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Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study : A Practical Guide for Business, Social Science, and Arts Students Macqueen, Chris. University of New South Wales 9780868405926 9780585344324 English Study skills--Australia--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Academic achievement--Australia--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Social sciences--Study and teaching (Higher)--Australia--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 1998 LB2395.M32 1998eb 371.3 Study skills--Australia--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Academic achievement--Australia--Handbooks, manuals, etc, Social sciences--Study and teaching (Higher)--Australia--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
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Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study
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This book is dedicated to my niece Leigh. My wish is that her time in academia is pleasant, productive and enjoyable. This book is my way of supporting her in making it so. It is also dedicated to all the other first-year students who confront the complications of studying in a tertiary environment and try to understand what is expected of them; I hope this helps, if even a little.
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Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study A Practical Guide for Business, Social Science and Arts Students Chris Macqueen
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A UNSW Press book Published by University of New South Wales Press Ltd University of New South Wales Sydney 2052 Australia © C. Macqueen First published 1998 This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission. Inquiries should be addressed to the publisher. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Macqueen, Chris. Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study: A Practical Guide for Business, Social Science and Arts Students Bibliography. Includes index. ISBN 0 86840 592 2. 1. Study skills. 2. Education, Higher. I. Title. 371.3. Printer Kyodo Printing, Singapore
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CONTENTS
Foreword
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Preface
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Part 1: Starting Out
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Chapter 1 Entering the Tertiary Environment
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The Purpose of This Book
The Essential Differences in Tertiary Study
What Academia Expects of the Individual
Confrontations and Contradictions
Why Some People Fail
Time Management
Self Management
A Healthy Lifestyle
Knowing When You Need Help
Where to Get Support
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Part 2: General Study Skills
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Chapter 2 Note-Taking and Lectures
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Making the Most of Lectures
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The Benefit of Taking Notes
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The Difficulties of Taking Notes
Effective Note-Taking: Summary, Dot Points or Mind Maps
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Balancing Note-Taking with Tutorial Activities
Raising Issues from Lectures: The When and the Where
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Alternatives to Note-Taking
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Keeping It Balanced: Organising Time
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Testing Your Understanding
Putting It Together: Lectures, Note-Taking and Study Chapter 3 Tutorials and Presentations
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What Is a Tutorial?
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Why Are Tutorials Important?
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Getting the Most from Tutorials
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Selecting a Presentation
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Deciding on a Presentation Method
Researching the Topic
Keeping the Interest
Doing and Listening
Encouraging Involvement
The Write-up and Distribution Chapter 4 Essay Writing
Introduction
Analysing the Question
Conducting Library Research
Collecting and Collating Research Data
Plagiarism, Citation and Quotations
Creating the Essay Outline
Writing the First Draft
Reality Testing or Cold Review
Editing and Referencing
Completing the Final Presentation Chapter 5 Undertaking a Research Assignment
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Defining the Research Purpose
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Analysing the Question
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Clarifying the Requirements
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Selecting the Sample or Field of Research
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Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data
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Collecting and Collating the Data
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Analysing the Data
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Presenting the Data: Tables
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Presenting the Data: Graphics
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Presenting the Findings Chapter 6 Conducting Library Research
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Taking the Library Tour
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Cataloguing Systems
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Reserved and Other Special Collections
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The Etiquette of Borrowing
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Journals and Periodicals
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Primary and Secondary Data Sources
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Inter-Library Loans and Other Special Services
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Recording and Retrieval Systems
Summaries and Referencing
Effective Library Research Chapter 7 Electronic Data Sources
Types of Electronic Data
Commercial Computer Programs
Dedicated Computer Programs
Home Pages and Web Sites
E-mail and Person-to-Person Data Transfers
CD-ROMs
Electronic Journals
Accessing Electronic Data Sources
Downloading Data
Using Downloaded Data in Presentations and Reports Chapter 8 Surfing the Internet
What the Internet Is
Costs and How the Internet Works
Bookmarks and Personal Data Listings
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Browsing the Web
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Using Data: Downloading and Hard Copy
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Hints for Using the Internet
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Viruses and Other Ills
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Plug-Ins
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Shareware
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Some Suggested Sites Chapter 9 Skills to Survive Exams
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The Role of Examinations in the Assessment Process
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Common Examination Difficulties
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Memory and the Retrieval of Information
Pop Quizzes and Other Continuous Assessment Tools
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Closed-Book Examinations
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Open-Book Examinations
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Multiple-Choice Questions
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Coping with Examination Stress
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When the Examination Is over
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An Examination Checklist
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Part 3: Selected Methods in the Social Sciences
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Chapter 10 Case Studies and Observations
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Distinguishing between Case Studies and Observations
Case Studies: The Goals
Selecting Subjects
Designing a Format
Undertaking the Study
Recording Your Assessment and Writing It up
Observations: The Goals
Open Field vs. Selective Observations
Collecting the Information
Writing Observations up Chapter 11 Demographics and Simple Statistics
Demographics and Their Use in Research Activities
Statistical Data Collection and Models
General Populations
Sample Populations
Cohort Groups and Sampling
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Control and Experimental Groups
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Making Appropriate Comparisons
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Applying Appropriate Statistical Analysis
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Organising the Data
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Presenting the Data Part 4: Applying Study Methods to the Workplace
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Chapter 12 Social Policy Research
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Analysing the Topic
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Determining the Method
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Deciding on the Data to Be Collected
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Sourcing the Data
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Using Relevant Comparative Data
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Choosing Appropriate Data Sources
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Questionnaires and Interview Schedules
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Modelling Alternative Solutions
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Making Recommendations and Charting the Future
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Presenting the Findings
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Chapter 13 Consumer Market Research
Analysing the Brief
Determining the Market to Be Assessed
Choosing the Test Sample and Locations
Selecting Appropriate Demographic Indicators
Questionnaires and Interview Schedules
Focus and Reference Group Testing
Nominal Group Technique
Collating and Analysing the Data
Making Recommendations
Presenting the Findings Chapter 14 Commercial Report Writing
Determining the Audience
The Brief: Reality Checking
Defining the Question(s)
Collecting the Data
Collation, Analysis and Summary
Assertions, Facts and Opinions
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Presentation, Style and Layout
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Recommendations
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Executive Summary
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Delivery and Presentation Glossary
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Bibliography
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Index
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FOREWORD Entering a university for the first time can be overwhelming. The sheer size of most institutions is a shock to students used to a small and comfortable school environment. Universities also have very different expectations from schools. Students are much more 'on their own'; lectures and tutorials are programmed throughout the semester and students are expected to keep up. It is a daunting experience, but it should also be an exhilarating one. Whether the experience of university is daunting or exhilarating often depends on whether or not a student has the support facilities, the networks and the good advice needed to manage the school-to-university transition. Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study, A Practical Guide for Business, Social Science and Arts Students by Chris Macqueen is designed to provide this support. It should help to provide students with the confidence to tackle the assignments and research projects that are an essential part of most university courses. To my knowledge there is nothing quite like it elsewhere. Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study is very readable and, as the subtitle suggests, practical in its suggestions. It can be read from cover to cover with ease. It covers topics that are fundamental to the successful completion of good social science research. It should be a basic resource book on the desk of every student. The range of topics covered in Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study is very broad: from note-taking through to the use of sophisticated questionnaires. It will certainly make life much less stressful for students new to a university. Lateryear students who have spent time struggling with essays or research techniques will also find it very useful. PROFESSOR JOHN INGLESON DEAN THE FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
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PREFACE This book began its life as a series of notes which I intended to discuss with my niece Leigh before she began her academic studies in 1997. As I got into the writing, the book also became a reflection on my own studies over the past 20 or so years. My journey in academic study began as a mature aged student in 1979 at Wollongong University where in 1984 I completed an Arts Degree with majors in Psychology and Sociology. Somehow I managed to do this part-time by attending lectures on most nights of the week and completing assignments and essays during the weekends. At the same time I worked full-time, maintained a family and had a social life. Looking back, I am not sure how I managed it all. Since then I have completed an undergraduate Law Degree and am now completing a Master of Laws, both at Macquarie University and by external study. I work as a full-time researcher in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at the University of New South Wales, and I have my own management consultancy practice. I have taught statistics, business psychology and law to TAFE students and am constantly amazed by the number of students who commit themselves to long hours of part-time study. When I began my own studies, I wished I had a book that provided a clear overview of the basic skills required to succeed in academia. I found some books that covered some of the relevant topics but none covered them all. When I took my new knowledge back out into the workplace, I also wondered how the skills of academia could fit there. I learned to utilise them effectively by trial and error. This book, therefore, covers the essential skills needed for successful study and the completion of coursework requirements in business, social sciences and arts studies. It also provides an insight into the way in which those skills can be translated into the workplace. The secret, if there is one, is balance. Achieving your goals can sometimes be a rocky path but the rewards at the end are well worth the effort. I hope you enjoy the journey as much as the destination. CHRIS MACQUEEN
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PART 1 STARTING OUT
Chapter 1 Entering the Tertiary Environment The Purpose of This Book Firstly, welcome to tertiary study. These days the process of getting here can be quite complex, between TERs, admission centres, applications and interviews, let alone the dreaded HECS and Austudy or Abstudy application; it can be quite an ordeal just getting through the door. However, you have survived all of that, since you are here and reading this book. Now the major hurdle is to survive your studies and hopefully learn enough in your chosen field to complete assignments, essays and tutorials, pass exams and ultimately graduate. Of course when you've done all that, an entirely new set of challenges will present themselves in terms of finding a job and developing a personal career path. This book has been written to help you settle into the tertiary environment; to both understand its expectations and also gain some helpful hints on working efficiently in order to meet any challenges. Academic study has always had a mystique about it and first-year students often find that they spend a lot of their initial time trying to understand what is expected of them. The idea of researching a topic seems like a highly complex task, generally reserved for over-achievers or those choosing academic careers. However, research is a natural part of the way in which we gather, analyse or examine information, and ultimately draw conclusions based on our discoveries. When collecting materials for essays, assignments or tutorials, or even taking part in a classroom discussion, you will be engaged in the research process. When you finally join the workforce and use the knowledge
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gained through your studies, you will also be using and applying tools and methods of research in workplace activities. This book will take you through the essential skills of study in academia; it covers note-taking, essay writing, tutorials and presentations, and other essential research skills. Some specific methods of research will be examined, including statistics, demography, case studies and observations. In the social sciences and business studies these are all methods used to acquire knowledge and to present data in coursework activities and classroom assignments. At different stages during your studies you may wish to return to this book for further information and guidance, or for confirmation that you are still proceeding in the right direction. Finally, two examples from the applied research fields of marketing and social policy have been used to illustrate work-based projects that use the skills of academia. This is to demonstrate that the skills of academia are not just reserved for getting you through your studies, but also become the foundations upon which you will succeed in your future career activities. The Essential Differences in Tertiary Study If you have come to tertiary study straight from your Higher School Certificate, or equivalent, then you will find that there are considerable differences in the methods and expectations of universities or colleges from those of high school. If you are returning to learning as a mature aged student (and this group now makes up a significant portion of tertiary entrants), then you may initially find these expectations a little difficult to understand. Further, you may be studying full-time, part-time or externally, each of which has its own set of particular demands. In all cases it is important to recognise that academia expects you to do the work; if at the end your lecturers have done it right you will have the tools and methods to go out and find the answers and to continue your learning throughout the rest of your professional working life. In addition, you have taken on a new identity, or at least have created a new element of your personal identity, by becoming a 'Uni or college student'. Initially, this may create some role confusion in coming to terms with what this means to you personally. When you get on campus there will be a range of temptations that may monopolise your time, including social, sporting and recreational activities, new relationships, and other diversions from the learning that you came here to do. All of this exploration of ideas, values and experiences is important to your overall development as a human being, but sometimes students can
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get sidetracked from the primary goal of education and lose their way, particularly in the first year. What Academia Expects of the Individual The most important and often the most difficult thing to understand is that academia expects each individual to manage their own learning. Not only does that mean that you must develop and apply appropriate short-term time management skills (such as making sure that you turn up to lectures and tutorials at the times required and in the places scheduled), it also means that you must manage your short-, medium- and long-term goals. Sometimes the choices that you make are more clearly based on the admission process rather than on a specific desire to study a given subject. Some new students tend to roam from course to course, trying to find one that suits them or from which they can create a career. If you are unsure about what your overall goals are, or what courses or units you should be studying to achieve a specific end, it is important that you seek advice from the Student Support Centre, Student Counselling Service, or a Faculty Advisor to ensure that you develop an overall plan for achieving your medium- to long-term goals. In some cases, it may be that the first thing that you have to do is decide upon what your medium- to long-term goals are. From there you can prepare a plan for your studies, not only in terms of completing the assignments and requirements of a given course or unit, but, one which covers your longer term educational and career goals so that you know what you will be doing in each semester and where that will lead you into the future. Confrontations and Contradictions. You may also experience a level of contradiction and confrontation with what you are learning. Academia seldom tolerates lazy thinking. Many of the assumptions upon which you have operated in the world to date have been based on a form of commonsense reality. When you justify an action or a view of something, more often than not it is that commonsense reality which you use to substantiate your position. Generally, this will not be accepted your arguments must be based on theoretical perspectives or authoritative sources and this can be initially very daunting. When you go to argue in a tutorial or class discussion you will have to substantiate your views based on reasoned arguments and for some this may result in their tending to hold back from participating.
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Initially, it will be difficult but it is important that you build your confidence and experiment with presenting your ideas in discussions. By participating in discussions and discourse with classmates, lecturers and tutors you will increase your understanding and refine your personal views, but more importantly you will increase your confidence in presenting them. Other areas of confrontation and contradiction can occur between your personal views, or those with which you have been socialised, including religious and moral positions on issues, particularly those put forward by your lecturers or the theorists within your field of study. It is your job to resolve these dilemmas and in some cases this can be a painful experience. If you are having any difficulties in this area, again consider seeing the Student Counselling Service, a Faculty Advisor, your personal Religious Advisor or any other person relevant to the problem. Often letting such fundamental difficulties remain unresolved can create long-term problems for your study program and your personal wellbeing. So, deal with them as they arise and the management of the contradictions will be a little easier. Why Some People Fail The most common reason why people fail in tertiary study is because they do not manage their own learning adequately. They do not appropriately allocate their time nor keep an adequate balance within their lives. It is essential that you plan your time in terms of meeting your course requirements and preparing for exams. However, it is also important that you keep a realistic balance between study, family life and relationships and maintain a healthy lifestyle. Without that balance your stress levels will increase and this can be a primary contributor to academic failure. Another major contributor to failure, apart from a lack of planning and balance, is poorly managed expectations. Put simply, don't place unrealistic expectations upon yourself, such as the work you can do, the standard of perfection at which you can do it, or the results you can achieve, and definitely do not allow others to place unrealistic expectations upon you. You are not in this life to meet other people's expectations: you are here to be the best you can in terms that are relevant to you. If you have an overall plan and you manage your time and resources efficiently, then you should meet your goals and failure simply won't be an issue.
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Time Management Effective time management is essential to succeeding in tertiary study. At most campus bookshops and student centres you can get a wall planner that enables you to timetable significant events and deadlines. Rather than a pocket diary, or indeed as a backup to a diary, a wall planner can be put up by your desk or wherever it is that you do your work so that you can readily identify deadlines and forward commitments. It is, however, also important to have a diary to plan events and record projects and assignment deadlines as they are allocated in class. Unless you plan your work, you will find that you have an unmanageable number of deadlines which occur at the same time. At the end of a semester there is always a clash between written work that must be handed in and time to study for exams. Unless you plan to spread your workload over the semester, then you will fall into the trap of becoming over committed at specific times in the year. Again, this will add to your stress levels and will probably have an impact upon your ability to cope with the increasing pressures of exams and other deadlines. Self Management Self management is more than just time management and meeting deadlines, it is about coping with stress, dealing with conflicts and developing personal confidence and self-esteem. Not all of the experiences of tertiary study will be positive. You may fail an assignment or receive a grade which is less than what you expected from yourself. You may realise that what you thought you had wanted to be in childhood isn't what you want in young adulthood, now that you are studying the relevant courses. Accept that there will be such events in your life and move through them. Seek help where it is available and especially when you feel that you need it. Managing yourself is accepting that you are human and that disappointments are a natural part of life. Take the time to experience the frustration, hurt or disappointment that is part of the learning process, but then reappraise and readjust, and move forward. If you adopt the view that there are in fact no failures but only different learning experiences, then the process of managing yourself will be considerably less of a distraction from that of meeting your personal and academic goals.
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A Healthy Lifestyle In order to minimise stress and perform efficiently it is really important that you maintain a healthy lifestyle. The elements of a healthy lifestyle in this case are: a nutritionally balanced diet; sufficient relaxation and sleep; regular exercise; only a moderate intake of alcohol; minimal use of non-prescription drugs including cigarettes; emotional support and social contact; minimisation of stress. Many first-year students are asserting personal independence from family for the first time. With the increasing intake of overseas students by universities and colleges, there are many who are experiencing cultural differences, homesickness and a sense of personal isolation, whilst at the same time trying to meet all the requirements of their courses. Keeping things in balance is therefore extremely important, and a healthy lifestyle is a prime contributor to doing so. The temptation to work hard and play hard is always there, including over-indulging in a range of new experiences. This is another relevant part of learning; however, the golden rule should be all things in moderation. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle will help you manage stress and achieve your goals, so take responsibility for each element of your own personal healthy lifestyle plan by forward planning and moderation. Knowing When You Need Help Knowing when you need help is the most difficult task of all. Stress in particular is a very 'sneaky' concept. Generally, you won't recognise that you are stressed until the stress has become unmanageable and much of the shortterm damage is already done. Self knowledge is very important; you need to know yourself and your own coping levels, particularly specific symptoms that illustrate your stress. If you are normally even-tempered and hard to anger, then feelings of aggression or temper tantrums are a clear indicator that you are experiencing some stress. If you are normally outgoing and become withdrawn and antisocial, then that is an indicator that you are having some difficulties. If you are getting behind with work deadlines and cannot find a way to get back on track, then this generally represents poor planning and a potential trigger for stress to occur. Procrastination, or the inability to
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maintain focus is also often a measure of stress, as is loss of appetite, changes in sleep patterns and persistent lowgrade physical illness. Other outward signs of stress include increases in coping strategies such as alcohol consumption, smoking, drug-taking or other warning signs that things are not going well. These are all indicators that you may need some specific assistance or at the least some increased support. It is up to you to acknowledge that you are having difficulties and that support is required, before the situation gets to the point where it cannot be retrieved or where failure is the most likely outcome. Where to Get Support The most important first step to fixing a problem is appropriate diagnosis, that is, finding out what is really the cause and separating it from what are simply symptoms. Most universities and colleges have a Student Counselling Service and this can be invaluable in helping you identify where the difficulty really lies. If you are having difficulties with assignments or other coursework requirements there are Educational Counselling Services and Faculty Advisors who can help. In the first instance, approach your lecturers and tutors when you are having difficulties in understanding either the content or expectations of your classes. If this doesn't resolve the problem, then see your counsellors or faculty support people. You may also consider a private tutor or some other bridging studies to fix the problem. If you are having health problems there is usually a Student Health Service or a medical service subsidised by either the university or the Student Union. A number of universities and colleges have Women's Officers who can help with gender-based discrimination, and on some campuses there are support networks for mature aged students, Aboriginal students and those from overseas or non-English speaking backgrounds. Student Housing Services, Student Employment Services, Student Loans Funds and other specialised programs can assist with financial difficulties commonly experienced by students. Other specialist services can help with a specific personal crisis, such as date rape, unwanted pregnancy, relationship problems, etc. As part of the orientation process it is a good idea to find out what support services are available from within your institution or close by, especially those which offer student discounts. Although you may never need them it is important that you do know where to find them if you do.
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PART 2 GENERAL STUDY SKILLS
Chapter 2 Note-Taking and Lectures Making the Most of Lectures Note-taking is a highly complex task in the academic environment. The main reason for this is that lecturers in universities and colleges do not teach in the same manner as high school teachers. Your learning is not by rote but is based on exploring the field of study, or knowledge from which the materials derive. The role of an academic lecturer is to provide you with an overview of the field and the skills to explore the information available. That exploration can involve library research, searching the Internet and other electronic data sources, conducting applied research by the use of questionnaires, surveys and interviews, or undertaking primary research using laboratory experiments or other experimental designs. Making the most of lectures initially involves understanding that they are only part of the process of acquiring knowledge. More than anything, the lecturers are looking for you to engage with the materials that they present, not simply to accept and regurgitate what they have presented. Taking notes in lectures can be an important aspect of your study method, but it can be a trap to attempt to get down on paper every word that is said. The human brain and the senses involved in the note-taking process cannot all work in harmony for the entire duration of the lecture. What the lecturer presents is seldom a smooth or discrete narrative anyway, so trying to furiously take down each word may leave you in the position of not actually understanding the overall picture of the material presented. Your lecture time should be used to identify areas for further library or other research, and to provide you with a summary of the field or issues being explored in each lecture. It can also be a springboard to more effec-
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being explored in each lecture. It can also be a springboard to more effectively utilising the small group and tutorial time allocated to your subjects. The Benefit of Taking Notes. Having identified that there are some traps in note-taking when attending lectures, it is still a useful enterprise when undertaken effectively. This is particularly the case if you use the note-taking process to pick up on sources of additional materials to be explored and when you listen to yourself in terms of your sense of comfort or familiarity with what you are hearing. There is no point in attending a lecture if all that is being said simply flows over the top of your head. Some lecturers have a tendency to speak in words of no fewer than ten syllables. This can be disconcerting, but more importantly it can completely leave you behind. You have two major options you can sit back and let it happen, or you can take it as a challenge to increase your knowledge. Of course, the second is the preferred option. Don't be too surprised that some students leave the university environment no more knowledgeable or wiser than when they first entered. Some lecturers and the layout of some lecture theatres make it difficult to raise any concerns as they arise. You can feel uncomfortable about putting your hand up or simply interjecting and asking for a further explanation of what is being said. However, don't assume that you are the only one having difficulty in understanding something. I have seen the look of relief come over a room full of people when someone is finally brave enough to say 'Excuse me but what does that actually mean?' More often than not the lecturer will assume everybody is following what is said; the lack of information to the contrary will often naively confirm this belief. I have always said to students that unless they let me know that they are not understanding something then I will assume that they are. I think most lecturers think that way. So what has this to do with taking notes? Simply, if you can't ask for clarification during the lecture you can ask later. Use note-taking to remind yourself of the areas where you want more information. Use it to summarise what you think was meant and then use margin notes or other means to highlight the areas still requiring further clarification. Taking notes in lectures is part of an overall study strategy it is not a self-contained aspect of the study process nor one which can provide you with all the material that you will need for successful completion of a subject.
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The Difficulties of Taking Notes I have already alluded to the major difficulties of note-taking. They become clearly evident when your lectures are given by a disorganised lecturer, or one who speaks rapidly. That is, one who gives you little time to keep up with where they are going. In this case, attempting to take down every word that is said is both a futile exercise and often a poor allocation of your personal resources and the time set aside for the lecture. Another important issue to consider is whether the furious taking of notes is in fact going to be a profitable activity in the long run. Unless the notes contribute in a meaningful way to your overall study plan, there is not a lot of point in working so hard at taking it all down. Effective note-taking is the goal you should attempt to achieve. Take notes in a form which supports your other study activities and which can ultimately provide an effective means for your revision activities before examinations as well as the preparation of tutorial or other presentations, including essays and assignments. Effective Note-Taking: Summary, Dot Points or Mind Maps There are some effective ways to produce lecture notes bearing in mind the value of note-taking whilst accepting the difficulties that may be present in the lecture process. Firstly, by summarising rather than attempting to take down every word that the lecturer is saying you can create effective notes. However, you need to become skilled at summarising or sifting through what is being said in order to identify and record the major themes or major points. If your mind is overly occupied with the process of finding acceptable words to summarise the volume of material that may be presented in a lecture, there is a good chance that you will miss important points or even whole portions of what is being said. This can be a real problem, especially if you rely too heavily on the lectures as the major means of getting information on your particular subject. Practice is the most important means of achieving a reasonable balance between recording what is said and creating effective summaries. Therefore, you need to practice your note-taking style in the early days of a subject so that you can deal with the particular presentation methods of your lecturers and can produce notes which are useful to you as part of your overall study plan. Other methods that effectively summarise lecture materials are dot points and mind maps. Dot points are a simple way of grouping together
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material which is linked in some way. Within this book I have often used dot points, particularly in presenting checklists. You should use dot points to summarise materials and to enhance your understanding. Using them effectively requires considerable practice. Mind maps are extremely useful tools, especially if you are someone who uses visual pathways to understand the linkages between things. Some people are auditory, in that they hear information quite clearly and are able to organise materials in their heads using that auditory input. Some, like myself, are visual, and they need to see how things hang together before they fully appreciate how it all links together. They are often 'big picture' people or global thinkers and need to see the whole before they can deal with the parts. Sometimes mind mapping can provide a useful way of capturing that big picture, or what some people call the 'helicopter view', looking down from on high to see where all the components fit together. The following examples come from the documentation on a bid to undertake a commercial research assignment. Figure 2.1 shows a decision path to determine the stages in the assignment or consultancy, and addresses the important questions that needed to be clarified before choosing the method to solve the problem. It analyses each relevant question using a 'Yes' or 'No' decision path. In most mind mapping exercises you need to be able to successfully answer the basic questions of what, where, how and why. Through the process of mind mapping, using a decision path, you can reduce these questions into workable strategies. The primary question for Figure 2.1 was 'Is there a preferred method for the consultancy?' For most questions there is either a yes or no answer. If the answer is yes, then a set of specific outcomes will result. If the answer is no, then a different set of questions will arise, each of which must be successfully answered to get to the final outcome. So, by eliminating the noes and qualifying and refining the yeses you can arrive at a sustainable outcome. Figure 2.1 highlights a number of issues that were vital to the design of the solution: finding effective mechanisms for local input; finding mechanisms for relevant local content; the need to increase the skills of local program staff; ensuring the validity and reliability of the data collected; maintaining consistency within the activities undertaken.
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Figure 2.1 An example of a mind map for a project decision path: the consultancy model
Figure 2.2 An example of a mind map for a project design model: linkages between the stages of the project
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Figure 2.2 provides an example of another mind mapping exercise for a business study which evaluated the efficiency and effectiveness of a program and ultimately charted the required areas for future service improvement. Balancing Note-taking with Tutorial Activities I gave a hint earlier about how and why you might wish to balance the taking of lecture notes with attendance and participation in tutorials. Tutorial groups are usually more informal than lectures and involve small groups rather than the larger groups usually involved in lectures. They generally have a range of purposes. Firstly, to provide you with a forum within which you can discuss and more fully explore the content of your subjects. Secondly, they provide you with a place to undertake more in-depth work which is usually presented to your tutorial group as a purely oral or sometimes oral and activity-based presentation. The other important value of tutorials is that they provide a forum where you can raise difficulties you may be having with your coursework. You can request assistance or guidance from your tutor to find more information on a topic or get further clarification on what is being covered in your lectures and tutorial exercises. It is therefore important that you balance your lecture attendance and note-taking with your participation in tutorial activities. This will help you clarify any outstanding issues and give you practice in expressing your views and developing opinions about the topics covered in lectures. Raising Issues from Lectures: The When and the Where You will sometimes find yourself in the situation where the lecturer presents something that you simply cannot understand. Alternatively, they may raise something which leaves you with more questions than answers. Deciding whether and when to raise these concerns can be a dilemma. As I indicated before, if all other participants in the room are looking at the lecturer with a blank expression, then it is obvious that some brave soul should ask for clarification. If that is not possible, or you feel that you are the only one who is missing the point, then raise your concerns at the end of the lecture with the lecturer, or as soon as possible afterwards with your tutor. If the information you receive from either your lecturer or tutor still raises more questions than it answers then explore the topic further on the Internet, in the library, in your prescribed texts or other relevant sources. It is important that you don't ignore these gaps in understanding as they
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occur, since they will grow in size and importance as new material is raised in lectures and tutorials. Alternatives to Note-taking A common alternative to note-taking is audio-tape recording. Some universities, particularly as part of the support that they provide to external students, circulate tapes of the lectures delivered to internal students. These can be a useful addition to private study providing that the quality of the recording is acceptable. They can also be useful with revision and other examination preparation. Taping lectures whilst attending them can sometimes be a useful back-up to other study methods. However, before you go to the time and expense of recording your lectures you need to consider what you are going to do with the recordings and how they will fit into your overall study plan. If you tape the lectures with the intention of transcribing them when you get home, you must be extremely disciplined about this. If you allow yourself to get into the position of having a backlog of transcriptions to do, you will become extremely disorganised. Another potential trap is that you may become reliant upon the taping and not pay attention to the lectures as they are taking place. If the tape fails for some mechanical reason then you have a problem. If you get behind with transcribing the tapes, then you may get irretrievably lost and have considerable difficulties with examination preparation and keeping up with your lectures. Therefore, before deciding to use a tape recorder to record your lectures be clear about your purpose in doing so. Have a management plan for how you will use the recordings and the information contained on them; and use them to support your note-taking rather than as a substitute for it, as this will minimise the effects of any failure in the taping process. Keeping It Balanced: Organising Time It is self-evident that organisation is the key to undertaking your studies successfully. Whatever methods you use to record and organise your lecture and tutorial attendance, they must be effectively integrated with your research and coursework activities, such as essay writing, assignment completion, laboratory reports or case studies and observations. In order to succeed you must be organised. You must allocate sufficient time to undertake all of your activities adequately, including working your way through
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your prescribed textbooks and doing your research. A wall-planner or diary to allocate time for research and assignment writing activities is important. As soon as you get notification of a piece of work to be done, allocate the time required for each significant stage, from commencement through to completion. If you use audio-tape recording in your lectures, you must allocate regular blocks of time to complete their transcription. Where possible it's probably best to do that as soon as you get home from your lectures. Testing Your Understanding It is not a wise idea to wait until a test or examination before finding out whether you understand what you have been learning. It is also not enough just to do research only to complete coursework requirements for essays and assignments. The best way to test your understanding is to continuously explore the literature and information on your subjects and their individual topics. Your reading can become an incredible voyage of discovery if you take the time to allow it become that. Having discussions with your classmates, lecturers and tutors can also benefit the testing of your understanding. You may initially feel a little uncomfortable in doing this, but persevere, as it is well worth the risk. Remember also that reading academic literature is simply not the same as reading for pleasure. Reading summaries will be talked about a little later, but reading as research requires that you take notes and that you work much harder at retaining and understanding what it is that you are reading. Read the footnotes and endnotes where they are provided, because that is the place where the writer will either draw your attention to other relevant areas of exploration, or where they will provide you with further information to help your understanding. By reading more widely on your subjects and raising questions when they arise, you are constantly testing your understanding as you go along. This is a more effective method of learning and one which will aid your examination preparation and the successful completion of coursework activities. Putting It Together: Lectures, Note-taking and Study Putting it together is a simple process. A checklist on note-taking, lectures and study will probably help:
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Lectures are an important component of the study process. Try to get the most out of them, firstly by the simple process of going to them. Experiment with and then adopt the most effective method you can for recording the material presented in lectures. Decide upon a way of noting issues you wish to explore further or raise at a later time with your lecturers or in tutorials. Don't let issues you don't understand build into an avalanche of missed explanations. If the lectures are based on a prescribed text, try to keep your reading of its chapters in line with the flow of the lectures. If you audio-tape record your lectures, allocate sufficient time for their transcription on a regular basis. Use your tutorial and research time to explore further the issues raised in lectures and to gain greater understanding of the materials presented. Read for clarity and understanding when reading academic literature. Include the footnotes and endnotes in your reading and make reading summaries to help locate materials again and to make assignment preparation and essay writing more organised activities.
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Chapter 3 Tutorials and Presentations What Is a Tutorial? A tutorial is a small group forum which is generally attached to the lectures in your courses. The purpose of tutorials is to provide a mechanism for further exploration of the topics being covered in the lectures or to practice and experiment with concepts and methods in your chosen field. In some subjects, tutorials will take the form of laboratories, or structured workshops where experiments and other subject specific methods of data gathering will be practised. In psychology, for example, the tutorial process usually takes the form of laboratories, within which you will undertake and participate in psychological experiments. These are usually designed to increase your understanding of the scientific and experimental methods of psychology and the testing of research hypotheses. In other subjects your tutorials will take the form of practicals, or action-based exercises, where specific skills will be taught and practised. For those studying nursing, for example, it may be the place where you learn how to take temperatures and do patient observations. In other subjects, your tutorials will be places to explore in greater depth the field or topics that your lectures are covering. A common method of doing this is to allocate a subject or topic to each student, and they conduct research and complete some form of tutorial presentation or paper at a later date. Why Are Tutorials Important? From what has just been said, it is obvious that tutorials are an important forum within which to gain more information and increase your understanding of your subjects or the practical skills of your chosen academic discipline. They are also important as a means of developing your personal skills in analysis, critical reasoning and the presentation of clear and effective arguments. In the same way that assertions on paper, such as in essays and assignments, must be proved, so too the views that you assert in tutorials must be substantiated by facts or reasoned arguments. By virtue of their smaller size tutorials are an invaluable forum wityin which to explore and clarify issues. Like lectures, they should only be missed in dire circumstances. Getting the Most from Tutorials Most universities allocate a percentage of course marks to tutorial attendance and participation; therefore it is in your long term interests to use
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the time wisely and profitably. To get the most from tutorials, you must participate. However, that participation must be based on 'doing the work'. When you are pressed for time it is often easier to select a tutorial presentation which is either simple to do, or one on which you have already gathered considerable data. This is understandable as a survival tool, but, sometimes it is more beneficial to choose something on which you actually need more information or one where you need to increase your understanding. The process then serves two mutually beneficial aims: meeting the formal requirements of the course; challenging and extending your knowledge on a topic for which you need to do more work anyway. Getting the most from tutorials also requires you to develop an effective means of sharing information with your fellow students. One way of doing this is to encourage discussion to occur. Another way is to encourage involvement through doing. A final useful way is to provide written materials to your classmates on the presentation that you make for your tutorial presentation. In fact, some tutors require the development, presentation and distribution of a tutorial paper, after your presentation, as part of the assessment process. Selecting a Presentation As already indicated, it is useful to choose a presentation which will both challenge you and contribute effectively to your understanding of a particular topic, or alternatively contribute to your acquisition of practical skills. Sometimes the selection will be made for you. Your tutor will develop a set of topics to be covered and allocate individual students to them. If that is the case then it is more than reasonable to discuss the topic with the tutor and to seek some guidance in finding out whether they have any present expectations about what should be covered in your presentation. The most important ingredient in your actual presentation will be maintaining the interest and involvement of the other students. Whether you select your own topic, or have one selected for you, it is important that you try to find ways to make your presentation interesting to group members as well as to keep up their energy levels. One of the ways that you can do this is to choose something that is topical or which has a contemporary emphasis. I remember that one of the most interesting subjects that I studied in law was Torts. This was because the lecturer provided assignments and tutorial topics based on cases in the
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public arena. They included things like the Strathfield Massacre and the highjacking of a cruise liner, and because they were about current issues they were more exciting and challenging to explore. Deciding on a Presentation Method Deciding on a suitable presentation method is only limited by your own imagination. The important considerations to remember are: Is it an area that you need to understand better? Is it an area that has or can have a contemporary focus? Can you present it in a way that will involve your fellow students or classmates in some meaningful discussion or practical activity? Can the method you choose provide you with a means to readily create handouts or a paper for later distribution? Researching the Topic Researching the tutorial topic is much the same as undertaking any other piece of work, such as writing an essay or completing an assignment. However, you should include contemporary issues when they are relevant to your topic, and there may also be some further research required other than library or electronically-based research or literature searches. Other areas you might explore are government departments, professional organisations, the media, other universities, etc. If you are looking for practical activities you might explore training and development literature in business or education. Again, the only limitation is your imagination. Your major goal is to keep the interest, both yours and that of the other participants. Keeping the Interest Keeping up interest in your tutorial presentations is primarily a result of your personal energy levels. The important aspects are: comfort with and understanding of the topic; enthusiasm for your presentation; challenge in what you are presenting; contemporary relevance and interest in both what you are presenting and the manner in which you are presenting it; sufficient balance between doing things and hearing things, so that the other participants don't start to wander either in their minds or actually out the door!
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Doing and Listening Very few university courses these days do not involve a mixture of participants, including those who have just left high school, mature-aged students and others who have diverse study and work backgrounds. For students straight from high school, the major difficulty in presenting tutorials is the different method of learning that it represents. They often expect to continue the rote learning that was the major part of their high school studies. They expect materials to be delivered to them in either visual or auditory form and then to replay or regurgitate it when requested. For mature-aged or older students, with some employment experience, their style of learning is quite different. They have learnt to learn through doing, and through testing their environment and their own knowledge with new material. To adequately cover both learning styles, there must be a reasonable blend between doing and listening. Also, the listening must be managed so that you effectively encourage participation and involvement. When planning your presentations try to identify a method which will allow this balance between doing and listening; and, if practicable, include some specific activities so that there can be some experimentation or concrete application of the theories or viewpoints you put forward. Encouraging Involvement Encouraging involvement means understanding that people all learn through different pathwahs. Some people are auditory and some are visual. To assist understanding and encourage involvement you really need to be able to provide material in both ways, if at all possible. Another useful tip is to plan some questions in advance. Present some questions that encourage the other tutorial participants to think about what you are presenting and to open up discussions within the group. To do this effectively you must have a presentation style that encourages involvement as an essential component of your presentation. Your presentation shouldn't simply involve the reading of a paper, nor should it require others to sit passively while you deliver it to them. An effective presentation is one in which everybody feels that they are making some meaningful contribution and where there is a collective advancing of ideas and understanding. Finally, knowing and truly understanding the subject matter of your presentation will help you deliver a relaxed and energised presentation, and it will also encourage the active involvement
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energised presentation, and it will also encourage the active involvement and participation of others. The Write-up and Distribution With tutorials, the job's not done until the paperwork is complete. Whether it is expected of you or not, it is important to write up your presentation so that you have notes and information to refer to when delivering it. It is also helpful to review your presentation after you present it, in order to revise or reconsider any issues which arose during the group discussions. I personally prefer to rewrite the paper after the presentation has been delivered. Copies of this revised version can then be distributed to the rest of the group for inclusion with their own study materials. The accumulation of these revised tutorial papers can be an invaluable study aid later on and also very useful during the preparation of assignments. Some other useful tips are to: practice the delivery of your presentation, preferably in front of someone who will be an effective critical reviewer and will give you useful feedback; time the presentation so that you allow space for discussions; time the presentation so that you don't have to leave out important parts or relevant activities.
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Chapter 4 Essay Writing. Introduction Writing a successful essay is a highly structured process which requires a proper allocation of time and very focused activities. Time needs to be allocated to: clarifying the content of the question; creating an outline for the research phase; sourcing the relevant research data and materials; organising and collating the information that you collect; writing a first draft based on the logical relationship between the material collected and the question; correctly annotating or referencing the material within the body of the essay; testing the first draft against the question for relevance; testing the first draft for readability; testing the first draft through cold review to make sure that no ambiguity or lack of clarity exists; editing the draft based on input from the reviewer(s); rewriting or correcting the draft based on this input; completing the presentation copy for submission. Word processing using a computer is a very useful timesaver. It allows you to complete editing, referencing and online manipulation of text as part of the writing process. Many word-processing packages have spell checking and grammar checking as well as on-line models or outlines which simplify the organisation of the essay. Computer programs such as WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, Lotus AmiPro and other similar proprietary wordprocessing packages allow for the automatic inclusion of such useful style and layout options as: outlining; justification of text; footnotes or endnotes; references; indexes; chapter and section headings; automatic page numbering; table of contents;
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paragraph and line numbering; automatic indenting; formatting of text, including margins, text styles; and automatic word counting. Consider the features that you want in a program and test the marketplace for what is available. Most importantly, if you are not a touch typist consider acquiring a typing instruction program such as Typequick&x212; to increase your skills before you get too deeply into the academic year. If you have to spend most of your time grappling with the program and the keyboard it will make your life considerably more difficult than it needs to be. Analysing the Question It may seem silly, but one of the most common problems in successful essay writing is making sure that you answer the right question. In order to do this it is essential that you correctly analyse the question. Most of the time, the question will provide leads for you within its wording, such as: compare highlight the similarities between; contrast highlight the differences between; analyse systematically analyse the question; describe provide a systematic description of; discuss provide a logical viewpoint on the topic; identify logically disassemble and record; evaluate systematically assess the elements of; justify provide logical justification for. If there are no trigger words such as those above, you will need to sit and ponder the question and look for less obvious clues about what the examiner is looking for. Your untutored opinion is seldom what is required. There is a clear difference between opinion and fact. Even when you are asked to discuss an issue your material should be presented in such a way that all assertions are substantiated by fact, either in the form of a citation of authority or some other accepted means of differentiating between opinion and fact. An accepted maxim of law is 'those who assert must prove'. This is also true of academic writing. The examiners don't simply want to hear what you think, or see bold statements presented as irrefutable facts. They specifically want to know what process of analysis you have gone through and the subject or discipline authorities you have examined to arrive at
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and the subject or discipline authorities you have examined to arrive at your view. Conducting Library Research Conducting library research is an essential aspect of the process of researching and writing material for an academic audience. In order to do this effectively it is essential that you have an appropriate referencing system and a competent and effective means of being able to retrieve the material that you collect. Too often students read looking for information on an essay topic; however, when it comes to including the information in the essay they have considerable difficulty remembering where they read what and how to find it again. One of the best methods for dealing with this problem is to write reading summaries which clearly reference the source of information and also provide, where appropriate, scope to employ direct quotes or to paraphrase information. The most successful method of doing reading summaries involves a two-phased process. Firstly, documenting what is read as a verbatim report; that is, no editing or analysis of what is written, just the completion of an accurate summary. Secondly, writing a critical analysis or commentary on what has been read. This second section is the appropriate place to raise unexplained, unanswered questions or otherwise relevant issues not contained within what you have read. Finally, the summary should contain the full citation of the text to be used in footnotes or endnotes and the bibliography. You need to also record the library call number so that you can get the book or article again. This requires you to note a range of identifying data on the publication. The minimum identification should include: a keyword or several words to describe the subject matter; the author(s) name, using last name first, and other names or initials; the book or journal title; the chapter or article reference; the year and date of publication; the publisher's location, which is usually a city and country; the volume and number of the journal where applicable; the page numbers, if only part of the article or book is used. Figure 4.1 is a simple example of a reading summary providing appropriate referencing as described above.
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Document title: Book of Journal: Publisher's name: Date of Publication: Keyword or words:
Page references: Library location: Library call reference:
Little Red Riding Hood is the story of a bad wolf who had designs on a young girl he met on the way to visit her grandmother.
Was this a simple narrative in the form of a children's tale?
Was it a discussion on women's rights and sexual When the girl resisted his advances he went to her grandmother's politics? house and ate her up before the young girl arrived. Was it in fact a parable? He then disguised himself as the grandmother and tried to fool the young girl into believing he was her grandmother. If it was a parable, what was its actual intent?
Figure 4.1 An example of a reading summary Collecting and Collating Research Data When writing and researching for an academic audience it is seldom sufficient to rely entirely upon the textbook(s) prescribed for a subject. The examiner will be looking for a broader examination of the topic and for evidence that you have both thought about the question and adequately examined the field of study from which it comes. For topics which are continuously being researched and explored it is important that you review the field of contemporary research data. This is generally found in journals rather than textbooks. For your particular subject areas, discover which are the most authoritative journals and where they are located in the library. Also remember to consult them routinely when you are undertaking any assignment or other relevant coursework activity. Using on-line library reference services will be covered in a later chapter; however, it is important that you familiarise yourself with the range of tracking systems that operate in your library, including both card indexes
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and on-line computer systems. You need to thoroughly explore the library and become skilled in its use. You should become familiar with the locations of books, closed and open reserves, journals and periodicals, and other publications. The reference librarians are usually a great resource; they love to be asked questions and to assist you in finding materials. An important aspect of library research is being able to sift the wheat from the chaff. That is, being able to identify a good reference work from a not-so-good one. In this case, good is defined by how relevant the article or material is to the topic that you are researching. It also includes how well it is presented and how much it relies on primary research and/or well analysed evidence. When you read for academia you have to learn to become extremely discerning about what you read. A method which can help is to seek out the articles that are referred to in the coursework materials you are given. That is, follow the trail of footnotes or endnotes to the primary sources used by their authors. Alternatively, use one of the references you have been given for an assignment or topic, call it up on the on-line cataloguing system in the library to follow the trail of also related references within the cataloguing system. (This will be further explored in the library research and electronic resources sections in later chapters.) In order to effectively collate the data that you gather in the library research phase, you should already have analysed the question. This will provide you with a basic collection framework. It is also useful to have begun to formulate your arguments and the facts upon which you will rely to substantiate those arguments. The best way to do this is to develop an overview of your essay as a framework for data collection and a basic outline for the essay's presentation layout. Effective essays have three distinct major sections. The first is an introduction, which helps the reader to understand the question and what your basic argument(s) will be. The next section is the body of the essay, which will describe and present assertions and facts about your arguments. Finally, there will be a conclusion, which will sum up your arguments and point to the future in terms of other relevant issues to be explored. Simply put, a good essay has a clear beginning, middle and end. Therefore, most of your research will be focused on the centre or body of the essay. Most of your analysis and logical argument will be briefly described in the introduction, thoroughly presented in the body, and summarised in the conclusion.
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In order to develop your essay using this general outline or framework, you should assemble your data and research materials using your proposed essay outline as your data collection framework. You might also break this outline into relevant sub-headings which can be helpful in maintaining the logical flow of your arguments. To assist this process, it might be beneficial to break your collection framework into these sub-heading areas as will be demonstrated later. To link the essay outline and the collection process to the development of your reading summaries, it may be beneficial to use the headings and sub-headings in the keyword identification at the top of each reading summary. This will make the collection of materials more simple and also make their retrieval a more effective process. An alternative method is to use separate manilla folders for each section, heading and sub-heading, placing into each the data you collect from your research. An example from Windschuttle and Windschuttle (1988, pp 14347) provides an outline for a research essay and also a rudimentary data collection framework using that outline. Part of it is presented below. THE QUESTION What are the causes of strikes? Examine the different relationships between employers and trade unions in various countries and suggest reasons why some countries have high levels of strikes and others have low levels? ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTION 1. Identify and describe the causes of strikes and the indicators which illustrate them? 2. Examine the perceived differences between (compare) the causes as articulated by employers and trade unions; 3. Identify relevant comparative countries which represent high and low rates of industrial disputes and strikes; 4. Explain the differences between the countries with high and low rates; 5. Compare and contrast those differences.
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UNDERTAKING THE TASK Examination of the issues requires a description and analysis of high and low strike-rate countries on the indicators identified. To compare and contrast these issues and indicators, more than one country is required to represent each group, since a sample of one does not really provide a valid base for comparison (see research sections following). In their example, Windschuttle and Windschuttle use Britain and Australia for the high strike-rate examples, and Japan and the United States of America as the low strike-rate countries. The headings they use in the initial development of a data collection framework are: causes of strikes; industrial relations issues; representative countries for both high and low rates. THE RESEARCH PLAN LOOKS LIKE THIS: 1. Causes of strikes 2. Industrial relations in countries with high strike rates 2.1 Britain 2.2 Australia 3. Industrial relations in countries with low strike rates 3.1 Japan 3.2 United States of America
This framework is used to initially define the question and to develop a rudimentary collection framework. As you begin to collect information for your essay, you may find that areas need to be sub-divided since there are other issues that require attention on their own. In our example, the causes of strikes involve a number of issues in the industrial relations arena. This section may be sub-divided to include: Wages Hours of work Retrenchments.
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The modified framework would then look like this: 1.0 Causes of strikes 1.1 Wages issues 1.2 Hours of work 1.3 Retrenchments 1.3.1 Conditions 1.3.2 Impacts 2.0 Industrial relations in countries with high strike rates 2.1 Britain 2.1.1 Wages 2.1.2 Hours 2.1.3 Retrenchments 2.2 Australia 2.2.1 Wages 2.2.2 Hours 2.2.3 Retrenchments 3.0 Industrial relations in countries with low strike rates 3.1 Japan 3.1.1 Wages 3.1.2 Hours 3.1.3 Retrenchments
This framework provides a basis upon which to collect and assemble research data. As an essay framework, it is limited, since it provides a very sterile and mechanistic presentation. For an essay you require a narrative which logically links concepts, ideas and arguments within a readable flow of information. The research framework can provide the headings and subheadings for the narrative, but the style should concentrate on clear presentation and readability. Simply linking the facts you collect with 'linking words' is totally insufficient. Again using the Windschuttle example, the plan may not remain fixed whilst you are collecting your data, simply because insufficient data may be available for one of the countries that you have chosen, or because, as you research you may find more interesting examples and illustrations using different countries. It is important to be flexible and use the illustrations which best prove your arguments or illustrate your viewpoints. If this occurs, simply make
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the necessary modifications to your data collection framework to incorporate the changes. The final research plan for the Windschuttle example may therefore finish up looking like this. 1.0 Causes of strikes 1.1 Wages 1.2 Working conditions 1.2.1 Hours of work 1.2.2 Paid overtime 1.3 Job security 1.4 Union strength 1.5 Government policy 1.6 The effects of retrenchment on the workforce 2.0 Industrial relations in countries with high strike rates 2.1 Wages: Britain, Austrialia and Italy 2.2 Working conditions: Britain, Australia and Italy 2.2.1 Hours of work: Britain, Australia and Italy 2.2.2 Paid overtime: Britain, Australia and Italy 2.3 Job security: Britain, Australia and Italy 2.4 Union strength: Britain, Australia and Italy 2.5 Government policy: Britain, Australia and Italy 3.0 Industrial relations in countries with low strike rates (as 2.0 above, then, including other issues which further illustrate your arguments.)
Plagiarism, Citation and Quotations The greatest sin in academia is to plagiarise the work of another. Plagiarism is the academic equivalent of theft, in this case the theft of ideas or words. Some students attempt to get around the prohibition on plagiarism by using the technique of paraphrasing without citation. This can often be a trap since the academic marking the work is likely to be widely read on the subject matter of the assignment and will know the works that you are using. Paraphrasing is simply taking someone else's ideas and putting them into your own words. Certainly taking in the ideas of others is an expected part of the academic process; however, it also requires the sifting and analysing of that information, not just the regurgitation of what you read. Paraphrasing without attribution or citation of your source, either in a
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footnote, endnote, or at least in the bibliography, will ultimately lead to problems and should be avoided as much as plagiarism. To appropriately give citation, in the body of the text, the usual manner is to provide the name and the year of the publication which you are citing, e.g. Smith (1987). If you use this method, the full reference should appear in your bibliography. Further information on citation and referencing will appear in a following section. Where you feel that another's words most appropriately present the argument which you wish to make, it is acceptable to quote their work in full text form with appropriate referencing. Many examiners do not like students to rely too heavily on the words of others and are somewhat allergic to the use of quotes. You will only find this out by trying it and seeing how they respond in their marking. In order to quote appropriately, there are a number of style requirements which you must fulfil. They include: citation or referencing; quotatin marks; italics for the quoted section; indentation of the quoted section within the page layout. To illustrate, the boxed text in Figure 4.2 below provides an example using italics for the quoted portion and plain text representing my words. Using italics to identify the quoted material is a generally accepted grammatical form; however, what are essential are the quotation marks (' ') which are a standard grammatical reference for the words of another. Barbara Holborow is a highly respected tetired magistrate of the New South Wales Children's Court. She recently launched an autobiography in which she examined her experiences as a Children's Court magistrate. ' . . . Barbara's compassion and outspokenness became legendary during her years on the bench. She even opened her court up to the 60 Minutes TV program, thereby giving countless numbers of people the opportunity to witness at first hand a world that, with any luck, they would never become involved . . .' Sydney Morning Herald The current crisis within the welfare and juvenile justice systems would not surprise Ms Holborow: she was often a vocal and outspoken critic of government policy and practice in the welfare and juvenile justice areas.
Figure 4.2 An example of a full text quotation
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Generally avoid quoting large amounts of text. Use a combination of your own words to synthesise what the author is saying and only use direct quotes where you want to emphasise or illustrate your point. Creating the Essay Outline The essay outline, as you have probably already guessed, is based on the research outline you have already created. However, the test of whether it can operate effectively for your essay outline is whether the organisation is logical and whether it allows issues to flow in a smooth narrative. The modified research framework appearing in 'Collecting and collating research data' above is also appropriate to use as an essay outline. Separating the logical flow of information through the use of headings and sub-headings aids the reader in maintaining a clear understanding of where you are going with your arguments and information. Some examiners do not like the use of sub-headings, but you will only find this out through trial and error. Generally speaking, all markers like to be able to read an essay effortlessly and follow the arguments without having to re-read the entire essay or sections within it to find out where the student is going. A good rule of thumb is to keep it simple. If you have to re-read your own work, then rewrite. Remember also that the essay should have three distinct sections, that is, a clear beginning, middle and end. The data you have collected must be logically apportioned throughout those sections and lead the reader ultimately to accept or reject your conclusions. Through simple analysis, then, it is clear that your summary and analysis of the question and the development of your research framework will appear in the beginning or introduction, most of your research will appear in the body or middle of the essay, and the unanswered questions will appear in the conclusion. Writing the First Draft Using the outline previously discussed you can now begin to write the first draft of your essay. Few, if any, students can get away with what I would call the 'one hit wonder', that is, the essay which only has to be written once and then submitted. Some try but invariably do not get marked as well as they could. There is also not much point in sitting down to write your essay the day before it is due for submission and hoping that you can get it all together within that time. Planning is the most important aspect
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make sure that your library research and summarising leave you with enough time to pull it all into a cogent and thoughtful presentation. You should expect to write at least one or two versions or drafts of any essay before presenting it for marking. It is important that you plan to have enough time so that you are able to do that well. Remember that it is a presentation, so style and clarity are important; in fact they are essential. One essential aspect of drafting is making sure that the essay is readable. If the reader has to keep going back and rereading to understand what you are saying, or how your thoughts and ideas link together, then you need to rewrite and rewrite until re-reading is not required. I prefer to use sub-headings to separate aspects of the essay. Some markers have a problem with their use so, as I have said before, you will just have to test this to see. Make sure that you use appropriate grammar and do not fail to put your document through a spell checker. However, don't worry too much about this for the first draft. Just get the ideas down. Writer's block is a common problem in essay writing. Looking at a blank page or blank computer screen can be daunting, but it is essential that you do get started because time will become your enemy soon enough. Even if you finish up cutting out or deleting half of what you write when you come to re-reading your first draft, at least you have made a start, and slowly but surely your thinking will start to crystallise. As you work with your thoughts, the arguments of others, and your analysis of the question, the essay will come together. Reality Testing or Cold Review This is the place where it all starts to get serious. Finding a friend, a colleague or even a family member who is prepared to be your editor or 'cold reviewer' is a great find. These are the sort of people who are worth their weight in gold and you should always cultivate and appreciate their efforts on your behalf. The main role of the cold reviewer or editor is to read your essay to see whether you have answered the question and whether what you have written presents a cogent and comprehensive presentation of relevant arguments. They should also comment on your presentation style and its clarity. For them to do this well, you need to make some important agreements and give them some specific instructions before they begin this most important task. Firstly, you must agree not to take their comments as personal
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criticism. You must also agree that you will reserve the right to accept or reject what they say. Further, you must acknowledge that their role is to be a critical reviewer. When they have difficulty with what you have written, this is an indication that you need to revise or rewrite the content. For their part, they must not be gratuitously kind to youif they don't understand what they are reading they need to say so, in order to be an effective reviewer. Although they do not have to be a subject expert; they must appropriately address the issues of clarity, presentation and comprehensiveness. Editing and Referencing It may sound like a simple thing but it is an important one. When you are editing, make sure that you use a pen or pencil which will clearly show up on your work, otherwise when you go back into your document to start making changes you may miss some that you have identified. Very few people can effectively edit on a computer screen. I know that I find it impossible to do and I have been writing and editing materials for an academic audience for a very long time. It is probably best to make a hard copy (paper copy) of your work to edit, especially if you are using a cold reviewer technique. You don't need to do a text editing course but it is useful to develop some symbols or common means by which your editing is meaningful to you. There is a set of accepted editorial symbols which you may wish to use. Most technical bookstores should be able to supply you with something that provides these for you. Personally, I use a red pen and am generally ruthless with editing. If your cold reviewer is providing editorial comments, it is important that they also use a clear method for their commentary so that you can take account of those comments when redrafting or rewriting. An example of an edited 'mark up' can be seen in Figure 4.3. When I read essays from students I can generally tell when they are making bold assertions or statements and when their writing is based on reasonable research, even if they don't cite the sources of their material. Most markers will do this. So rather than put yourself in the position of possibly being accused of plagiarism, reference your material. Most universities provide an essay writing booklet or even a short course which provides you with information on how they prefer materials
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to be written, as well as their preferred referencing or bibliographic format. Don't assume that you know what is wanted; if someone is going to take the trouble to provide you with information on matters of style and preferred presentation, then take the time to read and absorb what they have to say.
Figure 4.3 An example of editing notations for a document The bibliography is the place for the full reference, but placing the reference in the body of the text also helps, especially in terms of clarity and ease of reading for the marker. They will often thank you by way of a better mark, so it is certainly a habit worth cultivating. I personally like to use footnotes and this is easy to do with computer-based word processing software. If you are citing only a specific section of a work, include the page numbers of that section; if you are referring to a general overview on the topic gained from reading the article or book then reference the entire work as in the example below. The full bibliographic reference would be, as illustrated in Figure 4.4.
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Indigenous societies world-wide are seeking forms of self-determination and selfgovernment which depend on the institutions of the national state. In Australia, the distinct cultural needs of Aboriginal communities have influenced all aspects of the system (1) of government, ranging from the interpretation of common law through to the redistribution of national resources to local communities in remote areas(2). (1) Fletcher C, How indigenous people are governed, [publisher], [location], [year of publication], [page references if applicable]. (2) Fletcher C, Regionalism and federal organisation of government in Australia and Canada, [publisher], [location], [year of publication], [page references if applicable].
Figure 4.4 An example of full text referencing Thus a full bibliographical reference would be as follows: Beresford Q, & Omaji P, Rites of passage: Aboriginal youth crime and justice, Fremantle Arts Centre Press, Fremantle, WA, 1996, pp 2336. Another method used to expand on a particular body of thought is to provide a reference to those who have identified or argued the particular issues you are addressing, such as in the following: It is important to remember to give appropriate citation to the authors of the materials you are quoting. (Windschuttle & Windschuttle 1988; Macqueen 1997). Completing the Final Presentation. This is the serious business of the process so don't leave anything to chance. Everything in the manner of presentation will count, including: clean paper; readable print; tidiness; page numbering; line spacing to allow for ease of reading; margins wide enough to allow the marker to make comments.
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A simple checklist of items to be considered includes: The presentation submitted should be the final edited version of the essay. The presentation should be printed out properly on every page. All pages should be consecutively numbered. All inclusions such as graphs and tables should be appropriately labelled in the text. All references in the body of the essay should be provided in full in either footnotes, endnotes or the bibliography, depending on your institution or marker's preferred presentation requirements. Appropriate page numbers should be provided within your references if you are quoting particular passages or referring to particular sections of a work. All headings and subheadings should be clearly and consistently presented. Appropriate citations and references should be included within the body of the work. Every reference in the body of the text should appear in the bibliography. The bibliography should be attached at the end of your essay. The title page and any required identification such as your student number should be included. Your essay should be appropriately attached and identified within a special folder if your institution requires it. The essay should not be placed in plastic sleeves; it might keep it tidy but it makes the marker's job a nightmare if they have to take each page out to mark it.
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Chapter 5 Undertaking a Research Assignment Defining the Research Purpose As I stated in the essay section, know what it is that you are doing before you begin. In the same way that it is possible to answer the wrong essay question, because you didn't take the time to thoroughly analyse the essay topic, it is also possible to collect the wrong data and answer the wrong research question. Another trap for students in their early academic days is to try to display to the marker the full extent of their knowledge, even if that knowledge is totally unrelated to the task at hand. This is a waste of everybody's time, as there are no additional marks for presenting volumes of material that have nothing to do with the assignment, and in fact there may be a penalty for wasting the marker's time! Another common problem is simply collecting the material and presenting it in an unanalysed or insufficiently integrated manner. A simple presentation of data is not enough to answer a research question. In the same way that an essay which displays critical reasoning will get you a higher mark, so too a research assignment which displays a depth of research and examination of the question, beyond a simple literal presentation, will attract additional marks, at least in most instances. Some questions or assignments may ask specifically for a factual presentation of material on the question. Others may ask for an analysis or critical examination of the question presented. If this happens, then 'just the facts' will only get you a passing grade. Searching beyond the obvious is what is expected for a higher mark. To effectively undertake an assignment requiring research, firstly be clear about the purpose of the assignment. In order to collect the appropriate data, you must know which field is to be examined and the purpose of that examination, as well as its link to the research question. First look to the purpose of the assignment. Is an examination of the entire field of information required? Is an analysis of a specific question or specific topic required? Analysing the Question You must effectively analyse the question for a research assignment in the same manner that you examined essay questions referred to in chapter 4. Once you examine the question, you must then attempt to place it in the
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Once you examine the question, you must then attempt to place it in the specific field from which it derives. One common theme that arises with research assignments is that the question will be fairly open-ended. This is because the usual purpose of the assignment is to test the student's ability to seek out, analyse and appropriately organise a body of material related to the question. Your initial major concern, then, is to be clear whether the question is asking for an examination or exploration of the 'entire' field or a specific component of it. For example, if the assignment is on reproduction, there are a number of questions which need to be answered before you can begin to collect your data: Is it an examination of reproduction in all mammals? Is it an examination of reproduction in humans only? Is it an examination of 'normal' reproductive behaviours? Is it an examination of reproductive technology? Any one of these questions could open up a large field of research and produce an in-depth presentation. The data, once collected, could be presented in essay or graphical format, or as a combination of both. If the question was about current medical interventions in human reproduction; or the bioethics of in vitro technology, there would be major differences in the quality, quantity and focus of the information you would explore and how you would argue your case. A question based on complex moral and ethical considerations would generally present you with a choice of arguing for the benefits or detriments of the viewpoints involved. Your data collection and presentation would depend upon which view you chose to take in relation to the positive or negative aspects of the intervention. Indeed, you might take the balanced view and present both sides of each viewpoint, and then argue for the need for further examination of the undecided issues. It is obvious that you must identify the assignment purpose and the question which you wish to explore before beginning your data collection. There is little point in an undirected roaming of the library shelves in the faint hope that an answer will emerge from your exploration.
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Clarifying the Requirements Clarifying the requirements goes hand in hand with determining the purpose and analysing the question. The outputs of your activities will be determined by what you are specifically asked to provide in your presentation. The academic field of study on any given area is generally wideranging. You are expected, during your time as a student, to demonstrate your understanding of this, and show your familiarity with accessing materials and putting together reasoned arguments and quality presentations. The goal of your academic experience is not just to provide you with the means to answer the questions you are asked in any given piece of work. It is for you to be able to generalise the skills involved in completing assignments, tutorials and essays. Remember that one of the goals of your studies is to prepare you for later employment. Your essay and assignment activities should enable you to undertake future employment-related tasks that use your skills to solve work-based problems. Therefore, when undertaking assignments, the method is as important as the answer, and in some instances it is more important since it is the basis upon which your future career activities will be undertaken. In most instances it will be expected that you will present a written assignment output. That is, a specific essay presentation based on your examination of the question, the field of study from which it derives, and an analysis of the material that you have collected in your research in the library and elsewhere. Again, in most instances, the marker will be looking for evidence that you have moved beyond the materials presented in your lectures and tutorials. He or she will expect you to explore the general field of academic literature as well as the electronic and other data available to you. Simply producing your assignments from your lecture notes and prescribed textbooks does not demonstrate either initiative or familiarity with the broader body of work within your field of study. These are the standard requirements of any research assignmentthe specifics come from your analysis of the question and the stance or view that you choose to take in answering it. Selecting the Sample or Field of Research Selection of a sample or field of research is completely dependant upon the purpose of the assignment. It comes back to analysing the question, which will generally be something specific, that is, an aspect of a much broader field. Like the example explored above, invitro fertilisation is a component
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of the broader field of reproductive technology, and reproductive technology itself is part of the broader field of infertility. It is always useful to place the area that you are examining firstly within the broader field from which it comes. This is as true for business and market research as social or medical research. Once you have examined the context, as represented by that broad field, then you can begin to examine the specific, as represented by the part that you are examining and/or analysing (as in the in vitro example). However, as indicated in the section on tutorials, the assignment in some fields may take the form of a laboratory report or experiment. If you are using an experimental method, then generally you will have both an experimental group and a general or control group. That is, one group with whom you conduct your experimentation and another with whom you do not. This is so that you can appropriately compare the results for your experimental group against those you did not treat or provide with some intervention, and so that any change that you may ascribe to your experimentation or intervention can be specifically attributed to that intervention. In social science and business research, this often means the selection of a sample population and comparing it to the general population. For example, an analysis of issues to do with young people may mean that you have a sample or experimental group, such as a class of high school seniors in Year 11. You would then test your results against the general population of similar aged young people, such as the total Year 11 age group in New South Wales, another state or the total Australian population. For this purpose you can use some particular forms of statistical analysis to compare a group sample against the general population. Choosing your sample or field of research depends upon knowing the general field from which your sample comes. Selecting an appropriately representative sample then becomes a matter of adequate research design and appropriate sampling technique. These issues will be covered in more detail in Chapter 11. Qualitative vs Quantitative Data The type of data which you use as evidence for your arguments and conclusions will depend upon the actual question or problem that you are required to solve or examine. However, it will be data that will be either qualitative or quantitative.
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Qualitative data is most often data based on opinion, perceptions or feelings. In marketing and sales research, for example, a large volume of qualitative data is collected on preferences, choices and satisfaction with products. In manufacturing and business research, qualitative data is collected on production quality, failure rates of components and products, client satisfaction or complaints, etc. In medical research, qualitative data is collected on success rates for treatment regimes, etc. Quantitative data is data which is usually based on numbers or counts and is often manipulated using a range of statistical methods. Quantitative data is usually considered to be hard data based on scientific method and statistical probability or other mathematical certainty. Demography is a form of quantitative data, as is a great deal of performance data in business and management. Demography will be examined more fully in Chapter 11; however, it is a broad field of exploration for behavioural and other forms of social research. Collecting and Collating the Data Having examined the question or the purpose of the assignment and having decided upon a stance which you will take; you then must develop your research outline in the same manner as writing your essays. The first step is to undertake a thorough literature search. There is little sense starting the research process from a zero base of information. In fact, the whole rationale for academic research is to advance the realm of ideas by experimentation and incremental progression. You build your knowledge from the existing field and extend that field where possible by your research, analysis and experimentation. If the assignment is on market testing for a product, then you will need to collect data on the demographics of the product, such as sales figures, profiles of the existing customer base, etc. If the plan is to increase market share in a given niche of the market place, then demographics on the people within that niche or target group would also be required. If the assignment is about immunisation levels in pre-school aged children, then data on the size of the pre-school aged population and any specific location that you have targeted would be part of your initial data collection. Preexisting health department statistics on immunisation rates would also be essential to collect. An examination of the factors resulting in low immunisation rates for pre-school aged children would also be important. You may also consider undertaking a survey of women with
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pre-school aged children to help you collate and analyse the contemporary arguments for and against immunisation. So, you must first examine the question and the assignment's purpose. You must then survey the field of research in terms of what has already been written about your topic, and identify the experimentation that has already taken place. You must select the specific area and questions which you want to now examine further, and then decide upon the data that will be required to substantiate your case. This becomes the assignment framework. Analysing the Data The level of analysis you apply to the data collected for your assignment depends a great deal upon the assignment's purpose. If it is a psychological experiment measuring the performance of an experimental group of subjects on a standardised test, then the degree of analysis will be extremely important and involve a specific set of statistical computations. If the assignment is examining the ethical issues in surrogacy, then a well-reasoned and argued narrative will be the major output required. You may possibly use statistical data to illustrate issues related to surrogacy that you discover in your literature search, or even opinion data collected from a survey you undertake. However, a question examining the ethics of something will require much more than subjective opinion. It will also require a highly reasoned argument based on the realm of available philosophical, legal and moral evidence. Analysing the data you collect is a by-product of your research design and your assignment outline. Use sufficient analysis to competently prove your arguments. However, it is essential that you do not present just the figures or numbers to prove your case. Presenting the Data: Tables Tables are a useful means of presenting data and illustrating comparisons. They are particularly useful in making comparisons between data over time. This is as applicable for management data, medical research or educational attainment testing. The important issue in presenting data in table format is whether the data is appropriate for that form of presentation. If it is, is it also appropriate to be used for the purpose of comparison? It is essential that data presented in tables is verified for accuracy and appropriately attributed in terms of its source. If it is primary data (i.e. data you have collected yourself), then the narrative that accompanies the table
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Page 44 presentation should indicate how the data was gathered and the assumptions you have derived from it. With primary data, you control the source of its collection, and so any actual or implied error which may be involved in the outcomes is known to you. Where you use other people's data, you must be cautious and accept that some degree of error may be possible. If it is secondary data (i.e. data from an external source), then it should be attributed and where possible its manner of collection also indicated. If there is any degree of error attributable to the data this should also be indicated. To make absolute statements or assertions based on secondary data can often be a risky business. Table 5.1 below provides an example of the accepted layout and indicates the required standard form, including the appropriate identification of the data source. Table 5.1 Use of community daycare programs, 199395 Category
1993
1994
1995
Total Percentage
Number
Percentage
Number
Percentage
Number
Percentage
In house
453
55
473
52
481
50
52.0
Centre-based
257
31
340
38
328
34
34.0
Live in
99
9
77
9
131
13
11.0
Total
821
905
963
Source: Local government planning data, 199395.
Presenting the Data: Graphics. Graphical presentations have enormous value; they are the epitome of the saying that 'a picture paints a thousand words'. However, when it comes to the presentation of graphics it is essential that you use a minimalist approachkeep it simple. Complicated graphs do not present your data in a way which is selfexplanatory and it is highly probable that you will also need to present a written explanation of its content, purpose and meaning. If the reader has to go through this convoluted process of getting the data through two presentations, they will be somewhat frustrated. If they are also marking you on that work, don't expect too many bonus points. Where possible keep all data presentations as clear and as simple as possible.
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Most business executives, for example, are seldom graphically literate beyond a simple pie chart. In fact a pie chart is an extremely useful means of illustrating a number of relationships between data. If marketing has 25 per cent of the budget; advertising has 36 per cent and sales 31 per cent it's pretty easy to see where the dollars are going, especially if it is presented as segments of a pie. Simple illustrations can, therefore, tell powerful stories. When presenting your data in graphical form, think about the story that you are trying to tell. What is the simplest and most powerful way that you can present it and what format will most effectively support your argument? These are the essential questions to be decided before you convert your data to a graphical format. An example of the standard format for graphical presentation appears in Figure 5.1 below.
Figure 5.1 A graphical representation of average annual income for selected professions, June 1995 Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, catalogue no. 235446.88. Presenting the Findings Presenting your findings in a research assignment is a similar process to the presentation of an essay. Naturally there will be a considerable proportion of the assignment which will be in narrative form, so it must have all the required attributes of a competent essay. It must be readable, it must flow logically, but it must also contain some other essential ingredients. A basic
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logically, but it must also contain some other essential ingredients. A basic checklist for an assignment presentation includes: clear structure; headings and sub-headings where applicable; appropriate referencing and footnoting; insertion of tables and graphics where relevant; appropriate identification of tables and graphics, including: a heading; figure or table numbers; appropriate scale references for graphic segments; identification of segments and naming of the axis on which they are found; identification of the source of the data, etc. inclusion of appropriate descriptive material to fully explain the results presented in either table or graphical format; narrative and explanatory text which draws appropriate conclusions; identification of unanswered questions or future research issues to be explored. In some academic disciplines there are standard formats for the presentation of research assignments. In psychology for example, a laboratory report must follow a standard presentation format. Whatever the discipline or field in which you are studying, it is important that you identify the required formats for the submission of work and follow those guidelines consistently.
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Chapter 6 Conducting Library Research Taking the Library Tour A common feature of the orientation or induction program for most universities is the library tour. Make sure that you take it and then continue to explore the library resources on your own, so that you become familiar with all of the relevant ways of accessing materials in the university's collections. Some specific departments also have their own collections. It is common, for example, for law collections to be housed in a separate part of a general library. At the University of New South Wales, there is an Aboriginal Research and Resource Centre which holds a wide collection of materials on indigenous issues for access by students. At Macquarie University, the Environmental Law materials are held in a specific section in the Law School rather than in the library or the general law collection. Find out where the materials for your subject area reside on campus and become familiar with how to use them, how to borrow them and the rules that apply to doing so. Find out where the photocopy machines are, how to use them, and at the risk of stating the obvious, get a library card. Cataloguing Systems The standard form of cataloguing is the Dewey system. It is the system of numbers and letters you will find on the spine of the library's books, on periodicals and other library collections. It will also be the identifier on the shelves on which the collections are housed. Logically then, it is also the way in which the card and computer files, or catalogues for documents and other materials in the library collections will be presented. Even with on-line catalogues, most libraries still retain a card catalogue; in most instances the on-line catalogue uses the same structure as the card system. The most common search criteria generally contains: Keywords in subject, title or organisation name Publication title Journal/periodical/newspaper title Author Author/title Subject Call number
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The Dewey classification system first allocates numbers to general subject areas. It then subdivides using additional numbers and identifiers. Some examples of the general classification system appear in Fig. 6.1 below. 000 Generalities computer science, librarianship, information studies, news and journalism 100 Philosophy and psychology 200 Theology and religious studies 300 Social sciences political science, economics, education 400 Languages 500 Science 600 Applied science medicine, nursing, management 700 The arts architecture, theatre, music and sport 800 Literature 900 Geography and history Figure 6.1 An example of the Dewey general classification system Figure 6.2 below shows the subdivision process, using the social sciences as an example. 300
Social Sciences 302.23
Media
305.4
Women
320
Government and politics
331.7023
Careers
33.7
Environment
338.4791
Tourism and travel
340
Law
355
Military
360
Health and community studies
362
Social welfare
362.4
Disability
370
Education
378.1702814
Academic staff development
Figure 6.2 An example of the sub-sections of the Dewey classification system
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Within and between libraries, the cataloguing systems are the same. The Australian National Library on-line catalogue allows you to search on a range of fields this is the same at the University of New South Wales, Macquarie University and the New York Public Library. Figure 6.3 below provides an example using the National Library's collections and its on-line search facility. The general topic area is Aboriginal Studies. When you first type in 'Aborigines' in the subject search area, the system returns the material in Figure 6.3. Aborigines, Australian
Number of Titles = 577
Related:
Aboriginal Australian police
Related:
Aboriginal Australian prisoners
Related:
Aboriginal Australian soldiers
Related:
Aborigines, Australian treatment
Related:
Aborigines, Australian cultural assimilation
Related:
Aborigines, Tasmanian
Related:
Adnyamathanha (Australian people)
Related:
Alyawarra (Australian people)
Related:
Aranda (Australian people)
Related:
Assimilation (sociology)
3 5 5 179 18 63 3 3 2 92
Figure 6.3 An example of the related categories that arise for a general examination of an on-line reference system It is obvious that in using on-line catalogues or any other referencing system, you should begin your search in general terms and then refine it down to the specific. Otherwise your research will be a long and laborious process of just sifting through huge volumes of material before you get to the information that actually interests you. There is always a compromise to be made, because if you make the search criteria too narrow you may miss material that might be valuable. If you make it too wide you will finish up with a large amount of material, most of which will not be relevant. When looking through cataloguing systems, don't forget special collections, which may be catalogued in a different section or area. Other useful areas for information also include: newspaper clippings; newspapers;
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government publications; parliamentary acts and regulations; Hansard; pamphlets; maps and pictures; manuscripts; oral histories. Another useful reference is APAIS (Australian Public Affairs Information Service) which lists by subject all articles published in Australian magazines. Reserved and Other Special Collections There are references to closed or open reserves and special collections throughout this chapter. The main thing about special collections is knowing where they are located. You also need to find out what their borrowing or access conditions are and how to use them on an ongoing basis. Usually they are not available for borrowing but space is often provided, where they are located, for you to use them. In most instances there will also be facilities for photocopying articles or other materials for your later use. Reserved collections, however, are a response to the demand for specific works during the academic year. When a lecturer sets up his or her lecture program and the coursework requirements designed to support it, they will generally ask the library to put certain books and materials on reserve; either closed or open. Closed reserve means that the materials are in a specific reference section where the material can be accessed for photocopying or taken to a table and used for a designated period of time, generally a few hours. Open reserve means that the materials may be borrowed but for very limited periods of time. There is usually some access to photocopying facilities in the reserved collections because the material is considered to be extremely relevant to the coursework involved. Again, this is another good reason for having a library copy card and also for maintaining a reasonable amount of copying capacity on it. Some libraries also use a library token system so always keep a few dollars worth of these in your briefcase or bag. The Etiquette of Borrowing This seems like a silly sub-heading but it is in fact an important one. Libraries are an extremely important research resource, but they do have
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a finite capacity to generate funds and continue to increase the scope and size of their collections. I have heard some horrendous stories of how library resources have been abused by students and some of the dirty tricks that they employ, including: substituting the contents of one book for another; hiding books on different shelves and in different sections; tearing out pages and whole sections of books; simply stealing them in their entirety. This is not a guide to stealing library resources. It is an indication of the depth to which some people will stoop. If your sense of competition has become so distorted that you feel the need to resort to any of these tactics, I suggest you reappraise and reconsider your priorities. It is, therefore, axiomatic that there is or at least there should be an etiquette to borrowing the precious resources of your library. There are defined borrowing periods, so stick to them. For the sake of others, only extend your borrowing when absolutely essential, since the books and other materials that you use to write an essay or complete an assignment are probably the same ones that your class and tutorial mates are also looking for. If there are sections which you really need and the borrowing time is coming to an end, then consider whether it might not be more beneficial to photocopy the sections and keep them as an ongoing reference resource. Alternatively, do a reading summary which can be used later. Journals and Periodicals Journals and periodicals are generally the place where you will find the most up-to-date information on contemporary research and contemporary issues within your field of study. It is useful to find out during the library tour where they reside and where the current issues are kept, since this is sometimes not the same location as the back issues. If your interest is in a specialty area, it might be worth considering a subscription to a relevant journal as an ongoing investment in your education. Professional journals can often be useful as a reference but not all libraries subscribe to them. However, consider your finances and your long-term goals before making a decision.
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Primary and Secondary Data Sources Primary and secondary sources of data are an important distinction to draw. Primary sources are those where the researcher is describing his or her own work and the process which was employed to come to conclusions or experimental outcomes. In history, primary data sources are archival documents and other materials left behind by those who were 'living the history'. Secondary sources are usually books, articles and other publications which are written by people with only a passing or second-hand knowledge of a subject. They often compile works on the writings and research of others and describe the topic in a narrative which is like an overview or description of the field. Secondary sources of history, for example, are works written by historians and which attempt through reasoning and conjecture to fill in the gaps between historical records and the progress of time. This type of work can sometimes be called a literature review, that is, a descriptive representation of the field of investigation, with a general focus on the contemporary field of activity. The term 'literature review' can also be used in place of bibliographical review, which is the process of searching databases to find out what material exists on a particular subject. Inter-Library Loans and Other Special Services Inter-library loans are a service between libraries based on a long-standing strategy in librarianship to provide borrowers with an increased access to research materials and an increased borrowing capacity. They are also a simple means to increase the library's own collections through the use of other collections. An inter-library loan is achieved by reciprocal lending rights from another institution or library. The librarians at the originating library act as the go-between and are responsible to the library providing the materials for their return at the end of the borrowing period. Where the thing borrowed is a book, you may only be granted access to it through closed reserve, so that there is a reduced likelihood of it either being damaged or stolen. Inter-library loans can also apply to articles and other materials which may be photocopied and sent to you as a permanent piece of research material. There may be a charge applied to this to cover the photocopying. Professional associations often have their own library resources which may offer inter-library loan facilities, which can be another reason for considering membership.
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Recording and Retrieval Systems. The important issue here is being able to remember where you have read what. Over time this can become a real problem. You need to be able to systematically record details which identify the books and articles you have read on a particular topic. You also need an effective means of retrieving them when you need them again. A database is the simplest way to achieve this. With personal computing being so readily accessible and affordable, it is a simple process to put material into an electronic database. Alternatively you may use a simple card index or other retrieval system. Another useful mechanism is to identify annotated bibliographies of materials on your subject area. These are usually lists of books and articles which have been catalogued or categorised into a publication on the topic. The annotation process begins with a search of catalogues, electronic databases, etc. to identify the titles, authors and usual identification information on articles and books on the designated subject or topic area. The next stage is breaking the general topic area down into clusters or groups relating to subsections of the topic, and reorganising the materials into those subsections. The final stage is the provision of a brief description or overview of each work's content. For example, an annotated bibliography on legal studies may appear much like the manner in which the Dewey system divides work into general subject categories and then breaks them down into more specific areas. In law, for example, the annotation framework would appear something like the following: Applied social sciences law administrative law constitutional law environmental law maritime law welfare law commercial law equity and trusts business law accounting law insurance
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shares and options contracts commercial private Under each of the sub-headings, there would be a list of books or articles; titles and authors; as well as other relevant identifiers. Their descriptions would be fairly general in terms of their content and maybe the stance or viewpoint taken. These are very useful mechanisms for getting to relevant materials. However, remember that you also need to be able to retrieve it; so find a workable method for yourself to do this. I personally think card or electronic databases work well, but you may come up with something else that works for you. Don't waste the cumulative value of the material you examine by just reading it for an assignment and thinking that it is done with when the assignment is submitted. Summaries and Referencing The major considerations relating to summaries and referencing are much the same as what has just been said. You need a mechanism for recording what you have read and a way of being able to find the data or information should you require it again. Reading summaries have been discussed in Chapter 5 'Essay writing' but they are also useful here. If you undertake reading summaries and provide all the required bibliographical detail for retrieval of the documents or materials, then you have covered all that needs to be done. You need a logical means of filing it so you can find it again and something like the annotated bibliographic framework suggested in the previous section will provide you with that. Whether you use a folder, a filing cabinet, or some other means depends on the volume of material that you have collected. It is still helpful to maintain a card or electronic index so that you know where relevant materials are located and how to retrieve them. Effective Library Research In conclusion, it is essential that right from the beginning of your studies you become familiar with the library and all of the resources and services it can provide. You should also know where the main body of materials for your subject areas are located and where any special collections may be stored.
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Plan for the efficient use of resources by having a library card and photocopy card or tokens in order to be able to get the materials that you need. Be a considerate borrower in the hope that others will be the same in reply. Initially browse through the books and texts that you pick up. Skim the index and table of contents, and read brief sections which may at first appear to be on the topic which you are researching. Sifting through the available materials can be a painstaking and time-consuming process, so use you time wisely and be efficient in the way in which you examine the available materials. Have an efficient recording and retrieval system for materials that you collect and where possible provide yourself with an overview of the materials contained within them. You are building your own annotated bibliography in your field of study and this will serve you well right throughout your career. Know how to identify appropriate materials on the topics you are examining. Much may be written but only some will be relevant to the actual issues you are examining or the stance you are taking in your arguments.
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Chapter 7 Electronic Data Sources Types of Electronic Data There is a daily explosion in the type, quality and power of electronic data. Personal computing has revolutionised study and the academic research process, and there is an ever growing array of computer-based software, academic programs, CD-ROM-based software, electronic journals and other publications, as well as in-house or dedicated software programs. The latest explosion has been in Internet services, with the development of the World Wide Web and a constantly growing range of home pages and Web sites. Chapter 8 will provide greater detail about the Internet, with an emphasis on what you need in order to use it effectively and how to access data from it. This chapter will simply identify it as a powerful contemporary tool for the location and use of data from a wide range of sources. The Luddites tried to burn the sprinning machines at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the belief that they could turn back the tide of advancing technology, and latter-day Luddites still exist. However, for someone starting out on an academic path, it is essential that you become familiar with and indeed competent in the use of advanced technologies and computer applications. Commercial Computer Programs General computer software, available from any commercial provider, can be well-used in academic research. Word processing has considerably improved the process of writing for essays and assignments. Specific presentation software has streamlined the development of quality presentations, and spreadsheets and databases have made the management of large volumes of data a more simple process. Other specific commercial software is also available for data manipulation, including SPSS and SAS which will be mentioned in other areas. Their major advantage is that they allow the manipulation of relatively large volumes of complex data at minimal cost. Dedicated Computer Programs Dedicated software is also an important data source. The type of systems involved here are usually in-house data systems or purpose-developed software programs operated by government departments, government and nongovernment agencies, major corporations, etc. Some of the government
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ones routinely produce a wide range of secondary data which is often used in academic research, particularly in business and social science research. Some sources in New South Wales and the Commonwealth include: the New South Wales Land Titles Office database on property ownership and property related transactions; the National Companies Register for information on company directors and company ownership; the Australian Bureau of Statistics databases and data systems, which produce the large range of demographic data used in a range of academic disciplines; Police and Court Administration systems, which produce crime statistics and court outcome data; the New South Wales Community Services Department's case management system, which produces casework data on child protection and other welfare-related issues; the New South Wales Health Department's case management system, which produces data on health-related issues such as hospital occupancy rates, disease prevalence, etc. These systems are generally closed systems, that is, they are unable to be accessed by unauthorised users. However, they usually have procedures for the publication of publicly released data in hard copy and electronic formats, or they provide limited access rights which often attract a fee for the production or downloading of data. The most obvious example of this is the wealth of publications available from the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Home Pages and Web Sites The Internet is a collection of information linked through the World Wide Web, which itself is the platform for a network of networks now spanning the globe. You might be familiar with Local Area Networks (LANs), or even Wide Area Networks (WANs), which are groups of linked computers able to talk to each other and to share common data. Similarly, the World Wide Web and Internet are large platforms for the linking of computers using hosts or servers to provide access from site to site. Most government departments, universities and major corporations have their own LANs and WANs and many have now joined the Internet age with home pages even the British Royal Family recently opened one. The sites are developed using a particular programming language called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), where the marking up provides for
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the linking of data from a range of sites. When you enter a Web site you can access data within the site and also link to other relevant sites when those links, or hotspots as they are called, are embedded in the material you are working with. What HTML does is that it expands individual written material by adding the links and references within the text. You can immediately shift to a related issue, from the text in which you identified the link, by clicking your mouse button on the hotspot. It does away with indexes, footnotes or endnotes, since you can skip out to check related data and then back into the original document you are using. Through a navigation software package such as Netscape Navigator and a Net Browser such as Yahoo, Excite, Webcrawler, Infoseek, etc. you can access data from a multitude of sites on the Internet. From the viewpoint of research it is an invaluable resource which has not yet reached its full potential. Chapter 8 will provide you with useful information for accessing and using the Internet as an effective source for research. E-mail and Person-to-Person Data Transfers E-mail is often under-utilised as a data gathering source. E-mail was in fact the original service that gave rise to the development of the Internet. E-mail access can be provided by a private network, an on-line service such as CompuServ or America Online, or through another Internet provider. After you are connected to a service provider you will be supplied with an address that has a unique identifier. This is the location of your personal electronic mailbox for the sending and delivery of your messages. Your unique identifier takes the form of
[email protected] or something similar. In my case, my e-mail address at the University of New South Wales is currently
[email protected], which signifies that I am the user, the UNSW provides the server, and that UNSW is an educational site based in Australia. Software for e-mail includes such programs as Eudora Light and Ccmail. The e-mail access you will be given will depend upon the system within which you are operating. On a closed system, you will only be able to communicate with persons within that system. I have worked with an international company where the e-mail system allowed me to talk to anybody within the company in any part of the world where company offices were
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located. However, I could not go outside the company network and talk to other people. You will find that this is the usual case for any closed system or government agency system since there is a requirement to maintain both data integrity, security and privacy. In the University environment in which I am currently working I can talk to anybody in the world who has an e-mail address and a server that has Internet access. It is possible to attach word processing files to a piece of correspondence on your e-mail transmission for downloading by the person to whom you are sending it. Your particular package will give you details on the process of file attachment that you should follow when attempting to complete this process. With Eudora and Ccmail, it is a simple process of going to the menu options and choosing 'Attach file' or 'Attachment'. One thing to remember is that it is often useful to find out what word-processing package the person to whom you are sending data is using, as sometimes files are better sent as ASCII data files to allow for ease of importing into different word-processing packages. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange it is computer or machine code which has a common translator in most word processing packages. However, some packages do not easily translate data between themselves (such as WordPerfect and Microsoft Word) as the control or layout characters are often considerably different. The result of data transferring or downloading between these programs is that a lot of time needs to be spent editing the downloaded files to reformat the layout characters. Some universities have set up e-mail sites or bulletin-board systems for post-graduate and undergraduate students studying in the same disciplines, to allow them to exchange data and discuss issues whilst undertaking their coursework. It is becoming an integral part of the open learning environment and will continue to grow as time passes. Bulletin Board Systems or BBSs are becoming less popular than e-mail as the Internet and World Wide Web take a higher profile, and because of the cost of using a BBS. To use a BBS you have to dial into a system on the normal telephone network, which can be costly from remote locations since time-costing applies to STD telephone calls whether they are for computer data transfer or for speaking to someone. Where you attach to an Internet provider you only pay for the connection between your computer and your provider, which in most cases will only be a local call.
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CD-ROMs CD-ROM-based software is highly efficient since you can store a large amount of data on a single disk. Most floppy disks have a storage capacity of only 1.44 Mb or megabytes (a million bytes or characters), but a CD-ROM disk can store considerably more. A single CD-ROM disk can store an entire encyclopaedia whereas a 1.44 Mb floppy will store the equivalent of about 700 to 800 pages of text. For research work, CD-ROM technology can produce a large amount of data for sorting through and can be easily updated for comparatively low cost. Data which is available on CD-ROM includes products such as Westlaw (an American legal cases and precedents database) and ALMD (the Australian Legal Monthly Digest) which is produced by the Law Book Company and which provides continuously updated precedent cases in Federal and New South Wales Courts. Other purpose-designed CD-ROM programs exist for a range of topics. There is also a wide range of encyclopaedias, such as Encarta, and other generalist data sources available. For example, the Australian Bureau of Statistics and other government departments regularly produce materials on CD-ROM for third-party data analysis. Electronic Journals. Electronic journals are becoming more and more popular because Internet and Web technology is much more cost effective than the maintenance of paper-based journals, especially when all the production costs and postage for journals is aggregated. As yet, electronic journals have not fully dispensed with printed or hard-copy journals but it is only a short logical progression until they do. The following chapter will provide you with some interesting Internet sites, including some for electronic journals. Accessing Electronic Data Sources In order to access electronic data you need an appropriately flexible computer system with sufficient capacity to manage the software technology involved. The minimum is a 486 processor in a DOS-based system or a Mac 86000 processor running System 7 or using MacOS. Utility capacity will be the most important aspect, particularly RAM capacity, which will determine the speed at which your system can manipulate the data files you are using.
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However, with the increasing complexity of available software (which some cynics would suggest is a deliberate process to maintain market share for software manufacturers), I would recommend that the minimum computer purchase in 1997 should be a Pentium-based processor in a suitably integrated system with both a CD-ROM driver as well as floppy disk capacity. I personlly do not save work to the hard disk drive, preferring to work with floppy disks for this purpose. However, for maximum flexibility, I would suggest your system has a 1 gigabyte hard disk capacity as a minimum. If you are going to use the Internet regularly, software that provides inbuilt modem capacity, such as Windows 95 or higher, is also recommended. Alternatively, you can have an external modem for telephone-line access; however, make sure that the baud rate (the rate at which data can be transferred and decoded by the modem), is high enough so that you are not sitting for hours waiting to receive data. (The suggested minimum rate is 9600 baud.) This is time consuming, boring, and can also be extremely expensive when you are using a timed call payment system for Internet access. The minimum software requirement is an integrated package, such as Lotus SmartSuite or Microsoft Office, to provide you with word processing, presentation facilities, spreadsheet and database resources. If the package that you purchase comes with training, make sure that you take it. If it doesn't, enrol in some Community College or other short courses to learn how to use the programs effectively. Too many people have advanced technology whose power they never come close to using don't be one of those since it is counterproductive. CD-ROM data sources are often kept in special collections in the University library, or other specialist libraries, and in some cases will be loaded on the machines available for student access in the libraries and computer laboratories of particular schools. As part of the library research process, find out what is available and how you can access it. Specialised software for data manipulation is usually available in the school in which you are studying; however, student editions are also available at highly discounted purchase prices, so if you are going to be doing a lot of data analysis it may be worth making the investment. In order to access dedicated software you will generally only be able to do so through hard copy publications, but it is beneficial to know who produces relevant publications within your field and how you can access them. If you subscribe to an Internet provider make sure that you also get e-mail access and an appropriate e-mail address.
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Downloading Data The major means to download data is by disk transfer or direct download including into printed format. When using the Internet you will almost always have the option of print from your navigation program. You can also download to your hard disk and then import the material into a word-processing frame. This will be discussed more fully in the next chapter. Remember that copying software is a breach of intellectual property rights, so don't do that unless you want trouble. Also, be careful in using common computer facilities on campus, particularly if you download to floppy disks and take them home to work with on your own computer. University computer systems are notorious virus collectors because of the number of casual users and the outcomes of some deliberate computer hacking. When you have your own computer set up, it is worthwhile purchasing a virus-checking program that operates by scanning any disk you put into the machine for viruses before you actually use it. The check program needs to be in the boot sector of the hard disk (specifically, in the configuration file) so that the check happens routinely before any work begins. Cleaning a system after a virus has got in can be really painful and can permanently damage both data files and application software. Using Downloaded Data in Presentations and Reports Using downloaded data in your presentations and reports is a simple process, just like using quotes etc. in an essay or assignment. Remember, however, that the same rules apply about plagiarism so make sure that you cite the source of your data and give full attribution to the author who produced it. Also look at the modifications you might have to make when converting your downloaded data to the application software that you are using for your presentation or report, as considerable editing may be required because of minor incompatibilities between systems and software. You can move data from one program to another using the copy and paste options in your word-processing and presentation programs. Make sure that you learn the dynamics of these activities when you learn the basics of running your software package, so that it can become a routine means of managing data.
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Chapter 8 Surfing the Internet What the Internet Is As stated in the previous chapter, the Internet and the World Wide Web are two systems which operate collectively to provide a global information and research data base. The World Wide Web is a collection of home pages and Web sites linked on the Internet, which itself is a network of networks now spanning the globe. The World Wide Web had its beginning with Local Area Networks (LANs), and later more advanced Wide Area Networks(WANs). The Internet is the electronic superhighway on which it all operates. These systems have grown from the increasing power and flexibility of personal computing in the 1980s and early 1990s. The Internet is a very large network of linked computers which uses hosts or servers to provide access from site to site. Its major difference is that it is a multi-platform system, and anyone can enter it so long as they have the right software and a service provider. The computer system being used can be a Macintosh, a DOS-based PC, or a Unix system the Internet technology does not differentiate. The Internet can be accessed by personal users who log in through a server or Internet service provider. Users can access data on a wide range of information and from a multitude of sites through a navigation software package such as Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer, and a net browser such as Yahoo, Excite, Webcrawler or Infoseek. A home page, Web site or Internet site is developed using a particular programming language called HyperText Markup Language (HTML), where the marking up provides for the linking of data from a range of sites. When you enter a Web site, you can access data within the site and also link to other relevant sites when those links or hotspots are embedded in the material you are working with. Individual Web sites can become large repositories of data on particular issues and have an almost unlimited number of links to related sites and their information collections. HTML replaces indexes, footnotes or endnotes with the facility to skip out to check related data identified by the hotspots embedded in the text. This is facilitated by the actual marking up process, where you will find some of the text highlighted from the balance by a contrasting colour and underlined to differentiate its role as a hotspot. When you put the cursor, arrow or other pointer on this highlighted text and click your mouse button, you will be transported out to the reference or related document.
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Costs and How the Internet Works The cost of accessing data on the Internet is somewhat confusing. The Internet itself is free, but the cost attaches to gaining access to it. Without an Internet provider you cannot get into the system and therefore cannot access the wealth of resources it contains. Some of the available Internet providers include: AT&T WorldNet; FreeRide; Netcom. Some on-line service providers include: AmericaOnline; CompuServ; Microsoft Network; Prodigy. Early Internet providers offered a monthly access fee and unlimited access. However, with the growing popularity of the system and the seemingly endless hours that some people put into 'surfing' the net, these providers are shifting to an individual charging system for access which usually requires monthly billings. This provides a specified amount of non-chargeable access per month, with the balance charged out on a sessional basis. The phone company is not involved in any long-distance transactions with the Internet. Whether you are reading a Web page located around the corner or half way around the world, the charges are the same; the connection you pay for is the connection between your computer and your Internet service provider. Therefore, your major concern is the distance between yourself and your provider. The further that you are away from your provider and the more time you spend attached to the Web will directly impact on the quantity of charges you will accumulate. If you do not have a dedicated phone line (that is a separate line to the regular telephone system), your access charges will be billed to your general telephone account, which often results in a considerable shock when the bill arrives. Whatever method you use for Internet access, be sure that you manage your access time and your Internet access charges effectively and efficiently. Some local and municipal libraries provide Internet access and the university libraries will also provide you with access for minimal or no charge.
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Bookmarks and Personal Data Listings The Web Administrator or HTML programmer places HTML markers in text so that the process of data- and sitelinking can take place. As a user, you can also 'bookmark' sites for future use or reference, so that your computer becomes a personalised reference library for materials and sites of your own choosing. I am currently working in the area of indigenous research within prisons, and so my bookmark listing looks something like this: Journal of Prison Bibliography on Prison Rape Rape, Violence and Abuse Prison Governors Association In search of the purpose of prisons Resiliency in Action Prison Violence, Suicide and Self Harm Reconciliation and Social Justice Library Northern Territory Government Search Northern Territory Research Unit, Darwin By setting up bookmarks using the add bookmark option in the menu bar, you don't have to go into the navigation program to recommence using materials you have previously used. You simply select bookmarks from the program select menu bar and you will be presented with your current list of bookmarked sites. By selecting the one you want, you will be automatically taken to it. When you find a useful reference through accessing a markup or hotspot, add it to your bookmark listing as well. You again simply choose add bookmark whilst in that location and the specific address will be picked up. Browsing the Web The World Wide Web has been described as: the biggest library in the world, except that rather than being organised into books, the Web is organised into millions and millions of pages. The Web is a single huge book, so to speak. You don't have to walk around or use card catalogs to find stuff. Instead, you can just click your way from one page to the next. (Simpson A, 1996)
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As Simpson highlights, the Web is more than a single entry for any subject as it allows you to connect to museums, libraries, art galleries, universities and in fact a virtual world of data. Every page on the Web has a unique address called a URL or Universal Resource Locator. Most Internet addresses will look something like the following: http://www.someplace.com
which translated means: http
HyperText Transfer Protocol
www
World Wide Web
someplace Internet server com
commercial provider or carrier, alternatives also include edu for educational, gov for government and au for Australian sites
Your access point for this wealth of data is your Web browser. When you initially log into the Internet, you will display someone's page or initial start point with Netscape Navigator it is a general page which allows you to choose your browser tool. The available options are Yahoo, Webcrawler, Infoseek and Lycos, which you reach by choosing Netsearch from the toolbar. When you choose one of these browsers you will then be prompted to define the area which you wish to search. You do this by filling in the search criteria in the space provided and then hitting the keyboard return or the program's search indicator. As was suggested with on-line cataloguing systems, your search is literal and uses boolean logic, which means you will be given all sites with the words you use in your search criteria. Using Netscape Navigator and selecting directory from the menu bar and Internet search from the available options, you will be offered the range of available browsers. I chose Yahoo as my browser and in the appropriate space typed in the following search criteria which gave the results listed below.
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Search details: nursing studies Results: Health: Nursing: Institutes La Trobe Universitycourses in nursing and health studies. Regional: Countries: United Kingdom: Health Nursing: Midwifery University of NottinghamDepartment of Nursing and Midwifery Studies Regional: Countries: United Kingdom: England: Counties and Districts: Nottinghamshire: Cities and Towns: Nottingham: Education: Universities: University of Nottingham: Departments and Courses Nursing and Midwifery Studies Regional: Countries: Australia: States and Territories: Victoria: Education: Colleges: La Trobe University: Department and Programs School of Health Sciencescourses in nursing and health studies Search details: computer data sources Results: Computer and Internet: Information and Documentation: Product Reviews: Peripherals: Graphics Cards: Video Capture Data Translation BroadwayWindows Sources Computers and Internet: Internet: World Wide Web: Searching the Web: Indices to Web Documents Data sources classified by access protocol Computers and Internet: Information and Documentation: Data Formats: HTML: Indices HTML References Sources Business and Economy: Companies: Computers: Software: Society and Culture: Religion: Christian Suran Systems, Inc. - Church Data Master+. Separate modules include membership, attendance, contributions, accounting, Pastor's Resource Manager+ tracks all sources for sermons, worship services etc. Available in Mac/Windows (and a further ten sources of data)
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The complexity of these searches and the literal nature of what they reveal is a good illustration of why it is important that you use an effective search process. Make your search criteria wide enough to get the material you are after, but not too wide that you find yourself swamped in otherwise useless information. Yahoo itself provides a range of options for quick data checks using an additional list of browsers. They include the following: arts; business; computers; education; employment; entertainment; games, government; health; Internet; investing; kids; media; movies; music; recreation; reference; science and society. You will also be offered access to a range of other browsers and on-line services including: InfoseekWeb browser; ExciteWeb browser; The Electric Librarya virtual library; LookSmartsearch and directory services; Four 11search tool; GTE SuperPagessearch tool; Alta Vista Searchglobal search tool; LycosWeb browser; Download.comutility; HotBotsearch tool; Who Where?search tool;
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Bigfootsearch tool; The ClearinghouseWeb site index; MagellanWeb site index; Yahoo! Net eventsWeb site index; EmissaryWeb browser; Microsoft Internet ExplorerWeb browser; ActiveXPlugin for Netscapeextension and plug in; After Dark on-lineextension; Quicktimeextension; RealVideoextension; RealAudioextension; Telnet Shareware for Windowsextension; BrowserWatchnews; Cyberspace Toolsindex; Netscape Plug-in Indexindex; Web guidessearch or browse categorised sites with these guides; Specialised guidesfind a home page or a piece of shareware with these topic-specific sites; Global searchthese tools will conduct a Web-wide search for a single word; White pageson-line white pages to help locate people on the Internet; Yellow pagessearchable listings for businesses and services in the United States; Newgroupsfind a newsgroup or chatroom on any topic with these guides to ongoing on-line discussions. Using Data: Downloading and Hard Copy Once you display a Web page on your screen, you have all of the usual data manipulation abilities you have when working in your own word-processing and presentation software. With a few simple mouse clicks you can download data, print information, cut and paste, and all of the other utility options available in your general computing applications. This is a unique feature of the Internet and occurs because of the system architecture that is involved. When you point your browser to an address, a server computer at that address responds to the request that you have made by sending you a copy of the page that you requested. The copied page then sits in the utility memory of your computer and is displayed on your screen. You can
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manipulate the data on that page in the same way as a page of data in another program. You can cut and paste the document, or you can save it to a data file, or print it using the print option from the file menu. You can take a copy of the whole page or parts of it simply by using the select text and copy functions in the same manner as you do with word processing. The data can then be pasted to a word-processing package or to the notepad of your system, depending on what program you are running. When you copy data from a Web page, the graphics are not automatically transferred. When you want to save a graphic or picture you will need to select save picture as and then select a destination to sent it to from the available options in your applications. Hints for Using the Internet. For research purposes the best sites to explore first are those attached to universities or other large institutions. This is generally because they have the resources to place substantial amounts of material on their sites and usually have sufficient staff resources to maintain the relevance and timeliness of the data through regular updates. Most of the larger sites will have links to other related sites so that through one contact you can open up a lifeline to a wealth of information. For example, a project funded by the Law Foundation of New South Wales through Macquarie University and the University of New South Wales is the Australian Legal Information Institute Web site. From there you can search databases for legislation on a state and national basis, link to the world on legal issues or get information on current legal precedent cases and recent court decisions. Links are also provided to the Law and Social Justice Library in Canberra, which provides a wealth of information on indigenous justice and welfare issues. The site we have at the University of New South Wales for indigenous issues is the Indigenous Network or Indigenet, which operates on a server in the Aboriginal Research and Resource Centre. Its address is www.arrc.unsw.edu.au/network.htm and it is linked to a similar site at the University of South Australia called Indigenet on www.indigenet.unisa.edu.au/indigenetbeta1/. The purpose of these sites is to bring together contemporary research on indigenous issues and to provide students and academics with information, communications and resources dedicated to increasing academic involvement in indigenous affairs. The Indigenous Network site has links to national and international indigenous
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sites and so offers contributors an integrated platform upon which to air their views on indigenous issues and to readily disseminate information. Viruses and Other Ills I have referred elsewhere to the issue of viruses in computer systems and the need for a virus check program in the configuration file or boot sector of your computer. The Internet is rapidly gaining a name for being a consistent source of viruses, and so it is important to ensure that before you open anything that you have saved or downloaded from a Web site, you check it for viruses. A virus cannot infect you computer whilst you are only looking at a Web page; however, when you import it to your hard disk or a floppy it can create problems. There are a couple of viruses currently around that attach to the macros of Microsoft Word, including the nuclear virus which will print a message about French Nuclear Testing in the Pacific at the end of every document you print. This can be a considerable nuisance when you don't check a document before sending it out or submitting it to someone. Once these viruses get in, they are a pain to clean up. Further, when you download onto a floppy, the virus will be lodged on your own computer along with the balance of the data as soon as you open it in an application program. Unless you scan the floppy and eliminate the virus prior to opening any documents, you will continually infect and reinfect your system. Plug-Ins Netscape plug-ins are software attachments to Netscape Navigator that allow you to experience the extra features of a site, such as sound or moving pictures. This facility is not generally available from the standard Netscape programs, particularly those prior to version 3.0. You will generally be directed to an appropriate plug-in if you don't have access and wish to use a facility such as these. The programming for plug-ins can be quite complicated. Files that include graphics are usually in the programming format JPEG or GIF, and to view these files you need software such as GIF Converter or JPEG View. The newer versions of Netscape Navigator (those above version 3.0) automatically have these plug-ins attached. Other programs may need to have converters or plug-ins added. Check with the supplier of the software that you purchase to see what you will need.
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Shareware Access to shareware is one of the bonuses of the Internet. Shareware is free software which some dedicated computer types place on readily accessible sites for anybody to use or copy. Often there will be a request for registration when you use the shareware which will require you to provide a credit card number so that a small fee can be debited to your account. This is a reasonable request but remember that the Internet is not privacy-protected and that when you transmit a credit card number anyone can pick it up. Some of the shareware that you download from the Internet can be useful but most of it is of marginal or no use to you. It may be of poor quality or it may provide a function which is already available within the commercial software you have. A small percentage of available offerings can add to the functionality of existing software such as Word or Excel in the Microsoft Office integrated package. However, the greater portion of shareware available on the Internet is geared to Web page publishing and adds to the available HTML options. Unless you are writing materials for your own home page, much of the shareware will be of little value to you. Most of the shareware will be transmitted in compressed or encoded form and will require a decompression program for you to be able to use it. Common decompression programs include Stuffit Expander for Macintosh OS and ZipIt for Windows. The greatest concern about regularly importing shareware is that its programming may interfere with the smooth operation of your existing programs and operating system. Be careful about what you download, and remember that it may be another medium for importing viruses to your system and it may negatively impact upon the smooth operation of what you already have running. Some Suggested Sites I have selected some useful sites covering a range of topics to give you an indication of the wealth of data that is available for research on the Internet. In order to save you going into the actual browser and typing in the category of data you want, you can place the full address in the Netsite space bar on your navigation program.
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Here are some useful ones which are listed by topic area: News sources: American ABC TV
http://www.abc.com
Australian ABC News
http://www.abc.net.au/news/
CNN News
http://www.cnn.com/
Disability issues: American Disability Association http://www.napanet.net/business/personal/ASA/other.html other resources and sites, including: university-based disability information general disability information centres for independent living non-profit organisations newsletters legal resources http://www.public.iastate.edu:80/~sbilling/ada.html Nursing, Australia University of Adelaide Department of Clinical Nursing http://www.health.adelaide.edu.au/Clinical_Nursing/Clinical_Nursing.html Association of Operating Room Nurses U.S.A. www.yahoo.com/Health/Nursing/Organisations/AORN_Association_of_Operating_Room_Nurses_ (where access was gained through the Yahoo! search tool) Interagency group on violence prevention initiatives http://www.pavnet.org/ Juvenile crime prevention - presidential initiatives and programs http://www.reeusda.gov/pavnet/whitehouse/crime.pdf (this is a downloadable file) Australian Bureau of Statistics http://www.statistics.gov.au/websitedbs/d3310114.nfs/?Open
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Resources for Australian Studies - Oz Source arts ABS data history politics libraries multiculturalism indigenous peoples New South Wales Health DepartmentPublic Health Division, publications and other materials http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/ Australian Government Australian Government on the Internet/ Monash University Australia on the Net/ Australian National University State governments Territorial governments Courts and legislation Local government Other guides to Australian government For an excellent guide to using the Internet as a primary research tool, I recommend Don't Just Surf: Effective Research Strategies for the Net (Henninger 1997).
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Chapter 9 Skills to Survive Exams The Role of Examinations in the Assessment Process When considering the measurement of individual learning and progress in the tertiary environment, it is important to recognise the place of examinations within the overall scheme of general educational policy. Many of the expectations of the tertiary environment are based on the concepts of self-managed learning, as discussed throughout this book; however, universities and colleges are part of a complex web of educational establishments and as such are responsible to government and their councils for the quality of the educational outcomes that they produce. Formal examinations are a means to measure some aspects of the educational experience, including the quality of teaching and the retention of specific pieces of information. Others would argue that examinations do not provide a reasonable measure of academic achievement and are of less value than the continuous assessment of a student's participation and performance during coursework activities. In recent times these two major views of examinations have been amalgamated and a more common form of assessment is the combination of both examination performance and coursework activities. Therefore, it is important that you recognise that exams form only part of an overall measurement system and that your time needs to be adequately applied to achieving reasonable outcomes for both the coursework and examination components in all of your courses. Common Examination Difficulties Fear of exams seems to be a common student phobia. Simple nervousness can play a large part in the failure to perform efficiently in exams. Poor preparation can also contribute to inadequate performance, as can lapses in concentration during the examination and errors in understanding and responding to the requirements of the examination paper, such as the need to appropriately transfer the working of problems from worksheets to the examination booklet. Another major difficulty is poor time management during the course of the examination so that portions of the paper are either inadequately completed or not completed at all. This commonly happens when a student does not allocate equal time for each question or becomes bogged down on one or two questions, leaving little time for an adequate response to those remaining.
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Memory and the Retrieval of Information When studying for exams, it is important to realise that you cannot do all the required learning in the few weeks prior to the examination. Your preparation should represent a revision of existing knowledge gained through attendance at lectures and tutorials and from personal research and ongoing study. If you haven't already done the earlier work, 'swatting' or 'cramming' for an examination will only increase your stress levels and ultimately have a negative impact on your performance. Unless you are blessed with a photographic memory you will need to develop some techniques for retaining the information you gather in your studies. I have made suggestions throughout the book about reading summaries, as these provide a very useful revision tool and aid your retention of information by placing it into manageable and ordered formats. The summaries need to be field away for easy retrieval during your examination preparation. The physical summaries need to be filed so that you can retrieve and revise them and the information they contain needs to also be filed away in the working and long-term memory areas within your brain. If the information is only placed in short-term memory, which has an extremely small storage capacity, it will not be easily retrieved in the stressful environment of the examination setting. Short-term memory is more suited to instant recall and the short-term storage of small pieces of information. If data is misfiled in your working or long-term memory, you will also have difficulties in retention and in retrieving it. The most effective means to store information is to firstly chunk it, that is to reduce it into manageable portions. Secondly it helps if you attach the information to existing knowledge, using concept maps and other forms of information linking through imagery and association techniques to draw relationships between materials. The linkages can be created using a coding system. Touch typists, for example, use a motor code to remember where the keys are on a keyboard. Some people use anagrams to remember lists of information such as the table of values for minerals and compounds. An anagram such as roygbiv provides a means of remembering both the content and order of the colour spectrum. As you find methods to chunk and file away information, test yourself for recall by setting yourself problems to solve or questions to answer. Additionally, increase the number of pathways through which you receive information. Don't read passively; read actively. Take notes as you read, or read out loud so that both your eyes and ears are engaged in the process. Try to draw linkages
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between materials using mind maps and other tools to assist this process. Above all, study in an environment which is free from excessive stress, is physically comfortable and conducive to learning, and where time is not a major constraint. Pop Quizzes and Other Continuous Assessment Tools Examinations are but one part of the assessment process in the continuous assessment model of tertiary education. Other tools for continuous assessment include: pop quizzesclassroom-based tests that a lecturer may give without prior notice; class assignments, essays and tutorial papers; marks allocated for class participation and your contributions to class and tutorial discussions; practical assignments; practicums and other work-based observations, such as those used in nursing, social work and other areas of study requiring contact with an identifiable client group. It is important that you recognise the importance of the various components of the assessment process applying to your courses and that you give relevant attention to each in order to pass your subjects. You may set yourself up for failure, or at the least place a needless level of additional stress upon yourself, if you neglect one or other of the areas of the assessment process in the hope that good performance in one component can make up for poor performance in the others. Closed-Book Examinations. Closed-book examinations are the most common form of formal examinations. They are examinations where you are dependent upon your knowledge and recall to complete the paper. Examination rules and conditions will usually be strictly applied and any breach of any condition will usually result in a major penalty for the student involved. The most common format for closed-book examinations is a combination of short essay topics, multiple-choice questions, or the solving of specific problems. Closed-book examinations are usually stressful and it is extremely important that you manage your time and progress efficiently. The tips in the following section 'Coping with examination stress' should assist you in
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lowing section 'Coping with examination stress' should assist you in performing well in closed-book examinations. Open-Book Examinations Open-book examinations are those where you are permitted to take notes, texts or other materials, as determined by the examiner, into the examination room. Although not common as a means of conducting an examination, they do occur for subjects requiring specific referencing of materials, for example, acts of parliament or statutes in law courses, and in some cases statistical formulae and data relevant to research methods and statistics courses. The major trap with open-book examinations is to naively believe that you don't need to study beforehand. Some students think that they will have sufficient time to find the answers in the text(s) and answer the questions on the day. This simply isn't true. If you use this method, time will inevitably beat you and your paper will be incomplete at the end of the examination period. Therefore, use the additional support of an open-book examination to give you an edge on what you already know. Use your access to the texts to make your answers more complete and your referencing more exact. Multiple-Choice Questions Multiple-choice questions are commonly used to test rote learning (the simple retention and recall of specific facts). They may test whether students remember concept names or the meaning of specific constructs, e.g. the different forms of memory, such as short-term, working and long-term. When completing a multiple-choice paper it is important that you allocate your time appropriately. There will usually be a standardised time allocation by those setting the paper; in most instances this is one minute to complete each answer, including reading, thinking and entry time. The most efficient method is to proceed straight through the paper, reading each question, selecting an answer, and placing a mark on the answer sheet. Try not to linger on any one question, and where you can't answer a question immediately proceed to the next one. Keep working through the paper so that those questions you can readily answer are completed in the fastest time possible this will create a time saving which will allow you to return to those you haven't answered for a more considered attempt. The most common form of multiple-choice is the presentation of five options to choose between. Generally, there will be one or maybe two of
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the options presented which clearly are not the correct answer. If you have done the work before hand and are reasonably clear on the subject, you should be able, from your own knowledge, to discard at least one more. If the worst case arises, you may be in the position of having to choose between two remaining options. At this point, if you don't know the answer, an educated guess will often be successful. Coping with Examination Stress Examination stress is most effectively managed through good preparation. If you allocate your preparation time so that you also maintain a healthy lifestyle, then your stress levels should be minimal. Remember also to manage your personal expectations and those of others, such as parents, immediate family and significant others. Positive thinking will be a major bonus. If you believe that you will succeed, you generally will. If you go into an examination thinking it will be difficult and you won't be able to cope, again that will probably be the case. If in the course of the examination you feel yourself losing control and becoming excessively panicked, then stop, take some deep breaths, focus your eyes away from the paper and into the middle distance whilst your deep breathing gets you back into control, and begin again. If a particular question is making you panic, leave it move on to the next one and come back if you have time left over at the end. This basic failure to prioritise your energy can become your undoing since the sense of panic can spiral out of control and lead to inertia or frantic activity, resulting in few positive outcomes. The world will not stand or fall on the results of one examination; if you have worked hard in all of the components of the course assessment, including presentations and other coursework elements, then the results of the examination will only be a portion of the overall result. When the Examination Is Over Once the time for the examination is over, this is the time to begin to debrief. There is nothing else that you can do to change the outcome, so let it go. This is particularly important if you have other examinations still to be completed. You cannot spend you time agonising over what might have been or what you should have done when you have other challenges to meet. Many students insist upon comparing answers with others as they leave the examination room and begin to question their own responses and
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get themselves upset and unsettled based on what they hear from their classmates. Remember, what you hear from others is only their opinion of what the answer should have been. Don't assume that you are wrong if your responses weren't the same as theirs; let it go and wait for the results to be posted in due course. If you are not happy with your mark when you do get your results, speak first to your lecturer or tutor to clarify your concerns or any failures of understanding. If you believe you were unfairly graded, seek a review or remark through the approved processes in your institution. These are usually available from your Faculty Advisor or the Student Support Centre. Finally, take some time to celebrate having completed the examination and leave it at that. An Examination Checklist Success in examinations requires adequate preparation, a level head, and a systematic process. Some tips to consider are: allocate reading time at the beginning of the examination period to ensure that you understand fully what is required; if you only have to answer a set number of questions, then select those questions you feel most comfortable with; read the questions carefully and underline significant key words which direct you to how the question should be answered; take the time to do an immediate brainstorm, writing down all of the things that come immediately to mind on a piece of spare paper this will provide you with a guide as you work; organise the material you will put into your answer before you begin and try to be as systematic as possible when incorporating all that emerged from your brainstorming session; allocate the remaining time to the number of questions on which you need to make a response; allocate time differently for different sections, if this is necessary multiple-choice questions, for example, will not take the same amount of time as short or long essay responses; place your watch in plain view and keep rigidly to the time allocations you have set yourself for each question; if you haven't finished your answer when the time for a question has expired, move immediately to the next one and hope that you have time left over to return to finish it;
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try to be neat in your presentation so that the marker does not have to struggle with your responses this will tend to result in better marks than sloppily presented responses since an ordered presentation of your answer will more readily signal that you are comfortable with and in control of the material; work systematically through the paper and review your answers at the end of each question in order to ensure that you have covered all that is relevant; and providing that you have prepared well you should be successful.
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PART 3 SELECTED METHODS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Chapter 10 Case Studies and Observations Distinguishing between Case Studies and Observations Case studies and observations involve a similar process of gathering and recording information on particular events occurring in the life of a subject or individual. Observations are generally singular self-contained events that are reported upon, whereas case studies are made up of a number of observations over a defined period of time. Case studies are often used to illustrate, at a personal level, the implications of applying a certain theory or treatment intervention to specific subjects. In some ways they humanise the experimental process by indicating the outcomes for a 'real person' or a 'real subject'. However, they are technically a defined aspect of the process of research design and research methods. Observations are something that we do on a regular basis simply by 'people watching'. However, clinical observations, for example, are a very important aspect of the clinical relationship. They are designed to provide feedback on the reactions of patients to treatment, to monitor physical condition, to monitor experiences and treatment regimes, etc. Observations may often be combined into a series, but each observation session generally remains a discrete event. In both instances, 'case studies' and 'observations' are considered to be formal activities. The distinction to be drawn is that a case study is based upon a pre-determined framework and is designed to follow the subject generally over a lengthy period of time. Observations may also be structured, such as in clinical observations, but generally they are designed to be self-con-
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tained for each observation period and to record events which are usually of short duration. The expectation is that through a case study it is possible to draw inferences and conclusions about behaviour, whereas observations should simply be the free field documentation of what is seen or 'observed'. Case Studies: The Goals The goals of case study work are generally: to record activity over time; to provide an in-depth examination of a subject and his/her activities and responses during that time period; to draw reasonable inferences and conclusions from the perceived affects of a treatment or intervention over a defined period of time; to collect longitudinal observations and impressions based on predetermined data sets and structured or systematic observation. An example of a case study is the systematic observation of a dyslexic student over the course of a reading intervention designed to teach him or her to read more effectively. The case study method in this case may involve the use of clinical data such as performance on standardised reading tests before and after the intervention and psychometric testing relevant to the theory of the intervention and the responses of the subject. Another example is the collection of data on pre-natal care prior to the introduction of a community education program, and following it. These case studies would track the condition and involvement in pre-natal intervention programs and education initiatives, as well as the birth outcomes for the women in the study. Baseline data would be required on pre-natal care during pregnancies occurring prior to the commencement of the education program. You would then accumulate data on involvement with the education programs for the experimental or research group to ascertain whether they increased the quality of their birth outcomes and whether it was related to their increased pre-natal care. The control group would be those who did not have an increased involvement with the education program. Their birth and post-natal outcomes would be compared and contrasted with those of the women who did participate in the program. As well as the hard data on outcomes for each group, the research would also involve observations and the collection of views on the benefits or detriment of involvement with the educa-
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tion program. Therefore, your case studies would form an integral component of your overall research design. Selecting Subjects. The selection of subjects for case studies is a very important issue. If the case studies are designed to examine the effects of a particular intervention, then it is important that subjects be selected on the basis that they evidence the characteristics of that intervention. Bias in any data collection is an important issue and must be considered in the design, analysis and outcomes of any study. If your observations are to be offered as evidence of 'the norm' for the intervention, then your subject's involvement must be protected from extraneous factors that might give rise to bias in your results. By accurate documentation, any peculiarities or differences can be effectively accounted for. It is not that you wish to fabricate your data, nor only concentrate upon outcomes or results that will present the best picture of your research; but you do want to record the effects which are directly related to the intervention and not have that data inappropriately skewed by otherwise unrelated or irrelevant issues. Designing a Format Case studies should generally be based on a format or schedule clearly related to the purpose of the study and the issues, treatment or intervention involved. Remembering that uncritical observation is the primary tool of your case study method, it is still important that you have a collection framework since you will be collecting data over a period of time. If standardised assessment tools are to form part of your methodology, then they need to be scheduled into your case study format. Next, you must decide whether the case study will be undertaken using a participant observer or observer-only format. In the participant observer process, you will identify yourself to the subject in some role related to them, such as in the role of counsellor, neighbour, doctor, program evaluator, etc. As a participant observer you are both taking part in the intervention and recording your observations of your subject. As observer only you are anonymous to the subject, and you are recording material on their involvement in the intervention, generally without their knowledge or direct involvement with you. The information that you receive about the subject will most often come from third parties, such as attending staff or program personnel.
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Irrespective of the method you use, you must have a means to document your observations so that inferences about changes over time are appropriately attributed. Much of your data will come from reflection and observations which will often be difficult to fully record as they occur. In order to protect your data gathering as much as possible from bias, it is important that you write up your notes immediately after each period of observation. Undertaking the Study The first aspect involved in the conduct of your case study is the gathering of an overview of your subject and their involvement with the research or the intervention employed. If the intervention is designed to modify or change behaviour then you will need a reasonably full description of the subject's behaviour prior to the intervention. Take the example of the intervention reducing the incidence of violence in the prison population. Then you will need a case history of the person's violent behaviour prior to the intervention. Some issues to be explored when taking this history may include: the subject's common responses to anger; the subject's common responses to frustration; the subject's perception of him/herself in situations that could lead to an aggressive response; some idea of the family history where aggression is concerned; some social history in terms of education, social conditions, etc.; a description of the most recent instance where the subject felt or was involved with an aggressive incident. With this detailed case history, you then have a reasonable picture of the subject prior to the intervention. This will serve as a baseline for measuring change over time. The body of the case study will then involve documentation of the subject's involvement with the treatment intervention, including their responses to and handling of the requirements and activities of the intervention, or treatment program. How they deal with the requirements of the program will also be important, as well as how they now manage situations which may have resulted in aggressive responses in the past. You might also consider, at this point, taking the role of participant/observer and adding a series of interviews with the subject to provide data on their perceptions of the intervention and how they feel about their progress. You may wish to explore how they are managing incidents which
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may have resulted in aggression in the past, how they respond to these situations whilst involved in the treatment, how they feel when they are provoked and what alternatives they might consider to their previous aggressive responses. Alternatively, you might contain yourself to being only in the observer role and continue to document what you see whilst remaining anonymous to the subject. In the case of the violence reduction situation, you might follow the subject throughout the treatment program. When they move on to another location you might observe them for one day per fortnight for an additional three months. You might then see them again in one, two and five years to document the longitudinal effects of the treatment on the management and reduction of their aggressive behaviours. Recording Your Assessment and Writing It up Continuing with the example of the violence reduction program, you will need to record your observations throughout the course of your involvement. During your observations, you might concentrate upon monitoring the subject's participation rate within the activities of the program. Using the data gathered in your initial case history, you may look for situations which would previously have resulted in aggression and document in detail how they are dealt with whilst attending the program and on your subsequent visits. Whatever you choose to record it must be done systematically, since the real value will be the recording and examination of change over time. The final stage will involve the recording of the data gathered in each session. It is important that you do this systematically and as unobtrusively as possible, since it will be distracting to subjects if you take detailed notes whilst observing them. Write up your notes immediately after each period of observation, particularly providing identifying details such as time, date and location so that you can always maintain an accurate record of your involvement. A common method for this is the maintenance of a diary or journal which will provide a clear and unambiguous chronological record. In writing up the case study as a whole, it is a simple matter of using your chronological notes to provide descriptions of behaviour and change over time, particularly concentrating on material which illustrates, either directly or indirectly, change which you would attribute to the intervention. In the violence reduction study you might make a clear comparison between the individual profiles of subjects and their patterns of aggression,
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their methods of dealing with frustration and anger prior to the intervention, and the methods they use to deal with the same events after the intervention. You might also examine whether the violence reduction was maintained over time, using the longitudinal data collected on your subsequent visits over differing time intervals. Observations: The Goals The goals of observations are somewhat similar to those for case studies; however, observations are generally considered to be self-contained or time limited events. Clinical observations are the very specific documentation of a patient's condition at a given point in time. Though they will often form a series, each is still meant to be selfcontained in its own right. Clinical observations will often be compared with each other in order to chart an increase or decrease in a given condition, but each observation is expected to be an accurate and independent recording of objective data at the time that it is gathered. The significant difference with observations, especially when they relate to a clinical purpose, is that they are based on objective data and not upon inferences or subjective analysis. In fact, their purpose in the clinical relationship is to provide extremely objective data on a patient's condition at each monitoring or observation interval. Within other disciplines, the goals of observations are much the same as in the clinical setting. They are factual, selfcontained data-gathering exercises based on the recording of a 'snapshot' in time. They may be used to draw inferences or relationships in the same way that a series of observations can provide an overview of a patient's condition; however, the degree of accuracy of the inferences is not designed to be as reliable as in the case study method. Open Field vs Selective Observations The distinction between what I call open field and selective observations is that open field means you simply act as a sponge, recording all that you see. Selective observations obviously mean that you specifically look for certain activities or behaviours. The method you use will depend upon the purpose of the observations and the goals of your research. For clinical observations, the process will obviously be selectiveyou are required to take blood pressure, temperature, look for signs of infection, etc. In observing children in a pre-school you
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would generally use a free or open field observation process. You would record and document relationships, choices of play activities, etc. In examining and documenting observations on subjects involved in some treatment programs, you might consider a combination of both open field and selective observations based on the goals and treatment regime of the program. In our aggression study you might look for situations involving power or assertion between participants and document how it is handled, who is the aggressor, etc. Therefore, the selection of the observation method will be very closely related to the purpose of your observations and the field of study from which they derive. Collecting the Information A diary or journal is useful in case studies, but it can also be useful in observations, especially in terms of maintaining the chronological record or identification of when the data was collected. Continuity is less important since it is highly unlikely that you will need to maintain your records for a long period of time. In clinical situations the chronology of records is maintained through a standard form and it is sometimes useful to devise something similar for other observation sessions. It may be simplest to devise a checklist where you can simply check off things as they occur since you are recording activity as it happens and generally in a very selective field. Writing Observations up The major issue in writing up observations is to indicate clearly that they are observations or 'snapshots in time'. You should state clearly that any conclusions or inferences you draw from the data are based on observations. Writing up should be very factual, and indicate time, place, parties involved, etc. If you are writing up observations on interactions, a description of the activity occurring, or a description of what actually occurred or resulted from any incident observed should be included. You may use the data to illustrate relationships or clinical outcomes but it is highly improbable that individual observations will provide irrefutable scientific proof.
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Chapter 11 Demographics and Simple Statistics Demographics and Their Use in Research Activities Choosing relevant demographic data firstly requires that you understand their role in addressing your research questions. You then need to be clear about the role the data will take in substantiating or illustrating the issues you are exploring. Demography as a broad field of statistical data is that data which describes the general population, or samples of the population on a range of personal, economic, spatial and activity-based data. Individual characteristics such as age, nationality, location, income, household composition, household structure, etc. are some of the issues in the field of demographics. Individual indicators are often combined to create indexes and cross-references or cross-tabulations. Demographic data is used in social research, ethnography, epidemiology, market research and a range of comparative analysis situations where sample populations are compared with either the general community or other sub-samples. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) is the national collector of demographic data through the five-yearly Population Census. Every person within a given household or dwelling (whether that dwelling is a house, caravan or tent) is required by law to provide their responses to the census questionnaire on census night. The data is then collected, collated and analysed. Tables and other presentation materials are published for use in academia, business and other relevant areas. The minimum spatial area to ensure privacy to respondents in the collection of census data is the census collector district. This generally comprises a hundred households within an area that the collector can walk. This becomes a little more complicated in rural locations and the actual geography covered can be quite large in order to incorporate those hundred households. In the city, it may be one high-rise apartment building or the houses in two or three blocks. Knowing which indicators to use in a given situation requires analysis of the question and examination of the characteristics relevant to the question's content. For example, a question about the building of a pre-school in a local area would require information on the following indicators: number of pre-school aged children within the local area, based on collector district, local government area or some other relevant spatial unit;
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number of women with pre-school aged children who are in the workforce, as an indicator of potential demand for child care; data on household incomes in order to assess whether there are enough families that both need and are able to access pre-school services in terms of their cost; projections on both sets of data to represent future demand. These are only some of the indicators applicable to this question, but it serves as a clear illustration that the matters to be considered are determined by the question and the purpose being addressed by the demographic modelling. In constructing an indicator for a given service or situation, the ABS often uses a range of materials. A common indicator used for program development and funding at Commonwealth and State levels is one based on socioeconomic status, i.e. the relative position of individuals or families when all factors to do with their income, living conditions, social position and opportunities are put together. In developing the indicator, the range of issues addressed are weighted for their level of importance and for differences within given locations. When assessing the relative needs of schools submitting for the disadvantaged school's program, some of the issues included in the socio-economic indicator are: Income % with family incomes less than $25 000 per annum % with family incomes greater than $36 000 per annum Education % with a tertiary degree % with trade or 'other' qualifications % with no formal qualifications % left school at 15 years or less % never attended school % students less than 15 years Occupation % males in professional occupations % females in professional occupations % males in administrative or clerical occupations % females in administrative or clerical occupations
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% male sales workers % female sales workers % labourers % male tradespersons % female tradespersons Wealth % households owning their own home % households purchasing their own home % households with no motor vehicles % households with one or more motor vehicles % dwellings with eight or more rooms average number of bedrooms per dwelling in the census collector district Prestige % families with head and dependents only % single parent families % persons separated or divorced % households with six or more occupants % households with two or more families % unemployed % Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islanders % recent migrants from non-English speaking countries % migrants lacking fluency in English % households tenanted (public housing) % households tenanted (private rental accommodation) % households in caravans, mobile homes, etc. Stability % persons with same residence in 1996 as 1991 % persons with same residence in 1986 as 1996 These are what might be considered as basic indicators for the program and the assessment of relative need. The important thing is that they are used as indicators of potential need and further verified using other indicators and other research tools. Various combinations of indicators or individual indicators may be given different levels of importance and therefore weighted in a cumulative equation. Also the relationship between some indicators might be more
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important than others. For example, the percentage of single-parent households in caravans, mobile homes, etc. may be used as a reasonable indicator of household financial stress and potential disadvantage for the children resident in such families. In a presentation using the indicators to argue for resources, it might be important to weight some of them as being more important than others. Therefore, the percentage of a given variable might be given an additional weighting for intensity and all other variables used simply in terms of their actual value or percentage. Put simply, when all the factors are added up the weighted one will increase the overall total or the overall average of the items used. By comparing small-area data such as census collector districts, within a local government area, a single indicator of projected need for long day care services could be computed and then compared between local neighbourhoods or smaller areas. The method shown below that is used to weight the indicators is both subjective and reasonably simple. However, some basic assumptions about the need for long day care must first be made. Single parents in employment, with long journeys to work and very young children, are likely to need some form of regular child care. Given the time it takes them to get to and from work, long day care is a better option than a preschool or other children's service placement, since long day care centres work extended hours. Households with both parents working and long journeys to work are also likely to require child care on a long day care basis. As government subsidies are available for child care, especially long day care, capacity to pay is likely to be less relevant, when determining the need for long day care, than data on employment related considerations. Remembering that a census collector district is an area of approximately one hundred households, an analysis comparing the data for each grouping of a hundred households would give planning personnel a reasonably stable indicator upon which to compare one location with another. If a decision was made to place one centre in a local government area, then the recommended location of the centre would be based on projected demand, using this model and comparative data for neighbourhood or other spatial units. Table 11.1 below provides an example of the indicators for long day care provision using a weighted value for some components of the model.
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Page 93 Table 11.1 Indicators for the provision of long day care services Indicator
Weighting
Households
1.5
a
0.5
b
Two parents in employment
1.5
c
Children under 3 years of age
1.0
d
Journey to work longer than 1.5 hours
1.5
e
Single-parent households with
Total 1.5 × a
parent in full-time employment Household income less than
0.5 × b
$50 000 per annum
Average by location for all indicators
1.5 × c 1.0 × d 1.5 × e {}
Individual demographic indicators may be combined in one table to provide a cross-tabulation which gives greater depth and clarity to descriptions about sub-sets of the population. Table 11.2 below provides cross-tabulated data using two specific indicators, household income and level of qualification or employment of the household head. The additional variable then applied to these cross references is the number of live births per 1000 women in each of the households containing the cross-tabulated criteria. Table 11.2 Fertility rates standardised for age, by family income and occupation of head of family LIVE BIRTHS PER 1000 WIVES Income
Professional
Business
Skilled and semi-skilled
Unskilled
$55 000 +
80
74
71
59
$40 00054 999
79
76
73
78
$30 00039 999
102
75
84
78
$20 00029 999
99
89
90
94
under $20 000
102
105
119
130
on income support
117
142
149
155
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Statistical Data Collection and Models. Statistics are one of the most used and abused sources of information about the world in which we live. We are constantly bombarded by false and misleading statistics to prove a point, sell a product, or manipulate the social or economic agenda. Given the power that statistics can have on economics, politics or the social climate, it is a great pity that they are used so poorly and often in a clandestine manner. The most important value of statistics is to give information for decision-making, and so it is obvious that the quality of the data that is collected is extremely important. In management activities, statistics most often provide hard data on performance or compliance and are also invaluable in monitoring operational activities, especially in terms of efficiency and effectiveness over time. Statistics on actual operations of a system or production process represent primary data within the organisation. It is hard data, that is, data based on actual numerical counts, and therefore is effective in charting activity in unstable situations. Hard data provides the means for effective decision-making and where relevant a mechanism for compliance with statutory obligations, such as taxation requirements, small business compliance, statutory accounting obligations, mandatory information reporting and other bureaucratic requirements. Some uses of statistics in business situations include: crime statisticslegal administration, criminal proceedings; production datarun data, inventory control, stores costing; quality assurancestatistical process control; planning and developmentcensus data, demographics; economicstrade data, inflation figures, balance of payments; marketingmarket share, attitude surveys, consumer data; financeshare market margins, interest rates, consumer price index; educationintelligence quotients, standard testing batteries; accountingexpenditure data, profit and loss statements; businessprofitability, performance data, production and sales; healthmortality rates, morbidity data. Statistical data is one form of data that provides hard information on measurable issues. Soft business data, for example, comes from focus groups, survey and questionnaire work, attitude assessments, trend data, other external data sources and literature reviews.
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Statistics generated within your own organisation or research work, using appropriate sampling techniques, represents hard data and therefore requires standardisation, such as in the manner of its sampling. Standardisation is important since it guarantees the essential aspects of good statistical modelling. The aspects of statistical data of most concern are: reliability; relevance; replicability. Reliability means that the statistic appropriately illustrates what it says it measures, that is, it is not positively or negatively affected by other external factors which can cause bias or skewing of the resulting data. Relevance means that it measures realistic issues within the sample and only issues which have an appropriate bearing on decisionmaking. Replicability means that any assertions derived from the data can be recreated using the same method and also yield similar results in the same circumstances, that is, your method can be copied and the results will not be adversely affected by any other outside considerations. There are several stages in the collection and processing of statistical data: deciding on the aims of the data collection; collecting the data; analysing the data; summarising the data; presenting the data; making decisions as a result of the data collection and analysis. The first essential stage in data collection is to have a research or general hypothesis that you wish to test. It can be a formal research hypothesis, such as 'Eating chocolate does not make you gain weight'. Or, it can be a performancebased hypothesis which suggests that performance on a production line is improving or adequate when using a particular method of operation. At the very least, the purpose for collecting the data has to have relevance to a question which you want answered or examined. There must be a standard framework within which to collect the data. This is essential in order to make statements about the quality of the data collected, particularly if they are statements of quality or performance over
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time, such as this year compared to last year or five years ago. To be reliable over time, the data collection framework must not be clouded with extraneous considerations, or the data collected will be corrupted and the results will be unreliable. Reliability of the sample is extremely important if you are going to make decisive statements about the relationships your data illustrates then the sample selection and data collection method must provide that reliability. For example, if you wish to make informed statements about the spending habits of the Australian population you would have to have a sample of people who adequately represent the complex profile of the total Australian population. You must then perform some reliable statistical analysis on the data you collect. It may be considerably sophisticated analysis requiring complex comparisons against normative statistics or other baseline data, or it may be very simple comparisons between groups. The complexity of your analysis must be indicated and accounted for in the statements you make about your results. The outputs must be organised or tabulated into a framework or presentation system which makes it easy to understand and from which to draw conclusions. It may be presented in tables, graphics or a combination of both. Finally, summarising data makes it manageable and allows for appropriate comparisons to be drawn. Having collected your data, analysed it, presented it and assessed its implications, it is then important that you act on it. The random collection of data simply for the sake of it can be an extremely expensive and futile exercise otherwise. Whether you are collecting data for industry or indeed for an assignment or research project, it is always important to be sure that you collect what is essential to know rather than what is nice to know. Data collection is expensive both in time and resource allocation; therefore, whether it is for study purposes or ultimately as an employment activity consider the value of the data you collect in terms of its relevance to your arguments and the purposes for which it will be used, prior to gathering it. General Populations The general population is, as it states, general. It can be the population of a specific location, the whole country or a given state or territory. It can be the population of all adults between a given age range, or all pre-school or school aged children. It can be the population of people with blonde hair
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school aged children. It can be the population of people with blonde hair and blue eyes. A general population, therefore, is all subjects who share a particular characteristic defined within the research design. The more common the particular characteristics being considered the larger the size of that population will be. This can present problems for the researcher, given the cost and time involved in collecting and processing data. Therefore, in research work general populations are seldom used as the basis upon which data is collected. It is, however, the basis upon which the majority of data will be compared. There is a range of particular sampling and comparative statistical methods which allow you to compare sample data to the general population. I will not go into them here, however, since this area of study usually forms a discrete area or at least a topic within most courses. Sample Populations Sample populations are smaller, more manageable groups selected from the general population as described above. A sample is drawn on the basis of a sampling design or sampling technique which is usually described and justified within the research study or experiment. Sample populations can include a wide range of characteristics. For example, a sample of school-aged children used to examine rates of school default or truancy might include all young people in year 10 in two high schools in the same local government area. They may then be compared to all year 10 students in the local government area. The sample data collected would be school attendance data for the year 10 students in the sample schools. The comparison group would be the local government truancy data for all students in year 10. So, samples may be selected on a range of factors; however, the selection process must be controlled for potential or actual bias. To be unbiased, it must be theoretically and practically possible for all persons exhibiting the required characteristics to have an identical chance of being selected. Some accepted sampling techniques include: random sampling; strata sampling; quota sampling.
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Random sampling means exactly what it saysno framework is imposed and all potential candidates have an equal chance of being selected. The researchers simply go out and collect the number of participants required until their predetermined sample size is complete. Stratified sampling does not replace randomness, but the method is designed to increase the representation of existing differences in the general population. Stratifying a sample therefore means recognising the differences within the general population and then selecting a sample which still provides for the level and intensity of those differences. Quota sampling requires a selection framework based on the particular strata or characteristics described in the research design. For our year 10 subjects we might require equal numbers of boys and girls and equal numbers of those from one-parent households as those from two-parent households. We would therefore select our subjects accordingly. Cohort Groups and Sampling Cohorts are defined by Goode and Hatt (1952) as 'simply a group of people, real or hypothetical, who enter life at the same time'. In an age distribution of the general population, cohort groups are usually created by allocating 5-year steps to age groups. For example, pre-schoolers would be 04 years, teenagers 1519 years, etc. Age pyramids are often constructed for the distribution of ages within a population and the cohorts are used as the divisions within the pyramid segments. Figure 11.1 below, provides an illustration of an age pyramid. A particular age cohort may be tracked throughout the life cycle for specific incidents such as mortality, the incidence of heart disease, diabetes, etc. The major value of the cohort structure is to provide a stable framework within which to place particular subjects. This is also the goal of the various sampling techniques identified in the previous section 'Sample populations'. By examining the pyramid it becomes evident that males have a lower life expectancy than females in this population sample. The evidence that there are more females in the age groups 2024 and 2529 than in the 1519 group can be used to advance an experimental proposition that there may be an exodus of young girls from the area at certain ages and then a return or influx in these two later age cohorts. By simple observation of the pyramids, a range of inferences could be accumulated; however, they would need to be tested further for accuracy and relevance before decisive statements could be made.
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Figure 11.1 A population pyramid for males and females for a given location Control and Experimental Groups An experimental group is that group of subjects upon whom you intend to perform an experiment or test. The control group is a group with similar characteristics as the experimental group, but upon whom you do not conduct your experiment. In pharmaceutical trials it is common to have experimental and control groups. The experimental group will be given the experimental prescription, that is, the drug being tested for its results. The subjects could be humans, monkeys or whateverthat is not the important issue. The control group will be given a placebo, that is, a medication that looks the same but is inert. This process protects against the 'halo effect', which results from simply being given a pill irrespective of its content. The halo effect usually occurs when subjects expect a result from a treatment or some intervention, whether the effect they feel is or is not real. The purpose of a control group is to act simply as a 'control' to provide an effective comparison or baseline with which to measure and contrast the results of the experiment or intervention.
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Making Appropriate Comparisons Making appropriate comparisons is a very important issue in experimental or scientific study as it is important to be able to distinguish between causal and incidental relationships. That is, did the treatment or intervention cause the change or the outcome? Alternatively, did the change occur naturally as part of the individual's involvement with the experiment, their personal expectation that there would be a change, or their gaining some understanding of the outcome required? Would the change have occurred anyway? Did the change occur for some reason other than the experimental intervention? These are issues which must be fully accounted for in your results. You must be able to distinguish between causal and incidental outcomes. Therefore, making appropriate comparisons becomes an essential aspect of this process of proof. In demographic analysis, it is important that you make appropriate comparisons between groups, such as youth in one location and youth in another. For a range of reasons, young people in the country will often have different hobbies and recreational pursuits to young people in the city. Some of the factors which will impact upon this are: transport costs; availability of public transport to get to recreational facilities; availability of certain types of recreational facilities; comparative levels of disposable income. Making bold statements about differences or similarities between groups without examining the other issues that surround your arguments is inappropriate as a means of analysing data at the least it is highly risky since your arguments and conclusions are open to attack at this level. Applying Appropriate Statistical Analysis Simple statistics are often used to illustrate the relationships between data and groups. They can often be used and abused so it is wise to learn the methods of your particular discipline thoroughly. It is also important that you understand what the data means, and not just how to calculate it. In demographic work, percentages and averages are commonly used, but they are also abused. There are two main rules in statistical analysis:
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use the degree of certainty required to effectively prove your argument; use comparisons that are logically and statistically relevant, that is, only compare like with like on a conceptual level. For example, there is little point in going to infinite degrees of certainty on a statistical analysis when only a rough estimate is what is required. If the audience for your report is not numerate, then convoluted statistical presentations will not assist your arguments and may have the opposite result. However, if the requirement is scientific proof, beyond reasonable doubt, then your calculations will involve a range of standard statistical techniques with results to infinite degrees of certainty. Therefore, choose the method appropriate to the audience and the purpose of the exercise. The most overused aspect of statistics is the misuse of data to prove a case. This particularly occurs when unlike data is compared or data is distorted to draw inappropriate inferences. When this occurs, your arguments are easily challenged. One of the more common statistics used in the presentation of data is the simple average, but it is highly open to distortion. For example, income in a country like Kuwait is widely distributed. A comparatively small number of people have exorbitant wealth, whilst the bulk of the population live in poverty. If a simple arithmetic average was calculated by using a figure to represent Gross Domestic Product and that figure was divided by the number of people living in Kuwait, it would return a result which made it appear that each individual was reasonably affluent. This, of course, would be completely wrong since we already know that income is widely distributed. A similar false result will occur when the sample size is inadequate. Arguments based on a sample of one or at the least a very small sample cannot legitimately be used to illustrate the views, activities or opinions of the total population. In the same manner, arguing for 50 per cent support for one viewpoint when your sample involves two people is also a gross misrepresentation of statistics. Statistics are a very thorough and exacting academic tool. Within most disciplines they are taught with considerable focus on the activities of that discipline and so I will not go into any detail in this introductory work. Simply remember the two rules above and study the relevant methods for your area of study thoroughly.
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Page 102 Organising the Data Organising your data is similar throughout most academic disciplines. The common presentation formats are tables and graphs. As stated in other sections of this book, use the methods which most fully and effectively present your findings. Use only the degree of comparison relevant to illustrate causal and comparative relationships, and do not overload your presentations in order to strengthen your case. Over-loaded data presentations tends to have the opposite effect as they cloud certainty and distort reality. The table and graphical presentations used within this chapter and indeed throughout the book are sufficient for most presentation work. They require organisation using tally, frequency and other simple statistical collection methods. They can then be averaged, compared on a percentage basis to a common base, or an appropriate representative group. For example, a survey of drink preferences for five teenagers 1519 years of age in two locations may yield the results in Table 11.3 below, where (1) means most preferred drink and (5) means least preferred. Table 11.3 A comparison of two groups of five teenagers for preference in drinks Location 1 Subject
Water
Coffee
Tea
Cola
Gatorade
1
5
3
4
1
2
2
4
5
2
3
1
3
2
3
1
5
4
4
5
2
3
1
2
5
1
5
4
2
3
3.8
3.6
2.8
2.4
2.4
Water
Coffee
Tea
Cola
Gatorade
1
4
5
3
1
2
2
1
3
5
2
4
3
5
2
3
4
1
4
3
5
1
3
2
5
4
2
1
4
5
3.4
3.4
2.6
2.8
2.8
Average Location 2 Subject
Average
Since no two subjects from each group have the same preferences for drinks, how can the data be compared effectively? Could we take a simple
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average of each type of drink and see which one comes up the highest? Would that show what drink was the most popular? We could if we were doing an 'average preference rating' for each of the five choices. This is done by adding each column for each drink type and dividing the result by the number of subjects per location. For Location 1, water had an average preference rating of 3.8, coffee 3.6, tea 2.8, and cola and Gatorade 2.4. For Location 2, water had 3.4, coffee 3.4, tea 2.6, and cola and Gatorade 2.8. What can we say about drink preferences based on this simple analysis? Since the higher the number the less the drink is preferred, water was the least preferred drink in Location 1 and cola and Gatorade were equally the most preferred. In Location 2, tea was the most preferred followed by cola and Gatorade, with water and coffee the least preferred. How well does that analysis account for the level of variability between subjects, between drink types, and between groups? Generally not too well. Another way that the data could be arranged is to use the ratings as the reference point. So the number of subjects giving tea a rating of '5' could be compared with those giving cola a rating of '5'. However, given the calibre of the analysis and the small number of subjects, the degree of work used to analyse the data becomes an important consideration. Taking Location 2 for example, the simple averaging method shows that tea was the most preferred drink for this group and in fact tea was the only preference that had two subjects giving it their most preferred rating. The difficulty in Location 1 is that cola and Gatorade averaged out at the same amount, yet cola has two most preferred where Gatorade only has one. This is a fine example of the limitations to the use of averages. Simple statistics can provide an adequate description of data and the relationships between it; however, if you want to make really accurate comparisons between groups on a range of variables or a range of preferences using a graded scale, such as that above, you will need a more sophisticated statistical model. In this particular case there are only five subjects for each location, and so the level of comparison that can be made and the sophistication of the analysis to be performed is relative to the time and cost involved in producing it. However, if the samples for each location included some one hundred subjects, then the manner of collapsing the data would be considerably different. You could present this data graphically, but the degree of certainty in the statements you could make about relationships between the data would be
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similarly restricted. However, by a simple process of graphical presentation, using different colours or different line types for each subject, it is possible to clearly record the preferences for each subject. In real terms, though, what does the graph really mean? It is a simple presentation of simple data and should only be described in that manner. Figure 11.2 below, provides a graphical representation of the data showing the preferences of each of the five subjects in Location 1, although it looks interesting it really does not contribute much to understanding what the data means.
Figure 11.2 A graph of the individual drink preferences for five subjects in Location 1 Take for example the examination results of 101 students who pass a maths test. Firstly, they had to have scored 50 per cent or above to pass, and some students scored the same grade. A table that listed every student would be cumbersome. By combining this data into a frequency distribution as shown in Table 11.4 below, the data is reorganised into a more manageable format.
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Page 105 Table 11.4 Frequency distribution (f) of students on a maths test Grade
f
Grade
f
Grade
f
Grade
f
Grade
f
Grade
f
99
0
90
0
81
1
71
3
62
1
53
2
98
1
89
1
80
2
70
9
61
0
52
1
97
0
88
0
79
3
69
8
60
4
51
0
96
1
87
1
78
0
68
5
59
3
50
2
95
1
86
0
77
6
67
4
58
2
Total
101
94
0
85
2
75
8
66
2
57
1
93
0
84
1
74
3
65
1
56
0
92
1
83
0
73
2
64
6
55
3
91
1
82
3
72
2
63
2
54
2
Even in this format the data still remains a number of small counts that do not readily tell a story. However, it can be combined further to reduce the volume of material and increase the presenter's ability to make statements about it, e.g. the majority of the class had mathematics marks between 60 and 79 on this particular test (Table 11.5 below). Table 11.5 Grouped frequency distribution of maths test results Class Interval
Frequency
9599
3
9094
2
8589
4
8084
7
7579
17
7074
19
6569
20
6064
13
5559
9
5054
7
Placing this data into a graphical format would then be relatively simple, as seen in Figure 11.3.
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Figure 11.3 A graphical presentation of the frequency distribution of maths test results Presenting the Data As you can see from the preceding examples, presenting your data depends upon the purpose of the work you have undertaken, the quality and volume of your data, and the conclusions or inferences you seek to draw from it. When presenting your data, bear in mind the following points: For reports or assignments, consider the purpose of the piece of work and the illustrations that will best support your case. For an assignment or essay, you can use the standard outlines and formats already discussed and place your graphs and tables into those outlines. Use presentation methods that most clearly and unambiguously present your findings, and statistical methods appropriate to the area in which you are studying. There are standard frameworks and presentation layouts for demographic data and a generally accepted convention that you will provide explanations and descriptions in narrative form following any table or graph. The use of standard frameworks and layouts means that readers can readily combine your narrative explanations with what they perceive through their viewing of your data. Standard frameworks and layouts will also help you maintain the preferred position that 'more is less' by not overly complicating or cluttering your presentations. Where comparisons are made they can be effectively explained and lead the reader to the conclusions which will ultimately be drawn.
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PART 4 APPLYING STUDY METHODS TO THE WORKPLACE This section has been included to provide you with some examples of how to undertake workplace projects that use the skills and methods of business studies and the social sciences to complete specific projects. The first example is a social policy study examining issues for the targeting of services for aged persons in a border rural community. The second is a business example of a consumer market research study commissioned by the New South Wales State Rail Department. In the workplace the skills of research are just as important as they are in completing coursework assignments in your studies. They may be a little more focused and need to reflect the biases or priorities of the work environment, but the important thing to realise is that the skills are the same and are readily transferable between settings. The biggest difference is the writing style required in commercial or workplace projects and that required in the completion of an essay or theoretical assignment. Other than those style issues, the processes and methods are much the same.
Chapter 12 Social Policy Research. Analysing the Topic The topic example comes from a hypothetical tender request. The brief was presented in the following form: The Cross Border Aged Services Planning Committee is seeking the services of a consultant to undertake a research project into investigating and identifying the needs of older people from non-English speaking backgrounds
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and Koori communities within the Tweed Heads and Coolangatta regions. The project involves the acquisition of data relating to the breakdown of older people from the above communities, identifying where they reside, what their needs are, what services are/are not available to address these needs, and the development of strategies and recommendations that address issues of inequity, access and efficiency in the planning and delivery of services for these groups. Before responding to the topic, you are required to undertake a thorough analysis of the brief. Firstly, the project presents an applied social science research problem. You will need to undertake demographic analysis, needs assessment, and profiling of the identified target populations. You are also required to provide recommendations on strategies for creating and maintaining effective services for each of the targeted client groups and to provide administrative models that will allow those services to operate effectively across the borders of the two towns involved. The process of analysing the question is generally a simple one of looking for the keywords and the relationships between what can be identified as 'deliverables' (the required 'outputs') and the required activities of the project or study. In this case, the requirement was for consultation with appropriate community representatives, analysis of existing service provision, the documentation of existing service provisions, etc. You are also required to undertake an examination of any relevant policy considerations that affect service delivery and in this particular case, the issues relevant to the provision of specific community services across state borders, since Tweed Heads is in New South Wales and Coolangatta is in Queensland. Are there any issues relevant here? Will they have any implications for your research methodology? The next layer of the analysis is to develop a method to undertake and complete the project based on the requirements of the study or project, including the required deliverables or outputs. Determining the Method Developing the workplan or method for your study is a very important part of the process. Again, it is very time consuming and generally unproductive to collect data simply because you might need it. If you were undertaking this project as a coursework assignment, you would have a deadline for submission of the piece of work. As a workrelated project, you would need to know how long it will take, what resources it will need,
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and what individual components will need to be undertaken to complete the overall task. Therefore, you need to plan out the project in its primary stages from conceptual framework, through to data collection, data analysis, modelling and evaluation, and finally reporting. Figure 12.1 below, provides a simple mind map of what the component tasks would look like. This will help you to organise the activities required and the data collection process. It may also provide you with a rudimentary outline or framework for the reporting process.
Figure 12.1 Workplan for the Tweed Heads/Coolangatta aged care research project Deciding on the Data to Be Collected There are two major phases to the data collection workplan environmental scanning, and the consultation phase. The environmental scan is an essential step and can be compared to the process of academic research known as the literature review. It is the process of determining what is already known about the subject under investigation. In our example, it is knowing a range of things about the environment of Tweed Heads/
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Coolangatta in terms of its existing service provision to the two nominated target groups, and knowing what already exists in the way of aged care services within the area. Also required is the provision of estimates of the size, composition and the likely demand for service by each of the targeted groups. In needs-based or social planning terms this equates with what is known as the assessment of projected need. The background data we need to collect includes: population data on people of non-English speaking backgrounds for each of the two identified locations; population data on the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population of those locations; data on existing services provided to aged people within the two cities; data on existing clients of those services within the targeted groups; data on the current use of those existing services, particularly by those groups; data on the capacity of existing services to meet the needs of new clients, i.e. existing and future service capacity. We may also require a range of policy-related data in order to address the issues that will arise, particularly since the brief is to examine cross-border service provision. This is potentially a difficult policy area since it is not usual practice for the Commonwealth or States to fund services across State borders. In the policy area we may require data on: Local government Community Service Policies for each of the two locations; Commonwealth and State aged care policy documents; Commonwealth and State policy on cross-border service provision where applicable, including other programs that might provide models for future aged care activities in this case; any similar local service policies on cross-border service provision. The consultation phase is designed to particularise the data you have collected in your desktop research. We will deal with the sourcing and use of this data in a little while, but it is important that we examine the issue of consultation as it is such an important aspect of the project. In most forms of applied research, consultation is a method for acquiring views and opinions (qualitative data) about our research topic. We can do this through questionnaires, interviews, surveys, etc. We can also use it to compare
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our research area with similar areas, similar populations, or even contrasting ones. In terms of our example, the goal of the consultation phase will be to get people's opinions about existing service provision and their views about what is needed in the future. In needs-based or social planning terms this is what is known as expressed need. The other area that your consultation will address is the issue of existing service provision. You will need to assess its relevance to the two identified target groups and gather evidence of their existing and future capacity to meet the expressed and projected needs of these two groups. Finally you will need to make an assessment of the appropriateness and relevance of the existing services to the specific requirements of non-English speaking and Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander clients. In all aspects of the consultation process you will need some reliable form of data collection instrument, whether that be formal survey instruments, interview schedules or some other documentation processes. The more systematic your data collection activities the more simple will be the stages of the project that flow from them, be they data analysis, data modelling or report writing. Sourcing the Data Once you have decided on the data required for the research you must then source it. Again using our project example, we would require the following: census data on the aged population of Tweed Heads and Coolangatta; census data on residents of non-English speaking background in each location; census data on the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations of both locations; documentation on models of aged care, both existing within the two locations and alternatives which may be available from the policy sections of relevant government departments; the range of policy documents identified in the section 'Deciding upon the data to be collected' above; documentation on any previous examinations of issues within the two locations or by relevant cross-border organisations; documentation on existing service activities from current service providers; documentation on existing service provision and the future service capacity of those services most services have regular statistical collections especially if they are government funded;
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annual reports and other policy statements from existing providers and local government community service providers to the aged. Census data can be accessed in the written publications of the Australian Bureau of Statistics. There is also a CDROM publication available in most regional libraries which allows access to census data and limited manipulation of files. When working with projections it is also advisable to not only use the data from the most recent census period, but also to seek out other statistical projections available. These are most often published on a regional basis by the Department of Urban Affairs and Planning in New South Wales and other regional planning authorities in the other States and Territories. Other documentation can generally be accessed from the Community Services Department of the Councils, existing service providers and in some cases the Policy or Evaluation sections of relevant government departments. Sometimes sourcing appropriate data can be a process of trial and error. Most libraries carry government publications, particularly government service directories. The Internet is an invaluable resource and provides a range of directories upon which you can search for relevant data. Policy material is often available from government departments. For example, policy on planning issues for aged care provision in New South Wales is available from the Department of Urban Affairs and Planning, the Office of Housing Policy, the Office of Aged and Disability Services and the Commonwealth Department of Health and Community Services. It is a matter of thinking about the issues involved and then searching the departments or agencies that may be represented. Use the Internet, agency directories, library catalogues, etc. If your project resulted from a service contract, the agency hiring you will often have background data which they will provide to the consultant as part of the contracting process. It is also helpful to ask what they have on hand before you begin. Using Relevant Comparative Data Making comparisons is an important aspect of the social science research process, but it is important that you remember what was said about statistical comparisons. You must always compare like with like. You can contrast one thing with another but to make comparisons that can stand both cursory and rigid scrutiny you must compare on the basis of similarities and attributes.
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In our project example there are two distinct target groups for future service provision aged persons from nonEnglish speaking backgrounds, and those from Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander backgrounds. There are some aspects about these two populations that are similar and some different. To compare them using their differences would be patently improper, particularly if you were then to make resource decisions or make recommendations about resource allocations or services from your comparisons. The backgrounds, needs, desires, preferred types of foods, and ways of living are areas that might be different between the two groups, while more general issues like income, the need for nursing home care, podiatry, home nursing, etc. might be the same. Look for the issues on which your research subjects are similar and make your comparisons on those, contrast their differences, and provide options that blend similarities and differences appropriately. In terms of data sources, again only compare like with like. With our research topic, you could compare the representation of the two target groups with the overall aged population of the area. You could compare them with similar local government areas and assess the types of services provided in those areas with those in the research areas of Tweed Heads/Coolangatta. You could compare the services provided to the target groups by one type of community service provider in the area against those provided by another provider etc. Therefore, only draw conclusions based on comparisons where the data or information that is compared is sufficiently similar to warrant comparison. Contrast the information by drawing upon the differences rather than the similarities. Source data which provides appropriate relevant comparisons and where your conclusions will withstand rigorous scrutiny. Again using our example, some appropriate comparisons that could be made are: the use of existing service options between target groups; the use of existing service options by each target group compared to other identified groups within the area; the use of existing service options compared to the general population; preferences for services between target groups; preferences for services between each target group and the general population; the provision of services to each target group compared to similar local government areas; the expressed needs of each target group; the projected needs of each target group.
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Choosing Appropriate Data Sources The issue most relevant in choosing data sources is reliability. Consider the question you are examining and then determine the most appropriate forms of evidence required to support your case or position. If you are exploring a contemporary issue in the social environment, is there likely to be secondary data already collected on the subject? Could you undertake a survey or questionnaire to gather data or can you work from demographic data and the reports and other documentation of government or other agencies, such as in this example? Choose sources that will allow you to effectively and appropriately draw comparisons, reach conclusions and make recommendations. If your data is flawed your whole case can be eroded irrespective of the quality of your presentation. If you are using published data from secondary sources like the Australian Bureau of Statistics make sure that you are using the most up to date volume or publication for the particular material you have chosen. Assess the data used for comparison on the basis of its relevance and reliability. Make sure that the data sources and the timeframes used within them adequately reflect the contemporary realities of the time period in which you are undertaking your analysis. In the case of the Tweed Heads/Coolangatta research, make sure that the data on service provision and utilisation is the most up to date data that each service can provide. Use the most recent Annual Report, the most recent publications of the Councils and other agencies, and in particular be sure to use the most up to date census data for your statistical profiling. Questionnaires and Interview Schedules Questionnaires are a very common form of data collection, particularly in social and market research. They are a useful means of gathering data from large samples, but they have the usual difficulties of large scale sampling, specifically: they surrender a degree of reliability in order to be able to sample a large volume of people; they have a tendency to truncate issues, that is, they tend to convert the specific into the general. This is because it is impossible to put all the potential shades of meaning into any one question; they are highly dependent on their design and method of administration for relevance and validity; they can be costly and sometimes difficult to process;
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they often only represent the views of those who are motivated; this is particularly the case for mailed-out questionnaires that require participants to return them; their collation often results in the reduction or collapsing of issues into common frameworks or common descriptions. In their favour, questionnaires can be a useful means of taking the temperature of an issue or gathering an overview of a topic or subject. Like case studies, they can flesh out a set of issues or provide the human perspective to a theoretical examination. For a specific set of data requiring only yes or no answers, questionnaires can be an effective means of getting a definitive overview of opinions for a reasonable financial investment. With contemporary statistical analysis software such as SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), SAS or other similar products, precoded information can be fed into a powerful personal computer to produce aggregated and crosstabulated data outputs very quickly, usually in the form of tables and graphs. In terms of our example, a questionnaire could be used to gather views about existing service provision, individual needs for future services, etc. However, the size of the Tweed Heads/Coolangatta aged population and the specific target groups identified in the research may not warrant the use of this method. It may be more appropriate to consider interviews using a predetermined schedule of questions, particularly since each of the target groups is likely to have some difficulties with English expression, and in particular with the written word. Interviews would involve the identification of a representative sample of each of the two target groups and then the administration of the interview framework. Some methods which could be used to do this could be: community meetings; group discussions; group interviews; individual interviews. Ways in which a representative sample might be collected are: identification of appropriate subjects by local interest groups, such as the Lands Council for the Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islanders; identification of appropriate subjects by the community service's staff of the two local government councils; identification of appropriate subjects by existing service providers;
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identification of appropriate subjects by the local aged care networks, such as a Regional Health Team for the aged, local doctors, local community health staff, etc.; advertising and conducting meetings to discuss service provisions to the two targeted groups; circulars or flyers to the relevant communities. Developing an interview schedule is a useful means of making sure that all relevant issues are addressed. It provides the interviewer with a framework, not necessarily a rigid one, upon which to examine the issues involved. It also provides some degree of standardisation of the questions explored so that comparisons, where relevant, can be appropriately made. Where there are issues of language and comprehension as there are likely to be with the target groups involved in this project, interview schedules provide considerable comfort to the researcher and structure to the process. In this case, the schedule would need to explore: cultural issues related to the use of aged care services for each target group; cultural issues impacting on the type of services required; issues relevant to the use of existing services; factors that impact on the use of existing services and on the potential use of services; perceptions about the quality, quantity and type of services required for the future. Therefore, it is important to develop a schedule that allows the interviewer to create rapport with those being interviewed and then allows for the skilful and sensitive exploration of issues which may potentially have a heavy cultural overlay, or which in some instances may have bias and other socio-historical issues attached. For example, exploration of personal issues within Aboriginal society is bound up in a range of cultural taboos and rules of etiquette; interviewing in these circumstances requires the interviewer to both acknowledge and respond appropriately to these considerations. Modelling Alternative Solutions Having explored the field of study for your project; and collected the anecdotal or human side of the issues; it is then important to develop a plan of action. As was stated in the statistics and demography sections, there is not
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much point in collecting data unless it creates a call to action. In this case, it is a call to develop and model the future in terms of projected needs and future service requirements for the two target groups needing aged care services in Tweed Heads and Coolangatta. One useful method for doing this is the mind mapping process discussed previously. Modelling the existing service provision and the relationships between services, and then overlaying the needs profile identified for each target group, will provide you with a concept map of what is required for the future. Firstly, what is required is a general model of the data being collected and how it all fits together to address the question in the brief. Modelling the future provision of aged care services to Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islanders and people from nonEnglish speaking backgrounds in Tweed Heads and Coolangatta will require data on who they are, where they are, and what services they currently use. It will also require the identification of the factors involved in their use of services and those involved in their non-use of services, as well as the recording of their preferences and desires for future service delivery. This data then has to be overlaid against what already exists, along with an assessment of the quality, quantity and relevance of existing service provisions to those two target groups. What flows from this is the ability to chart or map the gap between what is and what is required or desired for the future. Only then is it possible to plan for future service provision, make recommendations, and cost out what the filling of the gap will entail. On top of this is what policy will allow you to do. If existing policy will not allow you to address the filling of the gap, then policy revision or development will also be required. Figure 12.2 below is the data to be modelled before the future can be charted. Because the project has the added issue of cross-border service provision, the data must first be modelled for each local government area and then cross-border issues overlaid. The target groups have to be subdivided on the basis of their location and then reaggregated on the basis of their need. There may also be the added complication of residents using services from cross-border service providers, such as a Coolangatta resident using a Tweed Heads-based service. For convenience, the service planners would prefer that the border was not an issue in the planning process, but the practicalities of service provision make this more complicated. When local government puts money into services, it prefers those services to be for the benefit of local government residents. State governments prefer to allocate their funds only to State residents. Only the Commonwealth has little investment in the maintenance
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residents. Only the Commonwealth has little investment in the maintenance of such location and policy divisions.
Figure 12.2 A mind map of the data required to examine current and future service provisions The future options model may involve a range of alternatives, given the complex policy and service delivery issues involved in cross-border service planning. It will be based on a gap analysis, that is, the process that identifies the gap between what is available and what your research and consultations have identified as being required. From that you build models of potential solutions.
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In a brief such as this you are not required to make the final decisionyou are required to provide all of the viable alternatives and recommendations on the most appropriate ones. To fulfil your role appropriately, you should provide that range of options and your arguments in favour of or against each one. In this case some of the potential alternatives could include: maintenance of existing service provisions to each of the two target groups within both locations; increasing the capacity to access existing services for these target groups by policy changes and funding enhancements; increasing the responsiveness of existing service provisions to the target groups by staff development and education programs; creating additional service options in each location; creating additional service options for each target group; creating additional service options to be shared across locations; creating a dual-policy framework for the support of cross-border services using local government funding; creating a joint funding framework for New South Wales and Queensland governments in order to fund a comprehensive service to the two target groups from one location; creating an operating framework for a Commonwealth-funded service to operate for the two target groups across the State borders. Before proceeding beyond the process of modelling the gap and potential solutions, it is often a wise strategy to take your alternatives to the representatives who formed your reference group in the interview or consultation phase, particularly before you develop your arguments for and against your options. This reference group can provide an invaluable process of reality checking on the content of your options and assist in the process of attaching a priority to them. What is modelled on paper may not be viable in the real world of how the residents actually live or interact with each other and you may therefore put yourself in the position of recommending otherwise unworkable solutions. Making Recommendations and Charting the Future Having gathered your data, conducted your consultations, examined the options, and prioritised the possibilities, you then need to make recommendations on the range of future options that are possible. Making
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recommendations on this particular brief will be more than just choosing between the possibilities, as it will also require you to justify your recommendations and to consider and recommend the structures required in order to implement those recommendations. If, for example, your preferred option is the support and development of existing services to meet the needs of the two target groups, then those recommendations will have implications for a range of operating issues such as: staff selection; staff development; staff training; client intake systems; client management; individual case planning; program delivery; program funding. So both your recommendations and future organisational and service delivery models will need to report on all of these aspects. Presenting the Findings. Presenting your findings then requires you to write a report based on your activities. Commercial report writing will be covered more fully in the next chapter, but it is important that the report comprehensively addresses your specific project brief. In the case of the aged care study, your report would have an outline which covers at least the following: an executive summary; background to the research project; identification of the issues under examination; overview of the target groups; a profile of the target groups and their locations; a profile of other relevant characteristics; an overview of the policy and operating environment of the project and existing service provisions; identification of the relevant questions impacting upon the development of solutions; a model of the existing and future options, including justifications for preferred solutions; recommendations and alternative arguments.
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Chapter 13 Consumer Market Research Analysing the Brief Consumer market research is that area of market research dealing with the consumption habits and patterns of the population. Issues examined in this area include the buying habits of individuals and groups, preferences for particular products, likes and dislikes in service delivery, spending patterns, etc. Logically it is the area where much of the consumption-based research of the consumer product's sector and some service delivery areas takes place. Research is often undertaken when a producer of a particular product starts to notice a drop in sales figures, or it will be undertaken when a new product is being developed, in order to determine the appropriate market sector to which it should be promoted. Advertising is an extremely powerful medium for the promotion of products and the shaping of consumer behaviour. Unless the producers of products are in tune with their potential audience, then even logical ideas will not reach fruition and otherwise beneficial products will go unpurchased. As consumers become increasingly more sophisticated they are less easily swayed by glitzy advertising. They expect greater value for their money and they recognise that they are a powerful tool in their own pursuit of higher quality products at decreasing cost. Another area where consumer market research is beginning to have an impact is in service delivery and general management research. More and more companies and organisations are addressing issues of service quality through staff climate surveys, client attitude and satisfaction surveys, as well as other forms of research that aid the reconfiguration of service delivery and the promotion of organisational efficiency. Therefore, the first stage in undertaking consumer market research is the same as for essay writing, assignment completion or other applied research you must fully understand the question. In the case of contract research in the consumer marketplace, the tender brief will provide the framework for the undertaking. In work for a corporation or agency the project brief will be your guide. In this case we will construct one from a New South Wales State Rail tender proposal: Tenders are invited for the provision of professional services to undertake Market Research on four waves of the State Rail Customer Satisfaction Survey.
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What is this brief asking for? And what is it telling you? Firstly, there are to be four waves of the survey, that is, there are to be four periods of time in which the survey will be undertaken. Secondly, they will be brought together into a piece of market-related research to tell State Rail what their customers think of their services and how they are delivered, as well as whether they are satisfied with how State Rail operates the range of its services. Determining the Market to Be Assessed Determining the market to be assessed is a fairly simple process usually identified or inferred within the brief. In the case of the State Rail project, the market is State Rail users. However, State Rail is a complex organisation if the requirement is a general overview of its clients, then the market to be surveyed will include all potential clients from within the full range of its services. Taking this as the appropriate definition of the topic, then the market to be assessed will include: City Rail commuters; interstate and country travellers; freight rail users; travel service users; corporate freight purchasers, such as coal producers, steel producers, etc. This could become an extremely complex group of people to survey, because of the diversity of clients for each sector. However, there are sampling techniques and survey methods which are applicable for each of the defined market segments. Choosing the Test Sample and Locations Choosing the test sample is an important aspect of the research design. Without first giving due consideration to the issues involved in service use, service type and the likely profile of their respective clients, it is impossible to undertake the data gathering phase adequately. Where services are provided to a range of client groups, it is important to examine each in order to determine the fundamental requirements of the sampling design. For the City Rail commuters, the simplest method would be a survey questionnaire that could be dispensed with each ticket during the survey period. Respondents could have the option of either returning them by mail, using a replypaid brochure layout to facilitate this process, or by providing boxes within which to lodge them at ticket offices. The sample
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would need to be large enough to capture the breadth of the demographics of the commuter population. It would be essential to use a random sampling method which would provide all commuters with a survey form and the opportunity to complete it. Although this would be the most appropriate method to collect the data, it would be a somewhat expensive method to process at the end. However, the interstate and country travellers would have a predictable set of demographic characteristics derived from the fact that all interstate services are heavily utilised by subsidised travellers. They are those with pensioner and other travel concessions, as this form of travel is a fringe benefit of income maintenance and pensioner support programs. So, for this group a stratified sample representing the profile of regular users of these services would be required. Since the trips are also usually longer than city commuter trips, the questionnaires could be distributed with tickets and collected by the guards or other relevant staff during the journey. Travel service clients would also be a random group based upon the season, school vacation periods, etc. Again, a random sampling technique is advisable through the provision of a questionnaire during each visit to a travel centre. A box or mail return would be appropriate for the collection of questionnaires, but it would not be possible to guarantee either the return rate or the representative nature of the participating sample. Freight rail users could also be surveyed as they seek out a service, such as taking a parcel to a freight distribution centre. This method would not be suitable for corporate freight users, however, since their needs would be considerably different to those of single or incidental freight users. Surveying all incidents of use during the survey period, with a mail-returned questionnaire or one that could be filled out as their freight transaction was taking place, would also be appropriate. For the corporate users, a focus or reference group would be more applicable this will be covered in more detail in the following sections 'Focus and reference group testing' and 'Nominal group technique'. Selecting Appropriate Demographic Indicators Having decided upon the method to gather the data, it is then important to determine what data is required. In particular, you will need to consider issues of representation and the nature of the demographic profile of service users, since these profiles will determine the market segments for future service development and delivery.
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What are the client characteristics which State Rail needs to know? How can they be effectively collected in a survey format? What are the issues related to State Rail service delivery that are important to its clients? What questions can provide the most useable information at the least cost, since data collection and processing can be an extremely expensive enterprise? What comparisons can or should be made between survey respondents and the general population? These are just some of the issues that need to be addressed in the development of the survey design and the questionnaires which will be used to collect the data. Some issues that might be relevant are: 1. City Rail commuters: (a) age; (b) gender; (c) purpose of journey; (d) journey to work information; (i) place of commencement of journey; (ii) place of completion; (iii) length of trip; (e) frequency of travel; (f) satisfaction with timetabling; (g) satisfaction with facilities. 2. Interstate and country travellers: (a) age; (b) gender; (c) purpose of journey; (d) method of payment; (e) frequency of travel; (f) satisfaction with timetabling; (g) satisfaction with facilities. 3. Casual freight users: (a) industry sector; (b) type of transaction; (c) frequency of service use; (d) distance for transmission of freight; (e) satisfaction with service quality.
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Questionnaires and Interview Schedules Providing that the issues under examination are clear and there is a reasonably limited range of interpretations that can be made about them, then questionnaires can be a valid means of data collection. You must choose the most appropriate method of administration based on the description or profile of your sample, the size of your required sample, and the degree of response that is statistically appropriate. If your sample is completely random and it doesn't really matter which subjects return the questionnaires, then a mailed questionnaire will be acceptable. It is usually the case, however, that only about a third of mailed questionnaires are ever actually returned. You will then have a discard rate of between 5 and 10 per cent for incomplete or incorrect returns, and so your actual sample size will have to take these issues into account in your preparation. Telephone surveys or questionnaires can be costly and should only be chosen where their cost is adequately matched by the reliability and value of the data collected. Face-to-face questionnaires can just as easily be replaced with an interview schedule so that you can combine the collection of both objective and subjective data. It may be feasible in this process to use face-to-face interviewers who administer a standard questionnaire to those being surveyed. This is a common method in market research. You can often see evidence of them being conducted within shopping centres and pedestrian malls. Developing the questions to be used in a survey is a very exacting task and requires continuous attention to the issue of potential ambiguity. Your questions must gather the data that you want, and must not provide respondents with misleading or conflicting material. The prevention of these potential problems is the responsibility of the designer, and clear and precise layout can play an important role in this protection process. Computer technology can be extremely effective in designing questionnaires, processing data, and analysis. Optical scanning technology has evolved considerably and it makes the processing of questionnaires with a 'tick box' format, an example of which is presented in Figure 13.1 below, an extremely economical option. Unambiguous choices for questions and clear boxes to tick for responses would be a very effective means of dealing with the City Rail commuter survey design. It would also work effectively with the interstate/country clients and the casual freight users. The corporate clients will require a more complex data collection method since
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their use of rail services reflects a more complicated operational environment and is a crucial component of State Rail's economic base.
Figure 13.1 An example of a survey form using a 'tick box' layout: State Rail client survey 1997, City Rail travellers Focus and Reference Group Testing Focus and reference groups are an effective means of obtaining information from a quota sample; that is, a sample specifically selected for membership of a group with specific characteristics. Take the corporate users of State Rail's freight services as an example. The range of their needs and wants could be quite complex, but it is likely that they will have common requirements based on the economics of the business climate. What is needed is a method to deal with the common factors that can be easily identified between all members of the group. They may include patterns of use, seasonal variations, etc. as well as more specific issues common to the group to which you have assigned them, e.g. corporate freight users. A simple but powerful method for achieving this is the nominal group technique.
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Nominal Group Technique Nominal group technique is a specific technique often used in reference or focus group work. It is a form of forced choice that works very effectively with the positives and negatives of a particular issue. The name derives from the process of creating a group consensus based on the random placing of people into a group or groups. A common means is to provide each person in the room with a specified number of blank cards or pieces of paper. Each person then writes down the things that they like about a particular issue, or the things they thought were positive about a particular program or project. They then write down the things that they thought were negative or that they didn't like. The individuals are then randomly formed into groups. Representativeness can be increased where specific characteristics can be identified, such as a room made up of academics and students. In order to increase the representation, the groups would have equal numbers of each and if possible equal numbers of each gender, and so it becomes a notional or nominal group allocation. The group then discusses their individual responses and works towards gaining of a consensus on their positive and negative views. In this particular case, this would represent opinions and views about service priorities and service quality. Say, for example, each individual produced five positives and five negatives. The groups, which were then formed through random assignment, would do the same. In our example for the State Rail project, a nominal group technique would be effective in surveying the views of corporate clients, who generally have a diversity of needs and wants but a common requirement for cost efficiency and reliability. Without individually surveying all of its corporate clients, State Rail would have some difficulties in fully understanding the issues that illustrate satisfaction for these clients. Through the conduct of focus groups and the use of a nominal group technique, a wide range of issues could readily be identified in a cost-effective manner. Collating and Analysing the Data The collation and analysis of data is a very important aspect of the research process. It can also be an extremely expensive exercise since it involves both time and resources. A number of specific computer packages are available to analyse large volumes of statistical data. They include SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), SAS (Statistical Analysis System), Minitab and other similar programs. They all rely upon some
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form of data entry prior to the manipulation of the data and this can be time consuming and tedious work. If the survey sample were large, it would be worth considering the use of a data entry company such as Infocorp or Adinfo, who are Sydney-based data-processing firms. Similar firms exist in other States and a perusal of the yellow pages should provide you with what is needed. Optical scanning is an economical option for the input of large volumes of data into an analysis program to allow further manipulation. The method of data input should be considered in the development of your research design. The general output from the data entry phase will be cross-tabulations and tables of the data. With most commercial providers and most programs, the data arrays allow for a number of fields to be cross-referenced or cross-tabulated, and you will usually be asked which data you wish to use for this purpose. For example, with our rudimentary form in Figure 13.1 we might want to cross-reference frequency of travel with method of payment and then examine that by gender. Once you have your data in manageable form you will then need to analyse it, since it is insufficient to present just the tables resulting from the collection process. You need to examine trends in activities, trends in satisfaction with services, what services provide most and least satisfaction, what aspects of State Rail activities are most and least preferred by the range of its client, etc. Making Recommendations. Making Recommendations then becomes a simple process of balancing your findings with the corporate mission and objectives of the organisation. The most applicable objectives for State Rail, in this context, will be those relating to customer or client service and specific service development for individual market sectors. The purpose of the survey as a satisfaction index is obviously to measure whether service delivery is meeting the needs of clients. If the satisfaction levels are not appropriate, then corrective action is required. Therefore, your recommendations will encompass the range of issues involved within your collection framework and provide recommendations on structural efficiency and client service strategies that will enhance overall customer satisfaction.
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Presenting the Findings Presentation of your findings, within commercial reports, is similar to that for assignments or contract research. In this case the presentation will be based on the content of the brief, the purposes of the four waves of the survey, and the collated views of the customers or clients involved in completing it. In addition, you would need to discuss the methods used for each survey or data-gathering segment, the issues raised, the outputs and outcomes that eventuated from your research activities, and the processes you went through in analysing the data and developing your recommendations. Finally, you will produce a report using the overview provided in the next chapter on Commercial Report Writing.
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Chapter 14 Commercial Report Writing Determining the Audience Report writing for workplace projects, or commercial report writing as it will be known in this chapter, is a very structured and formalised process, particularly where you are reporting on a commissioned or consultancy project. These reports are usually either technical presentations on a particular issue or a presentation on the critical evaluation of a specific topic (such as a social policy question), an examination of a specific field of study (such as youth suicide), or a management issue (such as the review of a government health program). Commercial reports require a similar structure to that of an essay outline, but they should be much more focused and their content will be determined by the research or project brief or the consultancy requirements. In developing your report outline, it is essential that you consider the audience who will be receiving it first, since this will ultimately determine the content. In doing so you will need to examine the overall question being addressed and determine its specific components and the interests of its principal stakeholders. You will need to provide a background to the issues being examined and some form of overview of the environment in which the examination of the issues or activities took place. As our example, I will use a report that I completed in 1996 for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, a Review into Legal Services for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People in New South Wales. The draft and final reports were broken up into four main sections: Section 1: Executive Summary Section 2: An Overview of Aboriginal Legal Services in New South Wales Section 3: Current Assessment of Aboriginal Legal Services Section 4: The Future of Aboriginal Legal Services. Section 1, the executive summary, used a common convention developed as an acknowledgment that many of the readers of contracted reports have insufficient time to read the reports in their entirety. Its use also reflects a fundamental issue in the report writing process, that is, that some form of decision or decisions will flow from the exercise, and so the material on
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facilitate this final objective, the executive summary provides a common collection point for recommendations and a brief rationale for each. The main purpose of Section 2 in the review report was to place the issues examined into context. It provided the background as to why the review was necessary and the logistics of how it was undertaken. It also provided a history of the development of legal services for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and a profile of the environment of legal service provision, including the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, since it had direct implications for the quality and quantity of legal representation. Section 3 documented the analysis phase, where the details and findings of consultations, reviews of operating procedures, etc. were examined and assessed for inconsistencies, unanswered questions and issues of improvement or realignment. Section 4 explored issues for the future in terms of recommendations for structural efficiency, as well as operational and performance improvement or modification. From this examination, it is clear that the initial activity in report writing is to determine who you are writing for, what their expectations are and what it is that they require you to do. Finally, you need to develop and present a factual presentation of what you did and what conclusions you drew from those activities. This framework is as applicable for a report involving contract research, a workplace project report, a theoretical or laboratory research report, or a case study. The Brief: Reality Checking The principle reality check for the writing phase is the brief itself; your outline, its subsections and its content derive their position, purpose and emphasis from the research or contract question. In some instances the contractor will prescribe exactly what the report is required to contain and when a report or reports will be required within the project. A common form of this request is the following: A written report will need to be provided on completion of the project. This report must include an executive summary. (from a Commonwealth government tender document) For a workplace project, the minimum output requirement will be a final report based on the overall research issue, your research activities, your
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findings and the conclusions that you make following the completion of these activities. In this case, you will first need to describe and define the issue or issues examined, place them in their general field of study, describe your findings, validate your conclusions and write up a comprehensive narrative on all of these stages. Figure 14.1 below provides a graphical representation of the reporting phases of a particular project. They meet the expressed requirements of the project brief and also feed logically into a final report at the completion of the assignment. It is not always the case that the reporting requirements will be so clearly enunciated for you, however, and so it is important that you address those that are requested within the brief and determine those which should occur where they are not prescribed.
Figure 14.1 Excerpt from a tender document identifying the reporting requirements for a specific project Therefore, your activities and reporting processes all derive their timing and their meaning from the brief itself, or from the research question that
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has either been imposed on you or which you have developed yourself. How you go about the research and how you report it is also determined by the brief. A reality check, using the brief as your reference point, will determine whether you have addressed the correct issues in your study and your report. It is therefore something that you should do throughout your research activities and particularly before presenting your report to those who have commissioned the work. Defining the Question(s) There is a considerable difference between a sociological examination of a question and a managerial or business analysis. Take the example of the Review of Legal Services on one interpretation the review could have been perceived as a sociological examination of the issues surrounding legal service delivery to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander clients. Its primary purpose could have been a historical profile of the development of legal services to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples; or it could have been a program evaluation of the performance of legal services to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander clients. In fact it was the latter. The brief required the examination of legal services to the specified client group, an examination of the efficiency of existing service provision, an assessment of performance by the stakeholders of those services, and their views about existing and future legal service delivery. The final stage was an examination of alternatives to existing provision, including comparison with services provided by alternative legal service providers, such as the Legal Aid Commission of New South Wales. Collecting the Data In the same way that you look to the wording of a question for an essay or assignment in order to determine what the specific issues to be addressed are, so too you look to the brief when conducting your research and report writing for a workplace project. You need to systematically collect your data in the same manner as it has been described for essays, assignments and tutorial presentations. For contract research, you need to define the broad field of your inquiry and where relevant undertake a literature or background data review from the broad field. You then need to determine the specific field or subsection to be examined in-depth, as defined within the consulting brief or research question. You also need to develop a data-collection method and an effective recording framework to
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manage the data as it is collected. This may require you to determine whether you need formal questionnaires, interview schedules, observation outlines or case study frameworks. Finally you need to collect your data. Collation, Analysis and Summary Once you have collected and documented your background and research data, you need to be able to put it into a manageable and useable form. It needs to be collated, analysed where relevant, and summarised for presentation. The degree of sophistication of your data collection, analysis and summary will depend upon the complexity of the question or questions under examination, the quality and quantity of the data you have collected, and the strength or sophistication of the assumptions or arguments you wish to make. You should use arguments and presentations that are sufficient to prove your case and detailed enough to effectively inform your audience of your findings. Using a minimalist approach to proving complex arguments is always a good rule of thumb. Assertions, Facts and Opinions The presentation rules of essay writing are equally important in report writing. You should never present opinions as facts and you should always identify your assertions and substantiate them with attached proof or an examination of the arguments that caused you to adopt a particular view of the evidence examined. More times than not you will be choosing between two or more particular interpretations of the presenting evidence. The one that you put forward will be an assertion and will require substantiation of why you chose it over any and all other possible interpretations. If you are writing for a consulting or contractual purpose, then your audience will be looking to adopt or reject your view of the evidence and to make wide-ranging decisions based upon it. You must therefore present convincing arguments so that your audience can evaluate their merits, since ultimately they will either choose to act upon your recommendations or reject them based on this evidence. Presentation, Style and Layout Your style of report writing will need to be very focused and factual. It must be readable and take the reader on the journey you have been
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through during your research. Your presentation must do a number of specific things. It must: provide the reader with a clear understanding of why you undertook the research; provide the reader with sufficient background so that they can place the issue or issues for examination in a broad context or environment; provide the reader with a clear understanding of the processes that you went through in order to examine the issues involved and all the other relevant issues impacting upon them; provide the reader with a logical basis upon which to draw conclusions from the presenting data; provide the reader with sufficient information to choose between conflicting or different views or courses of action; provide the reader with sufficient confidence to adopt or reject your recommendations. Recommendations. There is little point in collecting data unless it ultimately leads to action. In the case of report writing, the outcome should be recommendations for action, whether that action be further research or, in the case of contracted research, making a choice between particular courses of action or outcomes. The more logically and clearly your recommendations are presented, including examination of the potential arguments for and against them, the more likely it is that they will be adopted. You cannot make the decisions through recommendations but you can pre-empt the decisions which may be made, so use this section wisely and effectively. It is sometimes useful to break your recommendations up into those which are essential or fundamental to an outcome, which we might label as primary recommendations, and those which are simply processes that enable or facilitate the outcome, or what might be called secondary recommendations. If ground has to be given, then it is easier to give leeway on the means to achieve your primary recommendations, rather than the content of those recommendations. Ultimately, it doesn't matter how you get to where it is you are going so long as you get there. Executive Summary The executive summary, is the factual, brief and very focused summary of the body of your report. It mainly contains your recommendations and the
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concise arguments which support them. It is often the only section that will be thoroughly read, so again use it wisely. Layout in this area is extremely important make it clear, concise and very readable. In some instances, it will be the only real opportunity to win friends for your arguments. In the case of the legal service review consultancy, the executive summary contained the following: General comments Program evaluation criteria efficiency effectiveness relevance appropriateness Summary of findings against the terms of the reference current activities of Aboriginal Legal Services effectiveness of current activities emerging issues in service operations and provision development of a core funding model evaluation and monitoring alternative service provision a framework for cooperative activities future operational models Future search core business linking client outcomes and service objectives performance indicators core funding and alternative service provision centralised and decentralised delivery of services customary law/lore future working relationships with other agencies Recommendations core business service delivery evaluation and performance monitoring field operations, support and advocacy management development communications and operational support service co-ordination working relationships with alternative providers
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complaints monitoring decentralisation of funding. Delivery and Presentation Once you have completed your report, the final stage is its delivery. In consulting assignments it is standard practice to present a draft final report which is then examined by the steering committee or the project team oversighting the consultancy. This will generally be the case with workplace projects where you will submit your draft to either your supervisor, a project manager or a reference group established for the project. You may be required to make an oral presentation on your findings, the processes you went through, and any obstacles you encountered in undertaking the assignment or project. You should then collate, analyse and incorporate into your final report the comments, both oral and written, that result from that presentation meeting. You should then modify or amend the draft report for final presentation. Bear in mind that a balance needs to be struck between modifying your report and re-creating it based on this input. There is a point where the report ceases to be a factual representation of what you did and what you found if it is taken over and results distorted or modified at this level. It is important to protect the integrity of your work and at the same time meet the requirements of your contract, so do not allow the review process to become a forum for the distortion or redefinition of your project responsibilities. In the presentation of academic research there is a similar balance to be struck between the presentation of what you actually found and what you would have liked to have found. The ethics of any professional discipline require that you do not falsify your findings and this means that you should present those findings without any editing or glossing of the truth.
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GLOSSARY A absolutefree from any restriction, e.g. absolute zero. abstracta concise summary, as in 'abstract of an article', summary of a statement. abstractionan idea which cannot lead to any practical result. ad adimpromptu; for this (special purpose), e.g. an ad hoc committee. ambiguitydoubtfulness or uncertainty of meaning. analogya correspondence between the relationships of things; agreement or similarity. analyseto examine critically, so as to bring out the essential elements or give the essence of. analysisa brief presentation of the essential features of; an outline or summary; a synopsis. anecdotalpertaining to things unpublished. applied appliedput to practical use, as distinguished from pure science; applying scientific principles and methods to contemporary issues. assertionan unsupported declaration; a positive statement. attitudespositions or dispositions towards issues or things. attributessomething attributed as belonging to something or someone; serving to limit or identify; to particularise or describe, e.g attribute of a person such as personality, hair colour, etc. Australian Bureau of Statistics a national agency for the collection of population, economic and other demographic data. authenticitythe quality of reliability or genuineness. authorityan accepted source of verifiable information; a standard author or writer on a particular topic or field of knowledge. B bibliographya complete or selective list of literature or source materials on a particular subject. C case casean in-depth study on a particular case or specific research exercise to document the activities or issues involving a single individual. cataloguea record of the books and other materials of a library or a collection; a list or register. censusan official profiling of the inhabitants of a nation; details such as age, sex, household composition, etc. citationthe act of citing or quoting of a passage, book, author, etc.; a reference to an authority or precedent.
cohorta group based on particular characteristics, or membership, e.g. age cohort of a particular age grouping. cold coldthe review of work by a person without previous involvement or knowledge of the content, purpose or field of the document.
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compareto examine the similarities or alikeness of something; to note the similarities or differences. consultancya relationship based on the provision of specialist knowledge or assistance; to provide counsel to; giving advice. contextthe parts of a text before or after a particular passage which give the meaning to that passage; circumstances or facts that surround a particular situation or expression. contrastto set in opposition; to show unlikeness; to compare by observing the differences between. cost/benefitto compare the benefits related to the cost of something, e.g. the benefits of a program may outweigh the costs. critical criticalskilled criticism or examination of material; competent examination; judging the merits of. critical criticalreview through a critical framework or precise set of assumptions to assess merits. criticismthe objective process of evaluating or examining the merits of something. criticism (constructive)criticism which provides or suggests positive solutions or adjustments to be made. criticism (indiscriminate)criticism without regard to outcomes; both positive or negative. cross-tabulationsdata which is organised and presented on the basis of relationships between two or more variables. D demographythe science of vital and social statistics, e.g. births, deaths, marriages, census data on population distribution and characteristics. describeto set forth in written or spoken form; give an account of. Deweyan international system of library and resource cataloguing developed by an American librarian Melvil Dewey (1851-1931). dichotomydivision into two parts; in logic the classification of material by subdivision into two groups or sections. disciplinetraining to act in accordance with rules; a set of systems or rules in a particular field of study; a system of order or control. discoursecommunication of thought by words; a formal discussion of a subject in speech or writing. E editto collect, prepare or arrange material for presentation; to revise and correct. editingthe process of revising and correcting written material. effectivenessa measure of the extent to which activity meets its purpose. efficiencya measure of competency in performance of activities. empiricalderived by or guided from experience or experimentation. empiricismthe doctrine that all knowledge is derived from experience.
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endnotessupplementary material presented at the end of a chapter, article or text. evaluateto ascertain or measure the value of; appraise carefully. evaluationthe process of measuring the value of; to critically assess or examine. examineto inspect or scrutinise carefully; to inquire or investigate. F factswhat has really happened or is the case; truth; reality; a truth known by actual experience or observation. fielda place of investigation or inquiry. frequencythe number of items occurring in a given category. footnotesa note or comment at the foot of the page; an added comment, e.g. footnote to a text. formulaa set form of words; declaring something authoritatively; a fixed and successful method of doing something; a mathematical model for the calculation of a standard relationship between data. G. graphicspictorial or diagrammatic presentation of information or data. grouped groupedclusters of information based on defined or similar characteristics. H histograma graph of a frequency distribution. hypothesisa proposition proposed as an explanation for the occurrence of some specific phenomenon. hypothesis (null) the proposition that an outcome is not the result of a relationship that was proposed. hypothesis (research)the experimental proposition or relationship that is tested through the experiment or which proposes a relationship between the experimental proposition and particular outcomes. hypothesis (testing)the act or process of testing an hypothesis. I ibid. ibidem (Latin) in the same book, chapter or page. identifyto recognise or attest to; to associate; to attest as being as put forward; to classify. indexa detailed alphabetically organised key to data. indicatorsa representation of, for example, performance indicators (representations of performance which can be numerically or statistically compared). indicessigns to point out specific characteristics of; a pointer or indicator. inter-censualbetween census recording periods; intermediate census data collected between official collection periods.
Internetthe international electronic network for the sharing of data and information. interpretationthe act of interpreting; a construction placed on something. interviewsa meeting of persons face to face; a formal dialogue between people to elicit information. interviews (structured)discussions that explore information based on predetermined issues or characteristics to be examined.
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interviews (unstructured)open-ended discussions on issues. J jargonthe language specific or peculiar to a specific trade or profession. journalany periodical or magazine; often the regular publication of a professional or special interest group. judgmentalan opinion formed; pre-determined opinion. justificationa defensive plea; justifying fact or circumstance. justifyto show a claim or statement to be just; to align, as in justify text. K keyworda significant word; the word on which a code is based. L lecturea discourse read or delivered before an audience; to instruct by lecture. lecturerone who lectures; teaching staff of a university. literature literaturethe examination of a body of writing on a subject or topic also known as bibliographic review. N narrativea literary work; a story or written version of events or impressions of a field of inquiry. needsa case or instance in which some necessity or want exists; a requirement. needs (expressed)requirements or wants articulated by those who are influenced by their lack. needs (projected)necessities or wants determined by a process of objective assessment or calculation. notesa brief record of something set down to assist the memory or for reference or development at a later date. O observationthe act of noticing or perceiving; regarding attentively and noting the actions or responses of someone or something. objectivesthe end towards which efforts are directed. open openusually a test or examination of knowledge on a subject where the student is allowed to refer to texts and other references to answer the questions. operational operationalresearch or investigations based on the operating conditions and issues of service delivery or production. operational operationalthe management of the activities or production of products, programs or services. op opin the work or text just cited. opiniona judgment or belief resting on grounds which are insufficient to create certainty; a personal view.
outlinea framework upon which to develop a larger work. P performance performancean examination of performance. performance performancemeasures of performance, usually indicators of successful or correct performance. performance performancethe systematic measurement of performance over time. periodicala journal or magazine. plagiarismthe deliberate presentation of another's work as one's own.
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populationa particular group of inhabitants; a large group. population populationassessing, projecting or estimating the number of inhabitants of a group. population populationusing mathematical formulae to provide an objective estimate of the population or subgroups. presentationa formal display or exhibition of work or something else. primary primarydata gathered through personal intervention, experimentation or other involvement. Q qualitativethe expression of opinion, perception, views; measures of quality or perception; usually subjective measures. quantitativeexpressing relationships based on objective and measurable data or characteristics; usually objective information or analysis. questionnairesstructured data gathering usually employing a written survey. quotationsthat which is quoted or repeated; a passage quoted from a text. R. random randoma sample drawn without any preset conditions, elements or relationships. rankposition on a predetermined scale; number of persons forming a separate class in the social scale. rankingstanding or position on a scale; the process of position on a scale. recommendationsrepresentations in favour of a particular view or position. relevanceconnected with the matter at hand or under examination. reliabilitytrustworthy, e.g. reliability of a source of information; in statistics a measure of the extent to which data can be relied upon. representative representativea sample of subjects which is representative of the issues or field of inquiry. researchthe process of systematically collecting data on a topic or issue and examining it for fit with a specific or general proposition; use of a combination of qualitative and quantitative measures to examine an issue or topic. research researchbias attributed to the research design, methodology or sample selection. research researchthe design or methodology employed for a particular piece of research. respondentsomeone who responds, usually in research referring to someone who responds to the questionnaire, survey or other data collection process. S samplea selection based on specific conditions determined to test a theory or hypothesis; serving as a specimen; to test or judge by a sample. sample (quota)a sample selected on a pre-determined quota or selection framework. sample (random)a sample selected without any predetermined conditions.
sample (stratified)a sample selected on a framework which is organised on the basis of levels or gradients in characteristics.
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samplingthe process of taking or selecting a sample. scalea succession or progression of steps or degrees within a graded series. scalingthe process of creating a scale or scaling framework; to place data on a scale. secondary secondarydata generated by inference; data attributed to a source other than yourself; data collected by others. significancehaving a meaning; in statistics being statistically relevant. skewa distortion of data based on an extraneous factor; to give an oblique direction to; having a part that deviates from a projected line or course. statisticsthe science which deals with the collection, classification and use of numerical facts and data. social socialindicators or data which indicate a social condition; measures used to describe social conditions, issues or characteristics. standardiseanything taken by consent as a basis for comparison; normed or referenced tests, scales, data, etc. standardisation of data creating a basis for comparison of particular data. surveyto take a general or comprehensive view; a formal or official examination of the particulars of something; a collection of views or opinions. surveys (mail)data gathered by mail using a survey instrument. surveys (telephone)data gathered by telephone using a survey instrument. T tablesthe aggregation or collation of data into table format. tabulationscalculations performed on grouped data. themea set of ideas on a particular topic. theorya comprehensive group of general propositions used as principles of explanation. topica subject of discussion; the subject or theme of a discourse. transcriptionconverting notes into narrative; transforming information from one source to another, such as from audio tape to written words. tutorsa university lecturer who supervises the study of a small group of students. tutorialsthe process within which such study takes place; a period of instruction given by a tutor. V validitythe state or quality of being valid. variablecapable of being varied; a symbol or the quantity or function which it signifies or a representation of a given set of numbers.
variable (dependent)the variable which depends upon a certain event or condition to have significance or an effect upon the research question. variable (independent)any variable which does not have any significant bearing on the outcome of an experiment. W World Wide Webthe technical framework on which the Internet operates.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnaudet M and Barrett M, Approaches to Academic Reading and Writing, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1984. Bowen B and Weisberg H, An Introduction to Data Analysis, WH Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA, 1980. Burke W and Litwin G, A causal model of organisational performance and change, Journal of Management, Volume 18, No. 3, 1992, pp 523-45. Clancy J and Ballard B, Essay Writing for Students, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne, 1981. Clerehan R, Study Skills Handbook for Tertiary Students, Language and Learning Services, Monash University (Caulfield Campus), 1991. Crosling G and Murphy H, How to Study Business Law; Reading, Writing and Exams, Butterworths, Sydney, 1994. Ellis D, Becoming a Master Student, 7th edn, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, MA, 1994. Goode W and Hatt P, Methods in Social Research, LaPiere R, Consulting Editor, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Series in Sociology and Anthropology, International Student Edition, 1952 list edition, 1981, 25th printing. Henniger M, Don't Just Surf: Effective Research Strategies for the Net, UNSW Press, Sydney, 1997. Herz J, Surfing on the Internet: A Net-Head's Adventure On-Line, Abacus Books, London, 1995. Hilmer F, Management Redeemed: Debunking the Fads that Undermine Corporate Performance, Free Press, Sydney, 1997. Maddox H, How to Study, 2nd ed., Pan Books, London, 1967. Morrisey G, Management by Objectives and Results in the Public Sector, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., MA, 1991.
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Nankervis A, Compion R and McCarthy T, Strategic Human Resource Management, Thomas Nelson Australia, Melbourne, 1993. Orr F, How to Pass Exams, Allen and Unwin, St Leonards, Australia, 1984. Orr F, How to Succeed at Part-time Study, Allen and Unwin, St Leonards, Australia, 1988. Orr F, Study Skills for Successful Students, Allen and Unwin, St Leonards, Australia, 1992. Rhind D, A Census User's Handbook, Metheun, London and New York, 1983. Simpson A, HTML Publishing Bible, IDG Books Worldwide Inc., Forster City, CA, 1996. Waxman P and Mauthner P, Statistics for Business, Prentice Hall, New York, 1989. Webb J, A Systematic Approach to Writing Essays, Summer School Programs, 1990 and 1993, Victoria University of Technology (Footscray Campus), Melbourne. Windschuttle K and Windschuttle E, Writing, Researching, Communicating: Communication Skills for the Information Age, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Sydney, 1988. Worcester R and Downham J, Consumer Market Research Handbook, Esomar, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., London, 1986.
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INDEX A ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) 45, 57, 60, 89, 90, 112, 114 academic literature 16, 40 age cohorts 98 pyramids 98 analysis 17, 23, 32, 4043, 61, 92, 96, 108, 114, 118, 134 see also critical reasoning annotated bibliography 55 see also bibliography; bibliographic review; literature review annotation 22, 53 application software 56, 62 see also commercial software; software applied research 2, 8, 110, 121 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) 59 assertions 17, 23, 26, 134 assignments 1, 5, 15, 17, 3843, 45, 51, 54, 56, 62, 106, 129, 132, 133 auditory 11 audio-tape recording 1416 B baseline data 83, 99 baud rate 61 BBS (Bulletin Board System) 59 bibliographical review 52 see also annotated bibliography; literature review bibliography 24, 31, 35, 37, 5355 see also citation, plagiarism; paraphrasing bookmarks 65 boot sector 62, 71 browser 66, 68, 69 see also Web browser business research 2 see also management research
C case management 57 study 2, 8286, 120, 131 catalogue 47, 49, 53, 112 CD-ROM 56, 60, 61, 112 census data 89, 111, 114 collector district 89, 92 checklists 15, 36, 46, 88 chronological record 88 see also notes; note-taking citation 23, 24, 30, 31, 37 see also referencing; bibliography; quotations clinical observations 82, 87 see also observations; longitudinal observations; systematic observations closed reserves 26, 50 see also open reserves; special collections systems 57, 58 see also dedicated software; in-house systems closed-book examinations 77, 78 see also open-book examinations; exams cohort 98 cold reviewer 33 collation 115 commercial software see also application software; software common computer facilities 62 compare 23, 113 comparisons 100, 112114 computer software 56 see also dedicated software; software configuration file 71 consultation 109111, 119 consultancy 11 consumer market research 121 continuous assessment 75, 77 contract research 113
contrast 23, 113 control group 99 counselling services 3, 4, 7 coursework 2, 75, 107, 108 critical reasoning 17, 38 see also analysis cross-tabulations 93, 128 D. database 53, 54, 56, 61 data collection 84, 109, 125, 133 presentation 44 scanning 125 sources 114 decision path 12 dedicated phone-line 56 software 56 see also closed systems; in-house data demographic analysis 100 data 89, 92, 106, 108, 123 demography 2, 42, 16 description 23, 132 Dewey 47, 48, 53 diary 5, 88 discuss 23 disk 6062 dot points 10 downloading 69, 71, 72 E editing 22, 34, 137 efficiency 13, 94, 133
effectiveness 13, 94 electronic data 53, 56 data sources 56 journals 56, 60 mailbox 58 e-mail 58, 59 endnotes 15, 16, 22, 24, 26, 31, 37, 63 environmental scan 109 essay
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writing 2, 16, 33, 54, 121 outline 32 essays 1, 17, 29, 3234, 38, 40, 45, 51, 56, 62, 106, 133, 134 evaluation 23, 109 exams, examinations 2, 4, 5, 3840, 43, 75, 78, 79, 86, 108, 115, 120, 130, 133, 135 see also closed-book examinations; open-book examinations executive summary 130, 131, 135, 136 experimental group 41, 43, 99 method 41 see also scientific method expressed need 111 F facts 26, 134 see also evidence faculty advisors 3, 4, 7, 80 file attachment 59 floppy disk 60, 61, 71 focus group 94, 123, 126 see also nominal group technique footnotes 15, 16, 22, 24, 26, 31, 35, 37, 63 G general population 96, 97, 124 graphical presentations 45, 105, 106, 132 see also presentation graphs 44, 46, 70, 102, 104, 106 H hard copy 34 data 42, 94, 95 disk 62, 71 headings 29, 37, 46 see also sub-headings helicopter view 11 see also mind maps; mind mapping
Home pages 57 hotspots 58, 63, 65 see also links HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) 57, 58, 63, 65, 72 I identify 23, 43 indexes 54, 55 induction program 47 intellectual property rights 62 inter-library loan 52 Internet 8, 13, 5664, 66, 68, 7072, 112 interviews 110, 115, 116, 125, 134 J journals 2426, 47, 51, 60, 88 see also periodicals; professional journals justify 23, 120 K keyword 24, 47, 108 L LAN (Local Area Network) 57, 63 lecture theatre 9 lecturers 4, 9, 10, 15, 18, 76, 77 lectures 2, 8, 9, 13, 14, 40 library 24, 25, 47, 5052, 54, 61, 65, 68, 112 research 24, 26, 33, 61 resources 47, 52 tour 47 literature review 19, 52, 94, 109 see also annotated bibliography searches 42, 43 M management 94
research 94, 121 see also business research market research 121 mind maps 1012, 77, 109, 118 mapping 11, 13 see also helicopter view modem 61 multi-platform system 63 multiple choice 77, 78, 80 N. navigation software package 58 needs-based planning 111 Netscape 69, 71 Navigator 58, 63, 66, 71 nominal group technique 94, 123, 126, 127 see also focus group note-taking 8, 9, 10, 14, 15 O observations 2, 17, 77, 82, 84, 8688, 98 see also clinical observations; open field observations on-line 25, 49, 58 catalogues 47, 49 computer systems 26 cataloguing systems 26 open-book examination 78 open field observations 87 reserve 26 see also closed reserve; special collections optical scanning 125, 128 oral presentations 136, 137 see also presentations; tutorials orientation 47 P paraphrasing 30 without citation 30
participant observer 84 see also observer performance review 133 periodicals 2426, 47, 51 plagiarism 30, 62 plug-ins 71 prescribed texts 13, 15, 16, 40 presentations 2, 10, 1821, 22, 3436, 38, 40, 44, 46, 56, 62, 69, 89, 96, 102, 104, 129, 130, 134, 135, 137 see also oral presentations; tutorials primary data 43, 44, 52 research 26 recommendations 135
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privacy protected 72 program evaluation 133 project brief 120, 130, 132 need 92, 110, 111, 117 psychology 17, 46 experiments 43 publications 114 Q qualitative data 41, 42, 110 quantitative data 41, 42 questionnaire 8, 94, 110, 114, 115, 123125, 134 see also surveys; interview schedule quota sampling 97, 98 R random sampling 97, 98 reading summaries 15, 16, 24, 54 reality checking 131 recommendations 108, 109, 119, 120, 131, 134, 136 reference group 119, 123, 126 relevance 95 reliability 95, 96 report outline 130 writing 62, 111, 120, 130, 134 reporting requirements 134 replicability 95 research 1, 2, 8, 15, 16, 22, 25, 29, 32, 3840, 42, 45, 46, 55, 56, 58, 107, 108, 110, 111, 118, 121, 122, 129, 131135 design 43, 97 see also experimental design research method 78
S sample 41, 89, 9698, 103, 122, 125 sampling 97, 114 techniques 95, 97 SAS (Statistical Analysis System) 56 scientific method 42 see also experimental method search criteria 66 secondary data 44, 52, 57, 114 recommendations 135 selection of subjects 84 self management 5 server 57, 63, 69 service provider 112 shareware 72 small group forum 17 see also focus group; tutorial social policy 107, 130 sciences 2, 42, 57 software 35, 62, 69 see also commercial software; computer software SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) 56, 127 special collections 50, 54, 61 see also closed reserve; open reserve spell-checking 22, 33 spreadsheets 56, 61 standardisation 43 statistical analysis 100, 101 data 43, 94 formulae 78 method 42, 106 projections 112
statistics 42, 9496, 100, 101, 116 strata sampling 97, 98, 123 see also quota sampling; random sampling student counselling services 3, 4 support centre 3, 4, 80 support services 3, 80 study activities 14, 40 style 33 sub-headings 29, 32, 37, 46, 50, 54 see also headings summary 24, 32 see also reading summaries summarise 11, 54, 76 summarising 33, 54, 96 surveys 8, 42, 94, 110, 121, 122, 124, 125 see also questionnaires; interview schedules systematic observations 83 T tables 43, 44, 89 tape recording 1416 tender brief 121, 132 textbooks 25 time management 3, 5 transcription 14 tutorials 1, 2, 3, 13, 14, 1620, 40, 41, 51, 76, 77, 133 see also presentations U URL (Universal Resource Locator) 66 utility capacity 60 V virus 62, 71 visual 11, 62 W WAN (wide area network) 57, 63
Web 60, 6466, 6972 browser 66, 69, 75 Website 56, 58, 63, 70 World Wide Web 56, 59, 63, 65
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