wore gloves so as

soar

282

.. ◆ It is also used, as in this book, to indicate that [not ] . is both of two alternatives are correct or appropriate: best avoided where would be adequate: . . . . The solidus is used in the percentage sign %, and is sometimes used for writing fractions: . . See also AS; IN ORDER THAT and IN ORDER TO; It is used instead of the word in expressions SO-CALLED. like: . .Itisusedincertainabbreviations: . soar see SAW, SOAR or SORE? . . It is also used to separate successive time . units: . so-called The adjective is generand in dates: . . ally used in an ironic sense, implying that A further use of the solidus is to indicate the the following word is inaccurate or inapbreaks in lines of verse, when a poem is not set out . propriate; . in its separate lines: . . . not to leave fingerprints

She wore gloves so that

as she would not leave fingerprints So as to to

He

a terrible/terrific amount of work

closed the window (so as) to keep out the rain

2/3

per

35 km/hr

a/c

c/o

the financial year 2003/04

so-called

July/August

1/11/03

a so-called friend

their so-called

We are the hollow men/We

This year's so-called disastrous

supporters

summer was actually quite good, the London Weather Centre said yesterday

(Daily

Tele-

are the stuffed men/Leaning together (T.S. Eliot)

See also

SLASH.

soluble or solvable? Either adjective may The increasing use of the adjective in neutral be used to describe something that can be contexts is disliked by some users: . . solved: . . is more frequently used to describe someNote that it is unnecessary to put quotation that can be dissolved, especially somemarks around an expression immediately follow- thing thing that dissolves easily in water: . . ing : [not . ] Used without a hyphen after the noun it qua- somebody or someone? The pronoun lifies, may be interpreted more literally: . and its synonym are interchangeable in all contexts. . ◆ Both are used with a singular verb but are sometimes followed by a plural personal pronoun sociable or social? means or possessive adjective (see THEY): . `friendly', `companionable', or `convivial'; . means `of society' or `promoting graph).

◆

The so-called

a soluble/solvable problem

black economy regularly comes under fire

so-called

Soluble

soluble

the so-called special services

aspirin

the so-called `special services' . so called

somebody

someone

the peewit, so called because of its characteristic cry

Sociable

social

companionship': able dinner party

. .

a sociable guest a social worker

Somebody/

. .

Someone has parked their car in our drive

a soci-

a social

someday, someplace, Someday

and

sometime,

and

sometime

which both mean

The two adjectives are not interchangeable in standard English: . . these senses, although both may be applied to the , however, is considered an samenoun: . . . Americanism that should be restricted to Both words also mean `gregarious', informal contexts: . being used in the sense of `liking the company of others' and in the sense of `living with ◆ Note that is sometimes rendered as others': . two words: . .. , whereas is always rendered . as one word when used as an adjective or adverb. See also ANTISOCIAL, ASOCIAL, UNSOCIAL or

club.

`at some undefined time', are accepted as

◆

I shall get round to it

We

someday.

a sociable evening with friends at the

pub

must

go

there

sometime.

Someplace

a social evening for new members

sociable

I know I left that file

here someplace.

social

someday

She is more sociable than her sister, who

hardly ever goes out

UNSOCIABLE?

sole soul or

?

Sole

means `single':

walker paced the beach.

confused with

solidus

soul,

.

See also

A sole

It should not be

meaning `spirit'.

or

Its main use is in separating alternatives:

.

.

virgule. A

doctor must use his/her diagnostic skill in such cases.

You need butter and/or margarine to

make pastry.

sometime

SOMETIME or SOME TIME?

somersault

Note the spelling and pronun-

ciation of this word, which means `acrobatic

The solidus is also known as the

stroke, slant, slash mark, oblique,

We met some day soon after the

Liberation

Ants are social insects

roll'.

The

pronounced like somer-; salt,

first

two

summer,

syllables

are

but are spelt

the last syllable is pronounced like

but spelt

-something

-sault.

Many people dislike the fre-

quent use of the words thirtysomething,

twentysomething,

fortysomething,

etc., with

283 reference to people in their twenties/thir-

.

sowed

sound bite

A

sound bite

is a segment of a

ties/forties/etc. These words may be used as

speech, especially one made by a politician,

adjectives or nouns:

The studio panel was

specifically designed to be extracted for

.

news reports and media coverage. An ex-

formed . . . of five well-heeled thirtysomething

(Sunday

Times).

was

ample of a sound bite is the statement made

reluctant to admit to being fortysomething.

in 1988 by the then US President George

artsy

.

liberals

He

Are the thirtysomethings leaving childbear-

(The

Guardian).

.

Bush (father of George W. Bush): my lips: no new taxes.

Read

Of American origin,

◆ The expression derives originally from the popthe term has become a vogue expression in ular 1980s American television series Britain: . , which described the lives and lifestyles of a . group of people born in the late 1940s or early source The use of the word as a 1950s and who had therefore reached their thir- verb, meaning `find a source of', is disliked ties during the 1980s. by many users: . ing too late for safety?

Thirtysome-

thing

Political debate has been replaced

by sound bites and spin

source

sometime some time or

He had difficulty sourcing

? These spellings

are occasionally confused.

.

Sometime

is used

as an adverb to mean `at some point in time':

.

of time':

.

Responsible for a team of buyers and accountable

for the effective sourcing and procurement of all

.

means `a period

I need some time to think.

I've

been worried about her for some time now.

sooner HARDLY sophisticated see

sourcing

and

Cooper, the sometime President of the Yachting Association. Some time

In commercial contexts the term is used with reference to the discovery of suppliers: .

◆

Sir Percy

I'll come and see you sometime,

as an adjective to mean `former':

the material for his thesis.

(

the company's supplies Executive Post

south South southern ,

tive,

or

south

.

when it forms part of a proper name: south

The adjective

sophisticated

is

.

? As an adjec-

is always written with a capital

South Africa

.

).

the South Pole.

.

S

The noun

is usually written with a capital

.

S

when it denotes a specific region, such as

frequently applied to machines or devices,

the southern states of the USA:

in the sense of `complex' or `advanced':

secession of the South precipitated the Amer-

Our

client

. . .

develops

and

manufactures

sophisticated electrical and electronic products

(Sunday

Times).

This usage may be extended to the methods or techniques involved in producing such equipment: . . When it is extended to people, however, there is a risk of confusion with the principal sense of the adjective, `refined' or `cultured': . and systems

◆

sophisticated technology

the best-documented UFO case in

history ± one which has managed to perplex and astonish some of the most sophisticated scientists

The

ican Civil War.

In other contexts, and as an adverb, is usuallywrittenwithalower-case : . .. .. . The adjective is more frequent and usually less specific than the adjective : . . . Like is written with a capital when it forms part of a proper name, such as . With or without a capital , it also means `of the South': . . ◆

south

s

south for the winter

city remains intact

Many birds fly

Only the south wall of the

The island of Tasmania lies to

the south of Australia

southern

south

the southern slopes

in southern Italy

south, southern

S

the

( ). Some people also dislike the increasing tendency to describe children and adolescents as simply because they are at ease with modern technology and have southward or southwards? expensive tastes (largely due to their susceptibility the correct choice when an adjective isis to marketing and peer pressure), as such attributes needed: . Either have little to do with refinement or culture. or may be used when in the world The Bookseller

Southern Cross

S

speaking with a southern/

sophisticated

Southern drawl

Southward

a

sore sorry

see

SAW, SOAR or SORE?

The adjective

preposition

for

or

sorry

about:

.

I'm sorry for

KIND OF. see SOLE or SOUL? see

southward

southwards

an adverb is required:

is followed by the

about] what I said yesterday.

sort of soul

southward

[or

southward from the city.

direction.

. .

They

travelled

The skies were

full of birds flying southwards.

See also

-WARD or -WARDS? or SOVIET?

Soviet RUSSIAN sowed sown see or

? Either word may be used

as the past participle of the verb

sow,

but

spam

.

284

In British English the noun is sometimes used in place of . It is chiefly used to ◆ Thepasttenseoftheverbsowisalways : . denote an area of medicine that is specialized in. . The verb and its derivatives should not be specially see ESPECIALLY or SPECIALLY? confused with (see SEWED or SEWN?). specialty see SPECIALITY or SPECIALTY? sown

is the more frequent:

I have sown/

◆

specialty

sowed some more parsley in the herb garden.

speciality

sowed

They sowed the field with wheat sow

spam

sew

Spam

is a trade name for a type of

species

This word is normally pronounced

tinned chopped meat. With the develop-

[speesheez]. The alternative pronunciation

ment of electronic communications, how-

[speeseez] is avoided by careful users. Like

ever, it has acquired a new use as a noun

series,

referring to unsolicited, usually commer-

singular and plural:

.

cial, messages sent via e-mail to a large number of recipients:

How to block spam

on your PC.

FLAMING. span see SPUN or SPAN?

spastic

The term

is no longer con-

spastic

also dated as an insult for a person who lacks physical coordination or is in some way incompetent.

noun

.

range

The noun

spatula,

meaning `flat-

that the word ends in -a, not -ar or -er.

.

of the suffix -speak, meaning `jargon' or

other end of the political spectrum.

speculate

spectra

The verb

by the preposition

spectrums

speculate

or

on

about:

[or

.

is followed

happen.

speeded sped or

?

Sped

is the past tense speed

sense of `move or go quickly';

. .

derived from the term

water.

.

Eighty-Four: econospeak

. .

newspeak

coined by

.

novel

computerspeak

up when the supervisor arrived.

Times).

-BABBLE.

See also

In view of its etymology, it is appropriate that the suffix should have established itself in the English language during the 1980s.

spearhead

The

avoided where

an

opportunity

verb

lead

spearhead

is

for

a

.

best

would be adequate:

exists

profit-oriented

manager who can spearhead the company's continued expansion.

speciality specialty or

in British English and

.

He has never

The workers speeded

spelled spelt or

? Either word may be used

.

as the past tense and past participle of the verb

spell:

right?

See also

Have I spelt/spelled your name

-ED or -T?

Spelled

nounced [spelt] or [speld];

may be pro-

spelt

is always

pronounced [spelt].

spellcheckers

A

spellchecker

is a facility in

computer software that draws the user's attention to misspelt words, i.e. words that do not match any word in the computer's dictionary. It is important to remember that spellcheckers do not highlight words

?

Speciality

specialty

is used

in American

English to denote a special skill or interest

.

or a product, service, etc., that is specialized in:

.

techspeak

say the least, a cheeky bit of marketing-speak

◆

The days have sped by.

speeded on a motorway.

travel sickness tablet for children', which is, to

(Sunday

.

speed up,

We sped through the

Nineteen

Joy-rides bill themselves as `the

in the

speeded

relates to the sense of `drive at excessive speed' and to the phrasal verb

his

There's no

about] what might

meaning `accelerate':

in

at the

spectrum

to nouns, proper names, or prefixes and is Orwell

.

◆ The noun principally denotes the series of colours produced when white light is dispersed. It has two plural forms, and .

`characteristic language', which is attached

George

best

a wide spectrum of

and past participle of the verb

Some people object to the overuse

is

spectrum

would be adequate

across the whole spectrum

point in speculating on

bladed utensil', is sometimes misspelt. Note

-speak

The

or more appropriate:

person who has cerebral palsy and is now

spatula

spectrum experience

sidered acceptable as a description for a

a species/several dif-

ferent species.

avoided where

See also

.

the word has the same form in the

Wildlife photography is his speciality.

Steak tartare is a speciality of the house.

that are correctly spelt but used in the wrong context, e.g. led, their

for

from.

for

to

for

too,

there, that

for

than,

lead

or

for

form

Overreliance on spellcheckers can

result in such mistakes' being made with increasing frequency.

285

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

See also HOMOGRAPH, HOMONYM or HOMOPHONE? and individual entries.

spelling

English spelling is notoriously

difficult to learn, for native English speakers as well as foreign students. However, it

is to some extent governed by rules, some of which are described below.

1Doublingofconsonants

achieve field

belief

frieze

priest

relief

shriek

relieve

siege

conceit

species

yield.

c'

protein

represented is [ay] then

with a vowel is added. With single-syllable

deign

.

words this applies when the final consonant is

neighbour

preceded by a single vowel:

veil

drop ± dropped.

hit ± hitting

If the word has more than one

syllable, the consonant is doubled if the last

.

.

syllable is stressed and the final consonant is preceded by a single vowel: commit ± committed.

refer ± referred

Exceptions are words

.

with a final -l, which is doubled even if the syllable is unstressed:

.

American English); and dicapped

.

worshipped

.

jetlagged

panic ± panicked.

2 y and i

before a suffix beginning with

When a suffix is added to a word

that ends in -y, the

y

becomes an

the preceding letter is a consonant:

.

.

hurry ± hurried.

laid

paid

.

i

only if

i

is added, such as -ing:

try ± trying.

3 Final -e

. .

silly ±

Exceptions are:

and in words where a suffix

beginning with an

e

.

is dropped:

rate

rating.

±

. . .

A

growing trend is to drop the -e- before

.

the suffixes -able and -age: likable milage. e

sizeable

±

sizable

likeable

±

mileage

±

If the word ends in -ge or -ce the

is not dropped before

peaceable.

The

4

e

a

and o:

4 -ly suffix

.

outrageous

is not dropped if the suffix

begins with a consonant: cept -ly (see

below).

excitement,

ex-

reindeer

sleigh

weight.

spend

The use of the word

.

spend

as a noun,

meaning `amount spent' or `amount to be spent':

an advertising spend of £20,000,

is

phrase.

spilled spilt or

? Either word may be used

.

.

as the past tense and past participle of the verb

spill:

He has spilt/spilled his coffee.

The children spilled/spilt out of the school .

See also Spilt

-ED or -T?

British English: milk.

[spilt];

spin

.

is the usual form of the adjective in It's no use crying over spilt

may be pronounced [spild] or

spilt

is always pronounced [spilt].

In recent years the word

has

spin

acquired a new meaning, referring to the

.

practice of presenting or interpreting facts or events in a favourable light:

This story is

◆A is a person employed by a political party, government department, etc., to manipulate that organization's public face in the light of currentevents: .

a prime example of Labour government spin.

spin doctor

Almost everyone who took part in

When -ly is added to a word it

bewitched by the spin doctors, photo opportu-

.

nities and in-jokes of each campaign that we lost

.

.

-ll and -le which change to -lly and -ly: nice ± nicely

.

.

full ± fully

Exceptions are:

5 ie and ei

beige

heinous

the travelling circus of the election became so

remains unchanged except for the endings

c'

freight

See also -ABLE or -IBLE?; -AE- and -OE-; AMERICANISMS; -ANT or -ENT?; -IZE or -ISE?; PLURALS; and individual entries. spelt see SPELLED or SPELT?

Spilled

When a suffix beginning with a

vowel is added to a word with a silent final -e, the

rein

weigh

is used:

placed by an appropriate synonym or para-

a vowel:

said

.

reign

Sheila

leapfrogged

A final -c is not doubled, but is ck

.

.

han-

ei

feint

seize

When the sound

disliked by many people and is best re-

changed to

sillier

.

ceiling

perceive

(not always doubled in

kidnapped

American English) outfitter.

.

traveller (but traveler in

feign

vein

Examples of

deceive

weird.

are sometimes doubled when a suffix starting

eight

piece

Exceptions include:

Neil

weir

diesel

shield

include:

deceit

receive.

Keith

chief

niece

reprieve

thief

conceive

receipt

brief

hygiene

words `except after

caffeine

Final consonants

believe

grief

split infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

truly

.

noble ± nobly.

duly

The rule `i before

e

wholly.

except after

applies to most words where the sound

.

( ). The expression derives from the spin given to a ball in certain sports in order to control its direction through the air or the way in which it bounces. sight of one fundamental reality The Observer

split infinitive

A

split

infinitive

occurs

.

those letters represent is [ee]. Examples of

when an adverb is inserted between

to

words that have `i before

and the infinitive form of a verb:

to

e'

include:

spoiled

286

spoonful . -FUL sportsman sportswoman SEXIST TERMS Split infinitives have a long history and the spouse objection to them is comparatively recent. As with

boldly go.

.

The practice is disliked by some

but very widely used:

Microsoft, the world's

Most users prefer to form the

plural

spoonfuls.

-fuls:

largest software corporation, would be forced

or

to radically alter the way it does business with

(The

rivals and suppliers

See

Guardian).

The use of the noun

to

He

tries to on the one hand explain

He failed to entirely comprehend me He entirely failed to

He

failed to comprehend me entirely

We expect to

further modernize our services

We expect further to modernize

moreover

They were plotting secretly to destroy

the files

I would not expect anyone who has

not read Joyce fully to understand the play

I hope to really

enjoy myself

I hope really to enjoy myself

of

husband

or

wife

sex of the person is known:

spouse

Please give details of any

other properties owned by you or your spouse

Use of the car park is restricted to members and their spouses

spouse

sprang sprung or

?

See also Spoilt

-ED or -T?

British English: Spoiled

[spoilt];

.

is the usual form of the adjective in a spoilt child.

may be pronounced [spoild] or

spoilt

is always pronounced [spoilt].

spokesman spokeswoman SEXIST TERMS sponge . or

.

The verb

preposition [or

off

or

sponge

on:

? see

NON-

is followed by the

You can't sponge off

on] your family for the rest of your life.

spontaneity

The traditional pronuncia-

tion of this noun, meaning `the quality of

Sprang

and

sprung

are

both used as the past tense of the verb spring. Sprang

ish English: Both

bushes.

.

is the standard form in BritThe man

sprang

and

.

sprang sprung

from the

of his hand.

.

are com-

monly used in American English: sprung out of the door.

She

The lizard sprang out

Note that

sprung

is the only

.

acceptable form of the past participle in both British and American English:

The

lizard had sprung out of his hand.

spun span or

?

Spun

is the past tense and

part participle of the verb tense:

spoilt our holiday.

spouse]

spouses

been spun by hand.

The bad weather spoiled/

The broad-

[not

◆ The words and may, however, serve as useful replacements for the phrases `husband or wife', `husbands and wives', etc., especiallyinformalcontexts: . .. . The noun is usually pronounced [spows], the pronunciation [spowz] being an accepted variant.

the verb

.

in place

were the guests of honour.

used as the past tense and past participle of spoil:

.

caster Sue Baker and her husband

usage;

? Either word may be

spouse

is best avoided where the

spoiled spoilt or

NON-

? see

.

◆

the opposition to ending sentences with prepositions, grammarians based their objections on the rules of Latin grammar. Since so many people dislike split infinitives it is probably best to try to avoid them, at least in formal speech and writing. They can sound awkward or unpleasant, particularly when more than one word comes between and the verb: . . . . However, there are some sentences where it is preferable to split an infinitive, especially in order to avoid ambiguity: . .The revised ordering . . . or would suggest complete, not partial, failure. . . The revised ordering . . . suggests .. . Was the plotting or the intended destruction secret? . . Read Joyce fully or understand fully? Another argument for disregarding the rule is that sometimes the rhythm of spoken English makes the split infinitive sound natural and its avoidance awkward. Compare: . with .

.

.

span

squalor

spin

.

in modern

is an archaic form of the past

He spun the wheel.

.

This yarn has

This word, meaning `dirtiness;

wretchedness':

the squalor of the slums,

is sometimes misspelt. In both British and American English the ending is tremor,

squaw

not

-o(u)r

Squaw

as in

-or

as in

colour.

is a Narragansett word

meaning `woman' and became a generic term for any woman of Native American origin. In recent years, however, the word has

acquired

negative

connotations

through its more general use and it is now considered unacceptable in virtually every context.

squeaky clean

The

adjective

behaving in a natural, impulsive way', is Æ neeiti] but the pronunciation [spon[sponta

clean,

Æ nayiti] is probably more frequently heard. ta

often used in the figurative sense of `be-

squeaky

which originated in advertising, is

.

yond reproach' or `above suspicion':

.

287 the

squeaky clean image of this generation of popstars

The president must be squeaky clean.

Users of this expression should be aware of its possible derogatory connotations: there may be an implication that the person or thing so described is too good to be true.

stadiums stadia or

?

.

Stadiums

usual plural of the noun word may be used:

.

is the more

stadium,

but either

New football stadiums

have been built throughout Britain in recent years.

The city has two football stadia.

stair stare . or

of steps':

?

means `one of a series

Stair

The stair creaked beneath his foot.

.

It should not be confused with means `look hard':

sad, faraway stare.

stalactite

stalagmites

or

stare,

She stared in horror.

stalagmite

?

.

which

Stalactites

a

and

are tapering masses of calcium

carbonate that form in limestone caves. A hangs from the roof; a

stalactite

stalagmite

.

is the only form of its past participle: room stank/stunk of cigarette smoke.

[not

boots have stunk

steal .

The

These

stank] of manure since

my visit to the farm last week.

stare STAIR state-of-the-art see

art,

or

The adjective

state-of-the-

which relates to the current level of

technical

.

STARE?

achievement,

development,

knowledge, etc., is disliked by some users: Heart of the

system

desktop

copier

with

features

(Sunday

a

is a state-of-the-art

.

host

Times).

computer technology.

of

time-saving

state-of-the-art

It is best avoided where or would be adequate or more appropriate: . [Venture Scouts] ( ). ◆

modern

up-to-date They

use state-of-the-art camp stoves

for cooking Daily Telegraph

statesman stateswoman stationary stationery or

IST TERMS.

or

? see

?

NON-SEX-

These

two

; `not moving': . The classic method of distinguishing between means . `writing materials': . the two words is to associate the of ◆ To avoid confusion remember that is with that of and the of with sold by a , a trader whose name, like that of . and , ends in - .

rises from the floor.

words are often confused.

a stationary car

◆

c

ceiling

g

or

stationer

baker

? Either word may be

.

being more frequent than

modern usage: flow of

is

no

blood with

remedy

to

stanch

.

in

I staunched/stanched the

.

handkerchief.

a

staunched/stanched the wound. recruitment

and

She

This offer retention

statistics status

within

our

universities:

staunch the brain drain

see

er

-ICS.

In British English the word

(The

It

first syllable like state. The pronunciation Æ s], with the first syllable as in static, is [statu an American English variant.

won't

see

Guardian).

or

a staunch

status

Æ s], with the should be pronounced [staytu

◆ Stanch staunch

grocer

staunch STANCH is also a rare variant of the adjective stay stop , meaning `loyal' or `firm': .

problems

stationery

stationery

stalagmite

used as a verb, meaning `stop (the flow of)', staunch

means

office stationery

stalactite

ground

stanch staunch

Stationary

for

or

STAUNCH?

? The substitution of the verb

in the sense of `reside tempora-

. rily' or `remain' is found in some dialects of The word is pronounced [stahnch]. English: . [in some dialects is occasionally pronounced in the same ] . way, but its usual pronunciation is [stawnch], ◆ The use of the verb with reference to a rhyming with . break in a journey is generally acceptable: . standing or stood? The substitution of . , the past participle of the verb , stop

stay

supporter

stanch

We

Staunch

stopped

stayed

with my sister for a few days

stop

launch

We

stopped at my sister's house for a cup of tea on the

stood

stand

.

for the present participle standing is found in some dialects of English: [in some dialects

She was standing

stood] in front of the mirror.

◆ is correctly used in the passive form of the transitive verb : . . Stood

stand

The bottle should be stood

in a cool place for two hours

stank stunk or

? Either word may be used

as the past tense of the verb

stink,

but

stunk

way home

steal BURGLE steal steel . see

or

illegally':

?

,

ROB or STEAL?

Steal

means `take something

He stole three cars in two days.

.

should not be confused with

refers to a hard alloy of iron: is mostly steel and glass. steal

steel,

The building

.

In informal contexts,

is a noun meaning `bargain':

it's a steal.

It

which

At £10

step

step steppe or

288 Step

. .

variously means `foot-

step', `footprint', `raised surface', `stage in progress', etc.:

.

from the body. above.

He paused a few steps away

.

She heard steps on the floor

She mounted the step.

will be to contact the vendors.

be confused with

.

steppe,

broad, treeless, plain:

The next step

It should not

the harsh climate of

stepstereo-

see

which are acceptable, although the former is more frequent in contemporary usage.

stewardess

or

? see

NON-SEXIST

The word

sticky

has acquired at least

people use it to refer to small self-adhesive

.

squares of paper widely used as memos in everyday life:

She pressed a sticky on the

front door to remind her husband to feed the pets.

It is also used in computing to describe

.

the electronic equivalent of a paper reminder:

A

sticky

popped

up

on

reminding him to check his e-mail.

the

screen

The term

may also be encountered in electronic communications as an adjective describing an Internet site that attracts and retains large numbers of visitors.

stiletto

◆

oi

sound of

soil.

stoic

stoical

She's a real stoic

S

Stoic

stood STANDING stop STAY STOP storey story

or

or

or

STOOD?

?

? These two spellings are

sometimes

confused.

.

The

.

word

meaning `level of a building': on the second storey.

.

means `tale':

storey,

He lives

a multi-storey car park,

is spelt with an e; the plural is

storeys. Story

Tell me a story;

its plural is

◆ In American English the sense `level of a building' may also be spelt , with the plural .

straight strait or

.

story

stories

? The word

.

straight

is

most frequently used as an adjective or adverb: there.

a straight line

I went straight

.

It is sometimes used as a noun,

meaning `straight line or part':

the home

(of a racecourse). The word

straight

strait

is

an archaic adjective meaning `narrow; restricted'; in modern usage it is most frequently found in the form of the plural noun

.

straits,

stances':

meaning

`difficult

in dire straits.

Dover.

high narrow heel, particularly the -l- and

◆

.

strait

also occurs in proper names:

which refers to a woman's shoe with a

circum-

In the sense of

`narrow channel', the noun

Note the spelling of this word,

a

pronounced

The word may be used as a variant of or as a noun: . . Spelt with a capital -, the noun and adjective refer to a school of ancient Greek philosophy.

stories.

two new meanings in recent years. Many

is

Å ikl]. The -o- and -i- are pronounced [sto

see

This word has the alternative proÅ ] and [steerio Å ], both of nunciations [sterrio

.

death,

to

see

HALF- or STEP-?

steward TERMS sticky

attitude

separately, not as the

which denotes a

the Siberian steppes.

.

signed to or unaffected by suffering': stoical

(or

straits)

the Straits of

The two words have different origins: comes from the Old English `to stretch', ◆ The plural is either or , the whereas is ultimately derived from the Latin former being accepted by more authorities. `to bind tightly'. The two spellings are interchangeable only in stimulant or stimulus? Both these nouns certain compound words (see STRAITJACKET and are used to denote something that stimuSTRAITLACED ). lates activity. is specifically apstraight

the -tt-.

streccan

stilettos

stilettoes

strait

stringere

Stimulant

plied

to

stimulus

drugs,

.

alcohol,

etc.,

whereas

.

is a more general synonym for

`incentive':

Caffeine is a stimulant.

They

responded to the stimulus of competition. stimulant

increases activity; a

stimulus

A in-

See also

STRAIGHTENED or STRAITENED?

straightaway

or

straight away .

? This

expression, meaning `without delay': be going to the shops straightaway,

I'll

may be

written as one word or two.

straightened or straitened? These words The plural of is , which may be are sometimes confused. pronounced [ ewlõÅ] or [ ewlee]. means `made straight': . itiates activity.

◆

stimulus

stimulate stimulus stoical

stim

stimuli

Straightened

stim

SIMULATE or STIMULATE? see STIMULANT or STIMULUS? see

The adjective

stoical,

meaning `re-

The road has been

straightened.

from

the

STRAIGHT

or

Straitened,

archaic

STRAIT?),

which is derived

adjective

strait

in straitened circumstances.

.

(see

means `restricted':

strait STRAIGHT STRAIT straitened STRAIGHTENED straitjacket straitlaced see

or

289

?

see

STRAITENED?

or

and

A

straitjacket,

a constricting jacket used to restrain a violent person, and also in extended senses,

.

`something that restricts', may also be spelt straightjacket:

The government finds itself in

a straitjacket/straightjacket. straitlaced,

be spelt

.

In the same way,

meaning `puritanical', may also

straightlaced:

a very straitlaced/

straightlaced maiden aunt.

stratagem strategy or

chess.

.

.

stratagem

is a

is the art of

to devise a new

strategy

stratagem

stratagem

strategy

or

strata .

form of the noun

social stratum the rock.

?

.

is the plural

Strata

stratum:

from a different

in one of the upper strata of

The use of as asingular nounis wrong, but nevertheless is occurring with increasing frequency, especially in figurative contexts: . .

◆

strata

in that

strata of society

street street-

wise

ROAD or STREET?

see

In such words and phrases as

and

.

street credibility, street-

street-

refers to the

.

working-class inhabitants of the inner cia streetwise kid.

school-leavers according

to

TSB bank

are a

study

(The

This year's batch of

optimistic

and

streetwise,

commissioned

Guardian).

by

the

The meaning

has recently widened to include the culture

.

of those familiar with the latest trends, fashions, topical issues, etc.:

To be success-

.

ful in the public relations industry, you need more than just street credibility.

Ladas and

Skodas snubbed as car thieves opt for `street cred'

(headline,

The Guardian).

-CRED.

[strength],

but

the

variant

most users.

stress

Some languages have a fairly regular

stress pattern but English stress patterns are

.

chauffeur.

.

Two-syllable words are more likely to be stressed on the first syllable, but when a word serves as both a noun (or adjective) and a verb it is normally stressed on the first syllable as a noun (or adjec. . tive), but the second as a verb: . . . . . Most three-syllable words have their stress on the first syllable, and several of those words which have their stress on the second are widely coming to be pronounced with the stress on the first: . . . Words with four or more syllables usually have their stress on the second or third syllable. Some people find difficulty in pronouncing those multisyllabic words that traditionally have been stressed on the first syllable and such words are coming to be pronounced with the . stress on a later syllable: . . . Individual words may be stressed in speech for emphasis: in written and printed texts such words are indicated by italics: . I walking in the rain. bureau

◆

permit

present

conflict

contribute

insult

subsidence

applicable

strable

rebel

absent

demon-

formidable

INTONATION.

stringed strung or

?

like

Stringed

tive derived from the noun

.

is an adjec-

string; strung

.

is

the past tense and past participle of the verb string:

. .

a stringed instrument

stringed guitar by an expert.

a twelve-

His squash racket was strung The children (have) strung

decorations around the room.

◆ is also used adjectivally before a noun, often in combination with an adverb: . . Strung

a newly

strung violin

strive

The verb

preposition

for

strive

or

groups are still striving for of opportunity.

.

is followed by the

after:

Some minority

[or

after] equality

is occasionally used as an adjective in student see PUPIL or STUDENT?

See also

◆ Street

is

pronunciation [strenkth] is acceptable to

See also

culture of young people, especially young ties:

tion

stress to a more English-sounding one:

The use of in the extended sense of `plan' or `method' overlaps with that of . Both nouns are ultimately derived from the Greek word for `a general' and are principally applied to warfare, a being an artifice for deceiving the enemy and being the science or art of conducting a war.

stratum

This word is sometimes mispro-

nounced [strenth]. The correct pronuncia-

English language they often change their

the strategy involved in a game of

◆

strength

He isn't street enough

foreign words become absorbed into the

strategy

planning a campaign: stratagem

? A

slang usage in its own right, meaning `accepted by young people or those familiar with the latest trends, etc.': . .

varied and subject to change over time. As

STRAIGHT or STRAIT? strata see STRATUM or STRATA? See also

scheme, trick, or ruse;

student

stumble

290

stumble

The verb

the preposition across

[or

stunk stupefy

stumble

across

or

.

is followed by

on:

I stumbled

on] the solution to the problem.

This word, meaning `bewilder or

amaze', is sometimes misspelt. Note the ending

(like

-efy

putrefy),

in spite of the

spelling of the related word

stupor

.

stupid.

This word, meaning `a drowsy

dazed state':

in a drunken stupor,

times misspelt. Note the final torpor,

rather than

is some-

-or,

as in

-our.

subconscious unconscious or

.

He declined to comment further as

the matter was still sub judice.

◆ The expression is pronounced [sub dõÆsi]. Its literal meaning is `under a judge'. joo

STANK or STUNK?

see

public:

? Both these

subjunctive

The

subjunctive

is the gram-

matical set (`mood') of forms of a verb used to express possibilities or wishes rather than facts. With most verbs the subjunctive form is its basic form minus the

-s

of the third person singular, but

to be

the past tense subjunctive

were.

.

ending has

The sub-

junctive is largely falling into disuse but

.

.

survives in such idioms as: as it were

may.

.

be that as it may

far be it from me

come what

The main use of subjunctives is in clauses introduced by and expressing a proposal, desire, consciousness than : . . or necessity: . . . . ◆ In psychology both words relate to parts of the .. mind that can influence behaviour. . This usage is more popular in American has the additional senses of `not English than in British English, where is conscious',`unaware',and`unintentional': . . often inserted before the verb: .. . .. The other use of subjunctives is in clauses in. troduced by , or :. . . subject The of a clause or sentence . It is now very unusual to use such is the noun, pronoun, or phrase that cona construction with any subjunctive form other trols the verb (see also ACTIVE; PASSIVE). The than . subject usually precedes the verb, unless the adjectives mean `without (full) awareness', but

subconscious

◆

implies a greater degree of unconscious

that

a subcon-

It is vital that she leave immediately

unconscious resentment

scious desire

I suggested to Mark that he drop in for a coffee

sometime

They demanded that he answer their

questions

Unconscious

should

He lay

unconscious for two hours scious of the danger

They were uncon-

It is vital that

she should leave immediately

It was an unconscious

insult

if, though

supposing

to go, you might regret it

subject

If you were

It's not as though he

were a bachelor were

.

clause or sentence is a question. In the sentence: dog

like them?,

.

The dog buried the bone, the

is the subject. In the sentence: the pronoun

Does he

is the subject.

In more complex sentences, the subject may be a clause,suchas inthesentence: . . The subject determines the form of the verb: a singular subject is used with a singular verb and a pluralsubjectisusedwithapluralverb: . [singular subject , singular verb ]. . [plural subject , plural verb ]. . . In the last example, note that the verb agrees with , not with . Compare OBJECT. he

◆

Why she resigned

Why she resigned remains a mystery

She often

goes to the cinema goes

she

The children go to school by bus

children

go

The legs

of the table are loose

the legs

the

table

PREDICATE; SINGULAR or PLURAL? subjective see OBJECTIVE or SUBJECTIVE? See also

sub judice

The legal term

sub judice

is

Latin in origin and is used to refer to a case that is still being considered by a court of law and therefore cannot be discussed in

IF; WERE or WAS? subordinate clause see CLAUSE. See also

subpoena

This word, referring to a writ

requiring a person to appear in court, is sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the Æ bpeena Æ ] or [su Æ-oe-. The pronunciations [su Æ] peena

are both acceptable.

The word comes from the Latin , meaning `under penalty'. The present participle of the verb `issue with a subpoena' is ; the past tense and past participle are , pronounced [- neÆd].

◆

sub poena

subpoena

subpoenaing

subpoenaed

pee

subsequent QUENT subsidence ?

see

CONSEQUENT

or

SUBSE-

The traditional pronunciation

.

of this word, which means `falling or sinkÆ bsõÅdeÆns]. ing': cracks due to subsidence, is [su

The alternative pronunciation [ sideÆns] is also widely used and is generally acceptable.

◆

subsidiarity

sub

The noun

subsidiarity

is often

used in the context of the European Union,

291 where it refers to the principle that political decisions should be made at the lowest level. Thus some issues may be dealt with by countries that belong to the EU rather than by the EU itself.

subsidiary

sidiary,

sub-

which means `auxiliary; subordi-

nate', is sometimes misspelt. Note that -iary,

see

or

or

not

-uary

or

-ary.

substance abuse substance misuse or

?

means

fully

? These two

`with

ated successfully.

.

such that

ymous, although

as

plies deliberate misuse of drugs, chemicals,

Success-

successively

The surgeons oper-

The sales figures fell for

The use of the construction

(or

such . . . who)

.

in place of

is avoided by careful users: [not

always im-

.

success';

several months successively.

These terms are often treated as synonsubstance abuse

?

adverbs are sometimes confused. means `in succession':

The noun and adjective

the word ends in

succeed ACCEDE EXCEED successfully successively

suffer from

that] are needed for the job

[not

.

such . . .

such . . . as

such tools as such people

who] are eligible for supplementary

benefit.

◆ The construction may, however, be used to indicate a result: . substantial or substantive? Both these . adjectives refer to the basic substance or The use of or before an adjective essence of something, but neither is in preceding a noun, in the sense of `so' or `very', is frequent use in this sense. usualdisliked by a few users but acceptable to most: . ly means `of considerable size, importance, .. . etc.': . . . . , a rarer word, is .. used to mean `real; firm': . . . The phrase is reserved for construc◆ In grammar, the word is a noun or tionsdescribingtheconsequencesofsomething: . adjective relating to words that have the function of a noun. Note that is stressed on the second See also SUCH AS or LIKE? syllable [suÆb shaÆl]. As a noun is stressed on the first syllable [ staÆntiv], but as such as or like? introduces an an adjective it is more frequently stressed on the example; introduces a comparison: . second syllable [suÆb tiv]. Some people object to the use of as . . a pretentious synonym for `large', `big', etc.; . . The increasing tendency to use .. . . in this sense is widely regarded as incorrect: . . . ◆ The potentially ambiguous use of in place of is disliked by some people but frequently substitute see REPLACE or SUBSTITUTE? occurs in general usage: . subsume The verb means `incorporate within a larger category or group' or ( ). The use of in place of is largely `classify under a general rule or heading'; it restricted to formal contexts: . should not be used as a pretentious syno. nym for `include' or `contain': . Careful users avoid substituting for : . [not ] . subtle This word, meaning `slight', `un.. derstated', or `ingenious': . [not ] . , is sometimes . In the second misspelt. Note particularly the in the example may be replaced by . middle of the word. ◆ The word is pronounced [ aÆl]. suffer from or suffer with? etc., while

can encompass

substance misuse

such . . . that

both deliberate and accidental misuse.

He earns such a

pittance that he can't afford to buy food for his family

such

such a/an

Substantial

a substantial improvement

stantial meal

a sub-

Substantive

substantive

measures to curb inflation

Such careless driving should not go unpunished

have never seen such a small house such beautiful clothes

I

You have

It was such a difficult

question

such that

substantive

The gravity of the situation was such that the whole project was threatened.

substantial

stan

substantive

sub

Such

as

like

stan

Dairy

substantial

should

a

products, be

kept

a

as

milk

cool

and

cheese,

Dairy

place

products, like fresh meat, should be kept in

substantial pay rise

a cool place

substantive

such as Dracula

Substantive numbers of students are

such

in

He directed several horror films,

He directed several horror

films like Dracula

opting for more vocational courses

like

such as

He gave Danielle gifts

like a £1,500 ruby and diamond necklace, a

subsume

matching ring and earrings

Daily Telegraph

such as

like

Shoes such as

The concept

these are ideal for indoor sports

such as

of a classless society is subsumed within the

When the Post Office is closed, as

doctrine of Marxism

as

such as on

Sundays, stamps may be obtained from the ma-

subtle differences

in meaning

subtle innuendoes

-b-

sut

chine outside

The pizza can be cooked in a

number of ways, as by

such as by baking it in

a hot oven for twenty minutes as by

such as

Suffer from

SUFFIXES

292

1 (used to make the past tense and past participles of verbs): . . 2 showing or having a because of (an illness or disability)': . . quality or state: . . . . see -ED or -T? ◆ is often followed by a possessive. It -ee 1 a person to whom something is should not be used in place of . 2a done or given: . person in a particular state or see -EE or -ER? condition: . SUFFIXES -eer a person who does something or is concerned with something: . Suffixes are elements attached to the ends of words and include: . . . . . . 2 1 (cause to) become: . Cross-references, e.g. see -ABLE or -IBLE?, are also -en made of: . included to main entries in the -enabled capable of working with: . where there is a fuller discussion. see ENABLE See also PREFIXES and SUFFIXES. -ence, -ency see -ance see -ant -able -ible 1 able to be . . .: . 2 that -ent 1 (also -r) (used to make the 3 that -er may cause: . comparativeofadjectives): . . see -ABLE belongs to: . . 2 (also -or) a person or or -IBLE? thing that does something: . -age an action, condition, or charge: . . . . 3 a person . working in a job: . -aholic obsessed by . . .; addicted to: . 4 a person who lives in a place: . see -AHOLIC 5 a person or thing that -al 1anaction: . 2relatingto: . . . has or is something: . see -EE or -ER?; -ER or -OR? -an, -ian 1 (a person) coming from a country: . 2 a person who is an -ery, -ry 1 a place where an activity or 2 a group business is done: . expert at something: . 3 a condition: . of things: . 4 the practice of: . -ance, -ence, -ancy, -ency -es see -S a quality, state, or action: . . -ese a place of origin or language: . . -ant, -ent (a person or thing) that does . . -ess (used to make the feminine of something: . . see -ESS nouns): . see -ANT or -ENT? -est (used to make the superlative of -ar like;belongingto: . . . adjectives): . 2a -ary 1 connected with: . 2 (used to make -ette 1 small: . person doing something: . feminine nouns): . 3 a place for: . having a number of parts or 2 a -fold -ate 1 having a quality: . multiplied by a number: . 3 chemical compound: . 2 the -ful 1 having a quality: . cause to have or become: . amount that a . . . can hold: . see -ATE see -FUL -atic (used to make adjectives): . . -fy, -ify makeorbecome: . see a political scandal: . -ation an action, state, or condition: . -gate . -GATE an angle: . see -BABBLE -gon -babble jargon: . -hood a state or condition; time of being -cide killing: . . something: . -cy a state or quality: . (a person) belonging to a region or 2 -i -dom 1 a state or condition: . people: . . 3 a group an area ruled: . -ian see -an of people: . means `have (an illness or disability)';

suffer

means `experience pain or discomfort

with

I suffer

-ed

extended

gained

surprised

I have been suffering with

from hay fever

long-

sighted

my hay fever today

Suffer with

suffer from

addressee

refugee

-ism

-ful

-dom

-logy

-ship

mountaineer

harden

wooden

Good Word Guide

WAP-

enabled

enjoyable

,

objectionable

faster

fashionable

nicer

tidier

cooker

breakage

sailor

postage

transmitter

writer

painter

shopaholic

Londoner

removal

postal

central

teenager

dental

Canadian

bakery

cutlery

mathematician

bravery

assistance

cookery

ascendancy

Chinese

pleasant

journalese

student

lioness

dependent

solar

countess

molecular

fastest

monetary

tidiest

cigarette

missionary

usherette

aviary

fortunate

fivefold

carbonate

painful

hyphenate

spoonful

simplify

problematic

liquefy

Irangate

pronunciation

moderation

polygon

technobabble

insecticide

secrecy

manhood

childhood

freedom

kingdom

officialdom

Iraqi

Bangladeshi

293 -ible -ic, -ical -ice -ics -ide -ie -ify -ine -ing

see -able see -IC relatedto: . . or -ICAL? (used to make abstract nouns): . a science, subject, or group of . . activities: . see -ICS a chemical compound: . see -y see -fy made of; like; connected with: . 1 (used to make the present 2 an participle of verbs): . action, process, or result; thing: . . . see -ING FORMS an action, process, or state: . . having a quality: . see -ize 1 (belonging to) a country or 2 about: . language: . 3 like, having the bad . qualities of: . . 4 to some extent: . 1asystemofbeliefs,etc.: . 2 a quality, practice, or action: . . see -ISM 1 (a person) following a system of 2aperson beliefs,etc.: . see who does something: . -IST or -ITE? (used in the name of a chemical substance): . a disease: . a quality, state, or condition: . . that will cause something; having a . quality: . see -IZE make or become: . or -ISE? not having: . something small: . see -LIKE like: . someone or something small: . . a science or subject: . 1 (used to make adverbs): . 2 having qualities of: . 3 happening at regular times: . poetic

cowardice

physics

politics

acrobatics

cyanide

crystalline

eating

meeting

-ion -ious -ise -ish

fanatical

creation

wedding

welding

tension

suspicious

Swedish

seventyish

childish

foolish

brownish

-ism -ist

tallish

socialism

heroism

criticism

communist

motorist

-ite -itis -ity, -ty -ive -ize, -ise -less -let -like -ling -logy -ly

bauxite

tonsillitis

stupidity

flexibility

productive

digestive

equalize

harmless

droplet

dreamlike

duckling

biology

geology

nicely

brotherly

yearly

SUFFIXES

-man -ment

a person who lives in a place or does something: . a state, condition, quality, result, or . process: . . -most the furthest: . -ness a state, quality, or condition; . example of this: . -nik person connected with . . .: . see -NIK -oid like: . -or see -er 2 having -ory 1 a place for: . a quality: . -ous having a quality: . -phile (a person) liking something very much: . -phobia fear: . -proof resisting something: . -r see -er -rage outburst of anger: . -ry see -ery . -s, -es 1 (used to make plurals): . . 2 (used to make the third person singular of present tense of verbs): . . . -'s of. . .: . . . see 'S or S'? 2 a skill: . -ship 1 a state: . -some causing: . -speak jargon, characteristic language: . see -SPEAK -th 1 (used to make adjectives from numbers): . 2 a state: . -tion an action, process, state, or result; . thing: . -ty see -ity -ward, -wards see in a direction: . -WARD or -WARDS? see -ways showing direction: . -WISE or -WAYS? 2 as far -wise 1 in such a way: . as . . . is concerned: . see -WISE or -WAYS? -woman awomanwholivesin aplaceordoes something: . -y 1havingaquality: . . . 2 (also -ie) (used as an . affectionatename)small: . . 3 the act of doing something; condition or state: . chairman

enjoyment

management

arrangement

eastmost

kindness

brittleness refusenik

humanoid

observatory

contributory

poisonous

francophile

claustrophobia

waterproof

road rage

books

pencils

horses

eats

John's

rides

house's

children's

houses'

friendship

craftsmanship

troublesome

computerspeak

fifth

width

completion

imagination

homewards

sideways

crosswise

weatherwise

saleswoman dusty

sandy

sunny

bunny

daddy

enquiry

auntie

.

envy

sui generis

294

sui generis eris

The Latin expression

sui gen-

degree', to coin new nouns and adjectives:

is used in formal contexts to refer to a

a superbug that is resistant to most antibiotics

.

. .

unique person or thing, one that is in a class

those superfit people who put the rest of us to

of its own:

shame.

The taxation rules were sui

generis, and could not be applied generally.

MACRO- and MICRO-; MEGA-.

See also

The expression means literally `of its own kind' supercilious This word, meaning `haughty and is pronounced [sooi eÆris]. in a condescending disdainful manner', is ◆

jen

suit suite or

? These two nouns should not

be confused. A

is a set of clothes, one of

suit

.

.

the four sets of playing cards, or an action

.

in a court of law: suit

a lawsuit.

A

a trouser suit

suite

to follow

is a set of furniture, a

.

.

musical composition with several movements:

to reupholster a suite a ballet suite.

moon suite

the honey-

c

and

single l.

superior

.

The adjective

by the preposition

to:

superior

is followed

This wine is superior

to the wine we had in the restaurant.

superlative . supersede and are most frequently confused in

set of rooms, a group of followers, or a

◆ Suit

sometimes misspelt. Note the single

COMPARATIVE

see

TIVE.

and

SUPERLA-

This word, meaning `replace',

suite

the expressions (a pair of trousers, mistake is to confuse the ending with a jacket, and a waistcoat) and (a the ending of . sofa and two armchairs). ◆ comes from the Latin Note the difference in pronunciation between `to sit above'. the two words: is pronounced [sweet]; is supervise , meaning `oversee': . pronounced [soot] or [syoot], although the last of , is these pronunciations is becoming less frequent sometimes misspelt; the ending cannot and may be considered old-fashioned. spelt : see -IZE or -ISE? suite or sweet? These two words are be◆ Note also the ending of , not . is sometimes misspelt. The most frequent

three-piece suit

-sede

three-piece suite

-cede

precede

Supersede

suite

suit

supersedere,

Supervise

She

supervised

the

plans

for

the

party

-ise

-ize

-or

pronounced [sweet].

SUITE?): .

Suite

see

variously means

`set of matching furniture', etc. (see

or

,

see

This suite is the composer's masterpiece.

be confused with

sweet,

your favourite sweet?

It should not

.

What is

.

and as an adjective

.

means `sugary', `pleasing', `kind', etc.: sweet taste

a sweet gesture

a

How sweet of

them!

summon summons or

.

or

summon

is to

summons

is to serve with a legal summons (an order

.

I was summoned to the

managing director's office. monsed for speeding.

He was sum-

SUPINE? or SUPPER? or SUPPLE-

? Either word may

be used to introduce a suggestion or hypothesis,

.

being preferred by some

suppose

.

users in formal contexts: ing we sell the car?

train is late.

? To

send for, call upon, or muster; to to appear in court):

?

which as a noun

refers to a chocolate, toffee, etc.:

,

see

He

-er

or

,

a new suite of software applications

arrived with a suite of advisers.

supervisor

supine PROSTRATE PRONE SUIT . supper DINNER LUNCH TEA supplement COMPLEMENT . MENT suppose supposing .

occasionally confused since they are both

Suppose/Suppos-

Suppose/Supposing the

◆ Only can be used in the sense of `if' or `assuming': . . supposing

I'll buy her some chocolates on the

way home, supposing the corner shop is still open

suppress sure

see

OPPRESS, REPRESS or SUPPRESS?

This word, pronounced [shor], is

The verb may be used in place of the sometimes misspelt. Note particularly the at the beginning of the word. verb :. . Of the two words only is used as a ◆ The use of as an intensifying adverb is disliked by many people and is best restricted to noun: . .. . very informal contexts: . ◆

summon

summons

He was summoned for speeding

su-

sure

summons

I received a summons from the managing

director

sunk sunken super,

I was sure relieved to see

He received a summons for speeding

see

SANK, SUNK or SUNKEN?

Some people object to the frequent

use of the prefix

super-,

in the sense of

`surpassing all others' or `to an excessive

your car.

surf SERF surprised see

or

SURF?

Surprised

position

by

is followed by the pre-

in the sense of `taken unawares'

and by

in the sense of `amazed':

at

.

295 .

The

thief was surprised by the owner of the car. was surprised at her ignorance.

I

swelled

.

citement':

Don't keep me in suspense any

longer! Suspension

means `the act of sus-

pending' or `the state of being suspended';

◆ In the second sense may also be it is also used in the figurative senses of followed by an infinitive with or a clause intro- `interruption; deferment; postponement' duced by : . . . and `temporary debarment or expulsion': . . . The idiomatic use of a DOUBLE NEGATIVE in such sentences as . The two nouns are not interchangeis acceptable to most users in informal con- able in any context. texts, provided that the meaning is clear. The suspicious see SUSPECT or SUSPICIOUS? construction is best avoided if there is a risk of ambiguity. sustainable In modern usage the adjective surprised to

that

He was surprised to see you

They were surprised that we won

the suspension of an insurance policy

offending

I shouldn't be surprised if it doesn't

players

face

suspension

The

from

the

team

rain

surveillance

This word, meaning `careful

observation', is usually pronounced [servayÆ ns]. The pronunciation [servaye Æ ns], imile tating the French original, sounds rather affected.

susceptible

The adjective

is

susceptible

followed by the preposition

in the sense

to

of `easily influenced or affected' and by

.

.

of

in the formal sense of `capable' or `admitting':

.

susceptible to flattery

hay fever pretation.

◆

susceptible to

susceptible of a different inter-

Note that ends in , not .The combination can also cause spelling mistakes. susceptible

-ible

-able

-sc-

suspect suspicious or

? The word

suspect

may be used as a verb, noun, or adjective. Suspicious

functions only as an adjective. In

its adjectival sense of `causing suspicion' or `open to suspicion',

.

virtually synonymous with suspect/suspicious sounds

only

rather

package

suspicious: The

suspect/suspicious.

suspicious

were

behaviour.

.

a

scheme

However,

.

can be used in the sense

of `feeling or showing suspicion': police

.

is sometimes

suspect

suspicious

[not

suspect]

Similarly, only

suspect

.

The

of

her

can be

used in the sense of `possibly false or unreliable':

a suspect banknote

system is suspect.

As a noun,

The braking

suspect

describes

a person who is under suspicion of being responsible for a crime or other misdeed.

Note the difference in pronunciation between the verb , which is stressed on the second syllable [suÆs ], and the noun and adjective; stressed on the first syllable [ pekt]. ◆

suspect

pekt

suspense

sus

or

suspension

?

Both

nouns are derived from the verb

meaning `hang'.

Suspense

these

suspend,

is largely re-

stricted to the figurative sense of `a state of uncertainty, anxiety, insecurity, or ex-

sustainable

has developed a specialized ap-

.

plication to natural resources that can be renewed:

sustainable forests,

sustainable development.

swam swum or

the verb

?

Swam

swim; swum

they had swum.

or

.

.

is the past tense of

.

is the past participle:

The dog swam to the shore.

swap swop

.

and to activ-

ities that do not damage the environment:

the lake where

? Both spellings are accep-

.

table for this informal word meaning `exchange':

to swap stamps

holiday. Swap

ling, but

swop homes for a

is the more traditional spelis a frequently used variation.

The Middle English from which the word originates meant `to strike', from the custom of striking or shaking hands on a bargain. swop

◆

swappen

swat swot or

.

? These spellings are some-

times confused. blow':

spelt

Swat

to swat flies.

swot,

means `strike with a

This word may also be

although this spelling is disliked

by many careful users.

.

Swot

is an informal

word meaning `study hard':

swotting for

exams.

sweet DESSERT SWEET AFTERS SUITE SWEET swelled swollen see

,

?;

or

or

?

,

PUDDING

? Either word may be

used as the past participle of the verb

Swelled

or

is the more neutral form;

. .

swell.

swollen

often indicates an undesirable or harmful increase or expansion: swelled in recent years.

.

The population has

The disaster fund was

swelled by a generous contribution from the mayor.

.

His wrist has swollen to twice its

normal size.

The stream was swollen by the

The past tense of is always :. .. . is the usual form of the adjective: .

melted snow.

◆

swell

population swelled Swollen

swelled

The

His wrist swelled

She

swingeing

296

.. . The adjective ◆ In medicine the noun denotes a group is largely restricted to the informal Amer- of signs and symptoms that indicate a physical or ican English phrase , denoting con- mental disorder: . . ceit, which is usually replaced by in synecdoche This term, describing a word British English. that is used to refer to something of which crammed a few more sweets into her swollen pockets

She is suffering from the only-child syndrome.

My ankle is badly swollen

syndrome

swelled

swelled head

Down's syndrome

swollen head

swingeing .

Note the pronunciation and

.

spelling of this word, which means `severe': swingeing

cuts

in

public

expenditure

swingeing tax increases.

The word is pro-

nounced [swinjing]; the

-e-

from the

swinging

g.

distinguishes it

and indicates the softness of

The word derives from Old English beat or flog'.

◆

swipe

The verb

swengan

and

debit

cards,

etc.,

.

describing

the action of passing such a card through an electronic reading device:

Let me swipe

Careful users restrict the

your card for you.

word to informal contexts.

swollen swop swot syllable

syllable

words

doctor,

table,

lables if the

syllabus

by,

open

have two

has three syl-

is not sounded and four

a

syllables if the

and

secretary

a

is sounded.

The plural of this word, which

means `the subjects studied in a particular course', is usually syllabuses. Syllabi, pronounced [-bõÅ], is the less frequent plural

form.

symbol .

of

symbol

is followed by

in the sense `an emblem':

.

An olive branch is a symbol of peace,

in the sense `a sign':

and by

A diagonal cross is

The word is pronounced [si doÆkee].

over there tonight.

nek

g

[sineÆji], denotes the combined action and increased effect of two or more drugs, muscles, etc., working together. The introduction of the noun

.

into general

synergy

usage is disliked by some:

Synergy, as

business people know, is bringing several elements together to make a product greater than

.

(Islwyn Borough Council adver[of the Cadbury-Schweppes

The

growth

of

vending

machines

(The

Guardian).

◆ The concept of synergy is sometimes explained in mathematical terms as 2+2=5.

synonymous

Note the spelling of this

word, particularly the vowel sequence -yo-y-o.

The phrase means `being a synonym of', but in general contexts it is frequently usedinthesenseof`closelyassociatedwith': . .. .. .

◆

synonymous with

The

verb `jump' is synonymous with `leap'

is synonymous with excellence

Our name

Loft living car is

synonymous with the affluent young urbanite lifestyle

ANTONYM. syphon see SIPHON or SYPHON?

CYMBAL or SYMBOL? sync see SINK or SYNC? See also

syndrome

contexts

to

.

systemic

? The adjective

.

You must try to be more systematic.

a systematic approach to the

A rare synonym of systemic

syndrome

denote

or

means `methodical; well-ordered;

problem

Some people object to the fre-

quent use of the noun

systematic

systematic

well-planned':

the symbol for multiplication.

medical

synec-

I've got some wheels so we can drive

See also

The noun

the preposition for

.

mergers are always supposed to produce

have one syllable; the

syllables; the word

ending,

has provided the magic synergy which such

is a unit of a word that

through

is:

merger]

resembles a vowel sound. The words and

doche

tisement).

contains a vowel sound or something that tune,

-doche

the first -c- as well. An example of

the parts

SWELLED or SWOLLEN? see SWAP or SWOP? see SWAT or SWOT? see

A

and the

synergy

has acquired a new

swipe

-y-

In technical contexts the noun `to synergy, pronounced with a soft sound

meaning with the advent of electronic credit

particularly the

and do not be tempted to put an -h- after

◆

SPELLING 3.

See also

it is just a part, is sometimes misspelt. Note

any

in nonset

characteristics, actions, emotions, etc.:

.

of

systematic,

the adjective

is most frequently found in biolo-

gical contexts, in the sense of `affecting or

.

.

spreading through the whole system, body, plant etc.': fungicide.

a systemic disease

a systemic

-t -ED -T table d'hoÃte see

or

T

tariff

?

On a menu in a restaurant,

à te table d'ho

refers to a meal that consists of

set prearranged courses with a limited selection of dishes and served to all guests

This word is sometimes misspelt.

Note the single

task

and the -ff ending.

r

.

This verb is used in business jargon to

mean `assign a job to someone':

Susan was

tasked with investigating potential suppliers.

is a group of people The expression comes from French and means task force A literally `host's table'. Its anglicized pronunciation formed in order to undertake a particular objective, usually of a military nature: . is [tahbeÆl ].

at a fixed price.

◆

task force

doÅt

tail tale or

?

Tail

captain led a task force to blow up the bridge.

.

A task force was sent to the Falklands.

.

of something:

variously refers to the

tale,

The horse's tail brushed his

The tail of the aircraft was riddled with

bullet holes.

.

It should not be confused with

meaning `story':

a

sad

tale

about

doomed love.

take BRING tall HIGH tantamount see

see

The most frequent use refers to subsections of the armed forces dispatched to deal with particular crises. However, it is sometimes used in a civilian context: . .

◆

flexible rear part of an animal or to the end

face.

.

The

aÁ LA CARTE. tactics see -ICS. tag question see QUESTIONS. See also

A Home Office task force is to inves-

tigate the rise in crime

tasteful tasty or

? These two adjectives

relate to different senses of the word Tasteful

taste.

is applied to things that indicate

good taste, in the sense of `aesthetic dis-

TAKE? or TALL?

crimination';

or

tasteful furnishings

The adjective

.

tantamount

is

.

is applied to things that

tasty

.

have good taste, in the sense of `flavour': a tasty meal.

Careful

users maintain the distinction between the two words.

also has the slang meaning of `sexually attractive': . , and is sometarget The noun is now most fretimes used to mean `excellent; notable': . quently used in its metaphorical meaning . . Some people object to of `an aim or goal'. The verb form is more these extended usages. recent, and is often followed by or : .

followed by the preposition

to:

was tantamount to bribery.

Her offer

◆ Tasty

His sister's rather tasty

target

a tasty

song

on

.

at

The advertising campaign is to be carefully targeted at the 18±25 age group.

a benefit

which is easy to understand, popular, fair,

. . .

and actually targets those who genuinely need

a tasty little villain

tautology

Tautology

.

is the avoidable re-

.

petition of an idea already expressed in different words: brief moment.

a new innovation

.

a

Many well-established Eng-

. . . Although many people object to the use of , etc. as a verb, it has a long history: the cites an example from 1837. ◆ Itisnotdifficulttoavoidthecrudertautologies: . . , Note that the final is not doubled in front of . but many tautologies arise unintentionally from suffixes: . . carelessness about the meanings of words. To is often used in expressions such as is tautologous because , meaning `the date set for the completion of speak of . means `unlawful killing'. In . work, etc.': . is redundant as means `tosay .

it

(The

lish phrases contain tautologies:

Guardian).

◆

round

target

Oxford

free gift

join together

circle

all-time

record

English Dictionary

a dead corpse

t

targeted

Target

target

unlawful murder

date

target markets

material

an empty bottle with nothing in it

targeting

consumer-targeted

murder

it again, again

She repeated

repeat

tea

298

. again'. People also speak of . tee see TEA or TEE? . ,presumablynotrealizing teem see TEAM or TEEM? that the word following the abbreviation is a repetition of the final word of the abbreviation. tele- The prefix , from a Greek word Tautologies are in general to be avoided but can meaning `far', is found in such words as , etc. It is insometimes be used deliberately for emphasis: . creasingly used in the senses of `relating to . . . SALT talks

countries

OPEC

a PIN number

tele-

a

tiny wee mite

tea DINNER tea tee see

or

?

.

LUNCH, TEA or SUPPER?

,

light afternoon meal: of tea?

.

telecast

tee,

.

televangelism

. .

telemarketing

telebook

teleshopping

teleworking

.

Telecommuting

Would you like a cup

is the name given to working from home by

It should not be

linking up to your office computer over the

Time for tea.

confused with

.

television' or `by telephone':

refers to a hot drink or to a

Tea

television, telephone, telescope

which refers to the small

.

telephone line

(The

Guardian).

These neolo-

peg on which a golfer places the ball before

gisms are disliked by some people, despite

playing the first shot of a hole:

the fact that most of them retain the ori-

The ball

ginal sense of `far', since a thing transmitted

kept rolling off the tee.

teach team

LEARN or TEACH?

see

by television or telephone must originate at

teem

or

? These two words are

sometimes confused, being identical in pronunciation.

Team

is most frequently used as

.

a distance.

telephone televise

see

This word is often spelt incor-

a noun, meaning `group of people (or

rectly with a

animals) who work or play together':

◆

instead of an s.

To avoid mistakes remember that the in . remains unchanged. is one of the . verbs ending in that cannot be spelt : see . is a verb, meaning `pour' or `bound': . -IZE or -ISE?

valuable

member

of

the

sales

It was teeming with rain. teeming with tourists.

a

the

team

.

The village was

The word is also used as a verb, often followed by , meaning `join to make a team': . .

◆

team

up

Michael teamed up with Peter

technical

technological

or

?

Technical

z

s

vision

tele-

Televise

-ise

a team of oxen

captain of the hockey team Teem

PHONE.

-ize

temerity timidity or

? The word

temerity

sometimes mistakenly used where

is

timidity

is intended, though their meanings are completely different.

Temerity

dacity or recklessness'; ing

courage

or

timidity

means `au-

means `lack-

self-confidence;

means `having or concerned with special

frightened or alarmed'.

practical knowledge of a scientific or me-

◆

easily

The two words are not exact opposites. The opposite of is or , which have positive connotations, whereas science for practical purposes' and is used has negative ones. It suggests a rash contempt particularly of modern advances in techni. of danger or disapproval, with a lack of reserve cal processes: . . that may be interpreted as ill-mannered: . . . ◆ A second meaning of the word is `marked by a strict interpretation of law or a set temperature means `the de. of rules': . gree of heat or cold as measured on, for . example, a thermometer'. To chanical subject';

technological

means `using

timidity

courage

confidence

temer-

ity

technical skills

college

a technical

He had

a technological breakthrough

technical

a technical offence

the temerity to interrupt the meeting Temperature

a technical

advantage

techno-

craft,

take someone's

The prefix

technology,

techno-

or

relates to art,

technical

matters.

Some people object to its frequent use in the coining of new words in the sense of `relating

to

computers'.

.

high

HI-TECH.

technological

see

especially

.

may be used with or technophobia

techno-politics.

See also

CAL?

.

Techno-

without a hyphen: nofreak

technology,

tech-

TECHNICAL or TECHNOLOGI-

temperature

is to use a thermometer to

determine the person's body heat.

The word is often used to denote abnormally . highbodyheatorfever: . , but this is best avoided in writing and formal contexts. A metaphorical use of describes the emotional state of a group of people: the is raised or low according to whether they are agitated or calm. ◆

running a temperature

She's got a temperature temperature

temperature

temporal

or

temporary

?

These

words are sometimes confused.

two

Temporal

299 .

means `relating to secular, ordinary, or worldly things; not spiritual': matters/authority;

`relating to time':

and temporal connections;

.

temporal spatial

the parts of the brain near the temples': temporal arteritis. Temporary

.

.

and `relating to

means `lasting

.

for only a limited period of time; not permanent:

temporary accommodation

a temporary loss of memory.

◆ The adjective may be pronounced as a three- or four-syllable word, with the stress on the first syllable: [ praÆri] or [ poÆraÆri]. The four-syllable pronunciation is preferred by some careful users. The pronunciation [ paÆri], omitting the [-(oÆ)r-] sound, is widely regarded as careless or incorrect. The adverb should be stressed on the first syllable in British English; the pronunciation [tempoÆ ili] is restricted to American English. temporary tem

tem

tem

temporarily

rair

temporize tense

see

The

EXTEMPORIZE or TEMPORIZE?

tense

of a verb is a set of forms

expressing distinctions of time. Some modern grammarians say that fundamentally

.

.

there are only two real tenses in English, the

present:

It is hot today,

was cloudy yesterday.

.

and the

The

formed by the addition of

future will

It will be fine tomorrow,

or

past:

shall,

etc.:

and all other

changes of tense are marked by using have,

It

is simply

.

be,

or both combined, with the past or

. .

. .

present participle of the verb: dancing. of you.

He was talking.

She

I'll be thinking

They had ridden for three days.

.

shall have finished it by then. until noon.

ling all day.

.

.

I

They had slept

He had been praying.

been working.

.

is

She has

They will have been travel-

The tense system becomes more complicated when there is more than one verb in a sentence. In such sentences there is a main clause, containing the most important verb, and a subordinate clause or clauses containing the other verb(s): . .Herethemainclause isin the past tense, and the subordinate clause followstheleadofthemainclauseandis in the same tense. This is by no means always the case,foritisquitepossiblefortheclausestoreferto different times: . . When the main clause is in the future, the verb of the subordinate clause is usually in the present: . . When the mainclauseisinthepastbutthesubordinateclause expresses some permanent fact, then that clause canbeinthepresent: . ◆

I thought

that I knew him

I thought

that I

knew him

I believe I met him last week

I

will look him up when I go to London

She had learnt that Paris is a

terminate

. In sentences referring to the future as viewed from the past, the subordinate verb usually changestothepasttense: . becomes . The present tense is not used solely in expressions of events in the present. It is frequently used to express the future: . .. . The present is also habitually used in newspaper headlines to describepastevents: . ( ). The verb form that is generally used for expressing recent events or actions is the , which is formed by adding to the past participleofaverb: . .. .. In informal American English the simple past tense isused insuchsentences: . .. .. and this form is also beginning to be used in British English. capital city

I hope they will succeed

I hoped they would succeed

I leave on Thursday

The

President speaks to the nation tonight

Van makes U-turn into path

of coach The Times

present perfect

have

You've already told me

seen his mother

He's just

Has she turned up yet?

You already told me

He just saw his mother

Did she turn up yet?

See also PARTICIPLES; SEQUENCE OF TENSES; SUBJUNCTIVE; VERBS.

terminal terminus or

? Used as a noun

meaning `end or finishing point' these words are often synonymous. Both can mean the finishing point of a transport line, but in Britain airlines,

terminus

terminal

is used for

for railways, while either

can be used for bus routes.

.

Terminal

as an

adjective can mean `of, at, the end' or `leading to death':

a terminal illness.

Other meanings of as a noun include: `a device on a wire or battery for an electrical connection', and `an instrument through which a user can communicate with a computer'.

◆

terminal

terminate

Terminate,

meaning `bring to an

end, form the ending of, close', is increasingly used in the context of ending employment.

From

speaking

someone's contract,

.

gone on to use dismissed:

terminated

The

of

terminating

etc., some people have workers

as a synonym for were

terminated

when profits fell.

is also used of buses and trains to mean `stop at a particular place and go no further': . . An extension of its sense `bring to an end' has resulted in its adoption asaeuphemismforkillingsomeone: . Another popular use relates to ending pregnancies. A is synonymous with an , although largely confined to medical contexts and not the preferred term in popular use. ◆ Terminate

This train terminates here

Orders have

gone out for the general to be terminated. termination

tion

abor-

terminus

300

, with the addition of fashionable alternative to commentaries: . Terminated

with

resulted in

or , is a in sports .

B4 BBL BCBC BRB Bsy BTDT CUl8r c%l CUO EZ F2T G2G HHOJ LO M8 MMYT Msg NE1 NOYB PCM ROTFL RUOK SWDYT TXT XLNT Xxx YYSW Zzzz

in

The match terminated in a draw

terminus TERMINAL terrible terrific see

or

?

or

TERMINUS?

Terrible

can be used as

.

a general term of disapproval or can mean

.

.

`very bad' or `causing distress': singer

Terrific,

proval:

a terrible accident

.

a terrible

a terrible sight.

on the other hand, expresses ap-

.

Chartres has a terrific cathedral.

Both can mean `unusually great':

There's a

terrible/terrific amount of paperwork here.

◆ The adverbs and may be used as intensifiers to express either approval or disap. proval: . . While both words derive from , they are now far removed from any suggestion of fear. Both should be restricted to informal contexts. terribly

terrifically

a terribly/terrifically dull lecture

a

terribly/terrifically good book

terror

teÃte-aÁ-teÃte

This compound, meaning `in-

timate conversation between two people', is of French origin. Note the accents, which should not be omitted when the term is used in English texts.

◆

The anglicized pronunciation is [taytah ].

text

tayt

Since the advent of

word

text

TEXTMESSAGING, the

has been increasingly used as a

verb to describe the process of sending

.

keyed text from one mobile telephone or pager to another: me.

Please text the details to

Some people dislike this appropriation

of the noun as a verb but it is now generally The introduction of the

Short Message Service (SMS) in the 1990s, enabling the transmission of keyed messages by mobile telephone or pager (text messaging),

has led to the development of an

abbreviated form of screen

size

on

NETSPEAK.

which

The small

messages

appear

means that extensive use is made of acronyms and other abbreviations, often based on the sound of individual letters and numbers, which are not always immediately comprehensible. For a selection of these see the table below. See also

@TEOTD 10Q 1OTD 2Day 4eva

SMILEY.

at the end of the day thank you one of these days today for ever

.

Than

Jill.

.

is used to link two halves of

comparisons or contrasts:

Jack is taller than

I am wiser now than I was at that time.

Care must be taken with pronouns following . The general rule is to remember the missing verb: . . If there is no obvious implied verb the object form follows: . However, the form that is considered correct by careful users sometimes sounds stilted: . is correct, but is more frequently used. . is both correct and naturalsounding. Note that it isincorrect to follow with : . [not ] ◆

than

accepted as a standard form.

text messaging

than

before be back later beggars can't be choosers be right back busy been there, done that see you later cool see you online easy free to talk? got to go ha ha, only joking hello mate mail me your thoughts message anyone none of your business please call me rolling on the floor laughing are you ok? so what do you think? text excellent kisses yeah, yeah, sure, whatever I'm tired

You are older than I (am)

Rather you than me!

She runs

faster than he

She runs faster

than him

She runs

faster than he does

than

He is cleverer than

thankfully thankfully

As

an

.

what

than what I am.

adverb

from

thank,

means `in a thankful, relieved,

or grateful way': news thankfully.

They received the good

.

It is also used to mean `it is

a matter of relief that': survived the operation.

Thankfully, he has

Many people dislike the second use of , although it is not as widely objected to as the similar use of HOPEFULLY. It can also occasionally ◆

fully

thank-

lead to such ambiguous statements as: . .

301 Thank-

fully, she went to church on Sunday

thank you

.

you for a lovely evening.

.

in acceptance:

.

Thank

They are also used

`Have a sweet.' `Thanks, I

will.',

as a polite refusal in conjunction with

no:

`Have a sweet.' `No, thanks.',

.

and less polite refusal:

I

in a firm

can

.. . The use of in place of in such contexts may be ambiguous and is best avoided.

manage

That is what I expected

what I want you to do you to do

Thank you, thanks, many thanks,

etc., are expressions of gratitude:

their

this

that

that which or

which

? Whether to use

restrictive or non-restrictive clause. and

.

That

are both used in restrictive (or

which

defining) clauses: go to.

or

that

depends on whether it appears in a

the school that/which they

Note that a restrictive clause is not

without your advice, thank you very much,

preceded by a comma. In non-restrictive

and to show pleasure:

(or non-defining) clauses, those conveying

.

Now David's got a

new job, we're doing very nicely, thank you

parenthetical

or

.

incidental

only

◆ Thanks

which

was

Thanks to your coaching, I passed my exam

much

controversy.

Thanks to their incompetence, we lost the con-

are always preceded by a comma and,

tract Thank heavens thank goodness

thank

unless at the end of a sentence, followed

Thank

by one. On the use of

God

can indicate responsibility or blame: . .. . , , and are general expressions of relief: .

heavens you're all right.

.

`Peace has been de-

clared.' `Thank goodness!'

is sometimes spelt as one word or hyphenated, when it is used as a noun or attributively: . .. . Thank you

We said our thankyous and left

a thank-

you letter

that

That

is used as a conjunction or

relative pronoun to introduce various types of clause, and in some cases can be omitted,

.

both in written and spoken English. As a conjunction it can usually be omitted: sure (that) you're lying.

It cannot be left out

when used with a noun: is green,

.

I'm

the fact that grass

or with certain verbs, usually of a

formal nature, for example

.

assert, contend.

It must not be left out when its omission could lead to ambiguity: you were wrong

I said last week

might mean either `I said

that last week you were wrong' or `I said last week that you were wrong'.

Used as a relative pronoun can be omitted whenitistheobject: . ,butnot when it is the subject: . . The use of as an adverb: . is best avoided in formal contexts. ◆

that

the man (that) I love

the thing that upsets me

that

that this or

He's not that fat

? The difference between the

pronouns

that

and

this,

referring to objects

or people, is one of distance.

.

away from the speaker than

.

That this:

is further Give me

can be used:

information,

very much.

which

broadcast

by

The programme,

the

BBC,

caused

Non-restrictive clauses

WHO.

that

or

who/whom,

see

◆ Some people dislike the use of in restrictive clauses, maintaining that only can be used. However, the usage described aboveis widespread and generally accepted. is also useful to relieve a sentence that already has several s: . . [not ] . which

that

Which

that

His Ford Capri He remembered that that

was the car which on the M1

COMMA 3; RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE.

See also

the

The

that had run out of petrol

is the most frequently used word

in the English language. Its pronunciation is usually a straightforward matter. Before consonants it is pronounced [dheÆ]; before vowels or an unaspirated

h

it is pronounced

[dhee]. The use of [dhee] before consonants has become frequent in recent years, particularly by broadcasters, but it is disliked by many people.

One use of is to single out one of a class as the best or most significant of a class: . the . the . In these cases is emphasized and pronounced [dhee]. ◆

the

Is that

Michael Jackson?

It's

place to go for curry

the

theft BURGLE ROB STEAL their there they're see

,

,

or

or

words

are

?

sometimes

?

These

confused.

three

means `of them or belonging to them':

.

their house. There

.

Their

means `in or to that place':

When the pronouns represent abstract con- : . . cepts, traditionally refers to something in ◆ Another frequent mistake is the wrong spelling the past (or something previously mentioned), of as . The correct usage is as in: . whereas refers to something in the future . (or something about to be mentioned): . See also THEY.

that.

◆

Take this.

over there. They're

are

is a contraction of

they

They're/They are always late

that

theirs

this

their's

car was theirs

This is

The

them

them their theme park or

302 ? see

A

-ING FORMS.

theme park

is an amusement

park in which the displays and entertainments are organized round one particular idea or group of ideas, e.g. space travel or the Wild West.

themself

The reflexive pronoun

themself

is

unacceptable to careful users, being asso-

THEY): .

ciated with the controversial singular usage of

.

they, them, their,

etc. (see

Some-

body has been helping themself to my whisky. Walking through Pilsen, the casual observer

might easily think themself back in 1945 Times,

cited in

thence

(The

English Today).

Thence

is a formal and almost

.

.

and thence to Scotland;

or for that reason':

We drove to York

`from that premise,

She proved that x was an

.

even number and thence that it must be 42;

and `from that time':

There is fish and chips for supper

There is my job and career prospects at

stake

there's

There's two good films showing

they

They, them, their,

.

etc., are increasingly

being used to refer to singular entities:

Anyone can apply if they have the qualifications.

Such use, in conjunction with , is well-established and in formations such as: . is becoming generally acceptable. However, many careful users object to such phrases as . The use of and has a male bias unacceptable to many, while or often sounds clumsy or stilted. Probably the best solution is to make the noun plural to agree with or : . . ◆

anyone, someone,

no one, everyone

archaic word with three meanings: `from there, from that place':

; where two nouns are regarded as a , single entity: . and where one is considering a situation in its entirety: . . The use of the contraction followed by a plural is almost universal in informal speech: . , although unacceptable in formal speech and writing. white mice

His wife died ten

years ago and thence he has become a recluse.

No one's seen John, have they?

a person on

their own

he

his

he or she

they

their

his or her

people on their own

HE or SHE; THEMSELF. ◆ As from is contained in the meaning of thence it is incorrect to say from thence (see HENCE; they're see THEIR, THERE or THEY'RE? WHENCE). third or thirdly? see FIRST or FIRSTLY? Thence is sometimes mistakenly used to mean

`to there', instead of the even more archaic

there THEIR THERE there are THERE IS therefore see

THEY'RE? or THERE ARE?

,

.

I

developmental stage, is particularly associated with computer technology, but has

dislike

.

also come to be applied to mobile telephones:

These third-generation phones offer

vast new commercial possibilities.

third world normally appears at the beginning of thirst

worms; therefore I avoid digging the garden. Scotland is part of Great Britain; therefore

the Scots are British.

◆ Therefore

This adjectival phrase,

denoting something that belongs to a third

means `for that reason,

consequently, as this proves':

.

. third-generation

or

see

Therefore

thither

See also

see

The verb

DEVELOPMENT.

.

thirst

is followed by the

[or a clause and is not followed by a comma. If it ] . appears parenthetically within a clause it has a comma before and after: . this Careful users avoid using as an . intensifier before a noun in the place of Note that and THUS are not always such definite articles as , , , etc.: . synonymous: . [i.e. ] preposition for or after: after

They thirsted for

revenge

It appears, therefore,

this

that he must be guilty therefore

a

She spoke thus

there is there are or

in such a way .

? Normally,

.

there is

should precede a singular noun, and are

a plural:

There is a black car outside.

There are three bottles on the table.

the

man told him to keep his distance.

See also

NEXT or THIS?; THAT or THIS?

. thoroughfare

there

an

Then this bloke came along and this police-

The

noun

thoroughfare,

However,

meaning `way through', is sometimes mis-

there is

is widely used in various expressions

spelt and/or mispronounced, the most fre-

where

there are

is formally correct.

quent

error

being

the

substitution

These include situations where the plural noun is - for -. regarded as a single unit: . ; where the first of a list of nouns is though see ALTHOUGH or THOUGH? . singular: thrash or thresh? The verb ◆

through

of

thorough

There is three tons of

coal here

There is a rabbit, two gerbils, and some

thrash

means

303 .

`flog or beat with repeated blows' or `defeat':

.

As a child, he was frequently thrashed

by his father. Thresh

We thrashed the opposition.

means `separate seeds of cereal from

husks by beating'.

tobacconist

used in speech. is usually more appropriate as the first word of a sentence: . . is not an abbreviation of so ' and ' are incorrect. Until

Until they go we

shall have no peace Till

until

til

till

, usually with , can also mean `move timidity see TEMERITY or TIMIDITY? violently': . , and is used in the idiomatic phrasal verb tire or tyre? The rubber outer part of a meaning `discuss in detail until a solu- wheel is known as a in American tion is found': . English and as a in British English. . can also mean `grow weary' or `lose . The two words are occasionally confused, partly interest': . because , with the meaning given above, is . sometimes spelt . titillate or titivate? Literally, ◆ Thrash

about

He thrashed his arms about like a

windmill

thrash out

tire

Let's thrash out this problem

together

tyre

Tire

He never tires of being with me.

thresh

threshold

They seem to tire of cricket very quickly

thrash

titillate

Note that there is only one

h

in

means the same as

but it is almost

tickle

.

the middle of this word, unlike in the word

always used figuratively in the sense of

withhold.

`stimulate or arouse pleasantly':

may be pronounced either [ hoÅld] or [ oÅld]. ◆ Threshold

through

?

Threw

participle of the verb

or

throw:

ball

up

confused

in

the

with

.

air.

is the past She threw

It should not be

through,

`across', `among', or `past': the grass.

.

.

which

terest titillated his vanity. Titivate

sionally

thresh

threw the

thresh-

means

He ran through

They fought their way through the

mob.

confused

with

titillate,

meaning is `tidy or smarten up': titivate myself for the party.

Her in-

is occa-

.

but

its

I must

is sometimes used to mean `excite mild sexual pleasure' and in modern usage it often has negative connotations of superficiality or self-indulgence: . . Note the spelling of , especially the and (unlike the single of ).

◆ Titillate

Readers of sensationalist tabloids are

titillated by reports of sexual offences titillate

thus

The

slightly

formal

.

adverb

thus

means `in such a manner, in the way indicated, consequently':

His father died

in a hunting accident and he thus became a

-ll-

titles

-v-

-t-

titivate

Generally the titles of literary works,

musical works, works of art, films, etc., are

.

set in italics or, in handwriting and type-

means `to this extent, up to now': . night. . She sang the title role in .. .. Constable's . . ◆ The Bible and the names of its individual books The word , sometimes used in American are not set in italics, and neither are the Talmud, English, is unacceptable in written or spoken Brit- the Torah, or the Koran. ish English. Titles of newspapers and periodicals are set in See also THEREFORE. italics. Normally the definite article before the name is not italicized: . the . tide or tied? refers to the ebb and and are exceptions. flow of the sea or a movement of someThe titles of long poems are usually set in italics, thing in a particular direction: . but short ones in inverted commas: . Keats's . . Keats's `To Autumn'. baron.

script, underlined:

◆ Thus far

I saw

King Lear

last

Carmen

Thus far we have succeeded

Go thus far but no

Flatford Mill

further

thusly

Daily Mail The Times

Tide

The Economist

The tide

rolled in until the rock was covered.

The tide

of opinion appears to be flowing against the prime minister.

It should not be confused

with

.

tied,

the past tense and past participle

of the verb

till until or

.

tie:

He tied his bootlace.

time that, up to as far as': I drop.

.

? Both words mean `up to the I will work until

Carry on till you reach the traffic

Endymion

See also

to too or

MS, MRS or MISS?

? These two spellings are some-

times confused.

To

is used with the infini-

tive and as a preposition;

.

too

meaning `also' or `excessively': Give it to me. too.

. .

too much noise

.

is an adverb, to go home

Mary came

◆ They are interchangeable although is tobacconist This word, for a person or slightly more formal and is more likely to be shop that sells tobacco, cigarettes, cigars, lights.

until

till

together with

304

etc., is sometimes misspelt. Like there is a single single

and

-b-

-cc-;

tobacco,

note also the

-n-.

Together

means `in

with

The chairman of the company,

together with three of the directors, has resigned.

Note that the verb

the singular noun introduced by

has

agrees with

chairman:

the phrase

does not form

together with

part of the subject of the sentence.

If is replaced by becomes plural: . ◆

together with

, the verb .

and

The chairman of the company

and three of the directors have resigned

toilet lavatory loo bathroom ,

gallons.

◆ Ton, tonne

together with .

addition to':

liquid capacity, especially a unit of 210

,

or

?

Toilet,

same [tun].

too torpor

, and

are all pronounced the

tun

TO or TOO?

see

This word, meaning `inactive con-

dition', is sometimes misspelt. Note the final

-or,

as in

stupor,

rather than

tortuous torturous or

?

-our.

Tortuous

.

means

`twisting; winding' and, figuratively, `com-

.

plex, devious, or overelaborate': road

from

a tortuous

a tortuous policy. Torturous

torture

.

comes

and means `inflicting torture;

agonizing or painful':

a torturous illness.

is sometimes used to mean `compliable in British English: . cated' or `twisted', but careful users restrict it to .. .. the use suggesting physical or mental pain. The is used in American context often leads to confusion: . English as a synonym for , but in might mean a complex one or might be Britain its main meaning is a room containa mistake for ± one that is ing a bath but not necessarily a toilet. painful to make. ◆ is probably the most widely used term in British English, although is very commonly used total is used as a noun: . in all but the most formal situations. , a verb: . is usually used on signs in public places. , and an intensifying adjecThe use of or is often considered a tive suggesting completeness: . . class marker in Britain. Upper- and middle-class . As a verb, it is also used people tend to use , while lower-middle (chiefly in American English) as a slang and working-class people use and regard term meaning `wreck' or `destroy utterly': . as affected or impolite. is classless. Some people dislike the use of as an tolerance or toleration? Both these words ◆intensifying adjective synonymous with or are nouns from , but is `the , maintaining that the word should be capacity to tolerate', while is `the used only when there is a sense of parts being act of tolerating': . . added to produce a whole as in: . . . Another disputed use is where the noun already . totality; some people think is re◆ is generally used with reference to suggests dundant in phrases like or respect for the beliefs of others, although in the . context of official government policy, is used: . . tour de force The French expression has several technical meanings in is used to refer to a performance or mathematics, statistics, physics, and medicine: achievement that shows great skill, an accepted deviation from a standard measure- strength, etc.: . . ment; the ability of substances to endure heat, ◆ The expression is sometimes spelt with hyphens, stress, etc., without being damaged; the capacity . Its plural is . The of a person's body to withstand harmful sub- singular and plural are both pronounced [toor stances, etc. deÆ ]. lavatory,

and

loo

are virtually interchange-

I need to go to the

toilet the

We're out of lavatory paper

loo?

◆ Torturous

Where's

Bathroom

a tortuous

toilet

decision

a torturous decision

Toilet

loo

Total

The total was

Profits

115

Toilets

this

year

total

one

million pounds

toilet

lavatory

a total fail-

ure

a total stranger

lavatory

toilet

lavatory

Loo

He has totalled the car.

total

tolerate

utter

tolerance

complete

toleration

His tolerance is unlimited

the total cost

Her toleration of his habits demonstrates her

good nature

total

Tolerance

total annihilation

toleration

the

sum total

religious toleration

tour

Tolerance

de force

a theatrical tour de force

tour-de-force

ton tonne tun ,

or

?

fors

Ton

and

tonne

are both

large units of weight. In Britain, a long ton)

USA, a tonne

(or

grams. A

ton

(or

is equal to 2240 pounds. In the

ton

(or

short ton)

metric ton) tun

tours de force

is 2000 pounds. A

is equal to 1000 kilo-

is a large beer cask or a unit of

tourniquet

This word, meaning `a ban-

dage tied tightly round an arm or leg to stop bleeding', may be pronounced [toornikay] or [tornikay] in British English.

In American English the final syllable is pronounced [-keÆt]. ◆

toward towards or

toward

305 ? In British English

is a rare adjective meaning `afoot',

`imminent', or `favourable' or a variant of towards,

the usual form of the preposition

.

.

meaning `in the direction of' or `with regard to':

They walked towards the hotel.

transformation

unions, is the , and this title should be used when referring to that organization. Trades Union Congress

trafficker

This word is sometimes mis-

spelt. The word

traffic

.

adds a

before

k

. The preposition is more frequently used See .also SPELLING 1. in American English. See also -WARD or -WARDS? trait This word may be pronounced [tray] The adjective is pronounced [ aÆrd]; the or [trayt], although careful users prefer the preposition is pronounced [toÆ ]. first pronunciation. ◆ In American English [trayt] is standard. town see CITY or TOWN? What are his feelings towards her?

◆

fickers

toward

toward

A

more

town

storeys.

suggests an

house

However,

speaks of someone's

when

town house

one

one can

also mean a house in town belonging to a

.

rich person whose main residence is in the country:

They used their town house for

Veronica's ball.

track record

The

phrase

track

record,

meaning `record of past performance', is frequently used as an unnecessary extension of the word

.

record

or synonym for

a sound track record in R&D

a successful track record in sales and marketing.

Care should be taken to avoid over-

using this expression.

trade names

given to articles by their manufacturers. Some have unoffically become treated as quasi-generic names for articles of their

.

.

kind, although manufacturers guard their protected legal status jealously Biro.

Hoover

All nouns that are actually trade names should be spelt with an initial capital letter, although this is frequently overlooked, as in: . .. . When the noun has given rise to a verb it is freqeuently found spelt with a lower-case initial letter, though this is technically incorrect : . .

◆

Please use a black

She wore a crimplene dress

He

hoovered the carpet

trade union trades union or

erally accepted singular noun is with the plural

trade unions.

tranche

where

The noun

tranche

trades unions

is best avoided

section, group, portion,

.

or

tranche of the population tranches.

.

instalment

would be adequate or more appropriate:

a

payable in three

Of French origin, the word entered the English language via the terminology of the Stock Market, where it means `a block of bonds or government stock'. ◆

tranche

tranquillity . state':

This word, meaning `peaceful

the perfect tranquillity of the lake,

often misspelt. Note the

-ll-

is

and the final

single t.

migration mation

transmutation ,

or

a

.

,

?

Transfor-

describes a fundamental change in

transformation

.

in

.

She has undergone

recent

months.

The

country is in the midst of a dramatic economic transformation.

Transfiguration

synonymous with

transformation

is virtually but is used

in more literary contexts: `It was less a reform than a transfiguration. The former curves of sensuousness were now modulated to lines of devotional passion' (Thomas Hardy,

Tess of the d'Urbervilles).

New Testament, the

transfiguration

In the

of Jesus

Christ is `the revelation of the glory of Jesus Christ, shortly before his death, at which his disciples caught sight of him in his full majesty' (NIV migration

Thematic Study Bible). Trans-

is quite distinct in meaning, var-

iously denoting the movement of people

? The gen-

from one place to another or to the journey

trade union,

of the soul from one body to another at

There is no good grammatical reason for the use of or , although both are frequently used. However, the official title of the TUC, the central association of British trade

◆

trades union

drug traf-

illegal arms trafficking

someone or something:

Trade names are names

fountain pen or biro

-ing:

. transformation transfiguration trans-

`experience', especially in job advertisements:

and

word(z)

urban terraced house, usually with three or

-er, -ed,

toÅ

toward(s)

town house

the suffixes

death:

.

The transmigration of rebel Kurds.

.

She did not believe in the transmigration of souls. Transmutation

.

signifies a change in

something from one state to another: transmutation of liquid to gas.

the

transient

transient transitory or

306 .

? Both words mean

`short-lived, lasting only a brief time':

just a transient/transitory phase.

It is

The words are virtually interchangeable but have a sightly different feel about them. often suggests passing by quickly, perhaps because of rapid movement from place to place: . often carries a suggestion of regret about the way desirable things change or disappear: . . is sometimes used as a noun to denote a person who stays for only a short time in any one place. ◆

Transient

transient

summer visitors. Transitory

the transitory nature of

human love Transient

transitive VERBS translate transliterate see

.

or

translate

is

trans-

is to write or print using a different

alphabet. The Greek word ample, may be

petra,

as

transliterated

for ex-

petra

and

into English as `rock'. The two

translated

verbs should not be confused.

see

TRANSFORMATION, TRANSFIGURATION, TRANSMIGRATION or TRANSMUTATION?

This word has various pro-

nunciations, all of which are acceptable. The most frequent in contemporary usage is [transparreÆnt] but the pronunciations Æ nt] are also [trahnsparreÆnt] and [transpaire heard. The with a

is sometimes pronounced

-s-

sound.

z

transpire

.

means

Transpire

known; come to light':

`become

It later transpired

that the President had known of the plan all along.

.

It is also widely used to mean `hap-

pen or occur': transpires.

is used in both British and American English to mean `the banishment of convicts': . . is also used in formal English to mean `the state of being carried away by emotion': . . The sentence was transportation to Australia

Transport

a

transport of joy

transverse traverse or

.

?

Transverse

is an

adjective meaning `lying or set across; at right angles':

a transverse section. Traverse

.

is a verb meaning `cross; go across' or a

.

noun meaning `way or path across': river traverses two counties.

The

The traverse of

climbers.

traumatic trauma,

Traumatic

is the adjective from

which means `a wound or injury'

.

and it is still used in this sense in medical contexts:

traumatic

fever.

However its

main use is with the figurative meaning

.

of `causing great and deeply disturbing

transmigration, transmutation transparent

English.

◆ Transportation

this mountain is dangerous to inexperienced

? To

to express in a different language; to literate

usage is now sometimes found in British

I will let you know what

This second use is disliked by

.

emotional shock':

.

a traumatic bereavement

the traumatic effects of divorce

the trau-

matic experience of a concentration camp.

◆ Both and have become very much overworked and are often used for cases of mild distress or annoyance: . .. . The usual pronunciation of is [ maÆ]; the pronunciation [ maÆ] is used less frequently. traumatic

trauma

I spent a traumatic

evening filling in my tax return

the trauma of

moving house

trauma

travel

This word is sometimes misspelt. In

British English the final

.

l

.

is doubled before

the suffixes -ed, -ing, and -er:

AmericanEnglishretainsthesingle : . . . l

traveler

.

well-travelled

travelling fast along the motorway

mercial travellers.

◆

traw

trow

com-

traveled

travelling

.

SPELLING 1. traverse see TRANSVERSE or TRAVERSE? ◆ Transpire is also sometimes used to mean `turn many careful users, although it has a wellestablished history.

See also

out or prove to be': . treble or triple? Both words can be used as ,andeven`arriveorturnup': . noun, verb, and adjective and are vir. Both such uses are atually interchangeable in meaning. Howincorrect. ever, is preferred by many careful He transpired to be her

cousin

Subsequently

dozens of letters transpired

transport transportation

treble

.

is

users when the meaning is `three times as

used in British English both for the system

.

great':

and means of conveying:

meaning is `consisting of three parts':

or

I

have

English

my

own

.

ready

for

.

.

In American

is often used:

fastest form of transportation packed

Transport

public transport

transport.

transportation

?

the

The goods were

transportation,

and this

treble the sum,

and

triple jump.

triple

.

when the a

◆ The words have distinctly different meanings in the context of music. refers to a highpitched voice or instrument, or a singer who perTreble

307

forms at this pitch, whereas . rhythm: . a treble recorder

tremble

The verb

the preposition

at

.

and by

bling with fear.

tremor

is followed by

in the sense `respond to

.

with

excitement, etc.':

trivial

matters

triple time

tremble

something frightening': thought,

triple

truism is used of users would substitute such phrases as: . . . . for inthe

I trembled at the

in the sense `show fear,

The children were trem-

.

This word, meaning `shaking or earth tremors,

times misspelt. Note the ending

is some-or,

not

-our.

preceding example.

troop troupe or

? These words are some-

times confused. A

.

troop

a Scout troop. Troop

.

is a military unit or

group of people or things:

.

trivia

troops of soldiers

is also used as a verb

large group': home.

A

.

Then they all trooped off

is a group of actors or

troupe

performers:

a troupe of travelling acrobats.

The words and are also sometimes confused. A is a cavalry soldier, especially a private, and in American and Australian English a mounted policeman: . means `swear a lot'. A is a member of a of dancers, singers, etc. ◆

trooper

trouper

trooper

This word, describing the practice

of treating sick or injured people in order according to the seriousness of their condition, is often misspelt. Note particularly

swear like a

trooper

trouper

troupe

the colour To is The word is pronounced [ ahj] or [ ahzh]. totrooping parade the flag of a regiment ceremo-

the

◆

trivial things

in informal English to mean `move as a

quivering action':

triage

trivial issues

ending.

-age

tribe

tree

Tribe,

troop the colour

tree

in its sense of `people' or `social

group', is often avoided by careful users because of its negative connotations, which

.

imply that the group in question is primitive and uncivilized:

.

.

nially along the ranks of soldiers of that regiment:

trooping the colour

of the colour.

the phrase

the trooping

Written with capital initials,

Trooping the Colour

refers to the

The local tribe were

annual parade in London, usually attended

quickly subdued by the colonists.

Use of in a figurative sense, to describe a family gathering or group of other people is best restricted to informal contexts: .

by the Queen, the Prime Minister, and

◆

other dignitaries:

trillion BILLION triple TRIPLE TRIPLE triumphal triumphant

the Colour

tribe

Here comes my

sister with all her tribe.

see

or

tives are often confused.

.

A

triumphal

march

Triumphal

.

is con-

was

triumphal arch played

as

the

victorious army paraded through the streets .

.

We went to watch the the

We went to watch (the) Trooping the Colour

Trooping the Colour

We went to watch the Trooping the

Colour ceremony

troupe truculent

see

TROOP or TROUPE?

This adjective, which means

The team were tri-

`sullenly or defiantly aggressive', is some-

Having succeeded in her task, she

times misspelt. Note the -ucu- and the -ent

rejoicing in success': umphant.

.

means `victorious, exulting or

Triumphant

Trooping

of

? These adjec-

nected with the celebration of a victory, usually of a military nature:

Since the ceremony is officially called , some people object to the phrase the :. . However, this example reads awkwardly without the (or the first ): . .A possible solution is to use adjectivally: . . ◆

Trooping of the Colour

?

or

We went to watch the

Trooping of the Colour

.

see

.

ceremony of Trooping the Colour.

ending. The correct pronunciation is [truk-

returned with a triumphant smile.

is the more frequently used word, yuuleÆnt]. being restricted to narrower, more for- truism The narrower meaning of is mal contexts. `a statement of self-evident truth, one con-

◆ Triumphant triumphal

trivia

Trivia

importance':

truism

.

.

means `matters of very minor the trivia of village gossip

Why waste hours fussing over the trivia of

taining superfluous repetition of an idea': It is a truism to speak of single bachelors.

.

The

word is more widely used to mean `a

The word is actually a plural, so careful users be thought worth stating': . . would not say for example: . ◆ is sometimes used as though it were a . However, has a stilted and unnatural sound, so most synonym for or in such phrases as: .

statement of a fact that is too obvious to

everyday life?

◆

the truism that

Such trivia is beneath

my notice notice

Such trivia are beneath my

stars are only visible at night

Truism

fact

truth

the

truly

308

, but such use is widely regarded as unacceptable. truism that heterosexuals can contract AIDS

truly

The adverb

truly

is sometimes mis-

spelt. Note that the final -e of

true

is

dropped when the adverbial suffix -ly is added.

try and try to or

.

tive

turbid,

used in formal contexts, is

sometimes confused with

.

gid. Turbid

dense': bulent

turbulent

or

a turbid pool.

.

The adjective

.

? The two expressions are Try and catch

truth.

is

tur-

.

means `in a state of agitated move-

ment or confusion':

turbulent seas

politically turbulent period of history.

virtually interchangeable:

tur-

means `opaque; cloudy; muddy;

adjective tended': its banks.

.

a

The

means `swollen' or `dis-

turgid

The turgid river had overflowed

Both and may be applied in formal and figurative contexts to linguistic or literary style, meaning `confused' and `bombastic': English. ◆ Note that sounds better in a negative . . context: . and only turbo- The prefix - is applied to a can be used in the past tense: . machine that is driven by a turbine: . . . . Its association with me!

Try

to

tell

the

Try

and

colloquial and is very frequently used; it

◆

turbid

turgid

is unacceptable only in formal written

turbid

try to

turgid

turbid/turgid prose

She didn't even try to be polite

try to

break into the house

tsar czar or

turbofan

? This word, the title of any of

or, rarely,

tzar.

turbojet

turbocharged cars, in which performance

tsar,

is improved by the use of a turbine, some-

It is pronounced [zah].

times leads to a mistaken interpretation

the former Russian emperors, is spelt czar,

turbo

They tried to

Many users prefer the spelling , because it and application of the prefix in the sense more accurately reflects the Russian word as writ- of `fast' or `powerful': . . This extension of usage is best ten in the Cyrillic script. The spelling shows the origin of the word from the Gothic , and avoided. ultimately the Latin . , turgid see TURBID, TURBULENT or The word has been revived in recent years as an turbulent TURGID ? informal title for a person who has been appointed head of an official committee or other body, but in turquoise The name of this greenish-blue . this sense it is usually spelt mineral has various pronunciations. The ◆

tsar

a turbo model of a

czar

computer

kaisar

Caesar

czar:

He is the

most frequent in contemporary usage is

government's new drugs czar.

tun tunnel

see

TON, TONNE or TUN?

[terkwoiz],

This word is sometimes misspelt.

In British English the final before the suffixes

-ed, -ing,

.

is doubled

l

and

-er:

AmericanEnglishretainsthesingle : .

They

tunnelled under the hill.

◆

See also

SPELLING 1.

l

turbid turbulent turgid ,

or

but

[terkwahz],

[terkwois],

and [terkoiz] are also heard.

tunneled

.

? The adjec-

twelfth

Careful users avoid dropping the

f

in the pronunciation of this word [twelfth]. The word is, however, frequently pronounced without the f.

type of KIND OF tyre TIRE TYRE see

see

.

or

?

uber-

U This German prefix, meaning `over',

has been absorbed into English in recent

.

years to describe a person who ranks above

.

their peers in a particular field:

about something, and cannot be used as a

.

synonym for in:

or

wholehearted

enthusiastic

as

Many of the group were prepared to give

the project their unanimous backing.

When a vote is taken someone can only be said to have been , or a motion , if every person present voted ◆ The word is sometimes rendered in its original in favour. If there are any abstentions the motion is German form, with an umlaut, as : . said to be passed , which is an abbreviation of the Latin , `no one contradicting'. ( ). unaware or unawares? is an

uberchef

an ubermodel.

an

As a vogue term,

◆

it is best restricted to informal contexts.

elected unanimously

passed unanimously

uÈber

certain

irony

in

this

story:

a

There's a

sceptic

nem con

and

nemine contradicente

u È ber-rationalist finding a cure for his illness in a mysterious hotchpotch of Chinese herbs

The

Guardian

ultimate

Unaware

Ultimate

.

adjective meaning `not aware; not knowing

ulti-

He seemed unaware

is used mainly as an

.

adjective meaning `last, final, eventual':

the ultimate goal, mate truths.

.

or `fundamental':

As a noun it has traditionally

.

about; not having noticed': that you were coming.

.

I was unaware

of the reaction he was causing.

It is occasion-

simply meant `something ultimate' or `the

ally used as an adverb, but the usual adverb

extreme':

is

the ultimate in wickedness.

This

unawares,

meaning `unexpectedly, with-

.

last use is increasingly being extended,

out warning', often in

particularly in advertising and journalism,

taken unawares:

.

to mean `the best possible; the most modern

.

or advanced thing':

the ultimate in swim-

the ultimate in high technology.

caught unawares

villagers unawares.

is often followed by or but cannot precede another word in that

◆ Unaware unawares

of

This vogue use, disliked by some, has some way. similarity with the phrase . uncertain The adjective

ming pools

◆

ultra

the last word

Ultra

is an adjective meaning `going

lowed by the preposition

beyond' or `extreme' and is also used as a

was uncertain of

prefix with other words, either with or

contract.

[or

that

or

.

about:

modern

◆

ultra-radical.

UHF

,

ultrahigh frequency

This word may be stressed on

or

separate words:

third [umbilõÅkl].

foot.

see

see

or

Unanimous

It was rather wet under-

or

derhand

.

UNDER-

? This term

underhand underhanded

UMPIRE?

or

UNCON-

should be spelt as one word, not as two

the second syllable [umbilikl] or on the

umpire REFEREE un- NONunanimous

,

?

ultramicroscopic UHT

ultraheat-treated

or

?

see

ultrasonic

She

about] the terms of the

see

ultra-

.

is fol-

uncertain

of

unconscious SUBCONSCIOUS SCIOUS In the sense of `beyond the range of' it is used in: under BELOW BENEATH UNDER . . . stands for NEATH and for . under foot underfoot umbilical . .

without a hyphen. In the sense of `extremely' it is used in such words as:

or

The landslide caught the

and

underhanded

? Both

un-

are used as ad-

.

jectives to mean `sly; marked by dishonesty,

.

means

mind; in complete agreement':

`of

one

The com-

mittee reached a unanimous decision.

It can

only be used when several people all agree

trickery, and deception': most

their campaign.

◆

They used the

underhand/underhanded

methods

in

Both words can be used in the context of some

underlay

310

sports, meaning `with the hand below the undoubtedly . shoulder or elbow': . are all adverbs . is also occa- expressing that something is not disputed. sionally used to mean `short of the required num- However, and ber of workers'. express that idea much more positively and Undoubtedly,

underhand shooting

no

doubt,

doubtless, without (a) doubt

aiming underhanded Underhanded

undoubtedly

underlay underlie or

transitively;

? Both verbs are used

underlay

past participle past tense

has the past tense and

underlaid; underlie

underlay

and the past participle

.

underlain. Underlay

tommost part of': with felt. Underlie

has the

means `cover the botto underlay the carpet

.

is used more frequently

and means `form the cause or basis of':

This trend has underlain many of the changes in present-day society;

the adjectival form

.

it is most often used in

underlying:

lying reasons for the conflict.

underneath BELOW UNDERNEATH underprivileged see

the under-

BENEATH, UNDER or

,

?

Underprivileged

has be-

come a fashionable adjective to use in connection with those lacking the standard of income and opportunities enjoyed by

.

other members of the society in which they live:

.

She started a clinic for underprivileged

children.

Many young criminals come from

underprivileged backgrounds.

noun as well as an adjective: for

the

underprivileged

.

It is used as a

drew

His concern

him

towards

social work as a career.

Its real meaning is not `lacking in privileges' but rather, `lacking in rights; disadvantaged' or at least lacking in those social and economic rights considered to be fundamental in Western developed society.

◆

undertone OVERTONE underway under way see

or

or

UNDERTONE?

.

prefer to write this expression, meaning Preparations for the new project are now well under way.

.

The one exception to this is

when it appears as an adjective preceding a noun: underway project.

The

.

aircraft

fuelling.

the

rendezvoused then

strongly than the other expressions:

.

She is

undoubtedly the best student in her year. No doubt

and

doubtless

are much weaker ex-

pressions, often suggesting that the user is

.

in fact not completely certain, or is even harbouring doubts:

No doubt he is very

clever but I still can't understand what he is saying.

As is an adverb, is incorrect. Some people mistakenly spell as , perhaps confused with , which is a more formal and even stronger expression, suggesting that something cannot possibly be doubted: . . ◆

doubtless

doubtlessly

undoubtedly

undoubtably

indubitably

It was indubitably evident that he

had acted in a manner which was utterly unacceptable

uneatable EATABLE unequivocally see

or

EDIBLE?

Note that the adverb

equivocally

un-

has the ending -ally, not -ably. It

is derived from the adjective

unequivocal,

meaning `clear; plain'.

unexceptionable unexceptional or

exceptionable

?

.

Un-

means `inoffensive; not liable

to be criticized or objected to':

His

behaviour had been unexceptionable, so he could

not

offended

understand his

hosts.

how

he

.

could

Unexceptional

`usual, normal, or ordinary':

have

means

The weather

was unexceptional for the time of year.

It is,

however, more frequently used to suggest

? Careful users

`moving; in progress', as two words:

without a doubt

for

underway

The expression is, however, in-

creasingly being spelt as one word in all

.

that something is dull or disappointingly commonplace:

I

had

heard

enthusiastic

reports of his playing, but I found this an unexceptional performance.

The words are often confused, partly because it is quite possible for something to be both inoffensive and rather dull.

◆

unfair

The adjective

the preposition is unfair to

[or

to

or

.

unfair

on:

is followed by

The present system

on] the self-employed.

The spelling is wrong. This spelling -unfriendly see -FRIENDLY. probably arises from confusion with the nautical uninterested see DISINTERESTED or UNINTERexpression , meaning `raise anchor'. ESTED? contexts.

◆

under weigh

weigh anchor

undiscriminating

DISCRIMINATING?

see

INDISCRIMINATE or UN-

unique

.

Unique

of its kind':

means `being the only one

Every snowflake has a unique

311 pattern.

A thing is either unique or it is not,

upon .

tomed to', unused is pronounced [unyoost]:

so careful users dislike such expressions as

I am unused to driving on the righthand side

so unique, rather unique, very unique,

of the road.

and something cannot be

or

more unique

than something else.

less unique

etc., and

Almost

are the only modifiers generally

nearly

acceptable with

unique.

The adjective

unused,

meaning

.

`not being used' or `never having been

.

used', is pronounced [unyoozd]: of

the

rooms

unused.

are

Many

Unused

pills

◆ The word is widely used with a weaker meaning . of `unrivalled; outstanding', but many people ob- unwaged The adjective and noun ject to such use. Intensifiers are often used with to anybody who does not :. , but such receive refers a wage or salary. Such people inexpressions should be restricted to informal use. clude the unemployed, full-time mothers and tablets should be returned to the pharmacy for safe disposal

un-

unique

waged

It was absolutely unique

United Kingdom BRITAIN United States United States of America AMERICA unlike . see

.

,

see

.

Careful users avoid employing

as a conjunction:

like

un-

The man worked

unlike he'd ever worked in his life.

unmistakable

unmistakeable

or

? Both

spellings of this word are acceptable, but unmistakable

English. See

is the more frequent in British

unnecessary

SPELLING 3.

sioners:

is

unnecessary

The membership fee is £5 (or £3 for

the unwaged).

The euphemistic use of the

term

in place of

unwaged

unemployed,

with

reference to those who are out of work and seeking employment, could be misleading and is best avoided.

unwanted

or

unwonted . ?

means simply `not wanted':

her

unwanted

.

clothes

to

the

Unwanted She

Oxfam

gave shop.

means `out of the ordinary; unu-

Unwonted

sual':

The adjective

.

or housewives, students, and old age pen-

The drug gave him an unwonted

feeling of euphoria.

The two words are confused because people sometimes mistakenly spell as jective ), the single - -, and the - -. , and frequently pronounce as . should be pronounced [ununorganized see DISORGANIZED or UNORGA- tid] and [un tid], with the NIZED? stressed syllable pronounced the same as the word unpractical see PRACTICAL or PRACTICABLE? . sometimes misspelt. Note the -nn- (from the addition of the prefix

un-

necessary

◆

to the ad-

c

unwanted

wonted

ss

un-

unwonted

unwanted Unwanted won

unprecedented unprecedented

A

is `an earlier

precedent

unwieldy

His score was unprecedented in the history of cricket.

It has recently become a popular word, particularly in the where its meaning has weakened to `extremely great': . . ◆

media

The film is enjoying

an unprecedented success

This word is often misspelt.

Note particularly the

. up-front

means `never having hap-

pened before; completely new or original':

see

or

see

Some people dislike the increas-

ing use of the term

.

up-front,

,

see

it':

an up-front payment

or

see

or

Like

stalments.

The term should not be overused,

use

She

?

used;

unused

unused to,

UPLOAD.

? These two words are syno-

threw

herself

upon

Å n walked on the beach. O

or the [z] sound of the verb

the phrase

or

and

.

nyms and virtually indistinguishable in use:

may

be pronounced with the [s] sound of the noun

and is best restricted to informal contexts. see

?

, the word

They want £500

up-front and the remainder in monthly in-

?

,

.

meaning `paid

in advance, at the beginning, or as a depos-

?

or

in the middle

-ie-

of the word.

unreadable ILLEGIBLE UNREADABLE upload DOWNLOAD unrepairable REPAIRABLE REPARABLE upon on unsociable unsocial ANTISOCIAL ASO. CIAL UNSOCIAL UNSOCIABLE until TILL UNTIL unused USED ,

woÅn

won't

example or occurrence of a similar thing', so

unwonted

use.

In

meaning `unaccus-

upon

the

sofa.

He

is more frequently

has a more formal sound and is

rarely heard in spoken English.

◆ In some cases usage is dictated by the fact that one or the other word is normal in a particular . idiom: . . once upon a time

on the contrary

uptalk

312

is used between two repeated nouns to ◆ actually derives from for it desuggest large numbers: . scribes a manner which was thought to be characteristic of a person who came from a city. . Upon

Urbane

urban

We walked mile upon

mile

uptalk

This term refers to the increasing

modern tendency to deliver statements as though they are questions, with the voice rising at the end of the sentence. Sometimes called

upspeak

or

HRT

(high-rise

terminals),

is variously thought to have origi-

uptalk

nated in the USA, Canada, Australia, or New Zealand. It has become a target of criticism in recent years, especially in Britain. Popularly associated with teenagers in

.

particular, it has also been detected among older and younger speakers:

Then we

went round to Jack's house? Which was, like, really great? And then we out for a meal? And

urinal

This word may be stressed on either

the second syllable [yuurõÅnl] or the first syllable [yoorinl] in British English.

The American English pronunciation is stressed on the first syllable. ◆

us WE us our -ING FORMS US USA AMERICA usable useable see

.

or

? see

,

see

.

or

? Both spellings of this

word are acceptable, but

Careful speakers avoid using uptalk, not

usable

is the more

frequent in British English. See

usage use or

we all had the same things?

.

?

SPELLING 3.

is the way in which

Usage

.

something, especially language, is used; the noun

use

listener, but also because it can project an

book

deals

image of weakness or insecurity, as if the

contemporary

user lacks confidence in the opinions he or

an

she is advancing with such tentative

Careful users maintain this distinction be-

NATION.

upward upwards

INTO-

denotes the act of using:

.

only because it can be irritating to the

with

insulator

tween

.

the

phrases as:

.

.

problems

usage The

two

usage.

of

the

use

of

photocopier

words,

This in

wood

is

avoiding

as

use.

in

such

a ban on the usage of hosepipes.

Either or may be used in the sense of `amount or degree to which something is used': . being the usual form of the adverb , although some meaning `to a higher level': . people dislike the use of in this context. . . . also means `treatment': ◆ The adverb is more frequently used in . The noun has a variety of other meanAmerican English. ings, such as `usefulness': . See also -WARD or -WARDS? . , `wear': , The phrase ,meaning `more than', is `need': . , and disliked by some people: . `the right to use': . . Note the difference in pronunciation between the noun [yoos] and the verb [yooz]. ( ). may be pronounced [ sij] or [ zij]. or

upward

? In British English

is principally used as an adjective,

upwards

an upward

to float upwards

trend

◆

usage

use

increased usage/use of electricity usage

Usage

upward

rough/gentle

usage

use

What's the use of

trying?

upwards of

to deteriorate through use

Do you have a use for this box?

The newly privatised

company is in contention with America's Pratt &

Whitney to supply the engines for upwards of 100

to have the use of a company

car

Boeing 757s that Texas Air is planning to order

use

Sunday Times

upwardly mobile

This is a vogue expres-

sion used of ambitious, usually young,

.

people who are moving into a higher class, income bracket, etc.:

These days the City is

useable used

use

yoo

see

USABLE or USEABLE? USED TO,

In the phrase

.

nounced [yoost].

Used

used cars,

used

and as the past tense

example in:

and women trying to enhance their status in

and past participle of the verb

society.

nounced [yoozd].

urban .urbane or

?

Urban

means `of a town

Unemployment is higher in urban

areas. Urbane

is used of someone who is

.

sophisticated and polite, with a smooth and easy manner in any social situation:

He

turned out to be an elegant and urbane man who charmed them all.

used. to

to':

Used to

is pro-

as an adjective, for

thought to be full of upwardly mobile men

or city':

Usage

yoo

use

is pro-

either means `accustomed

I have got used to the noise,

used to play squash regularly.

.

or refers to a

habitual action or situation in the past:

She

◆ Difficulties arise over negative and question forms of the phrase in its second meaning. In negative forms the more formal or used not to

313 the more informal are both acceptable: . .. . Both and are heard, but are avoidedby careful users. In the question form the formal and rather oldfashioned and the less formal are both correct: . . or are frequently heard, though disliked by many careful users. As no form sounds completely natural and correct many people would reconstruct the sentence and say, for example: . did not/didn't use to

He used not to be so aggressive

She did not use to like fish

usen't to

didn't used to

used X to?

to?

that wood?

used to?

did X use

Used there to be a lake in

Did Henry use to visit you? Did X

didn't X used to?

Was there once a lake in that wood?

See also

USED.

user-friendly

User-friendly

utilize

technology may impress some people but will alienate others; it is therefore advisable to reserve the term for its original purpose. See also -FRIENDLY. and , opposites of , are also found in certain contexts: User-hostile

.

complex, user-hostile systems which require

complicated languages to programme and are

(

hard to understand The Guardian

usher usherette utilize or

Utilize

? see

).

NON-SEXIST TERMS.

.

means `use in a practical and

effective, profitable or productive way':

They utilized every machine that was available.

is a term used

user-unfriendly

user-friendly

.

It can also mean `make good use of

something not intended for the purpose':

in computing to describe software that is

She utilized her tights when the fan belt broke;

.

or `make use of something that might be

simple to use, being designed to assist the user and forestall any potential problems: a user-friendly program.

thought useless':

.

She utilized all the scraps

for stuffing cushions.

is often used, particularly in business The term is increasingly found in other fields, ◆ meaning `easy to operate or understand', and jargon, as though it were merely a synonym for describing electrical appliances, cars, books, etc.: : . . . However, careful users restrict the word to the narrower . This implied association with advanced senses described above. Utilize

◆

use

A drive to make the National Health Service

`user-friendly' was launched yesterday (Daily Telegraph)

Successful applicants will be able to utilize

their experience and skills in this field

vacant vacuous or

V ? Both these adjectives

nunciation.

.

is an adjective, meaning

Vain

.

mean `empty', but they are not generally

`conceited; excessively proud' or `worthless;

interchangeable in usage. The adjective

futile':

is most frequently applied to a flat,

vacant

.

room, seat, post, etc., that is not occupied by

.

a person or people: rooms

a hotel with vacant

The post remained vacant for several

months after her resignation. vacuous

The adjective

is used in formal contexts often in

.

the derogatory sense of `apparently devoid

.

of intelligence; inane; mindless': remark

Modern

pop

music

is

a vacuous vacuous,

repetitive, and uninspiring.

the vain parents of talented children

a vain attempt to increase productivity. Vane

and

are nouns. A

vein

vein

.

is a flat blade

vane

moved by wind or water:

a weather vane;

a

is a blood vessel, a thin layer of ore in

rock, etc.

is also used in the phrase , meaning `to no avail': . . is also used in figurative contexts, referring to a style, mood, quality, or trait: . . .

◆ Vain

in vain

She tried in vain to dissuade him

Vein

another remark in

the same vein

a vein of irony in the novel

Both and may also be applied to a person's expression, or to a gaze or stare: . vale or veil? means `valley' or `dale': It. suggests a temporary lack of should not be confused with , which concentration, attention, or awareness; . a fine layer of lace or other material suggests a lack of intelligence. describes . masking a view: . ◆

vacant

vacuous

a

vacant expression

Vale

The hill commands fine views of the vale. veil

a vac-

uous expression

vacation

The bride lifted her veil.

In British English the primary

meaning of the noun

.

vacation

is `the period

when universities and law courts are not officially working':

She went home for the

The mountains were hidden by a veil of mist.

value-added

The adjective

value-added,

meaning `having extra value' or `having

Studentsoftenshortenthewordinformally to . ing frequency, in. recent years: . Care In American English the main meaning of should be taken not to overuse the phrase is `a holiday': . . in these figurative applications, as many It is also used as a verb: . people find it jargonistic . A further meaning of the word is `vacating; vantage see ADVANTAGE or VANTAGE? making vacant or empty': . vaporize Note the spelling of the verb . , meaning `change into vapour'.

Christmas vacation.

◆

vac

vaca-

tion

extra features', has appeared with increas-

value-added

food products

value-added services.

They took a vacation in Miami

We vacationed in Europe

last year

The landlord insisted

on immediate vacation of the house

vaccinate vacuous vagary

vaporize

INOCULATE or VACCINATE? see VACANT or VACUOUS? see

The noun

vagary,

.

-u-

suffix

of

The variant spelling (see -IZE or -ISE?).

the

causes problems of

variant CJD variegated

pronunciation. In British English the noun Æ ri]; the prois usually pronounced [vayga Æ gairi] is less frequent and nunciation [va

different

may be regarded as an Americanism. Note

between the

also that there is no -i- after the -g-, either in pronunciation or spelling.

vain vane vein ,

or

vapour

? These three words are

sometimes confused, being identical in pro-

leaves,

see

vaporise

is equally correct

MAD COW DISEASE

.

This word, meaning `having

colours;

diverse':

variegated

is sometimes misspelt. Note the

various

various of,

is dropped before the

-ize.

◆

meaning `whim',

`caprice', or `unpredictable change': vagaries of the weather,

The

i

and the

e

g.

Many people dislike the use of

.

as a pronoun, usually followed by

and seek alternative wordings:

betrayed by various of his colleagues.

He was

've OF veil VALE VEIL vein VAIN VANE venal venial see

315

in various different ways which need to be

.

see

see

or

?

,

or

or

?

learned.

Venal

transitive

means literally `for

are capable of being `bought' or corrupted, or of systems which operate by bribery and corruption:

Their legal system is so venal

that criminals openly offer bribes in court.

.

means `pardonable; excusable' and is

Venial

applied to minor faults and offences:

He

was inclined to be thoughtless but that was a venial fault in one so young.

In Roman Catholic theology a is one that does not deprive the soul of divine grace, as opposed to a .

◆

venial sin

mortal sin

vengeance REVENGE VENGEANCE venial VENAL VENIAL venison see

see

or

or

?

?

Æ n]. ciation is [venzo The usual meaning of

.

venue

is `the

place where a meeting, event, or gathering happens':

We have not yet decided on the

venue for the annual conference.

There is a sense of people coming together to a particular place for a purpose. However, recent usage, to the dislike of some, makes virtually synonymous with , or , as the site of any activity: . . ◆

venue

place, scene

setting

A valley in South Wales is

the venue for this experiment in self-sufficient communal living

verbal oral or

words' while

?

Verbal

oral

means `expressed in

means `relating to the

mouth' or `expressed in speech'. Something verbal

can be expressed in either speech or

writing. However, a

verbal

agreement

is

generally understood to mean one that is spoken and not written.

Some careful users feel that, despite the established use of in this way, it is always better to use an , as there is no risk of misunderstanding or ambiguity with the word . ◆

verbal

oral agreement

oral

verbal nouns verbs

see

intransitive

like

He likes chocolate

She is liked by everyone Fall

The leaves are falling from

the trees

The

boat sailed out of the harbour.

She sailed the

boat out of the harbour

reflexive verbs

perjure

oneself

I introduced myself to our hostess

This word, meaning `the meat of Æ n] or a deer', is usually pronounced [veniso Æ n], although the traditional pronun[venizo

venue

Verbs differ in their functions. One distinction is between and verbs. A transitive verb is one that needs a direct object, for example, . One cannot just like; one has to like someone or something. Either it must take a direct object: . ,oritcanbeusedinthe passive: . . Intransitive verbs do not take a direct object. , for example, is an intransitive verb: . . Some verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively in different constructions: . ± . Some transitive verbs are , where the subject and object are the same: . . In this example the verb is always reflexive; one cannot perjure anyone or anything other than oneself. But some verbs are not always used reflexively: . . ± . are those used with other verbs, enablingthemtoexpressvariationsintense,mood, voice, etc. The most frequently used auxiliaries are , , and : . .. .. . is used to form the passive: . . Other auxiliaries include: , and :. .. . This second group of auxiliary verbs, which cannot be used asfullverbs (unlike , , and ) are also called . See also DARE; NEED. are verbs which include an adverb, . . preposition,orboth: . . Many such verbs have meanings which go beyond the sum of their parts, for example as in: . [i.e. obtained or received] . Some mean no more than the . words suggest: . . The modern trend to extend ordinary verbs so that they become phrasal verbs, while adding nothing to their meaning: . is disliked by many. New verbs are formed in various ways. One way is by converting nouns: . (see NOUNS). A variation of this is the formation of . . compoundverbs: . . . . . These verbs are often disliked when first introduced but they have the advantage of economy, if not of elegance. . than . ◆

VEIN?

sale' and it is used either of individuals who

.

verbs

INFINITIVE; -ING FORMS.

Verbs refer to actions, occurrences,

or existence. They vary in form according to the tense or mood used, usually in a predictable way but, with irregular verbs,

I introduced Chris to our hostess Auxiliary verbs

be have

do

He is tired

I have finished

We did not agree Be It was discussed

shall,

should, can, could, will, would, may, might must

I shall accept the offer

You must stop

immediately

be have

do

modal verbs

Phrasal verbs

give in

throw away

take

to

came

by

I came by

that

engraving in Venice

keep down

stay away

I consulted (with) my accountant

He serviced her car

to rubber-stamp

inflation-proof

top-score

blue-pencil

fundraise

down-

grade

I shall word-process the

letters is briefer

word processor

I shall produce the letters on a

VERBS

316 COMPOUND.

See also

For other ways of

forming new verbs see or

-ISE?

We crossed the Channel via the ferry

, but many

BACK FORMATION; -IZE people dislike these usages, particularly the latter

one.

ACTIVE; FINITE VERB; INFINITIVE; -ING The pronunciation normally regarded as correct FORMS; PARTICIPLES; PASSIVE; PRINCIPAL PARTS; is [v õÅaÆ] although [veeaÆ] is sometimes heard. SUBJUNCTIVE; TENSE. viable means `capable of living or verbs ± see IRREGULAR VERBS table, page 317 surviving independently': . . See also

Viable

a viable foetus

vermilion

lion,

The noun and adjective

vermi-

meaning `bright red', is sometimes

misspelt. Note that

vermilion

-l-, unlike the word

million.

has a single

.

It can be used figuratively in this sense of new communities:

When the colony shows

itself to be viable, it will be granted independence.

The meaning has been extended to `capable of carryingonwithoutextra(financial)support': . point or a point where two or more lines . intersect; a is the spiralling motion of Sometimes the meaning is even further exa whirlpool or whirlwind or, metaphoritended to become synonymous with cally, an activity that one is drawn into like . :. a whirlpool or whirlwind: . . This loose use of is objected to . . ◆ The plural of is or ; the by many careful users. plural of is or . vice versa This expression, meaning `with

vertex vortex or

? A

◆

is the highest

vertex

The

business is expected to be commercially viable within two years

vortex

workable,

the vertex of a

triangle

the vortex of rebellion

vertex

very

vortex

vertexes

vortexes

.

. .

very efficiently.

fore past participles very:

much

.

very

However, be-

is used instead of

It was much improved.

The exception

is when the past participle is used adjectivally:

She was very excited.

Some words come into a grey area where either or can be used: . . usually has a more formal sound. There are other participles which cannot take either or as an intensifier, although they can take if an adverb is interposed: one cannot be but can be ; one cannot say but can say . ◆

very

much

She was very/much

distressed Much very

much very

very wounded

badly wounded

very

very mended

very neatly mended

veterinary with

This word causes problems

spelling

and

pronunciation.

Note

the -erin- and the -ary ending. The word Æ nri], [vete Æis frequently pronounced [vete Æ ri], or [vetrinri], although careful users ne insist on the pronunciation with five syllaÆ rine Æ ri]. bles [vete

The expression shortened to .

◆

via

veterinary surgeon

vet

Via

is usually

a

viable

.

means `by way of' and is used when

. ◆ It is also used to mean `by means of': .

went to Australia via Hong Kong.

the order reversed', is usually pronounced Æ versa Æ ]. Alternative pronunciations for [võÅse the first word are: [võÅsi] and [võÅs].

vicious viscous or

or `ferocious';

They

Your best

route would be via the M6.

?

Vicious

.

viscous

is thick and sticky: paint.

means `wicked'

.

describes a liquid that a vicious dog

viscous

◆ The two adjectives are sometimes confused, being similar in form and pronunciation. The of is soft [ uÆs]; the of is hard [ kuÆs]. The word is largely restricted to formal or technical contexts. The word also occurs in the expression , denoting a problematic situation that creates new problems leading back to the original situation: . . This is often incorrectly rendered as .

c

vicious

vish

vis

c

viscous

viscous

vicious

vicious circle

the vicious circle of debt

victuals

vicious cycle

This word, meaning `supplies of

food', is pronounced [vitlz].

A , `a licensed purveyor of spirits', is pronounced [ leÆr].

◆

victualler

video-

videre

vit

The prefix

video-,

from the Latin

meaning `to see', is found in such

words as

video-recorder,

video-camera.

talking of the route for a journey:

it via Fred

viable plan

vertices

before most adjectives and adverbs:

unpleasant

a viable partnership

vortices

can be used as an intensifier

Very

practicable, feasible

videophone,

and

It is increasingly used in

the senses of `relating to video' or `by

.

.

video', sometimes hyphenated and sometimes unhyphenated:

videolink

Video-

conferencing is the latest factor in revolu-

, or to speak of a means of transport: . I'll return

tionizing world.

boardroom

practice

around

the

317

IRREGULAR VERBS

Cross-references, e.g. see HANGED or HUNG?, are also included to main entries in the where there is a fuller discussion. Infinitive Past tense Past participle abide abode, abided abode, abided arise arose arisen awake (see AWAKE, AWAKEN WAKE or WAKEN?) awoke awaked, awoken be was; were been bear bore borne beat beat (see BEAT or BEATEN?) beaten become became become befall befell befallen beget begot begotten begin began begun behold beheld beheld bend bent bent beseech besought besought beset beset beset bespeak bespoke bespoken bet, betted bet bet, betted (see BET or BETTED?) bid bade, bid bidden, bid bide bode, bided bided bind bound bound bite bit bitten, bit bleed bled bled bless blessed, blest blessed, blest (see BLESSED) blow blew blown break broke broken breed bred bred bring brought brought broadcast broadcast, broadcasted broadcast, broadcasted build built built burn burnt, burned (see BURNED or BURNT?) burnt, burned burst burst burst buy bought bought cast cast cast catch caught caught choose chose chosen cleave clove, cleft cloven, cleft cling clung clung come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept cut cut cut deal dealt dealt dig dug dug Good Word Guide

,

VERBS

VERBS do draw dream drink drive dwell eat fall feed feel fight find flee fling fly forbear forbid forecast forget forgive forsake freeze get gild gird give go grind grow hang have hear heave hew hide hit hold hurt inlay keep kneel knit know lay (see LAY or LIE?) lead lean

318 did drew dreamt, dreamed (see DREAMED or DREAMT?) drank drove dwelt, dwelled (see DWELLED or DWELT?) ate fell fed felt fought found fled flung flew forbore forbade, forbad (see FORBADE) forecast, forecasted forgot forgave forsook froze got (see GOT) gilded girded, girt gave went ground grew hung, hanged (see HANGED or HUNG?) had heard heaved, hove (see HEAVED or HOVE?) hewed hid hit held hurt inlaid kept knelt, kneeled (see KNEELED or KNELT?) knitted, knit (see KNIT or KNITTED?) knew laid led leant, leaned (see LEANED or LEANT?)

done drawn dreamt, dreamed drunk driven dwelt, dwelled eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flown forborne forbidden forecast, forecasted forgotten forgiven forsaken frozen got; gotten ( ) gilded, gilt girded, girt given gone ground grown hung, hanged had heard heaved, hove hewed, hewn hidden hit held hurt inlaid kept knelt, kneeled knitted, knit known laid led leant, leaned American

319 leap learn leave lend let lie (see LAY or LIE?) light lose make mean meet mislay mislead mistake misunderstand mow overtake partake pay plead prove put quit read rend ride ring rise run saw say see seek sell send set sew shake shear shed shine shoe shoot show shrink shut sing

leapt, leaped (see LEAPED or LEAPT?) learnt, learned (see LEARNED or LEARNT?) left lent let lay lighted, lit lost made meant met mislaid misled mistook misunderstood mowed overtook partook paid pleaded, pled (see PLEADED or PLED?) proved put quitted, quit (see QUIT or QUITTED?) read [red] rent rode rang (see RINGED, RANG or RUNG?) rose ran sawed said saw sought sold sent set sewed shook sheared shed shone, shined shod shot showed shrank, shrunk (see SHRUNK, SHRANK, SHRUNK or SHRUNKEN?) shut sang

VERBS leapt, leaped learnt, learned left lent let lain lighted, lit lost made meant met mislaid misled mistaken misunderstood mown, mowed (see MOWED or MOWN?) overtaken partaken paid pleaded, pled proved, proven (see PROVED or PROVEN?) put quitted, quit read [red] rent ridden rung risen run sawn said seen sought sold sent set sewn, sewed shaken shorn, sheared shed shone, shined shod shot shown, showed shrunk shut sung

VERBS sink sit slay sleep slide sling slink slit smell smite sow speak speed spell spend spill spin spit split spoil spread spring stand stave steal stick sting stink strew stride strike string strive swear sweep swell swim swing take teach tear tell think thrive throw

320 sank, sunk (see SANK, SUNK or SUNKEN?) sunk sat sat slew slain slept slept slid slid slung slung slunk slunk slit slit smelt, smelled (see SMELLED or SMELT?) smelt, smelled smote smitten sowed (see SOWED or SOWN?) sown, sowed spoke spoken sped, speeded (see SPEEDED or SPED?) sped, speeded spelt, spelled (see SPELLED or SPELT?) spelt, spelled spent spent spilt, spilled (see SPILLED or SPILT?) spilt, spilled spun, span (see SPUN or SPAN?) spun spat spat split split spoilt, spoiled (see SPOILED or SPOILT?) spoilt, spoiled spread spread sprang sprung stood stood staved, stove staved, stove stole stolen stuck stuck stung stung stank, stunk (see STANK or STUNK?) stunk strewed strewn, strewed strode stridden struck struck strung strung strove striven swore sworn swept swept swelled (see SWELLED or SWOLLEN?) swollen, swelled swam (see SWAM or SWUM?) swum swung swung took taken taught taught tore torn told told thought thought throve, thrived thriven, thrived threw thrown

321 thrust tread unbend undergo understand undertake underwrite undo upset wake (see AWAKE, AWAKEN, WAKE or WAKEN?) wear weave wed weep win wind withdraw withhold withstand wring write

vigorous

thrust trod unbent underwent understood undertook underwrote undid upset woke, waked

thrust trodden, trod unbent undergone understood undertaken underwritten undone upset waked, woken

wore wove, weaved wedded, wed (see WED or WEDDED?) wept won wound withdrew withheld withstood wrung wrote

This word, meaning `healthy and

strong', is often misspelt. Note that the vigour

vilify

is dropped before the suffix

u

of

-ous.

Note the spelling of this verb, used in

formal contexts to mean `malign; defame', particularly the single

virtual

The word

-l-.

virtual

has acquired new

relevance with the development of computer technology, being used to describe the

. .

hypothetical environments created by com-

.

puter games, the Internet, etc.: community advertising.

use of

virtual

classroom

virtual virtual

Care must be taken with the

virtual

and

virtually

visible

in this and other

senses, to avoid ambiguity.

worn woven wedded, wed wept won wound withdrawn withheld withstood wrung written ◆ The word is also often used in a metaphorical sense for an influence or ideology that is thought tobecorruptingpeople'sminds: . . In computing, it denotes a code or program that can spread through a computer system, corrupting or destroying data.

the virus of anti-

Semitism that spread throughout Germany in the 1930s

vis-aÁ-vis

Á -vis Vis-a

literally means `face to

.

face' and is most frequently used as a preposition to mean `in relation to':

We

Á -vis the shall have to change our policy vis-a law.

It also means `opposite' or `face to face

with' and is sometimes used as a noun to mean `someone or something opposite another; a counterpart'. It is also occasionally

, meaning originally referred chiefly to inter- used as a synonym for active computer games, where the player's move- `aple'.private conversation between two peoments may be mirrored by a character in a ◆ It is pronounced [veezah ]. hypothetical computer-generated world. The phrase has since come to be used more widely, viscous see VICIOUS or VISCOUS? in particular to television shows that invite some visible There is a recent fashionable use of degree of viewer participation: . to mean `in the public eye; well à te-a Á -te à te te

◆ Virtual reality

vee

Television ratings

on both sides of the Atlantic are now dominated by the virtual-reality game show.

virus

A

virus

is the causative agent of a

.

visible

known':

.

He's

cabinet ministers.

one

of

the

more

visible

It can also be more or less

synonymous with

having a high profile,

with

disease, but the word is frequently used of

the meaning of `being in a position where

the disease itself:

one's actions are liable to become subject to

very nasty virus.

He's recovering from a

public comment or notice':

.

The role of

vision statement

322

Director of Social Services is an increasingly visible one. visible,

As some object to these uses of

care should be taken to avoid over-

working this word.

vision statement visit visitation or

see

MISSION STATEMENT.

? In its most frequent use

The American English pronunciation [ aÆmin], the first syllable of which rhymes with , is now acceptable in British English although disliked by some people.

◆

võÅt

bite

voluntarily

Careful users of British Eng-

lish stress this word on the first syllable Æ nte Æ rili]. [vole

Such users object to the alternative pronunciation, with stress on the third syllable [voleÆn rili], rily' and a noun meaning `an act of visitthough this is acceptable in American English. . . . ing': visit

is a verb meaning `pay a call on, stay

with as a guest, stay somewhere temporaI will visit Venice when I am in Italy

He was on a visit to his daughter.

A

.

visitation

is an official or formal act of visiting:

The

vicar's work includes the visitation of parishioners

in

.

hospital,

and is often found in

humorous use, referring to an unwelcome visit: man.

I'm awaiting a visitation from the VAT

can also refer to the visit of a supernatural being: . , and is also used in referring to an act of affliction, either natural or divine: . . . ◆ Visitation

a visitation of angels

the visitation of the Black

Death

the visitation of God's wrath

visually impaired preferred

Visually impaired

modern

alternative

to

is the

BLIND,

which is considered unacceptable by many

people because of its negative connotations.

vital

The adjective

preposition vital to

[or

vitamin

to

or

.

vital

for:

is followed by the

Their co-operation is

for] the success of the mission.

The traditional British pronunciaÆ min]. tion of this word is [vita

◆

te

vortex vote

see

VERTEX or VORTEX?

The idiomatic expression

with one's feet

to

vote

means to show disapproval

of something by staying away, not participating in it, not buying it and so on. The underlying image is of a dissatisfied crowd of people walking out of an auditorium or a hall. Recently it has been used in an opposite sense meaning to show approval by attending or taking something up in large numbers, but this is strictly incorrect.

vowel

A

vowel

is the sound represented by

any of the letters

a, e, i, o,

English language. Compare

and

u

in the

CONSONANT.

The presence of a vowel at the beginning of a word may affect the form or pronunciation of the preceding word (see A or AN?; THE). Notethatinsuchwordsas . and . , the letter produces the combined consonant and vowel sound [yooÅ].

◆

unit

u-

uranium

w- whor

ning with

W ? The spellings of words begin-

w-

and

are easily confused as

wh-

they are pronounced the same by the ma-

. It must not be confused with the verb which means `fluctuate or hesitate; become unsteady': . .. . waiver clause in a contract waver

Throughout his

jority of English speakers (exceptions in-

suffering his faith never wavered

cluding

voice

Scottish

speakers

of

English).

Examples of such confusable words include which

and

and

wile,

witch, watt

and

what,

and

while

all of which have different mean-

ings.

Note that a small number of words can be spelt either way with the same meaning, e.g. ◆

wacky/

whacky, weal/wheal..

wage wages waist waste ,

see

or

SALARY or WAGE? refers to

Waist

that part of the body between the ribs and

.

the hips and thus to any similar narrow part of something: waist.

The dancer had a tiny

It should not be confused with

.

waste,

which as a noun means `rubbish' or `unwanted material': waste,

.

The process creates little

and as a verb `squander':

to waste

well-earned money.

wait

or

weight

? These two words are

occasionally confused since they are pro-

.

nounced the same [wayt]. or `delay action': parade had passed.

with

weight,

Wait

,

means `stay'

They waited until the

It should not be confused

.

which is chiefly used as a noun

meaning `heaviness' or `relative mass':

He

took the weight of the sack on his shoulders,

see

,

,

or

?

or

.

? These spellings are

sometimes confused. aimlessly': wonder

.

Wander

means `roam

He wandered through the streets;

means `be astonished at' or `think I wonder where she is.

The pronunciation of is [ deÆr]; the pronunciation of [ deÆr] rhymes with .

◆

occasionally confused since they are pronounced the same [wayst].

wake waken AWAKE AWAKEN WAKE WAKEN wander wonder about':

? These two words are

a wavering

wander

won

wonder wun

thunder

wannabee

A

wannabee

is a person who

strives to emulate another, especially a

.

young fan who mimics a famous person in appearance, behaviour, etc.: Madonna wannabees.

a horde of

The word , from the phrase , is sometimes spelt . It is best restricted to informal contexts. ◆

wannabee

(l) want to

be (like . . .)

want

wannabe

.

As a verb the main meanings of

are `to desire':

That door wants mending, door wants a handle.

and `to lack':

.

want

.

I want a bigger car, `to need':

The

As a noun it means

.

`something desired; a desire for something; a lack' or is used as a synonym for

poverty:

the want experienced by the unemployed. Want to

.

is often used in informal contexts to mean

`ought to':

You want to be more careful.

There is controversy over whether can be WEIGHT?). usedwithapresentparticipleasin: . See also AWAIT or WAIT? . This usage is a standard regional variation more people would say waiter or waitress? see NON-SEXIST TERMS. in British English, although . This latter form can lead to is waive or wave? These two words are ambiguity. .. clearer than , sometimes confused. The verb means which could indicate a desire for a particular ; `relinquish': . picture. . means `move to and fro': . . is unambiguous and avoids the use of the . present participle, which is generally considered The noun means `ridge of water'. ◆ The noun comes from the verb : . unsuitable for any but informal use. and is also used as a verb (see

WEIGH

or

◆

want

I want my hair

cutting

I want my hair cut

I want the picture fixing on the wall

I want the picture fixed on the wall

waive

The judge waived the penalty

wave

goodbye

I want the picture to be fixed on the

wave

The

corn

waved

in

the

wind

wave

waiver

waive

a

wall

-ward

-ward -wards or

-ward

and

-wards

324 ? The adverbial suffixes

Petrol stored in garages is subject to wastage.

are used to indicate di-

Another meaning, usually occurring in the

rection. Both forms are equally correct,

phrase

although

employees through resignation, retirement,

is usually preferred in

-wards

British English and

in American

natural wastage,

refers to the loss of

or death.

◆ is sometimes used as a synonym for but it should be confined to the meanings Most of these adverbs have a related adjective ending in . The adjectival suffix cannot be outlined above. replaced by . For further discussion and additional informa- waste see WAIST or WASTE? tion see AFTERWARD or AFTERWARDS?, BACK- watercooler TV The term WARD or BACKWARDS?, and other individual refers to popular television programmes entries. that are the subject of informal conversa-ward

English.

Wastage

◆

waste

-ward

-wards

watercooler TV

ware where or

?

Ware

.

is usually used in

the plural, meaning `goods' or `products':

Customers flocked to see the company's wares.

.

It should not be confused with meaning `to or at what place':

where, Let me

show you where to go.

-ware -wear or

tion among friends or work colleagues (i.e. the sort of programmes that people talk about

-ware

de-

glassware

.

-wear

computer software

leather footwear.

times confused:

.

.

denotes clothing: knitwear

Dawn

French,

planning to open a knitware shop

who

(The

is

Book-

seller).

watercooler).

REALITYTV shows,

programmes

that

would

provoke more serious discussion.

. wave waver . way .

The two endings are some-

office

ally not applied to documentaries or current-affairs

? The ending

the

situation comedies, etc.; the term is gener-

notes goods of the specified type or material; the ending

around

These may be soap operas,

,

see

The use of

WAIVE or WAVE?

way

as an adverb, meaning

.

`considerably', is best restricted to informal contexts:

hair

is

The film is way too long.

way

too

Her

It should also be

short.

In computing, the ending has been used used as an adverb meaning `extremely': . to coin a number of nouns on the model of and . These include: . -ways see -WISE or -WAYS? (a set of related software) . . (educational software) (software we is used to mean `I and one or more that has yet to be produced) . (human other people': . . . beings). `I' by monarchs: . warn or worn? These two words are ◆ It was formerly used to mean . . ., and is sometimes occasionally confused since they are proused by writers to give an impression of impersonnounced the same [worn]. means ality: . . is `caution' or `advise of danger': . sometimes used to mean `you', usually in addresIt should not sing children or invalids in a somewhat patronizing be confused with , the past participle manner: . . of , which is also used as an adjective: . Are we feeling better this morning? Mistakes are sometimes made in the use of was see WERE or WAS? and . is correct with a plural noun as the subject: . . is wastage or waste? is used as a . correctwhenthenounistheobject: verb, noun, and adjective. As a noun its . main meanings are `squandering, using restricted to very informal contexts when

◆

-ware

That's a way cool jacket.

hardware

software

group-

ware

courseware

vapourware

We

liveware

We should get a divorce

Shall we all go for a walk?

We grant by royal decree

Warn

We shall discuss this in a later chapter We

They were

warned about their behaviour. worn

We are in a nasty temper today, aren't

wear

we?

That tyre is badly worn.

we

us We

We children used to play there Us

Waste

carelessly or ungainfully':

.

.

It won't help

us workers

It was a com-

plete waste of time and money;

unwanted material': waste. Wastage

.

or `rubbish;

Get rid of all this

is a noun meaning `loss due

.

to leakage, decay, erosion, evaporation, etc.' the wastage of water from a reservoir

weal wheal wheel ,

or

? The noun

. .

wheel,

denoting a circular object, is by far the most

.

common of these three words: of a bicycle wheel.

a steering wheel

The nouns

weal

and

the wheels a spinning

wheal

are inter-

changeable in the sense of `raised mark on

325

were

(often in combination with an adverb), is . preferred to :. [or ] . In the formal and figurative frequent: . sense of `committed' or `closely connected', the . is preferred to : . ◆ is also an archaic or literary word meaning past participle . `welfare' or `prosperity': . .. . . the skin (usually caused by a blow from a whip, cane, etc.)',

wed

being the more

weal

The weals

wheals

on his

wedded

the newlywed couple

her twice-wed father

back suggested that he had been beaten

wedded

Weal

the public weal

the

common weal

-wear WARE WEAR weather wether whether see

or

,

Wednesday

? These

three spellings are sometimes confused. The noun

weather

(see

and the conjunction are

far

wether,

more

WEATHER CONDITIONS) (see WHETHER)

whether

common

than

the

noun

which denotes a (castrated) male

sheep.

weather conditions

He

Malnutrition is

wedded to poverty

?

or

wed

seems wedded to the idea

week

is

The name of this day of the

usually

pronounced

[wenzdi],

although careful users prefer to sound the

d

[wednzdi] or [wednzday].

weigh weight or

? To

.

weigh

the weight of something; to

.

weight to something:

is to measure

weight

is to add

The box weighs 3 kg.

We weighted the tarpaulin with stones so

that it would not blow away.

Both words may be used in the figurative sense . of`oppress': respect of sunshine, rainfall, wind, etc.' As . the word contains in its meaning, is the more frequent of the two verbs, careful users maintain that it is tautological being used in a variety of other senses: . . to talk of , as in: . [`raise'] [`assess'] . . . [`consider carefully'] . The verb is also used in the sense of . `bias': . . A London allowance weatherman or weathergirl? see NONis an extra sum of money paid to some people who SEXIST TERMS. work in London, where the cost of living is high. weaved, wove or woven ? The usual past Note the spelling of the two words. . tense of is : is sometimes misspelt with the ending . . . is , on the model of , etc. . the usual past participle of : See also WAIT or WEIGHT? Weather

means `the

condition of the atmosphere, especially in

◆

They were weighed/weighted down

with problems

condition

Weigh

to weigh

The bad

weather conditions

weather conditions stopped play

The freez-

ing weather conditions in the north will not improve

anchor

and cons

to weigh up

the pros

to weigh

words

one's

weight

The legislation must not be weighted

towards the rich

weave

herself

She wove the cloth

wove

The spider wove its web

woven by hand.

garments.

.

Woven

It was

weave

They were wearing woven

weighting

-eigh-

Weight -th

length, width

weird

This word, meaning `uncanny or

In some senses of is used for the extraordinary', is sometimes misspelt. Note past tense or past participle, as when the spelling. means `contrive or produce a complicated story': well see AS WELL AS; GOOD or WELL?. . ; `lurch or stagger': . ; and `move well or well-? When used as part of an around vehicles to avoid hitting them': . adjectival compound, such as , . whether is hyphenated or not depends ◆

weave, weaved

weave

-ei-

She weaved a sinister plot

He weaved drunkenly down the street

The car

well-aimed

weaved in and out of all the traffic

web WORLD WIDE WEB Weblish NETSPEAK wed wedded see

see

or

well

on its position in relation to the noun or

.

noun, a hyphen is usual:

? The use of the verb

wed

in the sense of `marry' is rather old-fashit is chiefly found in newspaper headlines: wedded

Either

[or

wedded] the following spring.

They

They

wedded] by her uncle.

.

a well-aimed

If placed after the verb, it is usual to

omit the hyphen: aimed.

or

was

Her remarks were well

? Difficulty is sometimes

experienced in the use of the subjunctive form

were

in phrases expressing supposi-

tion. The basic rule is that

were

is used

when the suggestion is of something hy-

When the past participle is used adjectivally .

were wed [or

◆

. .

or

may be used as the past tense or past

participle of the verb in this sense: wed

wed

remark.

. were

ioned, formal, or literary; in modern usage Doctor weds former patient.

.

verb in the sentence. If placed before the

.

.

pothetical, unlikely, or not actually the case: If I were you, I'd leave him.

She talks to

west me

326

as

if

I

.

were

three

years

old.

If the

supposition is factual or realistic then is used:

was

I'm sorry if I was rude.

When a supposition might be possible or factual then either or may be used: . . The more doubt there is, the more appropriate it is to use . ◆

was

were

They

behaved as if it was/were their own house were

west West western ,

or

? As an adjective,

.

is always written with a capital

west

.

when it forms part of a proper name: West End

the West Country.

W the

The noun west

is usually written with a capital

W

when it

denotes a specific region, such as the non-

.

communist countries of Europe and America:

She defected to the West in 1986.

knives, etc.; a damp.

wet stone

see

,

is simply a stone that is

wether WEATHER WETHER wetted WET WETTED wh- W- WHwhammy DOUBLE WHAMMY wharfs wharves see

see

or

or

?

?

see

or

.

? Either

wharfs

or

is acceptable as the plural of the

wharves

noun

WHETHER?

or

wharf,

denoting a place where ships

dock for loading and unloading.

Wharves

is

the more frequent form.

what

what

A difficulty in the use of the pronoun

is whether it should be followed by a

or plural verb. In general the rule In other contexts, and as an adverb, is singular is that when means `that which' it usually written with a lower-case : . takes a singular verb, even if the comple. . is plural, and when it means `those .. . ment which' it takes a plural verb: . The adjective is more frequent and . . usually less specific than the adjective : . . . . . . follow a noun or pronoun. ConLike is written with a capital ◆structionscannot when it forms part of a proper name, such as are wrong.such as: . . With or without a capital , it also means `of the West': . what or which? In a question, the use of or affects the interpretation of .A is a film, novel, etc., about life in the western USA in the 19th century. the meaning. chooses from a limited

◆

west

w

until you reach the border west bank of the river

what

Drive west

We camped on the

The sun sets in the west

western

west

the western side of the island

in western Scot-

land

west, western

What we need

is a ladder

What he likes best is expensive

restaurants

I mentioned what I thought

were the most important points

What

W

Western Australia

the man what I was talking to

W

western/Western

technology

western

what

westward westwards? or

.

Which

Westward

is the

correct choice when an adjective is needed: a westward direction.

westwards

.

required: city.

.

Either

westward

or

may be used when an adverb is They travelled westward from the

The skies were full of birds flying

westwards.

See also

wet wetted . or

? The verb

to wet

.

and `urinate in or on something':

means

Children

.

often wet their beds when they are anxious.

The usual past tense or participle is The baby has wet its nappy again.

been wetted

wetted

is used.

wet:

However,

The sheets have

is less ambiguous than

the sheets

have been wet.

wet

whet

what

is used in more

◆ Thus . suggests that the speaker has several possible films in mind; whereas . shows that the speaker is probably unaware of the choice of the various films. general enquiries.

Which film are you going to see?

What film are you going to see?

or

Don't keep wetting your lips,

in the passive,

range of alternatives;

whatever what ever

-WARD or -WARDS?

`make wet':

which

intensify

what

? If

ever

.

two words in formal writing: [`What on earth']

? These two spellings are Wet

means

to wet one's lips

`cover

whet

whet some-

whetstone

In less

formal writing, one word is sometimes used, but careful writers object to this usage. If

whatever

.

whatever I like.

.

means `no matter what',

it is written as one word:

.

I'll

write

Whatever the weather he

always wears a vest.

There is no chance

whatever of him winning.

confused.

one's appetite

What ever

did he say next?

A similar rule applies to the use of , and , and , and ; with moisture': . and :. means `stimulate or sharpen': . . .. ◆ A is a stone used for sharpening or

sometimes

is used to

the expression is written as

◆

and , and

how ever

however when ever wherever

who ever

whenever where ever

which ever

whoever

whichever

How ever did you find

out? ± However carefully I wash my hair, it always looks untidy

Where ever did you buy such a hat?

327 ..

± Wherever you travel, you'll find businesses that accept our credit card

Who ever told you that? ±

while whilst or

who ? As a conjunction

while

.

means `during the time that; as long as' and

Whoever wrote this had a strange sense of hu-

it is also used to mean `although; whereas':

mour

I shall be doing his work while he's away on

.

wheal wheel whence ,

see

is a formal, rarely used

Whence

.

WEAL, WHEAL or WHEEL?

.

holiday.

Elizabeth votes Labour while her

husband votes Conservative. Whilst

has the

same meanings but is rarely used; it tends to sound formal and old-fashioned.

◆ Many people dislike the use of or in the sense of `although; whereas' as it can give rise ◆ is more frequently used; as in: . to ambiguity. . could mean `during the time , although the is redundant, being contained in the mean- she was studying literature' or `although she was studying literature'. ing of , and many people consider to be incorrect. However, as is whisky or whiskey? The alcoholic drink now a word whose use tends to sound either old- distilled in Scotland is spelt , which is fashioned, affected, or jocular it is probably better the more frequent spelling in British to avoid both and alto- lish. The alcoholic drink distilled inEngthe gether. USA or Ireland is spelt , the usual word meaning `from where; from what place':

while

The monster returned to the swamp

whilst

whence it had appeared.

While she was studying literature

From whence

she disliked poetry

The country from whence they came from

whence

from

whence

whence

whisky

whence

See also

from whence

HENCE; THENCE.

whiskey

whenever when ever WHAT EVER where WARE WHERE whereabouts or

? see

?

see

or

The

WHATEVER or

?

noun

.

[or remain] a secret.

[or

is] unknown.

wherever where ever WHAT EVER whet WET WHET whether . or

or

? see

?

see

or

Her

WHATEVER

Whether

if

is

also used to introduce alternatives or con-

.

sider possibilities and is virtually intershe'll come.

.

correct.

if:

I wonder whether/if

I don't know whether/if it is

In these cases there is some confusion concerning the use of , as in: . . Here, where the sense is `if he is staying' the can be considered redundant. It is only necessary when the sense is `regardless of whether or not' as in: . . ◆

whether or not

He has not

decided whether (or not) to stay

or not

He

has decided to stay, whether or not he can afford it

WEATHER, WETHER or WHETHER? which see THAT or WHICH?; WHAT or WHICH? See also

.

Europeans are a minority in this part

of the world.

who

The pronoun

who

is normally used in

.

reference to human beings (which being used for nonhumans): the shop.

the man who runs

However, it is acceptable to use

in referring to animals, to countries in

.

especially when taking a plural verb:

He asked whether we

but sounds rather more formal.

colour:

. .

certain contexts, and to a group of people,

Here it is synonymous with

changeable with

(see

phical origin, rather than his or her skin

who

can be used to introduce

an indirect question:

were going.

.

?

Whether

nonwhite

alternative is to refer to a person's geograwhereabouts,

The whereabouts of the original

whereabouts are

As a term describing skin colour,

is less contentious than

NON-), but is still avoided by some users. An

thing is', may be used with a singular or manuscript remains

white

white

meaning `place where somebody or someplural verb:

spelling in American English.

who refuse to eat leftovers

cats

Greece, who

joined the European Community in 1981 band who plays the loudest.

the

can be used to refer to human beings and things in (see THAT or WHICH?): . . [or ] . [or or ] [or , or the formally correct ] . Care must be taken with the punctuation of phrases containing . . changes its meaning if the commas are omitted. Without the commas, introduces a restrictive (or defining) clause, suggesting specific boys: those that attend public school. With commas, the additional clause merely adds extra information about the boys. ◆ That

defining clauses

the man that

who runs the shop

that

which plays the loudest

who

woman that

the band the

who

whom you just saw

who

The boys, who attend

public schools, regularly drink in pubs who

who whom or

?

Who

subject of a verb and

is used when it is the whom

when it is the

whodunit .

.

object of a verb or preposition:

.

who delivers the papers you just saw

talking. Whom

the boy

the woman whom

the people to whom I was

.

is falling into disuse, espe-

cially in questions. to?

328

Whom did you give it

is formally correct but most people

would now use

who.

As a relative pronoun,

whose

or

sometimes

who's

? These spellings are

. . .

confused.

whom' or `of which':

`of

the children, whose

political parties whose

father had left them

ideas are old-fashioned Who's

means

Whose

is a contraction of

.

Whose book is that? who is

or who has:

◆ Some people object to the use of in the sense of `of which', referring to things rather than people: . ◆ While many careful users feel that it is important [not to use when it is correct to do so, most ] . wouldconsider that theuse of for is far Others, however, find the construction less of a mistake than the use of when an unnecessarily wordy substitute for is correct, as in: . . . .. . The temptation is to wicked Like BAD, the adjective is use because it is felt that this is the object of used as slang term of approval, especially , but it is not. is a more or by young people: . less independent part of the sentence; it could . even be moved to another part of the sentence. It ◆ Jonathon Green in : is not an object of that is needed, but comments on its origin: `The term has arrived a subject ( ) of the phrase . via two borrowings: the first from standard English whodunit This word, used in informal via black Americans, and subsequently by the white young from their black counterparts.' contexts to describe a detective story, whom

Who's coming to dinner tonight?

should still be used, when correct, in

whose

formal writing.

an old teapot, the handle of which

whom

whose handle had been broken for many years

who

whom

whom

the . . . of

who

which

The children, whom she thought

whose

were dead, had been saved

wicked

whom

she thought

She thought

His new bike is well

wicked

Neologisms new words since

she thought

who

may be spelt

1960

were dead

whodunit

or, less frequently,

whodunnit.

It is, of course, an abbreviation of the ungrammatical ◆

who done it?

whoever who ever WHAT EVER whoever whomever or

? see

?

or

WHATEVER or

two words. Both mean `whatever person'; like

who

(see

WHO or WHOM?), is

used as the subject of a verb: broke it must pay for the repair, ever,

like

whom,

.

.

Whoever

and

whom-

is used as the object of a

verb or preposition:

Note the spelling of this word,

Bring whomever you

l

in the middle and at

the end in British English. In American English the the spelling

-ll

ending of

will SHALL window

or

is retained in

WILL?

Window

lished

will

willful.

see

? Many users are

unclear about the difference between these whoever,

wilful

which has a single

has various well-estab-

metaphorical

uses.

It

can

mean

.

`something that allows people to see something they might otherwise not see':

The

programme is a window on the closed world of

.

the monastery;

something':

or `an opportunity to display The exhibition is the annual

Amorerecentuseis`agap;anintervaloftime': . , though care should be rare and is now commonly replaced by taken to avoid overworking this expression: . . (Vodafone advertisewholly see HOLY, HOLEY or WHOLLY?; SPELment, ). . LING 4. want

to

formal,

the

party.

whomever

Since it sounds very

has become relatively

window of domestic design.

◆

a window of opportunity

Is

whoever

there a window in my diary next week for that meeting with Dempster?

whom WHO WHOM whomever WHOEVER whoop . see

or

see

Daily Telegraph

?

or

and the publication of the final conclusions.

WHOMEVER?

sometimes

Sally whooped excitedly,

mispronounced.

pronunciation is [woop].

◆

Note, however, that is pronounced [

cough

whooping hoop

ing].

The

as in

-wise -ways or

This word, meaning `express de-

light', as in:

There should be a clear

window between the arrival of the interim report

is

correct

? The suffix -ways com-

bines with certain abstract nouns to form

.

.

an adverb meaning `in (such) a way, direction, or manner':

sideways

lengthways.

It

has a more limited use than -wise, which whooping

.

can combine with various nouns to mean either `in the position or direction of':

.

clockwise

.

329 lengthwise

to walk crabwise.

.

which may be replaced by or, more simply, . As a general rule, , , and are best expressions as: . . . restricted to contexts where , , or would be used of the opposite sex. is becoming in-

or `in the manner of':

taxwise

.

man

people. When a singular subject is linked to

singular verb:

.

it should take a

with

The Prime Minister with

senior members of the Cabinet has been considering the problem.

The same rule applies

.

even when a singular subject comprises several individuals or entities:

lady

male boy

careerwise

performancewise

something else by

the cleaner

female girl

weatherwise

creasingly popular, but is disliked by many

with

the cleaning woman

The use of -wise to mean

`in respect of' in such moneywise

worship

The band

with members of the road crew has been given

See also

wonder

gentle-

MAN; NON-SEXIST TERMS; SEXISM.

The verb

the preposition

.

wondered at his strength

sense `speculate':

.

is followed by

wonder

in the sense `marvel':

at

and by

I

in the

about

I wondered about the

reason for his departure.

See also

wonk

WANDER or WONDER?

In American English the word

.

wonk

is an insulting slang term for someone who is studious or works hard:

That guy's a real

The usual pronunciation in British English is [widh]; [with] is a regional variation. wont This old-fashioned word is used to

rooms at a local hotel.

wonk.

◆

withhold

This word, meaning `keep back',

is sometimes misspelt. Note the -hh- in the middle of this word, unlike the word threshold.

mean `inclined or accustomed': the expression

as is one's wont.

hoÅld

woman

As a general term for an adult

female human being, ceptable than

woman

female, girl,

or

.

is more aclady:

The

prize was won by a woman from Brighton.

◆ The noun (see FEMALE or FEMININE?) is best reserved for animals and plants. It may be applied to human beings when the question of age makes or inappropriate: . .In most other casesit is considered inelegant, contemptuous, or offensive. As an adjective, however, is only marginally less acceptable than and is preferable to :. .. . A is a female child or adolescent. The term is often used as a synonym for `woman' but is considered patronizing or disrespectful by some people in some contexts, especially when used by men. The word has connotations of nobility, dignity, and good manners: . .. It is used in polite address, as in formal or official contexts: . .. . . . However, it is sometimes regarded as a term of condescension, especially in such phrases as , female

woman

women

He

shares the house with five females: his wife and their four young daughters

female

woman

lady

There are two female doctors and one male

doctor at the local surgery

Female drivers do not

have more road accidents than male drivers girl

lady

the Lady of the

manor

She may be wealthy but she's no lady!

This lady would like to speak to the

manager

Ladies and gentlemen

the cleaning lady

They were

and in

Its pronun-

ciation is the same as that of the word Å nt]. [wo

The correct pronunciation [widh ] should ensure that the word is spelt correctly. wood or would?

◆

.

wont to have tea at 4 o'clock every day

timber:

.

Wood

.

refers to trees or

They entered the wood.

is made of wood.

won't

.

The frame

It should not be confused

with the modal verb

would:

She would not

do as she was told.

woolly

Note the spelling of this word: -oo-

and -ll- in British English; -oo- and single -l- in American English. Similarly, the adjective

woollen

has -ll- in British English

and a single -l- in American English.

workman workwoman TERMS World Wide Web or

? see

.

The term

NON-SEXIST

World Wide

Web

(commonly referred to simply as

web)

describes the global network of com-

puters linked by the

the

INTERNET. In practice, the

term is generally treated as synonymous with Internet

or net, although some people make a

distinction between the World Wide Web (the mass of documents and other material available by such electronic means) and the net

Inter-

(the actual connections between these

sites). In electronic addresses Web

World Wide

is abbreviated to www; in other contexts

it is usually abbreviated to

worn worship

see

WWW.

WARN or WORN?

The single final

p

doubles in front

of most suffixes beginning with a vowel in

worthwhile British English: worshipping.

single

p.

◆ Worshipful See also

.

worshipped

.

worshipper

330 . wretch

American English retains the

retains the single .

worthwhile worth while or

.

It

.

wring

or

.

is followed by the

out of:

RING or WRING? wright see RIGHT or WRITE? write see RIGHT or WRITE?

They tried in

[or

out of] her.

See also

? The tradi-

as two words after a verb and as one word in front of a noun:

from

vain to wring the truth from

tional rule is that this expression is written

spending a little more money.

RETCH or WRETCH?

The verb

preposition

p

SPELLING 1.

wring

see

is

worth

while

a project that

is worth while ± a worthwhile project.

Increasingly, however, the tendency is to write this expression as one word in all contexts.

◆

wrought

Wrought

is an archaic form of the

past tense and past participle of the verb work.

It is still used adjectivally in such

expression as

wrought iron.

wrongly used as the past would see OF; SHOULD or WOULD?; WOOD or tense of is sometimes , meaning `inflict; cause': . WOULD? [not ] .. [not ] wove, woven see WEAVED, WOVE or WO. VEN? ◆ Wrought

wreak

The

hurricane wreaked

wrought havoc through-

out the countryside

wrack RACK WRACK wrapped RAPT WRAPPED wreak REEK WREAK wreath wreathe see

or

see

see

www WWW wysiwyg ,

?

or

or

She wreaked

wrought

vengeance on the bullies

see

WORLD WIDE WEB.

The term

?

wysiwyg,

used in com-

puting and pronounced [wiziwig], is an

?

acronym for

what you see is what you get:

is a noun

the display on the computer screen is an

describing a circular garland of flowers

exact representation of what will appear on

or

.

?

Wreath

and foliage of the type commonly displayed at funerals:

.

There was a single wreath on the

coffin. Wreathe

`twist':

is a verb meaning `encircle' or

is pronounced [reeth], while pronounced [reedh]. ◆ Wreath

is

The mist wreathed around the trees.

wreathe

.

the printout. The term is sometimes spelt WYSIWYG Wysiwyg including

or

(what the

Wysiwyg: you

see

is

enhancements

Offering

what such

italics, inverse, tone and outlines graph).

you as

(Daily

full get), bold,

Tele-

Xerox

X This word should be spelt

Xerox

if it

is referring to the trademarked noun for a type of photographic copier or process. The verb, meaning `copy on a Xerox machine', is spelt with a lower-case

◆ Xerox

Xmas

x.

Christmas

is pronounced [ oks]. zeer

Xmas,

an abbreviation for

Some people, particularly Christians, find the word offensive and it is generally considered suitable only for informal writing. When reading the word aloud it is preferable to pronounce it as , and only actually to say [ maÆs] when this spelling is emphasized.

◆

Christmas,

X-ray x-ray or

eks

? The noun is nearly always

is used particularly in commercial contexts

written with a capital

and newspaper headlines. The

with a capital or lower-case letter:

from the Greek Christos,

chi,

X

derives

the initial letter of

the Greek for

Christ.

X;

an X-ray/He was X-rayed the accident.

.

the verb is written [or

He had

x-rayed] after

Y

ye

is the archaic plural of

Ye

thou,

which

subsequently became an equivalent of The use of

ye

.

(meaning `the') to suggest

antique, rustic charm, as in: Teashoppe,

you.

Ye

Olde

was formerly fashionable, but

in contemporary usage is best avoided ex-

slavery.

A

is the yellow part of an egg:

yolk

.

Would you like your yolk hard?

yoof

is a phonetic respelling of the

Yoof

word

(as pronounced by a Lon-

youth

.

doner), used with particular reference to

cept in ironic contexts.

contemporary youth culture:

◆

good idea, but they shouldn't all be authors

This second sense of actually came about through medieval mistranscription of the runic letter thorn. ye

yes

no

and

In discussing affirmative or

.

negative expressions one has the option of writing, for example, either: to the offer

or:

She said yes

She said, `Yes' to the offer.

The latter carries more of an implication that the person actually used the word or

yes

no.

In phrases where there is no suggestion of someone actually using the word, it is better not tohave or ininvertedcommas: . .. . Phrases such as: . are acceptable. The is dispensable but adds emphasis. ◆

yes

to life

no

He says yes

She won't take no for an answer

yet .

The vogue for such humorous respellings as , (for love), and (for media) is disliked by many people. ◆

yoof

you

lerv

You

is often used to mean `people in

ONE: .

general' formal

.

meeja

in

place

at that restaurant. this.

They

of

.

the

slightly

You hold a hammer like

[i.e. `The authorities']

.

.

`in addition':

.

.

`at some future time':

a

yet more

We'll do it

It's

really embarrassing when you forget someone's name.

Dentists say you should clean

is less frequently used than

`even':

.

fine you

on the spot if you've not got a ticket.

.

more

You certainly get a good meal

yes

It has not yet been decided,

(The

Bookseller).

your teeth at least twice a day.

yet greater problem,

presents,

who don't appeal to the `yoof' culture

He said (that) yes, he agreed

has various meanings: `up till now;

Yet

so far':

Panels are a

times better to use

Although

you

one

it is some-

to avoid possible

one

confusion as to whether the speaker is talking personally or generally. It is also important to be consistent in the use of either

you

or

one

throughout a single piece

of writing.

The personal pronoun is either singular or In several of its meanings is more or less ◆plural. to indicate that more than one interchangeable with , but in the sense of `as personAllis attempts being addressed: , , before': . is now archaic, and , etc., are informal. is required. See also -ING FORMS. When the meaning is `up till now; so far' cannot be used with the simple past tense, except you know The expression is in informal American English: . used by speakers who are not sure about

yet,

and `nevertheless':

◆

slow, yet sure.

you

yet

still

you all you lot you

It is yet raining, yet

guys

still

yet

yoghurt word is yogurt

The most frequent spelling of this

yoghurt.

and

Acceptable alternatives are

yoghourt.

The usual pronun-

ciation is [yogeÆrt] in British English and Å ge Æ rt] in American English. [yo

yoke yolk or

.

confused. bond':

you

Did she go yet?

? These words are sometimes

Yoke

.

means `connecting bar or

yoked oxen

under the yoke of

.

know

what they have just said or who are not sure what to say next:

I just wondered . . .

you know . . . if you might like to come with me to the theatre.

The expression is fre-

quently used with this function but is very widely disliked.

young

table at

For names of young of animals see

ANIMALS.

333

your you're or

confused.

.

Your

your house

traction of

.

? These two words may be

yourself care to sit here, next to me?

means `belonging to you':

question for yourself.

.

your rights. You're

you are:

is a con-

Hurry up, you're going

Notealsothespellingof : . ; the spelling with an apostrophe, wrong.

to be late!

◆

yours

That's mine not

yours

yourself yourself

Careful

speakers

as a replacement for

.

avoid you:

, is

your's

yuppie

Yuppie,

often spelt

.

yuppie That's a

yuppy,

is a

North American coinage which came into frequent use in Britain in the mid-1980s. It stands for `young urban (or upwardly mobile) professional' and is used to designate well-educated young adults, living in cities,

using Would

working in well-paid occupations, and enjoying a fashionable way of life.

zero

Z The digit 0 has a variety of names.

Nought

NAUGHT

(see also

.

or

(less frequently)

zero

for this digit:

The number 1000 has three

noughts

[or

off

end

the

zeros]. ±

.

it

are the general terms

You've missed a nought

should

be

two

thousand, not twenty thousand.

.

hundred

In scientific

contexts, and for expressing temperatures, etc.,

zero

is preferred:

.

degrees Celsius. Zero

The plural of is or preferred by many users. zero

zeros

zeroes

. Either form

NOUGHT?) and is acceptable, but zeros is the more frequent, being

Water freezes at zero

is also used in count-

zeugma

This term denotes a figure of

speech in which a word (usually a verb or adjective) applies to more than one other

.

word in the sentence, often in different senses:

She drove the car too fast and her

. [ maÆ] in British When `spelling out' a number, such as a tele- ◆English and [is pronounced Æ ma ] in American English. phone number or account number, the name of the letter (pronounced like the word ) is used zoology This word, referring to the bioinBritishEnglish: . logical study of animals, has two pronun. In sport, the terms and are used for a ciations. The more frequent pronunciation Æ ji], though careful users prefer is [zoo o scoreof0: . .. Å o Æ ji]. [zo . downs:

◆

five, four, three, two, one, zero

instructor to despair.

Zeugma

zyoog

zoog

O

oh

The dialling code for Liverpool is

oh-one-five-one

love

nil

four love in the final set

the score was two nil

At half-time

ol

ol