R i c h a r d G r a n t has w r i t t e n extensively for n u m e r o u s p u b l i c a tions, i n c l u d i n g t h e Telegraph, t h e Guardian,
Esquire
and
Arena.
Ghost Riders is his first b o o k . ' W o n d e r f u l . . . t h e p e o p l e h e speaks t o are a l l o w e d t o speak for t h e m s e l v e s , a n d t h e r e are m a n y t h r i l l i n g r e a d ' The 'Ghost
extraordinary
stories . . . a
Times
Riders is a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e a n d p h i l o s o p h y o f
travellers, w a n d e r e r s a n d n o m a d s . . . t h r o u g h o u t , G r a n t scratches away
the
dust
and
dirt
of the
centuries, dignifying
and
empathising, sometimes explaining, sometimes just w o n d e r i n g . It is fascinating stuff' Time
Out
'[A] r e m a r k a b l e first b o o k . N o m a d s have, i n R i c h a r d G r a n t , an e l o q u e n t s p o k e s m a n ' Sunday
Express
' A brilliantly e n t e r t a i n i n g r e a d '
Wonderlust
' A revealing a n d o r i g i n a l p i e c e o f r e p o r t a g e , c o n c e i v e d
and
w r i t t e n w i t h i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d g e n u i n e e n t h u s i a s m ' Big Issue ' A fascinating a n d e r u d i t e b o o k ' Evening
Standard
' R e m a r k a b l e . . . O n e o f t h e best b o o k s a b o u t t h e U S t h a t I have read for a l o n g t i m e . . . A n e x c e l l e n t b o o k . G r a n t is b o t h a fine w r i t e r a n d a brave m a n ' Sunday
Herald
Ghost R i d e r s T r a v e l sw i t h A m e r i c a n
Richard Grant
Nomads
A n Abacus B o o k First p u b l i s h e d i n G r e a t B r i t a i n in 2 0 0 3 b y Little, B r o w n T h i s e d i t i o n p u b l i s h e d b y A b a c u s in 2 0 0 3 Copyright © Richard Grant 2003 T h e m o r a l r i g h t o f t h e a u t h o r has b e e n asserted. All rights reserved. N o p a r t o f this p u b l i c a t i o n m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , stored i n a retrieval system, o r t r a n s m i t t e d , in any f o r m o r b y a n y m e a n s , w i t h o u t t h e p r i o r p e r m i s s i o n in w r i t i n g o f t h e publisher, n o r b e o t h e r w i s e circulated in a n y f o r m o f b i n d i n g o r c o v e r o t h e r t h a n t h a t in w h i c h it is p u b l i s h e d a n d w i t h o u t a similar c o n d i t i o n i n c l u d i n g this c o n d i t i o n b e i n g i m p o s e d o n t h e s u b s e q u e n t purchaser. A C I P c a t a l o g u e r e c o r d for this b o o k is available from t h e British Library. I S B N 0 349 11268 1 Typeset in B e m b o b y Palimpsest B o o k P r o d u c t i o n L i m i t e d , P o l m o n t Stirlingshire M a p s by J o h n Gilkes P r i n t e d a n d b o u n d in G r e a t B r i t a i n b y Clays Ltd, St Ives pic Abacus A n i m p r i n t of Time Warner Books U K Brettenham House Lancaster Place London W C 2 E 7 E N www.TimeWarnerBooks.co.uk
Acknowledgements
W r i t i n g this b o o k entailed an u n g o d l y a m o u n t o f t i m e s p e n t sitting at h o m e b e h i n d a desk. T h i s w a s h a r d o n m e a n d t h e people around m e . Thanks to those w h o furnished m e
with
o t h e r places t o g o a n d w r i t e : J o h n C a t t o , G e o r g e J a c k s o n a n d t h e fine p e o p l e at t h e L a n n a n F o u n d a t i o n , w h o set u p t h e i r w r i t e r s w i t h f o o d , m o n e y a n d travel e x p e n s e s as well. I also feel i n d e b t e d t o C h u c k B o w d e n a n d M a r c u s B o o n , b o t h o f w h o m w e r e g e n e r o u s w i t h t h e i r k n o w l e d g e a n d insights, a n d offered g o o d a d v i c e w h e n it was n e e d e d . T h a n k s t o M i k e Hatfield for g i v i n g m e t h e o r i g i n a l idea a n d t o m y a g e n t J o n n y G e l l e r for h e l p i n g it a l o n g a n d c u t t i n g t h e deals. T h a n k s t o m y p a r e n t s for t h e i r love, s u p p o r t a n d an e m e r g e n c y l o a n t h a t k e p t t h e b o o k g o i n g . M o s t o f all, t h a n k s t o G a l e for r e a d i n g , e d i t i n g , b e i n g p a t i e n t w i t h m e a n d s e e i n g it t h r o u g h .
I take SPACE
to be the central fact to man born in America,
from Folsom cave to now. I spell it large because it comes large here. Large and without mercy . . . Some men ride on such space, others have to fasten themselves like a tent stake to survive. Charles O l s o n , Call Me
Ishmael
But there are things which you have, said to me which I do not like. They were not sweet like sugar, but bitter like gourds. You have said that you want to put. us on a reservation, to build us houses and make, us medicine lodges [hospitals]. I do not want them. I was bom upon the prairie, where the wind blew free and there was nothing to break the light of the sun. I was born where there were no enclosures and everything drew a free breath. I want to die there and not within
walls.
T e n Bears ( C o m a n c h e ) at M e d i c i n e L o d g e , Kansas, 1867 . . . to really tell about this whole extraordinary culture — in Texas and the Southwest,
all the way to California — of aimless
wandering, this mobile, uprooted life: the seven-mile-long
trailer
parks, the motorcycles, the campers, the people who have no addresses or even last names. T r u m a n C a p o t e , Capote: A
Biography
The Modern West
PROLOGUE
L o o k i n g b a c k at my. o w n A m e r i c a n w a n d e r i n g s , t h e y s e e m to flow t o g e t h e r as o n e ; m e m o r i e s s t r u n g o u t o n a single c o r d o f highway, f o u r t e e n years l o n g a n d h e a d e d n o w h e r e i n particular. I like to t h i n k I have tasted f r e e d o m , b u t I also recognise t h e signs and snares o f a d d i c t i o n . After a w h i l e , w a n d e r i n g generates its o w n m o m e n t u m , its o w n set o f cravings, p h o b i a s a n d justifications. I like t o t h i n k o f it as an a d v e n t u r e , a p e r p e t u a l s e e k i n g o u t o f n e w h o r i z o n s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s , b u t like so m a n y e n d e a v o u r s o f this k i n d , it has also b e e n an act o f flight - away from a p o i n t in space a n d t i m e , away from routines a n d responsibilities, away from a state o f m i n d . A n d w h e n it b e g a n , escape was m y only concern. I n 1 9 8 5 I was living i n a g r i m a n d squalid c o u n c i l estate in east L o n d o n — b r o k e , u n e m p l o y e d , fresh o u t o f university, h a t i n g j u s t a b o u t e v e r y t h i n g English, a n d h a t i n g t h e w e a t h e r w i t h a special v e h e m e n c e . E v e r y w i n t e r , w h e n t h e cold, d a m p
gloom
d e s c e n d e d a n d t h e sky closed over, I felt t r a p p e d a n d claustrop h o b i c , s e n t e n c e d t o a n o t h e r l o n g stretch in a small, d a n k , o v e r c r o w d e d p r i s o n . It's n o t an u n c o m m o n reaction t o t h e English w i n t e r . I j u s t h a d a b a d case o f it: m a y b e it was a c h i l d h o o d spent in Malaysia, K u w a i t a n d o t h e r s u n n y places. In w i n t e r , m y d r i n k i n g increased, a n d m y politics t u r n e d fiery and anarchistic, o n l y t o m e l l o w w i t h t h e first g o o d w e e k
of
s u m m e r . C o m e N o v e m b e r a n d I was r a n t i n g i n t h e p u b again, d e n o u n c i n g t h e n a n n y state a n d its u n b r i d l e d police force, railing
4
Richard Grant
against t h e constrictions o f class a n d accent. B y t h e t i m e F e b r u a r y t r u d g e d a r o u n d , I was ready t o b e h e a d t h e R o y a l Family, o r at t h e v e r y least pull t h e m off t h e public teat. It depressed m e d e e p l y that t h e British paid taxes, a n d often willingly, towards this s y m b o l o f their subjugation and class inferiority. T h e c o u n c i l estate was situated b e t w e e n a gasworks a n d a sixlane m o t o r w a y , in t h e c o n c r e t e , h i g h - r i s e wasteland of B r o m l e y b y - B o w . G r e y m o u l d g r e w u p t h e wall o f m y u n h e a t e d b e d r o o m , a d r u n k e n w i f e - b e a t e r lived i n t h e flat below, T h a t c h e r scolded from t h e T V . Weaselly adolescent burglars sheltered from t h e rain in t h e u r i n e - s c e n t e d stairwells, s m i r k i n g a n d c u p p i n g their cigarettes, like s o m e t h i n g o u t o f D i c k e n s , o r J. G. Ballard — ' G o t r o b b e d didja, mate? N a h , d o n ' t k n o w nuffink a b o u t it. P r o b ' l y o n e o f ' e m black cunts, innit? Pakis ain't g o t t h e b o t t l e for it, h u h - h u h huh.' I r e m e m b e r w a l k i n g t o t h e d o l e office in t h e pissing rain, h e a d d o w n a n d s h o u l d e r s h u n c h e d , a n d e v e r y o n e else o n t h e streets in t h e same posture. D e a d fish in t h e p o i s o n e d canals, a M o n d a y m o r n i n g sky t h e c o l o u r o f r a i n - d a r k e n e d c o n c r e t e . I r e m e m b e r an old m a n m u t t e r i n g t o himself at a bus stop, losing his w o r d s i n t h e w i n d . H i s face was c o m p l e t e l y caved-in — a physical d e f o r m ity o f s o m e k i n d , t h e legacy of a b e a t i n g perhaps, b u t 1 fancied it was from a lifetime of p u t t i n g u p w i t h E n g l a n d . 'Teabags', t h e A m e r i c a n s called us, a n d I c o u l d see their p o i n t . I h a d studied A m e r i c a n history, a n d like so m a n y L o n d o n e r s I was well versed in A m e r i c a n p o p u l a r culture, o r so I t h o u g h t . I read A m e r i c a n a u t h o r s almost exclusively, played A m e r i c a n music as an occasional n i g h t c l u b DJ, witnessed t h e inevitable films and T V shows a n d advertising images. I h a d b e e n t o California a c o u p l e o f times as a teenager. I h a d friends in N e w York a n d Philadelphia. A m e r i c a was t h e o b v i o u s escape r o u t e . In m y m i n d it was t h e antithesis of E n g l a n d : a w i d e , s u n n y land, loose and freewheeling, w i t h n o r e s e m b l a n c e w h a t s o e v e r to an old teabag. I w o r k e d as a security guard that w i n t e r and h o a r d e d m y wages for a plane ticket. T h e n e x t s u m m e r I left b e h i n d a w o m a n I loved, flew to N e w York, and spent t w o m o n t h s renovating a house for friends in Philadelphia. At t h e e n d of it, I had eight h u n d r e d dollars
Ghost
5
Riders
in m y pocket. W h e r e t o next? I had read Kerouac at an i m p r e s sionable age and a cross-country road trip s o u n d e d g o o d to m e . W e started west in an a g e i n g b u r g u n d y sedan, three A m e r i c a n friends a n d m e , a t w e n t y - t w o - y e a r - o l d E n g l i s h m a n , h a v i n g t h e t i m e o f his life. I h a d t a k e n r o a d trips a r o u n d E u r o p e before, b u t this was a different feeling. T h e r e was a c o n t i n e n t ahead, 2 7 0 0 miles w i d e , a n d n o b o r d e r crossings o r language barriers t o break its flow. T h e r e was a s t r e t c h i n g - o u t o f possibility, a p r o m i s e o f f r e e d o m a n d a d v e n t u r e , that y o u d o n ' t find o n t h e G e r m a n a u t o b a h n , or t h e M 3 t o Basingstoke. E v e n t h e place n a m e s a h e a d h a d a musical, mythical r i n g t o t h e m : C h a t t a n o o g a , M e m p h i s , Amarillo, O k l a h o m a , Santa Fe. Part o f it, o f course, was t h e a c c u m u l a t e d w e i g h t o f all those b o o k s , films, songs, T V shows, music videos a n d c o m m e r c i a l s . F o r g e t t h e Statue o f Liberty. T h e road is America's p r e - e m i n e n t s y m b o l o f f r e e d o m , a n d this is u n d e r s t o o d by c o n s u m e r s
of
A m e r i c a n culture all over t h e w o r l d . As I w r i t e this, a street u r c h i n in K a t h m a n d u , a m e r c h a n t b a n k e r in B o n n a n d a failed p i m p in Caracas are all d r e a m i n g a b o u t d r i v i n g across A m e r i c a in a pair o f Levi's a n d a fast car. A factory girl in Liverpool, g u t t i n g chickens o n a c o n v e y o r belt, is d r e a m i n g a b o u t T h e l m a a n d Louise. W e slept t h e first n i g h t in a l o c u s t - s w a r m e d c a m p g r o u n d , s o m e w h e r e in West Virginia, and c r u n c h e d o u t o f there at d a w n , leaving t w o parallel lines o f d e a d insects in o u r w a k e . T h e n a l o n g day o n t h e m o u n t a i n backroads o f K e n t u c k y and Tennessee: tall, rangy m e n w i t h beards a n d baseball caps staring at t h e
out-of-state
plates; l o a d e d rifle-racks in t h e p i c k - u p trucks; strange preachers b a y i n g o n t h e radio — ' H i d e ye in t h e b l o o d o f Jesus! Git w a r s h e d in t h e b l o o d o f t h e L a m b ! ' W e s t o p p e d at a l i q u o r store n e a r Black M o u n t a i n , K e n t u c k y , b o u g h t a b o t t l e o f O l d Weller 107, a n d drove o n , passing t h e b o t t l e a r o u n d t h e car. D r u n k on arrival in Nashville a n d t h e n a l o n g n i g h t rattling a r o u n d t h e bars. C h i l d r e n , I wish t h e r e was a b e t t e r way, b u t w h e r e else are y o u g o i n g to m i n g l e w i t h t h e locals? (Skinny black dealer in t h e m e n ' s r o o m wants t e n b u c k s for a w r a p o f c h e w i n g t o b a c c o — 'That's t h e c o l d d y n a m i t e shit r i g h t there, m a n . That's t h e shit G o d smokes.')
Richard Grant
6
W e slept, b y t h e side o f t h e road, in c a m p g r o u n d s , o r n o t at all, d r i v i n g t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t and t a k i n g t u r n s at t h e w h e e l . O k l a h o m a passed in darkness a n d d a w n rose s o m e w h e r e over t h e Texas p a n h a n d l e . T h e land h a d t u r n e d from g r e e n t o b r o w n in t h e n i g h t and lay perfectly flat to t h e h o r i z o n in all directions. T h e r e w e r e n o m o r e trees a n d s o m e t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r y
had
h a p p e n e d to t h e sky. I h a d assumed that all skies in t h e w o r l d w e r e pretty m u c h t h e same size a n d I wasn't p r e p a r e d for this o n e . It h a d risen u p d u r i n g t h e n i g h t and spread itself o u t w a r d s and d o u b l e d o r tripled its d i m e n s i o n s . I g o t o u t o f t h e car a n d s t o o d in t h e West for t h e first time, t u r n i n g a slow circle a n d following t h e u n c h a n g i n g h o r i z o n w i t h m y eyes, gazing u p at t h e sky, dizzied a n d a w e s t r u c k by this stark n e w w o r l d o f space a n d light a n d w i n d . Strange a n d austere as it appeared, there was also s o m e t h i n g eerily familiar a b o u t t h e landscape, like a fragment r e t u r n i n g from a l o n g - f o r g o t t e n d r e a m . M a y b e it was an e c h o from m y c h i l d h o o d in t h e deserts o f t h e M i d d l e East. M y favourite place as a b o y in K u w a i t was an e s c a r p m e n t that o v e r l o o k e d a big, flat, e m p t y expanse o f r o c k a n d sand. M a y b e it was t h e sense o f b e i n g dwarfed b y t h e p o w e r a n d i m m e n s i t y
of the natural
world,
c o n t a c t i n g s o m e d e e p e r h u m a n pulse. M a y b e it was j u s t
fake
H o l l y w o o d memories, the high, lonesome, cinematic romance of the Western
plains. W h a t e v e r
the underlying
reason, I
felt
c o m p e l l e d b y t h e landscape a n d i n t o x i c a t e d b y t h e space in a way I h a d never e x p e r i e n c e d before. Gas p u m p s like tombstones in a West Texas ghost t o w n , cattle grazing at an a b a n d o n e d drive-in. A b r o k e n w i n d m i l l . T h e n t w e n t y miles of n o t h i n g . W e drove o n into N e w M e x i c o and t h e high plains faded i n t o desert. Buttes a n d volcanic cones a n d mesas appeared o n t h e h o r i z o n , the land t u r n e d gold in the afternoon light and t h e sky e x p a n d e d even further. In t h e far west w e began to see t h e faint blue outline of t h e Sangre de Cristas, t h e B l o o d o f Christ M o u n t a i n s , the s o u t h e r n m o s t range o f t h e R o c k i e s , visible from ninety miles away. 'You have to get over the color green,' w r o t e Wallace Stegner about the aesthetics o f the Western landscape. 'You have t o quit associating b e a u t y w i t h gardens a n d lawns; y o u have
Ghost
Riders
7
to get used to an i n h u m a n scale.' F o r m e , it h a p p e n e d i n s t a n t aneously. G a z i n g o u t o f t h e car w i n d o w , flowing d o w n t h e h i g h w a y t h r o u g h that b a r r e n e x p a n s e o f r o c k a n d sky, I felt as if I h a d f o u n d s o m e t h i n g missing from m e . I c o u l d tell y o u m o r e a b o u t that trip — d r i n k i n g g r e e n c h a r treuse w i t h a black d r u g s t o r e c o w b o y in Santa Fe, sunset at t h e G r a n d C a n y o n , a l o n g , gruelling, addled n i g h t in Las Vegas — b u t let's m o v e a h e a d t o its c o n c l u s i o n , o r lack o f o n e . A r r i v i n g in LA, r e a c h i n g o u r destination, t h e o t h e r t h r e e s e e m e d relieved and elated, b u t as far as I was c o n c e r n e d w e h a d r u n o u t o f road. All I w a n t e d to d o was t u r n a r o u n d and k e e p 'driving. I h i t c h e d u p a n d d o w n t h e California coast for a w e e k o r so, t h e n f o u n d a p i c k - u p t r u c k that n e e d e d delivering in N e w O r l e a n s . D r i v i n g b a c k o u t i n t o t h e M o j a v e D e s e r t , leaving b e h i n d t h e s m o g a n d t h e sprawl, t h e last of t h e p i n k - t i l e d subdivisions a n d a u t o dealerships, I felt an o v e r w h e l m i n g surge o f f r e e d o m a n d release. Leaving L o n d o n , leaving Philadelphia. Nashville a n d Santa Fe, I h a d felt t h e same way, a n d I sensed t h e n that this feeling could be habit-forming. In N e w O r l e a n s I was b e f r i e n d e d b y a black street hustler. W e spent t w o days r o a m i n g t h e F r e n c h Q u a r t e r bars, s t o p p i n g in at his friends' parties, c a t c h i n g u p o n t h e latest gossip from t h e p i m p s a n d t h e w h o r e s a n d t h e B o u r b o n Street c o n m e n . At t h e e n d o f it h e c o l d - c o c k e d m e w i t h a b r i c k in t h e d o o r w a y o f m y m o t e l r o o m . I w o k e u p h o u r s later, n e x t t o t h e b r i c k . E v e r y t h i n g was g o n e — t h e m o n e y and traveller's c h e q u e s u n d e r t h e mattress, all t h e clothes I wasn't w e a r i n g - a n d t h e b a t h t u b was r i n g e d w i t h dirt a n d fur. W h i l e I lay u n c o n s c i o u s o n t h e floor, m y n e w friend h a d t a k e n t h e t i m e t o w a s h his d o g . For t w o w e e k s (waiting for t h e traveller's c h e q u e s t o b e r e i m bursed) I s l u m m e d it w i t h t h e F r e n c h Q u a r t e r w i n o s a n d street flotsam,
w h o k e p t m e supplied w i t h f o o d and M a d D o g w i n e ,
free o f charge, a n d regaled m e w i t h conspiracy t h e o r i e s . C o p s , ex-girlfriends, space aliens, N a z i bankers, Jewish bankers, o r g a n harvesting cabals, t h e C I A — w h o c o u l d f a t h o m t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e p l o t against t h e m ? I slept in t h e car park o f t h e M a r r i o t t
Richard Grant
8
H o t e l o n C a n a l Street, and t o o k t o s p e n d i n g m y m o r n i n g s at t h e M a r r i o t t p o o l , p o s i n g as a h o t e l guest a n d w r i t i n g l o n g letters a b o u t m y e x p e r i e n c e s t o friends in E n g l a n d . P e o p l e liked those letters, a n d w h e n I finally m a d e it b a c k to L o n d o n , they e n c o u r a g e d m e to try w r i t i n g feature stories for British magazines. I m a n a g e d t o sell a few o f t h e m , and set u p a n o t h e r trip t o A m e r i c a w i t h t h e p r o c e e d s . F o r a b o u t six years, that was t h e shape o f m y life: 1 travelled a r o u n d A m e r i c a until I ran o u t o f money, w e n t b a c k to L o n d o n a n d sold stories to raise a n o t h e r stake. T h e n 1 started selling m o r e stories and
stopped
g o i n g b a c k t o L o n d o n altogether. I based myself in A u s t i n , Texas, for a w h i l e , t h e n M o a b , U t a h , t h e n T u c s o n , A r i z o n a , criss-crossing t h e c o u n t r y in b e t w e e n , t a k i n g l o n g trips i n t o M e x i c o , b u t always r e t u r n i n g t o t h e w i d e - o p e n spaces o f t h e A m e r i c a n "West. I slept in cheap m o t e l s , c a m p g r o u n d s , o t h e r people's houses, a n d t h e b a c k o f w h a t e v e r vehicle I h a p p e n e d t o be driving. Twenty-five dollars a day, for food, beer, cigarettes and gasoline, a n d I was happy. W h e n t h e funds ran low, there was always a story to b e f o u n d s o m e w h e r e . M y plan was t o live this way for t h e rest o f m y life. W a n d e r i n g b e c a m e a manifesto, an obsession, a solution to all p r o b l e m s . Possessions were a pointless e n c u m b r a n c e , a m b i t i o n was a trap, m o r t g a g e s were o b s c e n e (paying for y o u r o w n jail cell), a n d r o m a n t i c e n t a n g l e m e n t s w e r e s o m e t h i n g to b e w a r y of. E m o t i o n a l barriers arose, and r e m a i n e d in place for m a n y years: w h y risk falling in love w h e n you're always leaving t o w n in a w e e k or two? W h y n o t keep it casual a n d see you n e x t t i m e I ' m passing t h r o u g h ? I d e v e l o p e d a taste for e x t e n d e d c a m p i n g trips in t h e deserts of A r i z o n a and U t a h , w a l k i n g for days until I felt I had r e a c h e d t h e m i d d l e of n o w h e r e , t h e back o f b e y o n d . ' W h a t ' s o u t t h e r e ? ' p e o p l e w a n t e d to k n o w . L o n d o n e r s , in particular, w e r e puzzled. ' N o t h i n g , ' I w o u l d say. 'Space, silence, rocks. It's very beautiful.' 'I see. A n d w h a t exactly d o y o u d o o u t t h e r e ? ' 'Eat, sleep. Walk a r o u n d mostly.' S o m e t i m e s I w e n t i n t o t h e deserts w i t h friends. M o r e often, I e n d e d u p g o i n g a l o n e , for a few nights o r a w e e k , sleeping u n d e r
Ghost
Riders
9
t h e stars a n d finding shelter in a cave o n t h e rare occasions that it rained. I b a t h e d in rivers w h e r e I f o u n d t h e m , lived o n b e e f j e r k y a n d trail m i x , gazed i n t o a fire at n i g h t . I w e n t feral, you m i g h t say, until I tired o f m y c o m p a n y , o r ran o u t o f f o o d o r water. T h e n I w o u l d h e a d b a c k i n t o t h e nearest t o w n , t o socialise in t h e bars, pick u p supplies, and m o v e o n . W h a t was I r u n n i n g from? W h a t was I afraid of? T h e s e q u e s tions never o c c u r r e d t o m e . I was y o u n g a n d u n t r o u b l e d by d o u b t . I w o k e u p g r i n n i n g in t h e m o r n i n g , c o n v i n c e d that I h a d u n l o c k e d t h e riddle o f h u m a n freedom. It was simple: never s p e n d m o r e t h a n t w o w e e k s in t h e same place. A l o n g t h e way, in c a m p g r o u n d s , truckstops, bus stations a n d r o a d h o u s e bars, i n cafes a n d m o t e l s , freight yards and boxcars, a n d h i t c h - h i k i n g by t h e side o f t h e road, I m e t o t h e r s o f a similar b e n t - A m e r i c a n s w h o h a d a b a n d o n e d sedentary civilisation for t h e n o m a d i c life; m e n — a n d t h e y w e r e nearly always m e n — w h o l o o k e d at t h e same set o f walls for t o o l o n g a n d b e g a n t o c l i m b t h e m . It was rare t o r u n across t h e m in t h e N o r t h e a s t , m o r e c o m m o n in t h e S o u t h a n d t h e M i d w e s t . In t h e West, b e t w e e n Texas a n d California, b e t w e e n t h e M i s s o u r i R i v e r a n d Seattle, they were everywhere. For whatever personal reasons — a peripatetic childhood, a welltravelled father and grandfather, a fear and loathing of routine, c o m m i t m e n t and responsibility — I found myself adrift in a roadside culture of w a n d e r i n g rootlessness. It was n o t a c o m m u n i t y b u t rather an aggregation o f loosely knit subcultures, crossing and recrossing the same g r o u n d o n parallel lines: oilfield roughnecks, migrant harvest workers, footloose ranch hands and rodeo cowboys, t r u c k drivers a n d t r o u b a d o u r s , itinerant traders a n d
vendors,
perpetual tourists, and a legion o f drifters, grifters, h o b o e s a n d tramps. I started w r i t i n g a b o u t t h e m , a n d r e a d i n g a b o u t t h e i r h i s t o r ical predecessors, t r a c i n g b a c k t h e lines o f c o n n e c t i o n . W h a t drove a m a n to s p e n d his life in m o t i o n ? Was it a natural h u m a n i m p u l s e , r e c o g n i s e d a n d o b e y e d , o r was it a disease o f t h e soul? W h y was t h e t y p e so prevalent in A m e r i c a , and t h e A m e r i c a n W e s t in particular? T h e m o r e I read, t h e m o r e I c a m e t o see t h e history o f t h e
10
Richard Grant
West as a n o t h e r act in that ancestral h u m a n d r a m a : t h e conflict b e t w e e n w a n d e r e r s a n d t h e sedentary, b e t w e e n n o m a d s a n d t h e civilised state — a conflict t h a t was still e m b o d i e d in t h e lives o f t h e p e o p l e 1 i n t e r v i e w e d , a n d often at t h e forefront o f their m i n d s . It s e e m e d like a useful p r i s m t o l o o k t h r o u g h , b u t it s c r a m b l e d m a n y of A m e r i c a ' s m o s t c h e r i s h e d ideas a b o u t itself. R e a d i n g t h e diaries a n d a c c o u n t s o f t h e frontiersmen, for e x a m p l e , it b e c a m e impossible t o see t h e m as t h e p r o u d v a n g u a r d o f civilisation, leading its t r i u m p h a n t w e s t w a r d m a r c h across the c o n t i n e n t . N i n e times o u t o f ten, civilisation is w h a t t h e f r o n t i e r s m e n w e r e r u n n i n g away from. T h e y lived m o r e like n o m a d i c Indians t h a n civilised E u r o p e a n s , as w a n d e r i n g h u n t e r s a n d trappers in t h e wilderness, w e a r i n g buckskins and m o c c a s i n s , t a k i n g I n d i a n wives, l e a r n i n g I n d i a n languages a n d scalping their e n e m i e s . W h e n civilisation c a u g h t u p w i t h t h e m , t h e y m o v e d o n , fleeing its c o n f i n e m e n t s all t h e w a y t o t h e Pacific. T h e cowboys a n d Indians o n t h e Western plains, from a n o m a d o l ogist's p o i n t of view, w e r e o n t h e same side. For o n e thing, it was t h e U n i t e d States Army, and n o t t h e cowboys, w h o did m o s t o f the fighting against t h e plains tribes. C o w b o y s and Indians did skirmish from t i m e t o time, b u t they shared a similar philosophy o f land use, based o n f r e e d o m o f m o v e m e n t , and t h e ability to follow t h e seasonal grazing patterns across t h e u n t r a m m e l l e d space o f t h e plains. O n l y w h e n sedentary farmers arrived in Kansas and N e b r a s k a and b e g a n fencing off t h e o p e n r a n g e and t h e waterholes did t h e cowboys reach for their six-guns a n d g o to war. T h e w a r was lost, t h e r a n g e was fenced a n d divided b e t w e e n private l a n d o w n e r s a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t . In t h e same era, t h e 1870s a n d 1880s, t h e last f r e e - r o a m i n g tribes w e r e defeated a n d p e n n e d i n reservations. T h e history o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , like that o f all c o n t i n e n t s , is o n e o f t a m i n g a n d settling, o f n o m a d i c cultures s u c c u m b i n g to t h e steadily e x p a n d i n g g r i d w o r k o f civilisation a n d t h e state. I n E u r o p e t h e process h a p p e n e d gradually, over t h o u sands of years, a n d was resolved a l o n g t i m e ago. In t h e A m e r i c a n West it h a p p e n e d w i t h i n a lifetime a n d y o u still m e e t p e o p l e w h o s e g r a n d p a r e n t s lived t h r o u g h it. In t h e West today t h e r e are still h u g e tracts o f land that r e m a i n
Ghost
11
Riders
outside t h e g r i d w o r k o f fields a n d cities, a n d n o m a d i c beliefs a n d b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s have e n d u r e d , as a k i n d o f m u t a n t , atavistic strain i n t h e culture, l o d g e d in folk m e m o r i e s a n d family traditions, a n d r o m a n t i c i s e d b y p o p u l a r culture. W h o has n o t driven across t h e plains a n d i m a g i n e d c o w b o y s , Indians a n d r o a m i n g herds of buffalo? H o w m a n y m i n d s h o l d t h e i m a g e o f J o h n W a y n e a n d a horse's ass, r e c e d i n g i n t o a celluloid sunset? No
conquest
is strictly o n e - s i d e d , especially o n e
which
h a p p e n e d in such r e c e n t m e m o r y . S o m e t h i n g o f t h e v a n q u i s h e d always r u b s off o n t h e victors. T h e r e are always ghosts, a n d in t h e A m e r i c a n West, t h e ghosts are n o m a d i c h o r s e m e n , r i d i n g free a n d u n f e t t e r e d across t h e land. F r e e d o m is a m u r k y c o n c e p t in this day a n d age; p e r h a p s it always has b e e n . W h e n A m e r i c a n s start talking a b o u t it, t h e British t e n d to sneer a n d c h u c k l e , a n d m u t t e r s o m e t h i n g a b o u t
the
f r e e d o m t o s h o o t each o t h e r w i t h h a n d g u n s a n d b e h a v e in a g a u c h e m a n n e r . T h e British have b e e n subjugated for so l o n g that t h e y consider A m e r i c a n r h e t o r i c a b o u t f r e e d o m t o b e naive, w i n d y and d e l u d e d : A n d given t h e bullying, dictator-friendly r e c o r d o f A m e r i c a n foreign policy, a n d its o w n i n t e r n a l history o f racial oppression, talk o f A m e r i c a as t h e c h a m p i o n o f liberty often s o u n d s hypocritical. A m e r i c a n s certainly love t o t r u m p e t a n d b e l l o w their freedoms to each o t h e r a n d t h e rest of t h e w o r l d , b u t it is n o t always clear w h a t t h e y are referring to, o t h e r t h a n m y t h . W i t h a few e x c e p tions, m o s t n o t a b l y t h e r i g h t t o b e a r arms, t h e liberties s u p p o s edly g u a r a n t e e d t o t h e m b y t h e Bill o f R i g h t s have e i t h e r b e e n severely t r u n c a t e d o r d e c i m a t e d entirely, legislated away over t w o c e n t u r i e s in t h e n a m e o f n a t i o n a l security, public safety, C h r i s t i a n values a n d p a t r i o t i s m . T h e fact that t h e Bill of R i g h t s has b e e n gutted w i t h so little p o p u l a r o u t c r y tells us s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w f r e e d o m is u n d e r s t o o d in t h e A m e r i c a n m a i n s t r e a m . A b o v e all, it is a r h e t o r i c a l c o n s t r u c t , a p a t r i o t i c rallying cry, b u t it is generally agreed t o have s o m e t h i n g to d o w i t h private p r o p e r t y rights, unfettered c a p i talism, l o w taxation, class m o b i l i t y a n d t h e ability t o v o t e p o l i t i cians o u t o f office. Free speech is valued highly t o o , e x c e p t d u r i n g
12
Richard Grant
w a r t i m e , or in t h e m o r e politically c o r r e c t universities. In b r u s h stroke s u m m a r y w e m i g h t call it an i m m i g r a n t ' s creed o f liberty. It addresses t h e typical i m m i g r a n t c o n c e r n s — e c o n o m i c o p p o r tunity, social mobility, access t o political p o w e r — a n d it is clearly traceable b a c k to the p h i l o s o p h i e s o f t h e E u r o p e a n E n l i g h t e n m e n t . L u r k i n g in t h e A m e r i c a n psyche, h o w e v e r , t h e r e exists an entirely different c o n c e p t i o n o f liberty, w i t h n o roots in E u r o p e a n political philosophy. W e m i g h t s u m m a r i s e it as a n o m a d ' s creed: that f r e e d o m is impossible and meaningless w i t h i n t h e confines o f s e d e n t a r y society, that t h e only t r u e f r e e d o m is t h e f r e e d o m t o r o a m across t h e land, b e h o l d e n t o n o o n e . Call it s t u b b o r n a n d anachronistic, d o o m e d , hubristic a n d naive, b u t if t h e r e is o n e belief that unites t h e characters in this b o o k , as t h e y r a n g e b a c k a n d forth across t h e c e n t u r i e s , this is it.
A Tibetan dignitary, visiting America for the first time, sits by the Green River in Utah, looking out over the mountains
and
the high windcarved desert plateaus. His name is T. T. Karma Chopel. He has come to America to study the workings of its democracy but that is not in his thoughts now. Something
in the landscape and the great sweep of sky
reminds him of his homeland. He thinks of yaks and yak herders, making their endless migrations across the Tibetan plateaus. He knows there are no yak herders in America but he assumes there must be some equivalent. 'Who are your he asks.
nomads?'
CHAPTER 1
N
otes from
an a l l - n i g h t t r u c k s t o p
on the outskirts
of
A l b u q u e r q u e . D r i n k i n g coffee i n a red v i n y l b o o t h , g a z i n g
o u t o f t h e w i n d o w at t h e gas p u m p s , I w a t c h t h e n o m a d s c o m e a n d g o i n t h e n i g h t , m a k i n g t h e i r d e s e r t crossings: a g a n g o f bikers e n r o u t e t o t h e r e n d e z v o u s in Sturgis, S o u t h D a k o t a ; six m i g r a n t w o r k e r s i n a rattletrap jalopy, f o l l o w i n g t h e r i p e n i n g harvest from Texas t o M o n t a n a ; a v a n l o a d o f t i e - d y e d t e e n a g e r s , h e a d e d for t h e n e x t P h i s h c o n c e r t o r R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g ; t r u c k drivers, travelling salesmen, r a m b l i n g f l e a - m a r k e t v e n d o r s ; an i t i n e r a n t p r e a c h e r in a c a m p e r r i g nailed t o g e t h e r from planks o f w o o d a n d scrap m e t a l : ' R e v . D a l e Billings — Travelling R e v i v a l — Sinners Welcome.' F r o m t h e shadowed canyons b e t w e e n t h e parked K e n w o r t h s a n d Peterbilts ( w h e r e they d r i n k malt l i q u o r a n d d e n o u n c e
their
enemies) bearded, furrow-faced road tramps and drifters e m e r g e into t h e s o d i u m glare, shambling across the forecourt to b u m cigarettes a n d spare change. Across the interstate, parked in neat, orderly rows at an electrified c a m p g r o u n d , are forty or fifty RVs, Recreational Vehicles, t h e h u g e , luxurious m o t o r h o m e s favoured by the peripatetic retirees o f t h e Southwest. R V brandnames: Wanderer, S u n d o w n e r , Sunchaser, Airstream, N o m a d . T h r o u g h a Western truckstop w i n d o w in the early h o u r s o f the m o r n i n g , it seems like half of A m e r i c a is perpetually o n t h e m o v e :
Richard Grant
16
p i c k i n g u p and m a k i n g a fresh start s o m e w h e r e else, travelling for a pay c h e q u e , o r just travelling to b e travelling, m o v i n g for t h e sake o f m o t i o n . Wanderlust, restlessness, itchy feet, antsy pants, w h i t e - l i n e fever. T h e r e is m o r e of it here than in E u r o p e , o r a n y w h e r e else in t h e industrialised world: t h e nagging conviction that a better life lies s o m e w h e r e d o w n t h e road, o r o n t h e road itself. D o e s it b e g i n o n t h e inside, o r filter in from t h e outside? Is it nature, n u r t u r e or disease? H e r e ' s w h a t t h e s e d e n t a r y d o c t o r s have t o say. D r o m o m a n i a : an a b n o r m a l , obsessive desire to r o a m . D r a p e t o m a n i a : an u n c o n trollable desire t o w a n d e r away from h o m e . A n o m a d , o f c o u r s e , w o u l d produce vigorous arguments to the contrary: that being s e d e n t a r y is a forced, u n n a t u r a l a n d oppressive c o n d i t i o n
for
h u m a n beings. T h a t t h e desire t o travel is a n i n n a t e h u m a n u r g e — a g e n e t i c legacy p e r h a p s , from t h e m i l l i o n years w e s p e n t as w a n d e r i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s . T h i s was B r u c e C h a t w i n ' s big idea, that h u m a n s have similar m i g r a t o r y instincts to certain birds a n d animals. W h y is a h u m a n b a b y c a l m e d b y t h e m o t i o n o f r o c k i n g a n d swaying? h e asked. Because, for 9 9 . 9 p e r c e n t o f o u r e v o l u t i o n a r y span, this is w h a t h u m a n babies e x p e r i e n c e d as t h e natural r h y t h m o f life, strapped t o their m o t h e r s ' b o d i e s i n slings o r cradleboards, ' r o c k e d i n t o c o n t e n t m e n t b y t h e g e n t l e swaying walk'. T h e sedentary d o c t o r smiles a patronising smile: a d r o m o m a n i a c can always p r o d u c e a g o o d reason to r o a m , j u s t as an alcoholic can always find a g o o d reason t o take a n o t h e r drink. A n d , like alcoholism, it is a disease that afflicts a disproportionate n u m b e r o f m e n . B u t w h a t does a sedentary d o c t o r k n o w ? H a s h e ever e x p e r i e n c e d t h e p u r e rush o f freedom that c o m e s from leaving it all b e h i n d — t h e debts, t h e ties, t h e possessions a n d responsibilities -
and
l a u n c h i n g o u t into t h e w i d e blue yonder? H a s h e ever b e e n secretly tempted? ' T r u c k d r i v i n g is t h e u l t i m a t e fulfilment o f t h e A m e r i c a n d r e a m . ' T h i s is t h e b o l d c l a i m o f M i k e H a t f i e l d , t w e n t y - f o u r ,
from
R e n o , N e v a d a , h a u l i n g a l o a d o f mattresses across t h e c o u n t r y , t a k i n g t i m e o u t for a c u p o f coffee a n d a b o w l o f chilli. Slim,
Ghost
Riders
17
b e s p e c t a c l e d , well read, cheerful — y o u w o u l d n e v e r pick h i m for a trucker. ' F o r g e t t h e little h o u s e o n t h e prairie,' h e says.'Forget t h e w h i t e p i c k e t fence, t h e h o u s e in t h e suburbs, t h e m o n t h l y
mortgage
p a y m e n t , t h e t w o - c a r garage a n d t h e rest o f that crap. A m e r i c a n s d r e a m a b o u t t h e road. W e d r e a m a b o u t b u r n i n g d o w n t h e h o u s e a n d saddling u p t h e h o r s e , a n d it's b e e n that w a y ever since t h e plains w e r e k n e e - d e e p in buffalo shit.' M i k e t u r n s o u t t o b e a W e s t e r n history enthusiast, an a m a t e u r scholar o f sorts. T h e cab of his Peterbilt a n d t h e sleeper c o m p a r t m e n t b e h i n d are full o f b o o k s , r a n g i n g from p u l p
gunfighter
fiction t o t h e l e a r n e d , historical t o m e s of B e r n a r d D e V o t o a n d Walter Prescott W e b b . T h e b o o k s are well t h u m b e d , d o g - e a r e d a n d coffee-stained, w i t h scrawled c o m m e n t s s p i d e r i n g u p m a r g i n s a n d key passages u n d e r l i n e d in p e n c i l . T h e
the
marked
passages all address t h e same t h e m e . 'After t h e Indians c a m e t h e c o w b o y s and p r o s p e c t o r s a n d railroad m e n , and they w e r e j u s t a b o u t as l o o s e - f o o t e d a n d f r e e d o m - l o v i n g and p r o n e to r a m b l i n g . I ' m a q u a r t e r C h e y e n n e Indian, a n d t h r e e - q u a r t e r s S c o t c h - I r i s h cowboy. T h e way I l o o k at it, I was b o r n to roam.' H e gives m e a r i d e east i n t o Texas, eating little w h i t e pills, c h a i n - s m o k i n g M a r l b o r o s , a n d talking a b l u e streak t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t . W e are o u t o n t h e vast tableland emptiness o f t h e Staked Plains, t h e Llano Estacado, t h e w i n d s w e p t h e a r t l a n d o f t h e o l d C o m a n c h e c o u n t r y , w h e n t h e first grey light appears i n t h e east. M i k e pulls over to t h e side o f t h e r o a d a n d brews u p s o m e coffee o n a c a m p stove. H e is an aficionado o f t h e d a w n a n d will often stop t o w a t c h it rise. T h e first r i m o f sun crests t h e h o r i z o n and a pale a p r i c o t light spreads across t h e b l u e - g r e y plain, w i t h t h e m o o n still visible i n t h e west, and t h e coyotes y a m m e r i n g a n d h o w l i n g , celebrating t h e night's h u n t i n g perhaps, o r t h e simple fact o f b e i n g a coyote. O u r shadows take f o r m b e h i n d us, e l o n g a t e d like figures in a funfair m i r r o r . T h e r e is a line o f t e l e p h o n e poles a l o n g t h e side o f t h e road. T h e wires h a n g i n loose stitches across t h e sky. T h e r e is a b a r b e d w i r e fence clogged w i t h t u m b l e w e e d s , a n d b e y o n d t h e fence t h e
Richard Grant
18
eye leaps o u t to t h e h o r i z o n across forty o r fifty miles o f s m o o t h , p u r e space. ' L o o k at this country,' M i k e says. 'It wasn't m a d e for settling d o w n in. It's t o o b i g a n d d r y a n d w i d e - o p e n . T h e L o r d i n t e n d e d m a n a n d b e a s t t o m o v e a b o u t i n a c o u n t r y like this. T h e C o m a n c h e s k n e w it, t h e c o w b o y s k n e w it, t h e buffalo k n e w it. M a n , can y o u i m a g i n e ? All this covered w i t h buffalo, j u s t black w i t h buffalo all t h e way to t h e h o r i z o n . That's h o w big t h e herds got, as far as y o u c o u l d see.' N o o n e k n o w s h o w m a n y b i s o n used t o r o a m t h e
Great
Plains. T h e estimates vary b e t w e e n 5 0 m i l l i o n a n d 125 m i l l i o n . W h a t e v e r t h e n u m b e r , it is safe t o say that n o large w i l d a n i m a l ever g r e w so n u m e r o u s , a n y w h e r e o n E a r t h , a n d t h e key t o t h e i r success i n this e n v i r o n m e n t was mobility. T h e h e r d s g r a z e d i n t o t h e w i n d , w h i c h b l o w s almost c o n s t a n t l y o n t h e plains. T h e species evolved w i t h t h e w i n d , d e v e l o p i n g h u g e shaggy heads a n d s h o u l d e r s , for facing d o w n t h e h o w l i n g w i n t e r blizzards, a n d small, lean, s h o r t - f u r r e d , c u r i o u s l y p e r t h i n d q u a r t e r s . I n
the
c o u r s e o f a n o r m a l year, t h e w i n d s o n t h e G r e a t Plains shifted c o u n t e r - c l o c k w i s e t h r o u g h all four q u a r t e r s o f t h e c o m p a s s , so t h e h e r d m i g r a t i o n s f o r m e d a r o u g h circle o r ellipse, t h r e e o r four h u n d r e d miles across, passing t h r o u g h c o o l e r l o c a t i o n s in s u m m e r a n d w a r m e r o n e s in w i n t e r , always m o v i n g towards fresh g r a z i n g a n d water. Occasionally, t h e w i n d b l e w t o o l o n g from t h e s o u t h w e s t a n d buffalo in their t h o u s a n d s trailed off i n t o t h e deserts and d i e d o f starvation a n d thirst. T h e M o n t a n a herds s o m e t i m e s e n d e d u p in t h e far, frozen n o r t h o f C a n a d a , l u r e d t o t h e i r deaths b y a soft, persistent, n o r t h e r l y b r e e z e i n t h e early part o f w i n t e r . B u t these w e r e rare a n d i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l events. M a y b e y o u can grasp t h e figure of 60 m i l l i o n o r 125 million. M i k e a n d I have tried and failed. It t o o k less t h a n t h i r t y years t o b r i n g t h e h e r d s to t h e b r i n k o f e x t i n c t i o n , a n d m o s t o f t h e killing was d o n e in a single decade, t h e 1870s. B y 1 8 8 3 , o n l y t w o or t h r e e h u n d r e d buffalo w e r e left, k e p t for nostalgia's sake o n private r a n c h e s . W h i t e h i d e - h u n t e r s d i d m o s t o f t h e killing, w o r k i n g w i t h t h e approval o f t h e w h i t e
Ghost
Riders
19
a u t h o r i t i e s , a n d m o s t o f t h e w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n , w h o saw t h e slaughter o f t h e buffalo as t h e final solution to t h e I n d i a n p r o b l e m . T h e p r o b l e m , as always, was h o w t o dispossess t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e i r land. T h e r e was an e l e m e n t o f imperialist c o n s p i r a c y at w o r k , b u t it was capitalist e c o n o m i c s , t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a b o o m i n g m a r k e t for buffalo
l e a t h e r in t h e East a n d E u r o p e ,
which
a c c o u n t e d for t h e speed a n d rapacity o f t h e slaughter, a n d sent five t h o u s a n d freelance h i d e - h u n t e r s o u t o n t o t h e plains. Killing and s k i n n i n g buffalo was e x h a u s t i n g , filthy, d a n g e r o u s w o r k — u p t o y o u r s h o u l d e r s in g o r e m o s t o f t h e t i m e , a n d
constantly
w a t c h i n g for Indians — b u t for a w h i l e t h e m a r k e t paid e n o u g h t o m a k e it w o r t h t h e risk. E n o u g h , that is, for w h i s k e y a n d a w h o r e a n d a g a m b l i n g spree, w h e n y o u g o t b a c k to t o w n a n d sold y o u r h i d e s . T h e m e a t was left t o rot o n t h e prairie, fouling t h e air for h u n d r e d s o f miles a r o u n d . It was a fine, fat, lazy t i m e t o b e a wolf, o r a v u l t u r e , o r any scavenger o f c a r r i o n , a n d a terrible, h u n g r y , w o r l d - w r e n c h i n g t i m e to b e an Indian. N o t that Indians h a d n ' t c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e slaughter. As subsistence h u n t e r s , t h e y h a d barely d e n t e d t h e herds, b u t b y t h e 1870s t h e y t o o w e r e e n t a n g l e d i n t h e m a r k e t e c o n o m y . T h e y n e e d e d m o r e hides t h a n they used to, t o trade for g u n s , a m m u n i t i o n , iron c o o k i n g pots, steel knives, needles, awls, cloth, m i r r o r s , coffee, sugar, w h i s k e y and o t h e r p r o d u c t s o f w h i t e civilisation o n w h i c h t h e y had b e c o m e d e p e n d e n t . A n d c o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r belief, Indians did n o t always use every part o f t h e buffalo. If, for e x a m p l e , an Indian was b e i n g p u r s u e d , o r travelling alone, o r n e e d i n g trade g o o d s in a hurry, o r craving whiskey, h e m i g h t take t h e h i d e a n d t h e t o n g u e , leave t h e carcass t o rot, a n d t h i n k little o f it. N e v e r t h e l e s s , Indians w e r e h o r r i f i e d b y t h e way t h e h i d e - m e n laid waste t o t h e herds, killing relentlessly a n d m e t h o d i c a l l y until n o animals w e r e left, a n d t h e n m o v i n g o n to t h e n e x t h e r d , w a s t i n g u n i m a g i n a b l e quantities o f m e a t . Surely this was a sign o f sickness o r insanity. I n d i a n h u n t i n g practices w e r e n o t always as tidy a n d t h o r o u g h as t h e y are r e m e m b e r e d , b u t t h e plains tribes did feel a d e e p , religious r e v e r e n c e for t h e buffalo, w h i c h gave u p its life in a sacred transaction so that Indians c o u l d live.
20
Richard Grant
T h e great herds h a d s e e m e d as timeless a n d e l e m e n t a l as t h e grass o r t h e w i n d , a n d w h e n t h e y disappeared Indians refused t o believe it at first, saying t h e buffalo h a d g o n e u p to C a n a d a o r t a k e n refuge u n d e r g r o u n d . E v e n t h e w h i t e h i d e - h u n t e r s w e r e astonished that t h e y h a d killed themselves o u t o f a living in so short a time. Later, a n e w m a r k e t arose, a n d a rabble a r m y o f b o n e - p i c k e r s w e n t o u t o n t o t h e plains. T h e b o n e s w e r e stacked in i m m e n s e ricks b y t h e railroad, sixty o r seventy feet h i g h , w a i t i n g t o b e s h i p p e d east a n d g r o u n d i n t o fertiliser, t u r n e d i n t o b u t t o n s , c o m b s a n d glue. M e n p o s e d in front o f t h e b o n e - r i c k s for p h o t o g r a p h e r s , w i t h shabby hats a n d bristling m o u s t a c h e s , l o o k i n g like m e a n , p r o u d , h a u n t e d , belligerent dwarfs. If all t h e b o n e s h a d b e e n l o a d e d at o n c e , calculated t h e Topeka Mail and Breeze, t h e y w o u l d have filled a freight train 7 5 7 5 miles l o n g , m o r e than t w i c e t h e distance from San Francisco to N e w York. B y t h e e n d o f t h e great slaughter, in 1 8 8 3 , all t h e n o m a d i c plains tribes had b e e n corralled i n t o reservations, to b e forcibly i n s t r u c t e d in t h e arts o f C h r i s t i a n piety, private p r o p e r t y o w n e r ship and s e d e n t a r y f a r m i n g . B y 1886 t h e footloose trail c o w b o y was g o n e from t h e plains t o o , w o r k i n g o n ranches n o w
and
sleeping i n b u n k h o u s e s , fenced off t h e o p e n r a n g e b y t h e settlers h e despised. His heyday h a d lasted o n l y t w e n t y years, a n d represe n t e d t h e last gasp o f m o u n t e d n o m a d i s m i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e r e w e r e still a few w a n d e r i n g outlaws, recalcitrant Indians and h o r s e thieves left o u t i n t h e b a c k c o u n t r y a n d t h e canyons, b u t in s h o r t o r d e r t h e y w e r e h u n t e d d o w n a n d b r o u g h t in, a n d t h e West was p r o n o u n c e d c o n q u e r e d , t a m e d a n d settled. Travelling a r o u n d t h e r e g i o n today, it d o e s n ' t always feel that way. S e t t l e m e n t , a n d t h e feeling of s e t t l e m e n t , does n o t o c c u p y t h e land, in t h e same w a y that it does b a c k East, o r in E u r o p e . It is n o t j u s t t h e vast, e m p t y spaces, o r all t h e drifters o n t h e highway, o r t h e ghost t o w n s , b e i n g seeded b a c k i n t o prairie by t h e w i n d , o r t h e ' d y i n g family farms, defeated by t h e harshness o f t h e climate a n d t h e m a c h i n a t i o n s o f c o r p o r a t e a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e restless, rootless, m i g r a t o r y history o f t h e West is also e v i d e n t in its cities.
Ghost
21
Riders
I n A l b u q u e r q u e , P h o e n i x , T u c s o n a n d Las Vegas, u r b a n p o p u lations are g r o w i n g faster t h a n a n y w h e r e else i n t h e c o u n t r y , yet t h e s e b o o m i n g , sprawling, m o d e r n cities have a flimsy, i m p e r m a n e n t p r e s e n c e , at least t o an eye t r a i n e d in E u r o p e . Y o u drive t h r o u g h miles o f trailer parks a n d m o b i l e - h o m e e n c a m p m e n t s , t h r o u g h brave n e w suburbs a n d Utopian r e t i r e m e n t c o m m u n i ties — frame a n d s h e e t r o c k d r e a m h o m e s , built o n a v a n i s h i n g w a t e r supply, d e s i g n e d t o m a k e a fast b u c k for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t c o m p a n y a n d fall apart in t w e n t y o r t h i r t y years: 'disposable h o m e s ' , t o b o r r o w a phrase from a friend o f m i n e w h o builds t h e m for a living. I n P h o e n i x , t h e m o s t transitory o f W e s t e r n cities, 4 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n has lived t h e r e for less than five years, a n d 5 0 p e r c e n t say t h e y p l a n t o leave as s o o n as t h e y get the chance. M a y b e it's j u s t a m a t t e r o f t i m e . M a y b e in a n o t h e r h u n d r e d years t h e w i d e o p e n spaces will b e g o n e , o r r e d u c e d to islands in a sea o f c o n c r e t e , a n d t h e inhabitants will c o m e t o feel r o o t e d in place. G i v e n t i m e , p e r h a p s , t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e West will b e c o m p l e t e d , b u t t h e r e r e m a i n s a formidable obstacle that never existed in t h e East o r in E u r o p e . E x c e p t for a small, soggy c o r n e r i n t h e Pacific
Northwest,
aridity is t h e d o m i n a n t characteristic o f t h e A m e r i c a n West, t h e organising p r i n c i p l e o f its g e o g r a p h y and biology, a n d t h e u l t i m a t e limit o n its a m b i t i o n o f n e v e r - e n d i n g g r o w t h . T h e u n d e r g r o u n d aquifers, w h i c h t o o k millions o f years t o f o r m , b y slow a c c r e t i o n o f scant rainfall, are p l u m m e t i n g dramatically. T h e m a j o r river o f t h e S o u t h w e s t , t h e C o l o r a d o , is already so t a p p e d for i r r i gation that it n o l o n g e r reaches t h e sea. A r i d i t y explains w h y t h e grass o n this p r a i r i e grows in separate b u n c h e s , rather t h a n closep a c k e d turf, w h y t h e r e are n o trees r o o t e d in t h e soil, w h y t h e rivers a n d t h e t o w n s are so far apart. A buffalo seeking w a t e r a n d a t r u c k driver s e e k i n g breakfast m u s t travel t h e same a p p r o x i m a t e distance t o find w h a t t h e y n e e d to m o v e o n . A r i d i t y literally creates space. W h e r e t h e r e is n o m o i s t u r e t o mist u p t h e air, a n d n o trees t o b l o c k t h e view, t h e h u m a n
field
o f vision e x p a n d s dramatically. F r o m t h e ramparts o f B r y c e C a n y o n in U t a h y o u can see for 180 miles o n a clear day — L o n d o n t o
22
Richard Grant
M a n c h e s t e r - a n d still w o n d e r w h a t lies over t h e h o r i z o n . Unless s o m e k i n d o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l rain d a n c e is devised, it seems likely that t h e West will r e m a i n d o m i n a t e d by big e m p t y spaces, a n d a certain t y p e of h u m a n b e i n g will feel c o m p e l l e d to w a n d e r across t h e m . First rule o f n o m a d i s m : o p e n space invites mobility. 'It is g e o g r a p h y at b o t t o m , a hell o f a w i d e l a n d from
the
b e g i n n i n g , ' w r o t e Charles O l s o n in Call Me Ishtnael, 'a stretch o f e a r t h — seas o n b o t h sides, n o barriers t o c o n t a i n as restless a t h i n g as W e s t e r n man.' Asked to define A m e r i c a in a sentence, G e r t r u d e Stein said, ' C o n c e i v e a space filled w i t h m o v i n g . ' 'I t h i n k o f myself as a latter-day cowboy,' says M i k e , d r i v i n g o n for Amarillo. ' B u t it d o e s n ' t have a n y t h i n g t o d o w i t h W e s t e r n m o v i e s , o r M a r l b o r o billboards, o r any o f that bullshit. It's in m y b l o o d . M y family has b e e n r o a m i n g a r o u n d t h e West for four generations, and a hell o f a lot l o n g e r if y o u c o u n t m y g r a n d m o t h e r ' s people.' Mike's g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r
crossed these plains o n
horseback,
d r i v i n g herds o f L o n g h o r n cattle from s o u t h Texas to t h e railheads at D o d g e C i t y a n d Ogallala, a n d u p to M o n t a n a a n d t h e D a k o t a s . W h e n t h e r a n g e was fenced, h e w e n t to W y o m i n g a n d w o r k e d o n cattle r a n c h e s , b e t w e e n stints as a rustler and spells in jail. A t t h e age o f fifty h e m a r r i e d a w o m a n in San Francisco and t h e y raised t h r e e children o n h e r father's r a n c h in N e v a d a . Mike's g r a n d f a t h e r was a n o t h e r r o a m i n g r a n c h - h a n d , m o v i n g from o n e b u n k h o u s e t o t h e n e x t across t h e n o r t h e r n plains. H e m a r r i e d a w o m a n from t h e N o r t h e r n C h e y e n n e reservation in Montana, and they had
four
c h i l d r e n t o g e t h e r , raised in six
different houses. Mike's father did a little c o w b o y i n g in his y o u n g e r days, g o t sick o f t h e wages, a n d b e c a m e an oilfield r o u s t a b o u t , following t h e w o r k a r o u n d Texas, O k l a h o m a , W y o m i n g a n d u p i n t o Alaska and t h e Y u k o n territory. H e m a r r i e d a blackjack dealer i n R e n o at t h e age o f forty a n d tried his h a n d at settling d o w n . T w o years later h e was g o n e , b a c k t o t h e oilfields, a n d p r o m i s i n g to send m o n e y for t h e baby. 'I was raised by m y m o m , ' says M i k e . ' D a d w o u l d s h o w u p
Ghost
23
Riders
o n c e o r t w i c e a year, t h e y w o u l d have a fight, and h e w o u l d leave. W h a t did t h e y fight a b o u t ? T h e usual stuff. H e w a n t e d us to c o m e w i t h h i m u p t o Fairbanks, o r Billings, o r t h e Y u k o n , o r w h e r e v e r t h e hell h e was w o r k i n g that season, a n d live in a t e n t o r trailer, d e p e n d i n g o n h o w m u c h o f his wages h e was d r i n k i n g at t h e t i m e . M o m w a n t e d to stay i n R e n o , a n d keep us fed o n that steady pay c h e q u e . ' W h e n h e t u r n e d t w e n t y - o n e , M i k e enrolled in t r u c k - d r i v i n g s c h o o l . H e t o o k o u t a l o a n to b u y a s e c o n d - h a n d t r u c k , a n d h e has b e e n o n t h e road for t h r e e years n o w . H e gets his mail sent to his m o t h e r ' s h o u s e in R e n o , b u t h e feels n o roots or ties there, o r a n y w h e r e else, a n d h o m e is t h e cab o f his Peterbilt. ' T h i s is t h e closest t h i n g y o u ' r e g o i n g to find to f r e e d o m in m o d e r n A m e r i c a , ' h e says. ' T h e r e ' s a lot o f bullshit w i t h insurance and regulations a n d taxes, a n d I m i g h t never get o u t o f debt, b u t I ' m still a free m a n o n t h e m o v e , a n d I believe that's h o w I ' m m e a n t t o live.' M i k e says I ' m asking t h e w r o n g questions, that I have it all twisted i n s i d e - o u t . 'You're asking w h y there's all these p e o p l e living o n t h e road, a n d t h e real q u e s t i o n is w h y a n y o n e w o u l d w a n t to stay p u t . W h y w o u l d y o u w a n t t o live i n t h e same d a m n b o x all y o u r life, o r m a y b e a bigger b o x if y o u w o r k hard e n o u g h a n d kiss e n o u g h ass?' S p o k e n like a t r u e n o m a d . T h e same s e n t i m e n t s have b e e n v o i c e d over t h e c e n t u r i e s by B e d o u i n s , Kazakhs, M o n g o l s , A p a c h e s , C o m a n c h e s , C r o w s , S i o u x a n d Mike's o w n C h e y e n n e ancestors. N o m a d s have always s c o r n e d t h e s e d e n t a r y as w e a k , craven d u p e s w h o
have sold o u t t h e i r f r e e d o m
in
e x c h a n g e for security and c o m f o r t . A n d t h e s e d e n t a r y have always s t e r e o t y p e d n o m a d s as unruly, irresponsible and m o r a l l y r e p r e hensible - a threat t o h e a r t h a n d h o m e , to law a n d order, a n d t o civilisation itself - w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n v y i n g a n d r o m a n t i cising t h e i r fives. I w a n t t o k n o w a b o u t M i k e Hatfield's love life, his capacity for e m o t i o n a l c o n n e c t i o n . H i s C h e y e n n e
great-grandparents
travelled w i t h i n a tightly k n i t m o b i l e c o m m u n i t y , w i t h w i v e s , c h i l d r e n , g r a n d p a r e n t s , siblings, cousins, i n - l a w s a n d c h i l d h o o d friends in tow, b u t t h a t is n o l o n g e r possible. A c o m m i t m e n t t o
24
Richard Grant
n o m a d i s m in m o d e r n A m e r i c a usually entails a r e j e c t i o n , o r a p o s t p o n e m e n t , o r an escape from all o f this. ' W h a t a b o u t wives, kids, raising a family?' I ask h i m . ' W h a t a b o u t b e l o n g i n g t o a community?' 'I b e l o n g t o a c o m m u n i t y , ' h e says, a n d strikes u p a conversation o n t h e C B radio to prove his p o i n t . 'As fir as raising a family goes, hell, raise t h e m o n t h e road. There's a b u d d y o f m i n e w h o drives w i t h his wife a n d d a u g h t e r i n t h e t r u c k . T h e y ' r e o n s o m e k i n d o f h o m e - s c h o o l i n g p r o g r a m m e a n d his wife spends four o r five h o u r s a day t e a c h i n g t h e kid. T h a t k i d is eight years old and she's s m a r t as a w h i p . S h e can tell y o u all a b o u t Civil W a r b a t t l e fields, a n d I n d i a n massacre sites, and t h e C o n g r e s s and t h e Senate in D C , because she's b e e n to all those places a n d seen t h e m w i t h h e r o w n eyes. T h e y ' r e n o t j u s t s o m e old t h i n g she's read a b o u t in a s c h o o l b o o k , o r t h e t e a c h e r told h e r about.' T h i s is w h e r e M i k e Hatfield sees himself in ten o r fifteen years, rolling d o w n t h e highway, in a bigger t r u c k , w i t h a wife and k i d n e x t t o h i m a n d a m o b i l e c o n n e c t i o n t o an i n t e r n e t
home-
s c h o o l i n g p r o g r a m m e . ' I n t h e m e a n t i m e , ' h e adds, ' I ' m h a p p y t o pick u p w o m e n w h e r e I find t h e m , have a g o o d t i m e and say m y farewells. I d o n ' t take advantage of w o m e n . I ' m upfront a b o u t it. T h e y k n o w I drive a truck.' F o r m e , t h e love ' e m a n d leave ' e m strategy so c o m m o n a m o n g w a n d e r i n g males started b y default. S h o r t o f celibacy, it didn't s e e m like I had a c h o i c e , because I c o u l d n e v e r p e r s u a d e a w o m a n t o quit h e r j o b , give up h e r h o u s e or a p a r t m e n t , a n d live o n t h e road w i t h m e . W i t h e x p e r i e n c e , and a few false u n h a p p y starts, I discovered that t h e key t o m a k i n g this strategy w o r k was n o t t o fall in love. Love spoiled e v e r y t h i n g a n d it wasn't w o r t h
the
h e a r t a c h e . So I l e a r n e d to m a k e d o w i t h sex and c o m p a n i o n s h i p , o n a fleeting o r i n t e r m i t t e n t basis, and I usually e n d e d u p w i t h w o m e n w h o w e r e c h e a t i n g o n their boyfriends o r h u s b a n d s . W h i c h p e r s u a d e d m e further that love a n d c o m m i t m e n t w e r e a sucker's g a m e . R e c e n t l y , I c a m e t o t h e decision that this was unhealthy, that I was missing o u t o n s o m e t h i n g i m p o r t a n t . I m a d e a heartfelt a n d
Ghost
Riders
25
c o m m i t t e d decision t o c u r b m y w a n d e r i n g s a n d get serious w i t h a w o m a n in T u c s o n , w h o h a p p e n e d to b e c h e a t i n g o n
her
boyfriend. T h e boyfriend was in F r a n c e a n d she wasn't serious a b o u t h i m a n d I really liked her, so I r e n t e d a nice little h o u s e in T u c s o n , b o u g h t a bed a n d a few thrift-store furnishings, and w e m o v e d in t o g e t h e r . T h r e e w e e k s later, I was c l i m b i n g t h e walls a n d she left in a rage, p u t t i n g a m o t o r c y c l e b o o t t h r o u g h a glass p a n e l in m y front d o o r . M y t r u c k was b e i n g repaired so I l o a d e d up a b a c k p a c k w i t h clothes a n d b o o k s a n d started h i t c h - h i k i n g east. I wasn't always this way. In L o n d o n I was a long-term-relationship m a n : t h r e e years, t h e n four years. In L o n d o n I m a n a g e d t o live u n d e r t h e same r o o f for four years. It's t r u e that I was often surly a n d d i s c o n t e n t e d u n d e r t h a t roof, a n d l o n g e d to get o u t
of
E n g l a n d , b u t I t h o u g h t in t e r m s o f m o v i n g to a n o t h e r city, in a n o t h e r country, a n d m a k i n g a p e r m a n e n t h o m e there. In L o n d o n I w o u l d n o t have reacted to a relationship b r e a k - u p by w a l k i n g o u t to t h e h i g h w a y and raising m y t h u m b . T h e s e resdess, r o a m i n g urges, this a c h e for t h e b a l m o f m o t i o n : it was s o m e t h i n g that h a p p e n e d t o m e in A m e r i c a , s o m e t h i n g that h a p p e n e d t o a persistent m i n o r i t y of all E u r o p e a n s
who
crossed t h e Atlantic, all t h e w a y b a c k to t h e b e g i n n i n g . T h e i n t e r n a l feelings o f restlessness a n d dislocation, w h i c h all e m i g r a n t s b r i n g w i t h t h e m to s o m e d e g r e e , c a m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h all that space a n d possibility, a n d a culture o f m o b i l i t y that dated b a c k t o t h e Indians. M u c h as E u r o p e a n s tried t o recreate their s e d e n t a r y societies a n d close-knit, coercive c o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r these c o n d i tions, t h e y w e r e n ' t always successful. ' M a n y crept o u t t h r o u g h a b r o k e n wall,' w r o t e J o h n W i n t h r o p , t h e first g o v e r n o r o f the Massachusetts colony. H e was referring t o t h e thin b u t steady e x o d u s o f disaffected P u r i t a n s — usually rebellious y o u n g m e n a n d 'disgraced' y o u n g w o m e n - w h o ran off i n t o t h e wilderness a n d never r e t u r n e d . T h e y b e c a m e r o a m i n g h u n t e r s , trappers, wives, m o t h e r s , traders, a n d m a n y of t h e m j o i n e d u p w i t h Indian tribes. T h e s e w e r e t h e first English-speakers to t u r n nomadic in America, and there were F r e n c h m e n
and
Spaniards w h o p r e - d a t e d t h e m . If y o u dig d o w n to t h e roots of
26
Richard Grant
A m e r i c a n wanderlust, it is a process o f g o i n g native, o f E u r o p e a n s b e i n g c o n q u e r e d by A m e r i c a — b y t h e i m m e n s i t y o f its g e o g r a p h y a n d t h e n o m a d i c cultures t h e y f o u n d here. A n d I have c o m e to t h i n k o f myself as s o m e bastard, p o s t m o d e r n f o o t n o t e t o this tradition.
T h e Southwest at t h e t i m e of Cabeza de Vaca a n d C o r o n a d o 1527-1541
CHAPTER 2 W e ever held it certain that g o i n g towards t h e sunset w e w o u l d find w h a t w e desired. Alvar N u n e z C a b e z a d e Vaca, Adventures
L
in the Unknown
Interior of America
et's p i c k u p t h e a u t h o r in 1530, at a l o w p o i n t in his odyssey.
H e is n a k e d a n d emaciated, w i t h l o n g hair a n d a l o n g , m a t t e d
beard, g r u b b i n g for cane roots o n t h e shores o f Galveston Island off t h e G u l f coast o f p r e s e n t - d a y Texas. H e has spent t h e last t w o years living w i t h t h e H a n a n d C a p o q u e Indians — w a n d e r i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s w h o eke o u t a h u n g r y existence o n roots, shellfish and seasonal b l a c k b e r r y harvests — a n d for t h e last year h e has b e e n t h e i r slave. H i s h a n d s are perpetually r a w a n d b l e e d i n g from t h e cane. His b o d y is covered in lacerations. B u t it is a miracle that h e is still alive, w i t h so m a n y o f his c o m p a n i o n s dead, a n d h e holds o n t o this t h o u g h t . H e has m a d e it t h r o u g h hurricanes, shipwrecks, mutinies, fevers, Indian attacks, e x t e n d e d periods of thirst and starvation. H e has seen Spanish n o b l e m e n reduced to eating their horses and, later, to eating each other. D o e s h e recall that hubristic m o m e n t w h e n the armada first m a d e land in Florida? R a t i o n s were low, half the horses w e r e already dead, a series of storms had b l o w n the ships h u n d r e d s o f miles off course. T h e conquistadors raised their flags and banners, exhibited their w r i t t e n credentials to an e m p t y beach, and declared a t h o u s a n d miles o f u n s e e n land, and all its inhabitants, to b e in
30
Richard Grant
t h e possession o f His M o s t Sacred Caesarian C a t h o l i c Majesty, E m p e r o r Charles V o f Spain. T h e y m a r c h e d inland, i n t h e i r m e d i e v a l a r m o u r a n d p l u m e d h e l m e t s , w e i g h e d d o w n w i t h lances, swords a n d h a r q u e b u s e s , a n d t h e padres w a l k i n g alongside in cassocks. T h r e e h u n d r e d
men
a n d forty horses, p r o p e l l e d i n t o t h e swamps a n d j u n g l e s o f t h e N e w W o r l d by E u r o p e ' s h u n g e r for gold a n d e m p i r e . T h e e x p e d i tion's c o m m a n d e r was Panfilo de N a r v a e z ; vain, arrogant, greedy, r e d - b e a r d e d N a r v a e z . I n a day o r t w o , h e assured t h e m , t h e y w o u l d c o m e u p o n a fabulous
city filled w i t h gold, a n o t h e r
T e n o c h t i t l a n , w h i c h his rival C o r t e s h a d sacked eight years before in M e x i c o . C a b e z a de Vaca (the n a m e m e a n s H e a d o f a C o w ) was t h e expedition's s e c o n d - i n - c o m m a n d
a n d treasurer, c h a r g e d
with
collecting t h e Spanish crown's share o f t h e e x p e c t e d p l u n d e r . H e c a m e t o A m e r i c a as a m a n o f finance a n d war, t h i r t y - e i g h t years old a n d s t e e p e d since c h i l d h o o d in t h e ethic o f t h e c o n q u i s tador. His grandfather, P e d r o de Vera, h a d led t h e b l o o d t h i r s t y c o n q u e s t o f t h e C a n a r y Islands, a n d C a b e z a de Vaca g r e w u p in a h o u s e h o l d staffed w i t h t h e c o p p e r - s k i n n e d G u a n c h e slaves h e h a d taken. After five m o n t h s o f w a d i n g a n d h a c k i n g their way up t h e Florida peninsula, fighting off hostile tribes, disease, quicksands a n d starvation, forty o f t h e m e n w e r e dead, a n d all t h e horses e a t e n . T h e y h a d f o u n d n o g o l d e n cities, a n d t h e y h a d lost c o n t a c t w i t h their ships. S o o n after t h e y l a n d e d N a r v a e z h a d sent t h e fleet u p t h e coast, w i t h a h u n d r e d m e n , a n d t h e y w e r e never seen again, presumably s h i p w r e c k e d . In d e s p e r a t i o n t h e m e n c o b b l e d t o g e t h e r c r u d e rafts, using their swords a n d b e l t - b u c k l e s for tools, horsehair a n d p a l m fibre for r i g g i n g . H o i s t i n g their shirts for sails, they set off o n a h o r r o r voyage a l o n g t h e Gulf coast. After six o r seven w e e k s at sea - capsizings, d r o w n i n g s , m o r e s t o r m s , m e n d y i n g o f h u n g e r , thirst a n d d y s e n t e r y — a freak wave w a s h e d t h e survivors ashore o n t h e b e a c h e s o f Galveston Island. T h e y w e r e t o o w e a k t o fight, o r even t o m o v e . A h u n d r e d H a n and C a p o q u e w a r r i o r s c a m e d o w n t o t h e b e a c h , n a k e d a n d c o p p e r - s k i n n e d , w i t h j o i n t s o f cane t h r o u g h
Ghost
Riders
31
their noses a n d nipples, a n d a r m e d w i t h flint spears a n d b o w s a n d arrows. T h e w a r r i o r s t o o k pity o n t h e shivering, skeletal castaways, b r i n g i n g t h e m food, b u i l d i n g fires t o k e e p t h e m w a r m , and a g r e e i n g to shelter t h e m in their h u t s . D e a d Spaniards w a s h e d u p o n t h e b e a c h , and as t h e survivors w e p t for their c o m p a n i o n s , t h e Indians w e p t a l o n g w i t h t h e m . T h e n t h e H a n s a n d C a p o q u e s discovered that a g r o u p
of
Spaniards o n t h e m a i n l a n d h a d b e e n eating each o t h e r a n d t h e i r hospitality t u r n e d to revulsion a n d disgust. T h e r e w e r e r u m o u r s of cannibal tribes further d o w n t h e coast, b u t a m o n g t h e H a n s and C a p o q u e s , w h o lived w i t h terrible h u n g e r for m o s t o f t h e year, eating h u m a n flesh was strictly t a b o o . To m a k e m a t t e r s w o r s e , t h e Indians started d y i n g from disease. It was p r o b a b l y dysentery, from w h i c h t h e Spaniards w e r e d y i n g themselves, b u t t h e H a n s a n d C a p o q u e s b l a m e d it o n t h e sorcery o f these pale, b e a r d e d , cannibalistic strangers. S o m e o f t h e Spaniards w e r e killed o r t u r n e d o u t t o starve, a n d t h e rest w e r e m a d e i n t o slaves. T h e King's treasurer g r u b s for roots in t h e c a n e - b r a k e s , b e a t e n and abused, a n a k e d w r e t c h k e p t alive o n l y for t h e value o f his labour. D o e s h e r e m e m b e r t h e G u a n c h e slaves from his b o y h o o d , and t h e way his g r a n d f a t h e r treated t h e m ? If so, h e doesn't m e n t i o n t h e irony in his a c c o u n t o f his adventures, p e n n e d years later as a r e p o r t t o t h e Spanish K i n g . H e consoles himself b y r e m e m b e r i n g t h e suffering o f C h r i s t . D e s p i t e all that G o d has d o n e t o h i m a n d his c o m p a n i o n s , C a b e z a de Vaca's faith has never b e e n stronger. Surely G o d has spared his life for a special p u r p o s e . H o w else t o explain t h e m i r a c u l o u s events d u r i n g last season's b l a c k b e r r y harvest? T h e H a n and C a p o q u e bands were gathered o n the mainland coast, w h e r e t h e b l a c k b e r r y plants grew, h o l d i n g t h e a n n u a l dances a n d festivities. C a b e z a de Vaca m e t u p w i t h t w o o t h e r Spanish captives there, Castillo a n d D o r a n t e s . W a t c h i n g these e x t r a o r d i n a r y l o o k i n g m e n , talking their i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o n g u e , t h e Indians w o n d e r e d if t h e y also possessed e x t r a o r d i n a r y spiritual p o w e r s . T h e Spaniards w e r e t a k e n t o s o m e h u t s and i n s t r u c t e d t o heal t h e sick.
32
Richard Grant C a b e z a de Vaca a n d his c o m p a n i o n s scoffed at t h e idea, a n d
p r o t e s t e d their i n c o m p e t e n c e , b u t t h e Indians refused to give t h e m any f o o d u n t i l t h e y tried. Still protesting, 'disclaiming any r e s p o n sibility for o u r failure o r success', t h e t h r e e Spaniards l e a n e d over their patients and b l e w o n t h e m — a t e c h n i q u e t h e y h a d b e e n s h o w n by t h e native shamans. F o r g o o d measure, t h e y m a d e t h e sign o f t h e Cross, recited Ave Marias a n d Paternosters, a n d prayed to the Catholic God. To t h e j o y o f t h e Indians, a n d t h e a m a z e m e n t o f t h e Spaniards, t h e patients all declared themselves healed. ' I n c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e Indians treated us v e r y kindly,' w r i t e s C a b e z a de Vaca, w h o a t t r i b u t e d t h e miracle t o divine i n t e r v e n t i o n . ' T h e y d e p r i v e d t h e m selves of food to give us, and p r e s e n t e d us skins a n d o t h e r tokens o f gratitude.' It d i d n ' t last l o n g . S o o n after t h e healings, C a b e z a deVaca fell ill h i m s e l f and almost died, w h i c h r u i n e d his r e p u t a t i o n as a m e d i c i n e m a n . E v e r since h e recovered, a year ago, t h e C a p o q u e s have m a d e his life a t o r m e n t . M a y b e it is religious faith that stops h i m g i v i n g in t o despair and resignation. It certainly helps, b u t h e also possesses e x t r a o r d i n a r y r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s
and
physical
e n d u r a n c e — call it t h e will t o live. O f t h e four h u n d r e d m e n w h o sailed w i t h t h e N a r v a e z e x p e d i t i o n , t h e r e are m a y b e eight o r t e n still alive, enslaved by v a r i o u s tribal b a n d s o n t h e island a n d t h e m a i n l a n d , a n d C a b e z a d e V a c a is t h e o n l y o n e to m a k e a successful escape. S o m e t i m e in early 1 5 3 0 h e s l i p p e d away from t h e
Capoques
a n d w a d e d across t h e s h a l l o w c h a n n e l w h i c h divides G a l v e s t o n Island from t h e m a i n l a n d . H e r a n e r r a n d s for t h e v a r i o u s tribes h e e n c o u n t e r e d , in e x c h a n g e for f o o d , a n d little by little h e was able to carve o u t a n i c h e for h i m s e l f as a w a n d e r i n g trader. T h e I n d i a n t r a d e n e t w o r k s h a d b r o k e n d o w n b e c a u s e so m a n y tribes w e r e at w a r w i t h e a c h o t h e r . As a l o n e , n e u t r a l m e r c h a n t , easily identifiable b y his strange, b e a r d e d a p p e a r a n c e , C a b e z a d e Vaca was free t o t r a d e a n d travel b e t w e e n d o z e n s o f hostile tribes.
Ghost
Riders
33
M y principal wares w e r e cones a n d o t h e r pieces o f sea-snail, c o n c h e s used for c u t t i n g , sea-beads, and a fruit like a b e a n w h i c h t h e Indians value v e r y highly, using it for a m e d i c i n e a n d for a ritual beverage in their dances a n d festivities [ p r o b ably m e s q u i t e beans, possibly p e y o t e ] . T h i s is t h e sort o f t h i n g I c a r r i e d inland. B y b a r t e r I g o t a n d b r o u g h t b a c k t o t h e coast skins, red o c h r e w h i c h t h e y r u b o n their faces, h a r d canes for arrows, flint for a r r o w h e a d s , w i t h sinews a n d c e m e n t to attach t h e m , a n d tassels o f d e e r hair w h i c h they dye red. T h i s o c c u p a t i o n suited m e ; I c o u l d travel w h e r e I w i s h e d , was n o t o b l i g e d t o w o r k , a n d was n o t a slave. W h e r e v e r I w e n t , t h e Indians treated m e h o n o u r a b l y a n d gave m e f o o d , b e c a u s e t h e y liked m y c o m m o d i t i e s . T h e y w e r e glad t o see m e w h e n I c a m e a n d d e l i g h t e d to b e b r o u g h t w h a t t h e y w a n t e d . I b e c a m e w e l l - k n o w n ; t h o s e w h o did n o t k n o w m e personally k n e w m e by reputation and sought
my
acquaintance. F o r nearly t w o years h e lived like this, barefoot a n d n a k e d , t o t i n g his wares b a c k a n d forth over h u n d r e d s of miles o f p r e s e n t - d a y Texas, r a n g i n g as far n o r t h perhaps as O k l a h o m a . H e b e c a m e as i n u r e d to h u n g e r , cold, thirst a n d exhaustion as the Indians were. B e t w e e n j o u r n e y s he stayed in their villages and e n c a m p m e n t s . H e shared their food, l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g o f t h e i r customs, a n d b y t h e t i m e his odyssey e n d e d h e c o u l d speak six of their languages. In t h e vicinity o f present-day Austin, Texas, as near as w e can guess, h e b e c a m e t h e first w h i t e m a n t o see buffalo in N o r t h A m e r i c a , a n d m i s t o o k t h e m for a species of w i l d cattle. T h e y have small h o r n s like t h e cows o f M o r o c c o ; their hair is very l o n g and flocky like m e r i n o s ' . S o m e are tawny, others black. In m y o p i n i o n , the m e a t is finer and fatter t h a n t h e b e e f o f [Spain]. T h e Indians m a k e blankets o u t o f t h e skins o f c o w s n o t full g r o w n ; a n d shoes a n d shields from t h e fullg r o w n . T h e s e cattle c o m e from . . . a n o r t h e r l y direction, a n d r a n g e over a tract o f m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 leagues [1100 miles;
34
Richard Grant an accurate estimate]. T h r o u g h o u t
this w h o l e range, t h e
p e o p l e w h o dwell nearby descend and live u p o n t h e m and distribute an incredible n u m b e r of hides i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r . In t h e w i n t e r o f 1532, C a b e z a d e V a c a m e t a b a n d of travelling Q u e v e n e s , w h o told h i m t h e y h a d seen t h r e e ' m e n like h i m s e l f - t h e t h r e e o t h e r survivors o f t h e N a r v a e z e x p e d i t i o n . T h e y w e r e living as slaves a m o n g t h e M a r i a m e s a n d Y g u a c e s , o n t h e Texas coast, p e r h a p s n e a r p r e s e n t - d a y M a t a g o r d o Bay. W h e n C a b e z a de Vaca asked h o w his colleagues w e r e faring, t h e Q u e v e n e s b e g a n slapping a n d k i c k i n g h i m a n d j a b b i n g a r r o w h e a d s i n t o his chest, t o d e m o n s t r a t e h o w t h e M a r i a m e s treated their captives. C a b e z a d e Vaca w e n t t o t h e coast t o t r y a n d p e r s u a d e t h e m t o escape a n d was m a d e a slave himself. O n c e again, h e was b a c k t o t h e w o o d a n d w a t e r duties, t h e endless g r u b b i n g after r o o t s , t h e b e a t i n g s a n d t h e cuffings, all o f w h i c h w e r e n o t h i n g compared
t o t h e h u n g e r . O n c e a year, i n t h e a u t u m n ,
the
M a r i a m e s a n d Y g u a c e s w e n t i n l a n d a n d feasted o n t h e p r i c k l y p e a r cactus harvest. F o r t h e rest o f t h e year t h e y lived o n b i t t e r roots, seafood, a v e r y occasional d e e r a n d t h e reserves o f fat b u i l t u p d u r i n g t h e a n n u a l feast. F a m i n e was so p r e v a l e n t a m o n g t h e Y g u a c e s t h a t t h e y w o u l d eat absolutely a n y t h i n g t o quell t h e i r h u n g e r pangs: spiders a n d ant eggs, w o r m s , lizards, salamanders, snakes a n d p o i s o n o u s vipers; also earth a n d w o o d — a n y t h i n g , i n c l u d i n g d e e r d u n g a n d o t h e r m a t t e r I o m i t . I h o n e s t l y believe that if t h e r e w e r e stones in that c o u n t r y t h e y w o u l d eat t h e m . T h e y save t h e b o n e s o f fish they c o n s u m e , o f snakes a n d o t h e r animals, so t h e y can afterwards pulverise a n d eat t h e m , too. D u r i n g his t i m e a m o n g t h e H a n s a n d C a p o q u e s , C a b e z a de Vaca had b e e n struck b y t h e k i n d , g e n t l e way in w h i c h Indians treated their children, a n d h e was surprised to see that t h e M a r i a m e s and Yguaces had a c u s t o m o f killing their offspring. T h e y spared a few of t h e boys, a l t h o u g h m a n y w e r e b u r i e d alive, a n d fed all
Ghost
Riders
35
their n e w b o r n d a u g h t e r s t o t h e dogs. W h e n t h e y n e e d e d a wife, they b o u g h t o n e from t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g tribes, for t h e p r i c e o f a b o w a n d t w o arrows. T h e y say t h e y d o this b e c a u s e all t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e r e g i o n are t h e i r e n e m i e s , w i t h w h o m t h e y w a r ceaselessly; a n d t h a t if t h e y w e r e t o m a r r y off t h e i r d a u g h t e r s , t h e d a u g h ters w o u l d m u l t i p l y t h e i r e n e m i e s u n t i l t h e latter o v e r c a m e a n d enslaved t h e M a r i a m e s , w h o t h u s p r e f e r r e d t o a n n i h i l ate all d a u g h t e r s t h a n risk t h e i r r e p r o d u c t i o n o f a single e n e m y . W e asked w h y t h e y d i d n o t t h e m s e l v e s m a r r y these girls. T h e y said m a r r y i n g relatives w o u l d b e a disgusting t h i n g ; it was far b e t t e r t o kill t h e m t h a n give t h e m t o e i t h e r k i n o r foe. In r e c e n t decades t h e idea has b e c o m e l o d g e d i n t h e cultural m a i n s t r e a m that N o r t h A m e r i c a was a peaceful, h a r m o n i o u s E d e n before t h e E u r o p e a n c o n q u e s t , p e o p l e d by g e n t l e - h e a r t e d , n o b l e spirited environmentalists. It's an idea w h i c h attracts u n d e r s t a n d able
support
among
modern
American
Indians, or
Native
A m e r i c a n s if y o u prefer, a l t h o u g h s o m e find it patronising — a n e w twist o n t h e o l d N o b l e Savage r o u t i n e a n d o f n o use in solving their c u r r e n t p r o b l e m s . As V i n e D e l o r i a , t h e acerbic S i o u x w r i t e r , has p o i n t e d o u t , it is w h i t e liberals w h o have l e d t h e g l o r i fication o f t h e historical Indian, for their o w n reasons; a n d , by s o m e quirk, it is often vegetarian pacifists w h o w o r s h i p these l o n g - d e a d , m e a t - l o v i n g w a r r i o r s m o s t devoutly. H o w w o u l d a w h i t e liberal react, I w o n d e r , if thrust b a c k in t i m e t o a M a r i a m e c a m p i n t h e 1540s? ' T h e m e n b e a r n o b u r d e n s . A n y t h i n g o f w e i g h t is b o r n e by w o m e n a n d old m e n , t h e p e o p l e least e s t e e m e d : T h e idea o f p r e - c o n q u e s t A m e r i c a as a b e n e v o l e n t Utopia is interesting o n m a n y levels. O n e c o u l d take it as e v i d e n c e o f w h i t e guilt, t h e c o n q u e r o r s ' b e l a t e d sympathy for t h e c o n q u e r e d . O n e c o u l d use it t o s h o w t h e o l d h u m a n nostalgia for a lost paradise, w h i c h is as prevalent a m o n g w h i t e s as present-day Indians. Perhaps t h e arrival o f t h e idea i n t h e cultural m a i n s t r e a m reveals m o r e
36
Richard Grant
about
contemporary
society, its s p i r i t u a l y e a r n i n g s
and
its
m o u n t i n g sense o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l guilt. As a historical theory, h o w e v e r , casting p r e - c o n q u e s t A m e r i n d i a n s as gentle, N e w A g e saints is as naive a n d lopsided as a H o l l y w o o d W e s t e r n ; a n o t h e r childish search for heroes a n d villains. Leaving aside t h e difficulties of generalising a b o u t so m a n y diverse cultures, y o u c o u l d m a k e a l e g i t i m a t e a r g u m e n t
that
aboriginal N o r t h A m e r i c a n s enjoyed a r i c h e r life o f t h e soul than w e do, and a closeness to n a t u r e that w e have lost. B u t it was a life o f incredible hardship and physical suffering, at least t o a m o d e r n m i n d , and v i o l e n c e was an integral part o f it. E v e r y w h e r e C a b e z a d e Vaca travelled, h e f o u n d war, brutality, famine
and
slavery, j u s t as h e f o u n d love, h o n o u r , kindness a n d generosity. B y his a c c o u n t , A m e r i c a n Indians in t h e i r u n t o u c h e d state w e r e n e i t h e r saints n o r devils b u t h u m a n beings m u c h like any other, w i t h t h e usual p r o p o r t i o n of flaws a n d virtues, a n d t h e full r a n g e of h u m a n emotions. O n e m i g h t have e x p e c t e d a Spanish n o b l e m a n , a n d especially o n e w h o h a d e n d u r e d t h e h u m i l i a t i o n s o f slavery, t o rail against t h e barbarism, savagery and idolatry o f t h e natives, b u t t h r o u g h o u t his narrative C a b e z a deVaca describes Indians in a calm, balanced, tolerant a n d s o m e t i m e s a d m i r i n g t o n e . H e is impressed, a m o n g o t h e r things, b y their skill in war, t h e acuteness o f their senses a n d their ability to b e h a p p y w i t h so little. O f t h e baby-killing M a r i a m e s a n d Y g u a c e s , h e also w r i t e s : T h e y are a m e r r y p e o p l e , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e h u n g e r they suffer . . . M a n y times w h i l e w e w e r e a m o n g these p e o p l e a n d t h e r e was n o t h i n g t o eat for three o r four days, t h e y w o u l d try a n d revive o u r spirits b y telling us n o t t o b e sad; s o o n there w o u l d b e prickly pears in plenty; w e w o u l d d r i n k t h e j u i c e , o u r bellies w o u l d get big, a n d w e w o u l d b e c o n t e n t . You are never left w i t h t h e impression that C a b e z a d e V a c a h a t e d his captors, o r any o t h e r tribes h e e n c o u n t e r e d in N o r t h A m e r i c a . H e f o u n d s o m e o f their c u s t o m s strange a n d unsavoury, b u t h e tried to u n d e r s t a n d t h e function they served, a n d t h e reasons
Ghost
Riders
37
b e h i n d t h e m . O n l y o n e tradition s e e m e d t o s h o c k h i m i n t o m o r a l j u d g e m e n t : t h e 'diabolical p r a c t i c e ' o f a m a n living w i t h a e u n u c h . C a b e z a de Vaca n e v e r lost his sense o f cultural superiority. H e r e m a i n e d an imperialist, c o n v i n c e d that Indians w o u l d b e b e t t e r off u n d e r a S p a n i s h / C h r i s t i a n civilisation, b u t h e i n c l u d e d t h e m in t h e same b r o t h e r h o o d o f m a n as himself, w i t h rights t o liberty and fair t r e a t m e n t - ' t h e y m u s t b e w o n over by kindness, t h e o n l y certain way'. B y m o d e r n standards, w e w o u l d still call h i m a racist, b u t for a s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n , a n d a c o n q u i s t a d o r
in
particular, h e h a d u n d e r g o n e a radical shift in consciousness. T h e Spanish t e r m for Indians at t h e t i m e was gente sin razon: p e o p l e w i t h o u t reason, a n d therefore o n t h e level o f animals. T h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h was t r y i n g t o d e t e r m i n e if t h e y possessed souls. C a b e z a de Vaca was able to e m p a t h i s e w i t h Indians, even as a slave, because h e was so d e e p l y i m m e r s e d in their w o r l d . H e had lived a m o n g t h e m for five years, a n d l e a r n e d t o shape his t h o u g h t s i n t o t h e i r languages. In times o f famine h e starved alongside t h e m , a n d in times o f p l e n t y h e j o i n e d in their feasts a n d celebrations. C a p t o r s a n d captives alike shivered in t h e w i n t e r cold. H e still t h o u g h t of himself as a Spanish g e n t l e m a n b u t it h a d b e e n five years since h e h a d w o r n clothes o r shoes, a n d six or seven years since h e h a d slept in a p e r m a n e n t building. T h e t h o u g h t o f o n e day r e t u r n i n g to civilisation k e p t h i m g o i n g , b u t in t h e m e a n t i m e , ' b y necessity, h e h a d adjusted to a different r h y t h m o f life - shelter, fire, water, f o o d - a n d w h e n t h e f o o d was g o n e , o r t h e wares all b a r t e r e d , m o v i n g o n t o t h e n e x t c a m p . H e was a n e w creature o n this c o n t i n e n t : a E u r o p e a n g o n e partially native, a civilised m a n living as a wilderness w a n d e r e r , a h y b r i d o f O l d W o r l d a n d N e w . In t h e c e n t u r i e s to c o m e , a similar t y p e w o u l d b e c o m e well established o n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n frontiers. In S e p t e m b e r 1 5 3 4 t h e M a r i a m e a n d Y g u a c e b a n d s travelled i n l a n d for t h e p r i c k l y pear harvest. C a b e z a de Vaca m e t u p again w i t h t h e t h r e e o t h e r survivors from Narvaez's e x p e d i t i o n and they h a t c h e d a plan to escape. O n t h e n i g h t of t h e full m o o n , t h e y w o u l d m e e t in a certain cactus p a t c h , m a k e a break for it, a n d find their w a y b a c k to civilisation.
38
Richard Grant W h e r e exactly w e r e t h e y h o p i n g to reach? T h e y had n o idea
o f t h e c o n t i n e n t ' s size o r g e o g r a p h y ; N o r t h A m e r i c a was still w i d e l y believed t o b e a peninsula o f m a i n l a n d Asia. T h e y t h o u g h t t h e Spanish s e t t l e m e n t o f P a n u c o in M e x i c o lay s o m e w h e r e a l o n g t h e coast to t h e s o u t h , b u t t h e y w a n t e d to avoid t h e coastal tribes. To t h e east was Florida — n o Spaniards t h e r e - a n d s o m e w h e r e t o t h e n o r t h , presumably, w e r e C h i n a a n d India. So t h e y w e n t west, placing their h o p e s in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f c o m p l e t e u n k n o w n . S o m e w h e r e towards t h e sunset, they told themselves, t h e y w o u l d find Spaniards, Christians a n d civilisation, a n d r e t u r n to t h e m e n t h e y used to be. C a b e z a d e Vaca, w i t h o u t dissent, was their leader. A l o n g s i d e h i m w e r e A n d r e s D o r a n t e s a n d A l o n s o del Castillo, his partners i n t h e miracle healings five years before. T h e f o u r t h was a black A r a b from M o r o c c o called Estevan, w h o h a d j o i n e d t h e N a r v a e z e x p e d i t i o n as D o r a n t e s ' slave, and t h e n b e c o m e t h e slave o f a slave. E v e n he, presumably, saw s o m e benefit in r e t u r n i n g to his f o r m e r status. N a k e d a n d barefoot, skulking a n d h i d i n g , lacerated by t h o r n s a n d cactus spines, t h e y m a d e their way t h r o u g h t h e b r o k e n w o o d e d c o u n t r y and o u t o n t o t h e vastncss o f t h e plains. O f all t h e w e s t w a r d treks r e c o r d e d in A m e r i c a n history, this was surely t h e m o s t epic, t h e m o s t i m p r o b a b l e a n d surreal, as well as b e i n g t h e first. A b e t t i n g m a n w o u l d have p l u n k e d his m o n e y d o w n o n d e a t h o r captivity for t h e lot o f t h e m , b u t s o m e t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r y h a p p e n e d , s o m e t h i n g unforeseen. T h e n e w s o f their miracle cures o n t h e coast h a d travelled a h e a d o f t h e m , a n d o n t h e plains t h e y w e r e hailed as h o l y m e n . T h e y acquired a retinue of hundreds and then thousands of a d o r i n g Indians. Heralds r a n a h e a d a n d spread t h e n e w s : t h e Children of the Sun were coming, the bearded miracle-workers, c o m i n g across t h e land from t h e H o u s e o f D a w n . W h a t b e g a n as flight
from slavery t u r n e d i n t o a kind of t r i u m p h a n t
religious
procession, a travelling revival show. A t every village o r e n c a m p m e n t a l o n g t h e way, t h e tribes h e l d dances a n d celebrations, a n d b r o u g h t o u t t h e i r sick, their w o u n d e d a n d their d y i n g t o b e healed. U s i n g t h e same t e c h n i q u e s that h a d w o r k e d for t h e m before, t h e Spaniards blessed t h e patients a n d
Ghost
39
Riders
b l e w o n t h e m , a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d n e w m e t h o d s like passing stones over t h e m a n d t h e l a y i n g - o n of hands. A n d o n c e again, t h e y w o r k e d astonishing miracles — ' W i t h n o e x c e p t i o n s , every p a t i e n t told us h e h a d m a d e well.' A t o n e p o i n t , C a b e z a d e Vaca states u n e q u i v o c a b l y that h e b r o u g h t a dead m a n b a c k t o life, b y 'blessing and b r e a t h i n g o n h i m m a n y t i m e s ' . Call it w h a t y o u w a n t : mass delusion, p s y c h o s o m a t i c illness, t h e p l a c e b o effect, hallucinations b r o u g h t o n b y h u n g e r , e x h a u s t i o n a n d religious hysteria. T h e m o d e r n m i n d does n o t accept miracles easily, b u t it is i m p o r t a n t to realise that for t h e p e o p l e w h o witnessed t h e m , these things h a p p e n e d b e y o n d a d o u b t . Fifty years later travellers m e t Indians w h o w e r e still talking a b o u t it: t h e great procession a n d t h e b e a r d e d m i r a c l e - w o r k e r s w h o h a d b r o u g h t t h e m t h e sign of t h e cross. T h e Indians a t t r i b u t e d t h e healings t o t h e p o w e r o f t h e sun. C a b e z a de Vaca felt t h e h a n d o f G o d w o r k i n g t h r o u g h
him.
Castillo, w h o started o u t as their m o s t effective healer, b e c a m e c o n s u m e d by self-doubt a n d gave it u p , feeling that his sins m a d e h i m u n w o r t h y to h a n d l e such a divine gift. Estevan had little interest in healing. H e preferred t o s p e n d his t i m e playing w i t h t h e I n d i a n children, talking g e o g r a p h y w i t h t h e m e n a n d sleeping w i t h t h e w o m e n — t h e gift o f a w o m a n for t h e n i g h t was a c o m m o n c o u r t e s y t o an h o n o u r e d guest. Estevan (helped by h o r i zontal tutors perhaps) b e c a m e their m o s t a c c o m p l i s h e d linguist, able t o speak eight o r n i n e I n d i a n languages. A l o n g t h e way, p e r h a p s i n t h e far west o f Texas, t h e r e o c c u r r e d a 'strange n e w d e v e l o p m e n t ' , as C a b e z a de Vaca describes it. H i s e n t o u r a g e b e g a n ransacking t h e huts o f every t r i b e in their p a t h , a n d claiming all t h e i r b e l o n g i n g s as t r i b u t e for t h e C h i l d r e n
of'
t h e Sun. H a v i n g n o t h i n g left, a n d n o m e a n s o f survival, t h e ransacked t r i b e w o u l d t h e n j o i n t h e procession a n d r e c o u p their losses at t h e n e x t h u t s a l o n g t h e trail. C a b e z a deVaca t r i e d to p u t a stop t o it, b u t l e a r n e d that his a u t h o r i t y d i d n ' t e x t e n d that far. To k e e p t h e procession fed, t h e w o m e n spread o u t o n t h e flanks, g a t h e r i n g edible plants a n d insects, a n d t h e m e n r a n g e d ahead for rabbits, deer, quail and o t h e r small g a m e ; t h e y w e r e s o u t h o f t h e buffalo range, in s e m i - a r i d desert country. At t h e
40
Richard Grant
e n d o f t h e day, all t h e food was b r o u g h t t o t h e C h i l d r e n o f t h e S u n , a n d n o o n e w o u l d eat until they h a d blessed it. W h e n y o u consider t h a t w e w e r e frequently a c c o m p a n i e d by t h r e e or four t h o u s a n d Indians a n d w e r e obliged t o s a n c tify t h e food a n d d r i n k o f each o n e , y o u can appreciate o u r i n c o n v e n i e n c e . T h e w o m e n w o u l d b r i n g us prickly pears, spiders, w o r m s . . . strictly foregoing even these until w e h a d m a d e t h e sign o f t h e Cross over t h e m , t h o u g h t h e w o m e n m i g h t have b e e n starving at t h e t i m e . T h e y e n t e r e d t h e foothills o f m o u n t a i n s in t h e west, a n d in o n e o f these ranges C a b e z a d e Vaca t r i e d his h a n d at surgery for t h e first t i m e . H e o p e n e d u p a patient's chest w i t h a flint knife a n d r e m o v e d an a r r o w h e a d . H e stitched u p t h e w o u n d , using s i n e w and a b o n e n e e d l e , and s t a u n c h e d t h e b l e e d i n g w i t h a h a n k o f animal fur. T h e n e x t day, h e writes, 'I c u t t h e stitches a n d t h e p a t i e n t was well . . . H e said h e felt n o p a i n o r sensitivity t h e r e at all.' After this cure, t h e r e was n o n e e d for t h e procession to ransack. T h e heralds spread t h e n e w s a n d t h e tribes a h e a d w i l l ingly offered u p all t h e i r f o o d a n d possessions. O n t h e R i o G r a n d e , h a v i n g w a l k e d six h u n d r e d miles o r m o r e , t h e y stayed w i t h a t r i b e w h o lived in s e m i - p e r m a n e n t dwellings a n d raised c o r n , beans and squash. T h i s was t h e first e v i d e n c e o f a g r i c u l t u r e that C a b e z a d e Vaca h a d seen since Florida, a l t h o u g h t h e fields lay b a r r e n that year because o f d r o u g h t . A t t h e best guess, these Indians w e r e J u m a n o s . O n c e a year, i n t h e a u t u m n , t h e y w e n t n o r t h t o t h e buffalo plains for m e a t a n d hides, b u t they h a d f o u n d n o way t o survive u p t h e r e year r o u n d . T h e w i n t e r s w e r e t o o fierce, t h e s u m m e r s w e r e t o o dry, and t h e herds m o v e d t o o fast for a p e o p l e travelling o n foot. T h i s s e m i - s e d e n t a r y lifestyle, a loose, flexible c o m b i n a t i o n o f h u n t i n g , g a t h e r i n g a n d r i v e r b a n k f a r m i n g , was c o m m o n a r o u n d t h e Great Plains before later Spaniards i n t r o d u c e d t h e h o r s e t o t h e r e g i o n . T h e P a w n e e s , W i c h i t a s and Osages to t h e east, t h e Sioux, C h e y e n n e s a n d C r o w s t o t h e n o r t h , t h e A p a c h e s t o t h e west — all these tribes are t h o u g h t t o have practised s o m e f a r m i n g
Ghost
41
Riders
at t h e t i m e o f C a b e z a d e Vaca. T h e n , w h e n t h e h o r s e
diffused
across t h e plains in t h e early e i g h t e e n t h century, t h e y all a b a n d o n e d their fields, against t h e s u p p o s e d grain of h u m a n e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d b e c a m e full-time n o m a d i c h u n t e r s a n d raiders. T h e J u m a n o s never g o t t h e c h a n c e . T h e h o r s e r e a c h e d e n e m i e s before t h e m a n d t h e y w e r e w i p e d o u t b y
their
mounted
C o m a n c h e s a n d A p a c h e s , probably aided by E u r o p e a n diseases. S o m e w h e r e b e y o n d t h e R i o G r a n d e , t h e procession crossed w h a t is n o w t h e M e x i c a n b o r d e r . O n e t r i b e delivered t h e m i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e n e x t , a n d t h e n r e t u r n e d h o m e , h a v i n g recovered their
possessions. T h e y
were
amazed
by
Cabeza
d e Vaca's
e n d u r a n c e . H e w a l k e d all day w i t h o u t eating, a n d was u p m o s t o f t h e n i g h t blessing babies a n d food, healing a n d p r e a c h i n g . T h r o u g h all these nations, t h e p e o p l e w h o w e r e at w a r q u i c k l y m a d e u p so t h e y c o u l d c o m e m e e t us w i t h e v e r y t h i n g t h e y possessed. T h u s w e left all t h e land in p e a c e . A n d w e t a u g h t all t h e p e o p l e by signs, w h i c h t h e y u n d e r s t o o d , that in H e a v e n was a M a n w e called G o d , w h o h a d created t h e heavens a n d t h e earth; that all g o o d c a m e from
Him
a n d that w e w o r s h i p p e d a n d o b e y e d H i m a n d called h i m o u r Lord; a n d that if t h e y w o u l d d o t h e same, all w o u l d b e well w i t h t h e m . . . from t h e n o n , at sunrise, they w o u l d raise their arms to t h e sky w i t h a glad cry, t h e n r u n their h a n d s d o w n t h e length o f their b o d i e s . T h e y r e p e a t e d this ritual at sunset. W h e n they reached northwestern Mexico, somewhat reduced in n u m b e r s , they t u r n e d a m o r e southerly course a n d e n t e r e d r i c h a g r i c u l t u r a l lands. T h e y w e r e a m o n g s e d e n t a r y farmers
now,
O p a t a s a n d P i m a s , w h o lived in p e r m a n e n t villages a n d raised t h r e e crops a year o f c o r n a n d beans. T h e Pimas gave t h e p r o c e s sion six h u n d r e d d e e r hearts, c o t t o n blankets a n d hides, coral beads, turquoises, a n d 'five e m e r a l d a r r o w h e a d s ' , w h i c h w e r e p r o b ably malachite. In J a n u a r y 1536, after eight years i n t h e wilderness, h a v i n g crossed t h e c o n t i n e n t from Florida almost t o t h e Pacific, Castillo
42
Richard Grant
saw an I n d i a n w e a r i n g a Spanish b e l t - b u c k l e a r o u n d his n e c k , w i t h a h o r s e s h o e nail w o v e n i n t o it. ' W e gave thanks to G o d o u r L o r d . H a v i n g almost despaired o f finding Christians again, w e c o u l d hardly restrain o u r e x c i t e m e n t . ' A t first they w e r e w o r r i e d that t h e b u c k l e m i g h t have b e e n left b y a passing explorer, b u t as t h e y travelled s o u t h t h e y c a m e u p o n m o r e r e c e n t e v i d e n c e o f Christians. W i t h heavy hearts w e l o o k e d o u t over t h e lavishly watered, fertile, and beautiful land, n o w a b a n d o n e d a n d b u r n e d and t h e p e o p l e thin and weak, scattering o r h i d i n g in fright . . . T h o s e w h o did receive us c o u l d p r o v i d e hardly a n y t h i n g . T h e y themselves l o o k e d as if t h e y w o u l d willingly die. T h e y b r o u g h t us blankets t h e y h a d c o n c e a l e d from t h e
other
C h r i s t i a n s a n d told us h o w t h e latter h a d c o m e t h r o u g h r a z i n g their t o w n s a n d c a r r y i n g off half t h e m e n a n d all the
women
and
boys; those w h o
had
escaped
were
w a n d e r i n g a b o u t as fugitives. W e f o u n d t h e survivors t o o a l a r m e d t o stay a n y w h e r e v e r y l o n g , u n a b l e o r u n w i l l i n g t o till [their fields], p r e f e r r i n g d e a t h t o a r e p e t i t i o n o f their recent horror. A few days later, travelling ahead of t h e m a i n procession, C a b e z a deVaca c a u g h t u p w i t h a party o f Spanish slavers. It was a strange, eerie, u n c o m f o r t a b l e confrontation, n o t least because C a b e z a de Vaca was facing t h e t y p e o f m a n h e used to be. T h e slavers sat o n their horses a n d stared for a l o n g t i m e , d u m b f o u n d e d b y t h e sight o f this n a k e d , b e a r d e d , s u n - d a r k e n e d m a n a n d his e n t o u r a g e o f Indians. T h e y said n o t h i n g , so C a b e z a d e Vaca w e n t forward t o i n t r o d u c e himself: 'I a m t h e King's treasu r e r . . . t h e N a r v a e z e x p e d i t i o n . . . eight years a m o n g t h e Indians . . . take m e t o y o u r captain.' F o r C a p t a i n D i e g o d e Alcaraz, t h e arrival o f C a b e z a de Vaca's procession l o o k e d like a g o d s e n d . His slaving e x p e d i t i o n h a d b e e n an i g n o m i n i o u s failure. T h e y h a d c a u g h t n o Indians, his m e n w e r e h u n g r y a n d e x h a u s t e d , a n d h e was at his w i t s ' e n d . W h a t p r o v i d e n c e to have six h u n d r e d Indians delivered o n a platter!
Ghost
43
Riders
W h e n C a b e z a de Vaca f o u n d o u t that Alcaraz i n t e n d e d
to
enslave his e n t o u r a g e h e was horrified. T h e s e Indians w e r e his converts a n d c o m p a n i o n s , n o t chattels t o b e caged a n d sold. T h e r e was a h o t a r g u m e n t , a n d C a b e z a d e Vaca s t o m p e d off in a rage, t a k i n g his procession w i t h h i m - ' t o t h i n k w e h a d g i v e n these Christians . . . c o w [buffalo] hides!' Later, C a p t a i n Alcaraz called a conference, a n d C a b e z a de Vaca a n d his e n t o u r a g e g a t h e r e d a r o u n d t o h e a r his w o r d s . S p e a k i n g t h r o u g h an interpreter, Alcaraz told t h e Indians that t h e C h i l d r e n o f t h e S u n w e r e n o t gods, b u t m e n like himself w h o h a d b e e n l o n g lost, a n d w e r e n o w i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l . T h e Indians w e r e h a v i n g n o n e o f it. Conferring
among
themselves,
they
replied
that
the
Christians lied: w e h a d c o m e from t h e sunrise, they from t h e sunset; w e healed t h e sick, t h e y killed t h e s o u n d ; w e c a m e n a k e d a n d barefoot, t h e y c l o t h e d , h o r s e d , a n d lanced; w e coveted n o t h i n g b u t gave w h a t e v e r w e w e r e given, w h i l e they robbed w h o m e v e r they found and bestowed nothing on anyone. T h i s stands as an e l o q u e n t s u m m a r y of C a b e z a deVaca's odyssey of transformation
in N o r t h America. T h e conquistador
had
b e c o m e a m a n o f peace, a healer. T h e g r a n d s o n o f a slaver h a d b e c o m e a d e f e n d e r o f Indians. In t h e w e e k s to c o m e h e w r a n gled w i t h t h e colonial b u r e a u c r a c y a n d m a n a g e d to p u t a stop t o t h e slaving, t h e killing a n d t h e stealing of Indian lands (a t e m p o r ary respite, as it t u r n e d o u t , before even w o r s e abuses). At t h e same t i m e , C a b e z a de Vaca was g o i n g t h r o u g h a personal struggle. F o r eight years a n d probably six t h o u s a n d barefoot miles, as slave, m e r c h a n t a n d healer, h e had w a n d e r e d t h r o u g h t h e w i l d e r ness a n d d r e a m e d o f r e t u r n i n g t o civilisation. N o w h e h a d finally r e a c h e d it, this s h i n i n g destination in his m i n d , a n d h e felt like an alien. H e was s h o c k e d b y t h e brutality o f his c o u n t r y m e n , b u t t h e r e w e r e m o r e m u n d a n e , a n d perhaps m o r e revealing, examples of h o w m u c h h e had changed. H e c o u l d n ' t stand t h e feeling o f c l o t h i n g o n his skin, o r shoes
Richard Grant
44
o n his feet, a n d h e was u n a b l e to sleep in a b e d . H e lay d o w n o n t h e floor at night, n e x t t o t h e bed, a n d w r a p p e d himself i n a buffalo h i d e . Adventures
in the Unknown
Interior has never b e e n w i d e l y read, a n d
o n e c a n n o t credit it w i t h influencing later A m e r i c a n literature, o r habits o f m i n d . Its t h e m e s - t h e epic, searching j o u r n e y towards t h e sunset, spiritual transformation in t h e w i l d e r n e s s , t h e h o p e o f building a n e w
and better world — seem
characteristically
A m e r i c a n because, i n a way, C a b e z a de Vaca h a d b e c o m e
an
A m e r i c a n b y t h e t i m e h e w r o t e it. H e h a d b e e n t h r o u g h an odyssey that was n o t possible in E u r o p e , a n d b y t h e e n d o f it h e n o l o n g e r t h o u g h t o r b e h a v e d like a E u r o p e a n . In a sense, h e h a d b e e n c o n q u e r e d by A m e r i c a . Like so m a n y fictional A m e r i c a n w a n d e r e r s after h i m , C a b e z a deVaca f o u n d a m e a s u r e o f b r o t h e r h o o d a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g across t h e racial divide, a n d n o t j u s t w i t h Indians. T h e figure o f Estevan, t h e hero's dusky travelling c o m p a n i o n , recurs again a n d again in A m e r i c a n literature: H u c k a n d J i m , Ishmael a n d Q u e e q u e e g , N a t t y B u m p p o a n d C h i n g a c h g o o k , all t h e way t o T o n t o a n d t h e L o n e R a n g e r , a n d H u n t e r S. T h o m p s o n a n d his t h r e e - h u n d r e d - p o u n d S a m o a n attorney. H o w p e r m a n e n t was his transformation? W h a t b e c a m e o f t h e failed c o n q u i s t a d o r in t h e end? In 1537 C a b e z a d e V a c a r e t u r n e d t o Spain a n d c o u l d n ' t wait t o leave. H e felt uneasy a n d confined in walled cities, c o u r t gossip left h i m cold, a n d h e never did get used to w e a r i n g shoes again. H i s only a m b i t i o n was t o r e t u r n t o the Americas. In 1 5 4 0 , after t h r e e years of l o b b y i n g , h e m a n a g e d t o get c o m m a n d of an e x p e d i t i o n t o Paraguay: t h e b e l e a g u e r e d Spanish o u t p o s t at A s u n c i o n n e e d e d saving. H e l a n d e d o n t h e coast o f Brazil, w h e r e ships w e r e w a i t i n g t o take h i m o n t h e established sea r o u t e via B u e n o s Aires a n d u p t h e rivers. Instead, C a b e z a d e V a c a t o o k off his shoes a n d led his m e n o n a t h o u s a n d - m i l e w a l k overland, t h r o u g h a tangled hell o f j u n g l e , m o u n t a i n s a n d cannibal villages that was t h o u g h t t o b e impassable — killing n o Indians a n d losing n o n e o f his m e n a l o n g t h e
Ghost
Riders
way. T h e n e x t year h e m a d e a n o t h e r t h o u s a n d - m i l e
45 barefoot
m a r c h , a n d w o u l d have k e p t g o i n g if his m e n h a d n ' t t h r e a t e n e d t o mutiny. In 1 5 4 3 C a b e z a de Vaca was sent back t o Spain in chains for t r y i n g t o p r e v e n t t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f Paraguayan Indians. N o m o n u m e n t stands t o h i m in either c o n t i n e n t .
CHAPTER 3 W h e n t h e virus o f restlessness begins to take possession o f a w a y w a r d m a n , a n d t h e r o a d from H e r e seems b r o a d a n d straight a n d sweet, t h e v i c t i m m u s t find in himself a g o o d a n d sufficient reason for g o i n g . J o h n S t e i n b e c k , Travels with
T
Charley
en miles o u t from t h e nearest t o w n , B.J. walks a l o n g t h e side o f t h e highway, following t h e footprints o f o t h e r desert
travellers: l u g - s o l e d b o o t s , a pair o f w o r n - o u t sneakers, a M e x i c a n in tyre-tread sandals, a splay-footed m a n in c o w b o y b o o t s . B e n e a t h t h e asphalt o f this West Texas h i g h w a y lies an Indian trail t h o u sands o f years old, w h i c h m a y have b e e n travelled by C a b e z a de Vaca and his procession - n o t that B.J. M c H e n r y k n o w s a n y t h i n g a b o u t it, o r c o u l d give a rat's ass. His eyes scan t h e roadside dust a n d grit, t h e weeds a n d t h e t u m b l e w e e d s , t h e scattered mosaic o f tiny b o t t l e shards. A t h u n d e r s t o r m c a m e t h r o u g h h e r e last n i g h t , b r i n g i n g heavy rains a n d h i g h w i n d s , w h i c h m e a n s that all four sets o f tracks w e r e laid d o w n today. W h a t are all these p e o p l e d o i n g o u t h e r e o n foot, c r o w d i n g u p t h e roadside? H o w far does a m a n have t o w a l k t o find a little solitude these days? It's t h e same story all over: t o o m a n y train tramps r i d i n g t h e rails, t o o m a n y road tramps w o r k i n g t h e highways, a n d w e t b a c k M e x i c a n s all over the g o d d a m n place. B.J. doesn't like Mexicans. H e calls himself a tramp, b u t w i t h a few exceptions - e x p e r i e n c e d professional m e n like himself -
he
Richard Grant
48
d o e s n ' t like t r a m p s either. Lazy, worthless b u m s — w h y d o n ' t they get a j o b ? W h y d o n ' t s o m e o f these losers t r y w o r k i n g for a living, for a c h a n g e , a n d get t h e hell off his road? B.J. doesn't appreciate t h e c o m p a n y , even in f o o t p r i n t f o r m , a n d h e doesn't n e e d t h e competition. As h e walks along, g r o u s i n g over t h e tracks, h e retains a l o w level, habitual alertness for rattlesnakes, a n d objects flung o u t o f car w i n d o w s . H e is a m a z e d at s o m e o f t h e things p e o p l e t h r o w away: pistols, p o c k e t knives, w e d d i n g rings, necklaces, bags o f w e e d , wraps o f coke, u n t o u c h e d cheeseburgers, u n s m o k e d packs o f cigarettes. O n c e h e c a m e across a tie, a suit j a c k e t , a shirt, a left shoe, t h e n a r i g h t shoe, t h e n t h e suit trousers, s t r u n g o u t along five miles o f interstate in t h e M o j a v e D e s e r t . H e collected t h e outfit, tried t o sell it, a n d e n d e d u p trading it p i e c e m e a l to a b u n c h o f train tramps in t h e S t o c k t o n yards. S o m e t i m e s a driver will b r a k e a n d swerve, perhaps avoiding a deer, a n d t h e loose objects o n his d a s h b o a r d will slide o u t o f t h e o p e n w i n d o w o n t h e passenger side; snackfood, cigarettes a n d lighters mostly, b u t occasionally a wallet, o r a credit card, o r a m o n e y clip. B.J. has seen it h a p p e n , t h e wallet falling in his p a t h like a gift from t h e road. O n c e h e tried to recreate t h e m o m e n t b y d r a g g i n g a roadkilled deer carcass from t h e verge o f t h e i n t e r state i n t o t h e outside lane. W a i t i n g in t h e w e e d s , B.J. w a t c h e d p l e n t y o f drivers m a k e t h e c o r r e c t b r a k e a n d swerve m a n o e u v r e b u t n o t h i n g c a m e flying o u t o f t h e w i n d o w s , n o t even a p a c k o f cigarettes or a stick o f g u m . H e w a i t e d t h e r e for a c o u p l e o f h o u r s a n d t h e n gave up, c a r v i n g himself off a venison steak a n d roasting it o n a campfire u n d e r a b r i d g e . At least h e slept o n a full belly that n i g h t , so n o c o m p l a i n t s . T h e road has its p a t t e r n s a n d m o o d s , its r u n s o f g o o d a n d b a d f o r t u n e , b u t they are h a r d t o predict in advance, and seemingly impossible t o influence. F r o m w h a t h e can r e m e m b e r , casting his m i n d b a c k across a d e c a d e o r m o r e , living w i t h a w o m a n is m u c h t h e same way. F o r t w o o r t h r e e w e e k s e v e r y t h i n g rolls a l o n g s m o o t h a n d easy. You get a ride w h e n y o u w a n t o n e , meals w h e n y o u ' r e h u n g r y , tens a n d twenties for b e e r a n d t o b a c c o , w i t h o u t even asking, a n d s o m e t i m e s a little gift o r t r i n k e t as a sweetener.
Ghost
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T h e n , w i t h little or n o w a r n i n g , t h e r o a d will w i t h d r a w its favours a n d start acting m e a n a n d hostile. You will find yourself stranded o n a r e m o t e desert highway, w a i t i n g t w o o r t h r e e days for a ride. You will get c a u g h t o u t in a l i g h t n i n g s t o r m , o r a blizzard, o r a t o r n a d o , w i t h n o b r i d g e or culvert for shelter. O v e r t h e years, B.J. has b e e n strafed b y s a n d s t o r m s , p e l t e d w i t h giant hailstones, shoved o u t o f m o v i n g vehicles, t h r o w n o u t o f m o v i n g boxcars, stabbed, r o b b e d , b e a t e n a n d jailed, a n d hit in t h e h e a d by flying b e e r bottles, w h i c h is t h e o n e t h i n g that really pisses h i m off. M o s t drivers w h o t h r o w their empties o u t o f t h e w i n d o w d o so w i t h o u t l o o k i n g , o r t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e consequences, w h i c h is aggravating e n o u g h w h e n you're o n t h e receiving end. B u t every n o w and t h e n , as B.J. is walking along t h e highway, m i n d i n g his o w n business, s o m e o n e will lean o u t o f t h e passenger w i n d o w of a passing vehicle and take deliberate aim at t h e back of his head. T h e old A m e r i c a n c o n t e m p t for a m a n afoot . . . B.J. has g o t scars and l u m p s o n his skull to prove it, and a h a l f - m o o n scar o n his face, c u r v i n g d o w n from his t e m p l e and a r o u n d his left c h e e k b o n e . To all y o u b o t t l e - t h r o w i n g m o t o r i s t s o u t t h e r e : B.J. wants t o k n o w if y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e velocities involved. If a vehicle is travelling seventy-five miles an h o u r , h e has calculated, an e m p t y b e e r b o t t l e t h r o w n forward o u t o f that same vehicle is p r o b a b l y d o i n g sixty w h e n it smashes i n t o his skull and m a y b e m o r e if t h e guy's g o t a g o o d t h r o w i n g a r m . B.J. has b e e n hit in t h e h e a d t h r e e times, n o t i n c l u d i n g glancing b l o w s . O n all t h r e e occasions h e was k n o c k e d u n c o n s c i o u s , w o k e u p n e e d i n g stitches, a n d h a d a hell o f a t i m e g e t t i n g t o t h e nearest hospital. It's a rare driver w h o ' l l pick u p a big, hairy, w i l d - l o o k i n g r o a d t r a m p w h e n he's covered in b l o o d . N o w he's in t h e habit o f t u r n i n g his h e a d w h e n h e hears a vehicle c o m i n g u p b e h i n d h i m and c h e c k i n g over his left s h o u l d e r for i n c o m i n g . If y o u see t h e b o t d e as it leaves t h e w i n d o w , there's j u s t e n o u g h t i m e to d u c k , or hit t h e deck, if y o u n e e d to. M o s t guys t e n d to t h r o w a little high and left, especially from p i c k - u p t r u c k s , b u t t h e r e are s o m e d e a d - e y e m a r k s m e n o u t o n t h e roads, especially in t h e S o u t h and t h e S o u t h w e s t . B.J. has seen t h e m
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practising, h o n i n g their a i m b y t h r o w i n g b e e r b o t d e s at t h e h i g h w a y signs. B.J. picks t h e lice from his scalp, his chest hair, his l o n g , g r e y i n g p r o p h e t ' s beard, a n d flicks t h e m o u t o f t h e w i n d o w of m y rental car. H e is a tall, b r o a d - s h o u l d e r e d , r a w - b o n e d m a n , t o u g h - l o o k i n g and ornery. T h e r e are fresh scabs and bruises o n his scarred, leathery face. His n o s e is b r u i s e d a n d swollen, a n d I w o u l d guess that it's probably b r o k e n , a l t h o u g h n o t for t h e first t i m e . I p i c k e d h i m u p an h o u r ago, o n t h e arid plains west o f B i g S p r i n g , Texas, a n d he's b e e n talking ever since — a gruff, profane, b a d - t e m p e r e d stream o f consciousness. ' A lot o f guys will s h o o t o u t t h e h i g h w a y signs, too,' h e says. ' B u t I've b e e n o n t h e road d a m n near t w e n t y years a n d n o m o t h e r fucker has tried to s h o o t m e yet. If y o u w a n t t o kill m e , take a g o d d a m n shot at m e ! D o n ' t fuck a r o u n d w i t h these g o d d a m n b e e r bottles and d o it b y accident!' H e gives off a stale, sour, s m o k y smell, r e d o l e n t o f beer, sweat, t o b a c c o a n d campfires, and a l o n g , h o t stretch o f road b e t w e e n h e r e a n d t h e last shower. H e is w e a r i n g a r m y - s u r p l u s pants, an old d e n i m shirt, a m a l a c h i t e necklace, a n d a black, s w e a t - r i m e d H a r l e y D a v i d s o n cap, w h i c h h e lifts from t i m e t o t i m e , t o scratch at his scalp a n d h u n t u p a n o t h e r louse. H i s hair is a l o n g , greasy, w i n d - t a n g l e d m a n e , fanning o u t from t h e sides o f t h e cap. H i s eyes are a sun-faded blue, framed i n t o small triangles by his eyelids, a n d they carry a wary, h a u n t e d , feral expression, w i t h n o trace o f w a r m t h o r h u m o u r that I can see. Since V i e t n a m , h e says, h e hasn't spent m o r e t h a n n i n e t y c o n s e c utive days in t h e same place. O n e way a n d a n o t h e r , that has b e e n his limit. In t h e late 1970s h e spent t h r e e m o n t h s w i t h a w o m a n in Dallas, living off h e r earnings in t h e d r u g trade, until she w e n t nuts and k i c k e d h i m o u t (or B.J. drove h e r crazy). H e spent t h r e e m o n t h s w i t h a divorcee in O k l a h o m a City, d r i n k i n g u p
her
alimony, until it g o t so crazy h e h a d t o leave. N i n e t y days in a Texas p r i s o n cell, for i n t e n t t o supply m a r i j u a n a a n d resisting arrest: he'd rather b e dead, o r b a c k in V i e t n a m , t h a n g o t h r o u g h that k i n d o f c o n f i n e m e n t again.
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H e g r e w u p i n V e r m o n t , N e w H a m p s h i r e a n d upstate N e w York, b u t h e stays west o f t h e Appalachians these days, a n d mostly west o f t h e Mississippi, a n d his a c c e n t has slipped i n t o t h e c h a r acteristic rasping drawl o f t h e W e s t e r n r o a d t r a m p . T h e r e are t o o m a n y p e o p l e b a c k East, h e says. T o o m u c h l a w a n d order, a n d t h e w i n t e r s will freeze y o u r nuts off. ' W h e r e are y o u h e a d e d ? ' I ask h i m . ' P h o e n i x , m o s t probably,' h e says.'There's a m o u n t a i n near t h e r e w h e r e y o u can b u y I n d i a n j e w e l l e r y real cheap, a n d sell it for big b u c k s in California.' T h e n h e decides o n E l Paso, w h e r e a veteran's c h e q u e may, o r m a y n o t , b e retrievable from a l o n g - d o r m a n t b a n k a c c o u n t . T h e n A l b u q u e r q u e , t h e n San D i e g o , o r m a y b e W a s h i n g t o n State before t h e w i n t e r rains set in. There's a cafe in Seattle, 1900 miles from here, w h i c h gives o u t free coffee t o t h e h o m e l e s s o n Sunday mornings. ' D o y o u ever get lonely?' I ask h i m . ' D o y o u get l o n e l y for women?' ' W o m e n ain't w o r t h t h e g o d d a m n trouble,' h e growls. 'I had an old lady a c o u p l e o f years back. W e t r a m p e d t o g e t h e r o n t h e rails for a w h i l e , until t h e crazy fuckin' b i t c h tried to stab m e o n e n i g h t w h e n she was d r u n k . I d o n ' t even fool w i t h w o m e n n o m o r e . T h e y ain't w o r t h it.' He's given u p r i d i n g t h e rails t o o , because o f t h e g a n g v i o l e n c e circulating a r o u n d t h e F T R j \ , t h e Freight Train R i d e r s o f A m e r i c a — t h e ' h o b o mafia', as t h e n e w s p a p e r s call t h e m . T h e FTPvA is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t d r u n k e n , s t o n e d and shambolic c r i m i n a l o r g a n isation in A m e r i c a , and certainly t h e p o o r e s t , b u t it has b e e n c r e d ited w i t h m o r e t h a n a d o z e n m u r d e r s in t h e last five years, a n d scores o f beatings. Last s u m m e r B.J. h e a r d a r u m o u r that t h e F T R A ' s ' g o o n squad' was l o o k i n g for h i m , a n d he's b e e n sticking to t h e roads ever since. H e calls himself a r u b b e r t r a m p now, h i t c h i n g his rides a r o u n d t h e country, a n d d o i n g a lot o f w a l k i n g in b e t w e e n . M o s t tramps h a t e t o walk, b u t B.J. gets antsy and resdess, standing t h e r e o n t h e same p a t c h o f roadside w i t h his t h u m b o u t , w a i t i n g for t h e n e x t r i d e t o c o m e along. H e ' d rather set o u t o n foot a n d feel like he's m a k i n g s o m e progress, a n d s o m e days he'd rather w a l k
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t h a n ride. Drivers always w a n t conversation, w h i c h is fine w h e n he's in t h e m o o d for talking, b u t s o m e days h e doesn't even w a n t t o see a n o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g . It's b e e n nearly a year since his last sexual e n c o u n t e r (a brief, d r u n k e n g r a p p l i n g w i t h a t r a m p w o m a n in Sturgis, S o u t h D a k o t a ) , a n d four o r five m o n t h s since h e slept in a bed. Walls, ceilings, d o o r s , beds: they've g o t t h e m in jails, they've got t h e m in houses and m o t e l r o o m s . After a few h o u r s i n t h e same building, h e starts feeling t w i t c h y a n d claustrophobic, b u t h e can m a k e four o r five days in a h o m e l e s s shelter, if t h e w e a t h e r is b a d e n o u g h , o r a veteran's hospital, if h e is t o o s t o v e d - u p t o travel. N i n e t y days in a Texas p r i s o n cell . . . it drove his cellmates crazy b u t B.J. c o u l d n ' t h e l p himself, p a c i n g u p and d o w n t h e tiny cage at night. B e d s give h i m 'bad dreams', V i e t n a m dreams. Sleeping sober gives h i m b a d d r e a m s , if h e can sleep at all. A b o t t l e , a h a n d rolled cigarette and a full belly t w i c e a day, a r o o f o f stars and t h e road: this is all h e wants from t h e w o r l d , this is h o w h e keeps his m i n d from unravelling. H e k n o w s the roads a n d rails o f t h e West as well as a n y o n e I've ever m e t . N a m e any t o w n o n a m a j o r highway, a n d B.J. can tell y o u w h i c h restaurant d u m p s t e r t o raid for food, t h e cheapest place to b u y b e e r a n d T e n H i g h whiskey, t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e mission and thrift store, t h e disposition o f t h e local cops and railroad police, w h i c h c h u r c h e s are g o o d for a h a n d - o u t a n d w h i c h are likely to call t h e law, t h e best place to catch an u n d i s t u r b e d night's sleep, and w h e r e to h i t c h a r i d e o r h o p a freight train o u t o f there. As w e drive across t h e emptiness o f West Texas, h e p o i n t s o u t obscure r a n c h roads a n d dirt tracks. T h i s o n e leads t o a railroad s w i t c h i n g p o i n t , w h e r e y o u can catch o u t o n a s l o w - m o v i n g freight to San A n t o n i o . T h a t o n e leads t o a l o w hill in t h e distance, w h e r e you can dig u p quartz and o t h e r saleable minerals, b u t w a t c h o u t for t h e r a n c h e r w h o o w n s t h e land, a n d slow d o w n here, b e c a u s e there's a dip in t h e r o a d u p a h e a d w h e r e t h e h i g h w a y patrol cars like to h i d e . N e v e r take a sip o n y o u r b e e r w h e n you're passing a t r u c k o r a t r u c k is passing y o u . T o o m a n y t r u c k e r s these days are enrolled in h i g h w a y snitch p r o g r a m m e s , l o o k i n g for cash
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rewards a n d b r o w n i e p o i n t s by calling in violations t o t h e h i g h w a y patrol. If y o u find yourself h u n g r y in t h e desert, rattlesnake is t h e easiest m e a t t o kill. ' F i n d y o u a b i g o f rattler and smash his head i n w i t h a fuckin' rock, that's w h a t I say. S n a k e m e a t ain't b a d w h e n it's fresh. P e o p l e say it tastes like c h i c k e n , b u t it tastes like fuckin' snake to m e . H a h ! G o t t a b e careful o f t h e m p o i s o n sacs t h o u g h . You b e t y o u r ass. C u t y o u a g o o d six, seven inches off t h e h e a d e n d , that's m y rule, a n d m a k e sure that snake d o n ' t bite hisself w h e n you're killin' him.' B.J. is a m i n e o f useful i n f o r m a t i o n , a t o u g h ,
competent,
resourceful m a n , b u t t h e r e is an air o f b r o o d i n g , unstable v i o l e n c e a b o u t h i m , a n d it d o e s n ' t require a great leap o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n to p i c t u r e h i m p u l l i n g a w e a p o n — his s n a k e - b u t c h e r i n g knife, p e r h a p s , o r o n e of those h a n d g u n s h e f o u n d b y t h e side o f t h e road. H a l f t h e time, h e stares o u t o f t h e w i n d o w , lost in his stream o f consciousness, as if he's talking to himself a n d has f o r g o t t e n that I ' m sitting n e x t to h i m . T h e n s o m e t h i n g in his t h o u g h t s will trip a trigger. H e will t u r n his h e a d and b o r e his eyes i n t o m i n e , w i t h a s u d d e n , fierce intensity, as if d e m a n d i n g a s h o w o f a g r e e m e n t o r respect. I n o d along, t r y i n g t o l o o k sufficiently grave a n d i m p r e s s e d , a n d w o n d e r i n g h o w t o get r i d o f h i m w i t h
the
m i n i m u m o f trouble. M a y b e sensing m y t h o u g h t s , h e pulls o u t a small, rusty p e n k n i f e a n d lays it d o w n o n t h e dashboard. 'I f o u n d this ' u n o n t h e road back there,' h e says. 'I r e c k o n y o u can keep it, or sell it, o r h a n d it in as lost property, w h a t e v e r y o u w a n t . I can't have n o w e a p o n s o n m e in case I get s t o p p e d and searched by t h e cops, and they try a n d p i n s o m e bullshit o n m e . It ain't r i g h t b u t that's t h e w a y it is.' T h e p e n k n i f e settles m e d o w n a little. It w o u l d b e an o d d s e q u e n c e of events for h i m t o pull a g u n now, o r a b i g g e r knife. T h e n h e goes off i n t o a n o t h e r a n g r y m o n o l o g u e : police harassm e n t , vagrancy laws, t h e g o d d a m n federal g o v e r n m e n t , t h e various beatings h e has suffered over t h e years at t h e hands o f cops a n d jailers and railroad police, and his small t r i u m p h s o f v e n g e a n c e , exacted d u r i n g fights w i t h o t h e r t r a m p s .
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Richard Grant I ask h i m a b o u t t h e scabs a n d bruises o n his face. Was it cops,
t r a m p s or flying b e e r bottles? H e t u r n s his h e a d , t h e eyes z o o m in, h e bares his t e e t h in a snarl — 'I g o t rolled by a b u n c h o f fuckin' niggers in H o u s t o n ! M o t h e r f u c k e r s j u m p e d m e , stole m y bedroll, stole all m y shit, b r o k e m y m o t h e r f u c k i n ' nose, m a n ! F u c k i n ' niggers fucked m y shit u p ! If there's o n e t h i n g I hate in this w o r l d , it's a fuckin' nigger, and I hate a fuckin' Texas n i g g e r w o r s t o f all.' ' C o m e on,' I say, 'I was b e a t e n u p a n d r o b b e d b y a black g u y o n c e . I d o n ' t h o l d it against all t h e black p e o p l e w h o didn't rob m e . I've b e e n b e a t e n u p b y w h i t e guys t o o , and so have y o u . Assholes c o m e in all colours, so w h y discriminate?' T h a t doesn't d o any g o o d . I d o n ' t know niggers like h e k n o w s niggers. U n t i l you've b e e n in p r i s o n w i t h a nigger, y o u d o n ' t k n o w w h a t he's really like and so o n , a n d so forth. I try t o c h a n g e t h e subject b u t that doesn't d o any g o o d either. B.J. is l o c k e d i n t o his tirade now, v e n t i n g all his h a t r e d at t h e w o r l d — 'Prison's t o o g o o d for ' e m ! It's m o r e t h a n a w h i t e m a n should have to bear, t o b e l o c k e d up w i t h those animals.' I t r y to b e a tolerant p e r s o n . A n d after t w e n t y m i n u t e s of B.J.'s rant, in a flash o f t e m p e r a n d a v i o l e n t desire to slam m y e l b o w i n t o his eye-socket, I find the limit o f m y tolerance. 'Look,' I tell h i m , s l a m m i n g o n t h e brakes i n s t e a d , ' I d o n ' t w a n t t o h e a r this any m o r e . T h i s is as far as t h e r i d e goes.' I turf h i m o u t o n t h e e d g e o f Pecos, Texas. Yelling a n d cursing his defiance, flipping m e t h e finger, B.J. M c H e n r y shrinks a n d disappears in t h e r e a r - v i e w m i r r o r . It's a rueful t h o u g h t now, b u t I r e n t e d this car w i t h t h e i n t e n tion o f retracing C a b e z a de Vaca's j o u r n e y across t h e S o u t h w e s t . Historical reverie, that was t h e general idea. B y crossing t h e same g r o u n d — w a t c h i n g t h e landscape b r o a d e n a n d unfurl towards t h e sunset, c a m p i n g at s o m e o f t h e same rivers and springs, smelling t h e same w o o d s m o k e at night, u n d e r t h e same stars - t h e c e n t u r i e s w o u l d dissolve away a n d t h e old narrative w o u l d c o m e to life in m y mind's eye. T h a t was t h e plan, d r e a m y and q u i x o t i c , a n d n o w it lies t h o r o u g h l y m a n g l e d .
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I n t h e first place, I h a d o v e r l o o k e d an u n f o r t u n a t e b u t f u n d a m e n t a l fact o f travel in p r e s e n t - d a y Texas. T h e r e are t o w n s n o w o n m a n y o f t h e o l d springs a n d river crossings, a n d j u s t a b o u t all t h e land in b e t w e e n — all that big, inviting, w i d e - o p e n space — is privately o w n e d . I've b e e n spoiled b y t h e states further west, w h i c h still c o n t a i n h u g e tracts o f p u b l i c land. I ' m a c c u s t o m e d t o finding an obscure, u n f e n c e d dirt r o a d at sunset, leading off i n t o t h e b a c k country, w h e r e a traveller can m a k e a fire a n d sleep n e x t t o it w i t h o u t p a y i n g any fees o r asking anyone's p e r m i s s i o n . T r y that in Texas and y o u r u n t h e risk o f b e i n g w o k e n u p by s o m e irate r a n c h e r in t h e m o r n i n g , w i t h t h e legal a n d G o d - g i v e n r i g h t t o s h o o t any trespassers o n his property. If y o u ' r e o n foot and h i t c h h i k i n g , it's easy e n o u g h to d u c k u n d e r a fence a n d find a s e c l u d e d w a s h s o m e w h e r e , w i t h d e e p e n o u g h b a n k s t o c o n c e a l a fire, b u t it's h a r d to trespass i n c o g n i t o in a shiny w h i t e rental car. So I've b e e n sleeping o n t h e backseat at n i g h t , p a r k e d outside motels and t w e n t y - f o u r - h o u r superstores. I've b e e n d r i v i n g t h e interstate c o r r i d o r s m o s t o f t h e way, eating at franchise restaurants, refuelling at franchise gas stations, travelling towards t h e sunset in a r a n d o m , d i s c o n n e c t e d procession o f cars, trucks, m o t o r b i k e s a n d m o t o r h o m e s . T h e r e have b e e n a few stretches o f historical reverie, t h r o u g h a w i n d s h i e l d at seventy-five miles an h o u r , b u t m y t h o u g h t s a n d m y n o t e b o o k s have b e e n p r e o c c u p i e d by t h e m o d e r n roadscape, and t h e h i t c h - h i k e r s I've p i c k e d u p
along
t h e way. Endless i m p a l i n g stories . . . J i m m y used to b e an oilfield r o u g h n e c k , a c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k e r , a t r u c k driver, a h u n t i n g guide, a fishing guide, a m o v i e s t u n t m a n , or so h e says. N o w h e has prospects in San A n t o n i o , w o r k i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n for a friend's uncle. H e tells t h e stories w i t h a k i n d o f appalled glee. A g u y falls from a h i g h p l a t f o r m at an oil refinery in B e a u m o n t , T e x a s , a n d impales himself o n a scaffolding pole. H o w a b o u t that? In N e w O r l e a n s , h e sees a m a n r u n t h r o u g h w i t h a s w o r d - c a n e in a bar. Story after story: birds impaled o n cactus spines after a w i n d s t o r m , h u n t i n g accidents w i t h crossbows, a h a r p o o n i n g accident off t h e coast o f Florida. H e tells a story a b o u t a skewered t r u c k driver that I've
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h e a r d before — a h i g h w a y l e g e n d , I suspect — b u t J i m m y says h e saw it u p close and personal. 'A few years b a c k , I was h a u l i n g a load west o n I - 1 0 , a b o u t t w e n t y miles o u t from T u c s o n , a n d I c o m e up o n this b i g o l d w r e c k in t h e highway. T h e r e was t w o s m a s h e d - u p cars and a semi g o n e off t h e road and a l o a d o f t w e n t y - f o o t steel p i p e all over t h e highway. T h e cops w e r e n ' t t h e r e yet so I g o t o u t o f m y rig a n d w e n t u p t o t h e semi t o c h e c k o n t h e driver. H e was a black g u y a n d I saw r i g h t away w h a t m u s t have h a p p e n e d . O n e of those t w e n t y - f o o t pipes h e was h a u l i n g m u s t have c o m e loose, w h e n h e s l a m m e d o n t h e brakes m o s t probably. It had g o n e r i g h t t h r o u g h t h e b a c k o f t h e cab, speared h i m t h r o u g h his b a c k , c o m e o u t his chest, a n d t h e e n d o f it was sticking into t h e dashboard. A n d get this: h e was still alive. H e was alive b u t t h e r e was n o way h e c o u l d move! T h e p o o r bastard was j u s t pinned there! So I says to h i m , " O h m a n , o h buddy, I ' m sorry. I ' m sorry b u d d y b u t y o u ' r e fucked." That's w h a t I told h i m a n d it was t h e last t h i n g h e heard before h e died.' It's always difficult to assess t h e level o f t r u t h , if any, in a story told by a c h a n c e a c q u a i n t a n c e o n t h e road. I've heard t h e o n e a b o u t t h e i m p a l e d t r u c k driver six or seven times now. T h e l o c a tion, varies — A r i z o n a , N e w M e x i c o , California — t h e date varies from
yesterday t o eight o r t e n years ago, b u t t h e c o r e details
r e m a i n t h e same: steel p i p e , black trucker, p i n n e d to t h e dashb o a r d b u t still alive. A n d t h e narrator, or t h e narrator's close friend, is always t h e r e to offer a few b r u s q u e , c o n s o l i n g w o r d s at t h e m o m e n t o f death. Is it r o o t e d i n s o m e original factual i n c i d e n t , o r is it p u r e legend? D a m n e d if 1 k n o w , a n d I ' m n o t a b o u t to c h e c k b a c k t h r o u g h t e n years of h i g h w a y accident reports, in t h r e e different states, to find out.* So w h a t a b o u t B.J. M c H e n r y ? W h y treat h i m as a reliable * A r e p o r t i n t h e New York Times,
O c t o b e r 1 9 9 9 , refers t o a s t r e t c h o f 1-95
in
F l o r i d a as t h e ' i m p a l e m e n t c a p i t a l ' o f A m e r i c a , a n d cites t h r e e i n c i d e n t s i n w h i c h u n s e c u r e d m e t a l r o d s flew off t r u c k s a n d s k e w e r e d p a s s i n g m o t o r i s t s , p i n n i n g t h e m t o t h e i n s i d e o f t h e i r cars. A m a z i n g l y , n o n e o f t h e m o t o r i s t s d i e d f r o m injuries.
their
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narrator? Well, I can offer n o p r o o f to back u p a n y t h i n g h e said, b u t leaving aside t h e p a r t a b o u t blacks b e i n g s u b h u m a n , I believed m o s t o f it. T h e flying b e e r bottles, t h e snake-eating, t h e i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e o f roadside A m e r i c a , his troubles w i t h w o m e n a n d t h e law — it all s e e m e d t o j i b e w i t h his b a t t e r e d , scarred, feral a p p e a r ance, a n d w h a t I've seen a n d heard in m y o w n e x p e r i e n c e s o n t h e roads a n d rails. I've h a d bottles a n d b e e r cans t h r o w n at m e several times (all o f t h e m B u d Light d r i n k e r s , n o hits so far), and I've
heard
n u m e r o u s o t h e r t r a m p s c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t t h e practice. E a t i n g roadkill is so c o m m o n p l a c e that t h e r e are state and federal laws regulating t h e o w n e r s h i p o f t h e m e a t . In s o m e parts o f t h e c o u n t r y y o u are free t o take w h a t e v e r cow, m o o s e , deer, elk, a n t e l o p e o r smaller animal that y o u collided w i t h , o r f o u n d already dead o n t h e road. In o t h e r areas t h e practice is illegal, o r levied w i t h fees. E a t i n g rattlesnake is less c o m m o n , b u t I've h e a r d t h e
same
b u t c h e r i n g tips before, and I've eaten it myself, fixed u p into a chilli a n d served as a g i m m i c k i t e m in a s o u t h T e x a n restaurant. In San A n t o n i o I s t o p p e d off at t h e university library. T h e vicinity of San A n t o n i o , a c c o r d i n g to m y e d i t i o n o f C a b e z a deVaca's n a r r a tive (University o f N e w M e x i c o Press, 1997), was w h e r e h e t r a v elled w i t h t h e M a r i a m e s for t h e prickly pear harvest, escaped w i t h his c o m p a n i o n s , a n d b e g a n t h e l o n g sunset leg o f his -journey. T h a t was o n e o f t h e things I liked a b o u t t h e University o f N e w M e x i c o e d i t i o n . Interspliced w i t h t h e text is a detailed g e o g r a p h ical description o f C a b e z a deVaca's r o u t e , m a t c h e d against m o d e r n place n a m e s . It's a fine, u n d e r s t a t e d translation too, a n d I loved t h e n a m e o f t h e translator and editor: C y c l o n e Covey. S o m e o f t h e geographical references in t h e text s e e m e d a little v a g u e — 'a river w h i c h ran b e t w e e n m o u n t a i n s ' , a n d so o n — b u t C y c l o n e C o v e y p u t m y d o u b t s t o rest in his preface. C a b e z a de Vaca's r o u t e was discovered in t h e 1930s by Carl Sauer a n d C l e v e H a l l e n b e c k , t h e t w o leading S o u t h w e s t e r n trail historians o f their era. W o r k i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f each other, they f o u n d that t h e procession h a d travelled, for t h e m o s t part, o n t h e established Indian trails across t h e S o u t h w e s t — trails that w e r e still traceable
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i n t h e 1930s. ' T h e t h o r o u g h w o r k o f these t w o
distinguished
professors,' w r o t e Covey, 'plus that o f i n n u m e r a b l e o t h e r s in such disciplines as a r c h e o l o g y , a n t h r o p o l o g y , c a r t o g r a p h y , geology, climatology, botany, zoology, a n d history, has given surprisingly sharp definition t o m u c h o f t h e old narrative . . . H a l l e n b e c k , in fact, i n c o r p o r a t e s a n d supersedes all p r e v i o u s scholarship o n t h e subject.' T h a t sold m e o n t h e r o u t e , b u t I was still c u r i o u s to k n o w h o w t h e experts h a d m a p p e d it o u t so precisely. At t h e San A n t o n i o library, I f o u n d H a l l e n b e c k s b o o k . It was a simple process o f d e d u c t i o n , h e a r g u e d . T h e r e w e r e o n l y a few practicable trails by w h i c h a procession o f t h o u s a n d s c o u l d have crossed t h e plains a n d deserts w i t h o u t d y i n g o f thirst. H a l l e n b e c k h a d d r i v e n , w a l k e d a n d c a m p e d o u t o n all o f these trails, a n d t h e r e was o n l y o n e that m a t c h e d t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d b o t a n i c a l references i n C a b e z a de Vaca's narrative, a n d t h e j o i n t narrative h e w r o t e w i t h D o r a n t e s a n d Castillo. Like m o s t I n d i a n trails, it was originally w o r n b y m i g r a t i n g g a m e , a n d it m a d e t h e best possible use o f t h e far-flung rivers a n d springs. T h e n I found two m o r e books, and a n u m b e r of j o u r n a l articles, w h i c h suggested that H a l l e n b e c k s r o u t e is n o w regarded as s o m e t h i n g o f a j o k e a m o n g C a b e z a d e V a c a scholars. H a l l e n b e c k keeps t h e procession n o r t h o f t h e p r e s e n t - d a y M e x i c a n b o r d e r , all t h e w a y across Texas, N e w M e x i c o a n d i n t o A r i z o n a , t u r n i n g t h e m s o u t h i n t o M e x i c o at t h e last geographically conceivable m o m e n t . T h e suspicion in s o m e quarters is that H a l l e n b e c k s p a t r i otism, his eagerness t o claim C a b e z a deVaca as an A m e r i c a n h e r o , g o t t h e b e t t e r o f his scholarship. T h e l e a d i n g m o d e r n C a b e z a de Vaca scholar, D o n a l d C h i p m a n , places t h e r o u t e further s o u t h in t h e R i o G r a n d e country, l o o p i n g in a n d o u t ofTexas a n d p r e s e n t day M e x i c o , a n d p r o b a b l y n e v e r setting foot in N e w M e x i c o o r Arizona. I spent a l o n g , i r k s o m e a f t e r n o o n r e a d i n g t h r o u g h t h e d e b a t e , g e t t i n g b o g g e d d o w n in t h e arcane m i n u t i a e - t h e relative t h i c k ness o f p i h o n n u t shells in different m o u n t a i n ranges, t h e effect o f climate shifts o n t h e latitude o f p r i c k l y p e a r harvests, a n d so o n . I n all, six different routes have b e e n p r o p o s e d , w i t h H a l l e n b e c k
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at t h e n o r t h e r n limit a n d C h i p m a n at t h e s o u t h e r n , a n d e a c h r o u t e has attracted its o w n c a m p o f s u p p o r t e r s a n d d e t r a c t o r s . Ultimately, like t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w M e x i c o Press, I d e c i d e d t o i g n o r e t h e w h o l e controversy. I g o t b a c k b e h i n d t h e w h e e l and set o u t west o n a v a g u e a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f H a l l e n b e c k ' s r o u t e , m a i n l y b e c a u s e it h a d already b r o u g h t m e t o San A n t o n i o , 180 miles n o r t h o f t h e R i o G r a n d e , a n d b e c a u s e it's illegal t o drive this rental car across t h e M e x i c a n b o r d e r — a b o r d e r p u t i n place t h r e e h u n d r e d years after C a b e z a de Vaca. T h e trail historians will n e v e r agree o n t h e r o u t e , I suspect, b e c a u s e all o f t h e m are e x t r a p o l a t i n g from
the same
vague,
a m b i g u o u s set o f references, a n d besides, I ' m m o r e interested in t h e m e n t a l g e o g r a p h y o f C a b e z a de Vaca's trek, his e i g h t - y e a r j o u r n e y o u t o f t h e E u r o p e a n m i n d . It left h i m a b e t t e r m a n by o u r culture's r e c k o n i n g , if n o t his o w n , b u t w h y did it leave h i m so restless? I also read a b o u t his adventures in Paraguay — t h e epic b a r e foot j o u r n e y s i n t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s , u n d e r t a k e n against t h e a d v i c e o f his superiors, t h e pleas o f his m e n a n d all prevailing w i s d o m - as t h o u g h C a b e z a de Vaca h a d d e v e l o p e d a d r i v i n g p s y c h o l o g ical n e e d to g o o n t h o u s a n d - m i l e treks a m o n g t h e Indians. Was this a sign o f d a m a g e a n d d e r a n g e m e n t w r o u g h t by his e x p e r i ences i n N o r t h A m e r i c a ? S o m e o f his colleagues i n Paraguay t h o u g h t so — w h y else, for e x a m p l e , w o u l d h e p r o h i b i t t h e m from l o o t i n g , r a p i n g a n d enslaving t h e Indians a l o n g t h e way? I prefer to t h i n k t h a t C a b e z a de Vaca h a d f o u n d his calling in life, a n d d e c i d e d to follow it. T h e h i g h w a y crosses t h e Pecos R i v e r a n d arrows across t h e desert towards t h e R i o G r a n d e ; isolated m o u n t a i n ranges o n t h e h o r i z o n n o w , d a p p l e d w i t h s h a d o w s by t h e late a f t e r n o o n sun, and t h e w i d e desert valleys t u r n i n g gold. H e r e at least, in t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n c o r n e r o f Texas, t h e trail historians have r e a c h e d a b r o a d consensus. T h i s was t h e c o u n t r y o f t h e J u m a n o s , t h e s e m i - n o m a d i c h u n t e r s a n d r i v e r b a n k farmers w h o gave C a b e z a deVaca t h e buffalo hides h e b e c a m e so attached to.
60
Richard Grant T h e y are t h e best l o o k i n g p e o p l e w e saw, t h e strongest a n d m o s t energetic, a n d w h o m o s t readily u n d e r s t o o d us a n d a n s w e r e d o u r questions. W e called t h e m t h e ' C o w P e o p l e ' , because m o r e cattle are killed in their vicinity t h a n a n y w h e r e ; for m o r e t h a n fifty leagues u p that river they prey o n t h e cows.
T h e river m i g h t have b e e n t h e R i o G r a n d e , b u t t h e r e w e r e m a n y m o r e buffalo fifty leagues u p the Pecos, w h i c h flows a l o n g t h e western e d g e o f t h e Llano Estacado, t h e staked plains, the vast, uplifted, surreally flat plateau w h e r e buffalo o n c e r o a m e d in their millions a n d m o u n t e d C o m a n c h e s later established t h e purest n o m a d i c w a r r i o r culture in N o r t h A m e r i c a . It's m o s t l y i r r i g a t i o n f a r m i n g u p t h e r e t o d a y - w h e a t , c o t t o n , p a s t u r e d cattle - b u t s e d e n t a r y a g r i c u l t u r e has b e e n a d u b i o u s e x p e r i m e n t o n t h e L l a n o , a n d it has an u n c e r t a i n future. In t h e 1930s, t h e L l a n o E s t a c a d o f o r m e d t h e s o u t h e r n r i m o f t h e D u s t B o w l . I n t h e 1950s it was hit b y a n o t h e r d r o u g h t , a n d n o w t h e l a n d is p l o u g h e d u p a n d o v e r g r a z e d a g a i n . T h e w i n d is as r e l e n t less as ever, a n d t h e c l i m a t e p a t t e r n s suggest t h a t a n o t h e r l o n g d r o u g h t is o v e r d u e . F r o m t h e J u m a n o s o n w a r d , p e o p l e t r y i n g to raise crops in W e s t Texas have r u n i n t o t h e same cyclical problem. W e asked [the J u m a n o s ] h o w it h a p p e n e d that t h e y did n o t plant c o r n . So t h e y w o u l d n o t lose w h a t t h e y p l a n t e d was t h e answer: n o rain t w o years in a r o w ; m o l e s g o t t h e seed; m u s t have p l e n t y rain before p l a n t i n g again. T h e y b e g g e d us t o tell t h e sky to rain. T h e c u r r e n t g e n e r a t i o n o f farmers o n t h e Llano use w e l l - w a t e r to g r o w their crops, w a t e r their cattle a n d k e e p t h e topsoil in place, b u t t h e wells are starting to c o m e u p dry. T h e farmers p u t their faith in t h e existence of an u n d e r g r o u n d river flowing d o w n from t h e n o r t h , w h i c h will k e e p r e p l e n i s h i n g t h e aquifer, b u t m o s t hydrologists regard this n o t i o n as fantasy, a n d p r e d i c t t h a t i r r i g a tion f a r m i n g o n t h e L l a n o has a practical future o f t w e n t y or
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t h i r t y years; m a y b e less if a n o t h e r d r o u g h t kicks in, o r t h e b a n k e r s lose p a t i e n c e . Like t h e buffalo herds, o r t h e g o l d deposits w h i c h sparked t h e s t a m p e d e to California, t h e aquifers o f t h e S o u t h w e s t are finite, n o n - r e n e w a b l e resources that a c c u m u l a t e d over millions o f years. To p u t it a n o t h e r way, t h e aquifers are b e i n g m i n e d , a n d w h e n t h e m i n e is n o l o n g e r p r o d u c i n g it will b e t i m e t o a b a n d o n it and move on. I drive o n i n t o a h u g e p u r p l e a n d r e d sunset, given extra c o l o u r a n d v i b r a n c y b y t h e c l o u d o f dust a n d p o l l u t i o n h a n g i n g over t h e b o r d e r c o n u r b a t i o n o f El Paso a n d C i u d a d J u a r e z — t h r e e million p e o p l e living o n a n o t h e r p l u m m e t i n g aquifer. T h e h i g h w a y b e n d s t o t h e n o r t h , leaving t h e sprawl b e h i n d , a n d after seven h u n d r e d miles o f Texas crosses i n t o N e w M e x i c o . I start t h i n k i n g a b o u t m y campfire i n t h e wilds again. U p i n t h e Gila N a t i o n a l Forest m a y b e , o r t h e S a c r a m e n t o M o u n t a i n s , w h e r e H a l l e n b e c k has C a b e z a d e Vaca p e r f o r m i n g his miracle surgery w i t h a flint knife a n d a d e e r b o n e . O r for a small fee, a n d n o campfire, in t h e m o o n l i t g y p s u m d u n e s of W h i t e Sands N a t i o n a l M o n u m e n t . T h e n it occurs t o m e that it's o n l y t h r e e h u n d r e d miles t o T u c s o n , a n d that nice little h o u s e I r e n t e d o n t h e edge of t o w n ; t h e o n e that is s u p p o s e d t o feel like h o m e . I stop in Las C r u c e s , p i c k u p a m i c r o w a v e d b u r r i t o , coffee to g o a n d a fresh p a c k o f smokes, a n d drive o n , letting m y m i n d u n s p o o l b e h i n d t h e w h e e l . I trace o u t l o o p i n g , tangled c o n n e c tions b e t w e e n C a b e z a de Vaca and B.J. M c H e n r y , t h e t w o d o m i n a n t influences o n this j o u r n e y . S o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e m , I decide, t h e r e is a narrative to b e teased o u t , w h i c h tells t h e h i s t o r y o f w a n d e r l u s t in N o r t h A m e r i c a . It's possible to l o o k b a c k and see a c h a i n o f d e v e l o p m e n t s that C a b e z a deVaca's j o u r n e y set in m o t i o n . T h e stories h e b r o u g h t b a c k inspired o t h e r Spanish e x p e ditions i n t o t h e S o u t h w e s t , w h i c h i n t r o d u c e d t h e h o r s e t o t h e r e g i o n , w h i c h l e d t o t h e great n o m a d i c efflorescence a m o n g t h e plains Indians, w h i c h left such an indelible impression o f f r e e d o m on the American mind. M a y b e t h e r e is s o m e t r u t h in that line o f reasoning, b u t t h e
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h i s t o r y o f h u m a n b e h a v i o u r s e l d o m moves in s u c h orderly p r o g r e s sions. It p r o c e e d s m o r e b y a c c i d e n t and confusion. It t u r n s back o n itself a n d takes t r i u m p h a n t d e t o u r s u p b l i n d alleys. W h a t appears, w i t h hindsight, t o b e a straightforward process o f cause a n d effect is always fraught w i t h e x c e p t i o n s , paradoxes a n d strange offshoots. T h e present is g o n e before w e can m a k e sense o f it, a n d t h e future is m a d e u p o f distorted echoes from t h e past. M a y b e it's m o r e helpful to t h i n k o f w a n d e r l u s t o n this c o n t i n e n t as a r e c u r r i n g c o n d i t i o n of m i n d , a psychological s y n d r o m e w i t h C a b e z a de Vaca as o n e manifestation and B.J. M c H e n r y as a n o t h e r . T h e first w h i t e m a n t o cross this g r o u n d b e c a m e wiser and m o r e e n l i g h t e n e d d u r i n g his travels, w i t h an e n l a r g e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h u m a n i t y , h i m s e l f a n d t h e w o r l d . H e also d e v e l o p e d a c o m p u l s i o n t o k e e p travelling, a n d w h o can b l a m e h i m ? F o r all t h e pain a n d hardship h e suffered, a sense o f w o n d e r a n d fascin a t i o n shines o u t o f his N o r t h A m e r i c a n narrative — his ' s o j o u r n to t h e sunset', as h e described it. It seems reasonable to assume that his treks across Paraguay w e r e m o t i v a t e d b y a desire t o r e c a p ture these feelings, a n d that c o u r t life i n Spain s e e m e d u n b e a r ably drab a n d c o n s t r i c t e d by c o m p a r i s o n . I hesitate to offer u p B.J. M c H e n r y as an a r c h e t y p e o f t h e m o d e r n A m e r i c a n w a n d e r e r , b e c a u s e n o such a r c h e t y p e exists, b u t t h e r e are p l e n t y o f m e n like h i m o n t h e roads today: t r o u b led l o n e r s a n d o b l i v i o n - c h a s e r s , w h o w a n t as little c o n t a c t w i t h h u m a n i t y as p o s s i b l e . T h e y w e r e familiar figures w e s t of t h e settlements in the nineteeth century - 'many s u c c u m b e d to
the
v i o l e n c e a n d solitude o f t h e frontier, w h i c h a b o u n d e d w i t h shiftless drifters a n d strange, b r o k e n characters'* — a n d t h e y s e e m e d to resurface again, e n masse, w h e n t h e soldiers c a m e h o m e from Vietnam. N o t all o f t h e m are racists. N o t all o f t h e m are claustrophobes, o r feral snake-eaters for that matter, b u t t h e y are e n g a g e d i n t h e same basic process o f retreat a n d w i t h d r a w a l , from t h e d a m a g e w i t h i n themselves a n d h u m a n relationships in general. T h e s e are t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n . T h e best o f us find a m e a s u r e * F r a n k T h i s t l e t h w a i t e , The
Great
Experiment.
Ghost
Riders
o f w i s d o m , e n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d self-fulfilment
63 through constant
travel. T h e w o r s t o f us are fleeing from ourselves, a n d m o s t o f us strike a w a v e r i n g c o u r s e s o m e w h e r e i n b e t w e e n . Strange things h a p p e n t o t h e m i n d w h e n y o u ' v e b e e n d r i v i n g for f o u r t e e n h o u r s . T h e r e c o m e s a p o i n t b e y o n d simple fatigue, b e y o n d sleepiness, w h e n t h e m i n d e m p t i e s a n d t h e b o d y seems t o m e l t away, a n d it b e c o m e s easier to k e e p o n d r i v i n g t h a n to stop. S t a n d i n g by a gas p u m p in D e m i n g , N e w M e x i c o , I feel w o b b l y a n d d i s o r i e n t e d , like a sailor r e t u r n i n g t o d r y land. It's a relief t o get b e h i n d t h e w h e e l again a n d slip b a c k i n t o t h e t r a n c e o f m o t i o n . N o music, n o radio, j u s t t h e h u m o f r u b b e r o n asphalt, t h e r h y t h m of t h e pistons, a n d t h e w a r m n i g h t air b l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w s . I drive o n t h r o u g h t h e y u c c a flats in t h e m o o n light, a n d sixty miles slip b y like n o t h i n g . T h e n t h e tiredness r e t u r n s , t h e a c h e in t h e muscles a n d t h e eyeballs, a n d t h e giant jackrabbits start to appear. W h a t y o u see is a rapid, b o u n d i n g , l u m i n e s c e n t shape, yellowish w h i t e or bluish grey, streaking a l o n g t h e roadside in y o u r p e r i p h e r a l vision. I've h e a r d truckers a n d friends o f m i n e refer to t h e m w i t h an easy familiarity - ' w h e n y o u start seeing t h e giant j a c k r a b b i t s . . .' In o t h e r parts of t h e c o u n t r y they manifest as deer, horses o r ghost elk, b u t i n t h e desert S o u t h w e s t b o n e - t i r e d drivers hallucinate giant jackrabbits. I k n o w from e x p e r i e n c e that y o u can drive t h r o u g h t h e m a n d reach a trance o f m o t i o n o n t h e o t h e r side, b u t it requires serious d e t e r m i n a t i o n , a n d m o s t h i g h w a y safety experts w o u l d p r o b a b l y advise against it. I m a k e it across t h e A r i z o n a border, feeling a vague sense o f h o m e c o m i n g . T h i s is t h e state listed o n m y driver's licence. T h i s is t h e state w h e r e I file taxes a n d k e e p an address and t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r , a n d it has c o m e t o feel m o r e like h o m e t h a n a n y w h e r e else. I have b e g u n to e n t e r t a i n fantasies o f o w n i n g p r o p e r t y in A r i z o n a , at least t e n square miles o f virgin desert in w h i c h I will build absolutely n o t h i n g e x c e p t a campfire from t i m e to time. I find a r e m o t e exit leading off towards a m o u n t a i n
range
w h e r e n o lights are visible, a t w o - l a n e b l a c k t o p w h i c h s o o n t u r n s t o dirt. I pull over b y t h e side o f it, climb in t h e backseat, w a k e
64
Richard Grant
u p at d a w n . Here's an o d d t h i n g a b o u t r o a d fatigue: it will collapse y o u i n t o a h e a p o f utter e x h a u s t i o n , b u t it doesn't take m u c h sleep t o recover from it. W i l l c o x , A r i z o n a . O v e r w e a k coffee a n d slimy eggs at a t r u c k stop d i n e r I break o u t t h e C a b e z a de Vaca b o o k again. T h e r e is a passage in t h e afterword, by W i l l i a m T. P i l k i n g t o n , that I w o k e up thinking about. T h e A m e r i c a n j o u r n e y o f discovery ends in o n e o f t w o ways: i n h o p e o r in bleak despair. In r e c e n t times, as t h e world
has
grown
progressively
d a r k e r , it
has
usually
c o n c l u d e d w i t h t h e latter, w i t h its c o u r s e l e a d i n g n o w h e r e . W h a t t h e m o d e r n w a n d e r e r n o r m a l l y discovers is a blank, t h e spiritual equivalent o f t h e nihilistic landscape t h r o u g h w h i c h h e has trekked. To hell w i t h W i l l i a m T. P i l k i n g t o n a n d his airy p r o n o u n c e m e n t s . T h i s j o u r n e y o f discovery has a happy e n d i n g . W h e n I get b a c k to m y r e n t e d h o u s e in T u c s o n there is n o girlfriend, very little furniture a n d m o u s e shit all over t h e k i t c h e n , b u t g o o d n e w s is b l i n k i n g o n t h e a n s w e r p h o n e . T h e L o n d o n m e d i a is c r a v i n g A m e r i c a n a — w h i t e supremacists in n o r t h e r n Idaho, a vicious greedy religious cult in Tennessee, l o w r i d e r car clubs in east Los Angeles — a n d a G e r m a n m a g a z i n e wants m e t o cover a h o r s e r o u n d - u p in C o l o r a d o . T h a t adds u p to a g o o d six w e e k s o n t h e road, a n d probably five t h o u s a n d miles, w i t h all expenses paid.
CHAPTER 4 W e h a d n o w o r d for t h e strange animal w e g o t from t h e w h i t e m a n - t h e horse. S o w e called it sunka wakan, ' h o l y d o g ' . F o r b r i n g i n g us t h e h o r s e , w e c o u l d almost forgive y o u for b r i n g i n g us whiskey. J o h n Fire L a m e D e e r (Sioux), Lame Deer, Seeker of Visions
T
h e w e a t h e r station in Y u m a , A r i z o n a , is r e c o r d i n g 108 degrees i n t h e shade b u t t h e r e is n o shade o u t h e r e . N o trees, n o
r o c k overhangs, n o b u s h e s to c r o u c h u n d e r . T h e desert floor is a tightly p a c k e d p a v e m e n t o f black a n d d a r k grey pebbles, polished to a dull s h e e n by t h e w i n d , a n d it holds a n d radiates t h e heat o f t h e sun, m u c h like t h e wall o f an oven. W a l k i n g beside m e , delivering an i m p a s s i o n e d m o n o l o g u e o n A m e r i c a n I n d i a n r o c k art, is a g o v e r n m e n t archaeologist n a m e d B o m a J o h n s o n . H e is a tall, l o p i n g , amiable m a n in his late fifties, w i t h splayed front t e e t h a n d t h i c k glasses, w e a r i n g a b r o w n c h e c k e d W e s t e r n shirt a n d an old, sweat-stained canvas hat. ' W h a t d o y o u t h i n k t h e t e m p e r a t u r e is o u t h e r e ? ' I i n t e r r u p t , s t o p p i n g t o p o u r a n o t h e r p i n t of w a t e r d o w n m y p a r c h e d throat. ' H o w h o t is this air w e ' r e b r e a t h i n g ? ' ' O h , a r o u n d o n e - t h i r t y , o n e - t h i r t y - f i v e , maybe.' I offer h i m m y canteen and again h e turns it d o w n . H e has b r o u g h t n o water o f his o w n : ' T h i s k i n d o f w e a t h e r doesn't b o t h e r me,' h e says. 'I've b e e n walking a r o u n d these deserts for twenty-five
66
Richard Grant
years. It's actually pretty m i l d today, for an a f t e r n o o n i n late J u n e . It gets a g o o d fifteen o r t w e n t y degrees h o t t e r t h a n this. O n a h o t day, this desert p a v e m e n t will m e l t t h e soles off y o u r b o o t s if y o u ' r e n o t careful.' W i t h his l o p i n g camel's gait h e leads m e u p an old I n d i a n trail to a series o f flat, b a r r e n terraces, f a n n i n g o u t from t h e base o f a small hill a n d c o m m a n d i n g a v i e w o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g desert. Away t o t h e west t h e r e are sand d u n e s , b l i n d i n g w h i t e in t h e early a f t e r n o o n sun a n d m e l t i n g i n t o mirage. To t h e s o u t h is a c h a n n e l o f t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r , w h i c h marks t h e M e x i c a n b o r d e r , w i t h a shanty t o w n o n t h e o t h e r side, and a n o t h e r s h i m m e r i n g expanse o f desert b e y o n d it. Y u m a n I n d i a n tribes — C o c o p a s o r m a y b e Q u e c h u a n s — o n c e h e l d their dances a n d c e r e m o n i e s o n these terraces, a n d y o u can see faint rings t a m p e d i n t o t h e desert p a v e m e n t b y g e n e r a t i o n s o f d a n c i n g , circling feet. Y o u can see shards o f quartz, c h i p p e d away as t h e y m a d e their amulets, and t w o circular depressions, a b o u t six feet in diameter, w h e r e B o m a thinks t h e huts o f t h e tribal s h a m a n a n d his a p p r e n t i c e o n c e s t o o d . In places, t h e surface c o v e r i n g o f pebbles has b e e n scraped away entirely, leaving large designs a n d a n i m a l figures e x p o s e d in t h e pale sand u n d e r n e a t h . Like t h e N a z c a lines i n P e r u , w h i c h w e r e m a d e in t h e same way, o n a m u c h g r a n d e r scale, these intaglios, o r g e o g l y p h s , s h o w u p m o s t clearly i n aerial p h o t o graphs, b u t t h e y have a m o r e visceral i m p a c t u p close, w a l k i n g a m o n g t h e m a n d s e e i n g w h e r e t h e artist's h a n d t o u c h e d
the
earth, o r p e r h a p s scraped it w i t h an a b a l o n e shell, t h r e e o r
four
h u n d r e d years ago. B o m a takes m e to a lizard, t w e n t y - s i x feet l o n g , w i t h its feet t r a m p e d o u t b y sightseers, and t h e h e a d a n d tail v e r y faint. T h e n a c r u d e h u m a n figure w i t h n o legs. 'If t h e y d o n ' t have legs, or t h e legs are j u s t t a m p e d in .lightly, it m e a n s that they're spirit figures,
travelling t h r o u g h t h e spirit world,' h e says. ' T h e y d o n ' t
n e e d legs w h e r e they're g o i n g . At least, that's w h a t t h e tribal elders have told m e . In o u r tradition w e paint w i n g s o n p e o p l e to symbolise t h e same t h i n g , w h i c h t h e elders t h i n k is hilarious.' T h e n he takes m e t o t h e horse, t h e m o s t impressive o f t h e
Ghost
67
Riders
intaglios, a n d t h e o n e I've c o m e h e r e t o see. T w e n t y - t h r e e feet from n o s e t o tail, w i t h a l o n g a r c h i n g n e c k a n d an o p e n m o u t h , standing sixteen feet tall o n lightly t a m p e d - i n legs, it m a y b e t h e earliest surviving i m a g e o f t h e h o r s e in N o r t h A m e r i c a . E a r t h intaglios are n o t o r i o u s l y difficult t o date, b u t w e k n o w that m o u n t e d Spaniards passed this w a y in 1 5 4 0 as p a r t o f Francisco d e C o r o n a d o ' s e x p e d i t i o n , a n d that these w e r e t h e first horses that t h e Y u m a n tribes h a d seen. 'I can't prove it,' says B o m a , ' b u t m y best guess is that a C o c o p a s h a m a n m a d e this intaglio, d u r i n g o r s o o n after that first e n c o u n t e r . ' C o r o n a d o was m a r c h i n g n o r t h o u t o f M e x i c o , chasing a r u m o u r o f gold. To b e precise, h e was l o o k i n g for seven cities o f gold, f o u n d e d b y seven exiled C a t h o l i c bishops, w h o h a d left E u r o p e l o n g ago a n d sailed towards t h e sunset. It was an old Spanish l e g e n d , d a t i n g b a c k to t h e e i g h t h century, b u t it h a d b e c o m e fresh a n d u r g e n t w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f C a b e z a deVaca's party. Indians h a d told t h e m a b o u t p e r m a n e n t settlements to t h e n o r t h , in p r e s e n t day N e w M e x i c o , w i t h h o u s e s four storeys h i g h a n d great stores o f w e a l t h , a n d it was n o leap for t h e s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Spanish m i n d to translate this i n t o seven cities o f gold. D o y o u recall Estevan? T h e M o o r w h o h a d b e e n a slave, t h e slave o f a slave, a fugitive slave, a n d t h e n a god? A n d t h e n a slave again, w h e n C a b e z a de Vaca's procession r e a c h e d t h e
Spanish
colonies in M e x i c o . In 1 5 3 9 , a year before C o r o n a d o , h e was released t o travel w i t h an e x p e d i t i o n o f explorers, led b y an a m b i tious Franciscan friar k n o w n as Fray M a r c o s . Estevan was t o b e t h e i r g u i d e a n d interpreter, a n d lead t h e m n o r t h to t h e seven cities of gold. A d o r n e d w i t h bells a n d feathers, c a r r y i n g a sacred m e d i c i n e rattle h e h a d b e e n given o n C a b e z a de Vaca's procession, Estevan travelled well a h e a d o f t h e rest of t h e e x p e d i t i o n . H e r e t u r n e d t o t h e n o r t h e r n tribes as a C h i l d o f t h e S u n , w i t h an escort o f Christianised Indians, a n d h e reaped t h e same t r i b u t e in gifts, w o m e n a n d a d o r a t i o n . T h e friars fretted that Estevan was t a k i n g o n b l a s p h e m o u s airs, a n d t h e y disapproved o f his w o m a n i s i n g , w h i c h is o n e reason w h y h e travelled so far a h e a d o f t h e m .
Richard Grant
68
W h e n Estevan r e a c h e d t h e Z u n i p u e b l o s i n N e w M e x i c o , his l u c k ran o u t . T h e Z u n i s saw that t h e sacred rattle h e was c a r r y i n g b e l o n g e d to an e n e m y tribe. T h e y w e r e suspicious o f his claims t o g o d h o o d , a n d they resented his d e m a n d s for t h e i r turquoises a n d w o m e n . So t h e y t o o k Estevan p r i s o n e r a n d killed h i m . T h e rest o f his p a r t y escaped a n d m a d e it b a c k t o M e x i c o w i t h Fray M a r c o s , w h o r e p o r t e d that t h e y h a d r e a c h e d t h e very portals o f t h e g o l d e n cities, in a place called C i b o l a . So C o r o n a d o m a r c h e s n o r t h w i t h 3 0 0 c o n q u i s t a d o r s , 1000 I n d i a n servants, 5 0 0 h e a d o f cattle a n d m u l e s , a h u g e flock o f sheep a n d close to 1000 Spanish horses. His m i n d is u n c l o u d e d b y d o u b t . T h e Seven Cities o f C i b o l a are t h e r e for t h e taking. A n d s o m e w h e r e b e y o n d t h e m are C h i n a a n d India. T h e Y u m a n tribes never e n c o u n t e r e d t h e m a i n c o l u m n
of
C o r o n a d o s army. It travelled u p t h r o u g h t h e m o u n t a i n s of s o u t h east A r i z o n a i n t o N e w M e x i c o , far to t h e east o f their f a r m i n g villages o n t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r . T h e first Spaniards t h e y saw b e l o n g e d t o a supply a r m o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n , c o m m a n d e d b y a C a p t a i n A l a r c o n , a n d t h e y c a m e u p t h e river i n ships. As m e e t i n g s b e t w e e n c o n q u i s t a d o r s a n d Indians go, it was a h a p p y occasion. A l a r c o n h a n d e d o u t gifts a n d a n n o u n c e d h i m s e l f as a C h i l d of t h e Sun. B y sign language, h e told t h e Indians o n t h e r i v e r h a n k that h e h a d c o m e t o p u t an e n d t o t h e i r wars a n d t e a c h t h e m a b o u t a new, all-powerful g o d w h o lived in t h e sky. T h e Y u m a n tribes w e r e d e l i g h t e d b y this n e w s , and t h e y b e g g e d A l a r c o n to stay a n d r u l e over t h e m . T h e y w e r e fascinated b y his l o n g , flowing beard, o f w h i c h t h e chroniclers tell us h e was i n o r dinately vain. A l a r c o n liked t h e Y u m a n tribes — f a r m e r s , h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , scalp-taking w a r r i o r s . T h e y were huge, muscular people w i t h big h e a d s a n d p r o d i g i o u s s t r e n g t h ; even t o d a y s o m e o f t h e m e n r e a c h seven feet. A l a r c o n m a d e n o a t t e m p t t o take t h e i r lands o r steal t h e i r possessions, a n d t h e y h a d n o g o l d t o t e m p t his avarice. H e stayed a n d p r e a c h e d a w h i l e , e x p l o r e d f u r t h e r u p river, h o p i n g t o find C o r o n a d o ' s army, a n d t h e n gave u p a n d r e t u r n e d t o M e x i c o , leaving t h e Indians m o u r n i n g his d e p a r t u r e o n t h e r i v e r banks.
Ghost
Riders
69
B o m a J o h n s o n t h i n k s that A l a r c o n m i g h t have h a d horses w i t h h i m , b e c a u s e it w o u l d have b e e n u n u s u a l for a p a r t y o f c o n q u i s tadors t o travel w i t h o u t t h e m , even b y ship, b u t t h e r e is n o m e n t i o n o f horses in t h e Spanish chronicles o f A l a r c o n ' s voyage. T h e first c o n f i r m e d a c c o u n t o f horses in t h e Y u m a n c o u n t r y is from later t h a t year, w i t h t h e arrival o f M e l c h i o r Diaz's p a r t y o n t h e C o l o r a d o River. T h e y h a d j u s t r i d d e n four h u n d r e d miles across t h e desert, l o o k i n g for t h e ships — twenty-five Spanish h o r s e m e n , a c c o m p a n i e d b y Indian servants o n foot, a flock o f sheep for food and a g r e y h o u n d . W h e n they r e a c h e d t h e river, t h e y f o u n d a n o t e left u n d e r a tree .by Alarcon: g o n e back t o M e x i c o ; California is n o t an island b u t a peninsula o f t h e mainland. T h e e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n D i a z a n d t h e Y u m a n tribes was m o r e typical. M u t u a l suspicion led t o a fight, d u r i n g w h i c h t h e Spaniards r o d e d o w n a n d l a n c e d a q u a n t i t y o f Indians. T h e rest o f t h e w a r r i o r s scattered a n d fled, a n d t h e m u s k e t e e r s p i c k e d off m o r e o f t h e m as t h e y ran. Diaz's p a r t y crossed t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r o n rafts, w i t h
the
h o r s e s s w i m m i n g alongside, a n d e x p l o r e d t h e desert o n
the
California side, l o o k i n g for t h e coast. D e s e r t thirst a n d sand d u n e s t u r n e d t h e m a r o u n d , a n d soon afterwards t h e i r captain d i e d from a bizarre i m p a l i n g a c c i d e n t . T h e g r e y h o u n d h a d b e e n b o t h e r i n g t h e s h e e p again a n d D i a z galloped towards it in a rage a n d h u r l e d his lance. T h e l a n c e missed t h e d o g a n d stuck i n t h e g r o u n d . D i a z was u n a b l e to swerve his g a l l o p i n g h o r s e a n d r o d e o n t o t h e b u t t e n d o f t h e lance, i m p a l i n g h i m s e l f in t h e g r o i n , p u n c t u r i n g his bladder, a n d d y i n g a l o n g , painful,
twenty-one-day
death. Perhaps, as B o m a J o h n s o n suspects, t h e first horses c a m e h e r e o n Alarcon's ships. M o r e likely, t h e y c a m e w i t h D i a z . T h e oral histories o f t h e Y u m a n tribes, w h i c h B o m a collects assiduously, c o n t a i n n o dates o r verifiable details a b o u t their initial e n c o u n t e r w i t h the horse, but they do record the emotions of the experie n c e . Like so m a n y tribes in M e x i c o a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a , t h e y l o o k e d at a h o r s e and r i d e r for t h e first t i m e and saw a h u g e , s u p e r n a t u r a l beast w i t h t w o h e a d s . W h e n
o n e of the
heads
70
Richard Grant
d e t a c h e d itself a n d w a l k e d towards t h e m like a m a n — a m a n s h a p e d m o n s t e r encased in shiny m e t a l — t h e y fell o n t h e g r o u n d s h a k i n g w i t h terror. 'I p u t m o r e faith in I n d i a n oral histories t h a n m o s t a r c h a e o l ogists,' says B o m a , ' b u t this o n e in particular has a r i n g o f t r u t h t o it. Indians d o n ' t like telling stories t o w h i t e p e o p l e w h i c h m a k e t h e m l o o k foolish, even if it was h u n d r e d s o f years ago.' W h e n C o r o n a d o r e a c h e d C i b o l a h e discovered that t h e seven cities o f g o l d w e r e t h e six p u e b l o villages o f t h e Z u n i . T h e i r h o u s e s w e r e built o f d r i e d m u d a n d t h e i r w e a l t h was in c o r n , beans, t u r q u o i s e a n d pottery. T h e r e was a b r i e f skirmish, a d e s u l t o r y pillaging, t h e n t h e e x p e d i t i o n w e n t o n t o t h e H o p i villages, a n d w e r e d i s a p p o i n t e d again. W i n t e r i n g a m o n g t h e p u e b l o tribes o n t h e R i o G r a n d e , near t h e site o f p r e s e n t - d a y A l b u q u e r q u e , t h e Spaniards m e t a travelling P a w n e e Indian, w h o m t h e y n i c k n a m e d ' t h e T u r k ' because t h e y t h o u g h t h e l o o k e d like o n e . H e t o l d t h e m that t h e cities o f g o l d w e r e o u t o n t h e plains to t h e east, in a p r o v i n c e called Q u i v i r a , a n d h e offered t o s h o w t h e m t h e way. T h e T u r k , as h e later a d m i t t e d , was p a r t o f a ruse e n g i n e e r e d b y t h e p u e b l o tribes. T h e same r u s e was e m p l o y e d t o g o o d effect by o t h e r tribes w h o w a n t e d to g e t rid o f c o n q u i s t a d o r s : t h e t h i n g y o u crave is n o t h e r e b u t d o w n t h a t trail, a few days' j o u r n e y away, in t h e c o u n t r y o f o u r e n e m i e s . It w o r k e d o n C o r o n a d o ' s e x p e d i t i o n b e c a u s e t h e i r m i n d s w e r e so p r i m e d a n d ready t o find t h e seven cities. P e o p l e h a d b e e n talking a b o u t t h e m for eight c e n t u r i e s , a n d n o w t h e y h a d fresh c o n f i r m a t i o n from C a b e z a d e Vaca a n d Fray M a r c o s . T h e y h a d t h e e x a m p l e s o f C o r t e s in M e x i c o , a n d P i z a r r o in P e r u , w h o had sacked cities r i c h e r a n d m o r e magnificent
t h a n any S p a n i s h fantasy. A n d let us
not
d i s c o u n t t h e m a g i c a l p o w e r o f gold itself, a n d t h e g r e e d a n d delusions it p r o d u c e s in t h e E u r o p e a n m i n d — ' t h e shiny m e t a l for w h i c h t h e w h i t e s g o crazy', as later Indians called it. O r , as C o r t e s h a d p u t it t o M o n t e z u m a ' s e n v o y , ' I a n d m y c o m p a n i o n s suffer from a disease o f t h e h e a r t w h i c h can b e c u r e d o n l y w i t h gold.' So C o r o n a d o l e d his a r m y o u t o n to t h e plains: if t h e seven
Ghost
71
Riders
cities w e r e n o t in C i b o l a , t h e y m u s t b e s o m e w h e r e else. T h e T u r k travelled w i t h t h e m as a g u i d e , s p i n n i n g ever m o r e extravagant tales a b o u t t h e riches o f Q u i v i r a , a n d l e a d i n g t h e a r m y d e e p e r a n d d e e p e r i n t o t h e endless sea o f grass. C a b e z a de Vaca's party h a d skirted t h e s o u t h e r n e d g e o f t h e G r e a t Plains, w h e r e buffalo w e r e occasional w i n t e r visitors, b u t C o r o n a d o w e n t into the heart of their range on the
Llano
Estacado, and his scribe r e c o r d e d buffalo ' i n such large n u m b e r s that n o b o d y c o u l d c o u n t t h e m ' . I d o . n o t k n o w w h a t to c o m p a r e t h e m to, e x c e p t w i t h t h e fish in t h e sea . . . m a n y times w h e n w e started to pass t h r o u g h t h e midst o f t h e m and w a n t e d to go t h r o u g h t o t h e o t h e r side o f t h e m , ' w e w e r e n o t able to, because t h e c o u n t r y was covered in t h e m . . . T h e bulls, are large a n d brave, a l t h o u g h they d o n o t attack m u c h ; b u t t h e y have w i c k e d h o r n s , & i n a fight use t h e m well, a t t a c k i n g fiercely; t h e y killed several of o u r horses & w o u n d e d many. W e f o u n d t h e p i k e t o b e t h e best w e a p o n to use against t h e m , & t h e m u s k e t for use w h e n this misses. P e d r o d e C a s t a n e d a et al., The Journey
of Coronado
T h e y felt s w a l l o w e d b y space, d i s o r i e n t e d b y flatness. M o u n t e d o n h o r s e b a c k , a m a n c o u l d see for t h i r t y o r forty miles in any d i r e c t i o n , e i g h t y miles if h e c o u l d find a k n o l l , b u t if h e sat o n t h e g r o u n d , t h e r i m o f t h e w o r l d closed in t o t h e distance o f a m u s k e t shot. Occasionally, t h e y w o u l d r e a c h an a b r u p t b r e a k in t h e tablelands a n d find t h e m s e l v e s at t h e e d g e o f a cliff o v e r l o o k i n g a river c a n y o n , w i t h w i l l o w s a n d c o t t o n w o o d s g r o w i n g alongside it, b u t for m o s t o f t h e j o u r n e y t h e y r o d e
through
d e a d - l e v e l , u n c h a n g i n g grasslands, r i p p l i n g a n d u n d u l a t i n g i n t h e w i n d — a l a n d s c a p e m o r e m a r i t i m e t h a n terrestrial, w h e r e t h e h o r i z o n was b o u n d e d o n l y b y t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e e a r t h . Like t h e surface o f t h e o c e a n , t h e grass p a r t e d briefly t o let t h e m t h r o u g h , t h e n sealed u p b e h i n d t h e m , r e c o r d i n g n o sign o f t h e i r passage.
72
Richard Grant W h o c o u l d believe that 1 0 0 0 horses a n d 5 0 0 o f o u r c o w s and m o r e t h a n 5 0 0 0 rams a n d ewes a n d m o r e t h a n 1 5 0 0 friendly Indians a n d servants, in traveling over those plains, w o u l d leave n o m o r e trace w h e r e t h e y h a d passed t h e m t h a n if n o t h i n g h a d b e e n t h e r e — n o t h i n g — so that it was n e c e s sary t o m a k e piles of b o n e s a n d c o w d u n g n o w a n d t h e n , so that t h e rear g u a r d c o u l d follow t h e army. T h e grass n e v e r failed to b e c o m e erect after it had b e e n t r o d d e n d o w n , and, a l t h o u g h it was s h o r t , it was as fresh a n d straight as before.
T h e y e n c o u n t e r e d a friendly t r i b e called t h e Q u e r e c h o s , w h o 'lived like Arabs', i n conical tents m a d e o f buffalo h i d e — tepees, as t h e y w o u l d later b e k n o w n . T h e s e I n d i a n s h u n g
buffalo
p a u n c h e s full o f b l o o d a r o u n d t h e i r n e c k s , t o q u e n c h their thirst b e t w e e n rivers, a n d t h e y ate their m e a t raw, o r lightly seared over b u f f a l o - d u n g fires. H i s t o r i a n s are u n d e c i d e d as to their identity — possibly t h e y w e r e f o r e r u n n e r s o f t h e plains A p a c h e s - b u t from t h e a c c o u n t s w e have, t h e Q u e r e c h o s w e r e m o r e c o m m i t t e d to t h e w a n d e r i n g , b u f f a l o - h u n t i n g life t h a n m o s t o f t h e plains tribes before t h e horse. B y sign language, t h e y told t h e Spaniards that t h e y raised n o crops, unlike t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g tribes w h o f a r m e d along t h e rivers a n d c a m e o u t o n t h e plains o n c e a year t o h u n t . T h e
Querechos
w i n t e r e d o n a river t o t h e west (the R i o G r a n d e ) , w h e r e t h e y t r a d e d their buffalo hides for c o r n a n d beans, b u t they spent t h e rest o f t h e year travelling t h e plains a n d t r a n s p o r t i n g their b e l o n g ings by d o g travois. T h e y l o a d these dogs like beasts o f b u r d e n , a n d m a k e saddles for t h e m like o u r pack-saddles, a n d t h e y fasten t h e m w i t h leather t h o n g s , a n d these m a k e t h e i r backs sore o n t h e w i t h e r s like p a c k animals. W h e n they g o h u n t i n g , t h e y l o a d these w i t h their necessities, & w h e n t h e y m o v e — for these Indians are n o t settled i n o n e place, since t h e y travel w h e r e v e r t h e cows [buffalo] m o v e , t o s u p p o r t themselves — these dogs carry their houses, a n d t h e y have t h e sticks o f their h o u s e s d r a g g i n g a l o n g tied o n t o t h e pack-saddles, besides t h e l o a d
Ghost
Riders
73
w h i c h t h e y carry o n top, a n d t h e l o a d m a y b e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d o g , from thirty-five to fifty p o u n d s . After a m o n t h o f plains travel, t h e T u r k confessed t h a t h e h a d b e e n lying a n d t h e Spaniards strangled h i m . C o r o n a d o sent t h e b u l k o f his a r m y b a c k to M e x i c o , b u t h e was u n a b l e t o a b a n d o n his quest entirely — even t h o u g h El T u r c o h a d b e e n lying, t h e seven cities m i g h t still b e o u t t h e r e s o m e w h e r e . M a y b e t h e Turk's confession, at this p o i n t i n t h e j o u r n e y , was designed to t h r o w t h e m off t h e scent, j u s t as t h e y w e r e g e t t i n g close. M a y b e t h e seven cities really were in Q u i v i r a , as h e h a d said originally. C o r o n a d o w e n t o n w i t h t h i r t y m e n . After f o r t y - t w o days t h e y r e a c h e d t h e place called Q u i v i r a a n d f o u n d a s e m i - a g r i c u l t u r a l t r i b e living i n grass h u t s o n a riverbank, w i t h supplies o f d r i e d c o r n laid in, b u t a singular absence o f gold a n d emeralds. T h e y w e r e W i c h i t a Indians, a n d C o r o n a d o h a d r e a c h e d t h e Arkansas R i v e r in central K a n s a s . T h e W i c h i t a s said that w h a t h e was l o o k i n g for was further o n , b u t his supplies w e r e r u n n i n g l o w and so, finally, was C o r o n a d o ' s faith in t h e seven cities o f gold. H e t u r n e d a r o u n d a n d m a d e t h e l o n g m a r c h b a c k to M e x i c o and disgrace, travelling an I n d i a n trade r o u t e that later b e c a m e f a m o u s as t h e Santa Fe Trail. C o r o n a d o h a d n o w a y o f k n o w i n g it, b u t a n o t h e r Spanish e x p e d i t i o n , led o u t o f Florida by D e Soto, h a d r e a c h e d t h e l o w e r drainage o f t h e Arkansas R i v e r at t h e same time, a n d this c o i n c i d e n c e has g i v e n rise to a persistent m y t h a b o u t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e h o r s e in N o r t h A m e r i c a . O n e o f C o r o n a d o ' s stallions ran off s o u t h a n d c a u g h t t h e scent o f a m a r e w h i c h h a d strayed n o r t h from D e Soto's h e r d : so b e g a n t h e lineage o f t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m u s t a n g , a n d t h e plains I n d i a n h o r s e culture. It's a nice story b u t t h e m u s t e r records indicate t h a t n e i t h e r C o r o n a d o n o r D e S o t o h a d any mares w i t h t h e m at t h e t i m e . It was t h e prefe r e n c e o f c o n q u i s t a d o r s t o r i d e stallions. H i s t o r i a n s are n o w a g r e e d that horses w e r e p e r m a n e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d to N o r t h A m e r i c a in 1 5 9 8 , b y J u a n de Ofiate's e x p e d i t i o n o f settlers i n t o N e w M e x i c o . T h e y b r o u g h t stallions a n d mares w i t h t h e m , and transplanted t h e S p a n i s h / M e x i c a n h o r s e culture
Richard Grant
74
i n t o colonial t o w n s , villages a n d ranches a l o n g t h e R i o G r a n d e Valley. D u r i n g t h e first half o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y — g r a d u ally, w i t h m a n y false starts - horses a n d t h e k n o w l e d g e o f h o r s e m a n s h i p spread o u t o f t h e colonies i n t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g tribes. Navajos a n d A p a c h e s began stealing horses, eating t h e m at first, b u t later l e a r n i n g h o w to r i d e t h e m . T h e Spanish, against their b e t t e r j u d g e m e n t , b e g a n t r a d i n g horses t o these a n d o t h e r tribes in e x c h a n g e for hides. A n d t h e r e w e r e almost certainly r u n a w a y horses d u r i n g this era, w h i c h escaped from t h e Spanish herds a n d w e n t feral. The
first
w r i t t e n a c c o u n t s o f m o u n t e d I n d i a n s in
North
A m e r i c a are from t h e 1650s, m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y after C o r o n a d o , w h e n m a r a u d i n g b a n d s o f A p a c h e s b e g a n r i d i n g i n t o t h e settlem e n t s a r o u n d Santa F e . T h e s e w e r e n o t plains A p a c h e s . T h e y c a m e from t h e deserts a n d m o u n t a i n s t o t h e west, and until recently h a d lived in s e m i - p e r m a n e n t villages a n d e x p e r i m e n t e d
with
raising crops. N o w t h e y w e r e in t h e process o f a b a n d o n i n g t h e i r fields a n d b e c o m i n g full-time raiders, revelling in t h e i r n e w - f o u n d p o w e r a n d mobility. H e r e , for t h e first t i m e o n this c o n t i n e n t , an old h u m a n d r a m a was replayed: t h e conflict b e t w e e n sedentary farmers a n d m o u n t e d , n o m a d i c w a r r i o r s . O u t o n t h e plains to t h e east o f Santa Fe, t h e
horse—buffalo
culture seems to have b e g u n later, i n t h e 1680s, a n d t h e n diffused slowly eastwards a n d n o r t h w a r d s . In 1 7 3 8 , F r e n c h travellers f o u n d horseless tribes o n t h e n o r t h e r n plains, still using d o g travois t o m a k e seasonal h u n t s , a n d t h e h o r s e d i d n o t reach t h e C a n a d i a n b o r d e r until t h e 1780s. T h e d o m i n a n t i m a g e o f t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n in t h e m o d e r n i m a g i n a t i o n — t h e m o u n t e d S i o u x w a r r i o r , w i t h his
flowing
w a r b o n n e t o f eagle feathers — was a sight u n s e e n until t h e late e i g h t e e n t h century. I n 1 7 5 0 , t h e S i o u a n tribes w e r e still living i n t h e M i n n e s o t a w o o d l a n d s , g a t h e r i n g w i l d rice, h u n t i n g and fishing, a n d travelling on foot o r b y c a n o e . T h e y w e r e forcibly ejected o n t o t h e plains by their e n e m i e s , t h e O j i b w a s , also k n o w n as t h e C h i p p e w a s , w h o h a d a c q u i r e d muskets from F r e n c h and British traders. T h e S i o u x b a c k e d o u t o n t o t h e plains reluctantly, b u t o n c e t h e y l e a r n e d h o w t o r i d e , h u n t buffalo a n d m a k e w a r o n
Ghost
Riders
75
h o r s e b a c k t h e y b e c a m e t h e g r a n d imperialists o f t h e n o r t h e r n plains, displacing t h e K i o w a , t h e C r o w s , a n d t h e P a w n e e s , a n d c l a i m i n g a t e r r i t o r y t h a t e n c o m p a s s e d all o f S o u t h D a k o t a , m o s t of Nebraska, and a good c h u n k of N o r t h Dakota, Wyoming, M o n t a n a , M i n n e s o t a a n d Iowa. M o u n t e d o n their ' h o l y d o g s ' , t h e y r a n g e d even further t o h u n t , m a k e w a r a n d steal m o r e horses, d e e p i n t o C a n a d a a n d as far s o u t h as Texas — distances u n i m a g i n able to a p e o p l e o n foot. T h e c h a r m i n g fable o f C o r o n a d o ' s stallion a n d D e Soto's m a r e m a t i n g i n t h e 1540s does n o t survive scrutiny, b u t t h e r e is an appealing, r o m a n t i c aspect to t h e horse's later diffusion across t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n plains. In a sense, t h e h o r s e h a d travelled full circle a r o u n d t h e w o r l d a n d c o m e h o m e , b e c a u s e its ancestors h a d evolved o n these same plains! T h e p r o t o t y p e for t h e h o r s e was a small, t h r e e - t o e d r o d e n t , n o b i g g e r t h a n a rabbit, called Hyracotherium,
w h i c h lived in t h e
A m e r i c a n West s o m e sixty m i l l i o n years ago. T h e n c a m e t e r r i e r - s i z e d Eohippus,
a n d t h e L a b r a d o r - s i z e d Mesohippus,
the
whose
fossils are c o n c e n t r a t e d in S o u t h D a k o t a a n d t h e C o l o r a d o plains. T h e n , over tens
of millions
Parahippus, Merychippus
o f years, t h r o u g h
a n d Pliohippus,
Mesohippus,
t h e r e appeared Equus,
the
h o r s e o f t h e P l e i s t o c e n e , w h i c h was t h e size o f a small m o d e r n pony. S o m e o f t h e earlier versions h a d m a d e t h e m i g r a t i o n west across t h e B e r i n g Strait i n t o Siberia, b u t Equus was t h e o n l y h o r s e w h i c h survived these j o u r n e y s , a n d it spread its p r o g e n y w e s t across Asia and E u r o p e , a n d i n t o Arabia a n d N o r t h Africa. In N o r t h A m e r i c a , h o w e v e r , Equus b e c a m e extinct, a b o u t eleven t h o u s a n d years before t h e Spaniards arrived, a n d n o b o d y is certain why. Perhaps it was d r o u g h t , c o l d or disease. Perhaps Equus
was
h u n t e d t o e x t i n c t i o n b y p r e h i s t o r i c Indians. Perhaps t h e buffalo, w h i c h c a m e east across t h e B e r i n g Strait, m o n o p o l i s e d t h e grazing. T h e s e are t h e t h e o r i e s p r o p o s e d a n d n o n e o f t h e m c o n v i n c i n g l y explain t h e disappearance o f t h e h o r s e from t h e A m e r i c a n fossil r e c o r d . It r e m a i n s a p u z z l e for archaeologists and a subject o f heated contention. B u t let us celebrate t h e r e t u r n o f Equus t o t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n
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plains, its w e s t w a r d j o u r n e y a r o u n d t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h e g l o b e . A l o n g t h e way, it h a d b e e n d o m e s t i c a t e d by h u m a n s and b r e d i n t o m a n y different varieties, a n d by p u r e c o i n c i d e n c e t h e Spanish h o r s e t u r n e d o u t t o b e t h e best suited o f all t h e breeds to t h e lean, arid e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e A m e r i c a n West. U n l i k e t h e N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n horse, a large a n d stately beast that r e q u i r e d plenty of grain and frequent w a t e r to survive, t h e Spanish h o r s e c o u l d survive o n t h e sparsest o f
forage,
endure
annual p e r i o d s o f starvation a n d l o n g stretches w i t h o u t water. In t h e l a n g u a g e of h o r s e - b r e e d e r s it was a Barb. It h a d b e e n b r e d b y desert-dwellers - A r a b n o m a d s , a n d t h e n t h e M o o r s o f N o r t h Africa, w h o i n t r o d u c e d it to Spain over seven c e n t u r i e s o f invasions. T o t h e eyes o f an E n g l i s h m a n , a F r e n c h m a n o r a G e r m a n , it was n o t a h a n d s o m e animal, b e i n g small, s h a g g y - m a n e d and l o n g tailed, n o t t o m e n t i o n ' h a m m e r - h e a d e d , r a m - n o s e d , e w e - n e c k e d , goat-withered, cat-hammed, sore-backed, h a r d - m o u n t e d , m e a n t e m p e r e d ' . * B u t it was incredibly t o u g h a n d hardy, a n d o n c e it escaped o n to t h e plains, its p o p u l a t i o n e x p l o d e d . B y 1800 t h e r e w e r e probably t w o million horses in t h e A m e r i c a n West: a m i l l i o n in t h e possession o f t h e n o m a d i c tribes and a n o t h e r
million
r u n n i n g w i l d and free. I s h o u l d m e n t i o n that B o m a J o h n s o n h a r b o u r s d e e p suspicions a b o u t this circular version o f t h e horse's history in N o r t h A m e r i c a . D e s p i t e t h e c o m p l e t e lack o f fossil e v i d e n c e , despite t h e total absence o f s u p p o r t i n g I n d i a n art and to h o o t s o f derision from his peers, B o m a doesn't believe that t h e P l e i s t o c e n e h o r s e ever b e c a m e e x t i n c t in N o r t h A m e r i c a , a n d this is m a i n l y because B o m a is a M o r m o n . M o r m o n i s m is a fundamentalist faith a n d its sacred text, t h e B o o k o f M o r m o n , states that A m e r i c a at t h e t i m e o f C h r i s t was p o p u l a t e d by t w o lost tribes o f Israel, w h o possessed horses, sheep, goats, pigs, oxen, elephants, w h e e l e d chariots a n d m e t a l swords — n o n e of w h i c h have t u r n e d u p in t h e archaeological record. O n e
* J. F r a n k D o b i e , Ttw
Mustangs.
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o f these tribes was t h e N e p h i t e s , d e s c r i b e d as ' w h i t e a n d d e l i g h t s o m e ' . T h e o t h e r was t h e Lamanites, w h o w e r e c u r s e d by t h e L o r d w i t h dark, 'filthy' skins a n d w e r e t h e ancestors o f t h e A m e r i c a n Indians. T h e story gets a lot w e i r d e r a n d m o r e i m p r o b able t h a n this (and m a i n t a i n s t h e same level o f racism), b u t t h e r e is n o r o o m for all o f that here. O n e m o r e detail: Jesus c a m e to t h e A m e r i c a s , travelling from Israel a n d crossing t h e Atlantic in s o m e unspecified conveyance. S o m e M o r m o n scholars assert that it was a w o o d e n s u b m a r i n e , b u t B o m a J o h n s o n suspects that Jesus c a m e to t h e N e w W o r l d in a spaceship. H o w else t o explain t h e w i d e s p r e a d I n d i a n legends a b o u t sky p e o p l e a n d p a l e - s k i n n e d b e a r d e d gods w h o visited l o n g ago? It is late in t h e a f t e r n o o n w h e n B o m a begins to talk a b o u t t h e B o o k o f M o r m o n . I have d r u n k t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a gallon o f w a t e r a n d I have yet to u r i n a t e . M y body's c o o l i n g system uses it all u p before it reaches m y bladder. It is 130 degrees F a h r e n h e i t in t h e sun a n d t h e air is so d r y that n e i t h e r o f us is sweating. T h e m o i s t u r e evaporates r i g h t o u t o f o u r p o r e s before it gets a c h a n c e to f o r m as sweat. B o m a still hasn't t a k e n his first sip o f water. H e is o n a roll — ebullient, impassioned, unflagging — oblivious t o e v e r y t h i n g b u t t h e ideas c o u r s i n g t h r o u g h his brain, leaping from o n e c o n c l u sion to t h e n e x t w i t h l o n g a n d agile strides. W h a t a b o u t t h e circular designs p e c k e d i n t o these rocks over here? Is that n o t t h e shape o f a flying saucer, v i e w e d from u n d e r n e a t h ? M o r m o n i s m is perhaps t h e most a w k w a r d of all t h e world's religions for an archaeologist t o believe in. Its f o u n d i n g p r o p h e t , J o s e p h S m i t h , w h o c a m e to his revelation in upstate N e w York in 1830, was an enthusiastic a m a t e u r archaeologist himself, and his a r c h a e o l o g i c a l / h i s t o r i c a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t s , as r e c o r d e d i n t h e B o o k o f M o r m o n , are at t h e c o r e o f t h e faith. P r o v i n g t h e existe n c e of t h e h o r s e in t h e A m e r i c a s before t h e Spaniards a n d c o n c u r rent t o t h e t i m e o f C h r i s t has b e c o m e s o m e t h i n g o f a H o l y Grail for M o r m o n archaeologists, b e c a u s e t h e r e are so m a n y references t o horses i n t h e B o o k o f M o r m o n . S o m e have g o n e so far as t o suggest that t h e h o r s e m e n J o s e p h S m i t h describes w e r e r i d i n g
Richard Grant
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S o u t h A m e r i c a n tapirs - t h r e e - t o e d , r u b b e r y - s n o u t e d animals n o b i g g e r t h a n a large pig. T h i s is n o t a t h e o r y t o w h i c h B o m a J o h n s o n subscribes. H e takes t h e h o r s e references in t h e B o o k o f M o r m o n as e v i d e n c e that t h e P l e i s t o c e n e h o r s e n e v e r b e c a m e e x t i n c t in N o r t h A m e r i c a . ' B u t t h e r e are n o fossils,' I protest. ' N o d e p i c t i o n s in I n d i a n art. N o e v i d e n c e whatsoever.' ' M a y b e w e j u s t haven't f o u n d it yet,' h e replies. 'We're m a k i n g n e w archaeological discoveries all t h e t i m e . T h e old o r t h o d o x i e s are falling o n e after a n o t h e r . I t h i n k it's entirely possible t h a t t h e P l e i s t o c e n e horse survived in small p o c k e t s a n d later b r e d w i t h t h e Spanish horse. It w o u l d certainly explain a lot o f references in t h e B o o k o f M o r m o n . ' B o m a t h e M o r m o n w o u l d love t o date t h e h o r s e intaglio b a c k t o t h e t i m e o f C h r i s t , b u t B o m a t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t is sure t h a t this is a d e p i c t i o n o f a Spanish h o r s e - from t h e l o n g , flowing
tail a n d f r o m t h e I n d i a n oral histories a b o u t t h e intaglio.
Was it c r e a t e d after Diaz's visit in 1540? O r d u r i n g J u a n de Oriates t r i p t h r o u g h this c o u n t r y in 1605? O r later still? I n 1 7 0 1 an i n t r e p i d Jesuit m i s s i o n a r y n a m e d P a d r e K i n o r o d e t h r o u g h this c o u n t r y , a n d t h e Q u e c h u a n s c h a l l e n g e d his horses t o a foot race, w h i c h suggests e i t h e r t h a t t h e y k n e w little a b o u t t h e h o r s e or had forgotten
w h a t t h e y h a d l e a r n e d from
earlier
horse
encounters. W h o e v e r m a d e this intaglio, a n d w h e n e v e r h e m a d e it, w e can say w i t h certainty that h e was an artist. B y t h e crudest t e c h n i q u e i m a g i n a b l e , scraping o n t h e surface o f t h e earth, h e was able t o give a stance and character t o t h e h o r s e , a grace o f presence. Its lines are s m o o t h a n d flowing. T h e muscles in its h a u n c h e s a n d shoulders are r e p r e s e n t e d b y low, b u n c h e d m o u n d s o f pebbles. T h e a r c h i n g n e c k a n d t h e o p e n m o u t h suggest anger -
bared
t e e t h - a n d t h e tail flares o u t b e h i n d . T h e artistic skill e v i d e n t in t h e h o r s e intaglio has led s o m e observers t o c o n c l u d e that it was t h e w o r k o f later w h i t e m e n . B o m a doesn't agree, a n d o n this p o i n t at least I t h i n k h e is right. ' L o o k at t h e legs. It's h a r d t o i m a g i n e a w h i t e artist g o i n g t o t h e trouble o f scraping o u t t h e h e a d , t h e b o d y a n d t h e tail, d o i n g it
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all so beautifully, a n d t h e n n o t following t h r o u g h w i t h t h e legs. T h e legs are j u s t lightly t a m p e d in, w h i c h is t h e distinguishing characteristic o f I n d i a n art in this area.' W e w a l k b a c k t o B o m a ' s t r u c k a n d h e gives m e a r i d e t o his office in Y u m a , w h e r e h e shows m e an aerial p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e horse. W e shake h a n d s a n d I t h a n k h i m for his h e l p a n d an i n t e r esting a f t e r n o o n . I s t o p off at a c o n v e n i e n c e store o n t h e e d g e o f t o w n , b u y a six-pack o f b e e r a n d a fresh gallon o f water, a n d drive b a c k o u t towards t h e horse. W a l k i n g u p t h e trail it's still h o t , b u t t h e ferocity has left t h e sun, a n d t h e r e are living things o n t h e desert p a v e m e n t n o w : a r o a d r u n n e r that sprints off at h i g h speed w h e n it sees m e , a f e w lizards a n d ants, a n d t h e occasional raven o r turkey v u l t u r e o v e r h e a d . I n o t i c e plant life that I h a d missed before: isolated, d e s i c cated tufts o f sage, a few spiny w a n d s o f ocotillo o n t h e ridges. I get t o t h e h o r s e j u s t before t h e sun hits t h e h o r i z o n . I sit d o w n at its feet, facing t h e sunset, crack o p e n a beer, a n d i m m e diately b e c o m e transfixed. T h e r e is a low, u n e v e n b a n k o f pebbles a r o u n d t h e t o p o f t h e horse's n e c k a n d i n t h e slanting light it t h r o w s a s h a d o w that falls exactly like a m a n e — surely this was t h e artist s i n t e n t i o n . T h e m a n e grows l o n g e r a n d longer, a n d t h e rest o f t h e h o r s e fills w i t h shadow. T h e n , for a l o n g m i n u t e , e v e r y t h i n g t u r n s p u r p l e : t h e sand d u n e s to t h e west, t h e s h e e n o n t o p o f t h e desert p a v e m e n t , t h e skin o n t h e b a c k o f m y h a n d s a n d t h e o u t l i n e o f raised pebbles a r o u n d t h e horse. Bats appear, d i v i n g a n d c h i t t e r i n g overhead, a n d a p e c u l i a r - l o o k i n g fluffy w h i t e a n t ( T h i s t l e d o w n Velvet A n t , as I later d e t e r m i n e ) crawls o u t o f a small h o l e it has excavated in t h e horse's belly. I t h i n k o f M e l c h i o r D i a z a n d his i m p a l i n g , of lost Israelites r i d i n g tapirs, o f t h e p u e b l o tribes in N e w M e x i c o w h o a n n o i n t e d themselves w i t h t h e sweat o f C o r o n a d o ' s h o l y dogs. I t h i n k o f t h e f a m o u s Q u e c h u a n r u n n e r s , m e n w h o c o u l d follow a d e e r until it collapsed from e x h a u s t i o n , c h a l l e n g i n g o n e o f t h e P a d r e Kino's horses t o a race, and t h e l o o k o n t h e i r faces as h o r s e a n d r i d e r galloped effortlessly past t h e m a n d streaked away i n t o t h e distance. As t h e stars c o m e o u t , m y t h o u g h t s w a n d e r eastwards and I
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i m a g i n e t h e w i l d e x u b e r a n c e o f an I n d i a n galloping a h o r s e across t h e plains for t h e first t i m e , like a t e e n a g e b o y w i t h t h e keys t o his father's sports car, a n d realising this was t h e only w a y t o travel. T h e r e was n o g o i n g b a c k t o t h e riverside fields, n o m o r e g r u b b i n g after roots a n d spiders, n o m o r e travelling o n foot. T h e C o m a n c h e s , they say, w o u l d m o u n t t h e i r horses t o travel 150 yards, j u s t as a m o d e r n A m e r i c a n will get in his car to drive t h e same distance across a s h o p p i n g mall p a r k i n g lot. T h e h o r s e n e v e r m a d e m u c h o f a difference t o t h e Y u m a n tribes, b e c a u s e t h e r e was n o t h i n g in this desert for horses t o graze o n , b u t o u t o n t h e sea o f grass it b r o u g h t o n a r e v o l u t i o n o f space a n d distance a n d velocity. S u d d e n l y it was possible t o travel at t h e same s p e e d as t h e buffalo, t o p i c k o u t a c h o i c e a n i m a l a n d gallop alongside it n e c k for n e c k , h o l d i n g o n w i t h t h e k n e e s , a n d a i m i n g t h e a r r o w j u s t b e h i n d t h e ribs. It was possible for t h e t r i b e t o follow t h e endless m i g r a t o r y circles a n d l o o p s t h a t t h e buffalo m a d e , instead o f h o p i n g a n d p r a y i n g t h a t a h e r d w o u l d c o m e by, w i t h t h e w i n d in t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n for a fire s u r r o u n d o r a stealthy b e l l y - c r a w l , o r a h i d d e n cliff n e a r b y t o drive t h e buffalo over. Seated o n t h e b a c k o f a h o r s e , as Castafieda n o t e d , t h e h u m a n eye c o m m a n d e d a w i d e r stretch o f t h e land, a n d that a l o n e was e n o u g h t o give a n e w feeling o f power and confidence. S o m e historians ( H u b e r t H o w e Bancroft, T. R . F e h r e n b a c h ) have argued that t h e arrival o f t h e h o r s e d o o m e d t h e plains tribes by l u r i n g t h e m off t h e sedentary f a r m i n g track towards civilisation and l o c k i n g t h e m i n t o the primitive, n o m a d i c h u n t i n g life. As far as I can see, t h e y w e r e d o o m e d anyway. T h e Aztecs a n d t h e Incas h a d cities, farms, tax collectors, totalitarian g o v e r n m e n t s , h u g e standing armies, a n d it d i d n ' t d o t h e m any g o o d . I n d e e d , it's h a r d t o t h i n k o f any p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e s , w h e t h e r
sedentary
farmers, n o m a d i c h u n t e r s or city-dwellers, in t h e A m e r i c a s or a n y w h e r e else in t h e w o r l d , w h o w e r e able t o w i t h s t a n d t h e full onslaught o f E u r o p e a n i m p e r i a l i s m a n d technology. Certainly, t h e h o r s e was a b a r b e d , Trojan gift, because disease, w h i s k e y a n d millions o f w e l l - a r m e d , ferociously
determined,
genocidally i n c l i n e d invaders c a m e along in its w a k e . B u t at least
Ghost
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Riders
t h e h o r s e tribes, for 150 years o r so, w e r e able t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e life o f a m o u n t e d n o m a d , a n d it is clear from t h e w a y t h e y talked a b o u t it, a n d m o u r n e d its d e p a r t u r e , that it was a life t h e y loved w i t h a fierce passion. ' T h e life o f m y p e o p l e is a life o f freedom,' said Sitting Bull, e c h o i n g t h e speeches o f n o m a d leaders t h e w o r l d over. 'I have seen n o t h i n g that a w h i t e m a n has, h o u s e s o r railways o r c l o t h i n g o r food, that is as g o o d as t h e r i g h t to m o v e i n t h e o p e n country, a n d live in o u r fashion.' T h e w o r d ' n o m a d ' is d e r i v e d from t h e G r e e k nomas,
meaning
pasture and, strictly speaking, it refers o n l y t o pastoral h e r d i n g p e o p l e s . T h e m o r e p e d a n t i c scholars, such as t h e R u s s i a n a u t h o r i t y A . M . Khazanov, m a i n t a i n that t r u e n o m a d i s m has never existed i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , w i t h t h e arguable e x c e p t i o n o f t h e N a v a j o Indians, w h o c o m m a n d e e r e d d o m e s t i c a t e d E u r o p e a n sheep, as well as horses, from t h e N e w M e x i c a n settlements. K h a z a n o v discounts t h e w a n d e r i n g buffalo tribes because t h e y h u n t e d their m e a t , instead o f d o m e s t i c a t i n g it a n d raising it o n t h e hoof. Similarly, h e discounts t h e m o u n t e d A p a c h e raiders, w h o lived p e r p e t u a l l y o n t h e m o v e , a n d often drove stolen herds o f cattle a n d horses across t h e S o u t h w e s t a n d n o r t h e r n M e x i c o , b e c a u s e t h e y l o o k e d at livestock as t h e spoils o f war, to b e eaten o r sold, and h a d n o interest i n n u r t u r i n g , b r e e d i n g a n d increasing t h e size o f t h e herds. O u t s i d e scholarly circles, h o w e v e r , t h e w o r d n o m a d has a broader, m o r e m e t a p h o r i c a l m e a n i n g — ' A n y o f a p e o p l e
who
have n o p e r m a n e n t h o m e , b u t m o v i n g a b o u t constantly, as if i n search o f pasture,' t o q u o t e Webster's New World Dictionary. To p u t it a n o t h e r way, f o r m s of n o m a d i s m e m e r g e d in N o r t h A m e r i c a that d o n ' t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e m o d e l set u p b y E u r o p e a n historians. In E u r o p e a n d Asia, a n d later i n Africa, it seems p r o b a b l e that pastoral h e r d i n g d e v e l o p e d as an offshoot of sedentary a g r i c u l ture, r a t h e r t h a n as a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e m o b i l e h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g life. K h a z a n o v dates t h e first m o u n t e d n o m a d s at a r o u n d 2 0 0 0 BC, e m e r g i n g in t h e N e a r East a n d t h e Eurasian steppes, t w o o r t h r e e t h o u s a n d years after t h e first p e r m a n e n t
farming
villages w e r e established in t h e Fertile C r e s c e n t . P r e s u m a b l y it
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was easier t o d o m e s t i c a t e livestock a n d e x p e r i m e n t w i t h animal h u s b a n d r y in a s e d e n t a r y e n v i r o n m e n t , w i t h fences, corrals a n d surplus grains. P r e s u m a b l y t h e area a r o u n d t h e village b e c a m e o v e r g r a z e d a n d t h e h e r d e r s b e g a n r o a m i n g further afield t o find fresh grass, until they severed t h e ties entirely a n d f o u n d e d a rival culture. All is guesswork, t h e r e are n o facts. M a y b e , in light o f t h e strikingly egalitarian cultures t h a t n o m a d s d e v e l o p e d , t h e y w a n t e d t o get away from t h e social hierarchies a n d g o v e r n m e n t a l systems that agricultural societies w e r e developing, in o r d e r t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e f o o d surpluses, build i r r i g a t i o n projects a n d enforce t h e division o f labour. O r m a y b e s o m e d e e p e r y e a r n i n g was p u l l i n g at t h o s e early h o r s e m e n , for t h e act o f travel itself. O n t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n plains t h e r e w e r e e c h o e s o f t h e s a m e h i s t o r i c a l process, b u t it d i d n o t h a p p e n b y s p o n t a n e o u s , indigenous development.The American form of nomadism, which r e a c h e d its a p o g e e i n t h e horse—buffalo c u l t u r e o n t h e plains, was t h e i n a d v e r t e n t creation o f E u r o p e a n invaders. It arose o u t o f c o n t a c t w i t h a s e d e n t a r y agricultural civilisation an o c e a n away. W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e Navajo, t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n h o r s e tribes r e m a i n e d h u n t e r s - f o o d extractors, n o t f o o d p r o d u c e r s b u t o n c e m o u n t e d t h e y d e v e l o p e d t h e same attitudes a n d p r e j u dices as n o m a d s t h e w o r l d over: c o n t e m p t for s e d e n t a r y farmers, t h e e q u a t i o n o f f r e e d o m w i t h space a n d mobility, a n d t h e h o r r o r a n d hatred o f e v e r y t h i n g linear, rectangular a n d confining. Sitting by t h e h o r s e intaglio, w a t c h i n g it fill w i t h m o o n l i g h t , I recall t h e w o r d s o f Satanta t h e K i o w a chief, as h e realised his people's w a y o f life was c o m i n g t o an e n d : ' l have h e a r d that y o u i n t e n d t o settle us o n a reservation n e a r t h e m o u n t a i n s . I d o n ' t w a n t to settle. I love t o r o a m over t h e prairies. T h e r e I feel free and happy, b u t w h e n w e settle w e g r o w pale a n d die.' W h e n t h e b e e r is g o n e , I roll o u t m y sleeping b a g o n the desert p a v e m e n t . It makes a hard b e d , b u t it's w o r t h it for t h e v i e w o f t h e stars, t h e m o o n l i t s a n d d u n e s t o t h e w e s t a n d t h e d r e a m s o f r u n n i n g horses. I n m y dreams, at least, 1 a m a s u p e r b h o r s e m a n , galloping effortlessly across t h e plains a n d mesas, living o u t an u r b a n e , civilised fantasy that Franz Kafka o n c e described:
Ghost
Riders
83
If o n e w e r e o n l y a n I n d i a n , instantly alert, a n d o n a r a c i n g horse, l e a n i n g against t h e w i n d , k e p t o n q u i v e r i n g j e r k i l y over t h e q u i v e r i n g g r o u n d , until o n e shed one's spurs, for t h e r e n e e d e d n o spurs, t h r e w away t h e reins, for there n e e d e d n o reins, a n d hardly saw t h a t t h e l a n d before o n e
was
s m o o t h l y s h o r n h e a t h w h e n horse's n e c k a n d h e a d w o u l d b e already g o n e .
CHAPTER 5 T h e space o f n o m a d t h o u g h t is qualitatively different from State space. A i r against earth. State space is 'striated', or g r i d d e d . M o v e m e n t w i t h i n it is confined . . . t o preset paths b e t w e e n fixed a n d identifiable
p o i n t s . N o m a d s p a c e is
' s m o o t h ' o r o p e n - e n d e d . O n e can rise u p at any p o i n t a n d m o v e t o any o t h e r . Translator's i n t r o d u c t i o n t o D e l e u z e and G u a t t a r i , A Thousand
T
Plateaus
h e n e x t m o r n i n g I get u p before d a w n and drive east, across t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r a n d i n t o t h e sprawl a n d billboard l a n d -
scape o f Y u m a
('Foxy Vegetables W e l c o m e s You!', 'Visit T h e
Y u m a Territorial P r i s o n ' ) . T h e m o t e l p a r k i n g lots are empty. T h e trailer parks a n d R V camps are deserted, all t h r e e h u n d r e d
of
t h e m . In s u m m e r t i m e t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f Y u m a shrinks by 50 p e r cent, from 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o a b o u t 6 0 , 0 0 0 . I was h e r e in January a n d t h e city, if that is t h e right w o r d for it, was clogged and seething w i t h n o m a d i c retirees in m o t o r h o m e s — 'snowbirds', as t h e locals call t h e m , a t e r m that describes their southerly m i g r a t i o n in w i n t e r a n d hints at their w h i t e p l u m a g e . T h e r e w e r e vibrant e n c a m p m e n t s o n these a b a n d o n e d lots, a chirpy, w h o l e s o m e , neighbourly, E i s e n h o w e r - g e n e r a t i o n feeling in t h e air — golf clothes and cocktail parties, b r i d g e t o u r n a m e n t s and shuffleb o a r d contests, coffee klatches a n d quilting bees — and it is strange a n d eerie to see all of it g o n e , all o f it evaporated by t h e heat.
86
Richard Grant Towards t h e e n d o f M a r c h , as t h e t e m p e r a t u r e climbs i n t o t h e
nineties, t h e spirit o f m i g r a t i o n m o v e s t h r o u g h t h e flock. T h e y p a c k u p their satellite dishes and cocktail shakers, roll u p their A s t r o t u r f lawns, a n d p o i n t t h e RVs n o r t h , chasing t h e
perfect
8 0 - d e g r e e day u p a n d d o w n t h e c o n t i n e n t . T h e M e x i c a n
fruit
a n d vegetable pickers, w h o w o r k t h e irrigated farms a r o u n d Y u m a , have g o n e n o r t h t o o , chasing t h e harvest, a n d so p e r h a p s have t h e t r o u b a d o u r s a n d l o w - r e n t prostitutes w h o used t o appear at their c a m p s o n payday. At the edge of t h e farms there is a line of transition. T h e bright, garish, i n c o n g r u o u s swath of g r e e n ends at t h e last irrigation canal, and t h e native buffs, duns, tans, greys, khakis and pinks take over. Linear, rectangular space gives way to s m o o t h , u n t r a m m e l l e d space - n o m a d space - w i d e flat desert valleys and isolated, s a w t o o t h e d m o u n t a i n ranges, w i t h stands of tall, a r m e d saguaro cactus g r o w i n g o n their flanks and foothills. T h e valleys measure t w e n t y or thirty miles across, and o u t in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e m there are whirling columns o f dust, raised u p b y t h e w i n d , spinning counter-clockwise like m i n i a t u r e t o r n a d o e s . T h e y twirl a n d u n d u l a t e a n d skid across t h e valley floors, g a t h e r i n g speed, until they b l o w apart and disappear, a n d a n o t h e r dust devil forms s o m e w h e r e else. N o m a d space: t o o far from t h e river t o irrigate, t o o d r y for crops o r cities to take root. Like t h e deserts o f t h e B e d o u i n , t h e M o n g o l steppes, t h e T i b e t a n plateaus o r t h e buffalo plains, this is a harsh, marginal, w i d e - o p e n landscape, w i t h l o n g h o r i z o n s a n d a paucity o f water. T h i s was t h e h o m e l a n d o f t h e Sand Papago, or Hiaced O ' O o d h a m
as they called themselves, t h e last free-
r o a m i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s in t h e l o w e r f o r t y - e i g h t states t o b e b r o u g h t to heel, at t h e close o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h century. Fifty years earlier this had b e e n t h e w e s t e r n m o s t r a n g e for t h e W e s t e r n A p a c h e raiding parties, attracted b y t h e e m i g r a n t caravans travelling to t h e California goldfields. T h i s , o n t h e e v i d e n c e o f dust devils, is a place w h e r e t h e e a r t h itself feels c o m p e l l e d t o rise u p a n d m o v e . E v e n today, w i t h t h e richest, m o s t powerful, a n d m o s t t e c h nologically a d v a n c e d n a t i o n state in history b e h i n d it, s e d e n t a r y civilisation has gained little m o r e t h a n a t o e h o l d o n this stretch o f desert. E v e r y thirty miles o r so, t h e interstate will reach a
Ghost flyblown
87
Riders
gas station, w i t h a n o i s y a i r - c o n d i t i o n e r a n d a few
ramshackle trailers p a r k e d a r o u n d it — a s e t t l e m e n t d e p e n d e n t for its existence o n passing travellers. I get stranded' in o n e o f t h e m (Sentinel, A r i z o n a ) for t w o a n d a half h o u r s , b e c a u s e t h e p r o p r i etor is sleeping off a h a n g o v e r a n d m y t a n k is close t o empty. I consider w a k i n g h i m u p and r e c o n s i d e r w h e n I see t h e N a t i o n a l Rifle Association stickers o n t h e d o o r , t h e scrawled promises in r e d i n k t o s h o o t all i n t r u d e r s a n d t h e scrawled boasts
about
i n t r u d e r s already shot. 'Why
would anyone want
t o live o u t h e r e ? ' w o n d e r s
a
Californian t r u c k driver, stranded i n t h e same p r e d i c a m e n t . A p a r t from a few surly outcasts, h u d d l e d a r o u n d t h e i r a i r - c o n d i t i o n e r s a n d b e e r c o o l e r s , m o d e r n A m e r i c a n s , like S a n d P a p a g o s
or
A p a c h e s , treat this desert as a place t o b e travelled across, a place w h e r e it feels w r o n g to b e stationary. A t ten-fifteen, w h e n t h e grizzled, w i n c i n g p r o p r i e t o r finally appears, d r i v i n g t h e fifty yards b e t w e e n his trailer a n d t h e gas station, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e is already 100 degrees i n t h e shade a n d rising steadily. F u r t h e r east, as t h e interstate a p p r o a c h e s T u c s o n , t h e m o u n t a i n ranges g r o w taller a n d m o r e impressive, rising u p o u t o f t h e desert t o eight o r n i n e t h o u s a n d feet now, w i t h a d a r k g r e e n m a n t l e o f p i n e forest a r o u n d their s u m m i t s . W h e n s t o r m systems track across s o u t h e r n A r i z o n a , these 'sky island' m o u n t a i n ranges c a p t u r e m o s t o f t h e precipitation, leaving t h e deserts a r o u n d in a rain shadow. T h e m o u n t a i n s release w a t e r t o t h e deserts as s n o w m e l t a n d r u n off, encased w i t h i n t h e banks o f unreliable rivers a n d streams. T h e same process has s h a p e d t h e g e o g r a p h y o f t h e A m e r i c a n West as a w h o l e : t h e G r e a t Plains m i g h t also b e d e s c r i b e d as t h e rain s h a d o w o f t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n s . T h e M o j a v e a n d t h e G r e a t Basin D e s e r t in N e v a d a a n d U t a h lie in t h e rain s h a d o w o f t h e Sierra N e v a d a . T h e arid plains o f eastern W a s h i n g t o n a n d O r e g o n are created b y t h e r a i n - h o g g i n g Cascades. W h e n it does rain o n t h e deserts or t h e plains, it tends to b e dramatic a n d unpredictable: a t h u n d e r s t o r m boiling u p and d u m p ing its contents o n a small, localised area of land, rather t h a n blanketing t h e w h o l e region in rain. Grazing springs u p in o n e place and shrivels away in another. D r y gulches roar into flash-flood, t h e n
88
Richard Grant
r e t u r n t o dust a n d sand. C a p r i c i o u s rainfall patterns, t e m p o r a r y shifting zones o f vegetation, seasonal t e m p e r a t u r e extremes, farflung a n d unreliable w a t e r sources, w h a t P i e r r e H u b a c calls 'divagation of local climates'* — these t o o are characteristics shared by n o m a d lands all over t h e w o r l d . Historically, these w e r e t h e lands c e d e d t o t h e n o m a d s b y t h e e m e r g i n g s e d e n t a r y states, a n d n o m a d i s m was t h e logical way to stay alive o n t h e m . I t h i n k this t y p e o f landscape still activates t h e h u m a n desire for travel a n d m o b i l i t y o n s o m e d e e p instinctual level, b u t I d o n ' t k n o w h o w to prove it, a n d t h e r e are certainly e x c e p t i o n s . I t h i n k that's w h a t h a p p e n e d to m e i n t h e A m e r i c a n West, b u t I ' m aware o f o t h e r factors a n d m o r e plausible explanations. A fascination w i t h deserts a n d w a n d e r i n g tribes, for e x a m p l e , has b e e n a r e c u r r e n t p h e n o m e n o n a m o n g t h e misfits o f E u r o p e a n civilisation, a n d a m o n g a certain class o f w e l l - e d u c a t e d E n g l i s h m e n in particular. ' A p a r t o f their brain reflects t h e desert perfectly,' w r i t e s M i c h a e l O n d a a t j e i n The English Patient. ' T h e English have a great h u n g e r for desolate places,' says A l e c G u i n n e s s , playing a B e d o u i n c h i e f in Lawrence of Arabia. I ' m n o t a b o u t t o c o m p a r e m y ramblings a r o u n d t h e A m e r i c a n West w i t h t h e epic feats o f T. E . L a w r e n c e , o r D o u g h t y , Philby o r Wilfred T h e s i g e r , b u t I t h i n k I u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o m p u l s i o n that drove t h e English Arabists o u t i n t o t h e deserts a n d t h e c o m p a n y o f n o m a d s . I t h i n k I k n o w w h y they felt so restless a n d claustrophobic in E n g l a n d . Travel was in m y family t o o . I c o m e from, imperialist stock: t h e B r i t o n s w h o w a n t e d to get t h e hell o u t o f Britain. M y father, m y paternal grandfather a n d his father before h i m w e r e Scottish b y b l o o d b u t b o r n in India, Anglicised by t h e R a j , and they probably e n c o u n t e r e d s o m e of m y mother's English relatives at colonial functions and banquets. I was b o r n in Malaysia, w h e r e m y father m a d e a g o o d s h o w o f settling d o w n after travelling across m o s t o f t h e w o r l d in his twenties. T h e n w e m o v e d to K u w a i t , m a d e e x t e n d e d visits a r o u n d t h e M i d d l e East before ' c o m i n g back' to England, a c o u n t r y that was entirely foreign to m e a n d reluctant to give m e
*Pierre Plateaus.
H u b a c , Les
Nomades,
quoted
in D e l e u z e
and
Guattari, A
Thousand
Ghost
Riders
89
citizenship. M y nationality was filed u n d e r ' M i s c e l l a n e o u s ' at t h e British Passport Office. It is a dreary, c o m m o n p l a c e adage a m o n g t h e s e d e n t a r y a n d s t a y - a t - h o m e s t h a t p e o p l e travel t o escape from themselves. T h e r e is s o m e t r u t h in t h e old cliche, as t h e r e is in m o s t , b u t if y o u spent y o u r c h i l d h o o d o n t h e m o v e - a n d w i t h t h e b i g proviso that y o u a n d y o u r family h a d a h a p p y t i m e d o i n g it — t h e n m o v i n g o n feels t h e r i g h t a n d natural state o f affairs, a n d assumes an air o f inevitability. It's w h e n y o u get s t r a n d e d in o n e place for t o o l o n g , at least in m y case, that y o u start to feel divorced from y o u r self. Setting o u t o n a j o u r n e y , almost invariably, I have a sense o f b e c o m i n g w h o l e again, o f d o u b t s a n d confusions lifting, a n d m y self slotting b a c k i n t o place. I r e m e m b e r m y c h i l d h o o d as a h a p p y t i m e , b u t m y father started suffering from p e r i o d i c depressions after w e ' c a m e b a c k ' to E n g l a n d , a n d as I recall t h e y usually c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e onset o f w i n t e r . I k n e w a b o u t t h e English w i n t e r — the d a m p c o l d in y o u r b o n e s , t h e a f t e r n o o n dark, t h e d r i v i n g rain in y o u r face, as if t h e e l e m e n t s h a d singled y o u o u t for p e r s e c u t i o n — b u t t h r o u g h t h e shielding efforts o f m y parents I k n e w very little a b o u t t h e d o w n t u r n s a n d r e d u n d a n c i e s at the. office a n d t h e steady d e c l i n e o f t h e British s h i p b r o k i n g business, to w h i c h m y father h a d attached his fortunes. I did n o t i c e that m y father was restored to his old self, at least temporarily, by g o i n g o n a trip to s o m e s u n n y foreign c o u n t r y o r other. H e r e t u r n e d from abroad in fine spirits, w i t h presents a n d stories to tell, a n d old reminiscences sparked — his t i m e as a l u m b e r j a c k in British C o l u m b i a in t h e 1940s, his h e i r e s s - h u n t i n g escapades in San Francisco in t h e 1950s, t h e old gambling, golfing, cocktailswilling days in Kuala L u m p u r a n d Singapore, t h e a n e c d o t e s and adventures from Spain, Italy, M e x i c o , M o n t r e a l , Vancouver, C a p e T o w n , B u r m a , Indian, C e y l o n , T h a i l a n d , t h e Philippines. Listening a n d w a t c h i n g , as t h e rain lashed t h e w i n d o w panes, a n d m y father told his stories a n d twirled his S c o t c h - a n d - w a t e r , it was clear to m e that e v e r y t h i n g vivid a n d exciting in life h a p p e n e d in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . A t n o stage in m y u p b r i n g i n g d i d it o c c u r t o m e that I w o u l d live in E n g l a n d o n c e I was old e n o u g h to leave.
90
Richard Grant M y u r g e t o travel, a n d travel towards t h e sun, was foursquare
in t h e family tradition, b u t t h e style o f m y travels, I suspect, i n c l u d e d an e l e m e n t o f rebellion against m y b a c k g r o u n d . I wasn't h u n t i n g tigers in India w i t h a t r o o p o f native bearers a n d telling the story over a g i n - a n d - q u i n i n e
c o c k t a i l at t h e
governor's
m a n s i o n , like m y grandfather. I wasn't chasing d e b u t a n t e s a n d craving a life in h i g h society, like m y father. I was s l u m m i n g it a r o u n d t h e r e d n e c k hinterlands in g r u b b y j e a n s , h i t c h - h i k i n g a n d r i d i n g freight trains, d r i n k i n g in r o a d h o u s e s a n d dive bars, sleeping in cars a n d flopping in t h e dirt. G r o w i n g u p in houses filled w i t h nice objets (Persian rugs, C h i n e s e altar tables, a n t i q u e silverware), a n d b o m b a r d e d by c o n s u m e r i s t advertising in T h a t c h e r ' s L o n d o n , I t o o k p r i d e in b e i n g able to c a r r y m y worldly possessions a n d replace t h e m for less t h a n t w o h u n d r e d dollars if necessary. T o w a k e u p by t h e side o f t h e road s o m e w h e r e , light a cigarette, a n d start p o n d e r i n g t h e decision of w h e t h e r t o set off n o r t h , s o u t h , east o r west . . . To b e sitting in a N e w York b a r a n d fall prey t o a s u d d e n u r g e t o g o t o Texas, M o n t a n a o r M e x i c o , a n d b e able to leave in t h e m o r n i n g w i t h o u t a care - this was m y idea o f f r e e d o m , this was m y definition o f success in life. T u r n i n g off t h e interstate, a p p r o a c h i n g m y s u n - b a k e d rental h o u s e i n T u c s o n , I feel a n a c h e o f nostalgia for t h o s e loose, f r e e w h e e l i n g days, a sense that s o m e t h i n g has g o n e w r o n g w i t h m y life, a suspic i o n that I have b e e n d u p e d . Call m e spoiled, lazy, naive, o r i m m a ture, b u t I resent t h e fact that I have t o w o r k a lot h a r d e r t h a n I used to, a n d yet I have less s p e n d i n g m o n e y and less t i m e in w h i c h to s p e n d it. T h e h o u s e is pleasant e n o u g h a n d c h e a p t o rent, a n d t h e r e are u n d e n i a b l e practical advantages in h a v i n g a h o m e base, b u t w h e n you're used t o living o n t h e r o a d t h e w h o l e s e t - u p l o o k s like an o u t r a g e o u s swindle, a blatant a n d e g r e g i o u s c o n - j o b . T r a m p s a n d h o b o e s will tell y o u t h e same. R e n t , p h o n e , electricity, gas, water, state and federal i n c o m e tax, m o n t h l y p a y m e n t s o n t h e t r u c k , vehicle insurance, credit card p a y m e n t s — h o w d o p e o p l e p u t u p w i t h it? T h e b e d s , tables, chairs, desks, w i n d o w coverings, lamps a n d shelving units that h o u s e s cry o u t for; t h e p o t s , p a n s , knives,
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spatulas, plates, m u g s , b o w l s , coffee-makers, towels, c l e a n i n g p r o d ucts — I lived happily w i t h o u t o w n i n g these things a n d n o w t h e y have b e c o m e necessities. I t u r n t h e key a n d get t h e T u c s o n o v e n - d o o r t r e a t m e n t : a blast o f s u p e r h e a t e d air i n t h e face. I l o o k a r o u n d at t h e betrayal o f m y n o m a d i c principles, t h e e n d o f t h e n o m a d i c e x p e r i m e n t that was m y life. Well, m a y b e it d o e s n ' t l o o k like m u c h t o y o u : a few articles o f thrift-shop furniture, a lumpy, worthless futon b e d , from P e a c e - A - S h i t H i p p i e F u t o n s , t h e absence o f T V a n d V C R
and
t h e bare walls. B u t observe t h e sleek, black, d u s t - c o v e r e d n i n e h u n d r e d - d o l l a r stereo system a n d t h e stack o f C D s n e x t t o it. F o r s o m e reason, I can drive happily for days w i t h o u t listening t o music, b u t b a c k h e r e at h o m e base I n e e d it constantly. S o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e r h y t h m a n d t h e passage o f songs helps t o b r e a k t h e feeling o f dead, calm, e m p t y stasis. O b s e r v e also t h e c o m p u t e r , p r i n t e r a n d fax m a c h i n e / a n s w e r p h o n e , w h i c h I o n c e m a d e a living w i t h o u t , a n d w h i c h have n o w p l u n g e d m e i n t o debt. ( ' D e b t : an i n g e n i o u s substitute for t h e c h a i n a n d w h i p o f t h e slave driver,' as A m b r o s e B i e r c e defined it.) O b s e r v e t h e b u r g e o n i n g b o o k c o l l e c t i o n a n d t h e n e w shelving u n i t t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e overflow. I d o n ' t w a n t t o give u p t h e b o o k s , because t h e y give m e pleasure a n d t h e satisfaction o f o w n e r ship. I d o n ' t w a n t t o give u p t h e h o u s e ( a l t h o u g h I fantasise constantly a b o u t it), b e c a u s e I've g r o w n d e p e n d e n t o n its p r a c tical c o n v e n i e n c e s — a t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r , an address for mail, a b a n k a c c o u n t , a reliable desk t o w o r k at, a filing c a b i n e t for n o t e b o o k s a n d n e w s p a p e r clippings. A n d I tell myself that a fixed h o m e base will m a k e it easier t o f o r m lasting relationships. N o progress so far. M y last serious a t t e m p t is m a r k e d by a square o f c a r d b o a r d nailed over a missing glass p a n e l in t h e front d o o r . S h e is b a c k in F r a n c e n o w a n d I k e e p t h e c a r d b o a r d t h e r e as a memento. I m a k e myself a c u p o f coffee, in m y n e w Italian espresso p o t , a n d d r i n k it o n t h e front p o r c h . M y gaze travels o u t across t h e city, w a r p e d a n d s h i m m e r i n g in t h e heat, a n d u p i n t o t h e m o u n tains that l o o m above T u c s o n . M u c h as I enjoy t h e intensity o f desert heat, a n d respect it as a w o r t h y adversary, t h e m o u n t a i n s
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l o o k like an inviting prospect, c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e s w e l t e r i n g desk inside. U p t h e r e t h e air is c o o l a n d p i n e - s c e n t e d , t h e shade is d e e p a n d g r e e n , a n d t h e r e will b e w a t e r in s o m e o f t h e s w i m m i n g holes. A n inviting p r o s p e c t p e r h a p s , b u t I have t o o m u c h w o r k to d o , t o o m a n y debts t o pay, deadlines pressing in o n all sides. A n d besides, it's a Saturday. T h e c a m p g r o u n d s a n d s w i m m i n g holes will b e p a c k e d w i t h T u c s o n a n s escaping t h e heat, c r a n k i n g u p their b o o m - b o x e s , guzzling beer, w h o o p i n g
and
b e l l o w i n g exuberantly. T h e s e are fine activities w h e n y o u ' r e w i t h a g r o u p o f friends, b u t t h e y are n o t m u c h fun t o b e a r o u n d w h e n y o u ' r e alone a n d l o o k i n g for a little p e a c e and quiet. T h e n I start t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e ranges further east, w h i c h have n o roads a n d fewer visitors. T h e R i n c o n s o r t h e Santa R i t a s , or, b e t t e r yet, t h e D r a g o o n s . I p i c t u r e myself l e a n i n g against a p i n e tree, collecting m y t h o u g h t s i n silence a n d solitude, drafting m a g a zine stories w i t h a p e n a n d paper. O n l y a fool w o u l d t r y t o w o r k d o w n h e r e in t h e desert, in t h e d o g days o f s u m m e r , w i t h n o airc o n d i t i o n i n g , a worthless old evaporative c o o l e r a n d a n i n e t e e n dollar fan. T h e r e was a lesson t o b e l e a r n e d from t h e C h i r i c a h u a A p a c h e s here, w h o h a d an e m i n e n t l y sensible a p p r o a c h to t h e task o f living in s o u t h e a s t e r n A r i z o n a . T h e y spent their s u m m e r s c a m p e d u p h i g h in t h e m o u n t a i n s a n d d e s c e n d e d periodically i n t o t h e desert settlements t o trade or p l u n d e r . T h e c a m p i n g supplies are still in t h e t r u c k . I get b a c k o n t h e interstate, leaving t h e g r i d w o r k o f T u c s o n b e h i n d , d r i v i n g east i n t o t h e old s t o m p i n g g r o u n d s o f C o c h i s e and G e r o n i m o . I pass a sign for t h e C o c h i s e Terrace R V R e s o r t , stop for a ' p e a n u t b u s t e r parfait' at a n e a r b y D a i r y Q u e e n a n d b u y a postcard o f G e r o n i m o at t h e gift s h o p n e x t d o o r . It's a famous p h o t o g r a p h , taken, in 1884 d u r i n g o n e o f G e r o n i m o ' s t e m p o r a r y stays o n t h e reservat i o n , t w o years before his final surrender. H e is d o w n o n o n e k n e e , c l u t c h i n g his rifle, his m o u t h like a d o w n w a r d - c u r v i n g k n i f e slash across his face, staring at t h e c a m e r a w i t h a fierce, angry, e m b i t t e r e d a n d slightly crazed l o o k in his eyes. H e l o o k s like he's t h i n k i n g a b o u t killing s o m e o n e , o r possibly e v e r y w h i t e p e r s o n i n A r i z o n a , b e g i n n i n g w i t h F r a n k R a n d a l l o f t h e New York Herald o n t h e o t h e r side o f t h e camera.
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Sitting in armchairs a n d libraries, at a comfortable r e m o v e , it is easy to feel a d m i r a t i o n a n d respect for t h e way t h e Apaches lived, a n d sadness o r o u t r a g e at t h e w a y they w e r e tricked, swindled a n d h u n t e d d o w n i n t o submission. In t h e final d e n o u e m e n t G e r o n i m o and his b a n d o f t h i r t y - t h r e e Chiricahuas h e l d off five t h o u s a n d U S A r m y troops a n d three t h o u s a n d M e x i c a n soldiers for five m o n t h s — r u n n i n g , d o d g i n g , h i d i n g a n d skirmishing t h r o u g h these deserts a n d m o u n t a i n s , and d o w n i n t o M e x i c o . It was traitors from his o w n people, w o r k i n g as scouts for the U S Army, w h o finally tracked d o w n G e r o n i m o a n d p e r s u a d e d h i m it was hopeless. ' O n c e I m o v e d a b o u t like t h e wind,' G e r o n i m o said t o G e n e r a l C r o o k at t h e final capitulation. ' N o w I s u r r e n d e r to y o u a n d that is all.' Given m y predilections a n d prejudices, I find it impossible t o read t h e history o f t h e C h i r i c a h u a A p a c h e s w i t h o u t r o o t i n g for t h e m a n d s y m p a t h i s i n g w i t h their tragedy, b u t if I was travelling t h r o u g h southeast A r i z o n a w h e n t h e y w e r e at large, I ' m sure I w o u l d have a v e r y different perspective. I w o u l d b e c o n j u r i n g u p haEucinations b e h i n d every r o c k a n d bush, g r i p p e d b y t h e feeling o f b e i n g w a t c h e d a n d h u n t e d , nerves p e e l e d raw, guns l o a d e d a n d cocked. You s e l d o m saw A p a c h e w a r r i o r s u n t i l it was t o o late. T h e y w e r e masters o f stealth a n d c o n c e a l m e n t , a m b u s h a n d illusion. T h e i r e n e m i e s w e r e consistendy a m a z e d b y their ability t o m e l t away i n t o t h e landscape, t o w h i r l u p o u t o f n o w h e r e like a desert dust devil a n d t h e n disappear again. S o m e A p a c h e w a r r i o r s , like t h e great w a r c h i e f O n e - W h o - Y a w n s , w h o was n a m e d G e r o n i m o b y t h e M e x i c a n s , b e l i e v e d t h e y h a d t h e magical p o w e r t o b e c o m e invisible, b u t t h e y used t r i e d a n d tested practical t e c h n i q u e s , t o o . T h e y s t u d i e d t h e ways o f light a n d s h a d o w a n d m i r a g e o n t h e desert, t h e distortions o f visibility created b y different light at different times o f day, a n d p l a n n e d their a m b u s h e s a n d escapes accordingly. A l o n g s i d e this interstate, w h i c h was o n c e t h e m a i n trail a n d stagecoach line t h r o u g h C h i r i c a h u a country, t h e y w e r e k n o w n t o dig shallow pits a n d h e d o w n i n t h e m , p u l l i n g earth a n d debris over themselves, a n d t h e n rise u p , seemingly o u t o f n o w h e r e , w i t h a volley o f arrows o r bullets a n d a b l o o d - c u r d l i n g w a r cry.
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F r o m an early age, A p a c h e s w e r e t r a i n e d in t h e skill o f i m m o bility. K n o w i n g that t h e h u m a n eye is d r a w n , above all, by m o v e m e n t , t h e y l e a r n e d t o h o l d their b o d i e s in t h e same position, s o m e t i m e s c o n t o r t i n g themselves i n t o t h e shapes o f rocks, a n d stay that way, w i t h o u t m o v i n g a muscle, for h o u r s at a time. A n o t h e r p a r t o f their stealth training was t o r u b themselves w i t h sage o r o t h e r plants, t o disguise their scent, a n d stalk u p to an animal, m o v i n g as slowly a n d silendy as possible, like a gently swaying b r a n c h o r a c r e e p i n g a f t e r n o o n shadow, a n d t o u c h t h e animal before it sensed their presence. Preferably, t h e y w o u l d t o u c h t h e animal as lightly as an insect or a leaf a n d t h e n m e l t away u n d e t e c t e d . T h e w o l f h a d t h e keenest senses a n d was t h e most difficult to stalk. T h e grizzly bear was t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s and thrilling. After their final defeat, b o r e d a n d c o o p e d u p o n the reservations, a b r i e f craze d e v e l o p e d a m o n g y o u n g A p a c h e m e n for 'bear slapping'. T h e idea was t o stalk a grizzly bear, slap it across the ass as h a r d as y o u could, a n d t h e n r u n up a stout tree before it killed y o u . E n d u r a n c e was a n o t h e r m a j o r p a r t o f a warrior's u p b r i n g i n g . In w i n t e r , boys w e r e r e q u i r e d to take a p r e - d a w n dip in icy m o u n tain rivers a n d lakes. As a rite o f passage, adolescent boys m a d e a t w o - d a y r u n across t h e desert w i t h n o food, sleep o r water, and at t h e e n d of it t h e y w e r e s u p p o s e d to refuse w a t e r w h e n it was offered to t h e m . Later, w h e n they w e n t o u t w i t h raiding o r war parties, they m i g h t n e e d to r u n for a h u n d r e d miles, at a steady d o g - t r o t , o n a handful o f f o o d a n d a few swallows o f water. Apaches e m b r a c e d t h e h o r s e w h e n it c a m e , b u t w h e n t h e y n e e d e d t o d o s o m e serious travelling t h e y left t h e horses b e h i n d , o r r o d e t h e m to death, ate t h e m a n d c o n t i n u e d o n foot. Simply p u t , a horse n e e d e d m o r e water, f o o d and rest t o cover a h u n d r e d miles of this c o u n t r y than an A p a c h e o n foot. T h e ability to e n d u r e physical pain was an integral part o f their lives, a key t o their survival, and this led to w h a t a m o d e r n m i n d m i g h t t e r m a sado-masochistic obsession o r at least a d e e p a b i d i n g interest in pain. Y o u n g boys w e r e required to set t w i g fires o n their skin and w a t c h t h e m b u r n d o w n to ash w i t h o u t flinching. F r o m early c h i l d h o o d , boys a n d girls w e r e b r o u g h t animals a n d
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birds t o t o r t u r e , a n d as t h e y g r e w o l d e r t h e y w e r e allowed t o practise o n h u m a n captives. T o r t u r e was p r o b a b l y less prevalent a m o n g t h e A p a c h e s t h a n t h e C o m a n c h e s , t h e Kiowas, o r t h e H u r o n a n d I r o q u o i s tribes t o t h e east, t o say n o t h i n g o f t h e Spanish Inquisition, b u t t h e A p a c h e s h a d a r e p u t a t i o n a m o n g t h e i r e n e m i e s as particularly inventive t o r t u r e r s . Travellers passing this w a y in t h e m i d - a n d late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s o m e t i m e s c a m e across g r u e s o m e no-trespassing signs: m e n staked o u t n a k e d o n anthills w i t h their stomachs c u t o p e n , b e i n g eaten alive from t h e inside o u t ; o r facing t h e desert sun w i t h p e e l e d eyelids; o r lashed t o cactus bushes w i t h w e t r a w h i d e , w h i c h contracts as it dries for a slow impaling; o r h a n g i n g upside d o w n from a tree limb, h a v i n g b e e n roasted over a slow fire; o r w i t h their genitals c u t off a n d stuffed i n t o their m o u t h s a n d t h e skin flayed off their bodies in l o n g strips. It was generally agreed that t h e w o r s t fate was t o b e t u r n e d over to t h e w o m e n , w h o h a d m o r e p a t i e n c e t h a n t h e m e n , a n d h a d often lost their h u s b a n d s , b r o t h e r s a n d c h i l d r e n t o these s a m e e n e m i e s a n d
invariably
c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r efforts o n t h e tenderest parts o f t h e
male
anatomy. M o d e r n revisionist historians, w i t h s o m e e x c e p t i o n s , t e n d t o gloss over t h e prevalence o f t o r t u r e , n o t j u s t in A p a c h e society b u t in m o s t A m e r i n d i a n cultures, o r a r g u e t h a t it was a response t o Spanish a n d A n g l o - A m e r i c a n cruelty. T h e r e was definitely an escalation o f v i o l e n c e w h e n t h e E u r o p e a n s arrived — a r i p p l i n g , c o n t i n e n t - w i d e upheaval o f disease a n d t e r r i t o r i a l displacement, travelling in advance o f t h e military c o n q u e s t — b u t tribal warfare was already e n d e m i c , a n d so was r o u g h t r e a t m e n t , if n o t o u t r i g h t t o r t u r e , o f captives. B y t h e m i d - s e v e n t e e n t h century, tribes all over N o r t h A m e r i c a , i n c l u d i n g s o m e w h o h a d never seen a w h i t e m a n before, w e r e t o r t u r i n g their tribal e n e m i e s w i t h fire a n d c u t t i n g , a n d m u t i l a t i n g their bodies. T h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e that t h e p r a c tice o f t a k i n g scalps a n d p a r a d i n g t h e m o n poles, w h i c h , c o n t r a r y to p o p u l a r belief, t h e A p a c h e s p e r f o r m e d o n l y occasionally, c a m e across t h e B e r i n g Strait from Asia ten o r t w e n t y t h o u s a n d years ago. I agree w i t h D a v i d R o b e r t s , w h o w r o t e a history o f t h e A p a c h e
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W a r s called Once They Moved
Like
the Wind. T h e g r i m t r u t h is
t h a t N o r t h A m e r i c a n Indians w o u l d have b e e n an a n o m a l y in t h e h u m a n family if t h e y h a d not practised t o r t u r e . A m n e s t y International's researchers have c o m e t o t h e depressing c o n c l u sion that ' E v e r y n a t i o n has practised t o r t u r e at o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r i n its history,' a n d a glance at t h e organisation's c u r r e n t r e p o r t s s h o w t h a t t o r t u r e is alive a n d well in t h e m o d e r n w o r l d , a n d more
fiendishly
inventive t h a n ever.
Still, if I was trespassing in this valley i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h century, cultural relativism w o u l d n o t b e o n m y m i n d . I w o u l d have felt, presumably, t h e same w a y t h a t almost all w h i t e s felt a b o u t A p a c h e s at t h e t i m e . G r u e s o m e stories, images a n d stereotypes w o u l d have p a r a d e d t h r o u g h m y m i n d , a n d fear, as it usually d o e s , w o u l d t u r n t o h a t r e d . Call i n t h e a r m y ! E x t e r m i n a t e t h e b r u t e s ! A t Texas C a n y o n , a surreal a r r a n g e m e n t o f g i a n t b o u l d e r s a n d w e i r d r o c k f o r m a t i o n s , I t u r n s o u t h a n d take a dirt r o a d a l o n g t h e base o f t h e D r a g o o n M o u n t a i n s — a favourite r a n g e o f t h e C h i r i c a h u a s . C o c h i s e was b o r n h e r e a r o u n d 1815 a n d h e d i e d here, free a n d u n d e f e a t e d , in 1 8 7 2 . H i s b o d y was l o w e r e d i n t o a crevice s o m e w h e r e in t h e tangle o f rocks n o w k n o w n as C o c h i s e Stronghold. L o o k i n g u p at t h e Stronghold, a m e m o r y surfaces, a story told b y a travelling Irishman that I dismissed w h e n I heard it. I m e t h i m a few m o n t h s ago in a d i n e r in d o w n t o w n T u c s o n — a dishevelled, l o n g - h a i r e d D u b l i n e r in his late forties w i t h a h e m p - b o u n d crystal dangling from his neck. H e had j u s t c o m e from the D r a g o o n s , h e said, w h e r e h e h a d spent t w o w e e k s w i t h a g r o u p o f Apaches w h o w e r e living u p there in a r e m o t e cave, illegally a n d u n d e t e c t e d . T h e y had left t h e reservation t o get away from their d r i n k i n g p r o b lems, he said, a n d w e r e trying to get b a c k to their roots a n d live in t h e old, traditional way, m i n u s t h e raiding a n d warfare. T h e cave was d e e p in t h e n o r t h - c e n t r a l interior o f t h e range, well away from t h e Forest Service trails.They had horses there, h e said, a n d p o a c h e d venison d r y i n g o n racks. T h e y m a d e b u c k s k i n p o u c h e s , moccasins a n d turquoise amulets, a n d periodically they w o u l d c o m e d o w n i n t o T u c s o n o r Bisbee, sell their handicrafts, a n d stock u p w i t h c o r n ,
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beans, rice, tortillas a n d tobacco. H e p r o d u c e d a clumsily s e w n b u c k s k i n p o u c h , w i t h lightning designs b u r n e d i n t o it, a n d tried to sell it to m e for thirty b u c k s . I d i d n ' t believe a w o r d o f it. It was a d r e a m y i m a g i n i n g , o r an inventive sales p i t c h , o r a tall tale h e h a d h e a r d s o m e w h e r e a n d i n s i n u a t e d h i m s e l f i n t o . E v e r since G e r o n i m o s u r r e n d e r e d for t h e last t i m e , stories o f 'lost A p a c h e s ' a n d ' w i l d A p a c h e s ' have c i r c u lated a r o u n d t h e S o u t h w e s t a n d t h e y persist t o this day. S o m e w h e r e in t h e r u g g e d h e i g h t s o f t h e Sierra M a d r e in M e x i c o , I have h e a r d , t h e r e is a beautiful, h i d d e n m o u n t a i n valley w h e r e a b a n d o f A p a c h e s — C h i r i c a h u a s o r Lipans — have b e e n living u n d i s t u r b e d since t h e 1880s. T h e y have given u p t h e g u n a n d t h e steel knife a n d g o n e b a c k t o t h e b o w a n d a r r o w a n d s t o n e blades. I've s p e n t s o m e t i m e in t h e Sierra M a d r e , w i t h T a r a h u m a r a Indians ( s o m e o f w h o m d o live in caves; w e r e t h e y t h e basis for t h e Irishman's e m b e l l i s h m e n t ? ) a n d M e x i c a n farmers a n d r a n c h e r s four g e n e r a t i o n s d e e p , a n d t h e y all scoffed at t h e g r i n g o story o f t h e lost A p a c h e s a n d t h e i r h i d d e n S h a n g r i - L a . T h e Irishman's story, w i t h its details o f a l c o h o l i s m a n d i n v o l v e ment
in the Indian handicraft
e c o n o m y , was a little
more
c o n v i n c i n g , b u t I t o o k it as a v a r i a t i o n o n t h e same r o m a n t i c , primitivist fantasy. Still, h e r e I a m , l o o k i n g u p at t h e D r a g o o n s w i t h n o p a r t i c u l a r d e s t i n a t i o n in m i n d . W h y n o t follow
the
Irishman's directions, as well as I can r e m e m b e r t h e m , a n d see w h a t happens? I p a r k t h e t r u c k , strap o n t h e b a c k p a c k , a n d start w a l k i n g u p a d r y s t r e a m b e d i n t o a likely l o o k i n g c a n y o n . I see w h a t l o o k s t o b e a g a m e trail, l e a d i n g u p a n d o u t o f t h e canyon, n e a r its h e a d , w h i c h s h o u l d take m e u p t o t h e i n t e r i o r peaks. T h e r e are n o h u m a n tracks in t h e s t r e a m b e d , w h i c h always changes t h e feel o f things. I startle a few lizards, rouse a few birds, b u t t h e m a m m a l s are all h i d d e n away, in shady n o o k s , crannies, thickets a n d b u r r o w s , d o i n g t h e sensible t h i n g a n d t a k i n g a siesta. O n l y t h e m a d - d o g E n g l i s h m a n , s h a d e d b y his s w e a t - s t a i n e d c o w b o y hat, is o u t p l o d d i n g in t h e a f t e r n o o n sun. T h e d r y s t r e a m b e d d e a d - e n d s i n t o t h e cliff o f a dry waterfall. T h e g a m e trail t u r n s o u t t o b e a b a n d o f e x p o s e d , l i g h t - c o l o u r e d
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Richard Grant
r o c k . T h i s is w h y I usually stick t o Forest Service trails in t h e m o u n t a i n s : I ' m a l o u s y b u s h w h a c k e r . I start b a c k t r a c k i n g d o w n t h e c a n y o n u n t i l I find a place w h e r e it's possible t o scramble u p t h e side. I m a k e it u p o n t o a r i d g e , b u t it disppears i n t o t h e base o f a steep, r o c k y slope, p i t c h e d at a b o u t 4 0 degrees, w i t h p l e n t y o f loose scree, s h i n d a g g e r cactus, i m p e n e t r a b l e m a n z a n i t a thickets a n d t a n g l e d r o c k y o u t c r o p p i n g s that l o o k like t e x t b o o k illustrat i o n s o f rattlesnake habitat. L o o k i n g b a c k d o w n at t h e t h i n , p r e c i p i t o u s r o c k l e d g e that I c l i m b e d u p is an e v e n m o r e
daunting
p r o s p e c t . B a d p l a n n i n g is t h e m o t h e r o f a d v e n t u r e , I tell myself, and start h a u l i n g myself u p t h e slope, g r a b b i n g at b u s h e s t o stop myself sliding b a c k , i n c u r r i n g various stabbings a n d lacerations from t h e cactus spines (mistaking t h e m i n w i l d p a n i c for rattlesnake bites), g u s h i n g sweat a n d p a n t i n g obscenely, c o m i n g t o a
firm
decision t o give u p s m o k i n g , o n c e a n d for all, very soon i n d e e d . I see. a few caves h e r e a n d there, b u t I d o n ' t have t h e e n e r g y to investigate t h e m , a n d there's n o w a y y o u c o u l d get a h o r s e t h r o u g h this c o u n t r y . B y late a f t e r n o o n , h a v i n g e x h a u s t e d m y s e c o n d , t h i r d a n d f o u r t h w i n d s , I r e a c h t h e base o f a b r o a d , d o m e d , r o c k y p e a k , p r o t r u d i n g from t h e pines. I take off t h e b a c k p a c k ( w h i c h has c o r r e s p o n d ingly d o u b l e d , t r i p l e d a n d q u a d r u p l e d its weight) a n d m a k e t h e final, w h e e z i n g scramble u p t o t h e p e a k , r e w a r d i n g myself w i t h a w e l l - e a r n e d cigarette at t h e top, a n d a m o d e s t n i p o f w h i s k e y from m y h i p flask. It's n o t as c o o l as I h a d i m a g i n e d , still 8 5 degrees o r so, b u t t h e views are spectacular. H a w k s , ravens a n d vultures are w h e e l i n g o v e r t h e foothills, t h e r e are dust devils o u t o n t h e d r y lake b e d s t o t h e east, a n d b e y o n d t h e m r a n g e after r a n g e o f b l u e m o u n tains, e x t e n d i n g away i n t o N e w M e x i c o . To give y o u an idea o f scale: I can see five separate a n d distinct s t o r m systems, e a c h o f t h e m flashing l i g h t n i n g a n d trailing a veil o f rain. A n d yet here, and for t w e n t y miles a r o u n d , it is b r i g h t a n d sunny, a n d w i t h i n m y field o f vision t h e r e are a d o z e n sunlit p a t c h e s o f a similar size, g r o u p e d a r o u n d t h e s t o r m s , so t h e l a n d has a m o t t l e d l o o k , a c a m o u f l a g e p a t t e r n o f light a n d c l o u d shadow.
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99
Cochise and G e r o n i m o used to position their sharpest-eyed scouts o n these peaks. I can't h e l p w o n d e r i n g w h a t w e n t t h r o u g h their m i n d s as t h e y sat a n d s m o k e d a n d l o o k e d o u t over this view. T h e scale a n d a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e land, presumably, w o u l d have l o o k e d entirely n o r m a l a n d u n r e m a r k a b l e , a n d I d o n ' t t h i n k it will ever l o o k that w a y t o m e . As d e s e r t - d w e l l e r s , t h e sight o f t h u n d e r s t o r m s m u s t have pleased t h e m , b u t t h e y w e r e n ' t u p h e r e for reasons o f aesthetic c o n t e m p l a t i o n . W a y off i n t h e distance, at t h e far limit o f his sight, a C h i r i c a h u a s c o u t sees t h r e e ravens rise u p off t h e desert. T h e n t h e faint s m u d g e o f dust, signalling t h e a p p r o a c h o f e n e m y invaders, c o m i n g t o steal a n d desecrate his people's land, o r U S t r o o p s l o o k i n g for A p a c h e s . T h e s c o u t notifies t h e c a m p a n d t h e b a n d packs u p swiftly a n d m o v e s o n . T h e y w e r e a w a n d e r i n g , p r e d a t o r y p e o p l e , b u t for t h e last twenty-five years, C h i r i c a h u a n o m a d i s m was s h a p e d p r i m a r i l y b y t h e n e e d t o r u n a n d h i d e from soldiers. B y 1 8 7 0 , m o s t , if n o t all, C h i r i c a h u a s w o u l d have lost close family m e m b e r s to t h e M e x i c a n s , o r t h e ' W h i t e Eyes' as t h e y called A n g l o - A m e r i c a n s (in A p a c h e s t h e sclera o f t h e eye is n a t u r ally b l o o d s h o t ) . T h e y t o o h a d seen t h e i r loved o n e s r a p e d , scalped, m u t i l a t e d a n d t o r t u r e d — v i o l e n c e a n d cruelty h a d escalated o n all sides. G e r o n i m o ' s c h i l d r e n , as babies, w e r e t h r o w n i n t h e air b y M e x i c a n soldiers a n d speared o n t h e i r rifle b a y o n e t s . Later in life h e u s e d t o m e t e o u t t h e same t r e a t m e n t t o w h i t e a n d M e x i c a n babies, tossing t h e m in t h e air, until t h e y g u r g l e d w i t h delight, a n d t h e n c a t c h i n g t h e m o n t h e blade o f his knife. In his old age t h e y c a m e b a c k t o h a u n t his d r e a m s , a n d h e w o u l d w a k e u p g r o a n i n g w i t h sadness a n d regret for t h e helpless, smiling babies h e h a d killed. T h e r e was o n e f o r m o f t o r t u r e , practised exclusively by t h e M e x i c a n s a n d t h e W h i t e Eyes, that h e l d a particular h o r r o r for t h e A p a c h e s : i m p r i s o n m e n t . Pain was o n e t h i n g . It was an i n t e gral p a r t o f life, a n d t h e physical p a i n o f b e i n g flayed o r b u r n e d alive, for e x a m p l e , offered a m a n t h e c h a n c e t o die w i t h c o u r a g e a n d h o n o u r , if h e c o u l d stifle his screams. B u t for t h e n o m a d i c A p a c h e s , t o l o c k u p a h u m a n b e i n g i n a cage, s o m e t i m e s for years, was a c o l d a n d i n h u m a n f o r m o f sadism.
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Richard Grant
T h e r e w e r e m a n y g o o d reasons for t h e A p a c h e s to h a t e t h e i r invaders, a n d vice versa, a n d u n d e r l y i n g it all was a v e r y basic, f u n d a m e n t a l conflict o v e r l a n d . T h e w h i t e s justified t h e i r c o n q u e s t b y saying t h e l a n d in A p a c h e t e r r i t o r y was g o i n g t o waste. T h e r e w e r e n o farms, n o cattle g r a z i n g o n t h e grasslands, n o villages, t o w n s o r cities. T h e r e was g o l d a n d silver in t h e m o u n t a i n s that these w a n d e r i n g savages w e r e t o o lazy o r i g n o r a n t t o
mine.
A p a c h e r i a l o o k e d like n o man's l a n d b e c a u s e , like all n o m a d i c p e o p l e s , t h e A p a c h e s h a d left n o p e r m a n e n t signs o f o c c u p a t i o n — j u s t t h e occasional a b a n d o n e d r a n c h e r i a , w i t h its c r u d e , t e m p o rary h u t s a n d fire-pits. F r o m t h e A p a c h e perspective t h e W h i t e Eyes w e r e b e n t n o t o n l y o n c o n q u e r i n g t h e i r land, b u t destroying it a n d desecrating its spirit. W h y else w o u l d p e o p l e g o u g e t h r o u g h t h e skin a n d i n t o t h e flesh o f M o t h e r E a r t h , to dig u p a n d sell t h e metals in h e r veins? W h y w o u l d t h e y p u s h o u t t h e d e e r a n d a n t e l o p e , in o r d e r to graze t h e i r d u l l - w i t t e d , s l o w - m o v i n g cattle, w h i c h fouled t h e streams a n d t r a m p l e d t h e riverbanks, a n d p r e s e n t e d absolutely n o challenge i n t h e h u n t ? T h e W h i t e Eyes a n n o u n c e d t h e i r p r e s e n c e o n t h e l a n d w i t h d e s t r u c t i o n a n d r e g i m e n t a t i o n , i m p o s i n g straight lines a n d rectangles o n its natural, flowing c o n t o u r s — corrals, fences, fields, railroads, t e l e g r a p h wires, f o u r - c o r n e r e d houses, a n d b o x y little c h u r c h e s , in w h i c h p e o p l e shut themselves away from e v e r y t h i n g sacred in t h e w o r l d . T h e ancestral conflict
o f n o m a d a n d settler is i n b u i l t
and
u n a v o i d a b l e , a n d f o u n d e d i n these t w o colliding p h i l o s o p h i e s o f l a n d use. T h e first s e t t l e m e n t s b e g a n o n riverbanks, a n d as t h e y d i v i d e d their labour, a n d f o r m e d i n t o hierarchies a n d states, t h e y y e a r n e d to e x p a n d their p o w e r a n d take c o n t r o l o f t h e n o m a d spaces g n a w i n g at their fringes. T h e free flow o f g o o d s a n d p e o p l e is a n a t u r a l affront t o a s t r o n g state. It calls for t h e establishment o f fixed b o r d e r s , t h e b u i l d i n g o f roads, t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f taxes, tariffs a n d systems o f l a n d o w n e r s h i p , t h e establishment o f p o l i c e agencies a n d b u r e a u c r a c i e s t o enforce t h e n e w order. T h e state can't h e l p itself, any m o r e t h a n a c a n c e r cell e x p a n d i n g its t e r r i t o r y in a h u m a n body. T h i s is w h a t states do. F o r a tribal n o m a d , e v e r y t h i n g d e p e n d s o n free, u n i n h i b i t e d
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m o v e m e n t . T h i s is h o w n o m a d s harvest t h e resources o f t h e i r l a n d a n d e n s u r e t h e i r survival. T h i s is h o w t h e y raid a n d m a k e war. State a r m i e s prefer t o a d v a n c e i n a linear c o l u m n , w i t h supply lines b a c k t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t s , a n d clash w i t h t h e e n e m y o n a p r e d e t e r m i n e d battlefield, o r besiege his city. N o m a d
warriors
fight a c c o r d i n g t o a different m o d e l : striking a n d w i t h d r a w i n g , disappearing
and
reappearing
from
unexpected
directions,
dispersing a n d r e f o r m i n g like a desert dust devil, ' o c c u p y i n g an o p e n space w i t h a vortical m o v e m e n t that can rise u p at any p o i n t ' , as D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i p u t it in Nomadology:
The
War
Machine. M u c h as t h e y h a t e d s e d e n t a r y settlements a n d all t h e y s t o o d for, t h e A p a c h e s also b e c a m e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h o s e s e t t l e m e n t s . T h e y w o u l d raid o n e s e t t l e m e n t a n d t r a d e
their
p l u n d e r at a n o t h e r , for g u n s , a m m u n i t i o n , steel knives, liquor, c o r n , beans, squash, m e l o n s , cloth, needles, awls, blankets, trinkets, beads. G e n g h i s K h a n u s e d a similar strategy, r a i d i n g a n d t r a d i n g to get t h e p r o d u c t s a n d w e a p o n s that h e n e e d e d from t h e settlem e n t s . T h e t o w n s that failed t o pay h i m t r i b u t e w e r e usually o b l i t erated. H i s h o r s e m e n w o u l d b u r n d o w n t h e buildings, t r a m p l e t h e fields, a n d s o w grass seeds from t h e steppe in t h e ruins t o restore t h e g r a z i n g a n d b r i n g b a c k t h e s m o o t h space. ' R a i d s are o u r a g r i c u l t u r e ' was an adage o f t h e B e d o u i n tribes i n Arabia, a n d t h e C h i r i c a h u a A p a c h e u s e d t o m a k e a similar boast. Travelling t h r o u g h this c o u n t r y i n 1 8 6 3 , t h e a d v e n t u r e r J o h n R o s s B r o w n r e p o r t e d , ' T h e s e v a g a b o n d Indians have a saying, n o less sarcastic t h a n t r u e , that t h e M e x i c a n s are their
vaqueros
[cowboys] u p o n w h o m t h e y d e p e n d for their horses a n d cattle; a n d that t h e A m e r i c a n s are t h e i r teamsters a n d m e c h a n i c s , w h o haul g o o d s for t h e m a n d supply t h e m w i t h arms.' Settlements fuel t h e avarice a n d a m b i t i o n s o f n o m a d s , and for a w h i l e t h e t w o o p p o s i n g cultures can coexist in an uneasy, bullying symbiosis, b u t in t h e e n d t h e settlements always e x p a n d , b e c o m e m o r e technically advanced a n d g r o w stronger militarily. C o c h i s e d i e d free and undefeated, b u t G e r o n i m o ' s Apaches k n e w their time was c o m i n g t o an e n d . W h e t h e r they fought o r s u r r e n d e r e d to t h e reservations, t h e whites k e p t c o m i n g a n d t h e buildings, t o w n s , cities,
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railroads a n d telegraphs m u l t i p l i e d across t h e i r land. G e r o n i m o ' s a r g u m e n t i n favour o f w a r was essentially o n e o f h o n o u r : it was b e t t e r to die fighting t h a n to s u b m i t t o t h e inevitable. A n d w i t h h i n d s i g h t , w e can say that h e was w r o n g . O f all t h e A p a c h e b a n d s , G e r o n i m o ' s C h i r i c a h u a s fared worst. T h e g o v e r n m e n t b r o k e G e n e r a l C r o o k ' s p r o m i s e o f a reservation in A r i z o n a a n d p u t t h e m o n a l o c k e d train, w i t h all t h e w i n d o w s sealed, t o a p r i s o n c a m p in Florida, w h e r e t h e y d i e d i n droves from malaria. A n d t h e n to O k l a h o m a , w h e r e G e r o n i m o p o s e d for t o u r i s t pictures, dressed u p i n plains I n d i a n garb a n d s p o r t i n g a r i d i c u l o u s , t w i n - h o r n e d j e s t e r cap. T h e C h i r i c a h u a s , as a p e o p l e , w e n t t o t h e b r i n k o f e x t i n c t i o n . In 1 9 1 3 , t h e i r n u m b e r s w e r e d o w n t o 2 1 3 a n d t h e y w e r e still n o t p e r m i t t e d t o r e t u r n to t h e i r Arizona homeland. T h e other Arizonan bands -
San Carlos, W h i t e
Mountain,
T o n t o - w h o gave u p the fight earlier, at least g o t their o w n reservations. G o d k n o w s t h o s e reservations have h a d their p r o b lems, a n d n o w t h e l a n g u a g e is d y i n g o u t , a n d t h o s e A p a c h e s w h o w a n t t o l e a r n their traditions m u s t d o so by r e a d i n g a b o u t t h e m in t h e w h i t e man's h i s t o r y b o o k s , b u t at least t h e y are living o n t h e i r o w n land, w i t h tribal sovereignty over t h e s a m e m o u n t a i n ranges w h e r e their ancestors lived a n d died. H e r e in t h e D r a g o o n s , w h i c h h o l d Cochise's b o n e s , t h e A p a c h e s are n o t a b l e b y their absence. U n l e s s t h e Irishman's story is t r u e a n d a few o f t h e m are h i d i n g o u t i n a cave s o m e w h e r e . T h e w i n d o w o f s u n l i g h t is closing. A large a n d m a l e v o l e n t s t o r m is c o m i n g this way, t h e s e c o n d s are r e d u c i n g b e t w e e n l i g h t n i n g flashes a n d t h u n d e r c l a p s , a n d t h e l a n d b e h i n d t h e s t o r m is o b s c u r e d b y a sheet o f rain. I get d o w n from t h e p e a k , p u t o n t h e b a c k p a c k a n d start d e s c e n d i n g b y t h e easiest r o u t e available, w h i c h t u r n s i n t o a b o n a fide g a m e trail, m a r k e d w i t h c o y o t e a n d d e e r tracks. T h e s t o r m p u s h e s a c o o l w i n d a h e a d o f it, w h i c h smells o f rain, a n d t h e n t h e rain itself c o m e s , falling in fat droplets that splatter o n t h e rocks and d r u m o n m y h a t b r i m , a n d send u p little puffs o f dust o n t h e trail. I take off m y hat, l e t t i n g t h e rain r u n i n rivulets d o w n m y face a n d chest, a n d d o w n t h e b a c k o f m y n e c k . T h i s is t h e first rain I've felt o n m y skin for t h r e e
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m o n t h s , a n d I crave it in a w a y I n e v e r t h o u g h t possible. T h e n a h u g e , r e n d i n g e x p l o s i o n o f t h u n d e r , t h e feel o f electricity i n t h e air. I see w h a t l o o k s like a cave, partially o b s c u r e d b y b o u l d e r s a n d a stand o f j u n i p e r trees, a n d I start r u n n i n g for it. I c o m e t o an a b r u p t halt t h i r t y yards s h o r t b e c a u s e t h e cave is o c c u p i e d . A w h i t e m a n w i t h a l o n g b e a r d is sitting cross-legged in its e n t r a n c e , sheltered from t h e rain b y an o v e r h a n g i n g lip o f rock. H e is w e a r i n g a filthy g r e e n sweatshirt, an old, red, sleeveless ski j a c k e t , w i t h t h e p a d d i n g e r u p t i n g from o n e of t h e s h o u l ders, a n d a b l a c k - a n d - o r a n g e H a r l e y D a v i d s o n b a n d a n n a
tied
a r o u n d his forehead. I l o o k for t h e g u n b u t d o n ' t see o n e . H e b e c k o n s m e i n t o his c a m p . ' W e l c o m e h o m e , b r o t h e r . I've b e e n e x p e c t i n g you,' h e says. 'You've b e e n e x p e c t i n g m e ? ' 'Yup. K n e w y o u was c o m i n g . M e a n d all m y b r o t h e r s k n e w you was c o m i n g . ' I l o o k a r o u n d . N o sign o f a n y o n e else. ' C o u l d I t r o u b l e y o u for o n e o f t h e m cigarettes?' h e asks, p o i n t i n g w i t h his c h i n at t h e p a c k o f C a m e l s p r o t r u d i n g
from
m y shirt p o c k e t . H e breaks off t h e filter a n d lifts u p t h e cigarette as a s y m b o l i c offering to t h e m o u n t a i n peaks, o r m a y b e t h e s t o r m . H e pulls o u t a p i n c h o f t o b a c c o a n d scatters it o n t h e g r o u n d , a n d t h e n h e lights w h a t ' s left o f t h e cigarette a n d sucks d o w n a deep, l u x u r i o u s lungful. H e sits b y t h e e m b e r s o f an o l d fire, s m o u l d e r i n g i n a b l a c k e n e d circle o f stones. Scattered a r o u n d h i m are b u c k s k i n p o u c h e s , b u n d l e s o f d r i e d plants a n d r o o t s , plastic bags full o f n u t s a n d b e r r i e s , e m p t y cans o f beans, pieces o f b o n e a n d antler, piles o f c o l o u r e d rocks a n d minerals. A t t h e b a c k o f t h e cave is a r o l l e d u p sleeping b a g a n d a canvas a r m y - s u r p l u s duffel b a g . ' T h e y call m e M e d i c i n e M a n , a n d this here's m y
medicine
cave,' h e says. 'I c o m e u p h e r e to purify myself a n d get straight w i t h t h e spirits. To learn t h e w i s d o m o f t h e plant a n d a n i m a l nations, t h e f o u r - l e g g e d s a n d t h e w i n g e d b r o t h e r s o f t h e air. L o o k a r o u n d , b r o t h e r : this is m y h o m e , m y c h u r c h , m y s c h o o l h o u s e , m y g r o c e r y store, m y p h a r m a c y . See here? T h i s is y u c c a r o o t . M a s h it up, b o i l it u p in w a t e r a n d y o u ' v e g o t soap. T h i s here's
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g r e a s e w o o d . G o o d for a c h i n g j o i n t s a n d snakebites, a n d it'll h e l p o u t w o m e n w i t h t h e m e n s t r u a l cramps.' 1 tell h i m t h e Irishman's story a n d ask h i m if he's seen any A p a c h e s . ' I ' m Apache,' h e says. I l o o k at his b l u e eyes, his l o n g , g a u n t face, t h e reddish cast t o his g r e y i n g beard. H e sees m y l o o k a n d n o d s . ' I ' m A p a c h e , I ' m Navajo, I ' m S i o u x , C h e y e n n e Cherokee. I'm
an A f r i c a n , a C h i n a m a n , a n A b o r i g i n e
and from
Australia, an I r i s h m a n , y o u n a m e it. M y t r i b e is all families a n d all races, a n d m y t e r r i t o r y is as far as I can travel.' H e has a beautiful pipe, elaborately carved o u t o f p u r p l e w o o d a n d r e d s t o n e , w i t h a l o n g , t a p e r i n g stem. H e fills it w i t h m a r i j u a n a from o n e of his p o u c h e s , takes a puff, a n d raises t h e p i p e t o t h e m o u n t a i n peaks as h e exhales. I offer h i m m y h i p flask, a n d h e waves it away, saying h e d o e s n ' t n e e d t h e e n e r g y a n d that w h i s k e y is ' B a b y l o n p o i s o n ' . 'I've seen t h e p l a n e t o n fire, e v e r y b o d y b a r b e c u e d , ' h e says a few m i n u t e s later. 'I was u p t h e r e w i t h them, y o u k n o w , l o o k i n g d o w n , so I asked t h e m straight o u t , " W h a t t h e hell is g o i n g o n d o w n t h e r e ? " T h e y w e r e real casual a b o u t it: " O h , t h e h u m a n s b l e w u p their planet again. T h e y d o it all t h e t i m e . " Well, that's t h e k i n d o f insanity w e ' v e g o t to c h e c k m a t e . B i g t i m e . W h a t p e o p l e n e e d t o d o is j u s t t u r n e v e r y t h i n g off — t h e c o m p u t e r s , t h e T V s , t h e lights, t h e electricity, t h e n u c l e a r g e n e r a t o r s — j u s t t u r n all that shit off a n d see if there's still a b r a i n inside y o u r skull. W e ' v e g o t t o w a k e u p t h e p e o p l e b e f o r e it's t o o late.' H e d o e s n ' t like questions o r straight answers. H e prefers t o speak in esoteric riddles a n d r a m b l i n g p r o n o u n c e m e n t s , w i t h t h e air o f a slightly a d d l e d g u r u o r preacher. Gradually, t h r o u g h clues, hints a n d asides, I glean a few details a b o u t his life, w h i c h m a y o r m a y n o t b e facts. H e started h i t c h - h i k i n g at t h e age o f twelve, as a b o y n a m e d M i c h a e l i n California's C e n t r a l V a l l e y — his parents w e r e D u s t B o w l m i g r a n t s from O k l a h o m a — a n d h e has b e e n travelling ever since h e d r o p p e d o u t o f h i g h s c h o o l . F o r twelve years h e was a m e r c h a n t seaman a n d sailed a r o u n d m o s t o f t h e w o r l d . His career at sea was e n d e d b y a b a c k i n j u r y i n t h e m i d 1970s, a n d h e w e n t b a c k to California a n d started h i t c h - h i k i n g again.
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H e c o u n t s himself as o n e o f t h e R a i n b o w Family n o w , a loose, anarchic c o n f e d e r a t i o n o f hippies, N e w A g e r s , D e a d h e a d s , t r a m p s , w e e k e n d p o t h e a d s , ravers — a k i n d o f b l a n k e t organisation for t h e c o u n t e r c u l t u r e w h i c h holds a b i g a n n u a l g a t h e r i n g every F o u r t h o f July w e e k e n d . It is hard t o m a k e a n y generalisations a b o u t t h e R a i n b o w Family because so m a n y different types a n d g r o u p s are i n c l u d e d w i t h i n it, b u t its b r o a d t e n d e n c y is anti-materialistic, c o m m u n i t a r i a n , Utopian, primitivist, vegetarian a n d n o m a d i c , a n d it offers a k i n d o f garbled, all-inclusive spirituality, d r a w i n g o n A m e r i c a n I n d i a n religions, B u d d h i s m , H i n d u i s m ,
Christianity,
Taoism, N e w A g e holisticism a n d Rastafarianism. R a i n b o w s use t h e R a s t a pejorative ' B a b y l o n ' t o describe W e s t e r n capitalist society. T h e s t o r m b l o w s over, t h e rain stops. H e extracts s o m e seeds from his m a r i j u a n a p o u c h a n d walks over t o t h e b a n k s o f a d r y s t r e a m b e d . H e b u r i e s t h e seeds in t h e d a m p earth a n d slops s o m e w a t e r from his c a n t e e n over t h e m . ' I ' m a seed m a n , ' h e says. ' W h e r e v e r I go, I p l a n t seeds. N o t j u s t h e r b . I ' m talking a b o u t f o o d for t h e Family. If t h e birds o r t h e animals eat t h e m u p , that's all r i g h t , b e c a u s e they're family t o o . B u t s o m e t i m e s I'll g o b a c k , a n d there's a w h o l e b u n c h of h e a l t h y l o o k i n g plants w a i t i n g for m e . I'm t r y i n g t o w a k e u p t h e Family and get e v e r y b o d y d o i n g it. W h e r e v e r y o u g o , plant a seed. T h e n , w h e n t h e shit c o m e s d o w n , there'll be food t o eat, o u t i n t h e wild places, a n d h e r b t o smoke.' T h e r e are l o n g p e r i o d s o f silence w h i l e h e blisses o u t o n t h e b i r d s o n g , t h e w i n d i n t h e trees a n d t h e d e p a r t i n g smell o f rain, a n d I feel m y o w n senses o p e n up, b e c o m i n g aware o f s o u n d s a n d p a t t e r n s t o t h e s o u n d s t h a t I was oblivious t o before. B i r d a l a r m calls, for e x a m p l e , travel i n c o n c e n t r i c rings away from t h e p o i n t o f d i s t u r b a n c e i n t h e n o r m a l e b b a n d flow o f t h e forest. A t h o u s a n d feet b e l o w o n t h e Forest Service trail, a h i k e r clatters a r o c k a n d t h e nearest bluejays start c a w i n g t o a n n o u n c e t h e a l a r m . Birds f u r t h e r away h e a r t h e m a n d set off their o w n a l a r m calls. A raven rises u p i n t o t h e sky t o see w h a t all t h e c o m m o t i o n is a b o u t . A g r o u n d squirrel, h e a r i n g t h e b i r d calls, stops i n its tracks a n d listens for f u r t h e r signs o f danger. T h i s , I realise, is h o w h e k n e w I was coming.
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' D o y o u k n o w w h a t a c o y o t e g o u r d is?' h e asks. 'It's a k i n d o f g o u r d that g r o w s a r o u n d h e r e . W e u s e d t o k e e p w a t e r inside ' e m a n d b u r y t h e m a r o u n d t h e desert. I've g o t h u n d r e d s o f t h e m g o u r d s b u r i e d all over this desert. It d o n ' t m a t t e r w h e r e I ' m at, I ain't d y i n g o f thirst.' T e n m i n u t e s g o b y i n silence. T h e n a l e c t u r e o n t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f squirrels. ' I f it's a c o l d n i g h t c o m i n g , y o u ' l l see ' e m r u n n i n g a r o u n d , p i c k i n g u p all k i n d s o f d r i e d grass a n d leaves a n d stuffing t h e m i n t o t h e i r nests. T h e squirrel is y o u r b r o t h e r a n d h e c o m m u n i c a t e s his i n t e l l i g e n c e b y e x a m p l e . I've g o t a c h e a p , p i e c e - o f - s h i t s l e e p i n g b a g , b u t if I stuff it w i t h d r y grass a n d leaves it'll k e e p m e w a r m t o t e n b e l o w . W e ' r e all in this t o g e t h e r : y o u , m e , B r o t h e r S q u i r r e l , t h e P r e s i d e n t . All o f us live b y t h e g r a c e o f t h e s a m e e a r t h . O n e e a r t h , o n e w o r l d , o n e love. Praise b e t o t h e G r e a t Spirit, J a h R a s t a f a r i , I d o n ' t give a d a m n w h a t y o u call him.' ' H o w l o n g have y o u b e e n h e r e , i n these m o u n t a i n s ? ' I ask h i m . H e shakes his h e a d a n d sighs wearily. 'See, n o w you're g e t t i n g i n t o t i m e . B a b y l o n t i m e . T i m e t u r n s in a circle, like a w h e e l , so w h y k e e p track o f it since it always ends u p in t h e same place? A n s w e r m e that, b r o t h e r ? I pay a t t e n t i o n t o t h e seasons, a n d t h e s t o r m s . As far as w h e t h e r it's Tuesday t h e 9 t h o r W e d n e s d a y t h e 2 7 t h , I c o u l d n ' t give a flying fuck, b e c a u s e it d o n ' t matter.' D u s k is i n v a d i n g t h e m o u n t a i n s now, a n d it's b e e n a l o n g day. I m a k e a date for breakfast, hoist m y p a c k a n d w a l k off. M y feet c a r r y m e half a m i l e o r so a n d t h e n I flop d o w n o n t h e d a m p g r o u n d a n d pull o u t m y sleeping b a g . T h i s is t h e secret to a c a l m a n d restful n i g h t s sleep i n rattlesnake a n d s c o r p i o n c o u n t r y : total exhaustion. I have a b a g o f coffee, a can o f beans a n d a fresh p a c k o f cigarettes. H e has a tin o f Q u a k e r oats, s o m e d r i e d cactus fruit, s o m e d e - s p i n e d p r i c k l y p e a r pads a n d roasted p i n o n p i n e n u t s . H e rises from his cross-legged p o s i t i o n t o g e t m o r e w o o d for t h e fire a n d gets stuck halfway t o vertical i n s o m e t e r r i b l e b a c k spasm. It takes h i m t w o o r t h r e e m i n u t e s o f puffing a n d b l o w i n g , g r o a n i n g a n d g r i m a c i n g , b u t h e m a n a g e s t o w o r k his w a y o u t o f it. I offer t o
Ghost
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g e t t h e w o o d , w h i c h h e accepts. I offer h i m s o m e
107 ibuprofen,
w h i c h h e refuses as ' B a b y l o n m e d i c i n e ' a n d fills his p i p e instead. ' M a n , I g o t t o g e t b a c k t o m y h o t tub,' h e says, s t i r r i n g t h e fruit a n d n u t s i n t o t h e oats. ' G o t m e a h o t springs in I d a h o , w a y o u t in t h e b a c k w o o d s . N o b o d y k n o w s w h e r e it's at unless I tell t h e m a b o u t it. G o t m e s o m e plants that s h o u l d b e b u d d i n g o u t p r e t t y s o o n a n d a h o l l o w e d - o u t cedar tree w h e r e I stay at. W h e n I get t o m y h o t t u b , I ' m home, brother.' H e was g o i n g t o s p e n d t h e s u m m e r u p there, b u t g o t l u r e d d o w n t o A r i z o n a b y t h e p r o s p e c t o f a w o m a n . H e m e t h e r at t h e Rainbow
G a t h e r i n g last s u m m e r , t o o k d o w n h e r address in
T u c s o n , p r o m i s e d t o take h e r o u t i n t o t h e w o o d s a n d t e a c h h e r h o w t o live off t h e l a n d a n d p r e p a r e m e d i c i n a l plants. S h e was h a p p y t o see h i m , if a little surprised, w h e n h e t u r n e d u p o n h e r d o o r s t e p a year later. B u t she h a d a live-in b o y f r i e n d , a n d after a few nights o f sleeping o n t h e i r floor M e d i c i n e M a n t o o k off for t h e D r a g o o n s o n his o w n . T h e r e are t h r e e basic types o f l o n e , h e t e r o s e x u a l w a n d e r i n g males, in m y e x p e r i e n c e : t h o s e w h o h a t e w o m e n , t h o s e w h o have g r u d g i n g l y resolved t o d o w i t h o u t t h e m , a n d t h o s e w h o y e a r n for t h e m . M e d i c i n e M a n falls i n t o t h e t h i r d category. O n c e h e gets g o i n g o n t h e subject t h e r e is n o s t o p p i n g h i m . F o r years n o w h e has b e e n l o o k i n g for a w o m a n w h o w a n t s to live as h e d o e s , c a m p e d o u t in t h e b a c k w o o d s , p l a n t i n g seeds, living off t h e l a n d a n d c o m m u n i n g w i t h n a t u r e . In t h e past t h e r e w e r e a few w o m e n w h o t h o u g h t that was w h a t t h e y w a n t e d , b u t after a few w e e k s o r m o n t h s , t h e y tired o f t h e life, o r M e d i c i n e M a n ' s c o m p a n y . T h e y missed t a k i n g showers, h e says, t h e y missed talking t o o t h e r p e o p l e . It's g e t t i n g h a r d e r to find likely prospects n o w . He's n o t as y o u n g as h e u s e d to b e a n d it seems that t h e w o m e n
are
different nowadays. 'I can't
figure
' e m o u t n o m o r e , ' h e says. 'You'll b e g e t t i n g
a l o n g fine a n d g r o o v i n g o n e a c h other's trips, a n d it l o o k s like s o m e t h i n g is g o i n g t o h a p p e n , a n d t h e n , all o f s u d d e n , t h e y j u s t n u t u p o n y o u . All y o u can d o is j u s t stand there a n d t r y t o p r o t e c t yourself, because you can't b e h i t t i n g a w o m a n . I despise a m a n w h o hits a w o m a n . So w h a t y o u d o is p u t u p o n e a r m
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like this t o cover y o u r face a n d use t h e o t h e r h a n d like this t o p r o t e c t y o u r balls.' G o d k n o w s w h a t t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h a t s p e e c h is. It's n o t a p r o b l e m I've b e e n r u n n i n g i n t o , b u t m a y b e I ' m m e e t i n g a different class o f w o m a n . W h e n y o u ' r e b r o k e , u n w a s h e d a n d t h e w r o n g side o f fifty, drifting a r o u n d t h e b a c k w o o d s w i t h a b a d b a c k a n d a h a c k i n g , w h e e z i n g c o u g h , t h e field o f available w o m e n is drastically r e d u c e d , a n d it m a y well b e possible t h a t s o m e o f t h e m are v i o l e n t l y insane. It's h a r d n o t t o take h i m as an augury, a w a r n i n g sign o f w h a t h a p p e n s t o a m a n after a life o n t h e road, a m a n for w h o m w a n d e r i n g turns out to be m o r e than a youthful phase. Medicine M a n sailed u n d e r foreign flags a n d has n e v e r h e l d d o w n a regular j o b in A m e r i c a . H e has n o h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e , n o p e n s i o n o r social s e c u r i t y c h e q u e s c o m i n g , n o disability p a y m e n t s , a n d he's n o l o n g e r e q u i p p e d , physically o r psychologically, t o w o r k a real j o b . H i s o n l y alternative t o t h e r o a d , t h e b a c k w o o d s a n d t h e R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s is s o m e city s k i d - r o w o r h o m e l e s s shelter, a n d h e hates cities. H e believes t h e y are a b o u t t o g o d o w n in a p o c a l y p t i c flames. G i v e n t h e p a r a m e t e r s his life has set for h i m , he's d o i n g t h e best h e can. It m i g h t l o o k aimless from t h e outside, b u t h e feels a d e e p sense o f p u r p o s e . H e is setting an e x a m p l e for t h e rest o f us, s h o w i n g us t h e r e is a b e t t e r way, g a t h e r i n g t h e k n o w l e d g e that will save us. It's easy t o dismiss w h a t h e says as s t o n e d g i b b e r i s h , b u t u n d e r s t a n d that it is integral to his sense o f self-worth. H e is n o t l o o k i n g for sympathy. H e is l o o k i n g for recruits, disciples a n d converts; h e w a n t s us all t o live as h e does. A g o o d w o m a n , h e says, is all it w o u l d take t o c o m p l e t e his happiness. He's g o t spiritual fulfilment covered. He's g o t his survival n e e d s t a k e n care of. H e g r o w s his o w n w e e d , sells o r trades it for m o n e y a n d food at R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s a n d b i k e r festivals, a n d s u p p l e m e n t s his diet w i t h nuts, fruits, b e r r i e s a n d r o o t s harvested from t h e land. H e carves pipes, digs o u t turquoises a n d q u a r t z crystals, b u n d l e s u p sage t o sell, collects animal skulls a n d d e e r h o o v e s . H e m a k e s p o u c h e s a n d moccasins from d e e r h i d e , t r a d i n g for t h e skins, b e c a u s e h e w o n ' t kill an animal o r eat its m e a t . D i d t h e
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I r i s h m a n m e e t M e d i c i n e M a n u p h e r e , I w o n d e r , a n d embellish h i m i n t o a g r o u p o f c a r n i v o r o u s Apaches? T h e h o t t u b is calling h i m . It's t h e o n l y t h i n g that eases his b a c k w h e n it gets this b a d . T h e h o t t u b is e i g h t e e n h u n d r e d miles away, b u t this d o e s n ' t seem to b o t h e r h i m . H e collects u p his b e l o n g i n g s a n d starts stuffing t h e m i n t o his duffel b a g . ' H e l l , I'll h i t c h i n t o N e w M e x i c o , get u p to C o l o r a d o , c a t c h a freight u p t o M o n t a n a a n d h i t c h across i n t o I d a h o . I'll b e t h e r e i n a w e e k . ' I agree to give h i m a r i d e t o t h e interstate t o get h i m started. It takes h i m m o s t o f t h e m o r n i n g t o get d o w n t h e m o u n t a i n . E v e r y t w o h u n d r e d yards o r so, h e has t o stop a n d rest, a n d stretch o u t his b a c k . I offer t o g o d o w n , leave m y p a c k at t h e b o t t o m a n d c o m e b a c k u p for his duffel b a g . ' N o p e , ' h e says. ' A m a n can't h u m p his o w n gear, it's t i m e for that b r o t h e r t o get off t h e road, a n d I ain't ready t o q u i t . I ' m j u s t t a k i n g h e r easy. A i n ' t n o h u r r y . I g o t all t h e t i m e in t h e world.' I get i m p a t i e n t b u t have t o a d m i t that h e paces h i m s e l f nicely d o w n t h e m o u n t a i n . W h e n finally w e reach m y t r u c k h e d o e s n ' t l o o k m u c h w o r s e t h a n w h e n h e started. I drive east i n t o t h e t o w n o f Sunsites, w h e r e h e buys a tin o f Tops t o b a c c o , s o m e rolling papers a n d a r o o t b e e r . T h e n n o r t h t o bisect t h e interstate. I d r o p h i m off at t h e rest area in Texas C a n y o n , i n t e n d i n g to t u r n a r o u n d and g o b a c k i n t o t h e D r a g o o n s t o get s o m e w o r k d o n e . T h e n it strikes m e that that is a hopelessly q u i x o t i c idea, a blatant strategy o f p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n , a n d that w o r k requires a desk, a chair a n d a c o m p u t e r . I p o i n t t h e t r u c k towards h o m e base in T u c s o n a n d leave h i m t o m a k e the l o n g j o u r n e y n o r t h t o his equivalent.
CHAPTER 6 T h i s a f t e r n o o n M r W a l k e r , w h o m w e m e t at I n d e p e n d e n c e R o c k , visited o u r c a m p ; h e has p i c k e d u p a small p a r t y at F o r t L a r a m i e ; a n d w i l d - l o o k i n g c r e a t u r e s t h e y are — w h i t e a n d r e d . T h i s m a n has a b a n d o n e d civilisation, -
married
a s q u a w o r s q u a w s , a n d prefers t o pass his life w a n d e r i n g i n t h e s e deserts; c a r r y i n g o n , p e r h a p s , a n a l m o s t n o m i n a l business o f h u n t i n g , t r a p p i n g a n d t r a d i n g — b u t q u i t e suffic i e n t t o t h e w a n t s o f a c h i e f o f savages. H e is a m a n o f m u c h n a t u r a l ability, a n d a p p a r e n t l y o f p r o w e s s a n d r e a d y resource. C a p t a i n P h i l i p St G e o r g e C r o o k , Scenes and Adventures
in the Army,
1 8 5 6 , q u o t e d in Bil G i l b e r t ,
Westering Man: The Life ofJoseph
I
Walker
n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 8 3 3 J o e W a l k e r was t h i r t y - f o u r years old, already a-highly respected m a n a m o n g t h e trappers, fur traders
a n d I n d i a n tribes o f t h e Far W e s t a n d already travelling i n t h e style o f a n o m a d i c chieftain. See h i m r i d i n g i n t o t h e fur-trade r e n d e z v o u s i n early J u n e , w i t h six o f his trappers a n d a b a n d o f t w o h u n d r e d S h o s h o n i , o r Snake Indians, for an escort. P i c t u r e t h e l o n g , w i n d i n g , dusty caravan o f horses a n d riders, c o m i n g d o w n o u t o f t h e Salt M o u n t a i n s a n d i n t o t h e w i d e , flat valley o f t h e u p p e r G r e e n R i v e r , w i t h t h e wolfish, l o n g - m u z z l e d I n d i a n dogs t r o t t i n g alongside, t h e horses p a i n t e d a n d h u n g w i t h bells, beads and r i b b o n s , a n d t h e Snake w o m e n o r n a m e n t e d in a similar
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fashion; t h e w a r r i o r s m a k i n g t h e i r horses p r a n c e a n d curvet, s o m e w e a r i n g b u f f a l o - h o r n headdresses a n d w o l f ' s - h e a d caps, c a r r y i n g trade m u s k e t s a n d lances d e c o r a t e d w i t h h u m a n scalps; t h e s h a m a n s j u g g l i n g as t h e y r i d e ; t h e infants, t h e elderly a n d t h e band's possessions d r a g g i n g a l o n g b e h i n d t h e p a c k horses o n
buffalo-hide
travois platforms tied across t h e t e p e e p o l e s . A n d J o e W a l k e r r i d i n g at t h e h e a d o f t h e procession w i t h a l o n g rifle across his saddle. H e was a h u g e m a n , six feet four a n d heavily m u s c l e d , w i t h a full b e a r d a n d curly r e d d i s h - b r o w n hair that fell b e l o w his s h o u l ders. H e h a d a ruddy, w e a t h e r e d c o m p l e x i o n , a h a w k i s h nose, a n d t h e requisite ' p i e r c i n g b l u e eyes', w h i c h all frontier heroes s e e m e d t o c o m e e q u i p p e d w i t h . If t h e t w o portraits p a i n t e d o f h i m are accurate,Walker p r o j e c t e d an air o f alertness, s t r e n g t h a n d c o m p l e t e self-assurance: p r i d e w i t h o u t
a r r o g a n c e , fearlessness
without
aggression. If h e arrived in his usual style, h e was r i d i n g a b i g , fast stud h o r s e , o n w h i c h h e e x p e c t e d t o w i n m o n e y at t h e r e n d e z v o u s h o r s e races, a n d t h e h o r s e was extravagantly d e c o r ated in t h e Indian style. J o e W a l k e r was s o m e t h i n g o f a d a n d y a m o n g t h e trappers a n d fur traders o f t h e Far West — ' m o u n t a i n m e n ' , t h e y called t h e m selves, a n d t h e r e w e r e few dandies a m o n g t h e m . T h e y w e r e a ragged, s o u r - s m e l l i n g b r e e d for t h e m o s t part, usually seen in t h e literature w i t h m a t t e d hair a n d beards, w e a r i n g b u c k s k i n s t u r n e d black a n d shiny from t h e season's a c c u m u l a t i o n o f buffalo grease, beaver fat, d r i e d b l o o d , campfire soot a n d t h e i r o w n secretions — t h e type, as t h e o l d W e s t e r n j o k e goes, w h o takes a b a t h every s p r i n g t i m e , w h e t h e r h e n e e d s it o r n o t . W a l k e r was k n o w n for his stylish, f e a t h e r - p l u m e d s l o u c h hats, t h e fine c u t a n d quality o f his fringed b u c k s k i n leggings a n d h u n t i n g shirts, a n d his u n u s u a l a t t e n t i o n t o p e r s o n a l h y g i e n e a n d g r o o m i n g . H e s t o o d o u t a m o n g t h e m o u n t a i n m e n like B e a u B r u m m e l s t r u t t i n g t h r o u g h a c r o w d o f s h a b b y office
clerks.
B r u m m e l was t h e f a m o u s L o n d o n d a n d y o f t h e 1810s a n d 1820s w h o p o p u l a r i s e d a n e w style of beaver-felt hat, w h i c h spread t o Paris, M i l a n , C o l o g n e , V i e n n a , St P e t e r s b u r g , N e w York, B o s t o n a n d all over t h e civilised w o r l d , w h i c h d e c i m a t e d . b e a v e r p o p u l a tions in E u r o p e a n d raised t h e p r i c e o f b e a v e r pelts, a n d so e n a b l e d
Ghost
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113
t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n fur trade, t h e m o u n t a i n m e n a n d t h e i r a n n u a l r e n d e z v o u s t o c o m e i n t o existence. T h i s was t h e reach o f t h e global e c o n o m y in t h e early n i n e t e e n t h century. H e r e was a line o f d o m i n o e s set i n m o t i o n b y a fashion c o u p i n Mayfair, reaching deep into the half-explored wilderness of the A m e r i c a n West, l e a d i n g from o n e d a n d y t o a n o t h e r . Walker's tailors w e r e I n d i a n w o m e n , skilled in t h e p a t i e n t art o f r u b b i n g a deer's brains i n t o its h i d e until t h e h i d e a c h i e v e d a b u t t e r y softness, a n d w o n d e r f u l l y d e x t r o u s at s e w i n g , fringing, b e a d i n g a n d p o r c u p i n e - q u i l l e m b r o i d e r y . H i g h e s t in Walker's estimation were the y o u n g w o m e n of the Shoshoni tribe, and n o t j u s t for their t a i l o r i n g skills. Snake girls w e r e generally a g r e e d b y the m o u n t a i n m e n (although there were m a n y heated arguments o n t h e subject) to b e t h e great belles o f t h e Far West: t h e best l o o k i n g , t h e lightest s k i n n e d , t h e m o s t artful w i t h m a k e - u p a n d p e r f u m e s (fashioned from w i l d plants a n d flowers, later a u g m e n t e d w i t h t r a d e g o o d s ) . T h e y w e r e also h a r d w o r k i n g c o o k s a n d s e a m stresses, e n g a g i n g storytellers a n d gossips (with t h e usual g r a p h i c , b a w d y sense o f h u m o u r t h a t prevailed a m o n g I n d i a n w o m e n in t h e West), a n d skilful, enthusiastic sexual p a r t n e r s . In r e t u r n , a n d especially at r e n d e z v o u s , t h e y e x p e c t e d to b e s h o w e r e d
with
j e w e l l e r y a n d finery, a n d given g o r g e o u s , h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e horses t o r i d e , so t h e y c o u l d o u t s h i n e their f e m i n i n e rivals. Like so m a n y m o u n t a i n m e n , J o e W a l k e r e n d e d u p m a r r y i n g a Snake girl (she was p r o b a b l y fifteen o r sixteen, t h e standard age for m a r r i a g e i n t h e tribe) a n d dressing h e r u p like a C h r i s t m a s tree. Fast horses, Snake b e a u t i e s , fine clothes, t o b a c c o for his p i p e , a m o d e r a t e a m o u n t o f d r i n k i n g a n d g a m b l i n g : these w e r e J o e Walker's pleasures, as far as w e can d e t e r m i n e , b u t s e c o n d a r y a n d p e r i p h e r a l t o his g r a n d passion for travel a n d e x p l o r a t i o n . H e h a d n o w a y o f k n o w i n g it i n 1 8 3 3 ( a l t h o u g h m a y b e h e suspected) b u t it was t o k e e p h i m o n t h e m o v e , over e n o r m o u s distances, for nearly fifty years. B y m y g u e s s w o r k , J o e Walker covered m o r e miles On h o r s e b a c k t h a n any w h i t e A m e r i c a n , before h i m o r since, a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e t h a n any I n d i a n . T h e r e n d e z v o u s t h a t year was h e l d w h e r e H o r s e C r e e k flows i n t o t h e G r e e n R i v e r , o n a n d a r o u n d t h e site o f p r e s e n t - d a y
114
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D a n i e l , W y o m i n g . A t its h e i g h t , t h e r e w e r e a b o u t 3 5 0 m o u n t a i n m e n a n d 5 0 0 Indians - Snakes, B a n n o c k s , C r o w s , Flatheads, N e z Perces — c o m e t o g e t h e r for t h e a n n u a l trade fair a n d g r a n d d e b a u c h o f t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n West. T h e m o u n t a i n m e n w e r e a m i x e d g r o u p o f F r e n c h - C a n a d i a n s , half-Indian F r e n c h C r e o l e s , displaced D e l a w a r e s from t h e East, a f e w Swedes, M e x i c a n s a n d I r i s h m e n , v e r y few black A m e r i c a n s (Jim B e c k w o u r t h , w h o b e c a m e a b l o o d b r o t h e r a n d w a r c h i e f o f t h e C r o w t r i b e , was t h e m o s t famous), b u t b y 1 8 3 3 their ranks w e r e d o m i n a t e d b y m e n o f J o e Walker's background: white Americans b o r n o n the
trans-Appalachian
frontiers. T h e F r e n c h h a d o p e n e d u p t h e G r e a t Plains a n d R o c k y M o u n t a i n fur trade as early as 1 7 0 0 , b u t n o w its d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e was English, s p o k e n i n a heavy drawl. Years later, s o m e o f t h e participants j u d g e d 1 8 3 3 as t h e greatest r e n d e z v o u s o f t h e m all — t h e wildest, t h e purest, t h e last o n e before tourists, missionaries a n d w h i t e Christian ladies started s h o w i n g u p a n d spoiling t h e fun. W h a t a spectacle o f n o m a d i c p a g e a n t r y it m u s t have b e e n : t h e tents a n d tepees e x t e n d i n g for ten miles a l o n g t h e riverbanks, i m m e n s e herds o f horses t u r n e d o u t to graze o n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g plains, a n d m o u n t a i n ranges rising u p to t h e n o r t h , west and east. T h e r e was an excitable, carnival a t m o s p h e r e in t h e e n c a m p m e n t s . I m p r o m p t u horse races b r o k e o u t , attracting big c r o w d s a n d heavy b e t t i n g . T h e r e w e r e m a r k s m a n s h i p contests, m o c k battles, Indian dances a n d c e r e m o n i e s , m o u n t e d parades a n d exhibitions o f t r i c k - r i d i n g . A n d w h a t a noisy, u n c o u t h , d e p r a v e d spectacle it m u s t have b e e n , u p close a n d in t h e firelight: t h e s t a g g e r i n g a n d r o a r i n g o f d r u n k e n trappers a n d d r u n k e n Indians, m a n y o f t h e m d r u n k for t h e first t i m e since last year's r e n d e z v o u s , firing t h e i r g u n s i n t o t h e air a n d s c r e a m i n g o u t t h e i r w a r cries. I n d i a n prostitutes w e r e available for a handful o f beads o r an awl — s o m e lay d r u n k o n t h e g r o u n d w i t h their dresses h i k e d u p , offering themselves t o any m a n w h o w o u l d b u y t h e m a n o t h e r d r i n k - a n d m a n y a t r a p p e r left r e n d e z v o u s w i t h venereal disease o r a ' w e e p i n g in t h e p a n t s ' , as t h e y called i t . T h e r e w e r e m o r e r o m a n t i c c o u p l i n g s t o o , trappers t a k i n g squaws as t h e i r t e m p o r a r y girlfriends, a n d s o m e times as t h e i r b r i d e s , a l t h o u g h all forms o f sexual activity w i t h
Ghost
Riders
115
I n d i a n w o m e n , e x c e p t i n g rape, r e q u i r e d an o u t l a y o f g o o d s . S o m e t i m e s t h e r e was a k i n d o f after-the-fact p i m p i n g o p e r a t i o n at w o r k a m o n g t h e tribes. Y o u r n e w girlfriend's father o r b r o t h e r s w o u l d s h o w u p a n d d e m a n d p a y m e n t , in horses, beaver pelts o r w h a t e v e r else y o u h a d , for t h e services she h a d r e n d e r e d . T h e m o u n t a i n m e n , like t h e I n d i a n w a r r i o r s , w e r e t r e m e n d o u s boasters
and
braggarts, forever
thumping
their
chests
and
r e c o u n t i n g t h e c o u p s o f b r a v e r y t h e y h a d struck i n battle, s h o w i n g off t h e i r c o l l e c t i o n o f scalps a n d r e c o u n t i n g h o w e a c h o n e was taken, p r o m o t i n g their p r o d i g i o u s skills as h u n t e r s , trackers, h o r s e thieves, lovers, gamblers, fighters. T h e m o u n t a i n m e n in p a r t i c u lar w o u l d issue b e l l o w i n g challenges t o each o t h e r , w h i c h s o m e t i m e s l e d t o b r a g g i n g a n d l y i n g contests, a n d s o m e t i m e s t o brawls, fistfights, stabbings, s h o o t i n g s a n d w r e s t l i n g m a t c h e s that t u r n e d i n t o e y e - g o u g i n g contests. It was de rigueur t o d r i n k u n t i l y o u collapsed a n d sleep w h e r e y o u fell, a n d this in itself was a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e c o u r a g e a n d d e v i l - m a y - c a r e recklessness t h e y a d m i r e d , because r a b i d wolves w e r e s k u l k i n g i n t o t h e e n c a m p m e n t s at n i g h t . Twelve p e o p l e w e r e b i t t e n d u r i n g t h e 1 8 3 3 r e n d e z v o u s a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y d i e d o f rabies, w h i c h h a d little effect o n t h e d r i n k i n g a n d collapsing habits o f t h e rest. A w i l d y o u n g t r a p p e r called J o e M e e k c l a i m e d t o have so m u c h alcohol in his b l o o d that it was b o u n d t o kill o r c u r e any rabid wolf. R e n d e z v o u s was an institution devised a n d o p e r a t e d by t h e fur c o m p a n i e s , d a t i n g b a c k to 1 8 2 5 . Its basic p u r p o s e was t o p a r t t h e trappers a n d t h e Indians from t h e i r beaver pelts for as little m o n e y as possible, a n d t h e n get t h e m o n e y b a c k b y selling t h e m o v e r p r i c e d g o o d s from civilisation — o v e r p r i c e d b o o z e in particular. T h e y called it ' w h i s k e y ' at r e n d e z v o u s , b u t i n reality it was r a w grain a l c o h o l , d i l u t e d w i t h river water, progressively d i l u t e d as t h e c u s t o m e r s g r e w less d i s c e r n i n g , a n d i n 1 8 3 3 it sold for five dollars a p i n t - t h e same p r i c e as a p i n t o f b a d w h i s k e y today. In St Louis, w h e r e t h e fur c o m p a n i e s outfitted their traders, r a w alcohol sold for less t h a n thirty cents a gallon, b u t give t h e m a little credit for transportation. B e t w e e n St Louis a n d t h e u p p e r G r e e n R i v e r lay fifteen h u n d r e d miles o f wilderness, w i t h its full
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c o m p l e m e n t of warlike tribes, grizzly bears, quicksands a n d a h u n d r e d o t h e r lesser dangers a n d difficulties. U n d e r t h e very best o f c o n d i t i o n s , w i t h n o I n d i a n attacks o r horse thievery, w i t h easy river crossings, g o o d g r a z i n g for t h e p a c k animals, and p l e n t y o f g a m e to eat a l o n g t h e way, t h e j o u r n e y t o o k seven w e e k s . A n d t h e n seven w e e k s b a c k again w i t h t h e furs. T h e m a r k - u p o n g o o d s at r e n d e z v o u s , h o w e v e r , r a n g e d b e t w e e n 1 0 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 0 p e r cent, a n d for t h e trappers a n d t h e tribes t h e r e was little c h o i c e b u t t o pay. B o t h g r o u p s w e r e h o r s e n o m a d s w h o r o a m e d t h e w i l d e r n e s s after m e a t , furs a n d hides, a n d like all m o u n t e d n o m a d s in r e c o r d e d history t h e y n e e d e d a n d craved certain
products
manufactured
in t h e
settlements:
superior
w e a p o n s , tools, c l o t h i n g , intoxicants, cultivated foods like flour, coffee a n d sugar — w e have seen t h e same k i n d o f list before. T h e m o u n t a i n m e n , if n o t t h e Indians, k n e w t h e y w e r e b e i n g g o u g e d unmercifully, b u t t h e y refused to let it spoil their a n n u a l party. If y o u d r a n k e n o u g h o v e r p r i c e d a l c o h o l , it was easy t o forget h o w m u c h it was costing y o u . Y o u b e c a m e cavalier a n d expansive, inspired t o b l o w t h e rest o f y o u r beaver pelts (or credit for beaver pelts) o n m o r e o f this fine w h i s k e y a n d an extravagant s h o p p i n g spree at t h e c o m p a n y store. I n d i a n w o m e n w e r e often t h e m a i n beneficiaries o f this extravagance. It b e c a m e a m a t t e r o f h o n o u r a n d c o m p e t i t i v e p r i d e a m o n g t h e m o u n t a i n m e n t o dress u p t h e i r wives a n d girlfriends in as m u c h i m p o r t e d finery as possible: beads from V e n i c e a n d P r a g u e , v e r m i l i o n from
China,
blankets from Lancashire, lace from P r a n c e o r B e l g i u m , bangles, r i b b o n s , garters, m i r r o r s — t h e f e m i n i n e a c c o u t r e m e n t s that I n d i a n w o m e n a d o r e d a n d w h i c h t h e m o u n t a i n m e n called 'foofaraw'. G a m b l i n g was a n o t h e r g o o d w a y t o b a n k r u p t y o u r s e l f at r e n d e z v o u s , playing t h e I n d i a n g a m e o f ' h a n d ' . A small, carved piece of b o n e was p a l m e d in o n e hand, a n d rapidly passed t o t h e other, b a c k a n d forth, w i t h feints and double-bluffs. W h e n
the
m o v e m e n t stopped, and t h e closed hands w e r e h e l d apart, t h e watchers h a d to guess w h i c h o n e c o n t a i n e d t h e b o n e . T h e Indians played in teams, facing each o t h e r across a blanket, a n d p u t their faith in spells, incantations, prayers and visions. T h e m o u n t a i n m e n played as individuals, e m p l o y e d
flourishing
sleight-of-hand
man-
Ghost
Riders
117
oeuvres, a n d k e p t u p a r u n n i n g c o m m e n t a r y like carnival barkers. N i n e o u t o f t e n trappers left t h e r e n d e z v o u s flat b r o k e a n d i n d e b t t o t h e fur c o m p a n y , for t h e i r traps, p o w d e r , a m m u n i t i o n , horses, p a c k m u l e s a n d e v e r y t h i n g else t h e y n e e d e d t o survive a n d c a r r y o n . T h e y r o d e off i n t o t h e m o u n t a i n s w i t h m o n u m e n t a l h a n g o v e r s , a n d p e r h a p s a w e e p i n g i n t h e p a n t s , facing a n o t h e r year o f fighting off Indians, grizzly bears, starvation, thirst a n d disease, w a d i n g i n t o icy streams a n d beaver p o n d s t o set t h e i r traps, p l u n g i n g b a c k in at d a w n t o retrieve t h e d r o w n e d beavers (early r h e u m a t i s m in t h e legs was t h e t r a p p e r s ' h e a l t h s c o u r g e ) , w i t h a g r a n d b l o w o u t at n e x t year's r e n d e z v o u s as t h e i n d u c e m e n t a n d r e w a r d , assuming t h e y lived that l o n g . T h e a t t r i t i o n rate was h o r r e n d o u s . In
1856 a veteran furman
called A n t o i n e
R o b i d o u x c o u l d a c c o u n t for o n l y t h r e e survivors for t h e t h r e e h u n d r e d m o u n t a i n m e n h e h a d k n o w n in t h e 1820s. J o e W a l k e r was atypical for a m o u n t a i n m a n . F o r o n e t h i n g , h e c a m e to t h e r e n d e z v o u s as t h e 'partisan', o r field c o m m a n d e r , o f a t r a p p i n g b r i g a d e — a m e m b e r o f t h e small elite in t h e fur trade that h a d m a n a g e d t o rise above t h e a n n u a l cycle o f d e b t a n d spree. F o r a n o t h e r , his p e r s o n a l i t y was u n u s u a l . Walker, despite the
flashiness
of his dress, was a quiet, p r u d e n t , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d
m a n , a m o d e r a t e t i p p l e r in t h e m i d s t o f an alcoholic b i n g e . W e will allow h i m a few h o r s e races, p e r h a p s a Snake girl a n d a s h o p p i n g spree, b u t J o e W a l k e r seems to have spent m o s t o f his t i m e at t h e 1 8 3 3 r e n d e z v o u s assembling recruits for his n e x t e x p e d i t i o n . C a p t a i n B e n j a m i n B o n n e v i l l e o f t h e U S A r m y , w h o was l o o k i n g i n t o t h e prospects for A m e r i c a n e x p a n s i o n u n d e r cover o f fur t r a d i n g , h a d asked h i m t o e x p l o r e t h e c o u n t r y west o f t h e G r e a t Salt Lake, w h i c h was b l a n k space o r fiction o n t h e m a p s o f t h e day, a n d g o all t h e way to t h e M e x i c a n p r o v i n c e o f California if possible. J o e W a l k e r h a d t r i e d a n d failed t o g o t h e r e i n 1 8 2 0 . J e d e d i a h S m i t h , a p i o u s , p r i g g i s h P u r i t a n from N e w
England
stock, t h e m o s t atypical m o u n t a i n m a n o f t h e m all, b e c a m e t h e first e x p l o r e r t o r e a c h California overland in 1 8 2 6 , a n d h e w e n t b a c k in 1 8 2 7 . A handful o f o t h e r s - E w i n g Young's trappers o u t o f Taos, t h e British f u r m a n P e t e r S k e n e O g d e n — h a d b e e n t h e r e since a n d stories h a d filtered back.
118
Richard Grant
T h e j o u r n e y was k n o w n t o b e h o r r e n d o u s , across h u n d r e d s o f miles of desert w i t h little or n o g a m e o r water, a n d t h e n over a n i m m e n s e wall of perenially s n o w c a p p e d m o u n t a i n s : t h e Sierra Nevada. O f the thirty-two m e n w h o had gone with Jed Smith o n t h e t w o e x p e d i t i o n s , t w e n t y - s i x had d i e d a n d t w o h a d deserted. F o r s o m e o f t h e m e n w h o signed u p w i t h J o e Walker, t h e d a n g e r a n d h a r d s h i p w e r e positive i n d u c e m e n t s , fitting challenges t o their c o u r a g e , skill a n d t o u g h n e s s . To survive s u c h a j o u r n e y , a n d live t o tell t h e yarns, w o u l d b e 'a feather in a man's c a p ' , as J o e M e e k p u t it. T h e y h a d also h e a r d stories a b o u t t h e w a r m w i n t e r s u n s h i n e i n California, t h e w i l l i n g M e x i c a n girls, mission w i n e r i e s that n e v e r ran d r y a n d vast, u n c o u n t a b l e herds o f horses a n d cattle, i n e p t l y g u a r d e d by docile C a t h o l i c i s e d Indians — a f o r t u n e o n t h e h o o f that c o u l d b e b o u g h t c h e a p l y o r easily stolen. California was already established in t h e A m e r i c a n i m a g i n a t i o n as a mellow, easyliving, g o l d e n land, w i t h beautiful girls, a b o u n t i f u l e c o n o m y a n d p l e n t y o f suckers for t h e taking. T h e r e was also t h e simple i n d u c e m e n t o f t h e Pacific, t h e e n d o f t h e c o n t i n e n t , as far west as y o u c o u l d go. J o e Walker, like so m a n y m o u n t a i n m e n , was b o r n o n t h e frontier, i n t o a c u l t u r e that faced west. H i s family h a d b e e n m o v i n g w e s t for t h r e e g e n e r a tions, from S c o t l a n d to Ulster, t o Pennsylvania,Virginia, Tennessee a n d t h e n M i s s o u r i , sitting o u t s i d e their log cabins w i t h a pipeful o f t o b a c c o a n d a j u g o f h o m e - m a d e whiskey, w a t c h i n g t h e s u n g o d o w n a n d w o n d e r i n g w h a t was o u t t h e r e a n d
convincing
themselves it was b e t t e r t h a n h e r e . W e ' l l rejoin t h e historic e x p e d i t i o n t o California, b u t first I w a n t to delve d e e p e r i n t o J o e Walker's family history, b e c a u s e it's t h e best single e x p l a n a t i o n o f his w a n d e r i n g , restless spirit that w e have. A n d h e r e I m u s t b l o w t h e t r u m p e t s for his b i o g r a p h e r Bil Gilbert, w h o has m a n a g e d t o trace Walker's family tree b a c k t o W i g t o n in t h e s o u t h e r n L o w l a n d s o f S c o t l a n d in t h e 1690s a n d his e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e English M i d l a n d s i n t h e D a r k A g e s . Walker's p e o p l e : originally t h e y w e r e a disparate g r o u p o f D a n e s , Angles a n d Saxons, p u s h e d n o r t h o u t o f E n g l a n d by a series o f
Ghost
Riders
119
v i o l e n t upheavals, c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e N o r m a n invasion o f 1 0 6 6 . T h e y t o o k u p an u n c e r t a i n t e n u r e in t h e Scottish L o w l a n d s a n d b o r d e r country, started m a r r y i n g i n t o e a c h other's families a n d f o r m i n g i n t o a r m e d clans for self-protection. T h e y w e r e c a u g h t b e t w e e n t h e Celts t o t h e n o r t h a n d t h e English to t h e s o u t h , w h o s e kings a n d warlords used this c o u n t r y as a b a t t l e g r o u n d i n a r e c u r r e n t conflict that lasted for seven h u n d r e d years. T h e b o r d e r clans w e r e slaughtered, r o b b e d , r a p e d , t o r t u r e d a n d chased o u t o f their hovels b y Scots a n d English alike. T h e y w e r e starved o u t b y r a c k r e n t i n g landlords a n d t a x - c o l l e c t o r s , forcibly r e c r u i t e d i n t o their oppressors' a r m i e s , h a r r i e d a n d s h u n t e d across t h e m o o r s until t h e y lost all a t t a c h m e n t to a sense o f h o m e g r o u n d - if i n d e e d t h e y h a d o n e to b e g i n w i t h . T h e i r a r c h i t e c t u r e reflected t h e i r rootlessness, as well as their p o v e r t y : hastily e r e c t e d cabins o f s t o n e a n d m u d , w i t h ferns s t r e w n o n t h e floor, t h a t w e r e n o loss t o leave b e h i n d . W h e n
their
descendants
reached
the
A p p a l a c h i a n forests t h e y built similar structures o u t o f h a r d w o o d logs a n d clay: small, l o w - r o o f e d , rectangular a n d t e m p o r a r y , like a m o d e r n - d a y A m e r i c a n trailer h o m e . I n t h e m i d - s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e L o w l a n d Scots a c q u i r e d a cultural l e a d e r a n d figurehead, J o h n K n o x , w h o h a d b e e n
to
R e f o r m a t i o n Europe and brought back Presbyterianism.The clanfolk grafted its g r i m certainties o n t o an o l d e r creed o f b l o o d a n d v e n g e a n c e , loyalty a n d h o n o u r . F o r as l o n g as t h e y c o u l d r e m e m b e r , their lives h a d b e e n s h a p e d b y w a r a n d v i o l e n c e , a n d its c o d e s w e r e d e e p l y e m b e d d e d in t h e i r culture. M a y b e it was o n l y their belligerence, t h e i r sheer ferocity, that saved t h e m from e x t i n c t i o n , b u t it d e v e l o p e d i n t o s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n a survival m e c h a n i s m . In t h e b r i e f p e r i o d s o f respite b e t w e e n A n g l o - S c o t t i s h w a r s a n d invasions, t h e L o w l a h d e r s t o o k t o r o b b i n g , r a p i n g , t o r t u r i n g a n d killing each other, in a series o f b l o o d y clan feuds, r a i d i n g sprees a n d vigilante reprisals. I n 1 6 0 5 J a m e s I d e c i d e d t o settle t h e L o w l a n d Scots o n p l a n tations in t h e U l s t e r colony. H i s i n t e n t i o n was t o kill t w o birds w i t h o n e s t o n e : to sap t h e i n f l u e n c e o f these w i l d , u n g o v e r n a b l e Presbyterians o n t h e m a i n l a n d a n d use t h e m t o c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t h e p o w e r o f the. C a t h o l i c rebels i n Ireland, w h o w e r e p r o v i n g
1.20
Richard Grant
almost as t r o u b l e s o m e . It m u s t have s e e m e d like an elegant s o l u t i o n at t h e t i m e , b u t like g e n e r a t i o n s o f A m e r i c a n leaders after h i m , both white and Indian, King James underestimated
the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n , l a n d - h u n g e r a n d ruthlessness o f t h e L o w l a n d Scots, a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f his decision are still felt t o d a y i n Ireland. W h e n t h e y g o t t o Ulster, t h e Scots b e g a n seizing Irish lands a n d killing I r i s h m e n , p l u n g i n g t h e c o l o n y i n t o a p r o t r a c t e d g u e r rilla war, s u c h as t h e y w e r e a c c u s t o m e d t o as n o r m a l life in t h e Scottish b o r d e r s . At t h e e n d o f it, fifteen t h o u s a n d Irish dissenters w e r e d e a d a n d t h e U l s t e r Scots w e r e harvesting crops in t h e stolen fields. W i t h t h e h e l p o f F r e n c h Calvinists t h e y set u p a t h r i v i n g textile industry, p r o s p e r e d e c o n o m i c a l l y for t h e first t i m e in their h i s t o r y a n d b e g a n t o t h r e a t e n t h e p o w e r o f t h e A n g l i c a n elite. T h e elite c l a m p e d d o w n firmly, raising taxes a n d rents, b a n n i n g t h e U l s t e r Scots from h o l d i n g political office, c r i p p l i n g their textile i n d u s t r y w i t h trade tariffs, o u t l a w i n g all o f t h e i r religious c e r e m o n i e s , m a r r i a g e i n c l u d e d , a n d t a k i n g away t h e i r r i g h t to bear a r m s (a decision w i t h l o n g c o n s e q u e n c e s in A m e r i c a n history). Terrible famines e n s u e d a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e clanfolk w e r e b a c k in t h e old, familiar station o f surly, d o w n t r o d d e n w r e t c h e d n e s s . E x c e p t that now, m o r e t h a n ever, they w e r e an u p r o o t e d p e o p l e in an alien land. W h e n they began to arrive en masse in Pennsylvania in t h e 1720s, t h e Ulster Scots aroused w i d e s p r e a d disgust a n d c o n s t e r n a t i o n a m o n g t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y Q u a k e r citizenry. M o s t of the Ulster i m m i g r a n t s w e r e p o o r , s o m e h a d i n d e n t u r e d themselves to m a k e t h e passage, b u t they carried themselves w i t h a fierce, bristling p r i d e a n d were quick to take offence — n a t u r a l - b o r n troublemakers. T h e m e n t e n d e d to b e tall, lean and t o u g h - l o o k i n g , w i t h stern, d o u r faces, loutish m a n n e r s and a l o o k o f b r o o d i n g violence. T h e Q u a k e r s w e r e appalled by their thirst for whiskey a n d their ' r o u g h a n d t u m b l e ' wrestling contests, in w h i c h t h e object was t o g o u g e o u t t h e o p p o n e n t ' s eyeballs w i t h y o u r t h u m b s , bite off his nose or ears, rip the testicles off his b o d y o r w h a t e v e r it w o u l d take to m a k e h i m call a halt a n d a d m i t defeat. T h e Q u a k e r s usually described t h e w o m e n as 'slatternly' and s u r r o u n d e d b y h o r d e s o f grubby, 'insolent' children. B e n j a m i n Franklin, l o o k i n g over t h e n e w c o m e r s
Ghost
Riders
121
in Philadelphia, p r o n o u n c e d t h e m ' w h i t e savages'. W i t h i n their clan structures t h e U l s t e r Scots h a d strict, p a t r i archal lines o f c o m m a n d b u t their history h a d left t h e m w i t h a d e e p h a t r e d a n d suspicion for all external, institutional f o r m s o f a u t h o r i t y — g o v e r n m e n t s , armies, laws, c o u r t s , j u d g e s , tax-collectors, state C h u r c h e s — a n d i n d e e d for a n y o n e to w h o m t h e y w e r e n ' t related. In n o r t h e r n Britain, before t h e y g o t to Ireland, t h e b o r d e r Presbyterians h a d b e e n k n o w n as 'crackers' (loutish braggarts) a n d ' r e d n e c k s ' (fiery religious dissenters).These pejorative t e r m s crossed t h e Atlantic w i t h t h e m a n d are still used to describe their p r e s e n t day descendants.* T h e Pennsylvania a u t h o r i t i e s e n c o u r a g e d t h e U l s t e r refugees t o settle i n t h e A p p a l a c h i a n M o u n t a i n s . T h e r e , i n t h e w o l f a n d I n d i a n - h a u n t e d w i l d e r n e s s to t h e west, these u n g o v e r n a b l e w h i t e savages w o u l d at least b e o u t o f t h e way, a n d it was h o p e d t h e y w o u l d establish a stable buffer z o n e b e t w e e n colonial civilisation a n d t h e warlike A p p a l a c h i a n tribes — an e c h o o f K i n g J a m e s ' disastrous U l s t e r e x p e r i m e n t . J o e W i l k e r ' s g r e a t - g r a n d p a r e n t s , J o h n a n d K a t h e r i n e Walker, left t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y depressed h e l l h o l e o f W i g t o n i n a b o u t 1 7 0 0 , t r i e d a n d failed to p r o s p e r in N o r t h e r n Ireland a n d a r r i v e d in Pennsylvania i n 1 7 2 8 w i t h e i g h t c h i l d r e n , t w o n e p h e w s a n d a s o n - i n - l a w . Fifty t h o u s a n d U l s t e r Scots crossed t h e Atlantic that d e c a d e , a l o n g w i t h a b o u t t e n t h o u s a n d o f t h e i r kinfolk from t h e Scottish L o w l a n d s . ( B e t w e e n 1 7 1 3 a n d 1 7 7 5 m o r e t h a n a q u a r t e r o f a m i l l i o n o f these p e o p l e m i g r a t e d t o A m e r i c a , a n d b e c a m e k n o w n as t h e S c o t c h - I r i s h . ) T h e Walkers w e r e a m o n g t h e i r social b e t t e r s , w h i c h is to say that t h e y w e r e failed t e n a n t farmers b u t closely affiliated w i t h t h e C h u r c h a n d therefore literate a n d b e t t e r educated than most. In 1732, unable t o find affordable land in Pennsylvania, t h e * T h e original derivations of these words have b e e n obscured in popular A m e r i c a n u s a g e , ' C r a c k e r ' is w i d e l y b e l i e v e d t o refer t o slave o v e r s e e r s , c r a c k i n g t h e i r w h i p s , w h o w e r e m o s t l y p o o r S o u t h e r n w h i t e s o f S c o t c h - I r i s h d e s c e n t . A n d ' r e d n e c k ' is g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t t o d e r i v e from t h e strip o f s u n b u r n e d s k i n b e t w e e n t h e collar a n d t h e h a t , c o m m o n a m o n g b i g o t e d r u r a l w h i t e s i n t h e S o u t h a n d t h e "West — a r e g i o n largely p i o n e e r e d and setded by t h e Scotch-Irish.
122
Richard Grant
Walkers followed t h e usual p a t t e r n a n d set o u t for t h e frontier, s t r e n g t h e n i n g their p a r t y w i t h several o t h e r U l s t e r families they m e t o n t h e trail. T h e y passed t h e last trading forts and cabin s e t d e m e n t s o n t h e S h e n a n d o a h R i v e r i n Virginia, w h i c h m a r k e d t h e e x t r e m e e d g e o f t h e frontier, a n d k e p t going. T h e further away they c o u l d get from g o v e r n m e n t jurisdiction, t h e b e t t e r they liked it. O n t h e M a u r y R i v e r t h e y m e t u p w i t h an U l s t e r m a n called J a c k Hayes, a l o n e h u n t e r , t r a p p e r a n d trader w h o r a n g e d u p a n d d o w n t h e A p p a l a c h i a n s in b u c k s k i n s a n d moccasins. H a y e s ' d e s c e n dants claim that h e was t h e m o d e l for t h e N a t t y B u m p p o c h a r acter
(aka
H a w k e y e , Leatherstocking, Deerslayer)
in
James
F e n i m o r e C o o p e r ' s novels, b u t t h e r e w e r e o t h e r s like h i m o n t h e frontier, a n d t h e i r n u m b e r s w e r e g r o w i n g — w h i t e
wilderness
r o a m e r s w h o lived m o r e like Indians t h a n E u r o p e a n s . D a n i e l B o o n e , w h o is usually cited as F e n i m o r e C o o p e r ' s m o d e l , was a later, less e x t r e m e e x a m p l e , b o r n in 1 7 3 4 . J a c k Hayes s h o w e d t h e W a l k e r p a r t y t o a river valley b e l o w J u m p M o u n t a i n in Virginia, w h e r e t h e y h a c k e d i n t o t h e virgin forest, built a fortified log c o m p o u n d , cleared s o m e l a n d for c o r n a n d f o u n d e d a n o t a b l e frontier s e t t l e m e n t k n o w n as t h e C r e e k N a t i o n . I n its early years it was t h e w e s t e r n m o s t E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g settlement in N o r t h America. O v e r t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n , t h e Walkers a n d t h e o t h e r families at t h e C r e e k N a t i o n t r a n s f o r m e d themselves from E u r o p e a n t e n a n t farmers, mill h a n d s , cattle drovers a n d blacksmiths i n t o a large a n d f o r m i d a b l e clan o f A m e r i c a n frontiersmen. T h e y m u l t i p l i e d prodigiously, m a s t e r e d an entirely n e w set o f skills — h u n t i n g , t r a p p i n g , woodcraft, a x e m a n s h i p , I n d i a n fighting — t h e n b e g a n p u s h i n g t h e line o f s e t t l e m e n t d e e p e r i n t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s . O t h e r S c o t c h Irish clans w e r e e n g a g e d in t h e same process u p a n d d o w n t h e A p p a l a c h i a n frontier b u t Walkers w e r e consistently at t h e i r w e s t e r n vanguard. O n c e a n e w log c o m p o u n d was established, g r o u p s o f m e n w o u l d g o off o n e x t e n d e d h u n t i n g and t r a p p i n g e x p e d i t i o n s i n t o t h e w e s t e r n w i l d e r n e s s , partly for t h e sake o f e x p l o r a t i o n
and
a d v e n t u r e , partly b e c a u s e t h e y n e e d e d furs a n d hides t o b u y m a n u factured g o o d s ( o n e d e e r s k i n b o u g h t a dollar's w o r t h o f store
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g o o d s , h e n c e t h e w o r d ' b u c k ' for a dollar) a n d partly t o find suitable locations for t h e n e x t l o g c o m p o u n d , for w h e n t h e n e i g h b o u r s g o t t o o close o r t h e g a m e t o o scarce. In 1771 Walkers w e r e a m o n g a p a r t y o f L o n g H u n t e r s , as these g r o u p s b e c a m e k n o w n , w h o set o u t from N a t u r a l B r i d g e , V i r g i n i a , a n d r e t u r n e d
nine
m o n t h s later w i t h a b i g h a u l o f furs a n d hides. T h e L o n g H u n t e r s of Appalachia w e r e t h e f o r e r u n n e r s o f t h e m o u n t a i n m e n - figuratively, a n d i n J o e Walker's case biologically - b u t t h e y w e r e n o t yet fully n o m a d i c . T h e i r w a n d e r i n g s r e t u r n e d t h e m to a l o g b u i l d i n g a n d a p a t c h o f c o r n , w h e r e a s e d e n t a r y wife raised t h e i r c h i l d r e n . T h e L o n g H u n t e r s lived a s e m i - n o m a d i c lifestyle, m u c h like t h e I n d i a n tribes o f t h e A p p a l a c h i a n forests. T h e C r e e k , S h a w n e e a n d C h e r o k e e also based themselves in f o r t i fied log s e t t l e m e n t s a n d raised c o r n i n t h e forest clearings. I n d i a n m e n w e n t off o n l o n g seasonal j o u r n e y s t o h u n t a n d m a k e war, a n d left t h e w o m e n b e h i n d t o t e n d t h e crops, h a u l t h e water, collect t h e f i r e w o o d , t a n t h e hides, sew t h e c l o t h i n g , l o o k after t h e c h i l d r e n , t h e elderly a n d e v e r y t h i n g else. W h i t e w o m e n
on
t h e frontier w e r e d o i n g m u c h t h e same, a l t h o u g h m o r e o f t h e m w e r e left a l o n e t o c o p e w i t h t h e d o m e s t i c a n d agricultural r e s p o n s ibilities. I n d i a n w o m e n p e r f o r m e d these tasks c o m m u n a l l y a n d c o n s i d e r e d t h e isolation o f w h i t e w o m e n to b e a great cruelty. I n E u r o p e , h u n t i n g h a d b e e n a rich man's p r i v i l e g e a n d like m o s t i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s t h e U l s t e r Scots arrived i n A m e r i c a w i t h n o t r a d i t i o n o f it. S o t h e y did t h e logical t h i n g a n d studied t h e Indian hunters, borrowing many of their techniques: the imitat i o n o f a n i m a l calls, t h e use o f stealth a n d disguise, fire h u n t s a n d s u r r o u n d s . W h i t e h u n t e r s u s e d l o n g rifles i n p r e f e r e n c e to t h e b o w a n d a r r o w (as d i d Indians w h e n t h e y c o u l d get t h e i r h a n d s o n t h e m ) , b u t o t h e r w i s e t h e t w o g r o u p s h u n t e d in similar ways a n d u s e d t h e i r furs a n d hides t o t r a d e for t h e same g o o d s . M a n y w h i t e h u n t e r s a n d b a c k w o o d s m e n started dressing like Indians. T h e y let their hair g r o w l o n g , greased it w i t h b e a r tallow a n d w o v e it i n t o braids. T h e y w o r e d e e r s k i n m o c c a s i n s , stitched w i t h E u r o p e a n awls, l o n g , b a g g y h u n t i n g shirts o f l i n e n , w o o l o r b u c k s k i n , d e e r s k i n leggings t i e d above t h e k n e e , a n d an I n d i a n b r e e c h c l o u t , w h i c h left t h e i r u p p e r thighs, hips a n d a p o r t i o n o f
124
Richard Grant
t h e i r b u t t o c k s u n c o v e r e d . S a m u e l Kercheval, a frontier p r e a c h e r , o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e w h i t e b a c k w o o d s m a n was ' p r o u d o f his I n d i a n like dress' a n d w o u l d w e a r his b r e e c h c l o u t i n t o c h u r c h ('It d i d n o t a d d m u c h t o t h e d e v o t i o n o f t h e y o u n g ladies'). T h e A m e r i c a n s a n d Indians w h o lived in these b a c k w o o d s h u n t i n g c o m m u n i t i e s also shared a set o f general social values. B o t h g r o u p s w e r e geographically m o b i l e , in part because h u n t i n g constantly led t h e m further
into
less
e x p l o i t e d territory, in p a r t b e c a u s e t h e g r o w i n g coastal p o p u lations pressed o n t h e m from t h e East, in p a r t b e c a u s e t h a t was t h e way t h e y liked it. B o t h e m p h a s i z e d p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e w h i l e at t h e same t i m e a d h e r i n g to t h e loyalties o f family a n d clan . . . B o t h w e r e warlike a n d v i o l e n t , believers in h o n o r a n d v e n g e a n c e , a d h e r e n t s t o t h e a n c i e n t law o f b l o o d , a n d for b o t h cultures t h e b l o o d s h e d was m a d e w o r s e by alcohol. B y t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y these
two
g r o u p s w e r e fully a c c u l t u r a t e d i n t o each other's ways. J o h n M a c k Faragher, Daniel E n c o u n t e r s b e t w e e n w h i t e and Indian h u n t e r s w e r e
Boone friendly
m o r e often t h a n n o t , at least in t h e first half o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h century. T h e y m e t o n forest trails, shared their bear m e a t
and
tobacco, conversed by h a n d signs a n d a few shared w o r d s , carved o u t maps a n d pictures o n pieces of b a r k . T h e r e w e r e violent e n c o u n ters too, b u t n o t h i n g like t h e full-scale warfare that b r o k e o u t along t h e Appalachian frontier in t h e 1750s a n d raged for t h e n e x t fifty years. It was the bloodiest w h i t e - I n d i a n conflict i n A m e r i c a n history, w i t h w o m e n and children considered legitimate targets b y b o t h sides — evidence perhaps that b o t h sides w e r e fighting w i t h g e n o cidal intent. M e a s u r e d by death tolls, massacres o r atrocities, t h e forest wars far o u t s t r i p p e d t h e later, better-publicised Indian wars o n t h e W e s t e r n plains a n d deserts, b u t t h e y flowed from t h e same cause: w h i t e invasion o f I n d i a n land. Indians h a d b e e n able t o tolerate t h e early w h i t e h u n t i n g parties, w h i c h c a m e a n d left, a n d generally t r i e d t o avoid t r o u b l e , b u t n o w t h o u s a n d s o f settlers w e r e p o u r i n g i n t o t h e i r ancestral lands,
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establishing p e r m a n e n t dwellings a n d p e r m a n e n t l y d e c i m a t i n g t h e game. Walkers w e r e in t h e t h i c k o f t h e forest wars. T h e y w e r e L o n g H u n t e r s , p r o b i n g i n t o I n d i a n lands, a target for any w a r p a r t y w h o f o u n d t h e i r tracks, unless t h e y h a d a t r a d i n g relationship, o r a p e r s o n a l friendship, w i t h t h e chief. Walkers are listed i n t h e companies of 'rangers', w h o patrolled the w o o d s o n a semip e r m a n e n t basis, l o o k i n g for Indians t o kill a n d scalp — a n o t h e r h a b i t t h e y h a d p i c k e d u p in A m e r i c a . Walkers w e r e isolated settlers, d o g g e d l y d e f e n d i n g their log cabins, w i t h g r a n n y r e l o a d i n g t h e rifles, a n d s o m e t i m e s b e i n g b u t c h e r e d a n d b u r n e d o u t . T h i r t e e n Walkers, as far as w e k n o w , w e r e killed in t h e forest wars, a n d t w o w e r e t a k e n as captives. W i l l i a m Walker, a g e d eleven, was t a k e n by t h e Delawares in 1781 a n d sold t o t h e W y a n d o t t e . H e g r e w u p h u n t i n g w i t h t h e m in t h e w o o d s a r o u n d D e t r o i t , l e a r n e d t h e i r c u s t o m s a n d language, a n d was a c c e p t e d as a full tribal m e m b e r - Indians h a v i n g n o p r e j u d i c e against skin c o l o u r a n d a l o n g s t a n d i n g c u s t o m o f u s i n g captives to replenish t h e tribe's n u m b e r s . W h e n h e r e a c h e d t h e age o f m a n h o o d W i l l i a m W a l k e r was free t o r e t u r n t o w h i t e civilisation, b u t h e c h o s e n o t to, t a k i n g a half-Indian wife a n d raising their c h i l d r e n w i t h i n t h e t r i b e . T h i s was n o t unusual. If w h i t e captives were t a k e n as adults, t h e y usually, t h o u g h n o t always, t r i e d to escape. If t h e y w e r e t a k e n as c h i l d r e n o r adolescents, it was m o r e likely that t h e y w o u l d assimilate i n t o t h e t r i b e a n d live o u t their lives as Indians. T h e reverse was s e l d o m t r u e . Indians h a d little o r n o desire t o j o i n w h i t e society, w i t h its laws, p u n i s h m e n t s a n d jails, its sexual t a b o o s a n d its rabid p r e j u d i c e against Indians. O n t h e M u s k i n g u m R i v e r in 1764 a captive e x c h a n g e t o o k place that illustrates t h e p o i n t nicely. T h e I n d i a n p r i s o n e r s ran b a c k t o their t r i b e w i t h signs o f great joy. T h e w h i t e captives h a d t o b e b o u n d h a n d a n d
foot,
k i c k i n g a n d s c r e a m i n g , a n d forcibly d r a g g e d b a c k t o t h e e m i s saries o f civilisation. Later, m a n y o f t h e m escaped from
their
rescuers a n d w e n t b a c k to live w i t h t h e Indians. A n o t h e r g r o u p w h o w e n t native w e r e t h e runaways, w h o v o l u n t a r i l y a b a n d o n e d colonial civilisation a n d j o i n e d u p w i t h
126
Richard Grant
t h e nearest I n d i a n t r i b e . D r a c o n i a n laws w e r e passed t o try t o c u r b t h e practice, w h i c h suggests h o w c o m m o n it was. B y t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y r u n a w a y s t e n d e d to fall i n t o four g r o u p s : i n d e n t u r e d servants, escaped slaves,'disgraced' w o m e n a n d a d o l e s c e n t farmboys w h o w e r e sick o f d o i n g t h e c h o r e s . S a m H o u s t o n , a S c o t c h - I r i s h frontier b o y w h o w e n t o n to b e c o m e a U S Senator, fell i n t o t h e f o u r t h category, r u n n i n g off t o j o i n t h e C h e r o k e e as a teenager. ' T h e w i l d l i b e r t y o f t h e R e d M a n ' , h e said, was preferable t o t h e ' t y r a n n y ' o f his o l d e r b r o t h e r s , w h o h e a d e d t h e fatherless family. Later i n life, after h e h a d b e e n g o v e r n o r o f Tennessee a n d t a k e n his p o s i t i o n in t h e Senate, H o u s t o n w e n t b a c k t o live w i t h t h e C h e r o k e e , a l t h o u g h this t i m e it was for an e x t e n d e d b o u t of alcoholism, b r o u g h t o n b y an u n h a p p y m a r r i a g e . H e p u l l e d o u t o f it and w e n t o n t o b e c o m e t h e p r e s i d e n t o f Texas. ' T h o u s a n d s o f E u r o p e a n s are Indians,' n o t e d H e c t o r St J o h n d e C r e v e c o e u r , a strait-laced f a r m e r w h o h a r b o u r e d a secret envy for their free a n d easy lives, ' a n d w e have n o e x a m p l e s o f even o n e o f these a b o r i g i n e s h a v i n g from c h o i c e b e c o m e E u r o p e a n s ! ' It is an u n d e r t o l d story i n A m e r i c a n history, because it r u n s c o n t r a r y t o t h e d o m i n a n t t h e m e o f t h e c o n q u e s t , a n d b e c a u s e it strikes at t h e E u r o p e a n ideas o f racial a n d cultural s u p e r i o r i t y that w e r e used t o justify t h e c o n q u e s t , in p a r t i c u l a r t h e n o t i o n that s e d e n t a r y C h r i s t i a n civilisation is t h e p i n n a c l e o f h u m a n progress, a n d G o d ' s p l a n for N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e L o n g H u n t e r s , t h e r o a m i n g b u c k s k i n n e d traders like J a c k Hayes, t h e captives w h o refused to c o m e b a c k , t h e r u n a w a y s a n d later t h e m o u n t a i n m e n : all these g r o u p s , t o s o m e e x t e n t , r e j e c t e d civilisation as t o o constrictive a n d w e n t native. As Bil G i l b e r t w r i t e s : It is small w o n d e r that s o m e w h i t e f r o n t i e r s m e n f o u n d this life-style appealing. T h e y discovered that simply b y j o i n i n g t h e savages, t h e y c o u l d live a n d enjoy themselves as o n l y t h e richest a n d m o s t p o w e r f u l E u r o p e a n s , t h e royalty a n d rulers, w e r e able o r p e r m i t t e d t o live — that is, w i t h almost total p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m . . . [It] h a d a persistent u n s e t t l i n g a n d subversive influence o n t h e frontier and, therefore, o n t h e A m e r i c a n i m a g i n a t i o n . W o r k i n g like a c h r o n i c l o w - g r a d e
Ghost
Riders
127
fever, t h e n o t i o n that o n l y a feral m a n can b e g e n u i n e l y free c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m o s t i r o n i c legacy o f t h e forest wars — t h e final r e v e n g e o f t h e S h a w n e e , C h e r o k e e a n d I r o q u o i s . J o e W a l k e r was b o r n o n t h e E m o r y R i v e r i n Tennessee o n 13 D e c e m b e r 1 7 9 8 . H e was t h e 2 4 5 t h direct d e s c e n d a n t o f J o h n a n d K a t h e r i n e Walker, a n d his relatives w e r e spread o u t a l o n g h u n d r e d s o f miles o f t h e frontier. T h e C h e r o k e e h a d b e e n s u b d u e d , b u t C r e e k w a r parties still r a n g e d n e a r b y d u r i n g his c h i l d h o o d a n d adolescence, t a k i n g scalps a n d captives, s o m e for t h e t o r t u r e stake, o t h e r s t o b e i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e t r i b e . T h e nearest t o w n
was
Knoxville, a c o l l e c t i o n o f c r u d e h u t s a r o u n d a w o o d e n fort, fifty miles t o t h e east. To t h e west, t h e forest e x t e n d e d for five h u n d r e d miles, to t h e M i s s o u r i R i v e r a n d t h e r u m o u r e d plains b e y o n d . W e d o n ' t k n o w m u c h a b o u t J o e Walker's c h i l d h o o d . H e was literate a n d received s o m e s c h o o l i n g , b u t p r e s u m a b l y h e spent a lot o f t i m e h u n t i n g , t r a p p i n g a n d r o a m i n g t h e w o o d s o n h o r s e b a c k w i t h his o l d e r b r o t h e r s , l e a r n i n g t h e skills that w o u l d carry h i m across t h e c o n t i n e n t . T h e family raised hogs a n d cattle, a n d Bil G i l b e r t surmises that J o e a n d his b r o t h e r s spent a lot o f t i m e h e r d i n g animals i n t h e m o u n t a i n s a n d trailing t h e m u p t h r o u g h V i r g i n i a to m a r k e t , a r o u n d - t r i p j o u r n e y o f t w o h u n d r e d miles or more. A t fifteen, J o e W a l k e r r o d e w i t h A n d r e w Jackson's militia units, a n d f o u g h t t h e R e d Sticks b a n d of C r e e k w a r r i o r s at H o r s e s h o e B e n d . E i g h t h u n d r e d C r e e k w a r r i o r s w e r e killed that day — 2 7 M a r c h 1 8 1 4 — a n d that signalled t h e e n d o f t h e forest wars. Afterwards h e r a n g e d d o w n t h r o u g h Mississippi a n d A l a b a m a , h u n t i n g a n d t r a p p i n g , a n d m i g h t have f o u g h t w i t h J a c k s o n against t h e Spanish i n Florida. I n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 8 1 9 , a g e d twenty, J o e W a l k e r was b a c k o n t h e E m o r y R i v e r i n Tennessee, h e l p i n g t h e family p a c k u p a n d m o v e o n t o M i s s o u r i . T h e n e i g h b o u r s w e r e g e t t i n g t o o close, t h e g a m e t o o scarce, a n d besides, e v e r y o n e else was d o i n g it. T h e r e was a folk m i g r a t i o n p o u r i n g o u t o f Appalachia, a w e s t e r i n g fever t h a t s w e p t u p a million p e o p l e t h a t d e c a d e a n d d e p o s i t e d t h e m in t h e Mississippi R i v e r Valley. T h e G r e a t M i g r a t i o n , as it was
128
Richard Grant
called, i n c l u d e d m a n y different e t h n i c g r o u p s , b u t like t h e settlem e n t o f t h e A p p a l a c h i a n frontier, it was d o m i n a t e d a n d l e d b y t h e S c o t c h - I r i s h , a n d t h e o t h e r g r o u p s t e n d e d t o take o n t h e i r cultural habits. W h e n t h e log c a b i n was built in J a c k s o n C o u n t y , M i s s o u r i , t w e n t y miles b e y o n d t h e frontier line, J o e W a l k e r r o d e o u t w e s t — t h e first of his clan t o e m e r g e from t h e forests and see t h e t r e e less i m m e n s i t y a n d t h e h o r s e n o m a d s o f t h e G r e a t Plains. H e was t w e n t y - o n e years o l d a n d i n t e n d i n g t o r i d e all t h e w a y
to
California, at a t i m e w h e n n o w h i t e m a n h a d m a d e t h e j o u r n e y overland. H e g o t as far as Santa Fe a n d was arrested b y t h e M e x i c a n a u t h o r i t i e s as an illegal alien. H e m a n a g e d to talk his way o u t o f jail, w e n t n o r t h t o Taos, a n d j o i n e d u p w i t h t h e first g r o u p o f A m e r i c a n s t o trap beaver in t h e s o u t h e r n R o c k y M o u n t a i n s . O v e r t h e n e x t few years, h e b e c a m e a fully fledged m o u n t a i n m a n , o n e of a n e w breed. His L o n g H u n t i n g forebears h a d set t h e process in m o t i o n , b u t it was J o e Walker's g e n e r a t i o n
of frontiersmen, reaching
the
n o m a d i c spaces a n d h o r s e cultures o f t h e West, w h o severed t h e last ties t o log dwellings a n d a g r i c u l t u r e a n d b e c a m e
full-time
w i l d e r n e s s r o a m e r s . I n t h e figure o f J o e W a l k e r w e can see t h e t w o m a i n tributaries o f t h e A m e r i c a n w a n d e r i n g tradition c o m e to a c o n f l u e n c e : t h e n o m a d i c Indian, from w h o s e c u l t u r e
he
b o r r o w e d heavily a n d later m a r r i e d i n t o , a n d t h e restless, r o o t less, s u n s e t - c h a s i n g S c o t c h - I r i s h . O f all t h e E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s i n A m e r i c a , t h e y w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y t h e m o s t footloose, a n d t h e m o s t c o n c e r n e d w i t h individual f r e e d o m a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e . A n d i n m y e x p e r i e n c e their d e s c e n d a n t s still are. W e have m e t a few o f t h e m already. M i k e Hatfield, t h e t r u c k - d r i v i n g n o m a d o l o g i s t , was S c o t c h - I r i s h a n d C h e y e n n e I n d i a n . B.J. M c H e n r y was S c o t c h - I r i s h t o t h e b o n e . M e d i c i n e M a n claimed to b e a h y b r i d o f all t h e world's races, b u t his tall, g a u n t frame, reddish b e a r d a n d d r a w l i n g s p e e c h strongly suggested that h e was a n o t h e r o n e . It's a q u e s t i o n I always ask: w h e r e are y o u r p e o p l e from? A m o n g railroad t r a m p s , h i g h w a y drifters, r o d e o c o w b o y s a n d that vaguely cohesive class o f i t i n e r a n t r a n c h h a n d s , c a r p e n t e r s , c o n s t r u c t i o n
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129
w o r k e r s a n d oilfield r o u g h n e c k s that o n e m e e t s in bars in small W e s t e r n t o w n s ' S c o t c h - I r i s h ' is t h e s e c o n d m o s t c o m m o n reply. T h e m o s t c o m m o n reply is a s h r u g a n d a d r a w l e d , 'I d o n ' t k n o w . M y r h h - k i n , I guess.' N o w let's g e t b a c k t o r e n d e z v o u s , in late J u l y 1 8 3 3 , a n d catch u p w i t h t h e e x p e d i t i o n t o California. W a l k e r r o d e o u t w i t h
forty
m e n , p e r h a p s a few m o r e , a n d each m a n was outfitted w i t h four horses, a buffalo r o b e a n d blanket, beaver traps a n d a year's supply o f p o w d e r a n d lead. C a p t a i n B o n n e v i l l e , t h e s o u r c e of this largesse, did not go w i t h t h e m . O n e o f t h o s e m e n requires an i n t r o d u c t i o n , a t w e n t y - t h r e e y e a r - o l d from W e s t e r n Pennsylvania called Z e n a s L e o n a r d . Sick o f c h o r e s o n his father's farm, h e h a d g o n e west to find a d v e n t u r e in 1831 a n d j o i n e d u p w i t h a fractious, badly organised t r a p p i n g b r i g a d e . H i s t w o years as a m o u n t a i n m a n h a d b e e n a catalogue o f disasters: t e r r i b l e ordeals w i t h h u n g e r a n d cold, lost for w e e k s at a t i m e , c a p t u r e d briefly b y t h e Arikaras, w o u n d e d b y t h e Blackfeet, a n d r o b b e d o f all his furs, horses a n d e q u i p m e n t . Suffice t o say that Z e n a s L e o n a r d was glad t o j o i n such a w e l l - e q u i p p e d b r i g a d e l e d b y s u c h a w e l l - r e s p e c t e d partisan. H e signed o n as t h e e x p e d i t i o n ' s clerk a n d k e p t a j o u r n a l o n t h e trip. Later h e t u r n e d his j o u r n a l s i n t o a b o o k , Adventures
of a
Mountain
Man, w h i c h stands as a classic m e m o i r o f t h e fur trade, a n d t h e m o s t detailed a n d p r o l o n g e d a c c o u n t o f w h a t it was like t o travel w i t h J o e Walker. H e r e is Leonard's first d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m a n h e c a m e t o idolise: ' M r Walker was well h a r d e n e d t o t h e hardships o f t h e w i l d e r n e s s - u n d e r s t o o d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e Indians v e r y well — was k i n d and affable t o his m e n , b u t at t h e same t i m e at liberty t o c o m m a n d w i t h o u t g i v i n g offense — a n d t o e x p l o r e u n k n o w n r e g i o n s was his c h i e f delight.' T h e y r o d e s o u t h w e s t to t h e B e a r R a v e r a n d its tributaries, w h e r e W a l k e r h a d m a d e his s p r i n g beaver h u n t t h a t year. H e k n e w t h e y w e r e a p p r o a c h i n g t h e w e s t e r n limit o f t h e buffalo r a n g e , so h e called a halt a n d sent t h e m e n o u t t o ' m a k e m e a t ' . T h e y h u n t e d , t h e y b u t c h e r e d , t h e y h u n g u p t h i n strips o f t h e m e a t t o d r y in
130
Richard Grant
t h e s u n a n d t h e w i n d . W a l k e r k e p t t h e m at it for a w e e k , u n t i l each m a n h a d sixty p o u n d s o f buffalo j e r k y in his saddlebags. It sounds like a glaringly obvious p r e c a u t i o n — t o b r i n g s o m e f o o d w i t h y o u w h e n h e a d i n g i n t o a h u g e u n c h a r t e d desert, r e p u t e d to have very little g a m e — b u t n o r m a l l y m o u n t a i n m e n s c o r n e d this k i n d o f forward p l a n n i n g and carried n o reserve food supplies. T h e y let t h e landscape o f t h e m o m e n t shape their diet, g o r g i n g w h e n g a m e was p l e n t y a n d g o i n g h u n g r y w h e n it wasn't. W h e n h u n g e r t u r n e d to starvation t h e y ate their horses, their dried beaver skins, their moccasins (boiled in water to soften u p a n d m a k e a soup) and o n a few occasions t h e flesh o f their dead c o m p a n i o n s , w h i c h was k n o w n as ' m a n m e a t ' in the m o u n t a i n s . R i d i n g w i t h Walker was an irascible, eccentric l o n e r n a m e d Bill Williams, w h o h a d o n c e b e e n a spellbinding teenage p r e a c h e r in M i s s o u r i a n d later acquired a n o t o r i o u s r e p u t a t i o n for cannibalism. W a l k e r also s t r e n g t h e n e d his p a r t y o n t h e B e a r R i v e r , r e c r u i t i n g fifteen o r t w e n t y trappers w h o w e r e c a m p e d n e a r by. O n e
of
t h e m was J o e M e e k , r e c o v e r e d from his r e n d e z v o u s h a n g o v e r a n d l o o k i n g for that feather in his cap. T h e y r o d e o n for t h e G r e a t Salt Lake in ' g o o d c h e e r ' a n d 'fine s p i r i t s ' . T h e w e a t h e r was clear, t h e r e was little d a n g e r from Indians a n d t h e y w e r e still finding buffalo t o h u n t . W e can i m a g i n e t h e m sitting cross-legged a r o u n d t h e c a m p fires, t h e smell o f fresh-roasted m e a t i n t h e air, scenes of g a r g a n t u a n feasting. A p e c u l i a r i t y o f buffalo m e a t was that y o u c o u l d eat e n o r m o u s quantities o f it w i t h o u t feeling full. T h e r e are reliable a c c o u n t s o f m o u n t a i n m e n a n d I n d i a n s e a t i n g t e n p o u n d s o r m o r e at a sitting, p e r p e r s o n . Afterwards, c l e a n i n g their g u n s , f o r g i n g bullets from bars o f lead, s m o k i n g t h e i r pipes a n d l e a n i n g o n t h e i r elbows, t h e trappers s w a p p e d t h e i r yarns: t h e places t h e y h a d b e e n a n d t h e scalps t h e y h a d lifted, t h e squaws t h e y h a d b e d d e d a n d h o w m u c h foofaraw it h a d cost t h e m . T h e y t o l d tall tales of glass m o u n t a i n s a n d caves that l e d t o hell, a n d t r u e stories o f g r u e s o m e hardships — d o l i n g o u t t h e m o c c a s i n s o u p in a starving w i n t e r c a m p - a n d g l o r i o u s b e n d e r s at r e n d e z v o u s , o r b a c k i n St Louis. A n d t h e listeners w o u l d interject n o w a n d t h e n w i t h a g r u n t i n g roar, usually r e n d e r e d in t h e literature as ' w a g h ! ' T h i s
Ghost
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131
was t h e m o u n t a i n m e n ' s a l l - p u r p o s e e x c l a m a t i o n a n d n o i s e o f affirmation, c o p i e d via t h e Indians from a noise m a d e b y an assertive grizzly bear, a n d r o u g h l y translatable to t h e m o d e r n ' y o ! ' . T h e y s p o k e an e x t r a o r d i n a r y dialect, a s u b c u l t u r a l slang o f t h e i r o w n i n v e n t i o n - r o u g h and salty, laced w i t h oaths, brags a n d racial epithets — w h i c h was largely i m p e n e t r a b l e t o outsiders. It was delivered
in
an
exaggerated
drawl, derived
from
southern
Appalachia, a n d before that from t h e distinctive lilting s p e e c h o f t h e Scottish b o r d e r l a n d s and P r o t e s t a n t Ulster*. Bears w e r e bars, h e r e was hyar a n d t h e act o f scalping was takin' liar. T h e y
filled
o u t their speech w i t h m i s p r o n o u n c e d words of French Spanish, phrases and m e t a p h o r s
drawn from various
and
Indian
languages a n d h a n d gestures from t h e I n d i a n sign language, w h i c h all t h e W e s t e r n tribes u n d e r s t o o d a n d w h i c h C a b e z a de Vaca a n d Estevan h a d l e a r n e d t h r e e c e n t u r i e s before. A n o t h e r curiosity: m o u n t a i n m e n liked t o refer t o themselves in t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , as this chile, this 'coon, this hoss, this huffier, this beaver or this niggur, w h i c h was a t e r m used for w h i t e s , blacks a n d Indians by t h e m o u n t a i n m e n , a n d m e a n t ' r o u g h
disreputable
fellow'. (J. L. Dillard, a scholar o f A m e r i c a n vernacular, says t h e w o r d ' n i g g e r ' was used w i t h o u t racial offence in A m e r i c a until 1928.) T h i s was J o e Walker's a c c e n t a n d i d i o m , a l t h o u g h h e was less g a r r u l o u s t h a n m o s t , a n d these w e r e t h e k i n d o f yarns to b e h e a r d a r o u n d t h o s e campfires . . . ' M i n d t h e t i m e w e t o o k P a w n e e t o p k n o t s away t o
the
Platte?' ' W a g h ! E f w e d i d n ' t , a n ' give an o g w h - o g w h
longside
t h a r d a r n e d s c r e e c h i n ' , I ' m a n i g g u r . . . Sez I, hyar's a g o n e c o o n if t h e y k e e p m y g u n , so I follers thar trail a n ' at n i g h t crawls i n t o c a m p , a n ' socks m y b i g knife u p t o t h e G r e e n
* ' T h e earliest r e c o r d e d e x a m p l e s o f t h i s " S c o t c h - I r i s h " s p e e c h w e r e similar to
the language
t h a t is s p o k e n
today
in t h e s o u t h e r n
strikingly
highlands
[of
A p p a l a c h i a ] , a n d has b e c o m e f a m i l i a r t h r o u g h o u t t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d as t h e E n g l i s h of c o u n t r y w e s t e r n singers, trans-continental t r u c k drivers, cinematic a n d b a c k c o u n t r y p o l i t i c i a n s ' ( D a v i d H a c k e t t F i s h e r , Albion's
Seed).
cowboys,
132
Richard Grant
R i v e r , first dig. I takes t o t h e r Injun b y t h e h a r a n d m a k e s m e a t o f h i m t o o . . . I g o t old b u l l - t h r o w e r , m a d e m e d i c i n e o v e r h i m , an n o d a r n e d n i g g u r k i n d r a w b e a d w i t h
him
since.* Lewis H . G a r r a r d , Wah-to-Yah
and the Taos Trail
O n t h e w e s t e r n shores o f t h e Great Salt Lake t h e y killed their last buffalo a n d m a d e their first c o n t r i b u t i o n t o A m e r i c a n c a r t o graphy. Walker m a d e a careful scout a n d f o u n d n o trace o f t h e B u e n a v e n t u r a R i v e r , w h i c h was t h o u g h t to flow west o u t o f t h e G r e a t Salt Lake, a n d p e r h a p s all t h e w a y t o t h e Pacific. H a v i n g d e b u n k e d t h e last m y t h i c a l w a t e r w a y in N o r t h A m e r i c a , t h e y r o d e o u t i n t o t h e m o o n s c a p e salt deserts t o t h e west, ' t h e m o s t e x t e n sive a n d b a r r e n plains' Z e n a s L e o n a r d h a d ever seen. T h e y f o u n d s o m e Indians c a m p e d b y a spring, a party
of
B a n n o c k s o n t h e i r w a y east t o t h e buffalo g r o u n d s . W a l k e r m a d e t h e signs for p e a c e , b r o u g h t o u t t h e t o b a c c o a n d t h e trade gifts, a n d asked t h e m a b o u t t h e c o u n t r y further west. T h i s also seems an o b v i o u s t h i n g t o d o - t o b e nice t o t h e locals a n d ask t h e m for directions — a n d again, it was n o t standard practice, a n d p r o b ably caused s o m e g r u m b l i n g s a m o n g t h e m e n . S o m e o f t h e m h a d lost traps a n d horses t o t h e B a n n o c k s recently, a n d c o m p a n i o n s i n t h e past. O t h e r s w e r e g r e e n h o r n s , eager t o take t h e i r first scalp a n d so b l o o d themselves as m o u n t a i n m e n , a n d t h e r e w e r e a f e w like Bill Williams w h o plain enjoyed killing Indians a n d c o n s i d e r e d it sport. J o e W a l k e r was an e x p e r i e n c e d a n d e x p e r t Indian fighter, b u t w h e n e v e r possible h e favoured d i p l o m a c y -
estab-
lishing trade relations a n d strategic alliances — as t h e best way t o get t h r o u g h potentially d a n g e r o u s I n d i a n c o u n t r y .
* Rough
translation:
' R e m e m b e r the t i m e w e scalped those P a w n e e s o n t h e Platte R i v e r ? ' ' W a g h ! A n d if w e d i d n ' t w h o o p as l o u d l y as t h e y d i d , t h e n call m e a liar . . . I said t o myself, I ' m a d e a d m a n u n l e s s I g e t m y g u n b a c k , so 1 f o l l o w e d t h e i r trail, c r a w l e d i n t o t h e i r c a m p at n i g h t , a n d s t a b b e d o n e o f t h e m , p l u n g i n g i n m y k n i f e b l a d e t o t h e hilt. I k i l l e d a n d s c a l p e d t h e o t h e r I n d i a n . . . I g o t m y rifle b a c k , p e r f o r m e d a m a g i c a l r i t u a l o v e r it, a n d n o w it s h o o t s s t r a i g h t e r t h a n a n y rifle i n the mountains.'
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133
W a l k e r t o o k t h e advice o f t h e B a n n o c k s a n d s t r u c k o u t n o r t h west across t h e desert, f o l l o w i n g I n d i a n trails b e t w e e n t h e springs b u t finding n o g a m e e x c e p t for rabbits a n d a few scrawny desert a n t e l o p e . A few days later, as p r o m i s e d , t h e y c a m e to t h e h e a d w a t e r s o f a river that flowed west. T h e y n a m e d it t h e B a r r e n ( n o w t h e H u m b o l d t ) because n o trees g r e w a l o n g its b a n k s , n o t h i n g b i g g e r t h a n a ' w a l k i n g stick', w h i c h m e a n t n o campfires at n i g h t unless t h e y f o u n d d r i f t w o o d . T h e y followed t h e river, t i r i n g n o w a n d ' n o l o n g e r so full o f s p o r t ' , t r a p p i n g a few beaver as t h e y went. Indians ' o f t h e m o s t p o o r a n d d e j e c t e d k i n d — b e i n g entirely n a k e d a n d very filthy' b e g a n to follow t h e m , k e e p i n g h i d d e n b y day a n d stealing t h e i r beaver traps at n i g h t . T h e s e Indians w e r e Paiutes, k n o w n t o t h e m o u n t a i n m e n as D i g g e r s b e c a u s e o f t h e sticks t h e y c a r r i e d t o dig o u t t h e roots, g r u b s a n d insects t h e y survived o n . T h e y w e r e probably t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e , u n d e r n o u r ished p e o p l e in t h e A m e r i c a s at t h e t i m e , w h i c h was a reflection o n t h e barrenness o f these deserts, rather t h a n their o w n cultural s h o r t c o m i n g s . Z e n a s L e o n a r d t h o u g h t it m i r a c u l o u s t h a t so m a n y o f t h e m w e r e able t o survive i n a c o u n t r y w i t h so little g a m e , so few edible plants, so few living things in general. F r o m t h e Paiutes' p o i n t o f view, Walker's party, w i t h s o m e 2 4 0 horses, m u s t have l o o k e d like a b a n q u e t o n legs. T h e y h a d also seen t h e a d v a n t a g e o f steel knives, c o o k p o t s a n d b e a v e r traps c o m p a r e d t o t h e i r o w n S t o n e A g e t e c h n o l o g y and t h e y g r e w b o l d e r i n t h e i r thefts. W a l k e r gave o r d e r s to take n o reprisals against t h e D i g g e r s , b u t a few u n n a m e d individuals d i s o b e y e d h i m , killed t w o
or
t h r e e o f t h e m , a n d r e p e a t e d t h e ' s a m e v i o l a t i o n ' t h e n e x t day. W h e n W a l k e r f o u n d o u t a b o u t it, h e was furious, b e c a u s e h e k n e w w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n n e x t . T h e n e x t day h u n d r e d s o f Indians m a t e r i a l i s e d from t h e d e s e r t a r m e d w i t h b o w s a n d a r r o w s . H o w c o u l d so m a n y o f t h e m survive o u t t h e r e a n d still have t h e e n e r g y for w a r ? Walker circled his m e n , piled u p t h e i r packs a n d saddles i n t o a b r e a s t w o r k a n d staked t h e horses inside it. Five chiefs a p p r o a c h e d , and
from
150 yards away t h e y m a d e signs t o say t h e i r p e o p l e
w a n t e d t o c o m e i n t o t h e w h i t e m e n ' s c a m p , t o s m o k e a n d parley.
134
Richard Grant
Walker t h o u g h t it was a t r i c k a n d refused, signing b a c k that h e w o u l d m e e t t h e m halfway. T h e n a g r o u p o f w a r r i o r s w a l k e d towards t h e b r e a s t w o r k , h a v i n g d e c i d e d t h e y w o u l d e n t e r t h e w h i t e s ' c a m p w i t h o r w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n . W a l k e r signed that if t h e y c a m e any closer, t h e y w o u l d b e killed. T h e Paiutes l a u g h e d - h o w did t h e w h i t e m e n i n t e n d t o kill t h e m from such a distance w i t h o u t b o w s a n d arrows? W a l k e r realised that t h e y h a d n e v e r s e e n rifles before, o r even h e a r d stories a b o u t w h a t t h e y c o u l d d o . So h e p u t o n a s h o o t i n g e x h i b i t i o n . H i s r i f l e m e n p i c k e d off s o m e d u c k s o n a n e a r b y p o n d a n d t h e n r i d d l e d a beaverskin o n t h e b a n k , w h i c h t h e Paiutes h a d left t h e r e as a target. T h e noise o f t h e guns terrified t h e Paiutes, w h o fell flat o n t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e n ran. B u t t h e y evidently failed t o grasp t h e lesson W a l k e r was t r y i n g to t e a c h t h e m . T h e n e x t m o r n i n g W a l k e r b r o k e c a m p early a n d g o t t h e c o l u m n m o v i n g . Indians b e g a n c o n v e r g i n g from
all d i r e c t i o n s . Again
W a l k e r w a r n e d t h e m to k e e p their distance o r t h e y w o u l d b e killed, a n d again t h e w a r n i n g had n o effect. A h u n d r e d w a r r i o r s c u t in front o f t h e c o l u m n , apparently t r y i n g t o delay t h e w h i t e s u n t i l t h e rest o f t h e t r i b e c o u l d s u r r o u n d t h e m . ' T h i s greatly e x c i t e d C a p t a i n Walker, w h o was naturally o f a v e r y c o o l t e m p e r a m e n t , a n d h e gave orders for t h e charge, saying t h e r e was n o t h i n g e q u a l t o a g o o d start in such a case,' w r i t e s L e o n a r d . ' W e closed i n o n t h e m a n d fired, leaving t h i r t y - n i n e d e a d o n t h e field — w h i c h was nearly t h e half — t h e r e m a i n d e r w e r e o v e r w h e l m e d w i t h dismay — r u n n i n g i n t o t h e h i g h grass i n every direction, h o w l i n g in t h e m o s t l a m e n t a b l e m a n n e r . ' T h e massacre o f t h e D i g g e r s has c o m e d o w n as an ugly stain o n J o e Walker's r e p u t a t i o n , b u t it's h a r d t o i m a g i n e w h a t else h e c o u l d have d o n e t o avoid v i o l e n c e , A n d h a r d e r still t o i m a g i n e a n o t h e r m o u n t a i n m a n w h o w o u l d have d o n e so m u c h . T h e threat was real e n o u g h . H i s m e n w e r e o u t n u m b e r e d t e n t o o n e , t h e y h a d n o cover a n d t h e i r p o w d e r - a n d - b a l l rifles t o o k t h i r t y to forty s e c o n d s t o reload. A n I n d i a n c o u l d s h o o t off five o r six arrows in that t i m e . If t h e D i g g e r s h a d s u r r o u n d e d t h e m a n d c h a r g e d , w h i c h l o o k e d to b e their i n t e n t i o n , Walker's party s t o o d a s t r o n g probability o f b e i n g w i p e d o u t . A n d b e a r i n m i n d t h a t W a l k e r
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was also struggling t o c o n t r o l his o w n m e n , m a n y o f w h o m w e r e spoiling for a fight, a n d apparently w e n t i n t o a killing frenzy o n c e it b e g a n . ' O u r object was to strike a decisive blow,' w r i t e s L e o n a r d . ' T h i s w e d i d — even t o a greater e x t e n t t h a n w e h a d i n t e n d e d . ' Afterwards, t h e y w e r e s o m e w h a t c h a s t e n e d b y t h e scale o f t h e massacre ( n o n e o f Walker's p a r t y was killed o r w o u n d e d )
and,
a c c o r d i n g to o n e a c c o u n t , t h e y d e c i d e d n o t t o scalp t h e dead. A t any rate that was t h e last t h e y saw o f t h e D i g g e r s . T h e y w e r e i n an area o f m a r s h e s a n d stagnant lakes i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e desert, w h e r e t h e H u m b o l d t R i v e r dies i n t o t h e H u m b o l d t Sink. W a l k e r t u r n e d s o u t h , r o d e across t h e p r e s e n t - d a y W a l k e r R i v e r Indian reservation, past a large lake n o w called W a l k e r Lake, a n d t h e n e x t n i g h t t h e y w e r e c a m p e d at t h e foot o f t h e Sierra N e v a d a . It was early O c t o b e r a n d already t h e s n o w l i n e was halfway d o w n t h e m o u n t a i n s . T h e horses w e r e tired a n d t h i n after crossing t h e desert. T h e buffalo m e a t was almost g o n e a n d t h e y h a d n o o t h e r food. W a l k e r sent o u t parties o f h u n t e r s a n d scouts i n t o t h e foothills. T h e y f o u n d n o g a m e , n o r even any r e c e n t sign o f g a m e , b u t o n e o f t h e scouts discovered an I n d i a n trail leading u p i n t o t h e m o u n tains a n d this e n c o u r a g e d t h e m . A few days later t h e y w e r e u p o n t h e central r i d g e o f t h e Sierra in a h i g h frozen c o u n t r y o f cols, peaks a n d snowfields, w i t h n o navigable routes d o w n to t h e west. T h e horses w e r e e m a c i a t e d n o w a n d barely able to w a l k . T h e m e n w e r e eating insects a n d j u n i p e r b e r r i e s . M u t i n y broke out in camp. S o m e of the m e n w a n t e d to t u r n a r o u n d a n d t r y to m a k e it b a c k to t h e buffalo c o u n t r y . W a l k e r m a d e 'earnest appeals' t o t h e m n o t t o g o a n d t h e n forced t h e m t o stay by refusing t o give them, horses o r a m m u n i t i o n . T h a t n i g h t , t o revive m o r a l e , h e o r d e r e d t w o o f t h e horses t o b e killed. T h e m e n w e r e so h u n g r y that t h e w i t h e r e d black horseflesh tasted like ' t h e choicest p i e c e o f b e e f steak'. T w o nights later they killed t h r e e m o r e horses, w h i c h a p p e a r e d t o t r o u b l e Z e n a s L e o n a r d m o r e t h a n t h e massacre o f t h e D i g g e r s . It s e e m e d t h e greatest c r u e l t y t o take y o u r rifle, w h e n y o u r h o r s e sinks t o t h e g r o u n d f r o m starvation, b u t still manifests
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a desire a n d willingness t o follow y o u , t o s h o o t h i m in t h e h e a d a n d t h e n c u t h i m u p & take s u c h parts o f t h e i r [sic] flesh as e x t r e m e h u n g e r a l o n e will r e n d e r it possible for a h u m a n b e i n g t o eat. T h i s w e d o n e [sic] several times, a n d it was t h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t saved us from d e a t h . T h e y w e r e u p t h e r e for nearly a m o n t h , m o v i n g s o u t h a l o n g t h e spine of the m o u n t a i n range, unable to find a way d o w n . If that sounds like i n c o m p e t e n c e o n J o e Walker's part, I advise a trip t o that stretch of t h e H i g h Sierras. Take a l o o k at those peaks, crags, precipices, cols, crevasses, giant b o u l d e r fields, y a w n i n g chasms, snowfields a h u n d r e d feet d e e p . . . N o w i m a g i n e trying t o get t w o h u n d r e d a n d forty half-starved horses a n d sixty exhausted m e n over it. T h e y called themselves m o u n t a i n m e n , b u t they h a d n o e x p e r i e n c e or k n o w l e d g e o f high-altitude m o u n t a i n e e r i n g a n d w e r e improvising t e c h n i q u e s as they w e n t . M o r e remarkable is that fact that Walker m a n a g e d to k e e p t h e m alive a n d m o v i n g , a n d o p e r ating as a cohesive unit. T h e h u n t e r s and scouts w e r e dispatched every day in an orderly fashion. T h e r e was n o m o r e talk o f m u t i n y a m o n g these r u g g e d individualists. If y o u visit t h a t c o u n t r y t o d a y t h e first t h i n g that strikes y o u is its spectacular natural beauty. It was h a r d e r t o appreciate s u c h things w h e n y o u w e r e half-starved, s h i v e r i n g in y o u r b u c k s k i n s , twelve h u n d r e d miles from t h e nearest possibility o f help, w i t h n o m a p a n d n o idea w h a t lay ahead. L e o n a r d says t h e y w e r e t o o c o n c e r n e d w i t h g e t t i n g o u t alive t o pay m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o t h e ' w o n d e r o f nature's h a n d y - w o r k ' . B u t t h e r e was o n e sight that s t o p p e d t h e m in t h e i r tracks. H e r e w e b e g a n t o e n c o u n t e r i n o u r p a t h , m a n y small streams w h i c h w o u l d s h o o t o u t from u n d e r these h i g h s n o w b a n k s , a n d after r u n n i n g a s h o r t distance i n d e e p chasms w h i c h t h e y have t h r o u g h ages c u t in t h e r o c k s , p r e c i p i t a t e t h e m selves from o n e lofty p r e c i p i c e t o a n o t h e r , until t h e y are e x h a u s t e d i n rain below. — S o m e o f these precipices a p p e a r e d t o us t o b e m o r e t h a n a m i l e h i g h .
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T h e y w e r e s t a n d i n g o n t h e r i m r o c k above Y o s e m i t e Valley, l o o k i n g o u t over o n e o f t h e m o s t a w e - i n s p i r i n g sights i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , a n d t h e y w e r e t h e first w h i t e m e n t o see it. L e o n a r d m a k e s this brief, passing d e s c r i p t i o n , a d d i n g t h a t it offered n o w a y d o w n , b u t for J o e W a l k e r it seems t o have b e e n a seminal
moment.
D e c a d e s later h e w o u l d r e q u e s t t h e i n s c r i p t i o n ' C a m p e d A t Y o s e m i t e — N o v . 1 3 , 1 8 3 3 ' t o b e e n g r a v e d o n his t o m b s t o n e . * T h e y p i c k e d t h e i r way a l o n g t h e n a r r o w r i d g e t h a t separates t h e Y o s e m i t e Valley from T u o l e m e C a n y o n , w h i c h is almost as spectacular, a n d struggled o n for a n o t h e r five o r six days. T h e horses w e r e d y i n g o f starvation n o w a n d furnished v e r y little m e a t . T h e m e n w e r e d o w n t o t h e i r last reserves o f e n e r g y a n d will. T h e n a p a r t y o f scouts c a m e b a c k w i t h n e w s o f a n I n d i a n trail d e s c e n d i n g a steep, t r e a c h e r o u s r i d g e to t h e west. T h e y c a m e d o w n using h a n d a n d f o o t h o l d s , zigzagging from l e d g e t o l e d g e a n d l o w e r i n g t h e horses o n ropes. T h a t n i g h t t h e y c a m p e d b e l o w t h e s n o w l i n e a n d t h e h u n t e r s b r o u g h t in a d e e r a n d t w o bears — 'this was dressed, c o o k e d , a n d eat [sic] in less t i m e t h a n a h u n g r y wolf would devour a lamb'. W i t h full s t o m a c h s , a n d t h e s n o w b e h i n d t h e m , t h e i r spirits rose rapidly. C o m i n g d o w n t h e w e s t e r n slopes, t h e y f o u n d easier trails, w a r m e r w e a t h e r , beautiful forests a n d ever m o r e a b u n d a n t dee>r, elk a n d bear. T h e y b e g a n t o revel in t h e j o u r n e y . L e o n a r d ' s aesthetic sensibilities w e r e r e k i n d l e d a n d his j o u r n a l swelled w i t h d e s c r i p t i o n s o f natural w o n d e r s . A t t h e base o f t h e m o u n t a i n s t h e y r o d e t h r o u g h groves o f g i a n t sequoias, a species o f r e d w o o d that n o w h i t e A m e r i c a n h a d seen b e f o r e , ' i n c r e d i b l y large — s o m e o f w h i c h w o u l d m e a s u r e from 16 t o 18 f a t h o m s [90 to 1 1 0 feet] a r o u n d t h e t r u n k at t h e h e i g h t o f a man's h e a d from t h e g r o u n d ' . T h e y followed t h e drainages d o w n to t h e M e r c e d R i v e r , w h i c h flowed west t h r o u g h ' w o n d e r f u l curiosities': f o a m i n g rapids, r o c k pinnacles a t h o u s a n d feet h i g h , a n d d e e p , placid p o o l s o f crystalclear water, for t h o s e w h o w e r e i n c l i n e d t o b a t h e . T h e M e r c e d l e d t h e m to t h e San J o a q u i n R i v e r , a r i b b o n o f w o o d l a n d w i n d i n g
" T h e r e is c o n f u s i o n a b o u t t h e d a t e . L e o n a r d p l a c e s t h e m in Y o s e m i t e t h r e e w e e k s earlier, b u t this is u n r e l i a b l e .
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across a w i d e level plain w h e r e w i l d horses a n d grizzly bears w e r e s e e n i n profusion. T h e y f o u n d signs o f w h i t e p e o p l e : trees felled w i t h axes, Indians w i t h knives a n d blankets w h o w e r e terrified of them. T h i s n i g h t w e e n c a m p e d o n t h e b a n k o f t h e river i n a v e r y beautiful situation. S o o n after t h e m e n w e n t t o rest a n d t h e c a m p h a d b e c o m e q u i e t e d , w e w e r e startled b y a l o u d , distant noise similar to that o f t h u n d e r . W h i l e lying close t o t h e g r o u n d this noise c o u l d b e distinctly h e a r d for a c o n s i d e r able l e n g t h o f t i m e w i t h o u t i n t e r m i s s i o n . . . s o m e o f o u r m e n w e r e m u c h a l a r m e d , as t h e y readily s u p p o s e d it was o c c a s i o n e d b y an e a r t h q u a k e , a n d t h e y b e g a n t o fear that w e w o u l d all b e swallowed u p in t h e bowels o f t h e e a r t h ; a n d o t h e r s j u d g e d it t o b e t h e noise o f a n e i g h b o u r i n g cataract. C a p t . Walker, h o w e v e r , suggested a m o r e plausible cause, w h i c h allayed t h e fears o f t h e m o s t t i m i d . H e s u p p o s e d that t h e noise o r i g i n e d b y t h e Pacific rolling a n d d a s h i n g h e r boisterous waves against t h e r o c k y shore.
Actually, it p r o b a b l y was an e a r t h q u a k e o r distant t h u n d e r , because t h e y w e r e still t w o days' r i d e from t h e coast. Leonard
goes
on
to describe
another
sight
they
would
r e m e m b e r for t h e rest o f their lives: t h o u s a n d s o f m e t e o r s streaking across t h e sky, p e r h a p s t w o h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d in all, e x p l o d i n g i n m i d - a i r a n d s o m e t i m e s ' d a s h e d to pieces o n t h e g r o u n d ' . * T h e horses w e r e terrified. S o w e r e t h e m e n , b u t again Walker talked t h e m d o w n — h e c o m e s across like a c o m f o r t i n g father i n Leonard's O n c e a g a i n t h e r e is c o n f u s i o n a b o u t d a t e s . T h i s m e t e o r s h o w e r w a s t h e m a j o r c e l e s t i a l e v e n t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I t c o u l d b e s e e n all o v e r t h e N o r t h e r n Hemisphere, between midnight and dawn on
13 N o v e m b e r 1 8 3 3 . A c c o r d i n g
to Walker's t o m b s t o n e , they were a t Y o s e m i t e o n that date. Leonard's b o o k (the o r i g i n a l j o u r n a l h a s b e e n lost) h a s t h e m i n t h e S a n J o a q u i n Valley t h r e e w e e k s a f t e r Y o s e m i t e , a n d o n t h e b r i n k o f r e a c h i n g t h e P a c i f i c . T h e r e is
suspicion
a m o n g s o m e scholars ( M i l o M i l t o n Q u a i f e , for o n e , a n o t h e r W e s t e r n
historian
w i t h a great name) that Leonard's editor rearranged events to create a m o r e d r a m a t i c n a r r a t i v e : t h e h e a v e n s a b l a z e as t h e e x p e d i t i o n finale.
r e a c h e s its
historic
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j o u r n a l — a n d assured t h e m t h e r e was n o d a n g e r from t h e 'falling o f t h e stars'. T h e San J o a q u i n l e d t h e m to S u i s u n Bay, an a r m o f San Francisco Bay, w h e r e n a k e d Indians w e r e fishing for shad a n d s a l m o n . T h e y t u r n e d s o u t h , r i d i n g over t h e future sites o f Berkeley, O a k l a n d , H a y w a r d , San Jose. A day a n d a half later ' t h e b r o a d Pacific b u r s t i n t o v i e w ' , a n d t h e y r o d e o n t o ' t h e e x t r e m e e d g e o f t h e great w e s t ' . E x c e p t for J o e W a l k e r ( d u r i n g his t i m e in Mississippi a n d A l a b a m a , o r p e r h a p s Florida), n o n e o f t h e m h a d seen an o c e a n before a n d t h e y w e r e m e s m e r i s e d . L e o n a r d t r i e d t o d e s c r i b e this e x t r a o r d i n a r y natural p h e n o m e n o n : ' H e r e was a s m o o t h u n b r o k e n sheet o f w a t e r s t r e t c h e d o u t far b e y o n d t h e r e a c h o f t h e eye.' T h e y c a m p e d at A n o N u e v o P o i n t a n d t h e n w e n t o n d o w n t h e coast. N o w t h e y saw an a n g r y sea for t h e first t i m e , h e a r d t h e ' d e a f e n i n g s o u n d ' o f breakers crashing against t h e s h o r e a n d c a m e u p o n t h e carcass o f a b e a c h e d w h a l e , w h i c h t h e y m e a s u r e d at n i n e t y feet. Far o u t t o sea t h e y c a u g h t sight o f a ship a n d h o i s t e d t w o w h i t e blankets to b r i n g it t o shore. As t h e ship c a m e closer t h e y saw to t h e i r a m a z e m e n t t h a t t h e Stars a n d Stripes was flying from its m a s t h e a d . T h e ship was t h e Lagoda, registered i n B o s t o n , t r a d i n g in c o w h i d e s from t h e C a l i f o r n i a n r a n c h e s , a n d c o m m a n d e d b y a ' C a p t a i n B a g g s h a w ' (actually B r a d s h a w ) , w h o insisted that his c o u n t r y m e n c o m e a b o a r d a n d b r o a c h a f e w flasks o f c o g n a c w i t h h i m a n d his c r e w — ' T h i s was an invitation that n o n e o f us h a d t h e least desire t o refuse.' T h e p i t c h i n g a n d rolling o f t h e b o a t a n d t h e incessant r o u n d s o f t o a s t i n g w e r e t o o m u c h for Z e n a s L e o n a r d , w h o left t h e p a r t y sick a n d r e t u r n e d t o shore. T h e rest c a r r i e d o n until d a w n , c e l e b rating the bridging of the continent. F o l l o w i n g C a p t a i n Bradshaw's advice, W a l k e r w e n t o n w i t h t w o m e n t o i n t r o d u c e h i m s e l f t o t h e M e x i c a n a u t h o r i t i e s at M o n t e r e y . J e d e d i a h S m i t h h a d b e e n t h r o w n in jail o n b o t h trips to California, m a i n l y for b e i n g r u d e a n d arrogant — h e l e c t u r e d t h e M e x i c a n s o n t h e i r slack morals a n d p o p i s h religion. J o e W a l k e r h a n d l e d things m o r e diplomatically, p r e s e n t i n g h i m s e l f t o
the
g o v e r n o r , s h o w i n g t h e U n i t e d States passport B o n n e v i l l e h a d g i v e n
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h i m a n d asking p e r m i s s i o n to stay t h e w i n t e r , trap a n d trade beaver, a n d h u n t e n o u g h g a m e t o k e e p his m e n fed. T h e g o v e r n o r was impressed b y Walker a n d g r a n t e d p e r m i s s i o n , as l o n g as t h e y stayed off I n d i a n lands a n d d i d n ' t start any trouble. W i t h official blessing, Walker a n d his m e n w e r e able t o enjoy t h e w i n t e r v a c a t i o n o f their lives.They w e n t t o t h e mission r a n c h e s a n d f o u n d e v e r y t h i n g as advertised: hospitable padres w i t h u n l i m i t e d supplies o f w i n e a n d brandy, willing senoritas, docile Indians, w a r m , s u n n y w e a t h e r . T h e y w e r e dazzled b y t h e h o r s e m a n s h i p a n d r o p i n g skills o f t h e M e x i c a n c o w b o y s . Feasts a n d fiestas w e r e t h r o w n in their h o n o u r . T h e y w e r e i n v i t e d to bullfights, b e a r baitings a n d staged fights b e t w e e n bulls a n d grizzly bears. W h e n t h e y felt restless t h e y r o d e off t o h u n t a n d e x p l o r e , a n d f o u n d t h e valleys a n d oaklands t e e m i n g w i t h g a m e . Six o f t h e m e n d e c i d e d t o stay in California, a n d J o e W a l k e r t h o u g h t a b o u t it seriously. T h e g o v e r n o r offered h i m t h i r t y t h o u sand acres o f free l a n d in n o r t h e r n California, w h e r e v e r h e liked, if h e w o u l d establish a c o l o n y o f A m e r i c a n ' m e c h a n i c s ' , o r craftsmen, w h i c h w e r e sorely n e e d e d in California. W a l k e r liked t h e c o u n t r y a n d ' h a d n o d o u b t h e c o u l d in a few years amass a f o r t u n e , a n d b e t h e h e a d o f a rich a n d flourishing s e t t l e m e n t ' . D e s p i t e these i n d u c e m e n t s , W a l k e r t u r n e d t h e g o v e r n o r d o w n . H e g a t h e r e d u p t h e r e m a i n i n g m e n , a h u g e h e r d o f horses a n d cattle, thirty dogs for an e m e r g e n c y f o o d supply, a n d r o d e east, finding
an easier pass across t h e Sierra N e v a d a , recrossing t h e
G r e a t Basin a n d d e l i v e r i n g all his m e n safely i n t o t h e
1834
rendezvous. It is hard t o t h i n k o f a n o t h e r frontiersman w h o w o u l d have refused such a g o l d e n o p p o r t u n i t y t o g e t r i c h . L e o n a r d
says
Walker's decision was based o n his 'love for t h e laws a n d free institutions o f t h e U n i t e d States, a n d his h a t r e d for t h o s e o f t h e Spanish g o v e r n m e n t ' . Bil G i l b e r t thinks this was patriotic e m b e l l i s h m e n t b y L e o n a r d , o r Leonard's editor, a n d certainly it raises an o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n . If W a l k e r was so e n a m o u r e d o f A m e r i c a n laws a n d institutions, w h y did h e avoid t h e m so assiduously a n d live so m u c h o f his life o u t s i d e their j u r i s d i c t i o n ? T h e real p r o b l e m w i t h t h e g o v e r n o r ' s offer was that it m e a n t
Ghost
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Riders
settling d o w n . It m e a n t an e n d t o his b e l o v e d e x p l o r a t i o n s , a n e x c h a n g e o f n o m a d i c f r e e d o m for s e d e n t a r y w e a l t h a n d status. O v e r t h e n e x t t h i r t y years, as w e shall see, W a l k e r h a d several g o o d o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o settle d o w n a n d get r i c h , a n d h e always c h o s e t o k e e p travelling. Partly b e c a u s e a similar c h o i c e is fresh i n m y m i n d — I t u r n e d d o w n a desk j o b w i t h a B r i t i s h n e w s p a p e r r e c e n d y that w o u l d have q u a d r u p l e d m y a n n u a l i n c o m e — I find Walker's refusal t o b e b r i b e d away from his travels appealing a n d instructive. T h e standard e x p l a n a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n restlessness is all a b o u t the prospect of getting rich. T h e horizontal, geographical mobility o f A m e r i c a n s , I have read in half a d o z e n b o o k s , starting w i t h Alexis D e Tocqueville, is m o t i v a t e d b y t h e h o p e o f rising v e r t i cally in t e r m s o f w e a l t h a n d social s t a t u s . T h a t was t h e m a i n reason for t h e initial e m i g r a t i o n from E u r o p e a n d t h e h a b i t stuck. A n d b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e fresh resources t o b e e x p l o i t e d in t h e West, for so m u c h o f t h e nation's history, e n o u g h o f these m i g r a t i o n s w e r e successful to create a c u l t u r e o f o p t i m i s m a n d a c o n v i c t i o n that a b e t t e r life lay over t h e n e x t hill. I have n o q u a r r e l w i t h t h e validity o f that a r g u m e n t , b u t it d o e s n ' t tell t h e w h o l e story. It excludes m o s t o f t h e figures w h o c a t c h m y fancy in A m e r i c a n history, w h o w a n d e r e d above all for t h e simple pleasure a n d f r e e d o m o f m o v i n g across t h e land. F a c e d w i t h an o p p o r t u n i t y t o i m p r o v e their e c o n o m i c situation in t h e settlements, t h e y invariably t u r n e d it d o w n , for t h e same reason t h e y h a d left t h e settlements in t h e first place: it was an i n t o l e r ably constrictive w a y to live. D e Tocqueville's a r g u m e n t m i g h t explain w h y t h e
average
m o d e r n A m e r i c a n lives in f o u r t e e n different h o u s e s d u r i n g his o r h e r lifetime, b u t it d o e s n ' t e x p l a i n t h o s e w h o e s c h e w
the
w h o l e idea o f living in h o u s e s : a M i k e Hatfield, a B.J. M c H e n r y , a M e d i c i n e M a n , a r e t i r e d o r t h o d o n t i s t in his t h r e e
hundred
t h o u s a n d - d o l l a r m o t o r h o m e . A n d t h o u g h I hesitate t o p l a c e h i m i n t h e s a m e c o m p a n y , it d o e s n ' t e x p l a i n J o e Walker's w a n d e r i n g . T h e r e is a diagnostic distinction to b e m a d e h e r e b e t w e e n m i g r a n t s a n d n o m a d s . M i g r a n t s , t o b o r r o w a definition from t h e
142 Oxford
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Dictionary,
m o v e 'from o n e place o f residence to
settle in a n o t h e r ' . E m i g r a n t s a n d refugees w o u l d fall u n d e r t h e same definition. T h e p i o n e e r s w e r e m i g r a n t s : farmers a n d small b u s i n e s s m e n w h o travelled towards a d e s t i n a t i o n w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f o w n i n g p r o p e r t y t h e r e a n d m a k i n g a b e t t e r living. F o r m a n y o f t h e m , t h e process o f s e t t l e m e n t d i d n ' t w o r k o u t as t h e y h a d h o p e d , and t h e y m o v e d o n to t r y t h e i r l u c k in a n e w l o c a t i o n . W h e n m i g r a t i o n b e c o m e s habitual, it can r e s e m b l e a n d s o m e times t u r n i n t o n o m a d i s m , b u t until that p o i n t it remains a different f o r m of restlessness. N o m a d s r e a c h a destination w i t h n o i n t e n t i o n o f settling there, o r a n y w h e r e else. T h e y regard fixed locations as resupply p o i n t s , w h i c h allow t h e j o u r n e y t o c o n t i n u e , o r as t e m p o r a r y h a r b o u r s , in w h i c h to wait o u t b a d w e a t h e r . W h e n travel b e c o m e s constant, it alters its m e a n i n g , at least i n s e d e n t a r y languages. It is n o l o n g e r a trip away from s o m e w h e r e . In a sense n o m a d s n e v e r leave. T h e y i n h a b i t t h e same l o c a t i o n s : trail a n d campfire, interstate h i g h w a y a n d m o t e l r o o m . It is o n l y w h e n t h e r h y t h m o f travel is halted that t h e n o m a d e x p e r i e n c e s a c h a n g e a n d upheaval in c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e n o m a d does n o t feel stable w h e n stationary. To b o r r o w D e l e u z e a n d Guattari's definition, h e o n l y feels stable e x p e r i e n c i n g velocity.
when
CHAPTER 7 A l m o s t o n e h u n d r e d a n d fifty years have passed since t r a p p i n g beaver was an i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r y in t h e W e s t . C o m p a r e d t o later industries — m i n i n g , t i m b e r , a g r i c u l t u r e , energy, defense, t o u r i s m — all t h e furs ever t a k e n w e s t o f t h e h u n d r e d t h m e r i d i a n are barely a d o t o n t h e West's e c o n o m i c m a p . . . T h e story o f t h e m o u n t a i n m e n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , has h a d a t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t o n t h e West's m e n t a l m a p , an i m p a c t o u t o f all p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e historical i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e fur trade. T h e story o f t h e m o u n t a i n m e n has affected t h e w e s t e r n m i n d directly, as is e v i d e n c e d b y t h e fascination w i t h m o u n t a i n m e n that c o n t i n u e s t o this day. T h e story o f t h e m o u n t a i n m a n has also affected t h e w e s t e r n m i n d i n d i r ectly t h r o u g h its r e i n c a r n a t i o n s i n t h e story o f t h e c o w b o y , t h e ranger, t h e logger, t h e Hell's A n g e l , t h e m o n k e y w r e n c h e r — o r w h a t e v e r t o u g h , u n t a m e d c h a r a c t e r catches t h e w e s t e r n imagination. M a g u i r e , W i l d a n d Barclay (eds.), A Rendezvous
I
Reader
was i n P i n e d a l e , W y o m i n g , d o i n g s o m e research at t h e M u s e u m o f t h e M o u n t a i n M a n , visiting t h e G r e e n R i v e r r e n d e z v o u s
site (a p l a q u e , a small f e n c e d - i n grove o f c o t t o n w o o d s , a dilapid a t e d o u t h o u s e ) , a n d r u n n i n g away from d e e p feelings o f instability at h o m e . I h a d j u s t set an eight-year r e c o r d , s p e n d i n g t w e n t y - n i n e c o n s e c u t i v e nights i n t h e same b e d , a n d it h a d t u r n e d i n t o a p r o l o n g e d a n d intractable b o u t o f i n s o m n i a . I h a d h e a r d
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a b o u t this s y n d r o m e o n t h e r o a d - t h e inability t o sleep after t w o o r t h r e e w e e k s in t h e s a m e l o c a t i o n - b u t I h a d n e v e r e x p e r i e n c e d it before, p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e I h a d n ' t crossed t h e t h r e e - w e e k t h r e s h o l d i n so l o n g . T h e best defence
against i n s o m n i a , a c c o r d i n g t o
medical
o p i n i o n , is a fixed daily r o u t i n e w i t h regular h o u r s , regular meals a n d regular exercise. To k n o w in a d v a n c e w h a t t h e day h o l d s in store, to live w i t h i n t h e same set o f visual references a n d social r e l a t i o n s h i p s : this is s u p p o s e d t o m a k e y o u feel stable
and
' g r o u n d e d ' , a n d p r o m o t e orderly sleep p a t t e r n s . I n m y case, o f c o u r s e , it h a d precisely t h e o p p o s i t e effect, p r o d u c i n g i n s o m n i a w h e r e n o n e h a d existed before. A n d sure e n o u g h , after a r a m b l i n g e i g h t e e n h u n d r e d - m i l e r o a d trip t o P i n e d a l e , fuelled b y irregular meals, r a n d o m e n c o u n t e r s and e v e r - c h a n g i n g scenery, I was c u r e d a n d sleeping e i g h t h o u r s a n i g h t i n t h e b a c k of m y t r u c k . T h i s , I suppose, was t h e r o u t i n e I h a d fixed for myself over t h e years. I liked Pinedale, a small, n o - n o n s e n s e W y o m i n g t o w n o n the edge of t h e G r e e n R i v e r plain, overshadowed by the high, sculpted peaks of t h e W i n d R i v e r M o u n t a i n s . I spent a day h i k i n g u p there, in t h e e x p o s e d valleys b e l o w t h e peaks, a n d that was it exactly: a river of w i n d . In t h e 1830s this was t h e h e a r t o f t h e
Rocky
M o u n t a i n fur country. Beaver was plentiful i n t h e m o u n t a i n s , buffalo r o a m e d t h e plain, the Shoshonis o r Snakes ( n o w o n a reservation east o f t h e m o u n t a i n s ) w e r e usually hospitable a n d eager to trade. Six rendezvous w e r e held in t h e vicinity o f present-day Pinedale, a n d m o r e so t h a n a n y w h e r e else t h e m o u n t a i n m e n t h o u g h t o f this place as h o m e . N o w it ekes o u t a living from ranching, f a r m i n g a n d seasonal t o u r i s m — sightseers in s u m m e r , h u n t e r s in t h e fall, a few d i e - h a r d s n o w m o b i l e r s in winter, w h e n the t e m p e r a t u r e gets d o w n to forty and s o m e t i m e s sixty b e l o w zero. T h e t o w n greets its visitors w i t h a carved w o o d e n sign: W e l c o m e t o Pinedale — All T h e Civilisation Y o u N e e d ' . E i g h t m o t e l s , three bars, three cafes, a c o u p l e o f gas stations, a c a m p g r o u n d w i t h cheap showers and l a u n d r y m a c h i n e s . Population: 1181 a n d falling. T h e r e w e r e b o a r d e d - u p storefronts o n M a i n Street, and n o W a l - M a r t o r S u p e r K - M a r t n e a r by to take t h e blame. W h e n I arrived Pinedale was gearing u p for its major e c o n o m i c
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a n d cultural event of t h e year: a l o n g w e e k e n d of c o s t u m e d parades, a m a t e u r theatricals, rodeos, barbecues, live music shows a n d o t h e r events k n o w n u n d e r t h e r u b r i c o f R e n d e z v o u s Days. Tourists w e r e c h e c k i n g i n t o t h e motels. Vendors w e r e setting u p souvenir stands o n M a i n Street. Local volunteers w e r e stringing u p b a n n e r s , r i b b o n s a n d p e n n a n t s , w h i c h flapped a n d rattled in t h e w i n d . O u t s i d e t h e M u s e u m o f t h e M o u n t a i n M a n , w h e r e I was e n s c o n c e d i n t h e archives, t r a c k i n g d o w n references t o J o e Walker, a r a m s h a c k l e fleet o f c a m p e r vans, r o a d - b e a t e n RVs a n d live-in p i c k - u p t r u c k s b e g a n t o assemble i n t h e p a r k i n g lot. Tepees w e n t u p o n a grassy flat b e h i n d t h e m u s e u m , a n d t h e n a r o w o f t r a d i n g stalls, w i t h t h e i r g o o d s displayed o n blankets a n d d e e r h i d e s — I n d i a n jewellery, animal skulls a n d antlers, a n t i q u e knives, beads a n d p o w d e r h o r n s , b u c k s k i n p o u c h e s , b e a d e d m o c c a s i n s , fake eagle feathers, scenes o f t h e O l d W e s t p a i n t e d a n d shellacked o n t o pieces o f log. S e r e n d i p i t y o f t h e road: this was a g r o u p o f A m e r i c a n n o m a d s I h a d n e v e r e n c o u n t e r e d before. T h e first trader I talked t o was a lean, b e a r d e d , l o n g - h a i r e d m a n in his early forties, c h e w i n g t o b a c c o a n d spitting t h e j u i c e i n t o a b e e r bottle. H e was w e a r i n g m o c c a s i n s , a b r e e c h c l o u t , a b u c k s k i n waistcoat a n d a b r a i d e d b u c k s k i n h e a d b a n d — n o shirt, n o trousers o r leggings. B e h i n d h i m was a sign w r i t t e n o n a p i e c e of deerhide: ' H o w l i n g Wolf C u s t o m M o u n t a i n M a n & Indian Articles'. Lying at his feet was w h a t l o o k e d t o b e a f u l l - g r o w n , p u r e - b l o o d e d wolf. B o t h w o l f a n d o w n e r r e g a r d e d m e w i t h pale a n d e x c e p t i o n a l l y p i e r c i n g b l u e eyes. I i n t r o d u c e d myself a n d asked h i m h o w h e was d o i n g . ' F i n e as frog's hair,' c a m e t h e j o v i a l reply. ' I ' m H o w l i n g Wolf, a n d this h e r e is B l u e . H e ' s g o t s o m e m a l a m u t e in h i m b u t he's m o s t l y t i m b e r wolf. I ' m a q u a r t e r C h e r o k e e * j u s t t r y i n g to k e e p t h e o l d ways alive.' H e was talking i n general historical t e r m s h e r e : t h e * H o w l i n g W o l f m a y well b e telling t h e truth, b u t t h e claim o f a 'quarter C h e r o k e e ' automatically arouses suspicion, especially w h e n applied to themselves b y p a l e faced, b l u e - e y e d people. As V i n e D e l o r i a a n d o t h e r Indian w r i t e r s have p o i n t e d o u t , a n u n s u p p o r t a b l e p e r c e n t a g e o f w h i t e s c l a i m i n g I n d i a n h e r i t a g e d o so t h r o u g h t h e C h e r o k e e t r i b e — c o n s i d e r e d t h e b e s t - l o o k i n g a n d m o s t civilised t r i b e b y nineteenth-century whites.
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ways o f t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n
fur-trade
era, r a t h e r t h a n t h e
C h e r o k e e t r i b e , w h o never p a r t i c i p a t e d in it. ( T h e C h e r o k e e w e r e f a r m e r s a n d h u n t e r s from s o u t h e r n Appalachia, forcibly r e m o v e d t o O k l a h o m a in t h e 1830s.) H o w l i n g W o l f t o o k m e over t o his t e p e e . It was m a d e o f canvas a n d h a d a b l u e wolf's h e a d p a i n t e d o n t h e side. 'You see t h e w a y I've g o t t h e poles set u p ? ' h e said. ' T h i s is a Lakota-style l o d g e . S o m e guys d o a C r o w l o d g e , s o m e prefer a C h e y e n n e . W h a t e v e r suits y o u , I guess. Anyway, this is h o m e . ' H e keeps a h o u s e in W y o m i n g a n d spends m o s t o f t h e w i n t e r t h e r e , m a k i n g his j e w e l l e r y a n d o t h e r 'articles'. F o r t h e rest o f t h e year h e travels a circuit o f m o u n t a i n m a n h e r i t a g e festivals a n d r e n d e z v o u s r e - e n a c t m e n t s , selling a n d b a r t e r i n g his g o o d s , living i n his t e p e e a n d w e a r i n g his moccasins a n d b r e e c h c l o u t . 'I'll g o i n t o restaurants a n d s u p e r m a r k e t s dressed like this,' h e told m e . ' H e l l , I'll walk i n t o a n y shitkicker bar in W y o m i n g in m y b r e e c h c l o u t . I always get a powerful reaction. T h e w o m e n love it. T h e m e n d o n ' t o n t h e w h o l e , b u t I haven't g o t t e n m y ass k i c k e d yet.' T h e r e are m a y b e fifty t h o u s a n d p e o p l e i n A m e r i c a w h o get dressed
u p in f u r - t r a d e
regaha
and attend
rendezvous
re-
e n a c t m e n t s , a n d t h e y call themselves ' b u c k s k i n n e r s ' . * T h e great m a j o r i t y o f t h e m are p a r t - t i m e hobbyists, w h o w o r k a regular j o b a n d g o to r e - e n a c t m e n t events o n w e e k e n d s a n d vacations. It is o n l y t h e full-time traders, perhaps t h r e e h u n d r e d p e o p l e in total, w h o live as n o m a d s . A n d like H o w l i n g Wolf, m o s t o f t h e m s p e n d a p o r t i o n o f t h e w i n t e r at a fixed base, m u c h as t h e o r i g inal m o u n t a i n m e n w o u l d wait o u t t h e snows in a w i n t e r c a m p : a r o u g h - h e w n l o g cabin in a sheltered m o u n t a i n valley, or a t e p e e w i t h i n an I n d i a n e n c a m p m e n t . ' T h e r e ' s n o t a l o t o f t r a p p i n g beaver o r h o r s e - s t e a l i n g o r scalping g o i n g o n these days, a n d I use a p i c k - u p t r u c k instead o f a h o r s e a n d p a c k - m u l e , b u t t h e life is n o t that different,' said H o w l i n g Wolf. ' I ' m travelling t h r o u g h t h e same country, c a m p i n g at a lot o f t h e a u t h e n t i c sites, w e a r i n g t h e same k i n d o f clothes, a n d t r a d i n g
* There Republic.
is a l s o
a thriving buckskmner
scene
in
Germany
and
the
Czech
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t h e s a m e k i n d o f g o o d s . Actually, a lot o f p e o p l e are b u y i n g m y stuff o n l i n e n o w . Isn't t h a t a trip? A m o u n t a i n m a n w i t h a website.' N o w t h e c r o w d s w e r e arriving: tourists, locals, visiting b u c k skinners. H o w l i n g W o l f a n d t h e o t h e r traders w e r e b e s i e g e d w i t h c u s t o m e r s a n d t o o busy t o talk. I w a n d e r e d o v e r t o a makeshift bar, w h i c h h a d b e e n set u p b y t h e m u s e u m ' s front e n t r a n c e , a n d t h e r e I fell in w i t h a b u c k s k i n n e r w h o gave his n a m e as B l a c k Kettle. H e was a big, c o r p u l e n t , e x t r o v e r t character, w i t h a fake eyepatch a n d a grey b e a r d t u r n i n g w h i t e . H e was w e a r i n g a h i g h c r o w n e d beaver-felt hat, a p e r i o d h u n t i n g shirt, g r e e n
riding
b r i t c h e s w i t h a leather seat, black l e a t h e r b o o t s a n d a string o f a n t i q u e trade beads a r o u n d his n e c k . I asked h i m a b o u t his outfit. H o w c o m e h e wasn't w e a r i n g buckskins? ' W a g h ! ' h e roared. ' T h i s hoss sold his plews* i n St Louis a n d outfitted h i m s e l f w i t h s o m e fancy s t o r e - b o u g h t d u d s . N o w he's c o m e b a c k u p r i v e r t o t h e m o u n t a i n s a n d h e aims t o shine. A season's t r a p p i n g a n d these clothes will b e w o r e o u t . Like as n o t , this hoss'll b e b a c k in his buckskins.' T h e n his a c c e n t , a n d his i d i o m , r e v e r t e d t o c o n t e m p o r a r y W y o m i n g : ' E v e r y t h i n g I've g o t o n is totally a u t h e n t i c 1 8 3 0 s / 1 8 4 0 s gear. See these beads? T h e y w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d i n Venice, Italy, in t h e early 1800s. T h e s e are t h e same beads t h a t t h e m o u n t a i n m e n w o u l d trade w i t h t h e Indians.' W i t h Black Kettle was a m a n calling h i m s e l f D e a d C l o u d (a p u n o n t h e great Lakota c h i e f R e d C l o u d ) , w h o was dressed as an A p p a l a c h i a n L o n g H u n t e r from t h e 1780s. H e s h o w e d m e his knife, w h i c h was m a n u f a c t u r e d b y a c o m p a n y that w e n t b a n k r u p t in 1 7 8 9 . 'Dressing u p is a b i g p a r t o f it, g e t t i n g t h e r i g h t clothes a n d t h e r i g h t g u n s a n d all t h e accessories, b u t it goes d e e p e r t h a n that,' h e said. ' W e m o d e l ourselves after t h o s e guys, a n d t r y t o live u p t o t h e same p r i n c i p l e s , as far as it's possible i n t h e m o d e r n w o r l d : self-reliance, h o n o u r , i n d e p e n d e n c e , an a p p r e ciation for b e i n g o u t i n w i l d n a t u r e , w h e t h e r y o u ' r e h u n t i n g , fishing, c a m p i n g or whatever.' I w a n t e d t o k n o w if any b u c k s k i n n e r s w e n t off t o live i n t h e * M o u n t a i n m a n s l a n g for b e a v e r p e l t s .
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w i l d , h u n t i n g a n d foraging for food, a n d dispensing w i t h t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y entirely. ' T h e r e ' s a few o f us w h o k n o w h o w t o survive i n t h e m o u n t a i n s w i t h a rifle a n d a knife, a n d a flinta n d - s t e e l [for starting fires], b u t it's a different deal nowadays,' said D e a d C l o u d . ' Y o u d o n ' t have t o w o r r y a b o u t skylining yourself o n a ridge, w h e r e t h e Blackfeet m i g h t see y o u , a n d there's hardly any grizzlies left. A n d if s o m e t h i n g does g o w r o n g , h e l p is o n l y t h i r t y miles away. B a c k t h e n , it was a t h o u s a n d o r fifteen h u n d r e d miles away, o n t h e o t h e r side o f t h e Mississippi. You'll m e e t a lot o f b u c k s k i n n e r s w h o say t h e y w e r e b o r n a h u n d r e d a n d fifty years t o o late, b u t there's n o t o n e of us i n a t h o u s a n d w h o w o u l d have m a d e it b a c k then.' D e a d C l o u d is a salaried e n g i n e e r w h o w o r k s o n r o c k e t nozzles for t h e space shuttle at a plant i n W y o m i n g a n d attends b u c k s k i n n e r events in his spare t i m e . B l a c k Kettle does a little c a r p e n t r y a n d h o u s e fixing w h e n his m o n e y r u n s t h i n , b u t h e travels a n d trades o n t h e circuit for m o s t o f t h e year a n d 'lives o u t o f a m a i l b o x ' . H e m u s t have b e e n in his mid-fifties w h e n I m e t h i m , w i t h n o savings, p r o p e r t y o r p e n s i o n p l a n . I n t h e usual n o m a d i c style, h e h a d invested all his m o n e y in p o r t a b l e forms o f w e a l t h a n d status.Year b y year h e u p g r a d e s his outfit, a c q u i r i n g ever m o r e valuable a n d a u t h e n t i c c l o t h i n g , knives, pistols, b l a c k p o w d e r rifles, j e w e l l e r y a n d accessories. His m o s t p r i z e d possession, w h i c h h e wasn't w e a r i n g that day, is a string o f 'Lewis a n d C l a r k ' beads w o r t h five t h o u s a n d dollars — a u t h e n t i c a t e d as t h e same t y p e a n d v i n t a g e as t h e o n e s Lewis a n d C l a r k t o o k u p t h e M i s s o u r i in 1 8 0 3 t o trade w i t h t h e Indians, a n d conceivably t h e actual beads themselves. A t sunset, t h e m i n i a t u r e r e n d e z v o u s o u t s i d e t h e m u s e u m b e g a n t o drift apart, a n d w e c o n t i n u e d o u r discussions in a d o w n t o w n bar. T h e place was p a c k e d a n d r o a r i n g . T h e waitresses, y o u n g a n d elderly alike, w e r e dressed u p as O l d West saloon girls, in frills a n d corsets a n d l a c e - u p , h i g h - h e e l b o o t s , a n d n o t l o o k i n g h a p p y a b o u t it. W e staked o u t a table in t h e c o r n e r a n d s w o o p e d d o w n w h e n its o c c u p a n t s left. N o w c a m e t h e r o u n d s o f w h i s k e y shots a n d b e e r chasers, t h e intense, insistent conversations, eyeball t o w a v e r i n g eyeball, t h e
Ghost
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149
m e l t i n g away o f t i m e t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e all stories are told i n t h e p r e s e n t tense, e v e n if t h e y h a p p e n e d 180 years ago. B l a c k Kettle a n d D e a d C l o u d w e r e p u z z l e d by m y e n t h u s i a s m for J o e Walker, w h o is an o b s c u r e figure i n t h e b u c k s k i n literature, m a i n l y because h e h a d n o interest in b r a g g i n g a b o u t his exploits t o j o u r n alists, travelling diarists, d i m e - s t o r e novelists o r a n y o n e else w h o m i g h t have publicised t h e m . T h e y h a d v a g u e l y h e a r d o f h i m — a g o o d m a n apparently, w e n t t o California early o n — b u t w h a t a b o u t J i m B r i d g e r , o r Tom. Fitzpatrick, o r K i t C a r s o n , o r J e d S m i t h , t h e f r o n t - l i n e celebrities o f t h e fur trade? W h a t a b o u t J o h n C o l t e r , w h o w e n t w e s t w i t h Lewis a n d C l a r k and stayed o n t o trap beaver and b e c o m e t h e first m o u n t a i n m a n ? D e a d C l o u d told t h e story o f his f a m o u s escape from t h e Blackfeet in 1 8 0 8 . S o there's C o l t e r , n a k e d , u n a r m e d a n d barefoot, s u r r o u n d e d b y a h u n d r e d a n g r y Blackfeet w a r r i o r s . T h e y have j u s t killed his o n l y p a r t n e r , h a c k e d h i m i n t o pieces a n d flung his organs a n d entrails in Colter's face. H e braces h i m s e l f for d e a t h b y t o r t u r e b u t t h e c h i e f decides t o give h i m a s p o r t i n g c h a n c e : a h u n d r e d - y a r d h e a d start i n a f o o t - r a c e for his life. C o l t e r takes off s p r i n t i n g , barefoot across t h e c a c t u s - s t u d d e d prairie, p u r s u e d b y a p a r t y o f h o w l i n g w a r r i o r s w i t h spears. C o l t e r is an e x c e p t i o n a l l y fast r u n n e r ( a l t h o u g h h e t o l d t h e Blackfeet o t h e r w i s e ) , a n d after t w o or t h r e e miles o n l y o n e w a r r i o r is still in close p u r s u i t . C o l t e r w h e e l s a r o u n d , grabs his spear, a n d kills h i m . H e r u n s o n for a n o t h e r t h r e e miles, reaches a river (the Jefferson o r t h e M a d i s o n ) , dives in a n d hides u n d e r n e a t h a pile o f d r i f t w o o d w h i l e t h e Blackfeet search t h e b a n k s . T h e
next
m o r n i n g h e sneaks away a n d starts east for M a n u e l Lisa's t r a d i n g fort o n t h e Yellowstone, t h r e e h u n d r e d miles away. Still n a k e d a n d barefoot, eating r o o t s a n d tree b a r k t o stay alive, h e gets t h e r e i n eleven days. T h a t set off a r o u n d o f hair's b r e a d t h escape stories: J o e M e e k killing a grizzly w i t h his knife, K i t C a r s o n a n d a few o f t h e boys fighting
off t w o h u n d r e d C o m a n c h e s from b e h i n d a b r e a s t w o r k
o f d e a d horses. H u g h Glass is h o r r i b l y m a u l e d b y a grizzly o n t h e u p p e r M i s s o u r i , left for d e a d b y his c o m p a n i o n s a n d s t r i p p e d o f his rifle, knife a n d flint-and-steel. H e regains consciousness a n d
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lies t h e r e for t e n days, eating b e r r i e s from a b r a n c h o v e r h a n g i n g his h e a d a n d d r i n k i n g from a s p r i n g n e x t t o h i m . T h e n h e starts c r a w l i n g east, m a k i n g o n l y a few h u n d r e d yards a day at first. It takes h i m a c o u p l e o f m o n t h s , feeding o n roots, b e r r i e s a n d r o t t i n g buffalo carcasses, b u t h e m a n a g e s to drag h i m s e l f across half o f S o u t h D a k o t a a n d m a k e it i n t o F o r t K i o w a . A m a z i n g s t o r i e s , verifiably t r u e stories ( e x c e p t for a f e w d i s p u t e d details), a n d n o n e o f t h e m a b o u t J o e Walker. As far as w e k n o w , crossing t h e Sierra N e v a d a in 1 8 3 3 was t h e w o r s t scrape h e ever g o t i n t o , a n d that left h i m w i t h o u t m u c h k u d o s in this c o n v e r s a t i o n . Walker's great talent was for a v o i d i n g scrapes. H e was a m a s t e r o f n o t g e t t i n g m e n killed i n d a n g e r o u s p l a c e s . T w e n t y six o f J e d Smith's m e n d i e d o n t h e w a y t o California a n d b a c k , b u t Walker a c c o m p l i s h e d t h e same trip w i t h o u t losing a m a n . As t h e e v e n i n g progressed, a spirit o f a c h i n g nostalgia c a m e over t h e table, allied w i t h a m a u d l i n c o n v i c t i o n that t h e m o d e r n w o r l d was insufferably dull, t a m e a n d r e g i m e n t e d b y c o m p a r i s o n . Sure it was a hard life b a c k t h e n , a d a n g e r o u s , brutal life, a n d g r a n t e d m o s t of t h e m o u n t a i n m e n d i e d y o u n g and n e v e r g o t o u t o f d e b t , b u t t h i n k o f t h e rewards: to r o a m a million square miles o f w i l d e r n e s s i n all its p r i m o r d i a l s p l e n d o u r , living b y y o u r wits a n d skills, free o f all laws, responsibilities a n d social constraints, m o v i n g o n from o n e a d v e n t u r e t o t h e n e x t . T h e r e was n o d o u b t i n o u r m i n d s that this was t h e purest a n d m o s t absolute
freedom
ever e x p e r i e n c e d i n A m e r i c a , o r a n y w h e r e else. W h i s k e y lends itself t o b o l d s t a t e m e n t s , u n t r o u b l e d b y e x c e p tions, caveats, qualifications. W e dismissed t h e trail c o w b o y s o f t h e o p e n r a n g e as a b u n c h of l o w l y hired h a n d s w h o s p e n t t o o m u c h t i m e b r e a t h i n g dust a n d staring at t h e rear e n d o f a cow. M o s t c o w b o y s d i d n ' t even o w n t h e h o r s e t h e y r o d e a n d t h e r e was n o e x p l o r i n g left to d o b e c a u s e t h e m o u n t a i n m e n h a d d o n e it all. W e dismissed Indians, even n o m a d i c h o r s e Indians: t o o m a n y o b l i gations t o tribal b a n d a n d e x t e n d e d family; t o o m a n y s u p e r n a t ural p o w e r s t o fear a n d appease; n o e x p l o r i n g left t o d o b e c a u s e t h e i r ancestors h a d d o n e it all. I m i g h t flesh o u t t h a t last clause, sitting h e r e at sober r e m o v e . Indians travelled old, established trails for t h e m o s t part, w i t h o u t
Ghost
Riders
t h e illusion o f discovery a n d n e w n e s s t h a t t h e m o u n t a i n
151 men
c o n j u r e d for themselves o n t h e same trails, even w h e n explicitly following I n d i a n directions, o r I n d i a n guides, i n t o ' u n d i s c o v e r e d country' and 'virgin wilderness'. At that point in their history the W e s t e r n tribes h a d n o linguistic c o n c e p t o f w i l d e r n e s s , n o p o i n t o f c o m p a r i s o n w i t h s e d e n t a r y civilisation, n o w h e r e t o escape from o r i n t o , a n d therefore a lesser a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e i r f r e e d o m t h a n t h e m o u n t a i n m e n h a d for theirs. It wasn't u n t i l t h e tribes saw h o w life was lived i n t h e e n c r o a c h i n g w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t s , a n d realised w h a t t h e y h a d t o lose, that t h e y w e r e stirred i n t o t h e i r g l o r i o u s flights o f o r a t o r y a b o u t n o m a d i c f r e e d o m . T h e m o u n t a i n m e n themselves certainly t h o u g h t t h e y
had
r e a c h e d t h e a p o g e e o f p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m a n d a d v e n t u r e . It was their reflex justification u n d e r q u e s t i o n i n g by travelling diarists a n d w r i t e r s , a n d b y themselves in t h e i r j o u r n a l s a n d m e m o i r s . T h e y w e r e n o t a reflective b r e e d o n t h e w h o l e , b u t t h e y u n d e r s t o o d t h e i r alternatives well e n o u g h : jail p e r h a p s , a desk j o b o r m o r e likely a life o n t h e farm. H o e i n g c o r n , s l o p p i n g h o g s , splitt i n g w o o d , m e n d i n g fences, t r u d g i n g a l o n g b e h i n d a p l o u g h a n d a farting m u l e , w i t h an o v e r w o r k e d wife in t h e k i t c h e n , babies squalling w i t h t h e colic a n d d y i n g o f d i p h t h e r i a — that was h o w t h e y characterised it. T h a t was t h e b e n c h m a r k against w h i c h t h e y m e a s u r e d their f r e e d o m . A year in t h e m o u n t a i n s , w e n t t h e c a m p fire a x i o m , was like a lifetime in t h e s e t t l e m e n t s . N o n e o f us at that table w a n t e d t o p i c t u r e h i m s e l f o n t h e f a r m . H e l l n o , w e w o u l d have b e e n at t h e campfire. A n d
the
d a n g e r , t h e hardship, t h e r e d u c e d life e x p e c t a n c y ? T h a t was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f it, inseparable from t h e a d v e n t u r e a n d t h e feeling o f w i l d n e s s t h a t t h e m o u n t a i n m e n c h e r i s h e d . It was a life t h e y chose w i t h o u t
illusions, a n d c e l e b r a t e d i n t h e i r stories, a n d
m o u r n e d w h e n it was g o n e , b e c a u s e n o t h i n g else m a d e
them
feel so free a n d so i n t e n s e l y alive. O r so w e d e c l a i m e d , i g n o r i n g e x c e p t i o n s like Z e n a s L e o n a r d , w h o was o n l y t o o glad to g e t b a c k t o t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s after his a d v e n t u r e s w i t h J o e Walker. A n d t h e n , as if it h a d j u s t h a p p e n e d yesterday a n d t h e o u t r a g e was fresh in his m i n d , D e a d C l o u d b e g a n t h u m p i n g t h e table a n d
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b e l l o w i n g a b o u t t h e C h i n e s e . H e was h a l f - j o k i n g , half-serious a n d a b o u t t h r e e - q u a r t e r s d r u n k : ' T h e g o d d a m n C h i n e s e , it's all t h e i r fault! W h o else w o u l d ' v e t h o u g h t to m i l k a g o d d a m n c a t e r pillar? W e s h o u l d n u k e t h o s e C o m m i e bastards for w h a t t h e y done!' In t h e m i d - 1 8 3 0 s a story b e g a n circulating at r e n d e z v o u s . Its details w e r e p r o b a b l y a p o c r y p h a l , b u t i n b r o a d , symbolic t e r m s t h e story explained w h y t h e fur trade was g o i n g t o hell. A F r e n c h d u k e h a d lost his beaver-felt h a t w h i l e visiting C h i n a . U n a b l e t o find a r e p l a c e m e n t , h e h a d o r d e r e d a C h i n e s e h a t t e r t o m a k e a similar m o d e l o u t o f silk. W h e n t h e d u k e r e t u r n e d t o F r a n c e , his h a t created an instant fashion sensation. Paris fops w e p t w i t h envy a n d r u s h e d o u t to s c r e a m at their hatters. 'Silk! H o w dare y o u insult m e w i t h this d o w d y old beaver felt?' T h e cry
reached
L o n d o n , w h e r e Beau B r u m m e l h e a r d it. T h e n M i l a n , M o n t r e a l , N e w York a n d so o n . T h e r e is n o r e c o r d o f t h e F r e n c h d u k e in C h i n a , b u t it is t r u e t h a t a f a s h i o n craze for silk hats, s t a r t i n g in Paris a n d L o n d o n , devastated t h e global m a r k e t for b e a v e r furs a n d c r e a t e d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g b o o m i n C h i n e s e silk p r o d u c t i o n . In 1 8 3 3 a p r i m e b e a v e r p e l t b r o u g h t six dollars at r e n d e z v o u s (and that w a s d o w n from e i g h t dollars a f e w years b e f o r e ) . B y 1 8 4 0 it was d o w n t o four dollars a n d t h e m o u n t a i n m e n w e r e l o o k i n g a r o u n d for a n e w line o f w o r k . S o m e h i r e d o n as scouts a n d g u i d e s for t h e e m i g r a n t w a g o n trains a n d t h e army. S o m e , like J o e M e e k , w e n t t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t s a n d a t t a i n e d a m e a s u r e o f respectability a n d political i n f l u e n c e . O t h e r s drifted i n t o c r i m e o r d r a n k
them-
selves t o d e a t h in frontier saloons, telling tall stories i n r e t u r n for d r i n k s . Like t h e G o l d R u s h , t h e buffalo-hide b o n a n z a a n d t h e cattleb a r o n era that followed it, t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n fur-trade b o o m lasted less t h a n thirty years. A n d regardless o f h a t fashions, it w o u l d n ' t have lasted m u c h l o n g e r . T h e animal o n w h i c h t h e trade d e p e n d e d was close to e x t i n c t i o n . T h e silk h a t was i n v e n t e d j u s t in t i m e . F o r all their Indianish traits, t h e m o u n t a i n m e n w e n t after t h e b e a v e r w i t h all t h e raw, r a p a c i o u s , r a n s a c k i n g e n e r g y
of
Ghost
153
Riders
e x p a n d i n g w h i t e A m e r i c a , w h i c h h a d already c o n s u m e d m o s t o f t h e furs east o f t h e Mississippi. T h e y ' t r a p p e d o u t ' a stream, o r a t t e m p t e d to, a n d t h e n m o v e d o n t o t h e n e x t o n e . * Eight or nine h u n d r e d m o u n t a i n m e n , w i t h some help from t h e tribes, m a n a g e d t o d e c i m a t e beaver p o p u l a t i o n s from
the
M i s s o u r i t o t h e Pacific, from C a n a d a t o M e x i c o — a m i l l i o n square miles -
a n d m o s t o f t h e t r a p p i n g was d o n e in a t w e n t y - y e a r
p e r i o d , b e t w e e n 1 8 2 0 a n d 1 8 4 0 . W h e n Lewis a n d C l a r k c a m e i n t o t h e West, t h e beaver was d i u r n a l and w a t c h e d t h e m w i t h c u r i o s i t y from t h e riverbanks. U n d e r pressure o f t r a p p i n g , t h e a n i m a l b e c a m e n o c t u r n a l a n d e x t r e m e l y wary. D u r i n g t h e 1840s t h e r e w e r e still r e m n a n t beaver p o p u l a t i o n s in isolated areas, b u t it was n o l o n g e r profitable for t h e fur c o m p a n ies t o s e n d large, w e l l - e q u i p p e d t r a p p i n g brigades after t h e m . N o r was it profitable t o resupply t h e m in t h e field: t h e last r e n d e z v o u s was h e l d in 1 8 4 0 , fifteen years after t h e first. It was c h e a p e r t o let t h e Indians trap (and hopefully sustain) t h e r e m a i n i n g beavers a n d trade w i t h t h e m directly, o r t h r o u g h a handful o f m o u n t a i n m e n w h o h a d established b a r t e r i n g relationships w i t h t h e tribes. J i m B r i d g e r t r a d e d w i t h t h e S h o s h o n i s from his posts i n U t a h and W y o m i n g . T h e B e n t brothers traded with the C h e y e n n e and A r a p a h o from t h e i r a d o b e casde o n t h e Arkansas R i v e r i n s o u t h e r n C o l o r a d o , a n d K i t C a r s o n dealt w i t h t h e same tribes in t h e field. J i m B e c k w o u r t h , t h e black m o u n t a i n m a n , lived w i t h t h e C r o w s a n d b r o k e r e d t h e i r furs, a n d Bill W i l l i a m s t o o k u p a similar station with the Utes. J o e W a l k e r based h i m s e l f w i t h t h e eastern S h o s h o n i , t h e Snakes, in t h e u p p e r G r e e n R i v e r c o u n t r y , b u t h e did a great deal m o r e travelling t h a n any o f t h e o t h e r m i d d l e m a n fur traders, r a n g i n g from t h e central R o c k i e s as far w e s t as California. H e t r a d e d w i t h C r o w s in M o n t a n a , B a n n o c k s a n d U t e s i n U t a h , Paiutes i n N e v a d a , Navajos
and Apaches in A r i z o n a and M e x i c a n
ranchers
in
* B y c o n t r a s t , t h e B r i t i s h fur i n t e r e s t s i n O r e g o n a n d C a n a d a , o p e r a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e H u d s o n Bay C o m p a n y a n d u s i n g I n d i a n trappers, t r i e d to leave e n o u g h b e a v e r t o e n s u r e a steady, r e n e w a b l e h a r v e s t i n t h e f u t u r e — a p o l i c y t h a t c o l l a p s e d w h e n m o u n t a i n m e n appeared in their territory.
154
Richard Grant
California. H e was t h e o n l y m o u n t a i n m a n w h o m a n a g e d t o increase t h e f r e e - r o a m i n g i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d l i c e n c e t o e x p l o r e t h e y h a d enjoyed i n t h e b o o m years. W a l k e r led t h e first party o f w h i t e s t o cross t h e G r e a t Basin from Sevier Lake t o t h e V i r g i n R i v e r , t h e first t o see t h e canyons a n d waterfalls o f t h e u p p e r V i r g i n R i v e r a n d t h e first i n t o c e r t a i n parts o f n o r t h e r n A r i z o n a . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , Z e n a s L e o n a r d h a d g o n e b a c k to t h e s e t t l e m e n t s i n M i s s o u r i , so w e have n o e x t e n d e d ,
first-hand
accounts
of
Walker's life for this p e r i o d (or i n d e e d , for t h e n e x t t h i r t y years). H e crops u p f r o m t i m e t o t i m e i n fur c o m p a n y ledgers, bills o f sale at t r a d i n g posts, b r i e f entries i n travellers' j o u r n a l s a n d occasional n e w s p a p e r stories. H e always s e e m e d t o have a h e r d o f horses t o sell, o r a p a c k - t r a i n laden w i t h furs o r trade g o o d s for t h e Indians — w h a t e v e r t h e m a r k e t w o u l d pay for, w h a t e v e r it t o o k t o stay o n t h e m o v e . O n t h e Pacific coast h e t r a d e d furs t o t h e M e x i c a n s for a b a l o n e shells a n d t h e n h e a d e d b a c k across t h e G r e a t Basin, t r a d i n g t h e shells w i t h t h e tribes a l o n g t h e way for m o r e furs a n d skins - an e c h o o f C a b e z a de Vaca's years as a w a n d e r i n g trader in Texas in an e x p a n d e d , e q u e s t r i a n age. H o r s e s w e r e t h e mainstay o f Walker's t r a d i n g business. H e b o u g h t his herds from t h e M e x i c a n r a n c h e s a r o u n d Los A n g e l e s a n d drove t h e m east t o Santa Fe (800 m i l e s ) , B e n t ' s F o r t , C o l o r a d o (1100 miles), F o r t L a r a m i e , W y o m i n g (1200 miles) a n d s o m e t i m e s all t h e w a y b a c k t o M i s s o u r i (1800 miles). If y o u retrace Walker's trails today, especially in t h e M o j a v e a n d t h e G r e a t Basin, it seems u n f a t h o m a b l e that h e was able t o cross s u c h b a r r e n deserts w i t h so m a n y horses. E v e n a l l o w i n g for cattle o v e r g r a z i n g , t h e r e is so little v e g e t a t i o n a n d so few rivers, streams a n d springs. W a l k e r h a d m a s t e r e d a set o f skills k n o w n t o desert n o m a d s all over t h e w o r l d , w h e t h e r they w e r e d r i v i n g camels, cattle, sheep, goats o r horses. K n o w i n g w h e r e in a d r y s t r e a m b e d to dig for water. H o w t o locate a w a t e r h o l e by t h e flight p a t t e r n s o f birds, o r a distant p a t c h o f g r a z i n g b y t h e d r o p p i n g s o f m i g r a t i n g wildlife. W h e n a n d w h e r e t o rest t h e h e r d . W h e n to drive t h e m t o t h e p o i n t o f e x h a u s t i o n a n d collapse, a c c e p t i n g t h e d e a t h o f t w e n t y animals in o r d e r t o r e a c h a stream d y i n g o u t in t h e sand
fifty
miles away. W h e n t o c u t o p e n a horse's n e c k a n d revive a failing
Ghost Riders
155
m a n w i t h its b l o o d , a n d d o it i n such a way that t h e h o r s e survives. B e t w e e n t r a d i n g e x p e d i t i o n s , w h e n o p p o r t u n i t y p r e s e n t e d itself a n d t h e u r g e t o o k h i m , W a l k e r p u r s u e d o t h e r m e a n s o f travel a n d exploration. H e
g u i d e d t h e first p i o n e e r w a g o n t r a i n s
into
California a n d blazed a n e w w a g o n trail t o get t h e m t h e r e . It skirted p r e s e n t - d a y W a l k e r Lake, c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e W a l k e r R i v e r , a n d crossed t h e Sierra N e v a d a at W a l k e r Pass. Arguably, h e left a deeper impression o n American maps than A m e r i c a n
history
b o o k s . M o s t o f this trail, like so m a n y o t h e r s first 'discovered' b y J o e W a l k e r (or, m o r e accurately, p i e c e d t o g e t h e r from
existing
I n d i a n trails), is n o w a state highway. I n 1 8 4 4 , h e h i r e d o n as a s c o u t for J o h n Charles F r e m o n t o f t h e U S A r m y t o p o g r a p h i c a l c o r p s , a great publicist a n d p o p u l a r hero of Western expansion, w h o declared himself ' T h e
Path-
finder' w h i l e J o e Walker led h i m a l o n g trails t h e m o u n t a i n m e n h a d b e e n using for t w e n t y years o r m o r e . W a l k e r s o o n b e c a m e disgusted by Fremont's
self-promoting
histrionics
c o w a r d i c e in t h e field — a c o m b i n a t i o n h e f o u n d
and
rank
particularly
loathsome. T h e y parted c o m p a n y on bad terms and thereby Walker s h u n n e d his best o p p o r t u n i t y t o b e c o m e an A m e r i c a n l e g e n d . F r e m o n t seized o n t h e y o u n g e r , m o r e impressionable K i t C a r s o n for his g u i d e a n d , b y fraudulent prose a n d a g o v e r n m e n t - s p o n s o r e d publicity m a c h i n e , s u c c e e d e d i n t u r n i n g himself a n d C a r s o n i n t o h e r o i c frontier explorers a n d n a t i o n w i d e celebrities. M e a n w h i l e , J o e W a l k e r was off m a k i n g g e n u i n e e x p l o r a t i o n s , filling in t h e last gaps o n his e x t r a o r d i n a r y m e n t a l m a p of t h e A m e r i c a n West a n d fading d e e p e r i n t o obscurity. F o l l o w i n g B l a c k Kettle's advice a n d directions, I drove s o u t h from P i n e d a l e , t h r e e h u n d r e d miles across t h e h i g h plains to t h e flyspeck t o w n o f H a m i l t o n , C o l o r a d o , a n d t h e n t e n miles u p a dirt r o a d into the mountains. I parked the truck and walked up to the gatekeepers of the R o c k y M o u n t a i n National R e n d e z v o u s . This was t h e b i g o n e , Black Kettle h a d reiterated, ' t h e W o r l d Series o f buckskinning, the Superbowl, the g o d d a m n Olympics'. I s t o o d t h e r e at t h e e n t r y b o o t h in j e a n s , a d e n i m shirt a n d m o c c a s i n s — t h e best outfit I c o u l d m u s t e r o n s h o r t n o t i c e — a n d
Richard Grant
156
was given a l o o k that I r e m e m b e r e d from t h e d o o r w a y s o f fashionable L o n d o n nightclubs. ' T h e m o c c a s i n s are okay, b u t there's n o w a y y o u ' r e c o m i n g in h e r e w i t h t h e rest o f it.' T h i s was a h a r d - f a c e d w o m a n in h e r late forties, w e a r i n g s o m e k i n d o f h o m e s p u n p i o n e e r s m o c k
and
s u n b o n n e t . A tall, g r e y - b e a r d e d m a n i n fringed b u c k s k i n s , l e a n i n g o n a l o n g b l a c k p o w d e r rifle, gave m e t h e o n c e - o v e r a n d g r i n n e d . ' H e l l , all y o u ' v e g o t to d o is d i t c h t h e j e a n s a n d t h e shirt, take off y o u r drawers a n d b o r r o w a b r e e c h c l o u t from s o m e o n e . You'll b e a b i g hit w i t h t h e ladies.' A n o t h e r w o m a n , also in p e r i o d dress, t o o k pity o n m e : ' D o n ' t w o r r y , h o n . W e ' l l find y o u s o m e b r i t c h e s a n d a h u n t i n g shirt to b o r r o w . T h e r e ' s s o m e n y l o n in t h e s t i t c h i n g o f y o u r moccasins b u t w e can let t h a t slide.' I n l a c e - u p c o r d u r o y b r i t c h e s a n d a b l u e l i n e n h u n t i n g shirt, kindly donated by a m a n w h o weighs a hundred pounds m o r e t h a n I d o , I paid m y t w e n t y dollars a n d w a l k e d u p t h e trail. It was m a y b e a q u a r t e r - m i l e l o n g , w i t h a m o d e r a t e l y steep uphill grade, a n d p r o v o k e d t e r r i b l e c o m p l a i n t s from t h e portly, w h e e z i n g b u c k s k i n n e r s alongside m e : 'Jesus H . . . S t e e p s o n o f a b i t c h . . . Whoof, I g o t to sit d o w n a n d take m e a breather.' T h e trail crested o u t o n a small rise a n d t h e r e below, in a m o u n t a i n m e a d o w w i t h a stream flowing t h r o u g h it, fed b y a small alpine lake, was a n e a r - p e r f e c t replica o f a r e n d e z v o u s from t h e 1830s. T h e r e w e r e h u n d r e d s o f t e p e e s , t w o l o n g traders' rows o f o l d - f a s h i o n e d , b o x y canvas tents, a n d b y t h e official
count,
e i g h t e e n h u n d r e d p e o p l e milling a r o u n d i n b u c k s k i n s a n d p e r i o d garb, a n d m o r e a r r i v i n g . E v e r y few s e c o n d s t h e air w o u l d reverberate w i t h an e n o r m o u s BOOM!
Authentic reproduction cannons were launching
b o w l i n g balls i n t o t h e lake, w h i c h floated for easy retrieval by t h e a u t h e n t i c replica c a n o e s . Ratta KERBLOOM!
. . . tat . . . TAT
. . .
T h a t was t h e s o u n d from t h e b l a c k p o w d e r rifle-
s h o o t i n g contests, as y o u w a l k e d t o w a r d s t h e m w i t h a l i n g e r i n g h a n g o v e r . Thonk!
Schwap! Schoonk! T h a t was t h e s o u n d o f t o m a -
h a w k s a n d t h r o w i n g knives, e m b e d d i n g themselves i n target stakes a n d luckless trees. W h e n a replica strives so h a r d t o b e a u t h e n t i c , t h e eye is n a t u r -
Ghost
Riders
157
ally d r a w n towards its failures. Plastic p o r t a b l e toilets, ' h o o t e r s ' , w e r e c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n canvas enclosures. P e o p l e w e r e p o u r i n g their beers a n d C o k e s i n t o a n t i q u e m u g s o r d r i n k i n g h o r n s a n d t h e n stashing t h e e m p t y cans in b u r l a p sacks. T h e r e w e r e p r o p a n e stoves i n s o m e o f t h e t e p e e s , a n d G o d bless A m e r i c a , t h e r e w e r e c o p i o u s supplies o f ice. It c a m e in p l a s t i c - w r a p p e d
ten-pound
bags, h a u l e d u p t h e r o a d b y an e n o r m o u s c o n t a i n e r t r u c k t w i c e a day a n d delivered i n t o t h e r e n d e z v o u s by h o r s e - d r a w n w a g o n , w h e r e u p o n it was p o u r e d i n t o plastic c o o l e r s , h i d d e n
inside
w o o d e n boxes, o r d r a p e d w i t h blankets o r d e e r h i d e s . F r o m t i m e t o t i m e a g r o u p o f Indians w o u l d r i d e b y o n h o r s e b a c k , i n full plains regalia, a n d a c o u p l e o f t h e m h a d
Indian
features u n d e r t h e i r f a c e - p a i n t . O t h e r w i s e , it was an entirely w h i t e c r o w d , f r o m a b r o a d m i x o f o c c u p a t i o n s a n d social b a c k g r o u n d s : doctors,
lawyers,
business
people,
bureaucrats,
engineers,
m e c h a n i c s , b e a u t i c i a n s , oilfield r o u g h n e c k s , c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k e r s , waitresses, h o u s e w i v e s , h u n t i n g g u i d e s , a n o t i c e a b l e m i n o r i t y o f V i e t n a m veterans. All a g e - g r o u p s w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d , from
small
babies t o elderly retirees, b u t m o s t p e o p l e w e r e i n t h e i r forties a n d fifties, w i t h t h e m e n o u t n u m b e r i n g t h e w o m e n a b o u t t h r e e to two. W i t h a few e x c e p t i o n s , m o s t n o t a b l y a small G e r m a n c o n t i n g e n t , t h e y w e r e W e s t e r n e r s from
t h e i n t e r - m o u n t a i n states —
Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, Nevada, N e w Mexico and A r i z o n a — a n d t h e traditional attitudes o f t h e r e g i o n h e l d sway: love o f g u n s , h u n t i n g a n d fishing; suspicion o f t h e federal g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e coastal elites; a wariness o f outsiders, o u t w e i g h e d b y a s t r o n g c o d e o f hospitality. As a l o n e B r i t in an ill-fitting c o s t u m e b e a r i n g n o w e a p o n s o f any k i n d , I m u s t have c u t a strange a n d j a r r i n g figure. I received a few hostile glances a n d cutting remarks, but o n the whole, people were w e l c o m i n g and e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y g e n e r o u s . T h e y offered m e f o o d a n d d r i n k , b e t t e r fitting
clothes, a place b y t h e i r campfires a n d floor space in t h e i r
tepees at n i g h t . I was e x p e c t i n g a w e a l t h o f a m a t e u r historians, w i t h an e n c y c l o p e d i c k n o w l e d g e o f t h e fur trade a n d fresh insights t o b o r r o w , b u t t h e first t w e n t y p e o p l e I talked t o h a d never h e a r d o f J o e
158
Richard Grant
Walker. R e a d i n g history b o o k s , it t u r n e d o u t , was n o t a p o p u l a r pastime a m o n g A m e r i c a n b u c k s k i n n e r s . T h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n c a m e p r i m a r i l y from b u c k s k i n n e r m a g a z i n e s , videotapes a n d h o w - t o manuals, w h i c h w e n t i n t o fanatical detail a b o u t t h e
clothing,
firearms a n d e q u i p m e n t o f t h e fur trade, a n d dealt w i t h t h e h i s t o r y in p o t t e d t w o h u n d r e d - w o r d b i o g r a p h i e s , b r i e f a n e c d o t e s a n d d i d y o u - k n o w ? trivia c o r n e r s . T h e same balance of priorities was reflected i n r e n d e z v o u s conversations, w h i c h revolved
around
s h o p p i n g a n d gear. T h e biggest, hairiest, w i l d e s t - l o o k i n g
men,
s w a g g e r i n g a r o u n d i n g r i m y b u c k s k i n s , bristling w i t h guns a n d knives, w e r e capable o f i m p a s s i o n e d f o r t y - m i n u t e dialogues a b o u t historically c o r r e c t n e e d l e w o r k a n d b e a d i n g p a t t e r n s . 'Basically, r e n d e z v o u s these days is an excuse t o get dressed u p , g o o n a c a m p i n g trip a n d have a b i g swap meet.' T h i s was t h e j u d g e m e n t o f Lance G r a b o w s k i , delivered from his t e n t o n t h e far fringe o f traders' row. His t o n e was j a d e d a n d sardonic: r e n d e z v o u s was d u m b i n g d o w n a n d there was n o t h i n g y o u c o u l d d o a b o u t it. Style was replacing substance, k n o w l e d g e a n d c o m m i t m e n t w e r e giving way t o e m p t y posturing. R e n d e z v o u s r e - e n a c t m e n t s w e r e a version o f s o m e t h i n g to b e g i n w i t h and n o w t h e y w e r e b e c o m i n g a version o f a version. ' W h a t y o u get n o w is a lot o f this " W a g h ! I ar a m o u n t a i n m a n ! " a t t i t u d e from p e o p l e w h o are totally o u t o f shape, a n d d o n ' t k n o w w h a t they're talking a b o u t , b e c a u s e t h e y n e v e r p i c k u p a b o o k . I d o n ' t get it. If they're i n t o m o u n t a i n m e n , y o u ' d t h i n k they'd w a n t t o read a b o u t m o u n t a i n m e n , b u t apparently it d o e s n ' t w o r k that way any m o r e . ' Fifty years old, w i t h l o n g , g r e y i n g hair pulled b a c k i n t o a p o n y tail, a walrus m o u s t a c h e a n d w i r e - r i m m e d a n t i q u e spectacles, L a n c e was self-educated a n d e n o r m o u s l y well read a b o u t
the
R o c k y M o u n t a i n fur trade. H e used t o s u p p l e m e n t his i n c o m e as a r e n d e z v o u s t r a d e r b y l e c t u r i n g at fur-trade m u s e u m s a n d historical sites. T h e r e was a l o o k o f q u i e t , k e e n intensity a b o u t h i m . H e m o v e d well, w i t h a calm, p u r p o s e f u l efficiency, a n d y o u c o u l d tell h e was g o o d w i t h his h a n d s . H e was w e a r i n g t e n t h o u sand dollars' w o r t h o f b e a d e d , fringed b u c k s k i n clothes a n d accessories, m o s t o f w h i c h h e h a d m a d e himself, a n d h e was living
Ghost
Riders
159
o u t o f a 1983 C h e v y v a n w i t h eight h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d miles o n t h e clock, r u n n i n g o n its fifth e n g i n e . L a n c e G r a b o w s k i was t h e first b u c k s k i n n e r t o b e c o m e a fullt i m e , n o m a d i c trader. T h i s was b a c k i n t h e late 1960s a n d early 1 9 7 0 s , w h e n b u c k s k i n n i n g was i n its i n f a n c y a n d t h e
first
r e n d e z v o u s r e - e n a c t m e n t s w e r e t a k i n g place. T h e m o u n t a i n m e n h a d lain d o r m a n t in t h e A m e r i c a n i m a g i n a t i o n for m a n y decades, a n d L a n c e , w i t h his l o n g hair, b r e e c h c l o u t a n d b u c k s k i n s , was often m i s t a k e n in t h e early days for a b l o n d I n d i a n w i t h a b e a r d , o r a h i p p i e w h o n e e d e d his ass k i c k e d . E x c e p t h i p p i e s w e r e n ' t s u p p o s e d t o carry g u n s a n d knives a n d act belligerent w h e n t h r e a t ened. H e started o u t t r a d i n g buffalo hides a n d skulls. H e b o u g h t t h e m at a buffalo r a n c h in N e b r a s k a a n d sold t h e m at swap m e e t s , flea m a r k e t s a n d t h e e m e r g i n g circuit o f r e n d e z v o u s r e - e n a c t m e n t s . T h r o u g h t h e 1970s and 1980s t h e circuit e x p a n d e d from coast t o coast, a n d Lance travelled it full t i m e , w i t h n o fixed a b o d e . H e has read a n d t h o u g h t a great deal a b o u t n o m a d i s m , in t h e A m e r i c a n West a n d C e n t r a l Asia, a n d h e r e m e m b e r s those years as a k i n d o f n o m a d i c idyll. ' M y t r u c k was m y armchair, a n d t h e c o u n t r y was m y h o u s e . T h e different parts o f t h e c o u n t r y w e r e like different r o o m s in m y h o u s e . O h , it's O c t o b e r , t h e fall c o l o u r s will b e c o m i n g o u t in upstate N e w York. Let's g o to that r o o m . I n e v e r g o t b o r e d . W h e n I ' m o n t h e road I ' m h o m e , I ' m h a p p y ' L a n c e h a d j u s t r e t u r n e d t o t h e r e n d e z v o u s circuit after
an
u n h a p p y e x p e r i m e n t w i t h a m o r e s e d e n t a r y lifestyle. It was partly his o w n idea a n d partly his ex-girlfriend's u r g i n g . H e
bought
s o m e l a n d s o u t h o f Santa Fe, N e w M e x i c o , a n d built t h e m a h o u s e — a lovely place o u t in t h e hills, filled w i t h a n t i q u e s , buffalo hides a n d fur-trade a c c o u t r e m e n t s , a n d a h u g e library o f b o o k s . N o w h e h a d split u p w i t h his girlfriend a n d t h e h o u s e h a d b e c o m e a t e n - t o n albatross a r o u n d his n e c k . ' W i t h m t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s o f g e t t i n g b a c k t h e r e I ' m e i t h e r a n g r y o r depressed, a n d I can't wait to leave. I'd like to sell it, b u t w h e r e w o u l d I p u t all m y stuff? I d o n ' t k n o w w h a t I ' m g o i n g t o do. Realistically, I'll p r o b ably h a n g o n t o it and s p e n d as little t i m e t h e r e as possible. E i t h e r t h a t o r sell t h e fucking t h i n g a n d g o t o M o n g o l i a . '
160
Richard Grant
F o r fifteen years, o n a n d off, h e has b e e n talking a b o u t m a k i n g a f o u r - t h o u s a n d - r n i l e h o r s e t r i p across, t h e steppes from R u s s i a t o M o n g o l i a . H e figures t h a t M o n g o l i a — a vast, u n f e n c e d e x p a n s e o f plains, deserts a n d m o u n t a i n s still i n h a b i t e d b y h o r s e n o m a d s — is as close as he's g o i n g t o get t o W y o m i n g in t h e 1820s, w h i c h is w h e r e h e really w a n t s t o b e . L a n c e was o n e o f t w o p e o p l e I stayed in t o u c h w i t h from t h a t r e n d e z v o u s . T h e o t h e r was G e o r g e Jackson,* an e l k - h u n t i n g g u i d e , f o r m e r oilfield r o u g h n e c k a n d h y d r o - p l a n t caretaker from
the
b a c k c o u n t r y o f n o r t h e a s t U t a h . G e o r g e h a d t e n t h o u s a n d dollars saved u p a n d a p l a n e ticket to M o n g o l i a w h e n his e x - g i r l f r i e n d a n n o u n c e d that she was p r e g n a n t . H e b o u g h t a h o u s e in Vernal, U t a h , a n d k n u c k l e d d o w n t o his responsibilities. T w o years later she w e n t off w i t h a n o t h e r m a n a n d left h i m to raise his d a u g h t e r o n his o w n . G e o r g e gets a little testy o n t h e subject o f his daughter's m o t h e r , b u t h e retains a slightly b r u i s e d faith in w o m e n , love a n d l o n g t e r m relationships. L a n c e is a little m o r e j a u n d i c e d o n t h e subject, a n d at that r e n d e z v o u s h e was feeling m o r e j a u n d i c e d t h a n usual. E v e r y t w o days h e w o u l d have t o drive i n t o t o w n a n d call his lawyer. H i s ex-girlfriend h a d tried a n d failed t o sue h i m
for
p a l i m o n y (they h a d n o c h i l d r e n t o g e t h e r ) . T h e n she c h a r g e d h i m w i t h physical abuse, w h i c h h a d led t o t h r e e years o f K a f k a - e s q u e legal m a n o e u v r e s that h a d cost h i m seventy t h o u s a n d dollars t o date. ( W h e n t h e case finally m a d e it t o c o u r t , t h e j u d g e t h r e w it o u t for lack o f e v i d e n c e . R e p r e s e n t i n g herself, t h e e x - g i r l f r i e n d p r o d u c e d n o p o l i c e or m e d i c a l r e p o r t s , n o p a p e r w o r k o f any kind.) In his darker m o o d s L a n c e sees t h e h a n d o f f e m i n i s m at w o r k i n his r e c u r r e n t girlfriend troubles. 'It's m a k i n g w o m e n n e u r o t i c a n d u n h a p p y . It's t u r n i n g t h e m i n t o P r o z a c fodder. I can't figure o u t w h y a m a n w o u l d w a n t t o w o r k in an office all day a n d c l i m b s o m e c o r p o r a t e ladder, let a l o n e a w o m a n . Y o u ' d t h i n k raising children w o u l d b e m o r e fulfilling.'
* H e is d i r e c t l y d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e f a m o u s S c o t c h - I r i s h m o u n t a i n m a n J a c k s o n , for w h o m J a c k s o n H o l e , W y o m i n g , is n a m e d .
David
Chost
Riders
161
In Lance's perfect w o r l d t h e r e w o u l d b e a lot m o r e w o m e n w h o liked living in vans a n d tents — specifically sane, intelligent, g o o d - l o o k i n g w o m e n i n t h e i r thirties a n d forties, w h o m h e sees in woefully s h o r t supply o n t h e A m e r i c a n road. In t h e late 1970s h e g o t a taste o f his ideal relationship: t h r e e years o n t h e r o a d w i t h Susan. B o t h o f t h e m w e r e m a k i n g b u c k s k i n clothes a n d handicrafts a n d selling t h e m o n t h e r e n d e z v o u s circuit. S h e was e a r n i n g h e r keep, she liked b e i n g o u t d o o r s a n d o n t h e road. T h e y w e r e h a p p y a n d i n love, a n d L a n c e 'basically s c r e w e d it u p , b y n e v e r a c c e p t i n g t h e possibility that it was g o i n g t o last'. Since t h e n t h e biggest s o u r c e o f friction in his relationships w i t h w o m e n has b e e n t h e road. ' A p a r t from Susan, all o f t h e m have h a d kids o r steady j o b s . T h e y can't take off o n t h e r o a d w i t h m e a n d t h e y d o n ' t w a n t to, a n d I d o n ' t b l a m e t h e m , b u t s o o n e r o r later t h e y get fed u p w i t h m e c o m i n g a n d g o i n g all t h e t i m e . T h e y ' r e n o t u s e d t o h a v i n g boyfriends like that, a n d t h e y t h i n k boyfriends aren't s u p p o s e d t o b e h a v e that w a y E v e n t h o u g h t h e y piss a n d m o a n a b o u t t h e guys w h o stay h o m e a n d w a t c h football every Sunday, a n d b r i n g h o m e a steady pay c h e q u e , that's w h a t they're used t o , that's w h a t t h e y ' r e comfortable with.' N o w , by j o u r n a l i s t i c c o n v e n t i o n , I s h o u l d track d o w n Lance's e x - g i r l f n e n d s a n d get t h e i r side of t h e story. B u t instead I will hazard a guess a n d q u o t e s o m e o f m y o w n ex-girlfriends o n t h e subject of w a n d e r i n g males: t h e y m a k e p o o r l o n g - t e r m prospects. T h e y are unreliable a n d irresponsible. T h e y have issues
with
e m o t i o n a l c o m m i t m e n t , especially settling d o w n a n d h a v i n g kids. T h e r o a d can b e fun for a w h i l e b u t n o t for ever. T h e r e is n o statistical e v i d e n c e a b o u t t h e ratio o f m e n
to
w o m e n living full t i m e o n t h e A m e r i c a n r o a d b e c a u s e so m a n y o f t h e m , male a n d female, live b e y o n d t h e reach o f statistical inquiry. T h e i r defining quality, mobility, m a k e s t h e m e x t r e m e l y h a r d t o c o u n t . J u d g i n g from p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , and b a c k e d u p b y L a n c e a n d o t h e r i n f o r m a l sources, I w o u l d say t h e
men
o u t n u m b e r t h e w o m e n b y a b o u t twelve t o o n e . A n d t h e vast m a j o r i t y of those w o m e n are e i t h e r u n d e r t h e age o f twenty-five, o r over t h e age o f sixty, travelling w i t h t h e R V c r o w d .
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Richard Grant
W h y so few w o m e n ? As t h e age b r e a k d o w n suggests, a m a j o r factor is t h e difficulty o f b r i n g i n g u p c h i l d r e n o n t h e road. It is n o t a p r o s p e c t that m a n y w o m e n find appealing, a n d t h e r e is i m m e n s e pressure from t h e e d u c a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s t o place t h e child in a s e d e n t a r y e n v i r o n m e n t . It can b e c i r c u m v e n t e d legally i n m o s t W e s t e r n states b y h o m e s c h o o l i n g , e v e n if y o u r h o m e is a vehicle. I have m e t travelling h i p p i e c o u p l e s w i t h c h i l d r e n , s o m e h o m e s c h o o l e d , s o m e off t h e r e c o r d s c o m p l e t e l y . I h a v e
met
m i g r a n t w o r k e r s w h o s e children g o t o six different schools a year. A n d M i k e Hatfield told us a b o u t h u s b a n d - a n d - w i f e
trucking
t e a m s , h o m e s c h o o l i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n b e t w e e n t u r n s at t h e w h e e l . C a n w e agree that w o m e n are m o r e o r i e n t e d towards c h i l d r e a r i n g t h a n m e n , in a biological sense? I t h i n k w e can, e v e n t h o u g h w e have all m e t e x c e p t i o n s . A n d d e e p l y i n g r a i n e d in o u r c u l t u r e is t h e idea that a child n e e d s a stable h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t . W e talk a b o u t settling d o w n a n d h a v i n g c h i l d r e n in t h e same breath. Is t h e r e a n e s t i n g instinct in w o m e n ? A natural female affinity for h e a r t h a n d h o m e ? A b s o l u t e l y n o t . L o o k i n g b a c k over h u m a n history, it is clear t h a t these are social c o n s t r u c t s , peculiar t o s e d e n tary cultures. A m o n g tribal n o m a d s a n d travelling gypsies, as B r u c e C h a t w i n p o i n t s o u t in The Songlines, it is usually t h e w o m e n w h o k e e p their m e n o n t h e road, away from t h e t e m p t a t i o n s
and
c o r r u p t i n g influences o f t h e settlements, a n d w o m e n w h o insist o n b r i n g i n g u p t h e children in t h e traditional, n o m a d i c way. ' W o m e n , above all, are t h e guardians o f continuity,' h e w r i t e s , 'if t h e h e a r t h m o v e s , t h e y m o v e w i t h it.' T o illustrate t h e p o i n t , h e q u o t e s a g r u m b l i n g n o m a d sheikh, e n c o u n t e r e d in t h e sand d u n e s o f M a u r i t a n i a , w h o s o u n d s like a reluctant girlfriend d r a g g e d off o n a c a m p i n g t r i p : ' I ' d like n o t h i n g b e t t e r t h a n t o live i n a h o u s e in t o w n . H e r e in t h e desert y o u can't k e e p clean. Y o u can't take a s h o w e r ! It's t h e w o m e n
who
m a k e us live in t h e desert. T h e y say t h e desert b r i n g s health a n d happiness, to t h e m a n d t o t h e children.' At t h e r e n d e z v o u s o f 1 8 3 7 a y o u n g artist f r o m B a l t i m o r e called Alfred J a c o b M i l l e r was in a t t e n d a n c e , s k e t c h i n g furiously, t r y i n g
Ghost
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to c a p t u r e t h e w i l d , r o m a n t i c , s u b l i m e w o n d e r o f it all. O n e o f t h o s e sketches b e c a m e a p a i n t i n g entitled Bourgeois W—r,
& his
Squaw. B o u r g e o i s ( p r o n o u n c e d booshway) was a n o t h e r w o r d for a field c o m m a n d e r , W — r was J o e W a l k e r (no o n e k n o w s w h y M i l l e r disguised his n a m e ) , a n d t h e s q u a w was J o e Walker's wife. A y o u n g t e e n a g e girl, w i t h a b r o a d face a n d t w i n braids, dressed u p in full S h o s h o n i frippery, she is r i d i n g a d e c o r a t e d p o n y b e h i n d
the
shaggy, i m p o s i n g figure o f h e r n e w h u s b a n d . W e have a n o t h e r sketch b y A d o l p h Wislizenus, a G e r m a n traveller w h o e n c o u n t e r e d Walker, t h e v e t e r a n f u r m a n A n d r e w D r i p s a n d t h e i r I n d i a n wives in t h e W i n d R i v e r M o u n t a i n s . T h e t w o squaws, q u i t e passable as t o their features, a p p e a r e d in highest state. T h e i r r e d blankets, w i t h t h e silk kerchiefs o n t h e i r heads, a n d t h e i r g a u d y e m b r o i d e r i e s , gave t h e m q u i t e an O r i e n t a l a p p e a r a n c e . Like themselves, their horses w e r e b e d i g h t w i t h e m b r o i d e r i e s , beads, corals, r i b b o n s , a n d little bells. T h e bells w e r e h u n g a b o u t in such n u m b e r that w h e n r i d i n g i n t h e i r n e i g h b o u r h o o d , o n e m i g h t t h i n k one's self in t h e midst o f Turkish music. T h e squaws, h o w e v e r , b e h a v e d m o s t properly. T h e y t o o k care o f t h e horses, p i t c h e d a tent, a n d w e r e alert for every w o r d o f their w e d d e d lords. W e d o n ' t k n o w t h e n a m e o f Walker's wife, a n d w e can o n l y speculate in the broadest terms about their marriage. F r o m her p e r s p e c t i v e , a w h i t e chieftain trader like J o e W a l k e r w o u l d have b e e n a prestigious catch, a n d also a risky o n e . W h i t e s w e r e c o n sidered t o b e m o r e g e n e r o u s a n d r o m a n t i c w i t h t h e i r wives t h a n I n d i a n m e n ( w h o t h o u g h t w h i t e n o t i o n s o f r o m a n t i c love w e r e amusingly silly). A n d t h e i r e x o t i c physical a p p e a r a n c e — beards, b o d y hair, b l u e eyes — s o m e t i m e s a d d e d a frisson o f sexual e x c i t e m e n t , j u s t as t h e o t h e r n e s s o f I n d i a n w o m e n e x c i t e d s o m e m o u n tain m e n . T h e risk lay in t h e fact that w h i t e h u s b a n d s w e r e m o r e likely to a b a n d o n their wives a n d children t h a n I n d i a n h u s b a n d s . Tribal society p r o d u c e d v e r y few l o n e r s , a t y p e that was c o m m o n a m o n g the mountain m e n . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f J o e W a l k e r a n d his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s ,
164
Richard Grant
t h e single greatest attraction o f I n d i a n w o m e n was t h e i r g e n d e r . In 1 8 3 6 , w h e n h e m a r r i e d his wife, t h e r e w e r e n o w h i t e w o m e n west o f t h e M i s s o u r i settlements. In N e w M e x i c o a n d California t h e r e w e r e M e x i c a n w o m e n , b u t o n t h e w h o l e t h e y lacked t h e e n d u r a n c e , skills a n d e x p e r i e n c e t o m a k e g o o d trail wives. T h i s b r i n g s us t o t h e s e c o n d great advantage o f I n d i a n wives: t h e y w e r e b o r n n o m a d s w h o k n e w n o o t h e r w a y o f living. A n d t h e third: I n d i a n society t r a i n e d its w o m e n to b e incredibly o b e d i e n t a n d h a r d w o r k i n g , a n d resentful o f any a t t e m p t s b y their h u s b a n d s t o h e l p o u t w i t h t h e c a m p c h o r e s . It was a k i n to insulting her, a n n o u n c i n g t o t h e rest o f t h e c a m p that she was i n a d e q u a t e a n d worthless. B y t e n d i n g t h e horses, p u t t i n g u p a n d t a k i n g d o w n t h e t e p e e , k e e p i n g it clean, swept a n d repaired, f e t c h i n g t h e w a t e r a n d firew o o d , t a n n i n g t h e hides, s e w i n g t h e c l o t h i n g a n d d o i n g t h e c o o k i n g , I n d i a n wives m a d e trail life m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e t h a n any w h i t e o r M e x i c a n w o m a n o f t h e t i m e was w i l l i n g o r able t o d o , a n d this freed u p m o r e t i m e a n d e n e r g y for h u n t i n g , t r a p p i n g a n d t r a d i n g — t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h a m a r r i e d c o u p l e survived a n d a c c r u e d w e a l t h , possessions a n d status. S o m e m o u n t a i n m e n r e g a r d e d t h e i r I n d i a n wives p u r e l y as s e x u a l / d o m e s t i c c o n v e n i e n c e s , a n d discarded t h e m callously w h e n t h e y felt like b e i n g alone again o r w i t h s o m e o n e new. O t h e r s h a d happy, lasting m a r r i a g e s , a n d J o e W a l k e r seems t o have fallen i n t o this s e c o n d category. H e was w i t h his wife for a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n years. H e d e m o n s t r a t e d his c o m m i t m e n t to t h e m a r r i a g e b y t a k i n g h e r b a c k t o m e e t his family a n d old friends i n Jackson C o u n t y , M i s s o u r i , a n d e s c o r t i n g h e r i n t o Six M i l e Baptist C h u r c h , d o u b t less t h r o u g h a g a u n t l e t o f scandalised w h i s p e r s a n d gossip. A n d h e spent several w i n t e r s a n d h u n t i n g seasons w i t h his S h o s h o n i in-laws, w h o s e m i - a d o p t e d h i m i n t o t h e t r i b e . T h e r e has b e e n speculation, b y C a p t a i n C r o o k for o n e , that W a l k e r t o o k o t h e r wives. P o l y g a m y was certainly c o m m o n p l a c e , a m o n g S h o s h o n i s a n d m o u n t a i n m e n alike, b u t w e have n o c o n f i r m e d sightings o f a n o t h e r wife. At s o m e p o i n t t h e Walkers h a d c h i l d r e n t o g e t h e r , w h i c h , w o u l d have p r e s e n t e d n o i m p e d i m e n t t o t h e i r travels. To give an e x t r e m e
Ghost
165
Riders
illustration, t h e r e are a c c o u n t s o f I n d i a n w o m e n r i d i n g t w e n t y five miles, s t o p p i n g b y t h e side o f t h e trail t o give b i r t h , a n d g e t t i n g b a c k o n t h e i r horses a few h o u r s later. T h e n e w b o r n b a b y was w r a p p e d i n a c l o t h o r blanket, w i t h t h e soft, a b s o r b e n t i n n e r b a r k o f t h e cedar tree p a c k e d b e t w e e n its legs, a n d c a r r i e d i n a t a n n e d b u c k s k i n p o u c h called a c r a d l e b o a r d . T h e c r a d l e b o a r d was s t r a p p e d t o t h e m o t h e r ' s b a c k , o r to t h e p o m m e l o f h e r saddle, a n d t h e h o r s e supplied t h e r o c k i n g , swaying m o t i o n t h a t instinctively calms h u m a n babies. I n c a m p , t h e c r a d l e b o a r d was h u n g from a l o d g e - p o l e a n d t h e
mother
r o c k e d it b y h a n d . B y t h e age o f four o r five t h e c h i l d r e n w o u l d have b e e n r i d i n g p o n i e s o f t h e i r o w n . I n 1 8 4 6 t h e references t o J o e Walker's wife a n d c h i l d r e n d r y u p i n t h e records w i t h o u t e x p l a n a t i o n , a n d at t h e same t i m e his travels t o o k o n an aimless, erratic quality. H e n e g l e c t e d his t r a d i n g business a n d let his p a r t n e r s drift away. H e disappeared i n t o t h e m o u n t a i n s for six m o n t h s a n d e m e r g e d w i t h o u t his usual h a u l o f furs. In t h e s p r i n g o f 1 8 4 7 , h e m a d e a h e l l - b e n t r i d e w i t h t h r e e n e w p a r t n e r s from t h e environs o f Santa Fe to t h e M i s s o u r i R i v e r , c o v e r i n g t h e e i g h t h u n d r e d miles in t w e n t y - t h r e e days. W a l k e r was f o r t y - n i n e years old at t h e t i m e , a n d h e seems to have u n d e r t a k e n this p u n i s h i n g , r e c o r d - e q u a l l i n g r i d e o n a s u d d e n w h i m . T h e o t h e r t h r e e h a p p e n e d t o b e h e a d i n g in that direction w h e n h e b u m p e d into t h e m in N e w Mexico. T h e m o s t likely e x p l a n a t i o n for this u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e h a v i o u r , b y Bil Gilbert's d e d u c t i o n , is that Walker's wife a n d c h i l d r e n h a d d i e d o f smallpox, w h i c h was s w e e p i n g t h r o u g h t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n s tribes at t h e t i m e (they h a d n o i m m u n i t y t o
the
disease), a n d t h a t W a l k e r was g r i e v i n g for t h e m . Like m a n y a w a n d e r i n g m a l e , before a n d after h i m , h e was dealing w i t h his e m o t i o n a l p a i n b y t r y i n g t o o u t d i s t a n c e it geographically. F o r t h e rest o f his life h e avoided t h e central R o c k i e s a n d t h e
upper
G r e e n R i v e r c o u n t r y , w h e r e h e a n d his wife h a d m e t , m a r r i e d and spent most of their time together. When
he reached the Missouri River, Walker rode on
to
I n d e p e n d e n c e a n d s p e n t five m o n t h s t h e r e w i t h his relatives, d o i n g v e r y little. H e was t i g h t - l i p p e d a b o u t his i n t e n t i o n s a n d his feelings,
166
Richard Grant
b u t s o m e o f his relatives g o t t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t J o e h a d c o m e b a c k for g o o d . A t a family g a t h e r i n g t h a t s u m m e r , a visiting c o u s i n , w h o h a d b e c o m e a w e l l - t o - d o p l a n t e r in A l a b a m a , asked h i m if h e h a d finally h a d e n o u g h o f w a n d e r i n g a r o u n d t h e w i l d e r n e s s . Wasn't it h i g h t i m e h e settled d o w n a n d m a d e s o m e t h i n g
of
h i m s e l f i n civilised society? T h e q u e s t i o n s e e m e d t o d e c i d e o r c o n f i r m s o m e t h i n g for J o e Walker. H e replied sharply that h e was g o i n g b a c k t o live w i t h t h e Indians b e c a u s e ' w h i t e p e o p l e are t o o d a m n m e a n ' . * H e left s o o n afterwards, r i d i n g west, a n d was n e v e r seen in M i s s o u r i again. F o r t h e rest o f his life w e have n o sightings o f a n o t h e r wife o r girlfriend, n o t h i n g e x c e p t o n e unfulfilled c r u s h o n a w h i t e w o m a n h e m e t o n a w a g o n train. T h e l o n e w a n d e r i n g male, r i d i n g off w o m a n l e s s i n t o t h e sunset. H e was a c o m m o n e n o u g h figure in A m e r i c a n history, first c e l e b r a t e d in t h e early folk tales a n d ballads, a n d t u r n e d i n t o a fullblown
mythic
hero
by
James
Fenimore
Cooper
in
his
L e a t h e r s t o c k i n g novels. Unlike
Odysseus,
or
all
those
medieval
knights-errant,
L e a t h e r s t o c k i n g did n o t r e t u r n a n d r e u n i t e w i t h his family a n d c o m m u n i t y after his l o n g , q u e s t i n g j o u r n e y . A t t h e e n d o f t h e story — an old m a n now, still u n m a r r i e d and q u i t e possibly a v i r g i n — L e a t h e r s t o c k i n g rides off again, ' t o seek a final refuge against society in t h e b r o a d a n d tenantless plains o f t h e west'. B y t h e t i m e L a n c e G r a b o w s k i was g r o w i n g up, o n t h e family fruit farm in upstate N e w York, F e n i m o r e C o o p e r h a d given w a y t o G a r y C o o p e r a n d J o h n W a y n e . L e a t h e r s t o c k i n g was w e a r i n g a c o w b o y h a t a n d a s i x - s h o o t e r o n his hip, r i d i n g off i n t o T e c h n i c o l o r sunsets, leaving b e h i n d t h e w o m a n w h o loved h i m , a n d m a y b e h e r children, a n d always t h e c a m e r a , at t h e h o m e s t e a d fence. Lance was so obsessed w i t h c o w b o y s at such a y o u n g age, a n d so insistent o n dressing u p like t h e m , that his m o t h e r j o k e d h e h a d
* A rare direct quote, preserved in Walker family histories, and ferreted out by Bil Gilbert.
Ghost
Riders
167
b e e n b o r n w e a r i n g a hat a n d a g u n - it h a d m a d e for a difficult delivery. T h e n h e b e c a m e obsessed w i t h Indians as well as c o w b o y s . In his late teens his heroes w e r e outlaw bikers, w h i c h h e sees as a natural progression: ' I n A m e r i c a y o u g r o w u p w i t h that c o w b o y ideal, that y o u should b e i n d e p e n d e n t and self-reliant and value y o u r f r e e d o m above all else. That's w h a t t h e films, a n d TV, a n d b o o k s , and p o p u l a r culture tell y o u A m e r i c a is all a b o u t . T h e n y o u find o u t that, in reality, society wants y o u t o b e exactly t h e opposite: o b e d i e n t , fearful, d e p e n d e n t , basically a g o o d little w a g e slave. M y reaction was to get a m o t o r c y c l e , wear a lot o f black l e a t h e r a n d chains, a n d d e v e l o p an e x t r e m e l y
confrontational
attitude.' In 1966, at t h e age o f eighteen, h e w e n t to Taos, N e w M e x i c o , visited t h e Kit C a r s o n M u s e u m , a n d left w i t h a stack o f b o o k s a b o u t the m o u n t a i n m e n . T w o years later, at art school in Kansas City, h e was w e a r i n g h o m e - m a d e buckskins, a b r e e c h c l o u t and moccasins, a n d h e w o r e n o t h i n g else for t h e n e x t t e n years. 'I'd always b e e n attracted to w a n d e r i n g o u t l a w types. I'd always b e e n interested in t h e idea o f living w i t h total personal freedom. W h e n I discovered t h e m o u n t a i n m e n , it was like hitting t h e m o t h e r lode.' If W e s t e r n m o v i e s s h a p e d his attraction to t o u g h , u n t a m e d , n o m a d i c r o l e - m o d e l s , h a d t h e y also s h a p e d his attitudes towards love a n d w o m e n ? H e r e h e was, fifty years old, n e v e r m a r r i e d . ' T h a t was n e v e r m y i n t e n t i o n , I d o n ' t particularly enjoy b e i n g single,' h e said. ' U n f o r t u n a t e l y , it j u s t seems to g o w i t h t h e t e r r i tory. T h e w o m e n o f m y age that I find attractive a n d interesting are generally n o t interested i n living in tents for t h e rest o f t h e i r life. T h a t ' s m y d i l e m m a . If I ' m g o i n g t o find s o m e o n e a n d m a k e it w o r k , I ' m g o i n g t o have t o settle d o w n m o r e , a n d that m a k e s m e insufferable t o b e a r o u n d . O f c o u r s e , t h e m o u n t a i n m e n d i d n ' t have this p r o b l e m . If y o u w a n t e d a w o m a n t o travel w i t h y o u , y o u w o u l d j u s t p i c k o n e o u t from t h e nearest tribe, h a n d over w h a t e v e r p l u n d e r h e r father m a n a g e d t o g o u g e o u t o f y o u , a n d r i d e off w i t h her.' D e s p i t e his v o w at t h e family g a t h e r i n g , J o e Walker never did g o b a c k t o five w i t h t h e Indians. Instead, h e d i d s o m e t h i n g w h i c h
168
Richard Grant
was t o b e c o m e a standard A m e r i c a n response t o t h e blues: at t h e age o f fifty h e w e n t to California a n d m a d e a fresh start. A n d it s e e m e d t o w o r k for h i m . H e was s o o n e x h i b i t i n g all his old v i g o u r a n d efficiency. H e arrived in t h e a u t u m n o f 1 8 4 8 , w h e n t h e G o l d R u s h was j u s t b e g i n n i n g . A j o u r n a l i s t n a m e d J a m e s O ' M e a r a spent s o m e t i m e w i t h h i m a n d was struck b y W a l k e r s indifference t o t h e f o r t u n e h e c o u l d m a k e , his casual disdain for t h e idea o f l a b o u r i n g w i t h a p i c k a n d g o l d p a n m e r e l y to get r i c h : ' g o l d . . . h a d n o c h a r m for C a p t a i n J o Walker. A l t h o u g h h e valued m o n e y i n his o w n p r o v i d e n t a n d unselfish, u n a v a r i c i o u s way, h e was n e i t h e r its slave n o r its worshipper.' Instead, W a l k e r set u p a n o m a d i c t r a d i n g o p e r a t i o n t o supply t h e m i n i n g c a m p s w i t h horses a n d b e e f cattle. H e b o u g h t t h e stock from t h e M e x i c a n ranches a r o u n d Los A n g e l e s , trailed t h e herds n o r t h to t h e diggings a r o u n d S a c r a m e n t o , a n d t h e n w e n t b a c k for m o r e — a m o d e s t r o u n d - t r i p j o u r n e y , b y Walker's standards, o f eight h u n d r e d miles o r so. W i t h t h e profits h e b o u g h t s o m e r a n c h p r o p e r t y near Gilroy, w h i c h h e u s e d t o rest t h e livestock after t h e j o u r n e y n o r t h a n d fatten t h e m u p for delivery. W a l k e r s p e n t very little t i m e at his r a n c h , leaving its m a n a g e m e n t a n d o p e r a t i o n to h i r e d h a n d s a n d various
family
members
who
had
followed
his
trails
into
California. A few years later h e sold it a n d used his n e p h e w ' s r a n c h , across t h e bay from. San Francisco, as t h e resupply p o i n t for his s t o c k - d r i v i n g j o u r n e y s , a n d as a base for l a u n c h i n g a series o f explorations a n d e x p e d i t i o n s i n t o t h e last p o c k e t s o f u n m a p p e d c o u n t r y i n t h e West. G e o g r a p h i c a l curiosity a n d his a b i d i n g love for w i l d e r n e s s travel s e e m to have b e e n t h e m a i n reasons for these j o u r n e y s , b u t h e usually m a n a g e d t o find s o m e practical, e c o n o m i c rationale: a railroad survey, a p a r t y o f m i n e r s that w a n t e d t o b e g u i d e d to s o m e r e m o t e m o u n t a i n range, a p o t e n t i a l livestock m a r k e t t h a t called for investigation. In 1858 h e signed o n as a scout for C o l o n e l W i l l i a m Hoffman, w h o was leading fifty m e n o n an expedition against t h e Mojave Indians o n t h e l o w e r C o l o r a d o River. Walker h a d travelled d o w n
Ghost
169
Riders
the C o l o r a d o t w e n t y years before, b u t h e h a d never b e e n u p it. 'Nevertheless,' o n e o f t h e soldiers told a n e w s p a p e r m a n , ' h e w o u l d m a k e an accurate m a p each m o r n i n g o f t h e c o u n t r y to b e m a r c h e d over d u r i n g t h e day, s h o w i n g w h e r e m o u n t a i n s a p p r o a c h e d t h e river, and w h e r e t h e valley w i d e n e d ; w h e r e sloughs o r tributaries m a d e in, m a r k i n g t h e halting place for t h e night . . . F u r t h e r m o r e , h e w o u l d say, " T h e r e is grass and w o o d in those m o u n t a i n s off there, w i t h water flowing to t h e n o r t h w a r d " — o r w h i c h e v e r w a y it went.' "walker was sixty a n d , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e q u a n t i t y o f sun a n d w i n d h e h a d b e e n e x p o s e d t o , h e m u s t have l o o k e d grizzled a n d l e a t h e r y in t h e e x t r e m e . T h e soldiers w e r e a m a z e d b y t h e i r o l d scout: his p o w e r s of e n d u r a n c e and coolness u n d e r
fire,
the
unerring
correctness o f all his p r e d i c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g geography, w e a t h e r , g a m e m o v e m e n t s , I n d i a n strategies, a n d so o n . T h e b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e a n d skills t h a t W a l k e r h a d m a s t e r e d was already largely e x t i n c t b y 1 8 5 8 , at least a m o n g w h i t e s (the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n o f a r m y scouts w e r e Indians). T h e soldiers l o o k e d at h i m as a fascinating relic from a b y g o n e era, a m a n w h o h a d outlived his t i m e . As D e a d C l o u d p r o p h e s i e d , I m e t m a n y b u c k s k i n n e r s w h o said t h e y h a d b e e n b o r n 150 years t o o late. T h e difference w i t h L a n c e G r a b o w s k i is t h a t h e s o u n d s halfway believable m a k i n g this claim. F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e r e is t h e sheer v i r u l e n c e o f his c o n t e m p t for m o d e r n society: w i t h a few e x c e p t i o n s , h e finds t h e p e o p l e w h o live i n it c o n t e m p t i b l e b y association. H e w o u l d prefer it if 9 0 per cent of t h e m had never b e e n b o r n . T h e real p r o b l e m is that t h e y are i n his way. B y their laws a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d t h e i r viral p r e s e n c e
on the land, they
are
p r e v e n t i n g h i m from living in t h e w a y h e w a n t s t o live. It's illegal t o h u n t a n d trap full t i m e n o w unless y o u ' r e a licensed g o v e r n m e n t m a n k i l l i n g c o y o t e s a n d m o u n t a i n lions o n b e h a l f
of
r a n c h e r s . It's illegal t o build yourself a w i n t e r cabin in t h e m o u n tains. L a n c e despises t h e a u t h o r i t i e s o n p r i n c i p l e — his politics are fiercely individualistic a n d libertarian, in t h e S c o t c h - I r i s h t r a d i t i o n — b u t h e d o e s n ' t b l a m e t h e m in this i n s t a n c e . T h e y are dealing w i t h t h e same p r o b l e m as h e is: t o o m a n y p e o p l e , n o t e n o u g h wilderness.
170
Richard Grant
B y various strategies — r e n d e z v o u s t r a d i n g , l e c t u r i n g , m o d e l l i n g i n his gear for W e s t e r n painters ( a m o n g t h e m , $ 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 - a canvas m e n like J o h n C l y m e r ) - L a n c e has achieved a radical d e g r e e o f n o m a d i c f r e e d o m by c o n t e m p o r a r y standards, b u t a pale a n d s t u n t e d version o f w h a t h e craves. W h a t has m o d e r n i t y d o n e for h i m ? H a v e t h e r e b e e n any i m p r o v e m e n t s in A m e r i c a n life since 1840? H e has t o t h i n k l o n g a n d h a r d a b o u t this q u e s t i o n before h e arrives at an answer that satisfies h i m : ' d e n t i s t r y ' . H e can't h e l p a d m i r i n g certain c o n t e m p o r a r y firearms, b u t h e thinks his 1830s replicas have m o r e style. H e likes travelling in his van b u t h e prefers r i d i n g a h o r s e . H e likes t h e jars o f T h a i c u r r y paste n o w available at W e s t e r n s u p e r m a r k e t s , b u t h e k n o w s from e x p e r i e n c e that h e is perfectly h a p p y e a t i n g h o r s e oats a n d w h a t e v e r birds a n d small g a m e h e can b r i n g d o w n w i t h a g u n . S o o n after t h e r e n d e z v o u s , I m e t L a n c e at his h o u s e i n N e w M e x i c o . I w a n t e d t o l o o k at t h e p h o t o g r a p h s a n d records o f a series o f w i l d e r n e s s e x p e d i t i o n s h e m a d e in t h e 1970s a n d 1980s. H e t r i e d t o w a l k from B e a r Lake, U t a h , t o St L o u i s , M i s s o u r i , fifteen h u n d r e d miles across t h e h i g h plains in t h e t h r e e coldest m o n t h s o f w i n t e r , t o recreate t h e f a m o u s ' w i n t e r express' j o u r neys o f M o s e s 'Black' H a r r i s . L a n c e w o r e fur-lined clothes h e h a d m a d e himself, u s e d his coat as a sleeping b a g a n d c a r r i e d a small buckskin pack containing thirty p o u n d s of rigorously authentic gear. H i s k n e e gave o u t after t w o h u n d r e d miles a n d h e h a d t o crawl t h r o u g h t h e s n o w i n t o Farson, W y o m i n g , a n d call a halt. In 1 9 7 6 h e m a d e a m e a n d e r i n g twelve h u n d r e d - m i l e
horse
trip from Santa Fe t o r e n d e z v o u s at B e a r Lake, U t a h , again c a r r y i n g n o t h i n g b u t a u t h e n t i c gear. H e stayed o n n a t i o n a l forest l a n d in t h e m o u n t a i n s m o s t o f t h e way, for g r a z i n g a n d w a t e r , a n d m a x i m u m distance from civilisation. T h e n e x t year, w i t h o n e p a r t n e r , h e set off o n h o r s e b a c k from B e a r Lake t o California to recreate J e d e d i a h Smith's first trip in 1 8 2 6 . H i s partner's h o r s e gave o u t in St G e o r g e , U t a h , a n d L a n c e r o d e t h e last e i g h t h u n d r e d miles a l o n e , visited from t i m e t o t i m e b y a National
Geographic p h o t o g r a p h e r . H e crossed t h e M o j a v e
D e s e r t in A u g u s t , travelling by n i g h t a n d resting u p d u r i n g t h e 1 1 5 - d e g r e e days, eating birds a n d j a c k r a b b i t s . A few t i m e s h e h a d
Ghost
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171
t o dig i n s t r e a m b e d s for water, a n d i n t h e driest section o f t h e d e s e r t h e was saved b y an o p p o r t u n e c l o u d b u r s t t h a t left s t a n d i n g water on the ground. ' O b v i o u s l y t h e r e w e r e b o r i n g days a n d frustrating days, b u t it was definitely t h e best e x p e r i e n c e o f m y life,' h e says.'I h a d great d r e a m s all t h e way. I felt v e r y alive, very c o n t e n t , v e r y calm. I k n e w I was as free as I was ever g o i n g to g e t : J e d S m i t h h a d r i d d e n i n t o Los Angeles, b u t Lance gave u p w h e n h e c a m e to t h e San B e r n a r d i n o sprawl, h a v i n g covered s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n fifteen h u n d r e d a n d t w o t h o u s a n d miles. It's h a r d t o calculate t h e distance exactly because h e t o o k such a w i n d i n g route, d e t e r m i n e d by t h e n e e d to find water a n d grazing, a n d avoid t h e obstacles o f civilisation. ' O n b o t h t h o s e h o r s e trips it wasn't a n y t h i n g i n n a t u r e that gave m e trouble. It was highways, m o t o r i s t s , private land a n d h u n d r e d s o f fucking fences. I w o u l d c u t t h e fences a n d repair t h e m b e h i n d m e and it was a h u g e pain in t h e ass. W h e n I g o t to San B e r n a r d i n o there was j u s t a m a z e o f freeways, a n d culverts, a n d railroad lines, a n d I said, " O k a y , this has g o n e far e n o u g h . I ' m in t h e suburbs o f California a n d this is 1977."' T h e last t i m e I saw Lance, h e was talking a b o u t m a k i n g a n o t h e r l o n g h o r s e trip, w i t h n o particular d e s t i n a t i o n in m i n d . Just b u y a h o r s e s o m e w h e r e , saddle it, stock u p w i t h p o w d e r a n d a m m u n i t i o n a n d ride o u t for t h e biggest b l a n k spaces left o n t h e m a p . ' A m e r i c a is basically g o i n g d o w n t h e toilet as far as I ' m c o n c e r n e d , ' h e says, ' b u t in t h e West, at least, y o u can still m a k e a trip like that, if y o u carry a pair o f f e n c e - c u t t e r s a n d take a few c h a n c e s w i t h t h e g a m e laws. W h e r e else in t h e w o r l d c o u l d y o u d o it? M o s t c o u n t r i e s w o n ' t even let y o u c a r r y a gun.' T h e ranks o f e x - m o u n t a i n m e n , a l o n g w i t h defeated Indian tribes, furnished t h e first nostalgics o f t h e A m e r i c a n West — t h e first to talk a b o u t the w i l d , p u r e , u n s p o i l e d c o u n t r y the West used to b e a n d t h e n o m a d i c f r e e d o m it afforded. W i t n e s s J i m B r i d g e r in his o l d age, sitting o n a p o r c h i n Kansas City, telling his stories a b o u t t h e o l d days a n d staring west w i t h failing eyesight: 'I w i s h I was b a c k t h e r e a m o n g t h e m o u n t a i n s again. A m a n can see so m u c h f u r t h e r in that country.'
172
Richard Grant
E v e n w h e n h e was totally blind, B r i d g e r was still afflicted by a t e r r i b l e , y e a r n i n g restlessness. H i s d a u g h t e r V i r g i n i a was so c o n c e r n e d that she g o t h i m a h o r s e a n d a d o g n a m e d Sultan a n d let h e r aged, blind, half-crippled father r i d e off a n d get lost in t h e w o o d s a n d prairies outside t o w n . 'Sultan w o u l d c o m e h o m e a n d let us k n o w that father was lost. T h e d o g w o u l d b a r k a n d w h i n e until I w o u l d g o o u t a n d l o o k for him.' Like J i m B r i d g e r , t h e o n l y e x - m o u n t a i n m a n w h o rivalled h i m for l o n g e v i t y in t h e field, if n o t for miles travelled, J o e Walker's career was b r o u g h t t o a close by failing eyesight. In 1 8 6 7 , at t h e age o f s i x t y - n i n e , h e was travelling t h r o u g h A r i z o n a w i t h
one
p a r t n e r . T h e p a r t n e r w a n d e r e d off from c a m p a n d g o t h i m s e l f s u r r o u n d e d b y bandits. H e t o l d t h e m h e was w i t h a large, w e l l a r m e d party o f m e n a n d fired his g u n to alert Walker. O l d M a n W a l k e r c o u l d n ' t see w h a t was h a p p e n i n g , b u t h e m a d e a s h r e w d guess and fired off several r o u n d s in q u i c k succession. T h e bandits w e r e c o n v i n c e d a n d let his p a r t n e r g o . N e v e r t h e l e s s , his eyesight h a d e n d a n g e r e d a man's life a n d t h a t was u n a c c e p t a b l e . In all his fifty years o n t h e frontier o n l y o n e m a n u n d e r his c o m m a n d h a d ever b e e n killed — a p h e n o m e n a l safety r e c o r d that n o n e o f W a l k e r s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s c a m e close t o m a t c h i n g . As L a n c e p u t it, ' T h a t was t h e t h i n g a b o u t J o e Walker. If y o u travelled w i t h h i m , y o u c o u l d b e p r e t t y sure t h a t y o u w o u l d get t h e r e alive.' W i l k e r r o d e o n t o California, h u n g u p his saddle at his n e p h e w ' s r a n c h in C o n t r a C o s t a C o u n t y , a n d settled d o w n t o a calm, pleasant, dignified r e t i r e m e n t , w i t h n o r e c o r d e d b o u t s o f nostalgia o r restlessness. L i v i n g near b y w e r e m a n y S c o t c h - I r i s h kinfolk h e had g r o w n u p w i t h in Tennessee a n d M i s s o u r i . T h e y h a d followed his footsteps across t h e c o n t i n e n t , as their g r a n d p a r e n t s followed the L o n g H u n t e r s over t h e Appalachians: migrants
following
n o m a d trails. T h e y w e r e eager to r e a c q u a i n t themselves
with
Walker, a n d h e seems to have enjoyed t h e i r visits. His eyesight wasn't u p t o t h e trail any m o r e , b u t it was still g o o d e n o u g h t o read, a n d h e spent m a n y h o u r s o n t h e p o r c h , sitting in t h e s u n s h i n e w i t h a b o o k a n d a v i e w o f t h e California hills rolling away towards t h e Pacific. A few j o u r n a l i s t s c a m e a n d
Ghost
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i n t e r v i e w e d h i m . W a l k e r gave t h e m s o m e sharply critical o p i n i o n s o f C u s t e r a n d t h e U n i t e d States A r m y — this was s h o r t l y after t h e n e w s o f Little B i g h o r n . T h e y asked h i m a b o u t J o h n F r e m o n t , t h e Pathfinder, a n d W a l k e r d e s c r i b e d h i m as ' t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e c o w a r d I have ever k n o w n ' . W h e n it c a m e to his o w n career Walker c o n f i n e d himself to deflating r u m o u r s , and yes—no answers a b o u t dates, locations a n d o t h e r d r y details. T h e last j o u r n a l i s t gave u p in A u g u s t 1 8 7 6 , a n d W a l k e r d i e d t w o m o n t h s later. H e was seventy-seven years old. T h e cause o f d e a t h , says Bil Gilbert, was n o t h i n g m o r e o r less t h a n ' h a v i n g lived l o n g e n o u g h ' . H o w t o distil that life i n t o six lines, c o n t a i n i n g as few w o r d s as possible? H o w t o c o n v e y its historical i m p o r t a n c e , its a d v e n tures a n d w o n d e r m e n t , w i t h o u t t h e use o f a single adjective? T h a t was t h e final task J o e W a l k e r set himself: t h e i n s c r i p t i o n for his tombstone. B O R N I N R O A N C O U N T Y , T E N N - D E C . 1 3 , 1798 EMIGRATED TO M O TO NEW MEXICO -
ROCKY MOUNTAINS CALIFORNIA -
1819
1820 1832
1833
C A M P E D A T Y O S E M I T E - N O V . 13, 1 8 3 3 T h a t was typical o f his terse, u n d e r s t a t e d style. If y o u d i d n ' t u n d e r stand t h e significance o f that i n s c r i p t i o n , especially t h e last entry, it w o u l d take t o o l o n g to explain.
CHAPTER 8 B e h o l d , a p e o p l e c o m e s from t h e n o r t h . . . T h e y lay h o l d o f b o w a n d spear; t h e y are c r u e l a n d have n o mercy. T h e s o u n d o f t h e m is like t h e r o a r i n g o f t h e sea; t h e y r i d e u p o n horses, arrayed as a m a n for battle against y o u . J e r e m i a h 6: 2 2 , 2 3
T
h e w r i t t e n w o r d was civilisation's i n v e n t i o n , a n d from t h e b e g i n n i n g w r i t t e n a c c o u n t s o f n o m a d s have b e e n t a i n t e d b y
civilised bias a n d disapproval, a n d often by fear a n d h a t r e d . N o m a d s r o d e i n t o t h e pages o f h i s t o r y as t h e enemy, t h u n d e r i n g in from t h e steppes a n d deserts o n t h e i r horses, t o raid or c o n q u e r o r exact t r i b u t e . T h e p r o p h e t J e r e m i a h was p r o b a b l y t h i n k i n g o f t h e Scythians, t h e first r e c o r d e d n o m a d i c w a r r i o r s i n history, and b y any civilised standard t h e y w e r e a fearsome a n d b a r b a r i c crew. If t h e r e are any o u t l a w m o t o r c y l e gangs o u t t h e r e l o o k i n g for a n a m e , t h e y c o u l d d o w o r s e t h a n ' T h e Scythians'. L o n g - h a i r e d , b e a r d e d a n d u n w a s h e d , t h e y d r a n k w i n e from t h e skulls of their e n e m i e s a n d s k i n n e d t h e i r r i g h t arms in o n e p i e c e , fingernails
a n d all, t o m a k e coverings for t h e i r a r r o w quivers.
H e r o d o t o s , in t h e world's first history b o o k , tells us that
the
Scythians also scalped t h e i r e n e m i e s a n d h u n g t h e d r i e d , s t r e t c h e d scalps o n t h e bridles o f their horses, like m a n y plains Indian tribes t w o t h o u s a n d years later. T h e y w e r e s u p e r b archers w h o selected a t h i n a r r o w h e a d for birds a n d shot t h e m t h r o u g h t h e eye, a n d s u p e r b h o r s e m e n w h o disdained w a l k i n g a n d m i g h t have g i v e n
176
Richard Grant
rise to t h e G r e e k m y t h of t h e c e n t a u r : h a l f - m a n a n d half-horse. In t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y B C t h e Scythians r o d e o u t o f C e n t r a l Asia, d r i v i n g their cattle herds west — a n o m a d i c w a r m a c h i n e w i t h supplies o n t h e h o o f — a n d t o o k c o n t r o l of t h e E u r o p e a n steppe. T h e y established an e m p i r e four t h o u s a n d miles w i d e , from t h e D a n u b e to M o n g o l i a , based o n raiding, t r i b u t e , an invincible b l i t z k r i e g style o f warfare, a n d t r a d i n g i n furs, hides, g o l d a n d captive slaves. T h e e m p i r e lasted for nearly five h u n d r e d years, a n d in t h e e n d t h e Scythians b e c a m e t o o wealthy to sustain it. L a d e n d o w n w i t h gold a n d p l u n d e r , they b e g a n to lose mobility a n d settle d o w n . T h e y started i n t e r m a r r y i n g w i t h sedentary peoples instead o f r i d i n g off w i t h their wives and daughters. In t h e second c e n t u r y B C t h e Scythians w e r e finished off b y a n e w tribe o f r u t h less h o r s e m e n t h u n d e r i n g in from the steppes: t h e Sarmatians. For t h e n e x t seventeen centuries t h e history o f t h e steppes in E u r o p e and Asia was d o m i n a t e d by n o m a d invasions, wave after wave, o n e ferocious h o r d e after a n o t h e r : H u n s , Alans, Khazars, Tartars, t h e M o n g o l s u n d e r G e n g h i s K h a n and Tamerlane. Similar patterns evolved in India, Africa a n d Arabia, a n d w h e r e v e r in t h e w o r l d t h e civilised w r o t e a b o u t m o u n t e d n o m a d i c w a r r i o r s , they characterised t h e m as savage, cruel and less t h a n h u m a n . T h e R o m a n h i s t o r i a n A m m a n i u s Marcellinus d e s c r i b e d
the
H u n s as ' t w o - l e g g e d beasts . . . s t u m p s r o u g h - h e w n i n t o i m a g e s ' . A H a n C h i n e s e secretary, passing j u d g e m e n t o n t h e H u n s ' e a s t e r n cousins, t h e H s i u n g - n u , w r o t e that 'in t h e i r breasts beat t h e hearts o f beasts . . . from t h e m o s t a n c i e n t t i m e s t h e y have n e v e r b e e n r e g a r d e d as a p a r t o f h u m a n i t y ' . A n early E g y p t i a n official, w r i t i n g a b o u t t h e B e d o u i n , stated that ' t h e i r n a m e reeks m o r e t h a n t h e stink of b i r d d r o p p i n g s ' . T h e English m o n k M a t t h e w Paris, w r i t i n g a hysterical letter t o t h e a r c h b i s h o p o f B o r d e a u x in 1 2 4 3 , d e s c r i b e d t h e Tartars as 'a fierce race o f i n h u m a n beings . . . virgins w e r e deflowered until t h e y d i e d o f e x h a u s t i o n ' . W e have a b u n d a n t e v i d e n c e in o u r libraries t o d e m o n s t r a t e w h a t t h e civilised t h o u g h t o f n o m a d s , b u t n e x t t o n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e n o m a d i c p o i n t o f v i e w : w h a t t h e y t h o u g h t o f themselves a n d t h e i r e n e m i e s , a n d h o w t h e y u n d e r s t o o d t h e w o r l d . The
Secret
History of the Mongols, r e c o r d e d b y t h e C h i n e s e in t h e f o u r t e e n t h
Ghost
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century, from t h e campfire stories, songs a n d p o e m s o f G e n g h i s K h a n ' s army, is a rare a n d fascinating e x c e p t i o n , b u t as a rule, n o m a d tribes leave n o w r i t t e n records o f t h e i r culture. B o o k s a n d libraries are an e n c u m b r a n c e t o a p e o p l e o n t h e m o v e . Literacy amounts to dead weight. I n t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h century, p i o n e e r s in Texas w e r e s u r p r i s e d to see illiterate C o m a n c h e w a r r i o r s t a k i n g Bibles and o t h e r b o o k s d u r i n g their raids o n o u t l y i n g farms a n d s e t t l e m e n t s . In
true
n o m a d i c style, t h e C o m a n c h e s h a d discovered that p a p e r m a d e an excellent p a d d i n g for their b i s o n - h i d e w a r shields a n d w o u l d absorb a bullet if y o u p a c k e d it in t h i c k a n d tight e n o u g h . T h e early Texas c a t t l e m a n C h a r l e s G o o d n i g h t f o u n d a C o m a n c h e w a r shield stuffed w i t h a c o m p l e t e h i s t o r y o f a n c i e n t R o m e (its rise, efflorescence and fall t o n o m a d i c barbarians from t h e n o r t h ) . N o m a d tribes carry their c u l t u r e i n t h e i r heads. T h e i r h i s t o r ies are oral, t h e i r religions — w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f Islamic n o m a d s i n Arabia a n d Africa - are usually s h a m a n i c , focused o n d r e a m s , visions and animistic spirits in n a t u r e , rather t h a n w r i t t e n texts. E a c h individual is a fragile r e p o s i t o r y of all t h e tribe's songs, stories, c e r e m o n i e s , c u s t o m s , k n o w l e d g e and history, a n d if h e dies w i t h o u t passing it o n , it is t h e n o m a d i c equivalent o f a library b u r n i n g d o w n . If t h e oral tradition falters across a g e n e r a t i o n o r t w o , d u r i n g a p e r i o d of c o n q u e s t a n d d i s r u p t i o n , t h e t r i b e is in d a n g e r o f losing its h i s t o r y a n d c u l t u r e completely, o r seeing it r e d u c e d to t h e w r i t t e n a c c o u n t s k e p t b y their c o n q u e r o r s . T h i s is t h e p r e d i c a m e n t facing t h e C o m a n c h e s today. T h e y still retain a s t r o n g sense o f tribal identity, o f b e i n g C o m a n c h e , b u t t h e i r l a n g u a g e is d y i n g , t h e y have lost their reservation, t h e y have i n t e r m a r r i e d w i t h A n g l o s , M e x i c a n s a n d o t h e r I n d i a n tribes t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e n o p u r e - b l o o d C o m a n c h e s are left, a n d t h e oral t r a d i t i o n is o n its last legs. T h e c u r r e n t g e n e r a t i o n o f g r a n d parents encouraged
t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o learn E n g l i s h a n d
look
towards a future in t h e w h i t e w o r l d , a n d w i t h a few e x c e p t i o n s t h e y passed o n little o f w h a t t h e y k n e w a b o u t t h e old ways. N o w t h e r e is a m o v e m e n t i n t h e tribe, led b y c o l l e g e - e d u c a t e d C o m a n c h e s w h o c a m e o f age in t h e 1960s, to preserve a n d resuscitate t h e l a n g u a g e a n d r e c o r d t h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e oral t r a d i t i o n .
Richard Grant
178
In s o m e cases, elders w h o s p o k e English t o t h e i r children are n o w t e a c h i n g C o m a n c h e to t h e i r g r a n d c h i l d r e n . A n d after a l o n g r e t i cence
with
their
own
people,
and
especially
with
white
researchers, t h e y are starting t o tell m o r e o f t h e stories t h e y h e a r d from their o w n parents a n d g r a n d p a r e n t s , a b o u t t h e old h u n t i n g a n d r a i d i n g life o n t h e plains. I w a n t e d t o h e a r s o m e o f t h o s e stories, t o see if t h e y enlarged o r c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e w r i t t e n histories. M o s t of all, I w a n t e d to k n o w w h a t h a d b e c o m e o f t h e C o m a n c h e . O f all t h e I n d i a n tribes i n A m e r i c a , t h e y h a d always s t r u c k m e as t h e m o s t intransigently n o m a d i c , t h e least suited t o a life o f f a r m i n g a n d civic v i r t u e , t h e nearest A m e r i c a n
equivalent t o t h e b a r b a r i a n h o r s e m e n
who
t h u n d e r e d across t h e Eurasian steppes. W h a t h a d t h e y lost, a n d h u n g o n to, a n d g a m e d d u r i n g t h e painful, e n o r m o u s transition f r o m n o m a d i s m to s e d e n t a r y living? T h e C o m a n c h e lands t o d a y are a scattered p a t c h w o r k o f 1 6 0 acre a l l o t m e n t s a r o u n d L a w t o n , O k l a h o m a , h e l d in trust for t h e m b y t h e federal g o v e r n m e n t a n d largely o c c u p i e d by w h i t e farmers. D r i v i n g over h e r e from A r i z o n a , t h e r e was a m p l e t i m e to reflect o n t h e f o r m e r glories o f t h e C o m a n c h e e m p i r e . I crossed t h e Pecos R i v e r in N e w M e x i c o , at t h e empire's w e s t e r n edge, a n d was still inside it 4 5 0 miles later, d r i v i n g i n t o L a w t o n . At the height of their power, b e t w e e n 1750 and 1840, the C o m a n c h e s c o n t r o l l e d a t e r r i t o r y o f 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 square miles — west a n d central Texas, eastern N e w M e x i c o , southeast C o l o r a d o , m o s t o f O k l a h o m a a n d s o u t h e r n Kansas — a n d this was j u s t
the
l a u n c h i n g p a d for their o p e r a t i o n s . T h e y w e n t u p i n t o t h e R o c k i e s t o fight t h e U t e s . T h e y w e r e s o m e t i m e s seen t r a d i n g horses as far n o r t h as S a s k a t c h e w a n a n d t h e y r a i d e d d e e p i n t o M e x i c o . O n e party of C o m a n c h e s , r i d i n g w i t h K i o w a allies, r e a c h e d t h e j u n g l e s o f s o u t h e r n M e x i c o a n d c a m e b a c k w i t h stories o f m u l t i c o l o u r e d parrots a n d 'little m e n w h o live in trees', w h i c h still persists as t h e C o m a n c h e w o r d for ' m o n k e y ' . If there, w e r e any rival t o J o e Walker, i n t e r m s o f miles covered o n h o r s e b a c k , h e was p r o b a b l y an aged, l o n g - f o r g o t t e n C o m a n c h e w a r r i o r . T h e y w e r e o n e o f t h e few tribes o n t h e plains w h o h a d n e v e r p l a n t e d a seed at any p o i n t in t h e i r history. Originally, t h e y w e r e
Ghost footbound
Riders
179
h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s from t h e W i n d R i v e r c o u n t r y
in
W y o m i n g , part o f t h e S h o s h o n i p e o p l e . S o m e t i m e in t h e s i x t e e n t h o r s e v e n t e e n t h century, t h e y split off after a. d i s a g r e e m e n t a n d started a l o n g m i g r a t i o n towards t h e s o u t h e r n G r e a t Plains. A l o n g t h e w a y t h e y m a s t e r e d t h e e m e r g i n g horse—buffalo c u l t u r e a n d b e c a m e t h e first t r i b e t o exploit its full military p o t e n t i a l . As m o u n t e d archers a n d lancers — a n o m a d i c w a r m a c h i n e fuelled b y buffalo m e a t a n d horseflesh — t h e y drove t h e p e d e s t r i a n , r i v e r f a r m i n g tribes ( i n c l u d i n g t h e Apaches) off t h e s o u t h e r n plains, b l o c k e d t h e F r e n c h a d v a n c e from Louisiana, k i c k e d t h e Spanish o u t o f Texas a n d established t h e first full-scale n o m a d e m p i r e i n N o r t h America. T h e C o m a n c h e s h a d n o cattle, sheep o r goats, b u t their relationship w i t h t h e h o r s e was u n i q u e a m o n g t h e plains tribes, a n d it b r o u g h t
them
closer to t h e w a r r i o r - h e r d s m a n
model
of
n o m a d i s m w h i c h rose o n t h e Eurasian steppes. T h e y w e r e t h e o n l y t r i b e o n t h e plains w h o successfully b r e d horses, for speed, e n d u r a n c e , striking c o l o u r s a n d p a t t e r n s , a n d t h e y amassed far larger herds t h a n a n y o n e else. A S i o u x w a r c h i e f m i g h t boast a s t r i n g o f fifty horses. A n o r d i n a r y C o m a n c h e w a r r i o r w o u l d often have m o r e t h a n t w o h u n d r e d , a n d t h e r e are a c c o u n t s o f i n d i v i d u a l C o m a n c h e chiefs w i t h fifteen h u n d r e d horses o r m o r e . W e t h i n k o f C o m a n c h e n o m a d i s m as d e t e r m i n e d b y buffalo m i g r a tions, b u t an equally i m p o r t a n t reason was t h e n e e d t o find fresh g r a z i n g for t h e i r e n o r m o u s h o r s e herds. O n e o f t h e C o m a n c h e bands, n u m b e r i n g two thousand people, including w o m e n
and
children, travelled w i t h a h e r d o f fifteen t h o u s a n d horses in t h e nineteenth century. T h e C o m a n c h e s w e r e a c k n o w l e d g e d b y w h i t e s a n d Indians alike t o b e t h e finest h o r s e m e n a n d t r i c k - r i d e r s , t h e c e n t a u r s o f t h e plains, a n d m a n y w h i t e s t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e t h e finest h o r s e m e n w h o ever lived. T h e y w e r e also j u d g e d to b e t h e m o s t a w k w a r d o n foot, w a l k i n g w i t h a peculiar, jerky, b a n d y - l e g g e d shuffle, w h i c h was p r o b a b l y a result o f l e a r n i n g to r i d e before t h e y c o u l d walk properly. T h e y w e r e t h e o n l y t r i b e w h o preferred t o fight o n h o r s e back, instead of riding to the scene of the
fight
and
then
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Richard Grant
a p p r o a c h i n g stealthily o n foot, a n d t h e o n l y t r i b e r e p o r t e d t o eat, sleep a n d defecate w i t h o u t d i s m o u n t i n g , like t h e H u n s . T h e o t h e r plains tribes r o d e horses for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a n d for h u n t i n g buffalo, b u t t h e y d i d n o t live o n h o r s e b a c k like t h e C o m a n c h e s o r disdain w a l k i n g in t h e same way. B y v i r t u e o f their p r o x i m i t y to M e x i c o , t h e C o m a n c h e s d e v e l o p e d an e c o n o m y that was m o r e focused o n raiding t h e settlem e n t s t h a n t h e o t h e r plains tribes, a n d this t o o b r o u g h t
them
closer t o t h e Eurasian m o d e l o f w a r r i o r n o m a d i s m , as practised by t h e Scythians, H u n s , M o n g o l s a n d so o n . ' B e h o l d , a p e o p l e c o m e s from t h e n o r t h . . . T h e y lay h o l d o f b o w and spear; t h e y are c r u e l a n d have n o m e r c y . ..' L o n g - h a i r e d a n d u n w a s h e d , faces p a i n t e d black for war, w i t h h u m a n scalps h a n g i n g from t h e i r h o r s e bridles, a n d s o m e o f t h e w a r r i o r s w e a r i n g h o r n e d buffalo scalps o r d e e r antlers o n their heads, t h e raiding parties r o d e s o u t h i n t o M e x i c o by t h e S e p t e m b e r m o o n — t h e C o m a n c h e m o o n , as it b e c a m e k n o w n — w h e n t h e grass was h i g h a n d t h e w a t e r h o l e s full after t h e s u m m e r t h u n d e r s t o r m s . F o r t h e peasants, ranchers, villagers a n d townsfolk in n o r t h e r n M e x i c o , w h o w e r e p o o r l y d e f e n d e d b y t h e a r m y a n d largely u n a r m e d , t h e C o m a n c h e s w e r e 'los barbaros', t h e savages, t h e b a r b a r i a n s at t h e gates, s c r e a m i n g t h e i r u n e a r t h l y w a r
cries,
b l o w i n g o n e a g l e - b o n e whistles, s n a t c h i n g u p captives o n t o t h e backs of t h e i r horses - a source o f t e r r o r and d e s t r u c t i o n that lasted for 1 7 0 years. ( M o t h e r s in D u r a n g o , a t h o u s a n d miles s o u t h o f t h e buffalo plains, are still telling e r r a n t c h i l d r e n that
the
C o m a n c h e s will g e t t h e m . ) T h o u s a n d s o f M e x i c a n s w e r e killed a n d scalped, a n d
the
C o m a n c h e s w e r e in t h e habit of r a p i n g t h e w o m e n a n d m u t i lating t h e d e a d (so t h e y w o u l d n ' t have to fight t h e m i n t h e afterlife), a n d t h e y w e r e n o slouches w i t h t h e t o r t u r e stake. S o m e t i m e s t h e w a r r i o r s b r o u g h t their families a l o n g a n d stayed in M e x i c o all w i n t e r , collecting u p h u n d r e d s o f captive w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n , a n d t h o u s a n d s o f stolen horses a n d mules, before t u r n i n g n o r t h for t h e s p r i n g buffalo h u n t o n t h e h i g h plains. In t h e 1830s t h e C o m a n c h e s m u s t have felt o n t o p o f t h e w o r l d . T h e y c o n t r o l l e d t h e entire s o u t h e r n plains — an empty,
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Riders
181
u n t i l l e d , w i n d s w e p t space, f o u r h u n d r e d m i l e s w i d e a n d
six
h u n d r e d miles l o n g , c o n t a i n i n g n o p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e m e n t s o r signs o f o c c u p a t i o n . B y civilised standards it was n o e m p i r e at all — it was a h o w l i n g w i l d e r n e s s — b u t n o m a d e m p i r e s f u n c t i o n o n o p p o site p r i n c i p l e s . Fields a n d s e t t l e m e n t s i m p e d e t h e g r a z i n g a n d o b s t r u c t mobility, a n d are best visited o n l o n g - d i s t a n c e raids o r t r a d i n g e x p e d i t i o n s . To b e s u r r o u n d e d b y h u n d r e d s o f miles o f empty, primordial
grassland makes
nomads
feel s e c u r e
and
powerful. H o r s e s w e r e t h e m e a s u r e o f w e a l t h o n t h e plains, t h e equivalent o f gold, a n d t h e C o m a n c h e herds h a d r e a c h e d o b s c e n e p r o p o r tions. T h e captive trade was b o o m i n g , p o l y g a m y was o n t h e rise (a sure sign o f g o o d times) a n d m a n y scalps h u n g from their l o d g e poles a n d horse bridles. T h e i r n u m b e r s w e r e increasing, despite t h e h i g h rate o f miscarriages that c o m e s w i t h a life o n horseback. T h e y w e r e u p to a b o u t t w e n t y thousand, riding in a dozen scattered b a n d s , w i t h m a y b e six t h o u s a n d w a r r i o r s i n total. A
single
C o m a n c h e m o c c a s i n p r i n t , t h e y boasted, was e n o u g h to m a k e their e n e m i e s t u r n a r o u n d a n d g o in t h e opposite direction. R i d i n g t h r o u g h t h e i r e m p i r e w i t h its limitless buffalo herds, t h e y m u s t have t h o u g h t it w o u l d last for ever. T h e C o m a n c h e tribal c o m p l e x sits like a l o w - b u d g e t office p a r k o n a small w i n d s w e p t hill, a few miles n o r t h o f L a w t o n . W h e n I arrived, a g r o u p o f m e n w e r e p u t t i n g u p a sturdy, six-foot fence a r o u n d an area o f pasture b e l o w t h e offices. T h e y said it was for buffalo, w h i c h will leap over o r b r e a k t h r o u g h a lesser fence. T h e t r i b e has b o u g h t forty h e a d from t h e federal wildlife refuge i n the Wichita Mountains
(a l o w g r a n i t e r a n g e o n t h e
western
skyline) a n d t h e y are t o b e p e n n e d u p h e r e as a s y m b o l
of
C o m a n c h e h e r i t a g e , as a Pacific N o r t h w e s t e r n t r i b e m i g h t p u t u p a t o t e m p o l e o r a s a l m o n sculpture o u t s i d e its administrative h e a d q u a r t e r s . A d j o i n i n g t h e buffalo p a d d o c k , a n d c o m p l e t i n g t h e s y m b o l , was a corral c o n t a i n i n g fifty horses — yearling m u s t a n g s c a p t u r e d a few w e e k s ago from t h e w i l d herds in N e v a d a . F o r t y buffalo a n d fifty horses: it was h a r d n o t t o see it as a s y m b o l o f C o m a n c h e poverty.
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Richard Grant
T h e r e was a tribal p o l i c e m a n p a r k e d i n front o f t h e horses, s t a n d i n g b y his car, w a t c h i n g t h e m intently. H e h a d t h e classic C o m a n c h e physique, barrel-chested and short-legged, w i t h dark c o p p e r skin a n d b i g , b r o a d facial features. H e w o r e a n a v y - b l u e u n i f o r m , a n d his d e m e a n o u r was m u c h like that o f any o t h e r O k l a h o m a c o p . H e l e a n e d b a c k against his patrol car, w i t h t h e clouds reflected i n his sunglasses, a n d talked in a rural w e s t e r n drawl, w h i c h is t o say a S c o t c h - I r i s h drawl. T h e horses, h e said, w e r e p a r t o f t h e tribe's n e w a n t i - d r u g p r o g r a m m e . ' W e ' v e g o t a lot o f y o u n g p e o p l e messed u p o n t h e crystal m e t h . It's a b a d scene b u t w e ' r e g o n n a w h u p it, I g u a r a n t e e . W e ' r e g o n n a d o w h a t e v e r it takes to get all these dealers l o c k e d u p , a n d at t h e same t i m e w e ' r e g o n n a b u i l d u p p r i d e in o u r y o u n g p e o p l e . S o o n as w e get these yearlings b r o k e , w e ' r e starting u p a s u m m e r c a m p , w h e r e t h e kids will l e a r n all a b o u t w o r k i n g w i t h horses. Y o u n g p e o p l e n e e d t o feel p r o u d o f w h o t h e y are, a n d w h e r e t h e y c a m e from, a n d h e c k , w h a t k i n d a C o m a n c h e are y o u if y o u don't k n o w h o w to ride a horse?' M y t r u c k was p a r k e d o u t s i d e t h e offices, a b o u t 2 5 0 yards from w h e r e w e s t o o d . H e offered t o give m e a r i d e over there, a n d l o o k e d s u r p r i s e d w h e n I said I'd j u s t walk. It was an o d d E u r o p e a n c u s t o m , I t o l d h i m : w e actually liked to walk. H e gave m e his business card ( R i c h a r d Saupitty, Tribal Police Officer, ' W e will serve y o u b e t t e r t o d a y t h a n w e d i d yesterday') a n d drove away. A p p r o a c h i n g t h e front e n t r a n c e , I b r a c e d myself for wariness a n d stonewalling, a n d possible allegations that I was e x p l o i t i n g t h e t r i b e . T h i s h a d b e e n m y e x p e r i e n c e w i t h I n d i a n officialdom i n t h e past, w i t h t h e L a k o t a (Sioux), Navajo, H o p i , A p a c h e a n d Havasupai, a n d it is often r e p e a t e d a m o n g w h i t e r e p o r t e r s that Indians are 'difficult' t o deal w i t h — ' o b s t r e p e r o u s b u g g e r s ' , as a r e l o c a t e d Fleet Street h a n d o f m y a c q u a i n t a n c e p u t s it. I w e n t u p to t h e receptionist t o plead m y case, a n d it was all smiles, a n d h e y c o m e o n in, a n d here's a t w e n t y - p a g e h a n d o u t p a c k e d w i t h useful i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e C o m a n c h e s , past a n d p r e s e n t , a n d t w o m i n u t e s later, w i t h n o a p p o i n t m e n t , I was s h o w n i n t o t h e office o f t h e tribal administrator. D e l p h i n e N e l s o n rose from b e h i n d h e r desk, a small vivacious w o m a n i n a business suit,
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w i t h p e r m e d r e d d i s h hair, w i d e c u r v a c e o u s spectacles, a n d a t o n e o f brisk, g o o d - h u m o u r e d sarcasm. ' O h , so y o u w a n t t h e state-oft h e - t r i b e speech,' she d i v i n e d , a n d w e n t r i g h t i n t o it. T h e r e are a b o u t 9 5 0 0 C o m a n c h e s o n t h e tribal rolls, a n d t h e b l o o d q u a n t u m is a quarter, m e a n i n g that y o u n e e d at least o n e C o m a n c h e g r a n d p a r e n t t o qualify. N e a r l y half t h e t r i b e lives in greater Los A n g e l e s , a n d t h e rest are c o n c e n t r a t e d h e r e i n s o u t h w e s t e r n O k l a h o m a . T h e g o o d n e w s : t h e C o m a n c h e s have m o r e students in higher education
than any o t h e r tribe, and
are
p r o d u c i n g m o r e d o c t o r s , lawyers, business executives a n d teachers. T h e t r i b e has a n e w casino, w h i c h is already g e n e r a t i n g s u b s t a n tial revenues — casino g a m b l i n g is rapidly b e c o m i n g t h e staff o f life for A m e r i c a n I n d i a n tribes. T h e y call it ' t h e n e w buffalo'. T h e b a d n e w s : t h e r e has b e e n little o t h e r e c o n o m i c
development.
U n e m p l o y m e n t is h i g h , suicide is h i g h , a l c o h o l i s m a n d d r u g abuse are h i g h , a l t h o u g h all t h e s e i n d i c a t o r s are l o w e r a m o n g C o m a n c h e t h a n t h e r e s e r v a t i o n tribes, a n d even t h e
the
poorest
C o m a n c h e s are well-off b y reservation standards. T h e y all have electricity a n d r u n n i n g water, for e x a m p l e . I asked h e r if t h e r e w e r e r e m n a n t s o f n o m a d i s m i n m o d e r n C o m a n c h e c u l t u r e . ' W e l l , w e ' r e n o t g o o d farmers,'she said.'There's a few, b u t o n t h e w h o l e w e still d o n ' t like f a r m i n g , a n d w e ' r e n o g o o d at it, a n d w e ' d r a t h e r lease o u t o u r land t o w h i t e f a r m e r s . W e d o a lot b e t t e r w i t h stock-raising. W h a t else? Well, t h e w a r r i o r t r a d i t i o n is still g o i n g strong.' C o m a n c h e s signed u p i n droves for t h e t w o W o r l d Wars, K o r e a a n d V i e t n a m , a n d t h e y still j o i n t h e a r m e d forces i n large n u m b e r s . 'It's a w a y for t h e m e n t o " g o o u t o n t h e plains" and w i n t h e i r w a r h o n o u r s , ' she said. ' W h e n t h e C o m a n c h e soldiers c a m e b a c k f r o m V i e t n a m , n o o n e spat at t h e m o r called t h e m n a m e s . T h e y w e r e w e l c o m e d b a c k as r e t u r n i n g w a r r i o r s , w i t h dances a n d feasts, a n d w e w e r e all real p r o u d o f t h e m . T h e r e was very little p o s t t r a u m a t i c stress s y n d r o m e a m o n g C o m a n c h e veterans, c o m p a r e d t o w h i t e V i e t n a m vets, and that's p r o b a b l y why.' T h e m o s t d a m a g i n g legacy of their past, she says, is g e n e t i c . Seventy-five p e r c e n t o f t h e t r i b e have diabetes a n d 2 5 p e r cent have h a d a m p u t a t i o n s b e c a u s e o f t h e disease: legs, a r m s , fingers,
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toes. As w a n d e r i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , w i t h a diet t h a t was m o s t l y l e a n m e a t , grilled, b o i l e d o r e a t e n raw, t h e C o m a n c h e s evolved w i t h o u t any e x p o s u r e to refined sugars, starches a n d fried foods — t h e t h r e e basic f o o d g r o u p s o f t h e m o d e r n A m e r i c a n diet. All N o r t h A m e r i c a n Indians suffer from h i g h rates o f diabetes, b u t it is w o r s e a m o n g t h e o l d n o m a d i c h u n t i n g tribes t h a n t h e f a r m i n g tribes. I n d i a n a l c o h o l i s m has s p a w n e d a w e l t e r o f different t h e o r i e s . Is it t h e result o f c r u s h i n g defeat, loss o f h o m e l a n d s a n d massive cultural upheaval? Is it a c o n t i n u i n g response t o e n d e m i c p o v e r t y a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t ? O r d o e s it persist because o f p r o h i b i t i o n i s t I n d i a n attitudes towards a l c o h o l , w h i c h t u r n it i n t o a dark, m y s t e r i o u s f o r b i d d e n fruit? O r has a l c o h o l , for all t h e d a m a g e it has d o n e , b e e n a useful n u m b i n g a g e n t that has allowed Indians to g e t t h r o u g h a p e r i o d o f w r e n c h i n g c h a n g e ? O r d o Indians simply like t o get d r u n k for t h e same reason as e v e r y o n e else, because it feels g o o d , a n d t h e n b e c o m e a d d i c t e d m o r e easily? D e l p h i n e N e l s o n , w h o has seen t w o uncles a n d four cousins d r i n k themselves t o d e a t h , is c o n v i n c e d t h e p r o b l e m is g e n e t i c to Native Americans ( C o m a n c h e blood might be thinning, but m o s t o f t h e i n t e r m a r r i a g e has b e e n w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n tribes). She d o e s n ' t believe any o f t h e cultural u p h e a v a l t h e o r i e s , partly b e c a u s e w e l l - e d u c a t e d , u r b a n i s e d Indians w i t h g o o d j o b s a n d families (like h e r cousins) s e e m equally v u l n e r a b l e t o a l c o h o l i s m as p o o r , u n e m p l o y e d Indians. A n d partly b e c a u s e this v u l n e r a b i l i t y was glaringly e v i d e n t d u r i n g t h e first p h a s e o f c o n t a c t w i t h a l c o h o l , w h e n tribal cultures w e r e u n d i s t u r b e d a n d u n d e f e a t e d . T h e science is inconclusive, b u t t h e r e has b e e n a lot o f talk lately a b o u t
certain enzymes and flushing m e c h a n i s m s
that
E u r o p e a n s use to b r e a k d o w n a n d process a l c o h o l , a n d w h i c h American
I n d i a n s (and A u s t r a l i a n A b o r i g i n e s )
seem to
lack.
W h e t h e r it's g e n e t i c or cultural o r b o t h , t h e r e is n o d o u b t that t h e l o n g e r a p e o p l e has lived w i t h a l c o h o l , t h e less p r o n e t h e y are to a l c o h o l i s m . M e d i t e r r a n e a n E u r o p e a n s , with seven t h o u s a n d years of d r i n k i n g b e h i n d t h e m , have a 10 p e r c e n t susceptibility t o alcoholism. N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n s , w i t h fifteen h u n d r e d years, have a 2 0 - 4 0 p e r c e n t susceptibility, w i t h t h e h i g h e s t rates a m o n g
Ghost
Riders
Russians, Poles, Irish a n d Scots. A m e r i c a n Indians, w i t h
185 three
h u n d r e d years o f e x p o s u r e t o a l c o h o l , have a n 8 0 - 9 0 p e r c e n t l i k e l i h o o d o f b e c o m i n g alcoholics if t h e y start d r i n k i n g . I d o n ' t k n o w h o w a l c o h o l i s m is defined i n these surveys, w h e t h e r , for e x a m p l e , it's a R u s s i a n definition o r a C a l i f o r n i a n definition, b u t t h e general t r e n d seems clear. ' I n d i a n s b e c o m e alcoholics for t h e same reason t h e y b e c o m e diabetics,' says D e l p h i n e . 'We're n o t physiologically e q u i p p e d t o deal w i t h b o o z e o r j u n k food. It d o e s n ' t s e e m fair, a n d it's a d a m n s h a m e , b u t that's t h e reality w e ' v e g o t t o address. It was t h e same w i t h all t h o s e o t h e r diseases E u r o p e a n s b r o u g h t us. W e d i d n ' t have any i m m u n i t y to smallpox either, o r t h e c o m m o n cold, a n d w e still d o n ' t . H o w l o n g d o e s it take y o u t o get over a cold? T w o w e e k s m a x , right? F o r us, it's thirty t o sixty days, a n d t h e p u r e r t h e b l o o d , t h e l o n g e r it takes.' In t h e w i n n i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n West, m i c r o b e s have never g o t t h e respect t h e y deserve. R e d o u b t a b l e a n d remorseless, c l e a r i n g t h e w a y for civilisation's advance, a n d p r e s u m a b l y acting w i t h t h e blessing o f G o d , i m m i g r a n t g e r m s killed m o r e Indians t h a n t h e c o w b o y s , t h e a r m y a n d t h e f r o n t i e r s m e n c o m b i n e d . W e can posit historical inevitability a n d say that t h e m o r e n u m e r o u s a n d t e c h nically a d v a n c e d p e o p l e w o u l d have t r i u m p h e d anyway, w i t h o u t t h e aid o f m i c r o b e s , b u t that wasn't t h e way it h a p p e n e d a n y w h e r e in t h e A m e r i c a s . T h e latest guesswork indicates that diseases i n t r o d u c e d by E u r o p e a n s w i p e d o u t s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 9 0 per cent of the indigenous population of the Americas, n o r t h and s o u t h , a n d w h e n t h e y r e a c h e d t h e G r e a t Plains a familiar p a t t e r n was r e p e a t e d : s u d d e n , terrifying, catastrophic die-offs, social a n d psychic d i s i n t e g r a t i o n a m o n g t h e survivors, a n d an irreversible shift in t h e b a l a n c e of p o w e r . I n 1 8 4 9 t h e C o m a n c h e s w e r e already o n t h e defensive. A n e w p e o p l e , pale, g a u n t a n d l a n k y t o C o m a n c h e eyes, had a p p e a r e d o n t h e eastern fringes o f t h e e m p i r e a n d established a frontier line o f farms a n d s e t t l e m e n t s . A t first t h e C o m a n c h e s h a d u n d e r e s t i m a t e d t h e m . T h e y w e r e laughably b a d h o r s e m e n , w i t h big, p l o d d i n g horses, a n d t h e i r crops a n d cabins alone m a r k e d t h e m as a w e a k , inferior p e o p l e , a k i n to M e x i c a n s o r t h e I n d i a n f a r m i n g
Richard Grant
186
tribes, a n d a p r o m i s i n g n e w source o f captives a n d p l u n d e r . B u t t h e Texans h a d p r o v e d themselves t o b e a f o r m i d a b l e enemy, a n d a particularly vile a n d t r e a c h e r o u s o n e . Hostilities h a d h a r d e n e d i n t o p e r m a n e n t w a r w h e n t h e y seized a n d killed a n u m b e r o f C o m a n c h e chiefs u n d e r t h e sacred t r u c e o f c o u n c i l . T h e Texans ( w h o s e ranks w e r e d o m i n a t e d b y s o u t h e r n - b o r n S c o t c h - I r i s h ) w e r e a d a p t i n g q u i c k l y t o t h e plains. T h e i r h o r s e m a n s h i p h a d i m p r o v e d a n d t h e y r o d e faster, m o r e d u r a b l e horses, a n d t h e y sent o u t t h e m o s t t r o u b l e s o m e w a r parties t h e C o m a n c h e h a d ever faced. T h e s e w e r e t h e fabled Texas R a n g e r s , w h o h a d figured
o u t that t h e o n l y w a y t o fight C o m a n c h e s was t o b e c o m e
like t h e C o m a n c h e s . T h e y r o d e in small, highly m o b i l e , p r e d a t o r y b a n d s w i t h n o supply lines a n d t h e survival skills t o stay in t h e field for m o n t h s at a t i m e . R a n g e r parties h a d
followed
C o m a n c h e h o o f p r i n t s for h u n d r e d s o f miles, w a y o u t o n to t h e high plains, a n d attacked t h e m in t h e i r base c a m p s , killing w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n , b u r n i n g d o w n tepees, d r i v i n g off t h e horses, a n d r i d i n g away w i t h m a n y C o m a n c h e scalps h a n g i n g from t h e i r belts a n d h o r s e bridles. Disease h a d t a k e n a heavier toll. T h e C o m a n c h e h a d already m e t t h e i r deadliest enemy. A smallpox e p i d e m i c in 1839 w i p e d o u t s o m e b a n d s entirely, a n d syphilis, c o n t r a c t e d d u r i n g t h e raiding a n d r a p i n g sprees in M e x i c o , was e n d e m i c a m o n g all t h e b a n d s i n t h e 1840s. N e v e r t h e l e s s , as s p r i n g t u r n e d t o s u m m e r i n 1 8 4 9 t h e C o m a n c h e s still h e l d a b o u t 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r e m p i r e a n d r e m a i n e d an e x t r e m e l y f o r m i d a b l e p e o p l e . T h e y h a d a v e n g e d t h e i r losses t o t h e Texans, killing as m a n y in r e t u r n , r a p i n g , m u t i l a t i n g a n d t a k i n g h u n d r e d s o f captives, horses a n d m u l e s . F o r A n g l o Texans, t h e w o r d ' C o m a n c h e ' h a d c o m e t o m e a n w h a t it m e a n t to the Mexicans. In
frontier
newspapers, memoirs, and church
s e r m o n s , t h e C o m a n c h e w e r e c o m p a r e d t o locusts, wolves and pestilence, t o Tartars, M o n g o l s , H u n s , Vandals a n d t h e h o r s e m e n i n t h e B o o k o f J e r e m i a h . Naturally, t h e
vengeful
Comanche
d i d n ' t t h i n k o f themselves as a h o r d e o f s u b h u m a n savages. T h e y called themselves N u m u n u o r N e r m e r n u h (spelling is fluid w h e n oral languages are first w r i t t e n d o w n ) , w h i c h m e a n s t h e o n e t r u e p e o p l e , living i n t h e o n e t r u e way, w i t h t h e special blessing o f
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t h e G r e a t Spirit. It is s y m b o l i c o f civilised attitudes t o w a r d s n o m a d s t h a t w e use t h e t e r m ' C o m a n c h e ' . T h a t was w h a t t h e i r e n e m i e s , t h e U t e s , called t h e m a n d it m e a n s ' t h o s e w h o are always against us'. 1849 was t h e G o l d R u s h year a n d tens o f t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e p o u r e d across t h e n o r t h e r n reaches o f t h e C o m a n c h e
empire,
h e a d i n g for t h e California goldfields t o m a k e their fortunes — o n e o f t h e m o s t frenzied a n d d e l u d e d mass m i g r a t i o n s in
human
history. T h e g o l d - s e e k e r s c a m e from all over t h e civilised w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g its foulest a n d m o s t d i s e a s e - r i d d e n slums, a n d in a d d i t i o n t o smallpox, influenza, t y p h u s a n d w h o o p i n g c o u g h , t h e y loosed a rampaging epidemic of cholera a m o n g the
southern
plains tribes. C o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r belief, Indians attacked
the
a r g o n a u t caravans v e r y rarely. T h e y w e r e infected at t h e w a t e r holes, from discarded c l o t h i n g a n d blankets s t r e w n a l o n g t h e trails, occasionally from t r a d i n g w i t h t h e w a g o n trains, o r l o o t i n g t h e shallow graves t h e y left b e h i n d . T h e C h e y e n n e s lost a b o u t half t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n t h a t s u m m e r , a n d so d i d t h e C o m a n c h e s . 'It is k n o w n that every i m p o r t a n t c a m p h e a d m a n o r civil c h i e f d i e d in 1849,' w r i t e s T. R . F e h r e n b a c h . ' T h e s o u t h e r n C o m a n c h e s dissolved as a c o h e r e n t b a n d , a n d . . . t h e s u r v i v i n g eastern a n d n o r t h e r n bands w e r e split i n t o confused a n d t r a u m a t i z e d fragments.' O n l y t h e Q u a h a d a b a n d , t h e A n t e l o p e s , w h o r o d e t h e r e m o t e L l a n o E s t a c a d o t o t h e west, survived i n n u m b e r s , a n d it was n o c o i n c i d e n c e that t h e Q u a h a d a s c o n t i n u e d t h e C o m a n c h e resistance l o n g e r a n d m o r e effectively t h a n any o t h e r b a n d . U n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e C o m a n c h e s lived in an entirely m a g i c a l universe, a n d u n d e r s t o o d disease as t h e w o r k o f evil spirits. To lose so many, so suddenly, in s u c h h i d e o u s , m y s t e r i o u s ways, against t h e best efforts o f their m e d i c i n e m e n , i m p l i e d a vast, terrifying c o n s p i r a c y o f m a l e v o l e n t forces, a g i a n t upheaval in t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e c o s m o s — m u c h as m e d i e v a l E u r o p e a n s h a d u n d e r s t o o d t h e B l a c k D e a t h as t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f G o d ' s w r a t h o r t h e a s c e n d ancy of the Devil. T h e a g r a r i a n tribes t e n d e d t o r e s p o n d t o disease e p i d e m i c s b y g i v i n g u p h o p e a n d s i n k i n g i n t o apathetic d e s p a i r . T h e C o m a n c h e s r e s p o n d e d b y g o i n g t o w a r w i t h an even g r e a t e r ferocity t h a n
188
Richard Grant
before. W h y ? B e c a u s e t h e y w e r e w a r r i o r s . W a r offered t h e best h o p e o f r e b u i l d i n g their shattered m o r a l e a n d p r o v i n g that t h e i r ' m e d i c i n e ' , t h e i r p o w e r to influence t h e w o r k i n g s o f t h e m a g i c a l universe, was still strong. W a r was a social imperative, a n d i n 1 8 4 9 it was also a strategic necessity. T h e i r e m p i r e was u n d e r attack. T h e i r enemies were invading and multiplying. T h e C o m a n c h e s w e r e fighting t h e eastern agrarian tribes w h o h a d b e e n r e m o v e d t o O k l a h o m a , a n d this was a n o m a d - f a r m e r conflict as b i t t e r as any in A m e r i c a n history. T h e y w e r e fighting t h e Texans a n d m a n a g i n g t o k e e p t h e frontier at bay, t a k i n g 150 scalps in t h e fall o f 1 8 4 9 , a n d 100 a year t h r o u g h t h e 1 8 5 0 s . T h e y w e r e fighting t h e U S A r m y w h i c h was busily establishing forts in t h e h e a r t o f t h e b i s o n ranges a n d d e v e l o p i n g cavalry units t h a t w e r e capable o f trailing C o m a n c h e s for h u n d r e d s o f miles. A n d t h e y w e r e still r a i d i n g i n t o M e x i c o
and fighting the
Utes,
T o n k a w a s , A p a c h e s a n d o t h e r ancestral tribal e n e m i e s . W i t h half their forces w i p e d o u t i n 1 8 4 9 a n d a n o t h e r smallpox e p i d e m i c in 1 8 6 0 , t h e scattered, s h r u n k e n C o m a n c h e b a n d s w e r e o u t n u m b e r e d a n d o v e r s t r e t c h e d w h e n t h e y n e e d e d t o b e at their strongest. W h o k n o w s w h a t difference a n o t h e r t h r e e t h o u s a n d w a r r i o r s w o u l d have m a d e , o r all those chiefs w h o d i e d in 1 8 4 9 , hut the C o m a n c h e s were unable to prevent the second
major
catastrophe to. befall t h e t r i b e : t h e arrival o f professional buffalo h u n t e r s o n t h e s o u t h e r n plains i n t h e 1860s, d e p r i v i n g them, o f their m a i n s o u r c e o f food a n d shelter. A n d so t o M e d i c i n e L o d g e , Kansas, in O c t o b e r 1 8 6 7 , a g a t h e r i n g o f t h e s o u t h e r n plains tribes, in all their g a u d y n o m a d i c pageantry, a n d a few b e w h i s k e r e d , f r o c k - c o a t e d representatives o f t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t , b a c k e d u p b y t h e army. T h e tribes w a n t e d t o h o l d t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o p r e v i o u s treaties a n d get t h e settlers a n d buffalo h u n t e r s off their land. T h e g o v e r n m e n t w a n t e d t h e Indians t o stop raiding, stop i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h roads, railroads a n d forts, stop i n t e r - t r i b a l warfare, stop r o a m i n g a n d b e c o m e farmers o n reservations. It was a key m o m e n t in t h e history o f A m e r i c a n n o m a d i s m : a formal, r h e t o r i c a l clash o f cultures a n d a r e c o g n i t i o n o n b o t h sides that t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r h a d shifted for ever. T h r o u g h i n t e r p r e t e r s a n d g o v e r n m e n t scribes, w e get a clear
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189
p i c t u r e o f t h e n o m a d i c p o i n t o f view, as t h e y faced t h e p r o s p e c t o f c o n f i n e m e n t for t h e first t i m e , a n d realised t h a t t h e b e w h i s k e r e d g e n t l e m e n w e r e n o t n e g o t i a t i n g b u t t r y i n g t o dictate t e r m s . T h e a g e d C o m a n c h e c h i e f T e n Bears was t h e m o s t a c c o m plished orator, w h i t e o r I n d i a n , at M e d i c i n e L o d g e a n d h e m a d e a f a m o u s d e f e n c e a n d e u l o g y for his people's w a y o f life. As t h e translation unfolded, the whites w e r e amazed to hear
such
e l o q u e n c e from a m u r d e r o u s old savage. Y o u will find a p i e c e o f his s p e e c h i n t h e o p e n i n g q u o t a t i o n s o f this b o o k , b u t I w a n t to pass a l o n g s o m e m o r e o f it: I was b o r n u p o n t h e prairie, w h e r e t h e w i n d b l e w free a n d there was n o t h i n g t o b r e a k t h e light o f t h e sun. I was b o r n w h e r e t h e r e w e r e n o enclosures a n d e v e r y t h i n g d r e w a free breath. I w a n t t o d i e t h e r e a n d n o t w i t h i n walls. I k n o w every s t r e a m a n d every w o o d b e t w e e n t h e R i o G r a n d e a n d t h e Arkansas. I have h u n t e d a n d lived over that c o u n t r y . I live like m y fathers before m e a n d like t h e m I lived happily. W h e n I was i n W a s h i n g t o n t h e G r e a t F a t h e r told m e that all t h e C o m a n c h e l a n d was ours, a n d that n o o n e s h o u l d h i n d e r us in living o n it. S o w h y d o y o u ask us t o leave t h e rivers, a n d t h e sun, a n d t h e w i n d , a n d live in houses? . . . If t h e Texans h a d k e p t o u t of m y c o u n t r y , t h e r e m i g h t have b e e n p e a c e . B u t that w h i c h y o u n o w say w e m u s t live i n is t o o small. T h e Texans have t a k e n away t h e places w h e r e t h e grass g r e w t h e thickest a n d t h e t i m b e r was best. H a d w e k e p t that, w e m i g h t have d o n e t h e things y o u ask. B u t it is t o o late. T h e w h i t e s have t h e c o u n t r y w h i c h w e loved, a n d w e w i s h o n l y t o w a n d e r o n t h e prairie until w e die. The
reservation
was
established
in
1868
in
southwest
O k l a h o m a , a n d a b o u t half o f t h e C o m a n c h e a n d K i o w a b a n d s c a m e in. A n a g e n c y was built at F o r t Sill (an a r m y base that adjoins p r e s e n t - d a y L a w t o n ) a n d t h e first a t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e t o t u r n these n o m a d i c h u n t e r s a n d w a r r i o r s i n t o sedentary, civilised, C h r i s t i a n farmers. T h e initial signs w e r e n o t e n c o u r a g i n g . F a r m
190
Richard Grant
l a b o u r disgusted t h e m , a n d n o t j u s t because o f t h e sweat a n d d r u d g e r y . T h e idea o f d i g g i n g i n t o t h e flesh o f M o t h e r E a r t h a n d r e m o v i n g t h e grasses she h a d placed t h e r e for horses a n d buffalo was spiritually a b h o r r e n t . A n d for w h a t ? T h e C o m a n c h e s disliked e a t i n g grains a n d vegetables almost as m u c h as t h e y
disliked
growing them. T h e y w e r e issued w i t h rations o f c o r n m e a l , w h i c h t h e y tried e a t i n g a n d e n d e d u p feeding t o their horses. T h e y w e r e issued w i t h b e e f a n d h e r e was s o m e t h i n g t h e y c o u l d relate t o : r e d m e a t from a large h o r n e d animal. T h e y asked for their b e e f r a t i o n o n t h e hoof. T h e l u m b e r i n g , confused animals w e r e released o n e at a t i m e . T h e m e n leapt o n t h e i r horses, galloped after t h e m a n d s h o t t h e m full o f a r r o w s . T h e n t h e w o m e n r a n up, w i t h t h e t r a d i tional shrieks a n d ululations, a n d set t o w o r k w i t h b u t c h e r knives, a n d t h e c h i l d r e n p l e a d e d for t h e r a w liver (a p r i z e d delicacy a m o n g m o s t h u n t i n g p e o p l e s , b e c a u s e it supplies so m a n y vitamins a n d minerals). T h e a g e n t h a d t o hire a w h i t e m a n t o d o t h e f a r m i n g . A g r o u p o f h u n g r y C o m a n c h e s raided his fields a n d ate a q u a n t i t y o f u n d e r - r i p e w a t e r m e l o n s , w h i c h gave t h e m ' d e v i l inside t h e belly', a n d c o n v i n c e d t h e m further that f a r m i n g was b a d m e d i c i n e . T h e r e was n e v e r e n o u g h f o o d o n t h e reservation, m a i n l y b e c a u s e o f b u r e a u c r a t i c h o l d - u p s and t h i e v i n g c o n t r a c t o r s . T h e r e was n o t h i n g t o d o , especially for t h e y o u n g m e n : n o raiding, n o warfare, n o horse-stealing Comanche
expeditions, no
hunting,
nothing
by
which
m a l e s m e a s u r e d t h e i r status a n d s e l f - w o r t h . A n d
w i t h o u t stolen horses, scalps a n d w a r h o n o u r s , t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d p o o r m a r r i a g e prospects. Small g r o u p s o f C o m a n c h e s , led b y d i s g r u n t l e d males, b e g a n t o drift away from t h e reservation a n d j o i n t h e free bands o f C o m a n c h e s still o u t o n t h e plains. T h e r e was a last h u r r a h : a series o f raids a n d skirmishes against settlers, a r m y units a n d buffalo h u n t e r s , w h i c h t h e w h i t e s called t h e R e d R i v e r War, a n d t h e C o m a n c h e s called t h e W a r for t h e Buffalo. W i t h t h e loss o f that war, tribal n o m a d i s m c a m e t o a close o n t h e s o u t h e r n G r e a t Plains. I n 1 8 7 5 t h e last free b a n d o f Q u a h a d a s u n d e r Q u a n a h Parker, a h a l f - b r e e d c h i e f w h o s e m o t h e r was a w h i t e captive, d e c i d e d t o r i d e i n t o t h e r e s e r v a t i o n a n d
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s u b m i t t o t h e yoke. T h e y w e r e technically u n d e f e a t e d in battle, b u t a U S C a v a l r y division, aided b y T o n k a w a scouts, h a d trailed t h e m to t h e i r w i n t e r c a m p in Palo D u r o C a n y o n , b u r n e d t h e i r tepees a n d supplies a n d shot 1 4 0 0 o f their horses. T h e y w e r e cold, h u n g r y a n d ragged. T h e r e w e r e n o buffalo t o b e f o u n d . It was s e t t l e m e n t o r starvation. A n d that was t h e e n d o f t h e C o m a n c h e s , a c c o r d i n g to s o m e historians, their exit from t h e A m e r i c a n stage. All that r e m a i n e d , in the closing phrase o f T . R . F e h r e n b a c h ' s b o o k , was ' t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f their d e s t r u c t i o n ' as a p e o p l e . ' T h a t w h o l e idea, t h a t w e w e r e totally destroyed a n d lost e v e r y t h i n g — w e j u s t find it funny. It m a k e s us l a u g h . I m e a n , hello, w e ' r e still h e r e ! ' T h i s was J i m m y A r t e r b e r r y , in t h e Office
of
E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o g r a m s (next t o t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n office, w i t h a p i c t u r e o n t h e d o o r o f an Indian r i d i n g a w a r pony, and u n d e r n e a t h it, an I n d i a n s t a n d i n g n e x t to a p i c k - u p t r u c k ) . J i m m y is one-quarter C o m a n c h e and three-quarters D u t c h - A m e r i c a n . H e l o o k s a b o u t as C o m a n c h e as I d o — tall, slim, fair-skinned, s h a r p featured — b u t h e was largely raised b y his C o m a n c h e
grand-
m o t h e r a n d h e r C o m a n c h e friends. H e g r e w u p s p e a k i n g b o t h languages a n d p e s t e r i n g t h e elders for stories a b o u t t h e o l d days. ' W e l o o k at it as a process o f adaptation,' h e said. ' A series o f choices a n d decisions that w e ' v e m a d e that has allowed us t o preserve as m u c h o f o u r culture as possible. It hasn't b e e n easy. T h e w h o l e t h i n g has b e e n crazy a n d w e n e v e r w o u l d have m a d e it t h r o u g h w i t h o u t o u r sense o f h u m o u r . P e o p l e say w e l a u g h at t h e w r o n g times, like b u s t i n g u p at a funeral o r w h a t e v e r , b u t w e ' v e l e a r n e d that t h e r e are t w o ways o f dealing w i t h harsh realities. You c a n c r y o r y o u can laugh.' I asked h i m w h a t h a d b e e n p r e s e r v e d a n d h e said t h e r e w e r e a h u n d r e d t h i n g s . C u s t o m s at t h e d i n n e r table and ways
of
p r e p a r i n g food. A c o n t i n u i n g fondness for b o i l e d m e a t , a n d b o i l e d guts, w h i c h t h e C o m a n c h e s call ' T h e B i b l e ' for t h e way it separates i n t o flaky w h i t e sheets. T h e w a y t h e elders p o i n t w i t h their l i p s . T h e r u d e n e s s o f l o o k i n g directly i n t o s o m e o n e ' s eyes as y o u ' r e talking t o t h e m . C u s t o m s o f gift-giving a n d hospitality. A taste
192
Richard Grant
for b r i g h t c o l o u r s (shared b y tribal n o m a d s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d a n d p r e s u m a b l y a response t o t h e m u t e d h u e s o f arid landscapes). C o m m u n a l i s m a n d clan loyalty: a p e r s o n w i t h a j o b is e x p e c t e d t o s u p p o r t his u n e m p l o y e d relatives, n e p o t i s m is rife in tribal h i r i n g practices, factionalism plagues tribal politics. ' W e ' r e still basically t h e same people,' h e said. ' W e can still b e pushy, d e m a n d i n g , d o m i n e e r i n g , aggressive. W e ' r e still o r n e r y , a lot o f o u r p e o p l e are m e a n . D o n ' t b a c k t h e m i n t o a c o r n e r , a n d I ' m n o t j u s t talking a b o u t t h e m e n . O u r w o m e n can be fighters too.' O r n e r i n e s s . I d i d n ' t see any e v i d e n c e o f it, b u t o n e hears that w o r d a lot talking t o C o m a n c h e s today. It is t h e b l a n k e t t e r m t h e y use t o cover all t h e raiding, r a p i n g , t o r t u r i n g a n d pillaging in their past. J i m m y says that w h i t e s have m a d e t o o m u c h o f it. O r n e r i n e s s was b u t o n e aspect o f a r i c h a n d v a r i e d culture. It was t h e part o f themselves that t h e C o m a n c h e s s h o w e d t h e o u t s i d e , literate w o r l d . A n d t h e y lived in o r n e r y times, w i t h e n d e m i c tribal warfare a n d w h i t e e n e m i e s w h o w e r e j u s t as o r n e r y in r e t u r n . H e says that v i o l e n c e is natural a m o n g h u m a n beings (an assert i o n I m i g h t a m e n d t o n o r m a l ) , and that C o m a n c h e v i o l e n c e was s m a l l - t i m e stuff c o m p a r e d t o t h e v i o l e n c e c o m m i t t e d by t h e m o s t civilised p e o p l e o n earth: t h e S o m m e , V e r d u n , t h e
Holocaust,
H i r o s h i m a , V i e t n a m , a n d so o n . W h e n I asked h i m a b o u t n o m a d i c h o l d o v e r s , h e sprang o u t o f his chair a n d started p o i n t i n g at a b i g m a p o n t h e wall. ' W e ' r e still n o m a d s ! ' h e e x c l a i m e d . ' A t least a l o t o f us a r e . ' W i t h a l o n g , circling finger, he s h o w e d m e w h e r e t h e different
Comanche
b a n d s used t o r o a m . H e r e , o n a n d a r o u n d t h e L l a n o Estacado, was t h e h o m e t e r r i t o r y of t h e Q u a h a d a b a n d , t h e A n t e l o p e s , w h o r o d e w i t h b i s o n - h i d e parasols a n d w e r e also k n o w n as S u n Shades O n T h e i r B a c k s . T h i s w a s his g r a n d m o t h e r ' s b a n d , a n d C o m a n c h e genealogy, w h i c h ignores all n o n - C o m a n c h e
by
blood,
J i m m y is Q u a h a d a a n d his clan w i t h i n t h e b a n d is t h e L o u d Talkers. A n d h e r e , further east a n d a little n o r t h , w e r e t h e h o m e ranges o f t h e N o k o n i b a n d , t h e W a n d e r e r s , T h o s e W h o
Move
Often. 'All C o m a n c h e s w e r e n o m a d i c , ' h e says, ' b u t t h e Q u a h a d a s a n d
Ghost
Riders
193
t h e N o k o n i s w e r e t h e m o s t n o m a d i c . T h e y w o u l d travel m o r e often t h a n t h e o t h e r b a n d s a n d g o further. W h a t y o u find t o d a y is that t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f these t w o b a n d s still d o a lot m o r e t r a v elling t h a n t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e o t h e r b a n d s . A n d t h e y ' r e t r a v elling t o t h e same places a n d u s i n g a lot o f t h e same r o u t e s . T h e y u s e d to go d o w n t o M e x i c o in S e p t e m b e r t o raid. N o w t h e y g o d o w n t h e r e for t h e bullfights in Laredo, a n d to harvest peyote.* M y m o t h e r w o u l d g o n o r t h every year to h u n t p h e a s a n t
in
C o l o r a d o , w h e r e w e u s e d to fight t h e U t e s . S h e w o u l d g o u p t o W y o m i n g t o h u n t bears. P e o p l e are still travelling t o t h e old sacred sites, a n d vision quest places. O r they'll s p e n d a s u m m e r g o i n g r o u n d all t h e I n d i a n g a t h e r i n g s a n d tribal fairs o n t h e plains.' J i m m y has t h o u g h t a lot a b o u t these m a t t e r s . H e has settled d o w n now, at t h e age o f forty, b u t d u r i n g his t w e n t i e s a n d t h i r ties h e w a n d e r e d all over A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e , a n d his m o t h e r w o u l d always tell h i m , ' I t ' s that C o m a n c h e b l o o d . ' T h a t was h o w she e x p l a i n e d h e r o w n love o f travel — h e r p h e a s a n t - a n d b e a r h u n t i n g e x p e d i t i o n s — a n d J i m m y ' s full-blood g r a n d m o t h e r w o u l d say t h e same t h i n g a b o u t t h e family t r a d i t i o n o f travel. She was a lifelong s u b s c r i b e r t o National
Geographic, fascinated b y distant
places, a n d w h e n J i m m y r e t u r n e d from H a w a i i , o r N e w York, o r Spain, o r w h e r e v e r h e h a d b e e n , she w o u l d sit h i m d o w n a n d grill h i m endlessly. T a l k i n g t o C o m a n c h e s myself, especially t h e few elders I have m e t , I find t h e m u n c o m m o n l y interested in m y r e c e n t j o u r n e y s . T h e y d o n ' t w a n t a n e c d o t e s o r sightseeing stories, j u s t t h e d r y navigational details: t h e exact r o u t e s I travelled a n d t h e s e q u e n c e o f t o w n s , rivers a n d l a n d m a r k s I passed a l o n g t h e way..I h a d t o m a k e a c o u p l e o f side-trips, a n d w h e n I asked t h e m for d i r e c tions t h e y w o u l d give p h e n o m e n a l l y detailed i n s t r u c t i o n s . T u r n east at t h e c r e e k w i t h s u c h - a n d - s u c h a m e d i c i n a l plant g r o w i n g o n its b a n k . You're g o i n g t o see a pasture w i t h a w h i t e b a r n a n d * Peyote: a hallucinogenic cactus that the C o m a n c h e s started incorporating into religious
ceremonies
during
the
reservation
years, along
with
elements
of
Christianity. T h e practice spread to m a n y o t h e r Indian tribes and led to the f o r m a tion o f t h e peyote-based Native A m e r i c a n C h u r c h , a n d laws decriminalising p e y o t e p o s s e s s i o n a m o n g its m e m b e r s .
194
Richard Grant
a palomino mare. T h e n they w o u l d n a m e the next fourteen or t w e n t y . t o w n s I was g o i n g t o drive t h r o u g h . I asked J i m m y A r t e r b e r r y a b o u t this a n d h e h a d a ready e x p l a n a t i o n : ' T h a t was h o w w e navigated in t h e o l d days. O n e o f t h e elders w o u l d d r a w a m a p in t h e dirt, w i t h all t h e l a n d m a r k s a n d rivers y o u w e r e g o i n g t o cross i n t h e first day o f t h e j o u r n e y . You w o u l d have to m e m o r i s e it a n d repeat it all b a c k t o h i m in t h e r i g h t order. T h e n h e w o u l d m a k e a n o t c h i n a stick: t h a t was t h e first day. T h e n h e w o u l d d r a w o u t a m a p for t h e s e c o n d day, a n d y o u w o u l d m e m o r i s e all that. H e w o u l d m a k e a s e c o n d n o t c h , a n d so o n , for as m a n y days as t h e j o u r n e y was g o i n g t o take. A n d it m i g h t take t w e n t y days t o get w h e r e y o u w e r e g o i n g . There
were people w h o
had a t h o u s a n d miles of
country
c o m m i t t e d to m e m o r y ' In t h e early years o f t h e reservation, t h e C o m a n c h e s (and t h e Kiowas a n d K i o w a - A p a c h e s w h o shared t h e reservation) devised n e w forms o f n o m a d i s m , o n a s h r u n k e n scale. M o s t o f t h e m w e r e still living in m o b i l e e n c a m p m e n t s o f tents a n d tepees, a n d they w o u l d m o v e u p i n t o t h e W i c h i t a M o u n t a i n s in w a r m e r w e a t h e r , a n d d o w n i n t o t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e t i m b e r e d b o t t o m l a n d s in w i n t e r , a n d m a k e frequent, e x t e n d e d visits t o o t h e r families a n d clan g r o u p s c a m p e d a r o u n d t h e reservation. W h e n t h e g o v e r n m e n t started b u i l d i n g h o u s e s for t h e m , t h e C o m a n c h e s w e r e d e l i g h t e d . T h e y w o u l d s h o w off t h e i r h o u s e s t o each o t h e r as status symbols, b u t t h e y b a u l k e d at t h e idea o f a c t u ally living in t h e m . H o u s e s h a d strange e c h o e s . T h e y attracted snakes. A few C o m a n c h e s t r i e d sleeping inside t h e m a n d f o u n d t h e best place was directly u n d e r t h e c h i m n e y flue, w h i c h afforded a v i e w o f t h e stars at n i g h t , similar t o t h e v i e w t h r o u g h t h e t o p o f a t e p e e . M o s t p e o p l e p i t c h e d t h e i r tents a n d tepees outside, built b r u s h - a r b o u r s for t h e s u m m e r , a n d let their dogs sleep in the houses. T h e s e w e r e exasperating times for t h e w h i t e a u t h o r i t i e s , w h o believed, b e y o n d any s h a d o w o f d o u b t , that s e d e n t a r y a g r i c u l t u r a l civilisation was t h e c r o w n i n g a p o g e e o f h u m a n progess, to w h i c h all p e o p l e s h o u l d aspire. T h e w h i t e s w e r e o p e r a t i n g u n d e r their
Ghost
Riders
195
o w n c o n c e p t o f N u m u n u . T h e i r s was t h e o n e t r u e way, w i t h t h e special blessing o f G o d , a n d t h e C o m a n c h e s disdained its m o s t basic tenets: fixed dwellings, f a r m i n g a n d p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y . In 1 8 8 5 S e n a t o r H e n r y D a w e s m a d e a t o u r o f I n d i a n r e s e r vations in O k l a h o m a
a n d d e l i v e r e d his r e p o r t t o t h e
Lake
M o h o n k C o n f e r e n c e - an a n n u a l g a t h e r i n g o f influential w h i t e s w h o called t h e m s e l v e s 'friends o f t h e I n d i a n ' , a n d w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o a d v a n c i n g t h e i r r e d b r e t h r e n t o w a r d s w h i t e civilisation. T h e s e n a t o r b r o u g h t d i s p i r i t i n g n e w s : ' T h e r e is n o selfishness, w h i c h is at t h e b o t t o m o f civilisation.' T h e tribes w e r e still l i v i n g w i t h i n c o m m u n a l social s t r u c t u r e s . T h e y w e r e still s h a r i n g all t h e i r f o o d a n d possessions w i t h t h e i r k i n f o l k . T h e y w e r e m o r e i m p r e s s e d b y displays o f g e n e r o s i t y t h a n t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n
of
private wealth. ' W e n e e d t o a w a k e n in h i m [the Indian] wants,' said a n o t h e r c o n f e r e n c e e . ' I n his dull savagery h e m u s t b e t o u c h e d b y t h e w i n g s o f t h e d i v i n e angel o f d i s c o n t e n t . . . D i s c o n t e n t w i t h t h e t e p e e a n d t h e starving rations o f t h e I n d i a n c a m p in w i n t e r is n e e d e d t o get t h e I n d i a n o u t o f t h e b l a n k e t a n d i n t o trousers — and trousers w i t h a p o c k e t in t h e m , a n d w i t h a p o c k e t that aches t o b e filled w i t h dollars! . . . this is t h e first great step in t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e race.' T h e result o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e was t h e Dawes Act, w h i c h a u t h o r ised t h e b r e a k i n g u p o f t h e I n d i a n reservations in
Oklahoma.
C o m m u n a l l a n d was t o b e divided i n t o privately h e l d 1 6 0 - a c r e a l l o t m e n t s , t o e n c o u r a g e respect for private p r o p e r t y a n d t h e n u c l e a r family. B y h a p p y c o i n c i d e n c e , t h e D a w e s A c t also freed u p 2 8 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 acres o f ' s u r p l u s ' l a n d t o t h e c l a m o u r i n g w h i t e settlers, a n d activated t h e O k l a h o m a L a n d R u s h . It s o u n d s like a cynical e x c u s e for y e t a n o t h e r l a n d grab, b u t t h e conferencees firmly believed t h e y w e r e d o i n g t h e best for t h e Indians. It was an article o f faith in t h e n i n e t e e n t h century, h e l d t o b y capitalists a n d M a r x i s t s alike, t h a t all h u m a n
societies
progressed t h r o u g h i n e x o r a b l e , u n w a v e r i n g stages o f history. F r o m w a n d e r i n g savagery, t h e first stage o f progress was
sedentary
f a r m i n g , w h i c h gave rise t o t h e division o f labour, private p r o p erty a n d social hierarchies, w h i c h i n t u r n p r o d u c e d civilisation,
196
Richard Grant"
feudalism, capitalism a n d industrialism. A n d like L e n i n , Stalin o r M a o , A m e r i c a n leaders felt it was t h e i r d u t y t o s p e e d t h e inevitable process a l o n g by forcibly i m p o s i n g a m o r e a d v a n c e d c u l t u r e o n t h e laggards. O f c o u r s e , these processes are n o t inevitable, especially w h e n it c o m e s t o n o m a d i c tribes. N o m a d i s m generally develops i n o p p o s i t i o n to s e d e n t a r y a g r i c u l t u r e , n o t as a stage towards it. L o o k i n g o u t over t h e entire span o f history, o n e can p r o d u c e a few isolated examples o f n o m a d tribes w h o v o l u n t a r i l y settled d o w n , o r w e r e l u r e d i n t o s e t t l e m e n t against their b e t t e r j u d g e m e n t like t h e Scythians. B u t it usually takes starvation o r m i l i tary defeat to get tribal n o m a d s to settle — a c h o i c e b e t w e e n s e t t l e m e n t and death. T h i s has always p u z z l e d t h e civilised, m a d e t h e m c u r i o u s . W h a t is t h e big attraction? W h y w o u l d
people
c h o o s e hardship over comfort? T h e civilised betray t h e answer t h r o u g h their repressed envy o f n o m a d s a n d their p r o p e n s i t y to r o m a n t i c i s e n o m a d s o n c e t h e y n o l o n g e r p r e s e n t a threat. T h e C o m a n c h e s , for e x a m p l e , f o u n d themselves in constant d e m a n d for parades in Texas a n d O k l a h o m a , a n d w e r e r e q u i r e d t o r i d e o n h o r s e b a c k in feathered w a r b o n n e t s . As F e h r e n b a c h says, ' T h e y will b e r e m e m b e r e d a n d recalled w i t h a certain p r i d e a n d nostalgia, b e c a u s e t h e y . . . r e p r e s e n t e d freedoms a n d values d e n i e d civilized m a n k i n d : f r e e d o m
from
s u b o r d i n a t i o n a n d slavery — m e n w h o t o o k n o orders e x c e p t b y c h o i c e , lordly creatures living as t h e y pleased across t h e land.' T h e C o m a n c h e s , Kiowas and Kiowa-Apaches managed to postp o n e t h e division o f their r e s e r v a t i o n u n t i l 1 9 0 1 . N o w c a m e an influx o f w h i t e settlers, t h i r t y t h o u s a n d o f t h e m o v e r t h e n e x t t w e n t y years, a n d t h e spread o f a m a t h e m a t i c a l g r i d w o r k across t h e land: 1 6 0 - a c r e allotments fenced off w i t h b a r b e d w i r e a n d s e c t i o n - l i n e roads w h i c h i n t e r s e c t e d at r i g h t - a n g l e s . As t h e circle is sacred t o plains Indians, so t h e grid, w i t h its insistent linear g e o m e t r y , is t h e sacred s y m b o l o f A m e r i c a n civilisation. It was n o l o n g e r possible t o m o v e freely across t h e land, o r c a m p w h e r e v e r y o u w a n t e d . T h e s m o o t h space was g o n e . E v e n s o u n d s
were
restricted in their travels b y physical o b s t r u c t i o n s like b a r n s a n d farmhouses
a n d b y a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n n o i s e levels. T h e
Ghost
Riders
197
C o m a n c h e s c o u l d n o l o n g e r h e a r t h e i r d r u m s , calling i n t h e different g r o u p s for social m e e t i n g s o r p e y o t e c e r e m o n i e s . B u t t h e y r e m a i n e d a social p e o p l e , a c c u s t o m e d t o g a t h e r i n g i n c a m p s , a n d t h e y f o u n d ways t o p e r p e t u a t e this t r a d i t i o n . T h e y m a d e circuits o f each other's a l l o t m e n t s . T h e p e y o t e enthusiasts h e l d p r e - a r r a n g e d m e e t i n g s every w e e k e n d i n different places. A n d t h e r e w e r e large-scale t e n t e d e n c a m p m e n t s every N e w Year a n d m i d - s u m m e r . T h e converts t o Christianity, k n o w n as ' c h u r c h p e o p l e ' , c a m e t o g e t h e r for revival m e e t i n g s : prayers, s e r m o n s , testim o n i a l s . T h e m o r e traditional C o m a n c h e s g a t h e r e d for c e r e m o nial dances, a t t e n d e d b y prayers, g a m b l i n g a n d 'giveaways' o f m o n e y , f o o d a n d gifts — t o h o n o u r c e r t a i n families o r individuals (First W o r l d W a r veterans, for e x a m p l e ) a n d r e d i s t r i b u t e t h e w e a l t h . T h e s e d a n c e g a t h e r i n g s , d e v e l o p e d as a response to a l l o t m e n t s a n d as a way t o resist t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e D a w e s A c t , b e c a m e k n o w n as p o w - w o w s a n d are still g o i n g strong.
T w e n t y miles n o r t h o f L a w t o n , in t h e small t o w n o f A p a c h e , t h e s o u n d o f d r u m m i n g a n d singing e m a n a t e s from a l o w c o n c r e t e r e c r e a t i o n c e n t r e . T h e b i g s u m m e r p o w - w o w s still take place outside, w i t h tents a n d tepees, b u t t h e r e are smaller p o w - w o w s a l m o s t every w e e k e n d , a n d m o s t o f t h e m are h e l d w i t h i n walls. I s h o u l d also m e n t i o n that p o w - w o w s have b e c o m e a p a n I n d i a n i n s t i t u t i o n . All t h e plains tribes have t h e m a n d b o r r o w p o w - w o w dances a n d c o s t u m e styles from e a c h o t h e r . Inside: m e t a l bleachers a r o u n d t h e walls, w h i t e lines o n a p o l i s h e d w o o d floor, h o o p s at e i t h e r e n d — a basketball c o u r t . P e o p l e are sitting in d e c k c h a i r s , a r r a n g e d i n rows a r o u n d a central space, w h e r e d a n c e r s are s h a k i n g g o u r d rattles a n d eight m e n are p o u n d i n g an e n o r m o u s d r u m a n d s i n g i n g . T h u m p , t h u m p , t h u m p : a steady, m o n o t o n o u s r h y t h m , t h e h e a r t b e a t o f M o t h e r E a r t h , w i t h an occasional T H U M P - T H U M P . ' H e y - a - h a h ! H e y - a - h a h ! H e y - a - h a h ! ' a n d s o m e t i m e s , ' H i y a - h e y ! H i y a - h e y ! ' T h e d a n c e is a simple, l o w - e n e r g y shuffle-step, as it n e e d s t o be. Today, t h e p o w - w o w will g o o n for eight h o u r s , a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e y last all night. T h e r e ' s M e l v i n - M e l v i n K e r c h e e S e n i o r — eighty years old,
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d a n c i n g w i t h a w a l k i n g cane in o n e h a n d a n d an e a g l e - w i n g fan i n t h e o t h e r . S o m e o f t h e dancers are w e a r i n g elaborate c o s t u m e s o f satin a n d b u c k s k i n , w i t h fringes, r i b b o n s , tassels, j i n g l i n g bells, b r i g h t l y c o l o u r e d sashes a n d feathered headdresses. M e l v i n is d a n c i n g in j e a n s , sensible shoes, a regular shirt a n d a baseball cap t h a t a n n o u n c e s h i m as a S e c o n d W o r l d W a r veteran. H e has closec r o p p e d w h i t e hail' and is w e a r i n g a pair o f sunglasses that Elvis Presley m i g h t have w o r n . It is t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n s w h o like t o dress u p for p o w - w o w s , a n d his son M e l v i n J u n i o r , w i t h his l o n g braids a n d eagle-feather w a r b o n n e t , is a particularly r e s p l e n dent example. M e l v i n S e n i o r b e c k o n s m e over a n d hands m e a g o u r d rattle. T h e r e is n o w a y t o refuse w i t h o u t b e i n g r u d e . R a i s e d o n A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n m u s i c (jazz, blues, soul, funk, rock and roll), I have to fight
t h e i m p u l s e t o shake t h e rattle o n t h e off-beat, or c h a n k a -
c h a n k a - c h a n k it on t h e q u a r t e r - b e a t s , instead o f b r i n g i n g it d o w n o n t h e t h u m p - t h u m p — t h u m p o f t h e d e e p bass d r u m : t h e h e a r t b e a t o f M o t h e r E a r t h does n o t allow for s y n c o p a t i o n . It's as r u d i m e n t a r y as music gets in t h e w o r l d , b u t after a w h i l e t h e insistent m o n o t o n y o f t h e r h y t h m and t h e repetitiveness o f t h e c h a n t i n g b e g i n to w o r k o n m e . I t r a n c e o u t a little, s h a k i n g t h e g o u r d a n d shuffle-stepping w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g a b o u t it, o r h o w o u t o f place 1 l o o k , a n d w h e n t h e s o n g eventually ends I w a n t it t o c o n t i n u e . S p e c t a c t o r s d r o p c r u m p l e d dollar bills at o u r feet. ' P i c k it up,' says M e l v i n Senior. ' T h a t ' s h a m b u r g e r m o n e y ' T h e r e is a b r e a k for a buffet d i n n e r (boiled m e a t , c o r n a n d m a c a r o n i cheese), a n d I sit d o w n t o eat w i t h M e l v i n Senior, his wife N e t t i e a n d s o m e o f t h e i r relatives. T r u e to f o r m , M e l v i n behaves scandalously. T h e r e are m a n y facets t o h i m , b u t above all h e is k n o w n as a rascal, a prankster, a m i s c h i e f - m a k e r . H e delights in m a k i n g c r u d e j o k e s a n d o u t r a g e o u s r e m a r k s in polite c o m p a n y , especially if h e can get a rise o u t o f N e t t i e , w h o is hard t o s h o c k after fifty years o f m a r r i a g e . At o n e p o i n t , an aged, dignified C o m a n c h e g e n t l e m a n c o m e s over and a n n o u n c e s sadly that h e has b e e n d i a g n o s e d w i t h diabetes. ' D o n ' t w o r r y ' says M e l v i n Senior. 'I'll give y o u m o u t h - t o - m o u t h w h e n you collapse. Give y o u a little t o n g u e if y o u w a n t it.' T h a t w i n s h i m a gasp, a scolding
Ghost
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a n d a slap o n t h e a r m from N e t t i e , w h i c h M e l v i n receives w i t h e n o r m o u s satisfaction, a n d t h e elderly g e n t l e m a n walks away, g r i n n i n g a n d s h a k i n g his h e a d at t h e o u t r a g e o u s n e s s o f M e l v i n . W h e n y o u c a t c h h i m in the r i g h t m o o d , M e l v i n S e n i o r is a f o u n t o f oral history a b o u t t h e t r i b e . H e is a fluent
Comanche
speaker, directly d e s c e n d e d from i m p o r t a n t chiefs (Ten Bears, W h i t e W o l f ) o n b o t h sides o f his family. H i s g r a n d f a t h e r was b o r n i n t o t h e old life o n t h e plains a n d t h e n b e c a m e a trail c o w b o y , r i d i n g w i t h C h a r l e s G o o d n i g h t a n d d e l i v e r i n g herds from Texas t o Kansas — a w a y to c o n t i n u e r o a m i n g t h e plains o n h o r s e b a c k . In his old age, settled in O k l a h o m a , h e m a d e a c o n c e r t e d effort to pass o n w h a t h e k n e w a b o u t b e i n g C o m a n c h e to his g r a n d s o n . M e l v i n has b e e n solving e t h n o g r a p h i c a l puzzles for m e all week. R e a d i n g about the C o m a n c h e
diet i n t h e o l d days, I
w o n d e r e d w h y t h e r e was n o m e n t i o n of mare's m i l k , a c a l o r i e r i c h food t h a t was t h e staple diet o f Eurasian n o m a d s , a n d w h i c h t h e C o m a n c h e s possessed in a b u n d a n c e . ' S u r e w e d r a n k mare's milk,' M e l v i n t o l d m e . ' N o t if w e h a d buffalo m e a t , b u t w e w o u l d d r i n k it. W e w o u l d m a k e a m e d i c i n e o u t o f it that's g o o d for cataracts in t h e eyes.' I w o n d e r e d h o w C o m a n c h e s had b e e n able t o navigate so well o n t h e flat a n d almost featureless plains that m a d e u p so m u c h o f t h e i r territory. W h a t d i d t h e y use for landmarks? M e l v i n said t h e r e w e r e seven different w o r d s in C o m a n c h e for different types o f small hill: r o u n d hill, hill e r o d i n g o n t h e east, 'tit hill', and so o n . H e t o l d m e a b o u t l e a n i n g trees: t h e y w o u l d tie d o w n a sapling so it p o i n t e d towards a w a t e r h o l e a n d t h e tree w o u l d g r o w l e a n i n g in that d i r e c t i o n . (Later, I discovered that a c h a n c e r e m a r k b y M e l v i n S e n i o r a b o u t l e a n i n g trees, o r ' t u r n i n g trees', t o a h i s t o r ian in Texas h a d p r o d u c e d a flurry o f historical papers a n d t h e discovery of a few o f these trees.) H e is acutely aware that w h a t h e k n o w s will die w i t h h i m unless s o m e o n e records it. H e w o u l d prefer it if C o m a n c h e s w e r e d o i n g this w o r k , a n d a few o f t h e m are, b u t w h i t e p e o p l e are b e t t e r than n o t h i n g . H e keeps a d m o n ishing m e : I n e e d t o stay for a few m o n t h s a n d b r i n g a t a p e recorder. H e has w a r n e d m e repeatedly against c a m p i n g in t h e W i c h i t a
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Richard Grant
M o u n t a i n s because o f t h e ghosts. A l o t o f C o m a n c h e s are b u r i e d u p t h e r e , h e says. T h e i r b o n e s lie in caves a n d crevasses, a n d t h e i r spirits reinforce t h e old t a b o o against visiting burial sites a n d places o f d e a t h . I have i g n o r e d these w a r n i n g s because I like it u p t h e r e and t h e buffalo h e r d s are calving. O f all t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m a m m a l s , t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g particularly p o i g n a n t a n d
hopeful
a b o u t w a t c h i n g a buffalo give b i r t h . M e l v i n shakes his h e a d over m y s t u b b o r n n e s s . I w o k e u p this m o r n i n g w i t h a c r i c k in m y n e c k : w h a t m o r e e v i d e n c e d o I n e e d ? H e leads m e o u t s i d e t o t h e p a r k i n g lot w i t h M e l v i n J u n i o r , w h o has p r e p a r e d a brazier o f coals i n a coffee can, a n d t w o o t h e r relatives. M e l v i n S e n i o r takes a plastic b a g o f d r i e d cedar sprigs from his p o c k e t a n d sprinkles t h e m o n t h e coals. H e calls us u p o n e by o n e and wafts t h e s m o k e over us w i t h his e a g l e - w i n g fan w h i l e saying a prayer o f p r o t e c t i o n in C o m a n c h e . I ' m n o t a believer in this k i n d of t h i n g , b u t t h e s m o k e has a w o n d e r f u l a r o m a t i c smell, a n d t h e b r u s h of t h e eagle w i n g a n d t h e soft, m u r m u r e d prayer are s o o t h i n g a n d relaxing. ' M a y b e that'll h e l p w i t h t h e spooks,' h e says. M e a n w h i l e , n o t fifty yards away, g r o u p s o f t e e n a g e C o m a n c h e s are l o u n g i n g a r o u n d in t h e i r cars a n d t r u c k s , i n h a l i n g a different k i n d o f a r o m a t i c s m o k e . T h e y c o u l d b e teenagers a n y w h e r e in A m e r i c a , i n their b a g g y b r a n d - n a m e clothes, baseball caps a n d sun-visors, passing a j o i n t b a c k a n d forth w i t h practised n o n c h a l ance, n o d d i n g their heads t o a p a r e n t a l - a d v i s o r y rap C D . T h e l i c e n c e plates o n their cars feature t h e tribal l o g o — a h o r s e m a n with a war lance — and the legend ' N u m u n u , Lords O f Plains'. I t h i n k o f t h e s e c o n d - a n d t h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n
The
Mexican-
A m e r i c a n t e e n a g e r s in m y n e i g h b o u r h o o d in T u c s o n w h o speak very little Spanish a n d p a i n t A z t e c figures a n d symbols o n t h e i r l o w r i d e r s . I t h i n k o f I r i s h - A m e r i c a n s d r i n k i n g g r e e n b e e r o n St Patrick's Day. I t a l i a n - A m e r i c a n s , J e w i s h - A m e r i c a n s . . . T h e C o m a n c h e s have b e e n o n A m e r i c a n soil for t h o u s a n d s o f years, b u t t h e y are i m m i g r a n t s i n t o A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e , dealing w i t h i m m i g r a n t c o n c e r n s . T h e elders still speak t h e o l d l a n g u a g e a n d retain m a n y old c u s t o m s a n d beliefs — M e l v i n Senior's g e n e r a t i o n w e r e t h e first C o m a n c h e s to g r o w u p i n h o u s e s , instead o f
Ghost
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tents a n d tepees. T h e i r children g r e w u p s p e a k i n g English a n d d e v e l o p e d a h y b r i d i s e d o r h y p h e n a t e d identity. Elders are perfectly h a p p y w i t h t h e t e r m ' I n d i a n ' . T h e i r c h i l d r e n , especially if t h e y have b e e n n e a r a university, are m o r e likely to use t h e w h i t e t e r m ' N a t i v e A m e r i c a n ' . T h e i r g r a n d c h i l d r e n , by t h e l o o k s o f things, are f u r t h e r d o w n t h e r o a d o f assimilation — t o o far, a c c o r d i n g t o the
older
generations, w h o
have
responded
by setting
C o m a n c h e l a n g u a g e classes, cultural h e r i t a g e p r o g r a m m e s
up and
a n t i - d r u g p r o g r a m m e s based o n c a m p i n g w i t h horses. As I t a l i a n - A m e r i c a n s have r e t a i n e d distinctive c u s t o m s t h r o u g h t h e process o f assimilation — t h e kiss b e t w e e n m a l e relatives, ways o f gesticulating, c u l i n a r y traditions, ideas a b o u t family, religion a n d social e t i q u e t t e — so it is w i t h C o m a n c h e s . T h e y have assimilated further t h a n t h e reservation tribes, b u t t h e y still have t h e i r p o w - w o w s , p e y o t e m e e t i n g s , c u s t o m s o f gift-giving (it is i m p o s sible to get o u t o f t h e i r h o u s e s w i t h o u t s o m e t h i n g ) , eating t h e ' B i b l e ' , c o m m u n a l i s m a n d all t h e things J i m m y A r t e r b e r r y listed. A n d w h a t a b o u t travel? Are C o m a n c h e s m o r e likely t o hit t h e road t h a n o t h e r p e o p l e in t h e A m e r i c a n West? Yes, absolutely, says J i m m y A r t e r b e r r y . M a y b e t h e m e n , says D e l p h i n e N e l s o n , b u t n o t t h e w o m e n — ' W e ' r e t o o busy k e e p i n g it all t o g e t h e r . ' A s always t h e r e are n o statistics. T h e r e are o b v i o u s s e m a n t i c difficulties: hit t h e road for h o w l o n g , h o w often a n d c o m p a r e d to w h o m exactly? I ask M e l v i n S e n i o r if C o m a n c h e s still like t o travel a n d m o v e a r o u n d a n d his answer is p r o b a b l y t h e definitive o n e : ' S o m e d o , s o m e don't.' A m o n g t h o s e w h o d o , o n e finds a distinctive cultural a t t i t u d e towards n o m a d i c o r q u a s i - n o m a d i c
travel. T h e e x p e r i e n c e
of
r o a m i n g a r o u n d t h e A m e r i c a n West is different for a C o m a n c h e , o r so t h e y say. T h e y u n d e r s t a n d it as their tribal heritage, their b i r t h r i g h t , t h e i r g e n e t i c legacy - a w a y o f b e i n g C o m a n c h e . D o w n at t h e tribal h e a d q u a r t e r s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e buffalo fence has stalled, for s o m e reason, b u t progress has b e e n m a d e w i t h t h e m u s t a n g s . T h e y are partially b r o k e n n o w , n o
longer
crashing i n t o t h e fence rails, a n d l o v i n g t h e rich n e w diet o f sweet feed (an u n f o r t u n a t e m e t a p h o r , I s u p p o s e , for t h e C o m a n c h e s a n d
202
Richard Grant
diabetes). T h e m e n w o r k i n g w i t h horses are u s i n g a m i x t u r e o f o l d a n d n e w t e c h n i q u e s : h o b b l i n g t h e m w i t h ropes a n d b r e a t h i n g i n t o their nostrils in t h e traditional C o m a n c h e way, d o c t o r i n g t h e m w i t h m o d e r n m e d i c i n e s , spreading their m a n u r e w i t h a tractor. T h e y take a b r e a k a n d pull o u t Pepsis a n d D r P e p p e r s from a cooler. I get talking to T i m Saupitty (cousin o f R i c h a r d Saupitty, t h e tribal p o l i c e m a n ) , w h o has s p e n t m o s t o f his adult life o n t h e road, selling his a r t w o r k at I n d i a n gatherings, tribal fairs and p o w w o w s all over t h e West — t h e I n d i a n equivalent o f t h e r e n d e z v o u s circuit. ' W e ' r e still n o m a d s in o u r hearts,' h e says. ' W h e n e v e r I ' m o n t h e road, especially g o i n g d o w n t o Texas, I ' m aware that I ' m crossing t h e same g r o u n d as m y ancestors. It u s e d t o b e y o u ' d p i c k y o u r best h o r s e for t h e j o u r n e y . For m e , it was w h a t e v e r old b e a t - u p car I c o u l d get h o l d of. I ' m forty years o l d a n d I m u s t have o w n e d t w e n t y cars.' Donnie
Parker is t h e r e , o n e o f t h e m y r i a d d e s c e n d a n t s
of
Q u a n a h P a r k e r a n d his seven wives, a n d h e tells a story a b o u t his g r a n d m o t h e r . ' W e w e r e h a v i n g d i n n e r o n e n i g h t a n d she started talking a b o u t o n e o f h e r sons, w h o was living in A l b u q u e r q u e , N e w M e x i c o . S o after d i n n e r w e j u m p e d in t h e t r u c k a n d drove over t h e r e t o see h i m , five h u n d r e d miles, like it was n o t h i n g . That's h o w it is in m y family. W e always k e e p f o o d a n d w a t e r a n d c a m p i n g gear in t h e b a c k o f t h e t r u c k , so w e can j u s t take off at t h e d r o p of a hat. T h a t ' s h o w it's always b e e n . It's in t h e blood.' A n d I t h o u g h t h o w n i c e it m u s t b e t o have such a neat, tidy, culturally a p p r o v e d e x p l a n a t i o n for y o u r w a n d e r i n g ways, t o say w i t h absolute c o n v i c t i o n t h a t it's in t h e h e a r t , in t h e b l o o d , i n t h e g e n e s . T r y e x p l a i n i n g t o a C o m a n c h e w i t h w a n d e r l u s t that h e is suffering from a disease, listed i n p s y c h i a t r y m a n u a l s as d r o m o m a n i a a n d a p p a r e n t l y treatable w i t h sedatives a n d a c o u r s e o f therapy.
CHAPTER 9 W h e n e v e r an A m e r i c a n wants t o d r o p o u t o r b a c k i n t o N a t u r e , invariably h e ' b e c o m e s an I n d i a n ' . . . s e e k i n g to participate i n t h e i r o c c u l t p o w e r , t h e i r m y t h i c radiance. F r o m the M o u n t a i n
Men
to the Boy Scouts, the d r e a m
of
' b e c o m i n g an I n d i a n ' flows b e n e a t h strands o f A m e r i c a n history, c u l t u r e and consciousness. H a k i m Bey, T.A.Z.:
M
The Temporary Autonomous
Zone
e d i c i n e W i n g is s l o u c h e d b e h i n d t h e w h e e l o f his 1976 V W m i c r o b u s , i n c h i n g a l o n g a dirt r o a d in t h e A l l e g h e n y
N a t i o n a l Forest i n w e s t e r n Pennsylvania, stuck in a l o n g a n d s e e m ingly endless traffic j a m . H e is tired, having driven t h e fifteen h u n d r e d miles from C o l o r a d o in t h r e e days, a n d h e is d e e p l y s t o n e d o n t o p - g r a d e , r e d - h a i r e d , s k u n k y - s m e l l i n g , four h u n d r e d - d o l l a r s - a n o u n c e m a r i j u a n a — ' T h e S u p e r d a n k ' . Y o u m i g h t t h i n k that a small p i p e w o u l d b e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t for c r o s s - c o u n t r y w o r k , b u t M e d i c i n e W i n g travels w i t h a glass w a t e r b o n g , sealed w i t h t w o corks b e t w e e n uses, a n d h o u s e d u n d e r his seat in a p a d d e d nest o f f o a m a n d velvet. ' H o w did y o u e n d u p living o n t h e road?' I ask h i m . ' R i g h t , ' h e says. ' T h e r o a d . . .' H e gazes o u t o f t h e w i n d o w , t r y i n g t o collect his t h o u g h t s , a n d b e c o m e s distracted by t h e shifting p a t t e r n s o f sunlight i n t h e foliage. T h i r t y s e c o n d s g o by. ' W h o a , ' h e says. ' D u d e , that is so fucking trippy.' I n t e r v i e w i n g h i m has b e e n a faltering, h a p h a z a r d process b u t
Richard Grant
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this is w h a t I have l e a r n e d so far. M e d i c i n e W i n g : twenty-five years old, b o r n a n d raised i n various suburbs a r o u n d W a s h i n g t o n , D C , p e r e n n i a l s o u r c e o f d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t o his parents a n d s t e p p a r e n t s . T h e y still call h i m S c o t t a n d cling t o t h e h o p e that this is j u s t a phase — ' D u d e , they're, like, so h e i n o u s . T h e y w a n t m e t o b e , like, this lawyer g u y o r this Wall Street g u y o r s o m e t h i n g , y o u k n o w ? T h e w h o l e y u p p i e headfuck t h i n g . It's actually sad, d u d e , b u t that's t h e i r w h o l e trip.' H e has close-set b l u e eyes, a wispy b l o n d beard, a stud t h r o u g h his n o s e a n d a r o w of silver rings a l o n g his left eyebrow. B l o n d d r e a d l o c k s c o m i n g in nicely after a year o f n o s h a m p o o . A t h i n face - n o , a n a r r o w face: full-lipped a n d R o m a n - n o s e d , b u t o d d l y c o n s t r i c t e d for w i d t h , as if a giant h a d r e a c h e d d o w n i n t o his cradle, clasped t h e sides o f his face a n d gently pressed
them
together. On
his a r m is a t a t t o o o f a plains I n d i a n in a feathered
w a r b o n n e t . It strikes m e as an o d d s y m b o l for a d e v o u t pacifist a n d vegetarian, b u t M e d i c i n e W i n g says I have it all w r o n g w h e n it c o m e s t o Indians: ' W e w e r e w a r r i o r s for t h e e a r t h , d u d e . W e o n l y f o u g h t to p r o t e c t o u r sacred lands from t h e w h i t e man.' W h a t a b o u t raiding, i n t e r - t r i b a l warfare, c a p t i v e - t a k i n g , scalping? ' B a b y l o n lies', i n v e n t e d b y w h i t e historians. W h a t a b o u t h u n t i n g and m e a t - e a t i n g ? ' N o , d u d e , w e w e r e mostly vegetarian.' H e claims a d e e p k n o w l e d g e o f these m a t t e r s b e c a u s e i n a past life h e was a Lakota s h a m a n , a n d before that a H o p i mystic, a n d h e still feels essentially N a t i v e A m e r i c a n , 'in m y h e a r t , in m y soul, t h e vibes I'm putting out'. H e reaches u n d e r t h e seat, p l u c k s t h e b o n g f r o m its velvet nest, u n c o r k s it a n d loads i n a n o t h e r p i n c h o f T h e S u p e r d a n k . Hubble-bubble-bubble.
H o l d i n g t h e s m o k e in his l u n g s , h e raises
t h e b o n g t o t h e sky (swiftly a n d a m i t e furtively, for fear o f cops) a n d croaks o u t a brief, s t r a n g u l a t e d p r a y e r t o t h e G r e a t Spirit. E x h a l i n g n o w , a n d b o r r o w i n g from R a s t a f a r i a n i s m , h e d e s c r i b e s m a r i j u a n a (and o n l y t o p - g r a d e m a r i j u a n a ) as t h e ' h o l y h e r b ' , t h e s a c r a m e n t o f his r e l i g i o n , t o b e t a k e n first t h i n g in t h e m o r n i n g a n d at r e g u l a r intervals t h r o u g h o u t t h e
waking
h o u r s . I m a g i n e a C a t h o l i c priest a d d i c t e d t o c o m m u n i o n w i n e ,
Ghost
Riders
205
a n d y o u have an i d e a o f M e d i c i n e W i n g ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o T h e S u p e r d a n k . L o w - g r a d e m a r i j u a n a is ' s c h w a g ' a n d d o e s n o t n e c e s sitate t h e s a m e r i t u a l a n d prayer. A l c o h o l is ' B a b y l o n p o i s o n ' a n d h e n e v e r t o u c h e s it. H o w can I d e s c r i b e t h e smell in here? It is a rich, p u n g e n t , c o m p l e x a r o m a , d o m i n a t e d b y gasoline fumes from t h e old, leaky V W e n g i n e a n d t h e cloying scent o f p a t c h o u l i oil. T h e p a t c h o u l i is i n t e n d e d t o m a s k t h e o t h e r smells in t h e van b u t it acts m o r e like olive oil in a sauce, as a c o n d u i t o r a m e d i u m in w h i c h t h e o t h e r smells can express themselves: b o d y o d o u r a n d b a d b r e a t h , stale s m o k e a n d b o n g w a t e r , spilled coffee, r o t t i n g fruit in t h e food crate, old pizza boxes c o n v e r t e d i n t o ashtrays, a d a m p , sour, m i l d e w y smell e m a n a t i n g from t h e mattresses a n d sleeping bags in t h e b a c k , w h e r e M e d i c i n e W i n g ' s travelling c o m p a n i o n s — H a w k F e a t h e r a n d Julie, w h o is n o w W i l l o w Leaf - are crashed o u t in a stupor. F o r a n e w c o m e r to t h e van, t h e smell is a b i g , d o m i n e e r i n g p r e s e n c e , b u t M e d i c i n e W i n g d o e s n ' t n o t i c e it any m o r e . T h i s is t h e smell o f h o m e , t h e smell o f life. T h e traffic j a m m o v e s forward t h i r t y yards a n d c o m e s t o a n o t h e r standstill. M e d i c i n e W i n g sighs a n d slumps b a c k in his seat, rolls h i m s e l f a B u g l e r cigarette, loses his lighter, wishes h e h a d a c u p o f coffee. H e tries to rally himself, t o c o n t a c t t h e e x c i t e m e n t a n d a n t i c i p a t i o n that have b e e n b u i l d i n g inside h i m all w e e k , all m o n t h , all s u m m e r l o n g , b u t h e is t o o tired, a n d t o o blearily s t o n e d . M a y b e a sugar rush will pull h i m o u t o f it. H e t u r n s off t h e e n g i n e a n d gets o u t o f t h e m i c r o b u s , a l e a n scarecrow figure i n c u t - o f f a r m y surplus fatigues a n d an old t i e d i e d Grateful D e a d T-shirt, s t a n d i n g a b o u t five feet t e n in his b a r e feet. H e pads u p t o t h e w h i t e rental car in front and squats d o w n o n his h a u n c h e s b y t h e driver's w i n d o w . 'Hey, w e l c o m e h o m e , brother,' says t h e driver. ' W e l c o m e h o m e , ' says M e d i c i n e W i n g . 'Hey, b r o t h e r , d ' y o u have any zuzus? I ' m in, like, baaahd n e e d o f a sugar rush, dude.' T h e t w o d u d e s have n e v e r m e t e a c h o t h e r before, b u t e v e r y o n e is family h e r e — t h e R a i n b o w Family o f Living Light — c o m e t o g e t h e r in t h e i r t h o u s a n d s for t h e national g a t h e r i n g in
the
w o o d s . C a s t i n g a r o u n d for a p o i n t o f reference, I find myself
206
Richard Grant
c o m p a r i n g t h e g a t h e r i n g t o an o u t d o o r m u s i c festival, b u t t h e r e are n o s c h e d u l e d b a n d s h e r e , n o admission fees, n o c o n c e s s i o n stands
or
portable
toilets. M a y b e
the
Gathering
is
better
s u m m a r i s e d as a m o b i l e b a c k w o o d s c o m m u n e . It forms
every
s u m m e r in a different l o c a t i o n t h e n dissolves a n d reforms
at
smaller, r e g i o n a l R a i n b o w g a t h e r i n g s t h r o u g h t h e rest of t h e year — a ' N o m a d i c U t o p i a ' * f o u n d e d o n t h e principles o f p e a c e , love, spiritual h a r m o n y and c o m m u n a l sharing. In R a i n b o w parlance ' z u z u s ' are sweets o r candies, highly p r i z e d items at t h e g a t h e r ings, w h e r e t h e staple diet (doled o u t free o f c h a r g e b y t h e v o l u n t e e r kitchens) is a b e i g e v e g e t a r i a n sludge. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it w o u l d b e u n t h i n k a b l e for a R a i n b o w w h o was h o l d i n g zuzus n o t to share t h e m w i t h a b r o t h e r in n e e d . ' H e r e y o u go, dude,' says t h e driver, h a n d i n g over a c e l l o p h a n e packet. 'Welcome home!' ' A w r i - i - i - i g h t ! ' says M e d i c i n e W i n g . ' G u m m y Bears, d u d e ! M o s t excellent zuzus.' H e c h o m p s d o w n a few o f t h e m , t h e n w a n d e r s u p a n d d o w n t h e traffic j a m calling o u t , 'Hey, w h o wants a zuzu? M e d i c i n e W i n g has g o t t h e r i g h t e o u s G u m m y Bears t o feed t h e Family.' ' R i g h t o n ! . . . O v e r h e r e , b r o t h e r ! . . .You're beautiful! . . .' A line o f h a n d s appears, o u t s t r e t c h e d from t h e car w i n d o w s , a n d M e d i c i n e W i n g walks a l o n g it, g i v i n g o u t G u m m y Bears until t h e b a g is empty. W a l k i n g b a c k , h e sees smiling faces framed in every w i n d s h i e l d , that special beatific R a i n b o w smile, a n d as h e passes b y t h e faces t u r n a n d s a y , ' T h a n k y o u , b r o t h e r , " L o v i n g you,' ' W e l c o m e h o m e , ' a n d o n e sister j u m p s o u t o f h e r car t o give h i m a hug. M e d i c i n e W i n g is g r i n n i n g a n d e n e r g i s e d n o w , s h a k i n g his h e a d at t h e w o n d e r of it all. ' T h e r e ' s t h e R a i n b o w m a g i c , d u d e , ' h e says, sitting b a c k d o w n i n t h e driver's seat.
Hubble-bubble-
bubble. 'It's like this w h o l e i n c r e d i b l e v i b e t h a t j u s t happens,
you
k n o w , w h e n t h e F a m i l y gets t o g e t h e r , a n d e v e r y o n e gets i n t u n e w i t h M o t h e r E a r t h , a n d t h e forest v i b e s , a n d t h e G r e a t Spirit,
* A phrase b o r r o w e d from Nomadic
Utopia.
M i c h a e l I. N i m a n ' s b o o k People
of the Rainbow:
A
Ghost
Riders
207
a n d t h e miracles j u s t start t o h a p p e n ! It's all c o n n e c t e d , d u d e ! E v e r y m o l e c u l e i n y o u r b o d y , okay, every m o l e c u l e , is like e v e r y o t h e r m o l e c u l e in t h e u n i v e r s e so h o w can it not be c o n n e c t e d ? T h e r e ' s n o way, d u d e ! It's like w h e r e v e r y o u are, t h e r e y o u are, a n d y o u ' v e already been t h e r e , m a n ! It's like n e x t t i m e , y o u m i g h t b e a g r a i n o f s a n d a n d that's totally c o o l . O r a tree, o r a bird, like t h e w i n g e d b r o t h e r s , or, like, an alien i n a n o t h e r galaxy, o r w h a t e v e r , d u d e . It d o e s n ' t m a t t e r . O n e love. U n i v e r s a l v i b e s . T h a t ' s w h a t it's all a b o u t . ' I l a t c h e d o n to M e d i c i n e W i n g b y p u r e h a p p e n s t a n c e . I n a n h o u r o f w a n d e r i n g u p a n d d o w n t h e traffic j a m , h e was t h e first R a i n b o w I f o u n d w h o lives o n t h e road year r o u n d . As an entity, t h e R a i n b o w Family is n o m a d i c — it has n o fixed l o c a t i o n , it takes f o r m w h e r e v e r t h e m o b i l e c o m m u n e is set u p - b u t m o s t o f its m e m b e r s m a k e t h e i r living w i t h i n s e d e n t a r y society. O f t h e estim a t e d t w e n t y - t w o t h o u s a n d p e o p l e at this year's G a t h e r i n g , m a y b e t w o t h o u s a n d are full-time n o m a d s . T h e rest, i n M e d i c i n e W i n g ' s e s t i m a t i o n , are ' w e e k e n d h i p p i e s ' , t a k i n g a b r i e f v a c a t i o n
from
B a b y l o n , o r ' y u p p i e s ' , a t e r m h e uses t o describe a n y o n e w h o has a salaried j o b . E v e n in t h e R a i n b o w Family, w h i c h prides itself o n t o l e r a n c e , inclusiveness a n d egalitarianism, o n e finds t h e o l d n o m a d i c disdain for t h e s e d e n t a r y A n d talking t o t h e s e d e n t a r y R a i n b o w s a b o u t t h e n o m a d s , o n e hears t h e usual s e d e n t a r y m i x t u r e o f disapproval a n d e n v y : a t e n d e n c y t o c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e n o m a d s as irresponsible escapees a n d i m b u e t h e m w i t h a certain u n t a m e d r o m a n c e . I first g o t a sense o f this f r o m a t w e n t y - n i n e - y e a r - o l d paralegal called C h r i s W a g n e r w h o h a d d r i v e n h e r e f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d was sitting in a H o n d a A c c o r d w i t h his wife a n d b a b y d a u g h t e r . 'I've g o t love for all m y Family,' h e said. 'I'd love t o b e o u t o n t h e r o a d w i t h t h o s e g u y s , b u t I guess w e ' r e l o o k i n g for a little
more
c o m f o r t a n d s e c u r i t y in o u r lives r i g h t n o w . She's g o t t o g o t o s c h o o l for o n e t h i n g , b u t it's m o r e t h a n that. I d o n ' t
know,
B a b y l o n is fucked u p , b u t it's o u r responsibility t o c h a n g e it, y o u k n o w ? If y o u w a n t t o d r o p o u t a l t o g e t h e r a n d s p e n d y o u r life o n t h e r o a d , that's c o o l , b u t w e also n e e d p e o p l e to w o r k w i t h i n ' t h e s y s t e m , o r g a n i s i n g in t h e i r local c o m m u n i t i e s , t r y i n g
to
208
Richard Grant
c h a n g e p e o p l e ' s p e r c e p t i o n s a n d m a k e a b e t t e r w o r l d for o u r children.' T h e R a i n b o w n o m a d s b e l o n g t o several different g r o u p s , disting u i s h e d b y social b a c k g r o u n d s , accents and m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . T h e m o r e affluent n o m a d s , travelling in RVs and schoolbus c o n v e r s i o n s , call themselves 'gypsies' a n d t e n d t o c o m e from a w e l l - e d u c a t e d , middle-class b a c k g r o u n d . M e d i c i n e W i n g a n d his c o m p a n i o n s , despite t h e shabby c o n d i t i o n o f t h e i r m i c r o b u s , m i g h t b e p e g g e d o n t h e l o w e r fringes o f 'gypsy' a n d this is t h e t e r m t h e y use t o describe themselves. B e l o w t h e m are t h e ' t r a m p s ' , ' h o b o s ' a n d 'road d o g s ' w h o r o a m t h e c o u n t r y in a n c i e n t , shith e a p vans and t r u c k s , b y h o p p i n g freight trains a n d h i t c h - h i k i n g ( M e d i c i n e M a n i n t h e D r a g o o n M o u n t a i n s , for e x a m p l e ) . T h e y t e n d t o c o m e from b l u e - c o l l a r b a c k g r o u n d s in t h e S o u t h a n d West, a n d have S c o t c h - I r i s h ancestry. A m o n g t h e t r a m p s a n d road dogs t h e r e is a h a r d c o r e cadre o f belligerent alcoholics, m a n y o f t h e m V i e t n a m veterans, w h o are in and o u t o f jail for p e t t y c r i m e s — d r i v i n g w i t h e x p i r e d tags, b e g g i n g in a t o w n that requires a b e g g i n g licence, trespassing o n railroad property, h i t c h - h i k i n g in an u n a u t h o r i s e d l o c a t i o n , possession o f m a r i j u a n a , p u b l i c d r u n k e n n e s s , b a r - b r a w l i n g o r u r i n a t i n g in public, w h i c h in m a n y states is equivalent u n d e r t h e l a w to m a s t u r b a t i n g in public. A l t h o u g h m o s t R a i n b o w s w o u l d w i n c e a n d object t o t h e t e r m , these drawling, alcoholic t r a m p s r e p r e s e n t t h e R a i n b o w underclass a n d t h e y are required to c a m p apart from the main Gathering. T h i s is t h e d r e a d e d A - C a m p . T h e A stands for a l c o h o l , a n d A C a m p is t h e o n l y p l a c e i n t h e G a t h e r i n g w h e r e a l c o h o l is p e r m i t t e d . V i o l e n c e is c o m m o n p l a c e , l e w d r e m a r k s are yelled at passing w o m e n and p e a c e - l o v i n g d u d e s s o m e t i m e s get t h r e a t e n e d w i t h knives for m o n e y . A - C a m p is t h e dark side o f t h e R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g , t h e u l t i m a t e test o f t h e Family's t o l e r a n c e a n d i n c l u s iveness, a place w h e r e all taboos are b r o k e n . M e d i c i n e W i n g is h o r r i f i e d t o learn t h a t I was invited h e r e by A - C a m p e r s ( e n c o u n tered at a flea m a r k e t in A r i z o n a ) a n d advises m e t o steer well clear: ' D u d e , it's like monstro b a d vibes.' W e ' r e n e a r i n g t h e m a i n p a r k i n g area now, a m a d m e l e e o f
Ghost
Riders
209
p e o p l e a n d j o s t l i n g vehicles in a forest m e a d o w . V o l u n t e e r o r g a n isers are yelling a n d d i r e c t i n g traffic, h a n d i n g o u t leaflets a n d m a p s , and here comes a young, bearded, bare-chested Rainbow, wearing p u r p l e p a n t a l o o n s , p i n k sunglasses a n d a n e n o r m o u s
foam-rubber
stovepipe hat. H e l o o k s i n t h e van a n d says, 'Hey, seat-belts o n , p e o p l e . D o n ' t give t h e m a n an e x c u s e t o bust you.' T h e n
he
catches a whifF o f T h e S u p e r d a n k . ' D a m n , b r o t h e r , y o u ' v e b e e n s m o k i n g that k i n d b u d ! B u t hey, b e c o o l all r i g h t . T h e cops have totally b e e n b u s t i n g p e o p l e for herb.' T h e r e is a delicate legalistic balance h e r e , a palpable t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e forces o f c o n t r o l a n d t h e forces o f anarchy. T h i s is national forest land, theoretically o w n e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e , b u t a d m i n i s t e r e d a n d p o l i c e d b y t h e federal g o v e r n m e n t , t h r o u g h its a p p o i n t e e s in t h e N a t i o n a l Forest Service. A n d h e r e are t w e n t y thousand people prone
to nudity, d r u g - t a k i n g , and
ecstatic
d a n c i n g , assembled o n t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s land w i t h o u t p e r m i t s o r p e r m i s s i o n , e n g a g e d i n an e x p e r i m e n t t o s h o w that g o v e r n m e n t itself, o r any k i n d o f coercive, hierarchical p o w e r s t r u c t u r e , is u n n e c e s s a r y and p o i s o n o u s . As y o u m i g h t e x p e c t , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s - state, local a n d federal - h a v e r e p e a t e d l y t r i e d t o b a n t h e R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g , b u t it has t a k e n p l a c e e v e r y s u m m e r since 1 9 7 2 b e c a u s e o f a p e s k y clause i n t h e Bill o f R i g h t s . T h e First A m e n d m e n t
guarantees
t h e r i g h t o f t h e p e o p l e t o assemble peaceably, a n d s i n c e t h e r e is n o c o m m e r c e o f any k i n d at t h e g a t h e r i n g s t h e
Rainbow
F a m i l y is legally e n t i t l e d (by p r e v a i l i n g j u d i c i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) t o assemble o n n a t i o n a l forest l a n d — ' p u b l i c ' land — w i t h o u t a permit. D e f e a t e d in t h e c o u r t s by u n p a i d v o l u n t e e r R a i n b o w lawyers, t h e a u t h o r i t i e s have c o m e t o a k i n d o f sullen, reluctant a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h t h e Family. T h e y allow t h e G a t h e r i n g t o take place b u t subject it to various kinds o f p e t t y harassment: s t o p p i n g and searching vehicles o n v a g u e p r e t e x t s , v i d e o t a p i n g licence plates, patrolling w i t h sniffer dogs, p l a n t i n g u n d e r c o v e r agents dressed u p like hippies, filing n e w lawsuits a n d t r y i n g t o w h i p u p a p u b l i c o u t c r y b y s p r e a d i n g r u m o u r s and m i s i n f o r m a t i o n to t h e m e d i a . T h e a u t h o r i t i e s have alleged that t h e G a t h e r i n g is a t h i n e x c u s e
210
Richard Grant
for interstate d r u g trafficking, t h a t R a i n b o w s are dealing crack and heroin, and trading runaway children into prostitution and w h i t e slavery* I a r r a n g e t o m e e t M e d i c i n e W i n g later a n d h o p o u t o f t h e m i c r o b u s t o talk t o t h e local sheriff's d e p u t i e s . T h e r e are f o u r o f t h e m , l e a n i n g against a F o r d B r o n c o , b i g solid c o u n t r y b o y s w i t h h u g e , beefy f o r e a r m s . T h e y h a v e b e e n g i v i n g o u t tickets for s e a t - b e l t v i o l a t i o n s , a r r e s t i n g a few p e o p l e for flagrant m a r i j u a n a s m o k i n g , b u t o n t h e w h o l e t h e y are r e t a i n i n g a n a t t i t u d e o f d e t a c h e d a m u s e m e n t t o w a r d s t h e f r e a k s h o w passing t h r o u g h t h e i r c o u n t y . 'If w e w a n t e d t o , w e c o u l d s t o p this t h i n g i n a h e a r t b e a t , ' o n e o f t h e m assures m e , w i t h o u t b e i n g asked. ' B u t h o w ? ' I say. 'You've g o t t w e n t y t h o u s a n d p e o p l e h e r e , spread o u t t h r o u g h t e n miles o f forest, a n d m o s t o f t h e m are an h o u r ' s w a l k from t h e nearest road.' ' D o n ' t y o u worry,' h e says. 'If w e w a n t e d to, w e c o u l d call in t h e N a t i o n a l G u a r d , g o in t h e r e a n d drag every o n e o f t h e m hippies o u t o f t h e w o o d s . ' H e t u r n s t o his p a r t n e r a n d says, 'Shit, l o o k at that crazy h i p p i e over yonder.' 'Which one?' H e p o i n t s t o a small dervish h i p p i e i n his early fifties, w e a r i n g a l o i n c l o t h a n d a pair o f black socks a n d h i k i n g b o o t s . H e is w h i r l i n g a r o u n d in circles, flapping his a r m s , cackling, s q u a w k i n g , h o o t i n g , a n d he's c o m i n g this way. H e stops a n d p o i n t s his finger at t h e cops. ' A l c o h o l deaths in A m e r i c a , ' h e yells, ' o n e h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d a year. M a r i j u a n a deaths a year: zero! H e l l , I d o n ' t d r i n k b u t I d o n ' t w a n t t o stop y o u from d r i n k i n g . W h y d o y o u w a n t t o stop p e o p l e from s m o k i n g p o t ? A r e y o u nuts? D o y o u believe in lies: Is that t h e p r o b l e m here? H a h ! ' O n e o f t h e d e p u t i e s — t h e alpha c o p , a 2 4 0 - p o u n d e r w i t h a shaved h e a d a n d w r a p a r o u n d O a k l e y shades — grins b a c k a n d says, 'All right, b r o t h e r , y o u ' v e p e r s u a d e d m e . I ' m g o n n a g r o w m y hair real l o n g , q u i t b a t h i n ' , a n d sit a r o u n d o n m y n a t u r e - l o v i n ' ass all day. W h y d o n ' t y o u give m e a j o i n t , b r o t h e r ? I w o n ' t bust y o u . I j u s t w a n n a get stoned! " T h i s last r i d i c u l o u s i t e m f r o m a 1 9 8 3 F B I m e m o , q u o t e d i n N i m a n .
Ghost Well, e v e r y o n e
cracks u p
211
Riders at t h a t
one: the
deputies,
the
bystanders, e v e n t h e c a v o r t i n g h i p p i e . 'That's a g o o d one,' h e allows, ' b u t h e y m a n , I o w n m y o w n business.' ' W h a t k i n d a business w o u l d that b e , b r o t h e r ? A little h o r t i culture, perhaps? I k n o w y o u ain't in t h e soap business.' ' H e y m a n , fuck y o u , m a n ! I smell like a h u m a n b e i n g is s u p p o s e d t o smell after four days o n t h e road. I drove u p h e r e from A u s t i n , Texas, m a n . T h a t ' s w h e r e I've got m y business. C o m p u t e r
soft-
w a r e , m a n ! I m a d e sixty-five t h o u s a n d dollars last year. H a h ! S m o k e d p o t every g o d d a m n day! H a h ! H o w m u c h m o n e y did y o u m a k e last year, Officer! W h o o o o o o o o h - h a h ! ' T h e alpha c o p j u s t smiles b e h i n d his O a k l e y s a n d t u r n s to get b a c k i n his vehicle. 'Well, it's b e e n real n i c e visiting w i t h y o u , b u t w e ' v e g o t w o r k to do,' h e says. ' W a t c h o u t for t h e m b r o w n recluse spiders. W e ' v e already g o t eight s p i d e r - b i t hippies in t h e hospital. A n d w a t c h o u t for t h e m t i m b e r rattlers in t h e r o c k piles.' ' A w hell m a n , d o n ' t give m e that shit!' squawks t h e h i p p i e . 'Spiders and snakes d o n ' t w a n n a bite n o b o d y . T h e y ' r e m y b r o t h e r s . See, w h e n y o u ' r e i n t u n e w i t h n a t u r e , every living t h i n g in t h e w o o d s is y o u r brother.' ' O h that's it, h u h ? ' says t h e alpha c o p . 'If y o u love u p o n that oF b r o w n recluse, h e ain't g o n n a crawl in y o u r tent? T h a t ol' rattler ain't g o n n a bite y o u w h e n y o u step o n h i m ? I see a t i m b e r rattler in t h e w o o d s , I love o n h i m w i t h this.' H e pats t h e g u n o n his hip, t o l o u d h o o t i n g guffaws from t h e o t h e r d e p u t i e s . T h e c a v o r t i n g h i p p i e goes off a n d c o m e s b a c k at t h e w h e e l o f a p i c k - u p t r u c k . I get in t h e b a c k w i t h four o t h e r s a n d h e ferries us to a trailhead that leads i n t o t h e G a t h e r i n g p r o p e r . W e strap o n o u r b a c k p a c k s a n d start w a l k i n g d o w n a m u d d y trail, towards t h e distant s o u n d o f d r u m s . A few p e o p l e are p u l l i n g w o o d e n carts t h r o u g h t h e m u d o r p u s h i n g w h e e l b a r r o w s , a n d o n e c o u p l e has r i g g e d u p t h e i r d o g w i t h a harness a n d travois poles. Sitting o n a l o g b y t h e side of t h e trail, a n a k e d m a n is rolling cigarettes from a b i g b a g o f t o b a c c o a n d offering t h e m t o passersby. H e has l o n g b l o n d curls, a d e e p S o u t h e r n a c c e n t a n d a p r o s t h e t i c l e g . ' W e ' r e c o l l e c t i n g w o o d for t h e bliss fire at t h e Y i n - Y a n g
212
Richard Grant
K i t c h e n t o n i g h t , ' h e says. 'If I give y o u a cigarette, h o w
about
p i c k i n g u p a p i e c e o f f i r e w o o d a n d t a k i n g it d o w n t h e r e ? ' T h e r e are m a n y o f these requests a l o n g t h e trail, especially t o t h e e m p t y h a n d e d . ' C a r r y this w a t e r m e l o n as far as y o u feel like c a r r y i n g it a n d pass it o n t o s o m e o n e else.' ' H e l p us b r e a k u p this
firewood.'
' D o e s a n y o n e feel like t a k i n g this sack o f lentils t o t h e . n e x t kitchen?' T h i s is h o w t h e logistics o f the G a t h e r i n g w o r k . All t h e l a b o u r is v o l u n t a r y a n d shared, a n d e v e r y o n e is e x p e c t e d t o h e l p o u t shirkers are k n o w n as ' D r a m b o w s ' . I stop off a n d h e l p dig o n e o f t h e slit t r e n c h e s that serve as t h e Family's latrines. W i t h t w e n t y t h o u s a n d p e o p l e and n o toilets t h e r e is a very real d a n g e r o f flyborne
disease, n o t t o m e n t i o n f o u l i n g
the woods, and
the
R a i n b o w s , t h r o u g h trial a n d error, have c o m e u p w i t h a simple, effective s o l u t i o n . T h e t r e n c h is covered by a p i e c e o f w o o d w i t h a f o o t - w i d e h o l e c u t in it a n d a lid. N e x t t o it is a coffee can full o f ashes from t h e fire a n d toilet paper, b o t h o f w h i c h y o u t h r o w in w h e n y o u ' r e finished, a n d a b u c k e t o f b l e a c h e d w a t e r for w a s h i n g y o u r h a n d s . W h e n t h e t r e n c h gets t o o nasty, y o u t h r o w in s o m e lye a n d fill it u p w i t h earth. T h e y are called 'stutters' to r e m i n d p e o p l e n o t t o u r i n a t e in t h e m — u r i n e i m p e d e s the chemical breakdown. E v e r y o n e is e n c o u r a g e d to b r i n g t h e i r o w n c a m p i n g gear, a n d f o o d to d o n a t e t o t h e k i t c h e n s , a n d o n c e a day t h e M a g i c H a t goes a r o u n d t h e G a t h e r i n g , collecting m o n e t a r y d o n a t i o n s ('green e n e r g y ' ) for food, gasoline for t h e ferry vehicles a n d o t h e r supplies. It is, h o w e v e r , perfectly acceptable t o s h o w u p at a R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g w i t h n o t h i n g — n o t o o d , n o m o n e y , n o c a m p i n g gear, n o shoes. Y o u will b e outfitted from a pile o f d o n a t e d clothes a n d gear, fed at t h e free k i t c h e n s , a n d unless you are a c o m p l e t e D r a i n b o w y o u will gladly give s o m e free l a b o u r in r e t u r n . F r o m t h e trailhead it's a b o u t t w o and a half miles t o t h e c e n t r e o f t h e G a t h e r i n g : a large, o p e n m e a d o w filled w i t h t e n t e d c a m p s a n d k i t c h e n s , tepees, spiritual w o r k s h o p s , d r u m circles a n d a great m i l l i n g t h r o n g o f t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e . I pass a m e d i t a t i o n g r o u p , a sweat l o d g e , a c r e c h e , an a m a t e u r theatrical, a Tarot w o r k s h o p , a d o z e n n a k e d w o m e n s t a n d i n g u n d e r a r i g g e d - u p shower, a d o z e n
Ghost
Riders
213
w h i r l i n g , c h a n t i n g H a r e Krishnas w i t h sharp elbows a n d d e a d , h u m o u r l e s s faces. A g r o u p o f s c r a w n y t e e n a g e h i p p i e s are 'fishing for a b o w l ' : h o l d i n g o u t an e m p t y m a r i j u a n a p i p e i n o n e h a n d a n d p r e t e n d i n g t o reel i n a fish w i t h t h e o t h e r . S o o n e r o r later s o m e o n e will fill t h e p i p e b o w l . O v e r by t h e R a i n b o w Crystal K i t c h e n a t e e n a g e g u t t e r - p u n k is t h r a s h i n g o n t h e g r o u n d and s c r e a m i n g , in t h e throes o f a bad acid trip, a n d a circle o f p e o p l e are s t a n d i n g a r o u n d h i m , c h a n t i n g , ' O m m m m m . ' A n d it w o r k s . H e calms d o w n . P e o p l e h u g h i m a n d h e starts to smile. T h e r e ' s p l e n t y o f w e e d , acid a n d m u s h r o o m s a r o u n d , b u t n o sign o f d e a l i n g a n d n o
powdered
d r u g s . W h a t I ' m craving is a cold beer, b u t A - C a m p is four o r five miles away. Apparently, t h e y w e r e t h r o w i n g quarter-sticks o f d y n a m i t e i n t o t h e i r fire last n i g h t . You m i g h t call it a diverse c r o w d . I c o m e across lawyers, b a n k e r s , organic
f a r m e r s , social w o r k e r s , infants
and
octogenarians,
C h r i s t i a n s a n d pagans, stoners, ravers, p u n k s , tramps, trustafarians, o r i g i n a l hippies, n o u v e a u x hippies, every t y p e o f h i p p i e i m a g i nable. O r y o u m i g h t call it a h o m o g e n e o u s c r o w d , because a b o u t 9 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p l e h e r e are w h i t e . I ' m l o o k i n g for an A m e r i c a n I n d i a n , a real o n e . I w a n t t o k n o w h o w this l o o k s t h r o u g h I n d i a n eyes: t h e w h i t e p e o p l e w i t h feathers, b e a d e d m e d i c i n e bags a n d ersatz p i p e c e r e m o n i e s , the tepees a n d sweat lodges, t h e n a m e s like M e d i c i n e W i n g a n d H a w k Feather, t h e invocations t o t h e G r e a t Spirit, and so o n . I n leaflets, n e w s letters a n d conversations t h e claim is r e p e a t e d t h a t t h e R a i n b o w s e m b o d y ' t h e t r u e spirit o f t h e N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s ' , ' t h e p u r e Indians o f o l d ' , ' t h e w i s e Indians o f o l d ' , ' t h e joyful Indians o f o l d ' . W h a t w o u l d a living, b r e a t h i n g I n d i a n m a k e o f all this? W o u l d h e feel flattered that his ancestors are so revered? O r w o u l d h e take it as an insult, a s u g g e s t i o n that living Indians are false, i m p u r e , s t u p i d a n d miserable? W o u l d lie find it ridiculous? P r e s u m a b l y it w o u l d d e p e n d o n t h e I n d i a n , b u t I can't find o n e to ask. Posted
all
over
the
Gathering
is
a piece
of
doggerel
m a s q u e r a d i n g as an a n c i e n t H o p i I n d i a n p r o p h e c y : 'It is said that w h e n t h e e a r t h is w e e p i n g a n d t h e animals are d y i n g t h a t a t r i b e o f p e o p l e w h o care will c o m e . T h e y will b e called t h e W a r r i o r s
214
Richard Grant
o f t h e R a i n b o w . ' T h e H o p i p r o p h e c y is a p r i m e e x a m p l e o f w h a t M i c h a e l N i m a n calls 'fakelore', t h e t e n d e n c y o f R a i n b o w s
to
i n v e n t r o m a n t i c m y t h s a b o u t themselves a n d a p p r o p r i a t e o t h e r p e o p l e ' s history as their o w n . T h e H o p i elders have n o k n o w l e d g e o f this s u p p o s e d p r o p h e c y , a n d t h e y have asked t h e R a i n b o w s t o stop u s i n g it. Well, try telling that t o M e d i c i n e W i n g . You'll get t r u m p e d every t i m e . After all, h e was a H o p i , b a c k
when
H o p i s w e r e really H o p i s , so h e o u g h t to k n o w . F a k e l o r e aside, t h e R a i n b o w s — at least t h e travelling R a i n b o w s — p r o b a b l y are t h e nearest e q u i v a l e n t to a n o m a d i c I n d i a n t r i b e in m o d e r n America. W h y ? Because they have a c o m m u n a l ethic, a c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f b e l o n g i n g t o a t r i b e , a spiritual c o n n e c t i o n t o n a t u r e . A n d a few o f t h e m , at least, travel w i t h m o t h e r s a n d children. In t h e bus village, t h e gypsy c a m p s and t r a m p c a m p s t h e r e are families a n d g r o u p s o f families w h o m a n a g e t o live o n t h e r o a d year-round,
as m i g r a n t
farm
workers, flea-market
c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e r s and consultants
traders,
('technomads'),
craft
w o r k e r s , artists. T h e r e are o t h e r s , like t h e O h a n a T r i b e (not t o b e confused w i t h t h e native H a w a i i a n t r i b e o f t h e same n a m e ) , w h o s p e n d t h e w h o l e year in n a t i o n a l forest c a m p g r o u n d s , raising their c h i l d r e n o n a circuit o f smaller, regional R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s a n d s u p p o r t i n g themselves w i t h i n t h e R a i n b o w e c o n o m y . H o w d o t h e n o m a d i c R a i n b o w s e d u c a t e t h e i r children? T h e r e are t h r e e basic strategies available: h o m e s c h o o l i n g , b y mail o r e mail; m o v i n g from s c h o o l to s c h o o l , enrolling a n d w i t h d r a w i n g y o u r child, like m i g r a n t f r u i t - p i c k e r families; o r staying off t h e g r i d entirely, a v o i d i n g t h e e d u c a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s a n d b r e a k i n g t h e t r u a n c y laws. I can't find a n y o n e w h o admits t o using this third strategy, b u t p e o p l e say it is easily d o n e . Y o u stay m o b i l e a n d stick t o r e m o t e areas. If cops o r forest rangers start asking q u e s t i o n s , you tell t h e m that you are in t h e process o f r e l o c a t i n g t h e family t o a n e w t o w n , o r travelling to t h e n e x t c r o p harvest, a n d will enrol t h e c h i l d r e n in s c h o o l w h e n y o u get t h e r e . J o h n M a j o r ran away from a circus family t o j o i n an a c c o u n t ancy firm, a n d o n e w o n d e r s h o w m a n y o f these n o m a d i c R a i n b o w children will rebel against their u p b r i n g i n g in t h e same way, a n d
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b e c o m e lawyers, tax a c c o u n t a n t s , business executives. O n e i m a g i nes t h e c r u s h i n g d i s a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e i r parents. T u r t l e M o m m a sits i n t h e b a c k o f a t a r p a u l i n l e a n - t o , at C h i c o S u n i e s Y i n - Y a n g K i t c h e n , w i t h t w o babies sleeping o n a b l a n k e t n e x t t o her. T h i s is a R a i n b o w t r a m p c a m p , p r e d o m i n a n t l y m a l e , w h i c h m o v e s a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y in a loose c o n v o y o f o l d v e hicles, w i t h o t h e r s h i t c h - h i k i n g a n d r i d i n g t h e rails t o t h e n e x t assembly p o i n t . T h e y have b e e n h e r e for t w o w e e k s already, m a k i n g trails, d i g g i n g shatters, h a u l i n g in gear, setting u p t h e k i t c h e n a n d d u m p s t e r - d i v i n g in t o w n for their f o o d until t h e R a i n b o w supply t r u c k s s h o w e d u p a few days ago. ' A lot o f p e o p l e l o o k d o w n o n t h e t r a m p s a n d r o a d dogs a n d A - C a m p e r s , ' she says, ' b u t w e g e t h e r e first, a n d w e ' r e t h e last t o leave, a n d w e d o m o s t o f t h e w o r k a r o u n d here.' ' D a m n right,' says P e g Leg, w h o is still n a k e d , a n d has h o b b l e d i n t o t h e t e n t t o u n h i t c h his prosthesis. ' W h e n all these w e e k e n d hippies have g o n e h o m e , we'll b e p i c k i n g u p every piece o f trash, filling
in t h e shitters, s o w i n g seeds in t h e m u d d y , t r o m p e d - o u t
areas t o b r i n g b a c k t h e grass a n d r e p l a n t i n g over t h e trails. A year o r t w o from n o w it'll l o o k like w e w e r e n e v e r here.' T u r t l e M o m m a is a g o o d n a m e for T u r t l e M o m m a . S h e is w i d e for h e r h e i g h t , a b r o a d , oval shape you m i g h t say, and she e x u d e s an e a r t h - m o t h e r l y w a r m t h a n d kindness, a d e e p , calm p a t i e n c e . T h e babies are n o t hers. T h e i r m o t h e r s w a n t e d t o d r o p acid a n d d a n c e a r o u n d t h e bliss fire t o n i g h t , a n d she told t h e m t o get t o it a n d have a beautiful trip. T h e o t h e r w o m e n w o u l d w a t c h t h e babies, a n d w h o k n o w s ? t h e y m i g h t even get a m a n to h e l p o u t . P e g L e g h a r r u m p h s w h e n h e hears this slur against his g e n d e r . ' H e l l , I d o n ' t m i n d . I'll w a t c h these kids w i t h you.' H e p u t s in t e n gallant m i n u t e s , t h e n rehitches his leg a n d gets b a c k t o t h e p a r t y at t h e bliss fire. T u r t l e M o m m a started travelling in t h e late 1960s, a t t e n d i n g t h e love-ins, b e - i n s a n d free festivals that laid t h e g r o u n d w o r k for t h e first R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s . She describes herself as a ' n o m a d i c soul' w h o has raised g e n e r a t i o n s o f I n d i a n children in past lives, b u t she has conflicted feelings a b o u t n o m a d i c m o t h e r h o o d in this
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i n c a r n a t i o n . I n p r i n c i p l e she s u p p o r t s t h e idea as a m a t t e r o f personal liberty and a way of protecting children from
the
c o r r u p t i n g influences o f B a b y l o n . In practice she settled d o w n to raise h e r o w n c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e it was easier t o k e e p t h e m fed, c l o t h e d a n d s c h o o l e d that way. G i v i n g u p t h e road, she says, was t h e hardest t h i n g a b o u t m o t h e r h o o d , t h e biggest sacrifice. 'I p u t in t w e n t y years o n t h e h o m e front, a n d I raised great kids, b u t it wasn't me,' she says. 'As s o o n as t h e y w e r e g r o w n u p a n d o u t t h e nest I b o u g h t an old m o t o r h o m e a n d p i c k e d u p w h e r e I left o f f S h e laughs. ' N o w h e r e I a m , p o s t p o n i n g a d u l t h o o d all over again.' S h e m o v e s awkwardly, w i t h o b v i o u s p a i n . S h e n e e d s o p e r a t i o n s t o r e m o v e w h a t she calls ' t i c k i n g t i m e - b o m b s ' in h e r insides, b u t she can't afford t h e m e d i c a l bills. S h e d o e s n ' t have t h i r t y t h o u sand dollars lying a r o u n d , a n d since she is already sick n o h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n y will give h e r coverage. T h a t p r o b a b l y s o u n d s o u t r a g e o u s to a E u r o p e a n reader, b u t millions o f p o o r , sick A m e r i c a n s are i n t h e same p r e d i c a m e n t : u n a b l e t o get health insurance
because
they
are
a
bad
financial
proposition.
Conceivably, T u r t l e M o m m a c o u l d find an e m p l o y e r w i l l i n g to take h e r o n a n d pay h e r m e d i c a l i n s u r a n c e t h r o u g h t h e c o m p a n y , b u t she w o u l d r a t h e r s p e n d w h a t t i m e she has o n t h e road, g o i n g to R a i n b o w
Gatherings. Here
s h e finds p e a c e , l o v e , h o p e ,
h a r m o n y , c o m m u n a l sharing, an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e sacred in n a t u r e - t h e nearest actualisation o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s she has h e l d all h e r adult life. It's n o t perfect, as she readily admits. T h e s e d e n t a r y R a i n b o w s n e e d to get over their s n o b b e r y towards t h e t r a m p s a n d A - c a m p e r s . T h e r e have b e e n conflicts o v e r resources, s u c h as f i n a n c i n g A C a m p ' s b e e r c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d she sees m o r e D r a i n b o w s t h a n before. B u t these are m i n o r flaws, easily r e m e d i e d . F o r T u r t l e M o m m a , t h e R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s a d d u p to a g o o d w o r k i n g m o d e l o f Utopia, a n d infinitely s u p e r i o r t o a n y t h i n g B a b y l o n has t o offer. M e d i c i n e W i n g a n d H a w k F e a t h e r are n o t affiliated w i t h t h e Y i n Yang t r a m p s . T h e y c a m e over h e r e to c h e c k o u t t h e bliss fire a n d
Ghost
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217
t h e r u m o u r s o f s o m e r i g h t e o u s acid g o i n g a r o u n d . W i l l o w Leaf is asleep again, b a c k in t h e t e n t . I w o r r y a b o u t W i l l o w Leaf. Sallow and painfully t h i n , she has n o stamina, n o energy, n o trace o f a n y t h i n g t h a t y o u c o u l d reasonably d e s c r i b e as b u t t o c k s . It l o o k s like an eating disorder t o m e , b e c a u s e t h e act o f p u t t i n g f o o d i n h e r b o d y is so fraught w i t h anxiety a n d d e v o i d o f pleasure, b u t she calls it organic v e g a n i s m . H e r travelling c o m p a n i o n s , w h o s e staple diet is d u m p s t e r - d i v e d pizza, w i t h any m e a t p i c k e d off a n d discarded, w o r r y a b o u t h e r t o o . B u t w h a t are y o u g o i n g to d o ? You can't even b u y o r g a n i c p r o d u c e in m o s t o f t h e c o u n t r y , let alone find it in a d u m p s t e r . T h e s e c o n c e r n s are far from their m i n d s now. T h e
rumours
w e r e true. T h e y b r o u g h t s o m e firewood w i t h t h e m and gave a b u d of T h e S u p e r d a n k t o a g o o d b r o t h e r b y t h e n a m e o f M e d i c i n e Wolf, a n d h e steered t h e m towards t h e acid. R i g h t e o u s ? Y o u d o n ' t even k n o w h o w r i g h t e o u s . Listen u p a n d w a t c h R a i n b o w fakelore in t h e m a k i n g . At first, t h e y w e r e told t h a t t h e acid was fresh o u t o f t h e lab o f a R a i n b o w c h e m i s t , clean a n d p u r e as it gets. N o w t h e story has m o v e d o n a n d l a u n c h e d i n t o orbit. ' T h i s is s o m e shit k i c k e d d o w n from
1 9 6 4 , b r o t h e r ! ' a n n o u n c e s M e d i c i n e Wolf, a r e d -
b e a r d e d , b i k e r - l o o k i n g t r a m p w h o is t r i p p i n g o u t o f his g o u r d o n t h e stuff. ' S a n d o z L a b o r a t o r i e s , t h e o r i g i n a l shit, b a c k w h e n acid was still legal, m a n . ' S o m e o n e s o m e w h e r e h a d k e p t t h e acid refrigerated o r o t h e r w i s e preserved all these years b e c a u s e t h e y k n e w this w o u l d b e t h e perfect m o m e n t , a n d t h e perfect setting, for t h e acid t o release its energy. A n d n o o n e d o u b t s this story, b e c a u s e m i r a c l e s like this h a p p e n all t h e t i m e at
Rainbow
Gatherings. A t r o u p e o f d r u m m e r s has m a t e r i a l i s e d from t h e w o o d s . I have d r i v e n t h r e e h u n d r e d miles today, w a l k e d a b o u t e i g h t miles a n d filled u p t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a n o t e b o o k . T h e d r u m m e r s k e e p m e t h e r e for a n o t h e r h o u r . T h e s e
goateed, tattooed,
thirty-
s o m e t h i n g w h i t e guys p u t t o g e t h e r a k i n d o f d r u m t r a v e l o g u e . T h e y b e g i n i n W e s t Africa, w i t h s o m e t h i n g l o o s e l y b o r r o w e d from t h e Fela K u t i b a c k c a t a l o g u e , a n d k e e p r e t u r n i n g t o it. T h e y make excursions to Jamaica and turn back. T h e y
head
218
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n o r t h to the Berber rhythms of M o r o c c o and turn back. T h e y cross t h e A t l a n t i c t o C u b a , a n d t h e n d o w n t o G e o r g i a for s o m e James B r o w n funk. P e o p l e are s h o u t i n g e n c o u r a g e m e n t . T h e t r i p p i n g t r a m p s in t h e k i t c h e n are b e a t i n g o n pots a n d pans, a n d e v e r y o n e is u p a n d d a n c i n g a r o u n d t h e bliss fire. T h e girls m a k e a l o t o f s i n u o u s , s e r p e n t i n e h a n d a n d a r m m o v e m e n t s , t h e k i n d that leave c o o l tracer lines w h e n y o u ' r e o n acid, a n d t h e boys d o a l o t o f h e a d b o b b i n g a n d e l b o w - w a g g l i n g , w i t h occasional h o p p i n g twirls a n d t'ai chi m o v e s . A t r u m p e t - p l a y e r appears from t h e w o o d s . H e l o o k s like o n e o f t h o s e h i p p i e j a z z musicians from t h e 1970s - t h e w h i t e g u y o n t h e b a c k cover o f an o b s c u r e M i l e s Davis o r a P h a r o a h Sanders a l b u m — b u t h e is t o o y o u n g t o b e o n e o f t h e m . It takes h i m a few m i n u t e s t o g e t w a r m e d u p a n d find t h e r h y t h m (James B r o w n has l e d us b a c k t o West Africa), a n d t h e n h e starts b l o w i n g a w i l d p s y c h e d e l i c blues over t h e t o p o f it, h i t t i n g a n d h o l d i n g i n c r e d ible h i g h n o t e s . I feel a stab o f j e a l o u s y for M e d i c i n e W i n g a n d H a w k Feather. I gave u p L S D m a n y years ago, b u t I k n o w h o w this m u s t s o u n d
:',
t o t h e m , a n d h o w it feels w h e n a g r o u p o f d a n c i n g , t r i p p i n g
:.i
p e o p l e p e a k o n t h e m u s i c at t h e same t i m e . I can see t h e m i n d b l o w n , b l i s s - d r e n c h e d expressions o n t h e i r faces. W h y d o t h e y live o n t h e road? T h e r e is a s h o r t a n s w e r to that q u e s t i o n : to get from o n e o f these m o m e n t s t o t h e n e x t . T h e full story c o m e s o u t over t h e n e x t t w o days. H o w t h r e e w e l l b r e d scions o f t h e D C suburbs b e c a m e n o m a d i c R a i n b o w s a n d assumed A m e r i c a n I n d i a n identities. T h e story stretches o u t over m a n y past lives, b u t let's b e g i n in h i g h s c h o o l , in A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a , in t h e late 1980s. T h i s is w h e n t h e y b e c a m e friends, a n d t h e y say it has b e e n a friendship entirely u n c o m p l i c a t e d b y sex. ( T h e y s e e m curiously disinterested in sex, r e g a r d i n g it as m o r e hassle t h a n it's w o r t h ; they'd r a t h e r get high.) S c o t t / M e d i c i n e W i n g ' s m o t h e r was, a n d is, a p o l i c y analyst for a conservative
founda-
t i o n . D r e w / H a w k Feather's m o t h e r is a l a w y e r . J u l i e / W i l l o w Leaf's m o t h e r is also a lawyer. I m e n t i o n t h e m o t h e r s b e c a u s e , i n all
Ghost
219
Riders
t h r e e cases, t h e y w e r e g r a n t e d c u s t o d y after t h e p a r e n t a l divorce. A n easy t h e o r y presents itself h e r e . T h e s e c h i l d r e n o f b r o k e n h o m e s ran away a n d j o i n e d t h e R a i n b o w F a m i l y t o find t h e love a n d sense o f b e l o n g i n g that was m i s s i n g i n t h e i r o w n families. It s o u n d s persuasive e n o u g h , a n d t h e r e m a y b e s o m e t r u t h in it, b u t as t h e y p o i n t o u t , m o s t o f t h e c h i l d r e n at t h e i r h i g h s c h o o l w e n t t h r o u g h a parental d i v o r c e . A n d t h e r e was o n l y o n e o t h e r k i d , from t h e g r a d e b e l o w , w h o b e c a m e a full-time
travelling
Rainbow. T h e collapse o f y o u r p a r e n t s ' m a r r i a g e , t h e i n t e r r o g a t i o n s in lawyers' offices a n d c o u r t r o o m s , t h e arrival o f stepdads a n d s t e p m o m s i n y o u r life — n o n e o f it was easy b u t s o m e h o w t h e w h o l e process s e e m e d n o r m a l a n d inevitable, a basic rite o f passage that kids had t o g o t h r o u g h , like dealing w i t h p u b e r t y . Anyway, t h e y n e v e r saw m u c h o f t h e i r parents, w h o w e r e p u t t i n g i n t w e l v e - t o f o u r t e e n - h o u r days at t h e office, t r y i n g t o pay t h e bills a n d save u p for t h e college fund. N o r was it u n u s u a l for t h e m t o start s m o k i n g p o t at t h e age o f twelve. T h e r e w e r e e i g h t - y e a r - o l d s in t h e D C suburbs
who
g o t h i g h every day, t e n - y e a r - o l d s w h o w e r e u r i n e - t e s t e d o n c e a m o n t h b y t h e i r parents w i t h t h e n e w h o m e - t e s t i n g kits a d v e r tised o n television. Twelve, if a n y t h i n g , was a little o n t h e late side, b u t o n c e t h e y g o t started, Scott, D r e w a n d Julie b e c a m e m o r e ardent, d e v o t e d p o t - s m o k e r s t h a n m o s t o f their classmates. B y t h e age o f fifteen t h e y w e r e at t h e n u c l e u s o f t h e h i g h - s c h o o l s t o n e r clique a n d m a k i n g a little m o n e y , e n o u g h t o cover t h e i r o w n c o n s u m p t i o n , b y s u p p l y i n g their fellow stoners. A t s e v e n t e e n t h e y started g o i n g to Grateful D e a d
concerts
t o g e t h e r , a n d this was a m a j o r formative influence in t h e i r lives. T h e y t o o k acid for t h e first t i m e and m e t p e o p l e w h o
followed
t h e Grateful D e a d y e a r - r o u n d , t a k i n g acid all t h e t i m e a n d g o i n g t o R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s in t h e first w e e k o f July. In t h e m e d i a t h e D e a d h e a d scene was usually described as a ' h a n g o v e r ' o r a 'leftover' from t h e sixties — s o m e t h i n g tired a n d stale that h a d outlived its time, even t h o u g h m o s t o f t h e p e o p l e at D e a d shows w e r e u n d e r twenty-five. T h e r e was n o b u z z for a j o u r n a l i s t t o chase. T h e b a n d h a d b e e n t o u r i n g , almost continuously, since
220
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t h e late sixties. T h e i r followers, o f w h a t e v e r g e n e r a t i o n , w e r e listening to t h e same old songs, t a k i n g t h e same o l d d r u g s , w e a r i n g t h e same fashions, r e p e a t i n g t h e same h o a r y a p h o r i s m s . Well, it d i d n ' t s e e m t h a t w a y t o Scott, D r e w a n d Julie. T h e y w e r e o n t h e loose from u p t i g h t parents and w e i r d s t e p - p a r e n t s , t h e dull r e g i m e n t a t i o n a n d p e t t y viciousness o f s u b u r b a n h i g h s c h o o l , a n d t h e D e a d h e a d scene b l e w their m i n d s . L S D was a m a j o r p a r t o f it, o f c o u r s e , t h e feeling o f c o m m u n a l psychedelic ecstasy, b u t s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n d r u g s a n d m u s i c was w o r k i n g o n t h e m . T h e y w e r e w e l c o m e d w i t h smiles and h u g s . T h e y were treated as equals b y D e a d h e a d s y o u n g a n d old, s u r r o u n d e d w i t h love a n d assurances o f love. Gently, casually, painlessly, they w e r e initiated i n t o t h e t r i b e . After t h e shows, in concer.t-arena p a r k i n g lots a n d n e a r b y c a m p g r o u n d s , sitting i n t h e b a c k o f a van o r a r o u n d a campfire, s m o k i n g w e e d t o ease o u t t h e acid c o m e - d o w n , t h e y received t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e tribe's p h i l o s o p h y a n d belief systems. T h e s e l o n g , s t o n e d nights constituted their true education, shaping their
under-
s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r l d m o r e t h a n a n y t h i n g t h e y l e a r n e d at s c h o o l o r a b s o r b e d t h r o u g h p o p u l a r culture. I o n c e spent a w e e k trailing the Deadheads, m a k i n g notes at those same campfires. As an e n v i r o n m e n t for learning, it was b o t h solemn and intense, and incredibly vague and forgiving. W h a t e v e r was said, n o m a t t e r h o w ill-informed, half-baked o r self-contradictory — even, as I discovered, if t h e r e m a r k was i n t e n d e d as a j o k e o r p a r o d y — it w o u l d b e g r e e t e d w i t h an a u t o m a t i c ' R i g h t o n ' a n d an earnest n o d d i n g o f heads. A s t a t e m e n t m i g h t b e e x p a n d e d o r e l a b o r a t e d u p o n , b u t never c h a l l e n g e d . T h a t w o u l d b e confrontational: b a d vibes, a f o r m o f v i o l e n c e , a threat t o t h e fragile bliss o f t h e t r i p p i n g brain. In a d d i t i o n t o rejecting t h e m a t e r i a l i s m a n d c o m p e t i t i v e i n d i vidualism o f W e s t e r n civilisation, M e d i c i n e W i n g a n d his c o h o r t s also c a m e t o reject its rationalist u n d e r p i n n i n g s — t h e dictates o f logic, t h e d e m a n d s for e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e a n d scientific proof, t h e w h o l e linear, cause-and-effect, C a r t e s i a n logic trip. L o o k w h a t it h a d p r o d u c e d ! A c u l t u r e o f g r e e d and spiritual e m p t i n e s s , n u c l e a r w e a p o n s , alienation' f r o m n a t u r e , a suicidal, m a t r i c i d a l w a r against
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t h e E a r t h . B a b y l o n was a p r o d u c t o f B a b y l o n M i n d , this cold, scientific, heartless w a y o f t h i n k i n g . At D e a d h e a d campfires a n d R a i n b o w Gatherings, a different c r i t e r i o n for t r u t h prevails. If it rings t r u e in y o u r heart, if it sounds appealing, if it manages to float u p into y o u r consciousness a n d m a k e it o u t t h r o u g h y o u r lips, t h a t is g o o d e n o u g h . U n l e s s it smacks o f B a b y l o n M i n d , a n y t h i n g is p e r m i t t e d , e v e r y t h i n g is t r u e . W h a t d o e s it m a t t e r t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h d o z e n s o f s t o n e d brains? W h o
has travelled
cares t h a t it is l o n g
d i v o r c e d from any w r i t t e n t e x t o r verifiable fact? A n d e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e c o s m o s is c o n n e c t e d a n d
since
interchangeable,
m a l l e a b l e at a m o l e c u l a r level a n d responsive t o t h e w i s h e s a n d fancies o f t h e h u m a n m i n d , h o w can a n y c o n c l u s i o n b e j u d g e d as t o o far-fetched? Scott h a d always felt an affinity for N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s . E v e n as a kid, even if it w e n t against t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e filmmaker, h e h a d r o o t e d for t h e m o n T V . G r a c i n g his b e d r o o m wall, b a c k i n A r l i n g t o n , a n d n o w in tatters o n t h e b a c k d o o r o f t h e m i c r o b u s , is t h e f a m o u s p o s t e r o f C h i e f Seattle, w i t h his p o i g n a n t , stirring, ecological o r a t o r y p r i n t e d u n d e r n e a t h his p h o t o g r a p h
(unbe-
k n o w n to M e d i c i n e W i n g , t h e s p e e c h was heavily r e w r i t t e n b y a H o l l y w o o d screenplay h a c k , T e d Perry, in 1971). H a v i n g s h e d h i m s e l f o f B a b y l o n M i n d , Scott c a m e t o u n d e r stand t h a t h e actually was an I n d i a n , a n d h a d b e e n i n at least t w o o f his past lives. A R a i n b o w elder n a m e d h i m M e d i c i n e W i n g at his first G a t h e r i n g , a n d d i v i n e d that t h e eagle was his a n i m a l t o t e m . T h e n c a m e t h e last year o f h i g h s c h o o l , t h e w o r s t year o f his life. G r o u n d e d from D e a d s h o w s , t h r e a t e n e d w i t h u r i n e - t e s t i n g , g u i l t - t r i p p e d w i t h stories o f h o w h a r d his parents h a d w o r k e d t o s e n d h i m to college, h e t o u g h e d it t h r o u g h a n d m a n a g e d t o g r a d uate. So d i d D r e w , w h o was already H a w k Feather, a n d Julie, w h o was still Julie. S h e started w o r k i n g in a h e a l t h - f o o d c o - o p . T h e boys w e n t o n t o college a n d d r o p p e d o u t after t h e first semester. 'I was h o p i n g college w o u l d b e a c o o l e r scene, b u t it was like B a b y l o n C e n t r a l , dude,' says M e d i c i n e W i n g . 'It's like, here's all these p r e p p y d u d e s , s p e n d i n g b e a u c o u p b u c k s and r a c k i n g u p m o n s t r o debts so t h e y can g o a n d w o r k for s o m e
corporate
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Richard Grant
B a b y l o n headfuck. M e a n d H a w k w e r e so o u t t a there.' T h e y traded t w o o u n c e s o f T h e S u p e r d a n k for t h e keys a n d title to t h e microbus, sold off o r gave away m o s t o f their b e l o n g ings, and hit t h e road. T o an outsider, perhaps, it l o o k e d like an act o f escape, b u t t o t h e m it felt m o r e like a conscious, positive d e c i sion t o link up w i t h a m o b i l e c o m m u n i t y that was o u t t h e r e and w a i t i n g for t h e m . T h e r e w e r e thousands o f p e o p l e w h o followed the Grateful D e a d y e a r - r o u n d , and w e n t t o R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s in t h e s u m m e r , and they s e e m e d happy, free, e n l i g h t e n e d
and
w e l c o m i n g . N o o n e s e e m e d to w o r k a n d yet n o o n e w e n t h u n g r y . T h e tribe h a d a vague, h a p p e n s t a n c e e c o n o m y o f its o w n , a n d it was easy t o find a niche, especially if you h a d g o o d p o t c o n n e c t i o n s . F o r instance: a d u d e hears that M e d i c i n e W i n g is h o l d i n g T h e Superdank. H e wants a q u a r t e r - o u n c e b u t doesn't have
the
h u n d r e d dollars. H e does have a h a n d m a d e African d r u m w o r t h t w o h u n d r e d dollars, so a trade is m a d e t o t h e satisfaction o f b o t h parties. A w e e k later M e d i c i n e W i n g trades t h e d r u m for a q u a r t e r o u n c e o f w e e d , five t i e - d i e d T-shirts a n d a h a n d c a r v e d w o o d e n b o n g , w h i c h h e sells o u t s i d e t h e n e x t D e a d show. It j u s t seems t o h a p p e n that way, as if b y m a g i c , w i t h n o o n e t r y i n g to drive a hard bargain. M e d i c i n e W i n g a n d H a w k F e a t h e r followed t h e Grateful D e a d for t w o years, s t o p p i n g in at t h e s u m m e r R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s . T h e n c a m e t h e great tragedy o f A u g u s t 1 9 9 5 , t h e d e a t h o f J e r r y Garcia, singer a n d lead-guitarist o f t h e Grateful D e a d , a n d t h e b r e a k - u p o f t h e b a n d . T h e y spent a c o u p l e o f m o n t h s r e c u p e r a t i n g in Flagstaff, A r i z o n a . T h e y liked t h e t o w n a n d t h e c o u n t r y a r o u n d it, b u t all t h e y c o u l d get was c h e a p M e x i c a n w e e d . Flagstaff was Schwagstaff so t h e y m o v e d o n to n o r t h e r n California. T h e n e x t year t h e y hit t h e r o a d full t i m e , following P h i s h a n d t h e various Grateful D e a d offshoot b a n d s , d r o p p i n g in o n R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s , national a n d regional, s t o p p i n g off t o see
friends
a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y , a n d that has b e e n t h e i r p a t t e r n ever since. A year ago t h e y s w u n g b a c k t h r o u g h D C and p i c k e d u p Julie, w h o is n o w W i l l o w Leaf. U n d e r s t a n d t h e sense o f mission t h e y feel. As R a i n b o w s , t h e y b e l o n g to a t r i b e - t h e o n e t r u e p e o p l e , living in t h e o n e t r u e
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way — w h i c h t h e G r e a t Spirit has b r o u g h t i n t o b e i n g for a task o f vital i m p o r t a n c e . T h e task is n o t h i n g less t h a n saving t h e p l a n e t from n u c l e a r w a r a n d / o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l apocalypse, a n d e n d i n g h u m a n suffering a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n . Y o u m i g h t , f r o m t h e p e r s p e c tive o f scientific
r a t i o n a l i s m , d o u b t t h e effectiveness
of their
m e t h o d s . You m i g h t say, 'Wait a m i n u t e , y o u ' r e g o i n g t o d o all this by sitting a r o u n d in t h e w o o d s a n d g e t t i n g h i g h ? ' B u t h a v i n g rejected scientific rationalism a n d e m b r a c e d a m a g i c a l universe, as all religions d o to s o m e e x t e n t , t h e y have n o s u c h d o u b t s . T h e y are filled w i t h Utopian fervour. B y s e t t i n g a positive e x a m p l e t o t h e rest o f t h e w o r l d , b y b e a m i n g o u t love, prayers a n d positive energy, they c o n f i d e n t l y e x p e c t to b r i n g a b o u t a n e w d a w n in h u m a n history, a n e w age o f p e a c e , h a r m o n y a n d spiritual e n l i g h t e n m e n t , a n d t h e R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g is p r o o f that it is already u n d e r way.
T h e r e are t w o signs h a n g i n g f r o m a t r e e l i m b a b o v e A - C a m p , e a c h k e e p i n g a r u n n i n g n u m e r i c a l total. O n e says 'KEGS'. TWO w e e k s in, t h e k e g c o u n t is u p t o 89 (no o n e is k e e p i n g c o u n t o f t h e e m p t y l i q u o r b o t t l e s ) . T h e o t h e r says 'FIGHTS' a n d stands at 2 7 . It is early a f t e r n o o n , a fact t h a t m e a n s v e r y little at A - C a m p . T h e p a t t e r n h e r e is to d r i n k u n t i l y o u pass o u t , w a k e u p a n d start d r i n k i n g again. S o m e p e o p l e are so saturated, so r u i n e d b y d r u g s a n d a l c o h o l , that t h e y c a n o n l y m a n a g e t w o - h o u r
shifts
b e f o r e passing o u t again. O t h e r s can d r i n k for e i g h t e e n o r t w e n t y h o u r s at a stretch, a l t h o u g h this usually requires t h e aid o f L S D . A t any h o u r o f t h e day o r n i g h t t h e r e will b e p e o p l e passed o u t o n t h e g r o u n d a n d p e o p l e d r i n k i n g a r o u n d t h e fire, sitting in a circle o f old lawn chairs, a n d p e o p l e s t a g g e r i n g a r o u n d , r o a r i n g a n d b e l l o w i n g . P e r h a p s t h e clearest d e l i n e a t i o n b e t w e e n a n d day is t h e use o f d y n a m i t e , w h i c h s e l d o m o c c u r s
night before
sunset. T h e boss o f A - C a m p , w h o s e w o r d is absolute law, is a s h o r t , sturdily built w o m a n in h e r fifties. H e r n a m e is E i l e e n , b u t t h e A - C a m p e r s call h e r M o m . S h e sits o n a l a w n chair, in black s h o r t s a n d a black T-shirt, w i t h a t o b a c c o t i n full o f m o n e y o n h e r lap.
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S h e has l o n g , grey, frizzy hair p u l l e d b a c k in a ponytail, a n d a b i g , t o u g h face t h a t has seen a lot o f h a r d living — a face like C h a r l e s B u k o w s k i ' s . S t e r n a n d watchful, s m o k i n g h e r cigarettes, d r i n k i n g h e r Pepsi, s o m e t i m e s a d d i n g a little w h i s k e y after dark, I n e v e r see h e r d r a n k , I never see h e r smile. T h e o n l y t i m e I see h e r rattled is w h e n a d r u n k c o m e s over t o give h e r a h u g a n d i n a d v e r t e n t l y collapses o n h e r a n d s h o w e r s h e r w i t h beer. She shoves h i m off a n d roars like an a n g r y bear, ' G e t t h e fuck o u t o f h e r e , y o u sonofabitch! G E T O U T ! ' H e t u r n s tail a n d staggers o u t o f t h e c a m p . If h e h a d disobeyed an o r d e r from M o m , t h e o t h e r A - C a m p e r s w o u l d have ejected h i m forcibly a n d almost certainly b e a t e n h i m u p . W h y is she here? W h a t ' s in it for M o m ? I assume it's t h e p o w e r she wields, a n d t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l love a n d d e v o t i o n she receives. M a y b e she j u s t figures s o m e o n e ' s g o t t o d o it. S h e takes m y offered t e n - d o l l a r bill. Visitors t o A - C a m p are e x p e c t e d to c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e k e g fund, t o pay for t h e i r o w n b e e r a n d a little extra t o s u p p o r t t h e regulars. She tells m e that C h a d a n d Tiffany, t h e c o u p l e w h o invited m e h e r e , are asleep, a n d that's all she's g o t to say t o me. She has a steel-trap m e m o r y . S h e k n o w s w h i c h visitors have d o n a t e d h o w m u c h m o n e y t o t h e k e g fund, a n d h o w m a n y beers t h e y have t a p p e d . W i t h these d o n a t i o n s , a n d a share o f t h e M a g i c H a t fund, she keeps A - C a m p constantly s u p p l i e d w i t h beer, ice, liquor, t o b a c c o a n d f o o d w i t h o u t leaving h e r chair. ' O k a y , w e n e e d sixteen bags o f ice. H e y D o c , g o find s o m e o n e w h o ' s sober e n o u g h t o drive. H e r e ' s t w e n t y bucks.' S h e keeps track o f w h i c h A - C a m p e r s have e a t e n lately.'Hey, C o s m o , y o u n e e d t o eat s o m e thing.' T h e r e is a b i g p a n o f fried v e n i s o n b y t h e fire a n d w e are a l o n g w a y from h u n t i n g season. T h e d e e r was d o n a t e d b y a local biker, w h o has b e e n d r i n k i n g h e r e , o n a n d off, for a few days. A t all R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g s a c o n t i n g e n t of t h e local bikers, j o c k s a n d hard-cases will s h o w u p to p a r t y w i t h t h e hippies a n d t h r o w t h e i r w e i g h t a r o u n d , b u t t h e y can't i m a g i n e a p a r t y w i t h o u t beer. So t h e y are d i r e c t e d t o A C a m p a n d t h e threat o f v i o l e n c e is c o n f i n e d a n d localised, away from t h e m a i n G a t h e r i n g . M o s t o f t h e fights at A - C a m p
are
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b e t w e e n regulars a n d visitors, a n d t h e y usually b e g i n w i t h w i l d d r u n k e n m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . F i g h t n u m b e r 2 8 : C o s m o attacks a visitor w h o was g a t h e r i n g w o o d for t h e A - C a m p fire b e c a u s e C o s m o t h o u g h t h e was a ' b u t t h o l e - w a t c h e r ' , spying o n t h e A C a m p w o m e n at t h e A - C a m p shitter, e v e n t h o u g h n o
women
w e r e a n y w h e r e n e a r t h e shitter at t h e t i m e . Fight n u m b e r 2 9 is started b y a g u y n a m e d J o e , a p a r t - t i m e t r a m p in his thirties w i t h a scraggly b l o n d m u l l e t . H e u s e d t o b e an A - C a m p regular b u t h e has missed t h e last few G a t h e r i n g s . H e has b e e n living in T u c s o n in a b i k e r / t r a m p c o m m u n e o n t h e e d g e o f t o w n a n d h e w a n t s t o k n o w w h y h e hasn't seen m e t h e r e . Suddenly, his face is six inches away, his b r e a t h is foul a n d h e is yelling that I ' m an u n d e r c o v e r c o p . M o m i n t e r v e n e s ( t h a n k y o u , M o m ) . ' L o o k , Joe,' she says. ' T h e g u y is a friend o f C h a d a n d Tiffany's. H e ' s n o t a cop. I k n o w y o u w a n t a fight, J o e , b u t I can't h e l p y o u w i t h this one.' Five m i n u t e s later J o e takes a s w i n g at A n i m a l , a wiry, b e a r d e d , f e r a l - l o o k i n g V i e t n a m vet, w i t h scars a n d scabs all over his face a n d a n o s e that has b e e n b r o k e n t o o m a n y times to c o u n t . T h e r e is a flurry o f fists, J o e goes d o w n , a n d A n i m a l , q u i t e literally, kicks his ass as h e stumbles o u t o f c a m p , k n o c k i n g h i m d o w n o n all fours a n d k i c k i n g his ass s o m e m o r e . Afterwards, M o m s u m m o n s A n i m a l to h e r chair. She w i p e s t h e b l o o d off his face a n d p u t s o n h e r glasses t o inspect t h e d a m a g e . 'You're okay, A n i m a l . Y o u c a u g h t h i m a g o o d o n e , t o o . If y o u h a d n ' t hit h i m h e w o u l d have caused even m o r e trouble. You d i d good.' Tiffany appears. F o r s o m e o n e w h o has j u s t w o k e n u p
and
crawled o u t o f a t e n t , after t w o w e e k s at A - C a m p , she l o o k s r e m a r k a b l y fresh-faced a n d clear-eyed. B e i n g t w e n t y - f o u r helps, o f c o u r s e . A n d w h i l e Tiffany likes t o get d r u n k a n d take d r u g s , she is an a m a t e u r b y A - C a m p standards, a t e n d e r y o u n g g r e e n h o r n . W e sit a n d talk w h i l e she w o r k s o n t h e A - C a m p flag, c u t t i n g slogans o u t o f T-shirts a n d s e w i n g t h e m o n t o a big p i e c e o f canvas: ' 1 0 0 % W h o o p A s s ' , ' B e e r
Is F o o d ' , ' B l o o d
Alcohol
E x p e r i m e n t I n Progress', ' W h e n You Step T h r o u g h T h e R o p e s , Y o u r Ass Is M i n e ' , ' F u c k You, I've G o t E n o u g h F r i e n d s ' . S h e has l o n g b r o w n hair, a sunny, relaxed disposition a n d a
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dirty l a u g h that goes well w i t h h e r f r e s h - c o m p l e x i o n e d face.You get the impression that
finding
b o y f r i e n d s has n e v e r b e e n a
p r o b l e m for her. Tiffany tried t h e straight life. She g o t an office j o b o u t o f h i g h s c h o o l in O h i o a n d filled an a p a r t m e n t w i t h possessions — 'I was b o r e d o u t o f m y fucking m i n d . ' S h e hit t h e r o a d t h r e e years ago, d r i v i n g d o w n to N e w O r l e a n s w i t h a friend a n d t h e n striking o u t o n h e r o w n . M e m o t o l o n e female h i t c h hikers i n their early twenties: ' T h e r e are s o m e sick, crazy m e n o u t there, a n d y o u b e t t e r have a knife o r a gun.' C h a d is a h a r d e n e d A - C a m p e r t w e n t y years h e r senior. She m e t h i m o n t h e r o a d t w o years ago a n d has b e e n w i t h h i m ever since. H e is n o t every girl's d r e a m catch, b u t h e has an u n d e n i able charisma a n d roguish c h a r m , a n d an antic, t w i s t e d sense o f h u m o u r that keeps h e r l a u g h i n g . T h e y travel t h e c o u n t r y in an o l d tradesman's van, w i t h a belligerent black c h o w called D e r a i l . T h e y sell o l d pieces o f j u n k , collectable rocks a n d minerals, a n d h o m e - m a d e j e w e l l e r y at flea m a r k e t s a n d swap m e e t s , m a k i n g t h e occasional fifty- o r h u n d r e d - d o l l a r d r u g deal w i t h a n o t h e r t r a m p , s t o p p i n g off to see Tiffany's family a n d d o o d d j o b s for h e r father. ' T h e y g e t o n great w i t h C h a d , ' she says. ' W e all have a g o o d t i m e together.' C h a d appears i n t h e late a f t e r n o o n , w a l k i n g towards t h e fire w i t h loose soles flapping o n his c o w b o y b o o t s , a big, red, d r o o p y m o u s t a c h e a n d a b a t t e r e d old c o w b o y hat. His face is puffy a n d swollen a n d t h e r e is a g h o u l i s h yellow tint t o his skin a n d his eyeballs — a sure sign o f a failing liver. H e sits d o w n in his l a w n chair, a n d d o e s n ' t say hello, d o e s n ' t say a w o r d t o a n y o n e until he's g o t t h r e e beers inside h i m . W i t h e i g h t b e e r s inside h i m h e starts t o p e r k u p . T h e y call h i m N a m e g i v e r , a n d h e starts listing s o m e o f t h e A - C a m p e r s h e has n i c k n a m e d over t h e years: P u d d l e s c u m , Twisted Gizzard, T i m m y T w o Tokes, M a r i o M a c h e t e , Puff N u g g y , Shitstained M i k e . M o s t o f t h e m d i d n ' t m a k e it t o A - C a m p this year, b e c a u s e they're dead o r in jail, and w h e n t h e i r n a m e s are m e n t i o n e d p e o p l e p o u r a c e r e m o n i a l splash o f b e e r o n t h e g r o u n d . C h a d is u p a n d s t r u t t i n g now, w i t h a b e e r i n o n e h a n d a n d a tattered o l d b o o k i n t h e o t h e r . H e has r e n a m e d h i m s e l f B e l l e r i n '
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Idiotfeather a n d a s s u m e d t h e role o f a football c o a c h . Last year, A - C a m p played a h a r d - f o u g h t , n o - r u l e s g a m e o f A m e r i c a n f o o t ball w i t h t h e g u t t e r - p u n k s , w h i c h e n d e d w i t h t h r e e g u t t e r - p u n k s in hospital, a n d t h e r e m a t c h is p l a n n e d for t o m o r r o w . C h a d is a d i e - h a r d O a k l a n d R a i d e r s fan, a n d t h e b o o k is They Call Me The Assassin, by a R a i d e r s h a r d m a n n a m e d J a c k T a t u m . 'AH r i g h t , w e ' r e g o n n a read f r o m t h e sacred b o o k ! W e ' r e g o n n a t e a c h t h o s e p a n t y w a i s t m o t h e r f u c k e r s w h a t it m e a n s t o bleed! W e ' r e g o n n a rip s o m e heads off a n d shit d o w n s o m e
necks!
C o s m o ! I k n o w y o u ' r e s h o r t o n w i n d , b u t you're m y defensive e n d . . .' M i d - r a n t , a y o u n g , muscular, g o a t e e d h i p s t e r - t y p e walks coolly past h i m , gives five b u c k s to M o m , draws a b e e r a n d sits d o w n in a l a w n chair. H e is w e a r i n g b a g g y shorts, a wifebeater's u n d e r shirt a n d a t h i c k - f u r r e d F e d o r a hat. C h a d s t o m p s u p to h i m a n d gets i n his face. 'I d o n ' t like y o u r hat. I d o n ' t like y o u . W h a t d o y o u t h i n k a b o u t that, m o t h e r f u c k e r ? ' 'Hey, it's all g o o d . You d o n ' t like m y hat. S o w h a t , m a n ? I ' m c o o l w i t h that.' 'Hey, y o u ' r e all r i g h t kid,' says C h a d , b a c k i n g off a n d g r i n n i n g . ' W e l c o m e h o m e , brother.' T h e k i d relaxes a little d e e p e r i n t o t h e chair, t h i n k i n g h e has w o n a small victory, t h e n C h a d lunges forward a n d grabs h i m b y t h e s h o u l d e r s . ' N o w get y o u r pansy ass o u t o f m y chair! P u t o n s o m e t i e - d i e a n d g o o n u p to t h e B u d d h i s t c a m p , m o t h e r f u c k e r ! I said it, I m e a n t it, a n d I ' m h e r e to represent i t . ' T h e k i d gets u p a n d leaves. ' M a n , h o w d o I get away w i t h it?' C h a d guffaws, w a t c h i n g h i m g o . ' D i d y o u see t h e muscles o n that guy? H e could have w h u p p e d m e like an u p p i t y stepchild.' T h e R a i n b o w G a t h e r i n g reaches its g r a n d c u l m i n a t i o n o n t h e F o u r t h o f July. T h e m o r n i n g is spent i n silence (except at A C a m p ) , a n d processions o f p e o p l e from all over t h e G a t h e r i n g (except A - C a m p ) m a k e their w a y t o a h i g h m e a d o w t o pray for w o r l d p e a c e . M a r i j u a n a pipes are passed a r o u n d in s o l e m n silence, p e o p l e sit cross-legged a n d m e d i t a t e . O t h e r s stand w i t h t h e i r a r m s
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i n t h e air a n d t h e i r palms raised. A m a n i n a l o n g w h i t e r o b e , b e l t e d w i t h a c h a i n o f m a r i j u a n a leaves, a n d a m a r i j u a n a - l e a f h e a d b a n d waves a hawk's w i n g a n d executes a c u r i o u s h o p p i n g d a n c e step. T h e n h e sets u p a c a m c o r d e r a n d t r i p o d , a n d repeats t h e ritual i n front o f t h e lens. At twelve n o o n a soft
'Ommmmm'
b e g i n s a n d g r o w s i n v o l u m e . D i d g e r i d o o s j o i n in, w o m e n ululate, beatific smiles e v e r y w h e r e . I w a n t w o r l d p e a c e . I ' m against n u c l e a r war, e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s t r u c t i o n a n d h u m a n misery, b u t t h e r e is a s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t o r y quality t o t h e F o u r t h o f J u l y prayer that p u t s m y b a c k u p , like this is all w e n e e d t o d o . T h e t r u t h is that I ' m losing p a t i e n c e w i t h hippies. I ' m tired o f b e i n g w e l c o m e d h o m e a h u n d r e d times a day, tired o f u n i n v i t e d aura readings, tired o f fakelore a n d t h e idea that vibes a l o n e can c h a n g e t h e w o r l d , a n d love is all y o u n e e d . I n m y B a b y l o n m i n d I ' m m o r e impressed by t h e practical workings of the R a i n b o w
G a t h e r i n g . It's n o t m y s c e n e b u t
I've g o t t o h a n d it t o t h e m . T h e y have s u c c e e d e d i n creating a f u n c t i o n i n g anarchist Utopia. B e i n g n o m a d i c is its greatest strength. Stationary Utopias
-
c o m m u n e s , for e x a m p l e - have t o p a y p r o p e r t y taxes. T h e y are far m o r e visible a n d v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , a n d they are n o t o r i o u s l y p r o n e t o d e v e l o p i n t e r n a l leadership a n d faction s t r u g gles, a n d to m o v e away f r o m t h e i r o r i g i n a l p r i n c i p l e s . T h e R a i n b o w Family, w h i c h o n l y takes f o r m at G a t h e r i n g s , i n r e m o t e forested areas, is a l o t h a r d e r for t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o deal w i t h . E a c h G a t h e r i n g is an e x a m p l e o f w h a t H a k i m B e y calls ' t h e t e m p o r ary a u t o n o m o u s z o n e ' , a place w h e r e p e o p l e can d o exactly as t h e y please w i t h o u t interference b y t h e state. W h e n t h e a u t h o r ities g e t w i n d o f a T A Z a n d find a w a y t o suppress it, y o u dissolve it a n d set it u p again i n a different l o c a t i o n . H a k i m Bey, t h e n o m d e p l u m e o f t h e subversive N e w Y o r k intellectual P e t e r L a m b o r n W i l s o n , believes this is t h e o n l y w o r k a b l e f o r m o f a n a r c h y that exists, given t h e p o w e r o f t h e m o d e r n state a n d t h e fact that it's n o t g o i n g t o b e o v e r t h r o w n a n y t i m e s o o n . T h i s is a w a y t o e x p e r i e n c e anarchy, r a t h e r t h a n p r e a c h a b o u t it. If y o u stay i n o n e place, refuse t o pay taxes a n d flout t h e l a w ( d r u g laws, g u n laws,.nudity laws, s c h o o l t r u a n c y laws, sexual age
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of c o n s e n t laws), s o o n e r o r later t h e state will b r i n g y o u t o h e e l . If y o u k e e p m o v i n g , dissolving a n d r e f o r m i n g t h e T A Z , it is h a r d e r for t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o k e e p a n eye o n y o u . H e doesn't cite t h e n o m a d i c R a i n b o w s i n t h e b o o k , b u t t h e y are t h e clearest living p r o o f o f his t h e o r y . As o n e G a t h e r i n g ends, a n o t h e r b e g i n s . It's n o t p u r e anarchy — h i g h w a y cops, forest rangers a n d o t h e r f o r m s of state a u t h o r i t y have t o b e dealt w i t h o r d o d g e d a r o u n d - b u t it's as close as y o u ' r e g o i n g t o get. T h e o t h e r t h i n g that impresses m e a b o u t t h e R a i n b o w Family is their tolerance of A - C a m p . T h e y have m a d e r o o m in their Utopia for b e h a v i o u r that breaks their taboos a n d horrifies t h e m . T h i s is u n p r e c e d e n t e d , from w h a t I k n o w of o t h e r Utopian e x p e r i m e n t s . O n m y w a y o u t o f t h e G a t h e r i n g , I s t o p p e d off at A - C a m p t o say m y goodbyes a n d g o t sucked i n t o a n o t h e r long afternoon o f b e e r d r i n k i n g a n d m a y h e m . Let m e tell y o u a b o u t fight n u m b e r s 3 4 and 3 5 , a n d t h e w a y t h e R a i n b o w Family responded. Flat N o s e Kelly was b o m b e d o u t o f his m i n d o n beer, whiskey, w e e d a n d L S D , a n d half-crazy t o b e g i n w i t h . H e m a d e a l u n g i n g grab for o n e o f t h e A - C a m p w o m e n , a n d M o m told h i m t o g e t o u t . H e p r o t e s t e d his i n n o c e n c e , t h e r e b y d i s o b e y i n g a direct o r d e r from M o m . S o A n i m a l a n d L o r i L o r i , a t o u g h a n d ferocious w o m a n i n s t e e l - t o e d l o g g i n g b o o t s , r u s h e d over a n d flattened h i m , a n d L o r i L o r i gave h i m a vicious k i c k i n g . Exit Flat N o s e Kelly, c o v e r e d w i t h b l o o d . An h o u r later h e c a m e t o t t e r i n g b a c k w i t h a knife, l o o k i n g even m o r e w a s t e d t h a n before. ' W h a t d o y o u t h i n k a b o u t this, m o t h e r f u c k e r s ! ' h e yelled, a n d t h e n h e stabbed himself in t h e chest. T h i s was a clear sign o f disrespect a n d A n i m a l was e n r a g e d : 'You d o n ' t stab yourself in o u r c a m p , m o t h e r f u c k e r ! ' H e c h a r g e d Flat N o s e Kelly, the knife w e n t flying, a n d t h e n A n i m a l bit off the t o p half o f Flat N o s e Kelly's ear. T h e n L o r i Lori gave him a n o t h e r k i c k i n g . (Lori L o r i is also k n o w n as T h e K e g O g r e : w h e n b e e r supplies are l o w she stands over t h e k e g t o frighten away visitors.) Later, an earnest y o u n g R a i n b o w organiser c a m e u p t o A C a m p t o find o u t w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d . H e h a d j u s t g o t b a c k from
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t h e hospital. L o r i L o r i s t o m p e d u p t o h i m a n d i n h e r hoarse, c r o a k i n g v o i c e she t r i e d t o explain: ' F u c k i n g asshole
stabbed
himself. It was his o w n fucking knife.' ' O k a y , I ' m n o t saying I d o n ' t believe y o u . H e s e e m e d crazy e n o u g h t o actually d o s o m e t h i n g like that. B u t h o w d o e s h e b i t e his o w n ear off? T h e d o c t o r said . . .' ' N o , m a n , A n i m a l bit his fucking ear off,' she said, ' a n d I k i c k e d t h e shit o u t o f t h e m o t h e r f u c k e r . Y o u d o n ' t f u c k i n g stab yourself in o u r camp.' H e was still t r y i n g t o digest that p i e c e o f logic w h e n A n i m a l s h o w e d u p a n d accused h i m o f stealing t h e ear. A n i m a l w a n t e d it for a t r o p h y ; necklaces o f h u m a n ears w e r e s o m e t i m e s w o r n b y A m e r i c a n GIs in V i e t n a m — ' W h e r e ' s that fucking ear, y o u faggot m o t h e r f u c k e r ? T h a t fucking ear is mineV ' T h e dogs g o t y o u r fucking ear, m a n , ' said L o r i L o r i . 'I t h i n k it was Derail.' A n d t h e n she c a u g h t t h e expression o n t h e y o u n g R a i n b o w ' s face, a f r e a k e d - o u t l o o k o f fear a n d total b e w i l d e r m e n t , like a rabbit in t h e headlights, a n d she c r a c k e d u p l a u g h i n g . ' H e y , y o u ' r e beautiful, m a n . N o w g o o n a n d get y o u r ass o u t t a h e r e before A n i m a l d o e s s o m e t h i n g crazy' H a l f an h o u r later, t h r e e y o u n g R a i n b o w hippies c a m e u p to A - C a m p , l o o k i n g v e r y serious a n d slightly n e r v o u s . I assumed t h e y w a n t e d t o talk t o A n i m a l a n d L o r i L o r i a b o u t t h e legal repercussions o f t h e Flat N o s e Kelly i n c i d e n t , o r ask t h e m to leave t h e G a t h e r i n g . B u t n o . T h e R a i n b o w way is t o c o u n t e r b a d vibes w i t h love a n d acts o f kindness. T h e y w e r e c a r r y i n g b a c k p a c k s full o f f o o d for A - C a m p : p o t a t o e s , o n i o n s , g r e e n p e p p e r s , rice. T h e y w e r e g r e e t e d w i t h ugly d r u n k e n threats a n d t a u n t s . T h e y d i d n ' t say a w o r d . T h e y u n l o a d e d t h e f o o d a n d started s c r u b b i n g o u t s o m e p o t s a n d pans. T h e y c o l l e c t e d w o o d and g o t a cookfire b u r n i n g . S q u a t t i n g o n t h e i r h a u n c h e s , t h e y sliced u p t h e vegetables a n d t h r e w t h e m i n t o a b i g skillet. T h e threats a n d abuse subsided, a n d an o d d w o o z y c a l m settled o v e r A - C a m p . T h e staggerers sat d o w n , t h e bellowers fell q u i e t . O n e o f t h e A C a m p e r s p u l l e d a b l o o d y h u n k o f v e n i s o n from a cooler. ' H e r e . T h ' o w this in. Veggies can't h o l d a d r i n k i n ' m a n . ' T h e
young
R a i n b o w s l o o k e d at e a c h o t h e r , l o o k e d at t h e m e a t . T h e y w e r e
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obviously vegetarians. T h e y c u t u p t h e m e a t , c o o k e d it w i t h t h e vegetables a n d b o i l e d t h e rice. W h e n t h e food was c o o k e d t h e y g o t u p a n d left w i t h o u t saying a w o r d , o r h e a r i n g a w o r d o f t h a n k s in r e t u r n .
CHAPTER
10
Morally, as a class, t h e y are f o u l m o u t h e d ,
blasphemous,
d r u n k e n , l e c h e r o u s , utterly c o r r u p t . Usually harmless o n t h e plains w h e n sober, t h e y are d r e a d e d in t o w n s , for t h e n t h e l i q u o r has a s c e n d a n c y over t h e m . . . their earnings are s o o n s q u a n d e r e d in dissoluteness. ' T h e C o w b o y s o f t h e W e s t e r n Plains a n d T h e i r H o r s e s ' , r e p r i n t from t h e Providence Journal
in t h e Cheyenne
Daily
Leader, O c t o b e r 1 8 8 2
S
p i k e wakes u p o n t h e backseat o f t h e car, w i t h an a c h i n g h e a d , a t o n g u e like s a n d p a p e r a n d a c r a m p in t h e calf m u s c l e
o f his r i g h t leg. H e curses a n d pulls o n t h e t o e o f his c o w b o y b o o t until it passes. H e gets o u t o f t h e car, rolls his s h o u l d e r s , scratches his belly, unzips his W r a n g l e r s a n d darkens t h e dirt w i t h a l o n g stream o f last night's beer. Last n i g h t . . . last night? I give h i m a c u p o f coffee a n d t h e details s w i m b a c k in focus. T h e y drove five h u n d r e d miles across t h e desert, from El Paso t o Y u m a , a n d p a r r i e d all t h e way; s n o r t i n g hits o f s p e e d off J i m m y ' s b o w i e knife, d r i n k i n g their way t h r o u g h t h r e e cases o f beer, s m o k i n g u p t h e last o f t h e w e e d . Billy h a d his .38 a n d a b o x o f bullets, and t h e y t o o k t u r n s l e a n i n g o u t o f t h e w i n d o w a n d blasting holes in t h e h i g h w a y signs. T h e radio was b r o k e n so t h e y c h a n t e d o b s c e n e c o w b o y p o e t r y t o w h i l e away t h e miles.
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Richard Grant W e ' r e r o u g h a n d t o u g h a n d all that stuff W e piss t h r o u g h l e a t h e r b r i t c h e s W e drag o u r cocks o n r a g g e d rocks W e ' r e h e a r t y sonsabitches.
Periodically t h e y e x p o s e d themselves t o passing female m o t o r i s t s , w h o saw t h r e e g r i n n i n g c o w b o y s l i n e d u p across t h e b e n c h seat o f a faded g r e e n C h e v y Impala, w i t h m a t c h i n g black hats a n d t h e i r j e a n s a r o u n d t h e i r k n e e s , cans o f b e e r in o n e h a n d a n d s t r e t c h i n g o u t their p e c k e r s w i t h t h e other, like s o m e k i n d o f perverted Western cartoon. J i m m y ' s g o t warrants o u t against h i m for d r i n k - d r i v i n g and assault, Billy owes t h e state o f A r i z o n a $ 3 5 0 in speeding fines, so Spike did all t h e driving. Spike was t h e getaway m a n . I n Las C r u c e s , N e w M e x i c o , h e screeched o u t of a gas station w i t h o u t paying, fishtailing across t h e lot o n four bald tyres and almost sideswiping a d u m p s t e r . In D e m i n g t h e y ran o u t o f a restaurant w i t h o u t paying — 'eating at t h e D i n e ' N ' D a s h ' . Across t h e state line s o m e w h e r e — Was it Willcox? Was it B e n s o n ? - J i m m y c a m e b o l t i n g o u t o f a Circle K w i t h t w o cases o f Budweiser, b a n d y - l e g g e d and w i l d eyed: ' O p e n that m o t h e r f u c k i n ' door!' H e leaped i n t o t h e passenger seat, yelling, ' W o o o o - h a h ! H a u l ass a n d drive like Jesus!' It was five in t h e m o r n i n g w h e n Spike p u l l e d i n t o t h e Y u m a r o d e o g r o u n d s . W h e n h e closed his eyes, h e c o u l d still see t h e w h i t e line o f t h e road, r u n n i n g t h r o u g h his m i n d ' s eye, and it stayed t h e r e as h e slept. S t r a n g e creatures flashed across his d r e a m h i g h w a y a n d streaked off i n t o t h e desert, leaving v a p o u r trails o f light - a coyote w i t h a devil's h e a d , a d e e r t h a t shapeshifted i n t o a giant j a c k r a b b i t a n d flew past t h e w i n d s h i e l d . H e w a n t e d t o t u r n t h e w h e e l a n d follow t h e m , t o get a closer l o o k , b u t h e k n e w h e m u s t k e e p his eyes fixed o n t h e w h i t e line. Eventually, t h e t e m p t a t i o n p r o v e d t o o m u c h a n d a giant spectral j a c k r a b b i t l u r e d h i m off t h e h i g h w a y i n t o t h e desert. H e crashed i n t o a tree a n d w o k e u p o n t h e backseat. T h e c r a m p in his calf m u s c l e was from k e e p i n g t h e gas p e d a l pressed d o w n i n his sleep. It's eight o ' c l o c k now, a p i e r c i n g b l u e desert m o r n i n g . J i m m y a n d Billy are still asleep in t h e front seat. A m o u l t i n g h o u n d n a m e d
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B u b b a snores i n t h e foot well, o n a c a r p e t o f e m p t y b e e r cans, a n d will s o o n w a k e t o a h a n g o v e r like t h e rest o f t h e m . Spike h o o k s o u t a razor and soap from t h e t r u n k a n d shaves in t h e wing-mirror. H e stands j u s t over six feet tall, w i t h a powerful, slightly s t o o p e d frame a n d a habitual g r i n . H i s face is big, solid a n d r a w b o n e d , t h e c h i n and forehead like r a m p a r t s , t h e nose b r o k e n five t i m e s in various r o d e o accidents. C r o o k e d t e e t h , stained b r o w n by R e d M a n c h e w i n g t o b a c c o . A l o n g w h i t e scar across his n e c k f r o m a b u l l s h o r n . H e is thit:ty-oiie years old, a professional r o d e o c o w b o y from central California a n d a full-time citizen o f t h e road. Spike a n d Billy r i d e bulls. J i m m y rides t h e b r o n c s . In t h e last t e n days t h e y have driven five t h o u s a n d miles, c o m p e t i n g i n r o d e o s from California to Florida a n d b a c k , a n d d o n o t c o n s i d e r this h a r d travelling. I've b e e n in faltering p u r s u i t o f t h e m for t h e last m o n t h or so, s o m e t i m e s i n t e r s e c t i n g , s o m e t i m e s missing
them
because o f changes in their s c h e d u l e , w r o u g h t b y vehicle b r e a k d o w n s , r u n - i n s w i t h t h e l a w a n d side-trips t o hospital e m e r g e n c y rooms. Spike averages e i g h t y t h o u s a n d miles a year, a n d s o m e t i m e s t o p s a h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d . Billy hasn't spent m o r e t h a n a w e e k in t h e same t o w n for e i g h t e e n m o n t h s . T h e y t h i n k n o t h i n g o f d r i v i n g a t h o u s a n d miles t o s o m e dusty corral in t h e m i d d l e o f n o w h e r e , to risk their n e c k s for an e i g h t - s e c o n d adrenalin r u s h o n t h e b a c k o f an e n r a g e d animal, and t h e h o p e o f a pay c h e q u e to k e e p g o i n g . It is a life o f m o t i o n — s h o r t bursts of h i g h velocity followed b y l o n g , s m o o t h stretches o f highway, s o a r i n g a n d crashing o n v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s o f d r u g s a n d b o o z e — a n d it n e v e r stops. ' T h e r o a d b u r n s o u t a lot o f r o d e o cowboys,' says Spike. 'You l e a r n t o sleep fast, a night's sleep in an h o u r s o m e t i m e s , b u t shit, I can't i m a g i n e a b e t t e r life. I've t r i e d settling d o w n : w o r k i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n , r e n t i n g an a p a r t m e n t , l i v i n g w i t h a w o m a n . I w o u l d n ' t say it's all bad, b u t after a few w e e k s o f it, m y feet start t o i t c h i n ' a n d I g o t t o hit t h e road. M y dad was a r o d e o c o w b o y a n d h e always said t h e y w e r e t h e best years o f his life.' H e stuffs a breakfast w a d o f R e d M a n u n d e r his lip a n d pulls o n a black 2 0 X beaver-felt R e s i s t o l c o w b o y h a t w i t h a silver
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b u c k l e o n t h e b a n d . Like m o s t n o m a d s , r o d e o c o w b o y s w e a r t h e i r w e a l t h . Spike's b e l t - b u c k l e is t h e size o f a small d i n n e r plate, w o r k e d w i t h real g o l d a n d fake g e m s . H i s b o o t s cost $ 2 1 5 . H e reaches d o w n i n t o t h e left o n e , pulls o u t his wallet a n d surveys its c o n t e n t s . ' I n e e d m e a g u t - s t o m p i n ' bull today,' h e says.'A rank, w i l d , b u c k i n ' , m o n e y - m a k i n ' sonofabitch.' H e has eleven dollars t o his n a m e . 'I b e e n r i d i n ' bulls for fifteen years,' h e says. 'I seen m y p a r d n e r N e i l git his ear r i p p e d off. I seen a n o t h e r g o o d b u d d y git s t o m p e d in t h e h e a d so b a d his brains p o p p e d o u t his ears. I seen L a n e Frost, t h e purtiest b u l l r i d e r o f ' e m all, git g o r e d to d e a t h in C h e y e n n e . After a w h i l e , it d o n ' t affect you t o o bad. W h e n y o u p u t o n y o u r chaps a n d spurs a n d git o n that bull, y o u g o t t o p u t all t h e m negative t h o u g h t s o u t y o u r m i n d , a n d j u s t r i d e like Jesus.' 'Carpe diem, that's m y m o t t o , ' says o n e r o d e o c o w b o y t o a n o t h e r . 'Seize t h e day. G r a b it b y t h e nuts and squeeze u n t i l it hollers. S t o m p a m u d h o l e in its ass a n d . . .' ' K a r - p a y d e e - M ? W h a t t h e hell k i n d a A n g l i s h is that?' ' O h , I guess it's Eye-talian o r M e s k i n o r s o m e shit.' Spike stands b e h i n d t h e b u c k i n g c h u t e s , feet p l a n t e d a yard apart, t h u m b s h o o k e d in t h e front p o c k e t s o f his W r a n g l e r s , spitt i n g t h i c k b r o w n ropes o f t o b a c c o j u i c e i n t o t h e dust. H e has b o r r o w e d seventy-five dollars to pay his e n t r y fees a n d d r a w n a b i g red B r a h m a bull, w h i c h snorts a n d thrashes in t h e b u c k i n g c h u t e , c l a n g i n g its h o r n s against t h e steel bars. W h e n I say big, I m e a n close to a t o n , w i t h eyeballs t h e size o f grapefruits a n d a l o o k o f b r u t e fury in t h e m . Spike fidgets w i t h his fringed l e a t h e r chaps, adjusts his spurs, stretches o u t his leg muscles, paces u p a n d d o w n . T h e rising adrenalin has w i p e d o u t all traces o f h a n g o v e r a n d e x h a u s t i o n . H e l o o k s tense a n d alert. T h e bullriders all have their different rituals. S o m e p r e p a r e for t h e m o m e n t w i t h savage karate kicks. O t h e r s gaze q u i e t l y i n t o t h e m i d d l e distance, e m p t y i n g t h e i r m i n d o f all distractions, in a quest for a p u r e , Z e n - l i k e state. C o d y C u s t e r , t h e f o r m e r w o r l d c h a m p i o n , r e s p l e n d e n t in a c u s t o m - m a d e pair o f G l o r y To G o d chaps, closes his eyes a n d lays his h a n d s over t h e bull, t o exorcise
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any d e m o n i c spirits t h a t m i g h t b e l u r k i n g u n d e r its h i d e . T h e n h e kneels a n d prays, s h i e l d i n g his t h i n , scarred face w i t h a black c o w b o y hat. B u l l r i d i n g is r o d e o s t r i p p e d d o w n t o its gladiatorial essence, a c o n t e s t b e t w e e n m a n and beast in w h i c h t h e beast h o l d s t h e advantage. T h e c o w b o y , w i t h o n e h a n d c l u t c h i n g a r o p e , t h e o t h e r h e l d aloft, a t t e m p t s t o stay o n t h e b a c k o f t h e bull for e i g h t seconds, w i t h as m u c h flair a n d poise as h e can muster. T h e bull, using an u n p r e d i c t a b l e , rapid-fire s e q u e n c e o f b u c k s , leaps, p l u n g e s , kicks a n d spins, tries t o t h r o w h i m off. If t h e c o w b o y is successful, h e stands t o w i n a c h e q u e for a few t h o u s a n d dollars a n d a large, o s t e n t a t i o u s b e l t - b u c k l e . If t h e bull is successful, h e gets t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o t r a m p l e a n d g o r e t h e c o w b o y , a l t h o u g h n o t all bulls will try. B o t h p a r t n e r s in this frenzied, h i g h - v e l o c i t y d a n c e c o n t r i b u t e equally to t h e score. T h e c o w b o y is m a r k e d o u t of fifty for t h e assurance o f his r i d e , t h e bull for its ' r a n k n e s s ' : t h e ferocity o f its efforts t o b u c k off t h e c o w b o y . First u p is C h a r l i e S a m p s o n , a l o n e black b u l l r i d e r from S o u t h C e n t r a l Los A n g e l e s in a w o r l d o f w h i t e c o u n t r y boys. H e stretches o u t his g r o i n muscles and climbs cautiously o n t h e b r o a d , b r i n d l e d b a c k o f his bull. H e ties a gloved h a n d i n t o t h e r i g g i n g a n d p u n c h e s t h e k n o t . T h e c o w b o y s sitting o n t h e fence rail call o u t e n c o u r a g e m e n t , ' R i d e t o u g h , Charlie,' ' G i t u p over him.' C h a r l i e n o d s t o t h e c h u t e m a n , t h e gate flies o p e n a n d t h e bull leaps o u t i n t o t h e arena, six feet in t h e air, b u c k i n g a n d s p i n n i n g , trailing l o n g strings o f m u c u s from its nostrils. A roar builds in t h e c r o w d as C h a r l i e w o r k s t h e bull, ' d o i n g t h e w i n d s h i e l d w i p e r ' w i t h his flailing free a r m , j a c k k n i f i n g his b o d y in perfect s y n c h r o n i c i t y w i t h t h e t h r a s h i n g bull, perfectly b a l a n c e d , even t h r o u g h t h e final w h i r l i n g spins. H e is t a p p e d off, o n t h e jazz, in t h e z o n e , w h e r e t i m e is b e n t o u t o f shape a n d t h e soul seems t o rise o u t o f t h e b o d y — 'Like y o u ' r e sitting in a chair l o o k i n g d o w n at yourself, m a k i n g t h e p e r f e c t
m o v e s i n slow m o t i o n . '
He
d i s m o u n t s at t h e e i g h t - s e c o n d buzzer, t h e r o d e o c l o w n s r u s h in t o distract t h e bull, a n d C h a r l i e scrambles u p t h e fence, t r e m b l i n g a n d w i l d - e y e d from t h e adrenalin. H e takes t h e lead w i t h e i g h t y two points.
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Spike is u p a c o u p l e o f bulls later. H e ties his left h a n d i n t o t h e r i g g i n g a n d crams his h a t d o w n low. T h e gate o p e n s a n d t h e bull j u m p s o u t i n t o t h e arena. It gives a few h a l f - h e a r t e d b u c k s a n d a t i r e d - l o o k i n g spin, a n d after five seconds o r so, Spike is so disgusted that h e w a n t s t o take off his hat a n d fan t h e lazy, w o r t h less beast across t h e h e a d — t h e u l t i m a t e gesture o f c o n t e m p t . H e ' s d r a w n a n o t h e r d u d . H e scores sixty-five p o i n t s a n d is o u t o f t h e m o n e y again. Billy fares n o b e t t e r . H e stays o n his bull for eight s e c o n d s b u t it d o e s n ' t b u c k for h i m . J i m m y puts t o g e t h e r a g o o d saddle b r o n c ride, b u t he's o u t o f t h e m o n e y t o o . ' M a y b e w e ' l l have b e t t e r l u c k i n I n d i o t o m o r r o w , if w e can figure o u t a way t o get there,' says S p i k e . ' R i g h t now, w e ' v e g o t a q u a r t e r - t a n k o f gas a n d a b o u t eight b u c k s b e t w e e n us.' J i m m y roots a r o u n d in t h e t r u n k o f t h e car a n d pulls o u t five copies o f a h o m e - m a d e p o r n o g r a p h i c v i d e o in w h i c h he stars. H e walks over to t h e b e e r stand a n d tries t o sell t h e videos to a t r i o o f M a r i n e s , off-duty from a n e a r b y military base. ' M a n , it's s o m e wild-ass shit,' h e tells t h e m . 'She's w e a r i n ' red l e a t h e r gloves a n d she's all tied u p . I g o t m y chaps a n d spurs o n a n d I ' m slappin' h e r a r o u n d w i t h m y hat . . . T h i r t y b u c k s , m a n . . . H o w a b o u t twenty-five?' J i m m y is a m e t h a m p h e t a m i n e
fiend:
wiry and
rodent-faced
w i t h a m a n i c cackling l a u g h a n d glittering eyes, half-concealed b y h o o d e d lids. H e does n o t tell t h e M a r i n e s that his co-star and girlfriend c h a r g e d h i m w i t h r a p e after t h e m a k i n g o f t h e v i d e o . H e served a year i n p r i s o n for it a n d m a r r i e d h e r t h e day h e g o t out. T h e m a r r i a g e has n o t p r o s p e r e d . J i m m y is o n t h e road all t h e time, drinking and snorting meth, screwing whores and rodeo g r o u p i e s , never w e a r i n g a c o n d o m a n d calling u p o n c e in a b l u e m o o n . Last t i m e h e w e n t h o m e J i m m y f o u n d
another
man
d r i n k i n g b e e r o n his c o u c h a n d beat t h e shit o u t o f h i m . H e slapped his wife across t h e face, kicked h e r in t h e ass a n d s l a m m e d t h e d o o r . S h e called t h e cops a n d filed an assault c h a r g e , b u t J i m m y was g o n e , c u r s i n g his way d o w n t h e h i g h w a y w i t h a case o f b e e r at his side.
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T h e r e are n o takers for t h e v i d e o , b u t J i m m y m a n a g e s to sell his j a c k e t t o o n e o f t h e M a r i n e s for forty b u c k s . First things first: h e buys a b a g o f w e e d from a n o t h e r r o d e o c o w b o y a n d takes Spike a n d Billy off b e h i n d t h e h o r s e stables t o 'skip r o p e ' . (In t h e O l d W e s t r o p e was m a d e o u t o f h e m p , t h e cannabis plant, a n d c o w b o y s w o u l d light u p pieces o f r o p e a n d s m o k e t h e m t o get h i g h . H e m p has l o n g b e e n o u t l a w e d in A m e r i c a , b u t t h e t e r m s ' s m o k i n g r o p e ' a n d ' s k i p p i n g r o p e ' still prevail in r o d e o circles.) J i m m y g r i n d s o u t t h e r o a c h w i t h his b o o t - h e e l a n d says, ' A w r i g h t boys, let t h e p a r t y c o m m e n c e ! Let's see if w e cain't h u n t us u p s o m e b u c k l e b u n n i e s . ' You see t h e m at every r o d e o in A m e r i c a , girls in t h e i r t w e n t i e s a n d early thirties, w i t h b i g hair, skin-tight jeans and some kind of breast-enhancing top — rodeo g r o u p i e s by a n o t h e r n a m e , mainstay o f a c o w b o y ' s sex life. T h e y call t h e m b u c k l e b u n n i e s b e c a u s e t h e first t h i n g t h e y l o o k for o n a m a n is a big, gold t r o p h y b e l t - b u c k l e , w h i c h indicates a r o d e o champion. In Y u m a this a f t e r n o o n t h e pickings are slim. T h e r e is o n l y a handful o f b u c k l e b u n n i e s a n d t h e y are already paired off w i t h t h e w i n n e r s . T h e rest o f t h e w o m e n h e r e are e i t h e r over sixty o r y o u n g , p r i m , c h u r c h y types, t h e d a u g h t e r s o f local r a n c h e r s a n d b u s i n e s s m e n . T h e c o w b o y s stay at t h e r o d e o g r o u n d s for t h r e e beers t h e n drive over to t h e organiser's d a n c e , s n e a k i n g in w i t h o u t tickets a n d d i s a p p e a r i n g i n t o a dark c o r n e r at t h e far e n d o f t h e hall. J i m m y pulls o u t t h e speed, a n d his h u g e b o w i e knife, and t h e y each take a s n o r t u n d e r t h e cover o f their h a t b r i m s . A c o u n t r y a n d w e s t e r n b a n d is playing o n t h e stage, a n d w h e n p e o p l e get u p from their tables t o d a n c e , t h e t h r e e c o w b o y s saunter b y a n d steal t h e i r d r i n k s . It's a dull scene, elderly couples d o i n g t h e t w o step. N o girls, n o a c t i o n . T h e n e x t stop is a b a r in Y u m a k n o w n informally as t h e B l a c k E y e Factory, t h e h a u n t o f bikers, t r u c k e r s , off-duty soldiers a n d t o u g h - l o o k i n g w o m e n w i t h tattoos. T h e r e is a g r o u p o f r o d e o c o w b o y s at t h e b a r s p e n d i n g their w i n n i n g s , and Spike, Billy a n d J i m m y j o i n in t h e celebrations. T h e w h i s k e y flows, t h e s i n g i n g a n d storytelling b e g i n : tales o f w h o r e h o u s e sprees a n d
narrow
escapes from t h e law, practical j o k e s a n d epic d r i n k i n g b i n g e s ,
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famous bulls a n d t h e c o w b o y s t h e y ' v e killed a n d c r i p p l e d . A t o n e p o i n t a steer wrestler, a big, s t r o n g c o u n t r y b o y w i t h a h e a d like a b o u l d e r , stands u p a n d issues a challenge t o t h e bar: 'I g o t fifty b u c k s says I can beat t h e shit o u t o f any four o f you.' F o u r soldiers stand u p from their table, a n d half t h e bar e m p t i e s o u t i n t o t h e p a r k i n g lot t o w a t c h t h e fight. T h e steer wrestler k n o c k s o u t t w o o f t h e m early o n a n d t h e n it reaches a b l o o d y stalemate. T h e soldiers k e e p c a t c h i n g h i m w i t h p u n c h e s t o t h e h e a d , b u t t h e c o w b o y w o n ' t g o d o w n a n d h e keeps p u n c h i n g b a c k . T h e y k e e p s w i n g i n g at each o t h e r until s o m e o n e steps in a n d calls a draw. A t o n e o ' c l o c k , A r i z o n a t i m e , t h e Black Eye F a c t o r y closes a n d w e drive over t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r for a n o t h e r t w o h o u r s ' d r i n k i n g o n t h e California side. J i m m y finds an o l d c o w b o y t h e r e w h o keeps t h e whiskeys c o i n i n g , glad t o find an a u d i e n c e for his o w n r o d e o stories. 'Best days o f m y life,' h e says. ' F o r t w e n t y years I lived like a free m a n , l o o s e - f o o t e d as a t u m b l e w e e d in a w i n d s t o r m . R i d i n ' bulls, d r i n k i n ' m y whiskey, g r a b b i n ' any piece o f pussy I c o u l d get m y h a n d s o n . T h e n I bust u p m y b a c k real bad, spent six m o n t h s in t h e hospital. T h e d o c t o r s said if I w e n t b a c k t o r i d i n ' bulls, I'd likely c r i p p l e myself. S o I q u i t r o d e o i n ' a n d t r i e d t o settle d o w n . Let m e tell y o u boys, it d o n ' t c o m e natural to a cowboy' A t closing t i m e w e c l i m b b a c k in t h e C h e v y a n d J i m m y drives t h e backroads to Y u m a . T h e n e x t t h i n g I k n o w it's four in t h e m o r n i n g . I w a k e u p o n t h e backseat, t h e C h e v y is p a r k e d o u t s i d e a M o t e l 6. T w o M e x i c a n s are t r y i n g t o break in, rattling t h e handles, a n d t h e n J i m m y appears a n d p o i n t s t h e .38 at t h e m . T h e M e x i c a n s leave a n d I pass o u t again. A t seven in t h e m o r n i n g I w a k e u p to find J i m m y
rooting
t h r o u g h m y possessions. H e finds a b o t t l e o f hair c o n d i t i o n e r a n d holds it aloft w i t h a m a n i c g r i n . I ask h i m w h a t h e n e e d s it for. ' L u b r i c a t i o n , ' h e says. ' W e c o u l d n ' t afford n o w h o r e s so I stole m e a P o c k e t Pussy from t h e sex shop. D a m n n e a r g o t c a u g h t too.' I p o i n t o u t t h e b r a n d - n a m e o n t h e c o n d i t i o n e r b o t t l e : Suave. ' P u r t y gotdamn
suave, y o u ask m e ! ' H e cackles. To t h e h o r r o r o f
t h e elderly c o u p l e s c h e c k i n g o u t o f t h e m o t e l o n t h e i r way t o
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S u n d a y m o r n i n g breakfast a n d c h u r c h services, h e takes t h e P o c k e t Pussy o u t o f its b o x , holds it t o his chest a n d waltzes a r o u n d t h e p a r k i n g lot o n his tiptoes, s i n g i n g love songs t o a p i n k plastic sheath: 'You are t h e s u n s h i n e o f m y life/You are t h e apple o f m y eye . . .' T h e n h e takes t h e c o n t r a p t i o n u p t o a m o t e l r o o m a n d five c o w b o y s all take t h e i r t u r n — a scene I d i d n o t witness, b u t h e a r d a b o u t later. Later t h a t m o r n i n g t h e y pile i n t o t h e car a n d p o i n t it t o w a r d s I n d i o , California. N o n e o f t h e m has slept. A b r o n c r i d e r n a m e d Jeff is at t h e w h e e l , d r i n k i n g a breakfast b e e r a n d p r e a c h i n g c o w b o y philosophy:'Sometimes you've got plenty of m o n e y and you spend it like t h e r e ain't n o t o m o r r o w . D r i n k s for everybody, steak d i n n e r s , girls, g a m b l i n g , m a y b e git y o u r s e l f a fancy n e w pair o f b o o t s o r a c o u p l e o f w h o r e s . A n d s o m e t i m e s you're b r o k e a n d y o u d o w h a t y o u have t o d o to carry o n d o w n t h e road. E i t h e r way, y o u have a blast. Shit, t h e m o l d - t i m e c o w b o y s was a b u n c h o f r o w d y o u t l a w bastards. I like t o t h i n k w e ' r e j u s t k e e p i n ' t h e spirit o f t h e O F West alive.' T e d d y A b b o t t was t e n years o l d - a pale, sickly child w i t h h u g e , m o u r n f u l eyes — w h e n his father m o v e d t h e family from C r a n w i c h H a l l , in E n g l a n d , t o a c a b i n o n t h e N e b r a s k a frontier. In E n g l a n d his father had b e e n a w e l l - t o - d o g e n t l e m a n farmer, c u l t u r e d a n d well e d u c a t e d , w i t h forty cap-doffing villagers at his b e c k a n d call. N e e d l e s s t o say, h e was appalled by A m e r i c a n society, such as it was i n L i n c o l n , N e b r a s k a , in 1 8 7 1 : t h e i g n o r a n c e a n d b r u t i s h ness, t h e b a r b a r i c m a n g l i n g o f t h e English language, t h e e a r - b i t i n g a n d e y e - g o u g i n g contests in t h e taverns. T h e r e w e r e o t h e r English settlers in t h e area, b u t h e refused t o associate w i t h t h e m a n d referred t o t h e m as ' c a r t - h o r s e - b r e d b u g g e r s ' . H e t o o k refuge in English n e w s p a p e r s , m o n t h s o u t o f date, a n d s q u a n d e r e d his i n h e r ited w e a l t h o n various l a k e - b u i l d i n g a n d t r e e - p l a n t i n g s c h e m e s ill-advised a t t e m p t s t o m a k e t h e bleak, arid prairie l o o k m o r e like England.
^
Y o u n g Teddy, m e a n w h i l e , was adjusting fine. T e d d y was g o i n g native. B y t h e age o f twelve, h e was o u t r i d i n g t h e o p e n r a n g e for w e e k s a n d m o n t h s at a t i m e , h e r d i n g t h e family's cattle, c o o k i n g
242
Richard Grant
a n d s o m e t i m e s h u n t i n g his o w n food, sleeping u n d e r t h e stars. H i s m o t h e r said t h e r e m u s t b e gypsy b l o o d i n h i m , b e c a u s e at every opportunity
h e w o u l d r i d e off w i t h t h e L o u p
River
P a w n e e s , a n d his m o s t fervent desire was t o b e c o m e an I n d i a n a n d follow t h e last o f t h e buffalo herds. W h e n t h e P a w n e e s w e r e s h u n t e d off t o I n d i a n T e r r i t o r y in O k l a h o m a , T e d d y d e c i d e d t o b e c o m e a cattle drover instead, figuring that was close e n o u g h . As his friend C h a r l i e Russell, t h e c o w b o y artist, u s e d t o say in later years, ' W e w e r e j u s t w h i t e Indians a n y w a y ' In t h e early 1870s L i n c o l n lay at t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f o n e o f t h e Texas cattle trails, a n d t h e c o u n t r y a r o u n d it was full o f T e x a n c o w b o y s . T h e y w e r e a new, e m e r g i n g t y p e o n t h e w e s t e r n plains, n o t yet a r o m a n t i c a r c h e t y p e . M o s t o f t h e m w e r e y o u n g , discharged C o n f e d e r a t e soldiers, i n u r e d t o death, a n d v i o l e n c e b y t h e war, b i t t e r o v e r its o u t c o m e , a c c u s t o m e d t o hardship, d a n g e r
and
c o n s t a n t travel, a roving, reckless, h e d o n i s t i c b r e e d . R e t u r n i n g h o m e t o Texas after t h e w a r (in t h e s p r i n g o f 1866) t h e y f o u n d t h e crops failing a n d t h e e c o n o m y devastated, w i t h little o r n o N o r t h e r n m o n e y i n circulation. Beef, h o w e v e r , was plentiful. W h i l e t h e m e n w e r e away fighting, feral cattle h a d m u l t i plied e x p o n e n t i a l l y in Texas, u n t i l half a m i l l i o n o r m o r e r o a m e d the thorny brush country between the Nueces River and the R i o G r a n d e . T h e y w e r e d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e black Spanish cattle t h a t h a d escaped from t h e early missions a n d later b r e d w i t h runaways from t h e A m e r i c a n settlers' h e r d s . T h e y w e r e s p o o k y as deer, w i l d e r a n d m o r e d a n g e r o u s t h a n buffalo. Texans called t h e m o u t l a w cattle o r L o n g h o r n s , b e c a u s e o n a full-grown bull o r steer t h e h o r n s m i g h t m e a s u r e e i g h t o r n i n e feet from tip t o tip. U s i n g t e c h n i q u e s b o r r o w e d from M e x i c a n v a q u e r o s , t h e Texans b e g a n t o c a p t u r e a n d b r a n d t h e m , s u p p l e m e n t i n g their herds b y stealing from each o t h e r and r a i d i n g t h e M e x i c a n ranches across t h e R i o Grande. T h e r e was n o m a r k e t for b e e f i n Texas, b u t t h e N o r t h was c r y i n g o u t for it, so t h e T e x a n c a t t l e m e n b e g a n to drive their herds to t h e railheads in M i s s o u r i , Kansas a n d N e b r a s k a , across h u n d r e d s o f miles o f o p e n prairie. A n a n i m a l w o r t h five doUars in Texas c o u l d b e sold for fifty u p n o r t h , a s s u m i n g it wasn't lost
Ghost
Riders
243
in a s t a m p e d e o r r u n off by Indians o r b y t h e m u r d e r o u s gangs o f w h i t e rustlers w h o r o a m e d t h e plains a n d t h e M i s s o u r i b o r d e r s (and s o m e t i m e s dressed u p i n m o c c a s i n s a n d feathers t o shift t h e b l a m e o n t o Indians). A few m e n m a d e fortunes o n t h e early drives, b u t m a n y m o r e w e r e b a n k r u p t e d , a n d d o z e n s w e r e killed, m o s t l y by d r o w n i n g in rivers a n d b e i n g struck b y l i g h t n i n g . T h e Texan c a t t l e m e n w e r e u n d e t e r r e d , h o w e v e r , a n d d u r i n g t h e late 1860s a great seasonal m i g r a t i o n o f livestock a n d m e n was e s t a b lished, a n e w f o r m o f A m e r i c a n n o m a d i s m . The
drovers
now
were
all
kinds
. . .
hound-gutted
C o n f e d e r a t e s , e x p e r i e n c e d s t o c k m e n w h o h a d b e e n fighting Indians a n d M e x i c a n raiders for years, a r m y m u l e skinners, a n d professional I n d i a n fighters, t o t h e riffraff o f t h e S o u t h e r n river t o w n s , g a m b l e r s , c o n m e n a n d h i d e - o u t s from t h e l a w a n d j u s t plain m u r d e r e r s . M a r i S a n d o z , Hie
Cattlemen
T h e y w o r e w i d e - b r i m m e d beaver-felt hats, black or b r o w n w i t h a l o w c r o w n , fancy shirts, l e a t h e r chaps a n d often a ratty old C o n f e d e r a t e coat that served as a b l a n k e t a n d a slicker t o k e e p off t h e rain. As a rule, t h e y w e r e small, w i r y m e n , a h e a v y m a n b e i n g t o o h a r d o n t h e horses. T h e y p r i d e d themselves o n t h e i r t o u g h n e s s , t h e Texans i n particular, a n d b o a s t e d that t h e y c o u l d go any place a c o w c o u l d go, a n d stand a n y t h i n g a h o r s e c o u l d stand. B r a g g i n g , c u r s i n g a n d storytelling w e r e their
artforms.
W h i s k e y a n d v i o l e n c e w e r e their vices. It was said that t h e y w e r e o n l y afraid o f t w o things: a d e c e n t w o m a n and b e i n g set afoot. W h i l e t h e o t h e r L i n c o l n boys w e r e in t h e s c h o o l h o u s e , T e d d y A b b o t t was o u t o n t h e r a n g e w i t h t h e c o w p u n c h e r s , l e a r n i n g their t e c h n i q u e s o f r i d i n g , r o p i n g a n d trail-driving, sitting at their campfires, s o a k i n g u p t h e stories o f s t a m p e d e s a n d swollen rivers, killings, gunfights a n d h a n g i n g s , t h e w i l d , d r u n k e n sprees i n D o d g e C i t y or Abilene. B y t h e age o f fifteen T e d d y was m a k i n g m o n e y t e n d i n g his n e i g h b o u r s ' cattle, a n d s p e n d i n g m o s t o f it o n w h i s k e y a n d w h o r e s . H e c a r r i e d a revolver and, like any t e e n a g e r w i t h a g u n , h e was i t c h i n g t o use it. In t h e c o m p a n y h e was k e e p i n g ,
244
Richard Grant
killing was a rite o f passage i n t o m a n h o o d , as it was for t h e plains I n d i a n tribes. In 1 8 7 6 T e d d y s t o o d before a p h o t o g r a p h e r , ' t o u g h , d r u n k a n d s i x t e e n ' , w i t h a cigar i n his m o u t h a n d a b o t t l e o f w h i s k e y in his h a n d , h e l d o u t o f t h e frame. Later that year, as h a d b e c o m e his c u s t o m , h e was galloping his h o r s e t h r o u g h t h e streets o f L i n c o l n , r o a r i n g d r u n k , w h o o p i n g a n d h o w l i n g , and s h o o t i n g o u t
the
streetlights. T h e t o w n m a r s h a l called o u t , 'Halt! Halt! T h r o w ' e m up.' T e d d y galloped straight towards h i m . H e shot h i m t h r o u g h t h e s h o u l d e r b u t h e was a i m i n g for t h e h e a r t . W h e n his o l d e r b r o t h e r J i m m y died, T e d d y lost w h a t little relig i o n h e h a d left. At t h e funeral t h e w i n d b l e w his hat i n t o t h e grave a n d h e asked his m o t h e r if G o d c o u l d have p r e v e n t e d J i m m y ' s d e a t h . 'Yes,' she replied, ' G o d is all powerful. H e c o u l d have p r e v e n t e d it if h e w i s h e d to.' ' T h e n I'll n e v e r g o in o n e o f y o u r d a m n c h u r c h e s again,' said Teddy, a n d h e n e v e r did, for t h e rest o f his life. N i n e t y p e r c e n t o f t h o s e early c o w b o y s , in Teddy's e x p e r i e n c e , w e r e 'infidels'. T h e y lived in n a t u r e a n d slept u n d e r t h e stars, and, like Indians, t h e y f o u n d it h a r d t o relate to a G o d w h o lived in a building with a roof and showed up on Sunday mornings. U n l i k e Indians, t h e y h a d n o faith in t h e p o w e r o f prayer. After y o u c o m e in c o n t a c t w i t h nature, y o u s o o n get all that stuff k n o c k e d o u t o f y o u — p r a y i n g to G o d for aid, d i v i n e P r o v i d e n c e , a n d so o n - because it d o n ' t w o r k . Y o u c o u l d pray all y o u d a m n pleased, b u t it w o u l d n ' t get you w a t e r w h e r e t h e r e wasn't water. Talk a b o u t t r u s t i n g P r o v i d e n c e , hell, if I'd t r u s t e d in P r o v i d e n c e , I'd have starved to d e a t h . E. C . A b b o t t ('Teddy Blue') and H e l e n a H u n t i n g t o n Smith, We Pointed Them North: Recollections of a Cow-puncher C h r i s t i a n i t y o n t h e frontier was v e r y m u c h a religion o f t h e settlers, t h e farmers from t h e M i d w e s t a n d N e w E n g l a n d w h o started t o appear in Kansas and N e b r a s k a in t h e late 1870s and w h o closed off t h e range to cattle. T h e c o w b o y s h a t e d t h e m , w i t h t h e usual
Ghost
Riders
245
c o n t e m p t o f t h e h o r s e n o m a d for t h e s e d e n t a r y farmer, a n d called t h e m ' g r a n g e r s ' , ' h o e m e n ' , ' p u m p k i n - p i l e r s ' a n d most of all'nesters' — 'psalm-singin', sodbustin', goatfaced, prayer-bayin' nesters'. T o Teddy's disgust, his father gave u p o n cattle, p l o u g h e d u n d e r t h e range, a n d j o i n e d t h e enemy's ranks. All his b r o t h e r s b e c a m e farmers t o o . I n t h e a u t u m n o f 1 8 7 8 , aged e i g h t e e n , T e d d y left h o m e for g o o d , following t h e cattle herds n o r t h . H e drifted u p t h e Platte R i v e r Valley, visiting t h e r a n c h e s a l o n g t h e way, a n d hired o n t o an outfit c o n t r a c t e d t o deliver a h e r d t o t h e P i n e R i d g e I n d i a n A g e n c y in S o u t h D a k o t a , w h e r e t h e Oglala S i o u x h a d recently b e e n c o n f i n e d . W i n t e r f o u n d h i m d o w n i n A u s t i n , Texas, fifteen h u n d r e d miles t o t h e s o u t h . H e was l e a n i n g u p against a b a r a n d a trail boss asked h i m , ' W a n t t o g o u p t h e trail?' ' W h a t outfit?' ' O l i v e outfit. T h i r t y dollars a m o n t h a n d found.' T h e O l i v e b r o t h e r s — Ira, M a r i o n a n d I. P. ' P r i n t ' — w e r e s o m e o f t h e m o s t v i o l e n t a n d feared c a t t l e m e n in t h e West, w h i c h m a d e t h e outfit all t h e m o r e a p p e a l i n g t o y o u n g T e d d y A b b o t t . P r i n t h a d already m u r d e r e d n i n e blacks in Texas ( w h i c h was n o t a m a t t e r for t h e l a w at t h e t i m e ) a n d several w h i t e s ( w h i c h was a m a t t e r for b r i b i n g t h e j u d g e a n d i n t i m i d a t i n g t h e witnesses). In N e b r a s k a , P r i n t O l i v e was k n o w n as ' T h e M a n b u r n e r ' . In 1 8 7 8 h e h a d h a n g e d t w o nesters near P l u m C r e e k , d o u s e d t h e i r b o d i e s in coal oil a n d s t r u c k a m a t c h . T e d d y g o t o n fine w i t h P r i n t a n d M a r i o n , b u t h e n e v e r d i d like Ira. C o m i n g u p t h e trail in 1 8 7 9 , Ira started i n o n a black g u n m a n n a m e d Kelly w h o w o r k e d for t h e outfit. Ira f o u n d s o m e p r o v o c a t i o n a n d p i s t o l - w h i p p e d h i m in t h e m o u t h , k n o c k i n g o u t t w o t e e t h , t h e n w a i t e d for Kelly t o d r a w so h e c o u l d kill h i m . T e d d y t o l d Ira t h a t if h e hit Kelly again, h e w o u l d s h o o t his eyes o u t . Ira p u t away his g u n , g o t o n his h o r s e a n d left t h e h e r d , n e v e r t o r e t u r n , w h i c h tells us s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e l o o k i n T e d d y A b b o t t ' s eyes at that t i m e . T h a t was t h e o n l y t r o u b l e I ever h a d in t h e outfit. T h e Olives was m o s t l y h a r d o n M e x i c a n s a n d niggers, b e c a u s e b e i n g from Texas t h e y was b o r n a n d raised w i t h that i n t e n s e
246
Richard Grant
h a t r e d o f a M e x i c a n , a n d b e i n g S o u t h e r n e r s , free niggers was p o i s o n to t h e m . B u t t h e y h i r e d t h e m because
they
worked cheaper than white men. Kelly was k n o w n as 'Olive's b a d n i g g e r ' . H i s j o b was to scare off t h e settlers, w h o h a d b e g u n fencing off t h e w a t e r h o l e s a n d t r y i n g to charge t h e c a t t l e m e n a fee t o w a t e r their h e r d s . Kelly w o u l d w a l k towards t h e m w i t h his g u n d r a w n , rolling his eyes crazily
and
gnashing
his t e e t h . M o s t
of the
settlers
were
N o r t h e r n e r s , u n u s e d to blacks b u t afraid o f t h e m anyway, a n d t h e y s o o n d r o p p e d t h e p r i c e for w a t e r i n g for t h e h e r d . T h e y drove t h e cattle from A u s t i n to L o u p R i v e r , N e b r a s k a , t h a t s u m m e r , a distance o f eight h u n d r e d miles or so, averaging t e n o r fifteen miles a day. T h e y s w a m swollen rivers, e n d u r e d f o r t y - m i l e drives b e t w e e n water. T h e y w e r e p o u n d e d b y giant hailstones. In Indian Territory, t h e h e r d was r u n off by a g a n g o f M e x i c a n , w h i t e a n d half-breed I n d i a n rustlers, b u t t h e c o w b o y s m a n a g e d t o recover it w i t h o u t b l o o d s h e d . D u r i n g t h e prairie l i g h t n i n g s t o r m s t h e air w o u l d fill w i t h static electricity, and s u d d e n l y a bluish p h o s p h o r e s c e n t light w o u l d a p p e a r o n t h e h o r n s o f t h e cattle — St E l m o ' s fire. T h e electricity w o u l d flash from h o r n t o h o r n , a n d balls o f it w o u l d appear o n t h e h o r s e s ' ears, a n d in a man's m o u s t a c h e , little balls o f light a b o u t t h e size o f a pea. T h e n , w i t h t h e first clap o f t h u n d e r , t h e h e r d w o u l d s t a m p e d e . T h e c o w b o y s w o u l d t r y t o gallop o u t ahead o f t h e m a n d get t h e m r u n n i n g in a circular d i r e c t i o n so t h e y e x p e n d e d t h e i r e n e r g y g o i n g r o u n d a n d r o u n d — a full-tilt ride in t h e dark across b r o k e n g r o u n d , littered w i t h c u t - b a n k s a n d prairie d o g holes, k n o w i n g that if y o u r h o r s e slipped o r s t u m b l e d , t h e s t a m p e d i n g h e r d b e h i n d w o u l d t r a m p l e a n d literally flatten y o u . T e d d y h a d seen it h a p p e n . F o r t h e m o s t part, t h e w o r k was e x h a u s t i n g d r u d g e r y , in t h e saddle eating dust from s u n u p t o s u n d o w n , a n d t h e n t w o h o u r s apiece o f n i g h t - g u a r d duty. T h e w o r s t o f it was t h e lack o f sleep. O n a g o o d night, w i t h t h e w e a t h e r calm a n d t h e c o w b o y s singing lullabies t o settle t h e h e r d , y o u m i g h t get five h o u r s . O n a b a d n i g h t y o u w e r e l u c k y t o get an h o u r , a n d c o w b o y s regularly w e n t
Ghost
Riders
247
t w o o r t h r e e days w i t h n o sleep at all, r u b b i n g t o b a c c o j u i c e i n t o t h e i r eyes t o k e e p t h e m o p e n . A n d if t h e y c o m p l a i n e d , t h e trail boss w o u l d say, ' W h a t t h e hell are you k i c k i n ' a b o u t ? You can sleep all w i n t e r w h e n w e get u p N o r t h . ' After t w o m o n t h s o n t h e trail, t w o m o n t h s o f sobriety, b a c o n a n d beans, h a r d w o r k a n d danger, t h e y delivered t h e h e r d in L o u p R i v e r , g o t t h e i r wages i n N o r t h Platte, a n d m a d e for t h e nearest saloons, g a m b l i n g dens a n d s p o r t i n g h o u s e s , ' t o c u t t h e w o l f l o o s e ' . T e d d y wasn't a gambler, w h i c h left h i m all t h e m o r e m o n e y t o s p e n d o n w h i s k e y a n d w h o r e s . Given their n o m a d i c life, a n d l o w social standing, prostitutes w e r e t h e o n l y w o m e n available to t h e trail c o w b o y s , often t h e o n l y w o m e n they knew, a n d o n t h e w h o l e t h e y treated t h e m well. T e d d y liked t o ' m a r r y a girl for a w e e k ' , take h e r to breakfast, l u n c h a n d s u p p e r every day, a n d hear h e r life story, a n d h e was ready to pull his g u n o n any m a n
who
insulted h e r h o n o u r . H e w e n t up t h e trail again in 1881 a n d 1 8 8 3 . H e was k n o c k e d off his h o r s e t w i c e b y l i g h t n i n g and saw t h r e e c o w b o y s killed i n s t a m p e d e s . B e t w e e n drives h e drifted
around
the
cowtowns,
d r i n k i n g a n d w h o r i n g , p i c k i n g up w o r k at r a n c h e s , t r y i n g his h a n d at t r a p p i n g for a w i n t e r . H e b e c a m e a friend o f C a l a m i t y J a n e , offering a s h o u l d e r t o c r y o n w h e n she was d r u n k
and
m o o n i n g after W i l d Bill H i c k o c k . ' T e d d y B l u e ' g o t his n i c k n a m e at a t h e a t r e in Miles
City,
M o n t a n a . A girl c a m e u p to h i m in a short skirt and 'tights t h a t l o o k e d like she'd b e e n m e l t e d a n d r u n i n t o t h e m ' . S h e i n v i t e d h i m to share a b o t t l e o f w i n e in a private, c u r t a i n e d b o x o n t h e balcony. T e d d y h a d seven h u n d r e d dollars in his g u n - b e l t , a n d o n t h e w a y t o t h e b o x h e h a d s e c o n d t h o u g h t s a n d d e c i d e d t h e girl was l e a d i n g h i m i n t o a trap. H e s p u n a r o u n d , c a u g h t his spur o n t h e c a r p e t a n d crashed t h r o u g h a p a r t i t i o n o n t o t h e stage. H e figured t h e a u d i e n c e n e e d e d e n t e r t a i n i n g so h e g r a b b e d a chair, straddled in b a c k w a r d s , a n d b u c k e d it over t h e stage y e l l i n g , ' W h o a , B l u e ! W h o a , B l u e ! ' T h e n i c k n a m e stuck to h i m for life. D u r i n g t h e m i d - a n d late 1880s t h e l o n g trail drives c a m e to an e n d . T h e r a n g e was o v e r g r a z e d , t h e r e w e r e terrible die-offs in t h e
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N o r t h e r n w i n t e r s and w i t h t h e i n v e n t i o n o f b a r b e d w i r e , private ranchers a n d settlers w e r e able t o fence off t h e o p e n range, m a k i n g t h e free m o v e m e n t o f m e n and cattle impossible. T h e n o m a d i c heyday o f t h e plains c o w b o y lasted t w e n t y years at m o s t . T h e total n u m b e r o f m e n o n t h e drives is estimated at t h i r t y - t w o t h o u s a n d . So w h y d i d they furnish so m u c h A m e r i c a n m y t h o l o g y ? H o w did t h e w o r d ' c o w b o y ' m a n a g e to c h a n g e its m e a n i n g so dramatically? It b e g a n as a typical s e d e n t a r y insult, d e n o t i n g a lawless, r o o t less, t h r e a t e n i n g , disreputable n o m a d , w i t h n o place i n a d e c e n t society. O n c e t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s for his life — u n f e n c e d , u n r e g u lated space — had b e e n r e m o v e d , a n d his n o m a d i s m curtailed, h e t u r n e d i n t o a r o m a n t i c , nostalgic, enviable figure, i m b u e d w i t h n o b i l i t y a n d simple, p r i m i t i v e v i r t u e . Like t h e plains I n d i a n a n d t h e m o u n t a i n m a n before h i m , h e c a m e to symbolise a t i m e o f f r e e d o m a n d a d v e n t u r e t h a t h a d passed. As Buffalo Bill C o d y ' s W i l d West S h o w was t o u r i n g t h e w o r l d , w i t h defeated Indians (including Sitting Bull) a n d
out-of-work
trail h a n d s playing theatrical versions o f themselves, t h e rest o f t h e c o w b o y s w e r e drifting i n t o r a n c h - w o r k , p r o s p e c t i n g , o d d j o b s and outlawry. T e d d y A b b o t t m a d e t h e transition b e t t e r t h a n m o s t . H e stayed u p in M o n t a n a , quit d r i n k i n g a n d m a r r i e d a w o m a n h e loved, t h e half-Indian d a u g h t e r o f a f a m o u s M o n t a n a cattleman n a m e d Granville Stuart. H e b o u g h t his o w n r a n c h a n d started sleeping in a b u n k h o u s e , r i d i n g a fence-line a n d g a t h e r i n g cattle in a fenced pasture. H e f o u n d it a p o o r substitute for his w i l d days o n t h e o p e n range, b u t it was b e t t e r t h a n f a r m i n g , an o c c u p a t i o n t o w h i c h h e r e m a i n e d virulently o p p o s e d for t h e rest o f his life. M a n y c o w b o y s f o u n d it impossible t o break t h e old p a t t e r n s o f mobility. T h e y s e l d o m stayed at t h e same r a n c h for m o r e t h a n a season o r t w o , a n d i n t h e w i n t e r t h e y w o u l d ' r i d e t h e g r u b l i n e ' . E v e r y r a n c h in t h e cattle c o u n t r y was o b l i g e d , b y t h e codes o f hospitality, to give a travelling c o w b o y a free m e a l a n d a place to stay. In r e t u r n , t h e g r u b - l i n e riders spread n e w s b e t w e e n t h e isolated r a n c h e s a n d gave t h e m s o m e t h i n g t o gossip a b o u t over the winter. In t h e days o f t h e o p e n range, c o w b o y s used t o m a k e a sport
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o f t h e i r w o r k skills. W h e n different outfits m e t o n t h e trail t h e y w o u l d often h o l d i m p r o m p t u r i d i n g , r o p i n g a n d
horseracing
contests, g a m b l i n g heavily o n t h e o u t c o m e , a n d this t r a d i t i o n was k e p t u p b y t h e r a n c h c o w b o y s . In 1 8 8 3 , i n Pecos City, Texas, c o w b o y s from all t h e r a n c h e s in t h e area r o d e i n t o t o w n o n t h e F o u r t h o f July, a n d started d r i n k i n g i n t h e B a r 7 S a l o o n , k n o c k i n g b a c k Hill and H i l l w h i s k e y at $ 1 . 5 0 a q u a r t . As c o w b o y s will, t h e y g o t t o b r a g g i n g , a n d , e x a m i n i n g t h e annals o f 1880s folklore, w e can i m a g i n e t h e t e n o r o f t h e e x c h a n g e s . . . ' I ' m half h o r s e , half alligator, w i t h a little t o u c h o f s n a p p i n g turtle. I c l u m b a streak o f l i g h t n i n g , a n d slid d o w n a locust tree a h u n d r e d feet h i g h , w i t h a w i l d cat u n d e r each a r m a n d n e v e r g o t a scratch. W h o o p e e - y i p - h o ! ' ' R a i s e d in t h e b a c k w o o d s , s u c k l e d b y a polar bear, n i n e rows o f j a w t e e t h , a d o u b l e coat o f hair, steel ribs, w i r e intestine a n d a b a r b e d - w i r e tail, a n d I d o n ' t give a d a n g w h e r e I drag it. Whoopee-whee-a-ha!' It was d e c i d e d t o settle these claims b y m e a n s o f a r o p i n g a n d b r o n c - r i d i n g contest. A g r o u p o f c o w b o y s galloped off t o r o u n d u p s o m e steers a n d drove t h e m d o w n M a i n Street to an alkali flat adjoining t h e c o u r t h o u s e , e n c l o s e d b y a line o f w a g o n s a n d a p l a n k fence. A . T. 'Trav' W h i t m a n w o n t h e steer r o p i n g , w i t h a t i m e o f t w e n t y - t w o seconds, a n d p r o c e e d e d t o get r o a r i n g d r u n k o n t h e p r i z e m o n e y at t h e B a r 7 S a l o o n — an event that is g e n e r ally hailed as t h e b i r t h o f r o d e o . D u r i n g t h e 1890s, as t h e last trail c o w b o y s faded i n t o history, similar contests s p r u n g u p all over t h e West, m e m o r i a l i s i n g t h e skills o f t h e range, and, as c o w b o y s started travelling from r o d e o to r o d e o , r e s t o r i n g an a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e old seasonal m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n s . O r g a n i s e d b u l l r i d i n g , w h i c h w e n t o n to b e c o m e t h e m o s t p o p u l a r event in r o d e o , e m e r g e d later, in t h e 1920s. It's an activity w i t h n o practical application for a w o r k i n g cowboy, a p u r e test o f skill a n d daredevil c o u r a g e . To r i d e a b u c k i n g b r o n c o r wrestle a steer was d a n g e r o u s , b u t t o c l i m b o n t h e b a c k o f an angry, o n e - t o n , b u c k i n g bull was like l o o k i n g d o w n t h e barrel o f a g u n ' , a c c o r d i n g to o n e early bullrider. At F o r t W o r t h , Texas, in 1 9 3 7 , a B r a h m a bull j u m p e d a n i n e - f o o t fence, c h a r g e d t h r o u g h
250
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t h e c r o w d a n d left t h e arena by t h e front e n t r a n c e . T h e p o l i c e fired forty r o u n d s i n t o it a n d t h e n h a d t o c u t its throat. T h e o p e n i n g strains o f t h e n a t i o n a l a n t h e m c o m e b l a r i n g o u t o f t h e PA system. In t h e stands fifteen t h o u s a n d p e o p l e rise t o t h e i r feet a n d place t h e i r c o w b o y hats over t h e i r hearts. T h e r e is a m o m e n t o f silence after t h e finale and t h e n all t h e hats rise as o n e a n d a great r o a r i n g a n d yelping fills t h e s t a d i u m . T h i s is t h e final S u n d a y o f C h e y e n n e F r o n t i e r Days in W y o m i n g , t h e world's largest o u t d o o r r o d e o . As t h e a n n o u n c e r keeps r e p e a t i n g , ' T h i s , friends, is t h e d a d d y o f ' e m all!' T h e r e are an estimated t h r e e h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d visitors in C h e y e n n e this w e e k , a t o w n o f fifty t h o u s a n d , a n d e v e r y o n e is w e a r i n g a c o w b o y hat, from t h e t h r e e - y e a r - o l d s t o t h e television w e a t h e r m e n . W h e r e v e r y o u t u r n t h e r e is an O l d West s h o o t - o u t , a p e r i o d m e l o d r a m a o r a c h u c k w a g o n race, a n d t h e store w i n d o w s are all d a u b e d w i t h images o f c o w b o y s , b u c k i n g bulls a n d slogans s u c h as ' H o w d y Pardner!' a n d ' Y i p p i Ki Yi Yea!' M o d e r n r o d e o describes itself as a sport, b u t t h e g o v e r n i n g b o d y , t h e Professional R o d e o C o w b o y s Association, sells it i n t h e m a n n e r o f W i l d West circus show, a l i g h t - h e a r t e d day o u t for all t h e family, a c e l e b r a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n p r i d e w i t h p l e n t y o f c o r p o r ate m e r c h a n d i s i n g , references t o Jesus a n d p a t r i o t i c razzmatazz. A t t h e c e n t r e o f all this m e r r y p a g e a n t r y is t h e e m b l e m a t i c figure o f t h e c o w b o y , u n p o p u l a r w i t h t h e animal rights c r o w d p e r h a p s , b u t o t h e r w i s e u n d e r s t o o d as t h e living e m b o d i m e n t o f A m e r i c a n p r i d e a n d v i r t u e . T h e r e are m a n y r o d e o c o w b o y s w h o fit t h e bill perfectly: polite, conservative, C h r i s t i a n atheletes, w h o l e s o m e as can b e . A n d t h e r e are o t h e r s w h o
more
closely r e s e m b l e a
r o u s t a b o u t trail h a n d from t h e 1870s: f o u l - m o u t h e d , irreverent and hard-drinking. B e h i n d t h e b u c k i n g c h u t e s , a F r e n c h c a m e r a c r e w is i n t e r viewing J i m m y Morris, a chubby twenty-one-year-old bullrider from D u n c a n , O k l a h o m a , w e a r i n g o s t r i c h - s k i n b o o t s . Spike stands n e x t t o h i m , g r i n n i n g s t o n e d at t h e c a m e r a i n a p a i r o f c h e a p sunglasses. ' O w d o y o u feel a b o u t r i d i n g zees bull?' asks t h e F r e n c h m a n .
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'Well, I've d r a w n a p u r t y g o o d o n e h e r e this a f t e r n o o n , ' says J i m m y M o r r i s . ' I ' m j u s t g o n n a t r y as h a r d as I can, a n d h o p e f u l l y I can p u t t o g e t h e r a g o o d ride.' T h e c a m e r a m o v e s away, z o o m i n g i n for a c l o s e - u p o f a c o w b o y p r a y i n g i n t o his hat. J i m m y M o r r i s t u r n s t o Spike, stuffs a golfball o f c h e w i n g t o b a c c o i n t o his c h e e k a n d switches b a c k i n t o c o w b o y v e r n a c u l a r : 'I tell y o u w h a t , b u b , a h m o a n tear a m o t h e r fuckin' r i b off this bull, s t o m p t h e livin' shit o u t o f t h e bastard. T h e y b e t t e r b r i n g a g o t d a m n p r y b a r t o get that bull's ribs off m y spurs. I g o t t o r i d e this s u m b i t c h . G o t to. S p e n t t o o m u c h d a m n m o n e y at t h e b a r last n i g h t . I j u s t w e n t i n t h e r e to get m e s o m e food and o n e drink w i t h m y meal, you know. I c o m e out of t h e r e seven h o u r s later, d r u n k e r 'n shit, a n d I still c o u l d n ' t sleep for t h i n k i n ' a b o u t this bull. I feel like shit w a r m e d over.' Spike c o u l d n ' t afford t h e e n t r a n c e fees, b u t h e was o n l y four h u n d r e d miles away so h e drove to C h e y e n n e for t h e party. Billy is h o l e d u p s o m e w h e r e , r e c u p e r a t i n g from a w r e n c h e d b a c k . J i m m y is b a c k in p r i s o n for assaulting his wife. A n o t h e r o n e o f Spike's o l d b u d d i e s , R i c k y Lindsay, w h o gave u p b u l l r i d i n g t o b e c o m e a p i m p in Las Vegas, is in p r i s o n for ' b i g - t i m e federal shit'. Spike has b e e n living as n o r m a l , w i n n i n g a litde m o n e y h e r e a n d t h e r e a n d b l o w i n g it as fast as h e c a n . A r i c h w o m a n i n Dallas has b e e n s e n d i n g h i m p l a n e - t i c k e t s , a n d o n c e in a w h i l e h e flies off a n d spends t h e w e e k e n d w i t h her. S h e m a k e s h i m w e a r his chaps a n d h a t a n d sends h i m o n his w a y w i t h fifty o r a h u n d r e d for services r e n d e r e d . I n t h e stands t h e fans drain their b e e r from s o u v e n i r cups a n d w h o o p o b e d i e n t l y as each sponsor's flag is p a r a d e d a r o u n d t h e arena b y a c o w g i r l o n h o r s e b a c k . ' A n d p r e s e n t i n g t h e flag o f F o r d is C o d i A n n B y b e e ! Let's raise a c h e e r for this p u r t y little lady!' B e h i n d t h e b u c k i n g c h u t e s t h e bullriders are t a p i n g u p s p r a i n e d j o i n t s , t o r n muscles, b r o k e n fingers a n d ribs. T h e y eat i b u p r o f e n - ' c o w b o y aspirin' — b y t h e handful. B u d d y G u l d e n , an o l d friend o f Spike's from California, is s w a t h e d from n e c k t o h i p i n h e a v y strapping. T w o w e e k s ago i n Salinas, a fifteen h u n d r e d - p o u n d bull s t o m p e d o n his left s h o u l d e r , separating t h e j o i n t a n d t e a r i n g u p t h e cartilage. It's a n u i s a n c e ,
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b u t n o t t h e k i n d o f injury t o stop h i m r i d i n g bulls. H e also has a b r o k e n finger, w h i c h seems t o b o t h e r h i m a b o u t as m u c h as a shaving cut. B u d d y is t h i r t y - s e v e n now, p r o b a b l y t h e oldest b u l l r i d e r o n t h e trail w i t h all his o w n t e e t h . H e is starting t o tire o f t h e r o d e o circuit — t h e endless miles, t h e c o n s t a n t injuries a n d h a n g o v e r s , t h e irregular pay — a n d he w a n t s t o settle d o w n . H e ' s m a r r i e d a f o r m e r r o d e o q u e e n n a m e d S h e r i , and t h e y have b o u g h t t w e n t y - e i g h t dry a n d treeless acres i n central California. B u d d y calls it h o m e , b u t as yet t h e r e is n o well o n t h e property, a n d n o h o u s e . H e still lives in his t r u c k , a 1974 F o r d w i t h 3 4 4 , 0 0 0 miles o n t h e clock. A g o o d b u l l r i d e today w o u l d w i n h i m a well a n d a place i n t h e N a t i o n a l Finals R o d e o in Las Vegas, t h e only event of t h e year w h e r e a r o d e o c o w b o y stands t o w i n b i g m o n e y . A g o o d score i n Vegas a n d t h e n , m a y b e , it's t i m e to quit. G o b a c k t o California, build a h o u s e a n d try to find s o m e o t h e r way t o m a k e a living. Exactly h o w , h e hasn't figured o u t yet. T h e c o r p o r a t e p a g e a n t r y draws to a close. T h e bullriders p i c k u p t h e i r r i g g i n g — a b r a i d e d r o p e w i t h a bell o n t h e e n d o f it — a n d w a l k over t o t h e c h u t e s w i t h a m e l a n c h o l y clanging. T h e y tie t h e ropes a r o u n d t h e bulls, c l i m b t h e c h u t e fence a n d l o w e r themselves o n t o t h e bulls' backs. B u b b a M o n k r e s , from E v e r m a n , Texas, is first u p . H e is b u c k e d off i m m e d i a t e l y b u t his h a n d gets c a u g h t in t h e r i g g i n g a n d t h e bull w h e e l s h i m a r o u n d a n d a r o u n d like a h e l i c o p t e r blade, s n a p p i n g its h o r n s b a c k i n t o his face. T h e r o d e o c l o w n s r u s h i n a n d t r y t o distract t h e bull, b u t t o n o avail. E v e n t u a l l y Bubba's h a n d w o r k s free a n d h e staggers t o t h e fence, b l e e d i n g from t h e eye a n d c h e e k b o n e . B u d d y G u l d e n ties i n t o t h e r i g g i n g a n d j a m s d o w n his hat. H e n o d s at t h e c h u t e m a n a n d bull a n d r i d e r s h o o t o u t i n t o t h e arena. ' H i g h , w i d e a n d w i c k e d ! T h a t is a r a n k bull, friends!' calls o u t Spike, sitting o n t h e t o p fence r a i l . T h e bull drops i n t o a series o f tight, b u c k i n g spins, g e n e r a t i n g m a x i m u m velocity, b u t B u d d y stays w i t h h i m , c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g every m o v e , w h i r l i n g a r o u n d in circles w i t h o n e a r m a r c h e d h i g h over his h e a d . S c r a m b l i n g over t h e fence, h e says, ' I f I felt any better, I'd call it a sin. I t h i n k I w o n m y well.' H e scores e i g h t y - f o u r p o i n t s a n d w i n s s e c o n d place.
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After t h e b u l l r i d i n g c o m e t h e celebrations. T h e r e are d r u n k c o w b o y s e v e r y w h e r e a n d b u c k l e b u n n i e s fifteen d e e p at t h e bar. T h e c o w b o y s p o u r b e e r i n t o o n e another's hats, so that it funnels a r o u n d t h e c u r v e d sides a n d s h o o t s d o w n y o u r gullet i n a f o a m i n g stream. T h e y lick t h e nearest cleavage a n d sprinkle salt i n t o it as a p r e l u d e t o a tequila shot. ' H e j u s t b i t m y left tit!' A girl w i t h b o v i n e eyes smiles vacantly as a c o w b o y clamps his m o u t h o n t o h e r breast. A n o t h e r c o w b o y has his h e a d b u r i e d i n a pair o f s k i m p y cut-offs a n d receives a g e n t l e r e p r i m a n d — ' A little less t e e t h h o n e y ' T h e n h e j u m p s t o his feet a n d looses a b l o o d - c u r d l i n g h o w l , w h i c h sets t h e w h o l e c r o w d off w h o o p i n g a n d yelping, like a p a c k o f coyotes. B u d d y is h a l f - d r u n k a n d fully e x h a u s t e d , h a v i n g d r i v e n fifteen h u n d r e d miles in t h e last t w o days and r i d d e n four bulls. H e has his a r m a r o u n d his wife a n d h e stands apart from t h e m a i n m e l e e . ' T h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t gets m o s t c o w b o y s to quit r o d e o i n ' is a real b a d injury o f s o m e kind,' h e says. 'I'd like t o t h i n k I c o u l d q u i t before that p o i n t , b u t it ain't easy. Y o u get a c c u s t o m e d to t h e f r e e d o m a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e life. M o s t c o w b o y s w o u l d g o crazy w o r k i n g t h e n i n e - t o - f i v e . I figure I'll m a k e a g o o f r a n c h i n g , m a y b e start u p a b u l l r i d i n ' s c h o o l o r s o m e t h i n g . I guess t h e first t h i n g w e ' r e g o n n a d o is get t h a t well d u g , a n d t h e n build a h o u s e . Ain't that r i g h t , h o n e y ? ' T h e w i n n e r of the C h e y e n n e trophy belt-buckle, a 2 0 X beaverfelt hat, a fancy pair of b o o t s a n d a c h e q u e for $ 8 , 0 1 5 . 3 7 is hungover, twenty-one-year-old J i m m y Morris, n o w
drinking
again w i t h Spike a n d a c o u p l e o f o t h e r c o w b o y s . ' E i g h t t h o u s a n d dollars!' h e says. ' C a n y o u believe I d o n ' t k n o w h o w t o s p e n d it? I d o n e g o t m e t e n acres already, as a gift from m y girlfriend's dad. M a y b e I s h o u l d b u y s o m e l u m b e r a n d build m e a h o m e . ' H e p o n d e r s t h a t for a m o m e n t a n d t h e n he's struck b y a g r a n d e r inspiration.'Shitfire! I c o u l d p u t d o w n six g r a n d o n a r n o t o r h o m e . That's w h a t I ' m g o n n a d o , boys. T h i s h e r e cowboy's g o n n a travel in style.' ' T h a t ' s a d a m n s m a r t deal r i g h t there.' Spike n o d s . ' W h a t t h e hell d o y o u n e e d w i t h a h o u s e ? '
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I r e t u r n e d h o m e after t h e r o d e o circuit in a state o f collapse. I m e a n that q u i t e literally. Five m i n u t e s after w a l k i n g in t h e d o o r I d r o p p e d a cigarette, b e n t over to p i c k it u p , blacked o u t a n d c r u m p l e d in a h e a p o n t h e floor. D o y o u recall t h e w o m a n w h o k i c k e d t h e glass o u t o f m y front d o o r w i t h a m o t o r c y c l e b o o t ? Gale was b a c k from F r a n c e . W e w e r e t r y i n g t o m a k e it w o r k again. She helped m e . up and I w e n t into the bathroom and urinated s o m e t h i n g that l o o k e d a n d smelled like last n i g h t s whiskey. I h u r t e v e r y w h e r e a n d I h a d n ' t r i d d e n a single bull. I h a d m a d e a valiant effort t o k e e p u p w i t h t h e d r i n k i n g a n d t h e travelling, b u t I was w a y o u t o f m y league, lacking a basic t o u g h n e s s a n d stamina. I n e v e r m a s t e r e d t h e t e c h n i q u e o f 'sleeping q u i c k ' — d r i n k i n g all n i g h t , passing o u t for a c o u p l e o f h o u r s s o m e w h e r e a n d t h e n d r i v i n g four, o r five, o r seven h u n d r e d miles to b e g i n t h e process all over again. I w a n t e d t o sip s p r i n g w a t e r for a m o n t h a n d eat leafy vegetables. I w a n t e d all things soft a n d t e n d e r . I w a n t e d to crawl i n t o Gale's arms a n d n o t c o m e o u t . T h a t was t h e first n i g h t w e slept t o g e t h e r , instead o f h a v i n g incredible s o u l t r e m b l i n g sex a n d t h e n sleeping t o g e t h e r . T h e sex was like a gift w e h a d b e e n g i v e n , s o m e t h i n g rare a n d priceless that w e d i d n ' t k n o w w h a t t o d o w i t h . It h a d b r o u g h t t r o u b l e a n d c o n f u s i o n i n t o o u r lives. W e h a d t r i e d m a n y times t o give it b a c k , leaving each other, s o m e t i m e s for a year o r m o r e , finding o t h e r p e o p l e , a n d t h e n d e c i d i n g w e h a d m a d e a t e r r i b l e mistake. She k n e w t h e gift was love, b u t I d i d n ' t w a n t to b e tied d o w n b y love, so I l o o k e d for o t h e r explanations. It was a p r o l o n g e d infatuation o f s o m e k i n d , a strange a n d u n c o m m o n f o r m o f lust. T h a t s u m m e r , I realised h o w t o l e r a n t she h a d b e e n o f this stupidity. T h i n g s g o t b e t t e r b e t w e e n us w h e n t h e p h r a s e 'I love y o u ' e n t e r e d m y vocabulary. A n d t h e n t h e y g o t w o r s e again. She t h o u g h t that I was g r u d g i n g l y in love w i t h her, a n d w o u l d r a t h e r n o t b e i n love w i t h her, w h i c h was t r u e s o m e days a n d n o t o t h e r s . She listened t o m a n y r i n g i n g d e n u n c i a t i o n s against t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f m a r r i a g e a n d w o n d e r e d if she was w a s t i n g h e r t i m e . A n d it wasn't easy b e i n g in love w i t h a m a n w h o was always leaving.
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I t o l d h e r n o t t o take m y absences p e r s o n a l l y It was h o w I m a d e m y living, a n d h o w I was m e a n t t o live, a n d in several different ways this m a d e h e r feel j e a l o u s . T h e r e was s o m e t h i n g else, o r p e r h a p s s o m e o n e else, o r p e r h a p s a w h o l e circuit
of
s o m e o n e elses, that k e p t calling m e away from her. S h e was also j e a l o u s because she was a free spirit, w i t h a streak o f wildness a n d w a n d e r l u s t o f h e r o w n , a n d I was off h a v i n g m o r e a d v e n t u r e s t h a n she was. A t t h e e n d o f that r o d e o s u m m e r she left m e a n d w e n t t o Alaska for a year.
CHAPTER
11
T h e y feared drys, c o p s , jailers, bosses, moralists, crazies, truthtellers, a n d o n e a n o t h e r . T h e y loved storytellers, liars, w h o r e s , fighters, singers, dogs t h a t w a g g e d their tails, a n d generous bandits. W i l l i a m K e n n e d y , Ironweed
I
sit at m y d e s k w i t h a b o x o f n o t e b o o k s , a c c u m u l a t e d over t h e last t e n years. In a few h o u r s t h e d a w n will c r e e p across t h e
sky a n d it will n o t feel like a fresh n e w day. It o c c u r s t o m e t h a t t h e c o n t e n t s o f this b o x w o u l d m a k e b e t t e r a m m u n i t i o n for a sedentary propagandist than a defender
o f n o m a d i c living. It
w o u l d b e all t o o easy to h o l d u p t h e s e n o t e b o o k s , in t h e m a n n e r o f a p r o s e c u t o r o r a p r e a c h e r , a n d declare that t h e A m e r i c a n r o a d is t a w d r y a n d depraved, t h e last refuge o f s c o u n d r e l s , wastrels, m o u n t e b a n k s a n d lunatics, a n d that t h e A m e r i c a n rails are even worse. H e r e are t h e F T R A n o t e b o o k s , travels a n d i n t e r v i e w s w i t h t h e F r e i g h t T r a i n R i d e r s o f A m e r i c a , t h e so-called ' h o b o
mafia',
suspected o f orchestrating d o z e n s o f m u r d e r s a n d u s i n g freight trains to t r a n s p o r t large s h i p m e n t s o f d r u g s a r o u n d t h e republic. Listen t o t h e s o n g o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e r i c a n h o b o , t h e h e i r of Jack L o n d o n and W o o d y Guthrie:
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Richard Grant I ' m d r u n k off m y ass a n d I d o n ' t give a fuck Batshit in t h e d a y t i m e a n d batshit at n i g h t I'll r i d e this old rail a n d I d o n ' t give a fuck Batshit i n t h e e v e n i n g a n d I ' m k i c k i n g y o u r ass C r a z y m o t h e r f u c k e r a n d I'll fuck y o u all u p .
H e r e is a n o t e b o o k entitled ' L o t Lizards', a slang t e r m u s e d for t r u c k s t o p w h o r e s b y t h e i r clients. H e r e is a n o t e b o o k entitled 'El P i s t o l e r o ' , a b o u t an assassin for a M e x i c a n d r u g cartel w h o m o v e d from o n e c o n t r a c t t o t h e n e x t a n d t h o u g h t it p r u d e n t t o k e e p n o fixed address. H e was an amiable p s y c h o p a t h a n d a reluctant n o m a d w h o h a d t h e m i s f o r t u n e to get killed b e f o r e h e c o u l d give m e his full life story. I was i n t r o d u c e d t o h i m at a b a c k y a r d b a r b e c u e in s o u t h T u c s o n b y a friend o f m i n e w h o m o v e s in that w o r l d . T h e assassin w a n t e d m e t o w r i t e his b i o g r a p h y a n d sell t h e screen rights t o H o l l y w o o d , so h e c o u l d retire from t h e killing business a n d settle d o w n o n a r a n c h i n n o r t h e r n M e x i c o w i t h a b i g h e r d o f cattle a n d m a n y children. T h a t was a n o t h e r l o n g , d r u n k e n n i g h t . T h e r e has b e e n so m u c h d r i n k i n g , justified in t h e n a m e o f i m m e r s i o n r e p o r t i n g , a n d it shows u p in m y h a n d w r i t i n g from t i m e to t i m e . W h e r e w e r e t h e happy, clean, well-adjusted n o m a d s , t h e J o e Walkers o f o u r age? W h e r e w e r e t h e r o l e - m o d e l s ? W h e r e w e r e t h e love stories? C h u c k a n d L i n d a g o t m a r r i e d in R e n o . T h e w e d d i n g cost t w e n t y five b u c k s a n d that left t h e m w i t h t e n dollars t o t h e i r n a m e . O n their w e d d i n g n i g h t L i n d a b l e w a t r u c k driver for t w e n t y dollars so t h e y c o u l d get a m o t e l r o o m . She h a d d o n e this a few t i m e s before in h e r life, b u t o n l y in e m e r g e n c i e s . ' H o n e y , this is a special n i g h t a n d I w a n t us t o have a n i c e b e d a n d a r o o m , ' she said t o Chuck. 'All r i g h t then,' h e sighed, a n d she was pleased h e d i d n ' t k i c k u p a fuss. T h e y set o u t o n t h e i r h o n e y m o o n in a 1 9 7 3 B u i c k , pale b l u e w i t h a sun-blistered vinyl roof, a n d drove t h e interstates b a c k a n d f o r t h across t h e c o u n t r y , n e v e r s t o p p i n g a n y w h e r e for m o r e t h a n a few days. S o m e t i m e s t h e y g o t a m o t e l r o o m . M o s t l y t h e y slept
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in t h e car. T r u c k drivers k e p t t h e m i n gas m o n e y a n d fast food. A year after t h e w e d d i n g I m e t C h u c k a n d L i n d a o u t s i d e t h e T T T t r u c k s t o p in T u c s o n . ' W e ' v e talked a b o u t settling d o w n , r e n t i n g an a p a r t m e n t , g e t t i n g j o b s , raising a family, all that stuff,' she said. ' M a y b e o n e day, b u t for r i g h t n o w w e ' r e h a p p y t o k e e p living o n t h e road.' S h e l a u g h e d . 'It's like o u r h o n e y m o o n n e v e r ended.' W e sat a n d talked in the B u i c k for a few h o u r s . E v e r y n o w a n d t h e n Linda w o u l d excuse herself a n d b e g o n e for t e n m i n u t e s o r so. W h e n she r e t u r n e d C h u c k was there for h e r w i t h a big reass u r i n g h u g and a pint o f O l d C r o w to take away t h e taste. She w o u l d swill o u t h e r m o u t h w i t h t h e whiskey a n d spit it o n t h e g r o u n d . T h e n C h u c k w o u l d give h e r a t e n d e r kiss o n t h e lips. Love story n u m b e r t w o : J a s o n R o g e r s a n d Scrap I r o n m e t at t h e a n n u a l b i k e r g a t h e r i n g in Sturgis, S o u t h D a k o t a . J a s o n was f o r t y t w o years old, an e x - s e r v i c e m a n w h o ' w e n t b a d upstairs', as h e p u t s it, a n d retired o n m e n t a l disability p a y m e n t s . H e h a d b e e n a r o a d t r a m p for t h i r t e e n years, a small, w i z e n e d , b e a r d e d m a n w i t h t h e letters L E T S F U C K t a t t o o e d across his
fingers.
Scrap
Iron was an e i g h t - w e e k - o l d pitbull puppy. J a s o n t r a d e d a q u a r t o f b e e r for h i m because h e w a n t e d a d o g for p r o t e c t i o n , s o m e t h i n g that w o u l d g r o w u p vicious. H e was tired o f b e i n g b e a t e n up and robbed by other tramps. I p i c k e d t h e m u p u n d e r a b r i d g e in Mississippi, d r i v i n g west o n Interstate 2 0 . A w e t s n o w h a d b e e n falling for t w o days. I saw t h e little w h i t e puppy, l o o k i n g m o u r n f u l a n d p i t e o u s , a n d its h o p e f u l , i m p l o r i n g o w n e r . At t h e s o u n d o f m y brakes t h e p u p p y b o u n d e d u p t h e h i g h w a y a n d was t h e r e at t h e d o o r of m y t r u c k , thirty yards a h e a d o f its master, s q u e a k i n g a n d w a g g i n g its tail. 'Best m o v e I ever m a d e , g e t t i n g that pup,' said Jason, sitting d o w n a n d a r r a n g i n g his g e a r . ' P e o p l e c o u l d n ' t give t w o shits a b o u t a h o m e l e s s guy, t h e y figure it's his fault, b u t t h e y feel sorry'' for a d o g . Especially a c u t e little g u y like o f Scrap I r o n here.' H e fished a r o u n d i n his p a c k for d o g biscuits, t o give Scrap I r o n his treat for g e t t i n g t h e ride. T h i s was a c a n n y p i e c e o f d o g t r a i n i n g . Scrap I r o n h a d l e a r n e d t o associate tragic
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Richard Grant
p e r f o r m a n c e s w i t h praise a n d d o g biscuits. H e h a d l e a r n e d t o b e g for a ride, h e n c e t h e w a g g i n g o f his tail at t h e s o u n d o f brakes. F o r t h e n e x t four h u n d r e d miles Scrap I r o n lolled c o n t e n t e d l y o n Jason's lap, t a k i n g naps, g e t t i n g his belly scratched a n d his ears massaged a n d h e a r i n g a lot o f ' T h e r e ' s a g o o d o f b o y ' and ' W o o z a w o o z a - w o o z a , y o u o l ' canine.' A curiosity a b o u t Jason: h e d o e s n ' t d r i n k water. H e hates water, a n d will o n l y d r i n k it i n t h e direst e m e r g e n c i e s . H e restricts his i n t a k e o f liquids t o coffee, M o u n t a i n D e w , b e e r a n d whiskey, w h i c h m i g h t a c c o u n t for his strikingly w i z e n e d a p p e a r a n c e at t h e age o f f o r t y - t w o . All these d r i n k s c o n t a i n caffeine o r a l c o h o l , b o t h o f w h i c h are d e h y d r a t i n g agents. ( H e w o n ' t d r i n k w i n e because h e d o e s n ' t w a n t t o l o o k like a w i n o . ) A n o t h e r curiosity, m o r e c o n u n o n t h a n you m i g h t t h i n k a m o n g r o a d tramps: h e never leaves t h e interstates. H e travels constantly b u t his e n v i r o n m e n t stays t h e same, g e n e r i c a n d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . E v e r y t h i n g h e n e e d s from society is laid o u t in a c o n v e n i e n t , predictable strip — a restaurant t o b e g outside, a c o n v e n i e n c e store for t o b a c c o a n d beverages, a m o t e l o r a b r i d g e t o sleep u n d e r , d e p e n d i n g o n his funds, a n d a h i g h w a y r a m p from w h i c h to c a t c h a r i d e t o t h e n e x t strip o f franchises. H e avoids scenic byways a n d rustic b a c k w a t e r s like t h e plague. T h e b e g g i n g is n o g o o d , a n d t h e traffic flow is t o o light for efficient h i t c h - h i k i n g . J a s o n w a n t e d a vicious g u a r d d o g . H e wasn't e x p e c t i n g t h e love a n d c o m p a n i o n s h i p that has b l o s s o m e d b e t w e e n t h e m . Jason is part o f a t e a m now, a n d t h e t e a m is blazing a h o t streak across t h e c o u n t r y . T h e rides c o m e effortlessly. H i t c h - h i k i n g w i t h Scrap I r o n is like hailing a taxi c o m p a r e d to t h e o l d days. M o n e y flows i n t o their h a n d s like m a g i c , m o r e m o n e y t h a n Jason k n o w s w h a t to do with, dangerous amounts of money. C h r i s t m a s f o u n d t h e m in Nashville. T h e y s t o o d o u t s i d e franchise restaurants a n d e x i t - l o o p c h u r c h e s , Scrap I r o n d o i n g his tragic p u p p y r o u t i n e a n d J a s o n h o l d i n g u p a sign that 'Homeless. N e e d Help and D O G
read,
FOOD:
'It was w i l d , m a n . P e o p l e w o u l d c o m e u p a n d give us t w e n ties a n d t e n s . B i g o l ' bags o f d o g food. T h e waitress in
the
C r a c k e r B a r r e l b o u g h t Scrap I r o n a d o g sweater, w h i c h was real
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s w e e t o f h e r . C o u r s e w e c o u l d n ' t use it, b e c a u s e it was b a d for business. M a n , w e w e r e m a k i n g t w o , t h r e e h u n d r e d dollars a day w i t h o u t hardly trying! Christmas Eve, w e m a d e four h u n d r e d a n d t w e n t y - f i v e dollars, a n d C h r i s t m a s D a y w e m a d e a n o t h e r three hundred!' T h e y h a d t o leave Nashville b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e m a k i n g t o o m u c h m o n e y . W i t h o u t poverty, t h e r e w e r e n o brakes o n Jason's d r i n k i n g a n d d r u g - s n o r t i n g . H e k n e w h e was killing himself, a n d w h e r e w o u l d his d e a t h leave Scrap Iron? It was t i m e t o m o v e o n , in search o f leaner t i m e s . H e b l e w five h u n d r e d dollars in a final
frenzy in t h e d o w n t o w n bars, b u y i n g d r i n k s all a r o u n d ,
t i p p i n g t h e b a r t e n d e r an extra fifty t o let Scrap I r o n sit u n d e r his chair. T h e n h e c a u g h t a taxi t o t h e city limits w i t h his last t w e n t y five dollars a n d passed o u t in a culvert. T h e n e x t m o r n i n g h e was u p early w i t h his t h u m b o u t , a n d Scrap I r o n beside h i m . T h e y g o t a r i d e d o w n t o J a c k s o n , Mississippi from a d r u g dealer i n a F o r d M u s t a n g , w h o gave Jason a b a g o f w e e d , a g r a m o f c o k e a n d fifty dollars - ' I ' m telling y o u , m a n , w e ' r e o n a roll.' T h e y w o r k e d t h e C r a c k e r B a r r e l in J a c k s o n for a w h i l e a n d t h e n d e c i d e d t o g o t o California. I d r o p p e d t h e m off o n t h e outskirts o f Dallas, a franchise strip o n t h e s e c o n d exit. I offered J a s o n t e n dollars a n d h e t u r n e d it d o w n . H e already h a d eighty-five dollars a n d that was e n o u g h for a m o t e l r o o m , a b o t t l e o f whiskey, a case o f b e e r a n d a t h r e e c o u r s e d i n n e r for Scrap I r o n , t o b e laid o u t o n t h e b e d w h i l e t h e y w a t c h e d wrestling o n T V . 'I
figure
Scrap I r o n earns t h e
m o n e y in this outfit, so h e gets w h a t e v e r h e w a n t s : c h e e s e b u r g e r s , fries, b u r r i t o s , h o t dogs, ice c r e a m , y o u n a m e it. He's real partial t o c h i c k e n - f r i e d steak w i t h m a s h e d p o t a t o e s a n d gravy. That's p r o b a b l y his favourite.' W h e r e are t h e golf professionals w h o s p e n d t h e i r lives o n t o u r a n d m o v e from o n e m a n i c u r e d grassland t o a n o t h e r ? W h e r e are t h e travelling salesmen a n d t h e swelling legions o f ' r o a d w a r r i o r ' business executives w h o live i n airports, aeroplanes, rental cars a n d e x t e n d e d - s t a y h o t e l suites? W h e r e
are t h e r o v i n g
computer
wizards, c a m p e d in t h e i r m o t o r h o m e s o n c o r p o r a t e office parks?
262
Richard Grant
W h e r e are t h e idle rich, t h e p e r i p a t e t i c playboys o f A s p e n , M a r t h a ' s Vineyard, t h e H a m p t o n s a n d o t h e r p o r t s o f call? W h e r e , for that m a t t e r , is K e a n u R e e v e s ? H e keeps n o fixed address a n d lives y e a r - r o u n d i n hotels a n d m o v i e - s e t trailers, o r so I read a few years ago. T h e r e is a bias reflected i n these n o t e b o o k s : ' T h e p u r e n o m a d is t h e p o o r n o m a d . ' D u r i n g m y forays i n t o t h e scholarship o f n o m a d i s m , I f o u n d this a x i o m q u o t e d t i m e a n d again, affirmed, refuted, r e i t e r a t e d w i t h
qualifications
in t h e usual
academic
fashion. It was p e n n e d i n t h e 1930s b y O w e n L a t t i m o r e , t h e great a u t h o r i t y o n pastoral h e r d s m e n in t h e M i d d l e East, a n d t o m y m i n d t h e a x i o m h o l d s t r u e in c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e r i c a . Take J a s o n R o g e r s as an o b l i q u e e x a m p l e . H e was o n a h o t streak, b u t as a g o o d n o m a d h e u n d e r s t o o d that wealth was a d a n g e r o u s t e m p t a t i o n a n d that h e n e e d e d t h e lean r i g o u r s o f t h e trail. H e h a d p r o v e d it t o himself w i t h a n e a r - d e a t h d r u g b i n g e in a Nashville hotel room. A n o t h e r curiosity a b o u t J a s o n : o n c e a year h e gives away e v e r y t h i n g h e o w n s - his b a c k p a c k a n d its c o n t e n t s , his bedroll, every c e n t in his p o c k e t s , e v e r y t h i n g e x c e p t t h e clothes o n his back. H e d o e s it to test his skills. H e n e e d s to k n o w h e can survive w i t h n o t h i n g , b e c a u s e s o o n e r o r later s o m e o n e is g o i n g t o steal all his gear. H i s last give-away was in T u c u m c a r i , N e w M e x i c o , i n t h e p r e - S c r a p I r o n days. H e h i t c h e d a r i d e t o an interstate rest area, spent t h e day w a s h i n g w i n d s h i e l d s a n d m a d e e n o u g h to r e outfit himself at an A m a r i l l o thrift s h o p t h e n e x t day. I spent m o s t o f m y t i m e w i t h t h e w a n d e r i n g p o o r , t h e n o m a d i c underclass, 'the n o m a d i c homeless', to b o r r o w
a misleading
t a u t o l o g y that seems to b e i n v o g u e a m o n g sociologists a n d social w o r k e r s . W h e n w e hear t h e w o r d ' h o m e l e s s ' w e t h i n k o f s o m e o n e w h o feels t h e lack o f a h o m e a n d yearns to live in o n e again. I d o n ' t k n o w a b o u t t h e u r b a n h o m e l e s s , b u t in m y e x p e r i e n c e this is n o t t h e case o n t h e roads a n d rails, at least n o t w i t h t h e fulltimers. T h e y use t h e w o r d ' h o m e l e s s ' to elicit s y m p a t h y and funds because t h e y k n o w w h a t it m e a n s t o t h e sedentary, b u t t h e y call each o t h e r t r a m p s , h o b o e s , r o a d dogs. T h e y have rejected t h e idea o f living i n a h o m e for o n e o f t w o reasons: t h e y e i t h e r d o n ' t w a n t
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o r can't h a n d l e w h a t it entails. T h e y find it easier t o get t h r o u g h t h e day w i t h o u t a h o m e a n d a steady j o b t o pay for it. Since so m a n y o f t h e m are d a m a g e d in o n e way o r a n o t h e r — most c o m m o n l y by alcohol, drugs and mental problems — purity m i g h t s e e m like an o d d w o r d t o use a b o u t t h e i r n o m a d i s m . S o let m e explain. T h e y e x p e r i e n c e m o r e o f t h e physical hardships that have traditionally a c c o m p a n i e d n o m a d i c living (and h e l p e d define its p u r i t y for s c h o l a r s ) . T h e y are i n t i m a t e l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h s a n d s t o r m s , c l o u d b u r s t s , blizzards, h u n g e r a n d thirst. M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e y have a quintessentially n o m a d i c a t t i t u d e towards s e d e n t a r y society:, t h e y take w h a t t h e y n e e d from it a n d t h e n retreat, l o o k i n g for t e m p o r a r y a u t o n o m o u s zones. T h e y d o n ' t pay taxes, t h e y d o n ' t v o t e , t h e y d o n ' t c o n s i d e r themselves b o u n d b y t h e social c o n t r a c t . A n d thanks t o v a g r a n c y laws, b e g g i n g laws, laws against sleeping i n parks, laws against h i t c h - h i k i n g a n d r i d i n g freight trains — laws, in short, that m a k e it illegal to b e p o o r a n d n o m a d i c - t h e y are l o c k e d i n t o conflict w i t h t h e s e d e n tary state a n d its coercive p o w e r . T h i s was a n o t h e r r e a s o n w h y so m a n y o f t h e m w e r e i n t h e h i n t e r l a n d s o f t h e W e s t , w h i c h still c o n t a i n e d t h e possibility o f disengaging from
t h e social c o n t r a c t , a n d u s i n g s p a c e
and
m o b i l i t y t o avoid t h e c o e r c i v e p o w e r o f t h e state, at least for a w h i l e . I t e n d e d t o l o o k for t h e n o m a d s w h o h a d d i s e n g a g e d t h e furthest. God's Love Shelter lies at t h e railroad e n d of Last C h a n c e G u l c h in H e l e n a , M o n t a n a , a m o n g p a w n shops, g u n shops a n d r o u g h l o o k m g bars. A g r o u p o f train t r a m p s w e r e s t a n d i n g o u t s i d e G o d ' s Love, passing a can o f Top's t o b a c c o , c o u g h i n g t h e i r spectacular c o u g h s , d r i n k i n g coffee from b i g plastic m u g s w i t h c o n v e n i e n c e store logos o n t h e side. S o m e o f t h e m w e r e F T R A , o t h e r s w e r e friends a n d associates, and t h e y w e r e storytelling their w a y t h r o u g h a c o l d grey m o r n i n g . 'Bull shit! 1 was there, m o t h e r f u c k e r , a n d it was m e , K - Y a n d o f M o j a v e Bill w h a t b u r n e d that m o t h e r f u c k e r d o w n . ' ' M a n , I love t h e devil o u t o f Mississippi, b u t that n i g g e r c o r n w h i s k e y like t o drive y o u crazy.'
264
Richard Grant
' T h e j u d g e asked m e h o w c o m e I c o u l d n ' t h o l d d o w n n o d e c e n t j o b , so I t o l d h i m society is j u s t a b u n c h o f o t h e r people's o p i n i o n s a n d that's all it is, boys.' ' T h e y call h e r Vampirella. She's g o t h e r t e e t h filed d o w n i n t o fangs a n d drops o f b l o o d t a t t o o e d over h e r j u g ' l a r vein. She's beautiful p e o p l e , m a n . ' ' M e a n d R a m b o t o o k that A K u p i n t o t h e hills yesterday and I tell y o u w h a t , boys, w e p l o u g h e d u p a stretch o f t h e m w o o d s g o o d e n o u g h to start planting.' W i l d Bill was there, w i t h a b e a r d a n d a hairstyle a n d a fringed b u c k s k i n j a c k e t m o d e l l e d after W i l d Bill H i c k o c k ' s . His sidekick R a m b o J u n i o r was there, dressed in full c o m b a t fatigues, w i t h t w o s e m i - a u t o m a t i c pistols a n d an a s s o r t m e n t o f knives o n his belt, all perfectly legal in M o n t a n a . D a n i e l B o o n e was there, n o t o r i ous in t h e m e d i a as t h e f o u n d e r a n d p r e s i d e n t o f t h e
FTRA,
r u g g e d l y h a n d s o m e , m o v i e - s t a r h a n d s o m e e x c e p t for t h e b r o w n t e e t h , w i t h p l e n t y o f sardonic o u t l a w c o o l . H e l o o k e d like h e h a d s o m e I n d i a n b l o o d a n d h e w o r e his l o n g , b r o w n h a i r p a r t e d in t h e centre, h e l d in place by a l e a t h e r h e a d b a n d . T h e F T R A b e g a n as a d r u n k e n j o k e , h e was saying, b u t t h e j o k e h a d g o t w a y o u t o f h a n d , a n d h e d i d n ' t w a n t t o b e associated w i t h it any m o r e . H e h a d g o t h i m s e l f an old van a n d was i n t e n d i n g t o b e c o m e a travelling p r e a c h e r . I t h o u g h t h e was k i d d i n g at t h e t i m e , b u t a p p a r e n d y that's w h a t he's d o i n g n o w . D e s e r t R a t and T u c s o n Stacy w e r e t h e r e , h a v i n g p l e d g e d t o b e old m a n a n d old lady to each o t h e r at an i n f o r m a l F T R A w e d d i n g . Mississippi Bones was there, n o w d o i n g t w e n t y - f i v e years for m u r d e r , a n d so w e r e a b o u t t e n o t h e r p e o p l e . L i v i n g w i t h o u t t e l e vision, radio, m o v i e s , b o o k s , magazines, n e w s p a p e r s , t h e i n t e r n e t o r a j o b , t h e y had p l e n t y o f spare t i m e o n their h a n d s a n d s t o r y telling filled it best. I n o t i c e d that their stories k e p t r e t u r n i n g t o t h e same t h e m e : t h e h o b o trickster w h o gets t h e last l a u g h at t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e citizens a n d t h e a u t h o r i t i e s o r his rivals. T h e way t h e y s p o k e - drawling, rollicking, boastful, o v e r b l o w n , heavily salted w i t h oaths - r e m i n d e d m e o f m o u n t a i n m e n , m u l e skinners a n d M a r k Twain's r i v e r m e n , a l t h o u g h w e have n o a c c u rate records o f t h e i r vernacular. Like e v e r y o n e else, M a r k T w a i n
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265
w o u l d refer to p r o d i g i o u s feats o f cursing a n d leave it at that. I always felt c h e a t e d . I w a n t e d t o k n o w w h a t t h e i r s p e e c h really s o u n d e d like. So I will a t t e m p t an u n b o w d l e r i s e d r e n d i t i o n o f its m o d e r n f o r m , r e c o n s t r u c t e d from a n o t e b o o k e n t r y a n d m e m o r y . In essence it is t h e story o f a n o m a d raid, a n d w h i l e I have m y d o u b t s a b o u t its veracity, I ' m n o t g o i n g to give y o u t h e teller's n i c k n a m e . W i t h all t h e p o l i c e a t t e n t i o n o n t h e F T R A , it m i g h t get s o m e o n e arrested. (I feel safe g i v i n g half o f R e d ' s
name,
because t h e r e are so m a n y R e d s o n t h e rails.) ' M e a n d R e d c o m e i n t o A m a r i l l o o n e t i m e , a n d boys I tell y o u w h a t , it was a cold, n u t - f r e e z i n ' s o n o f a b i t c h o r call m e a nigger. H e l l , y o u b e e n u p in that P a n h a n d l e c o u n t r y . Y o u k n o w t h e m w i n d s . S h e c o m e b l o w i n ' d o w n from t h e N o ' t h P o l e a n d t h e r e ain't n o t h i n ' b u t b o b w a r fences t o slow h e r d o w n . ' M e a n d R e d h a d n ' t eaten in t h r e e days. I was so g o d d a m n h u n g r y I c o u l d have ate a frozen d a w g a n d c h o m p e d h e r d o w n like biscuits a n d gravy. W e was o u t o f t o b a c c o t o o a n d d i d n ' t have a d i m e b e t w e e n us. So w e s n u c k o u t t h e yards a n d w a l k e d o n i n t o t o w n , l o o k i n ' for a d u m p s t e r t o dive, a n d w e c o m e u p o n this l i q u o r store. W e h a d n ' t h a d a d r o p in t h r e e days n e i t h e r . I was so g o d d a m n d r y I c o u l d n ' t hardly spit, a n d R e d , well shit, h e j u s t w e n t fuckin' n u t s . ' H e carries that b i g o f . 4 5 , g o v e r n m e n t - i s s u e , h a r d - s h o o t i n ' s o n o f a b i t c h , a n d h e hauls it o u t o f his j e a n s , and h e s t o m p s r i g h t o n in there, a n d he's like, "All r i g h t m o t h e r f u c k e r s !
Everybody
d o w n o n t h e g r o u n d . I'll kill every o n e o f y o u m o t h e r f u c k e r s , " a n d I ' m like, o h shit m a n , h e r e w e g o . ' S o w e ' v e g o t t h r e e M e s k i n s layin' d o w n o n t h e floor, shittin' t h e i r pants and p r a y i n ' to t h e V i r g i n o f g o d d a m n L u p e [ t e c h n i cally G u a d a l u p e ] , a n d a fuckin' A-rab
freakin' o u t b e h i n d t h e cash
register. R e d ' s g o t t h e .45 in his face a n d he's b e l l e r i n ' , " G i v e m e the money, motherfucker! N O W
motherfucker!'"
' S o w h a t does this crazy fuckin' sand nigger do? H e reaches d o w n a n d hits t h e fuckin' alarm, m o t h e r f u c k e r s . R e d w o u l d have killed h i m r i g h t t h e n a n d t h e r e , ' c e p t h e didn't have n o bullets in t h e g u n , so w e g r a b u p s o m e s m o k e s a n d a b u n c h o f bottles
266
Richard Grant
like schnapps a n d g i n a n d f u c k e d - u p shit, a n d w e h e a r t h e m sirens c o m i n ' a n d w e h a u l ass for t h e t r a c k s . T h e r e was a g r a i n e r c o m i n ' t h r o u g h , a n d w e c a u g h t o u t o n t h e fly. A n d boys let m e tell y o u w h a t , w e g o t A L L fucked u p that night.' T w i l i g h t i n t h e railyards o f H e l e n a , M o n t a n a . W e w a l k e d a l o n g t h e floor o f a d e e p metal c a n y o n , w i t h freight trains t o w e r i n g u p o n e i t h e r side o f us a n d a u t o m a t i c searchlights s w i n g i n g t h r o u g h t h e g l o o m and u n e a r t h l y clangings a n d screechings as a distant b r a k e m a n s l a m m e d t o g e t h e r a train. B o n e s w e n t o n ahead. H e was less s t o v e d - u p physically t h a n D e s e r t R a t a n d T u c s o n Stacy, a n d m o r e adept at r e a d i n g a railyard t h a n W i n d w a l k e r — figuring o u t w h i c h trains are g o i n g w h e r e b y their cargo, p o s i t i o n i n t h e yard, t h e t i m e o f day, t h e signal lights. B o n e s c a m e b a c k from his scout a n d l e d us to an e m p t y b o x c a r o n a train h e a d i n g west. W e passed u p backpacks, a n d t w o r e l u c t a n t p u p p i e s , a n d h a u l e d R a t a n d Stacy u p i n t o t h e boxcar. R a t g o t badly s m a s h e d u p in a d e r a i l m e n t a few years ago, lost a kidney, a n d like so m a n y t r a m p s h e lives w i t h severe, c h r o n i c p a i n a n d hardly ever c o m p l a i n s a b o u t it. Stacy's left leg is ' m o s t l y T u p p e r w a r e ' , a n d she has a raft o f o t h e r h e a l t h p r o b l e m s . D e s e r t R a t , also k n o w n as H o b o R a t , started r i d i n g t h e rails w h e n h e g o t b a c k from V i e t n a m i n 1 9 6 9 . Stacy h o p p e d h e r first freight train w h e n she r a n away from h o m e at t h e age o f t h i r t e e n . I was greatly relieved that w e w e r e c l i m b i n g a b o a r d a stationary train. T h e r e are so m a n y a m p u t a t i o n a n d d e c a p i t a t i o n stories a b o u t p e o p l e t r y i n g t o ' c a t c h o u t o n t h e fly', o r s w i n g themselves u p i n t o m o v i n g boxcars; so m a n y t r a m p s w i t h n a m e s like O n e W i n g , Lefty a n d Stumpy. B o n e s j a m m e d a spike u n d e r t h e d o o r t o stop it s l a m m i n g shut a n d t r a p p i n g us inside — a n o t h e r o f t h e m y r i a d f o r m s o f accidental d e a t h that await t h e u n w a r y o r u n l u c k y freight-train rider. E v e r y year, t h r e e or four h u n d r e d p e o p l e are f o u n d dead o n railroad p r o p e r t y (450 in 1997), from falling off trains, b e i n g hit by trains, c r u s h e d b y shifting freight loads or derailments, from natural causes such as liver failure a n d heart-attacks, a n d increasingly from b e i n g shot, stabbed, b e a t e n t o d e a t h o r shoved o u t o f m o v i n g trains.
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B e c a u s e it is so h a r d t o tell w h o was p u s h e d a n d w h o fell, t h e r e is n o accurate c o u n t o f t h e killings, b u t t h r o u g h t h e 1990s it averaged o u t to a b o u t five c o n f i r m e d m u r d e r s a year, plus s u n d r y b e a t ings a n d rapes (of m e n a n d w o m e n ) . T h e authorities a n d t h e m e d i a said t h e F T R A , and its offshoot gangs, w e r e responsible for m o s t of the violence. T h e t r a m p s p u l l e d o u t t h e i r m a r k e r pens a n d signed in o n t h e wall o f t h e boxcar. B o n e s w a s t h e o n l y o n e t o i n c l u d e t h e letters F T R A i n his graffiti, w i t h SS-style l i g h t n i n g bolts, a n d t h e o n l y o n e t o p u t o n his c o l o u r s — a greasy o l d b a n d a n n a , fastened at t h e n e c k w i t h a m e t a l c o n c h o , a d i s c - s h a p e d silver o r n a m e n t , c o m m o n l y used to d e c o r a t e belts a n d saddles. T h e o t h e r s w e r e l o o k i n g t o dissociate themselves from t h e F T R A . It u s e d t o b e such a beautiful t h i n g , t h e y said, all a b o u t love, p r i d e a n d b r o t h e r h o o d , b u t n o w it h a d b e e n hijacked by a y o u n g e r c r o w d a n d t u r n e d i n t o s o m e t h i n g else; a m a j o r source o f heat, for o n e t h i n g . T h e m e d i a h a d g o n e i n t o a frenzy ('Killer P s y c h o s R i d e T h e Rails W i t h T e r r o r ' was t h e Houston
Chronicle's h e a d l i n e ) , a n d t h e
cops a n d railroad bulls w e r e m a k i n g t h e yards ' h o t t e r t h a n a pistol', as D e s e r t R a t e x p l a i n e d it. A n d all b e c a u s e a few F T R A m e m b e r s , a n d a few m o r e F T R A w a n n a b e s , h a d g o t d r u n k a n d a little crazy a n d killed a few p e o p l e . ' H e l l , a n y b o d y can get w i l d w h e n t h e y ' v e h a d a few drinks,' h e said. W i t h a t u m u l t u o u s g r o a n i n g a n d c l a n g i n g a n d a low, m o u r n f u l whistle, t h e train r u m b l e d o u t o f t h e yards i n t o a bitterly c o l d n i g h t . W h a t was t h e p u r p o s e of t h e j o u r n e y ? T h e y w a n t e d t o g e t t o W a s h i n g t o n State so t h e y c o u l d sign o n a n d get e m e r g e n c y f o o d stamps, t h e n m o v e o n t o a n o t h e r state a n d g e t s o m e m o r e - a c o m m o n practice k n o w n as ' d o u b l e - c l u t c h i n g ' . B u t t h e f o r e m o s t reason was that t h e y loved r i d i n g freight trains a n d felt w r o n g w h e n t h e y s p e n t t o o m u c h t i m e in o n e place. 'I g o t hair o n t h e b o t t o m o f m y feet t o w e a r off,' said R a t . W e w e r e s u p p o s e d t o leave H e l e n a t h r e e days ago, b u t B o n e s h a d t r o u b l e g e t t i n g dogs for t h e j o u r n e y . H e h a d t r o u b l e k e e p i n g a q u a r t e r i n his p o c k e t a n d r e m e m b e r i n g t o m a k e t h e t e l e p h o n e call a n d g e t t i n g over to t h e h o u s e , less t h a n a m i l e from God's Love, w h e r e t h e p u p p i e s w e r e b e i n g g i v e n away. N o w h e l o o k s
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like a different m a n : alert, c o m p e t e n t , purposeful. R i d i n g freight trains, rolling n o w h e r e , was w h a t t h e y d i d best a n d t h e y t o o k p r i d e in t h e i r abilities, skill a n d e n d u r a n c e . It s o o n b e c a m e a p p a r e n t as t h e train g o t u p t o s p e e d t h a t t h e b o x c a r was a 'shake, rattle a n d roller'. It was like r i d i n g a t r o t t i n g h o r s e if you d o n ' t k n o w h o w to ride, e x c e p t t h e floor was hard, c o l d steel. I b o u n c e d a n d rattled a n d shivered uncontrollably, a n d t h e p u p p i e s w h i m p e r e d , a n d T u c s o n Stacy l o o k e d like she h a d arrived in seventh h e a v e n . 'I d o n ' t r i d e in n o b o d y ' s airplane, o r n o b o d y ' s car,' she prattled away happily. ' T h i s ol' b o x c a r is m y Cadillac, m y m o m m a , m y p o p p a , m y b r o t h e r , m y h o m e . ' As t h e train c l i m b e d u p i n t o m o u n t a i n s , y o u c o u l d see t h i c k s n o w o n t h e g r o u n d by t h e m o o n l i g h t a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e was well b e l o w freezing. W e w e r e g o i n g over t h e R o c k i e s , 'over t h e h u m p ' , a n d h a d I k n o w n this in a d v a n c e I w o u l d have b r o u g h t a real sleeping bag, instead o f t h e $ 2 9 . 9 5 K - M a r t special I h a d with me. A b o u t these p u p p i e s . T h e r e is, o r was at t h e t i m e , a h o b o g a n g called t h e W r e c k i n g C r e w that w o r e F T R A - s t y l e b a n d a n n a s a n d c o n c h o s a n d used their dogs as a reserve f o o d supply. In
the
s u m m e r o f 1 9 8 9 a d e p u t y sheriff in H a v r e , M o n t a n a , c a u g h t t w o o f t h e m ( M a t t h e w a n d M a r y B o u d r e a u ) i n t h e act o f s k i n n i n g a p u p p y n e x t t o a campfire. B o n e s w a n t e d p u p p i e s for a different reason. ' O n e o f these ol' boys will p u t fifteen d e g r e e s o n y o u r bedroll,' h e said, s h o v i n g o n e d o w n inside his s l e e p i n g bag. R a t a n d Stacy stuffed t h e o t h e r o n e d o w n b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e y p u t a x e - h a n d l e s , knives a n d railroad flares w i t h i n easy reach, a n d a r r a n g e d themselves so that t h e i r feet r a t h e r t h a n their heads w e r e nearest t h e o p e n d o o r o f t h e boxcar. 'I w o k e u p o n e m o r n i n g and s o m e d u d e was w h a l i n ' o n m y h e a d w i t h an a x e handle,' said B o n e s . ' E v e r since t h e n I sleep this w a y r o u n d . ' W e passed a r o u n d a b o t t l e o f s o m e t h i n g a n d s m o k e d w e e d o u t o f a h o m e - m a d e s o a p s t o n e p i p e , a n d t h e r e was s o m e e n t e r t a i n i n g storytelling
of
dubious
veracity
that
decreased
into
ever-
d e s c e n d i n g spirals a n d finally r e a c h e d m u m b l i n g i n c o h e r e n c e . T h a t was p r e t t y m u c h h o w it w e n t for t h e n e x t t w o days. W e r o d e at n i g h t a n d h i d o u t in railyards d u r i n g t h e day, a n d as I listened t o
Ghost
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t h e m talk I w o n d e r e d if it was even possible t o distinguish t r u t h from r u m o u r a b o u t t h e F T R A . Let m e tell y o u h o w t h e F T R A has b e e n p o r t r a y e d in t h e n e w s p a p e r s a n d television n e w s r e p o r t s . Let m e tell y o u w h a t Special A g e n t J a c k M c M a n i g a l o f t h e U n i o n Pacific
Railroad
Police a n d Officer R o b e r t G r a n d i n e t t i o f t h e S p o k a n e
Police
D e p a r t m e n t believe t h e F T R A t o b e , since t h e y have b e e n t h e p r i m a r y sources o f i n f o r m a t i o n for t h e m e d i a . I have s o m e o f their reports a n d presentation packages h e r e i n front o f m e , h o o k e d o u t of t h e filing cabinet, a n d very impressive t h e y are t o o , c o m p l e t e w i t h flow charts a n d diagrams, detailing t h e F T R A ' s c o m m a n d structures, seniority rankings, its various c h a p ters and subsets, such as t h e e n f o r c e m e n t unit ( G o o n Squad) and t h e assassination unit (Death Squad). I appreciate all t h e years o f hard w o r k that M c M a n i g a l a n d especially G r a n d i n e t t i have p u t i n t o their investigations, b u t from w h a t I saw a n d heard o n t h e rails a b o u t t h e F T R A these r e p o r t s c o n s t i t u t e a m o n u m e n t a l act o f flattery. It m i g h t b e , as R a t a n d B o n e s believe, that l a w e n f o r c e m e n t has built u p t h e m e n a c e o f organised h o b o c r i m e t o justify m o r e funds a n d resources to fight it, a n d p u t a stop t o all freight-train r i d i n g . B u t I t h i n k these d i a g r a m s a n d r a n k i n g systems reveal m o r e about the mindset of the m e n w h o made them, because t h e y d e s c r i b e s o m e t h i n g that operates like a p o l i c e d e p a r t m e n t — organised, disciplined, hierarchical, r i g i d in s t r u c t u r e , w i t h specialist u n i t s that carry o u t orders a n d r e p o r t b a c k t o a central c o m m a n d . I was m o r e in a g r e e m e n t w i t h Officer E d Standahl, from t h e O m a h a office o f t h e U n i o n Pacific, w h o told m e that his investigators h a d f o u n d n o organised p a t t e r n t o t h e u p s u r g e o f c r i m e ; t h a t t h e h a l l m a r k o f t h e killings a n d v i o l e n c e was t h e i r r a n d o m , disorganised quality, a n d that F T R A m e m b e r s w e r e j u s t as likely t o attack o t h e r F T R A m e m b e r s as a n y o n e else o n t h e rails. It l o o k e d to m e like v i o l e n t c r i m e o n t h e A - C a m p m o d e l - a n o t h e r g r o u p o f alcoholic V i e t n a m veterans w h o h a d t h e i r o w n flags, tattoos a n d c o d e s o f loyalty. I c o u l d see t h e F T R A sticking u p a l i q u o r store w i t h an e m p t y g u n , o r b e a t i n g s o m e o n e t o d e a t h in a d r u n k e n rage, o r p u l l i n g
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off a t w o h u n d r e d - d o l l a r d r u g deal, b u t I b a u l k e d at G r a n d i n e t t i s t h e o r y t h a t t h e y w e r e p i c k i n g u p large s h i p m e n t s o f h e r o i n at t h e M e x i c a n b o r d e r a n d u s i n g t h e freight trains t o distribute t h e m t o b i k e r gangs (I certainly w o u l d n ' t trust t h e F T R A w i t h a v a l u able d r u g s h i p m e n t ; it w o u l d b e far safer o n t h e roads). B y i n t r o d u c i n g a profit m o t i v e t h e drug-trafficking t h e o r y h e l p e d establish t h e n o t i o n o f a ' h o b o mafia', b u t w h e r e w e r e t h e profits? All t h e F T R A m e m b e r s I m e t w e r e flat b r o k e a n d r u n n i n g f o o d - s t a m p scams t o k e e p from s t a r v i n g . T h e r e was a n o t h e r line from I r o n w e e d that k e p t r u n n i n g t h r o u g h m y m i n d : ' T h e o n l y b r o t h e r h o o d t h e y b e l o n g e d t o was t h e o n e w h i c h asked t h e e n d u r i n g q u e s t i o n : h o w d o I get t h r o u g h t h e n e x t t w e n t y m i n u t e s ? ' T h e central difficulty faced b y a n y o n e investigating t h e F T R A is t h e
source
of information.
Like
everyone
else,
Officer
G r a n d i n e t t i has relied almost exclusively o n h o b o i n f o r m a n t s , a n d t h e y get their i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e h o b o g r a p e v i n e , w h i c h t r a n s mits t r u t h , r u m o u r s a n d tall stories w i t h o u t distinction. N o t o n l y d o train tramps habitually lie to t h e police, t h e press a n d welfare agencies, t h e y tell a lot o f stretchers t o each o t h e r . F a c t o r i n t h e d r u n k e n n e s s , t h e d r u g c o n s u m p t i o n , t h e m e n t a l illness, t h e h a b i t u a l m y t h - m a k i n g a n d c o n s p i r a c y - s e e k i n g a n d it b e c o m e s h a r d t o believe a n y t h i n g y o u h e a r o n t h e rails. Take t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e F T R A ' s origins. It was f o u n d e d by D a n i e l B o o n e u n d e r a b r i d g e in Libby, Montana, or maybe Whitefish, Montana, in 1981, or 1983, or 1 9 8 5 . D a n i e l B o o n e can't r e m e m b e r b e c a u s e h e was d r u n k a n d h i g h at t h e t i m e , a n d has d o n e his best t o stay d r u n k a n d h i g h ever since. Fixing t h e precise date and location in his m i n d has n o t b e e n a priority. B u t let's say L i b b y i n 1 9 8 5 . A g r o u p o f V i e t n a m veteran train t r a m p s w e r e d r i n k i n g u n d e r a b r i d g e w h e n a freight train c a m e rolling by w i t h t h e letters X - T R A o n t h e side. ' W e s h o u l d call ourselves F T R A , ' q u i p p e d D a n i e l B o o n e , ' F u c k T h e R e a g a n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ' Later t h e y altered t h e a c r o n y m ' s m e a n i n g to Freight Train R i d e r s o f A m e r i c a o r F r e e t o T r a m p a n d R i d e Alone. Mississippi B o n e s swore u p a n d d o w n that t h e F T R A , m e a n i n g F r e i g h t Train R i d e r s o f A m e r i c a , was f o u n d e d in t h e 1940s b y a
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black h o b o called C o a l Train. B o n e s h a d h e a r d t h e w h o l e story f r o m C o a l Train h i m s e l f as h e lay d r i n k i n g w i n e o n his d e a t h b e d i n a ' h o o c h i e ' , o r l e a n - t o , in t h e M o j a v e D e s e r t . A t G o d ' s Love S h e l t e r s o m e o f t h e o l d e r h o b o e s d a t e d t h e origins o f t h e F T R A b a c k t o t h e 1930s. It was an offshoot
of
t h e H o l e in t h e Wall gang, based i n M i n n e a p o l i s , w h i c h p i o n e e r e d t h e fashion for b a n d a n n a s a n d c o n c h o s a n d established t h e o r i g inal G o o n S q u a d t o enforce t h e c o d e o f t h e rails a n d p u n i s h w r o n g d o e r s . T h e G o o n S q u a d m e t e d o u t beatings for s u c h infractions as failure to share f o o d w i t h a n o t h e r h o b o , o r h e l p an injured h o b o , o r leave a clean c a m p b e h i n d y o u , o r for b r e a k i n g t h e c o d e o f silence a n d s n i t c h i n g t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . D a n i e l B o o n e ' s F T R A was t h e p r o d u c t o f a different era o n t h e A m e r i c a n rails, t h e p o s t - V i e t n a m era. A n e w class o f p e o p l e a p p e a r e d o n t h e rails, h a u n t e d b y war, vilified b y society, s e e k i n g escape a n d oblivion. Traditionally, h o b o e s h a d r i d d e n t h e freight trains t o find seasonal w o r k — harvesting crops, f e n c i n g prairie, b u i l d i n g roads, d a m s , b r i d g e s a n d railroads. It h a d always b e e n a r o u g h , t o u g h , d a n g e r o u s , d r u n k e n life, b u t w i t h t h e arrival o f V i e t n a m veterans, a n d o t h e r sixties a n d seventies casualties, t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e rails b e c a m e m o r e d e b a u c h e d a n d nihilistic, a n d m o r e violent. A c c o r d i n g t o D e s e r t R a t , t h e F T R A b e g a n as a b r o t h e r h o o d o f V i e t n a m veterans. It gave t h e m a feeling o f b e l o n g i n g . ' M a n w h e n y o u ' r e o u t t h e r e h u n g r y a n d alone, freezing y o u r ass off, t h e r e ain't n o m o r e l o n e s o m e feeling in t h e world,' h e said. ' B u t I can w a l k i n t o any brother's c a m p a n d get treated like I ' m s o m e b o d y ' B e l o n g i n g to t h e F T R A was also a source o f p r o t e c t i o n . If s o m e o n e attacked o r stole from o n e m e m b e r of t h e F T R A , h e risked a retaliatory b e a t i n g from t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e gang -
or, as it t u r n e d o u t , if h e verbally insulted an
FTRA
m e m b e r , o r was r u m o u r e d t o have insulted a m e m b e r , o r for A C a m p - s t y l e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d p a r a n o i d hallucinations. T h e p e o p l e w h o w e r e m o s t active in these retaliatory beatings b e c a m e k n o w n as t h e F T R A G o o n S q u a d . D u r i n g t h e late 1980s and 1990s things changed again. A newer, y o u n g e r b r e e d o f t r a m p appeared o n t h e rails, even m o r e violent
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a n d nihilistic, and s o m e of t h e m appropriated t h e F T R A n a m e and colours w h i l e others f o r m e d different gangs. Desert R a t and t h e original D a n i e l B o o n e c r e w talk a b o u t t h e n e w F T R A , t h e Baby G o o n Squad, t h e N e w W r e c k i n g C r e w a n d a particularly violent n e w g a n g k n o w n as t h e Resistance Crew. I heard the same tiring from t h e h o b o e s playing cards at God's Love.'There's a w h o l e b u n c h o f these n e w crews riding around, causing trouble and beating p e o p l e up,' said Irish. 'It's mostly y o u n g kids trying t o m a k e a n a m e for themselves a n d b e big bad gangsters. All t h e publicity has g o n e to their heads, and t h e F T R A gets b l a m e d for all t h e shit they pull down.' R o b e r t Silveria ('Sidetrack') was t h e m o s t n o t o r i o u s h o b o killer o f t h e 1990s, convicted o f five m u r d e r s , suspected o f a lot m o r e b y t h e authorities, a n d claiming to have killed forty-seven himself, o u t o f a ' d e e p anger'. H e created m o s t o f t h e m e d i a h o o p l a a b o u t t h e F T R A , b u t h e was n o t a m e m b e r , a c c o r d i n g to t h e police, o t h e r h o b o e s a n d Silveria himself, w h o claimed to b e t h e leader o f t h e t r a m p nation - 'I c o u l d have t o r t u r e d others o f y o u r w o r l d , b u t I chose t o t o r t u r e m y w o r l d , because I preyed o n t h e weak.' I n o t h e r words his killings were psychosis-related, n o t gang-related. J e r e m y ' J e r e m i a h ' A b s h i r e , c o n v i c t e d o f slashing t h e t h r o a t o f Barbara B o g g s R i c h a r d s o n ( ' C h e y e n n e ' ) in 1 9 9 2 , was a m e m b e r o f t h e n e w F T R A , t h i r t y years o l d at t h e t i m e . T h e m u r d e r was a r a n d o m act o f d r u n k e n rage, an i m p u l s e killing, b u t o n c e again it was l i n k e d b y t h e m e d i a to t h e s h a d o w y m a c h i n a t i o n s o f t h e h o b o mafia. Mississippi B o n e s , so called b e c a u s e h e is a scrawny b a g o f b o n e s from Mississippi, was c o n v i c t e d o f killing a fellow F T R A m e m b e r called F - T r o o p e r . I have an article h e r e from Spin m a g a zine b y L u c i u s S h e p h a r d , w h o r e a c h e d r o u g h l y t h e same c o n c l u sion a b o u t t h e F T R A as m e , a n d talked t o B o n e s in p r i s o n . B o n e s c l a i m e d it was self-defence. F - T r o o p e r h a d already stabbed h i m in t h e ribs w i t h a s k i n n i n g knife in an a r g u m e n t over B o n e s ' rail wife, M i s t y J a n e . It t o o k B o n e s a year to r e c o v e r from his injuries a n d t h e n h e ran i n t o F - T r o o p e r again, in t h e railyards o f Missoula, M o n t a n a . F - T r o o p e r said h e was c o m i n g t o P o r t l a n d w i t h B o n e s a n d M i s t y J a n e , a n d B o n e s , w h o was d r u n k a n d n o w a d m i t s h e
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m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e situation, shot h i m in t h e h e a d w i t h a pistol. W h e r e Officer G r a n d i n e t t i perceives a c r i m i n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n , m a s t e r m i n d e d by D a n i e l B o o n e a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d b y his l i e u t e n a n t s , I saw a general b r e a k d o w n i n h o b o society, t h e k i n d o f anarchy that gives a n a r c h y a b a d n a m e . I also t h o u g h t G r a n d i n e t t i h a d overplayed t h e w h i t e supremacist m e n a c e o f t h e F T R A . T h e m e m b e r s I m e t w e r e certainly racists w h o talked disparagingly o f ' n i g g e r s ' a n d 'shawappas', a t r a m p w o r d m e a n i n g t h e same, w h i l e m a k i n g e x c e p t i o n s for individual black tramps t h e y k n e w
and
certain black soldiers t h e y f o u g h t w i t h in V i e t n a m . G r a n d i n e t t i ' s i n f o r m a n t s have b e e n telling h i m that n e o - N a z i g r o u p s are o r g a n ising t h e F T R A i n t o a w h i t e supremacist a r m y that will b e g i n b y p u r g i n g t h e rails a n d t h e n m o v e o n t o greater things. I s u p p o s e it all c o m e s d o w n t o w h i c h i n f o r m a n t s you
find
m o s t credible. I g o t m y b r e a k d o w n - o f - h o b o - s o c i e t y t h e o r y from W i l l i a m Blank, o r ' P a p p y ' , a retired s e v e n t y - f o u r - y e a r - o l d
hobo
w h o s p e n t his days d r i n k i n g coffee at G o d ' s Love. A m e r i c a n s tell m e it's a E u r o p e a n t e n d e n c y t o l o o k for t h e b r o a d
historical
p e r s p e c t i v e b e h i n d a c o n t e m p o r a r y p h e n o m e n o n , a n d P a p p y was a living h i s t o r y o f t h e A m e r i c a n rails. H e was a small, sprightly, b a n t a m w e i g h t figure w h o w o r e overalls and a b r a k e m a n ' s cap. After a lifetime o f heavy b o o z i n g , kept in c h e c k by poverty, h e h a d s w i t c h e d t o coffee, and h e d r a n k sixty o r seventy cups a day. I never saw h i m w i t h o u t a c u p o f coffee a n d h e was n e v e r m o r e t h a n t e n m i n u t e s away from rolling h i m s e l f a cigarette. H e started r i d i n g in t h e 1930s as a t e e n a g e r l o o k i n g for w o r k i n t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , a n d was t a u g h t t h e ways o f t h e rails by s o m e o f t h e o r i g i n a l h o b o e s , w h o had b e e n r i d i n g freight trains since t h e 1890s. Since h o b o l a b o u r h a d laid m o s t o f t h e railroad tracks across t h e West, a n d h a r v e s t e d m o s t o f its crops, t h e y felt e n t i t l e d t o r i d e w i t h o u t p a y i n g . T h e origins o f t h e w o r d ' h o b o ' are u n c e r t a i n , b u t it is t h o u g h t t o b e a c o n t r a c t i o n
of'hoe-boy',
m e a n i n g a m i g r a n t agricultural w o r k e r . Y o u n g W i l l i a m B l a n k fell i n t o t h e same r h y t h m as t h e o l d t i m e r s , m o v i n g from harvest t o harvest, t o t u n n e l - b l a s t i n g j o b s w i t h r o a d a n d rail crews, k n o c k i n g o n f a r m h o u s e d o o r s for f o o d in b e t w e e n j o b s , a n d d o i n g a little stealing — clothes from a l a u n d r y
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line, chickens a n d pigs, c o p p e r w i r e from railyards a n d industrial plants. ' B a c k t h e n t h e r e was n o welfare, n o missions, n o
food
stamps,' h e said.'If y o u d i d n ' t w o r k , y o u d i d n ' t eat a n d t h e r e wasn't always w o r k to b e found.' H e started w e a r i n g a b a n d a n n a a n d silver c o n c h o in 1 9 3 8 . T h e H o l e in t h e Wall g a n g w o r e t h e m , b u t so d i d a lot o f o t h e r c o m m i t t e d , full-time h o b o e s . It was a w a y for t h e m t o recognise each o t h e r , an o u t s i d e sign that s o m e o n e was p l e d g e d t o t h e c o d e o f t h e rails. 'If y o u w e r e h u r t , a n o t h e r t r a m p w o u l d take care o f y o u , a n d h e d i d n ' t w a n t n o t h a n k - y o u . "Just pass it o n , " t h e y w o u l d say. W h e n y o u c a m e i n t o a h o b o j u n g l e [a trackside c a m p ] t h e r e w o u l d b e clean pots a n d pans, a n d a stack o f
firewood,
and
a p i e c e o f m i r r o r h a n g i n g in a tree t o shave by. If y o u h a d o n e slice o f bread, y o u ' d tear it in half to share, a n d if y o u didn't, s o m e o n e w o u l d h e a r a b o u t it a n d y o u ' d b e i n trouble.' T h e big c h a n g e in h o b o society, b y Pappy's estimation, b e g a n i n t h e 1960s and it was all the g o v e r n m e n t ' s fault. W i t h t h e advent o f welfare, social security a n d food stamps, h o b o e s n o l o n g e r h a d t o w o r k or steal to stay alive - 'All t h e p r i d e and self-respect w e n t o u t t h e window.' It b e c a m e possible t o get blind d r u n k or d r u g g e d insensible o n a daily basis, rather t h a n o n payday and its aftermath. T h e old c o d e o f t h e rails, t h e system o f m u t u a l reliance, started to break d o w n , because it was n o l o n g e r necessary for survival. T h e r e was a steady increase in v i o l e n c e , as m o r e 'crazies a n d t r o u b l e m a k e r s ' a p p e a r e d o n t h e rails, a n d d u r i n g t h e 1980s a prolife r a t i o n o f gangs, i n t h e sense o f r o v i n g g r o u p s o f t h u g s . ' N o w it's j u s t g o t stupid,' h e said. ' P e o p l e are g e t t i n g b e a t u p a n d killed for n o reason, a n d everyone's scared. If t h e y see y o u h u r t , they figure it's gang-related, a n d s o m e g a n g is g o i n g t o c o m e after t h e m if t h e y help you.' Pappy has n e v e r h a d any t r o u b l e w i t h t h e F T R A o r t h e G o o n S q u a d . H e considers t h e m 'pretty d e c e n t p e o p l e ' c o m p a r e d t o t h e y o u n g e r gangs. I n 1 9 8 6 , i n t h e h o b o j u n g l e i n Pasco, W a s h i n g t o n , h e was b e a t e n half t o d e a t h b y a g r o u p o f ' y o u n g kids' w h o b r o k e his n e c k a n d left h i m for dead. After that i n c i d e n t , w h i c h h o s p i talised h i m for six m o n t h s , P a p p y started r i d i n g w i t h a s a w n - o f f s h o t g u n in his p a c k .
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A n o t h e r factor in t h e v i o l e n c e has b e e n t h e diversification o f t h e A m e r i c a n rails. T h e unified h o b o society that P a p p y k n e w has balkanised i n t o m u t u a l l y suspicious g r o u p s : anarchist p u n k s , skinheads, c r a c k h e a d s , b i k e r types, smugglers o f illegal M e x i c a n i m m i g r a n t s , M e x i c a n m i g r a n t w o r k e r s , e c o - s a b o t e u r s , college kids and, strangest o f all, y u p p i e h o b o e s . T h e r e h a d always b e e n a few w e l l - t o - d o v a c a t i o n e e r s o n t h e rails, l u r e d b y t h e r o m a n c e a n d a d v e n t u r e ( i n c l u d i n g J o h n D o s Passos, C l a r k Gable, F r a n k C a p r a a n d t h e U S S u p r e m e C o u r t Justice W i l l i a m O . D o u g l a s ) , b u t d u r i n g t h e late 1980s a n d 1990s, as t h e F T R A was g a i n i n g n a t i o n w i d e n o t o r i e t y , it t u r n e d i n t o a h o t n e w craze — r i d i n g t h e rails w i t h c e l l p h o n e s , G P S finders, d o w n parkas, t h r e e h u n d r e d - d o l l a r tents, f o u r h u n d r e d - d o l l a r s l e e p i n g bags, a n d u p l o a d i n g
your
a d v e n t u r e s t o t h e y u p p i e h o b o websites from l a p t o p c o m p u t e r s . I t o o k it as an expression o f s e d e n t a r y e n v y for t h e free n o m a d i c life, a w a y o f c a p t u r i n g t h e r o m a n c e w i t h o u t t h e h u n g e r
and
freezing. M o s t o f t h e full-time t r a m p s I talked to l o a t h e d t h e yuppie hoboes, but Pappy had n o objection to them. H e u n d e r s t o o d t h e u r g e . After a lifetime o n t h e rails, after
thirty-seven
d e r a i l m e n t s , four h e a r t - a t t a c k s a n d that t e r r i b l e b e a t i n g in Pasco, Pappy still t h o u g h t that r i d i n g t h e freight trains was t h e greatest t h i n g in t h e w o r l d . ' O u t t h e r e y o u ' v e g o t total f r e e d o m a n d n o responsibilities. W h e r e v e r y o u ' r e at, that's h o m e . It can b e a b e a u tiful life, a n d y o u see a lot o f beautiful country, places w h e r e man's h a n d ain't fucked it u p yet. M a n , if m y b o d y c o u l d stand it, I'd be out there today' A t t h e age o f seventy h e retired from t h e rails a n d g o t m a r r i e d for t h e first t i m e i n his life. H e lives w i t h his wife in a small trailer by t h e railyards. O l d habits die hard: h e still d u m p s t e r - d i v e s for all t h e i r f o o d a n d m a k e s a little extra scavenging j u n k a n d c o p p e r w i r e . H e t o o k m e to visit his trailer, t h e first p e r m a n e n t d w e l l i n g o f his life, a n d s h o w e d m e freezers p a c k e d full o f food, m o u n d s o f j u n k h e was p l a n n i n g t o fix o r sell, a n d his p a c k a n d b e d r o l l u n d e r t h e b e d . ' I still r i d e for t h e hell o f it n o w a n d then,' h e said. ' N e x t t i m e , I ' m t a k i n g m y wife along. It's g o i n g to b e h e r first ride. S h e figures it'll h e l p h e r u n d e r s t a n d a t r a m p h u s b a n d . ' His wife was off o n s o m e e r r a n d . W e sat at t h e k i t c h e n table
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d r i n k i n g coffee. W e talked for h o u r s a n d w h a t I r e m e m b e r m o s t clearly is t h e expression o n Pappy's face w h e n h e h e a r d t h e low, m o u r n f u l h o n k o f a freight train p u l l i n g t h r o u g h t h e yards. I h a d h e a r d a b o u t t h e effects o f this s o u n d in a h u n d r e d old c o u n t r y a n d w e s t e r n ballads a n d blues songs, a n d I h a d always t a k e n it as a m e t a p h o r or cliche. W h e n Pappy h e a r d t h e l o n e s o m e whistle b l o w i n g h e w o u l d t u r n his h e a d towards it a n d a l o o k o f d e e p , soulful, p r o f o u n d sadness w o u l d o c c u p y his features — like Scrap I r o n b e g g i n g for a r i d e b u t entirely g e n u i n e . W h e r e w o u l d y o u c h o o s e t o die if y o u h a d t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n a hospital b e d o r t h e m i d d l e o f n o w h e r e ? A few years ago I was d r i v i n g a l o n g 1-50, a t w o - l a n e b l a c k t o p that crosses t h e deserts o f central U t a h a n d N e v a d a a n d calls itself ' T h e Loneliest H i g h w a y i n A m e r i c a ' . T h e r e is a n i n e t y - m i l e stretch b e t w e e n t o w n s o r gas stations, and s o m e w h e r e i n t h e m i d d l e o f that stretch I pulled over to take a p h o t o g r a p h o f a w e a t h e r e d a n d i m p r o b a b l e sign: ' A L F A L F A F o r Sale'. C u r i o s i t y led m e d o w n a dirt r o a d t o a few a b a n d o n e d buildings a n d an alfalfa field r e t u r n e d t o desert. Lying in t h e shade o f o n e o f t h e buildings was an old h i g h w a y drifter w i t h his h e a d resting o n a small b a c k p a c k . H i s eyes were closed, his lips w e r e cracked, h e lay v e r y still a n d I t h o u g h t h e was dead. As I b e n t over h i m t o see if h e was b r e a t h i n g his eyelids m o v e d a n d o p e n e d , a n d h e m a d e a w e a k s o u n d in his throat. I r u s h e d b a c k to t h e t r u c k t o get water. I offered h i m a d r i n k a n d h e t o o k a sip. D i d h e w a n t food? D i d h e w a n t a ride? D i d h e w a n t an a m b u l a n c e ? In a cracked w h i s p e r h e told m e to g o away a n d leave h i m alone. W h a t w o u l d y o u have d o n e ? I left t h e plastic j u g o f w a t e r beside h i m a n d drove away, a n d I did n o t alert t h e a u t h o r i t i e s w h e n I g o t t o t h e next town. Fifty miles d o w n a dirt r o a d in s o u t h e r n U t a h , fifty-five
miles
from t h e nearest t o w n , w e h u d d l e in o u r blankets a r o u n d an a r o m a t i c fire o f j u n i p e r w o o d . Gale has c o m e b a c k from Alaska. W e are t r y i n g t o m a k e it w o r k again. W e are t a l k i n g a b o u t d e a t h as a m e a n s o f t a l k i n g a b o u t love.
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T h e r e is a small a n d exquisite c a n y o n in t h e darkness to t h e east o f us w i t h a stream r u n n i n g t h r o u g h it, a n d c o t t o n w o o d trees, and a series o f p o n d s w h e r e t h e stream has b e e n d a m m e d b y beavers, a n d a b e g u i l i n g historical mystery. It is o n e o f o u r favourite places a n d Gale decides that she w a n t s h e r ashes scattered t h e r e . S h e gives m e a l o o k that suggests t h a t I h a d b e t t e r v o l u n t e e r m y services for this duty. T h e reply f o r m s i n m y b r a i n that I a m five years older, a n d m a l e , a n d unlikely to b e available, b u t this is n o t t h e t i m e for a l e c t u r e o n m o r t a l i t y statistics. So I m a k e m y p l e d g e a n d ask h e r w h e r e exactly, a n d request a favour in r e t u r n : ' I f y o u can fix it, let m e die s o m e w h e r e in t h e desert. I hate t h e idea o f d y i n g in a hospital, and I d o n ' t w a n t t o e n d u p in a c e m e t e r y . T e r r i b l e waste o f calories. Just leave m e o u t in t h e desert t o get recycled.' 'That's illegal,' she says, w h i c h I h a d n ' t realised. ' B u t okay.' T h e coyotes b r e a k t h e silence from t i m e t o t i m e , y a m m e r i n g a n d h o w l i n g in t h e distance, s o m e w h e r e d o w n in t h e c a n y o n s . I m i g h t feel differently w h e n t h e m o m e n t is at h a n d , b u t it d o e s n ' t s o u n d like a b a d fate r i g h t n o w — to fuel t h e w a n d e r i n g s o f these splendid animals, a n d t h e flight of vultures, a n d get p i c k e d clean b y ants, a n d t h e n t o e n t e r t h e b o d i e s o f a n t - e a t i n g lizards a n d l i z a r d - e a t i n g birds a n d coyotes, w h i l e m y b o n e s c r u m b l e i n t o t h e soil a n d n o u r i s h a cactus o r a j u n i p e r tree. It's e n o u g h r e i n c a r n a t i o n for m e . T h e n i g h t is clear, windless a n d very cold. W o r d s fail m e w h e n it c o m e s to t h e stars. All I can say is that t h e r e are a lot o f t h e m , a n d t h e y are very b r i g h t , a n d t h e planets are even b r i g h t e r . Gale p o i n t s u p at M a r s , w h i c h is flashing red, a traffic signal red. A t first I t h i n k it m u s t b e a distant a e r o p l a n e b u t it d o e s n ' t m o v e . H e r g r a n d p a r e n t s w e r e a s t r o n o m e r s in T u c s o n a n d she k n o w s t h e desert sky at n i g h t . B e h i n d t h e r o c k b a t t l e m e n t s t o t h e east t h e r e is a g l o w o f light, c l i m b i n g a n d b r i g h t e n i n g as it reaches t h e r i m . W e are sure t h e m o o n is a b o u t to appear b u t it t u r n s o u t t o b e Jupiter. H o w tragic it is that so m a n y p e o p l e in t h e w o r l d will n e v e r see a n i g h t sky like this, will g o t o their graves w i t h o u t seeing t h e M i l k y Way. A n d h o w pleasant that n o n e o f t h e m are around tonight.
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T h e fire has b u r n e d d o w n to coals. I m a k e t h e d r i n k s , S c o t c h a n d water, half a n d half, a n d start roasting g r e e n chillies a n d grilling steaks. W h e n t h e f o o d is c o o k e d I stoke u p t h e fire a n d r e t u r n to m y d r i n k t o find t h a t it has frozen solid. Y o u d o n ' t e x p e c t a desert t o b e this cold, b u t w e are five t h o u s a n d feet above sea level in early N o v e m b e r , c a m p e d above a c o m p l e x o f canyons that drain i n t o t h e Escalante R i v e r . It is o u r i n t e n t i o n t o p o k e a b o u t a n d e x p l o r e in those canyons for a few days, laze a r o u n d a g o o d deal a n d give a little m o r e t h o u g h t to t h e m y s t e r i o u s disappearance o f Everett R u e s s . H e r o d e i n t o t h e Escalante c o u n t r y i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 4 astride a donkey, a n d l e a d i n g a s e c o n d d o n k e y p a c k e d w i t h his supplies: p e n s , paper, w a t e r c o l o u r paints, fine sable p a i n t b r u s h e s , c a r v i n g tools for his w o o d b l o c k p r i n t s , p o t s , pans, blankets a n d f o o d for t w o m o n t h s . H i s b o d y was lean a n d h o n e d b y t h o u s a n d s o f miles o f r o u g h w i l d e r n e s s trails. H i s face was o n t h e c h u b b y side, w i t h a suggestion o f p u p p y fat a n d a w i d e , t o o t h y g r i n . F o r t h e last t h r e e years, w i t h a few intervals, h e h a d b e e n w a n d e r i n g t h e deserts a n d m o u n t a i n s o f n o r t h e r n A r i z o n a a n d s o u t h e r n U t a h , k e e p i n g a j o u r n a l , w r i t i n g p o e t r y a n d l o n g , r h a p s o d i c letters t o his friends a n d relatives, r e s u p p l y i n g h i m s e l f b y selling his a r t w o r k t o I n d i a n traders a n d M o r m o n r a n c h families. H e travelled i n a state o f exalted, s o u l - g u s h i n g ecstasy, o v e r w h e l m e d b y t h e b e a u t y o f t h e landscape a n d t h e r o m a n c e o f his a d v e n t u r e s . H e h a d l e a r n e d t o speak Navajo, slept m a n y n i g h t s in t h e i r h o g a n s a n d s h e e p - h e r d i n g c a m p s , a n d j o i n e d in t h e i r dances a n d c e r e m o n i e s . I n A u g u s t , after a t w o h u n d r e d - m i l e solo trek across t h e desert, h e h a d visited t h e h i g h , w i n d s w e p t mesas o f t h e Hopi
with
live
rattlesnakes w r i t h i n g in t h e i r m o u t h s . T h e H o p i s l i k e d
reservation
and
seen m e d i c i n e
men
dance
him
( e v e r y o n e s e e m e d to like this strange, i m p a s s i o n e d y o u n g m a n ) a n d h e was i n v i t e d t o participate i n t h e A n t e l o p e D a n c e — o n e o f v e r y few w h i t e s t o b e a c c o r d e d this h o n o u r . H e was a r o m a n t i c w h o avoided r o m a n t i c love, a h e d o n i s t w h o e s c h e w e d sex, alcohol, drugs a n d t h e pleasures o f t h e palate, a n o m a d i c aesthete w h o k n e w exacdy w h y h e felt c o m p e l l e d to
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w a n d e r t h e deserts: n o t h i n g else m o v e d his soul w i t h t h e same intensity, a n d this was all h e craved from life. Before passing any j u d g e m e n t o n his w r i t i n g , or his art, o r his creed, or his recklessness towards danger, w e m u s t k e e p o n e fact at t h e forefront of o u r m i n d s : at t h e t i m e o f his disappearance, Everett R u e s s was t w e n t y years old. Sitting by a campfire o n t h e r i m o f t h e Escalante canyons, o n 11 N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 4 , h e w r o t e a letter t o his o l d e r b r o t h e r W a l d o in California. As t o w h e n I shall visit civilization, it will n o t b e s o o n , I t h i n k . I have n o t tired o f t h e w i l d e r n e s s ; r a t h e r I enjoy its b e a u t y a n d t h e v a g r a n t life I lead m o r e k e e n l y all t h e t i m e . I prefer t h e saddle t o a streetcar a n d t h e s t a r - s p r i n k l e d sky t o a roof, t h e o b s c u r e a n d difficult trail, l e a d i n g i n t o t h e u n k n o w n , t o any p a v e d highway, a n d t h e d e e p p e a c e o f t h e w i l d t o t h e d i s c o n t e n t b r e d by cities. D o y o u b l a m e m e t h e n for staying, w h e r e I feel t h a t I b e l o n g a n d a m o n e w i t h t h e w o r l d a r o u n d m e ? It is t r u e t h a t I miss intelligent c o m p a n i o n s h i p , b u t t h e r e are so few w i t h w h o m I can share t h e things that m e a n so m u c h t o m e t h a t I have l e a r n e d t o c o n t a i n myself. It is e n o u g h t h a t I a m s u r r o u n d e d b y beauty . . . E v e n from y o u r scant d e s c r i p t i o n , I k n o w that I c o u l d n o t b e a r t h e r o u t i n e a n d h u m d r u m o f t h e life y o u are forced t o lead. I d o n ' t t h i n k I c o u l d ever settle d o w n . I have k n o w n t o o m u c h o f t h e d e p t h s o f life already, and I w o u l d prefer a n y t h i n g t o an a n t i c l i m a x . T h a t is o n e reason w h y I d o n o t w i s h to r e t u r n t o t h e cities. I have b e e n in t h e m before a n d r e t u r n e d t o t h e m before, a n d I k n o w w h a t t h e y c o n t a i n . T h e r e w o u l d have t o b e s o m e stronger i n c e n t i v e t h a n any I k n o w n o w t o m a k e m e w a n t t o r e t u r n to t h e old ways. T h i s was t h e last letter that a n y o n e received from h i m . A few days later h e r o d e d o w n i n t o t h e canyons a n d vanished w i t h o u t a trace. T h e r e have b e e n t h e o r i e s that he staged his o w n disappearance, t o shack u p w i t h a N a v a j o s w e e t h e a r t p e r h a p s , b u t t h e r e is n o
280
Richard Grant
e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t this idea b e y o n d a wisp o f hearsay. N o r is t h e r e any e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h e m o r e likely explanations, that h e was m u r d e r e d by o u t l a w s , o r d r o w n e d in t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r , o r was b i t t e n b y a rattlesnake, o r killed in a c l i m b i n g accident. F r o m his letters, a n d h o r r i f i e d eye-witnesses, w e k n o w that h e liked to s c a m p e r u p a n d d o w n sheer, c r u m b l i n g rockfaces, w i t h o u t ropes, a n d dangle from h i g h places. I n t h e d e c a d e s since his d i s a p p e a r a n c e • E v e r e t t R u e s s
has
b e c o m e a l e g e n d a r y figure i n t h e c a n y o n l a n d s , t h e i m m o r t a l 'artist in r e s i d e n c e ' o f t h e r e g i o n , as Wallace S t e g n e r called h i m , a n d w e m u s t address t h e q u e s t i o n o f why. H i s p o e t r y was heartfelt a n d w i n c i n g l y awful, i n t h e usual adolescent fashion. H i s prose, a n d his a r t w o r k , s h o w e d signs o f talent a n d m i g h t have t u r n e d i n t o s o m e t h i n g significant. All o f w h i c h is beside t h e p o i n t . A n y o n e w h o has fallen u n d e r t h e spell o f this c o u n t r y , o r any b i g w i l d place, k n o w s t h e t e m p t a t i o n . W e have all w o n d e r e d , if only in passing, w h a t it w o u l d b e like to g o f u r t h e r o u t there, d e e p e r i n t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s ; t o cut t h e ties t o civilisation a n d t u r n trips a n d e x p e d i t i o n s i n t o a p e r m a n e n t state o f b e i n g . I first h e a r d a b o u t Everett R u e s s from
t h e p e r i p a t e t i c river r u n n e r s , r o c k
climbers a n d o u t d o o r a d v e n t u r e guides o f t h e S o u t h w e s t , w h o w o r k o d d j o b s t o fund t h e n e x t trip i n t o t h e wilderness o r p u t u p w i t h t h e c o m p a n y o f tourists in o r d e r t o stay o u t t h e r e m o r e permanently. T h e y had a w i d e range of opinions about Everett R u e s s , r a n g i n g from h e r o - w o r s h i p t o l a c o n i c disdain, b u t t h e r e was o n e p o i n t o f c o n v e r g e n c e . T h e y r e s p e c t e d h i m for living o u t his d r e a m w i t h such f u l l - b l o o d e d d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d c o m m i t m e n t , a n d t h e y liked t h e fact t h a t it h a d fulfilled his wildest expectations.
S h i v e r i n g in t h e grey light before d a w n , I h e a p u p j u n i p e r twigs o n last night's coals a n d b l o w t h e m i n t o flames. I unfreeze a gallon o f water, m a k e coffee a n d eggs. After breakfast w e l o a d u p t h e backpacks a n d walk o u t across a plateau o f n a k e d
sandstone,
h u m m o c k e d a n d d o m e d , rising i n t o crests a n d pinnacles, fissured w i t h gullies a n d swales, as if a s t o r m - l a s h e d sea h a d b e e n frozen i n t o rock. A n h o u r o f w a l k i n g b r i n g s us t o t h e r i m o f Davis
Ghost
281
Riders
G u l c h , t h e site o f E v e r e t t R u e s s ' last k n o w n
camp, the
final
resting-place for Gale's ashes. L o o k i n g d o w n i n t o t h e lush, v e r d a n t cleft, w i t h its s m o o t h , u n d u l a t i n g p i n k walls . . . Let's j u s t say that Davis G u l c h has a distinctly f e m i n i n e quality. A n o t h e r h o u r a n d w e find t h e o n e trail by w h i c h Davis G u l c h is accessible from t h e r i m , a b e n c h o f r o c k that zigzags d o w n t h e west wall, w i t h steps carved i n t o t h e final d e s c e n t b y M o r m o n r a n c h e r s . E v e r e t t R u e s s l e d his d o n k e y s d o w n this trail a n d built a corral for t h e m o n t h e canyon's grassy floor. T h e y w e r e still g r a z i n g t h e r e w h e n t h e first search p a r t y c a m e l o o k i n g for h i m in M a r c h 1 9 3 5 . T h e y f o u n d his s i z e - n i n e b o o t tracks l e a d i n g i n t o t h e c a n y o n b u t t h e r e w e r e n o tracks l e a d i n g o u t , a n d n o sign t h a t a n y o n e else h a d b e e n i n t h e c a n y o n . T h e r e was an i n s c r i p t i o n carved i n t o a r o c k — ' N e m o , 1 9 3 4 ' — a n d this p u z z l e d t h e m t o o . T h e searchers w r o t e to Everett's family a b o u t t h e i n s c r i p t i o n a n d discovered that h e was a n avid fan o f t h e Jules V e r n e novel Twenty Thousand
Leagues under the Sea, a n d fancied h i m s e l f as a
latter-day C a p t a i n N e m o — o n e w h o has forsaken civilisation t o w a n d e r w i l d a n d distant r e g i o n s . T h i s was n o t m u c h help. T h e y spent t e n days c o m b i n g t h e area, w i t h e x p e r t Navajo trackers, e x p l o r i n g every c a n y o n a n d side g u l c h for miles in all d i r e c t i o n s . F u r t h e r search parties followed b u t f o u n d n o m o r e tracks o r clues, a n d n o sign o f his c a m p i n g gear a n d art supplies. It is possible t o c l i m b o u t o f Davis G u l c h b y a hair-raising r o u t e at its h e a d , b u t n o t if y o u ' r e c a r r y i n g a h e a v y a n d c u m b e r s o m e p a c k outfit. If h e left b e h i n d his gear, a n d it was later stolen, w h e r e w e r e t h e tracks o f t h e thieves? If h e was m u r d e r e d for his outfit b y outlaws o r cattle rustlers, w h e r e w e r e their tracks? I n t h e sheltered cleft o f Davis G u l c h , f o o t p r i n t s last a year o r m o r e , a n d t h e y h a d n o t r o u b l e t r a c i n g his m o v e m e n t s a r o u n d t h e c a n y o n floor. W e k n o w t h a t h e t o o k at least s o m e o f his supplies d o w n i n t o Davis G u l c h , b e c a u s e t h e m a r k s left by his b e d r o l l w e r e still visible at his campsite, a n d e m p t y c o n d e n s e d - m i l k cans a n d sweet wrappings were strewn around. T h e N e m o i n s c r i p t i o n is u n d e r w a t e r n o w , s u b m e r g e d u n d e r t h e 1 8 0 - m i l e - l o n g reservoir a n d b o a t i n g lake b a c k e d u p b e h i n d G l e n C a n y o n D a m o n t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r . It d r o w n e d t h e l o w e r
282
Richard Grant
half of Davis G u l c h a n d a h u n d r e d o t h e r canyons, i n c l u d i n g G l e n C a n y o n itself, j u s t u p s t r e a m from t h e G r a n d C a n y o n a n d equally spectacular. E v e r e t t R u e s s ' o l d c a m p s i t e is still above water, shelt e r e d b y a r o c k o v e r h a n g , a n d that's w h e r e w e spread o u r sleeping bags a n d base ourselves for t h e n e x t few days. W h a t r e m a i n s o f Davis G u l c h is o n l y four miles l o n g . I n a r e g i o n o f m a m m o t h r o c k f o r m a t i o n s a n d h u n d r e d - m i l e vistas its b e a u t y is c o m p a c t a n d delicate: natural s t o n e arches, f e r n - f r i n g e d pools
and
springs, cactus
gardens, echoing
caves a n d
rock
a m p h i t h e a t r e s . C l a m b e r i n g a r o u n d i n its n o o k s a n d crannies w e find n i n e - h u n d r e d - y e a r - o l d Anasazi I n d i a n p o t s h e r d s a n d r o c k art, r u i n e d cliff dwellings a n d granaries, a n d t h e tiny c o r n c o b s t h e y g r e w h e r e . I n t h e w a r m a f t e r n o o n s u n w e strip n a k e d a n d frolic in t h e water, w i t h predictable c o n s e q u e n c e s . A t dusk w e sit by t h e beaver p o n d s , silent a n d m o t i o n l e s s . T h e r e are freshly g n a w e d w i l l o w s a n d felled c o t t o n w o o d trees all a r o u n d , fresh tracks and drag m a r k s i n t h e m u d , b u t beavers have r e t a i n e d t h e wariness b r e d i n t o t h e m b y J o e W a l k e r a n d his ilk. W e h e a r o n e w a r n i n g slap o f a tail o n t h e w a t e r b u t see n o t a single glimpse. N i g h t s a r o u n d t h e fire sipping whiskey. T h e c a n y o n walls frame a river o f stars overhead. I feel v e r y c o n t e n t , v e r y alive, very m u c h i n love. N e x t s p r i n g , she says, w e s h o u l d b u y a c o u p l e o f m u l e s o r d o n k e y s , l o a d t h e m u p w i t h f o o d a n d take off i n t o t h e canyons for a c o u p l e o f m o n t h s . O n t h e way u p h e r e w e h e a r d a b o u t a w a y t o get from
Zion
N a t i o n a l P a r k to A r c h e s N a t i o n a l Park, t h r e e h u n d r e d miles as t h e c r o w flies, w h i c h crosses o n l y t w o p a v e d roads. ' T h e n , if w e feel like it, w e can stock u p a n d c o m e b a c k again,' she says. I find myself raising objections t o t h e idea — n e i t h e r o f us has dealt w i t h p a c k animals, w e are t o o i n e x p e r i e n c e d in w i l d e r n e s s survival, it w o u l d b e so easy t o get lost in t h e m a z e o f canyons, I have this b o o k to finish — a n d I love t h e fact t h a t she is suggesting it. Years ago, l o n g before I h a d h e a r d o f E v e r e t t R u e s s , I spent t w o weeks h i k i n g a n d c a m p i n g in t h e canyons in n o r t h e r n A r i z o n a , a n d I seriously considered g o i n g b a c k o u t t h e r e for a c o u p l e o f m o n t h s . Lust m o r e t h a n a n y t h i n g dissuaded m e , t h e prospect o f e x t e n d e d celibacy. Like T. E . L a w r e n c e , Wilfred T h e s i g e r a n d a
Ghost
Riders
283
n u m b e r o f o t h e r w a n d e r i n g desert aesthetes, Everett R u e s s h a d n o a p p a r e n t difficulties w i t h t h e sexlessness o f t h e life, a n d n o yearnings for r o m a n t i c love. H e was attracted to w o m e n , a n d h a d c o m e close t o falling i n love a c o u p l e o f times, a n d struck o u t for t h e deserts again before a n y t h i n g d e v e l o p e d . His s w o r n creed was to e x p e r i e n c e life as d e e p l y a n d intensely as possible, and, like m y y o u n g e r self, h e t h o u g h t falling in love w o u l d b e a h i n d r a n c e t o this goal. So w h a t b e c a m e o f h i m ? T h e r e are d o z e n s o f different t h e o r i e s , all o f t h e m p u r e conjecture, all o f t h e m c o n t r a - i n d i c a t e d b y s o m e t h i n g w e know, o r t h i n k w e k n o w . I lean w i t h t h e h e r d a n d favour t h e accidental d e a t h t h e o r i e s , b u t s o m e key piece o f e v i d e n c e t o t h e puzzle eludes us: a set o f footprints o b s c u r e d b y a flurry o f w i n d a n d sand perhaps, o r deliberately erased; a satchel o f letters and w a t e r c o l o u r s l y i n g in an obscure cave, n o w u n d e r w a t e r ; a set o f b o n e s c r u m b l i n g o n a r e m o t e rock ledge. Everett R u e s s ' death, if that's w h a t h a p p e n e d , was u n t i m e l y b u t it was n o t a tragedy. It was t h e d e a t h h e h a d i m a g i n e d for himself. 'I've b e e n t h i n k i n g m o r e a n d m o r e that I shall always b e a l o n e w a n d e r e r of t h e wilderness,' h e w r o t e to his b r o t h e r i n t h e s u m m e r o f 1932. ' G o d , h o w t h e trail lures m e . You c a n n o t c o m p r e h e n d its resistless fascin a t i o n for m e . . . A n d w h e n t h e t i m e c o m e s t o die, I'll find t h e wildest, loneliest, m o s t desolate spot t h e r e is.'
CHAPTER
12
L e a v i n g t h e snakeskin o f place after place g o i n g o n — after t h e trees t h e grass, a b i r d flying after a s o n g . W i l l i a m Stafford, ' F o r t h e Grave o f Daniel B o o n e '
S
o it has c o m e t o this. T h e largest g a t h e r i n g o f n o m a d s i n
A m e r i c a f o r m s every J a n u a r y i n Q u a r t z s i t e , A r i z o n a , a dusty,
s u n b a k e d strip o f gas stations, c o n v e n i e n c e stores, trailer parks a n d R V c a m p g r o u n d s , s t r u n g o u t a l o n g a m i l e o f interstate frontage road; a place w i t h n o grass, n o river o r stream, a n d v e r y few trees. T h e i r n u m b e r s are e s t i m a t e d at t h r e e h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d — local b o o s t e r s are c l a i m i n g half a m i l l i o n — a n d t h e i r
encampments
spread o u t for miles i n t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g desert. B.J. M c H e n r y is h e r e , t h e s n a k e - e a t i n g h i t c h - h i k e r I d u m p e d o n t h e side o f t h e h i g h w a y i n Texas. 1 saw h i m b e g g i n g o u t s i d e t h e T e x a c o this m o r n i n g a n d gave h i m a w i d e b e r t h . C h a d a n d Tiffany are h e r e , w i t h a small c r e w o f A - C a m p R a i n b o w s . L a n c e G r a b o w s k i from t h e b u c k s k i n n e r r e n d e z v o u s has b e e n h e r e a n d g o n e . T h e r e are travelling p r e a c h e r s , b a r k i n g o u t t h e gospel from roadside tents, n o m a d i c traders a n d v e n d o r s o f every d e s c r i p t i o n , a small a r m y o f t r a m p s a n d drifters a n d p e t t y hustlers, a n d all o f t h e m are feeding o n t h e p e r i p h e r i e s o f t h e m a i n h o r d e . Q u a r t z s i t e is t h e big annual rendezvous for t h e n o m a d i c retirees, t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s a n d powerful o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y n o m a d i c
286
Richard Grant
tribes in A m e r i c a . As always, it is difficult t o say h o w n u m e r o u s . T h e y present a familiar p r o b l e m t o researchers a n d statisticians: a m o v i n g target, dissolving a n d reforming, travelling in scattered bands a n d hard t o distinguish from their s e m i - n o m a d i c c o u n t e r p a r t s , w h o are also at Q u a r t z s i t e in a b u n d a n c e . W e k n o w t h e r e are 8.5 m i l l i o n RVs o n t h e A m e r i c a n roads, b u t h o w m a n y p e o p l e are living in t h e m p e r m a n e n t l y , as t h e i r sole habitations? T h e guesswork ranges b e t w e e n 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 3.5 m i l l i o n , w i t h s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 9 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e m over t h e age o f fifty-five. T h e
Good
S a m C l u b , A m e r i c a ' s largest R V i n g organisation, estimates t h a t t h r e e m i l l i o n p e o p l e are living in their RVs y e a r - r o u n d , o f w h o m 8 0 p e r c e n t are retirees. T h e y call themselves 'full-timers', 'gypsies' or, w i t h a smile, ' G e r i t o l gypsies'. T h e y use m a i l i n g addresses (a friend, a relative, a post office b o x , a m a i l - f o r w a r d i n g service) t o r e n e w their drivers' licences a n d k e e p their vehicles registered, licensed a n d insured. I was i n t e r e s t e d t o discover t h a t m a n y o f t h e m stop v o t i n g a n d paying taxes w h e n t h e y t u r n n o m a d i c , b u t t h o s e w h o persist in these habits d o so t h r o u g h t h e i r fictional addresses. As their e t h n o g r a p h e r s p o i n t o u t , t h e n o m a d i c elderly are a n invisible p o p u l a t i o n t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , a n d m a n y o f t h e m prefer it that way. ' T h e y fear that if " t h e g o v e r n m e n t " finds o u t a b o u t t h e m it will tax t h e m o r o t h e r w i s e destroy t h e i r lifestyle a n d their freedom.'* A t first glance t h e y strike y o u as unlikely i n h e r i t o r s a n d guardians o f t h e A m e r i c a n n o m a d i c tradition. In s o m e ways Quartzsite looks m o r e like a m o b i l e suburbia t h a n a n o m a d e n c a m p m e n t . W i t n e s s t h e profusion o f astroturf lawns, rolled o u t n e x t to t h e RVs a n d ornamented flamingos
with
plastic
flowers, m i n i a t u r e
windmills,
pink
a n d plaster coyotes. T h e carved w o o d e n signs b o l t e d o n
t h e b a c k o f t h e RVs: ' T h e H e n d e r s o n s - Bill and M a r g e ' , ' T h e Marshalls — Orville a n d W i l m a ' . T h e array o f gadgets inside t h e RVs: dishwashers, icemakers, microwaves, w a s h i n g m a c h i n e s and dryers, T V s and V C R s , r o o f - m o u n t e d a i r - c o n d i t i o n e r s , satellite dishes and solar panels. O u t in t h e desert t h e y circle their RVs
C o u n t s a n d C o u n t s , Over the Next America.
Hill: An Ethnography
of RVing
Seniors in
North
Ghost
Riders
287
like p i o n e e r w a g o n s a n d sit o n d e c k c h a i r s a r o u n d a bonfire, d r i n k i n g cocktails, m a k i n g small talk a n d telling j o k e s . * W h e n t h e bonfire dies d o w n , t h e y h e a d b a c k inside t h e i r RVs a n d t h e circle is lit b y t h e
flickering
b l u e lights o f t h e i r televisions.
A m e r i c a n s have b e e n travelling in v e h i c u l a r dwellings since t h e 1920s. T h e early m o d e l s w e r e called ' h o u s e trailers' a n d a d a p t e d from British m o t o r caravans, w h i c h w e r e t w o - w h e e l e d copies o f t h e traditional gypsy w a g o n . T h e first RVs — larger, m o r e c o m f o r t able trailers a n d m o t o r i s e d , c o a c h - s t y l e dwellings - a p p e a r e d in t h e 1960s, b u t it wasn't until t h e late 1970s a n d early 1980s, w h e n manufacturers developed the m o d e r n , amenity-crammed, climatec o n t r o l l e d R V , that n o m a d i c r e t i r e m e n t t o o k off as a mass m o v e ment. Two
elemental American
y e a r n i n g s , for
comfort
and
mobility, w e r e c o m b i n e d i n t o o n e p a c k a g e at t h e same t i m e as t h e healthiest, wealthiest g e n e r a t i o n o f g r a n d p a r e n t s in
human
history r e a c h e d t h e age o f r e t i r e m e n t . Traditionally, g r a n d p a r e n t s have b e e n a r o o t e d , stabilising force in o u r societies, o r i e n t i n g t h e i r lives a r o u n d t h e i r h o m e s , c o m m u nities, c h i l d r e n a n d g r a n d c h i l d r e n . T h e i m a g e s a n d cliches w e h o l d o f r e t i r e m e n t are s e d e n t a r y i n n a t u r e : t h e a r m c h a i r a n d slippers, G r a n d m a baking cookies in her kitchen, a well-tended garden. W e t h i n k o f old age as a t i m e o f s l o w i n g d o w n a n d solidifying, o f m o v i n g a b o u t less and less until you stop m o v i n g altogether. T h e E i s e n h o w e r g e n e r a t i o n has staged a mass r e b e l l i o n against this m o d e l o f r e t i r e m e n t . S o m e t h i r t y million retirees have left b e h i n d t h e i r h o m e s , families a n d c o m m u n i t i e s a n d struck o u t for n e w sociological frontiers. T h e b u l k o f this m o v e m e n t has c o m e to rest in t h e n e w c o r p o r a t e - m a n a g e d , a g e - s e g r e g a t e d r e t i r e m e n t c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e S u n b e l t
( w h e r e n o under-fifty-fives
are
allowed to live), b u t a significant m i n o r i t y has c h o s e n t o a b a n d o n s e d e n t a r y living altogether. After a w o r k i n g life spent p a y i n g off m o r t g a g e s , raising families a n d a c c u m u l a t i n g possessions, t h e y w e r e called b y t h e o t h e r A m e r i c a n d r e a m — ' b u r n d o w n t h e h o u s e a n d
* H e r e ' s o n e I h e a r d last n i g h t : ' S o this n i n e t y - y e a r - o l d g u y g o e s i n t o a w h o r e h o u s e . T h e m a d a m tells h i m , " I ' m sorry, b u d d y , y o u ' v e h a d it," a n d h e says, " O h , 1 did? W h o d o I p a y ? ' "
288
Richard Grant
saddle u p t h e horse,' as M i k e Hatfield d e s c r i b e d it. O r
more
precisely, sell t h e h o u s e a n d b u y an R V w i t h t h e p r o c e e d s . M a r i e W i l l i a m s o n is m a r c h i n g a l o n g Q u a r t z s i t e ' s m a i n
drag,
s w i n g i n g h e r a r m s purposefully, t a k i n g l o n g , v i g o r o u s strides that leave m e struggling t o k e e p u p . S h e is a g r a n d m o t h e r i n h e r late sixties, s o o n t o b e a g r e a t - g r a n d m o t h e r , a forceful, capable w o m a n w h o spent h e r w o r k i n g life o n a r a n c h a n d d o e s n ' t j t a n d for any n o n s e n s e . M a r i e is m y n e i g h b o u r at Q u a r t z s i t e . M y t r u c k is p a r k e d i n a dirt lot b e h i n d Silly Al's bar, a n d h e r R V — she calls it h e r ' t e p e e ' o r 'gypsy w a g o n ' — is p a r k e d o p p o s i t e , i n a small e n c a m p m e n t o f R V i n g singles. T h e air smells o f dust a n d e x h a u s t fumes, fried grease a n d c o r n syrup. T h e traffic j a m , w h i c h appears in t h e early m o r n i n g a n d disperses at sunset, rolls t h r o u g h an a v e n u e o f roadside f o o d stands, selling waffle c o n e s , c i n n a m o n rolls, c o r n dogs, f o o t - l o n g chilli dogs, j u m b o pretzels, curly fries, m a c h o n a c h o s , single, d o u b l e a n d triple b a c o n c h e e s e b u r g e r s . U n d e r t h e circumstances, w i t h so m a n y a g e i n g hearts a n d clogged arteries i n t h e vicinity, these b r i g h t , cheery, a l l - A m e r i c a n m e n u s take o n a m o r b i d , sinister quality. I have b e e n talking to t h e local a m b u l a n c e crews a n d h e a r i n g a b o u t t h e forty o r fifty h e a r t - a t t a c k s t h e y have t o deal w i t h every January. Swap m e e t s a n d t e n t e d flea markets e x t e n d away o n b o t h sides o f t h e road, w h e r e thousands o f retirees are milling a r o u n d o n foot, b u y i n g u p Indian jewellery, rocks a n d g e m s t o n e s , a n t i q u e b r i c - a brac, astroturf lawn o r n a m e n t s , w i n d chimes w i t h m a g n e t i c attachments, magic
slice-and-dice
kitchen
implements,
miraculous
anti-ageing creams and arthritis cures, ceramic frogs w i t h velcro feet for carpeted dashboards, sun visors, c o w b o y hats, baseball caps, b u m p e r stickers ( ' H o m e Is W h e r e You P a r k It', ' O n e B a d Golfer A n d O n e " G o o d " S h o p p e r Live H e r e ' , ' W e ' r e S p e n d i n g O u r Kids' I n h e r i t a n c e ' ) . T h e annual g a t h e r i n g at Q u a r t z s i t e was started b y g e m and mineral traders in t h e 1960s, b u t in recent years they have b e c o m e o u t n u m b e r e d b y travelling flea-market v e n d o r s . N o w h e r e in t h e w o r l d have I seen so m a n y m i n i a t u r e dogs: teacup poodles, foot-long dachshunds, trembling
Chihuahuas,
Ghost
289
Riders
palpitating P o m e r a n i a n s . Partly it is a m a t t e r o f restricted living space, a n d partly t h e p e t regulations i m p o s e d b y m a n y R V parks (no a n i m a l taller t h a n fifteen inches o r w e i g h i n g m o r e t h a n t w e n t y p o u n d s ) , b u t o n e also senses cultural c o n f o r m i t y at w o r k , t h e m i n i a t u r e d o g as lifestyle accessory. N o w h e r e have I seen so m a n y dogs w e a r i n g c u t e little sweaters, a n d / o r m i n i a t u r e s u n visors made of coloured foam or crocheted wool — the hot
canine
fashion i t e m o f t h e season. M a r i e does n o t approve. S h e has a l i m i t e d t o l e r a n c e for cutesiness. M o v i n g t h r o u g h t h e c r o w d , at a g e n t l e r p a c e n o w , as M a r i e inspects t h e g e m s a n d minerals for sale, t h e faces are placid o r smiling. T h e r e is an amiable, l i g h t - h e a r t e d , playful m o o d in t h e air. P e o p l e g a t h e r in clusters a n d have a n i m a t e d ,
enthusiastic
conversations, w h i c h b r e a k o u t i n t o peals o f laughter. L o o k u p a n d t h e r e are retirees w h i z z i n g o v e r h e a d in r e n t e d
microlight
aeroplanes. W a l k i n g t o w a r d s us, w i t h a p o r t l y swagger a n d a lascivious smile for M a r i e , is a m a n w h o l o o k s like E r n e s t H e m i n g w a y . H e has a w h i t e b e a r d a n d a baseball cap e m b l a z o n e d w i t h Quartzsite's n e w n i c k n a m e : 'Viagra Falls'. M a r i e l o o k s straight past h i m until h e passes b e h i n d us, a n d t h e n she rolls h e r eyes a n d tuts. As a g o o d - l o o k i n g single w o m a n , w i t h t h e b o d y of a
fifty-year-old,
she k n o w s t h e t y p e all t o o well. ' T e p e e - c r e e p e r s is w h a t I call t h e m , ' she says. ' S o m e m a n y o u hardly k n o w will c o m e k n o c k i n g o n y o u r d o o r at night, s h a k i n g a j a r o f t h o s e pills, a n d e x p e c t y o u t o j u m p r i g h t i n t o b e d w i t h h i m . I send t h e m p a c k i n g a n d t h e y get m a d . " B u t M a r i e , " t h e y say. " E v e r y o n e ' s d o i n g it." Well n o t m e . I d o n ' t w a n t that k i n d o f r e p u t a t i o n , a n d it's against m y religious beliefs. If y o u w a n t t o t r y living w i t h m e , I might b e interested, b u t y o u ' v e g o t to m a r r y m e first. A n d if y o u d o n ' t w a n t t o m a r r y m e , t h e n g o o d riddance.' She sifts t h r o u g h boxes o f g e m s t o n e s , l o o k i n g for a c h u n k o f pietersite o r lapis lazuli t o polish u p in h e r a f t e r n o o n
lapidary
class, a n d m a k e i n t o a r i n g o r n e c k l a c e p e n d a n t . S h e s u p p l e m e n t s h e r social security c h e q u e s b y selling handicrafts t o o t h e r retirees she m e e t s o n t h e road. T h e r e is an i n t e r n a l , u n t a x e d , u n m e a s u r e d e c o n o m y o n t h e R V circuit, a n d this is p r o b a b l y its largest sector.
290
Richard Grant
M a r i e has d o n e well w i t h h e r fringed b u c k s k i n h a n d b a g s , w h i c h sell as fast as she c a n m a k e t h e m , b u t she finds j e w e l l e r y - m a k i n g m o r e o f a challenge, a n d m o r e o f a reward. She is still n e w to it, full o f c u r i o s i t y a n d e n t h u s i a s m , l e a r n i n g n e w things every day, a n d this accords w i t h h e r general p h i l o s o p h y o f r e t i r e m e n t . H e r h u s b a n d was c o n t e n t w i t h familiar things a n d
familiar
sights. H e was actively hostile towards t h e idea o f l e a r n i n g o r e x p e r i e n c i n g a n y t h i n g new. H i s idea o f r e t i r e m e n t , as she saw it, was t o sink d e e p e r i n t o t h e same r u t a n d w a i t for death. H e w o n d e r e d w h a t was w r o n g w i t h her. W h y w o u l d she w a n t t o tear u p a perfectly g o o d life a n d g o chasing a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y like a gypsy? T h e y a r g u e d b a c k and f o r t h , w i t h increasing b i t t e r ness, until she d i v o r c e d h i m . T h a t was twelve years ago, a n d she has b e e n o n t h e r o a d ever since. A p i c t u r e of Jesus hangs above h e r b e d , e n f o r c i n g h e r m o r a l codes in t h e b e d r o o m . T h e l i v i n g - r o o m walls are d e c o r a t e d w i t h c o w b o y s a n d Indians, frozen in m o t i o n o n t h e i r horses. S h e has r i p p e d o u t p a r t o f h e r k i t c h e n a n d installed a w o r k table, w h e r e she sits w i t h a c u p o f coffee, t u r n i n g a freshly p o l i s h e d oval o f pietersite i n h e r fingers. ' E v e n as a little girl I was always o u t d o o r s . I loved to r a m b l e a r o u n d i n t h e w o o d s . T h e y ' d find m e o u t t h e r e i n t w e n t y b e l o w zero, t r a m p i n g a r o u n d in t h e snow, j u s t as h a p p y as I c o u l d be.' Like so m a n y p e o p l e in this b o o k , M a r i e explains h e r w a n d e r lust as s o m e t h i n g she was b o r n w i t h , s o m e t h i n g in t h e b l o o d , o r t h e soul, b u t she was able t o c o n t a i n it for m o s t o f h e r life. S h e g r e w u p in w e s t e r n N e w York State, m a r r i e d a local b o y w h e n she was n i n e t e e n , m o v e d o n to a n e a r b y r a n c h , a n d h a d t h r e e d a u g h t e r s . 'All t h e t i m e I was o n t h e r a n c h I was i t c h i n g to j u s t get u p a n d go, b u t y o u can't w h e n y o u ' v e g o t kids.' W h e n h e r d a u g h t e r s w e r e g r o w n u p a n d o u t o f t h e h o u s e she saw n o reason t o c o n t a i n it any l o n g e r . T h e r e was a t h i r t y - t w o - y e a r m a r r i a g e to consider, o f c o u r s e , v o w s s w o r n in t h e p r e s e n c e o f G o d , a n d she t r i e d h a r d t o p e r s u a d e h e r h u s b a n d t o c o m e along. R i g h t u p t o t h e e n d h e d i d n ' t t h i n k she w o u l d g o t h r o u g h w i t h it, b e c a u s e t h e idea m a d e n o sense t o h i m . She started o u t as a ' w o r k i n g gypsy', living i n a p i c k - u p t r u c k
Ghost
291
Riders
w i t h a c a m p e r shell a n d t a k i n g o d d j o b s a l o n g t h e way. It goes w i t h o u t saying t h a t t h e r o a d led west. S h e w o r k e d as a h o u s e k e e p e r at a m o t e l i n W y o m i n g , she p r o v i d e d h o m e help for o l d m e n living a l o n e i n t h e m o u n t a i n s o f M o n t a n a . S h e w e n t u p t o Valdez, Alaska, a n d w o r k e d in a fishery alongside o n e o f h e r d a u g h t e r s , t h e n b a r t e n d e d for a few m o n t h s i n C o l d f o o t , a r o u g h m i n i n g t o w n inside t h e Arctic Circle. Seven years ago, w i t h h e r e x - h u s b a n d d e a d a n d t h e r a n c h sold, she b o u g h t h e r R V . W e are sitting i n a K i t Sunchaser, t w e n t y seven feet l o n g , m o d e s t l y a p p o i n t e d a n d freshly v a c u u m e d , w h i c h cost h e r t w e n t y t h o u s a n d dollars u s e d at a dealership in L o g a n , U t a h . It is a fifth-wheel trailer, m e a n i n g that y o u h i t c h it to t h e b a c k o f a p i c k - u p t r u c k a n d t o w it a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y . T h e salesmen h a d n e v e r sold a f i f t h - w h e e l to a w o m a n before a n d d i d n ' t believe a w o m a n was capable o f d r i v i n g o n e . 'I told t h e m I'd spent m y life hauling trailers a r o u n d a ranch, b u t they insisted o n giving m e a driving test before they'd sell it to m e . T h e y had m e drive a r o u n d t h e block a few times, and b a c k u p into a n a r r o w parking space, and s h o w t h e m I was strong e n o u g h to h i t c h and u n - h i t c h it. I get a lot of that k i n d o f thing: " W h a t ' s a little lady like y o u d o i n g all alone in that big, old m o t o r h o m e ? " Well, because I prefer it that way. I get a lot o f offers from m e n , b u t you'd have to b e really in love, o r in lust, o r probably b o t h , to share a twenty-seven-foot living space and m a k e it work.' S h e b e l o n g s t o an R V singles c l u b called t h e W I N S , t h e W a n d e r i n g I n d i v i d u a l N e t w o r k , w h i c h has e i g h t e e n
hundred
m e m b e r s and caters t o 'active seniors' o n l y — n o over-seventies allowed. M a r r i e d o r single, m o s t R V e r s b e l o n g to a club o f s o m e k i n d (there are h u n d r e d s t o c h o o s e from), w h i c h arranges a y e a r r o u n d s c h e d u l e o f rallies a n d events, w i t h g r o u p activities p l a n n e d o u t for e v e r y day: p o t - l u c k d i n n e r s , lapidary classes, sightseeing trips, dances, casino visits, a n d so o n . Friendships b l o s s o m quickly a n d easily w i t h i n this structure. A spirit o f m u t u a l c o o p e r a t i o n develops. R V e r s d r o p o u t o f s e d e n t a r y c o m m u n i t i e s a n d
into
tightly k n i t n o m a d i c c o m m u n i t i e s , c o m p a r a b l e t o tribes, o r b a n d s within a tribe. ' W h e n y o u say "singles c l u b " , p e o p l e automatically assume it's
292
Richard Grant
a b o u t sex,' says M a r i e , ' b u t it's m o r e a b o u t t h e c o m p a n i o n s h i p , a n d t h e sense that w e ' r e all i n this together.' T h a t m a y b e t r u e , at least in M a r i e ' s case, b u t w h e n h e r n e i g h b o u r s d r o p in for coffee o r w i n e , c o n v e r s a t i o n has a w a y o f t u r n i n g t o sex a n d r e l a t i o n ships a n d staying t h e r e for h o u r s . T h e r e are e i g h t e e n
WINS
c a m p e d here, four m e n a n d f o u r t e e n w o m e n - a typical ratio o n t h e R V singles scene, w r o u g h t solely b y t h e difference in life e x p e c t a n c y — and in t h e v i e w o f t h e w o m e n it is h a v i n g a n u n h e a l t h y effect o n t h e m e n . Players, t o m - c a t s , skirt-chasers, t e p e e - c r e e p e r s : d r i n k i n g coffee a n d w i n e w i t h t h e W I N S w o m e n , o n e hears t h e s e t e r m s b a n d i e d a b o u t constantly, w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f b i t t e r n e s s . J o y L a n e has a k i n d e r e x p l a n a t i o n t h a n m o s t : ' A lot o f t h e m e n have b e e n h u r t , I guess. T h e y ' r e g r i e v i n g , o r t h e y ' v e c o m e o u t o f b a d m a r r i a g e s a n d b e e n t a k e n for a r i d e , a n d t h e y d o n ' t w a n t t o p u t themselves in a p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e y c o u l d b e h u r t again. T h e y ' r e l o o k i n g for a w o m a n for o n e g a t h e r i n g , m a y b e t w o , b u t t h e y ' r e terrified o f c o m m i t m e n t . T h e r e are a few w o m e n t h e same way, w h o j u s t w a n t s o m e t h i n g casual, b u t m o s t o f t h e w o m e n I talk t o are l o o k i n g for a p e r m a n e n t relationship. T h e y ' r e l o o k i n g for marriage.' 'You g o t that right,' M a r i e says firmly. 'I d o n ' t w a n t t o b e g i r l friend t o n o m a n . I w a n t t o b e a wife o r n o t h i n g . ' S h e has b e e n seeing a m a n n a m e d G r a n t (no relation), in t h e sense of g o i n g d a n c i n g t o g e t h e r , e a t i n g t o g e t h e r , s p e n d i n g a lot o f t i m e in e a c h other's c o m p a n y , d o i n g a little kissing. T w o nights ago h e c a m e a r o u n d d r u n k a n d t e p e e - c r e e p i n g a n d she gave h i m his m a r c h i n g orders. Last n i g h t she saw h i m d a n c i n g w i t h a n o t h e r w o m a n in Silly Al's, a n d she g o t t h e distinct impression t h e y w e r e g o i n g t o s p e n d t h e n i g h t t o g e t h e r . She pitied t h e w o m a n a n d disliked h e r at t h e same t i m e . She d i d n ' t b l a m e G r a n t u n d u l y , b e c a u s e
everyone
k n o w s w h a t m e n are like. A n d t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f V i a g r a a n d t h e m o r t a l i t y statistics has m a d e t h e m even w o r s e . M y days have settled i n t o a strange a n d j a r r i n g r o u t i n e , a circuit that s e l d o m takes m e m o r e t h a n t w o h u n d r e d yards f r o m Silly
Ghost
Riders
293
Al's bar. I m o v e from gossipy coffee m o r n i n g s t o p e t t y d r u g deals, from shuffleboard c o m p e t i t i o n s t o l i c e - p i c k i n g contests. F r o m J a n e a n d J e r r y B o h a n a n , w h o prayed t o t h e L o r d for t h i r t y - f o o t R V with twin air-conditioners within their price range and knelt d o w n a n d w e p t w h e n t h e i r prayers w e r e answered, t o guys w i t h n a m e s like T i m m y T w o Tokes, P u d d l e s c u m , M a r i o M a c h e t e a n d Shitstained M i k e . Across t h e frontage road from Silly Al's is t h e H i - A l i swap m e e t , w h e r e C h a d a n d Tiffany a n d t h e A - C a m p c r e w are h u n k e r e d d o w n in t h e i r ratty tents, tarpaulin l e a n - t o s a n d filthy o l d vans. T h e r e was a m o m e n t in t h e b a t h r o o m at t h e T e x a c o station, a d j o i n i n g t h e Fli-Ali swap m e e t , w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e culture clash at Q u a r t z s i t e d o w n to a snapshot. A b i g , w i l d - l o o k i n g t r a m p was d y i n g his b e a r d g r e e n i n t h e sink w h i l e a n e r v o u s retiree s t o o d off t o t h e side, h o l d i n g a r a z o r a n d a can o f shaving foam, w a i t i n g t o shave in t h e same sink. T h e y w e r e b o t h n o m a d s , b u t t h e y r e g a r d e d e a c h o t h e r w i t h d e e p suspicion a n d a sense o f o t h e r ness. T h e y b e l o n g e d t o hostile tribes a n d saw a s t e r e o t y p e a n d little m o r e . C h a d is d r i n k i n g his f o u r t h b e e r o f t h e m o r n i n g , r u b b i n g grease i n t o a n e w t a t t o o o n his a r m . T h e yellowness has faded from his c o m p l e x i o n , a n d c o n s i d e r i n g that h e a n d Tiffany have e i g h t dollars t o their n a m e , a n d L o r i L o r i was j a i l e d last n i g h t for p u b l i c d r u n k enness, a n d t h e c a m p is r u n n i n g o u t o f drugs, h e is i n an amiable m o o d . T h e t a t t o o reads 'Trav'lin M a n ' a n d c o m m e m o r a t e s t w e n t y years o n t h e road. I ask h i m w h a t c h a n g e s h e has seen. H e says it's h a r d e r t o live o n t h e road these days. T h e cops have c o m p u t e r i s e d databases now, t h e y are stricter a b o u t vehicle licences, registration d o c u m e n t s a n d b r o k e n tail-lights. I n s u r a n c e has b e c o m e m a n d a t o r y in all states. D r i n k - d r i v i n g laws are h a r s h e r a n d t h e r e are fewer places t o c a m p for free. H e says t h e r e u s e d t o b e a w i d e r variety o f n o m a d s o n t h e A m e r i c a n road. Travelling b a r tricksters, for e x a m p l e , are virtually e x t i n c t now. T h e y w o u l d g o from b a r t o bar, issuing i m p r o b a b l e claims a n d g a m b l i n g p r o positions — b r a g g i n g t h a t t h e y c o u l d snap a p e n n y i n half w i t h their
fingers
o r d o fifty o n e - a r m e d p u s h - u p s a n d c h u g a b e e r
w i t h i n a m i n u t e - a n d , o f c o u r s e , t h e y could d o these things, a n d
Richard Grant so w o n t h e bets every t i m e . T h e r e was o n e w h o c a r r i e d a live rattlesnake i n a bell-jar. H e w o u l d get t h e snake all riled u p a n d t h e n b e t that n o b o d y c o u l d k e e p their h a n d o n t h e glass w h e n t h e snake struck at it. Apparently, it is almost impossible to c o n t r o l this reflex action, b u t it can b e d o n e w i t h years o f practice. A n d so t h e m a n collected o n a n o t h e r r o u n d o f bets. W h o else? 'Well, y o u d o n ' t see t h e A v o c a d o B r o t h e r s for C h r i s t any m o r e . That's w h a t I called t h e m . T h e y w e r e a religious cult o f travelling avocado salesmen w h o k e p t their w o m e n totally subservient. T h e y d i d n ' t allow their w o m e n to talk in public, and m a d e t h e m d o all t h e c o o k i n g a n d c l e a n i n g u p , a n d p a c k i n g a n d u n p a c k i n g , and e v e r y t h i n g e l s e . T h e i r o l d ladies w o u l d n o d s o m e t i m e s , m a y b e give y o u a little smile, b u t that was it. T h e m e n w o u l d d r i n k b e e r a n d play h o r s e s h o e s a n d sell a shitload o f avocados. ' T h e r e was a n o t h e r outfit called t h e C h r i s t Family. I called t h e m S h e e t h e a d s . T h e y w o r e a big w h i t e sheet w r a p p e d a r o u n d t h e i r heads, a n d t h e y w e r e real strict vegetarians. T h e y ' d give y o u all kinds o f shit if y o u w e r e w e a r i n g leather: " Y o u ' r e w e a r i n g death. H o w w o u l d y o u like it if an animal w o r e y o u r s k i n ? " O n e o f t h e m was p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t beautiful w o m a n w i t h a b e a r d I've ever seen. M a n , if she shaved that b e a r d off, she was fine, b y G o d . H e y M a r i o ! W h a t e v e r h a p p e n e d t o t h e C h r i s t Family?' M a r i o Machete, G u a t e m a l a n - b o r n food vendor and A - C a m p regular, at his churn stand a few yards away: ' T h e y ' r e still a r o u n d . B u t they're all w e a r i n g black leather a n d d r i v i n g Harleys n o w . Bikers for Jesus a n d shit.' C h a d is sitting o n a lawn chair b e h i n d t w o f o l d - o u t strewn with Indian and animal-themed jewellery
tables
(made
by
Tiffany), pieces o f s e m i - p r e c i o u s rock, s o a p s t o n e pipes, a n t i q u e b e e r bottles, a b e a r skull, an old gasoline can a n d o t h e r i t e m s . Littered all a r o u n d h i m are piles a n d boxes o f lesser j u n k — a b r o k e n g e n e r a t o r , a t a n g l e d nest o f electrical cables, a r u s t e d exhaust pipe, old bits o f chain, a b r o k e n bicycle, an o l d toilet w i t h rust stains. 'I d o n ' t even k n o w w h a t half this shit is, b u t p e o p l e sure ain't b u y i n g it,' h e says. Periodically, an R V e r will w a n d e r by. H e r e c o m e s a w o m a n in l i m e - g r e e n golfing slacks a n d a w h i t e s u n visor, c a r r y i n g a d o g
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u n d e r h e r a r m . T h e d o g is also w e a r i n g a w h i t e s u n visor. C h a d rises from his l a w n chair a n d p u t s d o w n his b e e r . H e picks u p a p i e c e o f p o l i s h e d r o c k from t h e table, licks it w i t h his l o n g yellow t o n g u e , a n d l a u n c h e s i n t o his sales spiel: ' H e r e , l o o k at t h e shine o n that! It'll m a k e a beautiful n e c k p i e c e a n d t o d a y it's half p r i c e . I w a n t t e n b u c k s for it a n d that's t h e deal o f t h e day.' S h e purses u p h e r h p s , a n d w r i n k l e s u p h e r nose, a n d walks off w i t h o u t saying a w o r d . So it goes. C h a d shrugs a n d sits b a c k d o w n . H e is d e p e n d e n t o n R V e r s for his livelihood, b u t w i t h a few e x c e p t i o n s h e d o e s n ' t like t h e m . H e t h i n k s t h e y lack a basic h u m a n decency. 'Let m e p u t it this way. If m e a n d Tiffany a r e . b r o k e d o w n o n t h e road, they're n o t g o i n g t o h e l p us. A n d if they're b r o k e d o w n a n d w e t r y t o h e l p t h e m , they're g o i n g t o roll u p t h e w i n d o w s a n d l o c k d o w n t h e d o o r s a n d call t h e cops. That's h o w p a r a n o i d t h e y are. T h e y w a t c h t o o m u c h T V in t h o s e g o d d a m n RVs.' As m o r n i n g t u r n s t o a f t e r n o o n h e b e c o m e s m o r e strident i n his o p i n i o n s . ' A few years ago y o u c o u l d t r a m p u p in t h e desert a r o u n d h e r e a n d j u s t g o crazy. Kegs o f beer, acid, speed, y o u n a m e it. W e h a d m o r e g u n s t h a n t h e cops, so t h e y left us alone, a n d e v e r y t h i n g was c o o l . T h e n t h e R V e r s started b i t c h i n g a b o u t " u n d e sirable e l e m e n t s " a n d all this bullshit, a n d Q u a r t z s i t e h i r e d a b u n c h o f n e w cops a n d passed a b u n c h o f chickensb.it laws a n d started c h a r g i n g y o u m o n e y for setting u p i n t h e swap m e e t . T h e y ' l l bust y o u for d r i n k i n g a b e e r in public! T h e g o d d a m n T e x a c o w o n ' t even sell us beer. W e d o n ' t n e e d this bullshit, a n d a w h o l e b u n c h o f v e n d o r s are saying t h e same t h i n g , " F u c k Q u a r t z s i t e ! W e ain't c o m i n g b a c k n e x t year." Q u a r t z s i t e is fucking itself u p t h e ass like a d o u b l e - d i c k e d donkey, a n d it's all t h e R V e r s ' doing.' H a r s h w o r d s , a s t e r n d e n u n c i a t i o n . C h a d is d e e p i n t o his s e c o n d six-pack o f M i l w a u k e e ' s Best Ice n o w ('Milwaukee's Beast, t h e b e e r that m a d e m e f a m o u s ' ) , a n d t h e r e are h a r s h e r w o r d s t o c o m e : ' t i g h t - f i s t e d , b u t t - c l e n c h i n ' , lily-livered, f a g g o t y - d o g
mother-
fuckers'. T h e b o n e o f his c o n t e n t i o n , t h e clearest p r o o f o f t h e R V e r s ' m o r a l t u r p i t u d e , is t h e i r selfishness w i t h m o n e y . C h a d , Tiffany o r any r i g h t - m i n d e d R a i n b o w t r a m p w o u l d automatically give t h e i r
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last dollar for a c o m m u n a l b e e r r u n , i n t h e certain k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e y w o u l d g e t a can o r t w o in r e t u r n . If an individual m a n a g e s t o h u s t l e u p s o m e m o n e y , b y selling s o m e t h i n g
or
b e g g i n g , h e buys beer, t o b a c c o a n d f o o d for t h e g r o u p , b e c a u s e it will p r o b a b l y b e s o m e o n e else w h o scores t o m o r r o w . S h a r i n g is a survival m e c h a n i s m , b u t it is also a m o r a l c o d e , a n d t h o s e w h o fail t o o b s e r v e it are socially ostracised. S o y o u can i m a g i n e h o w t h e y feel a b o u t s o m e o n e d r i v i n g a half-million-dollar m o t o r h o m e ( t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e m o d e l s r u n t o a m i l l i o n , if y o u get t h e b u i l t - i n Jacuzzi a n d all t h e t r i m m i n g s ) w h o refuses t o give a dollar t o a thirsty t r a m p . C h a d has w r i t t e n a s o n g o n t h e subject, ' T h e W a g o n B u r n e r s ' . T h e r e was a f a m o u s o c c a s i o n a few years ago ( c o n f i r m e d b y Tiffany a n d n u m e r o u s A C a m p sources) w h e n C h a d a n d his friend Jesse M a n y c o l o u r s , ' T h e C r o o n i n ' C h o c t a w ' , sang it to an a u d i e n c e o f h o r r i f i e d R V e r s . T h e C r o o n i n ' C h o c t a w had a singing engagement o n a tented stage at Q u a r t z s i t e . T o t h e t u n e o f ' F o l s o m P r i s o n B l u e s ' b y J o h n n y C a s h , t h e s o n g goes like this: Well, w e w e n t o u t o n a b e e r r u n T h e w a g o n s circled u p T h e y gave us n o d o n a t i o n s So w e scalped t h e i r little p u p s Yes, w e are t h e w a g o n b u r n e r s W e ' l l play a s o n g for y o u O r w e ' l l b u r n y o u r fuckin' w a g o n s U n t i l w e get a brew. In the afternoons
I d r i n k b e e r in Silly Al's a n d a r g u e
about
n o m a d i s m w i t h a G e r m a n v e n d o r o f lapis lazuli jewellery. In light o f t h e d r u g laws a n d a n a g g i n g suspicion t h a t s o m e o f his stories m i g h t b e t r u e I will call h i m by his first n a m e : C h a r l e s . H e wears a red beret, a l u x u r i a n t m o u s t a c h e a n d a great deal o f lapis lazuli jewellery. H e claims t o have b e e n B o b Dylan's r o a d m a n a g e r in t h e 1960s, a p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t for G e r m a n m a g a z i n e s , an i n t e r n a tional d r u g smuggler, an L S D c h e m i s t w h o still c o o k s u p from t i m e to t i m e , for h i m s e l f a n d a select clientele w h o will settle for
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n o t h i n g b u t t h e v e r y best. All I can tell y o u for c e r t a i n is that h e is intelligent, well e d u c a t e d a n d well travelled, a n d r u n n i n g s h o r t ol m o n e y . A n d his p o m p o s i t y is so u n w a v e r i n g a n d e x t r e m e that it achieves a k i n d o f m a g n i f i c e n c e . H e c a n n o t believe I a m i n c l u d i n g t h e R V e r s i n a b o o k a b o u t n o m a d s . It m a k e s h i m p o u n d his fists o n t h e b a r a n d d e n o u n c e m e as a f u c k i n g idiot. ' T h e y are n o t t r u e n o m a d s ! I a m t h e t r u e n o m a d ! I have travelled all over t h e w o r l d , t o India, T h a i l a n d , M o r o c c o , t o Afghanistan, w h e r e I first discovered t h e h-peeez,
the
m o s t powerful o f all stones. If y o u say to m e , okay, t o m o r r o w w e drive to t h e Y u k o n , t h e s a l m o n fishing is great r i g h t now, I say let's go. W e leave in t h e m o r n i n g . If I have n o m o n e y , I sell m y j e w e l l e r y o n t h e road. T h e s e R V e r s are travelling w i t h a safety net. Take away t h e i r social s e c u r i t y c h e q u e s a n d t h e R V rolls t o a halt. T h e y are n o t t r u l y free.' I m a k e m y c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t s . T h e y have n o fixed a b o d e , t h e y m o v e w i t h t h e seasons, t h e r e are p r o b a b l y a m i l l i o n o f t h e m , m a y b e t h r e e m i l l i o n . H o w can I i g n o r e t h e m ? T h e i r social s e c u r ity c h e q u e s are as d e p e n d a b l e as t h e full m o o n every m o n t h , so w h y b l a m e t h e m for using this resource, a n d w o u l d h e n o t d o t h e same? I delve i n t o t h e s e m a n t i c hell s u r r o u n d i n g t h e w o r d ' n o m a d ' . I suggest that h e a n d I are b e t t e r d e s c r i b e d as travellers. T r u e n o m a d s exist w i t h i n tightly k n i t g r o u p s . T h e y are n o t n e c e s sarily l o o k i n g for a d v e n t u r e . T h e y follow a reliable, predictable m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n , w h i c h best ensures survival a n d does n o t cross oceans in search o f n e w e x p e r i e n c e s . I p u s h t h e p o i n t further, partly i n t h e h o p e o f p r o v o k i n g a n o t h e r o u t b u r s t , a n d partly b e c a u s e I t h i n k it is t r u e , in a p e r v e r s e , m e t a p h o r i c a l sense. Like it o r n o t , t h e R V e r s are t h e d o m i n a n t n o m a d s in m o d e r n A m e r i c a , as t h e C o m a n c h e a n d S i o u x w e r e t h e d o m i n a n t n o m a d s in t h e n i n e t e e n t h century. T h e R V has replaced t h e t e p e e as t h e s y m b o l o f A m e r i c a n n o m a d i s m a n d is obliquely d e s c e n d e d from t h e same t r a d i t i o n . T h a t gets a big guffaw. ' B a h , y o u u n d e r s t a n d n o t h i n g . T h e n o m a d m u s t b e free. H e m u s t b e t h e m a s t e r o f his destiny. T h e s e R V e r s , these little o l d ladies, come on!
*
*
•
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M a r i e W i l l i a m s o n has m o v e d n o r t h a few miles, t o a W I N S rally o n t h e far desert fringes o f t h e Q u a r t z s i t e g a t h e r i n g . T h e r e are a b o u t t w o h u n d r e d RVs p a r k e d a r o u n d t h e central fire-pit, w i t h an i n n e r circle o f t w o h u n d r e d l a w n chairs. M a r i e is w e l c o m e d w i t h b i g , b e a m i n g smiles a n d enthusiastic hugs. S o m e o f t h e p e o p l e she k n o w s , from r e c e n t rallies at casino p a r k i n g lots i n N e v a d a , a c a m p g r o u n d in D e a t h Valley, an R V p a r k i n Y u m a , a n d ' T h e Slabs', a derelict airforce base in t h e M o j a v e D e s e r t t h a t is t a k e n over b y s o m e h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d R V e r s every w i n t e r . O t h e r s she has n e v e r seen before, b u t she hugs t h e m b a c k j u s t t h e same. T h e W I N S have d e t e r m i n e d that h u g g i n g is w h a t y o u miss m o s t as an R V i n g single, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e y have m a d e it a w r i t t e n r e q u i r e m e n t in t h e i r p r o t o c o l s . T h e daily s c h e d u l e is displayed o n a b o a r d b y t h e fire-pit. It b e g i n s at 7.30 i n t h e m o r n i n g w i t h a c o m m u n a l ' S u n r i s e W a l k ' , t h e n r e t u r n s to c a m p for 'Coffee a n d H u g s ' at 8.30, t h e n o u t again for ' D o g g i e W a l k ' at 9.00. A n d so o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e day, w i t h each n e w activity a n n o u n c e d b y s o m e o n e b l o w i n g o n a w h i s t l e - ' r o c k h o u n d i n g ' e x p e d i t i o n s t o l o o k for minerals a n d g e m s t o n e s in t h e desert, ' b r i n g y o u r o w n t o p p i n g ' p o t a t o bakes a n d p o t l u c k suppers. T h e r e are daily discussion circles, c o v e r i n g such topics as w h e r e t o g e t free c o u p o n s for casinos o r c h e a p i n s u r a n c e for d r i v i n g i n t o M e x i c o , h o w to avoid p r i c e - g o u g i n g R V m e c h a n i c s a n d w h a t t o d o if y o u have a h e a r t - a t t a c k o n t h e road. A t 7 . 3 0 in t h e e v e n i n g t h e r e is a mass convoy, in carpools w i t h designated drivers, t o Silly Al's for c o u n t r y a n d w e s t e r n d a n c i n g . Since t h e m e n are o u t n u m b e r e d t h e y are r e q u i r e d t o m a k e sure that every w o m a n gets at least o n e d a n c e . O n e is struck b y their e n e r g y a n d e n t h u s i a s m for life, a n d t h e i r practical, n o - n o n s e n s e attitude towards d e a t h . W h e n it h a p p e n s , it h a p p e n s , a n d b e t t e r s u d d e n t h a n p r o t r a c t e d . I n t h e m e a n t i m e t h e y are busy c r a m m i n g as m u c h living as possible i n t o every day. It is an article o f faith a m o n g n o m a d i c retirees t h a t t h e r o a d has r e j u v e n a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s , a n d by their b e h a v i o u r and d e m e a n o u r t h e y m a k e a s t r o n g case. ' O n e t h i n g I've discovered is t h a t seniors w h o travel t e n d t o live l o n g e r t h a n t h e o n e s t h a t stay h o m e a n d sit in t h e i r r o c k i n g chairs,' says M a r i e . ' E v e r y day o n t h e r o a d is
Ghost
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Riders
an a d v e n t u r e . You're constantly m e e t i n g n e w challenges, h a v i n g n e w e x p e r i e n c e s , m e e t i n g n e w p e o p l e , a n d solving p r o b l e m s . W h e n I t h i n k a b o u t g o i n g b a c k t o t h e s e d e n t a r y life, t h e same h u m d r u m r o u t i n e every day, a little p i e c e o f m e starts t o die.' T h e biggest challenge o f t h e R V lifestyle, as w i t h m o s t forms o f m o d e r n n o m a d i s m , lies in t h e arena o f r o m a n c e . It is h a r d e r t o m a k e relationships w o r k o n t h e road. It requires h i g h e r levels o f compatibility, o r a greater willingness t o c o m p r o m i s e or, as M a r i e suggests, an unusual d e g r e e o f love a n d lust. E v e n t h e largest RVs, forty-five feet l o n g a n d e i g h t e e n feet h i g h , w h i c h l o o k so gigantic o n t h e highways, can feel very small a n d c r a m p e d o n t h e inside, especially if y o u are used to sharing a h o u s e o f equivalent value. It is difficult for n o m a d i c couples to find p e r i o d s o f solitude from each o t h e r , o r live d i v e r g e n t lives, a n d this m a k e s it easier t o get o n e a c h other's n e r v e s . T h e lifestyle affords plentiful o p p o r tunities for a r g u m e n t s , over w h o s e b e l o n g i n g s o r purchases are t a k i n g u p u n n e c e s s a r y space, a n d h o w l o n g t o stay i n a place, a n d w h e r e t o g o n e x t . F u l l - t i m e R V i n g p u t s m a r r i a g e s to t h e test a n d s o o n finds o u t t h e w e a k o n e s , a n d it w o r k s against lasting relationships a m o n g t h e singles, m a n y o f w h o m have g r o w n a c c u s t o m e d to their i n d e p e n d e n c e . ( A n o t h e r d u b i o u s statistic: b e t w e e n 13 a n d 18 p e r c e n t o f R V e r s are estimated t o b e single.) B e c a u s e w e have talked so m u c h a b o u t love, sex a n d r e l a t i o n ships, M a r i e is c o n c e r n e d that I have m i s u n d e r s t o o d h e r m o t i v a tions a n d p r i o r i t i e s . If t h e r i g h t m a n s h o u l d h a p p e n t o along, and demonstrate
come
his c o m m i t m e n t w i t h a p r o p o s a l
of
m a r r i a g e , she might c o n s i d e r t a k i n g h i m o n b o a r d . B u t she is n o t l o o k i n g for a m a n , a n d is certainly n o t desperate for o n e . T h e feelings n e v e r g o away: t h e desire t o attract a n d h o l d a m a n , t o b e loved a n d c h e r i s h e d a n d i n t i m a t e w i t h a m a n . M a r i e still finds herself fretting over w h a t t o w e a r w h e n she goes o u t d a n c i n g , even t h o u g h she usually ends u p in W r a n g l e r s , sneakers o r c o w b o y b o o t s a n d a plaid shirt. S h e still w o n d e r s w h o will ask h e r t o d a n c e , a n d w h a t it will feel like in his a r m s . S h e still develops crushes from t i m e t o t i m e , a n d s o m e t i m e s she catches herself flirting in a d v a n c e o f any c o n s c i o u s d e c i s i o n t o b e g i n flirting.
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A t t h e same t i m e she is a practical w o m a n , a n d she has c o m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n that she is p r o b a b l y b e t t e r off w i t h o u t a m a n . S h e has g r o w n a c c u s t o m e d to following h e r w h i m s , setting h e r o w n s c h e d u l e a n d c h a n g i n g it w h e n she feels like it. She relishes t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f h e r n e w life and l o o k s b a c k at h e r m a r r i a g e as a l o n g s e r v i t u d e b y c o m p a r i s o n , ' t h i r t y - t w o years o f l o o k i n g after a m a n ' that e n d e d in p a i n and a c r i m o n y . Like t h e single m e n w h o m J o y Lane described, she is w a r y a b o u t p u t t i n g herself in a p o s i t i o n w h e r e she c o u l d b e h u r t like that again. M a r i e gets l o n e l y from t i m e to t i m e , b u t h e r happiest m o m e n t s are spent a l o n e : p a c k e d - u p , h i t c h e d - u p a n d ready t o go, w i t h a l o n g , straight h i g h w a y a h e a d o f her. E v e r y t i m e she leaves a place she cues u p t h e same W i l l i e N e l s o n s o n g o n h e r tape d e c k : ' O n t h e r o a d again/Just can't w a i t t o g e t o n t h e r o a d again'. S h e w i n t e r s o n t h e W I N S circuit, m a k i n g s h o r t h o p s a r o u n d t h e S o u t h w e s t e r n deserts, a n d t h e n l a u n c h e s o u t on h e r o w n for Alaska, d r i v i n g five o r six h u n d r e d miles a day. T h e s e l o n g , solo s p r i n g m i g r a t i o n s set h e r apart from m o s t R V e r s , m a l e o r female, m a r r i e d o r single. T h e usual p a t t e r n is to m o v e in small i n c r e m e n t s a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y , c o v e r i n g m a y b e t w o h u n d r e d miles a m o n t h , m o v i n g gradually n o r t h w i t h t h e s u m m e r a n d s o u t h in w i n t e r , a n d r e m a i n i n g w i t h i n t h e same g r o u p o f p e o p l e . 'It gets t o o samey a n d r e g i m e n t e d for m e after a while,' she says. 'I start feeling h e m m e d in. M y key fingers get i t c h y ' Sitting n e x t t o h e r at a W I N S discussion circle, I a m called o n t o stand u p , i n t r o d u c e myself a n d state m y business. I say m y p i e c e a n d c o n c l u d e w i t h a q u e s t i o n : ' W h y d o y o u live o n t h e road?' T h e r e is talk o f
freedom,
independence, adventure and then,
like g o o d n o m a d s , t h e y r e s p o n d w i t h t h e flip-side o f t h e q u e s t i o n a n d start a t t a c k i n g t h e sedentary. ' W h y w o u l d a n y o n e w a n t t o sit i n an a r m c h a i r for t h e rest o f their life?' 'You try t o explain t o t h e m w h a t t h e y ' r e missing o u t o n , b u t t h e y j u s t d o n ' t get it.' ' A b u n c h o f o l d sticks i n t h e m u d , ' c o n t r i b u t e s M a r i e . I offer u p Satanta's c o m m e n t from M e d i c i n e L o d g e in 1 8 6 7 , ' W h e n w e settle d o w n , w e g r o w pale a n d die,' a n d t h e r e is a
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c h o r u s o f a g r e e m e n t . N o t o n l y d o t h e y c o n s i d e r themselves m o r e vigorous than the armchair brigade, but w h e n you're
nearing
seventy a n d living full t i m e o n t h e road s e t t l e m e n t is inextricably l i n k e d w i t h d e a t h . It m e a n s t h e e n d o f i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e curtailm e n t o f f r e e d o m , a m a u d l i n life-change k n o w n as ' h a n g i n g u p t h e keys'. It conjures u p t h e prospect o f n u r s i n g h o m e s , hospital b e d s , t h e inability t o travel that precedes t h e grave. O n e c h e e r y o l d g e n t l e m a n says h e w o u l d rather die i n t h e b e d r o o m o f his R V , b y w a y of a V i a g r a - i n d u c e d heart-attack, 'in t h e saddle', as t h e y say - a n o t i o n that does n o t go d o w n well w i t h t h e assembled women. T h e great n o m a d e n c a m p m e n t is starting t o disperse. E v e r y day you see m o r e a n d m o r e RVs stacked u p b e h i n d t h e interstate ramps; m o r e a n d m o r e t r a m p s s t a n d i n g t h e r e w i t h t h e i r t h u m b s o u t a n d n o t g e t t i n g a r i d e . C h a d a n d Tiffany are p a c k i n g u p t h e i r van, b o u n d for t h e g e m a n d m i n e r a l s h o w i n T u c s o n , a n d t h e n i g h t l y t r a m p p a r t y in t h e grove o f t a m a r i s k trees a d j o i n i n g it, four blocks from m y h o u s e . M a r i e W i l l i a m s o n is in a state o f h i g h a n t i c i p a t i o n , and n o t j u s t at t h e p r o s p e c t o f g e t t i n g o n t h e r o a d again. A certain c o w b o y from M o n t a n a has called h e r message c e n t r e a n d a n n o u n c e d that h e is o n his w a y t o m e e t h e r in T u c s o n . S o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e w a y she talks a b o u t h i m — coy, excited, giggly - leads m e t o tease her, ' B u t M a r i e , I t h o u g h t y o u w e r e a pillar o f v i r t u e . I t h o u g h t y o u d i d n ' t believe in sex
without
m a r r i a g e . I t h o u g h t y o u d i d n ' t w a n t that k i n d o f reputation.' ' O h , w e ' v e k n o w n each o t h e r for years,' she says. ' E l e v e n years, as a m a t t e r o f fact. It's n o t like j u m p i n g i n t o b e d w i t h s o m e t e p e e creeper. It's a c o m p l e t e l y different thing.' I take t h e l o n g w a y h o m e , craving silence a n d desert solitude. In t h e n e w w a y o f d o i n g things I call u p Gale first a n d ask h e r h o w she feels a b o u t it. In t h e n e w w a y o f d o i n g things she tells m e t o g o a h e a d , w i t h n o sign o f a n n o y a n c e o r d i s a p p o i n t m e n t i n h e r v o i c e that I can discern. She d o e s n o t say t h e d r e a d w o r d , ' F i n e ! ' Like so m a n y w o m e n I have k n o w n , she uses this w o r d i n its passive-aggressive sense, as in, 'Fine! D o w h a t e v e r y o u like. I d o n ' t care.'
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N o w t h a t m y love a n d c o m m i t m e n t have b e e n solidly e s t a b lished, I d o n ' t h e a r that any m o r e . S h e has c o m e t o a c c e p t m y w a n d e r i n g i n m u c h t h e same w a y t h a t I d o . It is s o m e t h i n g t o b e w o r k e d a r o u n d , a necessary, if s o m e t i m e s i n c o n v e n i e n t , p r e c o n d i t i o n t o m y happiness. S h e j o k e s that I a m o n s o m e k i n d o f l u n a r cycle, similar t o h e r o w n . T h r e e w e e k s i n t o it I get tetchy, o u t o f sorts w i t h myself a n d irritable w i t h o t h e r s , a n d s o m e t i m e s — let us b e frank — insufferable t o b e a r o u n d . B y t h e t i m e t w e n t y eight days are u p I have left a n d b e g u n a n e w cycle. A n h o u r ' s drive s o u t h from Q u a r t z s i t e is t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a place k n o w n t o its aficionados (we are small i n n u m b e r a n d v e r y few o f us are female) as t h e B i g E m p t y - t h r e e m i l l i o n acres w i t h o u t a p a v e d r o a d or an o c c u p i e d b u i l d i n g , d i v i d e d u p o n t h e m a p s i n t o t h e C a b e z a P r i e t a Wildlife R e f u g e , t h e B a r r y
M.
G o l d w a t e r A i r F o r c e R a n g e a n d t h e w e s t e r n half o f O r g a n P i p e C a c t u s N a t i o n a l M o n u m e n t . F u r t h e r s o u t h , across t h e M e x i c a n b o r d e r a n d o n e p a v e d road, it c o n t i n u e s i n t o t h e volcanic P i n a c a t e desert, an area o f black r o c k a n d craters w h e r e t h e astronauts t r a i n e d for t h e m o o n , a n d t h e d u n e s o f t h e G r a n D e s i e r t o , t h e largest sand sea i n t h e A m e r i c a s . T h e r e are b i g g e r stretches o f desert in t h e w o r l d , b u t n o n e o f t h e m is as ecologically intact, o r i n m o r e u r g e n t n e e d o f preservation. Gale d o e s n ' t share m y e n t h u s i a s m for this p a r c h e d e n o r m i t y o f sand, r o c k , scrub a n d cactus. She was b o r n a n d raised in t h e A r i z o n a desert (unlike m o s t aficionados o f t h e B i g E m p t y ) a n d she is attracted t o its oases: places o f greenery, shade a n d water. O u t h e r e t h e r e are n o springs o r rivers, a n d all t h e streams are e p h e m e r a l . T h e y roar i n t o life after a d o w n p o u r a n d dissolve i n t o t h e sands, a n d s o m e years t h e rains n e v e r c o m e . T h e r e is w a t e r h e r e . I n certain places, far-flung a n d u n d e t e c t a b l e unless y o u k n o w w h e r e t h e y are, o r study t h e flight o f birds, t h e sparse rainfall collects in natural r o c k cisterns k n o w n as
tinajas,
Spanish for ' t a n k s ' , o r e a r t h e n w a r e jars o f water. I m a k e c a m p b y t h e m o s t d e p e n d a b l e o f these tinajas. T h e o t h e r s are p r o n e t o e v a p o r a t i n g away i n d r y p e r i o d s , b u t t h e r e is always w a t e r t o b e f o u n d at Tinajas Altas, assuming t h a t y o u arrive h e r e w i t h t h e s t r e n g t h t o climb. Tinajas Altas: H i g h Tanks, a series o f p o o l s c a u g h t
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i n a steeply d e s c e n d i n g defile, i n a low, rocky, h o n e y c o m b e d m o u n tain r a n g e t h a t l o o k s like a pile o f pelvic b o n e s . It has r a i n e d this w i n t e r a n d t h e r e is w a t e r in t h e lowest tank. T h e w a t e r is c o v e r e d i n s c u m , algae a n d insects, a n d this is a g o o d sign. If y o u c o m e across w a t e r in t h e desert a n d t h e insects aren't d r i n k i n g it, n e i t h e r s h o u l d y o u . U p by t h e h i g h e s t tank, d e s e r t b i g h o r n sheep are s i l h o u e t t e d against t h e sunset — s u c h p r o u d , actorly creatures. T h e rams, i n particular, love t o strike d r a m a t i c poses in h i g h places w i t h m a g n i f i c e n t b a c k d r o p s that s h o w off t h e i r c u r l i n g h o r n s t o full advantage. A n d t h e n , w i t h an air o f i n s o u c i a n c e , t h e y lead their h a r e m s t h r o u g h a series o f d e a t h defying b o u n d s , from o n e p r e c a r i o u s l e d g e t o t h e n e x t , d o w n an almost vertical cliff face. H o w l o w t h e d o m e s t i c s h e e p has fallen. S o m e b r e e d s c a n n o t even give b i r t h w i t h o u t h u m a n assistance. I n d r y spells t h e s c u m m y waters o f t h e lowest t a n k e v a p o r a t e d o w n t o sand, a n d it requires a t r i c k y a n d e n e r g e t i c c l i m b t o g e t t o t h e h i g h e r tanks, s o m e o f w h i c h always c o n t a i n water. T h e sixty graves that u s e d t o s u r r o u n d Tinajas Altas, a n d are n o w m o s t l y vandalised a n d g o n e , m a r k e d t h e deaths o f t h o s e
who
arrived h e r e t o o w e a k to m a k e t h e c l i m b a n d d i e d o f thirst. T h i s is t h e w o r s t w a y t o g o that I can. i m a g i n e , despite t h e desert setting. T h e r e are j o u r n a l a c c o u n t s o f p e o p l e scrabbling at t h e rockface until t h e y w o r e t h e i r fingers d o w n t o t h e b o n e , k n o w i n g t h a t w a t e r was fifteen feet above t h e m . W h a t w e r e t h e y d o i n g o u t h e r e i n t h e first place? M a n y o f t h e m w e r e a r g o n a u t s , t r y i n g t o r e a c h t h e California goldfields i n 1 8 4 9 . T h e y risked t h e t e r r i b l e trail across these deserts — El C a m i n o del D i a b l o , T h e H i g h w a y o f t h e Devil - t o avoid t h e A p a c h e s t o t h e n o r t h , w h o w e r e raiding a l o n g t h e Gila R i v e r . T h e trail was littered w i t h t h e b o n e s o f d e a d horses, oxen a n d o t h e r livestock. A m a c a b r e c u s t o m d e v e l o p e d . P e o p l e w o u l d lift u p t h e i r d e a d , stiffened animals u n t i l t h e y w e r e s t a n d i n g o n all fours again a n d leave t h e m t h e r e as signposts, u n t i l t h e w i n d a n d t h e scavengers w o r k e d off t h e m e a t and h i d e a n d t h e skeleton collapsed. T h e a p p r o a c h t o Tinajas Altas, i n 1 8 6 1 , was a ' l o n g a v e n u e b e t w e e n rows o f m u m m i f i e d cattle, h o r s e s , a n d s h e e p ' . H e r e is a sight that never ceases to amaze m e . A r o u n d t h e lowest
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p o o l at Tinajas Altas there are g r i n d i n g holes w o r n d o w n i n t o t h e rocks. Dressed in rabbit-hide skirts and sandals, bare t o t h e waist, t h e w o m e n of t h e Sand Papago bands w o u l d pulverise t h e r i p e n e d seed pods o f m e s q u i t e trees in these holes. T h e y m a d e a k i n d o f flour, mixed it w i t h w a t e r from the tinajas, and laid o u t t h e paste t o dry o n t h e rocks, f o r m i n g a k i n d o f bread, sweet t o t h e taste. To b e a c c o m p a n i e d , perhaps, b y toasted caterpillars, m o t h larvae or rats. M a y b e a jackrabbit, r u n d o w n until it collapsed from exhaustion, o r if t h e h u n t e r s ' m e d i c i n e was strong, an elusive b i g h o r n sheep. I have read t h e sparse literature i n its entirety. I k n o w
how
t h e y survived o u t h e r e , in o n e o f t h e hottest, driest, harshest e n v i r o n m e n t s i n t h e w o r l d , b u t it r e q u i r e d a level of t o u g h n e s s a n d resourcefulness that I find u n i m a g i n a b l e . T h e r e w e r e n e v e r m o r e than five h u n d r e d Sand Papagos ( k n o w n t o themselves as t h e H i a c e d O ' O o d h a m ) , a n d p e r h a p s as few as t w o h u n d r e d , b u t t h e y lived in these deserts, w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n , for t h o u s a n d s o f years, m o v i n g from o n e tinaja t o t h e n e x t , h u n t i n g a n d
gathering,
c o v e r i n g i m m e n s e distances o n foot. W h e n Spanish e x p l o r e r s , a n d later M e x i c a n s a n d A n g l o s , t o l d t h e m that t h e y lived a p o o r a n d miserable life in a g o d f o r s a k e n hell n o t m e a n t for h u m a n b e i n g s , t h e y s c o r n e d t h e idea, a n d said they lived well. Graves a n d g r i n d i n g holes: m o n u m e n t s t o t w o different strands o f t h e w a n d e r i n g tradition. T h e linear m i g r a t i o n s o f t h e a r g o n a u t s , b o r n o f restlessness a n d d r e a m s o f f o r t u n e i n a n e w l a n d t o t h e west. A n d t h e circular w a n d e r i n g s o f t h e S a n d Papago, a p e o p l e so finely t u n e d t o t h e m e a g r e shifting resources of t h e i r h o m e land that t h e y r e g a r d e d it as a place o f b o u n t y that supplied e v e r y t h i n g necessary for life. T h e y ate a lot o f roots, seeds, cactus fruit, g r u b s , r o d e n t s , reptiles a n d insects. W h e n t h e m o o n called u p h i g h tides in t h e G u l f o f California a n d swept fish i n t o t h e coastal shallows a n d r o c k p o o l s t h e y speared t h e m w i t h t h e tailbones o f t h e b a r b e d stingray. T h e y collected clams a n d o t h e r shellfish, salt a n d c o l o u r e d seashells for trade. T h e y h u n t e d sea lions, m a d e sandals from t h e i r hides, a n d t h e n w e n t b a c k i n t o t h e deserts t o harvest w h i c h e v e r p l a n t h a d c o m e i n t o season, o r d r i n k from s o m e tinaja filled by a distant s t o r m a n d h u n t t h e animals attracted b y t h e water.
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305
Riders
As a freelance w r i t e r w h o loves t o w a n d e r in t h e i r f o r m e r h o m e l a n d (until I r u n o u t o f s u p e r m a r k e t f o o d o r get l o w o n water) t h e r e is o n e facet o f Sand P a p a g o c u l t u r e that i n t r i g u e s m e above all else. As t h e y lay sleeping i n t h e desert — u n d e r trees, o u t in t h e o p e n o r in 'sleeping circles' o f rocks, stacked u p t o k e e p o u t t h e w i n d — stories a n d songs c a m e t o t h e m i n d r e a m s , w h i c h t h e y c o n v e r t e d i n t o a c o m m o d i t y w i t h e c o n o m i c value in t h e m a r k e t p l a c e . T h e y w o u l d s h o w u p at t h e C o c o p a villages o n t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r a n d t r a d e these songs a n d stories for f o o d , pottery and other items. T h e C o c o p a t h o u g h t that the dreams of t h e Sand P a p a g o w e r e valuable b e c a u s e o f t h e i r spiritual p o w e r . N o n e o f t h e songs o r stories has survived, b u t w h o k n o w s ? M a y b e t h e C o c o p a w e r e r i g h t . All t h e world's m a j o r religions
were
d r e a m e d u p b y desert w a n d e r e r s , w h i c h is w h y t h e y locus o n deities w h o live i n t h e sky. T h e r e is a n o t h e r reason w h y I have b e e n r e a d i n g u p o n t h e S a n d P a p a g o . Perhaps a scholar s o m e w h e r e can p r o d u c e an o b s c u r e b a n d in t h e wilds o f N e v a d a , b u t I have seen it w r i t t e n in several places that t h e Sand P a p a g o w e r e t h e last f r e e - r o a m i n g
Indians
in t h e l o w e r f o r t y - e i g h t states. T h e y w e r e r e d u c e d a n d d i s r u p t e d in t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h century, p r i m a r i l y by an attack o f y e l l o w fever in 1 8 5 1 , b u t s o m e o f t h e m w e r e still o u t h e r e in t h e 1890s, r o b b i n g and killing travellers o n t h e Devil's H i g h w a y . T h e y h a d n e v e r b e e n a k i n d a n d g e n t l e p e o p l e towards o u t s i d e r s
and
i n t r u d e r s . B e r n a r d F o n t a n a , t h e leading authority, describes t h e m as 'a t o u g h a n d q u a r r e l s o m e l o t ' , a n d C a r l L u m h o l t z , t h e i n t r e p i d and fair-minded
N o r w e g i a n traveller w h o
hired some
Sand
P a p a g o guides in t h e early t w e n t i e t h century, said t h e y w e r e , o r h a d b e e n , 'rapacious a n d p r o b a b l y merciless t o strangers, w h e t h e r Indian or Mexican'. T h e last o f t h e m , a h e r m i t n a m e d J u a n Caravajales, w h o s e wife h a d left h i m b e c a u s e she c o u l d n ' t take t h e isolation, c a m e in from t h e P i n a c a t e D e s e r t in 1 9 1 2 a n d j o i n e d t h e r e m n a n t s o f his t r i b e i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t s o n t h e Gila R i v e r , w h e r e t h e y h a d t a k e n u p f a r m i n g a n d p a i d labour. W h y d i d t h e y h o l d o u t for so long? M a i n l y b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e able to. T h e B i g E m p t y was c o n s i d ered a w o r t h l e s s , diabolical wasteland b y e v e r y o n e else, w h i c h is
306
Richard Grant
w h y it r e m a i n s so u n s p o i l e d t o d a y — w e have n o t f o u n d a w a y t o w r e s t a profit from it. B u t for t h e S a n d P a p a g o it was t h e i r h o m e l a n d , filled w i t h sacred sites. T h e y t h o u g h t w a n d e r i n g t h e desert was h o w t h e y w e r e m e a n t t o live, a n d so t h e y c l u n g t o t h e o l d life for as l o n g as possible. It was h o w t h e y defined t h e m selves as a p e o p l e . ' W e d o n ' t stay i n o n e place,' said o n e o f t h e i r elders, i n t e r v i e w e d in t h e 1980s. ' W e are t h e Sand Indians o r i g i n a t e d o u t o f t h e sand t o r o a m o n t o p o f it.' M y desert w a n d e r i n g s are g o v e r n e d by entirely different reasons, w h i c h I d o n ' t fully u n d e r s t a n d . I c a n n o t claim survival r e q u i r e m e n t s o r cultural imperatives. To t h e east o f Tinajas Altas is t h e L e c h u g u i l l a D e s e r t , a w i d e , flat p a n o f sand a n d scrub that leads t o t h e n e x t m o u n t a i n r a n g e a n d t h e n e x t tinaja. W h y d o I feel c o m p e l l e d t o walk t h e s e v e n t e e n miles across it, fill u p m y c a n t e e n and w a l k b a c k again? I have given u p t r y i n g t o explain
these
things in c o n v e r s a t i o n . S o m e p e o p l e t h i n k it m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h m a c h i s m o — c o n q u e r i n g fears o r adversity — b u t this is n o t it at all. It is a h u m b l i n g e x p e r i e n c e , a f o r m o f s u r r e n d e r , a s t r i p p i n g away o f t h e ego, a b l o o m i n g o f t h e senses. T o a fellow desert rat, t h e attraction is u n d e r s t o o d , a n d so is t h e impossibility o f c a p t u r i n g it in w o r d s . W e talk instead a b o u t graves a n d g r i n d i n g holes, h o w m a n y miles t o t h e n e x t tinaja, t h e w e a t h e r , t h e history, t h e geography, skirting a r o u n d t h e t h i n g itself, b e c a u s e l a n g u a g e is a p o o r t o o l for d e s c r i b i n g n o t h i n g n e s s a n d space. T h e r e have b e e n s o m e valiant a t t e m p t s - E d w a r d A b b e y o n t h e A m e r i c a n S o u t h w e s t , Paul B o w l e s w r i t i n g a b o u t t h e Sahara, Wilfred T h e s i g e r i n Arabian
Sands — b u t t h e literature o f deserts
is essentially a failure. O n e b e c o m e s familiar w i t h a grasping t o n e , a tacit admission o f defeat (often signposted b y flinging m o r e a n d m o r e p u r p l e prose at t h e p r o b l e m , like E v e r e t t R u e s s ) , a n d h e r e i n lies t h e appeal o f deserts for t h o s e w h o love t h e m . T h e y defy o u r l a n g u a g e , w r i t t e n a n d visual. T h e y leave o u r
photographers,
painters a n d c i n e m a t o g r a p h e r s scratching at t h e surface o f w h a t is really t h e r e . W h y are s o m e p e o p l e attracted t o deserts a n d o t h e r s indifferent towards t h e m o r repelled? W h y are s o m e p e o p l e attracted
Ghost
Riders
307
t o m o u n t a i n s a n d o t h e r s t o b e a c h e s o r oceans? W h y d o s o m e p e o p l e feel an affinity for t h e o u t d o o r s w h i l e o t h e r s are d r a w n towards c i t i e s ? T h e r e is n o w a y to e x a m i n e a person's b a c k g r o u n d , cultural o r g e n e t i c , a n d p r e d i c t these things w i t h any a u t h o r i t y . S o m e p e o p l e feel happiest a n d m o s t alive in familiar
environ-
m e n t s . O t h e r s are attracted t o t h e o p p o s i t e o f t h e familiar. Siblings often have c o m p l e t e l y different tastes. W h y d o s o m e p e o p l e feel c o m p e l l e d to w a n d e r ? In t h e first c h a p t e r I m e n t i o n e d B r u c e C h a t w i n ' s t h e o r y that h u m a n beings are a m i g r a t o r y species, genetically h a r d - w i r e d for travel d u r i n g o u r l o n g e v o l u t i o n as w a n d e r i n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , a n d that all t h e ills a n d miseries o f o u r societies s t e m from t h e repression o f this basic h u m a n instinct. I have t r i e d h a r d to believe in this t h e o r y a n d c o m e u p short. T h e g a m e is always r e c e d i n g , edible plants c o m e i n t o season at different t i m e s in different places.Travel is certainly necessary for survival a m o n g h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , a task t h a t e v e r y o n e has t o p e r f o r m , b u t that does n o t necessarily prove t h a t t h e u r g e for travel b e c a m e instinctual. D i d t h e S a n d P a p a g o resist s e t t l e m e n t b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e in t u n e w i t h t h e i r instincts, o r b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e culturally conservative a n d h a p p y e n o u g h w i t h life as t h e y k n e w it? C h a t w i n ' s t h e o r y has an elegant s y m m e t r y , a n d it is certainly c u r i o u s that all h u m a n babies are c a l m e d b y t h e r h y t h m o f m o t i o n , as t h e y are b y m u s i c , b u t it d o e s n o t answer t h e q u e s t i o n t h a t n o m a d s are always asking: w h y d o so m a n y p e o p l e prefer t o stay in o n e place? T h e s e d e n t a r y are n o t all d i s c o n t e n t e d a n d repressed. T h e y are n o t all w e a k , foolish d u p e s w h o have t r a d e d t h e i r f r e e d o m for security, as n o m a d s w o u l d have us believe. S o m e p e o p l e simply lack t h e u r g e t o travel, and, given a free c h o i c e , t h e y are perfectly h a p p y a n d c o n t e n t w i t h t h e s e d e n t a r y life. I read t h e o t h e r day a b o u t s o m e t e n t h o u s a n d - y e a r - o l d b o n e s t h a t w e r e d u g u p in S c o t l a n d - a c o u n t r y that furnished so m a n y restless w a n d e r e r s t o N o r t h A m e r i c a i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e scientists D N A - t e s t e d t h e b o n e s and t h e inhabitants o f t h e nearest village a n d f o u n d that m a n y o f t h e latter w e r e
direct
d e s c e n d a n t s . Presumably, t h e t e n t h o u s a n d - y e a r - o l d c o r p s e h a d m a n y o t h e r d e s c e n d a n t s w h o spread his lineage f u r t h e r afield, b u t
308
Richard Grant
t h e findings i n d i c a t e an e x t r a o r d i n a r y lack o f w a n d e r l u s t in these village clanfolk, a s t r i k i n g a b s e n c e o f a n y t h i n g r e s e m b l i n g a m i g r a t o r y instinct. I t h i n k w a n d e r l u s t is simply a h u m a n personality trait, o n e o f m a n y l y i n g in t h e reservoir o f o u r genes, c o m p a r a b l e t o g r e e d o r generosity, c a u t i o n o r recklessness, a n d subservient t o t h e influe n c e o f culture. It is called forth m o r e frequently in societies w i t h a t r a d i t i o n o f w a n d e r i n g a n d restlessness, a n d in places w h e r e it is easy to live a m o b i l e life. Restless parents t e n d t o b e q u e a t h restless c h i l d r e n , b u t n o t all o f t h e i r offspring will manifest t h e p e r s o n a l i t y type. Likewise, w a n d e r e r s are b o r n i n t o families that have lived in t h e same place for g e n e r a t i o n s . It is n o t an instinct, it is n o t a psychiatric disorder, it is n o t a disease. ' W h e n all is said a n d d o n e , t h e r e are t w o types o f m e n : t h o s e w h o stay at h o m e a n d t h o s e w h o d o not.' I s e l d o m find myself a g r e e i n g w i t h R u d y a r d Kipling, b u t if w e take M a r i e W i l l i a m s o n as a cue, a n d substitute ' p e o p l e ' for ' m e n ' , I have r e a c h e d t h e same flat c o n c l u s i o n . At this p o i n t in t h e narrative, I a m s u p p o s e d t o w a n d e r off i n t o t h e sunset. T h a t was m y plan: t h r e e days w i t h a b a c k p a c k o v e r t h e sand d u n e s o f t h e G r a n D e s i e r t o , t h e e m p t i e s t q u a r t e r o f t h e B i g E m p t y . Instead, I find myself p u l l e d i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , east towards T u c s o n , t h e c o m f o r t s o f h o m e a n d t h e w o m a n I love, w h i c h have also b e c o m e necessary t o m y happiness. In closing, I w o u l d like t o t h a n k t h e federal g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e h a r d - w o r k i n g agents o f t h e I m m i g r a t i o n a n d N a t u r a l i z a t i o n Service. Fear o f d e p o r t a t i o n o v e r c a m e d e e p e r fears a n d prejudices a n d led t o a w e d d i n g that s h o u l d have t a k e n place years ago.
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Mifflin, 1947 The Course of Empire, L i n c o l n , U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b r a s k a Press, 1952 D o b i e , J. F r a n k , The Mustangs,
B o s t o n , Little, B r o w n , 1952
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York, D a C a p o Press, 1.994 Ferris, W a r r e n , Life
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Walker,
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Knoxville, U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee Press, 1997
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O l s e n , Paul A., The Struggle for the Land, L i n c o l n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Nebraska, 1990 O l s o n , C h a r l e s , Call Me Jshmael, N e w York, R e y n a l & H i t c h c o c k , 1947 O n o n , U r g u n g e , The
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of the Mongols,
Richmond,
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Nomads
Settle, N e w York, Praeger,
1980 S a n d o z , M a r i , The Buffalo Hunters, L i n c o l n , U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b r a s k a Press, 1 9 5 4 The Cattlemen,
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Plains, N o r m a n , University o f O k l a h o m a Press, 1986 W e b b , W a l t e r Prescott, Hie Great Plains, B o s t o n , H o u g h t o n Mifflin, 1936 W e s t e r m e i e r , Clifford, Man, Beast, Dust, D e n v e r , W o r l d Press, 1 9 4 8
Y O G A
F O R P E O P L E W H O C A N ' T B O T H E R E D T O D O I T Geoff
B E
Dyer
'I have an idea for a self-help b o o k ' I said. 'Yoga F o r P e o p l e W h o C a n ' t B e B o t h e r e d t o D o It?'
'But you can't be bothered to write it, right?' T h i s isn't G e o f f D y e r ' s self-help b o o k . R a t h e r it is a b o o k a b o u t h o w t h e a u t h o r h i m s e l f c o u l d d o w i t h a little h e l p . In a c h i n g l y f u n n y a n d t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g prose, h e describes a life m o s t o f us w o u l d love t o live — a n d h o w m u c h t h a t life frustrates a n d aggravates h i m . F r o m A m s t e r d a m t o C a m b o d i a , from R o m e t o I n d o n e s i a , from N e w O r l e a n s t o Libya, f r o m D e t r o i t t o K o P h a - N g a n , D y e r finds h i m s e l f
floundering
in a sea o f g r i e v a n c e s a n d loses h i m s e l f i n m o m e n t s o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l calm; a w o n k y quest for p e a k e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t leads, ultimately, t o t h e Z o n e — t h e B l a c k R o c k D e s e r t in N e v a d a .
'I have t o say I was d i s a p p o i n t e d . D i s a p p o i n t e d b e c a u s e it was so funny, so effortlessly readable, so clear a n d w o n d e r f u l
t h a t it m e a n t t h a t
b r i l l i a n c e o f Out of Sheer Rage was n o t P U R E D U M B
the
LUCK' Steve M a r t i n
' G e o f f D y e r is a w r i t e r w h o m I w o u l d u n h e s i t a t i n g l y r e c o m m e n d
to
a n y o n e . . . D y e r ' s style — a n d t h e b r e a d t h o f his i n t e l l i g e n c e — absorbs, impresses a n d s i m p l y e n t e r t a i n s '
Time
Out
' F o r t h e s h e e r diversity o f his passions, his career is already h a r d t o b e a t ' S i m o n Garfield, Financial Times ' T h a t G e o f f D y e r exists is a cause for c e l e b r a t i o n in i t s e l f J a s o n C o w l e y , The Times
Abacus 0 316 72507 2
A L M O S T
H E A V E N
TRAVELS T H R O U G H THE OF
BACKWOODS
AMERICA
Martin
Fletcher
'Filled w i t h t h e sort o f w o n d e r f u l detail a n d lively d i a l o g u e t h a t graces t h e best o f 1 9 t h - c e n t u r y British travel w r i t i n g s '
Time
After seven years as W a s h i n g t o n c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f TIK Times, M a r t i n F l e t c h e r set off t o e x p l o r e t h e great A m e r i c a n ' b o o n d o c k s ' — t h e r a w a n d u n t a m e d l a n d t h a t exists far from t h e f a m o u s cities a n d n a t i o n a l p a r k s . H i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y j o u r n e y takes h i m t o a m a z i n g c o m m u n i t i e s o u t s i d e r s have n e v e r h e a r d of, t o t h e quintessential A m e r i c a . H e encounters snake-handlers, moonshiners, and communities p r e p a r i n g for A r m a g e d d o n ; goes b e a r - h u n t i n g a n d g o l d - p r o s p e c t i n g ; meets truckstop preachers and D e a t h R o w inmates. F r o m the eccentric b u t friendly t o t h e frankly u n h i n g e d , t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f b a c k w a t e r A m e r i c a a n d t h e i r p r e o c c u p a t i o n s , p r e j u d i c e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s are b r o u g h t vividly t o life.
' S h a r p l y d e t a i l e d a n d w a r m l y insightful . . . fascinating a n d consistently e n l i g h t e n i n g , w o n d e r f u l l y funny a n d u n b e l i e v a b l y t r u e '
Time
Out
' S u r p r i s i n g , e n t e r t a i n i n g a n d o r i g i n a l . . . a p l e a s u r e t o read' N i g e l W i l l i a m s , Sunday
Times
'Very a p p e a l i n g . . . I h i g h l y r e c o m m e n d this b o o k ' Independent ' A delight: t h e perfect b e d s i d e b o o k , h a r d t o p u t d o w n ' 'A t r i u m p h of a b o o k '
on
Sunday
Irish Times
Economist, B o o k s o f t h e Year Abacus 0 349 10935 4
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