Germany's fighting machine

FIGHTING MACHINE flriiw Too o o oaf ERNESTUA 712 H4 1914 HENDERSON Presented to the UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRA...

Author: Ernest F. Henderson

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FIGHTING

MACHINE flriiw Too o o oaf

ERNESTUA

712 H4

1914

HENDERSON

Presented

to the

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY by the

ONTARIO LEGISLATIVE LIBRARY 1980

GERMANY'S FIGHTING MACHINE

Kaiser Wilhelm II

GERMANY'S * FIGHTING MACHINE Her Army, Her Navy, Her Air-ships, and Why She Arrayed Them Against the Allied Powers of Europe

BY

ERNEST

HENDERSON

F.

Author of

SHORT HISTORY OF GERMANY HISTORY OF GERMANY IN THE MIDDLE AGES BLUCHER, ETC., ETC.

lTH

MANY ILLUSTRATIONS

INDIANAPOLIS THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY PUBLISHERS

-

COPYRIGHT 1914

THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY

CHARLES FRANCIS PRESS,

NEW YORK


GERMANY'S FIGHTING MACHINE PART

I

THE WAR

BUT

a few weeks ago the author of

was

in

and

full

field.

Germany studying

of admiration for

Two

did

and

its

book

institutions

achievements in every days after he had taken ship for America

Germany was sia.

the land

this little

practically at

war with France and Rus-

and the splenon which the author was a passenger

England soon joined

Hamburg liner

its

in the conflict,

was a hunted thing on the ocean, owing her safety at last to a friendly fog. The great shipping company, with its nearly two hundred vessels, was out of the running as a commercial

enterprise, a

symbol of the para-

lyzed industries of the whole country.

To

the ordinary observer the conflict

from the

blue, but to the historian

reads the foreign newspapers

The

historians recognized that 1

like a bolt

to the

man who

was not unexpected. was the appointed time

it it

and

came

for a

war between

Prussian

the great nations.

War took place

The Franco-

forty-three years ago.

When,

since the days of the

grandsons of Charlemagne, have the chief powers kept out of war for so long a time ? In the ninth and tenth centuries the question of Lorraine

was as troublesome as

it

has been in the nineteenth and

twentieth; in the eleventh and twelfth an expedition

against Italy was in the day's work of almost every

German emperor; and England and

Sicily

were con-

quered by the Normans; in 1215 took place the first general international battle; in 1250 the final expeditions

Emperor Frederick II; in 1272 the Sicilian wars of the house of Anjou. The Guelphs and Ghibellines carry us on to the Hundred Years' War the Hapsagainst the

;

burg struggles against Italy and the Turks bring us down to the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII of France, to the campaigns of Maximilian, to the Field of the Cloth of Gold, to the religious wars of Charles V. Close on the heels of the latter struggles came not only the

French

religious wars but the invasion of

Philip II's great

England

armada, The Thirty Years' War,

by Louis XIV's war of conquest, the Spanish Succession, the Silesian and the Seven Years' Wars fill the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; the Napoleonic, Cri-

mean and Franco-Prussian Wars it

was time for a new struggle.

the nineteenth.

Yes,

THE WAR When is

easy,

a great and extraordinary event takes place

somewhere

in the world, to point to

prophecies that have heralded

present

war we can

from month was

a

to

felt to be

see in the

month of

it.

But

it

omens and

in the case of the

German newspapers how,

the present year, the struggle

more and more imminent and how Russia,

power that eventually precipitated the catastrophe, was felt to be the center of real danger. "In well-

the

informed diplomatic

Zeitung

circles," writes the

Magdeburger

in January, 1914, "the impression can not be

concealed that in Russia at present there prevails a thor-

oughly hostile attitude to Germany and Austria-Hungary, and that the agitation in the czar's realm is greater even than during the last Balkan crisis. ... It looks as though Russia were preparing to make an extraordi-

show of strength against a specific, not far distant date." And the Deutsche Tageszeitung: "What narily great

is

Russia's purpose in building a mighty fleet of dread-

naughts for the Baltic? Surely not merely to coerce Sweden." Again the Madgeburg paper: "The Russian government, which already owes French capitalists twelve billions, has received a new loan of two billions five

hundred

millions,

be issued in Paris.

of which

five million are

This whole gigantic

sum

yearly to is

exclu-

sively to be spent for building strategic railways along

the

German-Russian boundary.

.

.

.

France com-


4

pelled Russia to do

The French general

this.

staff

thinks that Russia, because of her clumsiness in mobil-

of tracks leading to the not be able, in a new war with

izing, but especially for lack

German

frontier, will

to bring help to

Germany,

now

France in time. Russia has

Thus does

fulfilled France's wishes in this regard.

the Franco-Russian alliance, which of late seemed to be falling into oblivion, celebrate

its

resurrection."

In February the Hallesche Zeitung writes friendship with Russia

foreign policy, but us indeed.

.

.

.

it is

:

"To keep

one of the chief aims of our

is

sometimes made very hard for

They keep

the peace because

it is

to

the advantage of the czar's empire to do so but they are ;

had for every combination directed against Germany." And the Dresdener Nachrichten: "The Rusto be

sian-German the

relations leave very

much

moment. The Russian government

to be desired at fails to

least approachableness in foreign questions

and the press are

show the

and Russian

an extremely anti-German mood. Evidences of the same thing are to be seen in society

in

their attitude to Austria. lets itself

.

.

.

The Russian

policy

be taken more and more in tow by the French

and has nothing but polite speeches left for Germany." The Weser Zeitung finds the explanation desires,

of the hostility in Germany's efforts to help the Turks reorganize their army, and declares, "Here we have

The Crown Prince and Crown

Princess

Prince

Henry of

Prussia, the Emperor's Brother

THE WAR

5

touched one of the weakest spots in Russia's worldpolicy, her endeavor to get to the Mediterranean." The

Frdnkische Kurier thinks that Russia intends to form a protectorate over the Balkan states as a military

weapon against Austria and her this

endeavor

is

allies:

the Russian diplomacy

minister-president, Pasitsch."

"The

soul of

and the Servian

The Dresdener Anzeiger

observes that the influence of the Pan-Slavist party over the Russian

government

is

steadily

growing and that

the extraordinary activity in military matters the

constant

peace

assurances:

ill

"The measures

suits

are

pointed against Austria-Hungary." On March second an article in the Kolnische Zeitung

aroused great excitement all over Germany. It declared that Russia was not yet in a position to supplement pothreats

litical

might years

by military

"rattle with the

all

the

and already

action,

however much France

Russian saber."

But

in three

enormous preparations would be completed,

openly said even in official military periodicals, that Russia is arming for war against Germany." There is no immediate danger, the article con"it is

tinued, but the legend of the historical

German-Russian

friendship had better be thrown to the dogs.

The papers took

different attitudes toward this arti-

but there were not wanting those who considered the warnings of the Kolnische Zeitung justified. General cle,


6

Keim,

in the

Tag, declares that the German-Russian

boundary is one huge camp, that the underlying thought of the whole armament is an offensive war against Ger-

many, that France had proceeded in the same way just before 1870 and that the recent visit to St. Petersburg of President Poincare and

his chief

not been merely a pleasure jaunt.

of staff Joffre had

Had

not a French

general, only last summer, declared in a treatise pub-

anonymously that the tension between Russia and Austria was ground for a European war "perhaps in lished

And had

the near future"?

gone

not this French officer even

so far as to spread the legend that in case of

Germany would and Luxemburg French

left

war

disregard the neutrality of Belgium in order to be able to envelop the

wing?

Several of the

March newspapers bring

hostility into connection with the

the Russian

commercial treaty that

has only about two years more to run. Russia, by mak-

ing a bold front, can gain from Germany better terms than she has had in the past. "Russia, with her military preparations," writes the Pester Lloyd, "wishes to put

Austria and

Germany under

military pressure in order

and harm her neighbors The idea that France is behind it all

to achieve diplomatic successes

economically."

crops out repeatedly.

The Neue Preussische Zeitung

speaks of the pressure "ever stronger, that the French

need for revenge

is

exercising on the Russian ally and

The Hannoverische

debtor."

French press of having

first

ments as so remarkable.

As

Courier

accuses

the

caused the agitation of public opinion in Russia, on which it afterward comfar back as

1913, the Kolnische Zeitung had written:

March

10th,

"Never was

our relation to our western neighbor so strained as today, never has the idea of vengeance shown itself so

openly and never has it been made so evident that in France the Russian alliance, the English friendship, are claimed only for the purpose of reconquering AlsaceLorraine. In whatever corner of the world the flame starts

up

it is

quite certain that

swords with France.

we

shall

have to cross

When that will be, no one can telL"

The Russian military preparations cause the German papers much concern in the month of April also. The Vossische Zeitung considers them a gigantic bluff, and declares that they have been worth millions to the sian government.

that in Russia she

she heaped billions loans.

.

.

.

Rus-

"For only because France thinks possesses an ally ready for war has and

That the

billions latest

on her

in the

French loans

form of

to Russia

were accompanied by instructions seriously to take up the anti- Austrian and anti-German preparations no one doubts. Just as little is it doubted that Pan-Slavism is not pleased with the latest changes in the Balkans or that


8

freedom of the Dardanelles and the seizure of Con-

the

still

stantinople

Hatred of

sian policy. .

.

.

present themselves as the goal of Rus-

One thing

is

the

certain:

Germans

Russia

is

is

increasing.

arming

to a gi-

She wishes to throw a heavy weight into of the national quarrels. Germany and Aus-

gantic extent. the scale

have every reason to be on their guard." The Allgemeine Zeitung, of Chemnitz, writes that "The tria

goals of French and Russian policy are unattainable

without world-shattering callings-to-account," and the Weser Zeitung, after speaking of Pan-Slavism as threatening the existence of the Austrian-Hungarian

monarchy,

finally exclaims, "It neither

which

be concealed that if

God

forbid!

can nor should this direction

gain the upper hand in Russian politics it would mean the very war-danger against which we sought and found

refuge

in the Triple Alliance."

The newspapers of May have a somewhat calmer tone than those of March and April. "There is, to be Tag, "danger for peace in the possibilthat the anti-German tendency in Russia may prove

sure," writes the ity

so strong that the it.

government

Another danger

lies in

will not be able to check

the relations of Russia

and

Although there is much talk to the effect that we shall once more be compelled to fight for our

Austria.

.

.

.

national existence,

it

is

not absolutely necessary that

The Unworldly Kaiserin

as the Protectress of the Fatherless

Princess Victoria Louise, the Emperor's Only Daughter

THE WAR On

such a war shall come."

9

Admiral

the other hand,

Breusing, in the Tdgliche Rundschau of May the seventh, writes: "The striving of the Slavic and Mongolian races to extend their

power and possessions

will

German

The

surely lead to an encounter with the

race."

Rheinisch-W estphdlische Zeitung declares of France that "public sentiment in military and political circles has long gone over from the defensive to the offensive.

Apparently the aim

is

to create a situation

many

will have to choose

where Ger-

between receding or attack-

The Dresdener Anzeiger, too, thinks that the "relations between Germany and France give the key to

ing."

grouping of the European powers," and the Berliner Tageblatt says, "The future and salvation of Europe

the

and

its

culture

lies solely in

a German-French-English

rapprochement; that alone will guarantee the worldpeace." Toward the end of the month the Dresdener

Anzeiger writes: "The German-Russian

relations have

remarkable change for the worse. Certainly the nationalistic elements in Russia are once more Should the whole mass of conspicuously active. latterly taken a

.

.

.

the Russian people once become conscious of

its

nation-

world will see the most mighty movement both as regards extent and elemental intensity. For ality the

.

Russia, Pan-Slavism ship over all Slavs."

is

.

.

the idea of the Russian leader-


10

Already

May, more than two months before

in

there

a sign that the conflict is at hand, doubts begin to be expressed whether Italy's alliance would be of any value is

in case of war.

The Berlin Neueste Nachrichten has

to

acknowledge that as far as Austria is concerned the alliance is "more a matter of the intellect than of the heart ;" while the Rheinisch-W estphdlische Zeitung reports on May twelve that "in more than ten years such a senseagitation against Austria has not been seen in

less

Italy.

.

The

.

.

master of the

Italian

government

difficult situation in

is

by no means

which

it

is

placed

by the demonstrations of protest against Austria-HunWere war to break out to-day the easily gary. .

.

.

excited Italian people would compel any government

however friendly

theirs ,

of

declare against

The

nearer

to the Triple Alliance., to

Austria-Hungary"

we approach

to the crisis the

more

serious

by the better newspapers. The Neue Preussische Zeitung in June tells of the surprisis

the situation regarded

France and of the quiet efforts that are being made to strengthen the army: "If

ing

spirit

of

sacrifice there is in

the revenge cries have almost ceased that does not in the least

mean

that the idea has been given

up on ;

the con-

on the war as on a sure thing." Of the Russian military preparations, the Vienna Neue Freie Presse writes on June twelve "About two months trary, they already reckon

:

THE WAR ago

it

11

became known that Russia had

set aside

dred sixteen million kronen (a krone

is

two hun-

about a franc)

for military exercises and especially for a 'trial-mobilization.'

The great amount of

when one remembers lions for all

of

its

der the harmless

sum

will be realized

that Austria spends about ten mil-

Un-

military exercises put together.

title

more harmless one of

of 'trial-mobilization' and the

still

'exercises for the reserves' Russia,

then, for a period of six weeks,

practically on a war- footing.

holding military exercises at 200,000,

this

is

giant

army

to 400,000 trained

Whether

!

its

Think of 1,800,000 men a time when Austria has

Germany from 300,000

at her immediate disposal

placing

it

men

be intentional or

not this implies so imminent a threat that the neighbors

need the greatest 'cold-bloodedness' to allow these These ex'military exercises' to pass without friction. will

most

endangering of the peace that was ever attempted under the form of a periodically recurring measure of organization,, and it the

ercises signify

would not be surprising

colossal

if all those

who long

for a

peaceful turn of political affairs were to be completely

To add

dark aspect comes the relatively enormous credit demanded by the Servian

embittered.

.

.

.

military administration

to this

123,000,000.

It

is

as

much

in

proportion as though Austria were to demand a billion and a half. Since 1908 Servia has been arming uninter-

ruptedly, and

now again spends

this

sum on

military

purposes the tendency of which practically amounts to a direct threatening of her neighbors." The Hallesche

Zeitung on the twenty-third of June discusses the various alliances: "Originally the Russian-French alliance

was a military convention, in the last few months there has been added a naval agreement. It is desired to enter with united forces into the great decisive struggle for the division of the world. Russia wants elbow-room as far as the North Atlantic Ocean and the Southern Baltic,

besides free entry into the Mediterranean."

I have quoted

newspaper extracts because they seem to me absolutely indicative of the sentiment that prevailed in

all these

Germany

just before the

war broke

whether that sentiment be based on correct impreshave the Russian side of it in an arsions or not.

out,

We

ticle

written by Professor

Maxim

Kowaleski, for the

Frankfurter Zeitung: "In Russia people believe that Germany and Austria are arming against Russia, in Germany and Austria they take for granted that the opposite

To

is

the case."

the unprejudiced observer

it

looks very

much

as

though Servia, thinking her hour had come and feeling sure of Russia's support, had instigated the murder of the heir to the Austrian throne with the deliberate intention of starting a great conflagration.

The preliminary

General von Heeringen

General von Eichhorn

General von Billow

General von Prittwitz

THE WAR

13

inquiry into the matter, which was carried on very de-

by Austria, with no sensational charges or

liberately

accusations, revealed a great plot reaching to the very

Around that throne, as the world well knows, were the men who had deliberately murdered their own previous king and queen and who steps of the Servian throne.

had been rewarded with high positions for their share in that dark transaction. It was proved to Austria's satisfaction

and she had

so

much

to lose

by a war of ag-

gression that no ulterior motive could have influenced

had provided the weapons of death and that a high official in the army had been directly concerned. Servia's attitude during the her

that the royal Servian arsenal

preliminary investigation had been provocative. Austria hurled her ultimatum. It

was an unheard-of ultimatum

that

Then

much an Aus-

acknowledged to me at the time. But, he added, the whole situation was equally unheard of. In

trian friend

Germany, except

who glory

in the ranks of the social democrats,

having no national sentiments, Austria's act met with the most complete approval. Truth to tell, no one had expected such firmness and decision. The in

seriousness of the matter

In

my own

was not for a moment over-

immediate neighborhood and, I imagine, from end to end of Germany, the first impulse on hearing the news was to sing national hymns. One looked.

14


heard them throughout that whole night especially the solemn "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" and "Deutsch-

There was a resigned feeling, too, a feeling that Servia had been such a menace since 1908 that the time had come when something land, Deutschland uber alles"

must be done.

My

Austrian friend believed that the

powers would sympathize with his country's desire to chastise a band of assassins that the Russian czar espe;

cially

would never take

sides with regicides

;

that

Eng-

land would see fair play.

To blame the attitude

German emperor for what followed is of the uninformed. Germany has foreseen the

the struggle, as our extracts

from the newspapers show,

but her one idea has been self-defense.

can be said of her

is

The worst

that

that her wonderful prosperity has

made her a little boastful and that she has talked too much about her share in world politics and her own "place in the sun."

remark of

That indeed was an unfortunate

In general, however, he has honestly tried to keep the peace, and that Germany, with her blooming trade, her model educational system and her splendid fleet and army should have a his imperial majesty.

larger voice in the affairs of nations was not an unrea-

Those who accuse her of greed for territory should look at the history of their own country and see if they are entitled to throw stones. Nor should they sonable aim.

THE WAR

15

attribute her recent army-increase to a

aggression.

So hemmed

in is

spirit

of

exposed are that she can not help

Germany,

her frontiers in every direction,

mere so

taking alarm at the movements of her neighbors. Actually touching her borders are nations with a total population more than doubling her own, not to speak of

England with her enormous

England of

fleet.

late has stood for the restriction

of arma-

ments provided her own naval superiority be preserved in the present proportions.

Germans

believe,

probably

falsely, that before

making such a proposition England hastily ordered the laying of the keels of three new battle-ships which in the ordinary course of events would not have been begun until later. At any rate England leads in the matter of supplying other countries with deadly instruments of war and her attitude her

own

not unlike that of

is

rich beer-brewing families to the

temperance

They preach against the use of go on deriving their income from it. The

alcohol, but

question.

tory of Whitehead torpedoes

is

at

largest fac-

Fiume, in Austria;

Armstrong and Vickers have branches

in Italy

and sup-

ply that government with naval guns while the British Engineers' Association, with a capital of $350,000,000, ;

is

endeavoring to corner the trade of the world in

arms. builds

fire-

England introduced dreadnaughts and not only them for herself but also furnishes them on de-


16

niand to Japan and South America. With a cannon factory on the Volga and an arsenal equipped by Armstrong and Vickers on the Golden Horn, England has fairly fattened of late on war. By building the first dreadnaught, indeed, she did herself a poor service.

Germany was

Previously the

number of

ships;

out of the running as regards

now, where only dreadnaughts

becoming a good second. Was there not something more than naivete in Sir Edward Grey's serious proposal that Germany and England should recount, she

is

number of

strict the

their battle-ships but

always pre-

serve the proportion of ten to six in England's favor?

We have here,

I think, the whole gist of the differences

between the two countries.

England has

steadily pre-

served her attitude of superiority everywhere

its

basis

was disappearing. She has been jealous of Germany's commerce, of her colonial progress. These Germans are to

England

and are not

upstarts

is

to be kept in their place

to be allowed to have a

world-policies.

German

who need

his

word

in the larger

Almost every Englishman feels that a social inferior. Such assumptions pro-

voke bumptiousness and self-assertion, which, I do not deny, have at times been evidenced. Just before this

war broke

out, indeed, the feeling

seemed to be lessening.

of mutual antagonism

The English

fleet

was wel-

The Kaiser with

the Biirgemeister of Aix-la-Chapelle on the Balcony of the

The Emperor

at

Maneuvers

Town

Hall

Duke

Albert of Wiirttemberg

Grand Duke Frederick

Prince Rnpprecht of Bavaria

II of

Baden

THE WAR

17

corned at Kiel, the English trade delegation in Berlin.

The

press of both countries had softened

As

and sweetened.

for England's present alliance with Russia against

Germany, it is the most monumental act of folly in modern history. Has Britannia been attacked by sclerosis?

At home

a maudlin sentiment keeps her from en-

forcing obedience to her laws and abroad she allows her real enemies to pull her about by the nose. It is as

though in the middle ages a Henry or an Edward had joined hands with a Genghis Khan or a Timour the Tartar. Can England gain anything whatever by humiliating

Germany and

furthering Pan-Slavism?

A

little

commercial advantage, possibly, though America will be correspondingly strengthened and the final result will

be no better.

Britannia,

wake up!

It

is

the Mediterranean to the Atlantic than

Black Sea to the Mediterranean. as irksome to

Pan- Slavism

Dardanelles.

Your own

Angles and Saxons terests

it is

far

from

from the

Gibraltar will soon be

as are

race

less

is

now the forts on the made up mainly of

your ideals, all your real inare far closer to those of the Germans than they all

are to those of the Russians.

The time may come, and

very soon, when you are only too glad to throw yourself around Germany's neck and beg her aid in opposing the hordes from the East. In Russia's wake are your

allies,

the Japanese,

hand

in

a bright

who now for

European American

affairs.

girl to a

the

first

Japan has been likened by man who has never been in-

vited to dinner in certain circles but vited himself

time have taken a

who

at last has in-

and simply can not be turned out of the

house.

Germany, though drawn

into the matter merely

by

the plain terms of her alliance with Austria, stands virtually alone, for Italy is

is

only half prepared.

faithless

We

and Austria,

may

those exciting days

when for seven

Great of Prussia

of a Prussia

that

it is

now

held his

own

as usual,

see a recurrence

of

years Frederick the

less

than half the

size

not only against the great

powers of Europe but against the rest of Germany as well. The help that he had from England was not greater than

may

be expected from Austria to-day, and

even the English deserted him at last. Again and again Frederick risked, even as our contemporary Hohenzollern is likely to do, le tout pour le tout. And like Frederick, I think that

William, because of better equip-

ment, better discipline and better strategy, is likely to prevail even over the many millions arrayed against him.

England to-day throws the whole blame rible war on Germany, who was lukewarm,

for the terso

England

declares, in counseling Austria not to let her strained

relations with Servia develop into war;

and

in the

Eng-

THE WAR

19

press at least there are no words too scathing for the

lish

by Germany of Belgium

violation

neutrality.

erage Englishman, I

am

for

in the struggle.

England joining

to think

The

av-

sure, considers that the reason

Yet what

are

we

of Sir Edward Grey's own words in the "Cor-

respondence respecting the European Crisis" laid before the Houses of Parliament and received here from Lon-

don August twenty-fifth. July 31.

government

The German ambassador asked me to

show good-will

in the discussions

to urge the

and

Russian

suspend their informed the German ambassa-

...

to

I military preparations. dor that, as regards military preparations, I did not see how Russia could be urged to suspend them unless some limit were put by

Austria to the advance of her troops into Servia. if August 1. I told the German ambassador to-day there were a violation of the neutrality of Belgium by one combatant

...

while the other respected

it it

would be extremely

He

difficult to restrain

me whether, if a not to violate Germany gave promise Belgium neutrality, we would remain I to neutral. engage replied that I could not say that. . . . public feeling in this country.

.

.

.

asked

The ambassador pressed me as to whether I could not formulate conditions on which we would remain neutral. He even suggested that I the integrity of France and her colonies might be guaranteed. said that I felt obliged to refuse definitely any promise to remain neutral on similar terms, and I could only say that we must keep

our hands free.

So England,

directly

from the

first,

took sides with

Servia in a matter that concerned only Servia and Austria.

She "could not

see

how Russia

could be urged to


20

suspend preparations" and would not, even for the sake of Belgium, state the terms on which she would agree to

remain neutral in the new German-Russian mobiliza-

tion dispute.

neutrality

foreign

is

Why Germany explained by

office to

the

finally did violate

a telegram

German ambassador

Prince Lichnowsky, on August four.

Belgian

from the German in

London,

...

"Please

impress upon Sir E. Grey that German army could not be exposed to French attack across Belgium, which was

planned according to absolutely unimpeachable infor-

Germany had

mation.

consequently to disregard Bel-

gian neutrality, it being for her a question of death to prevent French advance."

life or

All eyes then are likely for the next few months to be fixed on the German army and it has seemed worth

me

and publish all the items concerning the land, naval and aerial forces that will be of general interest in America. No one will look, I while to

hope, for

hastily to collect

much

originality in a

work of

this kind.

My

taken from Major von Schreibersho fen's excellent book Das deutsche HeerJ from Colonel von

information

is

Bremen's Das deutsche Heer nach der Neuordnung von 1913; from Lieutenant Neumann's LuftscMffe and

Flugzeuge; from Count Reventlow's interesting Deutschland zur See; Troetsch's DeutscJiland's Flotte

his

im

Entscheidungskampf

and

Toeche-Mittler

:

Die

THE WAR deutsche Kriegsflotte.

and

also

Von

The

21

three last mentioned works,

Bremen's, are absolutely new, having been

published in 1914; Schreibershofen's dates from 1913.

The two

others have no date but one can see that they

have appeared very recently. The large new works Das Jahr 1913, Deutschland unter Kaiser Wilhelm II,

and the Handbuch der Politik have me.

For

the last six

also

been of use to

months I have followed very care-

fully in the Zeitungs-Archiv all the newspaper extracts

bearing on our subject. The war has doubtless interrupted the publication of the Archiv, so that I shall re-

main "up

to date" for

some

little

time to come.

PART

II

THE ARMY

THE great military authority, in

Das

Bernhardi, in an article

Jalir 1913, points out various

ways

in

which mili-

tary science has developed since the Franco-Prussian

War and show s how completely we have had to r

many of

abandon

by a study of earlier the main for the changes are

the conceptions gained

campaigns.

Responsible in

the increased size of the armies

and the new technical

inventions of our age.

Almost

all

the states of continental

Europe have gone

over to the principle of universal military service, with the result that the armies are greater

now

in time of

peace than ever before in time of war, and that when mobilization is called for and the reserves are summoned, the

number of men

in the field

amounts

to millions.

The

has been that far other means of transporting and concentrating such masses have to be employed than first result

used to be the case and that networks of railroads have

had

to be built for purely strategic purposes.

In the

maneuvers that were to have taken place this coming autumn at Minister in Germany it had been intended to

make

a record in the matter of quick transportation and

to dispose of 120,000

men

in the course

22

of a single morn-

Arrival of Recruits

The

Field Kitchen

THE ARMY

23

ing without interrupting the regular passenger traffic. The old method of victualing armies, too, has had to be changed, for it is impossible for such hordes to nourish themselves by what they chance to find in the enemy's

Problems of another kind have

country.

arisen.

Mod-

ern armies are composed of regulars and reservists alike the reservists are not so hardened as the regulars and :

often not so distribute

efficient, so that it

them

in such a

way

has become a custom to

as to achieve the best re-

As

a rule, the regulars must be spared for decisive actions and reservists must occasionally be sacrisults.

ficed,

apparently needlessly.

There

may

be cases, for

where the reserves must expose themselves to a murderous fire while the regulars are engaged in the instance,

more

difficult

but

less

dangerous task of cutting off the

enemy's line of retreat. Technical improvements, such as the longer range and quicker fire of the guns, swifter means of communica-

and of signaling and the like, not to speak of other considerations due to experience, have so changed the old tion

tactics that a line

now more than ten times as few years ago. At Sadowa, with

of battle

is

was only a 215,000 men, the Austrians had a front of only 10

long as

it

meters; at

Mukden

kilo-

the attacking line of the Japanese,

who had only 170,000 men, extended for 110 kilometers. "The broken line," writes Bernhardi, "is to-day the only

24


battle formation

men

of the infantry."

To-day,

officers

and

and take every advantage of the of the ground; in 1870 it was considered

fight in trenches

inequalities

disgraceful to take such advantages and the officers stood erect in the most deadly

the length of the lines a check in so serious a matter as

it

In consequence of one quarter is no longer

fire.

used to be; a modern battle

is

a succession of single engagements of which the victor

only needs to win a good majority.

The commander

no longer takes up a position, as Napoleon did at Leipzig, where he can oversee the whole field of operations; the best place for

him

tral telephone station,

some railroad junction or cenwith wireless and ordinary tele-

is

graph equipment, where messages can constantly be sent and received, and to and from which he can despatch troops, automobiles,

motor-wagons or aeroplanes.

of the chief modern problems

is

supplying

One

sufficient

ammunition for quick-firing guns the baggage trains must not be so long as to hinder the advance of the troops, yet

where there are

many guns and

each shoots

off hundreds of shots a minute, great quantities of

am-

munition are needed. I have spoken of military service being almost universally compulsory in Europe.

man of

This means that every

a certain age and with the requisite health and strength is obliged to report for duty. It has not hither-

Telegrams

Giving Orders

THE ARMY to

meant that every

eligible recruit

25

was obliged

to serve.

In Germany a large contingent, even of the capable, was formerly excused. In 1910, for instance, nearly 235,000 were declared more or

less unfit

for service, al-

though in France they would probably nearly all have been accepted. By the German army bills of 1911, 1912

and 1913 indeed the numbers of those required for ive service were steadily increased: 9,482 in the

named

year,

some 29,000

in the second,

great increase of 63,000 in the third. still,

up

to the present mobilization,

actfirst

and then the

But

some

there were

thirty thou-

sand able-bodied recruits who could not be placed. In the Prussian military-service law of 1814, and

again in the constitution of the Xorth German Confederation of 1867, the principle was laid down that the

army should

consist

of one per cent, of the population.

This had long been disregarded as the population increased,

and the proportion had sunk as low

tenths of one per cent.

It has

now been

as eight-

raised to a little

The population as given offi1913 was 64,925,993, while the number of com-

over the original figure. cially in

mon

soldiers (I quote the figures given

in the * It

Handbuch der

by Stavenhagen was 647,811.* Politik)

may be worth giving the exact strength of the German army on October 1913: Total 790,788 and 157,816 horses. Of these: officers, 30,253; sanitary officers, 2,483; veterinaries, 865; non-commissioned officers, 104,377; common soldiers, 647,811. (Infantry, 515,216; cavalry, 85,593; field artillery, 126,042; sappers and miners, 24,010 ; communication troops, 18,949 ; army service, 1 1,592. ) 1,

of the German army has been enormousmore than twenty-five billion marks between 1872 and

The

cost

1910, and in 1913 alone, 1,608,653,300 marks.

The

ex-

traordinary defense contribution for 1913, 1914 and 1915, a tax, not on income but on capital direct,

mated say,

to bring nearly 1,300,000,000 marks.

the tax

was very popular

is esti-

Strange to

every party in the

Reichstag voted for it, even the social democrats, whose delight in a measure that fell most heavily on the rich (small properties were exempted) the fact that the

purposes. the

army

money was

The yearly sums

made them swallow

r

for national and military

that the sudden increase in

entails are to be paid

by a curious tax on the

increase of property value to be estimated every three years.

The

estimates as to

how much

the

army numbers when

on a war footing varies between two and three-fourths millions and four millions. Austria's army, on paper at least, numbers 380,000 men in time of peace, which number gradually was to have risen to 410,000 in the next few years. In war-time it is estimated at 1,300,000 men.

Curiously enough Italy, with a peace army of only 300,000, estimates her war army officially at 3,400,000, or

about as

For

much

as either

Germany

or France.

the armies of the Triple Entente

we have an

mate published by the Deutsche Tageszeitung

in

esti-

Jan-

Military Telephone Station

Putting up Campaign Tents

THE ARMY

worth quoting at some length, as it well-known military writer, Lieutenant

uary, 1914, which is

from a

27

is

Colonel von Bremen:

"The

basis of France's military increase in 1913

tion of the three years'

term of

is

the reintroduc-

retaining these thirdyear men the peace-showing is increased by almost a third. This year The peace strength of the French 1 85,000 men are to be called in. service.

By

from the autumn of 1916 on, amount to 33,000 officers and and some 833,000 men, while up to that period we can reckon with 780,000 men. One must add to this, 28,000 gendarmes,

army

will,

officials

customs and forest

who

likewise belong to the territorial In Germany we have for 1913 and army officers and men, 802,000, non-commissioned 1914, counting officers, to which, in 1915, will be added 13,000 men. Deducting from the of armies mere laborers who have to do both the present strength officials,

(like the Landwehr).

with supplies, but not

if

etc.,

Germany's peace force

is

we reckon France's gendarmerie,

momentarily the higher, etc.

Counting

in this,

France, with 40,000,000 inhabitants, has a larger army in time of peace than Germany, with 65,000,000. The French army has further advantages in the longer training and in the increased readiness for war. The troops covering the eastern frontiers have two hun-

dred men to a company (four-fifths of the war strength) and even at the time when the recruits are being mustered in, one hundred forty trained men while our companies at the same time can dispose of only half so strong a number. And what it means in case of war to have at hand two fully trained years' contingents (especially in ;

the cavalry) during the period of training the recruits is self-evident. Further advantages in the French army lie in the longer training of the inactive officers

commissioned

and

in the

good provision for

officers

and non-

In the house of deputies negotiations are advancement pending regarding regulations tending to lower the of limit of officers. the whole body And, above all, it has been age officers.


28 made

possible to create a new, twenty-first army corps. that France, in 1913, has made a very great step forward. The Russian armaments of 1913 are also significant.

So we see

The most

important event was the appearance in October of the draft of a law to prolong the term of active service by three months and that in the decisive time from January first (fourteenth) to April first (fourteenth). As in Russia, the recruits are called in at latest by

November fifteenth. Russia will, until spring, still have under arms, besides the recruits, the trained contingents of three years in the inThat considerably increases four, indeed, in the cavalry. fantry her readiness for war.

And

in addition to

lengthening the term of

number of recruits is still further increased by twenty thousand men. The momentary military strength of the Russian empire is about one and one-half millions, of which about 1,200,000 concern Europe (thirty army corps and twenty-four cavalry diBut already for 1914 we can reckon on the formation of visions). from two to three new army corps and on a considerable increase of service the

the artillery

by

at least forty batteries, for

which purpose three hun-

dred twenty million marks have been called tion speedier

and

roads are to be

to facilitate the

built.

sixty million marks.

march

The estimates The following

for.

To make

mobiliza-

to the west

for this

boundary railare about two hundred

stretches are under considera-

2. Cholm Nowogeorgiewsk Tomoschow Belzek. 3. Schepetowka Proskurow Larga. In addition a number of lines are planned of which one is to encircle our province of East Prussia. Along the German frontier, too, the erec-

tion:

1.

to

Plozk on the Vistula.

tion of wireless stations has energetically been taken in hand.

Like-

wise they have begun to modernize their fort and field artillery. Side by side with these endeavors go intended improvements in mili-

and organized changes in the situation corps and general staff in the way of raising salaries and of quicker advancement. Thus for the Russian army, too, and tary education and training

of the

its

officers'

capacity for service the year

1913

is

to be looked

upon as

important. Furthest in arrears of the armies of the Triple Entente

is

the

The Crown Prince

The Crown Prince

at

Mess

THE ARMY

29

English, which made no progress worth speaking of in 1913. England in her war plans against us long reckoned with landing an army of invasion on our coast. The idea has been given up because it was declared that probably the weak, active army would be more needed elsewhere, especially as its maximum of about 130,000 men could not play a decisive part against the millions-of-men armies of Germany. Nor has the "territorial army," destined for protection at

home, shown any progress of its required strength there were still lacking in October, 1913, seventy thousand men and all efforts to The bring it to the intended height of 314,000 men have failed. ;

thought of tunnel connection with France, however, in spite of the proud of the isolation the sea offers him,

dislike of the Britisher, so

has found more adherents than was formerly the case. If now we draw our conclusions from our military review of the

year 1913 the armaments of Austria and Italy on the one hand and Russia and England on the other are insignificant as compared with

The two latter remain well in the and in a indeed foreground, European war, too, it is they who first and foremost would have to try conclusions with each other.

those of

Germany and France.

These observations, made by an expert at the beginning of 1914, are exceedingly interesting in view of

what

is

now going

on.

Since

Von Bremen

wrote, how-

have been several interesting developments. In February it became known that of the French soldiers ever, there

no

less

than 265,000 had died, were on the

sick-list,

or

had been discharged during the previous month. The explanation

is,

that in order to raise the figures even

had been accepted, that old unhealthy barracks were overcrowded and that new ones had been occupied while the plaster was still wet on the the poorest kind of material

army was short of

walls; that the

of

many hundreds. An

clares that two-thirds

official

physicians to the extent

note in a Paris paper de-

of the recruits arrive in a tubercu-

Together with these revelations comes a book, by a French military aeronaut, complaining of the utter neglect of the air fleet, and declaring that at

lous condition.

moment France has not one serviceable hydroplane. The whole appropriation for air-ships in connection with

the

the

navy was but 400,000 francs

in 1913, as

compared

with millions appropriated by the rival powers.

At

the

same time come revelations regarding the regular navy

Although there are nine dreadnaughts building, but two are ready, and no cruisers. itself.

In March appeared the "general annual report of the British army," published

by the

War

showed that Von Bremen's statement of

men was not

estimated. ritorial

explanation

which

as to the shortage

only not exaggerated but greatly under-

The regular army is

army

Office,

9,211

men short, the ter-

66,969, the special reserve 29,370.

lies in

the greater attractiveness of the

The navy

and in the high emigration figures (178,468 males in 1913).

In April we hear of great appropriations in Austria both for the army and the navy. Official estimates place the strength of the critic

army

at 390,250

men, but a German

or repoints out that of these 60,000 are Landwelir,

Rear Guard

in

Ambush

Artillery Patrol

THE ARMY and ought not

serves,

31

to be counted.

There

is

to be a

yearly increase of 31,300 recruits, but the measure to take full effect until 1918.

For

is

not

the navy, 427,000,000

kronen are appropriated, of which 4,000,000 are to go for military air-ships; but the expenditures are to be extended over a period of tria's fate

five years.

Aus-

It has been

throughout the centuries always to be several

years behind.

In June,

finally,

we

learn that Russia has set aside

for military expenditures in 1914 alone the monstrous

sum of

2,500,000,000 marks, and by 1916 will have

added 400,000 men

more than Austria's whole force

to her standing army, which will

months

at least, to 2,200,000

men.

"Characteristic,"

commenting on it, "is strengthening of the western boundary-strip and the

writes the Tdgliche the

Rundschau

amount, in the winter

in

improvement of the strategic network of railroads order to hasten the forwarding of troops."

hand, attention

is

drawn

in the

fact that Russia has at the

We

to

to the

in the Baltic but four

battle-ships, all old-fashioned, although

hoped

On the other

Danziger Zeitung

moment

in

by 1915

it

is

have ready four dreadnaughts.

shall

hear

much

fantry and cavalry, of

in the next field artillery

few months of and foot

in-

artillery,

of pioneers, of Verkclirstruppen or communication

troops,

and of the Train or transport

division.

I there-

fore preface this section with the definition of these

terms given by a staff

officer in the

newest book of

in-

structions for the one-year volunteers.

The infantry

represent the main troops of the army. Their value endurance when marching, in their correct shooting and in their brave dashing against the enemy. The infantry is armed lies in their

with the ninety-eight gun and bayonet; the sword-knot non-commissioned officers (Portepeeunteroffiziere) , battalion-drummers and am-

bulance-men carry revolvers.

To

the infantry belong the sharpshooter battalions (Jagerbataillone), the guard sharpshooter battalion (Garde jagerbataillon} and the guard rifle-battalion (Gardeschiitzenbataillon}. The infan-

trymen are known as grenadiers, musketeers and fusileers. The cavalry is armed with lance, saber and carbine.

Its chief

and for precautionary service, but it is also used for riding down the enemy and piercing him with the lance. The cavalry may also dismount and fight on foot like the infantry. For value

for scouting

is

shooting

it

uses the carbine.

The cavalry mounted

consists of cuirassiers, uhlans, hussars, dragoons

and

(In Saxony guard-riders (Gardereiter) and carbineers; in Bavaria heavy riders and light horse (Chevaulegers}.}

The

riflemen.

field artillery is effective

through the swiftness with which

it

up and through the certainty of aim of its quick-firing guns. The field artillery carries batteries of cannon for firing against visible goals and light howitzer batteries, for shooting at objects berides

hind cover and for demolishing light field fortifications. The drivers carry a sword and revolver, the cannoneers a dagger and revolver.

Every man of the horse-drawn and revolver.

The as the it

division

is

foot artillery has to serve the fort

mounted and and

carries

sword

siege artillery as well

heavy artillery guns of the field army; in attacking a fortress must silence the enemy's heavy fort guns and make breaches in the

Floating the Pontoons

Machine Guns Being Loaded on Pontoons

THE ARMY

33

when defending it must overcome the enemy's heavy The men are called cannoneers; they carry the carbine

fortifications;

siege guns.

and the ninety-eight bayonet.

The

pioneers see to the throwing up of entrenchments, the buildand destroying of bridges, obstructions, etc. they are armed like ing ;

the infantrymen.

in

The communication troops consist of the railroad regiments, which time of war have to see to the building and running of railroads ;

of the telegraph battalions, which put up telegraph lines; of the fortress telephone companies, which attend to all telephone matters in the fortress of the air-ship and aeroplane battalions, who are en;

trusted with spying out the land

and the enemy's positions by means

of balloons, air-ships and aeroplanes.

The communication troops are armed like the infantry. The transport service (Train) supplies every kind of column of the army with bridge materials, food, ammunition, are swords, carbines and revolvers.

It

is

etc.

Its

weapons

not worth while here to enter into the question of

In time of peace the blue coats and red colof the infantry, the varied colored attilas and fur

uniforms. lars

caps of the hussars, the helms with the flying eagles of the guards, the tresses, the gleaming epaulettes, the scarves, the

waving plumes, are

all interesting

especially to the other sex; but in aside.

In order

enemy

all

gray ciple

war

that

enough,

is all

laid

to be as invisible as possible to the

categories of troops

wear the same ashen

a comparatively recent adaptation of the prin-

of protective coloring.

In the German army the cavalry of the infantry.

It

is

merely an adjunct the infantry which decides battles is


34

not the cavalry, not even the

However, the infantry of to-day is something very different from the infantry of the eighteenth and even from that of a artillery.

German military world learned new tactics

great part of the nineteenth century. writers acknowledge that the

from

the sharpshooters

war of the

rebellion.

and riflemen of the American

The whole modern

battle

forma-

on the idea of giving more play to the indiIn spite of the technical progress that has made

tion rests

vidual.

of armies great machines, more weight than ever before is laid on quick judgment, on good shooting, on physical bravery and endurance.

I

trary to this prevails, that to the art

know

that an idea quite con-

many

consider

war reduced

of setting off the greatest quantities of ex-

But

very far from the truth. The battles of the past were of much shorter duration than are those of the present. Wagram was plosives within a given time.

this is

won in two hours, Mukden took three days. One learns to adapt one's self even to guns and

incredible rifle-ranges.

quick-firing

It has been

ematically demonstrated that, with the

rifles

now

mathin the

hands of the German infantry, a bullet fired from a tance of three hundred yards will pass right through

men the

disfive

standing closely one behind the other and lodge in

body of the

sixth.

But men

in battle line

no longer

stand closely one behind the other, nor even closely side

Pursuit

Infantry Embarking

THE ARMY by

Even

side.

in

what

is

considered a thick firing line

they stand about three feet apart. I have said that the modern idea

Within certain

to the individual.

35

own

position, find the

own

fire

is

to give

limits the

more play

men

choose

proper rests for their rifles, get each the range for himself, determine the speed of

their

own judgment in the economizing of ammunition. They are expected to advance

their

and use

their

according as they see their opportunity. glance at the methods of training the infantry will give some idea of the care and thoroughness with which

A

the

Germans have made

old drill has not been entirely abandoned

military critics think that there

goose-step marching and of the

have r

j

The

their preparations for war.

indeed,

some

much of the parade tricks. But these is still

too

importance and the tendency of late toward the most realistic representation of the

lost their old

ears

is

circumstances and problems of actual combat.

The pa-

rade-ground has given place to the maneuvering acres

and miles

many,

in extent.

For

the

first

field,

time in Ger-

autumn, whole army corps were to have enmock combat with one another.

this

gaged in In the ordinary

rifle

practise the

men

are taught

first

groups and detachments, next in whole troops and companies and finally in conjunction with cavalry and artillery. They are

to shoot well individually, then in

made to adapt themselves to the most unfamiliar and unusual surroundings. Even the targets are of the most varied description targets that fall to the ground :

hit,

when

targets that burst, targets surrounded

objects or colored fires so that there will

by smoking be some of the

and targets that move or that float in the air, targets that have been lying flat on the ground but that suddenly appear here and there like semblance of

battle, fixed targets

an enemy issuing from the bushes.

The rifleman must

learn never to be surprised at anything, but to keep his

eyes open in

all directions.

The German army rifle is of a type first introduced in 1888, and so much improved in 1898 that it is now known as the ninety-eight gun. All the infantry no longer any essential distinction between musketeers, fusileers and grena-

carry the same, for there

diers.

It

is

is

a quick-loading

rifle

which renders

it

pos-

aim and shoot as many as twenty-five times a minute. The caliber is seven and nine-tenths sible to take

millimeters, a fact which

may

not at

first

seem

to the

American reader of great importance, but which becomes more interesting when it is realized that this is the smallest caliber which will inflict sufficient injury on

an enemy

to

make

its

use profitable.

In other words,

if

put him out of the fight and keep him out for a reasonable time. It was found

it

does not

kill

him

at once

it

will

Cannon for Shooting Airships

Combination Hydro and Aeroplane

THE ARMY in the

and

Russian- Japanese

in a

number of

37

War that a smaller bullet could,

cases did, pass through a foeman's

body without rendering him liors de combat, and that no less than forty per cent, of all wounded were back with their troops in three months.

There are

Maxim

rifles

which can

fire as

many

as a

hundred shots a minute and which have other advantages too but the ;

own gun,

German government

considers

it

is

well satisfied with

superior to that of any of

its its

neighbors' and has never seriously considered the question of changing.

It has a smokeless powder, the process

of manufacture of which

A recent innovation

is

is

a carefully

guarded

secret.

the supplying of the infantry

for that matter of the cavalry also

with so-called

machine guns. They are the Catling guns of our own country, and every German infantry regiment now has a machine-gun comsince the arm}7 reform of 1913 pany.

It consists of ninety

men and

forty horses, with

guns and three ammunition wagons. As the newest guns can fire at the rate of six hundred shots a minute,

six

and

more than two hundred infantry regispeak of the cavalry and artillery, which

as there are

ments, not to

have their companies of "Gatlings," one can gain some impression of the deadliness of modern campaignalso

of the quick-firing guns now are supplied with stands on pivots so that they can be pointed in the

ing.

Many


38

and aeroplanes. But their chief use guarding bridges and narrow passes. Their

air against balloons

will be in

bullets carry for

two

miles, but they can be silenced

by

beyond this range, nor can they carry enough ammunition for long-continued use. Altogether, however, a comparison of their fire with the simheavy

artillery far

ple flames of the traditional hell

makes the

latter place

seem a mere pleasure -resort.

The

training of a soldier has of late years become

more and more humane and

rational,

and

is

confined to

no longer and per-

manning guns, shooting rifles forming long marches. Those Germans with whom

I

have spoken on the subject look back to their term of service with pleasure, and my general conviction is that the

army

in time

of peace

is

tional institution in existence.

the most perfect educa-

With

school learning

every boy when he comes to "serve" is more or less equipped. What he learns is esprit de corps, manly bearing, endurance and the feeling that his tasks must

be quickly and faultlessly performed regularity and discipline.

in other words,

The mere change of

sur-

roundings and interests is a benefit, and the outlook on The old arguthe world is immeasurably broadened.

ment against compulsory military training ly,

young men

in their best years are

productive work, does not amount to

that,

name-

withdrawn from

much

in

an age

Covered Field Artillery

A

Howitzer Battery Crossing a Pontoon Bridge

THE ARMY

39

where the general complaint is of overcrowdedness in almost every calling and profession. The German boy does his work

all

the better for his military training

and

the nation has thoroughly adjusted itself to the falling

out of these two years.

There are dispensations for cases

where the boy's presence at home is a vital matter for the support of others, and, as a rule, a place that he filled before

is

One

kept open for him against his return. of the pleasantest recent developments has been

the enthusiasm for sport that

army.

The

authorities

had taken hold of the

encouraged

it

in every

way, for

keeping with the new tactics of training the individual to be efficient and independent. The author it

was

in

had the pleasure of attending the first great military athletic meet that has ever taken place. It was held in June, 1914, in the great stadium that has been erected near Berlin for the Olympic games of 1916, and that

now

army which

is

existence of

its

fighting so strenuously for the very

country was represented in

all its

pomp

and glory.

On an elevated terrace was the emperor with

his court.

Next came

the logen or boxes which were

blue with the uniforms of the

officers.

A large majority

of the spectators were soldiers, for whom whole section* had been reserved; they marched in in seemingly un-

ending

lines,

uniforms.

looking very neat in their summer undress The exercises began with gymnastics or


40

turnen., to which, all over

portance

is

Germany, the greatest imThere was the usual running,

attached.

jumping and throwing of weights with us it is a shot, with them it is a discus. There was a cross-country run of four miles which started and ended in the stadium,

and

in which

some

fifty or sixty officers took part.

It

was won by a splendid young prince of the royal house, Prince Frederick Leopold. The best comment that I heard on him was that he looked like a first-class American.

But most the

common

interesting of all soldiers.

was the obstacle race for

A part of their regular training

consists in climbing walls

and

trees

;

and on

their

parade

will find special tracks with ditches, walls

grounds you and palisades while occasionally the obstacles are of the most serious kind iron railings with twisted spikes ;

through which they must make their way. In the stadium games the soldiers lined up on the farther side of a great swimming-pool that runs along one end of the field

At a given signal swam for dear life to the

below the spectators.

they

into the water,

other

plunged

climbed the low protecting wall and were off helterskelter for the hurdles and other obstacles. Behind one

side,

of the hurdles, concealed by green boughs, was a slimy watery hole, but it detained them but for a moment. Across the track a high straight impromptu wall was

Effect of

Two

Shells on a Six-Foot Reinforced Concrete

Scaling Barricades

Wall

THE ARMY held in place by soldiers and

One almost

to clamber.

him

it all

up

41 the contestants

had

stuck at the top; you watched

breathlessly to see if he could achieve

it,

but there

was no jeering, as I fear there would have been at home. The whole race, in which were some fifty or more par-

was run with a wonderful

ticipants,

ness

and what the Germans

freshness, joyous-

call schneidigkeit,

which

corresponds to our American slang expression "toniness."

Even

in the ordinary practise

on the parade-ground

an adjutant keeps a record of the time that the soldiers need to overcome the different obstacles. Whole com-

The whole thing system that in war an officer

panies have to pass the required is

already reduced to such a

will his

know

men.

tests.

to the smallest detail

Great importance

is

what he can expect of

attached to swimming, for

occasions are sure to arise in a

campaign when streams

are to be forded or where the pontoon divisions have to be assisted.

On

the whole the rise of sport has

had a great levelSoldiers and officers do not,

ing influence in the army. indeed, compete with each other as a rule but they take part in the same meets, and I have observed that the ;

soldier

seems to

the officer

moment.

is

importance while the tendency of to forget himself in the excitement of the rise in

I have a vision of non-participants flying

across the field with the tails of their long coats flap-

ping behind them to carry tidings or encouragement to some tired runner which denotes a very great change from the unswervingly dignified bearing of other days. Soldiers

and

officers

are encouraged to join athletic

which makes for

associations,

If the infantry the cavalry

now

is

is

less exclusiveness.

the mainstay of the

German army,

indispensable for reconnoitering, for

mak-

ing raids and for pursuit. Each cavalryman, as has been said, carries a lance, a sword and a carbine. Much time

is

which

spent in training the

is

of hollow

steel.

men

to the use of the lance,

Men of straw,

for instance, are

placed on the ground and the lancer, riding by, has to inflict a wound in exactly the place designated. Or a

straw head

is

off in passing.

placed on a stake and must be knocked

The

carbines, which are stuck in the sad-

of a perfected modern type and are but inferior to the muskets of the infantry. dle, are

little

Cavalry regiments, with which speed of progress the

first

consideration, carry their

is

own bridge-wagons,

so that they can either repair bridges that have been de-

stroyed, or construct entirely

new

ones.

It has been

found that rafts made of fodder-bags stuffed with straw and held together by lances, boards, logs, etc., can carry Six such bags as I have described can, at a pinch, carry six men. Barrels and comparatively heavy weights.

CO

A bfi

.S "w 'g e3

h

-

Cavalry Patrol

Building a Bridge with Sacks

THE ARMY chests are

still

more useful

if

43

they happen to be at hand.

Xeedless to say, the cavalry bridge-wagons also carry explosives for destroying the enemy's bridges and other defenses.

some quarters that aeroplanes and other contrivances for scouting and communication It has been thought in

would supersede cavalry, but the German army administration evidently does not think so, as it has more than 150,000 horses in use even in time of peace.

war

all

In time of

private horses are subject to requisition, as are

also automobiles, motor-trucks, motor-wheels

planes.

for the

The rest,

and aero-

better riders in a regiment train the horses

and there

is

a constant mustering out of the

inferior ones in favor of others that are stronger or

younger or more docile. There are military riding schools at Hanover, Dresden and Munich, where officers are taught not only to ride well and to instruct others but also to break in young horses. Prussia has her own stud-farms in which the royal family, since the days of Frederick William I, has taken the greatest interest.

small and tough.

There

is

a regular Prussian type,

The theory has

that Asiatic horses are

lately been

more free from

disease

advanced

and that

they proved more enduring in the recent Turkish-Bulgarian War, while the Prussian horse, through faults in the

manner of

raising, has degenerated

during the long


44

period of unbroken peace.

simply an academic question and nothing short of war itself can demonstrate that under all conditions another type of This, however,

is

horse will be preferable.

The Russian-Japanese War brought the old cavalry raid, such as we associate with the names of Sheridan and Wilson, once more

to honor,

and an expedition of

Mischtschenko's in February, 1905, though not wholly successful, aroused much interest in cavalry circles in It

Europe.

is

considered not unlikely that such "raids"

play a great part in the present war. The Germans use the American word for the maneuver. will

merely an adjunct of infantry, this is more true of artillery. Its function, according to

If cavalry still

the latest

is

German

writers,

is

to facilitate the advance of

the infantry, or, in other words, to break

and open the

path by which the infantry shall storm. It has sometimes been thought of the battle of the future that it

two parts the great artillery duel and the infantry struggle and that the infantry would have to stand aside until the artillery duel was over. The con-

would

consist of

:

;

trary side

is

by

the case.

The two,

in this

side: the artillery

fantry coming

German

coming war,

will fight

opening the breach, the

in-

in.

of six guns, while those of the French have only four. Good authorities, even in batteries consist

-

o

Wheel Belt

A

for

Cannon

Howitzer Battery

THE ARMY

45

Germany, prefer the French system, but the change would mean more expense than was considered war-

A

rantable.

is

novelty

that the guns

steel shields that protect the

useful innovation

of

flat

great

Another most

gunners.

the so-called wheel belt.

A number

blocks or shoes, wider than the tire and hinged so

form

as to

is

now have

a great chain, protect the wheels of the

carriage and prevent them from sinking

into the

gunmud.

Formerly a supply of beams, jackscrews and the like had to be carried along for use in extricating the cannon

when they stuck has

Xow every large gun in the army

fast.

which can be removed and put on again at the operation lasting but six minutes.

its belt,

will,

The

largest

guns accompanying the infantry have a

bore of twenty-one centimeters, which course, than the fixed

for coast defense.

and there field

guns

The

fire shells

is

is

less,

in fortresses or those

of these

size

is

is

is

filled

either

used

The

a so-called

a combination of the two.

a thin metal ball

of

ever increasing,

and shrapnel and there

and can be discharged It

much

already talk of forty centimeter guns.

is

"unit charge" which

shrapnel

guns

is

A

with explosive bullets

by ignition or percussion.

considered preferable to have

it

burst in the

air,

just

above the point aimed at, as the shock is downward. Krupp has patented a shell that explodes by clock-work.

One

further fact concerning artillery

may

interest


46

who follow

those

In

the present campaigns.

older famous battles the greatest efforts were

drag the heights.

artillery

up

According

the hills

and have

to recent strategy

it

it

all

the

made

to

crown the

chooses rather

low-lying protected spots. Howitzers can shoot right over a hill and have the shell curve and descend on the

The

other side.

calculations as to just where

made with astounding

strike are

the goal itself

may

The guns

constantly improved, but the greatest secrecy

They

will

accuracy, even though

be invisible.

with regard to them.

it

are being is

observed

are shrouded as they pass

through the streets and no one can inspect them without a written order.

The low

situation has

its

great advantages as well as

disadvantages, but the latter can be counteracted.

its

In order

now

to be able to overlook the field, each battery

has an observation ladder or column, of which the

parts can be telescoped into short space and carried be-

tween two wheels. air.

When desired it is

One advantage of

this

new

projected into the

invention

is

that the

wheeled observation ladder can be sent off to quite a distance carrying a portable telephone by means of

which

it is

possible at all times to

communicate with the

gunners.

Many

cannon now have telescopes attached to them

to assist the

gunner

in taking aim.

When we

reflect

Observation Column

Observation Ladder

Covered Field Artillery

THE ARMY that some of the guns can shoot five

47

and

six miles, the

necessity of this will be apparent.

For storming fortifications there are special heavy siege guns. A modern fortress is something very diffrom a medieval or even from an early nineteenth century one. The old city walls, however solidly ferent

built, are

tiquity,

now regarded

and

in

mere pleasant bits of andozens of German towns have been razed as

ground and converted into rings or boulevards. So the city of Cologne, in Ulm. In their place we now

to the in

have groups of sunken guns, of protected batteries and of underground bomb-proof rooms with walls of reinforced concrete twelve and fifteen feet thick.

and there armored

turrets project a

few

Here

feet above the

ground. Some of the rooms are large enough for a whole company of infantry. The sunken guns can rise

from

their resting-places, fire their charges

back into their beds.

Germany

and sink

has twenty-eight land

of which nine are modern in every regard, and eight coast fortifications. Should the Russians enter Prussia we may hear much of the great forts at forts in

all,

Konigsberg, Graudenz and Thorn, at Danzig, Kulm and Marienburg, or of the Silesian forts Glogau, Xeisse and Glatz, which played a part already in the wars of Frederick the Great.

In the west, Metz and Strasburg

have been immeasurably strengthened since they passed

into

German

hands, and Mainz, Coblenz, Cologne, Ger-

mersheim and Wesel are

all

formidable.

To

the south

Ulm

and Ingolstadt, while in the north are Kustrin and Spandau, the latter but a few miles from Berlin. In are

Saxony

is

position,

can

the Konigstein, which,

is

by reason of

its

natural

considered as impregnable as any fortress

be.

Whether

the

Germans

will ever be forced

back into

Their policy is to keep to the offensive and spare their own land as much as possible. However, what strength of arms may these strong positions remains to be seen.

fail to

accomplish

may

be reserved for famine.

With

her commerce entirely cut off, the food supply for the nation at large will be but scanty, and of cisms I have read on the

all

the

German army during

criti-

the last

months those on the commissariat department have been the most severe. change in the whole adminissix

A

tration

was ordered a few months before the war broke

out, but

it

has scarcely as yet had time to go into full

effect.

The Army of

the

Air

Probably the greatest difference between ancient and modern warfare lies in the systematic use that is now

made of balloons,

air-ships, aeroplanes

and

kites, also

of

telegraphy, both fixed and wireless, and of the tele-

THE ARMY

49

phone. I should add to these, automobiles, motor-trucks,

motorcycles and simple bicycles.

known 1870 Germany attempted to make It

may

not be generally

that as far back as

regular use of mili-

tary balloons, and that two balloons and equipment were

purchased from an English aeronaut. Several ascents were successfully made with a member of the general staff as passengers. Before Paris, however, it proved impossible to obtain the gas for inflation, and the whole

balloon detachment was dissolved.

Fourteen years

later,

in 1884, regular experiments regarding the taking of

observations and the exchanging of signals were be-

Fifty thousand marks a year were set aside for the purpose, and so satisfactory were the results that in

gun.

1887 a regular balloon corps w as organized with a major, a captain, three lieutenants and fifty non-commisr

sioned officers and men.

The

discovery that the gas

could be transported in steel cases in a greatly condensed

form placed military ballooning on a much securer basis and the corps, greatly increased, has taken part in the yearly maneuvers since 1893.

The

captive balloon

used as a sort of training-ship for recruits, but the free balloon has been practically superseded. is still

The first Zeppelin and

the

first

Parseval air-ships were

acquired in 1907 and, in spite of frequent accidents,

have become as much a part of the armed forces as have


50

There are now no

batteries or battle-ships.

less

than

five

under the "general board of inspection of military, air and power transport matters." The combined appropriations of Prussia, Bavaria and Wiirtair-ship battalions

temberg for their air fleets in 1913 amounted to 70,000,000 marks. The recent ships, which are not necessarily confined to the Zeppelin type, though built along the

same

lines, are

year the

"L

almost as large as ocean steamships. Last

II" carried twenty-eight passengers on

its

and twenty-seven of killed, among them almost all Germany's chief military aeronautic experts. "L III," which is nearly trial trip.

It exploded in mid-air

were

completed, will have a displacement meters.

The

largest

of 32,000 cubic

and newest ship

at present, the

Schiitte-Lanz II, has a displacement of between 23,000

run by four Maybach moeach of one hundred seventy horse-power, and beats

and 24,000 cubic meters, tors,

is

the previous Zeppelin record for speed

(

seventy-nine kil-

ometers or forty-nine and three-eighths miles an hour)

by

six kilometers.

can in any is

No other country has any air-ship that

way compare

with

this.

Under

construction

the twenty-fifth Zeppelin, which will have a length of

some four hundred

fifty feet.

All modern air-ships are

equipped with wireless telegraphy having a range of about four hundred kilometers, and can carry light Gatling guns.

They can

lift

a weight of some 16,000

Gondola of the Schiitte-Lanz I Airship

Airship Parseval

THE ARMY pounds and

their cost

The Germans have

is

51

from 700,000 marks upward.

practised very industriously with

only the other day a pilot completed his

their air-ships

seven hundredth

trip.

war the Zeppelins will come up to the expectations that have been formed of them remains of

Whether

in

course to be seen.

One can

conceive of a single ship,

under favorable conditions, throwing down enough explosives on an army to put it completely to rout. But the Zeppelin

is

a very big target

and

its

motors make

enough noise to warn a whole city of its approach. Russia and Germany herself now have many vertical guns for shooting air-ships.

On

the other hand, a Zeppelin

very high and can take refuge behind a cloud. Its chief objects of attack will doubtless be arsenals,

can

fly

dockyards, bridges and tunnel-mouths, though no

fleet

near the shore and no camp can feel quite safe from it in future. It would be so tempting to drop a shell in the midst of an enemy's general staff and thus bring confusion into the whole guidance of the army!

The Zeppelin has dangerous enemies in the ordinary aeroplanes. A Frenchman has just vowed to run the nose of his "plane" into the

over Paris. It

is

first

possible for the

close range, or to fly

air-ship that appears

airman to shoot,

above the monster and

ropes with hooks that shall tear

its

sides.

too, at

down The new

let


52

can carry Galling guns, only a question of how they can best trail them

ships, however, as I

and

it is

on the enemy.

have

The

said,

latest idea

is

a shaft that shall ex-

tend right through the body of the Zeppelin and come out on the upper surface. This arrangement has been tried

on the newest Schiitte-Lanz.

To

the value of aeroplanes as instruments of

Germany awakened

Not

late.

until after

war

an exhibition

of the American, Orville Wright, on the Templehof field near Berlin in 1910 was the matter taken very Now there are four flying battalions in the seriously.

army with nearly

fifteen

that the machines are

hundred men, and

more

solid

and

believed

it is

stable than those of

All records were broken by German machines during the past year, and the great Prince Henry the French.

races in

May, though

fatal accidents occurred,

strated very well about

demon-

what may be expected from a

troop of airmen in time of war.

The

conditions were

extremely severe and the weather was not favorable, yet twelve out of twenty-nine starters achieved the final goal within the time limit.

The

favorite machine in the

German army

is

batross-Taube, which looks quite warlike with

the Al-

its

metal

armor covering motor and all. Both monoplanes and even biplanes are used. In case of war all aeroplanes, the stock in trade of the manufacturer, are com-

Marine Airship

A

Zeppelin over the Kiel

Bay

THE ARMY

53

These aeroplanes are easily transportable so that a number of them can be concentrated

mandeered.

by

rail

of action.

close to the scene

ing, carrying despatches

They

will be

used for scout-

and dropping bombs, and un-

doubtedly will have a great effect upon warfare. It is likely that more maneuvering will be done under the cover of night than formerly in order to escape the spy-

ing eyes of the birdmen, that false marches and maneuvers will be undertaken, that bivouac fires will be lighted in unoccupied places merely for the purpose of deceiving.

It will be easy to conceal

cannon by covering

them with green boughs.

The German these

new night

soldiers are already

operations which the aeroplane and air-

ship will necessitate. the

being trained for

moon and

They are taught

to

make

their

stars, to place their ears to the

by and catch and interpret sounds.

It

is

way

ground

possible for a

of a passing horse whether it is running free or whether it is carrying a load, also to estimate the approximate number of a passfinely trained ear to tell in the case

ing troop. Silent marching is practised, too, the greatest care being taken that the objects carried shall not clash or rattle.

The enemy

carries

powerful

electric search-

lights against aeroplanes; a single apparatus requires

several vehicles, each

drawn by four

horses.

There must

be a motor, a dynamo, a great mirror, a water

wagon

and a portable tower

The infantry can now be loaded on

thirty feet high.

carries lighter apparatus, too, that

an automobile, the motor of which can be used for run-

ning the dynamo.

Aeroplanes, too,

now

carry search-

lights.

An

enormous number of automobiles are used

army.

The German government has

ment with motor-truck owners

(the

steamship companies) by \vhich

new

it

in the

a special arrange-

same

is

done with

pays a subsidy for

trucks on the understanding that they shall be at

disposal in time of need.

its

It has been estimated that nine

motor-wagons can replace one hundred thirty-nine horses and will need thirty instead of one hundred two men.

Such a wagon

will carry easily four tons

The

With

all

Officers

and

the technical aids

the decisive factor in a

of baggage.

inventions, however,

war remains

the

men and more

especially the officers.

I recently overheard a well-known Boston

woman

teacher holding forth with the positiveness of complete conviction on the subject of the

German

officer

and com-

miserating him on the life of idleness circumstances forced him to lead "except, of course, during the three or four hours a day

w hen he r

remark was addressed

is

obliged to exercise."

to a distinguished

The

Harvard pro-

Albatross-Taube Model 1914

Albatross-Taube Packed

for

Shipping

Double Monoplane

Albatross

Hydro and Aeroplane

THE ARMY fessor

55

who had no should have marked both of

anti-military, however, to the core

contradiction to offer.

I

these great people zero for flat ignorance of the subject

had I had them

may

in a class.

The German

occasionally seem as idle

officer,

and as frivolous

I grant,

as the son

of a new American millionaire: the only difference would be that the American conceals his idleness under a show of industriousness, sending telegrams when he has nothing else to do, while the German conceals the fact that he has been

up

since four in the

morning

train-

ing a mass of raw recruits, that he has spent several hours at the Kriegsakademie studying languages, geography, political economy and the like and that he has as a permanent job some important problem in tactics to

work

out.

Those who know the methods of the Prussian

government could never accuse it of giving too

little

work.

A

list is

kept of

their industry, their interest in their

all

its

employees officers in which

work and

their gen-

good conduct is noted. The ideal that is kept before them may not be exactly our ideal, but it is a wonderful eral

one of knightly virtue all the same. The man may never forget that he is a leader of men; he must grip his standard of honor, such as it is, like grim death and be willing unhesitatingly to lay down his life for it. If he flinch or falter in physical encounter or in any way is

"guilty of conduct unbecoming an officer" he has to

He

has to conform not only to the rule of his superiors but also to the code of his fellow resign his position.

There are things in that code that one would not to see there and one misses much that might

officers.

like

down

well be included, but to

the profession as a sine-

cure "except, of course, during the three or four hours

a day"

is

the purest folly.

And peace-time

is

the mere waiting-period, the period

of training for the real work. In war-time the fate of the whole country hangs on the officer. An Italian, Mangiarotti, recently inquired of some two thousand soldiers

who had

paign regarding

just taken part in the African camsensations

their

"The great

when facing

the

of God, king and fatherland," he writes, "incorporate themselves in one single

enemy.

ideals

personality, the officer."

duty

in the firing line

is

The

lieutenant

who does

an absolute hero to

his

his

men.

But only real superiority of mind and body can keep him at this height. There are more than thirty thousand

officers in the

regular standing army, the great majority of them belonging to the nobility, who feel that they have a hereditary right to these positions.

I

am

inclined to think

that this feeling of caste will not be disadvantageous in

war.

The

one serious

from youth up has been the object and occupation in life. The memory

military career

A

Taube over the Military Flying Grounds

at Johannisthal, near Berlin

Biplane

Airship Transportation

Wagon

THE ARMY

57

of Jena has been preventative of pride and an incentive to hard work. The habit of commanding gained as as Herr Graf or as Herr Baron lord of the manor will not be useless in the field.

Price Collier, in his the officer

Germany and

the

Germans, gives a bad character for arrogance and instances

the fact that an officer will

crowd a woman off the

side-

Such cases are very rare to-day, much rarer than they were some thirty years ago. The Zabern affair, however, has thrown a glaring light on a certain prewalk.

sumptuousness bitter passions.

in the

army and aroused

at the time very

There was a contempt for the ordinary

laws of justice connected with the

trial that is likely to

avenge itself in time if it has not already done so. But no human institution is perfect, and the officer has at present far other things to think of than presumptuousness.

In time of war many more time of peace. different

and

This

less

officers are

needed than in

provided for in Germany by a perfect system than in France. From is

the one-year volunteers,

of

whom

there are about 15,000

yearly, are taken the "officer aspirants,"

who then un-

dergo supplementary training, returning at intervals in later life for further instruction and practise. The general structure of the

of war.

army does not change

Instead of numbering

five or six

in time

hundred men


58

the size

of a battalion

hundred or

raised to eleven

is

There are supplementary troops in all branches, consisting party of retired soldiers and partly of raw more.

who must be licked into shape as quickly as posbut who serve mainly to fill up the ranks at the

recruits, sible,

front as they become depleted.

must leave

his occupation

Every able-bodied man

and take

to the ranks whether

Even

he has had military training or not.

a

German

in

foreign lands, if he fail to report for duty to his consul, is

liable

on

his return to a sentence

How many

penitentiary

themselves in other countries

hasten to naturalize

will is

of six years in the

one of the problems of

the war.

Horses, too, are called in in great numbers as soon as mobilization is ordered. In time of peace the twenty-

numbering about forty thousand men, require 157,000 horses; in time of war the demand, of course, will be much larger, and this is provided for five

corps, each

army

by instant census

is

requisition.

But not

at

random.

regularly kept of practically

the country

;

it is

all

revised at stated intervals

A

list

or

the horses in

and commis-

sioners note the adaptability of every animal to this or

that purpose.

In times of mobilization the animals are

brought before

final

military, partly

of

commissions, consisting partly of

civilian

members, who appraise

value and declare them confiscate.

ff,

0*1

their

The transferring of

Uhlans Crossing River

Uhlans Fording River

Easily Upset

59 horses to the rallying centers

is

of the railroads, which, as

ties

the state

one of the chief is

difficul-

well known, belong to

and are altogether closed

to general traffic dur-

ing the mobilization period.

Germany million men the

war

is

putting, so

into the field.

last long, are

it

is

some four

estimated,

And

behind them, should

nearly a million boys

who belong

Jung Deutschland and to the Bavarian Wehrkraftverein. Boy scouts, we should call them in our country, but in Germany they are regularly trained

to the

by

Prussian

officers in the

army

an occupation of these sinecure-

holders that I omitted to mention.

They

are taken in

squads on long tramps, are trained to use their eyes and ears and enjoy the life of the hills and woods. They carry their cooking utensils and prepare their meals.

The government encourages

own

the institution

by

large grants and often places barracks and tents at the disposal of the boys for longer expeditions.

private generosity, too, has provided

homes

Public and in out-of-

the-way places where the boys can take shelter over night.

How

deadly an instrument for war is the German army remains to be seen. That it has already accomplished many fine things in time of peace is undoubted.

Xot

the least of these

is

the spread of hygienic knowl-

edge and the encouragement of manliness.


60

German constitution the Kaiser is head and chief of the whole German army and, notwithstanding concessions made to Bavaria, Wiirttem-

By

the terms of the

berg and Saxony for the period when peace-footing,

Whether he

is

absolute

commander

it

remains on a

in time

of war.

will personally take the field or not

other question.

If he does he

enormous wave of

loyalty, but,

presence of a monarch in

camp

will be

is

an-

upheld by an

on the other hand, the is

often a hindrance to

His own great-grandfather, and

at the

same time the Austrian emperor, made life very for Bliicher and the other real fighters in 1814.

bitter

the operations.

The

of commanding a modern army is done by the chief of the general staff. It is of good augury that the present holder of that position is again real business

On him

planning and the responsibility for carrying out of the plans, though he has under him a huge staff of subordinates more than two

a Moltke.

falls the

whose duty is to collect information, make reports and even tender advice. The older Moltke once wrote: "The make-up of the headquarters of an

hundred

army ized.

in all

of an importance not always sufficiently real Some commanders need no advice, but weigh and

is

decide things for themselves.

Their subordinates have

merely to carry out instructions. first

But such

stars of

radiance are only to be found about once in a cen-

THE ARMY tury.

Only a Frederick

61

the Great takes counsel with

no one and determines everything himself. As a rule the leader of an army can not do without advice." The old plan

was

decisions; the

to hold a council

new one

to use every aid

from

of war and abide by

for the

is

its

commanding general

others but to take the whole re-

sponsibility himself. T Headquarters travels with the arm) and with

it

goes

the imperial chancellor, ready to take advantage of

every happening in the negotiations.

The

field to influence the

minister of

war remains

course of

at

home

to

prompt forwarding of troops and supplies. In 1870 and 1871 Bismarck had much to suffer from fe-

see to the

male influences

royal ladies

bardment of beautiful

cities

present no royal ladies in interfere.

and the

like.

Germany who

to the

bom-

There are

at

are likely to

Bliicher used to insist that the most merciful

way of making war was pursuit

who objected

to the last

to be absolutely relentless in

man and

to the last horse.

The

worst thing that can happen is to have the campaign drag on slowly with necessity of renewing battles. This

phase of the matter royal ladies do not always understand.

If the example of the Franco-Prussian War is followed the Germans will put as many as six different armies into the field, each with some four army-corps.

There are twenty-five army-corps, and the fighting part of a single army-corps, which numbers some 41,000 men, strings out on an ordinary road to a distance of twenty-six kilometers or more than sixteen miles. As the food supplies, medical

and surgical apparatus and

ammunition wagons have to follow distance

umn

at

we may

at a considerable

estimate the length of the whole col-

more than double

this

amount.

Were

the whole

standing army (not to speak of the reserves) to travel along the same road it would take twenty-five days to pass a fixed point. It may be said here that the number

of direct roads passing from Germany into France is small and that for purposes of invasion the possession of Belgium was a strategic necessity.

meant victory or defeat

in the great struggle

and the

Belgium and France are

devil take the consequences.

so at one that the

Its occupation

French have

so trusted to the forts

of

Liege and Namur, which they believed to be impregnable, that they have done little to fortify their own borders in that direction.

Who the

commanding

generals of the

are to be has not yet been

Judging by

made

German army

public in America.

the holders of high positions in peace-time

they will be Grand Duke Frederick II of Baden, Duke Albert of Wiirttemberg, Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria

and the generals Biilow, Eichhorn, Heeringen and

63 Prittwitz.

Whether

will be given a

or not the

command

is

German

doubtful.

He

crown-prince is brave and

dashing but impetuous and unbalanced, and his relaI tions with his father have been somewhat strained.

am told that his

maneuvers he expects far too much from men and horses, though his pleasant mariners and his at

joking way make him very popular. He may, of course, prove the Frederick the Great of the campaign should it

last sufficiently

perience.

long for him to gain the proper ex-

THE NAVY IN 1848 the German Confederation was at war with Denmark on account of Schleswig-Holstein. The national parliament voted six million thalers for the crea-

tion of a fleet

;

it

might as well have voted sixty millions

as far as the possibility of collecting

circumstances was concerned.

it

in such disordered

But on June

fourth,

1849, a squadron of three steamships, the Barbarossa, the

Hamburg and

mouth of

the Liibeck did set out

from

the Elbe, with decks cleared for action.

the

The

admiral was a Saxon, Rudolph Bromme. It was known that a Danish corvette was becalmed in the neighborhood of Helgoland. She was sighted and some shots had already been sent through her rigging,

from another

from Helgoland a shot was fired. It

direction,

British possession,

when suddenly itself,

then a

signified that

the ships were within the three-mile limit over which then

and now a

state's

sovereignty extended, and that

Eng-

land was forbidding the fray. The "fleet" complied with the order and Lord Palmerston took occasion to

send a diplomatic note to the 64

German Confederation

THE NAVY stating that ships had been seen in the

65

North Sea flying

and conducting themselves as warships; that England would not recognize such ships with a black-red-gold flag as war-ships, but would treat them, a black-red-gold flag

if

need

be, as pirates.

England has more or the present

less

preserved this attitude to

day and has been righteously indignant

whenever Germany increased her

fleet.

A

first

lord of

the admiralty once publicly declared that Britain's rule

of the sea was part of the common treasure of mankind and that England could never endure that another

power should be able

to

weaken her

by exerting naval pressure. Such a would unquestionably lead to war.

The attempts failed, the fleet

The

state

political influence

position, he said,

weld Germany into a nation having was put up at auction and sold in 1852. to

of Prussia, however, which was one of the

purchasers, had

by

this

time started her

own

fleet

and

soon began to build the harbor in the Jadebucht, which is

now

called Wilhelmshaven.

Adalbert, was

One of

the royal princes,

made admiral and furthered

the cause of

Himself an intrepid leader, he an encounter with Morocco pirates, who

the fleet in every way.

was wounded

in

on one of the small boats of the Danzig. In 1863, however, the fleet consisted of but four corvette cruisers, fired

the

Arkona, Gazelle and Vineta, which had each twenty-


66

eight cannon, and the Nymplie, which had but seventeen.

Add

to these twenty-one

cannon boats, four of which

In 1867 the

carried three cannon, the rest but two.

Prussian

fleet

merged

North German

in that of the

Confederation, which in turn, in 1871, merged into that

of the new German Empire. In the war with France the German role whatever, there

being but

fleet

played no

five ironclads in all,

two

of them small coast defenders, to oppose to France's There were but one or two insignificant enfifty-five. counters between small single ships Grille

and the Hirondelle

one between the

in the Baltic,

and one be-

tween the Meteor., whose whole crew numbered sixtythree, and the French despatch-boat Bouvet, with

The two had come upon each other in the harbor of Havana and then tried conclusions on the high seas. But the German victories on land had been eighty-three.

so quick

and

decisive that the fleet as a whole never

came

into action.

Even

the successful outcome of the

Germany on

to build

a seaman, was

though

Von

made

up

war did not spur

a strong navy.

A general, not

chief of the admiralty and, al-

Stosch brought in a building plan accord-

ing to which the navy, by 1882, would have had fourteen large ironclads, seven monitors, twenty cruisers

and twenty-eight torpedo-boats,

it

was carried out only

THE NAVY

Stosch deserves credit, however, for insisting

in part.

that

67

Germany

should build

all

her

own

ships.

The

sink-

ing of the Grosse Kurfiirst in 1879, which was run into by one of her own sister ships, was a great calamity for the navy, and the loss of her two hundred sixty-five officers

and men caused wide-spread

grief.

Caprivi, the later chancellor, followed

1883 as head of the admiralty. but,

He

He

was

Von

Stosch in

conscientious,

would seem, altogether without fruitful ideas. placed all his hopes in the torpedo-boat, and from it

1883 to 1887 not a single battle-ship was built. It was not so much to be credited to Caprivi, but to a young

Von

now grand admiral and state secretary for the navy office, that the German torpedoboat fleet became the best in the world. Tirpitz made a new weapon of it, one that could be used not merely for officer,

Tirpitz,

coast-defense, but also for fighting on the high seas.

But

the fact remains that the torpedo-boat under Ca-

regime was greatly overestimated and that usefulness has more and more been checked by new privi's

ventions

search-lights,

Gatling

guns,

its

in-

torpedo-boat-

destroyers and the like.

Toward

the end of his term indeed Caprivi

began

to

importance of a strong fleet and the idea gained ground that "a navy which has its center of gravity on see the

or near shore

is

not worthy of the name."

In 1887 was


68

begun the Kaiser Wilhelm canal between the Baltic and the North Sea, which enables the one fleet to operate in both waters without fear of being intercepted.

Mean-

on her career as a

colonial

Germany had

while

started

power, having acquired by purchase and by treaty tracts in Africa and islands in the Pacific Ocean more than

Some of

twice the size of her possessions in Europe.

her

little

cruisers

and cannon boats had even seen

against unruly natives.

service

The Reichstag, however, showed

government's colonial policy and for the building of large war-ships.

interest in the

little

was not

to be

won

A change came soon after the accession of the present One of

emperor, William II.

was

his first acts

to reor-

ganize the whole naval system, separating the administrative part

from the purely

miral von Tirpitz

Henry of

is

at the

military.

At

present

head of the former and Prince

own com-

Prussia, subject to the emperor's

mands, of the

latter.

Brandenburg

class,

Ad-

Four great

battle-ships

were begun in 1889.

sponded by ordering ten new

,

all

of the

England

re-

battle-ships, but in 1890,

by ceding Helgoland in return for a correction of boundaries in East Africa, she gave Germany an advantage worth fifty dreadnaughts. there

was any tangible

scientifically,

how a

fleet

fleet at all

And

almost before

Germany was

at

work

learning both by theory and by practise

should be

managed and maneuvered.

THE NAVY

69

"How few little in

these ships were," writes a vice admiral, "and how accord with modern warfare on the high seas, we all know.

Imagination often had to substitute what was lacking. School-ships, with all their old full rigging, represented ironclads; torpedoboats served as cruisers, and the Mars, built to be an artillery trainstill

In those next few years we went it without boasting is unique

acted as flag-ship.

ing-ship,

through a period which we can say Not but that in the history of fleets. then seemed

we made

to us indubitably right has since

mistakes

much

been superseded

that

but

the German fleet, which had fewer and less available ships than many other countries, has outdistanced them all in tactical developThe stake, it is true, became greater as ships reprement. senting a capital of millions and carrying hundreds of men took the place of the little boats, but the method remained the same. Commander and crew, by progressing from easier to more difficult and more warlike maneuvers, achieved that feeling of security which is .

.

.

not a foolish scorn of danger but the knowledge of power to cope with it. That is the state of mind which makes for success in war

and which enables one

The

to

win

fleet legislation

all

by risking

all."

of 1898 for the

first

time looked

ahead and established rules as to the future number of ships built,

and the time-limit within which they should be and also laid down principles as to the tasks that

the fleet

was intended

to accomplish.

Two

squadrons,

of eight battle-ships each, were to be in constant readiness and were to have a flag-ship at their head. Six large

and sixteen small

cruisers

were to act as scouts, three

large and ten small cruisers as a "foreign fleet"; two battle-ships, three large cruisers

and four small ones

were to form the reserve, and the whole reorganization

70


was

to be

completed in six years that is, by 1904. It had heretofore been provided that in case of war each ship should give up half of its trained men as a nucleus for the

new crews of

This greatly

the reserve ships.

weakened the fighting power of the ships at the crucial moment, and the legislation of 1898 abolished the compulsion for one at least of the two squadrons.

Between 1898 and 1900 came events which greatly disquieted Germany: the Spanish- American and Boer

Wars and

disturbances in Samoa.

were amenities between the

Off Manila there

German and American

ad-

more creditably for the The display more force.

mirals which might have ended

former had he been able to

of 1900 was influenced by all these factors and has a wider perspective than any that had gone

legislation

The preamble

before.

declared that

"Germany must

have a battle-fleet so strong that even for the most powerful naval opponent a war is connected with such dangers that that opponent's

own

And

further:

imperative that the

German

be impaired."

position as a

"For

this

power may

purpose

it is

not

battle-fleet be as

strong as that of the greatest maritime power, for, as a rule, a

great maritime power will not be in a position to concentrate its

though

it

whole fighting force against

us.

But even

should succeed in opposing us with greatly

superior forces the subjection of a strong

German

fleet

THE NAVY

71

weaken an enemy that, in spite of any victory he may win, his fleet will no longer be sufficiently powerful to assure his own predominant position." "For the would

first

so

time," writes Mittler, "the so-called risk idea which

was henceforth to be a determining factor development was clearly expressed."

The

in our fleet

of 1900 amounted to a doubling of the Seventeen fleet provided for only two years previously. battle-ships, four large cruisers and sixteen small cruislegislation

were to be in constant readiness, while exactly as many more ships of each of the three types were to be

ers

kept, partially to a

manned,

in reserve.

number of submarines,

In 1906,

in addition

six cruisers for the "foreign

squadron" were provided for, and it was voted to raise the number of torpedo-boats and also to provide automatically for their renewal, the life of a torpedo-boat

being estimated at twelve years. This meant that twelve torpedo-boats would have to be built each year. England's

example

in building

dreadnaughts necessitated

greatly raising the appropriation for battle-ships and

of 1908, by which the normal life of a battle-ship was declared reduced from twenty-five to twenty years. The legislation of 1912, finally, increased the number of active battle-ships by

also influenced the legislation

of large cruisers by four and of small cruisers by not to mention that the number of submarines is to

eight, six,


72

be brought to be

to seventy-two, fifty-four

up

always ready for

finishing all the

new

service.

will all

now

as the period for

1920 they will play little The reserve ships, of course,

ships

part in the present war.

But

of which are

is

be called into action.

To resume, then, and to be more specific, the actual German fleet, counting ships expected to be ready in the course of 1914, numbers thirty-eight ships of the line,

fourteen armored cruisers, thirty-eight protected cruis-

two hundred twenty- four torpedo-boats and thirty submarines. There are no torpedo-boat-destroyers as ers,

in other navies, the small cruisers

take their place.

The

being supposed to

battle-ships arc

ranged

in classes.

There are three of the "King class" (the Konig, the Grosser Kurfiirst and the Markgraf), which have a displacement of nearly 26,000 tons and are equipped with every possible modern improvement, such as net protection against torpedoes, turbine engines, provision

for oil-fuel, torpedo tubes,

etc.

It

is

from

these

mon-

of which each carries ten of the largest guns, not speak of the smaller ones, that we shall probably hear

sters,

to

most

of the war, though not perhaps in the beginning, as they are not fully completed. They are to be joined in 1915 by a sister-ship, the Kronprinz. in the course

The Konig

class

is

to be larger in dimension, in

horse-power and in displacement, though not in speed or

H. M. Ship Seydlitz

in

Dry-Dock

Signaling on Submarine

THE XAVY armament than

The

ships:

73

the Kaiser class, of which there are five

Kaiser, the Kaiserin, the Friedrich der

Grosse, the Prinzregent Luitpold and the

Next come

bert.

the

Helgoland

friesland, Thiiringen,

Konig Al-

class (Helgoland,, Ost-

Oldenburg) and the Nassau

class

(Nassau, Westfalen, Rheinland, Posen) after which, with the Deutschland class (13,200 tons), we are out of the region of the dreadnaughts.

There

is

a dreadnaught cruiser, the Derfflinger, just

ready, with a greater displacement (28,000 tons), and

of course, with far greater speed than any of the battleships. Xext comes the Seydlitz (25,000 tons), then the

Moltke and the Goeben (23,000 tons), and the Von der Tann (19,500 tons). The Goeben has already been practically captured, as has also the Breslau

tons) ish

They

.

are

government

now

is

in the Dardanelles,

man

cities (like

and the Turk-

considering their purchase.

three of the protected cruisers bear the

(4,550

Twenty-

names of Ger-

the Breslau , Colberg, Dresden, Konigs-

berg), while the rest for the most part have such names

Medusa, the Niobe, the Undine. of the largest and best-known passen-

as the Gazelle, the

Some

fifteen

ger ships of the Hamburg and Bremen lines were to have served as auxiliary cruisers, but a number of these

now

and far from the needed proIt remains to be seen what use

are in foreign ports

tection

of their

fleets.


74

will be

or

made of the Imperator, which

is still

at

Cuxhaven

Hamburg.

In concluding our list of ships in the German navy it may interest Americans to know that there is one called the Alice Roosevelt.

It

is

not likely to influence the

progress of the war or even to come into action. special title

is

Stations jaclit, and

it is

at the service

Its

of the

general inspector of the navy, Prince

Germany's

ally,

Austria,

Henry of Prussia. although in May, 1914, she

appropriated more than 400,000,000 kronen for her

makes

fleet,

at present a very

fifteen ships

of the

line,

weak showing.

She has

of which three are dread-

naughts, two armored cruisers and

seven protected

cruisers.

England, Germany's chief naval opponent, has three ships of the line as eight,

and of

compared

to her

own

sixty-

thirty-

these twenty- four are dreadnaughts, as

compared to seventeen. England has forty-four armored cruisers, of which ten are dreadnaughts; Germany has but fourteen armored cruisers, and but five of

them are dreadnaughts. In protected cruisers the ratio is still more in England's favor, while with torpedocomparatively well provided one hundred fifty-four as against one hundred ninety. It boats

may

Germany

is

be mentioned here, as a bit of interesting history,

THE NAVY

75

that the majority of great naval victories have been

over numerically superior

won

fleets.

France has ten dreadnaught battle-ships, on paper, but no dreadnaught cruisers, and is said to have had difficulty in officering the ships that she has.

Moreover,

of the ten dreadnaughts six are only what are called half-dreadnaughts and only three of the others are ready for service. Russia

is

practically without a fleet,

and fourteen

she has four battle-ships

Baltic and four battle-ships

and two

though

cruisers in the cruisers in the

Next year she expects to have ready for Baltic four new dreadnaughts.

Black Sea. use in the

from our thoughts terms have become so unfamiliar

Naval warfare has been these

many

years, its

so far

worth dwelling for a while on the different types of ships and showing their special uses and their that

it is

special tasks in battle.

Most important of sailed

with their supremacy unas-

by any of the newly invented

tle-ships or ships line

all,

because that

of the is

line.

types, are the bat-

They

are called of the

their natural position in battle, the

position that renders the fire of their ive.

a

This does not

line,

mean

that their

though that position

may

guns most effectbows are to be all in

sometimes have to be

adopted; but rather that they are to string out, one be-

76


hind the other at stated intervals, so as to be able to a vast broadside often miles in length. the line

It

may

must be slanting or again that the

must be constantly changed

The ruling

idea,

of course,

as is

new

fire

be that position

exigencies arise.

to strike the right bal-

ance between the amount of surface presented as a target for the enemy's guns and the ability to keep up the most effective running

fire.

All

this is diligently

practised in time of peace in the so-called maneuvers.

The utmost exactness of

calculation

is

required, for the

nearer together the ships the more effective

is

their fire

;

indeed the great distinction between modern naval encounters and those of former times

work, if

we may

call it so.

lies

in this

team

The great dreadnaughts,

with their turbine engines and carefully adjusted steer-

ing apparatus, are much more manageable and can be brought much closer to one another than was the case with old-fashioned battle-ships. The distance between the bow of one ship and the stern of the next one is reckoned in practise at a

hundred yards or

less

;

one can see what

an advantage it is to have the eight ships of a squadron This idea has been all of about the same size and speed. carried so far in the

German

fleet that,

even after the

superiority of the turbine engine had been demonstrated the ships required to complete a squadron were built in

the old style.

Single encounters like those which

make

For Raising Sunken Submarines

The Second Squadron Passing

the Friedrichsort Light

H. M. Cruiser Breslau

H. M. Royal Yacht Hohenzollern with His Majesty on Board

in the

Lock

at Kiel

THE XAVY up such

pages in history are not likely often

thrilling

to occur again,

77

and

if

they do, will not come to board-

ings and to hand-to-hand conflicts.

The range

at

which the great naval battles of the

future will be fought will be very great,

all

the

The great guns can

up to ten thousand yards.

way

easily

shoot that distance, while a reason for not coming nearer until, at least, the

heavy ammunition

is

gone,

that range each fleet will be practically safe

torpedoes of the other.

The German

is

that at

from the

often prac-

fleet

moving target which is dragged along by another boat. On each modern gun is a telescope, and there are instruments for determining tises at that

range, firing at a

any given moment, as well cated adjustments for sighting and aiming. the distance at

jectiles

The pro-

used in the biggest guns weigh each nearly a

ton and cost well caution

as compli-

is

up

into the thousands, so every pre-

taken not to waste them.

We

can no longer

speak of a cannon-ball, for the modern charges are cylindrical, pointed and filled with explosives so as to inflict

the utmost

damage

for the money.

Experience

has shown that at very close range they will pass through blocks of steel

more than a yard

The bore of the hitherto been a

thick !

greatest guns in the

little

German navy has

over thirty centimeters, but

reaching the forty centimeter

mark

;

the

is

fast

guns themselves


78 are

from

forty-five to fifty-eight feet long

correspondingly.

The

Krupp, who, when he

woman

in

Germany.

best are

from

and weigh

the foundries of

daughter the richest The Krupps have a special steel

died, left his

The gunof the utmost toughness and resistance. barrel is made of a single block, which is regularly excavated or bored;

it is

then protected by innumerable

put on when red-hot, and sit firmly ever The "kick" of the gun has been entirely elimi-

rings, which are after.

nated by an ingenious contrivance. Altogether the cannon of to-day have become so complicated and so perfect as instruments that

them than navy gives

it

It

is

takes longer to manufacture

does to construct the ship, and the English

its

even the keel

it

orders for them about six months before

is laid.

said that

And the

life

of such a gun

is

short.

some of the guns on the new English,

Japanese and Italian ships will be useless after they have fired eighty shots; on the American, French and

German dred. barrel,

after

The

from one hundred and

difference

lies in

fifty to

the construction of the gun-

and there are controversies and

which methods are the

two hun-

rivalries over

best, just as there are

over almost

everything else that pertains to warfare: over the best shells, the best powder, the best mechanical contrivances for loading, for getting the range, etc.

have scarcely yet been tried in

Dreadnaughts actual warfare, and the

THE NAVY nation that has

them

made mistakes

79

in theory

may

live to

rue

bitterly in practise.

The guns battle-ships,

be they can

are placed,

two and two,

and can be turned fire

in

a whole broadside

any ;

in turrets

on the

direction; if need

while, as

two turrets

are elevated above the rest, a volley can be fired of four

guns direct from the bow or stern. The turrets are armored with tough hard steel and their surface is curved The King and the so that a shot will glance off. Kaiser classes carry ten great guns, the Helgoland and Nassau classes even twelve, but the latter are no

more

effective, as they

have not the two elevated turrets

for shooting over the other guns.

French and American ships are

Some of

to have three

the

new

and even

four guns to a turret, but the German navy is conservative enough not to wish to try the experiment. Theoretically at least a great dreadnaught unsinkable.

number of

Not only

cells

is

its

is

almost

hull divided into a great

and compartments but many of the

cells

themselves are armored, so that even if a torpedo penetrates to

them

it

will not

have things

all its

own way.

All vulnerable places, too, are heavily armored with plates that extend away below the water line; while the

powder magazines and torpedo tubes are well down

in

the depths of the ship. It

is

the heavy

armament

that has conditioned the size

they have few other advantages than the ability to carry the extra weight, and they have in-

of the

ships, for

The appropria-

creased the cost of navies enormously.

of eight great powers for 1914-1915 come to not far from three billion five hundred million marks, Eng-

tions

land leading with more than one

billion.

And

the ex-

penses do not cease with the building of the ships, for

have to be enlarged acThe Kaiser Wilhelm canal, built between

docks, dry docks, canals,

cordingly.

etc.,

and 1895, at a cost of one hundred fiftymillion marks, had already outgrown its usefulness

the years 1887 six

ten years after

its

opening.

Its widening,

not be fully completed until 1915,

is

which will

to cost

two hun-

dred twenty-three millions in addition. have thus far spoken only of ships of the line, and, although we shall have to return to them in a mo-

We

ment, a few words must

first

be said as to the use of the

Armored

other categories of ships in actual warfare. cruisers in themselves are nothing new.

forty-four of them, France nineteen,

Germany and

England has

Japan

fifteen

the United States each fourteen.

and

But

great armored battle-cruisers have existed only since

1907 and are possessed as yet by only three powers:

England has ten; Germany has, or had, five Goeben is out of the running) and Japan has ,

The big

battle-cruiser

is

(for the two.

as long as a battle-ship, or

THE NAVY even longer;

also, is called

it,

81

a dreadnaught.

It has

guns as large, but fewer of them eight instead of ;

Where,

then,

is

the difference?

The

difference

is

ten.

in the

which are long and slender, like those of a yacht, and in the speed, which is from twenty-eight to thirty lines,

The

knots instead of twenty-two or twenty-three.

cruiser has been described as a sort of naval cavalry that

can

any weak point of the enemy, can chase a ship or can outflank a line of ships, bring them

fly to

single

between two

fires,

thus deciding the battle.

The

cruis-

A

new instrument of can also fight each other. war has thus been introduced that may, after all, once ers

more make naval

contests thrilling

and dramatic instead

of being mere pounding competitions.

The small

cruiser, in contradistinction to the large

armored one, has but a light iron belt and carries only light guns and deck torpedo tubes. Its purpose is not to

engage

in battle, unless

rather to avoid

it.

it

be with a torpedo-boat, but

It combines the qualities of scout

and of torpedo-boat-destroyer, which

latter

type

is

alto-

German navy. Its chief quality swarm of small cruisers accompanies

gether lacking in the is

swiftness,

is

when

puts to sea, darting here and there to sure that none of the much-dreaded little enemies

the fleet

make

and a it

approaching.

Of large

torpedo-boats the

German

fleet

has one hun-


82

dred fifty-four, all of its own special type. The value of the type has at times been overestimated, at times underestimated, but the recent gains in speed and in seaworthiness have Practically

ing which

made

it

no contemptible adversary.

only weapon is the torpedo, for projectcarries four tubes on deck; its small guns

its

it

are merely for use against other torpedo-boats. chief defense

is its

Its

extreme swiftness, for some of the

boats have a speed of thirty-eight miles an hour.

can turn, the

bow

too, incredibly quickly, for

as well as in the stern.

painted black for

its

the night, stealing

weapon and

It

protection.

up

it

It

has a rudder in

unarmored, but

is

For

it is

is

a creature of

in the darkness with its deadly

scarcely ever exposing itself to the enemy's

guns by the

light of day.

dreaded above

all others,

It has one enemy, to be

the search-light.

There are hundreds of the

little

black devils in the

navy, and they have every sort of trick for concealment and escape. By running very swiftly they can keep the

smoke from

rising vertically

thus betraying their presence. flotillas

and

if

an enemy

from

their funnels

They often go

start to chase

and

forth in

them they

scatter,

having previously arranged where they are to meet They come bow on to the ship they mean to again. injure, for the distance between them will then increase

more

rapidly.

If brought to bay a torpedo-boat turns

Submarine Fleet

in

Harbor

at Kiel

Armored Cruiser Moltke

THE NAVY its

own

sel

and

search-light

83

on the commander of the other ves-

him with

tries to blind

its

glare.

It

is

a risky

commander, and requires men of the very highest training and courage. The reason there are such numbers of the little craft is that business, that of torpedo-boat

many

are sure to

to the

go

Germany

campaign.

bottom in the course of a

expects that her

flotilla will

great help in a war with England, for hits the

damage

compared

to the

is

apt to be severe.

new

be of

when a torpedo

Dynamite

is

mild

melanite and lyddite that are used

in charging.

a fiend that works mainly at the submarine, works only by day. If

If the torpedo-boat night,

its sister,

is

one time expected, completely revolutionized naval warfare, it has at least so far asserted itself that it can never be left wholly out of

the submarine has not, as

was

at

improvement has kept pace with that of the torpedo-boat in stability, in size and in man-

the reckoning.

ageableness.

Its

The newest

boats have a displacement of

a thousand tons, and long sea voyages are

Germany

possible.

has far fewer torpedo-boats than has

land, but claims that hers are better adapted for service in

high

now

Eng-

stronger and much rough weather and on the

much

seas.

When

there

is

submarine rides

no enemy in the immediate vicinity the the waves like any other boat; when


84

danger she dives like a duck. Just before firing her torpedo she comes to the surface for an instant to there

is

She

get one last good look.

is

helpless at that

moment,

of course, but trusts to not being seen in time. When under water her speed is only about ten miles an hour, as the pressure

very great; on the surface she can

is

Her

travel about sixteen.

slowness

is

a disadvantage,

for she can only lurk for and intercept a sue and overtake

fleet,

not pur-

She labors under another disad-

it.

vantage, too, for she has to carry two motors and can not use the same one above and under water.

Because the one

is

an

oil

which would be fatal when other

is

run by an

motor and generates gases all outlets

The

are closed.

electric storage battery, the filling

which requires time and patience. How can the submarine communicate with fleet?

Why?

It has wireless telegraphy

and

its

of

own

also deep-water

do not work so well as might be deIt has one other connection with the visible world

signals, but these sired.

wonderful as anything described by Jules Verne

as his

Twenty Thousand Leagues Under

scope, or literally the "looker round." ter than describe

it

in the

Ernest zu Reventlow

is

the Sea, the peri-

I can not do bet-

words of a naval

officer,

Count

:

Roughly speaking, the boat

in

the apparatus consists in this:

under water and yet wishes to see what

If is

THE NAVY going on above, surface

end of

is

pushes up a long thin pipe until the

it

reached and a

this

little

beyond.

At

the farther

a contrivance with glass prisms, or

is

pipe

85

This throws down the image reflected from the surface of the water, through the ver-

mirrors and lenses.

tical pipe, into the interior

of the boat.

The image

is

caught on a plate and the commander of the submarine, although he may be several yards under water, can see everything that

is

floating

face and consequently can

guidance of

this

and happening on the sur-

make

image and

his attack with the sole

steer the boat until

it is

at

the right distance for firing the torpedo.

It sounds like magic, in

it

ence.

when

it

and indeed the witches were not

comes to the achievements of modern

But Reventlow has

periscope

is

to confess that in practise the

not so wonderful as

The splashing of

sci-

it

sounds in theory.

the salt water, unless the sea be per-

fectly calm, which

it

seldom

is,

soon dims and even

was long before the inventors could bring the periscope to reflect more than a small section of the horizon, but that difficulty seems to have effaces the image.

It

been overcome.

map, clock and compass, to take reckonings and keep on a course even when deep down It

is

possible, with

under water. seldom goes.

Deeper than ninety feet the submarine It has found a new and unexpected enemy


86

in the air-ship or aeroplane, for

that

from a height on a

clear day, at least,

very far into the water. the aeroplane do about

a well-known fact

it is

it

But what, one even

if

it

you can

will ask,

see

can

sights a submarine

down beneath the surface? Projectiles would not likely to do much damage. At the same time it can

far

be

warn

ships

That the

and can pursue and worry the submarine.

out saying; indeed,

comes a menace to

when

its

own

it

water, the diving

arrangements are the letting in and out of

ships.

so complicated, too, with all

tors

instrument goes withdarts about blindly it be-

latter is not a perfect

Its

and coming up, the changing of mo-

and providing

artificial air

that things are very apt

go wrong. The service is extremely exhausting for the men and extremely dangerous. to

Yet

all

the

same the value of submarines

is

universally

acknowledged and every great navy has them.

They

new

instru-

will probably prove useful in planting that

ment of

destruction, the floating mine, about which a

few words must be

said here:

"It

is

to be presumed,"

war [how litNovember, 1913, that that war was so

writes Reventlow, "that in the next naval tle

he dreamed in

hand!] mines will play an important part not merely in coast defense but also in sea fights as a weapon with the same justification as artillery and torpedoes and close at

that their use will materially influence the tactics to be

A

Submarine

Flotilla

Torpedo Boat

Search Lights

A

Submarine About

to

Dive

THE NAVY

87

employed." As such a weapon of attack mines were first used in the Japanese-Russian War. mine, as the reader probably knows, is a cask filled

A

with high explosives and fastened by means of weights and anchors so that it floats some feet below the surface.

Mines can be planted in fields, as it were, by torpedoboats or submarine and then a hostile fleet can be lured or chased in is

among

them.

The North

at present thickly strewn with

Sea, as

them and

we know,

fatal results

have already been chronicled. Air-ships and aeroplanes can help by finding the whereabouts of the hostile fleet

and designating by wireless the spots where the mines should be planted. Air-ships and aeroplanes will possibly find their chief

use as coast-defenders.

They need refuges

to which

which limits their use on the high seas. But along the shore they can scout for hostile ships and also can detect submarines and mines. They can throw

they can

down

retire,

explosives and, if they are near

enough

to the

enemy's harbors, can destroy docks and demoralize shipping. Already there is talk of specially armored decks

and of great iron

grills for protecting the

openings of

funnels.

More than

months ago a thoughtful German, Rudolf Troetsch, wrote a book called Germany's Fleet six

88


in the

Decisive Struggle, in which he weighs the differ-

ent tasks the fleet will be called

upon

to

perform

in case

of war, and comes ever and again to the conclusion that a battle on the high seas battle

im grossen

the only possible option

is

Stile, in the

grand

style.

Even

a

if the

enemy's fleet is not conquered it can be greatly weakened and strategy and tactics will go far to make up for

want of numbers. Troetsch begins by showing the different methods an enemy will be likely to pursue and one sees throughout that he has England in mind. First of all will corne;

as has already

happened

the so-called cruiser

war

or

attempt to destroy the country's commerce by snapping up her merchant ships. This can eventually end the war by the starvation process that is, by cutting off all food ;

and other supplies. According to the Paris international agreement of 1856 there shall be no privateering, which means that individuals take prizes, but does not

mean

viduals, if they are subjects

may

not

fit

out ships and

that the property of indi-

of one or other of the war-

ring powers, may not be seized. Prizes of war may either be towed into the nearest port or, after the crews

and passengers have been taken off, may be sent to the bottom with all their cargo. To be effective, however,

method of warfare must be methodically pursued, which means regularly employing a force of swift cruis-

this

THE NAVY ers.

The method had

especially in

its

warm advocates

to

in naval circles,

France about thirty years ago.

a strong feeling at present that the the candle

89

game

is

There

not worth

and that there are other tasks for the

perform which are of more importance.

try which has

few foreign coaling

the prizes can be towed but very

while a naval battle

is

is

cruisers

For a coun-

stations into which

little is

to be gained;

greatly to be preferred to having

an enemy try these tactics. Another method that may be applied against Germany is the blockading of her North Sea coast. A blockade, according to the Paris declaration of 1850

and again according to the London conference of 1908, must be effective in order to be binding a country may ;

simply declare an enemy's coasts in a state of blockade, but must have enough ships there to not, in other words,

enforce the regulations.

A successful blockade hinders

even neutral ships from landing and is the best way of preventing the entry of contraband of war and of para-

commerce. The form of Germany's coast line fairly invites to a blockade, much more than do the line drawn from coasts either of England or France.

lyzing

all

A

Holland

to

Denmark would form

triangle including the

her main seaports as

The

the hypothenuse of a

mouths of Germany's chief rivers, well as all her North Sea islands.

Baltic, too, could be easily shut off

from the ocean,


90

and with the enemy's ships all bottled up there would be no fear of a descent on the coasts of England. This sounds well in theory, but in practise the difficulties will be well-nigh insuperable. Those who know the coast will

remember

the so-called

time of \var

the miles

Wattenmeer

all

and miles of shallows In

so difficult to navigate.

lighthouses and buoys are removed and,

they approach the shore, the English ships will inevitably run aground, while the German torpedo-boats if

and submarines

will be in their very element.

mines, too, will get in their deadly

w ork, r

as will also the

strings of fixed mines which are ignited not sion but

by means of an

the shore.

Floating

by percusfrom

electric current controlled

The German

fleet

great streams and menace the

can retire well up the

enemy

there; while

it

must not be forgotten that the great cannon of the coast defenses can shoot fifteen kilometers (nine and threeeighths miles ) or more.

borhood, notably

and sea.

last

but not

Finally the islands in the neigh-

Borkum and Wangerood, least, there is

Helgoland far out

A whole fleet could not take this

North.

German

are fortified,

The rocky walls are very hard

;

in the

Gibraltar of the indeed, with true

thoroughness, they have been tested to see if

they would successfully withstand bombardment. der their shelter a harbor for torpedo-boats and rines has been built at a cost

Un-

subma

of thirty million marks.

THE NAVY From here they can issue afar by

new

thie

91

forth and here, protected

from

great guns, they can take refuge and form

projects.

Troetsch considers

more than

it

likely that

England

will proceed to a blockade, but a blockade not in the nar-

row but

One

in a broader sense.

objection to the nar-

rower blockade would be that her naval bases, necessary for repairs, fuel and ammunition, would be very far

But

can be obviated

if the

blockading line begin somewhere between Dover and Calais, extend along the east coast of Scotland, with bases at Rosyth

away.

this

and Scapa Flow, and end near the southernmost point of Norway, Cape Lindesnaes. This would shut every exit

from

the

time encircle

North Sea all

to the Atlantic

the exits

from the

and

at the

Baltic: the

same

Skager

Rak and

Cattegat and the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. Here England could carry on what is known as an "observation blockade," biding her time to fall

upon

the enemy's

fleet.

The great disadvantage

is

that the blockading line

have to be so very long. The surface of the North Sea is about equal to that of the whole German Empire,

will

and such a hundred

line as

we have

fifty or three

traced would extend for two

hundred

miles.

It

is

a question

even England's enormous fleet can spare the requisite number of ships. Such a blockading fleet consists not

if


92

only of a long chain of vessels close together but also of a supporting

fleet

and, behind that, of the real battle

The whole

must be nearly double that of the enemy, as it operates on a much broader line. The foggy stormy weather that is apt to prevail in the North squadrons.

Sea

force

will also render the blockade less efficient.

Germany

likely to

is

attempt to break

it

and to bring

about a great naval battle at the earliest opportunity. But that opportunity may not come so very soon. Reventlow, speaking indeed of a hypothetical war, declares that such a blockade

many

has too

much

may

last a

year or longer.

Ger-

at stake to risk her small but excel-

lent fleet before the tactical

moment

her Zeppelins help her to victory? that all are asking now.

They

has come.

That

is

Will

the question

are but fragile toys in

a stormy sea, but, with circumstances in their favor,

may

achieve wonderful results.

When

it

does come to the battle on the high seas into

which Germany will surely force England, we shall see

modern tactical

put to their supreme test, for only by superiority can Germany hope to win. In an tactics

old-fashioned battle in which the ships rushed at each other pellmell, or in one in which the rival fleets simply

A

and pound each other she would be sure to lose. modern battle is much more a game of skill in which the

lie

to

victory

is

not to the strongest but to the cleverest.

THE NAVY In a modern

93

and always Not that the maneuvers are necessarily com-

moving.

battle the ships are ever

plicated, but there goes

on the whole time a constant

thrust

and parry.

ters.

First there

fleets,

the vessels one behind the other, run in the same

There are different kinds of encounis

the running fight, in which the

direction, firing all the while.

Here

two

the strength of the

power of the guns and the quickness of the gunners play the decisive part. The more turrets, funnels, engine-rooms and stearing gear put out of comships, the

so

mission, fight,

much

where the

The

the better.

fleets

so-called

run not in the same but

passing in

oppo-

apt to be preferred by a fleet that is numerically weaker. The agony is less prolonged and site directions, is

escape

is

which the

Then

easier.

fleets are like

one another's

tails.

The

after the passing fight

there

is

the circular fight, in

great serpents trying to catch

circular fight can follow directly

when

the fleets have not been

seriously crippled.

But

the crown

so-called crossing

and acme of

all fleet

maneuvers

is

the

of the T.

"The maneuver of

the crossing of the T," writes Troetsch, "conendeavoring to bring one's own line at right angles across the head, or also across the tail, of the hostile line of enfilading it, as sists in

the expression goes, so that the opposing lines come into the relative Such a movement . positions of the two bars of the Latin T. .

renders

it

.

possible to concentrate the entire fire of one's

own broad-


94

on the ship that is at the head of the enemy's fleet. In this way one increases the effectiveness of one's own fire to the very highest degree, inasmuch as all the shots which go too far to one side will sides

strike the hinder ships of the long hostile line.

head must gradually succumb to the concentrated

own fire

The fire,

ships at

its

while one's

exposed only to the guns in the opponent's bow and to the of the few guns which can be pointed from the sides at such an line is

still to reach the enfilading ships. This position signifies for the fleet that succeeds in shoving itself across the head of the

angle as

enemy's

line the

most

effective application of the principle of the

concentration of power, which

bring into play

than he in his

open

is

based on the endeavor always to a greater number of guns

when attacking the enemy momentary position has at

fire in this

position

the whole battle.

.

.

it

.

his disposal.

If one can

may prove of the greatest significance for There are cases where the advantage of

gained by mere chance, as when the two fleets come each other in that formation in thick or foggy weather. . . upon It is difficult to assume the position of crossing the T when the fightthis position is

ing

is

already in progress.

.

.

.

against which the crossing of the T is attempted can seek to lessen its effect by various counter maneuvers. It can turn in

The

fleet

the same direction and take a parallel course with the enveloping fleet, whereby if it be swift enough it has the advantage of being on the inner or shorter line: the battle then becomes a simple running fight, or it can simply turn and follow the tail of the hostile line or

engage with the head of the

line in

a passing fight."

We

can even imagine the line of ships, the bow of which has been crossed, executing a sort of dance with its

opponent in order to bring the

first

its

broadsides into play

ship turning to the right, the second to the

left, the third to the right

again and so on until

opposite and parallel to the enemy.

all

are

THE NAVY And

war

95

on which brings Germany's fleet and army into play to the last man and to the last gun. We have suddenly found ourselves in the midst of a so the

is

struggle which makes even the wars of Napoleon seem trifling.

As many men

are

now engaged

simultaneously as

were then called out in the course of years. And the instruments of death are a hundred times more deadly.

From the

skies above destruction rains

down from ;

terranean forts and from the depths of the sea up.

The

difference between

may

next.

;

we have

arti-

earthquakes and eruptions.

How shall we name the war? it

wells

hand labor and machinery

has been transmitted into terms of killing ficial

it

sub-

last

As

The

War of

1914? But

on into the next year, and the next and the

I

know Germany

she will never

now submit

being conquered unless the social democrats gain the upper hand. And even then I am not sure that the social

to

democrats are prepared to draw the

consequences of their long agitation against the imperial, or against any last

Our descendants may look back on it as the Thousand Years' War, for one fails to see how the passions now unchained can ever again be calmed. And there are signs that we are at the beginning of a colossal shoving around of races that will make national government.

our children mock at the awe with which their fathers


96

read of the so-called wandering of the nations.

All the

Suevi and Allemanni and Goths, Vandals and Visigoths that ever overran Gaul would have made but a few corps in the great

Teuton army that

is

now

pressing into

France. Russia, with her one hundred sixty millions, to claim a

much

is

likely

vaster influence than she has yet had.

Napoleon would once have been willing to share Europe with Czar Alexander; will some such partition enter into the

new

treaty of peace?

Will

perhaps be between Teuton and Slav and will England have to move to

Canada and France

any

case, that

now by

Germany

to Africa? will

it

I can not believe, in

succumb. She

is

reproached

sentimental ladies with having devoted such

serious study to the

work of

destruction.

She devotes

serious study to everything that she attempts.

Only

cently I was initiated into the splendid methods

by which

re-

she runs her labor-exchanges and also into the workings

of her prisons and penitentiaries. seen, everything provided for.

fighting force.

Every

Everything

And

single problem

retically as well as practically,

and

so is

it is

is

fore-

with her

attacked theo-

in almost every re-

gard we other nations are but as untrained children to her.

Once more, who

is

clever writer, such as

to

blame for the horrible war?

we have

A

for detective stories, would

THE NAVY have

little difficulty

97

in convincingly foisting the guilt

on each of the great powers in succession. Austria is to blame for her ultimatum to Servia, Russia for mobilizing against Austria, flict

France for entering the con-

when the matter did not concern her

at

for demanding Russian demobilization,

Germany

stabbing

when

in the back

struggling with enemies on either

bumptious It

is

was already

she

side,

Japan for her

self-assertion.

the twilight of the gods.

halla that

Germany England for all,

is

to fall in ruins?

Is

Or

is

Germany

the

Wal-

she merely about to

build a Walhalla that shall project over

all

other politi-

The moment is a serious one for us AmerWhere shall we stand in the new order of things?

cal edifices ? icans.

Will a Japan that has conquered a China, a Russia and a Germany submit to American exclusion acts? Her fleet

already outnumbers ours in ships of

all

types ex-

cept ships of the line, and her naval appropriations are

progressing more steadily than our own. And when Japan secures what she wishes from us, China will be

ready to make the same demands. It is a far cry since Austria interpreted the five vowels in her favor: Alles Erdreich

ist

Osterreich unterthan (all earthly

are subject to Austria)

.

Which

power?

THE END

kingdoms

will be the next world-

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE

CARDS OR

SLIPS

FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

UA 712 H4 1914

Henderson, Ernest Flagg Germany's fighting machine

Germany's fighting machine

Fighting

Fighting Dragons

Fighting Divisions

Fighting Faer

Fighting Faith

Fighting Faer

Fighting Faith

Fighting Chance

Fighting Fair

Fighting from Your Back (Ground Fighting)

Fighting Chance

Fighting Fair

Fighting Faith

Fighting Depression

Fighting Dragons

FIGHTING CHANCE

Fighting Faer

Fighting Yank

Fighting Gravityl

Fighting from Your Knees (Ground Fighting)

Machine Intelligence 13: Machine Intelligence and Inductive Learning (Machine Intelligence)

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Germany's fighting machine

Fighting

Fighting Dragons

Fighting Divisions

Fighting Faer

Fighting Faith

Fighting Faer

Fighting Faith

Fighting Chance

Fighting Fair

Fighting from Your Back (Ground Fighting)

Fighting Chance

Fighting Fair

Fighting Faith

Fighting Depression

Fighting Dragons

FIGHTING CHANCE

Fighting Faer

Fighting Yank

Fighting Gravityl

Fighting from Your Knees (Ground Fighting)

Machine Intelligence 13: Machine Intelligence and Inductive Learning (Machine Intelligence)

Frankie Machine

Crime Machine

L'homme machine

Crime Machine

Truth Machine

Machine Learning

Machine Ethics

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